fil^r^-^i^^-yj) ^^^^f-<*^L- ^v.v,^V,K■,^■ -H^ George Washington. ELEMENTS UNIVERSAL HISTW" HIGHER INSTITUTES IN REPUBLICS AND FOR SELF-INSTRUCTION. BY PROF. H. M.gOTTINGER, a. M,, Author of " Organization of Kindergaerten," "Zwingli's Vote against Cloisters and Convents," "Rosa, the Educating Mother," "Method of Teaching in High Schools of Switzer- land," "Mediaeval Plays of Jacob RueflF, with Explanatory Notes," "Guide for Sunday Schools of Free German Congregations," etc., etc. Motto: — Historia, vitae magistra. (History teaches how to live.) — Cicero. BOSTON, MASS.: CHARLES H. WHITING, 32 Bromfield Street. MILWAUKEE, WIS.: SAN FRANCISCO: FREIDENKER PUBLISHING CO., CUNNINGHAM, WELCH & CO. 470 East Water Street. Sansom Street. 1884. r"r:ivAnD koses Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1884, by Prof. H. M. COTTINGER, A. M., In the office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D. C. TO THE CONGRESS OF THE UNITED STATES, THE WARD OF THE PUBLIC LIBERTY, THE PROMOTOR OF SCIENCES, ARTS AND PUBLIC EDUCATION, AND THE PROTECTOR OF COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY, THIS WORK IS MOST RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED y.Y THE AUTHOR. 770040 PREKACB. ^' Tl 7 HAT is the use of your preface ? Who reads prefaces ?" You are right, V V dear reader, but I shall be brief, and therefore beg your indulgence. In writing this book I had two aims in view, viz., to communicate to scholars those events which every well-educated man of our age ought to know, and to aid, with the concurrence of historical facts, in forming their moral character and sense of right. The States and events in which the ideas of right appear most perfectly realized are, therefore, chiefly considered. Both the ancient and modern repub- lics belong to those States. Their history was also taken into particular account for the reason that I wrote for pupils growing up in republics. The family wars and domestic feuds of princes, on the contrary, are only briefly touched upon. I hope that the narration more at large, of modern history and the events of the latest times, will be approved. I also trust that the history of civilization, which is joined in every period to the political history, and which is generally omitted in similar historical works, will be welcome. The division of the contents into periods, it seemed to me, considering the vast extent of the historical material, was very necessary in order to get a clear insight of the latter. If general history is written ethnographically, it hardly deserves its name, because the connection in which the actions and adventures of the nations (particularly since the migration of nations) are put to each other, is completely severed. He who would think my work to be only a superficial compilation, will judge incorrectly; it is the result of my efforts during many years. The most accom- plished and most recent historical writings were carefully consulted, viz., those of Rotteck, Schlosser, Becker, G. Weber, Heeren, Kriegk, Boettiger, Wachsmuth, etc. True, these are German historiographers ; but I took also into account French, English and American authors, viz., Rollin (Histoire du monde ancien), R. Mackenzie (the 19th century), Alison, Fredet, H. Willson, Worcester, W\ Swinton, Bancroft, Bryant, etc. Nevertheless, I am aware that my composition is still defective in many parts, but I appeal to the forbearance of the reader for in- dulgence in that respect. The exercises added at the end of every period will enable the scholar the better to work up the contents of the history, to grasp more rapidly the events, and to remember more easily the chronological dates. The exercises ought to be done by writing. Finally, I gratefully acknowledge the kind assistance of the ladies and gentle- men who reviewed and corrected the single sections of the book, namely, of Walter S. Thorne, M. D.; E. A. Clark, M. D.; Rev. N. F. Ravlin, Pastor of the Baptist Church ; Mrs. N. A. Simonds ; Mrs. F. W. Hill ; Miss Jessie B. Thompson, teacher Normal School ; C. O. W. Childs, Professor of History, Nor- mal School, and Mrs. Nellie Eyster, teacher and authoress ; to all of them I offer my most sincere and cordial thanks. San Jose, Cal., December, 1883. CONTENTS. FIRST SECTION— ANCIENT HISTORY. Page. 1. Definition of Universal History. Its uses and division i FIRST PERIOD. From the Beginning of Historical Certainty to the Greco- Persian Wars. Despotism of Priestly and Military Government in the Orient. To 500 B. C. FIRST CHAPTER— POLITICAL HISTORY. 2. Most ancient States. India. China. Egypt. — Sesostris 2 3. Assyria. Babylonia. — Semiramis. Media 4 4. Palestine. Moses 5 5. Persia. Cyrus 6 6. Greece. Description of the country. Colonies 8 7. Most ancient history of the land. Heroic age. Hercules 9 8. Concluded. Expedition of the Argonauts , II 9. Sparta. Lycurgus 12 ID. Athens. Solon 14 11. Italy. Rome. Romulus. Junius Brutus 15 SECOND CHAPTER— HISTORY OF CIVILIZATION. 12. Legislation. Constitutions of Lycurgus and Solon. * Constitution of Rome under the kings 18 13. Religions. Zoroaster. Buddha. Cong-fu-Tse. Grecian and Roman religions 22 14. Arts and Sciences. Buildings of the Egyptians and Greeks. Homer. 26 15. Commerce. Phoenicians. Invention of glass 29 Exercises 30 SECOND PERIOD. From the Greco-Persian Wars to Emperor Augustus. The Glorious Age of Greece. Macedonia's Universal Monarchy. Roman Republic. 500-30 B. C. FIRST CHAPTER— POLITICAL HISTORY. OREECE. 1. ITS GLORIOUS AGE. 500-430 B. C. 16. Persian wars. Battle at Marathon. Miltiades 31 17. Continued. Battle at Thermopylae. Leonidas 34 X. Page. § i8. Continued. Battle at Salamis. Themistocles 36 I 19. Concluded. Battle at Platsese. Pausanias. Aristides. Cimon 38 2. PROGRESSIVE DECAY OF THE GRECIAN STATES. 430-146 B. C. § 20. Peloponnesian war. Pericles. Alcibiades 41 1 21. Socrates 44 I 22. Theban war. Epaminondas and Pelopidas. Battles at Leuctra and Mantinea 48 § 23. Greece subdued by Macedonia and Rome. Confederacy of Achaia... 52 I 24. Syracuse. Timoleon 54 I 25. Macedonia. Philip II. Alexander the Great, founder of an universal monarchy. Battles at Granicus, Issus and Arbela 56 ROMAN RKPUBLIC. 510-30 B. C. 1. COMBATS AGAINST FOREIGN ENEMIES AND THE PATRICIANS. 510 TILL ABOUT 343 B. C. § 26. War against the Tarquinians. Porsenna. Horatius Codes. Mu- cius Scsevola 59 §27. Domestic feuds between the patricians andplebeians. Appointment of tribunes 61 § 28. Coriolanus. Quinctius Cincinnatus. The XII tables and the de- cemvirs. Incursion of the Gauls 63 2. CONTESTS FOR THE DOMINION IN ITALY. 348-267 B. C. ^ 29. War against the Samnites and Latins. A Roman army passes under the yoke in the Caudine Mountains 65 I 30. Tarentine war. Fabricius 67 3. CONTESTS FOR THE WORLD'S DOMINION. 264-183 B. C. §31. Carthage. First Punic war. Regulus 69 332. Second Punic war. Hannibal. Battle at Cannse 71 I 33. Concluded. Scipio Africanus. Battle at Zama 74 § 34. Subjugation of Macedonia, Syria and Greece. Death of Hannibal. Third Punic war. Destruction of Carthage and Corinth. Scipio, junior 76 4. DOMESTIC STRUGGLES AND DOWNFALL OF THE REPUBLIC. 133-30 B. C. ' I 35. The two Gracchi. War with the Cimbri. War against the confed- erates. First civil war. Marius and Sulla. War against the slaves and pirates ; against Mithridates, Conspiracy of Catiline. Cicero 7^ § 36. First triumvirate. Caesar, Pompey and Crassus. Second civil war. Battle at Pharsalia 80 § 37. Second triumvirate. Antonius, Octavius and Lepidus. Third civil war. Battle at Actium 83 SECOND' CHAPTER— HISTORY OF CIVILIZATION. § 38. Constitution, morals, social and military condition of the Roman State 84 § 39. Arts and sciences. Julian calendar. Schools. Public games. Com- merce 85 Exercises 89 XI. THIRD PERIOD. From Emperor Augustus to the Great Migration of Nations. Roman Empire and its Decay. Victory of Christianity. 30 B. C. to 375 A. D. FIRST CHAPTER— POLITICAL HISTORY. ROMAN EMPIRE. 30 B. C. TO 375 A. D. Page. 40. Augustus and the emperors from his descent 90 41. Rome ruled by good emperors. Decay of the empire 91 42. Germany. Arminius (Herman) 93 SECOND CHAPTER— HISTORY OF CIVILIZATION. 43. Roman Constitution. Morals and customs of the ancient Germans. 95 44. Religion of the ancient Germans. Christian religion 96 45. Arts and sciences 9^ Exercises 99 SECOND SECTION— HISTORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES. FOURTH ' PERIOD. From the Migration of the Nations to the Decay of the Dominion of the Franks, i. Migration of Nations. 2. Mohammedan Empire. 3. Carlo- vingian Monarchy. 375-900 A. D. FIRST CHAPTER— POLITICAL HISTORY. 1. MIGRATION OF NATIONS. 375-568 A. D. g 46. Summary of the migration. Huns. Attila loi ^ 47. Visigoths. Alaric. Downfall of the Western Roman empire. Os- trogoths. Theodoric. Justinian. Belisarius.....' 103 2. -MOHAMMEDAN UNIVERSAL EMPIRE. 632-900 A. D. ^48. Arabia, Mohammed. The Caliphate 105 3. CARLOVINGIAN MONARCHY. 771-900 A. D. g 49. Franks. Clovis. Major-domos. Charlemagne. Partition of his realm..... 107 §50. England. Anglo-Saxons. Alfred the Great iio SECOND CHAPTER— HISTORY OF CIVILIZATION. ^51. State of Constitutions. Roman laws. Propagation and degeneracy of Christianity. Monachism. Mohammedan religion ill ^ 52. Arts and sciences. Arabian culture. Commerce 113 Exercises .-. 115 XII. FIFTH PERIOD. From the Decay of the Empire of the Franks to the End of THE Crusades, i. The German Empire in its Prime. 2. Universal Dominion of the Popes. 3. Crusades. 900-1300 A. D. FIRST CHAPTER— POLITICAL HISTORY. 1. PRIME OF THE GERMAN EMPIRE. 900-1024 A. D. Pagt. \ 53. Germany. Saxon emperors. Henry I. Otto 1 115 2. UNIVERSAL DOxMINION OF THE POPES. 1024-1300 A. D. §54. Continued. Franconian emperors. Henry IV. and Gregory VII. 117 \ 55. Continued. Emperors of the family Hohenstauffen. Frederic Bar- barossa. Arnold of Brescia. First contest of the Lombard cit- ies for liberty I19 \ 56. Concluded. Frederic II. Second contest of the Lombards for free- dom. Conradin. Sicilian vespers 121 ^57. France and England. Hugh Capet. William the Conqueror. Wars between England and Scotland. The Albigenses 123 \ 58. Northern States of Europe. Normans. Russia. Mongols 126 3. THE CRUSADES. 1096-1300 A. D. ^59. First crusade. Godfrey of Bouillon. Taking of Jerusalem 128 \ 60. The other crusades. Emir Saladin. Latin empire 130 SECOND CHAPTER— HISTORY OF CIVILIZATION. ^61. Constitutions. Feudal government. Feudal servitude. Magna Charta of England. Ordeals. Chivalry 134 I 62. The Church. Anathema. Interdict. Inquisitional Tribunal, Canon Law. Celibacy. Popes. Gregory VH. Innocent III 136 ^ 63. Arts and sciences. Troubadours and minnesingers. Commerce 140 Exercises 142 SIXTH PERIOD. From the End of the Crusades to the Discovery of Am^ica. Downfall of the Imperial Power, of the Papacy AND THE Church, i 300-1492 A. D. FIRST CHAPTER— POLITICAL HISTORY. \ 64. Germany. Rudolph of Hapsburg. The House of Luxemburg. War of the Hussites. Maximilian I ; 142 I 65. Switzerland. Contests of the confederates for liberty. Battles at Sempach, Granson and Murten. Arnold Winkelried 145 \ 66. France and England. Philip the Fair. Abolition of the Order of the Templars. French-English national war. Joan of Arc. War of the Two Roses 148 \ 67. The Turks in Europe. Capture of Constantinople 151 SECOND CHAPTER— HISTORY OF CIVILIZATION. ^68. State of right. Laws. Secret court of criminal justice 152 I 69. Church. Wycliffe. Huss. Popes. Schism of the Church. Synod of Constance 153 XIII. Page. \ 70. Arts and sciences. Invention of the printing press. Gutenberg. Commerce. Hanseatic union " 155 Exercises .* 157 THIRD SECTION— MODERN HISTORY. ^ SEVENTH PERIOD. From the Discovery of America to the Westphalian Peace. Voyages of Discovery. Reformation of the Christian Church. Wars of Religion. 1492-1648 A. D. FIRST CHAPTER— POLITICAL HISTORY. 1. VOYAGES OF DISCOVERY. 1420-1530 A. D. \ 71. Vasco de Gama. Columbus 159 I 72. Ferdinand Cortez. Pizzaro. Magellan. First settlements in the territory of the United States. The Pilgrim Fathers 163 2. REFORMATION OF THE CHURCH AND RELIGIOUS WARS. " 1517-1648 A. D. \ 73. Germany. Causes of the Reformation. Martin Luther. Diet in Worms 166 § 74. Continued. Insurrection of the peasants. Confession of Augsburg. Smalcaldian war. Religious peace of Augsburg 170 \ 75. Continued. Thirty years' war. Insurrection of the Bohemians. Ferdinand I L Restitution edict 172 §76. Continued. Gustavus Adolphus. Battles at Leipsic and Lutzen 173 I 77. Concluded. Battle at Nordlingen. Bernard of Weimar. Tors- tensohn. Westphalian peace 176 \ 78. Switzerland. Zwingli. Calvin. Unitarians 177 \ 79« Spain. Philip II. Secession of the Netherlands. William of Orange 179 \ 80. France. War against the Huguenots. St. Bartholomew. Henry IV. Edict of Nantes 181 \ 81. England and Scotland. Henry VIII. Elizabeth. Mary Stuart. Charles 1 184 ^82. Northern States. Sweden. Gustavus Vasa. Prussia 189 SECOND CHAPTER— HISTORY OF CIVILIZATION. I 83. Protestants. The Catholic Church. Synod of Trent. Order of the Jesuits 190 \ 84. Sciences and arts. Raphael. Shakespeare. Cervantes. Nicholas .Copernicus. Galileo. Correction of the calendar 193 Exercises 195 EIGHTH PERIOD. From the Westphalian Peace to the French Revolution. Unlimited Monarchy and European Equilibrium. 164 7-1 789 A. D. FIRST CHAPTER— POLITICAL HISTORY. §85. Austria. Sobieski. Maria Theresa. War of Succession. Joseph II... 196 I 86. Prussia. Frederic II. Seven years' war. Battles at Rossbach and Lissa 198 XIV. Page. \ 87. France. Louis XIV. 's predominance in Europe. His wars. Span- ish succession war. Battle at Blenheim. Persecution of Protest- ants. Louis XV 200 \ 88. England. Cromwell. War against Holland. Admirals Blake, Van Tromp and Ruyter. Charles H. Whigs and Tories. Dethrone- ment of James II. William III. Accession of the House of Hanover. The Pietenders 203 \ 89. Northern States. Peter the Great. Charles XII. Battles at Narva and Pultowa. First dismemberment of Poland 206 ^90. East Indies. Aureng Zeb. East Indian Company 209 ^91. United States of North America. Their colonies. The French wars 210 \ 92. Continued. War of the colonies for independence. The Stamp Act. Battle at Bunker Hill. Declaration of Independence. George Washington. Benjamin Franklin. Thomas Paine 215 \ 93. Concluded. Battles of Trenton and Princeton. Lafayette. Sur- render of Burgoyne and Cornwallis. French alliance. Treaty of Paris. Constitution. Washington, first president 219 SECOND CHAPTER— HISTORY OF CIVILIZATION. g 94. Political condition. Constitution of the United States 224 I 95. Condition of the Church. Voltaire. J. J. Rousseau. Abolition of the Order of Jesuits 225 \ 96. Arts and sciences. Inventions. Cook's voyages of discovery 227 Exercises 230 NINTH PERIOD. From the French Revolution to the Second Peace of Paris. Revolution and Political Reforms in France. Wars Caused by it. 1789-1815 A. D. A. FRENCH REVOLUTION. 1. POLITICAL REFORMS IN FRANCE. 1789-1792 A. D. I 97. Causes and effects of the French revolution 231 I 98. National Assembly. The third estate. Mirabeau 232 \ 99. Taking the Bastile. Abolition of feudal servitude 234 I 100. Louis conducted to Paris 236 2. REVOLUTIONARY WARS. \ loi. Flight of the king. The constitution finished 238 I 102. Legislative assembly. War of Austria and Prussia. Suspension of the king. The Jacobins 239 \ 103. National Convent. Execution of Louis XVI. First coalition war. Civil war. Reign of Terror ; 242 \ 104. Downfall of the Reign of Terror. Directorial government. The coalition war continued. Napoleon Bonaparte 245 \ 105. Napoleon's expedition to Egypt. Second coalition war. Battle at the Pyramids. Naval combat at Abukir. Consular government. 247 \ 106. French empire. Third coalition war. Prusso-Russian war. Bat- tles at Austerlitz, Jena, Auerstadt, Eilau and Friedland. The Continental system 249 g 107. Spanish, Austrian and Russian wars. Burning of Mosdow.... 251 I 108. Fourth coalition war. Battle at Leipsic. Restoration of the Bour- bons. Congress of Vienna. German Confederation. Battle at Waterloo. Napoleon banished to Elba, and captive in St. Hel- ena. The Holy Alliance ; 254 XV. Page. B. PARTICULAR HISTORY OF SOME STATES. 2 109. Switzerland. Austria. England 257 I 110. Poland. Second and third partition. Kosciusko 258 I III. United States of North America. War against England. Battle at New Orleans. Republic of Hayti. Toussaint Louverture 260 Exercises 263 TENTH PERIOD. From the Second Parisian Treaty to the Present Time. Res- toration. Limitation of the Monarchies. Last Revolutions. 1815-1883 A. D. FIRST CHAPTER— POLITICAL HISTORY. 1. TIME OF RESTORATION. 1815-1830 A. D. I 112. France. Germany 264 § 113. Spain and Portugal 266 ^114. Italy. Insurrections in Naples and Piedmont 268 3 115. Greece. Contest against the Porte. Ypsilanti. Bozzaris. Fall of Missolonghi. Naval battle at Navarino. Mehemed Ali 269 § 116. America. United States. Missouri Compromise. Monroe doc- trine. Protective tariflf. Contests of the Spanish colonies for independence. Bolivar. Brazil 273 2. THE REVOLUTION OF 1830 IN FRANCE, AND ITS CONSEQUENCES. 1830-1848 A. D. §117. France. Revolution of July. Dethronement of Charles X. The family of Orleans 276 ^118. Belgium. Separation from Holland. Germany 279 \ 119. Switzerland. Political reforms. Secession war. Amendment of the constitution 281 \ 120. Poland and Russia. Revolution in Poland. Battle of Ostrolenka. Caucasian war. Shamyl , 283 § 121. Great Britain. Emancipation of the Catholics. Reform of the par- liament. Emancipation of the slaves. The Corn laws relaxed. O'Connell. Lord Russell. Dominion in the East Indies. War against China 285 \ 122. United States of North America. Indian wars. War with Mexico. Generals Taylor and Scott. Battles at Buena Vista and Chapul- tepec. Capture of Vera Cruz and of the City of Mexico 287 3. THE REVOLUTIONS IN 1848. \ 123. France. Dethronement of Louis Philippe. Establishment of a re- piiblic and of an empire. Louis Napoleon III. Franco-German war. Battle at Sedan. Restoration of the republic 290 \ 124. Germany. Insurrection in Berlin and in the Grand dukedom of Baden. German National Assembly. Schleswig and Holstein. Prusso-Austrian war. Battle at Sadowa 294 \ 125. Austria. Insurrection in Vienna. Reforms of the government. War in Hungary. Kossuth. Gorgey surrenders at Villagos 298 \ 126. Italy. Revolutions of the Italian States. War of Austria against Sardinia and France. Battles at Magenta and Solferino. United kingdom of Italy. Garibaldi 301 \ 127. Russia. Crimean war. Siege of Sebastopol. Russo-Turkish war. Surrender of the Turks at Shipka Pass 304 § 128. America. Secession war in the United States. Abraham Lincoln.. 306 XVI. Page. § 129. Continued. Emancipation of the slaves. Battle at Gettysburg. Surrender of Vicksburg and Port Hudson 312 § 130. Concluded. Sherman's march to the Sea. Surrender of Richmond and of the confederate army. Lincoln assassinated. Amendment of the Constitution. Free Homestead Bill 315 § 131. Japan 320 SECOND CHAPTER. HISTORY OF CIVILIZATION DURING THE NINTH AND TENTH PERIODS. ^ 132. Constitutions. Political and social tendencies. Position of woman. Military condition. Church 321 § 133. Arts and sciences. Public schools 324 ^ 134. Inventions. Steamboats. Railroads. Telegraphs. Cable. Tele- phones. Photography. Cotton-gin. Exhibitions of arts and industry 328 Exercises 330 FIRST SECTION, ANCIENT HISTORY. ^ 1. Definition of Universal History. Its Uses and Division. Universal History is the representation of generally remark- able facts, both of entire nations and of individuals. Its uses are manifold. It teaches us to know our nature, to respect it, as well as ourselves. It offers us the treasures of the experience of all cen- turies. It teaches us to form a just opinion of the most impor- tant events of public and private life.. It explains the present by the past, and sharpens the sight of the future. It disposes the mind to toleration in religious matters, to genuine piety, to patriot- ism, and to benevolence towards the whole of mankind. It leads us to abhor follies, vices and crimes, encourages to virtue, and in- spires a love for right and liberty. How often has not the example of a Leonidas, of an Arminius, of a Washington, incited to imita- tion ? It teaches us, besides, to believe in the ruling of eternal laws of the universe, and in a sure retribution. Finally, it shows how man is himself, for the most part, the creator of his own happmess and misery. Universal History is commonly divided into three parts, viz : ancient, mediaeval and modern time. Ancient history extends from the beginning of historical certainty to the great migration of nations, A. D. 375 ; mediaeval history to the discovery of America in 1492 ; and from that date also begins the history of modern times. Universal History may be also divided into several periods or epochs, which, in this book, are marked as follows : I. From the beginning of historical certainty to the Greco- Persian wars, /. ^. to 500 B. C. II. From the Greco-Persian wars to the Emperor Augustus, 500 B. C. to 30 B. C. g I. What is Universal History ? Describe its uses. What are its principal divisions ? Give their limits of time. lit/' '5^0111 Augustus to the great migration of nations, 30 B. C. '^~ '' '^ ^ '•^" rV.'^^'From the migration of nations to the decay of the realm of the Franks, 375-900 A. D. V. From the decay of the realm of the Franks to the end of the Crusades, 900-1300 A. D. VI. From the end of the Crusades to the discovery of America, 1300-1492 A. D. VII. From the discovery of America to the Westphalian peace, 1492-1648 A. D. VIII. From the Westphalian peace to the French revolution, 1648-1789 A. D. IX. From the French revolution to the second peace of Paris, 1789-1815 A. p. X. From the second peace of Paris to the present time, 18 15- 1883 A. D. . FIRST PERIOD. From the Beginning of Historical Certainty to the Greco- Persian Wars. Despotisnn of Priestly and Military Government in the Orient. To 500 B. G. PIEST OHAPTEE-POLITIOAL HISTOEY. g 2. The Most Ancient States — India, China, Egypt; Sesostris. Ancient History properly begins at that period where events commence to be certain ; but their certainty does not reach beyond 600 years before Christ. The most ancient States were probably in India and China. The relics of old monuments, which still exist there, plead for the high antiquity of the Indian States. From India the ancient nations brought their cultivation, and the Egyp- I 2. How many periods are set down in this book? Mark the limits of time of each period. What is the earliest date of historical certainty ? What States are probably the most ancient ? What reasons speak for their antiquity ? tians and Greeks, in all probability, their religious ceremonies, too. The States in Nubia (Ethiopia) and Egypt may next be mentioned. The first inhabitants of Nubia were partly troglodytes, or cave- dwellers. Later, the theocratical State of Meroe originated there, and the temples, pyramids and other splendid remains of archi- tecture of it may still be found. First herdsmen passed through Egypt; then it was probably settled from the State of Meroe by colonies of priests, who sub- dued these herdsmen and introduced agriculture. Such a colony was Thebais, with the city of Thebes, in Upper Egypt. The first known king (Pharaoh) was Menes, probably the founder of Mein- phis, about 2000 years B. C. A large part of Egypt was conquered by the pastoral kings (Hyksos), who arrived from Arabia. At last the Egyptians took courage and expelled the foreigners (probably about 1700 B. C.) Not long after the whole country was united into one State, of which Thebes became the capital ; and thencefor- ward the Egyptian realm flourished for 1000 years. Thebes became the principal seat of human civilization. Moeris is said to have constructed the lake bearing the same name. Sesostris, his successor (about 1500 B. C), built magnificent temples, many canals and public roads, and was a good law-giver. He is also reported to have divided the country into twelve temple districts, and to have designated three capitals, namely : Thebes for. Upper Egypt, Memphis for Middle Egypt, and HeliopoHs for Lower Egypt. His vessels navigated as far as India. Besides, he was a powerful conqueror, and raised Egypt to her highest lustre. The Nubians conquered the country in the eighth century, but re- mained in possession of it only a short time. About 670 B. C. it was divided among twelve sovereigns, who are said to have con- structed the I^abyrinth on Lake Moeris. One of them, Psammeti- chus, sovereign of Sais, aided by mercenaries, vanquished the others and conquered the whole land. From the period of his reign the obscurity of Egyptian history becomes more clear. He opened the harbors of the country to foreigners, and the nation now entered into commercial relations with the Greeks. His son Neko (Necho) is said to have had Africa circumnavigated by Phoenicians. Camby- ses, king of Persia, conquered Egypt (530 B. C.), and from that What of the State of Meroe ? Who is the first known king of Egypt ? Who conquered a large part of Egypt ? What city became the capital of the united States of Egypt ? What of Moeris ? Of Sesostris ? Who constructed the Laby- rinth ? Who conquered the whole of Egypt ? time it remained almost continuously tributary to Persia, until Alex- ander the Great overturned the throne of Cyrus (333 B. C), and also conquered this country. After Alexander's death it fell under the dominion of the Ptolemies. § 3. Assyria. Babylonia. — Semiramis. Media. The Assyrian empire, which comprised Babylonia, Media and Bactria, was (about 2000 B. C.) founded by Ninus, the builder of Nineveh, a city which was said to extend a three days' journey on the Tigris, because it also embraced fields and pasture grounds. His wife was Semiramis, who is reported to have excited admiration by her heroic exploits. Ninus left her the crown. She built or embellished Babylon, and undertook expeditions of conquest with immense hosts, but succumbed in a war against India, the riches of which nation had allured her greediness. Her son Ninias was only a mock king. From his time down to the reveller Sardanapalus, history presents nothing memorable of the sovereigns of Assyria. Nabopolassar, governor of Babylon, revolted against the latter about 600 B. C, and aided by Cyaxares, the king of Media, deprived him of the government. Sardanapalus burned himself with his wives and treasures ; the victors destroyed Nineveh, and shared the empire among themselves. After the destruction of Nineveh the Babylo- nians or Chaldseans were the most important people in these coun- tries. They were nomadic mountaineers, who had come down from the north to the plains of Babylonia, entered into the service of the Assyrian kings, and received Babylonia for their habitation. Nabo- polassar himself belonged to this tribe. His son, Nebuchadnezzar, conquered Egypt and Judea, demolished Jerusalem, and removed the wealthy portion of its inhabitants to Babylonia. He is reported to have also conquered the great commercial cities Sidon and Tyre — the latter not until after thirteen years of valiant resistance. Then Tyre (as they say) was founded anew on a neighboring island. Cyrus destroyed the Chaldaean-Babylonian realm in 539 B. C. The Medians, Bactrians and Persians occupied the country be- tween the Tigris and Indus as far as the Indian Ocean, and at first formed but one nation. From their language, the Zend, they are also called the Zend nation. When the Medians had thrown off the As- What foreign sovereigns conquered Egypt in later times ? ^3. yVho founded the Assyrian empire ? Who was the wife of Ninus ? What of her ? What of Ninus ? Who deprived wSardanapalus of the government ? What kind of a people were the Chaldoeans ? What of Nebuchadnezzar ? Syrian yoke, they lived for a time in anarchy, and experienced all its terrors ; then they elected Deioces umpire, who, by good laws, put an end to the confusion. They built Ecbatana as a residence for him, which then remained the capital of the land. King Cyaxares was his grandson. Cyrus dethroned Astyages, son of Cyaxares, and changed Media into a province of the Persian empire. § 4. Palestine. Moses. Abraham (Abram), a pastoral sovereign in Mesopotamia (be- tween the Euphrates and Tigris) emigrated to Palestine about 2000 B. C. His descendants are designated after him, whom the natives of the country named Eber (that is, the comer from yonder), as Hebrews ; after his grandson Jacob, who bore the surname Israel, as Israehtes, and after Judah, son of Jacob, as Jews. The Jews, in later times, migrated to Egypt, where the Hyksos severely oppressed them. Moses there became their liberator. According to common report, he had received an excellent educa- tion at the royal court. He was especially initiated into the religious mysteries of the priests. Once, seeing an Egyptian treat a com- patriot cruelly, he grew enraged, killed the aggressor, and fled, hid- ing in the Arabian desert. Here the great idea ripened in his mind to liberate his compatriots. He returned, prepared them for his bold plan, and led them, in spite of the resistance of Egypt's sov- ereign, into the northern free, though barren, part of Arabia (about 1500 B. C.) He conquered the country situated east of the Jordan ; his successor, Joshua, subdued Palestine proper. The Jews were subjected to the sway of the priests ; but the insolence and crimes of the sons of the high priests, Heli and Samuel, rendered their rule so hateful to them that they finally demanded a king. Samuel gave them one in the person of Saul (1095 ^- C.)> but as the latter would not be a mere tool of the priests, Samuel, soon after, chose David in order to oppose Saul ; then civil war broke out. In the contest with the Philistines, the most formidable enemies of the Jews, Saul lost the decisive battle, and, seeing his sons fall, inflicted death upon himself. David, at last, was universally acknowledged king, but the rebellion of his sons disturbed his quiet occupation of the throne. He liked war, and is said to have enlarged his dominion What is said of Deioces? Who made an end to the Median reign? ^ 4. What is said of Abraham ? What are his descendants called ? Who oppressed the Jews in Egypt ? Who became their liberator ? Relate his biog- raphy. What kinds of government had the Jews ? What of Saul and David ? as far as Egypt and to the Euphrates. His son Solomon (1014 B. C.) did not at all fulfill the expectations the nation entertained of his wisdom. He oppressed it by taxes and socage, cruelly per- secuted his adversaries, introduced oriental pomp at his court, and disgraced himself by voluptuousness and idolatry. The people be- came dissatisfied, the priests nourished the ill feelings of the public mind, and roused against him an antagonistic king in the person of Jeroboam; Solomon, nevertheless, maintained the throne. But when his son and successor, Rehabeam, afflicted the people still more cruelly, they revolted again (975 B. C), and ten tribes chose Jeroboam their king. Only two tribes remained faithful ; they con- stituted the Judaic, the other ten the Israelitic kingdom. At first the capital of the latter was Sichem, afterwards Samaria. Both kingdoms weakened themselves more and more by discord, religious quarrels and viciousness. The prophets (teachers of the people, who influenced the nation and the kings by their songs and speeches) in vain predicted the ruin of the people; in vain they exhorted to reform, concord, piety ; their voice was not listened to. At last both States became the prey of foreign conquerors; the Israelites were removed by Salmonassar to Media (722 B. C), and the Jews by Nebuchadnezzar to Babylonia (600 B. C.) New in- habitants emigrated from the provinces of the conquerors to Pales- tine. They intermixed with those who had remained, and received the name of Samaritans. Cyrus permitted the Jews to return to their country (about 535 B. C), where they rebuilt the temple and the capital, but remained subject to the Persians. g S. Persia. Cyrus. Cyrus (Kyros), a Persian nobleman and grandson of King Astyages, at the head of his discontented fellow-citizens, dethroned his grandfather, who (as some report) had intended to kill Cyrus immediately after his birth. He conquered Media, Armenia and Cappadocia, thereby becoming the neighbor of the powerful Crce- sus, king of Lydia. The latter, whose riches became proverbial, made war on Cyrus, being brother-in-law of Astyages, but his capi- tal, Sardes, was captured after a short siege, and he himself taken prisoner (548 B. C.) It was decreed that he be put to death. He How did Solomon govern the Jews ? Who was his successor ? Into what kingdoms was Palestine separated under Rehabeam ? Who conquered them ? What does the name "Samaritans" mean? ^5. From whom did Cyrus descend ? What countries did he conquer ? was fettered, and sat on the burning funeral pile, when he called three times the name of Solon. Asked for the reason of his calling, he answered that the wise Solon had once directed his attention to the mutability of his fortune, and that he now experienced how truth- fully the former had spoken. Cyrus, greatly affected, granted the unhappy man life, and even his friendship. After this the latter continued his course of conquests. One of his generals subdued the Asiatic Greeks; Cyrus himself marched against Babylon and vanquished that city (538 B. C), notwithstanding its high walls and deep ditches, entering by stratagem (it is reported) through a branch of the Euphrates which he had turned off, into the city, where the people, after a riotous festival, were in a drunken stupor. He ob- tained with the capital also possession of the Babylonian realm and its dependencies, Syria, Phoenicia and Palestine, after which he attempted to subjugate the Massagetae beyond the Caspian Sea, but he and his whole army were annihilated. Tomyris, their queen, put Cyrus' head in a leather bag filled with blood, crying : " Drink now your fill of blood, because you were always thirsty for it." Others report not only the death, but the whole biography of Cyrus in a different way. His son and successor, Cambyses, conquered Egypt. He wanted also to subjugate the Nubians ; but the desert through which he had to march soon compelled him to return. Another army which he sent against the Ammonians in the Lybian desert, met its destruc- tion there. It is said that the despot killed his own sister, and that he also, prompted by mere suspicion, caused his brother Smerdes to be killed. At last a conspiracy was planned, headed by the Magi, who averred that the brother of a Magus, pretending to be Smerdis, ought to be the sovereign. Cambyses marched against him, but wounded himself so dangerously with his sword, which, as he mounted his horse, happened to pass into his hips, that he died. The Persians paid homage to the false Smerdis ; but seven noblemen soon conspired against him, killed him, and, by lot, elected Darius, son of the Governor Hystaspes, to succeed him. The latter also subjugated several countries, e. g. Thracia and Macedonia. The Greeks in Asia Minor, who bore the Persian yoke with indignation, attempted to liberate themselves. They rose against Darius, Aris- tagoras, governor of Milet, being at the head of the revolt, expelled What is said of Cyrus ? How was Babylon captured by Cyrus ?' By whom was he killed ? What is said of Tomyris ? What of Cambyses ? How did he lose his life ? Who succeeded the false Smerdis ? Narrate the revolt of the Asiatic Greeks against Darius. 8 their tyrants, and gave all cities republican forms of government. But it seemed to them to be necessary, in their dangerous under- taking, to ally themselves also with the European Greeks. Arista- goras first applied to the Spartans for assistance, but it was refused. The Athenians, on the contrary, already provoked by Darius be- cause he commanded them to reinstate the expelled Hippias (see § lo), granted them assistance. As soon as their fleet in Asia arrived all the lonians rose, and attacked Darius in his own territory (503 B. C.) They succeeded, indeed, in burning Sardes, the resi- dence of the Persian governor (Satrap); but they were vanquished at Ephesus. Upon this the Athenians, returning home, left them alone. The lonians continued to struggle, but were once more beaten (498 B. C), and had again to submit. The opulent city of Milet was destroyed, and Histi^us, father-in-law of Aristagoras, who had first encouraged the lonians to rebel, fastened to the cross. Then Darius endeavored to subdue also the European Greeks, but this undertaking was an entire failure (see §16). The Persian power had, under his rule, attained its summit ; .the wars waged against the Greeks by himself and by his successor, Xerxes, shook it already to its foundation. The bloody quarrels between his successors for the throne, the wars of Satraps and a slack government weak- ened the empire still more ; the conquered lands fell off; and Gre- cian mercenaries were the last prop of the tottering throne. Finally, the destruction of the rotten monarchy by Alexander the Great followed under Darius Codomannus, last scion of the royal family (330 B. C.) GREECE.* ^ 6. Description of the Country. Colonies. South of the Balkans, a peninsula of the Mediterranean is situ- ated, the northern half of which contains Thracia, Macedonia and a part of Illyria, but the southern one Greece proper. The latter was divided into Northern Greece, Hellas and Peloponnesus. In Northern Greece, at the west, was Epirus ; at the east Thessalia, with Mount Olympus. From Thessalia the rocky pass Thermopylae What was the fate of Histiseus ? What were the causes of the downfall of the Persian monarchy ? § 6. Define the situation of the Grecian States ? Of Macedonia? Hellas? Peloponnesus? Thessalia? *This country occupies but a speck on the map of the earth, but its history is more important than that of the mightiest empires that have overshadowed the earth. Its inhabitants excelled all ancient nations for genius, learning, attainments in sciences and arts, republican institutions and heroic exploits, and they have been the teachers of all succeeding ages. Hence their history is related more in detail. 9 led to Hellas, into the territories of Locris, Doris and Phokis. In Phokis, at Delphi, on Mount Parnassus, stood the celebrated temple of Apollo. West of these small States ^tolia and Acarnania were situated — the latter with the promontory Actium ; east, Boeotia with the city of Thebes. Bceotia was bordered on the south by Attica and the capital Athens, and by the small land of Megaris, from which the Strait of Corinth led to the Peloponnesus. In the northeast were Argolis and the cities of Argos and Mikenae, and in the north, Achaia and the magnificent cities of Corinth and Sicyon. The western coast was occupied by EHs, with the town of Olympia. Southwest was Messenia, and southeast Laconia, with the capital, Sparta. In the central part of Peloponnesus, Arcadia, the Grecian Switzerland, and for a long time the seat of high simplicity of morals, was situated. The largest of the Grecian islands were Eubsea, Crete, Rhodes and Cyprus. All flourished, and became powerful by their com- merce. Among the smaller ones Salamis and Delos grew famous — the former by the great Persian sea-fight, and the latter by the temple of Apollo. The Greeks had many colonies, and although the latter were entirely independent from the mother States, still they lived in friendly relations with them. The most renowned in Asia were Smyrna, Mytilyne, on the island of Lesbos, Miletus, Ephesus and Phocoea. When Cyrus overrun Asia Minor, the inhabitants of the last named city left their native country in quest of freedom and founded Marseilles, in France, where they imported the grapevine and the olive tree. In Europe, the coasts of the Azov, Black and ^gean seas were settled by the Greeks, whose colonies flourished at Theodosia (Caffa), Tanais (Azov) and Byzantium (Constantino- ple). They also peopled Lower Italy (Great Greece) and Sicily. Messana and Syracuse prospered in the latter country ; and Cuma (Naples), Tarentum, the luxurious Sybaris and Croton, in the former. Greece also had many other colonies in Illyria, Sardinia, Corsica, Spain, Lybia and Egypt. I 7. Ancient History of the Land. Heroic Age. Hercules. The Pelasgi and Hellenes were the most renowned among the ancient nations of Greece. The former immigrated from Thracia ; Define the situation of Boeotia ? Attica ? Argolis ? Laconia ? What were the principal cities in Boeotia, Attica, Argolis and Laconia ? Which of the Gre- cian islands is the largest ? Give the names of some renowned Grecian colonies. 10 from the latter the central part of Greece obtained its name. The common name " Greeks " is said to have been derived from Graecos, one of the Pelasgian chiefs. Cecrops, an Egyptian (according to common narrative) went with a colony from Sais to Attica (1582 B, C.), founded a state there, and built the citadel Cecropia, around which the city of Athens afterwards sprang up, which derived its name from its tutelar goddess Athenae (Minerva). He also estab- lished the Areopagus, a criminal tribunal, which, in course of time, became renowned. Some ages after Cecrops, the Phoenician Cad- mos settled in Bo^otia (about 1500 B. C.), erected the citadel of Thebes and taught the inhabitants the letters of the alphabet, vine culture, and the art of preparing metals. At the same time (about 1500 B. C.), the Peloponnesus received higher culture by the Egyptian Danaus, and 200 years later by the Phrygian Pelops. From the latter it derived its name, as he and his descendants occupied the most important districts there. The atrocious misdeeds and unhappy fate of the Pelopidas became the principal subject of the Grecian tragedies. Soon after Cecrops, Amphictyon established (as reported) an alliance of different Hell- enic towns, called the court of the Amphictyons, the members of which managed the affairs of the Delphian temple, arranged the Olympian games, and, in later times, also settled the differences of the league. In the Heroic Age Perseus, Hercules, Theseus, and other heroes delivered their country from dangerous beasts and men, for which deeds they were greatly celebrated, and even idolized. Their ex- ploits are themes of different poetical fictions. Thus : Perseus killed Medusa, and seized her petrifying head ; the winged horse, Pegasus, carried him on great exploits. Hercules, in the cradle, crushed two serpents, and in the service of his kinsman, king Eurystheus, performed the twelve achievements celebrated by many songs, viz. : He killed the Nemean lion ; cut off the many heads of the Lernaean serpent; caught a huge boar in Arcadia, bound him, and carried him on his shoulders to the king ; he overtook a swift stag ; fought with the Amazons — fabulous, warlike women in Asia Minor — for the shoulder-belt of their queen; cleaned the stable of Augias, etc. He even descended twice to the Tartarus, ^ 7. Give the derivation of the name " Greeks ? " Who was the tutelar goddess of Athens ? Who taught the Boeotians the letters of the alphabet ? By whom did the Peloponnesus receive a higher culture ? What of Amphictyon ? What exploits does tradition narrate of Hercules ? 11 and caught the Cerberus, that three-headed dog who watched its entrance. I 8. Concluded. Expedition of the Argonauts. Wars of Thebes and Troja. In this period also occurred the expedition of the Argonauts and the wars of Thebes and Troja. The Argonauts sailed to Colchis, in Asia Minor, in the Argo, in quest of the golden fleece. They were induced, by commercial interests, probably, to undertake this perilous voyage. Theseus, Hercules and Orpheus — the latter, by his won- derful songs, is said to have tamed even wild beasts — were among them ; Jason was their leader. After a long, hazardous errant voy- age the heroes returned to Greece. The Theban war (about 1230 B. C.) was caused by Eteocles and Polynices, sons of CEdipus, whose traditional fate was also a principal subject of the Grecian stage. Eteocles, contrary to a stipulated agreement, desired to govern alone in Thebes. Seven sovereigns in vain jointly opposed him, in order to procure his brother's rights; they did not prevail. The hostile brothers, after having thoroughly drenched the native soil with blood, killed each other in a duel, and all the chiefs but one fell in the combat ; ten years later, however, their sons renewed the war against Thebes. At last the son of Polynices obtained the government. Not many years after this war Paris, son of Priamus, who was king of Troja in Asia Minor, carried off Helena, wife of Menelaus, king of Sparta. To revenge this outrage, almost all the Greek sovereigns united and declared war against Priamus (about 1200 B. C.) Agamemnon, brother of Menelaus, became their leader. Con- trary winds, for a long time, hindered their departure. The priests interpreted this circumstance to be a sign of the displeasure of the gods. In order to propitiate them, Iphigenia, Agamemnon's daughter, was to be sacrificed, but Minerva (according to tradi- tion) withdrew the unhappy virgin from death by a cloud. In the contest which ensued, besides Agamemnon and Menelaus, the Ajaces excelled by their valor ; Ulysses, king of Ithaca, by prudence and cunning; the old Nestor, king of Messenia, by wisdom ; and most of all, Achilles, chief of the Thessalians, by his heroic feats. Patro- § 8. Give an account of the expedition of the Argonauts ? Who were its leaders ? How did the Theban war originate ? Narrate its principal circum- stances. Give the details of the Trojan war. How did it originate ? Who were the principal parties on both sides ? 12 clus, the faithful friend of Achilles, was his companion. The chief- tains of the Trojans were the courageous Hector, son of Priamus, ^neas, and others. As many sovereigns of Asia aided Priamus, the war was a protracted one, and lasted (as the Greek poets say), ten years. Hector fell under the sword of Achilles, and the latter was slain by an arrow of Paris. The city at last was taken by a strata- gem. Several Greeks hid in a wooden horse, which the Greeks had dedicated to Minerva. The superstitious Trojans pulled this horse into the city, and during the night the hidden Greeks, who had thus gained an entrance into the city, opened the town-gates to the Gre- cian army. Priamus, his remaining sons, and most of the inhabitants were killed, the city reduced to a mass of ruins, and the queen, her daughters, and the most distinguished ladies were carried away as slaves. Tempests rendered the return of the Greeks to their country difficult ; Menelaus was carried away to far distant regions, and Ulysses strayed about for ten years before he again saw Ithaca ; Agamemnon, after his return, was murdered by his wife. The long absence of the Greeks from home caused sad disorders in Greece. About one hundred years later, still greater calamities befell the Peloponnesus, namely, Hercules was (as tradition reports) excluded from the dominion of Peloponnesus, part of which belonged to him, and Eurystheus compelled his descendants, the Heraclidae, to for- sake their native country. They returned however, after some years, and, aided by the Doriens, conquered almost the whole of Peloponnesus. A large number of the vanquished left the country and founded colonies on the coasts of Asia Minor and the adjacent islands, many of which became famous. Repeated revolutions finally changed the poHtical form of Greece. Irritated by tyrannic oppression, some people cast off their yoke, others followed their example, and on the ruins of the monarchies young republics arose, among which Sparta and Athens became most renowned. § 9. Sparta. Lyeurgus. When the Heraclidae, Eurystenes and Procles, conquered Sparta, (see § 8), both brothers became kings, and thereafter always two of their descendants were governing together. This division of the What was the duration of the Trojan war? By what stratagem was the city captured ? What adversities did Menelaus, Agamemnon and Ulysses experience on their return ? What cause induced the Greeks to change their monarchies into republics ? Which among the latter became most renowned ? 13 highest power was a lasting source of discord in the small State until Lycurgus appeared. His brother's widow offered Lycur- gus her hand and the throne ; she declared herself ready even to kill her son, but he repudiated the shameful proposal, saved the life of the boy, and governed as his tutor. When Lycurgus saw that his generositj^ even did not shield him against the suspicion of ambition, he left his country and went to Creta, where king Minos, by his laws, had become renowned ; from thence he went to Asia Minor and Egypt, in order to get acquainted with the laws and customs of those countries. Sparta, becoming still more agitated by lawlessness, longed for the absent Lycurgus, who returned and became the legislator of his country (about 880 B. C.) He first communicated his design to the friends of the fatherland and of order, and then consulted the oracle of Delphi as to its feasibility, which declared the contem- plated legislation to be the best. To be still surer of success, Lycur- gus bade the most distinguished of his confidants, provided with arms, to make their appearance at the moment of the mtroduction of the laws. The common people received them* with approba- tion, but the wealthy ones, who lost their riches by equal division of the public domain, grew hostile to him and caused a sedition. A young fellow struck him in the eye with a stick; the furious people seized the offender and delivered him to Lycurgus to punish him as he pleased. He received the fellow into his house, but in- stead of chastising, he treated him so kindly that he soon became his heartiest eulogist. It is said that Lycurgus, in order to render his laws inviolable, went on a journey to Delphi, and made the Spar- tans take an oath that until his return they would inviolably main- tain them ; that the oracle confirmed them, declaring that as long as Sparta observed them, she would be the most glorious city in the world ; and that Lycurgus then, in order to prevent the Spartans from breaking their oath at any time, voluntarily starved himself to death. The rest of Sparta's history, in this period, presents little of in- terest. She waged two more wars against the Messenians (743 and 685 B. C), the second of which ended with the demoHtion of the principal place of this people, and with the loss of their liberty. As Sparta's power was foremost in the peninsula, most of Give a biography of Lycurgus. What circumstances occurred at the introduc- tion of the laws of Lycurgus ? How did he behave against his offender ? In what way did he try to render his laws inviolable ? 14 the other States conferred on her also the right of supreme leader- ship (hegemonia). ^ lO. Athens. Solon. For a long time Attica was divided into several independent dis- tricts. Theseus united them (about 1250 B. C.) into one body politic and formed a kind of republic, the head of which was Athena. His successors, however, retained the royal name down to Codrus. This saved Athens, which was attacked by the Heraclidae through his voluntary death (about 1068 B. C.) An oracle had predicted to the Athenians that the party whose chief would be killed by the enemy should gain the victory. Both parties, therefore, were on their guard not to kill the generals, but Codrus, determined to pro- cure the victory for the Athenians, went into the-camp of the enemy in the disguise of a peasant, designedly began a quarrel, and was, in the eagerness of dispute, slain by his enemies. Upon learning whom they had killed the enemy became discouraged and retreated. The Athenians now abolished the royal office and put the oldest son of Codrus, with the title of " Archon," at the head of the govern- ment. His tenure was for life and hereditary ; the archons, how- ever, were rec[uired to give an account of their administration. This form of government lasted 300 years. The office of the archons, bearing too strong a resemblance to royal power, was afterward re- duced from life to a period of ten years. At last it became annual, and to this end was divided among several archons. Athens, up to this time, had no written laws. Draco gave a code to the State (624 B. C.) However, as they were too severe, and, as the ancients said, written in blood, they were enforced only a short time. Unrestricted licentiousness then succeeded the utmost constraint. Solon only was able to put an end to this chaotic con- dition, for he was prominent by birth and enlightened by studies and travels ; moreover, he was so disinterested that he refused the royalty. Solon had made himself famous by several meritorious achievements, and possessed the universal confidence of the peo- ple. He became archon (594 B. C), and the people now de- manded new legislation of him. The poorer and indebted portion of them desired Solon, as Lycurgus had done, to distribute all of the land into equal parts, but Solon chose another expedient, that How did Codrus sacrifice his life for his country ? What did the title of "Archon " mean in Athens ? What was the spirit of the laws of Draco ? Who was lawgiver after him ? By what means did Solon try to improve the condition of the poor in Athens ? 15 of reducing the rate of interest and raising the value of coin. All living in bondage, probably on account of indebtedness, were set free. These measures, however, satisfied neither the rich nor the poor. Solon, in his constitution, also took the middle course. After having finished it, he determined to leave Athens, which he did, and remained absent for ten years. He obliged the people to take an oath not to change his laws during his absence ; that they should first satisfy themselves by experience of their propriety. He traveled over Egypt, Asia Minor and other countries. In Lydia, Croesus received him honorably. When Lycurgus returned to Athens, he found the peace of the State disturbed by ambitious men. Pisistratus, his relative, had ensnared the people. Once he de- signedly wounded himself, and, covered with blood, appeared before the people and called for their help, as he pretended, against their common enemies^ who had attempted to murder him. Then one of his confidants demanded a body-guard for the excellent citizen. Pisistratus got it, and with its assistance took possession of the castle. Solon tried in vain to rekindle the love of liberty in the minds of the citizens ; he did not succeed. Pisistratus continued to be unlim- ited ruler. Soon after the wise man died (559 B. C.) Hipparchus and Hippias, sons of Pisistratus, governed jointly. Their abuse of power caused a conspiracy against them. Hippar- chus was killed, while Hippias was blocked up in his castle, and his children were taken prisoners. This accident forced him to resign and to leave Athens (510 B. C.) He fled to Darius, king of Persia, who demanded that the tyrant should be reinstated; but the Athenians did not comply. Afterward Hippias was killed in the battle of Marathon while fighting against his country. ^ 11. Italy. Rome. Romulus. Junius Brutus. In the northern part of Italy (Gallia cisalpina) primitively the GaUi lived; in the southern (Great Greece) Greek colonists; in the middle, the Hetrurii, Latini, Samnitse and other people. The Hetrurii, (Etruski, Tuski) diff"used themselves over modern Tus- cany, and were early distinguished by their culture. Their alphl- What is said of Solon's travels ? How did Pisistratus ensnare the people ? What did one of his confidants demand for him ? Of what did he take posses- sion ? What did Solon try to rekindle ? Did he succeed ? How did Hippar- chus and Hippias govern in Athens ? What was their fate ? § 11. Who were the inhabitants of northern and middle Italy ? 16 bet is the foundation of all sorts of European letters, and the Tus- can order of columns is older than the Dorian. In the south, Latium bordered on Hetruria. An Arcadian colony settled on the Tiber (about 1 240 B. C.) The people in that vicinity are said to have received the name of Latini from King Latinus. ^neas who, after the destruction of Troja, arrived there with a troop of fugitive Trojans, is reported to have married his daughter and in- herited his realm. Alba Longa became the capital of Latium. Ac- cording to tradition, Numitor, king of Alba Longa, was deprived of the throne by his brother Amulius. His daughter had two sons, Romulus and Remus, whom Amulius caused to be thrown into the Tiber, because he was afraid that they would deprive him again of the government. The boys were saved through the pity of a shepherd, and brought up by his wife. When it was discovered that they were Numitor's grandsons, they caused a sedition against Amu- lius, who wa,s killed, and their grandfather again became king. Nu- mitor permitted his enterprising grandsons to lay the foundation of a new settlement, and they built Rome on the Palatine hill (753 B. C.) A band of their compatriots, who were still rude shepherds, assisted them in this undertaking. In order to rapidly augment the num- ber of citizens, Romulus, according to tradition, opened an asylum for fugitive criminals, exiles and runaway slaves. As the neighbor- ing people refused to give their daughters as wives to his colonists, he allured them by games and abducted them. The Sabines avenged this outrage with their arms, a battle ensued, but tlie newly married wives prostrated themselves suppliantly between the combatants and mediated peace. The Sabini (Quirites) then settled in Rome, and Titus Tatius, their commander, became regent with Romulus, each community retaining its own senate. Romulus governed jointly with the senate and the people, but his ambition caused him to en- large his power more and more. He killed not only his colleague Tatius, but also his brother, and at last he was himself dispatched by the senators. After the reign of Romulus six kings are said to have governed Rome for 245 years. Numa Pompilius gave Rome its State religion, built temples, and regulated the divine service. He always kept peace with the neigh- boring people, and promoted agriculture. Servius Tullius, the son of What colony settled on the Tiber ? From whom did the Latini receive their name ? What of i^neas ? What town was the capital of Latium ? What is said of Romulus and Remus? Of the first settlers in Rome ? How did they obtain wives ? How were the Sabini reconciled ? Why was Romulus killed ? By whom ? What of Numa Pompilius ? Of Servius Tullius ? 17 a female slave, ameliorated the hard condition of the slaves, provided for a more convenient classification of the citizens, and is reported to have entertained the idea of abolishing royalty. He was murdered in a conspiracy which was headed by his son-in-law, Tarquinius, and his own daughter Tullia, wife of Tarquinius (533 B. C.) The unnatural daughter drove over the corpse of her father. The street in which this crime was committed received the name of the "nefarious." Tarquin, called the Proud, was very cruel while he was king. He put his adversaries to death ; he did not even spare the life of his brother-in-law. Junius Brutus, the son of the murdered man, could only protect himself against the rage of his uncle by feigning to be insane. Liberty was also greatly oppressed by the king. He gov- erned without the senate and community, and forbade popular meetings, the last remedy of the people against his willfulness. A numerous body-guard of strangers had to watch for the safety of the tyrant. The Romans, for a long time, bore this despotism in silence ; but when a son of Tarquinius did violence to Lucretia, a virtuous, highly-esteemed Roman lady, and she, unable* to bear her dishonor, plunged a dagger into her bosom, the patricians, who bitterly hated the unlimited dominion of the king, made use of this favorable opportunity to break the chains which enslaved the country. They instantly locked the city gates. Brutus showed the people the bloody corpse of Lucretia, represented the crimes of the king and his family, and reminded the people of all the wrong and disgrace they had suffered. His* eloquence roused the cour- age of the senators, and the people awoke from their torpid con- dition. A sentence of perpetual banishment was pronounced against Tarquinius (who happened to be absent from Rome), and against his family. Every one who would do or speak anything for the king's advantage, was to be adjudged guilty of death, and Rome was de- clared a republic, at the head of which two consuls were to govern (509 B. C.) As Tarquinius, informed of this event, hastened to Rome, he found the gates locked. Meanwhile Brutus, in the Roman camp, urged the army to revolt against the king, and when Tar- quinius returned, he found the soldiers also hostile to him. He went to his son, who was reigning in Gabii. The first consuls were Brutus and Collatinus, Lucretia's husband. What is said of Tarquinius and his wife? How did Tarquinius govern the Romans ? What of Brutus ? Narrate the death of Lucretia ? What conse- quences did it cause for Tarquinius and his family ? 'How did Brutus behave at this event ? Who were the first consuls of Rome ? (2) 18 SEOOro OHAPTER-HISTORY OP CIVILIZATION, gl2. Legislation. Constitutions of Lyeurgus and Solon. Constitution of Rome under the Kings. The Egyptians, probably, had the most ancient among all known constitutions. They were divided into four or six castes (immutable, hereditary classes). Every one had to stay in the caste in which he was born, and to carry on the trade of his father. The most re- spectable was the caste of priests, and the most despised that of herds- men. The priests dictated to the kings how they should act, and judged them after their death. They administered the highest offices, educated the youth, wrote the history of their country, and were at the same time judges, physicians, architects ; in short, the possessors of all scientific knowledge. The priests and the soldiers were the owners of all, or at least most of the land. A similar system of castes was also established in many oriental regions, e. g., in Media, Persia, Bactria, and especially in India, where, even in ancient times, the Brahmins, that is, those who had issued from the head of the god Brahma, enjoyed almost divine honor. History is silent concerning the oldest constitution of China, but considering the constant uniformity of the culture of the Chinese we can assume, nearly with certainty, that it was more or less similar to the present one — a constitution, according to which the emperor is held to be God's vicegerent on earth, is high-priest and family-head of the empire, and requires servile obedience from the inhabitants of the realm. The constitution of the ancient Plebrews was also very similar to the Egyptian. The priests governed them, though in Jehovah's name, and their preponderating influence was felt even under the kings. They took, besides other revenues, the tithe of- all the products of the soil. The least trespass against civil law, and the smallest profanation of the Sabbath, were punished by death. Every seventh year (sabbatical year) the people were compelled to leave their fields unplowed, and everything that grew spontaneously belonged to the poor and the stranger ; the native slaves were manu- ^12. Give the outlines of the constitution of the ancient Egyptians ? What of their castes ? Of their kings, soldiers, priests ? What form of constitutions had the oriental regions, especially India and China ? Describe the constitution of the ancient Hebrews ? What of sabbatical years ? 19 mitted and all debts remitted. Every fiftieth year was a jubilee, in which every family recovered its real property. The two most celebrated constitutions of antiquity were the Spartan and the Athenian. Lycurgus, to quicken the warlike spirit of the people, re-established the ancient Dorian statutes of his native town. The legislative power was held only by Spartans proper (the descendants of the victorious Dores). The Lacedsemonii (the de- scendants of the vanquished Achsei), had no share in the public government, but otherwise they lived unrestrained. The senate (council of the aged) prepared the transactions. The two kings were the executors of the laws, presiding members of the religion, and generals of the army. Five ephori administered the high offices, presided in the senate and at the meetings of the community, and were the judges of the kings, etc. The principal source of disorder in the Spartan state was the disproportionate distribution of property among the citizens. Lycur- gus, therefore, divided the lands into equal parts, and forbade the proprietors from selling their estates. The Helots (descendants of the town of Helos, which the Spartans had conquered, and other vanquished people), were obHged to cultivate the estates of the Dorii, and to deliver to the latter a certain proportion of wheat, wine, etc., etc. They also attended to the handiwork. The money was made of iron, in order not to tempt the people to greediness. The dwellings and clothing were of the simplest nature, and the meals of the men were taken in common. The black broth, a national dish of the Spartans, was notorious abroad. A king, who had heard a great deal of talk about it, once engaged a Spartan cook to prepare it for him, but found the dish unsavory. " I can easily believe it," remarked the cook ; " our soup tastes well only to those who have bathed in the Eurotas." Sparta had no walls, as the valor of the in- habitants was relied on to defend the city. Bravery was rewarded with honor, and cowardliness punished by scoff and exclusion from offices of honor. The children were educated for the State ; sickly ones, immediately after birth, were thrown into an abyss of Mount Taygetus by special What is said of the Jubilee ? Which were the two most celebrated constitu- tions of antiquity? Delineate the constitution of Sparta. Functions of the senate ? Of the kings ? Of the ephori ? What of the division of lands ? Who cultivated them ? What was money made of ? What about dwellings and clothing ? Meals ? How was bravery rewarded and cowardliness punished ? How were the boys and girls educated ? What was the fate of sickly infants ? 20 officers. From the commencement of the seventh year the educa- tion was public. All the boys of the city, divided into certain classes, lived under the control of particular inspectors, who were appointed by the State. The young boys were obliged to sleep on rushes, and were instructed in the arts of running, wrestling, throwing, fencing and swimming. The girls, too, were trained in such exercises, as they would tend to develop them into healthy, strong women. At table, all received only moderate portions. In order to harden the boys against pain, they were sometimes flogged until bloody, and even to death, at the altar of Diana. Some, in order to show their con- stancy, permitted themselves to be flogged until they dropped dead, without even uttering a word of complaint ; they were also taught to give short and pertinent answers (laconic sayings became pro- verbial), and to respect old age. The arts and sciences were despised by the Spartans ; they were even forbidden to cultivate them. They only learned penmanship, so far as it was necessary, and sacred and warUke airs, which were sung at festivals and before battles. Under such a constitution the Spartans became a valiant, powerful and liberty-loving people ; but they were, nevertheless, also superstitious, rude, and very often cruel. The milder, and in general the best legislation of the ancient world, was that of Solon. In Athens, the citizens collectively wielded the supreme power. They confirmed ah laws, resolved on war or peace, and voted for the offices. The senate took care of current affairs, presided over the meetings of the community, and reported their bills to them. The areopagus was not only the judge of capital crimes, but also superintended the religion of the State, the education of the youth, and the laws and pubhc morals. Its judiciary sessions were held at night, and in darkness. Solon com- pared these two courts with two anchors — as they firmly controlled the agitated and turbulent State. The meetings of the people were to be checked by them. He prescribed also the duties of married people, parents and children. The children of the warriors who were killed in the military service were educated at the expense of the State. Whoever offended a slave could be sued at law, and no one was permitted to strike a slave. For that reason it was proverbially said that the slaves in Athens were more independent than free men What about the flogging of boys? What is the meaning of a "laconic answer"? What were the effects of the laws of Lycurgus? What rights had the citizens in Athens f The senate ? The areopagus ? Who provided for the chldreu of the warriors ? How were slaves treated ? 21 in many other States. Solon's penalties were moderate. He pun- ished idleness, the principal source of impoverishment, and of all the vices in the State, severely, considering it a great offence. He desired that his laws should not be valid longer than loo years Later, the law of expulsion (ostracism) was introduced, by which any citizen who by his power, authority or even by his public merits, seemed to be dangerous to the political equahty, could be banished for ten years. The ground- work of the Roman constitution under the kings was this : Under Romulus, the citizens of Rome were formed into two tribes (tribus, communities), the Latine and the. Sabinian. Later still, a third tribe of the Tuscan race was added to these. Each tribe was divided into ten curiae, and represented by loo senators, who were distinguished by age and intelligence. The senate possessed the greatest part of the governmental power ; but, in important mat- ters, the curias (comitia curiata), that is, all members of the three tribes, decided what was best to be done. The legislative power, es- pecially, was vested in them. The executive power and the command in war was left to the king. The members of the three tribes were called patricians (noblemen). At first the patricians alone pos- sessed, not only the political power, but also the conquered lands. They had clients^ that is, hereditary tenants, to whom they left the usufruct of land, and gave assistance if they went to law ; therefore they were called their patrons. Foreigners who had obtained the rights of citizenship were called plebeians. These were partly immi- grants of a later time, and partly inhabitants of the conquered ter- ritory, and embraced not only common people, but also the noble- men of the conquered cities. Among them were farmers, husband- men, rich men and poor men. They were otherwise free, but were deprived of the right of suffrage. Tarquinius Priscus added to every tribe of patricians a tribe of plebeians, which he formed from the richest and most distinguished plebeians. Servius TuUius, for the sake of taking a census, divided all citizens into six classes and 193 centuriae. To the first class belonged the richest ; to the two last classes, the poorest citizens (proletarians). The former numbered ninety-eight centuriae, the last only one. When they voted in cen- What were Solon's penalties ? What vice did he punish severely ? Why ? What is the meaning of "ostracism"? Why was ostracism introduced? What was the ground- work of the Roman constitution ? What was the power of the senate; of the kings; of the curioe? Explain the terms "patricians," "plebeians," "patrons" and "clients "? Into what classes did Servius TuHius, divide all citizens ? Which got the advantage by this division ? Why ? 22 turise (comitia centuriata), the plebeians could, according to this division, be easily outvoted by the patricians. The lowest class was exempt from military service, and, as a rule, did not pay any taxes. Servius, besides, divided the plebeians, according to their residence, into four municipal and twenty-six rural wards, which also were called tribus. § 13. Religions. Zoroaster. Buddha. Kong-fut-se. Grecian and Roman Religions. The oldest form of religion probably was fetichism, which was the worship of natural objects. It was expected by the worshipers that these objects would keep pain and suffering from them, and bring them fortune and happiness. There were two kinds of fetich- ism, viz., the worship of animals, e. g., in Egypt; and the wor- ship of stars, / of Catiline. Cicero. The Romans, after having subjugated so many nations, turned their arms against themselves. The epoch of the civil wars began. The prelude to them were the tumults raised against the two Gracchi. These brothers felt sincere pity for the poor, people, and as the patricians had again appropriated the greatest portion of the State land to themselves, they re-estabHshed, when being tribunes, the agrarian law. But the former caused commotions against- them, and both were slain with their followers (the one 138 B. C. ; the other 121 B. C.) Their memory was highly honored by the people. About that time the Cimbri and Teutones, probably German V tribes, left their settlements in northern Germany and moved to Gaul and Noricum (Styria). They demanded new dwelling-places from the Romans. As their request was not complied with, they took up arms and vanquished several consuls. In Helvetia' the What parts of the city did he take at last ? How long did the storming last ? How many inhabitants surrendered ? How did the remainder, together with Hasdrubal's wife, die ? How long did the conflagration last ? What other city was destroyed the same year? ^35. Give an account of the two Gracchi; of Cimbri and Teutones. Who defeated them ? Where did they come from ? iWL 79 Tigurini, who had joined them, and were led by Divico, defeated consul Cassius at the lake Geneva, and made the captives pass under the yoke. The Teutones advanced from Gaul, the Cimbri from Tyrol to Italy. Rome was panic-stricken by the immense number of .the giant-like enemies, and by their horrible forms. Finally, Manus saved the city. He defeated the Teutones at Aix, in Provence (102 B. C.), and the Cimbri at Verona (10 1 B. C.) Soon after, Rome was endangered by its allies in Italy. They unanimously claimed citizenship, and as it was refused them, re- solved to obtain it by fighting ; the whole of Italy ought to become one republic, and Rome no longer be the capital. The war com- menced (90 B. C.) and was waged with the greatest vigor for two years. The best generals of Rome were vanquished ; 300,000 war- riors, on both sides, lost their lives. Finally, the humbled city accorded to the allies the rights of free citizens (88 B. C.) One year later the first civil war commenced. Sulla, leader of the patricians, had been chosen commander against Mithridates, king of Pontus, in Asia Minor; but the people annulled the election, and Marius, their favorite, obtained the desired command. Sulla, with his army, came into the town, proscribed Marius and his partisans, and then marched against Mithridates. The former returned from Africa, whither he had escaped, and joined the consul Cinna, who was attached to the same party. Both vanquished the followers of Sulla in a bloody battle. Thousands more were killed in the city. Marius soon after died from the effects of drunkenness, and Cinna was slain. When Sulla returned from Asia (S3 B. C.) civil war was recom- menced; hundreds of thousands fought against him, but he defeated them in all places and entered Rome victorious (82 B. C.) Now such scenes of murder commenced here as were rarely ever seen on earth. In the streets, the houses and the temples, the blood of the citizens was running. Six thousand captives were at once killed, though the savage had promised to spare their lives. The rich citizens were all proscribed, the inhabitants of entire cities killed or sold, and their estates divided among his legions. He was for some What did they demand? From what country did the Teutones advance? From which the Cimbri ? What did the Roman allies of Italy claim ? How did they succeed by war ? Who waged the first civil war? Give some particulars of it. What revenge did Sulla take after his return from Asia ? In Rome ? In the country ? 80 years dictator, then he retired to private life, and died miserably from the consequences of his luxury. Soon after the civil war Rome was twice disgraced by being compelled to wage war — first against slaves, then against pirates. In Capua several gladiators broke forth from a fencing-school ; their number soon increased to 120,000 men. They routed several armies, and endangered even Rome. At last they were subdued (71 B. C.) Besides, many pirates invested every sea, and brought Rome in danger of a famine. In order to get rid of them, unlimited power of all the land and naval forces had to be be conferred upon one man, Cayus Pompeius. He cleared all seas from these dangerous enemies (67 B. C), and also completed the subjection of Mithridates (64 B. C), excepting Hannibal, Rome's most formidable enemy, who for twenty-six years had pertinaciously contended with the rulers of the world. In conclusion, Catiline, a talented but villainous patri- cian, then conceived the scheme to set Rome on fire and to pillage it, to massacre the senate and to render himself ruler of Italy. Many distinguished Romans (Crassus and Julius Csesar, probably, too) par- took in the conspiracy. Consul Marcus Tullius Cicero discovered the complot ; the ring-leaders were seized and executed, and Cati- line with his partisans killed in a murderous batde (62 B. C.) Cicero received the glorious surname, " Father of the Fatherland." § 36. First Triumvirate. Ceesar, Pompey and Crassus. Second Civil War. Battle at Pharsalia. As Pompey had returned from Asia, he, Julius Caesar and Mar- cus Crassus united for the purpose of dividing the supreme power of the State among themselves, and to maintain it against every adversary. As Cato Junior (the Uticenis), learned the news of their alliance (triumvirate), he exclaimed, lamentingly : " The republic is undone; she has got masters!" Forthwith Caesar, against the law, contrived to be appointed for five years pro-consul of Gallia. The term of his office was afterwards prolonged to ten years. Pompey became, also contrary to law, solely consul, and at the same time pro-consul of Spain, which he committed to a dep- What was the cause of his death ? Relate some circumstances of the war against slaves and pirates. Who was commander-in-chief against the latter ? Give an account of the conspiracy of Catiline. Who discovered it ? What was the purpose of the conspirators ? What was their doom ? How did Catiline perish ? ^ 36. Who formed the first triumvirate ? What country did Julius Ccesar con- quer ? 81 uty, while he himself remained in Rome. Crassus, desiring to increase his wealth, ventured war against the Parthians, in Asia, in which he was slain. Caesar completely conquered Gallia beyond the Alps (France), and Belgium as far as the lower Rhine. He killed one million, which was about the third part of the inhabitants. By the battle of Autun, he compelled the Helvetians, who were looking there for finer settlements, to return home (58 B. C.) He also vanquished the German races who, commanded by Ariovistus, crossed the Rhine, and repelled them into Germany. When his term had expired, he again solicited the consulship. The senate ordered him to first disband his army, and as he did not obey, declared him a public enemy, and commissioned Pompey to defend the republic. Now Caesar marched his legions to Italy, passing the Rubicon, an act deemed equivalent to an open declara- tion of war against his country (49 B. C.) Pompey and the senate fled into Greece. Caesar conquered Italy without any resistance, plundered the public treasure in Rome, subdued Spain, and then followed Pompey. In the first battle he was repulsed, but at Phar- salia, in Thessaly, he gained, with the aid of his German troops, a complete victory (48 B. C.) Pompey fled to Egypt, where the king of that country ordered him to be stabbed. Caesar speedily followed there. The king died fighting for his throne. Cleopatra, his sister, became queen of Egypt, and Caesar marched against Pharnaces, king of Pontus, and son of Mithridates, whose domin- ions he reduced with such rapidity that he announced the result to the Roman senate in the well-known words : Vetti, vidi, vici^ " I came, I saw, I conquered." After his return to Rome, he granted a general amnesty to the followers of Pompey, and by his clemency gained a strong hold on the affections of the people. Still there was a large and powerful party in Africa and Spain opposed to him. Passing over to Africa, he vanquished the friends of liberty, Cato, who commanded the garrison in Utica, seeing that the republic was passing away, admonished his friends to flee, or to implore Cesar's clemency. He himself had resolved not to survive the loss of liberty. After Where was Crassus slain-? What did the senate order Cresar to do when he solicited the consulship ? Where did he march then with his legions ? De- scribe his public actions in Italy, Spain and Greece. . Where did he vanquish Pompey ? How did the latter die .'' How did Ctesar succeed against Pharnaces ? In Africa ? Delineate the death of Cato Uticenis. (6) 82 having conversed with them on philosophical topics, he retired to his bed-chamber, read Plato's book on the immortaUty of the soul, and then killed himself by running against his sword. Caesar, after his return, lavished rich presents on the army and citizens of Rome. Every soldier received about seven hundred dollars ; every citizen, fifteen dollars, and every inmate the rent for one year. Besides, all the people were boarded at 22,000 tables. He vanquished also his last enemies, the sons of Pompey (45 B. C), and celebrated a solemn triumph over his overwhelmed fellow- citizens. He had sacrificed 200,000 human lives in order to found a monarchy. The venal senate made him dictator for life, gave his name to the month m which he was born, declared his person to be sacred, and erected his statue in the capitol, where it was to be ven- erated Hke those of the gods. Afterwards, Caesar assumed the air of absolute king and ruler, though he tried to promote the prosperity of the State by many useful institutions. He distributed the offices and honors among his flatterers as he pleased, and treated the most eminent men with con- tempt. He endeavored even to obtain the royal crown, and there- by committed a crime which, by the Roman law, was punished with death. The day was already fixed on which the senate was to offer him the diadem; but this day happened to be his day of death. More than sixty men, among them the most eminent citi- zens, had formed a conspiracy for his assassination. They were headed by Brutus and Cassius. Publicly, in the presence of the full senate, he was to die. As soon as he appeared there (the 15th of March, 44 B. C), the conspirators surrounded his golden chair, and one of them requested him to pardon his banished brother ; the others seconded the request. As Caesar refused to comply with the demand, the former forcibly pulled his toga from his shoulder, and another, whose name was Casca, stabbed him with his dagger. This was the signal for a general attack. He first defended himself, but when he saw Brutus, to whom he always had been kind, draw- ing his dagger also, he gave up further resistance ; he covered his face and fell, pierced with twenty-three wounds, at the base of Pompey's statue. Describe Ceesar's munificence towards the arreiy and the citizens in Rome. What adversaries did he last vanquish? What honors did the senate confer upon him ? By what actions did he betray his design to become king ? Give an account of the conspiracy against him. What two men were at its head ? Who stabbed him first ? When did he give up further resistance ? 83 § 37. Second Triumvirate. Antonius. Oetavius and Lepidus. Third Civil War. Battle at Actium. The servile people received the news of their deliverance indif- ferently. When Caesar's funeral was celebrated, the cunning An- tony lifted up his bloody robe before the assembled people and pointed out the wounds of the corpse. At the same time he deliv- ered a fervent eulogy to the memory of Caesar, and read to the audience his will, by which a sum of money was provided for every citizen. By such artifices he provoked the populace so that they seized fire-brands from the burning funeral-pile in order to set also the houses of the conspirators on fire. These were obliged to has- tily leave Rome. Then Oetavius, Caesar's adopted son, eighteen years old, made his appearance to take possession of the great heri- tage his foster-father had left to him. As Antony withheld it from him, he declared war against him. The senate and people sided with him, and Antony was vanquished in battle at Mutina (Modena). But as the senate refused the consulate to Oetavius, the two adver- saries were reconciled, and formed an alliance with Lepidus, in order to annihilate the republican party. First they killed thousands in Rome, among them Cicero, and grasped their treasures. Cicero was betrayed to the assassins sent to dispatch him by one of his own domestics ; but, tired of life,^ he forbade his servants to defend him, and yielded himself to his fate without a struggle. Antony and Oetavius then set out to meet Brutus and Cassius, who, by this time, had assembled a great army, and vanquished them at Philippi in two battles (42 B. C.) Both generals destroyed themselves. They were called the two last Romans. The victors now divided the Roman empire like booty. Antony received the Orient, Oetavius the western provinces, and Lepidus, Africa. The latter was afterwards deprived of his share. Antony passed over into Egypt, and, at the court of Cleopatra indulged in luxury. When he gave away even Roman provinces to her and her children, the senate decreed (as Oetavius had desired long ago) his removal, and declared war against Cleopatra. Antony was vanquished at Actium, in the Ionian Sea (31 B. C.) Cleopatra, ^ 37. How did the people receive the news of their deliverance ? Describe the devices practiced by Marc Antony at the funeral. What of the conspirators ? Of Oetavius ? What men united for the second triumvirate ? Why ? Give some proofs of their cruelty. How did Cicero die ? Where did they vanquish Brutus and Cassius ? How did they divide the booty ? Where did Antony pass his time ? Against whom did the senate declare war ? Why ? 84 who had accompanied Antony, overcome with anxiety, departed from the scene of action, and the infatuated Antony, as soon as he saw that the queen had fled, hastily followed her. His land forces, some days later, surrendered to the victor, who pursued the fugi- tives to Egypt, where Antony put an end to his own Hfe. When Cleopatra, who had shut up herself in her palace, found that Octa- vius designed to spare her only to adorn his triumph, she caused a poisonous viper to be applied to her arm, and thus followed Antony in death. Octavius was now left sole master of the Roman world. Rome ceased forever to be a republic. SECOND OflAPTEE-HISTOKY OP CIVILIZATION. § 38. Constitution, Moral, Social and Military Condi- tion of the Roman State. Since the expulsion of the kings two consuls in Rome were at the head of the government. They were the commanders in war ; the term of their office was limited to one year. In critical times dictators, with unlimited power, were elected. The prcntors admin- istered the judicial power. The ceitsors kept the lists of property of the people, and superintended the public morals. The tribunes were the representatives of the people ; they could annul the de- crees of the senate by their veto. There were also military trib- unes. The proconsuls and proprcetors were the governors of the conquered . provinces. The senate, especially, had control of the foreign affairs of the State. Until the institution of tribunes (493 B. C.) the people voted, in matters of importance, either in comitia curiata, or centuriata ; but they effected voting in comitia tributa, in which the citizens singly voted. In this way the aristocratic constitution of Rome became democratic. First the plebeians were excluded from high public offices ; later, they obtained, by their efforts, also access to these. (See § 27.) In the earlier times of the republic, the Romans excelled by frugality, industry, parsimony and strict morality. Since the for- eign wars they grew worse and worse. All the wealth of the con- Give a description of the battle at Actium. How did Antony and Cleo- patra end their lives ? Who became then lord of the Roman world ? \ 38. Give the names of the officers in the Roman republic? What of voting in comitia curiata, centuriata and tributa ? Which of these were most democratic ? How were the morals of the Romans in the early times of the republic ? How in later times ? 85 quered countries flowed into Rome, whereby the morals were cor- rupted. The largest part of the people, through these causes, re- mained so poor that it was necessary every week to distribute bread among them. Wealthy private individuals also amused them by games and theatrical representations. The care of agriculture was left to the slaves. Laws were, amid combats, given and repealed ; offices were sold ; injustice prevailed in the courts. The number of Roman slaves was exceedingly great. Out of one hundred and twenty milHons of inhabitants of the Roman dominion, almost half belonged to his unhappy class of men. Many Romans owned over ten thousand. Many physicians and actors, and even most of the teachers and tutors, were slaves. The doom of the Roman subjects was also severe. They had to bear the public burdens, and were frequently plundered by the governors of the provinces, who imposed upon them all kinds of heavy taxes. The military constitutions of the Romans were excellent. Their legions, which numbered from ten thousand to twelve thousand men, were composed of infantry and a corps of cavalry. Their military signs represented eagles, which were carried upon poles. The military discipline was very severe; they punished not only with drubs, but even with death. Entire legions were sometimes decimated, every tenth man being punished with death. Rewards, however, brought about greater effects in the Roman soldier than punishments. He who saved a citizen was rewarded with a crown of oak leaves. The generals obtained magnificent triumphs. The vanquished enemies were, as a general rule in ancient time, reduced to slavery. ^ 39. Arts and Seienees. Julian Calendar. Senools. Public Games. Commerce. In Greece, the arts and sciences celebrated their golden era under Pericles. He patronized them, adorned Athens with master- pieces of architecture, sculpture and paintmg, celebrated splendid games and pastimes, and his administration formed an era of great internal splendor and magnificence. With the loss of liberty, the Who took care of agriculture ? How was justice administered? Were there many Roman slaves ? What was the condition of the Roman subjects? Give an account of the military institutions of Rome, of the legions, military signs, discipline, punishments, rewards and triumphs. ^ 39. Under whose govern- ment did the arts and sciences most flourish in Greece ? When did their lustre decrease ? 86 arts and sciences also began to decline. During the combat for the conquests which Alexander had left, the first Ptolemies opened for them a quiet asylum. The public buildings of the Greeks, such as temples, theaters, and gymnasia, were magnificent. The temple of Apollo at Delphi, of Jupiter in Olympia, of Diana in Ephesus, and of Minerva in Athens, were renowned. To the latter splendid porticos led which formed a marble gate, with five lofty thoroughfares and side build- ings, which were reached by a grand flight of stairs. The Romans were incomparable in the construction of aqueducts, high-roads and bridges. The greatest, thus far not excelled statuaries of the Greeks were Praxiteles and Phidias. The latter created the colossal statues of Jupiter in Olympia, and of Minerva in Athens. Zeuxis, Parrhasius, and Apelles belonged to the most celebrated painters. Alexander of Macedonia permitted only the latter to paint him. Poesy, too, pre- eminently flourished in Greece. Pindar, of Thebes, composed the most sublime hymns and odes; Anacreon, the sweetest social songs; ^schylos, Sophocles and Euripides, wrote the best tragedies; Aris- tophanes, the wittiest comedies. The theatrical representations, to which artistical dances and music were always joined, made an un- speakable impression on the spectators, of whom frequently- 30,000 were present. But they also caused enormous expenses, and were therefore managed by the States. They were only performed on occasion of national festivals. Eloquence^ in free Greece, attained the highest degree of per- fection ; it flourished especially in Athens. Themistocles, Alcibi- ades, Isocrates, ^^schines, and at the head of all, Pericles and Demos- thenes, were the great orators of this city. With regard to Pericles, the Athenians said that he bore thunder and lightning upon his tongue. Once he delivered a consolatory oration to the parents whose sons had fallen in a battle. All the auditors were deeply aflected. At the end of the delivery, the mothers, with joyful im- petuosity, hastened to the orator and tendered him wreaths. Demos- thenes trained himself with the greatest zeal for the vocation of a public orator. His breath was short, and his voice feeble, and he could not distinctly pronounce the letter r. In order to correct How were the public buildings? Give examples. Statuaries? What statues did Phidias form ? Painters ? Writers of hymns, tragedies and come- dies ? Delineate the theatrical representations of the Greeks. Orators ? Give particulars of Pericles and Demosthenes. Roman orators? Greek historians? 87 these faults, he proceeded to the beach of the ocean, and endeav- ored to outcry the roaring billows ; he took pebbles into his mouth and tried, in spite of this impediment, to speak distinctly ; he went up precipitous mountains, reciting, with strong voice, long speeches. He occupied an underground room, where he placed himself before a large mirror and exercised in mimics and pantomime. In this way he became the first orator of antiquity. The best Roman ora- tors were Hortensius, called the king of the forum, and Cicero, who was contending with Demosthenes for the palm of superiority. Among the many Greek historians, Herodotus, Thucydides and Xenophon occupy the highest place. The first described the Per- sian wars, the second the greater part of the Peloponnesian war, and Xenophon the continuation of the Grecian history, commencing at the latter war. Among the Romans, Julius Caesar wrote the history of the Galhc and second civil war : Sallustius, that of the conspiracy of Catiline. In philosophy, too, the preference, among the ancient nations, belongs to the Greeks. Among tli^ olden philosophers Pythagoras became remarkable by estabfishing a league of virtue in lower Italy. Its members performed in secret a peculiar divine worship, studied mathematics and other sciences, and attempted to improve the public governments. Their endeavors succeeded for some time, but the blind multitude rose in tumult against them, and they were partly killed and partly expelled. , Socrates surpassed all his predecessors in practical wisdom (see § 2i). His scholar, Plato, was the most renowned philosopher of antiquity ; Aristoteles, a pupil of the latter, excelled by the variety of his knowledge. He earned, especially in the natural sciences, a high desert. The Stoics, so called from stoa^ a porch in Athens, where Zeno, the founder of their school, taught, declared virtue to be the supreme, nay, the only real good. The Epicureans, on the contrary, befieved that mental and physical welfare is the highest good. The Cynics despised sensual pleasure, riches, and prerogatives of birth. They gave frequent offense to the good manners of society. Among them What did Herodotus, Thucydides and Xenophon write ? What Julius Caesar and Sallustius? Describe the school of Pythagoras. What sciences did his disciples study ? What did they attempt to improve ? Did they succeed ? What philosopher surpassed all in practical wisdom ? Who was his most re- nowned pupil ? How did Aristoteles excel ? Mention the first principle of the Stoics; of the Epicureans ? What of the Cynics ? Diogenes of Sinope was, by his ingenious and witty remarks, most known. Even Alexander the Great paid him a visit, and admired him so much that he exclaimed : " If I were not Alexander, I should like to be Diogenes." One day, as he came from Sparta to Athens, somebody asked hmi where he came from. " From the dwellings of men into the apartments of the women," was his reply. Among the Romans, Cicero deserved best of philosophy. In his main work he discusses human duties. All the Grecian philosophers also applied themselves to mathe- matics. Euclides and Archimedes excelled in these sciences. Thales and Pythagoras were also astronomers. A mathematician of Alex- andria (Sosigenes) commissioned by JuHus Caesar, computed the solar year more accurately. He fixed its duration at 365 days ; every fourth year one day should be interpolated. The greatest Grecian physician was Hippocrates, who made his appearence in Athens dur- ing the great pleague. The Grecian schools were in ancient times the best. The works of the best poets formed the ground-work of the national culture of the Greeks. In the gymnasia, bodily exercises prevailed; still, lan- guage, eloquence, and philosophy were also taught. They con- tained large court-yards with porticos, careers, bathing-rooms, etc. Books, in ancient times, were very scarce and very dear. There were nevertheless many public libraries ; the two largest existed in Alex- andria. Public games were, in Greece, generally customary. At Olympia, Delphi, Nemaea, and on the isthmus of Corinth, national games were celebrated. Every Greek freeman was admitted to them. They drew together an immense concourse from all parts of Greece, and numbers even from foreign countries. During their celebration every feud was suspended ; even the most bitter enemies met there fraternally. The exercises practiced were leaping, running, throw- ing, boxmg and wrestling ; also horse and chariot races. The benches upon which the spectators were sitting, rose like terraces. The victors received wreaths, crowns, triumphal processions, and other rewards of honor. Poets, musicians, orators and philosophers also Who among them was most known ? Mathematicians ? How did Sosigenes compute the solar year ? Who excelled most among the Roman philosophers ? What was the name of the greatest Grecian physician ? What instruction was imparted in the Grecian schools ? How were they constructed ? What of books ? Delineate the public games of the Greeks. What exercises were prac- ticed there ? 89 made their appearance at the games, and gained applause and prizes of honor by their performances. The most renowned games were the Olympian ; they lasted five days. The Greeks also com- puted their time by them — an Olympiade signifying a period of four years. In regard to commerce, Carthage, especially, was renowned at the beginning of this period. The establishment of Alexandria opened to it a new career. This city, under the first Ptolemies, was the center of universal commerce. The Arabian Sea was connected with it by the Nile, to which a canal and a highway led, so that the merchandise of India came over the Persian Gulf to the Mediter- ranean Sea, and from there to the European countries. This commer- cial way continued to be used until the passage to the East Indies by sea was discovered. In the next period Constantinople also became an important commercial place. EXERCISES. Describe the life of the following men, according to the points of view here given : i. Themistocles — {a) as youth, {h) as hero and statesman, {c) as enemy of his country. 2. Aristides — {a) in the battle of Marathon, (<5) in the battles at Salamis and Platoeoe, {c) after the Persian wars, {d) proofs of his love of jus- tice and contentment. 3. Hannibal's achievements and actions — {a) in Spain, {b) in Italy, (r) in Africa, {d) in Asia. 4. Comparative representation of the actions of the two Brutus ; the elder Brutus — {a) as Rome's deliverer, (^) as father, (r) as commander; the junior — {a) as Rome's deliverer, {b) as general. 5. A similar comparison of the two Scipios, 6. Gather the scattered traits of the life of Pelopidas. By what exploits and incidents in life did Aristides and Camillus resemble each other? What countries did the Romans possess at the end of this period ? Which conqueror rose with them at the same time, about 343 B. C. ? Which two cities did they destroy in the same year ? Which two celebrated heroes died in the same year ; and when ? Which internal causes brought about the loss of liberty of the Greeks and Romans ? When did the sciences and arts celebrate their golden era in Greece ? Who was the greatest orator among the Greeks ? Who among the Romans ? Where were the most renowned games ? What rewards did the victors re- ceive ? What two cities were most renowned for commerce ? How was the Arabian Sea connected with the Mediterranean ? What city in the next period also became an important commercial place ? 90 THIRD PERIOD. Frorr] Emperor Augustus to the Great Migration of Nations, The Romaq Empire aqd its Decay. Victory of Christianity. From 30 B. C. to 375 A. D. FIEST OHAPTEE-POLITIOAL HISTORY. ROMAN EMPIRE. ^ 40. Augustus and the Emperors from his Descent. Rome had subjected itself to the government of Octavius, and he knew how to slyly maintain it. He pretended to his two most intimate friends, Agrippa and Magcenas, to have resolved to resign the government. Agrippa, a sincere, upright warrior, praised him for that, and advised him to do so; but Maecenas held another opinion. In the senate Octavius uttered the same declaration; Maecenas urged him to stay ten years longer at the helm of govern- ment. This political legerdemain Octavius repeated several times. He did not touch the forms of republic, but kept the most impor- tant offices, especially the supreme command of all armies, and sur- rounded himself with a strong life-guard. He was to be called prince and augustus (the divine). The mainstays of his dominion were Maecenas and Agrippa. He ruled at least mildly. During his government, Tyrol, Styria and parts of Bavaria, Austria and Hun- garia were conquered. In Germany his legions were defeated (see § 42). Though ruler of the Roman world, he was not free and happy at home. His third wife, Livia, governed him at pleas- ure. By poison she dispatched the next heirs of the throne, and compelled him to accept Tiberius, her favorite son, as his successor. Finally, he died (14 A. D.), probably himself a sacrifice of her § 40. Who were the two most intimate friends of Augustus ? What did they advise him concerning the government ? Whose advice did he follow ? By what means did he maintain the supreme power ? Was his private life happy ? Who governed him at home ? 91 secret malignity. Before he died he is reported to have said to his friends : " Clap hands, for I have played well my part." After his death, temples and festivals were dedicated to him. In a similar manner most, even the worst emperors, were idolized. Sad was the fate of the Roman empire under the emperors of the family of Augustus. They vied with each other in cruelty, luxury and follies. It will suffice to enumerate their names, which were: Tiberius,. Cahgula, Claudius and Nero. The latter sur- passed all his predecessors in cruelty and foolishness. By his order even his brother, his mother and wife, and his teacher, Seneca, were killed. He set fire to Rome himself, laid the blame of the action upon the Galileeans, a Jewish or Christian sect, and caused them to be put to a cr^el death. He went so far in his foolishness that he publicly passed through Italy and Greece as an actor and singer. At last the senate passed the sentence of death upon the monster. The coward, not having the courage to take his own life, caused a poniard to be thrust into his throat as he was to be seized. (^6S B. C.) ^ 41. Rome Ruled by Good Emperors. Downfall of the Empire. After a cruel civil war, in which three emperors were killed, good rulers reigned for one hundred years. The first was Vespa- sian. He was economical in the administration of the finances, and kept the troops in obedience. He instituted pubHc schools, was the first who paid teachers, and rewarded artists and scholars. During his reign Jerusalem was destroyed by his son Titus (70 A. D.), who, by the Romans called " the deHght of the human race," passed his short reign (79-81 A. D.) in conferring benefits. Nobody left him without receivmg comfort. One day, as he did not dispense any benefit, he exclaimed, sorrowfully: "Friends, I have lost a day." During his reign three calamities disturbed its prosperity — a conflagration consumed a large portion of Rome ; a pestilence desolated Italy, and an eruption of Mount Vesuvius covered (23d of August, 79) the cities of Herculaneum, Pompeii and Stabise with ashes, entirely destroying them. In the last century the two former What is he reported to have said to his friends when he died ? Whom had he to accept as his successor ? What was the character of the emperors of his family ? What crimes did Nero commit ? What foolish acts ? How did he perish ? ^41. Give an account of Vespasian. What city was destroyed during his reign ? What did the Romans call Titus ? Why ? What calamities befell Rome during his reign ? 92 cities were again discovered and partly excavated, disclosing the city walls, streets, temples, theaters, the forum, baths, monuments, private buildings, domestic utensils, etc. The pictures covering the walls are still in a well-preserved condition. Several skeletons were also found. The skeleton of a woman held a child upon her arm ; at her side the bones of two children were lying, .who held each other in tight embrace. Domitian, a brother of Titus, was a tyrant and was killed. Trajan, said to be the best of the Roman sover- eigns, took care of the orphans, and augmented the number of the public schools in Italy. The arts and sciences flourished again. He constructed the gigantic high-road which runs from the Black Sea as far as Gallia. He was also fond of waging war. He con- quered Transylvania, Assyria, etc. Adrian preferred peace to con- quests, lessened the taxes of the people, and restrained the soldiers. He traveled through the greatest part of the provinces of the realm, mostly on foot, and arranged good institutions in many places. Towards the end of his reign he became cruel. Anto- ninus, sumamed Pius, did not rule like a monarch, but as the first citizen of the State. His principle was, to protect rather the life of one citizen than to sacrifice it for a thousand enemies. Marcus Aurelius, for his philosophical writings surnamed the Sage, con- cludes the series of the good emperors (178 A. D.) His son, Corn- modus, was a rude, blood-thirsty monster. In general, from this time forward, the Roman State seldom had a good emperor, and if one took possession of the throne he was soon killed by the licentious soldiers. The civil wars increased; the morals grew worse and worse ; all bonds of public order were dissolved. The change of the regents became more frequent. Sev- eral times three or more emperors were ruling at the same time. In a period of fifty years (235-285 A. D.) altogether fifty ruled. Under such circumstances, the boundaries of the vast empire could not be protected against the invasions of its enemies, especially of the German nations. It visibly hastened towards its dissolution. Among the last emperors of this period Constantine I., by flat- terers called the Great, is remarkable (306-337 A. D.) Induced by policy, he was converted to the Christian religion, and aided What relics were found in the excavated cities of Herculaneum and Pompeii ? Give an account of Trajan, Adrian and Antoninus Pius ? What principle con- fessed the latter ? Why was Marcus Aurelius surnamed the Sage ? What was, after his death, the political condition of the Roman empire ? How many empprors reigned in the space of 50 years from 235-285 A. D. ? 93 its propagation. He also reorganized the administration of the State, and established Byzantium (afterwards called Constantinople) as the capital of the empire. As to the rest, he also was a cruel despot, who drowned his wife, put his son to death, and murdered the husbands of his two sisters, his father-in-law, and his nephew, a boy of twelve years of age. Under the emperors Valentinian and Valens, who ruled together, enemies assaulted almost all the bound- aries of the reafm. The Huns arrived in Europe (375 A. D.), and caused the commencement of the great migration of the Teutonic nations. g 42. Germany. Arminius. In the time of the Romans, a great part of Germany still con- sisted of forests, marshes and sterile land. The climate was rough. Only barley and oats were cultivated. The wealth of the inhabitants consisted in cattle and horses. The culture of the soil was first im- proved by the Romans. The origin and the first habitations of the Germans are uncertain. The Romans called them Germani. They had blue eyes, light hair, and were of gigantic size. They were divided into many tribes, among which the Suevi, Goths, Franks, Cheruski, Saxons and Marcomans were the most powerful. The Angles, Vandals, Burgundians, Lombards and Alemanni belonged also to the German tribes. The imperious Romans tried to conquer Germany, and for this purpose Julius Caesar crossed the Rhine. He could not, however, hold his ground beyond the river. During the reign of Augustus they again advanced as far as the Weser, pitched strengthened camps there, and built forts. Governor Quintilius Varus, a covet- ous man, demanded from the freemen taxes which, in their country, only slaves used to pay, punished them with axe and rods, and en- deavored to introduce Roman laws and language. Outraged by this despotic treatment they resolved to throw off the disgraceful yoke. Arminius (Herman), the young chief of the Cheruski, who were living at the middle Weser, came to the front as their leader. He had commanded German federal troops in Rome, and thereby acquired military science. Though rewarded there with citizen- What emperor was converted to the Christian religion ? What crimes stained his character? What nation arrived in Europe under Valens and Valentinian? What migration began then ? 1 42. How was the climate in ancient Germany ? What were the products of the soil ? What was the general appearance of the inhabitants ? How were they governed by Quintilius Varus ? What did they re- solve to do ? Who was the leader of their confederation ? 94 ship and knighthood, he still remained true to his country. He secretly enlisted friends for his project. Some chieftains, on purpose, began hostilities at a distance. Varus set out with 40,000 men, and allowed himself to be allured into the Hercynian forest, where Anninius and the other chieftains awaited him with their warriors. There were nowhere beaten roads; everywhere only woods and wilderness. Violent showers of rain made the way slippery. The Germans attaclced with impet- uousity ; but Varus was still so infatuated that he even forbade his legions to defend themselves. With pains he led them to an open place where he burned the wagons and unnecessary baggage. Next day he had to continue the march. The Germans attacked him more eagerly. The Romans, too, were now fighting, but with- out success. When night came on, they would entrench them- selves, but the enemies and the incessantly stormy weather pre- vented them doing so. The third day they are assailed most forci- bly. The slaughter becomes general; now even the bravest lose their courage. Some, like Varus, run on their own swords ; but most are killed ; few only escape by flight. Some of the captives were hanged on trees, others sacrificed to the gods ; the remainder had to do the most menial work of slavery. The captured lawyers suffered the worst doom. In this manner one of the best Roman armies was annihilated, and German liberty saved. When the news of the defeat of Varus reached Rome, terror became general. The people were afraid of another German invasion of Italy. Augustus, at the first onset of grief, tore his robe, locked himself up, and in despair, dashed himself against the wall, exclaiming : "Varus, re- store me my legions!" All the German mercenaries were removed from Italy, and new troops sent to the Rhine, but they did not find the enemies. The Germans were contented to have vindicated their independence. Augustus endeavored to subject them in the following years, but in vain. But Arminius was, in later time, vanquished, his wife Thusnelda taken prisoner, and led in triumph through Rome. In the war which the Germans after that waged among themselves, he himself lost his life by treachery (21 A. D.) How did they allure Varus into the Hercynian forest ? Give an account of the battle. What was its result ? How did the victors deal with the captives ? How did Augustus brook the news of the defeat ? What effect did it cause in Rome ? What events occurred later in the life of Arminius and his wife ? 95 SECOND CHAPTER-HISTORY OF OIVILIZATIOU". § 43. Roman Constitution. Morals and Customs of the Ancient Germans. The first emperors still preserved the republican forms ; there were yet consuls, tribunes, etc., elected, but they were only so in name. In later times, this practice also was stopped. The army proclaimed the emperors, not caring longer to obtain the confirma- tion of the senate, and the captain of the body-guard (praefectus praetorio) was, next to the emperor, the highest dignitary of the empire. Diocletian (285-305 A. D.) established the pomp of the Oriental courts, and the emperors • henceforth assumed the title, dominus (master). The last vestige of liberty vanished. The taxes became more and more oppressive and the armies more numerous. Finally, as the citizens refused to fight longer in the wars of the des- potic sovereigns, many barbarians were enrolled in the armies. Constantine I. divided the whole realm into four prefectures, every prefecture into several dioceses, and these into provinces. The ancient Germans lived entirely free. Their public affairs were deliberated in general meetings. The lands, too, belonged to the commons, and were annually divided among the individuals, according to their needs. It was considered a disgrace to survive the chief in battle. He who lost his shield became infamous. The bards, a kind of poets, encouraged their combatants by their songs; the women, by their speeches. Next to war, the men liked hunting best; house and field must be taken care of by the women and ser- vants. Hospitality, faithfulness to a given promise, love of country and of liberty were the praiseworthy qualities of the ancient Ger- mans; on the other hand, a propensity for idleness and robbery and a passion for gambling and drinking were their national faults. They did not think it wrong to go abroad, beyond their district, for booty. If everything they had was lost by gambfing, liberty even was wagered, and the loser willingly became the slave of the other. The carousals often lasted for whole days and nights, and yet the most important deliberations also were conducted at them. The I 43. What did the Roman emperors still preserve of the old constitution ? What title did they at last assume ? What of taxes and armies ? Why did they enroll barbarians in the armies ? Give a description of the customs and manners of the ancient Germans. Where did they deliberate general affairs ? How were the lands divided? Who encouraged them in battles ? Mention their good and bad qualities. 96 favorite beverage of the Germans was beer, which they drank out of the horns taken from killed game. g 44, Religion of the Ancient Germans. Christian Religion. According to the report, the ancient Germans worshiped Wodin (Odin), also called Alfader (father of all), as the supreme Being; his son, Thor, as the god of thunder; his spouse, Freyja, as the goddess of love and wedlock ; Hertha, the goddess of the earth ; the Wal- kyres, goddesses of the battles, etc. They believed in a heaven (Walhalla), where they would drink beer and mead out of the skulls of their killed enemies; and .in a hell (Hela). They had sacred groves, sacrifices, oracles, priests and priestesses. In those groves they kept white horses, according to the neighing of which they interpreted the future. They also offered human sacrifices. They highly valued forebodings ; e. g., whether at the time of a meeting the moon .was full or new. Before engaging in important enter- prises they asked the advice of the priests. To the women, also, they gave credit for being able to cast a prophetic look into the future. The Greek and Roman religions decHned in this period ; they had lost their authority ; the more culture and enlightenment in- creased, the greater was the contempt into which they sank. The Jews, too, did not adhere so closely to the Mosaic creed. Secta- rianism had gained ground among them, and empty ceremonies had taken the place of true religion. At such a time, during the gov- ernment of Augustus, Jesus of Nazareth made his appearance in Palestine, constructing a new and better religion on the foundation of the old Judasim. His conduct was strictly moral and pure, in general, and even his enemies could not find any fault with him. As he attacked the ruling abuses of the religious government, and severely censured the vices of the priests and Pharisees, who formed a powerful sect, he became the object of their hatred, and perished by the violent death of crucifixion. After his death his doctrines were collected and written down ; he himself has left nothing in writing. His religion had spread, after some centuries, over the ^ 44. Who was Wodin, Thor, Freyja, Hertha ? What animals did the Ger- mans keep in their sacred groves ? Wherefore ? Whose advice did they ask in important enterprises ? Why did Christianity gain the ascendency over the Mosaic, Greek and Roman religions ? Give some particulars of the life of Jesus. When were his doctrines written down? 97 whole Roman world, and since Constantine I. had declared it the religion of the State, it became predominant in his realm. Its con- fessors were called Christians, because its author, Jesus, was called Christ (the anointed, the king). The causes of the rapid propagation of Christianity were both internal and external; and among those causes the excellence of the doctrine deserves to be mentioned, viz., Jesus represented God as the father of all men, recommended his spiritual veneration, insisted upon a pure, moral life (as the foundation of the kingdom of God), and commanded love and charity towards everyone, even our enemies. He taught that all men are equal in the presence of God, and members of one family. Therefore his religion gained a great many proselytes among the poor, humble and the slaves, who felt themselves elevated by such principles. Besides, these people were aided by collections from the Christians, destined for the comfort of the distressed. Other external causes were : the dis- persion of the Jews, whose religion is the foundation of Chris- tianity, and the persecution of the Christians, by which their moral force was nerved. The blood of the martyrs became the seed of new confessors. Sometimes, however, the Christians themselves were to be blamed if they incurred persecutions, either by disturb- ing the established religious rites, or by being disobedient to the laws of the country, or by pressing to the tribunals of their enemies^ in order to be victims of their creed. Most severely were they per- secuted for some time by the Emperor Galerius, imperial colleague of Diocletian; still later, he was reconciled with them. The Christians themselves soon began to quarrel about obscure dogmas of their religion. They did so especially in their ecclesiastic councils (synods). From words they went, sometimes, to bloody affrays, and even to wars. Since Constantine had conceded to the Christian Church the same rights as pertained to the old State relig- ion, the persecuted began persecuting; /, Nw^ <^^ SECOND SECTION. HISTORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES. FOURTH PERIOD. FrorT[the Migratioq of Nations to the Decay of the Dominioq of the Franks: I. Migratioq of Nations, 2. Mo- hammedaq Empire. 3. Garlovingian Mon- archy. Fron^ 375 to 900 A. D. FIEST OHAPTEE-PaLITIOAL HISTORY. 1. MIGRATION OF NATIONS-375 TO 668 A. D. 1 46. Summary of the Migration. Huns. Attila. The Huns, a nomadic nation of the deserts of Central Asia, spread terror in Mongolia (Tartary) during several centuries. They were ugly and deformed, resembling half-molded blocks ; of yellow complexion, beardless, with small, hollow eyes. They used to eat raw meat, after having it softened on horse-back, under the saddle. They performed every work on their horses, upon which they sped along Hke arrows. They possessed wonderful skill in shooting arrows. They were finally subdued by the Chinese (30 A. D.) A great por- tion of them emigrated, for unknown reasons, to the west, crossed the Volga, and attacked the nations which had settled beyond this river. And now the great migration of nations began (375 A. D.) § 46. Describe the Huns; their shape and customs. What nation gave the shock for the great migration of nations ? What river did the Huns cross in Russia ? 101 102 ana -i " -» a" Jl ^ -•> Beyond the Volga, the Alani, who belonged to a similar race, were settled, and behind them, from the Black Sea to the north, the Ostra- goths and Visigoths. The Huns attacked the Alani, dispersed them, and settled between the Don and Volga. But soon desiring new conquests, they crossed the Don, killed a part of the Alani, forcing the rest to unite with them, and chased the Ostrogoths over the Dnieper. The Visigoths endeavored to resist, but had also to give in ; part of them retired into the mountains, others passed the Danube and obtained homes in Thracia. In later time they went to Italy. The shock of the Huns also exerted its influence upon the Ger- man nations living on the Baltic Sea. The Suevi, Vandals, etc., com- manded by Radagaisus, poured forth over the Danube and the Alps, and overrun Italy (405 A. D.) Beaten by the Romans here, they turned to Gallia, laid this country waste, and continued their passage over the Pyrenees to Spain, which they divided by lot. The Vandals, after some time, set sail for Africa, there founding a new realm. The Burgundians, forced along by these nations, settled between the Rhine and the Rhone, and in course of time spread as far as the Mediterranean Sea. The Franks extended their dominion in Gallia more and more. For a short time Attila, the terrible ruler of the Huns, and as he called himself, " the scourge of God," overpowered the lately founded realms. In Hungaria was the center of his empire, which extended from the Volga as far as the interior of Germany, and his residence. This consisted of a number of wooden houses, above which his palace, also built of wood, towered. The generals and officers of his court had sumptuous carpets, baths, gorgeous apart- ments, silver-plate, Greek cookery, etc. He himself held to the old customs of his nation, eating and drinking from wooden cups, and satisfied with the plainest food. The eastern portion of the Roman empire was already compelled to pay him tribute ; but he wanted also to subdue the western part, and therefore started out with 700,000 warriors. Ten thousand Bur- gundians, who marched against him, perished heroically in the uneven What nations did they first attack ? What of Radagaisus, leader of the Suevi and Vandals? Where did they at last settle? Where did the Burgundians settle ? Franks ? Who shook the new realms for a time ? Where was Attila's residence ? How did he live ? How his generals ? Delineate his contest with the western countries of the Roman empire. Who was fighting against him ? I 103 •combat. The Franks, too, tried in vain to resist him. Now the Romans, Visigoths and Alani combined their forces against him. Aetius, the last hero of the waning empire, led the Romans ; Theo- doric the Visigoths, and Meroveus the Franks. At Chalons, on the Marne, the Occident was fighting Attila (45 i A. D.) At that remote time Germans were already fighting against Germans ; they decided also the battle, the greatest ever fought in the western countries. Theodoric was killed, but his son, Thorismundus, gained the nearly lost victory; 100,000, according to other reports, even 300,000 warriors lay slain on the battle-field. The next year the Huns, pouring like a torrent upon Italy, de- stroyed the city of Aquileia after a siege of three months. The inhabitants took refuge in the neighboring islands, thereby laying the foundation of Venice. Attila then marched to Rome. Pope Leo I. came to meet him at the head of the clergy, amid solemn songs. His representations, supported by the offer of a high ran- som, were effective, and the barbarian spared the city, granting peace. Attila departed from Italy, and soon after from the world. The Huns returned to their country. After Attila's death there was again a thronging for homes in Italy. The Ostrogoths subjected it (492 A. D.) ; the Lombards concluded the migrations (568 A. D.) About the year 600 A. D. we find the following nations in Europe : In Italy, the Lombards ; in Spain, the Visigoths ; in Gallia, the Franks ; in England, the Brit- ons, Angles and Saxons; in Germany, the Saxons, Thuringians, etc. ; to the north of them, Normans and Fins ; to the east, the Slavonians ; in Hungary, the Avarians, who had immigrated from Asia ; and southeast from them the Greeks. ^ 47. Visigoths. Alarie. Downfall of the Western Ro- man Empire. Ostrogoths. Theodoric. Justinian. Belisarius. When the Visigoths were attacked by the Huns, most of them passed over the Danube, and were admitted into Thracia by Emperor Valens, on promise to do mifitary service, and to confess Who was the leader of the Romans ? Of the Visigoths ? Of the Franks ? How many were killed in the battle ? Where did Attila march to from France ? How was Venice founded? How was Attila reconciled with Rome? Where, about the year 600 A. D., were the Lombards settled? Where the Visigoths? The Franks ? The Britons ? The Thuringians ? The Normans ? The Slavo- nians and Avarians ? The Greeks ? 104 Christianity. But being treated deceitfully and cruelly, they took up arms, vanquished the emperor, advanced as far as Constantino- ple, and desolated the country. Theodosius I. finished the war, and made a new contract of service with them. He divided the empire among his sons Arcadius and Honorius (395 A. D.) The former obtained the Orient, the latter the western provinces. After his death, Alaric conducted the Visigoths to Italy, and extorted tribute from both the emperors. As Honorius refused longer to pay it, Alaric appointed another emperor, and as neither the latter an- swered his expectations, he took Rome by storm (410 A. D.) He, however, behaved humanely, sparing the lives of the inhabitants. He even conducted the defenseless himself into a church for safety. Soon after he died. His warriors interred him, with his attire and armor, in the midst of the rivulet Busento. The Visigoths then went to Gallia, which they conquered as far as the Loire. From there they moved to Spain, and also conquered this country. After the departure of the Visigoths, other German troops dis- posed of Italy at will, until finally one of their commanders^ Odoacer, deposed the last emperor, Romulus Augustulus, and was proclaimed king. From him Theodoric, king of the Ostrogoths, again seized the dominion and made an offer to the Grecian em- peror to go with his entire people to Italy, and to expel Odoacer. The emperor, having accepted the offer, Theodoric led the Goths to Italy. Odoacer defended himself three years in Ravenna, Finally he surrendered the city upon condition that he should gov- ern in common with Theodoric, but was murdered during the cele- bration of peace, and the latter proclaimed by his people king of Italy (992 A. D.) He enlarged his dominion as far as Dalmatia, and administered also the government of Spain in the name of his grandson. Still in the prime of life, he nevertheless put aside the sword, and promoted agriculture, commerce and the arts. After his death, the Emperor Justinian ordered his eminent gen- eral, Belisarius, who had already subjected the Vandals in Africa, to reconquer also Italy. This general had acquired much glory by defending Rome with a small army for one year against the twenty times larger forces of the enemies (537 A. D.) Finally, they sur- ^ 47. How did Theodosius I. divide the Roman empire ? Who led the Visi- goths to Italy ? What was his success ? To what countries did the Visigoths move after Alaric's death ? Who deposed the last emperor ? Who became king of Italy after Odoacer ? What exploit is reported of Belisarius ? 105 rendered to him their capital, Ravenna. Justinian, jealous of the glory of his general, deprived him of the command, whereupon the Goths again fought successfully. At last Narses subdued them en- tirely (553 A. D.) He became governor of Italy. Also requited by the emperor with ingratitude, and recalled,. Narses, to avenge himself, invited the Lombards to come to Italy. Led by Alboin, they pourfed into the country and conquered Lom- bardy, which received its name from them ; they also conquered the larger part of upper Italy (568 A. D.) Pavia became the capi- tal of the new kingdom. 2, MOHAMMEDAN UNIVEESAL EMPIRE-632-900 A. D. ^ 48. Arabia. Mohammed. The Caliphate. Mohammed was born (571 A. D.) of poor parents, in Mecca, a town of Arabia. He was a member of the noble tribe Koreish, and of the family Hashim, which formerly protected the prin- cipal temple (the Kaaba). He lost his parents early. When a youth, he devoted himself to poetry ; then entered the mercantile service of a rich widow, whose hand he obtained by his ability and faithfulness. At a later time he retired into solitude, intending to establish a new religion, which should unite the three religious par- ties of his country — Jews, Christians and heathens. He first communicated his idea to his friends, and soon gained their approbation. He then appeared publicly as a prophet, but the multitude paid little attention to him. The inhabitants of Mecca, earning great profits from the pilgrimage of the Arabs, de- clared against him. But the Korei'shites, the associates of his tribe, most decidedly opposed him, because being the priests of the Kaaba, they were fearful of losing their authority and revenues. They conspired against his life. The family Omejjah, since olden times fostering adverse feelings towards his relatives, headed them. They* resolved that on an appointed night one member of every family should thrust his sword into Mohammed's breast. His ene- mies surrounded his house; but AH, his relation, rescued him from How did Justinian requite him and Narses? What German nation then subdued Italy ? | 48. Where was Mohammed born ? To what noble tribe and family did he belong? To what art did he devote himself in his youth ? What did he become later? What was his object when he lived in solitude? By whom was his idea first approved ? What tribe opposed him ? Why ? What did the family Omejjah resolve upon ? Who saved his life ? 106 their hands. He fled to Medina, where he had already secured several followers (i6th of July, 622 A. D.) From the day of his flight the Mohammedan nations count their years. Now he resolved to propagate his doctrine by force of arms. According to Arabian usage, he began to fight his tribe, the Korei- -shites, issuing the command to make war upon all infidels. Sup- ported by the inhabitants of Medina, he gave battle to the members of his tribe and to their allies, the inhabitants of Mecca, in which he was victorious, and secured a rich booty. Finally, they agreed to conclude peace with him. He continued his conquests, and after some years he became so redoubtable that he dared to summon the Grecian emperor and other powerful princes, to embrace his religion. As then the inhabitants of Mecca had violated the terms •of peace, he marched against them and captured the town (630 A. D.) But he treated the vanquished mildly. He purified the Kaaba of idols. Mecca acknowledged him as prophet and sover- -eign. In the following years he subdued almost the whole of Arabia. His manners of life were very simple. He lived on barley-bread and dates. His couch was a carpet on the bare ground. He re- quired no marks of honor ; he did not even permit his associates to rise in his presence when he came to see them. He would say : " I am a servant of God, Hke you ; I eat and drink like you, and I get seated like every other man." Both he and his first successors often preached at the head of the armies. When he felt that death approached him, he liberated his slaves. He died, probably from poison (632 A. D.) His first successors (caliphs) were : Abu Bekr, his father-in-law ; Omar, conqueror of Egypt, Palestine, Syria and Persia ; Othman, compiler of the Koran, and Ali. They all died violent deaths. After Ah, the Omejjades were ruHng (since 656 A. D.) They con- tinued the conquests in Africa. Taric, one of their generals, went to Spain (711 A. D.), founded Gibraltar (Gebel-al-Taric — ro'ck of Taric); and also subdued the Visigoths. Their capital was Damas- cus. They were dispossessed of their territory by the Abbasides, Where did he flee to ? From what day do the Mohammedan nations count their years ? By what means did he then propagate his faith ? Who were his allies in his war against Mecca ? What country did he finally conquer ? What was his manner of living? What kind action did he perform before he died? What of his first successors ? What general founded Gibraltar and subdued the Visigoths ? 107 descendants of Abbas, Mohammed's uncle (750 A. D.) Of the latter, Harun-al-Rashid, a contemporary of Charlemagne, attained the highest glory. Their capital was the magnificent Bagdad, close to ancient Babylon. Towards the end of this period the power of the caHphs was decreasing. In order to be protected against the enemies which were threatening them abroad and at home, they kept a body-guard of Turkish slaves, which soon became formidable to themselves. More and more governors made themselves inde- pendent and founded particular dynasties; e. g., Seljook, com- mander of Turkish warriors, and Ortok, a Seljookian vassal. Finally, the empire was overthrown by the Mongols (1258 A. D.) 3. OARLOVINGIAN MONAEOHY-771-900 A- D- ^ 49. Franks. Clovis. Major-domos. Charlemagne. Partition of his Realm. The Franks (about 450 A. D.), were ruled by Merovseus, foun- der of the Merovingian dynasty. His grandson, Clovis (Louis), extended his dominion over southern France, Burgundy, Franconia, Thuringia, etc., so that it reached from the Atlantic ocean and the Pyrenees as far as the river Unstrut, in Bavaria (about 500 A. D.) His successors were mere mock kings, in whose names their major- domos (stewards of their private estates), governed. One of them, Charles Martell (the hammer), at Tours, shattered the forces of the Saracens by a complete victory (732 A. D.) His son, Pepin, favored by a decree of the pope, djethroned Childeric IH., and caused him- self to be elected king. Through gratitude, he assisted the popes against the Lombards, seized their possessions and presented, or (according to other reports,) invested the former with them. Pepin's son, Charlemagne, first governed jointly with his brother Carloman (768 A. D.), but after his death he stripped his widow and children of their inheritance and took possession of the whole empire (771 A. D.) He immediately began war against the Saxons, pretending that he must guard the kingdom and propagate Chris- What caliph attained the highest glory? What was the capital of the ca- liphs ? I 49. Who was the founder of the Merovingian dynasty ? What was the extent of the dominion of Clovis? What were the major-domos of the Merovingian kings ? W^hat exploit did Charles Martell perform ? By whom was Childeric III. dethroned ? Who succeeded to the throne after him ? How did he use his sister-in-law ? How the Saxons ? On what pretext did he attack them ? 108 tianity — a war which, including some interruptions — lasted thirty -two years. In the first campaign he destroyed pagan idols highly ven- erated by the Saxons. Having scarcely vanquished a part of them, he sent them a large number of missionaries, who, incited by blind fanaticism, wanted to introduce Christianity forcibly. He built castles in order to check them in their own country, and compelled the Saxons to aid him in their construction. Finally, after several campaigns, they swore allegiance to him (777 A. D.), and consented to give tribute and tithes, and to get baptized. But Witikind, their most respected commander, would not acknowledge the sovereignty of Charlemagne, and again waged war. The latter marched against hnn, and the Saxons submitted again. But as Charlemagne desired, with their assistance, to subjugate the Slavonians, they surprised the Franks on the way and cut down most of them. Charlemagne took cruel vengeance (782 A. D.) He caused all who refused baptism to l)e killed. Thousands were driven to the rivers and either christened or drowned. About 5,000 who had come of their own accord, he ordered to be cut down. Blood, corpses and flames marked his march. Then all Saxons rose — also those tribes who thus far had remained peaceful — and fought three years with the courage of despair. Charlemagne contended against them with fire and sword. At last he succeeded in reconciling the heroic Witikind, by the power of persuasion, and he consented to be baptized (785 A. D.) The Saxons again yielded, and remained quiet several years. In fact, they threw off the yoke several times more, but always in vain. Charlemagne secured his conquests by appointing bishops, palsgraves and itinerant judges. During his wars with the Saxons, many others also occurred. Through ambition he deprived his father-in-law, Desiderius, of Lombardy, and his ally Thassilo of the dukedom of Bavaria, and put both into convents. Moreover, he waged war against the Nor- mans, the Slavonians and the Avares, who often invaded Germany^ plundering and robbing ; also against the caliph of Cordova, etc. By all these wars he extended his empire up to the Ebro, Tiber,, Raab and Eyder. When, in the year 800 A. D., he was in Rome^ and celebrated Christmas at church, the pope placed upon his head How long did his war against them last ? Who would not acknowledge his- sovereignty ? How did he deal with the Saxons who refused to be baptized ? What did the Saxons then flo ? By whose conversion were they appeased ? How did he secure his conquests ? What further wars did he wage ? How far did his empire extend ? Where and when was he proclaimed Roman emperor ? 109 r ^H the Roman imperial crown, and the people proclaimed him em- ^H peror. ^K Charlemange also endeavored to administer justice in his vast ^H realm, as far as the many wars gave him time to do so. He appointed ^H palsgraves in the different provinces in order to do justice, and ^H annually sent out officers who had to report to him concerning the ^B execution of the laws. He provided for the extension of agricul- ^y ture, his own estates being its models. Owing to the want of good highways, he tried to promote commerce by inland navigation. He liked civilization, and endeavored to retrieve by private studies what had been neglected in his juvenile instruction. He endeavored also to disseminate culture throughout his great empire. He at- tempted first to cultivate the minds of the clergymen and through them the people. He established schools in connection with cathedrals and convents, and advanced the culture of the native language by collecting German heroic songs. He founded also a society for the cultivation of sciences. He honored and rewarded well-deserving scholars, such as Alkuin and Eginhard. He died after having reigned 46 years (814 A. D.), in Aix-la-Chapelle. His son and successor, Louis, called the Pious, being munificent towards the clergy, divided the empire among his three sons, and by so doing caused great adversities to himself and to the State. As after that one more son, Charles, was born to him, he made a new partition, with which the others were quite dissatisfied. They declared war against their father and took him prisoner. He was, in fact, soon liberated, but after some years the war recommenced ; the emperor delivered himself to the sons ; Lothaire put him into a con- vent, and induced him to do penance in church {S^;^ A. D.) Though he was obUged to set him free, Louis did not get wiser. New parti- tions of the empire caused new revolts of his son Louis. After the death of the father, Louis and Charles marched against Lothaire, who wanted the whole realm alone, and vanquished him in a great battle, in which 100,000 Franks lost their Hves for their ambitious rulers. Then the ernpire was divided into three portions : Charles obtained France; Louis, Germany; Lothaire, Italy and Lorraine. How did he endeavor to administer justice? To promote commerce? To improve the culture of his mind ? By what means did he try to disseminate cul- ture ? By what action did Louis, the Pious, render the country and himself unhappy ? Give an account of his wars with his sons. Why did his sons Louis and Charles wage war against their brother Lothaire? How did they divide the empire ? no g so. England. Anglo-Saxons. Alfred the Great. The ancient Britons, in order to protect their country against the incursions of their northern neighbors, the Picts and Scots, sought the assistance of the Angles and Saxons in Germany ^ They, in fact, arrived under command of Hengist and Horst (449 A. D.), but took possession of the country for themselves. The greater part of the inhabitants crossed over to France, and settled in the province called, by their name, Bretagne. Among the Anglo-Saxon kings, Alfred the Great acquired the highest glory (891-900 A. D.) On his accession the rapacious Danes (Norsemen) often devastated the country. He fought in vain against their numerous bands, and desparing of success, would have rushed into their swords to end his life, had not the hope of being vic- torious m the future induced him to conserve it. He retired to the marshes of Somersetshire, built a castle, and with his few loyal com- panions made successful sallies upon the Danes; but they suffered much from destitution. Tradition reports that, under the disguise of a harper, he boldly visited the camp of his enemies, observing their position and learning their number. Encouraged by his excursions, the inhabitants gathered in increasing numbers, and soon he felt so strong that he dared to attack the Danes (878 A. D.) He surrounded them from all sides, and forced from them the promise of allegiance to him ; he, however, permitted them to establish themselves in the land. In order to secure England against new incursions by these pirates, he built strong forts at their usual places of descent, kept many ships in readiness there, and divided the population into two classes, which had to alternate in doing military service. Several invasions of the enemies nevertheless occurred, and at last they landed with two formidable fleets (893 A. D.) ; the Danes who had settled in England joined them, but Alfred defeated them, and drove the larger part back to France where they had come from. They did not venture another incursion during his life-time. By wise laws he restored order and security in the land, so that it was proverbially said of his government : " The traveler who lost his purse on the highway found it the next morning untouched § 50. How did England become a possession of the Angles and Saxons ? Who was the best of their kings ? Give an account of Alfred's wars against the Norsemen. How did he secure the land against their incursions ? Show how he restored security and promoted civilization in England. Ill at the same place." He made a collection of the Saxon laws, and being the most learned man in his kingdom, he composed writings, heroical poems, and geographical works. He founded schools, e. g., at Oxford, the germ of the celebrated university of that name. He set aside a considerable portion of his revenues for the payment of the salaries of teachers, and invited foreign scholars, mechanics and colonists to the land. In this way he civilized his people. He was himself, by his generous and noble mind and simple ways of life, their brightest example. His last will was, " Englishmen shall be as free as their thoughts." He attained, deservedly, the appellation of Alfred the Great. SECOND OHAPTER-HISTOKY OP CIVILIZATION. ^51. State of Constitutions. Roman Law. Propaga- tion and Degeneracy of Christianity. Mona- ehism. Mohammedan Religion. In the Byzantine empire the government was growing more despotic and tl^e people more servile. The taxes were oppressive. Since the accession of Justinian, even taxes were levied on bread and water. The public offices were venal. Justinian caused the decisions of the ancient teachers of law, and the laws of the Roman emperors, to be collected, adding thereto his own decrees. This collection, called the Roman law, was recognized as the legal authority in most of the European countries, which it pardy yet maintains. Hunger, sterile soil, laziness and want of land, impelled the Ger- man nations to conquer the flourishing Roman countries. They then divided the lands among themselves, or let them out. In this way the feudal system started which, in the following period, was further organized. (See § 6i.) Most of the German nations embraced the Christian religion. In Germany it was propagated by Winfried (called Boniface) ; in Switzerland, by Gallus, Columban and others ; in Ireland, by St.. Patrick; in Saxony, Charlemagne established it by 'force of arms^ (see § 49). It, however, degenerated mor^ and more from its orig- ^51. What was the political state of the Byzantine empire? How did the Roman law come into existence ? What parts does it contain ? What reasons caused the migration of the Teutonic nations ? Who propagated the Christian religion in Germany, Switzerland and Ireland ? How did it degenerate ? 112 inal purity and simplicity. Many ceremonies and holidays were established, pious persons idolized, images adored, miraculous stories slyly invented and stupidly believed. The ecclesiastical laws be- came despotic ; true piety and moral conduct were little valued. The disputes of the clergy increased, and ended often in warfare. The worship of images also caused bloody hatred, because some rejected them entirely, while others even adored them. The property of the clergy was exempt from taxation, their per- sons were not amenable to civil jurisdiction, and their residences and the churches were turned into asylums for criminals; sometimes, too, for the innocent. In this way they established a State within the State. The popes soon acquired the superiority over the other bishops, because the capital of the empire (Rome) was their resi- dence. After the empire was separated into the eastern and western part, a vehement quarrel about rank began, which ended in a vic- tory of the popes over the patriarchs of Constantinople. The institution of convents and monasteries must also be men- tioned. Since olden times fantastic hermits lived in Egypt and Hindostan. In Palestine the Essenes had led a solitary life. Among the Christians, Antonius and Paul are said to have been the first anachorets. Both lived in Egypt in the second century. From Egypt and Syria they went to Italy, where Athanasius intro- duced them. Some settled in the vicinity of Rome ; others moved farther, even as far as the Black Sea and Palestine. Among them were also rich ladies. The first hermits Hved frugally. They fed on fruits and bread, and drank only water. They indulged in an indolent, contempla- tive life, and passed most of their time in prayers. Soiiie braided mats and baskets. They despised matrimony, and the greater part of them were visionaries. When monasteries were built by the funds received from pious bequests, the anachorets retired into them and became monks. They ceased to work almost entirely. A few copied the manu- scripts of classical Greek and Roman literature. Monastic life soon grew exuberant. Benedict of Narsia, however, reformed (529 A. D.) the degenerated convents in Italy, by obliging the lazy monks. What of ceremonies, holidays, idols, miracles and quarrels of the clergy? What privileges did the clergy acquire ? Why did the popes become the supe- riors of the bishops ? In what countries did the ancient hermits live? To what country in Europe did they go ? How did they live first ? What was their occupation ? What were the monks doing ? Who reformed them ? 113 besides praying, to cultivate the fields, and to instruct the youth ; but they soon again became corrupt. They fostered the belief in miracles, devised an infinite number of legends, advanced the traffic in relics, stupefied the multitude, and often indulged in luxury and debauches. In the following periods the monks frequently preached sermons urging the people to revolt against civil power, opposed the light of sciences diffiised by intelligent instruction, and were blind tools of the popes. Mohammed's doctrine, called Islam (creed, faith), is contained in the Koran, the book of religion of his followers, who call them- selves Mussulmen or Moslems (the faithful ones). The contents of the Koran are said to have been revealed to him by the angel Gabriel, and were collected soon after his death. In it he recom- mends faith in God (Allah) and Mohammed, his prophet; prayers, abstinence from wine, fasting, charity, cleanliness and ablutions of the body, pilgrimages, and above all virtues, justice. Each person ought to spend the tenth part of his fortune for alms ; also to make a pilgrimage to Mecca, if possible, at least once in his life. The Friday of every week is set aside for public worship, which consists in prayers and sermons. . The Koran also calls Moses and Jesus prophets, and promises to the elect superabundant joys in the future life, which are of the most sensual kind. Mohammed allowed his followers to practice polygamy, and endeavored to make them indiiferent to all dangers of death by the belief in an immutable fate. Therefore they fought for their creed with the utmost contempt of death. One of the principal precepts of the Koran is to propagate its doctrine everywhere with fire and sword, and to destroy the mfidels. Among the Mohammedans also differ- ent sects arose, which made terrible religious wars against each other. ^ S2. The Arts and Sciences. Arabian Culture.— Com- merce. The arts and sciences could not be nursed during the din of arms which shook the Occident. The barbarians, both Christians and Arabians, destroyed the most beautiful works of human skill. In what manner ? What were often their doings ? Mention some points of the Mohammedan religion. What book contains it ? What virtues are recom- mended in the Koran ? What day is the holiday of the Mohammedans ? Why did they despise death ? What is a principal precept of the Koran ? What of Mohammedan sects ? ^52, Wliat sovereigns favored the arts and sciences ? (8) 114 Schools were closed, libraries burned, and the reading of pagan authors severely punished. Towards the end of the period, civili- zation found a protecting asylum at the courts of Charlemagne (see § 49) and Alfred of England (see § 50), but particularly among the Arabs. Several of their caliphs favored them in a high degree ; some of them were themselves artists and scholars. At the time of their rule in Spain, there were in Andalusia alone seventy pubHc libraries. The Arabs acquired great merit for geography, mathe- matics, astronomy, chemistry — the latter science was invented by them — and for medicine. They translated the^ mathematical, med- ical and philosophical works of the Greeks. In mathematics they excelled their teachers. Their astronomical writings have become the foundation of modern astronomy. In most of the cities of their dominion there were observatories, and institutes for mathe- matics and astronomy. The Gothic architecture was also invented by them. In poetry they produced peculiar tales ( but the latter treated him as a prisoner, and delivered him up to the commissioners of parliament. Under the influence of Cromwell, the House of Commons instituted a high court of justice to try the king for. treason, which, on the charge of having levied war against the parliament, condemned him to death (1649 A. D). The principal cause of his downfall was the duplicity and insincerity with which he acted in his public character. Such was his want of fidelity in his engagements that parliament could never confide in his promises. The Scots took no part in the trial of the king, and after his death proclaimed his son, Charles IL, their sovereign ; but the royal army was entirely defeated in the desperate battle of Worcester (165 1 A. D.); Charles escaped with difficulty. Under the controlling influence of Cromwell, the House of Commons abolished the monarchy and the House of Lords, estabfished a republican govern- ment called the Commonwealth of England^ and bestowed the title and office of Protector on Cromwell (1653 A. D.) g 82. Northern Realms. Sweden. Gustavus Vasa. Prussia. Charles I., king of Denmark, and brother-in-law of Charles V., according to the union of Calmar (see § 58), reclaimed the govern- ment of Sweden which his father had lost. But the country hated him on account of his cruelty. Favored by the anathema of the pope, he subdued it by force of arms (1520 A. D.), and, during the festivities of the coronation, caused six hundred of the grandees to be seized and executed. Gustavus Vasa, whose father and brother- in-law lost their lives in this slaughter, escaped from the prison in Denmark, to which the tyrant had dragged him and other hostages. He went into the service of the drovers, came with them to- Liibeck, and from there to Sweden. Here he passed the nights- In what battle was the contest decided ? Where did the king seek refuge ? What did the Scotch do ? W^hat did the House of Commons institute ? What was the verdict of the court ? What was the principal cause of the downfall of Charles ? Whom did the Scots proclaim their king ? With what result ? What did the House of Commons abolish, and what establish ? Who became Pro- tector of the realm ? \ 82. What country did Christian II. reclaim ? Why did the country hate him ? How did he then proceed ? Give a proof of his perfidy and cruelty. What hostage escaped from prison ? 190 sometimes in fields of rye, sometimes in the woods, for he was pro- scribed. He then entered into the service of a rich miner, but soon had to fly again from Christian's spies. After having escaped from many other dangers, he came to the vahant mountaineers of Dale- carha, represented to them the adversity under which their native country was suffering, reminded them of the heroic deeds of their ancestors, and sought 'to encourage them, with his assistance, to deUver it from the bondage of the despot. They were at first undetermined, and permitted him to depart without granting the desired aid. But when they received new reports of the cruelty of Christian, they sent couriers after him, who overtook him on his flight to Norway, and he returned in triumph. They began, under his command, to fight the king, and, aided by the Hansa, everywhere defeated his troops. Gustavus was elected governor. He besieged Stockholm. At last, when the Danes themselves deposed the des- pot, that city also capitulated, and Gustavus was universally declared kmg of Sweden (1523 A. D.) He estabHshed the Protestant religion, received also the delegates of the townships and peasantry into the States- General, and promoted arts and sciences, commerce and maritime power. Albert of Brandenburg, Grand Master of the Teutonic Order in Prussia, advised by Luther, renounced the doctrine of the papacy, then concluded a treaty with the king of Poland (1525 A. D.), by which he obtained Prussia as a Pohsh fief, and introduced the Reformation into this country. SEOOND CHAPTER-HISTORY OF CIVILIZATION. 1 83. The Protestant and Catholic Church. Synod of Trent. Order of the Jesuits. Luther's doctrine spread through a large part of Germany, especially in Saxony, Wiirtemberg, Mecklenburg, Brandenburg, Denmark, and also in Sweden. In Austria, Bohemia, Hungaria and Polonia it also had many adherents. The reformed religion, according to the assertions of Zwingli Give an account of Vasa's wanderings. What of the Dalecarlians ? Whom did they fight ? Who aided them ? With what success ? What of Gustavus ? What was he declared ? How did he rule ? Who advised Albert of Branden- burg to renounce popery ? With whom did he conclude a treaty ? Under what limitation did he obtain Prussia ? What faith did he introduce ? | 83. Through what countries did Luther's doctrine spread ? Through which the Reformed faith ? 191 and Calvin, penetrated from Switzerland into France, and the coun- tries bordering the Rhine, as far as Holland and Scotland. In England the High Episcopal Church became predominant, retain- ing the ecclesiastical government and most of the rites of the Catholic Church. Soon differences arose between the new denominations of the Church. Luther already bitterly opposed Zwingli's view regarding the Lord's Supper, and the endeavor of the landgrave of Hesse to arrange a religious conference between them was fruitless. By Luther's obstinacy every attempt at an amicable compromise was frustrated. Neither did he keep the promise of mutual friendship with which they had parted. He wrote with bitterness against Zwingli. These internal quarrels even caused bloodshed in some places, e. g., in Holland. The Presbyterians, who were also fight- ing for political liberty, were violently persecuted, many imprisoned, others banished or, like the noble-minded Olden Barneveld, exe- cuted. During the reign of Queen EHzabeth, 187 Catholics were ripped up and boiled alive. Henry VIII. and Calvin were also cruel (see § 78 and § 81). The state of the Catholic Church grew worse and worse, and the council of Trent did not remedy it. The synod lasted eight years in all. It was evident that its decrees only tended to enlarge the papal power, and to humble the Protestants, against whom it incessantly hurled its anathemas. The life of the popes also continued to be the same as before. Alexander VI. (1492-1503 A. D.) was the most cruel of all popes, and an outcast of mankind. He, his son Caesar, and his daughter, Lucretia Borgia, dispatched their enemies by poison and poniard. He aided the ambitious son to enlarge his dominion in Italy. Finally he perished himself by the poison he had prepared for another. He instituted the censorship of books. Leo X. was the notorious adversary of Reformation. Paul III. anathematized the heretics, and sent troops against them. Jules III. appointed a keeper of monkeys as a cardinal, because he was his favorite. What Church in England r* What rite of the Church caused a difference between Luther and Zwingli ? How did the former behave towards Zwingli ? How were the Presbyterians in Holland, who were also fighting for political liberty, treated ? What of Queen Elizabeth, Henry VIII. and Calvin ? What was the state of the Catholic Church ? The life of the popes ? What of Alex- ander VI.? What did he institute ? What of Leo X. ? Paul III. ? Jules III.? Paul IV.? 192 Paul IV. was ambitious, and enlarged the list of the prohibited books. Sixtus V., though enlightened, was cruel and despotic. Gregory VIII. celebrated the St. Bartholomew massacre. — A new institute of the Catholic Church in this period is the Order of the Society of Jesus. Ignatius of Loyola, a Spanish nobleman, when a young man, did miHtary service in the army of Ferdinand the CathoHc. He was wounded during a siege, and fell sick. Being confined to his bed, he excited his imagination, already disposed to fanaticism, even more by reading odd legends. Then he instituted the Society of Jesus (1540 A. D.), the members of which, besides the three usual monastic vows, celibacy, poverty and obedience,, pledged themselves to unconditionally obey the pope, especially in matters of heresy and infidelity. Their principal object was to combat Protestant doctrine, and to suppress mental liberty. The General of the Order resided in Rome. They entered public life in a thousand different forms. They made their appearance as teachers of the youth, as preachers, nurses of the sick, inquisitors of faith, missionaries, confessors, ministers of States, and even as tradesmen. Among the laymen they also organized fraternities, which even princes and their sons joined. Their chief aim was to captivate rich young men. The fortunes of such victims became the prey of their society. Their Order spread rapidly. It was admitted into all CathoHc countries; it entered even Hindostan,. China and Japan. The number of its members was very consider- a;ble. In the eighteenth century it numbered at one time twenty- two thousand. In the council of Trent it carried the issue. In Asia it established the Inquisitional Tribunal. In Germany its prin- cipal seats were Munich and Vienna ; Bavaria was called its para- dise. It fostered the belief in miracles, arranged painful exercises of penance for the stupid populace, and permitted the rich and pow- erful everything they longed for. Later, the education of the Cath- olic youth in the higher institutes was secured by the Jesuits, whereby they obtained the greatest influence in civil society. They Sixtus v.? Gregory XIIL? What new institute of the Catholic Church came into existence ? Who was the founder of the Order i Relate some facts of his life when he was a young man. What obligations do the Jesuits take besides the usual vows ? What was their object ? In what forms did they enter public life ? What did they organize among laymen ? Whom did they chiefly try to captivate ? Why ? What about their spreading? What was their number at one time ? What did they establish in Asia? What were their principal seats in Germany ? What did they foster ? What did they arrange for the populace? What did they permit to the rich ? What institutes did they seize ? 193 crept into the confidence of the sovereigns, became their confessors and counselors, and soon, also, the governors of State affairs. Though praise for great scholarship cannot be withheld from indi- vidual members of their Order, yet, on the whole, their perform- ances were far behind the demands of their age. They were ene- mies of enlightenment, of political and religious liberty. Their moral code permitted the use of all foul means, even regicide, in order to obtain sought-for ends. They possessed immense riches, which they acquired in divers ways, even by commercial business. g 84. Arts and Sciences. Raphael. Shakespeare. Cer- vantes. Galileo. Nicolas Copernicus. Correc- tion of the Calendar. While the arts had already attained a high degree of accom- plishment, especially in Italy, in sciences a great deal was yet to be desired. In Italy flourished the great painters, Michael Angelo Buonarotti, Leonardo da Vinci, whose most celebrated picture is the "Lord's Supper;" Allegris Correggio, Guido Reni, Titian, and, more than all, Raphael Sanzi d'Urbino, called by his contempo- raries, " the divine." He was recommended to Pope Julius II., who desired several apartments in the Vatican to be embellished by pictures. Thus, by his masterly pencil, a series of large historic pictures were created, of which every one occupies one wall, every figure being of full length. He also painted much for Leo X. He alone was sought to paint everything ; but this demand upon him surpassing his strength, he at last outlined only the drawings, and left the finishing to be done by his scholars. In this way the renowned wall-paintings (lodges) originated in a gallery of the Vatican. His last work was the transfiguration of Christ on the Mount of Tabor. He died when only thirty-seven years old (1520 A. D.) His funeral was the occasion of deep mourning for the whole city of Rome, in which the most excellent men shared. He was honored by a monument worthy of his name. Michael Angelo was also architect; his most celebrated structure is the What did they become at the courts of princes ? What of their scholarship ? Were they promoters of enlightenment and liberty ? What did their moral code permit? How did they acquire riches ? ■§84. Italy. Painters ? Which is the most celebrated picture of Leonardo da Vinci? \Vhich painter was called the divine ? How did the historic pictures in the Vatican originate? How the lodges? What was Raphael's last work ? How was his funeral celebrated ? How was his memory honored ? Who was also architect ? (18) 194 cupola in the church of St. Peter, in Rome. In the Netherlands, Paul Rembrandt and the great Rubens painted exceedingly well ; in Germany, Albert Diirer, Lucas Kranach, and John Holbein, whos^ " Dance of Death," in Basle, is yet admired ; in France, Poussin, etc. To the most excellent poets belonged : In Italy, Ariosto, who composed the charming comic epopee, "II furioso Rolando; " ami Torquato Tasso, who wrote the ''Jerusalem DeHvered;" in Eng- land, Milton, celebrated for his poem, "Paradise Lost; " Dryden, and the incomparable* William Shakespeare (t 1616 A. D.) The subjects of his great tragedies are partly historical events (Henry IV., Richard III.), and partly events of human Hfe (Macbeth, King Lear, Hamlet, Othello, Romeo and Juliet.) Of his many come- dies, "A Midsummer Night's Dream," and "The Merry Wives of Windsor " are best known. The Spanish poet, Michael Cervantes, represented in his comical, satirical novel, " Don Quixote," a vis- ionary who mist;ikes the reality and is fighting for imaginary con- ceptions. Dramatic poets : Lope de Vega and Calderon. — Portu- gal : Camoens, author of the " Lusiad," was the best poet. He cel- ebrates the chief events in the history of Portugal, rei)resenting all the great achievements of Portuguese heroism. His poem was translated into the best modern languages. The German master- singers, as they were called, formed special societies, and were mostly workmen. The most productive poet among them was Hans Sachs, a shoemaker, in Nuremberg. In Switzerland, Nicolas d Berne, and Jacob Ruef, of Ziirich, excelled in poetry. Among the great number of scholars, are prominent : Melanch- ton, who promoted the study of ancient classic literature; Luther, whose translation of the Bible is full of vigor and euphony; the naturalists, Conrad Gessner and Agricola; the astronomers, Nicolas Copernicus of Thorn, and Galileo. The former demonstrated that the sun is a fixed star, and that the earth revolves around it regu- larly. Galileo, whose views were the same, was therefore accused of What part of St. Peter's church did he construct ? — Painters in the Nether- lands? In Germany? In France? /\Wj. In Italy 1 Wliat poem did Ariosto compose? What Torquato Tasso? \\\ Ett gland 1 What did Milton compose? What of Shakespeare ? Name some of his most celebrated tragedies and com- edies. Who was the greatest Spanish poet ? What novel did he write ? What is Its subject? What of the German master-singers? Which was the most productive ? What poets in Swizerland ? Sr/iolars. In Germany ? What about Luther's translation of the Bible? Astronomers 1 What did Nicolas Copernicus demonstrate ? How was Galileo treated by the Jesuits and the Inquisition ? 195 heresy ])y the monks and Jesuits, and arraigned at the Inquisitional Triljunal (1633 A. D.) After having languished several months in ])rison he was compelled, on bended knees, to forswear the truth he had taught. When rising, he stamped with his foot, murmuring the words: "And still it is moving!" Then he was sentenced to be put, for an indefinite term, into the dungeon of the Inquisition, and his doctrine condemned, because contradicting the Bible (Joshua X., 12, 13.) It is probable that the unfortunate old man was also put to the rack. Pope Gregory XIII. caused the Julian calendar to be cor- rected (1582 A. D.) Under JuUus Caesar the solar year, which only contains 365 days, five hours and about forty-eight minutes, was assumed somewhat too great. This error in calculation amounted, at the time of that pope, already to ten days. Gregory ordered them to be omitted in the chronology. Likewise, three intercalary days should be omitted in every four hundred years. The Catholics immediately accepted the amended calendar. The Protestants refused for a long time, but finally accepted it (1700 A. D.) The Greeks and Russians are still reckoning according to the ancient calendar, and are already twelve days behind the correct chronology. EXERCISES. Biographies: Luther, (a) as friar in the convent; (l>) as reformer, espe- cially as antagonist of the indulgences, and at the diet of Worms. Zwingli, (a) as parson in Einsiedein; {d) as reformer; (c) his death. Gustavus Adolphus, (a) reasons of his war against ICmperor Ferdinand II.; {l>) his victorious course; (c) his victory at Lcipsic; {(/) his death. Henry IV., (a) as prince of Navarre; (<5) as king. — Describe the discovery of America; the battle of Liitzen; secession of the Netherlands; the St. Hartholomew. What heroes distinguished themselves in the thirty years' war, and at the delivery of the Netherlands ? When and where were the Swedes victorious ? Name the greatest reformers; the most Tenowned discoverers of land; the principal painters and poets of this period. — Describe the destruction of the '♦ Invincible Armada." Give the names of some North American settlements of this period. What memorable events distin- guish the years 1519, 1523, 1546, 1589? The years 1498 and 1598? 1529 and 1629? 1530 and 1630? 1532 and 1632? 1548 and 1648? How many years elapsed between Luther's lirst appearance until the outbreak of the thirty years' war ? In what year did Raphael and Shakespeare die ? What was he compelled to forswear ? What words did he murmur ? What sentence did the Inquisition pass on him ? Explain the correction of the calen- dar under Gregory XIII. How many days was the year 1582 behind the true chronology ? How was this error amended ? Who did not accept the correct calendar ? 196 EIGHTH PERIOD, FrotTj the Westphaliaq Peace to the Frencl^ Revolutioq. Unlimited Monarchy and Europeaq Equilibriunq. Frorri 1648 to 1789 A. D. FIKST OHAPTER-POLITIOAL HISTOEY. § 8S. Austria. Sobieski of Poland. Maria Theresa. War of Succession. Joseph II. Leopold I. was a drowsy sovereign, conserving antiquated in- stitutions, a manageable instrument of the ministers, confessors and Jesuits, and an enemy of religious and political liberty. Having ceded some fortresses on the frontier of Hungary to the Turks with whom he \yaged war, many Hungarians, irritated thereby, because these fortresses were regarded as bulwarks of their country, con- spired against him, but the conspiracy having been detected, they were partly executed, and, the whole nation being presumed to be guilty, many others, especially Protestants, punished. Indignant at this tyranny they took up arms (1678 A. D.); the Turks supported them, and besieged Vienna (1683 A. D.) Leopold had to flee. The city defended itself with a small garrison and an auxiliary corps of the citizens and students during two months against 200,000 enemies, till John Sobieski, king of Poland, uniting with the impe- rial army, defeated the barbarians before the walls, and forced them to withdraw. Prince Eugene vanquished the Turks also (1699 A. D.) and compelled them to conclude peace. The discontented Hun- garians rose again (1701 A. D.), and, finally, by their persevering struggles, regained almost all their lost liberties (1711 A. D.) Leo- pold and his sons waged war also against Louis XIV. (see § 87). One of these sons, Charles VI., arranged in favor of his daughter, Maria Theresa, a solemn ordinance of succession, called '' the §85. What was the character of Leopold I.? How did he irritate the Hungarians ? How did he punish them ? Give a description of the siege of Vienna. Who delivered the city? Who vanquished the Turks also? What was the final result of the sedition of the Hungarians ? 197 Pragmatic Sanction," by which, in default of a male heir, the whole Austrian monarchy should devolve upon the female lineage. This ordinance was accepted by the States- General of the monarchy, and approved by the European sovereigns ; Bavaria alone rejected it, claiming to have the next right to the Austrian inheritance. But Charles was scarcely cold in death (1740 A. D.) before many other princes claimed the rich heritage ; Spain and Bavaria demanded the whole, and Frederic II., king of Prussia, some Silesian dukedoms. A universal war broke out against Maria Theresa, and was opened immediately by Frederic. Maria Theresa presented herself, with her infant son in her arms, in the diet of the Hungarian nobles, and, having first sworn to pro- tect their independence, with tears implored their aid (1741 A. D.) The swords of the Hungarians flashed in the air, and their unani- mous acclamation was : " Let us die for our sovereign, Maria Theresa ! " From all sides the Hungarians drew near and overran Eavaria, whose sovereign, Charles VII., had already conquered a part of Austria, and had been proclaimed king in Bohemia and emperor in Germany. Maria Theresa ceded Silesia to Frederic 11.', made peace with him (1742 A. D.), and gained the alliance of Saxony, England and other countries. Then she energetically con- tinued the war against Bavaria and France. Charles lost his land. Meanwhile Frederic II., anxious for his conquests, renewed the war, conquering Bohemia and Saxony, and Maria Theresa left him Silesia for the second time. War with the other enemies con- tinued. Enormous armies were fighting each other ; battle followed battle ; in Italy, in Germany, and in the Netherlands, blood flowed copiously. Beyond Europe war was also raging. Russia also entered the lists of combat for Maria Theresa. At that time the Turkish Sultan admonished the Christian sovereigns to make peace. This was finally brought about at Aix-la-Chapelle (1748 A. D.), Maria Theresa retaining almost her whole heritage. She,- however, waged a seven years' war, especially against Frederic II. (see § 86). The noblest-hearted of all Austrian sovereigns was her son, Joseph II. ( 1 780-1 790 A. D.) He undertook many important re- What do the words " Pragmatic Sanction " mean ? Why did Charles VI. arrange it ? Was it heeded by the European sovereigns ? What did wSpain demand ? Bavaria ? What Frederic II. ? Who supported Maria Theresa ? What country did she cede to Frederic 11. ? What sovereigns were her allies ? Who admon- ished the combatants to make peace ? What final success had she ? Who was her noble-hearted son ? 198 forms, which were certainly all well meant, though in some points too rash. He improved the military concerns, and established a wise national economy, not only living moderately himself, but diminishing also the expenses of his court, and limiting the arbi- trary power of the public officers. He made milder laws for capital crimes, and abolished capital punishment. He fostered commerce and industry, and promoted agriculture. But his greatest merit was his religious toleration, his care for enlightenment, and his love for the citizen and peasant. He fought courageously for right and enlightenment, against the prejudices of the multitude, and against the prerogatives of the higher castes. He granted to the Protestants and the Greeks free exercise of reHgion, and protected the Jews against the rigor of barbarian laws. He made the Catholic Church independent from the Holy See, and abolished a great number of convents, the prop- erty of which he devoted to the care of souls, and to the instruc- tion of the youth. Lastly, he abrogated censure, and granted general liberty of thought. The people were astonished by the bold reformer, and Pope Pius VI. did an unprecedented thing. He went himself to Vienna in order to remonstrate. But Joseph persisted in his enactments. He went even farther. In his States he broke the yoke of servi- tude, abrogated the excessive socage service, gave the tenants a State-Attorney against the oppression of the landlords, and ordained equable taxation. By these reforms he excited the nobility and priests to violent resistance, and the low populace to revolt. They declared him an enemy to religion, and accused him of having violated the constitu- tional rights of divers lands. Insurrections broke out in Hungary and the Lowlands, and the latter declared themselves independent of Austria (1789 A. D.) § 86. Prussia. Frederic II. Seven Years' War. Battles at Rossbach and Lissa. Frederic II., king of Prussia, besides carrying on the Silesian wars, waged also the seven years' war against Austria. Maria Theresa, not able to get over the loss of Silesia, concluded a secret Mention some of his reforms; in his court; with regard to capital crimes, to commerce, agriculture, religious toleration; to convents; to servitude ; to taxa- tion. Who opposed his reforms? In what countries did insurrections break out ? I 86. What was the origin of the seven years' war ? Who sided with Maria Theresa? alliance with most of the German States, with Sweden, Russia and even France, for the purpose of annihilating Frederic. England only sided with the latter. But the plan was betrayed, and Frederic, anticipating his enemies, invaded Bohemia and Saxony, and com- pletely conquered the latter country (1756 A. D.) The whole Saxon army was captured at Pima. During the next year Frederic was defeated at Kolin, and his brave general, Schwerin, lost his life. The Austrians extended their raids as far as Berlin. The Swedes occupied Pomerania, the Russians ravaged Prussia, and the French also advanced upon it. Frederic seemed to be on the verge of ruin ; but he surprised and defeated the French and the imperial army of 66,000 men at Rossbach, not far from Merseburg, with 22,000 Prussians. Only the Swiss mercenaries retreated in good order. One month later, he gained, with the same army, the greatest of his victories at Lissa, in Silesia, routing 80,000 Austrians, so that only 17,000 men reached Bohemia. The Russians and Swedes had also to retreat. In the third year of the war he defeated the Russians at Zorndorf, in Brandenburg (1758 A. D.) The two following campaigns were disastrous to him. He was completely defeated at Kunnersdorf, in Brandenburg, a Prussian army captured,*and most of his lands were conquered. It was his good fortune, however, that Elizabeth, empress of Russia, died. Her successor, Peter II., held him so dear that he gave up to him the Russian troops for his support (1762 A. D.) He was soon after killed, but Catharine III., who succeeded him, concluded peace with Prussia. Frederic expelled the enemies from his lands. The English were successfully fighting the French in America, Africa and Asia, and thus at last a general peace followed, ending one of the bloodiest wars on record. The treaty of peace was concluded in the castle of Hubertsburg, near Leipsic (1763 A. D.) Frederic retained Silesia. He endeavored now to restore prosperity in his lands by distrib- uting grain for food and seed, rebuilding the burned villages, found- ing colonies, and in special regions remitting all taxes, etc. In Who with Frederic II. ? What success had he in the first campaign ? What reverses did he have during the second campaign ? What success did he have at the end of the campaign ? In what two battles did he defeat the enemies ? What enemy did he defeat in the third campaign ? How did he succeed in the two following years ? What was then his good fortune ? Who concluded peace with him ? Where was general peace concluded ? What country did he hold ? How did he endeavor tp restore prosperity in his lands ? 200 general, he took praiseworthy care of agriculture, arts and manu- factures. He amended the laws, abolished the torture and other cruel punishments of the middle ages, increased the public reve- nues, granted liberty of conscience and of the press, and enjoyed the intercourse with scholars. He worked with restless assiduity, and raised Prussia to her present eminence. He governed about fifty years (i 740-1 786 A. D.) g 87. France. Louis XIV.'s Predominance in Europe. His Wars. Spanish War of Succession. Battle at Blenheim. Persecution of Prot- estants. Louis XV. Most of the wars of conquest were waged in this period by Louis XIV. — the first (1667-1668 A. D.) against his brother-in- law, Charles II., king of Spain, because he claimed some lands as an heirloom of his wife, though she had solemnly resigned her heirship in a contract. He achieved great conquests, but was soon com- pelled by the alliance of England, Holland and Sweden, to make peace. Resentful against Holland, and thinking that country to be the principal plotter of the aUiance, he sent his great Generals Conde, Turenne, Luxemburg and Vauban, with 100,000 men, against the repubhc (167 2- 1678 A. D.) He was supported besides by Eng- land and Sweden. Holland was overrun by her enemies, and the capital, Amsterdam, besieged. Then the inhabitants opened their dykes, making the sea their ally by letting it in, and their great admiral, Ruyter, defeated the English-French fleet. Presently, Spam, Lorraine, Germany, Austria and Denmark also took arms against Louis, and Ruyter vanquished three more times the hostile fleets. Meanwhile, Turenne devastated Germany along the Rhine. At last Holland disgracefully deserted her allies and made separate peace with Louis, at Nymegen (1678 A. D.), by which treaty all it had lost was again recovered. The allies of Holland, however, had to suffer for it. Spain lost Franche-Comte, the duke of Lor- raine his entire domain, and the German enipire several cities. How was his administration, in general ? How long did he govern Prussia ? <§ 87. Who waged the most wars of conquest ? Against whom did he wage his first war ? Why ? Who compelled him to make peace ? Against whom did he wage the second war ? How did the Dutch defend themselves ? What great generals did he have ? What admiral defeated the English-French fleet ? What country made a separate peace with Louis ? Who had to suffer ? 201 Moreover, Louis, in the name of the duchess of Orleans, claimed a share of the heritage of her brother, the prince-elector of the Pa- latinate, though she had expressly resigned her claims ; in addition, he wanted to appoint an archbishop in Cologne. As Germany and the pope refused the prelate, he snatched PhiHpsburg from the em- pire and Avignon from the pope, and thus the German war was enkindled (1688-1697 A. D.) Fighting against him were Ger- many, Austria, the pope. Savoy, England, Holland and Denmark. Louis was left alone (only Switzerland permitted its mercenaries to remain in his service). It would have been an admirable combat, if he had waged it for the sacred cause of right. He made great con- quests; nevertheless, he was obliged, by the peace of Ryswick, to return almost all of the conquered lands to. the enemies (1697 A. D.) He fought most tenaciously in the war of the Spanish succession (i 701-17 14 A. D.) Charles II., king of Spain, was childless. The large realm was claimed by Bavaria and Savoy, but especially by Louis XIV., in the name of his grandson, Philip of Anjou, and by Emperor Leopold I. The latter had the next right to the heritage. As Louis had married Maria Theresa, daughter of PhiUp of Spain, he had renounced all claim to the Spanish crown, either for himself or his successors. When England mediated a treaty of partition between the parties concerned, Charles II., provoked by these arbi- trary proceedings, designated the prince of Bavaria as the universal heir; but the latter suddenly died. Charles II. then wanted to give up the whole heritage to prince Charles, Leopold's son, on the con- dition, however, that Leopold should send his son with an army to Spain ; but the emperor could not be induced to do so. By a new treaty of partition, Louis would leave the heritage for the most part to the Austrian prince; Leopold also rejected this proposal. Meanwhile Charles II. died, and a last will of his appeared, which designated Philip of Anjou single heir. This prince immediately went to Spain and took possession of the country (1701 A. D.) Soon Austria, England, Holland, Prussia, Portugal and Savoy declared war against Louis ; Bavaria only sided • with him. Eugen and Marlborough, the great generals of Austria and England, defeated the army of the French and Bavarians at What of his German war ? What enemies fought against him ? What was the result of this war ? • What was the cause of the Spanish war of succession ? Who took possession of Spain? What countries were his enemies? Who sided with him ? Where was he defeated ? How was he disposed to act after his defeat ? 202 Blenheim (Hochstedt), in Bavaria, the greatest battle which had occurred for 200 years (1704 A. D.) Added to this, were a severe winter and a want of bread in France. Louis be- came disposed to deliver up the whole heritage; but when Aus- tria and England both demanded of him that he expel his grand- son from Spain, he firmly refused, and was saved by — a pair of gloves belonging to Lady Marlborough, which pleased Queen Anne, and were denied her by the lady. She, having already offended the queen several times, was together with her husband disgraced, and the latter lost his command ; besides, Emperor Joseph L, Leopold's first-born son, died ; his brother and successor, Emperor Charles VI. Avould, by the possession of the Spanish heritage, have become the overpowering monarch of Europe. Therefore Anne began negotia- tions, and Louis concluded peace with all his enemies (17 13 A. D.) The emperor and Germany assented to it at Rastadt and Baden (1714 A. D.) Philip of Anjou remained king of Spain; Austria received Naples, Milan, Sardinia and the Spanish Netherlands; Gibraltar was ceded to England. Louis still waged some smaller wars against Holland. According to the decision of the reunion chambers, which he instituted in different towns, in order to have it settled what in ancient times belonged to France, he took away part of Luxemburg, Brabant and Flanders from Holland, Strasburg from Germany, and defended his prey by war. He cruelly persecuted the Huguenots in France, being persuaded to do so by the Jesuits and Madame de Maintenon, whom he had elevated by a secret marriage to the rank of his wife. They were excluded from all offices, and deprived of their children ; the sick who refused to turn Cathohcs lost their property, and were sent to the galleys, if they recovered. Incursions of troops, called dragon- ades, enforced these measures. Finally, Louis revoked the edict of Nantes (1685 A. D.), ordered all Huguenots to become converts to the Catholic religion, forbade the practice of their worship, and ban- ished from the kingdom, within fifteen days, all their ministers who would not recant. Afterwards he closed the ports against the fugi- tives, sent those who attempted to escape to the galleys, and con- What did Austria and England demand of him ? Did he obey them ? By what trifle was he saved ? Who was disgraced by Queen Anne ? * Who remained king of Spain ? What did Austria and England receive^? What Christian sect did Louis persecute ? By whom was he instigated to do so ? In what manner was it persecuted ? What of the dragonades ? What edict did he revoke ? What result did his persecution cause ? 203 fiscated their property. However, in spite of all prohibition and punishment, 500,000 Huguenots emigrated, taking with them, to the great damage of the State, their treasures, arts and industries to England, Holland and Germany. New violence directed against the Huguenots in the province of Languedoc, and financial oppression of its inhabitants, caused an insurrection which three marshals could scarcely suppress (i 703-1 704 A. D.) ico,ooo men lost their lives on the battle-field, and 10,000 Huguenots died on the scaffold. Under the reign of Louis the public offices were venal ; 45,000 were really sold, and, for want of money, 40,000 more established and offered for sale. In conclusion, it cannot be gainsaid that he greatly encouraged the arts and sciences, commerce and industry. A great share of his merits, however, was due to his excellent minister, Colbert. He reigned 72 years (1643-1 7 15 A. D.) When he at last died, France was exultant. During the government of Louis XV., John Law, in order to reimburse the immense debt of the State, established a public bank, which at first afforded great profit to a few stockholders ; but as the bank became unable to pay more, the value of the stocks was lessened to one-half, and many thousand families were thus reduced to poverty. — Louis XV. was engaged in the war of the Austrian succession, and the Seven Years' War (see §§ 85, 86.) I 88. England. C^om^A^ell. War Against Holland. Ad- mirals Blake,Van Tromp, and de Ruyter. Charles H. Wnigs and Tories. Dethronement of James II. William IIL Accession of the House of Hanover. The Pretenders. Cromwell had formed the project of a coalition with Holland,, which was to make the two republics one and indivisiblie ; but national antipathies could not be overcome, and instead of the pro- posed coahtion, there ensued a fierce war (1652 A. D.) The repub- lican parliament passed the famous Navigation Act, by prohibiting the importation of all foreign merchandise, except in English bot- toms, or in those of the country producing the commodities. The act tended greatly to promote the naval superiority of Great Brit- ain, its object being to wrest the carrying trade of Europe from the What of the public offices ? To whom was due a great share of his merits- for promoting the arts and sciences ? For .what purpose was the bank of John Law established ? What was its result ? ^ 88. What was the tendency of the Navi- gation Act ? What war did it cause ? In whose favor did the war end ? 204 Dutch. The war terminated in favor of England. The celebrated Admiral Blake distinguished himself in it; he had for his antago- nists the- great Dutch maritime chiefs, Van Tromp and de Ruy ter. Peace was concluded on terms advantageous to England, and Cromwell, as protector, signed the treaty of pacification (1654 A. D.) He governed England with unrivaled energy and ability, and was the most powerful potentate of his time in Europe. He pro- moted commerce, created a strong navy, and made wise laws. In private life, in the several relations of a husband, a father, a neigh- bor and a friend, he -was exemplary. His household was like that of a simple citizen. But he had many adversaries and enviers. Several conspiracies and attempts to murder him deprived him of peace of mind. After his death (1658 A. D.), contending factions in the army as well as in parliament, for a time filled the country with bloody dissension, when General Monk, at the head of an army, declared in favor of the restoration of royalty ; consequently, Charles II., son of the late king, was proclaimed sovereign of Eng- land by the united acclamations of the army, the people, and the two houses of parliament. He had not become wiser by the misfortune of his father. He caused the documents of the republic to be burned by the hangman, and the Scots to be cruelly persecuted by his Catholic brother, James ; he limited the right of petition, and deprived the cities of their liberties. A conspiracy was planned against him, in which the most excellent men participated. But it was detected, and the conspirators atoned for their crime by their blood (1683 A. D.) During his administration the Whig and Tory parties were organized. The former gave the nation the Tight to oppose energetic resistance to the king who would injure the constitution, but the latter required passive obedience by the people. Parliament also decreed the celebrated habeas -cor pics act, that sacred law of personal liberty. By the provisions of this act, no magistrate is authorized to take a prisoner without showing reason for the arrest in writing, and the prisoner shall be brought within three days before the judge. Though Charles professed adherence to the principles of the Reforma- What admirals distinguished themselves in the war ? How was Cromwell's public administration and private life ? What general declared in favor of the restoration of royalty ? Mention some ordinances of Charles II. Explain the terms " Whigs " and " Tories;" the habeas-corpus act. 205 tion, yet his great and secret designs were the establishment of papacy. His brother, James II., forced the Scots to forsake their creed^ and appointed bishops, suspended 350 Presbyterian ministers and expelled them, together with their families. In England, also, he assailed the national church. Guided by the Jesuits, he abol- ished religious freedom, appointed Catholic teachers in the col- leges, turned out Protestant ministers, and gave the public offices to- Catholics, in opposition to the laws of the country. In Ireland also he gave orders to persecute and exterminate the Protestants. Many of the nobility and great men of the kingdom, foreseeing no redress for their grievances, finally sent an invitation to William^ prince of Orange, the stadt-holder of the United Dutch Provinces^ who had married the king's eldest daughter, and requested him ta come over and aid them, by his arms, in the recovery of their laws and liberties. William landed at the head of an army, declaring that he had come to restore liberty (1688 A. D.) He was every- where received with the highest favor. The frightened tyrant fled secretly to France. The national convention, called by William, declared that the king's withdrawal was an abdication of the gov- ernment, and that the throne was thereby made vacant, and a bill was passed settling the crown on William and his wife Mary, and the succession on princess Anne, the next eldest daughter of the late king. At the same time the convention made a declaration of the most precious natural and constitutional rights of the English people; thereby the English constitution was completed. The Catholic religion was forever excluded from the throne. James, furnished with a fleet by Louis XIV., returned and landed in Ireland, where the Catholics took up arms for him, but lost the decis- ive battle, and fled again to France, where Louis granted him a beggar's hvelihood. The course taken by this monarch led to a. declaration of war against France (1689 A. D.) which, in its prog- ress, involved most of the continental powers, who united with William for the purpose of putting a stop to the encroachments of Louis (see § 87). What misdeeds did James II. commit .-• How did he deal with the Protestant Scots? How with the national Church of England? How with the Protestants of Ireland ? To whom did he give the public offices ? Who was invited to assist England ? How did William proceed ? How was he received ? What did the national convention declare ? What religion was excluded from the throne ? Who' took up arms for James II. ? What was his end ? 206 After William, Anne succeeded to the throne, and after her George I., prince elector of Hanover, and great grandson of Jai^ies I. (17 14 A. D.) A most prominent person in the administration during a portion of his reign and during the first part of that of George II., was the talented minister, Robert Walpole. The son of James II. pretended to the succession; Louis XIV. favored his cause, and many Scotch nobles took up arms in defense of it. The Pretender arrived in Scotland and was proclaimed king by his follow- ers, but finding his struggle desperate, he returned to France. The rebellion was suppressed, and the leaders executed. His son, Charles Edward, called the young Pretender, repeated the attempt of his father. Assisted by Louis XV., he landed at the head of a small force in Scotland, and caused his father to be proclaimed king of Great Britain. But the royal troops gained a bloody victory over him at Culloden (1746 A. D.) which forever crushed the hope of the Stuart family. Numbers of his adherents perished on the scaffold or by military execution. Under George III. the United States of North America became independent (see § 92, etc.) His great minister was William Pitt (Lord Chatham). g 89. Northern States. Peter the Great. Charles XII. Battles at Narva and Pultowa. First Parti- tion of Poland. Alexei, Czar of Russia, left several children. When his eldest son had died (1682 A. D.) the youngest, Peter, ought to have suc- ceeded to the government ; but his sister, Sophia, sought to supplant him, and, supported by the body-guards, even to deprive him of life ; but he frustrated her scheme, and relegated her to a convent. Having learned from his tutor, Le Fort, of Geneva, to appreciate civilization, Peter resolved to enlighten the people of his country, and thus raise them from their state of barbarism. To this end he or- ganized an army, taking Europe for his model, and built a fleet. For the sake of commerce he seized the town of Azof from the Turks (1696 A. D.) At this time he also suppressed a conspiracy of the life-guards. He went to Germany, Holland and England (1697 A. Who succeeded William and Anne? Who was a prominent minister of George I. and II. ? Give a narrative of the attempt of the two Pretenders. ^ 89. WTiowas the celebrated son of Czar Alexei? Who tried to supplant Peter? With the help of whom ? How did Peter punish his sister ? What did he resolve upon concerning his country ? What did he organize ? What build ? What town seize from the Turks ? Give an account of his travels. 207 D.), in order to acquire more learning. In Holland he learned ship-building, and was not ashamed to wield the ax like a common ship-wright. In Saardam the house where he then lived as a journey- man is still shown. He also took instruction in surgery, chemistry and physics. On his return he was accompanied by numerous arti- sans whom he had engaged to aid him in the great design of civiliz- ing his subjects. Recalled from a second journey by a new riot of the life-guards, he punished the guilty in a terrible manner (1698 A. D.) He suspected Sophia to have again instigated the revolt. He caused many of the guilty to be put to the rack in order to compel them to confess their crime, and many were hung below the win- dows of his sister. He himself assisted in this bloody work. After a third sedition he abolished the corps (1705 A. D.) In order to promote commerce on the Baltic Sea, he resolved to dispossess the Swedes of the lands they had there. Poland and Denmark were his allies. But Charles XII., the young king of Swe- den, subdued the Danes, and with a small army defeated 80,000 Russians at Narva, one-fourth of whom he killed in battle (1700 A. D. He then expelled Augustus, king of Poland and Saxony, from Poland ( 1 702-1706 A. D.), and put Saxony under contribution. Meanwhile Peter conquered the Swedish province Ingermanland, on the Baltic Sea, and with a great loss of human life founded the city of Petersburg (1703 A. D.) Charles invaded Russia, and first ad- vanced to Moscow ; then he turned to the Ukraine, where he expected to have the assistance of the Cossacks; but his hope was frustrated, and he as well as his troops suffered bitterly from want of provisions. Peter made an offer of reconciliation, but Charles would not resolve on peace except in Moscow. He was totally beaten at Pultowa, and himself wounded (1709 A. D.); he then fled to the Turks. After two years he succeeded in inciting them to make war against Peter ; 200,000 Turks surrounded the Russians on the banks of the Pruth; Peter seemed to be lost; but the sagacity of his wife Catharine, who accompanied him during the campaign, saved him and the army. She advised him to bribe the Turkish General with her own jewels, which she freely offered ; the attempt succeeded, and Peter obtained, How did he punish his life-guards after a new riot ? In what way would he promote commerce on the Baltic Sea ? Who opposed him ? In what battle was he defeated by Charles XII. ? How did the latter deal with the king of Poland ? What large city did Peter found ? How did Charles succeed in the war against him? Where was he defeated? Where did he take refuge? Where did the Turks surround the Russians ? Who saved Peter ? By what means ? 208 on fair conditions, free retreat and peace. Charles remained three years more in Turkey, in order to rouse it once more against Russia. In the meantime Peter made great conquests in Sweden. When finally the sultan himself ordered Charles to depart, he defied him also, and in his foolhardiness withstood a siege of his house one day against a whole Turkish army. Without an army, and with a single com- panion, he returned to his kingdom, which was in the greatest con- fusion. In a second war against Denmark he was killed by a ball (1718A. D.) Meanwhile Peter continued to take care of the welfare of his country. He called into it many foreign manufacturers, mechanics, artists and scholars, established schools, built high-roads and canals,, improved agriculture, limited the power of the clergy, and reformed the convents. His care extended from one end of his vast realm to the other. He respected merit in every position, and placed little value upon rank and race. He made Menshikof, a confectioner, his friend and minister, and took Catharine, daughter of a Swedish peas- ant, for his second wife. He had repudiated his first wife because she disliked his reforms. His son Alexei also detested them, being misled by discontented noblemen and monks, and caused public commo- tions (17 16 A. D.), while Peter was again traveHng abroad. Then the father caused him to be put to death (it is said, at the instigation of Catharine). — Chief among Peter's faults were drunkenness and ill-temper, during which he often rudely treated friends most en- deared to him, sometimes even with the knout. He died suddenly (1725 A. D.), and not having designated a successor, Catharine was proclaimed heiress of the throne. She reigned two years. Under Peter II. Menshikof atoned for his insolence against the grandees with banishment. Elizabeth I., a daughter of Peter I., put the youth Ivan into prison, exiled the imperial ministers, Miinnich and Osterman, to Siberia, and ascended the throne herself. Catharine II. caused her husband, Peter III., to be murdered, waged war against the Turks, and seized a large part of Poland. She ordered troops to march into this land under the pretense of restoring tranquillity between its contesting parties. When they How long did Charles remain in Turkey? Give a specimen of his fool- hardiness. What was his end ? How did Peter care for his country ? Did he place much value upon rank and race? Illustrate by examples. How did he deal with his first wife and his son Alexei ? What were his chief faults .'' Who was proclaimed empress after his death ? What of Elizabeth I. and Catharine II. ? Under what pretense did the latter march troops into Poland ? 209 then engaged in civil war, she, Frederic II. and Joseph II. deman- ded the cession of dififerent provinces. In vain the people com-* plained ; in vain King Stanislaus Augustus and the States- General protested against the impudent demand ; in vain some deputies re- fused to do homage, and others gave themselves up in despair to death. The three sovereigns threatened to divide the whole country among themselves, and, therefore, the king and the States- General fin- ally agreed to their exaction (1772A.D.) In this way one-third was torn from Poland with five milHons of inhabitants; Frederic seized West Prussia ; Maria Theresa, Galicia, and Catharine some eastern provinces ; the three sovereigns, besides, warranted to themselves the undisturbed possession of their prey. Europe looked upon their pro- ceedings with silence. Frederic treated his new subjects cruelly. They were, like cattle, violently dragged to Prussia, their estates pil- laged, the young men impressed, the daughters arbitrarily married, and their dowries extorted from their parents. ^ 90. East Indies. Aureng Zeb. East Indian Company. In the East Indies Aureng Zeb (1659-1707 A. D.) elevated the empire of the Great Mogul to the summit of its power, but after his death it rapidly sank again. Domestic and foreign enemies as- sailed it. Among the latter the most fortunate was Nadir, who, from a camel-driver, had risen to the dignity of a Shah of Persia ; the Great Mogul was obliged to cede many possessions to him. When Philip II., who had united Portugal with Spain, was en- gaged in war with the Dutch, they took from the Portuguese most of their possessions in the East Indies, but in the eighteenth century they lost most of them again through the English. Queen Elizabeth had already conceded to 'the East Indian Com- pany, a society of English merchants, the privilege of carrying on commerce with the East Indies. The Company took advantage of the decay of the Mongolian empire, and of the quarrels of the native sovereigns, in order to make conquests. When the governor of Ben- gal took Calcutta, the principal settlement of the Company, and What did she, together with Frederic II. and Joseph II., demand of it? What threats did they make ? What provinces did they tear from Poland ? How did Frederic II. deal with the Polanders ? | 90. What of Aureng Zeb and Nadir in the East Indies ? Who seized the possessions of the Europeans in the East Indies from the Portuguese ? Who from the Dutch ? Give an account of the origin and aggrandizement of the East Indian Company. From whom did it obtain the sovereignt,y of Bengal ? (14) 210 dealt cruelly with the prisoners (1756 A. D.) it took vengeance by war, and obtained from the Great Mogul the sovereignty of Bengal for an annuity (1765 A. D.) The cruelty of the English finally ex- cited general exasperation; Hyder AH, the prudent and powerful sovereign of Mysore, began war against them, and continued it for many years ; aided by a body of French troops, he at the head of an army of ioo,coo natives attacked the English forces, and killed or captured the whole of them (1780 A. D.) He made great con- quests (i 779-1 783 A. D.); but his son, Tippo Saheb, lost them again, and the dominion of his own lands besides. The Company also waged war against the Mahrattas several times (after 1774 A. D.) and conquered a great part of their territory. Thus it acquired, in the East Indies, the possession of a far-reaching dominion. It estab- lished its own government, appointed governors and maintained great armies. But later it had to give up the right of government in the conquered countries to the English crown (1784 A. D.) Its monopoly of trade was also by degrees limited, and finally was reduced to the single article of tea. I 91. United States of North America. Their Colonies. The French Wars. The first settlements in the United States of America were men- tioned in the preceding period (see § 71). More colonies were founded in this period. Connecticut and New Hampshire were settled by colonists from England ; the latter was sometimes united to Massachusetts, and at other times separated from it; finally it was separated, remaining a distinct colony (1741 A. D.) The different colonies of the former were also united into one by Charles II. (1665 A. D.) — New Jersey and Delaware were settled much like New York, and fell under English rule at the same time as New York. New Jersey later became a separate province (1738 A. D.) — North Carolina was settled by emigrants from Virginia and Europe ; South Carolina, by English and Huguenots. Both at first formed one colony, called Carolina; later (1729 A. D.) North Carolina was made a separate one. — Georgia was founded by English emigrants Who was its most formidable enemy ? What did it establish ? To whom did it then give up its right of government ? To what article was its monopoly of trade at last limited? § 91. What of the settlements in Connecticut and New Hampshire ? In New Jersey and Delaware ? In North and South Carolina ? In Georgia ? What of Maine ? 211 under Oglethorpe (1733 A. D.) — Maine was a part of Massachusetts till 1S20, when it came into the Union as an independent State. The most remarkable colony is that of the noble-minded Quaker, William Penn, in the State of Pennsylvania, so-called from his name. The English government had owed Penn's father, who was an ad- miral in the British navy, a large sum of money. Penn, in payment, took a grant for a large territory in that State and bought other lands from the Indians, with whom he made a famous treaty. A large company of emigrants, mostly Quakers, left England and came to the new settlement (1681 A. D.) He laid the foundation of Philadelphia (brotherly love), and gave to his colony an excel- lent constitution (see § 94). It grew rapidly and prospered. The colonists lived in unbroken harmony with the Indians, who called Penn " Onas," and the highest praise they could give a white man was to say he was like " Onas." After Penn's death (17 18 A. D.) his sons were the proprietors of the colony. — The Spaniards foun- ded St. Augustine in Florida (1565 A. D.), the oldest city in the United States, and Santa Fe in New Mexico (1582 A. D.) Almost all the colonies were more or less troubled with Indian wars; Virginia suffered two massacres, in which several hundred whites were slaughtered. The colonists invariably got the better in the end, and gradually the Indians receded farther and farther from the neighborhood of the whites. In the last period (after 1600 A. D.) the French commenced to colonize Acadia (New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, etc.), and Canada, calling these countries New France. Port Royal (Annapolis) was their first permanent colony. In 17 18 the city of New Orleans was founded by them. They gradually established .missions, trad- ing-posts and forts along the chain of the Great Lakes, e. g., Fort Niagara, penetrated the Mississippi Valley, and finally claimed that valley from the source of this river to its mouth, saying it was a part of New France. The presence of two rival nations on the same soil made it certain that some time the two would come into conflict. The conflict came, and was fought through four wars. During King Wifliam's war, which was waged in Europe be- tween England and France (1688-1697 A. D.), the eastern Indians, Which is the most remarkable colony ? Give an account of William Penn. What grant did he take from England ? What city did he found ? What did the Indians call him? By what tribes were the colonies troubled? What did the French call New France ? What did they establish along the chain of the Great Lakes ? What valley did they claim as part of New France ? 212 who were allies of the French, destroyed several settlements in Maine, New Hampshire and New York State. The colonists re- solved to send a fleet and an army to attack Quebec and Montreal. But the expedition was a failure ; only Port Royal was taken. By the treaty of Ryswick it was agreed that each side was to have the same territory as before the war. In Queen Anne's war (1702-17 13 A. D.) the contest took the same form as the previous one. The French and their Indian alHes laid waste the frontier setdements of New England. The colonists de- termined again to invade Acadia and Canada ; but the plan was once more a failure. The only gain to England was the winning of Acadia. After the war, the French continued to increase their power in the Northwest. They built Fort Niagara and Crown Point, and had- more than sixty military stations, extending from Lake Ontario down the Mississippi to New Orleans. Their progress was interrupted by King George's war (1744 A, D.) There was only one important event in this war, the capture of Louisburg, on Cape Breton Island, and even this place was by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle given up to the French (1748 A. D.) Thus far the English had attempted no settlements west of the Alleghanies. Now a company of English merchants obtained from the king of England a grant of a large tract of land on the east bank of the Ohio river, and established a trading-post on the Monongahela. The French immediately sent troops to build forts in the disputed territory. Major George Washington, a young Vir- ginian, only twenty-one years old, was then, in the name of the English government, sent as embassador to demand an explanation of this outrage on the part of the French. The French command- ant sent back a letter by Washington to the governor of Virginia, refusing to withdraw the French troops from the disputed territory. The governor sent a party of workmen to construct a fort at the junction of the Alleghany and Monongahela rivers, and a regiment of soldiers, in which Washington was second in command. Mean- "What was the success of the expeditions to Quebec and Montreal in King William's war ? What country did the English gain in Queen Anne's war ? How many military stations did the French have after this "war, between Lake Ontario and New Orleans ? On what tributary of the Ohio river did a company of English merchants establish a trading-post ? What did the French then do in the disputed territory ? Who was sent as an embassador to them ? What was the reply of the French commander ? What did the governor of Virginia cause to be constructed there ? Who was second in command? 213 while the French had driven off the fort-builders, and themselves completed the work (1754 A. D.) They called it Fort du Quesne (now Pittsburg). Washington hastened forward with an advanced party, and beat a body of the French at a place called Great Mead- ows. There he built Fort Necessity, which was about fifty miles ■distant from Fort du Quesne. While waiting here the commander died, and Washington became chief commander. He was attacked by the French and had to surrender, after having held out all day. He and his troops were permitted to return to Virginia. Next spring General Braddock marched at the head of two regiments of regulars against Fort du Quesne. Washington accompanied him as an aide-de-camp (1755 ^- ^■) Nearly all the colonies had raised militia, and voted money and supplies to carry on this cam- paign. When near the fort, Braddock, leading an advanced body of about 1,200 men, was attacked by the French and Indians, who were concealed in the woods. The whole column was thrown into •confusion and fled in a panic. The commander was killed. Wash- ington, w^ith a Httle band of Virginians, covered the retreat. The expedition was now given up. Another column, designed to march against Fort Niagara, reached Oswego, but storms, sickness and desertion of the Indians induced the commander to abandon the enterprise. A third column of 6,000 men, led by General Johnson, and sent to attack Fort Crown Point, built Fort Edward on the Hudson, and moved to the southern end of Lake George. As the French moved forward to attack the fort, Johnson sent Colonel Williams with a thousand men to wjatch the French. A fight followed, in which Williams was defeated and killed. The French followed the fugitives to Johnson's main body, which was encamped at Lake George, where they were defeated, and their general, Dieskau, taken prisoner. Johnson, not feehng able to attack Crown Point, dis- banded his army. While preparations for this campaign were going on, an expedi- tion sailed to the head of the Bay of Fundy, kidnapped the French settlers of Nova Scotia to the number of 7,000, put them on board Give an account of Washington's conflict with the French, \\nio was the <:ommander of the English regulars against Fort du Quesne the next spring ? Who accompanied him ? By whom was Braddock attacked ? With what effect ? Who covered the retreat ? With what success did another, and a third cohimn •carry on the war? What of the kidnapping of the French settlers of Nova Scotia ? 214 the ships, and exiled them to various colonies. It was a terrible deed, but it was thought necessary. In the two following campaigns Montcalm, the French general, capture'd the fort at Oswego (1756 A. D.) and Fort William Henry (1757 A. D.) In the former he took 1,400 prisoners and a large quantity of stores ; in the latter, 2,000 troops. His Indian allies killed a number of prisoners in cold blood here. The great William Pitt was now made a member of the British cabinet, and placed at the head of colonial affairs. He prepared to carry on the war with great vigor. In the fourth campaign (1758 A. D.) 50,000 men — 22,000 Brit- ish regulars and 28,000 colonists — were engaged. Three expedi- tions were planned. The first took Cape Breton Island, with 6,000 prisoners and a large amount of munitions of war. It was a very severe blow to the French. The only success of the second expe- dition was the capture of Fort Frontenac (now Kingston). The operations of the third campaign were directed against Fort du Quesne. The French force there, being now much reduced, aban- doned the fort. Its name was changed to Fort Pitt (now Pittsburg). In the last campaign (1759 A. D.) the principal object was to capture Quebec. With a fleet carrying 8,000 troops. General Wolfe sailed up the St. Lawrence to Orleans Island, a few miles below Quebec. Here he landed and prepared for the attack. For this reason Montcalm weakened the garrisons at Ticonderoga, Crown Point, Fort Niagara, etc. The result was their capture. The pre- liminary operations of General Wolfe were unsuccessful. After- wards the bold design of scaling the Heights of Abraham was car- ried out. Here was fought a battle that decided the war (the 13th of September). Wolfe was twice wounded, but continued to lead the charge at the head of his grenadiers till he received a third and mortal wound. Montcalm also was mortally wounded. After hours of stubborn fighting, the left wing and center of the French gave way, and the English were victorious. Five days after, Quebec WTiat forts did Montcalm capture in the two following campaigns ? Who was then placed at the head of colonial affairs in the British cabinet? How many British regulars and colonists were engaged in the fourth campaign ? How many expeditions were planned ? What island did the first expedition take ? What fort did the second expedition capture ? x\gainst what fort was the third directed ? What was the principal object of the last campaign ? Who was the English general ? Describe his campaign. Where did General Wolfe land ? \\Tiat Heights did he scale? Give an account of the battle. 215 surrendered. Soon after Montreal and other military stations in Canada were also given up to the English. The contest for the possession of America ended triumphantly for them (1760 A. D.) Three years after peace was concluded. During this time the Indians were very hostile, capturing most of the English posts in the Northwest, and killing hundreds of persons. At length the colon- ists subdued them. By the treaty of Paris France gave up to England all her American possessions east of the Mississippi, except New Orleans (1763 A. D.) By the same treaty Spain ceded Florida to England in exchange for Havana. g 92. Continued. War of the Colonies for Independence. The Stamp Act. Battle at Bunker Hill. Declara- tion of Independence. George Washington. Benjamin Franklin. Thomas Paine. When England learned to appreciate the importance of her colonies, she attempted to limit their Hberty, and to gain their com- mercial advantages for herself. She prohibited them from establish- ing manufactories, and levied high duties on merchandise, the im- portation of which had formerly been free. The French wars had added largely to the already heavy debt of England, and the British government determined that the colonies should bear a part of this burden. These denied that parliament had a right to impose taxes upon them, their own losses and expenses in the wars having already been as heavy as they could bear. Nevertheless, the parliament passed the "Stamp Act" (1765 A. D.), an act ordering that all legal writings, together with pamphlets, news- papers, etc., etc., in the colonies, should be executed on stamped paper, for which a duty should be paid to the crown. The colon- ists became highly indignant ; everywhere was heard the cry : " Liberty, property, and no stamps ! " The stamp act was not complied with, and it was resolved to import no more English goods till it was repealed. In order to dispense more easily with them, coarse materials were fabricated ; families denied themselves the use of all foreign luxuries, and the ladies put foreign finery AVhat generals lost their lives ? Who obtained the victory ? What stations in Canada were given up to the English ? What was the result of the peace ? g 92. What did England attempt after the French wars ? What did it deter- mine ? Why did the colonies deny England the right to impose taxes ? What act did parliament pass ? What effect did the Stamp Act produce in the colonies ? In what manner did they dispense with English goods ? 216 aside. By such measures many workmen in England were de- prived of their living, and some of the most successful manufac- tories had to stop. Benjamin Franklin made his appearance (1766 A. D.) in parhament, in order to defend the rights of the colonies. This most celebrated man, a native of Boston, had been a printer while young, and had acquired great scholarship by private studies. He then composed ingenious, useful, popular writings, founded a public library in Philadelphia, a fire-company, an academy, a hos- pital, and invented the Hghtning-rod (1752 A. D.) His country had already intrusted him with the most important offices ; he was now postmaster-general of the colonies. He spoke in parliament without fear, plainly, with energy and presence of mind. WilHam Pitt and Edmund Burke, then both members of parliament, also advocated the repeal of the Stamp Act. It was repealed, but at the same time it was declared that parliament had the right to tax the colonies. They contested this right, asserting that they had, originally, the same rights as the mother country, therefore the right to tax themselves, through their provincial assemblies, of their own accord; the more so, because they were denied representation in the English parliament. They declared that taxation without rep- resentation was tyranny. The first colonial congress, meeting in New York (1765 A. D.), made a similar declaration, and a petition to the king and parliament was also sent to England. This coun- try, however, soon again imposed duties on different articles, and sent revenue commissioners and two regiments to the colonies. Bloodshed soon followed. In New York the soldiers killed one man ; in Boston, several. The attempt to raise a revenue by taxa- tion turned out a total failure. England repealed the duties, except on tea. But the colonies also rejected this measure, and when the tea arrived it was, in different places, sent back. In Boston, several men, disguised as Indians, broke open a number of tea- chests and emptied them into the sea (1773 A. D.) What bad results were thereby caused to English workmen and manufacturers ? Who defended the rights of the colonies in parliament ? Give some particulars of Franklin's life. What office did he then hold in the colonies ? What mem- bers of parliament did also advocate the repeal of the Stamp Act ? Was it re- pealed ? What right did parliament assert it possessed ? Did the colonies acknowl- edge this right? Why not? What congress in the colonies made a similar declaration ? What did parliament again impose ? What further did it do against the colonies ? Where was the first blood shed ? What article was not exempted from taxation? How were the tea chests handled in Boston ? 217 . These events incited parliament to pass the most severe resolu- tions. The port of Boston was closed (1774 A. D.); the partakers in the rebellion, for punishment, were to be carried to England ; Franklin lost his office of postmaster-general. The colonists began to think of armed resistance. They called the first continental con- gress at Philadelphia, in which they agreed upon a declaration of rights, recommended the suspension of all commercial intercourse with England, and sent another petition to the king. The Massa- chusetts assembly organized a corps of militia called " minute-men," and formed a "committee of safety," with John Hancock for chairman, Washington organized the militia of Virginia, and Pat- rick Henry exclaimed : " I repeat it, sir, we must fight ! Give me liberty or give me death ! " General Gage, commander-in-chief of the British, learning that there were some military supplies at Con- cord, sent a body of men to destroy them. When they reached Lexington they found a small body of minute-men there. An English officer rode up to them, saying : '' Disperse, you rebels ! " As the Americans did not obey, he ordered the soldiers to fire. Eight Americans were killed and several wounded; the rest dis- persed. The British then marched on to Concord, where they destroyed the stores. On their retreat to Charlestown they lost about 280 men ; the Americans about 90. The colonies immediately called their men to arms, and Gage was soon beleaguered in Boston by 20,000 Americans. A month after (in May, 1775), large reinforcements of British troops reached Boston from England. Gage therefore resolved to commence operations. The Americans suspected this, and sent a force of 800 men to pre-occupy Bunker Hill. One of the officers, however, led the troops to Breed's Hill, directly opposite Boston, where they, during the night-time, erected an earthwork. Three thousand regulars, under General Howe, crossed in boats to storm it, behind which about 1,500 Americans, under Prescott, lay. The British made two assaults, but were severely repulsed by the Amer- icans. These, however, having completely used up their ammuni- tion, the British, in a third assault, carried the defenses (June 17th). But the victory was dearly won, for they had lost 1,000 men; the What resolutions did pai'liament then adopt ? What precautions did the col- onists take now ? Especially Massachusetts ? Washington ? Relate how Gen- eral Gage destroyed the military supplies at Concord. How many men did he lose ? Give an account of the action at Breed's Hill. What was the number of men lost on both sides ? • 218 Americans only 450. Meanwhile a second continental congress was held in Philadelphia, in which the confederation of the thirteen colonies was declared, they receiving the name of the " United Col- onies" (May, 1775). I^ voted to raise an army of 20,000 men, chose George Washington as commander-in-chief, and sent Frank- lin off to France in order to gain the support of that country. Soon after the action at Lexington, Ethan Allen, with a small band of volunteers, took Fort Ticonderoga by stratagem, the fortress being guarded by over 100 pieces of artillery; Fort Crown Point surrendered with equal ease- The invasion of Canada with two columns was also planned — the first under Schuyler and Montgom- ery, the other under Benedict Arnold ; but it was a failure. It was known that a large British army would arrive in the spring (1776 A. D.); accordingly, Washington was ordered to take Boston. He erected batteries on the Heights of Dorchester (now South Boston). This was done suddenly and secretly, and placed the city at the mercy of his cannon. General Howe surrendered, on condition that he should be allowed to withdraw with his troops. Washington occupied Boston. The first offensive movements of the British in the south were directed against Charleston, South Carolina (1776 A. D.) The entrance to the harbor was defended by a fort (afterwards named Fort Moultrie), made of sand and palmetto-logs, and garrisoned by 400 men, under Colonel Moultrie. A land and naval attack made on this work was a complete failure. In a few days the expedition sailed for New York. South Carolina received the thanks of con-' gress and the country for the gallant defense of Charleston. The British parliament proclaimed the Americans rebels, and raised a large army to crush them (1776 A. D.) Consequently, the Ameri- cans could see that nothing short of independence would now do. Thomas Paine, the secretary of the congress, in his " Common Sense,'^ first proclaimed the grand words : " The free and independent States of America." The effect of this pamphlet was electric ; it inflamed the minds of the Americans to declare themselves independent.* What was resolved upon in the second continental congress ? Who took Fort Ticonderoga ? What of the invasion of Canada ? What orders w^ere given to Washington ? How did he succeed ? What of Charleston ? Who defended the fort ? Who succeeded ? What did congress do ? Who first proclaimed the word, " Independence ? " What of the pamphlet, " Common Sense ? " . ^ "J Published the pamphlet 'Common Sense.' The success it met with was beyond anything since the mvention of printing. The demand ran to not less than 100,000 copies."— Th. Paine, i'ol. Works. By the sale of this pamphlet Paine had an opportunity to enrich himself, but he came out poor, lor he presented the copyright to each of the colonies. 219 On the 7th of June, 1776, Richard Lee, of Virginia, offered a resolution that the " United Colonies are, and ought to be, free and independent States." This was earnestly debated and adopted July 2d. A committee of congress had been appointed to prepare a Declaration of Independence. It was written by Thomas Jefferson, of Virginia. On the 4th of July, 1776, it was adopted by congress. The thirteen colonies then became the United States of America, the royal emblems were destroyed, and balls were made out of the wrecks of the statue of George III. g 93. Concluded. Battles of Trenton and Princeton. La- fayette. Surrender of Burgoyne. French Alliance. Surrender of Cornwallis. Treaty of Paris. Washington the First President. The war went on. England was fighting with German mer- cenaries who had been sold to this end by the sovereigns of Hesse, Brunswick and Hanover. Washington, the commander-in-chief, was the son of a rich planter in Virginia. He had made of himself a good surveyor at sixteen. At nineteen he was made adjutant of one of the Virginia militia districts, with the rank of major. Even then he was looked upon as a young man of uncommon promise. Now, as he was placed at the head of the federal army, his military talents appeared to full advantage. His troops were not drilled ; they were in want of the necessary requisites for war, often even pay and food ; still by courage, foresight and restless activity he overcame all these impediments. The first contests were, in fact, unfavorable for the Americans. In the battle of Long Island they lost about 2,000 men (1776 A., D.); the British General Howe captured Fort Washington with about 3,000 Americans, anci General Lee, whom Washington frequently ordered to join him with his force, did not obey him. It was but recently discovered that he was a traitor to the American cause. These successes made the enemies haughty and careless, but Washington surprised them at Trenton, where he captured one thou- sand Hessians (1776 A. D.), and at Princeton (1777 A. D.), and routed them. Franklin's negotiations at the French court were so Who offered the resolution of independence in congress? When was it adopted ? Who wrote the Declaration of Independence ? When was it adopted ? What of the statue of George III.? § 93. With what auxiliaries did Eng- land fight the Americans? Give some account of Washington's youth ? Who gained the battle of Long Island and captured Fort Washington ? What of General Lee ? Of the battles at Trenton and at Princeton ? 220 •effective beforehand that officers with implements of war were secretly permitted to go to America. Many volunteers also came to assist the sons of liberty. Among them Lafayette, Kosciusko, Count Pulaski, Barons de Kalb and Steuben, distinguished themselves. The former, at his own expense, fitted out a ship for the Americans and hastened to join them, in spite of an order by the court for- bidding him to do so, and shed his blood for them. In the campaign of 1777, Washington went to Brandy wine to prevent the British from moving northward to Philadelphia, but was defeated, and the British took possession of this city. He then attacked a portion of the British army at Germantown, but was again repulsed. The enemies also took Forts Mifflin and Mercer, below Philadelphia. Washington then went into winterquarters at Valley Forge. It was a gloomy winter ; his army was dispirited and miserably supplied ; many soldiers were barefooted ; they were scantily clad, ill-fed and unpaid. In these times, " that tried men's souls," Thomas Paine published and continued a new series of pamphlets to the end of the war, entided '^ The Crisis," by which he raised the sunken spirit of the American army, and powerfully promoted the work which led to the glorious result of the contest. More brilliant were the successes of the Americans in New York State. Burgoyne, the British general, sent two detachments to capture a quantity of stores at Bennington, Vermont ; both were defeated by the Colonels John Stark and Warner, with a body, of " Green Mountain Boys " and New Hampshire militia. He then advanced on Stillwater, where he was defeated ; he next attempted to retreat to Fort Edward. The Americans, under General Gates, advanced so rapidly that they cut off his retreat, and surrounded his army at Saratoga ; he had to surrender with nearly 6,000 men (October 17th). When the. French king heard of Burgoyne 's surrender, he hesi- tated no longer; he acknowledged the independence of the United States, made a treaty of alliance with them, and assisted them with What did Franklin effect at the court of the French king ? What volunteers aided the Americans ? What of Lafayette ? Of the battles at Brandywine and Germantown? Of Forts Mifflin and Mercer? Describe the winterquarters in Valley Forge. By what pamphlets did Thomas Paine encourage the army ? What were the successes of the Americans in the State of New York ? Who defeated Burgoyne at Bennington ? Where was he again defeated ? Who captured his army at Saratoga ? How many men were made prisoners ? Who made a treaty ■of alliance with the United States ? 221 money and troops. Spain and Holland joined France, and in the East Indies the formidable Hyder Ali was fighting England (see § 90). Humiliated, England now offered peace to the colonies ; but not willing to acknowledge their independence, the contest was con- tinued. In Germany, Emperor Joseph II. forbade the levying of troops for England ; Frederic II. also declared for America. About 2,000 German mercenaries deserted from the British army to the Americans. The contest continued, but for three years showed no great results ; therefore a summary of the events will suffice for the out- lines of a Universal History. In April, 1778, a French fleet sailed for America, the effect of which was the retreat of the British from Philadelphia. Washington followed and overtook them near Mon- mouth, New Jersey. Here an action took place, but owing to the bad conduct of General Lee, nothing was gained. He was dis- missed from service for insolent behavior to General Washington. When the French fleet arrived in America, it sailed out to give bat- tle to the British. But a violent storm arose, which so damaged it that it had to put into Boston for repairs. After refitting, it sailed for the West Indies, and the British had to follow it. A British division, sent by General Clinton, captured Savannah and defeated General Ash at Brier Creek. One year after, the French fleet returned from the AVest Indies, and appeared oft" Savannah (1779 A. D.) It assaulted the city, with General Lincoln, but the attack was repulsed; after this the fleet sailed home. The next year (1780 A. D.) Clinton took Charleston with about 5,000 men. Gates was defeated at Sander's Creek. Marion, Sumter, and other dashing officers, however, collected irregular troops, and carried on a partisan warfare. Eight of them attacked and defeated a large force of British and royalists on King's Moun- tain. At Cowpens, General Morgan whipped the British cavalry^ leader, Tarleton. General Green attacked the British at Guilford Court House, at Ninety-six and Eutaw Springs, but the actions were not decisive. Some other incidents of these campaigns must yet be mentioned. What of Spain, Holland and Hyder Ali ?. Why was the war continued ? What of Joseph II. ? Of Frederic II. ? Of German mercenaries ? Give an account of the operations of the French fleet. Who captured .Savannah ? W^hat city did Clinton take the next year ? What officers carried on a partisan warfare ? Who was successful on King's Mountain ? Who at Cowpens ? At Guilford Court House >' At Ninety-six ? At Eutaw Springs ? 222 During the summer of 1779, the American commissioners at Paris fitted out a squadron, which was placed under command of Paul Jones, a brave Scotch-American. He fell in with two English frigates convoying a fleet of merchantmen, attacked them, and after a bloody fight, captured both. — General Benedict Arnold had been court-martialed for appropriating public money, but was forgiven by Washington, and put by him in command of the fortress of West Point. Being filled with a desire for revenge, Arnold promised to General Clinton in New York, to deliver up West Point for a reward of 10,000 pounds sterling and a general's commission (1780 A. D.) The general sent Major Andre to him for a personal interview, who, when returning in disguise, was seized by three militiamen, and hung as a spy. Arnold escaped to a British vessel. Congress gave each of the captors a medal, and a pension for life. — In the course of the war the paper money of congress depreciated greatly in value. It took thirty, and at last fifty and sixty dollars of it to make one dollar in specie. It finally became impossible to purchase provisions with this currency. Washington had to take supphes from the surround- ing country. The winter of 1780-1 781 brought new sufferings to his soldiers, and 1,300 of the Pennsylvania fine left the camp and marched for Philadelphia in order to demand relief from congress. A committee of congress met them at Princeton, satisfied their de- mands, and they returned to camp. In order to better the con- dition of the army, congress appointed Robert Morris, a wealthy Philadelphia merchant, financial agent of the government. At last (178 1 A. D.) the decision of the long contest drew near. At Yorktown, in Virginia, Cornwallis, the British general, fortified himself, because Clinton, in New York, wished him to be on hand in case Washington should attack New York. Washington really had formed the design of attacking the British in New York ; but he now gave it up, as he thought he could accomplish more by striking a blow at Cornwallis in Virginia. He, however, continued What of Paul Jones ? Give an account of Benedict Arnold's treason. What of Major Andre ? How was he captured and punished ? How were his captors rewarded ? In what condition was the paper money of congress ? What bad effects did its depreciation produce ? What of the Pennsylvania soldiers ? Who was appointed financial agent ? Where was the contest of the United States with Great Britain finally decided ? W% did Cornwallis fortify himself at Yorktown ? What design had Washington really formed ? Why did he give it up ? In what manner did he deceive Clinton ? When did he march for York- town ? 223 to act so as to make Clinton think he was really going to attack New York. In September, when everything was ready, he suddenly drew off and made forced marches for Yorktown. Here, united with Lafayette, Kosciusko and the French general, he surrounded the British army from the land side, while the French fleet blocked up the British by sea. Cornwallis stood the siege for three weeks. Fmd- ing his situation hopeless, he surrendered his army of over 7,000 men with the implements of war (19th of October). After this blow England abandoned all hope of subduing her colonies. She offered them first a separate peace, and consented, as the demand was rejected, to general peace by the treaty of Paris (3d of Sept., 1783). By this treaty Great Britain acknowledged the independ- ence of the United States. Their boundaries were agreed upon as extending northward to the Great Lakes, and westward to the Missis- sippi. — The siege of Gibraltar, begun during this war by the Span- iards, is yet to be mentioned. Elliott, the English general, defended the fortress for three years, and finally destroyed their floating bat- teries with red-hot cannon balls. To the young republic the care of framing a suitable federal constitution still remained. A convention of delegates from all the States met for this purpose in Philadelphia. But when they con- sidered the old constitution (adopted in 1777, and called the "Arti- cles of Confederation"), they found it so faulty that it was resolved to form a new constitution. It was framed, and adopted by a majority of the people (i 787-1 789 A. D.) Washington was twice president of the United States, the capital of which received his name. He administered the laws with vigor and wisdom. After the expiration of his terms he returned to his country home at Mount Vernon, where he died in 1799, praised by his feflow-citizens as the founder of their liberty. In his last will he declared his slaves free, and bequeathed considerable sums for the foundation of a university, and a free school for poor children. His friend Frank- lin had died several years before (1790 A. D.) He also had be- queathed large sums for the establishment of useful institutions. How was the British army hemmed in by land and sea ? How long did Corn- wallis stand the siege ? Give an account of the capitulation. What was the result of the victory ? Give the date of the treaty. What did this treaty acknowl- edge ? State what is said of the boundaries of the United States. What of the siege of Gibraltar during this war ? What of the origin of the constitution of the United States ? Who was the first president ? What was his last will ? What legacies did he bequeath ? 224 The National Assembly of France publicly mourned his demise. Below his bust they wrote the words : " He seized the lightning from the heaven, and the sceptres from the tyrants " (eripuit fulgus: coelis and sceptra tyrannis). SEOOro OHAPTEE-HISTOKY OF CIVILIZATION. § 94. Political Condition of Europe. Constitution of the United States. In Europe the motive of the political actions was no longer religious inspiration, but narrow-minded policy. It was the princi- ple of politics to preserve the equilibrium between the separate States, especially between France and Austria. The nations were little more than a property of the governing families. Their liberty and independence was out of the question. The luxury of the courts and the standing armies consumed the blessings of nature and the fruits of labor. Agriculture and industry, in fact, throve,, but the landlords and the owners of factories, for the most part, earned the profit of the workmen. In Germany, especially, the two-fold yoke of the landlords and the sovereigns oppressed the people. The meetings of the diets were changed into mere con- gresses of embassadors ; and in Switzerland the levying of mercen- aries continued. In America, William Penn gave to his colony an excellent consti- tution ; the two principal points in his legislation were civil and relig- ious liberty. He declared to the people : " You shall be governed by laws of your own making. As liberty of conscience is a right which all men have received from nature with their existence, it is resolved that nobody shall be compelled to assist at any kind of pubHc wor- ship." Agriculture and commerce should be the principal founda- tion of his colony. Down to the Declaration of Independence, the colonies were all under the dominion of the crown of England but How did the National Assembly of France manifest its grief when Franklin died ? What words were written below his bust ? ^ 94. What was the motive for political actions in Europe ? What was the principle of politics ? How were the nations considered by the sovereigns .-* How were the blessings of the coun- tries consumed ? Who earned the profit, for the most part, from real estates and factories ? Who, in America, gave to his colony a good constitution ? What were its two principal points? What did he say about liberty of conscience? What should be the foundation of his colony ? 225 governed in different ways, mostly by royal governors, who were appointed by the crown ; some by proprietors, as Pennsylvania and Maryland ; otliers by charters given by the king, and granting certain political rights and privileges, as Massachusetts, Connecticut and Rhode Island. Penn's constitution in later time became the foundation of the" constitution of the United States. According to this document, they form a confederacy consisting of different independent repub- lics, which, by the ' general congress, are united. This congress has the right to make contracts, to declare war, to make general laws and to levy taxes. It is composed of the House of Representatives and of the Senate; its members are the delegates of the different States. The executive power belongs to the President of the United States; he is also the general-in- chief of the army and appoints, as a rule, the civil officers of the United States, with the consent of the Senate. Both he and the members of Congress are periodically elected. No law can be made against liberty of religion and the press, nor against the right to petition the government. The constitutions of the single States are framed upon similar principles. Every citizen is bound to mih- tary service. In the United States there is neither a State Church nor a caste of nobility. — Slavery was tolerated in the Southern States. § 95. Condition of the Church. Voltaire. J. J. Rousseau, Abolition of the Order of Jesuits. Rehgious toleration was almost unknown in Europe, proof of which is seen in the persecutions of the Protestants in France, Hungary and England (see § 85, § 87 and § 88). In the arch- bishopric of Saltzburg also 20,000 Protestants had to emigrate, because persecuted by the bishop (1731 A. D.) Single individuals were also persecuted. When J. J. Rousseau pubHshed his far-famed By whom were the colonies governed ? Especially Pennsylvania and Maiy- land ? Massachusetts, etc. ? Give the outlines of the Constitution of the United States. What do they form ? What rights has the congress ? How is it composed ? To whom belongs the executive power ? What other preroga- tives does the President possess ? What of the term of the offices of the Presi- dent and of the members of congress ? What of liberty of religion and the press ? Of the right of petition ? How are the constitutions of the single States framed ? To what service is every citizen bound ? Is there in the United States a State Church or a caste of nobility ? In what part of the Union was slavery tolerated? §95. What about religious toleration in Europe ? Give examples. How was J. J. Rousseau and his book " Emile" treated ? (15) 226 book " Emile/' it excited the hatred of the Catholic and Protestant clergy; the book was burned in Paris, torn into pieces by the hang- man in Geneva, and he himself banished from this city, though he was a citizen of it. North America was more tolerant as regards religious liberty. "William Penn and the charter of Rhode Island granted liberty of conscience, yet even here some instances of persecution occurred. When the Quakers settled among the Puritans in New England, violent religious quarrels arose between the two sects.' The Quakers were banished, and if they returned to the colony, flogged, imprisoned and executed. After some time capital punishment was abolished. Presumptive witches, too, were often accused of sorcery, and several were burned at the stake. — Sectarianism was increasing. In the Protestant Church the Quakers, Pietists and Herrenhuters took origin, and aside from many sound principles, they confessed also some eccentric opinions. About the middle of the eighteenth century the epoch of Rationalism began, as Hberal authors commenced to interpret the Bible in such a manner that its contents would harmonize with the dictates of reason. The Deists attacked every revealed religion, preserving only the belief in God (Deus). Voltaire, J. J. Rousseau and Thomas Paine are the most prominent among them. The for- mer wielded the weapons of wit and irony against superstition with great success; on the contrary, it was warmth of feehng by which Rousseau promoted religious enlightenment. Thomas Paine, in his book, "The Age of Reason," subjected the Bible to severe criticism. A hard blow was struck at papacy during this period by the abolition of the Order of Jesuits. As their general procurator in France transmitted a large sum for a debt to a trading-house in Marseilles, and the money was captured by the English, that house demanded payment from the entire Order in France; as it was refused, a law-suit was commenced against it, which brought on an examination of its inner organization. Choiseul, minister of Louis XV., found that the society was endangering the State ; it was there- fore abolished (1764 A. D.) Where, in America, was liberty of conscience granted ? How did the Puri- tans in New England deal with the Quakers and witches? What new sects originated in the Protestant Church ? What of Rationalism ? Of Deists ? Give the names of some prominent Deists. By what methods did Voltaire and Rousseau attack superstition ? By what incidents was the abolition of the Order of Jesuits in France, Spain and Portugal brought about ? What did the Order in France refuse to pay ? What minister caused its abolishment ? Why ? 227 The Spanish Jesuits had founded a State in Paraguay and Uru- guay, which they governed under Spain's sovereignty. As, at that time, Spain intended to cede some portions of that State to Portu- gal, the natives, led by the Jesuits, opposed the government and commenced war. Besides, the Jesuits in Portugal were said to have participated in a secret conspiracy against King Joseph I. Therefore, Pombal, the energetic minister of the king, required the pope to abolish the Order in Portugal, and as he did not consent to do it, the minister abolished it himself, and dispatched the Fathers to Rome. Their goods were confiscated; the w^ar in Paraguay caused also their suspension in Spain (1767 A. D.) In one day their colleges were closed, their treasures seized, and they them- selves carried to Rome. Pope Clemens XIV. (Ganganelli), at last abolished the Order in all countries (1773 A. D.) ; it was tolerated only in Russia and Prussia. ^ 96. Arts and Sciences. Inventions. Cook's Voyages of Discovery. Civilization spread in Europe, affecting even the lower ranks. New universities were established, and public libraries, observatories, botanical gardens, academies, normal schools, ladies' seminaries and institutions for the deaf and dumb founded. In the United States were founded, during this period. Harvard University (1636 A. D.), William and Mary College (1692 A. D.), Yale College (1700 A. D.) and Brown University (1764 A. D.) The first newspaper was printed in Boston (1704 A. D.) In France, under Louis XIV., the sciences and arts celebrated their golden era. All were cultivated in special academies. French became the favorite language of the courts and well-educated peo- ple. Paris was the center of modern culture. Some of the most renowned artists and scholars of that country were Peter Corneille (le Cid) and Racine (Iphigenie), tragic poets, and Moliere, the greatest writer of comedies. His best plays are "The Miser" and What had the Spanish Jesuits founded in Paraguay and Uruguay? Who commenced war against the government ? Who were the leaders of the war ? How were they punished? What was the reason of their suspension in Por- tugal ? Who abolished the Order in all countries ? § 96. What was the condi- tion of civilization in Europe ? By what institutes was it promoted ? What universities and colleges were founded in the United States ? Under whom did arts and sciences, in France, celebrate their golden era ? Which was the favorite language of the courts ? What city was the center of modern culture ? Name tragic poets. Who wrote the best comedies ? 228 ** Tartuffe." In the latter play he represents a hypocrite who, under the mask of piety, hides a vicious life. Others on the hst were : Boileau, the French Horace ; La Fontaine and Florian, fabulists ; Fenelon, author of Telemaque, a novel which was translated into all languages of Europe; Montesquieu, who in his work, "Spirit of the- Laws, " recommends England's constitution as the best ; the natu- ralist Bufibn, and the two philosophers, Voltaire and J. J. Rousseau (who both died in the same year, 1778 A. D.) Voltaire was also poet, historian and mathematician. Some of his best works are : "The Henriade," an epic poem, in which he celebrates Henry IV. ; his plays, " Death of Caesar" and "Zaire, " and the life of Charles XII. Rousseau wrote " Emile, " and " The Social Contract." The first work treats of education and instruction ; the second of demo- cratic constitution. Philosophers : Bayle and Descartes ; pulpit orators, Bossuet, Bourdaloue and Massillon ; novelists, Le Sage (the adventures of " Gil Bias, " and the " Limping Devil," both satiric fictions, picturing the dissolute manners of his age), etc. Both works received much praise. The gigantic work of' the encyclopedists d'Alembert, Diderot and others comprises all sciences and arts. England emulated France in superiority of its civilization, and even surpassed it in political eloquence, as well as in the mathemat- ical and philosophical sciences. Some of her poets were : Gold- smith ("The Vicar of Wakefield," "The Deserted Village," "She Stoops to Conquer "), Young, Pope (" The Rape of the Lock"), Richard B. Sheridan ("The School for Scandal"), Thomson, etc. The latter, in the Seasons, described the charms of nature. Essay- ists : Addison ("The Spectator"), Steele ("The Tattler"), and Dean Swift. Philosophers: Locke (Essay on Human Under- standing), etc. Among the parliamentary orators were : William Pitt, father and son. Fox and Burke. Noted astronomers : Hallai, Newton (who already, when twenty-four years old, made great discoveries in mathematics), and Herschel, a German, who resided in London, and aided by his gigantic telescope, gready enlarged the knowledge of the starry heavens.- Among the Americans FrankHn excelled in philosophical and practical writings. Thomas Paine, by his theological and political Who is represented by " Tartuffe ? " What fabulists ? What of Telemaque ? What did Montesquieu, Voltaire and Rousseau M^rite ? What the encyclopedists ? In what sciences did England surpass France? Name some English poets, philosophers, orators and astronomers; some American authors ; some German mathematicians, philosophers, poets, pedagogues and composers. 229 works (" Common Sense, " "The Crisis"). Holland: Spinoza, one of the greatest philosophers of his age (1677 A. D). Germany was sHghtly less advanced in civiHzation. Still, it already had great mathematicians, e. g.^ Fahrenheit, and sagacious philosophers, as Thomasius, who fearlessly opposed the trials of witches, Leibniz, Lessing, but especially Kant. The most eminent poets were Lessing, author of the plays " Emilia Galotti," " Minna von Barnhelm," and " Nathan the Wise." In the latter he exposes the sad consequences of superstition, and recommends religious toleration. There were besides, Klopstock, author of " The Mes- siade," Wieland, Goethe and Schiller (see § 133)- Basedow and Salzman deserved well in the department of education. Celebrated composers were Gluck, Joseph Haydn and Mozart. — In Sweden Linne classified all plants according to the number of their stamens. In Italy sciences and arts were sinking ; but still the poets Gozzi and Alfieri, the mathematicians Cassini and Toricelli, and the statu- ary Canova were prominent. In this period were invented : The barometer, the thermometer, the air-pump and the lightning rod (by FrankHn, 1752 A. D.); the balloon by Montgolfiere (1783 A. D.), and the steam engine by Watt (1764 A. D.) Under George III., James Cook made his great voyages of dis- covery. In his youth he was a sailor, then became crew's cook, and later assistant of the pilot. Understanding the advantage of mathematical knowledge, he provided instruction for himself by^ his savings, and became a great navigator. His first voyage was to the Pacific Ocean (i 768-1 771 A. D.) In New Zealand he dis- covered hemp ; on the second voyage he discovered New Caledonia, South Georgia and the Sandwich land. On the third, he should examine if it was possible to pass from the Atlantic through Behr- ing's Straits into the Pacific Ocean, and if, by this passage the East Indies could be reached sooner than by sailing around the Cape of Good Hope. He found in that northern region, in the midst of summer, impenetrable masses of ice, so that he was persuaded that Who was the great German philosopher ? What does Lessing recommend in ■** Nathan the Wise ? " What renowned botanist of Sweden classified all plants ? What eminent poets, mathematicians and statuaries in Italy ? What inventions were made in this period ? Who was James Cook ? In what way did he be- come a great navigator ? In what ocean did he make his first voyage ? What discoveries did he make on the second voyage? What was the object of the third voyage ? Why did he not find his enterprise practicable ? Where was he killed ? 230 his enterprise was impracticable. He afterwards discovered the Sandwich Islands, but was there killed in a quarrel with the savages (1779 A. D.) KXERCISES. Biographies: Peter I. — (a) his self-education by journeys, {d) his reforms, (c) his conduct towards his domestic enemies (towards his sister, first wife, son and body-guards); against foreign enemies (Charles XII. and the Turks); (d) his dealings with Menshikoff and Catharine. William Penn. — [a] founder of a colony in Pennsylvania, (d) constitution of the colony. Frederic II. — (a) in the Silesian wars, (^) in the seven years' war, (c) at the partition of Poland, (d) in peace. Joseph II. — (a) his political and religious reforms, [d) their results. Washington. — (a) in war, (d) during peace. Franklin — (a) a self-educated man, (d) a popular author and inventor, (c) the representative of the colonies in England, {d) embassador in France, (<») his end. — Describe the contest of the United States for independence under the following headings: i. Causes of the war. 2. Forces of the British. 3. Forces of the Americans, giving the names of their most important patriots and allies. 4. Their victories. 5. Their independence. Describe the battle at Bunker Hill. The constitution of the United States. In what countries were the Protestants persecuted ? When were the wars of the Spanish and Austrian succession waged ? And when the seven years' and the American wars ? In what wars did England and Austria jointly fight against France ? How many years elapsed from St. Bartholomew to the first partition of Poland ? How long did Louis XIV., Peter I. and Frederic II. govern ? How many years after Louis XIV. did Peter I. die ? Give the names of two renowned French authors who died in the same year. 231 NINTH PERIOD FrotT] the French[ Revolutioq to the Second Peace of Paris. Revolutioq and Political Reforms iq France. Wars Caused by It. Fronq 1789 to 1815 A. D. A. TEENOH EEVOLUTION. 1. POLITICAL EEFORMS IN FRANOE-1789 to 1792 A. D. g 97. Causes and Effects of the French Revolution. The revolution of the British colonies in America, in which France took such an energetic part, also excited in this country a longing for similar rights and liberties as the brave Americans had acquired. Ingenious authors like Montesquieu, Voltaire and Rous- seau enlightened the people concerning their rights. But the prin- cipal causes of the great revolution which shook not only France, but the whole of Europe, were the great demoralization among the higher ranks of that country, the defective organization of the State, and the utter ruin of its finances. Nowhere had corruption of morals permeated everything so deeply as among the higher castes of France. Luxury and volup- tuousness had their sway in the courts of Louis XIV. and of the dis- sipated Louis XV. Unbounded were the expenses of these kings. Besides, nobility and clergy were ignorant and haughty. The kings governed like tyrants ; the offices were venal, the tribunals hable to bribery. The public charges were divided very unequally. While the nobility possessed immense property and took hold of all high civil and military employments, they contributed almost nothing to the § 97- What were the causes of the French revolution ? How were the morals of the higher classes in France ? What of the expenses of the kings ? Were the public charges divided equally ? What of the possessions of the nobility and clergy ? To whom did the tithes belong ? What did the nobility and clergy contribute to the public taxes ? 232 public taxes. The numerous clergy held the finest part of the country, collected the tithes in the whole realm, and offered nothing for that to the State but voluntary, insignificant presents. Besides, there was an army of privileged ones who were largely exempted from taxation. The people, on the contrary, succumbed under the pressure of the public charges. Land-taxes, poll-taxes, property- taxes and a hundred other taxes were devised to exhaust their resources. The peasant, especially, was obliged to pay tithe; besides, he was a bondman, and forced to do socage-service. And finally, the common people had to do military service, while noble and distinguished men performed it only at their own free w411. The last shock, which caused the outburst of the revolution, was given by the ruin of the finances; for the pubUc debts had increased to an enormous degree, and the income of the State did not any longer suffice, by a large sum, to cover the expenses. The people could not give any more, and the nobility and clergy would not, therefore revolution began. Unhappy, indeed, were its first effects upon France and Europe. Still, the former gained, forever, a free constitution, and in the other countries of Europe the rights of the citizens ever since were more highly appreciated. I 98. National Assembly. The Third Estate. Mirataeau. Louis XVL, called the Long-desired, ascended the throne in 1774. His minister of finances, Necker, the friend of the people, demanded a limitation of the expenses of the court, and a reform of the system of taxes; but the court and the higher orders opposed this. He, therefore, resigned his office, and, regretted by the whole nation, left the country (1781 A. D.) New loans were procured, but finally, when it was impossible to longer meet the exigencies of the government, the king called an assembly of the notables — the chiefs of the nobihty and clergy, and some deputies of the towns — in order to deliberate with them on the necessary ways and means in order to save the State. As the minis- ter of finances proposed a general taxation of the nobiHty and clergy, as well as of the commons, they vehemently opposed it, and Was the peasant free ? What about military service ? What gave to the revolution the last shock ? What were the first effects of the revolution ? What its final ^in ? | 98. What did Minister Necker demand ? Who opposed him ? What followed after his resignation? Whom was the king obliged to call? What for ? What did the minister of finances propose ? How was his demand received ? 233 compelled him to run away. The nation demanded the convoca- tion of the States- General, because it expected no relief but from that body, and the king, at last, yielded to the demand. Necker, too, was re-appointed minister of the finances. At his advice, the king declared himself to be ready to give up his unlimited power, and called 600 delegates of the third estate, and 600 more, partly of the nobility and partly of the clergy. They convened in Versailles, but the deputies of the commons were sHghted. They were not admitted into the rooms of the king, like those of the higher orders. They were obliged to wait for a time in a shed, etc. The clergy and nobility insisted that there should be three assemblies, each possessing a veto on the acts of the others, while the commons demanded that ail should be united in one general assembly, without any distinction of orders. After long, useless negotiations the commons declared themselves the " National Assembly," representing the great majority of the nation. The people were delighted by this declaration, but the king was so provoked that he gave orders to stop the sessions of the diet, and locked up the hall of their meetings. Then the commons assem- bled in the tennis-court, and swore rather to die than to separate be- fore the promised State reform was accompHshed. The majority of the clergy now united with them. Now the king himself made his appearance in their midst, and expressed his displeasure to them, commanding them to vote by orders, in three special assemblies, and to separate. He went off. The deputies still remained in their seats. Then the royal master of ceremonies came, and repeated the king's order to evacuate the hall. In this decisive moment Count Mirabeau rose, exclaiming : " Report to those who sent you that we are here by the will of the nation, and that nothing but the force of bayonets can drive us away from our seats." At the same time the delegates declared all who would assail them traitors of the country. The king, seeing the firmness of the commons, yielded, What did the nation demand ? What did the king do ? W^ho was re-ap- pointed ? What number of delegates was called ? Where did they meet ? How were the deputies of the commons treated ? How many assemblies did the nobility and clergy want ? What did the commons demand ? What declar- ation did they make ? Who was provoked by their declaration ? What orders did he give ? What next of the commons ? What did they swear to risk ? Who appeared in their midst ? What oi-der did the master of ceremonies de- liver? What did Mirabeau reply? What did the delegates then declare? What was the final effect of the declaration ? 234 because a general insurrection was to be feared, and ordered the two other houses to unite with them. I 99. Taking the Bastile. Abolition of Feudal Servitude. But the king had only simulated acquiescence; he collected 50,000 men, for the most part foreign troops, around Paris and Ver- sailles, with the" intention of dispersing the National Assembly and of captunng its boldest speakers. The city of Paris was vehemently agitated by this measure ; even the women exhorted to a vigorous resistance. The French guards swore they would not fight the citizens, and other national troops followed their example. The National Assembly requested the king in several addresses to with- draw th§ foreign troops, in order that they might be able to deliberate in a free and undisturbed way ; he proposed to the Assembly to with- draw to another place, refmote from the capital ; but Mirabeau in- sisted upon the demand that he should withdraw the troops. The king persisted in his refusal, dismissed Necker, and selected ministers from the party of the court. The dismission of Necker was the signal of the general insurrec- tion in Paris, where the dissolution of the National Assembly and an attack of the foreign troops was feared. The alarm-bells were sounded, arms hurriedly forged, 30,000 guns taken from the hospital of the invalids, and in two days 60,000 men armed. Now the out- cry was heard : " No peace nor liberty as long as the Bastile is standing!" The bands rushed upon the fortress (the 14th of July), and, assisted by the French guards, after a few hours took the place which the court imagined to be impregnable. Its conquest cost the life of many citizens ; but the garrison was put to the sword, the old bulwark of tyranny was demolished, and songs of liberty resounded throughout the city and the whole country. In Versailles, meanwhile, festivals were arranged, at which the princes and princesses lavished presents and caresses on the soldiers. The night from the 14th to the 15th of July was set down for the execution of a violent measure. The commander of the royal troops had received full power to carry it out. The king should §99. Wherefore did the king collect an army? How did this measure affect Paris and the French guards ? What did the National Assembly request of the king? What measures did he take? Give an account of the insurrec- tion in Paris, and of the capture of the Bastile. What was meanwhile arranged in Versailles ? What violent measure was to be executed in the night of the 14th of July ? 285 take to flight, the National Assembly should be dissolved, and the royal power restored. A carriage was continually kept ready for the flight, and the body-guards did not undress for several days. The National Assem- bly knew all these projects. Afraid of being dispersed and of see- ing the States-Hall forcibly locked up, it was also sitting during night. The capture of the Bastile released it from all alarm ; finally, the king removed the troops and again recalled Necker. Immediately after the 14th of J uly, the noblemen left the country in large bands; the princes of the royal house set the example. It was their design to return with open force, and, supported by the foreign countries, to repossess themselves of their old command, and to be revenged by the blood of their enemies. In order to baffle their purpose, national guards were organized in the whole realm ; in eight days three millions of citizens were armed. Instead of the Hly, the three-colored cockade (a ribbon on the hat) was worn. In Paris, the populace sacrificed many victims to its vengeance. Hunger, too, contributed to its excesses. Party-leaders augmented the commotion. The duke of Orleans especially belonged to these. He was a vicious man who, longing for the crown, had bought many followers among the populace. In the provinces also anarchy pre- vailed. The peasants, crying, " Peace to the cottages ! War to the palaces!" marched against the castles of the noblemen, against monasteries and toll-houses, and destroyed them. Gangs of rob- bers, committing arson, passed through the land. The National Assembly took serious .measures against the ex- cesses of the multitude; but Count Noailles pointed out that the disturbances and the sufferings of the nation generally were caused by the feudal services, under the pressure of which it must sink down. He, therefore, motioned their abolishment. All the members of the Assembly enthusiastically consented to this. In future there ought to be only one nation and one realm. In a few hours the fetters fell which the French nation had borne since the middle ages. Now, in the memorable evening session of the 4th of August, were abolished : Servitude, the torture, every kind of socage, the juris- Why did the Assembly also sit during night ? What of the emigrants ? Who set the example for them ? What was their design ? Why were national guards organized ? What cockade was worn ? What excesses happened in Paris and in the provinces ? What buildings did the peasants destroy ? Wha augmented the commotion ? What duke especially? How did the Assembly act then ? What did Count Noailles point out ? What did he motion ? What services were then abolished ? 236 diction of the landlords, the tithes, the privileges of the higher orders in the payment of taxes and in the claims of offices and dig- nities, the venality of the tribunals, all privileges of single provinces, towns and corporations, etc. The clergymen, immediately after that, retracted what they had granted in this night ; but they were answered that the lands held by the clergy were national property. ^ lOO. Conducting Louis to Paris. The king soon caused troops to again come to Versailles. At a banquet given to them by the body-guards, the queen presented the Dauphm in her arms. They drank, with drawn swords, the health of the royal family. The national cockade was trampled Tinder foot, and the court-ladies distributed the white cockade. After three days the festival was repeated. This caused general indignation in Paris. Added to this, the refusal of the king to approve several articles of the new constitution, the rumor of his imminent flight, and of the secret preparations for a counter revolu- tion, finally famine and want of bread in the capital, the city believed there would be no end of its apprehensions till king and National Assembly were again in the midst of it. The poor, be- sides, hoped for bread and support from the presence of tlie king. Several thousand women of the suburbs marched to the town- house, where they armed themselves, and from there, led by a citi- zen, advanced towards Versailles. They were followed by a crowd of savage men who were armed with pikes and clubs, in order to make the body-guards, but especially the queen, whose bad influence upon the king was known, feel their hatred. Finally the national guards also set out to conduct the king to Paris. Lafayette, their commander, went with them only by compulsion, and in order to prevent mischief. The women, who arrived first, expressed their distress to the king, having had no bread for their children for three days, and demanded of him, together with the National Assembly, to declare that he would accept all articles upon which it had already resolved, and go to Paris. The king so declared. At ih'id- Mention some of them. In what night was this accomplished? Who re- tracted the grant? ^ loo. Relate the doings of the body-guards and of the queen at a banquet. Whom did the city desire to have in her midst ? For what reasons ? Who marched to the town-house and from there to Versailles ? Who followed the women? Why? Who set out finally? Why? What did the women demand ? 237 night the national guards also arrived. At dawn the savage crowd mentioned before, for plunder, assailed the castle, broke into the apartments of the queen, who hardly could escape into the room of the king, and murdered several body-guards. But now Lafayette met the enraged mob, drove them away, and restored peace. The king allowed himself to be led to Paris by the multitude. The heads of two life-guards were carried on pikes in front of the pro- cession. The National Assembly soon followed. Louis protested again that he would give up the rights of a sovereign, and become the limited chief of a republic. The nation received his declaration with exultation. The National Assembly earnestly continued its task. In future there ought to be only one chamber of the delegates. To the king the executive power and the right of the veto for a term of two legislatures was conceded, and his person declared inviolable ; but the ministers should be responsible. The church property and the crown-demesne were declared national property, and sold in order to reimburse the national debt. In this manner bankruptcy of the State was avoided. Then the aboHshment of all ecclesiastical orders and convents followed. The Church ought to cease to be a State in the State. The sustenance of the king and clergy was honorably provided for. The administration of justice was created anew, especially the jury instituted, citizenship conferred upon the Israelites, and all titles, escutcheons, and marks of distinction of the nobility were abrogated. The king consented to all these reso- lutions of the Assembly. On the anniversary of rfie capture of the Bastile (14th of July^ 1790 A. D.), a general festival of the covenant was celebrated in the Mars-field at Paris, at which the deputies of the national guards and of the troops of the line, the king and the National Assembly swore to maintain the constitution. The same oath was taken the same day by all citizens of France, assembled in large camps. The priests alone, for the most part, refused it. They even provoked the people against the National Assembly, and, in the What did the savage crowd perpetrate at dawn ? Who restored peace ? Wha led the king to Paris ? What of the heads of the two life-guards ? What did the Assembly continue ? What power should the king have ? Who should be responsible ? How was bankruptcy of the State avoided ? What of convents ? For whose sustenance was honorably provided ? What of a jury ? Of titles and other distinctions of the nobility ? Who consented to these resolutions of the Assembly? How was the anniversary of the capture of the Bastile celebrated? Who swore allegiance to the constitution ? Who refused the oath ? name of God, preached public revolt. The pope praised their obstinacy, and declared the employments of those who took the oath forfeited. 2. EEVOLUTIONART WAKS. ^ lOl. Flight of the King. The Constitution Finished. While the National Assembly zealously labored for the welfare of the country, the king again planned his flight. Large sums of money were put aside. At the frontier of Luxemburg, where he intended to flee, an army was ready to receive him, and on differ- ent points of the road leading there, divisions of troops were placed for his protection. His intention was, if his flight would succeed, to return with the emigrants, and to again subdue the nation with the assistance of the army and of the German emperor. First the women departed. Then (the 20th of June) the king, the queen, their children, the Count of Provence (oldest brother of the king, and later King Louis XVIIL), and his sister suddenly disappeared. In a declaration left by Louis, and written by himself, he rejected the resolutions of the National Assembly he had before this ratified, and made known his design to overturn the new organization of the State. France heard the news of his flight calmly. The National Assembly, which was sitting continu- ously for seven days and nights, hastily made the necessary preparations for the government of the realm, and ordered all per- sons to be stopped who would leave the country. Meanwhile, the king had proceeded -as far as St. Menehould, in Lorraine. Here postmaster Drouet recognized him; his son, in the midst of night, hastened before him to Varennes. The citizens of this town blocked up the bridge over which the king had to ride, and took him prisoner. Now the tocsins were sounded all round, and the king had to return to Paris between the files of the national guards. On his arrival there a death-like silence prevailed. Only now and then the cry was audible : " God save the nation ! " All heads remained covered ; the arms were lowered, and when Louis alighted at' his palace, single voices were heard : " To the lantern ! " What did the priests preach? What of the pope? ^ 10 1. Give an account of the designs and arrangements of the king. Who departed first ? Who after- wards ? What declaration did Louis leave ? What preparations did the Assem- bly make ? Who took the king prisoner ? What had he to do ? How was he received in Paris ? 239 In the meantime he was suspended from his office ; still, the efforts of the moderate party were successful, and he was soon reinstated. After many domestic storms and obstacles, the National Assem- bly finally finished its grand work, and declaring the revolution ended, it left to the king to designate the place and time for examining the constitution, and, as he pleased, either to accept or reject it. He gave it his approval, and confirmed it by oath. Fes- tivals were celebrated in the whole realm, and a general amnesty proclaimed. Besides the already enumerated articles, the constitu- tion further granted personal liberty, equality before the law, liberty of conscience and of the press. The National Assembly dissolved itself, and the Legislative took its place (September 30th). Not long before this Count Mirabeau, the soul of the National Assembly and the idol of the people, had died. When the nobiHty, in the election of the ordres, had passed him unheeded, he took refuge with the commons, was chosen delegate by .them, and defended their interests with the greatest energy. He was the first one interred in the church of St. Genevieve, the temple of honor of the great French citizens. This privilege, after him, was conferred upon Voltaire, Rousseau, and others. But when, in later times, his secret correspondence with the king and (jueen was discovered, his remains were again removed from the temple. I 102. Legislative Assembly. War of Austria and Prus- sia. Suspension of the King. The Jacobins. The emigrants, the royal princes at their head, together with the foreign sovereigns, rose against the new constitution. On the fron- tier of the realm 30,000 emigrants stood in arms, inciting the for- eign monarchs to wage war against their country. Several of the latter promised them assistance ; Emperor Francis II. threatened it most vehemently of all. The National Assembly had in vain pro- tested its pacific intentions to give up forever all wars of conquest, and inserted the protestation even in the document of the constitu- tion ; it had in vain avoided everything that could offend the em- What could he choose to do when the Assembly had finished the work of the constitution ? What did he do ? What further rights did this document grant ? Who took the place of the Assembly? What of Mirabeau ? Where was he in- terred ? When were his remains removed from the temple ? \ 102. Who rose against the new constitution ? How many emigrants stood in arms on the frontier ? What monarchs promised them assistance ? What had the National Assembly protested ? 240 peror ; he was bent upon war. When France demanded that the electoral prince of Treves should remove the armed emigrants, and in case of refusal, threatened war against him, the emperor sent him auxiliary forces, allied with Frederic William II., king of Prus- sia, and posted several corps of the army along the French frontier. At last he directly declared that he and his ally had resolved to re- establish the royal power in France. Withal, he called the rulers of that country a furious party, endeavoring to overturn all govern- ments. After this declaration, the Legislative assembly almost unanimously resolved to wage war against the sovereign Francis, not against his subjects; on the contrary, it promised to these friendship and protection. (1792 A. D.) The king of Prussia, sev- eral other German sovereigns, and Sardinia, supported the emperor. Louis made defective and slow preparations for war, secretly enter- taining the hope of seeing the arms of the allies victorious. The war at the beginning was unfortunate for France. The duke of Brunswick, commander of the united armies of Austria and Prussia, joined besides by 20,000 emigrants, invaded the country and directed his march, without delay, towards the capital. In a proclamation he ordered the nation to repent its acts and to submit, threatening, in case of resistance, punishment and utter destruc- tion. But this outrageous address only tended to further inflame the indignation of the people. New multitudes, determined to live and die for liberty, rushed into the camps. Dumouriez, at Grandpre, in the Champagne, sustained an attack of the more numerous enemies for three days, and Kellerman held his ground at Valmy against the terrible fire of the Prussian cannons. After this the allied army retreated, for the National Convent had declared that it was beneath the dignity of a free people to negotiate with the despots as long as they remained on the soil of liberty. The national army followed the enemies, and leagued with tempests and rains, annihilated most of them. France, after a few months, was entirely released from the foreign mercenaries. In the meantime, Louis XVI. was no longer king. The National What of the electoral prince of Treves ? Of the king of Prussia ? Of Francis II.? What did the Legislative Assembly declare against the latter? Who supported him? What preparations did Louis make? How was the commencement of the war for France ? What was the nation, in a proclamation, ordered to do ? What was the effect of this proclamation ? What of Dumouriez and Kellerman ? What were the allies forced to do ? What was the fate of their armies ? 241 Assembly had already summoned the emigrants to return ; the Legislative Assembly repeated the summons, menacing them with severe penalties. It likewise threatened the priests who declined to take the oath upon the constitution, with the loss of their salary, and imprisonment, if they caused revolts. The king refused his appro- bation to both decrees, and only suffered unsworn priests in his presence. Embittered by this resistance, the suburbs of Paris rose in revolt. When the proclamation of the duke of Brunswick appeared, the country was declared to be in danger, and the insur- rection began again (Aug. lo, 1792 A. D.) The king sought shelter in the hall of the Legislative Assembly, the royal palace having been taken by storm, and most of the Swiss guards, composed of about 1,000 men, were massacred. Several thousands of the people were also killed. The Assembly then declared Louis suspended, for the reason that it was impossible to save liberty and the country in the midst of so many domestic and foreign dangers, as long as the executive power was in the hands of a ruler who almost openly conspired with the enemies of the people. A National Convent ought to govern in the name of the sovereign people. The nation and the army consented to this resolution. Lafayette, summoning his army to protect the king and the constitution, was forsaken by the troops and compelled to flee ; he was seized by the Austrians and kept in captivity for several years, till Napoleon released him. The nearer the enemies advanced, the more infuriate grew the inhabitants of the capital. The king and his family were imprisoned in the Temple ; several priests who had refused to take the oath, and the followers of the king who had fought against the people were horribly killed, and many citizens proscribed. The Legislative Assembly had lost its power ; the National Convent took its place (the 2 1 St of September). The club of the Jacobins (sans-culottes)* was much to be blamed for these atrocious deeds. It was so called from the con- vent where its members assembled. It had been founded by What decrees did the king refuse to confirm? What of the suburbs of Paris ? When did the insurrection begin again ? Mention the sad consequences of it. Who was then suspended ? Why ? Who should govern instead of the king ? What accident happened to Lafayette ? Who released him ? Wlio was imprisoned in the Temple ? What of the refractory priests and the followers of the king ? What body politique took the place of the Legislative ? What club was much to be blamed* for the atrocities committed ? * The nick-name sans-culottes (without breeches) was first given by the court party to the poorest class of people ; afterwards it meant an extreme republican, a Jacobin. (16) 242 patriotic deputies, in order to oppose the monarchic club, and became the leader of many similar societies in France ; but immoral and blood-thirsty men later joined it and corrupted its original spirit. Marat, Danton and Robespierre were among the most furious Jacobins. ^ 103. National Convent. Execution of Louis XVI. First Coalition War. Civil War. Reign of Terror. The Convent, at its first session, abolished the royal dignity and declared France a republic. The party of the Mountainists, so called because they occupied the highest seats in the convention, assisted by the Jacobins, soon demanded also the life of the king. The Convent, mainly relying on secret papers which were discov- ered in an iron safe behind a wall of the Tuileries, accused Louis of having conspired against the liberty and security of the State, and condemned him to death by a majority of only 26 votes out of 721, and the sentence was promptly executed (the 21st of January, 1793 A. D.)* The committee of public welfare, composed of nine members, then assumed a kind of dictatorship ; a second committee ought to take care of the inner safety of the realm. After the execution of the king, the fall of the Girondists followed. They constituted the moderate party of the Convent who had not desired the death of the king, and were called so from the department of Gironde, by which their ablest members had been elected. The pressure of domestic and foreign perils rendered the nation not only blood- thirsty and even partly insane, but also daring, despising dangers and death. Irrimediately after the frontiers had been freed, her armies, led by the brave Generals Custine and Dumouriez, invaded the territories of the enemies, and conquered Savoy, Belgium, and several fortresses in Germany. The nations, tired of their sover- eigns, received them everywhere with joy. But the republic, intoxi- What was the origin of its name ? What was its spirit at first ? Name some of its most furious members. § 103. What did the Convent decree at its first session? Explain the name "'Mountainists." Whose life did they demand? Relying on what papers ? Was Louis condemned to death by a great majority of votes ? How did Thomas Paine vote ? When was the king executed ? What two committees were established ? Whose fall ' followed then ? Explain the name "Girondist." What of the warfare of the French nation? What coun- tries did it conquer ? * * Thomas Paine, at that time a member of the Convent, did not vote for the death of the king. 243 cated by victory, forgot its former moderation, craved for conquests, challenged the sovereigns and the nobility of all countries, and offered her alliance to all nations. In this way France declared war against Spain, Holland and England (in February and March, 1793 A. D.) Victory again left her banners. An attack of Holland was a failure. The Netherlands also were again lost. Sardinia, too, was partly lost. Two Spanish armies and a Portuguese auxiliary corps invaded France. Other enemies took the frontier fortresses of the country. Finally, the flame of civil war burst out and spread everywhere within the country. The inhabitants of La Vendee were fighting for the nobility and clergy against the armies of the republic, defeating them many times. The northern and southern departments rose against the Mountainists. Toulon sur- rendered, in order to escape their vengeance, together with immense stores and the largest fleet of the realm, to the English and Span- iards, and proclaimed the son of Louis king. More than one-third of the nation waged open war against the Convent. The Convent, however, did not lose courage with so many ene- mies against it. The nation was summoned en masse ; while the younger citizens marched against the enemy, the rest prepared for cases of emergency. All France became one camp ; everywhere the alarm-bell was sounded ; everywhere arms were forged. Hun- ' dred thousands should, at all points, attack the enemy, and give bat- tle upon battle. Carnot, a man havmg the mind of the ancient republicans, was the soul of this new war system. The repubHc was declared to be for so long a time in a state of revolution till the foreign powers would acknowledge her independence, and a revo- lutionary government was established (December 4th), headed by the committee of the public welfare. All quaked before it; all its measures were adopted. Robespierre was its head. The government of the committee of welfare was terrible, but it saved France. The insurrection in the northern departments was rapidly suppressed. In La Vendee the war should be finished within twenty days; this was the order of the Convent. The pop- What was the republic craving for ? Against whom did it declare war ? What of Holland ? Of the Netherlands ? Of Sardinia ? Who invaded France ? In what provinces did civil war break out ? What seaport surrendered ? What arrangements did the Convent make ? What of the new military system ? Of Carnot? Of the revolutionary government? Who was the head of the com- mittee of public welfare ? How were the rebels brought to terras in the north- ern departments ? In La Vendee ? 244 ulation all around was summoned ; fresh troops drew near and van- quished the mutineers, even before the time fixed. In fact, Bre- tagne now declared also for them, and England prepared a descent for their support. Eighty thousand new combatants replaced the killed, gained several victories, and already drew near to Paris ; the larger armies, however, speedily advanced 'upon them and struck the blow of perdition (December 12, 13); 20,000 dead royalists covered the batde-field. A column of troops, called " the infernal,'^ passed through the country, destroying everything by fire, and the captives, in bands, were killed by swords, cannons, or in the waves of the Loire, into which they were plunged through the movable bottoms of ships. The southern provinces were also compelled to submit and feel the rage of the victors. A special revolutionary army, with the guillotine, passed through the whole country, mur- dering all who did not confess its principles. During eighteen months over a miUion people lost their lives by civil war ; as many were killed by the foreign wars. Then, by the guillotine, expired:: Queen Marie Antoinette ; Elizabeth, the king's sister ; and many other people of the nobiUty; the imprisoned Girondists, Bailly, Lafayette's virtuous friend ; the Generals Custine, Westerman, etc. The unhappy son of Louis died in the Temple, in consequence of entire neglect and rough treatment (1795 A. D.) But the duke of Orleans, Danton, and other Mountainists, were also executed. Marat was assassinated by the young heroine, Charlotte Corday. The manners of the nation grew savage. A rude tone pre- vailed in the associations ; education and instruction were neglected ; academies and literary societies abolished ; the monuments of art destroyed. Women mounted guard in the Convent. The Christian religion was also abrogated, and in its stead the Service of Reason, per- sonified by a beautiful female, with theatrical show, established. In the meantime, the armies of the republic annihilated also the foreign enemies. Two great victories, at Hondshouten and Mau- beuge, on the banks of the Sambre, drove the allies back from the northern frontier (Sept. 8th, 1793 A. D.) Next year, Pichegru and In Bretagne? Give an account of the infei-nal column; of the revolutionary army passing through the country. How many lives were lost during eighteen months by civil war; how many in the foreign wars ? Give the names of some persons who were guillotined. What of the son of Louis XVI.? Of Marat ? What of the manners of the nation ? Of the Christian religion ? Of the cult of Reason ? What of the victories of the French at Hondshouten and Maubeuge ? What of Pichegru and Jourdan ? 245 Jourdan contended successfully. Belgium was once more con- quered; blow after blow was dealt upon the enemies, until they were everywhere compelled to retire over the Rhine. Pichegru, in the midst of winter, boldly passed over the frozen streams of Holland, and with a small army, which was in want of clothing and food, conquered the whole country in three weeks. He was favored by the people ; these hated -their obtruded governor, who took to flight, and the power of the aristocrats was overthrown. The rep- resentatives of the people assembled, liberty-poles were set up, the people declared sovereign, and the country changed to a republic, •confederating with France (1795 A. D.) Still it was obliged to give up to the latter half of its army and part of its fleet. In Italy, too, the French republic won the victory (1794 A. D.), and here,- also, the aflection of the people made her conquests easier. Even greater was her success in Spain, where Dupommier gained the vic- tory, by the loss of his life, in a battle lasting three days (November 17-20), and several fortresses were taken. Quaking, Spain con- cluded peace. Soon after this splendid success of the French arms the Terrorists were overthrown. § 104. Downfall of the Reign of Terror. Directorial Government. The Coalition War Continued. Napoleon Bonaparte. The cult of Reason did not last long. It was derogated, on mo- tion of Robespierre, by the Convent, and the acknowledgment of a Supreme Being proclaimed (1794 A. D.) He also caused festivals to be appointed to Virtue, Justice and Friendship. Still he con- tinued his executions, thus contradicting those expressions of humanity. Finally, even the Convent got tired of, his tyranny. When he would again proscribe a great number of his adversaries, the Convent took him prisoner; his foflowers, however, released him, but he was again seized, and though he had his jaw-bone frac- tured by a pistol-shot, he was dragged to the place of execution and beheaded. The same doom also befell his confidants, St. Just and Couthon, the general of the city-guard, the mayor of Paris, the Of Belgium? Of Pichegru's cam'paign in Holland? By whom was he favored ? How was its government changed ? What of Italy ? Of Dupom- mier in Spain? § 104. Did the cult of Reason last long? What festivals did Robespierre introduce ? Was he, for all that, more humane ? What of his end ? Who had the same doom ? How did the spirit of the Convent become ? Whose dominion was at an end ? What did the royalists effect ? 246 president of the club of Jacobins, and one hundred councilors and judges. The spirit of the Convent grew more moderate, relig- ious persecutions ceased, and arts and sciences began to be again honored. True, the friends of the system of terror, aided by some suburbs, yet excited several furious uproars, taking even the hall of the Convent (May, 1795); but they succumbed to the regular power of the Convent. Their leaders were partly executed, partly banished, and the dominion of the Jacobins was forever at an end. But forthwith the adherents of royalty became bolder again. They, through support from England and the emigrants, caused formidable insurrections in La Vendee and Paris; in the former place they proclaimed the brother of Louis XVL king; in the latter, theybesieged the Tuileries. They were vanquished in both places ; in Paris by Napoleon. The Convent then dissolved itself, and two chambers took its place, called the Council of the Old Ones and of the Five Hundred; five directors should have the executive power. Since the downfall of the reign of terror, war was waged without energy; the armies of the republic suffered many defeats by the Austrian generals. At last Napoleon Bonaparte restored the splen- dor of the French arms. This greatest general of modern time was born in Ajaccio, on the Island of Corsica (1769 A. U.) and educated for the position of an officer in the military schools of Brienne and Paris, where he gained free admission. He liked best to study mathematics and the art of war. In ancient history he read the exploits of the Grecian and Roman heroes with enthu- siasm. He loved to be alone and avoided the merry plays of his school-mates. Besides, he was reserved and stubborn. When still a youth he was employed as an officer of artillery. He sided first with the republicans. At the siege of Toulon he commanded the artillery ; the Convent was indebted to him principally for the cap- ture of the fortress. This young man was appointed general-in-chief of the Italian army by the directory ( 1 796 A. D.) The army was in want of money, clothing and provisions ; Napoleon pointed out to it the rich coun- tries of the enemies, where it would find abundance of supplies, led Who vanquished them in Paris ? What government followed after the disso- lution of the Convent ? How was war waged now ? Who restored the splendor of the French arms ? Give some particulars of Napoleon's education. With what party did he side first ? What military service did he do in the siege of Toulon ? For what army was he appointed general-in-chief ? Give an account of his campaign. 247 it at once against them, and vanquished them in rapid succession in five battles. The king of Sardinia was compelled immediately to make peace, losing Savoy. After that Napoleon rushes in upon the Austrian army, passes, at the head of his troops, the bridge at Lodi in a rapid march, without minding the murderous fire of the ene- mies (May loth), conquers the whole of Lombardy, and enters Milan triumphantly; only Mantua still resists. He besieges the fortress, destroys four armies which hasten to the rescue (the third in the gigantic battle at Arcole, Novembei* 15, 16, and 17), and compels the commander to surrender with 12,000 soldiers and 500 cannons. The conquered lands obtained free constitutions, and formed the Cisalpine republic. While Napoleon was fighting with such admirable success in Italy, the Archduke Charles defeated the French in Germany, and forced them to retreat. France ofi'ered peace to the emperor; but he rejected it, declaring that he disavowed the French republic. Consequently Napoleon advanced farther through Tyrol and Corin- thia, and in a quick, victorious course, approached the residence of the emperor. Now he accepted peace, which was made at Campo Formio (1797 A. D.) ; he lost Belgium and his Italian States. Besides, the pope was vanquished (1798 A. D.), and carried off into captivity, in which he died. Finally, the French government abol- ished the aristocratic dominion of the cities in Switzerland, and established an undivided republic. I lOS. Napoleon's Expedition to Egypt. Second Coali- tion War. Battle at the Pyramids. Naval Com- bat at Abukir. Consular Government. Now Napoleon was sent with a select army to Egypt, in order to strike at the Indian possessions and commerce of England, and to undertake new conquests for France. He took with him artisans of all kinds, a complete collection of philosophical and mathematical instruments, and about a hundred of the most illustrious scientific men of France, who should investigate the antiquities of the land. What was hi§ success ? What exploit did he accomplish at Lodi ? What country did he conquer ? Give an account of the siege of ^Mantua. How many armies did he destroy ? What was the result ? What government did the Lom- bardy obtain? Describe the continuation and the end of the campaign. What countries did the emperor lose ? What of the pope and of Switzerland ? ^ 105. What was the next expedition of Napoleon ? What was the intention of France ? Who accompanied Napoleon ? 248 He proclaimed to the Arabian population, which formed the majority of the inhabitants, that he had come to protect their religion, to restore their rights and punish their usurpers, the Mame- lukes, a corps of horsemen of Circassian origin, who were engaged in the service of the Turkish Bey. Napoleon attacked and van- quished them at Raminieh and at the Pyramids (1798 A. D.) But Nelson, the English admiral, defeated the French fleet in the bay of Abukir, Nine vessels of the line were taken. The admiral's ship blew up with one thousand men, and one was burned by the French themselves. Napoleon himself besieged Jean d'Acre in Syria with- out success. The French arms being unlucky in Europe also, and the Directory having lost all authority and consideration, he returne'd to France (1799 A. D.) Egypt yielded again to the government of the Porte (1801 A. D.) While Napoleon was fighting in Egypt, the second coaHtion war in Europe had opened against France (1799 A. D.) England, Aus- tria, Russia, Portugal, Naples, the pope and the Turkish sultan were ■combating the republic. At the commencement of the war the republicans fought successfully. Naples and Tuscany were con- quered, so that France possessed the whole of Italy. But her dominion did not last long. The Austrians and Russians, soon after, conquered the Lombardy. The impetuous Suwarrow was the commander of the latter. Tuscany, Naples, and the States of the Church were lost again. In Germany Archduke Charles vanquished the French at Ostrach and Stockach. But at last Massena totally defeated Suwarrow at Ziirich in Switzerland, and saved France by his victory. Paul, the dejected emperor of Russia, recalled his troops. When Napoleon again arrived in France, the hopes of all parties were turned towards him. He received the command of the troops stationed in Paris and near by, but abused his power, causing those directors who would not voluntarily abdicate to be taken prisoners. Though he had again done allegiance to the constitution by oath, accompanied by grenadiers he entered the council of the five For what purpose ? What did he proclaim to the Arabian population ? Who were the Mamelukes ? Where did Napoleon vanquish them ? Who de- feated the French fleet? Where? Give the circumstances of the battle. What powers lormed the second coalition ? Where was the French republic first successful? What countries did it then lose? Who was the Russian com- mander ? By whom was he defeated ? Who vanquished the French in Ger- many ? What command did Napoleon receive after his return from Egypt? How did he abuse his power ? - Against the directory ? Against the five hundred ? 249 hundred in order to dissolve them. Checked by their threats, he appealed to the assistance of the troops, with their help expelled the members of the council, and caused, instead of the Directory, three consuls to be appointed, of whom the first should possess the highest power. He himself became first consul. In this way the republic was transformed into a military monarchy. The war against Austria and England continued. Napoleon secretly, with wonderful boldness, led an army over the Great St. Bernhard, and gave a bloody battle to the Austrians at Marengo, in Sardinia, in which Desaix, his friend, gained the almost lost victory by his heroic death (1800 A. D.) The entire command of Italy was given again to France. In Germany Moreau also fought with good success. He gained the victory at Hohenlinden, in Bavaria, and invaded Austria. The emperor had to conclude the peace of Luneville, and to cede the archdukedom of Tuscany (1801 A. D.) Germany lost all provinces of the left bank of the Rhine. Mean- while a union of the northern powers was formed against England. Nelson defeated the Danish fleet at Copenhagen (1801 A. D.) ; but too weak to continue the war, it also agreed to the general peace at Campo Formio (1802 A. D.) It was compelled to surrender almost all the conquests it had made. I 106. French Empire. Third Coalition War. Prusso- Russian War. Battles at Austerlitz, Jena and Auerstadt, Eilau and Friedland. The Continental System. Napoleon now directed his efforts to the pacification and im- provement of France ; by a general amnesty 100,000 emigrants were enabled to return ; a system of public instruction was established, and the collection of the heterogeneous laws of the monarchy and the republic, into one consistent whole, under the title of " Code Na- poleon," was commenced — an undertaking which has covered the name of Napoleon with glory. Magnificent roads, like those over the Alps, canals, bridges, and improvements of all kinds, are to the What magistrates did he cause to be appointed ? Who became lirst consul ? At what place in Sardinia did he vanquish the Austrians ? By whose death did he gain the victory? What French general was victorious in Germany ? What countries did Austria and Germany lose ? What success did England have in the contest against the northern powers ? § 106. What improvements did Napoleon make ? With regard to public instruction ? To legislation ? To commerce ? 250 present day eloquent memorials of Napoleon's restless activity. But he pursued also his ambitious plans. He set narrow bounds to the liberty of the press, created a crafty police, occupied the senate with his followers, subjected the State Church again to the pope, and caused himself to be appointed consul for life. Not satisfied with this success, he contrived to have himself elected emperor of France (1804 A. D.) He re-established nobility and a pompous court. In the Lombardy also he caused himself to be appointed king (1805 A. D.), and designated his step-son, Eugene, viceroy. He gave a regent to the republic of Batavia (Holland), and obliged Switzerland to furnish troops every year for his murderous wars. Two conspiracies against his life were failures (1800 and 1804 A. D.) In the first they tried to kill him by a machine, called the infernaL He ordered the members of the second conspiracy partly to be executed, e. g., Pichegru, partly to be banished, like Moreau. Prince Enghien, a descendant of the old dynasty, though living in Germany, was also seized and shot, because he was accused of having been an accomplice in the conspiracy. Hardly a year had elapsed since the conclusion of peace, when lingland, allied with Austria, Russia, Sweden and Naples re-com- menced war against France. Napoleon rapidly penetrated Ger- many with a well-armed host, commanded by the excellent Generals Bernadotte, Davoust, Soult, Lannes, Ney and Murat, compelled the sovereigns of Bavaria, Wurtemberg and Baden to confederate with him, and captured an Austrian army of 33,000 men in Ulm. Vienna was compelled to open her gates to him. At AusterHtz, in Moravia, he fought his greatest battle, in which he entirely defeated the Aus- trians and Russians, taking 18,000 prisoners and 100 cannons. 30,000 dead soldiers covered the battle-field. Emperor Francis then concluded the peace of Presburg, acknowledging Napoleon as ruler of Italy, and ceding Tyrol to Bavaria. Naples and Holland also were compelled to submit to Napoleon (1806 A. D.) and accept of him his brothers Joseph and Louis as kings. To his brother-in-law, Murat, he gave the dukedom Cleves- Berg. Finally he, with the kings of Bavaria and Wurtemberg, and How did he show his ambition ? When was he elected emperor ? In what country was he appointed king ? Mention some points of the two conspiracies. What powers participated in the third coalition ? Give the names of some ex- cellent generals of Napoleon. What happened in Ulm ? What was the result of the battle at Austerlitz ? Who became king of Naples ? Of Holland ? W^ith what sovereigns did Napoleon form the confederation of the Rhine ? 251 Avith some other princes, formed the confederation of the Rhine^ inducing them to nominate him as its protector. Francis II. then resigned the imperial dignity of Germany. While France contended successfully by land, in the contest by sea it lost her foreign possessions, and Nelson, at the Cape of Tra- falgar, in Spain, destroyed the large French and Spanish fleet ; the Spanish admiral was killed, and the French captured. Still the hero of the battle also died immediately after it from a serious wound he had received during the combat (1805 A. D.) Next year Frederic William III., king of Prussia, declared war against France. England, Russia and Saxony were his allies. The Prussians, divided into two armies, were routed the same day (14th of October, 1806 A. D.), at Jena and Auerstadt, with terrible slaugh- ter. Their generals {e. g., Bliicher) and their fortresses surrendered one after another, and Berlin opened her gates to the victor. In a few weeks Napoleon conquered the largest part of the Prussian monarchy. Prussian Poland joined him. He summoned its inhabitants to restore their liberty, and they hastened joyfully to arms. Then he attacked the Russians, too. In the sanguinary battle at Eilau he fought with dubious success (1807 A. D.) But on the 14th of June he vanquished both enemies at Friedland. They demanded peace, which was concluded in Tilsit. Alexander, emperor of Russia, lost nothing, but Prussia was diminished by half. Napoleon, from a part of the conquered countries, formed the king- dom of Westphaha, bestowing it on his brother Jerome, and left Prussian Poland to his new ally, the king of Saxony. In order to weaken the power of England, he estabHshed the continental sys- tem, prohibiting by it all commerce in Europe with that country, and causing the English merchandise to be burned. g 107. Spanish, Austrian and Russian War. Burning of Moscow. As the king of Portugal did not renounce his alliance with Eng- land, Napoleon invaded his land and conquered it. The king fled Who destroyed the French and Spanish fleet ? Where ? What was the end of the hero ? Give an account of the Prussian war. Where were the Prussian armies routed ? What rapid success did Napoleon have ? What country joined him? Where did he fight the Russians ? With what success ? What did Prus- sia lose? On whom did Napoleon bestow the kingdom of Westphalia? On whom Prussian Poland? Explain the signification of the continental system. I 107. What of Portugal ? 252 to Brazil. The emperor also enticed the weak-minded king of Spain to come to France, induced him, by cunning intrigues, to confer the crown upon him and his family, and then appointed his brother Joseph king of that land. Naples was left to Murat. But the Spanish nation, hating the new government, and having England's support, opposed it so obstinately that Joseph was obliged to with- draw from Madrid. Portugal also became again free. Napoleon then took the field in Spain himself with immense forces, and, with arms in hand, brought his brodier back. He abolished the inquisi- tional tribunal and the feudal law, and diminished the number of con- vents ; but the people, incited by the clergymen and the aristocrats, refused to accept these salutary reforms from him. Joseph, irritated by this resistance, abolished all orders of monks and mendicant friars. As the Austrian war began (1809 A. D.), and Napoleon, therefore, was obliged to quit the country, his generals were again vanquished. Wellesley Wellington, the English general, defeated them several times during the Russian campaign, and Spain was forever released from the foreign dominion. The Cortes (States- General) gave the land a liberal constitution (1812 A. D.) When Emperor Francis saw the resistance of the Spanish nation, he also took up arms once more against Napoleon. But the latter, aided by the confederation of the Rhine, by Russia, Italy and other powers, overwhelmed the Austrian armies in a few days, being especially victorious in the battle at Ratisbon, and entered Vienna some weeks after the commencement of the war. Still, he was defeated at Aspern, near Vienna (the 21st of May), and even in the batde of Wagram (the 5th and 6th of July), in which he gained the victory, he had more dead and wounded than the ene- mies. Emperor Francis hereafter concluded the peace of Vienna, by which he had to surrender a territory containing three and a half millions of inhabitants. After this Napoleon caused himself to be divorced from his wife, the beloved and highly respected Empress Josephine, and married Maria Louisa, daughter of the Emperor Francis (1810 A. D.) His intention was, by this marriage, to per- manently establish his power, but it was soon baffied by the events Of Spain ? How did Napoleon get possession of the latter country ? Whom did he appoint king ? Who opposed Joseph ? Give the particulars of the .Spanish war. Who gave to the land a liberal constitution ? Who took up arms against Napoleon once more ? Which English general defeated the French army ? What of the battles of Aspern and Wagram ? What was the loss of Francis? What of the empresses Josephine and Maria Louisa of Austria? 253 of war. He also incorporated Holland and the German maritime countries from the Ems to the mouth of the Elbe with the French empire. At last he seized the possessions of the duke of Olden- burg, Alexander's brother-in-law. As he hereby drew nearer and nearer to Russia, Alexander com- plained against him for several reasons, How many sojdiers did he and Alexander collect ? Who were the allies of Napoleon ? What reason did he give for the war ? Give an account of his cam- paign. In what manner did the Russians wage war ? What of the battle at the Moskwa? Narrate the burning of Moscow. What stratagem of Alexander retarded Napoleon's retreat? Give an account of the retreat. What general brought up the rear? What incidents destroyed the army ? 254 from the bodies of the dying men. the unfortunate stragglers desir- ing to wann themselves at the watch-fires were pushed back, and the corpses of fallen horses and the remainder of half-buraed men disputed. Men and beasts fell dead in troops. The road was cov- ered with corpses. In Wilna alone 50.000 were found. Around ;Moskwa and Mohelew 250,000 were burned by the Russians. The route of the rear guard of the army was literally choked up by the icy mounds of the dead. A large number of Cossacks, hovering constandy around the wearied columns, wore away their numbers. Especially great was Napoleon's loss in the days of crossing the» Beresina : the banks of the river were soon covered with coq^ses. The bridges broke down, and 8,000 men perished in the waves. The army dissolved in wild flight, and when hunger, cold, and the lances of the Cossacks had destroyed thousands more, its feeble remnant, 20,000 men, without horses, cannons and wagons, arrived again at the Niemen. 1 108- Fourth Coalition War. Battle at Leipsic. Restora- tion of the Bourbons. Congress of Vienna. Ger- nnan Confederation. Battle at \A^aterloo. Napoleon Banished to Elba, and Captive in St. Helena. The Holy Alliance. Napoleon was forsaken, after this campaign, by most of his allies, even by his father- and brother-in-law ; the last decisive con- test began (18 13 A. D.) He yet defeated his enemies, amounting to a million of combatants, several times, principally at Liitzen, Bautzen and Dresden, where also Moreau fell, fighting in the Rus- sian army against his country ; but he lost the battles at Dennewitz, Gross-Beeren, etc., and was finally completely vanquished in the great battle of nations at Leipsic (October 16-19). The Saxons left him here in the midst of the combat. He suffered a loss of 80.000 men. He then hurried back to France, the confederates following and invading France from all sides. Even now he still defeated them several times, most successfully at Brienne ; nay, he compelled them to retreat ; but while he moved towards the Rhine WTiat of the struggle of starving and dying soldiers ? Of >Jllna ? Of the environs of the Moskwa and Mohelew ? Of the route of the rearguard ? Of the Cossacks ? WTiere was Napoleon's loss especially great ? How many men arrived again at the Xiemen ? \ 108. Who then left Napoleon ? WTio gained the battles at Lutzen, Bautzen, Dresden, Dennewitz, Gross-Beeren ? In what great battle was Napoleon completely defeated? WTiat was his loss? What success had he in France ? 255 with the intention of drawing them also there, they advanced to Paris. Mary Louisa, upon whom he had conferred the regency^ took to flight, and the grandees desponded ; the city was taken by storm (March 30, 18 14). The victors now pubHcly declared their resolution, which they had taken long ago, to restore the Bourbons. The new government, at whose head the cmming Tallejrrand was placed, deposed Napoleon, and the venal senate transferred the cro^-n to the Count of Provence, who forthwith began to rule under the name of Louis XVIIL, giving France a new constitution. Accord- ing to it, the king alone ought to exercise the executive power and partake in the legislative with the chambers of the peas and dde- gates. 'Liberty of conscience and of the press was also expressed in it. Napoleon received the island of EUba and a pension, the island being also his place of exile. He departed there; his wife and son he did not meet again. After this, general peace was brought about in Paris, according to which France was limited to her boundaries of the year 1 792, and a general congress took place in Vienna. But at this congress the interests of the sovereigns were alone considered. The rights and desires of the nations wctc not remem bered, though they had done the greatest share for the deliver- ance of Europe, and the rulers were to them indebted for the pres- ervation of their crowns. Austria took the Lombardy and Venice ; Prussia, almost half the kingdom of Saxony, together with several provinces on the Rhine; Russia, the greater part of Poland, with the title of a kingdom. England retained several important conquests in the East and West Indies : the loni^i Islands, as a republic, were put under her protection. The republic o( Belgium was united with Holland. Switzerland was recognized as a neutral confeder- ation. La.stly, the in&mous slave-trade, at least, was abolished. The pope protested, as usual, also against the decrees of this con- gress. The German Confederation was also formed there. The German sovereigns concluded it for the purpose of conserving the domestic and foreign securit\- of their lands. In future no more wars should be waged against each other ; a diet should conduct the What of >Iary Louisa? Of Paris ? What did the victors dedaxe? Who was at the head of the'new govemment ? AMio was appcnnted king? Girc the substance of the new constitution. What island did Napcdecm receiTC ? How were the boundaries of Fiance limited? What of the congress in Yienna? What countries did Austria take ? Prussia ? Russia ? England ? What trade was abolished? What was the teaor of the German confederation ? 256 general affairs ; the confederate States obtain States- General; and the liberty of commerce and of the press enlarged. Frankfort, Liibeck, Bremen and Hamburg were declared free cities. During the congress Napoleon quitted Elba and landed in France (March ist, 1815); the people and the army received him with exultation ; he took possession of the throne without blood- shed. He declared to the terrified monarchs that in future he would no more disturb the peace of Europe, but devote himself only to the welfare of France ; but, mistrusting his promises, they proscribed him, and sent their armies against him for a final contest. About one and a half million of enemies poured into France. Murat, who had again embraced the party of his brother-in-law, was first vanquished, and later captured and shot. Napoleon, again commandmg 220,000 veterans, vanquished the Prussians at Ligny, but was defeated at Waterloo (June i8th). He in vain hurled column after column upon the British lines led by Welling- ton; they withstood his assaults, and even his renowned guards. In the evening, Bliicher coming up with the Prussians, completed the rout of his army. Paris was captured the second time ; Napo- leon had ruled only 100 days. He resigned the crown in favor of his son. Napoleon II., and was willing to serve as a general among the French troops. The government also refused this demand, and ordered him to quit Paris. He tried in vain to escape to America ; the English watched all seaports. He then accepted the offer of the English captain, Maitland, to receive him on board of his man- of-war, assuring him to be ordered to do so by his government, and to carry him to England, if this were acceptable to him. Napoleon declared it to be his intention to give himself up to the protection of the English laws, and to live for the future in p;^n gland as a private man. But the high sovereigns considered him their prisoner, and caused him to be carried to St. Helena (August 7th). Only a few faithful friends and servants accompanied him to his prison of rocks. He lived there several years under the odious guardianship of the English, and finally died, after manifold afflictions of body and When did Napoleon leave Elba ? How was he received in France ? What did he declare to the monarchs ? Did they trust him ? What of the last con- test ? Where did he vanquish the Prussians ? Where was he at last defeated ? By whom ? W^hat of Paris ? To whom did he resign the crown ? Did the government comply with his demand ? To what country did he attempt to go ? What was the offer of Captain Maitland ? What did Napoleon declare to him ? What did the sovereigns consider him ? Where was he carried to ? Under whose inspection did he live in St. Helena ? When did he die ? 257 mind (1821 A. D.) His remains, in later times, were brought back to France and interred in the most solemn manner. France was reduced to the frontiers it had before the revolution, and had to pay twenty-eight milHon pounds sterling for the expenses of the last war, and to maintain a hostile army for five years, which should remain as a garrison within its borders. Marshal Ney was executed for high treason, in favoring Napoleon's return from Elba, though protection had been guaranteed him by the capitulation of Paris. The monarchs of Austria, Prussia and Russia then formed an alli- ance, called by them the " Holy " one, by which they bound them- selves, " in conformity with the principles of Holy Scripture," to lend each other every aid and succor in case of repeated commo- tions of the nations. Most of the continental powers soon acceded to this treaty. B. PAETIOULAE HISTOEY OF SOME STATES. § 109. Switzerland. Austria. England. The principles of the French revolution also excited in Switzer- land the most animated sympathy. The discontentment with the aristocratic governments grew general, and the subjects of the cities wanted to be free. The province of Vaud finally called for the assistance of France. A French army made its appearance, and took Berne after short resistance (1798 A. D.) The ancient Swiss confederation was dissolved, and the whole country formed into one republic, in which all inhabitants should have equal rights. The forest cantons, after a short and bloody struggle, were also com- pelled to accept the new constitution. When (in 1803) civil war was imminent. Napoleon divided the republic again into several cantons. Switzerland was obliged to furnish him an auxiliary corps of 18,000 men, and to replenish it annually by new troops. By the efforts of the patriotic councilor, Esher of Ziirich, the Linth canal was con- structed (1807-1819 A. D.), and, in the following period, a confed- erate military school founded. Since the death of Joseph II. the nobiUty, the clergy and the civil officers in Austria domineered again. Francis 11. committed What of his remains ? To what frontiers was France reduced ? To what other charges had she to submit ? What was the fate of King Murat and of General Ney ? Give the essence of the ** Holy Alliance " of the great powers. § 109. How were the aristocratic governments of Switzerland changed ? What classes of society did again domineer under Francis XL ? (17) 25S himself to the direction of the persons surrounding him. He abro- gated the Hberty of the press. Prohibited books, even in Hbraries, were confiscated by the government after the death of their proprie- tors. The secret poHce acquired a terrible power. It had its spies among the most reprobate class of the people, and even amongst the priests. Commerce was hindered, the peasant charged with heavy ground-rents, and the number of taxes continually increased. This mode of government reduced the State to poverty, and caused a heavy amount of public debts. As Napoleon was crowned emperor, Francis also assumed the title of Emperor of Austria (1804 A. D.) • The English nation also desired enlargement of hberty and reform of the old aristocratic constitution. The agitation increased, and in several fleets, as well as in Ireland, where the Catholics suffered heavy oppression, revolts took place (1797 and 1798 A. D.), but they were quelled by force, and the Irish parliament united with the English. The national debt, during the French wars, increased many hundred million pounds sterling. In the East Indies State after State was assailed and subdued. The warlike Mahrattas, in fact, vigorously resisted ; but the British generals, especially WelHngton, also destroyed their realm. 1 110. Poland. Second and Third Partition. Kosciusko. While Russia and Austria were at war with the Porte, Poland's patriots endeavored to deliver their country from the Russian dominion. Frederic William II. secretly promised them his assist- ance. The diet, after having largely increased the army, demanded from Catharine II. that she should remove the Russian troops (1788 A. D.) She obeyed. Hereafter Poland amended its constitution, according more freedom to the cities and granting religious tolera- tion. The miserable enactment that every individual of the nobiHty could annul the resolution of all the other members by his veto, was also annulled. But the peasantry, composing the main body of the nation, was hardly at all considered. The king of Prussia formed an alliance with the State, promising his support What of the liberty of the press ? Of the secret police ? Of commerce ? Of taxes ? Of the consequences of such a government ? What was the condi- tion of England ? What of her public debts ? Of her conquests in East India ? What general contributed most to them? §110. Who promised assistance to the Polanders ? How did the diet amend the constitution ? What class of the inhabitants was hardly at all considered ? Did the king of Prussia fulfill his promise ? 259 against every aggression of the foreign courts. But he acted merely from selfishness, demanding several fortresses from Poland, and when she would not cede them, he allied himself with Russia. Catharine ordered 100,000 Russians to march into Poland under the pretext of assisting those Polanders who protested against the new constitution (1792 A. D.) Prussia supported her, and King Stanislaus Augustus also sided with the traitors. True, the patriots, principally Kosci- usko, fought bravely ; but the king himself crippled their force, com- manding them to lay down their arms ; their troops w^ere everywhere surrounded, disarmed and disbanded. The enemies plundered the land; the inhabitants, in flocks, were driven away. The victors then promulgated a second partition of the kingdom,vpretending that the principles of the Jacobins had gained ground in that country (1793 A. D.) The cession to Russia, after a short resistance, was agreed to. But the demands of Prussia were obstinately rejected by the diet. The hall of the assembly, the throne, and the king were then surrounded with soldiers, cannons directed against the hall, and several deputies taken prisoners ; but when the votes should be taken, all kept silence during the whole night. The Russian general threatened them in vain ; at last when the day was breaking, the mareschal of the diet called three times the name of every deputy, and still no answer following, declared that this silence meant consent. In this manner, with the concurrence of Austria, Russia received yet three milHons, Prussia more than one milHon of inhabitants. One year after this the patriots again endeavored to carry out the same project (1794 A. D.) Kosciusko, who was elected dictator, and other generals, gained some glorious victories. At the same time the inhabitants of Warsaw rose against the Russian garrison ; but the Prussian king drew near with an army and joined the Rus- sians. Kosciusko was defeated, and Warsaw besieged ; still the Polanders fought so bravely that the king had to withdraw. After him the destroyer Suwarrow stormed on ; Kosciusko was again de- feated, and together with his staff officers, taken prisoner. Suwarrow took Praga, the suburb of Warsaw, by assault ; 8,000 fighting Poland- Why not ? With whom did he ally ? How did the Polanders fight ? Who commanded them to lay down their arms ? Under what pretext was their land again divided ? Whose demands were rejected ? Give an account of the scene which took place during the night in the hall of the assembly. How many millions of inhabitants more did Russia and Prussia receive? What efibrts were renewed after one year ? Who was elected dictator ? How did he first succeed ? But by whom was he then defeated ? What of Suwarrow and Kosciusko ? Of Praga ? 260 ers were cut down, the children, women and old men slain, and the fugitives, in troops, flung into the Vistula. Upon the whole, 20,000 Polanders lost their Hves on this day (November 4th). The capital surrendered, and Austrian troops now marched into the land, which was divided again until it disappeared entirely from the list of the European States. Kosciusko, later liberated, went to Switzerland, where he died (18 17 A. D.) §111. United States of North America. War Against England. Battle at New Orleans. Republic of Hayti. Toussaint Louverture. Since the deliverance of the United States of North America, the immigration to them became so considerable that the number of inhabitants, during sixty years, increased from three million to eighteen miUion. This unexampled rapid growth of the popula- tion of the United States was owing in part to the natural fer- tility of their soil, in part to the ease of settlement and of acquiring land in them and in part to their free constitutions. Millions there found that peace and liberty which was denied to them in Europe. By purchase, the inhabitants acquired Louisiana and Florida. They bought the former from France, Napoleon being then consul, for the sum of fifteen million dollars (1803 A. D.) This acquisition included the vast territory from the Gulf of Mex- ico north to the British possessions, and westward from the Missis- sippi to the Rocky Mountains and the Mexican possessions. Flor- ida was purchased from Spain for five miUion dollars (18 19 A. D.) Agriculture, commerce and manufactures were flourishing ; sciences and arts also rose higher and higher ; morality was more generally diffused than in any other country on earth. At the head of the administration were excellent men, like Washington, Adams, Jeffer- son, Madison and Monroe. During the wars which agitated Europe since the commence- ment of the French revolution, the United States, for twenty-three years, enjoyed perfect peace, which was only once, and for a short time, interrupted by a war waged against England (18 12-18 14 Of the vanquished Polanders ? How many lost their lives ? What was the final doom of the land? What of Kosciusko? | iii. How much did the number of inhabitants in the United States increase in sixty years ? For what reasons ? What two countries did they purchase ? From whom ? What was the extent of the territory of Louisiana ? What of agriculture ? Commerce ? Sciences and morality ? Who were presidents ? What were the causes of the war against England ? 261 A. D.) The conduct of England in harassing the commerce of the United States, and the impressment of seamen from American vessels, were the causes of the war. The British claimed that their vessels had a right to search American ships for the purpose of taking from them any seamen of English birth. The American government denied this right; and the more so, as several times American seamen were seized and forced into the British navy under the pretense that they were deserters. General Hull invaded Canada, but soon retreated and surren- dered to the British General Brock, who, in another attack by a small body of regular troops, was slain. The American honor was well sustained at sea. The British frigate Guerriere struck to the frigate Constitution, Captain Hull, and the frigate Macedonian was captured by the frigate United States, Commodore Decatur. In several other naval actions the Americans were also victorious. General Winchester was defeated at Frenchtown, and by the treachery of the British commander. Colonel Proctor, 522 Ameri- cans were massacred by the savages after their surrender ; but York (now Toronto) surrendered to the Americans under General Dear- born. Fort George was taken by the Americans, and the British squadron on Lake Erie captured (1813 A. D.) by Commodore Perry, who told his tnumph in a brief and modest dispatch, saying : " We have met the enemy, and they are ours." General Harrison defeated Proctor and the famous chief Tecumseh on the Thames. General Brown, aided by the militia, captured Fort Erie. This was the first of a brilliant series of victories obtained by the American Generals Porter, Scott, Ripley and Brown, on the Niagara frontier, over the troops who had fought under Wellington in "Spain (18 14 A. D.) Sir George Prevost, being reinforced by Wellington's veter- ans, at the head of 14,000 troops, invaded the American territory at Plattsburg, where were stationed about 4,000 American troops under General Macomb. The British flotilla on Lake Champlain reached Plattsburg Bay at the ^ame time and attacked the Ameri- can squadron, commanded by Commodore Macdonough. A severe How long did it last ? What right did the English claim ? What of General Hull ? To what frigate did the British frigate Guerriere strike ? By what ship was the Macedonian taken ? What of General Winchester and of the massacre of Americans by the savages ? Who captured the British squadron on Lake Erie? Which British general and Indian chief were defeated by General Harri- son ? What other American generals gained victories on the Niagara frontier ? Which commodore destroyed a British flotilla in the harbor of Plattsburg ? 262 conflict ensued in the harbor of Plattsburg, which ended in the total destruction of the British flotilla. The British General Ross landed in Chesapeake Bay with 5,000 troops, entered Washington (24th of August, 18 14), burning the capitol and other pubHc buildings, and loaded with spoil, but also with disgrace, retreated to the shipping. Next he sailed to Baltimore, was killed in an action, and the army having tried in vam to enter the city, re-embarked. The victories on the sea in the South were about equally divided between the British and Ameri- cans. In December, 18 14, a powerful British fleet, carrying over 10,000 troops, approached New Orleans. In the city was General Jackson with about 6,000 men. He hastily built a parapet of earth and cotton-bales a few miles below the city, and planted his marks- men behind it. On the 8th of January, 181 5, the British army, under Sir Edward Pakenham (pakn-am) advanced to storm the entrenchments. It met a terrible repulse. Jackson won a great victory, killing and wounding 2,000 of the British, with a loss of eight men killed and thirteen wounded. Pakenham was killed, and the British retreated to their ships. A treaty between Great Britain and the United States was signed, by which the former waived the " right of search." During this war the Creek and Seminole Indians commenced hostilities against the whites in Georgia and Alabama (1813 A. D.) General Jackson, meeting them in a number of bat- tles, speedily brought the war to an end. Soon after the conclusion of peace with England, Commodore Decatur, with a fleet, was sent against the Dey of Algiers, who had committed depredations on the American commerce. He captured two of the Algerine ships-of-war, and compelled the Dey to release all American prisoners, and to relinquish all claim to tribute in the future. By the French revolution the negroes of San Domingo (Hayti) were also incited to strive for independence. The island pertamed in part' to France and in part to Spain. The whites wanted to become free from the mother country, but the negroes ought to re- What did General Ross do in Washington city ? Where was he killed ? Give an account of the battle at New Orleans. How many British and Ameri- cans participated in the battle ? Who were the generals ? How many British and Americans were killed ? What of the British general? What right did Great Britain waive ? How did Commodore Decatur chastise the Dey of Algiers ? For what purpose did the negroes begin the contest against the whites in .San Domingo ? main in the bondage of slavery. Then the latter began the contest against their tyrants (1790 A. D.) At first the whites were victors. Finally, the National Convent abohshed slavery (1794 A. D.) The colored people successfully resisted the Spaniards, English, and the domestic enemies. Their leader was the brave Toussaint Louver- ture. The Convent confirmed the liberty of the slaves, and the French Directory appointed Toussaint general-in- chief. But Napo- leon, resolved to subject them again, sent Leclerc, with a formidable army, against them (1802 A. D.) They resisted valiantly. The French General then concluded to overpower Toussaint by strata- gem. The latter was invited to a banquet, unawares seized and carried to France, where Napoleon committed him to the jail, and let him perish therein. The colored men, enraged by the treason, again had recourse to arms, Dessalines and Christopher being their leaders. In a few months 20,000 enemies lost their lives by their arms and the yellow fever. New reinforcements from France arrived; new cruel deeds were committed. The black captives were piled up in heaps and choked by vapors of sulphur. The negroes rose in a general insurrection, vanquished the French com- pletely, and compelled them to quit the island (1804 A. D.) Des- salines became governor. Through vengeance, he ordered the rest of the whites, numbering 5,000, to be killed, and then took the title of Emperor of Hayti. The negroes, in their contest for liberty, had lost 60,000 men. Dessalines was killed during a revolt (i8o6 A. D.) Then two chieftains divided the possession of the island. As Louis XVIII. attempted to reconquer it, both together opposed him. After their death France acknowledged the independence of the island for a certain compensation. EXKRCISES. Biographies : Napoleon — (a) as boy and youth, (d) as general, (c) as con- sul, (d) as emperor, (e) his downfall and end. Louis XVI. — (a) calls the States- General, and {^) the National Assembly; (c) he will lock the hall of the Assem- bly, and (d) forcibly interfere with the Assembly (demolition of the Bastile) ; (e) Who then abolished slavery ? Who was the leader of the negroes ? Who resolved to subject them again ? By what stratagem was Toussaint captured ? How was he treated by Napoleon ? How did the negroes take revenge ? Who were their leaders ? In what cruel manner were they killed when captured ? How was the war ended ? W'hat cruel deed did Dessalines commit when he be- came governor ? What king attempted to reconquer Hayti ? Who opposed him ? On what condition did France acknowledge the independence of the island ? 264 he must go to Paris, (/) celebrates the federal festival, (g) takes to flight and is reduced, {/i) takes the oath upon the constitution, finally (/) he is dethroned and executed. Kosciusko's activity — (a) in the American war, {/?) in the two Polish wars. The Russian campaign — (a) its causes, (3) march of Napoleon, {c) burning of Moscow, (d) retreat and destruction of the great army. Contests for liberty in Poland — First contest: I, its cause ; 2, its success ; 3, second par- tition of the land ; 4, resistance of the diet. Second contest: i, victories of the patriots ; 2, combats and capture of Praga ; 3, result of the contest. Which are the most important articles of the constitution made by the National Assembly of France ? Which are the principal epochs of the French revolution ? When was the Bastile taken, and the bulk of the feudal services abolished ? When was the National Assembly in session ? When the National Convent ? When did the Directory govern ? W^hen Napoleon as consul ? As emperor ? When was he dethroned ? When did he die ? How long was France a republic ? How long an empire ? When did the Austro- Prussian war begin ? W^hen the Russian ? How many coalition wars were waged ? Who was the most eager enemy of France by sea ? Who on the continent ? When and where were great battles fought from the year 1796 to 1S15? When did Napoleon return from Elba? When was the first, and when the second treaty of Paris concluded ? When was Poland the second and third time divided ? Mention remarkable events of the years 1189, 1589, 1689 and 1789. TENTH PERIOD. FrotT] th[e Second Parisian Treaty to tl^e Present Tinqe. Restoratioq. Linnitatioq of the Moqarchies. Last Revolutions. From 1815 to 1883 A. D. riRST OHAPTEE-POLITIOAL HISTORY. 1. TIME OF EESTORATION-1815-1830 A. D. ^ 112. France. GeriTiany. The new government of France was dependent on the foreign powers who had established it, on the emigrants who, after the restoration, had returned, and on their partisans among the nobility, the clergy and the people. The law of amnesty was precariously interpreted ; proscriptions and executions followed, and the van- § 112. Upon whom was the French government dependent? How was the law of amnesty interpreted ? 265 quished party, though forming the majority, had to feel the ven- geance of the victors (of the white Jacobins). These obtained pos- session of the most important civil offices, and squandered the pub- lic property. The independence of the tribunals was subverted, and the press was no longer permitted to publish the truth. Relig- ious liberty also was insulted. In the western and southern parts of the country the Protestants, the followers of Napoleon, and the friends of republican principles were persecuted ; the enraged populace assailed and murdered them. The priests fostered the spirit of perse- cution. They regained the control of the instruction of the youth. Missionaries passed through the country and infatuated the blind multitude. New, dark orders sprung up, and the Jesuits returned under the name of " Fathers of Faith." Liberal members were turned out of the chambers. Louis XVIIL was followed by his brother Charles X. (count •of Artois), who once had been at the head of the emigrants. He motioned, in the chamber, a plan to compensate the emigrants. As the latter formed the majority, the plan was readily accepted, and the nation was obliged to pay them i,ooo million francs. As the public press blamed his government, he re-established the censure. In order to divert the attention of the nation from the public affairs, war was declared against the Dey of Algiers. The German government, also, did little or nothing for the prog- ress of public welfare. Even the insignificant amendments promised in the federal act were slowly and only in part enacted. The promises especially concerning the liberty of the press, of navigation and commerce, and of representative constitutions, were not fulfilled. Therefore the German people, deceived in their most sacred expec- tations by the supreme federal board, were directed to take recourse to their particular governments. However, several fulfilled their demands by granting representative constitutions, e. g., the grand- dukes of Weimar, Baden and Hesse, and the kings of Bavaria and Wiirtemberg. In Prussia, only States Provincial were established ; in Austria nothing at all was changed. Who obtained the important offices ? How was justice dealt? What of liberty of the press and conscience ? Who was persecuted ? Who fostered the spirit of persecution ? Who regained the control of public instruction ? What of mis- sionaries and Jesuits ? What sum did the nation have to pay to the emigrants ? What office did Charles X. re-establish ? What was the condition of Germany ? Especially concerning the liberty of the press and representative constitutions ? What sovereigns fulfilled the demands of the people ? What of Austria ? 266 This bad condition was growing still worse. In consequence of new congresses of Carlsbad and Vienna (1819 and 1820 A. D.) the German sovereigns oppressed the liberty of the press, deprived the universities of their legal judge, and appointed a central-commission in order to examine political movements, which they called dema- gogical stratagems. The spirit of public liberty was suppressed. Those measures were rendered still more severe by the king of Prussia for his own lands. The order of nobility, which had been abro- gated during the French revolution, was re-established in the Rhine provinces. Emperor Francis recalled the Jesuits, suppressed some revolts of the Hungarian peasants, and dealt cruelly with the Car- bonaris of Italy (see §114). g 118. Spain and Portugal. Ferdinand VII., after his return (1814 A. D.), abolished the con- stitution of the Cortes, re-estabhshed the convents, the inquisition and the Jesuits, and governed tyrannically. At last the indignation grew so general that Riego again dared to promulgate the constitu- tion of the Cortes (1820 A. D.) The army and the nation con- sented. The inquisition, the torture and the convents were abolished, the Jesuits exiled, and liberty of the press declared. The king confirmed the constitution by oath. But it was soon attacked by its domestic and foreign enemies. To the former belonged the nobility and the clergy. The sovereigns assembled at the congress of Verona, viz., the emperors of Austria and Russia and the kmg of Prussia, demanded its abolition, and charged .the king of France with the execution of their order. Accordingly, a French army of 100,000 men, under the command of the Duke d'Angouleme, entered Spain (1823 A. D.); the majority of the noblesse and clergy joined it; the States- General was dissolved, and the victorious adversaries took cruel revenge upon the patriots. True, -the king had declared general amnesty ; but when he arrived in the French What did the German sovereigns do in consequence of the congresses of Carlsbad and Vienna? Who took still more severe measures ? WHiat Order did Francis II. recall? How did he deal with the Carbonaris in Italy ? § 113. How did Ferdinand VII., after his return, govern in Spain? What was the conse- quence of his misrule ? What was abolished? Who was exiled? What of the liberty of the press ? What did the king confirm ? Who attacked the constitu- tion? Who demanded its abolition ? What army executed the demand? Who joined the army ? How were the patriots treated ? Was amnesty maintained ? 267 camp he annulled it. Riego was taken prisoner and executed. Only Mina defended himself bravely, and obtained an honorable retreat. Ferdinand proceeded so cruelly that even the French gen- eral recommended moderation to him. In several provinces the oppressed people rose in sedition. Thousands lost their lives in the combat; thousands upon the scaffold. After Ferdinand's death (1833 ^- ^0' ^^^ daughter, Isabella II., an infant only three years old, succeeded him, under the guardianship of her mother, Christina. But as the clergy declared itself for Don Carlos, brother of the late king, civil war broke out between the Carlists and Christinos. P^spartero waged war against the CarHsts and dis- armed' them ; he became regent of the realm. But as he removed Christina, a new revolt broke out, obhging him to flee (1843 A. D.), and procuring the government again to Christina. During this time her daughter became of age, and took possession of the supreme power ; nevertheless, peace was not permanently restored. The adjoining kingdom of Portugal was the scene of similar commotions. The dissatisfied nation desired some liberal changes in the laws of government. At length a revolution broke out, •and a free constitution was soon after established (1821 A. D.) King John VI. confirmed it three times by oath; the queen alone refused the oath, thereby causing, with her son Don Miguel, a counter revolution. When the king, in spite of his threefold oath, restored the absolute monarchy, Don Miguel, not yet satisfied, effected a new insurrection with the intention of depriving his father of the throne and his life; his nefarious scheme, however, miscarried, and he was banished. After John's death (1826 A. D.), his son, Don Pedro, emperor of Brazil, resigned his right to the crown of Portugal in favor of his infant daughter. Donna Maria, granting to Portugal at the same time a constitutional charter, and appointing his brother, Don Miguel, regent. Although the latter took an oath of fidelity to the charter, he soon began openly to aspire to the throne, and, aided by Who was executed ? What of Mina ? What of the oppressed people > Who succeeded Ferdinand ? Who declared for Don Carlos ? What was the consequence? Who became regent? Whom did Espartero remove ? What was the result? What of Isabella? What of Portugal? What did the nation de- sire? Who confirmed the constitution ? Who did not? What did the queen and Don Miguel cause ? What did the king restore ? What did Don Miguel attempt ? With what result? In whose favor did Don Pedro resign the crown of Portugal? WTiat did he grant to Portugal? What of Don Miguel? 268 the artifices of the priesthood, caused himself to be proclaimed sov- ereign of Portugal (1828 A. D.) He persecuted his opponents with despotic fury; put more than .25,000 men into prisons, and caused the innocent to be executed every day. Don Pedro came from Brazil (1832 A. D.), enlisted mariners and soldiers in France and England, and fought valorously against his brother. The English admiral, Napier, vanquished Miguel's fleet at the Cape of St. Vincent (1833 A. D.) Lisbon declared herself for Pedro, proclaiming his daughter queen. He again entered his native town, visited the tomb of his father, and tearfully wrote these words on it : " One son has killed you; the other will revenge you." Don Miguel was expelled from the country, and obliged to renounce forever his claim to the throne. Soon after Pedro died (1834 A. D.), and his daughter was placed upon the throne. Numerous conflicts for the constitution have taken place since that time. ^ 114. Italy. Insurrections in Naples and Piedmont. After the execution of Murat, Ferdinand IV. (since the union of Sicily with Naples called the First) returned to Naples, and the former political condition of the State was soon restored. The inner agitation, however, continued. It was especially increased by the Carbonaris (as they were called), who had the intention of uniting the Italian lands into one State. Encouraged by the example of the Spanish States-General, they effected an insurrection (1820 A, D.) and proclaimed the Spanish constitution of 18 12. The king abdicated, conferred the government upon his son, and both confirmed the constitution by oath. But Emperor Francis, to whom Ferdinand had already secretly promised not to introduce any innovations which he disliked, and besides the monarchs of Prussia and Russia, invited the king to visit him at the congress of Laybach, and he went there under the pretext of saving the con- stitution he had already confirmed. But when he saw himself safe here, he declared that the high rulers had resolved to restore the Who favored his scheme ? How did he deal with his opponents ? Who fought against him ? What admiral vanquished his fleet? Who was proclaimed queen in Lisbon? What words did Don Pedro write on the tomb of his father ? What of Don Miguel ? | 1 14. What political condition of Naples was restored with Ferdinand IV. ? By what society was the agitation increased ? What was the intention of the Carbonaris ? What did they effect and proclaim ? What of the king and his son ? Who invited the king to go to Laybach ? Why ? Did he go ? Under what pretext ? What did he then declare ? 269 former condition of the realm, and that his consent to the consti- tution had been extorted; he also retracted his abdication. His declaration was followed by the arrival of an Austrian army (1821 A. D.), which soon dispersed the native troops and entered Naples. The day of doom came ; the patriots (and chiefly among them the Carbonaris) were the sufferers. Some were executed ; some were thrown into prison. Six tribunals of punishment were established ; the free press . was abolished, and all the recently mtroduced reforms were declared null and void. The ignorant people rejoiced at the overthrow of the constitution. The king, notwithstanding the promised amnesty, continued urging, and abused his recovered power so much that even Emperor Francis advised him to be mod- erate. Priests and mercenary soldiers assisted him in his bloody work. The Austrian troops occupied the country for six years. The Order of Jesuits was also re-established (1833 A. D.) In Piedmont, the principal province of the Sardinian monarchy, the Jesuits were also admitted (since 18 15). The clergy and nobil- ity regained their former privileges, and civil liberty and enlighten- ment of the people were checked. Then the troops and students began an insurrection, in which even Charles Albert, heir apparent to the throne, participated. He was charged with the regency when the king abdicated. He granted the demanded constitution of the Spanish States- General. But those three monarchs in Lay- bach, induced by the representations of the Austrian minister, Met- ternich, resolved to overthrow it. Austrian troops marched in, vanquished the patriots, and occupied Turin and Alessandria. An unlimited monarchy, in its severest form and with all the horrors of reaction, was again restored in Sardinia. g lis. Greece. Contest Against the Porte. Ypsilanti. Bozzaris. Fall of Missolonghi. Naval Battle at Navarino. Mehemed All. The Greeks, tired of the wearisome religious and political tyr- anny of the Porte, resolved to obtain their liberty by fighting. Th^ What did he retract f What followed his declaration ? What did the patriots suffer? What of the free press and of the new reforms ? Who rejoiced? Who advised the king to be moderate ? Who assisted him ? How long were the Austrian ti-oops in the country ? What order was re-established ? In what other country also? What was the political condition of Piedmont? Who began an insurrection ? Who was charged with the regency ? What constitu- tion did he grant ? But who interfered ? Induced by whom ? Who marched into the land ? What was restored ? ^115. What did the Greeks resolve to obtain ? 270 Hetaria, a secret society composed of friends of the Greeks, sought to prepare for the great achievement. The most respectable Gre- cian inhabitants in Constantinople were initiated into the plan of deliverance. Prince Alexander Ypsilanti began the combat in Mol- davia. Sultan Mahmud II. took cruel vengeance on the Greeks in Constantinople and the neighboring provinces. He caused the noblest families to be killed, and the patriarch, together with several bishops, to be hung up on the doors of the temple. . No order, no sex, no age was spared by his fury. The active forces of Ypsilanti did not suffice. The Greeks were defeated. The sacred band of the Hetarists, composed mostly of young students, who fought with the greatest heroism in the action at Dragashan, was almost annihilated. Yipsilanti, trusting in the promises of the Austrian government, went to Transylvania, from where he intended to return secretly to Greece, but he was seized and carried first to Munkatsch, and then to Theresienstadt, where he died (1828 A. D.) In the Morea and the islands the Greeks fought with better suc- cess. They took Tripolizza, the capital of the Morea, and their fleet gained a victory, principally by the valor of the Hydriots, at Mitylene. They became free in the first year of the war in that peninsula, in Hellas, and in a part of Thessaly. They formed a central government and a republican constitution (1822 A. D.) Europe beheld the heroic people with admiration. In many countries Philhellenic societies were formed, which collected money for them and engaged volunteers. Youths and men entered the Greek ranks as fellow-combatants. From England and the United States large contributions of clothing and provisions were forwarded to relieve the sufferings inflicted by wanton atrocities of the Turks, and, in this way, the nations proved that they had more Christian charity than the sovereigns who had formed the Holy Alliance, for the latter, following Metternich's advice, left the Greeks without any assistance; the Grecian embassadors even were sent away from the congress in Verona without having obtained a hearing. In what manner ? What of the Hetaria ? Who was initiated into the plan of delivery ? Who began the combat ? How did the sultan deal with the Greeks in Constantinople ? How did Ypsilanti succeed ? What of the Hetar- ists ? What was the fate of Ypsilanti ? How did the Greeks fight in the Morea and the islands ? What city did they take ? What of their fleet ? Where did they become free ? What government and constitution did they form ? How did the Philhellenic societies assist the Greeks ? Who entered into their ranks ? What of England and the United States ? Of the Holy Alliance ? 271 In the island of Scio the Musselmans raged with the utmost cruelty. They burned the town and villages, and killed all inhabit- ants who could not save themselves by flight. The drunken der- vishes fastened thousands of skulls upon their lances and danced around them. In requital, the heroes Kanaris and Pipinos, rowing with two fire-ships into the midst of the fleet of the enemy and setting fire to the vessel of the Turkish admiral, and to another vessel of the line, blew up the former with more than 2,000 men on board. The other sunk in the billows (1822 A. D.) Many other Turkish ships were destroyed by the Grecian fire-ships. Misso- longhi, the rampart of the Morea, under the command of Marco Bozzaris, defended itself with heroic courage, and for a time became free again. When Pasha Mustapha, with a large army, invaded the western part of Hellas, Bozzaris, devoted to liberty, pre- pared himself, like Leonidas, to die for his country. At midnight, with 222 Suhots, he broke into the Turkish camp. Other leaders, at the same time, attacked the enemy from other sides ; the slaughter became general, when a ball killed the hero. The Turks left their artillery and about 2,000 dead on the battle-ground (1823 A. D.) At this time the illustrious poet, Lord Byron, arrived in Greece and took an active part in aid of the independence of the country, but he died in the following year at Missolonghi. In the rocky island of Ipsara the horrors of Scio were repeated (1824 A. D.) 3,000 inhabitants had retired to the undermined castle, otfering to surrender to the Turks. When the latter rushed in through the open doors, the former set fire to the mines, and 4,000 enemies, together with the fugitives, were buried among the ruins of the castle. Admiral MiauHs avenged the dead by reconquering the island and vanquishing the combined Turkish and Egyptian fleets. A series of other victories by sea followed, and the campaign termi- nated gloriously for the Greeks. The fierce Ibrahim, son of the powerful Mehemed Ali, viceroy of Egypt, now also brought on the forces of Egypt. The fleets of What cruelties did the Turks commit in Scio ? Give particulars. What did Kanaris and Pipinos undertake ? With what kind of ships ? How was Misso- longhi defended ? Whose devotion caused his death when Pasha Mustapha in- vaded Hellas ? Give an account of the attack. What was the loss of the Turks ? What of Lord Byron ? How many Greeks sacrificed their lives in Ipsara ? In what way ? How many enemies m^t their death with them ? What of Admiral Miaulis ? Who brought on the forces of Egypt ? 272 the Christian powers allowed him to pass by unchecked, and land in the Morea. On his march he laid waste the peninsula and the main land. The captives were subjected to the most horrible tor- ments. They were killed, or for a still worse death, thrown into the pestilential mire of Turkish jails, and the women and children car- ried to the slave-markets of Egypt and Asia Minor. Missolonghi was again besieged. The Greek garrison, composed of only 4,000 men, defended itself for one year with the heroism, of the ancient Greeks. Numberless assaults were successfully repulsed, and every summons to surrender the fortress was refused with the reply : " Liberty or death ! " The Turkish mercenaries had to be driven to the attacks with whips. At last Ibrahim arrived. The Greeks suc- ceeded twice in furnishing provisions to the garrison ; then the im- port of supplies was debarred ; they endured the extremities of famine ; the plan to relieve them was betrayed, and frustrated by the enemies; finally the fortress was taken by storm (April 22, 1826 A. D.) Those men and women who were in condition to fight ex- pected nothing biit death, and received it by the swords of the enemies, in the sea, in wells and in flames. The weaker women and children, old men and wounded assembled in the arsenal ; their leader, Christus Capsalis, flung a torch into the mines, and they, together with 2,000 barbarians, were all engulfed in one grave^ The whole siege cost the Turks 25,000 men. Athens, after a brave defense, also fell a prey to them. Lord Cochrane commanded the Greek fleet ; Church, another British warrior, the land forces. Capo d'Istria, formerly Russian minister, became the president of the republic. Induced by the influence of the great English minister. Can- ning, England, France and Russia finally agreed to summon the sultan to give liberty to the Greeks, on condition of an annual tribute. As Mahmud refused the summons, those powers sent their How did Ibrahim deal with the captives ? With the women and children ? Give the narrative of the siege of Missolonghi. How strong was the garrison ? How long a time did it defend itself? What was its answer when it was sum- moned to surrender? Who arrived at last? What was the garrison at last obliged to endure ? Why were they not relieved ? How did the war-like men die ? How the women, children and old men ? How many Turks perished with them ? What was the loss of the Turks in the siege ? Who commanded the Greek fleet ? Who the land forces? Who became president? Who sum- moned the sultan to grant liberty to the Greeks ? Induced by whom ? How did they force him to do it ? 273 fleets, and Codrington, the English admiral, and commander of their united naval forces, burned the Turko-Egyptian fleet in the harbor of Navarino (Oct. 20, 1827). A French army expelled Ibrahim from the Morea. The united powers resolved that Greece, in future, should be a Christian hereditary monarchy. When the Porte rejected this arrangement, the Russian general, Diebitsch, crossed the Balkan Mountains (1829 A. D.), took Adrianople, and approached the Turkish capital. The Sultan now listened to the overtures of peace, which he signed at Adrianople. So far the war had failed in answering the hopes of the Greeks, who loved inde- pendence and liberty. The allied powers, having previously deter- mined to change Greece into a monarchy, first appointed Prince Leopold, of Saxe-Coburg, as its king; but, as he soon resigned, they placed over it as king the Bavarian prince. Otto, a youth of seventeen years (1833 A. D.) Athens became the capital of the new monarchy. § 116. America. United States. Missouri Compromise. Monroe Doctrine. Protective Tariff. Contests of the Spanish Colonies for Independence. Bolivar. Brazil. The cessation of war and the industry of the people soon brought great prosperity to the United States. Commerce, manu- factures and agriculture revived and flourished wonderfully. The question of admitting Missouri into the Union as a slave State or as a free State was finally settled (1821 A. D.) by the " Missouri Com- promise." This compromise prohibited slavery in all territory west of the Mississippi, and north of 36° 30' north latitude. President Monroe, in a message to congress recommending the recognition of the South American republics, which had been struggling for independence against Spain, proclaimed what is known as the " Monroe Doctrine," which is, that the American continents " are not considered as subject for future colonization by any European power." A protective tariff against goods imported Who commanded their naval forces ? Who expelled Ibrahim from the Morea? What did the united powers resolve upon? Did the Sultan accept their arrangement ? Narrate how General Diebitsch forced him to accept it. Was the hope of the Greeks fulfilled ? Who became their king ? What city became their capital ? | 116. Were the United States prosperous after the war ? Explain the meaning of the Missouri compromise; of the Monroe doctrine. Who was the author of the protective tariff? (18) 274 from abroad was enacted by congress (1828 A. D.) Henry Clay was the author of this policy. In the Spanish colonies of America the State and Church offices were given only to Spaniards, who enriched themselves by this pol- icy. Domestic goods were not allowed to be sold but to Spain, and only Spanish goods were to be imported. When the States- General established a liberal constitution in the native country (18 1 2 A. D.), the colonies demanded the same rights. This just demand being refused, most of them threw off the king's dominion and constituted their own governments. As Ferdinand VII. then demanded unconditional submission, they took up arms in order to become entirely independent, and fought to the utmost. The cruelty of the king only inflamed their courage the more. They became republics. Civil concord, however, was lacking in most of them. The vice-kingdom Rio de la Plata first began the combat for liberty ; it gained its independence, fighting principally under the command of the brave General San Martin. By degrees several repubUcs arose from the kingdom, which later (181 7 A. D.) entered into a confederation, and gave themselves a constitution modeled after that of the United States. Slavery was abolished. — Uruguay and Paraguay later separated from the union. In Paraguay the lawyer Dr. Francia, a pupil of the Jesuits, ruled for a long time with a dictator's power. Venezuela declared its independence almost simultaneously with that of the La Plata States (181 1 A. D.) As an awful earthquake then visited and almost entirely demolished the capital, Caracas, by which 70,000 persons were killed in Valencia, the clergy declared this natural phenomenon to be a divine punishment for having separated from Spain, and summoned the inhabitants to return to its dominion. This, in fact, was done, and the repubhcans were severe- ly persecuted. But BoHvar led 600 men over the Andes (18 13 A. D.); thousands joined him to revenge the death of the patriots; he What privileges did the Spaniards enjoy in the Spanish colonies ? What of domestic and Spanish goods ? What did the colonies demand ini8i2? What was the effect of Ferdinand's order of unconditional submission? What did the colonies become? Who began the combat for independence? Under what commander did La Plata gain its independence ? What of its several republics ? What of Uruguay and Paraguay ? Of Dr. Francia ? — Of Venezuela ? Of Car- acas and Valencia ? What did the clergy declare ? To whose dominion did the inhabitants return ? 275 vanquished the Spaniards, entered Caracas, his native town, in solemn triumph, and was saluted by the people as the deliverer of the country. War continued with variable success; Morillo, Ferdi- nand's general, misruled the country and was as cruel as another Alva; Bolivar was obliged to flee to San Domingo; the absolute monarchy seemed to get the victory. But the hero soon returned and fought again with good success. New Granada united with Venezuela (1819 A. D.), and both republics, in honor of the dis- coverer of America, assumed the name of Columbia. BoHvar be- came their president (1821 A. D.), and at last expelled the Spaniards entirely (1823 A. D.) San Martin also aided the inhabitants of ChiU (18 17 A. D.), and defeated the Spanish troops. He was nominated protector of the new republic. From Chili he advanced victoriously to Peru and captured Lima (1821 A. D.), while the English hero, Cochrane, with his ships, protected the coast of this country. As the royalists regained supreme power, Bolivar, hastening to succor the republi- cans, defeated the Spaniards. His lieutenant-general, Sucre, at Aya- cucho, gamed the decisive victory ; warriors of Napoleon, Germans and English were fighting as volunteers with him ; the royal army was annihilated ; two viceroys and six generals surrendered. BoH- var seized also the rest of upper Peru from the Spaniards (1825 A. D,); the land changed into a special republic, and called itself BoHvia, in honor of its deliverer. Bolivar framed new constitutions in both States, and became their president for life. So much power centered in one man, excited against him jealousy and fear ; several conspiracies were planned to take his life ; in addition, the republics themselves disagreeing, he resigned his exalted position, and soon after died (1830 A. D.) Mexico also declared itself independent (1813 A. D.), and framed its first constitution. Mina, the valorous champion of liberty in the mother country, put himself at the head of the new government. Who delivered them ? Give a narrative of Bolivar's activity. What of Morillo? Of Bolivar's flight? What other provinces united with Venezuela ? What name did the two republics assume ? Who became their president ? What inhabitants did San Martin also aid? What was he nominated? To what city did he advance from Chili ? Who protected the coast of Peru ? Who suc- ceeded the republicans? Who, at Ayacucho, gained the decisive victory? Who was fighting with Sucre ? What result did the victory have ? What name did Peru assume in honor of Bolivar ? What did he frame, and what become ? What was planned against him ? What position did he resign ? What of Mexico ? Who put himself at the head of the new government ? 276 but was taken prisoner and shot. Iturbide, who, it was thought, would combat the repubHcans, joined them (1820 A. D.), effected the downfall of the Spanish dominion, and was, by the influence of the troops, nommated emperor (1822 A. D.) But Santa Anna pro- claimed the republic ; the former was banished, and when he re- turned, was seized and shot (1824 A. D.) The land gave itself another constitution, resembling that of the United States. Slavery, too, was abolished (1829 A. D.) After the death of Iturbide, several presidents rapidly succeeded each other (1824-1833 A. D.), until Santa Anna was elected president (1833 A. D.) — Guatemala also became a republic (1821 A. D.) As John VI., king of Portugal, returned to this land, Brazil de- manded to be separated from the mother country ; he was compelled to acknowledge it as an independent realm, and permit his son Don Pedro I. to be its emperor (1825 A. D.) In later time Pedro fell out with the national party; an insurrection broke out (1831 A. D.), the troops refused to obey him ; then he gave up his claim to the throne in favor of his son Pedro II. and went to Portugal. 2. THE REVOLUTION OF 1830 IN FRANCE, AND ITS OONSEQUENOES - 1830 to 1848 A. D. g 117. France. Revolution of July. Dethronement of Charles X. The Family of Orleans. Charles X. continued to govern in an arbitrary way. He again dissolved a Chamber of the Deputies, thinking it to be too liberal (1830 A. D.) In order to manage the new elections according to his pleasure, promises, threats and violence were tried ; the bishops issued pastoral letters ; the king, a summons to the people. The new delegates, nevertheless, were yet more liberal men. Now the king published the six ill-famed ordinances by which he suspended the liberty of the press, dissolved the newly-elected Chamber of Depu- ties, and changed the law of elections from bad to worse (July 26). The constitution was destroyed ; yet, in the evening of the day upon What was his success ? What of Iturbide ? What did Santa Anna proclaim ? What was the end of Iturbide ? What constitution did Mexico adopt ? What was also abolished ? Who was at last elected president ? What did Brazil de- mand when John VI. returned to Portugal .-* W^ho became emperor ? To whom was Don Pedro I., when an insurrection broke out, obliged to resign the throne ? § 117. Give an account of the arbitrary government of Charles X. What did he dissolve.? What means did he and the bishops employ? Did they succeed? What ordinances did he publish ? 277 which the ordinances were pubUshed, the revolt began in Paris. First the editors of the Hberal papers and the newly-elected deputies declared their opposition to them. On the morning of July 27th all the usual business was suspended, and the indignant people thronged the streets. The government caused the printing-offices to be broken open and the presses to be seized, and ordered the arrest (by the sheriffs) of fifty of the most prominent citizens, besides directing that the " rabble " (as the people were designated) should be dispersed by the soldiers and cannons. The police, the royal guards, the Swiss regiments, and the troops of the line were marched ; most of the latter, however, refused to fight their fellow-citizens. First the guards made an attack ; several defenseless old men and women were killed, and hereby the signal of the combat was given. It commenced in every street, and lasted the whole day. The prime minister, Polignac, himself ordered it to be continued, and hinting something about St. Bartholomew, said: "Go on in this way ! Bleeding in July is as wholesome as in August ! " Mean- time, the careless king, as usual, played whist at St. Cloud. In the night the citizens prepared for the next day. The national guards, which the king had previously disbanded, volun- tarily reorganized themselves, arms were looked for, and barricades built, that is, the streets were blocked up with upset wagons, planks, and paving-stones. The king declared Paris in a state of siege, committed to the Mareschal Marmont the chief command of the troops, and ordered more regiments to march to Paris. On the 28th all the important posts of the city were occupied by armed citizens, and the national guards moved on. Youths also placed themselves in the ranks of the combatants. The pupils of the polytechnic school were the leaders of the bands ; the students of medicine attended to the wounded. Women, maidens and children encouraged the fighters, procured ammunition, provisions and re- freshments, fired from windows, and showered stones, beams, some- what effect did the publication of the ordinances cause in Paris ? What did the liberal papers and the new deputies declare ? What of business and of the people ? What did the government order ? What forces were marched ? Who refused to fight ? Whom did the guards first attack ? What did then commence ? Who ordered the combat ? What did Polignac say ? What was meanwhile the pastime of the king ? How did the citizens prepare for the next day ? How did they build barricades ? In what state did the king declare Paris to be ? To whom did he commit the chief command ? By whom were the important posts of the city occupied ? How were the students of the polytechnic school and of medicine employed ? How the women, maidens and children ? 278 times even whole chimneys upon the enemy. A young girl, in the midst of the tumult, hoisted the tri-colored flag. Arms and alarm- bells resounded everywhere ; the whole city was one vast camp. Marmont ordered all divisions of the troops to attack at all points simultaneously. They fired with cannons and grape-shot at the citizens ; thousands of them fell, but nevertheless they resisted bravely, crying : " DoAvn with the servants of the tyrant ! Long live liberty ! " The royalists were everywhere defeated, the barracks of the Swiss mercenaries, and the palace of the archbishop were taken by storm ; three regiments of the troops of the line joined the people. The fight was especially murderous before the bridge of the Greve-place, where a youth cried : " Give the bridge my name if I die ! ' My name is Arcole! " He was the first who hurried towards it, and fell pierced by balls. Thousands followed him, and the bridge was taken by assault. It received the name of the fallen hero. A pupil of the polytechnic school, amidst a shower of gun- shot, grasped a hostile cannon in his arms, crying : " I will rather die than quit its hold ! " By evening only a small part of the city was still possessed by the royalists. Meanwhile, Charles was again playing at cards, and a great chase was arranged for the next day. Lafitte, a member of the Liberal party, still declared to the Min- ister of State that peace could be restored, if the ordinances would be withdrawn and the ministers dismissed ; but his declara- tion was not heeded. On the 29th the drums beat the general in all quarters of the city, and the alarm-bells resounded ; the assembly of deputies appointed Lafayette commander-in-chief of the armed people, and organized a temporary government. The royal troops were expelled from their last positions; the Louvre and Palais Royal conquered, in spite of the resistance of the Swiss guards, and finally the Tuileries, too, taken by storm. This completed the vic- tory. The people were exultant. A young girl who, amidst a shower of bullets, had captured a cannon, was carried about in a triumphal car with shouts and songs of victory. The dead were solemnly What did a girl hoist ? What was the aspect of the city ? What did Mar- mont order ? How did the citizens behave ? What did they cry ? What was their success ? What of the mercenaries ? Of the palace of the archbishop ? Who joined the people ? Before what bridge was the fight murderous ? What of Arcole ? Who clasped a cannon in his arms ? What was the situation of the city by evening ? What of Charles ? What did Lafitte declare ? With what result? Who was the next day appointed general- in-chief? What was organ- ized ? What palaces were also taken ? How was a young girl honored ? 279 buried, and a plain cross, with the inscription, '* To the memory of the French who died for Hberty," was put on their graves. The provisional government declared the power of Charles X. forfeited, and appointed Louis Philippe, duke of Orleans, lieutenant- general of the kingdom. The assembly of deputies improved the constitution, stating that the sovereignty of the people was to be the foundation of the government, and adjudging to the nation the right to change all' estabhshed constitutions ; then they proclaimed Louis Philippe king. Charles,with his family, was obliged to quit the country, and Polignac, with three other ministers, was sentenced to imprisonment for life ; however, after six years' confinement he was released. The newly-elected king did not fulfill the expectations of the patriots; he, by degrees, joined the odious party of retrocession. The worthiest men, like Lafayette and Lafitte, withdrew from public offices. Bloody insurrections broke out in la Vendee, and other parts of the country. PhiHppe's life was several times attacked, most dangerously by Fieschi, who discharged an infernal machine at him. Louis Napoleon, nephew of the Emperor Napoleon, excited two insurrections for the purpose of overthrowing the government ; he was captured and condemned to perpetual imprisonment. In or- der to more easily control the inhabitants of Paris, Philippe caused the city to be fortified, which enterprise cost the country enormous sums of money. — During his reign, Algiers was conquered and colonized. Abd-el-Cader, chieftain of the Bedouins, who allied with the em- peror of Morocco (1844 A. D.), offered, in this country, a most per- tinacious resistance. Bugeaud aud other French generals combated him; at last, Lamoriciere took him prisoner (1847 A. D.) ^ 118. Belgium. Separation from Holland. Germany. The Belgians, who had been compelled by the congress of Vienna to unite with the Hollanders, having long been goaded' by unjust laws, and treated rather as vassals than as subjects of the How the killed citizens ? What was the inscription on their graves ? Whose power was declared forfeited ? Who was appointed lieutenant-general ? In what manner did the deputies improve the constitution ? What ought to be the foun- dation of the government ? What right was adjudged to the nation ? Who was proclaimed king ? What of Charles, of Polignac, and other ministers ? What party did Louis Philippe join ? What was the consequence of it ? What of his life ? Of Louis Napoleon ? Why did the king fortify Paris ? What country was conquered and colonized ? What general took Abd-el-Cader prisoner ? 280 Dutch king, judging the period favorable for dissolving their union with a people foreign to them in language, manners and interests, arose in insurrection (August, 1830 A. D.), and after a contest of four days' duration, drove the Dutch authorities and garrison from their capital, Briissel. In vain w-ere efforts made by the prince of Orange to reconcile the conflicting demands of the Dutch and Bel- gians, and again unite the two people under one government. The proposals of the prince were disavowed by his father, the king of Holland, and equally rejected by the Belgians ; and the latter made a formal declaration of their independence. Soon after, the representatives of the five great powers — France, Great Britain, Prussia, Russia and Austria — assembled in London, and directed that hostilities should cease between the Dutch and Belgians. The latter having decided upon a constitutional monarchy, their congress elected Leopold, prince of Saxe-Coburg, as their king. As the Dutch continued to hold the city of Antwerp, contrary to the deter- mination of the five great powers, a French army entered Belgium (1832 A. D.) and, after obstinate defense, compelled the surrender of the place. Since her separation from Holland, Belgium has in- creased rapidly in every industrial pursuit and social improvement. Encouraged by the success of the people in the days of July in France, the patriots in Brunswick, Saxony, Hesse-Cassel and Han- over also arose in sedition, and compelled the sovereigns to improve the constitutions of their lands. Some bold malcontents even designed the plan of setting Germany free by revolution. On an appomted day, some bands of the conspirators entered Frank- fort, killed several soldiers, and proclaimed the German republic. But the scheme was already betrayed ; troops marched forward and brought the enterprise to an ignominious end. These events caused new and still more severe decrees of the German confederation. The Uberty of the press was again abridged, and all political clubs, assemblies and festivals of the people were forbidden. Nay, the § 118. Why did the Belgians dissolve their union with Holland ? How long did the contest last ? Who tried to reconcile them with the latter country ? Who disavowed the proposals of the prince? What powers wanted the hostili- ties to cease ? What of Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg ? Of Antwerp ? What army interfered in the struggle ? With what result ? How did Belgium get along after her separation ? What of Saxony, Hanover, etc., in Germany ? What plan did some malcontents form ? Did they succeed ? Why not ? What did these events cause? What was abridged ? What forbidden ? What secret treaty was formed by the sovereigns ? 281 sovereigns vowed, in a secret treaty at Vienna, to annul the consti- tutions of the people (1834 A. D.) Frederic William III. established in his States a new system of regulating the customs '(1^33 A. D.*), which the other German States have since joined. It is called " German ZoUverein." By it they agreed to levy customs at a common frontier. Prussia became its center. §119. Switzerland. Political Reforms. Secession War. Amendment of the Constitution. The desire of liberty also increased more and more in the Swiss nation. The cantons of Tessin,Vaud and Lucerne first amended their constitutions; soon thousands of citizens assembled, too, in Zurich, and in most of the cantons, demanding new constitutions. The expulsion of Charles X. gave them courage to make such demands. In vain the governments expected assistance from the Holy Alli- ance ; their delay caused revolts in several cantons. The patricians of the cities resigned their power ; everywhere popular constitu- tions were established (1830-1831 A. D.) New, stirring life was roused in all regenerated cantons, and manifested itself by all kinds of popular creations. National education took a free, towering flight. Ziirich and Berne founded universities. After the first revolutionary attempt of Louis Napoleon, the French government demanded his banishment from Switzerland, where he was a citizen. The foreign powers supported the demand, and French troops marched to the Swiss frontier. The western cantons armed themselves also, and a Swiss corps of soldiers occu- pied the frontier frorn Neuchatel to Basel. But Louis Napoleon having left Switzerland of his own accord, France declared herself to be satisfied and withdrew her troops. By degrees the conservative party once more regained its power. When Dr. Strauss, an eminent theologian, was called as professor to Ziirich, a vehement agitation seized the people. Most of the parishes petitioned against his call (1839 A. D.) Strauss was pen- What did Frederic William III. establish ? § 119. What Swiss cantons amended their constitutions ? From whom did the governments expect assist- ance ? What did the patricians resign ? What was established ? What effects did the popular commotions cause ? Where were universities founded ? Whose banishment did the French government demand ? Who occupied the Swiss frontier? What further of Louis Napoleon? What party later regained- its former power ? How did the people of the canton Ziirich like the call of Dr. Strauss ? 282 sioned. A multitude assembled and directed a threatening address to the government ; they armed themselves, and, led by a clergy- man, marched to Ziirich, After a short conflict, in which some of the mutineers were shot, the government dissolved itself, and a new one was constituted by the victorious party. A similar revolt took place in the canton of Argovie, the con- vents being at the head of the commotion. The government dis- persed the revolters, and abolished the monasteries. In the canton of Lucerne the infatuated people changed the liberal constitution ^ called the Jesuits into the land, and concluded a separate confedera- tion with the Catholic cantons for the purpose of defending their religious rights. The number of the malcontents in Lucerne increased, and they resolved to overthrow the government of the Jesuits. Several thousand volunteers of the liberal cantons invaded the canton in order to support them, but they were defeated, and about 2,000 taken prisoners. Their cantons had to pay large sums of ransom for their release. The diet ordered the seceders to dis- solve their alliance, and to dismiss the Jesuits, and resolved, as they refused to obey, to compel them by force of arms (1847 A. D.) Dufour was general- in-chief of the confederate army, comprising 100,000 men. First, Freiburg, the bulwark of the Jesuits, was taken, then Lucerne was attacked, and the army of the secession- ists routed. The rulers of Lucerne took to flight, and the city re- ceived her deliverers with enthusiasm. The other cantons, too, submitted, the Jesuits were banished forever, and the convents, which originated the war, had, principally, to defray its expenses. The war had not lasted but twenty-five days, and did not cost more than about one hundred human lives. This happy success was brought about by the wise conduct of the army, and the valor and good discipline of the troops. Peace and concord was restored to all regions of Switzerland. How did a multitude behave towards the government ? Where did they march to ? Who was their leader ? What did they constitute ? Where did a similar revolt take place ? How did the government of Argovie deal with the revolters and monasteries ? What did the people of Lucerne change ? Whom did they call into the land ? What confederation did the Catholic cantons con- clude } By whom were the malcontents of Lucerne .supported ? With what success ? What did the diet order the seceders to do ? How did it compel them ? How large was the army of the confederates ? Who was general-in-chief ? What town was first taken ? Which one then ? What of the other cantons ? Of the Jesuits ? Of convents ? How long did the war last ? How many were killed ? 283 A revision of the confederacy was then resolved on, and a new constitution framed. Its most important enactments are the follow- ing : " A national council, elected by the people, and a states- council, form the National Assembly. liberty of religion, of the press, and the rights of petition are warranted. The cantons are forbidden to allow their soldiers to go into foreign service for hire. The Order of Jesuits is never more to be admitted. A confederate council, consisting of seven members, possesses the executive power." ^ 120. Poland and Russia. Revolution in Poland. Cau- casian War. Shamyl. According to the decrees of the congress of Vienna, the king- dom of Polonia should have a separate constitution ; but ere long the Russians held the chief places of government ; the article of the constitution establishing liberty of the press was nullified ; publicity of debate in the Polish diet was abolished ; Constantine, brother of Emperor Nicholas, governing the kingdom, proved to be the worst of tyrants, etc. These reasons, and the successful examples of France and Belgium, roused the Polish patriots again to action. The students of a military school at Warsaw first attempted to seize Con- stantine at his quarters (1830 A. D.) but during the struggle with his attendants he escaped to his guards, and fell back to the frontier. Chlopicki was first appointed commander-in-chief by the provi- sional government, and afterwards was made dictator, but he soon resigned. The patriots proposed to abolish servitude in order to gain the support of the mass of the nation; but the aristocrats resisted them, confiding in the mercy of the Russian emperor, to whom they sent deputies. The latter refused all terms but absolute submission, and sent an army of 200,000 men into Poland under the command of Field-marshal Diebitsch. Skrzynecki (skshe-nets-ke) being now appointed commander-in-chief of the Polish forces, defeated several Russian generals, and compelled Diebitsch to retreat Give the most important enactments of the new constitution. What lil:)erties were warranted ? What of mercenaries ? Of the Order of Jesuits ? Who pos- sesses the executive power? g 120. What wrongs did Poland suffer from Rus- sia? Who held the chief offices? What of liberty of the press and of public- ity of debate in diet ? How did Constantine govern the kingdom ? What did the students of the military school at Warsaw attempt ? Who was the first com- mandei*-in-chief ? What did the patriots propose? And why? Who resisted them ? In whose mercy did they confide ? Did they succeed ? What and. whom did Nicholas send ? What of Skrzynecki ? Whom did he defeat ? 284 into the Prussian and Austrian territories. Thus Prussia and Austria interpreted and enforced the principles of the " Holy Alliance ! " Skrzynecki, with 20,000 Polish combatants, forced his way to Ostrolenka, where he engaged in battle with 60,000 Russians (1831 A. D.) The combat was terrific ; no quarter was asked and none was given. The Polish army, led by the heroic General Bern, lost one- fourth of its number. The Russians had three generals killed. Soon after Diebitsch and the Grand-duke Constantine died suddenly of cholera — a contagious disease which came from Asia to Russia, spreading from there through most of the lands of Europe, and killing hundreds of thousands. Dissensions among the Polish chiefs increased, and Paskewitsch, who had succeeded Diebitsch in the command, assembled 100,000 men at Warsaw to storm the city. Although the city was defended with heroism, yet, after two days' fighting, in which 20,000 Rus- sians were slain, the cowardly commander of Warsaw surrendered to the Russian general. Large numbers of the fugitives crossed the frontiers and went into voluntary exile to England, France, Switzer- land, and other countries. The universities of Warsaw and Wilna were abolished ; most of the generals who surrendered were, un- der an amnesty, sent to difterent parts of the Russian empire, and the soldiers and the Polish nobility were consigned by thousands to the dungeons and mines of Siberia, Poland was declared a Russian province. Remarkable also is Russia's war against the Mohammedan nations which Hve in the Caucasus mountains, east of the great military road. For fully one century it had endeavored to de- prive them, by cunning and cruelty, of their independence; but they resisted victoriously. The last time their priests were leading the combat, and made it a matter of religion ; therefore it was waged with the utmost irritation. Their chieftain, Shamyl, being also their most revered divine, became particularly formidable to the Russians. He allured General Grabbe (like Arminius did the Romans) into Where did Diebitsch retreat to ? What ot the battle of Ostrolenka ? Who died soon after ? What of the cholera ? What increased among the Polish chiefs ? What city did Paskewitsch storm ? How many Russians were killed ? Who surrendered Warsaw ? Where did many fugitives go? What of the uni- versities of Warsaw and Wilna ? Of the surrendering generals ? Of the cap- tured soldiers and noblemen ? What did Poland become ? — Of what did Russia endeavor to deprive the nations in the Caucasus mountains ? Did she soon suc- ceed ? Who were their leaders in the combat ? Which of them was the most formidable ? Where did he allure General Grabbe ? 285 impassable forests, and killed 2,000 enemies, with most of the offi- cers (1842 A. D.) Three years later he caused Woronzoff to meet with the same fate. The cholera was in alliance with these valorous tribes. Seldom a Russian soldier returned home from their moun- tains. Emperor Nicholas attempted to destroy their forests with sulphur and pitch. An idle enterprise ! The siege of the fortified village of Gergebil was also a failure (1847 A. D.) Shamyl every- where pushed the Russians back (1851 A. D.) The Caucasians were not completely subjugated until 1859. g 121. Great Britain. Emancipation of the Catholics. Reform of the Parliament. The Slaves Emanci- pated. Tne Corn Laws Relaxed. 'Qonnell. Lord Russell, Dominion in the East Indies. War Against China. After the treaty of Paris Great Britain again subjected Europe to the scepter of its indus'try. Nevertheless the people, especially those who were employed in factories, lived in a very oppressed condition. The weight of the public debts increased so much that the interest alone amounted to 34,000,000 pounds sterlmg. But Ireland's situation was the most helpless. There English landlords possessed most of the estates of the realm. The Irish themselves were only their tenants. The daily lives of the domestic beasts were to be preferred to their own condition. In the same way the Irish Church property belonged to the EngUsh clergy. No Catholic-Irish was admitted to the British parliament. Now, the highly esteemed and resolute orator, O'Connell, putting himself at the head of his countrymen, solicited a vacant position in the par- liament. He was elected, though a powerful Protestant was his competitor (1828 A. D.) At last the barriers which had so long excluded Roman Catholics from the legislature were removed (1829 A. D.) There was another defect in the organization of parliament. The memberships of the upper house were hereditary, and for the How many enemies were killed? What of Woronzoff? Of the cholera? What did Nicholas try in vain? What of the siege of Gergebil? When were these mountaineers finally subjugated ? ^ 121. Who again ruled the industry of Europe ? In what condiiion did the English people live ? What was the amount of the interest on the public debt? Whose sil nation was the most helpless? Why? To whom did the Irish church property belong ? Were Irishmen ad- mitted inlo parliament ? Who was first elected ? When did they obtain ad- mission into the legislature ? What other defect was there in the organization of parliament ? 286 lower, too, but few elections were made by the people themselves. Most of them depended on the peers in the House of Lords, and on other rich private^ persons. This abuse, too, was forcibly de- nounced. The decided sentiment of the nation in favor of reform occasioned the resignation of the Tory ministry, headed by the duke of Wellington, and a Whig ministry, pledged for reform, then came into power (1830 A. D.) Lord Russell brought forward in parliament the ministerial plan for reforming the representation of the realm which, if adopted, would have extended the right of suffrage to half a million additional voters (1831 A. D.) The bill was lost in the House of Commons. The king hastily dissolved the parliament, and ordered new elections. The advocates of re- form were returned by nearly all the large constituencies. The reform bill, being again introduced, passed the Commons, but was rejected by the Lords. Popular resentment was manifested by serious riots, in which an immense amount of private property and many public buildings were destroyed. The bill was a third time introduced by Lord Russell and again defeated in the House of Lords. Now, all members of the cabinet resigned; political unions were formed throughout the country ; the people determined to refuse the payment of taxes, and demanded that the ministers should be reinstated. It was done; the Lords withdrew their opposition, and the bill was hurried through both houses, and finally passed (June 7, 183 1). The law of the reform of the Irish Church also relieved the burdens the Irish had to bear for the interest of the English Church. In these reforms, and generally in Ireland's wplfare, O'Connell concurred with the greatest energy. After this slave emancipation was carried. England, after paying vast sums in indemnifying the planters, set the slaves at liberty in her colonies. According to the Corn Law, a high duty was imposed on the import of foreign cereals. But, as the potato crop in Ireland in 1845 ^^'^s ^ ^^^^^ failure, in consequence of unceasing rain, Minister Who decidedly desired its reform ? What ministry resigned ? Who then came into power ? What plan did Lord Russell propose in parliament ? Where was the bill lost ? What did the king dissolve ? What did he order ? What candidates were returned ? Where did the bill then pass ? W^here not ? How was popular resentment manifested ? Who, at the third introduction of the bill, opposed it again ? Who then resigned ? What did the people determine to refuse and what demand? Who now consented to the passage of the bill? What burdens of the Irish Church were also relieved? Who, in these reforms, acted with energy ? What was the meaning of the Corn-Law ? 287 Robert Peel, supported by the Free-trade League and its popular leader, Richard Cobden, proposed in parliament the repeal of the Corn Law, and the motion was carried, though not without fierce contest in both houses. In the East Indies the English finished the subjection of the Mahrattas (1817 A. D.), then made the territory of Burmah a trib- utary, and commenced war against the Sikhs ("1845 ■^- ^0 Their dominion already reaches from the Indus to the Irrawaddy, and from the Himalaya Mountains to Ceylon, including over one hun- dred millions of subjects, and about one hundred milUons of tribu- tary inhabitants. In order to revenge the insults which British subjects had suf- fered from China, Great Britain waged war with this realm (1839- 1842 A. D.), and compelled it to open to her ships five seaports, and to give up to her the island of Hong Kong. — As princess Vic- toria, daughter of the duke of Kent, and granddaughter of George III., succeeded to the throne, 'Hanover was separated from the crown of Great Britain. ^122. United States of North America. Indian "Wars. War with Mexico. Generals Taylor and Scott. Battles at Buena Vista and Chapultepec. Capture of Vera Cruz and the City of Mexico. Under the administration of President Jackson, the western Indians, whose chieftain was called Black Hawk, began hostilities against the inhabitants of Illinois (1832 A. D.) A batde was fought on the banks of the Mississippi, and the Indians were defeated. They had to give up large tracts of western lands. Three years after, a war with the Seminole Indians, called the Florida War, broke out, and lasted seven years (1835-1842 A. D.) The cause of the war was an attempt by the United States government to remove the Indians to the west of the Mississippi. They had previously made a treaty agreeing to remove to the Indian Territory, but iiow refused to do so. In the first action the Indians were successful. On what occasion did Robert Peel propose its repeal ? Who assisted him ? Was the law repealed ? How far does the dominion of England in the East Indies reach ? How many millions are subject and tributary to her ? What of her war with China? When was Hanover separated from England? § 122. Against whom did the Indian chieftain Black Hawk wage war ? W^here was he defeated ? What was the result of the defeat ? How long did the Florida war last ? What was the cause of the war ? Were the Indians successful ? 288 When the chief, Osceola, came to the American camp, under a flag of truce, he was seized and imprisoned. Colonel Taylor defeated the Indians at Lake Okechobee ; then they retired to the swamps and kept up an intermittent war till 1842; finally peace was estab- lished. As congress passed a new tariff bill (1832 A. D.), laying heavy protective duties on imported articles, this met with violent opposi- tion, particularly in the South, where the people did not manufac- ture much, and therefore wanted foreign goods as cheap as possible. South Carolina led the resistance to the bill. A convention of the people of that State said that it should be null and void. President Jackson issued a proclamation warning the people that the law would be enforced. South Carolina threatened to secede from the Union. The matter was settled by a compromise, as Henry Clay got a bill passed in congress providing for the gradual reduction of the duties. The United States resolved to colonize the immense territory of the Columbia river (1843 A. D.), and admitted the repubHc of Texas into the Union (1845 A. D.) This country had previously belonged to the United States of Mexico ; but when a new govern- ment in Mexico established a Central Republic (1835 A. D.), 'and changed the sovereign States into dependent districts, Texas pro- tested against this mnovation, and joined the republic of the United States. The Mexicans would not agree to the separation, and be- sides said that the territory of Texas had never extended farther westward' than the river Nueces, while the Texans claimed the country as far as the Rio Grande. General Taylor was ordered into the disputed territory (1845 A. D.) Early the next year he moved to the Rio Grande, where he built Fort Brown, and sent Captain Thornton with a party of soldiers up the river to reconnoitre. This party fell into a Mexican ambuscade, and was compelled to surrender. When congress heard the news of the capture of Thornton's party, it declared that Who was imprisoned ? Who defeated the Indians ? Where did they retire ? What bill met opposition in the South in 1832 ? Why ? Who headed it ? What did the convention of South Carolina say ? Who would enforce the law ? What did South Carolina threaten to do ? Who compromised the matter ? In what manner ? What republic was admitted into the Union in 1845 ? Why did Texas separate from Mexico.-* Did the latter agree to the separation? Into what part of Texas was General Taylor ordered ? What fort did he build there ? What of Captain Thornton ? What did Congress declare when he was captured ? 289 war existed between the United States and Mexico (nth of May, 1846). Taylor met and defeated 6,000 Mexicans at Palo Alto (the 8th of May), and next day* defeated another army at Resaca de la Palma. The United States now planned the invasion of Mexico on three different lines. Taylor was to operate on the line of the Rio Grande, a column was to invade the Spanish possessions of New Mexico and California, and another was to enter the northern States of Mexico. General Taylor captured 9,000 Mexicans at Monterey, and completely vanquished an army of 20,000 men, under command of General Santa Anna, in the narrow mountain pass of Buena Vista (1847 A. D.) About one year previous Captain Fremont, of the topographical engineers, had been sent by the government to seek a new route to Oregon, farther south than the one usually traveled by emigrants. While he was in California, the Mexican commander in that prov- ince was raising a force to expel the American settlers. Fremont was ordered to protect them. They now flocked to his standard, and he beat the Mexicans in several conflicts, and compelled them to retire southward. He and Commodore Stockton accomplished the overthrow of Mexican authority in California (1847 A. D.) General Scott, aided by a considerable part of Taylor's army, besieged Vera Cruz, and after a furious bombardment, the castle and city surrendered (March 29, 1847). He now began to advance on the city of Mexico, stormed the works at the mountain pass of Cerro Gordo, and routed the Mexican army, newly collected by Santa Anna. In the fortified camp of Contreras, at Cherubusco, in the stone building called Molino del Rey, and at the castle of Cha- pultepec the Americans defeated the Mexicans again. The whole Mexican army was routed, and Scott entered the city of Mexico (Sept. 14, 1847 A. D.) By the treaty of Guadaloupe;- Hidalgo (1848 A. D.) Mexico ceded to the United States the vast territory now comprised in New Mexico, Utah and California. In return, Where did Taylor defeat the Mexicans ? Where again ? ^ How many ? On what line of Mexico was Taylor to operate ? In what parts of the country a second and a third column? How many Mexicans did Taylor capture at Mon- terey ? Where did he vanquish Santa Anna ? How large was the Mexican army ? What commission had the government given to Captain Fremont ? Whom did the Mexican commander intend to expel from California ? What was Fremont ordered to do ? How did he execute the order ? What of Commo- dore Stockton ? What city did General Scott besiege ? To what city did he then advance? Give an account of his exploits? What countries 'did Mexico cede to the United States ? (19; 290 Mexico received a compensation of fifteen millions of dollars. Thousands of settlers and adventurers have since flocked to Califor- nia, in order to gain a fortune in its ridi gold-mines. The amount of gold taken out between 1849 and 1870 is calculated at over $1,000,000,000. 3. THE EE VOLUTIONS IN 1848. ^ 123. France. Dethronement of Louis Philippe. Es- tablishment of a Republic and of an Empire. Louis Napoleon III. Franco-German War. Battle at Sedan. Restora- tion of the Republic. The bad election law, according to which only the richer citizens had the right to elect deputies for the second chamber, induced the opposition party to work for a reform of the elections. During the winter of 1847-8 numerous political reform banquets were held throughout France. The leaders of the opposition having announced that such banquets would be held on February 2 2d (Washington's birthday), the government on the evening preceding the 2 2d, forbade the intended meeting in Paris, and made extensive military prepara- tions to crush at once any attempt at insurrection. Irritated by these measures, masses of the people assembled on the 2 2d, without causing any disturbance ; but the following day they were erecting barricades, and began to fight against the soldiers, crying : " Long live the Reform ! Down with Guizot (the prime minister) ! " The national guards declared themselves for the people, and demanded also the dissolution of the Ministry. The ministers resigned ; now the uproar subsided, and the people dispersed, the workmen only remain- ing behind the barricades. But when the soldiers in front of Guizot's palace fired upon the multitude, killing many, the combat was again inflamed, and the cry : " To arms ! Down with the assassins ! Down with Louis Philippe ! Down with the Bourbons ! " re- sounded throughout Paris. The first day the contest was con- tinued. The king appointed Odilon Barrot as minister in order to reconcile the people, but in vain. The troops were discour- What did she receive in return ? Why did many people go to California ? What amount of gold was furnished by the mines in 20 years ? § 123. What induced the opposition party to work for a reform of the elections ? ■ What ban- quets were held in France ? Where was the banquet forbidden, and what prep- arations were made ? Give an account of the events of the 22d of February and the following days. 291 aged by the pressing masses. Philippe then declared himself to be ready to abdicate in favor of his grandson, the count of Paris ; the workmen, however, would not have any more Bourbons, but wanted a republic and a constitution by which the general right of election was established, and labor warranted by the State to the poorer classes, believing that it is the duty and in the power of government to provide for all their wants. They advanced farther, and rushed to the Tuileries. The king had to hurriedly quit Paris with his family. In vam the count of Paris presented himself, led by his mother, in the hall of deputies. They also had to quickly withdraw from the entering populace. The people appointed a provisional government, the leading mem- ber of which was M. Lamartine, and to whom belongs the renown of having saved the country from immediate anarchy. The ses- sions of the Peers were prohibited, free elections arranged, national workshops established, the hours of labor in the factories reduced, capital punishment for political offenses, the titles of the nobility, and slavery abolished, gratuitous instruction in the public schools ordered, the republic in the whole country acknowledged, the Orleans family banished, and a Constitutional National Assembly convened. However, many workmen were not satisfied with the accorded grants. They surrounded the National Assembly, drove the deputies from their seats, and tried to dissolve the government (15th of May). But in the meantime the national guard was called out. The rioters were soon dispersed, and the government reinstated. Finding the burdens imposed on the public treasury too heavy to be borne, and thousands of workmen unprofitably em- ployed in the public workshops, the government ordered such as were born in the provinces to return home, and the younger ones of the remainder to enlist in the army. Then they fought the combat of despair against 150,000 men (June 20-26). General Cavaignac vanquished them. Many thousands were killed, thousands of pris- oners transported to the transmarine possessions of France, the public workshops locked, the former hours of labor restored, and What did Philippe declare ? But what was he answered by the workmen ? What kind of a constitution did they want ? What was the king obliged to do ? And the Count of Paris ? Who was the leading member of the provis- ional government? What decrees did it pass? Were all workmen satisfied with them ? What did some try to effect ? Did they succeed ? What did the government order ? What combat followed ? Who vanquished the refractory workmen ? What did the government then effect ? 292 Cavaignac declared dictator. The republic received a new consti- tution, with one legislative assembly. The executive power should be vested in a president, to be elected by universal suffrage, for a term of four years. Its principles were declared to be liberty, equality and fraternity. Louis Napoleon was elected president, receiving five and a half miUions of votes, seven and a half millions having been polled in the nation. He solemnly swore " to remain faithful to the democratic republic." But on the morning of the 2d of December, 1851, the inhabitants of Paris awoke to find the city filled with troops, while he announced the dissolution of the National Assembly, the restoration of universal suffrage which the assembly had restricted by disfranchising three millions of electors^ and the establishment of martial law throughout Paris. The chief members of the Assembly, together with Generals Cavaignac, Chan- gamier and others, had been seized in their beds, and were already in prison. The coup d'etat was entirely successful, and Louis Napo- leon was absolute dictator of France. About 300 members of the assembly, who declared him guilty of treason, and proclaimed his deposition, were surrounded by a band of soldiers and all marched to prison. He threatened to abdicate, if the people did not elect him president for ten years. An insurrection broke out in Paris (Dec. 4th); he called out troops, killed about 1,000 insurgents, and quelled all resistance. His demand was accepted, the people elect- ing him president for ten years (Jan. i, 1852). He caused many thousands of his adversaries, also Cavaignac, Chan gamier, Lamo- riciere, etc., to be banished or deported. Before a year had passed, the senate, in compliance with his will, adopted a measure to re- establish the imperial government, and the people were called upon to ratify the measure by their votes. A great majority were in favor of the empire (November 20-22). The nation, dazzled by the splendor of the merits of his uncle, desired to have the empire restored. The next year Louis Napoleon, together with England, planned the Crimean war against Russia (see § 127). But Europe did not afford adequate scope for the scheming emperor. The misrule Who should have the executive power ? VVho was elected president ? What did Louis Napoleon swear? What violent act did he perform on the 2d of December ? Who was arrested .? What did he threaten ? What broke out ? How did he quell the resistance ? What, did the people do? How did Napoleon deal with his adversaries ? What measure did the senate and the people soon adopt ? What scheme did he devise concerning Mexico ? 293 and disorder in Mexico induced him to send his troops there. The Mexican president fled, and Napoleon, from a Mexican assembly, procured a resolution permitting him to found a monarchy, and to offer the crown to Archduke Maximilian, brother to the emperor of Austria. Maximilian accepted the fatal gift (1863 A. D.) So long as the French soldiers upheld him, he maintained, with success, an incessant conflict with the republican authority, which he had dis- placed. But when those were withdrawn by Napoleon, MaximiHan was betrayed into the hands of his enemies and shot (1867 A. D.) The victories which Prussia gained over Austria, and, in general, the rising power of the former State, aroused the envy and jealousy of the French nation, as well as of her emperor. A cry arose for immediate war; a pretext for a quarrel was easily found. The Spaniards, searching for a king, offered the crown to Prince Leo- pold, of Hohenzollern, a kinsman to the king of Prussia, who might be regarded as head of the family of which Leopold was a member. Though the prince announced his refusal of the vacant throne, Louis Napoleon demanded a pledge that the king would never, in any future time, permit his kinsman to accept the overtures of Spain. " Prussia," repHed the king, " was in no way concerned in the transactions of Prince Leopold and the Spanish government, and would not mix herself up with them." Napoleon then de- clared war against Prussia, although he was illy-prepared for its emergencies, his army comprising only 220,000 men, while the German-Prussian army numbered 450,000, led by Count Moltke, the greatest military genius of Europe, and other eminent commanders (July 19, 1870). Marshal Bazaine, commanding the army at Metz, fought two indecisive battles, and finding it impossible to break through the German lines, withdrew to the shelter of the fortress. MacMahon, commander of another army, hastened to his relief. While on the march he was surrounded at Sedan, north of Metz, by two German armies, which, with 500 pieces of artillery, carried all the French positions and sent an incessant storm of shells What were his proceedings ? Who became emperor of Mexico ? What was his faie ? What did the victories of Prussia excite in Napoleon and the French nation ? What did they want ? What pretext of war did Louis Napoleon con- ceive ? What pledge did he demand from the king of Prussia ? What did the king reply? What did the former then declare ? Was he prepared ? What was the relative standing of the French and German armies, and what of the German commanders ? Give an account of the war. What was the issue of the battle at Sedan ? What was the fate of Louis Napoleon ? 294 among the French troops. Napoleon, who was present at the battle, surrendered with 83,000 men (Sept. i, 1870), and was taken as a prisoner to Germany. When he was liberated, he went to England (1871 A. D.), where he died (1873 A. D.) Now the way to Paris was clear for the Germans. As soon as the disaster of Sedan was known there, the Parisians deposed Napo- leon and established a republic. The Germans completely sur- rounded the city which, after four months, during which the inhabit- ants endured starvation, capitulated to the enemies (Jan. 30, 1871). Now the adherents of the commune of Paris undertook to found a government of their own. They seized Paris, manned its defenses, and defied the republican government. For many weeks the French army besieged and shelled the capital. When at last an entrance was forced into the city, thousands of insurgents were killed or made prisoners. The terms of peace with France were severe. Germany took back Alsace and Lorraine, .snatched from her by Louis XIV. She demanded an indemnity of 2,200,000,000 pounds sterling, in reim- bursement of the charges to which France had unjustly put her. A German army would remain on French territory, upheld at French expense, till this huge claim was fully satisfied. M. Thiers was now president of the republic. He was able to discharge in full the claims of Germany, and terminate the occupation within the period fixed for that purpose by the treaty. — The present incumbent of the presidency is M. Grevy. — Prince Louis Napoleon, the only son of Napoleon IIL, who fought as a volunteer in the English army against the Zulus in South Africa, was killed by them (1879 A. D.) 2 124. Germany. Insurrections in Berlin and in the Grand-dukedom of Baden. Gernaan National Assembly. Sehleswig and Holstein. Prusso- Austrian War. Battle of Sadowa. The French revolution in the year 1848 caused also vehement popular commotions m all States of Germany. The month of March everywhere effected insurrections, popular assemblies, peti- Who deposed him ? What government was established ? What of the siege of Paris ? Of the commune of Paris ? By whom was it besieged and vanquished ? What were the terms of peace with P" ranee ? Who was president of the republic ? How did he discharge the. claims of Germany ? Who is now ( 1883) president of the French republic? How did prince Louis Napoleon lose his life? g 124. What did the French revolution cause in Germany ? 295 tions and addresses, and on the part of the governments, different concessions, viz., dismission of hated ministers, calHng of diets, and grants of new rights and Hberties. The king of Bavaria resigned the throne. The idea of a National Assembly also became public. The diet met it half way, summoning the German governments to order elections for a National Assembly. Meanwhile, a precon- certing parliament convened in Frankfort. They planned a central constitution by which all enactments not harmonizing with it should be null and void, and elected Archduke John of Austria regent of the empire. Germany should become a hereditary monarchy with a legislative assembly, comprising two houses, the house of the States, and a national one. A deputation of the assembly offered the imperial crown to the king of Prussia, upon condition of his accepting the new constitution, but he rejected the dignity offered him by the people. On the contrary, thousands (and among them even members of the National Assembly) demanded the establish- ment of a German republic. The disunion of the deputies in- creased. Many left Frankfort of their own accord, or by order of their governments. When their number had considerably decreased , the rump parHament was transferred to Stuttgart, and as it here en- deavored to deprive the government of its power, the hall where it held its sessions was locked up (1849 A. D.) Afterwards the regent also resigned, and the old diet was revived.' In Berlin, the people demanded the assembling of the States- General, unlimited freedom of the press, etc. The answer of the king not being satisfactory, scenes of bloodshed took place (since March 14th, 1848). King Frederic Wilham IV., however, accorded all demands (March i8th); the people, masses of whom were assembled in front of the palace, received the news with enthusiasm. But immediately after this, troops made their appearance; they charged, with fixed bayonets, and fired upon the people. The whole city now rises in uproar; the German liberty-flag appears; citizens, students and workmen hasten to the combat; barricades What concessions did the sovereigns make ? What idea became public ? Who did it meet half way ? What did the preconcerting parliament plan ? Who was chosen regent of the empire ? What did others demand ? What was the con- sequence of the disunion ? What of the rump-parliament in Stuttgart ? Of the regent ? Of the old diet ? What did the people of Berlin demand ? What answer did the king give ? What followed ? What did the former then accord ? Was he in earnest ? Give an account of the contest of the people against the troops. Who took part in the combat ? 296 are erected, and courageously defended. They shoot even from the roofs; the soldiers fire with grape-shot and bomb-shells; whole reg- iments are repelled. Deputies of the people beseech the king to withdraw the soldiers ; he refuses, and the contest is continued the whole night ; the arsenal is assailed ; a young workman, Gustavus Hesse, leads the bands, and the next day the people take the arse- nal. The king was compelled to remove the troops, and to accede to the abdication of the hereditary prince of Prussia, because he had ordered the attack of the troops. The prince left the country, but soon returned, and was even a member of the Prussian National Assembly, which met May 22d. Later, the king dissolved it, declared Berlin in a state of siege, and gave the kingdom a consti- tution according to his pleasure. In the grand-duchy of Baden a part of the people, led by Hecker, Struve and other valorous patriots, fought with the aim of establishing a republic (1848 A. D,); the grand-duke took to flight, and asked Prussia for help. The Prussians and other German troops then drew near, drove the army of the republicans south- ward and dispersed it. Many returned to their homes ; some thou- sands retired to Switzerland. The jails and casemates were filled with prisoners, many of whom were shot. These poHtical afflic- tions, to, which, in some countries, famine was added, induced thou- sands to emigrate to America. Schleswig and Holstein, the two southern duchies of Denmark, which had always been governed by the king of Denm.ark in his capacity of a prince of Germany, irritated by his endeavor to in- corporate them into his realm, resisted his enterprise, and solicited admission into the German confederation (184S A. D.) Assisted by Prussian and other German volunteers, they waged war against the Danish king. Afterwards they had to do the fighting alone, and finally to submit again to the king (1851 A. D.), because the German diet ordered them to do so. After his death, Christian IX. succeeded him on the throne What did the people beseech the king to do ? What public building was as- sailed ? Who was the leader of the assailants ? With what success ? What was the king compelled to do ? Did he stand to his promise ? What of the prince ? How did the king later deal with Berlin and the kingdom .-' What aim had the patriots in the State of Baden ? Whom did its ruler ask for help ? What of the republican army ? What was the fate of the captives ? Where did many emigrate to ? What duchies of Denmark did the king endeavor to incor- porate into his realm ? Who resisted him ? Assisted by whom ? Why had they to submit again to the king ? 297 (1863 A. D.) ; but his right of succession to the duchies of Hol- stein and Schleswig was contested by the duke of Augustenburg. Prussia and Austria, uniting in a common cause, went still further ; they marched a formidable army into Schleswig and compelled the king to cede the two allies both duchies. Prussia then tried to in- duce Austria to cede to her all her rights to the duchies. When the latter declared that the question of the duchies appertained to the German diet, Prussia, with some other States, withdrew from the confederation, and occupied Holstein. Moreover, the king of Prussia, in order to divide the forces of his rival, entered into a secret alliance with the king of Italy, who cherished the idea of conquering Venetia. War was accordingly declared against Austria by the two allied powers (June, 1866). But the Italians were de- feated, and compelled to retreat. Prussia fought with better suc- cess; her troops entered Hanover, Hesse-Cassel and Saxony, and took possession of these States. At the same time she invaded the Austrian empire with about 300,000 men, in two armies — the one marching from Saxony, commanded by Prince Frederic Charles; the other proceeding from Silesia, under the crown-prince of Prus- sia. Field-marshal Benedek, commander-in-chief of all the Aus- trian forces engaged in the north, ineffectually endeavored to pre- vent a junction of the two armies ; after which, the king of Prussia took the command in person. Benedek was compelled to accept a general engagement against the enemies, far superior in number, and to whom the needle-gun gave another decided advantage. The battle of Sadowa, after eight or ten hours of fearful struggle, terminated in the rout of the Austrians, with a loss of 40,000 men (July 3d). The campaign had only lasted seven days. The em- peror of Austria, unwilling to protract so disastrous a war, con- cluded the Treaty of Nicholsburg, by which he ceded Venetia to the king of Italy, abandoned all claim of forming a part of the con- federation, which the king of Prussia intended to organize on the north of the Maine river, and gave up his rights to the duchies of To whom was Christian IX. compelled to cede the duchies ? \Yhom would Prussia induce to cede them to her ? Why did she withdraw from the German confederation ? What State did she occupy ? With whom did she enter into a secret alliance ? Against whom did the king of Italy wage war ? With what success ? What German States did Prussia occupy ? What empire did she in- vade .-' Give an account of the campaign. From what countries did her armies make the invasion ? What was the Austrian commander unable to prevent ? How did he succeed in the battle ? How many men did he lose ? How long did the campaign last ? What were the conditions of peace ? 298 Holstein and Schleswig. The southern States of Germany later also joined the new confederation, and when the union of the dif- ferent States was accomplished, united Germany was a fit match for the contest with France, which broke out in 1870 (see France, § 123). William, king of Prussia, returned from that war as emperor of Germany (1881 A. D.) This country was now supreme in cen- tral Europe. WilHam's success was due to his able generals, and especially to his great prime minister, Prince Bismarck, whose poht- ical power was prevalent in Germany and in whole Europe. Since Bismarck has been at the helm of the German empire, however, he has endeavored to tread out every spark of liberty. They call him " the man of blood and iron." § 125. Austria. Insurrection in Vienna. Refornns of the Government, War in Hungary. Kossuth. Gorgey Surrenders at Villagos. The news that the republic had been proclaimed in France also caused general excitement in Vienna. The students and citizens demanded from Emperor Ferdinand a free constitution, and espe- cially the reform of the public schools (March 12th, 1848). When the soldiers, on the next day, killed several persons, the infuriated people attacked the arsenal, the imperial palace, and several other buildings, and demanded the removal of Minister Metternich. As the latter resigned, the people expressed the greatest joy. When still more troops arrived, however, the national guard was organ- ized, and the students took to arms. The emperor granted more reforms. He accorded liberty of the press, promised to call a National Assembly, and to grant a free constitution. The tithes ought to be redeemed, etc. When the party of the court was threatening to again deprive the people of these grants, the latter,, uttering menaces, demanded a diet for the purpose of framing a constitution. The emperor, indeed, conceded this also, but imme- diately left Vienna. Soon after the first Austrian diet began its ses- sions (2 2d of May). The order to dissolve and disarm the aca- demic legion caused the students to erect barricades, and to fight the When did William become emperor of Germany ? To whom was his success due ? ^ 125. What did the citizens and students of Vienna demand from em- peror Ferdinand ? What did the people do when the soldiers killed several per- sons? What of Metternich? When was the national guard organized ? What did the emperor grant ? Did he stay in Vienna ? When did the diet begin its. sessions ? Why did the students fight the soldiers ? 299 soldiers behind them. Supported by the national guard, they pre- vailed, and the soldiers were obliged to retreat. Some troops being ordered to march against the Hungarians, a part of the soldiers opposed the command, and other soldiers were called to compel them to obey. Then soldiers were fighting in the city against soldiers, citizens against citizens. The arsenal was taken by assault, the Minister of War seized by the enraged multitude and hanged. Ferdinand, who meanwhile had returned to Vienna, left the city again, and sent Jellachich, the commander of the Croats, and Prince Windischgratz with an army of 100,000 men, in order to sub- due the revolt by force. The city was bombarded from all sides, and a Hungarian army, which advanced for the rescue, dispersed. On the third day of the siege the city surrendered (Oct. 28th). Then Messenhauser, general of the national guard, the noble- minded Robert Blum, member of the German National Assembly, who took part in the combat as a volunteer, and others, were shot. Bem, general of the garrison, escaped. Vienna was declared in a state of siege, and the diet dissolved. Ferdinand resigned his crown. His successor was his nephew, Francis Joseph I., who almost entirely annulled the liberal constitution. In the other provinces of the empire insurrections also broke out, the people demanding everywhere constitutions in accordance with the spirit of the age. In Prague a parliament of all Slavonians assembled, deliberating by what means they could obtain political liberty. But it was dissolved after Windischgratz had overwhelmed the city in a bloody contest (June 13 and 14). In Hungary the diet abolished socage-service, decreed equal taxation, and demanded a more liberal constitution. The emperor granted it, especially their own ministry. Kossuth, the soul of these innovations, became minister of finance. After this the diet resolved to unite Transylvania with Hungary. The nation wanted to become independent from Austria. But the Slavonians, namely, Croats, Serbs, etc., pertaining to Hungaria, opposed the undertaking, and, instigated by the Austrian government, attacked the Hunga- Against whom should the troops march ? What consequence did the order cause? Who left the city again ? Who was ordered to subdue it ? With what success? What was the fate of Messenhauser and Robert Blum? What of General Bem? What of Vienna and the diet? Who succeeded Ferdinand? What did his successor annul ? What of the other provinces .'• Of Prague ? What did the diet in Hungary abolish? Who became minister of finance? Who opposed the resolution of the diet to allow Hungary to become independ- ent from Austria ? 300 rians, Jellachich being their commander. A great Austrian army supported them (1849 A. D.) The Hungarians did not despair. Arms and ammunition were wanting, and their regular troops were still in Italy, fighting the battles of Austria. Manufactories of pow- der and arms arose as if by magic, and in every town the anvils rang with the clang of the arms which the artisans forged by day and by night. The peasantry, whom the constitution had elevated from the condition of serfs to that of freemen, rose en masse. All Hungarians were fighting with heroic courage. Gorgey, Bern, Dembinsky, Klapka, and other able generals, were at the head of their troops. Bem fought in Transylvania with such good success that the Russians had to be called; but he repelled them. In Hungary Dembinsky and other generals won several glorious victo- ries, and the Austrian armies were compelled to leave the country. The diet, declaring that the crown of Hungary was settled by stat- ute on the direct heirs of the house of Hapsburg, and moreover, that Francis Joseph had not taken the requisite oath to preserve inviolate the constitution, laws and liberties of the Hungarians, but demanded their unconditional submission, denied his right to rule over their nation, and proclaimed the country to be a republic (April, 1849). Kossuth became its governor. Now the emperor begged Russia for help, which was granted without delay. Paske- ■ witsch was commander of the Russian troops, and the cruel Hay- nau, called " Hungary's hangman," commander-in-chief of both armies. Though the power of the allied armies was far superior to that of the Hungarians, the latter were not discouraged, continuing the contest with increased exertion. The cholera became their ally, destroying, together with other diseases, thousands of the enemies. But Gorgey, jealous of Kossuth's power, surrendered, immediately after having been nominated dictator, to the Russians at Villagos with 30,000 men and 140 cannons (Aug. 13, 1849). The public voice of his nation accused him of treachery. Hungary and Tran- sylvania were again overpowered by Austria; only Comorn Avas still bravely defended by Klapka; he surrendered the fortress only Who supported Jellachich ? Describe the efforts of the Hungarians. Who rose en masse ? What generals were at the head of iheir armies ? With what success did Bem fight against the Russians ? What of Dembinsky ? Of the Austrian armies ? Why did the diet deny the right of the emperor to rule in Hungary? What did they proclaim ? Who became governor ? For whose help did the emperor beg ? Who was general-in-chief ? How did the Hungarians contest? Who was their ally ? Who became dictator? How did he act? Of what was he accused ? What of Klapka ? 301 after having obtained favorable conditions for the garrison. The fate the vanquished ones had to suffer was terrible. On the 6th of October (1849 A. D.), a day rendered forever memorable for infamy in the annals of Austria, thirteen generals and staff officers who had surrendered, were shot or hanged at Arad. Many ministers and other civil officials were also executed. An immense number of inferior officers were sent to fortresses to be imprisoned, and about 70,000, who had taken part in the contest, were forcibly enlisted in Austrian regiments. Kossuth and many others went to Turkey, and from there emigrated to America, where they found an asylum and kind support. g 126. Italy. Revolutions of the Italian States. War of Austria Against Sardinia and France. Battles at Magenta and Solferino. United Kingdom of Italy. Garibaldi. In the kingdoms of Lombardy and Venice the people were op- pressed by heavy taxes. They also hated the government be- cause it was administered by foreigners. Some sentinels in Milan were killed through vengeance. When General Radetzky pro- claimed martial law, the wrath increased, and after the report of the French revolution, broke out in a revolt (March, 1848), by which the Austrians were compelled to withdraw from the city. The entire Lombardy rose in open insurrection and joined Sardinia, its king, Charles Albert, advancing to support the people. The pope and the king of Naples also afforded them aid. But the Austrians disarmed the Romans ; the king of Naples recalled his troops, and Charles Albert remamed inactive. Radetzky gained a complete victory at Custozza, and soon after entered Milan. The land had again to submit to Austria. Charles once more tried the chance of arms, but was again vanquished, the campaign having lasted only four days. He abdicated in favor of his son, Victor Emmanuel, and went to Portugal, where he died. Venice, which had proclaimed the "republic of St. Mark," also had to surrender to Marshal Radetzky. What fate did the vanquished suffer ? What of the executions at Arad ? What of inferior officers ? How many were enlisted in Austrian regiments ? Where did Kossuth goto? How was he received in America? | 126. Why did the inhabitants of Lombardy and Venice hate the Austrian government? What incidents caused the revolt? What was the effect of the example of the capital throughout the country? Who supported her? Was the success endur- ing ? Why not ? What of Radetzky ? Of Charles Albert ? Of Venice ? 302 Insurrections, at the beginning of 1848, also occurred in the oth&r States of Italy ; the constitutions were amended ; the Jesuits everywhere removed; in Piedmont, besides, liberty of conscience was granted. Pope Pious IX., known for his liberal principles, proposed the plan of framing a confederation of the Italian States, and first effected several beneficial reforms; e.g., Hberty of the press; but soon committed acts of a reactionary nature. After a while he lost the confidence of the Romans, who compelled him to flee and elected a National Assembly, which declared that the pope's tem- poral power was at an end, and framed a republican constitution. Mazzini, the chief of the "young Italy," and Garibaldi, a bold leader of a corps of volunteers, were at the head of the govern- ment. But at the request of the pope, Austrian, Spanish, Neapol- itan and French troops soon drew near ; the French — to the shame of their repubhc — besieged Rome, took it by assault (1849 ^' I^-)' and reinstated the pope, who since was the most determined sup- porter of absolutism. The king of Naples suppressed the insurrec- tions in Naples and Sicily (1848 A. D.), principally by aid of his Swiss guards, and then governed again with unlimited sway. The influence of Austria again became preponderant in Italy. She possessed the Lombardo-Venetian kingdom, and all the secular princes of the peninsula were either Austrian archdukes, or faith- ful allies of Austria, excepting Victor Emmanuel II., king of Sardinia. The latter, trusting in the assistance of Napoleon III., and in his liberal minister, Cavour, resolved to ruin the Austrian power in Italy. For some time he had been constantly arming for this object; the emperor of Austria demanded the cessation of these preparations, and his reclamations being unheeded, ordered his army to invade the Sardinian territory (1859 A. D.) Napoleon joined his army to that of the king, and placed himself at its head to direct the operations of the campaign. Then began a short but bloody war. The Austrians were defeated in two battles, at Magenta (June 4, 1859), and near Solferino (June 24th). The latter battle Of the other States of Italy? Of the reforms of Pius IX.? Why. did he lose the confidence of the Romans ? What was he compelled to do ? What did the Romans frame ? Who was at the head of the government ? Who abolished it ? Who reinstated the pope ? What of the king of Naples ? Who resolved to ruin the power of Austria in Italy ? Trusting in whom ? What did he do for this object? What did the emperor of Austria demand? What did he order his army to do ? What of Louis Napoleon ? Give an account of the war; of the battle at Solferino. 303 lasted from four o'clock in the morning till eight in the evening. At four o'clock in the afternoon, a hurricane swept over the two armies, compelling them to suspend their bloody work, but the storm was hardly over, when the contest re-commenced with the same fury. At length the Austrians, who had entered the conflict with 220,000 men, were obHged to retreat. Napoleon offered a truce which was accepted, and after this the two emperors concluded peace, according to the terms of which the king of Sardinia obtained the Lombardy, and Napoleon, Savoy and the country of Nice. But these were not the only results of the Italian war. The Austrian garrison had no sooner withdrawn from the papal territory than the Italian revolutionists proclaimed Victor Emmanuel dictator, who united to his kingdom the greater part of the papal dominions, the duchies of Parma and Modena, and the grand-duchy of Tus- cany (i860 A. D.) The appeals of Pius IX. to the Catholic powers were unheeded. The revolution continued its progress over other parts of Italy. Garibaldi, secretly assisted by England, landed in Sicily with 2,000 volunteers, and caused a revolt, which had just broken out in this island, to end in triumph. This being accom- plished, he re-crossed the sea to expel Francis II., king of the Two Sicilies, from his continental possessions. Without striking a blow, he entered Naples (Sept. 7, i860). Then the army of Vic!: tor Emman- uel hastened to his assistance, Francis left his kingdom, and the first Italian parliament, composed of deputies from all Italy (except Venetia and what remained of the States of the church), assembled at Turin, and proclaimed Victor Emmanuel king of Italy (1861 A. D.) Florence, later Rome (1870 A. D.) became the capital of the new government. The beneficial influence of the poHtical reforms have since appeared in the public affairs of the nation. Twenty years ago eighty Italians in every hundred were unable to read or write. Now nearly one million sterHng is expended for public instruction. The monasteries, in which 30,000 idle monks were fed, were abol- ished, and the greater part of their revenues devoted to general education. The industrial progress of free Italy has also been rapid. Who had to retreat ? What did Victor Emmanuel gain ? What Napoleon ? What other States did the former unite to his kingdom ? Where did Garibaldi land ? What did he efifect in Sicily and Naples ? Who hastened to his assist- ance ? Where did the hrst parliament assemble ? Who was proclaimed king of Italy ? Which was the capital ? What beneficial results did the political re- forms exert in Italy ? What of public instruction ? Of the monasteries ? Of industrial progress ? 304 Her exports, which formerly (1868 A. D.) were only twenty-two million sterling, had risen in seven years (1875 A. D.) to forty-two million. While Italy advanced in common with the progress of the age, the pope alone remained conservative. At his call, an ecumenical council convened in Rome which, according to his wish, declared him infallible in matters of faith (1869 A. D.) § 127. Russia. Crimean War. Siege of Sebastopol. Russo-Turkish War. Surrender of the Turks at the Shipka Pass. The Russian czar, Nicholas, ill concealing his ambition under the plea of protecting the Greek subjects of the Ottoman empire, declared war against the Turks, and invaded the Danubian prov- inces of the Turkish territory. The great powers in Europe, desiring to maintain the integrity of Turkey for the perservation of the European equilibrium, oft'ered mediation; but their efforts not having succeeded, England, Sardinia and France (under Napoleon III.), allied with the Sultan and began war against Russia (1854 A. D.) They resolved to take possession of Sebastopol, which was the seat of the Russian power in the Crimean peninsula. Terrible was the attack by land and by sea ; equally terrible was the defense. The czar sent thither constant reinforcements ; the western powers did the same. The siege had lasted one year, when the latter fixed on the 8th of September, 1855, for a general assault. They opened it by a formidable bombardment, which was continued for four days and four nights; then they, with astonishing courage, stormed the defenses of the enemy. Yet it was not till after six assaults had been made, that the French succeeded in taking the Malakoff Tower, which was the principal defense of Sebastopol. Before retiring. Prince Gortschakoff, the Russian commander, completed the sinking of his fleet, and blew up that part of the town which he was compelled to abandon ; then he intrenched himself in the north- ern part of Sebastopol, where he continued for some time to make a desperate resistance, but finally he retreated. Sebastopol by this time had become a heap of ruins. Then the Treaty of Paris fol- lowed (March 30, 1856), by which the Sultan confirmed the ancient How did the exports improve ? Did the pope also advance with the progress of the age? What of the synod held in Rome? §127. Against whom did Nicholas of Russia declare war ? Who allied with the Sultan ? What city did the allies besiege ? How long did the siege last ? Give a description of it, and of the storming of the city. Mention some conditions of the peace. Whose privi- leges were confirmed by the Sultan ? 305 privileges of his Christian subjects; Russia renounced all protec- torate rights over the Danubian provinces ; the navigation of the Danube was declared free; the Black Sea, of which Russia had been the sole mistress, became neutral, and was interdicted to any vessel of war. The first great reform of Alexander II., who had signed the treaty of Paris, was the aboHshment of serfdom, which created four- teen millions of new, free citizens, the mainstay of Russia's agricul- ture. Corporal punishment was also abolished ; the judicial power separated from the administrative, and founded on trial by jury ; the term of military service lessened, and liberty of the press and publications enlarged. But, on the other hand, he suppressed the in- surrection in Poland (1863- 1864 A. D.) with extreme severity. True, the Russian peasant can no longer be beaten or sold by a master, but his attitude to the great lord of his district is still utterly slavish. Of the schoolmaster he knows nothing. — In point of extent Russia is the largest dominion in the world. The subjects of the czar number 85,000,000. He is, in the fullest sense of the word, an absolute monarch. All power — legislative, executive, judicial and ecclesiastical — centers in him. He is the law of Russia. The oppression of the Turkish subjects in Bosnia, Herzegovina and Bulgaria urged these provinces to rise against the sultan (1875- 1876 A. D.) Bulgaria was now the scene of atrocities scarcely par- alleled in modern Europe. Christian villages were burned down and their inhabitants slaughtered by thousands. Women, little children and unoffending old men perished under nameless tor- tures. A vain attempt was made, by a conference of the great powers, to bring the stubborn sultan to reason ; he would not yield to counsel. Russia then declared war, sending her armies over the Balkans,, where they occupied the Shipka Pass (1877 A. D.) But they were driven back, and Osman Pasha led an army to Plevna, a Roumanian town. For five months the con- What protectorate did Russia renounce ? What of the navigation of the Danube and of the Black Sea? What reforms did Alexander II. accomplish in Russia? How many peasants did he set free ? What punishment did he abrogate ? What of judicial power? Of trial by jury ? Of military service? Of liberty of the press ? How did he deal with Poland ? Is the Russian peasant indeed free ? How many subjects are under the dominion of the czar ? Why is he called the most absolute monarch? How were the Turkish subjects in Bul- garia, etc., treated ? Delineate their treatment. To whose counsel would the sultan not yield ? Who waged war against him ? What of Plevna ? (20) 306 test centered in this little town. Todleben, the Russian general, drew heavy masses of troops around it, and starved the enemies. Osman endured the siege till Plevna was a charnel-house, then endeavored to break through the encircling lines; but over- matched and surrounded, he had to lay down his arms. The flower of the Turkish army was lost. A few weeks after the fall of Plevna three Russian armies were led across the Balkans (1878 A. D.) The difficulty of the march was extreme. The roads were slippery with ice, often almost impassable on account of deep snow. Many men perished from intense cold. Still the Russians made their way into RumeHa, and striking the rear of the Turkish army which guarded the outlet from the Shipka Pass, compelled its sur- render. Twenty thousand men laid down their arms. The victo- rious Russians advanced quickly to Adrianople, and the sultan begged for terms of peace, which he was granted on these condi- tions: To the north of the Balkans, Bulgaria was raised into a principality, paying a tribute ; to the south of them, the province of Eastern Rumelia was formed, to be ruled by a Christian governor- general ; and Montenegro, Roumania and Servia received their inde- pendence. Bosnia and Herzegovina were made over to Austria. Russia took back Bessarabia, and received also some Turkish cities in Asia. — The treaty was submitted by Russia to the congress of the European powers, held in Berlin, Prince Bismarck presiding (1878 A. D.) The sultan lost over four million subjects by this war. — Alexander I. was assassmated by the Nihilists (1881 A. D.) ^ 128. America. Secession War in the United States. Abraham Lincoln. When two new territories were organized in Kansas and Ne- braska, the congress resolved that these territories were to decide for themselves whether they would have slaves or not. This law led to civil war in Kansas. The slavery question had already divided the How long did the contest last in the town ? Who were the leaders of the two armies? Who was successful? What loss did Osman suffer? Describe the difficulties of the march of the Russian armies across the Balkans. How many Turks surrendered ? How far did the Russians advance ? Mention some conditions of the peace. To what congress was the treaty submitted ? How many subjects did the sultan lose by this war ? What of the end of Alexander I. ? ^ 128. What did congress leave to the settlers to decide in Kansas and Nebraska ? What followed this law ? When had the slavery question already divided the nation ? 307 nation when the constitution was framed, and finally caused one of the bloodiest civil wars. In the Declaration of Independence the principles were proclaimed that " all men are created equal ; that they are endowed by their creator with certain inalienable rights, and that among these are Hfe, Hberty and the pursuit of happiness." According to these principles the Anti-Slavery Society was organ- ized (1S33 A. D.), which held that all slave laws, before God, were utterly null and void. W. Lloyd Garrison and Wendell Phillips presided over the society. The repeal of the Missouri Compromise (see § n6) caused the formation of a new party, called the Repub- lican party, the principal doctrine of which was opposition to the extension of slavery. John Brown, an enthusiastic enemy of slavery, who had taken an active part in the warfare in Kansas, formed the plan to liberate the Southern slaves. With but twenty- one followers he seized the United States arsenal at Harper's Ferry, Virginia (1859 A. D.) He was seized, together with six of his associates. They were tried and hanged. — The Republicans elected Abraham Lincoln president (i860 A. D.) The seven slave-holding States — South Carolina, Mississippi, Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana and Texas, which were soon joined by the States of Vir- ginia, Arkansas, North CaroHna and Tennessee, formed themselves into a separate confederacy, asserting that they had a perfect right to withdraw at pleasure from the Union, and elected Jefferson Davis president and Alexander Stephens vice-president. South Carolina headed the secession. The confederates, moreover, seized most of the forts and arsenals of the United States within their boundaries. Major Anderson, having refused to deHver up Fort Sumter, in Charleston harbor, was attacked by the confederate bat- teries under the command of Gen. Beauregard (April 12th, 186 1), and surrendered after a day's fighting. At this signal of war the president issued a proclamation ordering 75,000 men into the field for the defense of the Union (April 14th). A large army was What did it cause ? What principles are proclaimed in the Declaration of Independence ? What society was organized according to these principles ? Who presided over the society ? What repeal caused the formation of the Re- publican party ? What was the principal doctrine of this party ? Give an account of John Brown's attempt to liberate the slaves. Whom did the Republicans elect president ? What States formed a separate confederacy? What did they assert ? Whom did they elect president ? Whom vice-president ? W' hat State headed the secession ? What did the confederates seize? Who defended Fort Sumter ? To whom did Anderson surrender ? What proclamation did Presi- dent Lincoln issue ? When ? collected around Washington, under the veteran Gen. Scott. The first bloodshed occurred in Baltimore (April 19), when a mob attacked a body of troops passing through that city to the defense of Wash- ington, and killed two Massachusetts men. In July, Gen. McDowell, having command of the federal force assembled around Washmgton, began to march upon Rich- mond, which had lately become the capital of the confederates. He soon encountered a portion of the confederate troops, under the command of Gen. Beauregard, at a little creek named Bull Run. First the Union soldiers were victorious, but, in the after- noon, the confederates, reinforced by J. E. Johnston's column from the Shenandoah valley, defeated them (July 21). Congress imme- diately levied an army of volunteers which, at the beginning of the year 1862, exceeded 450,000 men. Two hundred thousand of them were near Washington, under Gen. McClellan, Gen. Scott having retired. Gen. Halleck was commander-in-chief of the Western department. The confederate congress passed an act of conscription, which declared every male inhabitant (with a few exceptions) between the ages of fifteen and thirty-five years, a soldier. In the fall of 1861 (October 21) Gen. Banks tried to effect a passage of federal troops across the Potomac river at Ball's Bluff, but the affair was a failure. Gen. Nathaniel Lyon, in Missouri, really saved the State by securing the arsenal at St. Louis (in May, 1861); he fell when he attacked the rebels at Wil- son's Creek (August loth). Col. Sigel won a battle at Carthage, Missouri (July 5th), but was compelled to fall back. Mason and Slidell, two confederate commissioners to the British government, were seized by Capt. Wilkes from an English mail-steamer and carried to Fort Warren (November 8th). The British government demanded their surrender, beginning preparations for war. But war was avoided, as the United States government gave them up. Towards the middle of March, 1862, Gen. McClellan, now commander of the army of the Potomac, landed it at Fortress Mon- What was collected at Washington ? Under whose command ? Where was the first bloodshed ? Give an account of the battle at Bull Run. Who com- manded the Union army ? Who the confederates ? What of Johnston's column? How many volunteers did congress levy? What act did the confed- erate congress pass ? What encounter had Gen. Banks with the rebels in the fallof 1861? How did he succeed? What general saved Missouri? Where did he die ? Give a detail of the peninsula campaign. Who was commander of the Union army? 309 roe and began to advance from that point towards Richmond. The confederate works before Yorktown resisted his march, and, after one month, Gen. Johnston evacuated the place. In spite of new obstacles, McClellan approached within a few miles of Rich- mond. But the enemy had by this time received large reinforce- ments, while his own army had been greatly reduced by losses during the campaign, and by sickness on the banks of the Chicka- hominy. Seeing himself pressed by superior numbers, he was com- pelled to retreat. For six days the confederates harassed his march by continual attacks, known as the " seven days' battles " (from June 25 to July i); but the successful stand which he made at Malvern Hill (July i), checked all further aggressive demonstra- tions against him, and ended the peninsular campaign. The presi- dent now called for 600,000 troops, and soon after ordered that 300,000 of these should be raised by draft, to serve for nine months. Gen. Halleck became commander-in-chief. The success of the confederate government in that campaign induced them to invade the Union territory, in order to strike some important blow. In vain did Gen. Pope oppose the invading army, under Gen. Lee ; he was compelled to retreat, and was severely defeated at the second battle at Bull Run (August 30). McClellan, now recalled from Virginia, advanced with all the forces that were not required for the defense of Washington, to stojj the overwhelm- ing march of the confederates. He met them at the great battle at Antietam, in Maryland. Each army numbered, it is said, a hun- dred thousand men (September 17). The combat raged all day, till night put an end to it. McClellan obtained a decided success, and Gen. Lee hastily withdrew his forces across the Potomac, retir- ing into Virginia. The Union army did nothing till November; then McClellan was ordered to deliver up the command of the army of the Potomac to Gen. Ambrose Burnside, who immediately took measures for a new advance upon Richmond. The march to that city was to be made by the route through Fredericksburg. To what city did he advance ? By what causes was he compelled to retreat ? Where did he make a successful stand ? For how many more troops did the president call ? How many should be raised by draft ? For how many months ? "Who became commander-in-chief? Who invaded the Union territory? Who was defeated in the second battle at Bull Run ? In what battle did McClellan meet the confederates ? How many men did the armies number ? Who was defeated? Who succeeded McClellan in the command? By what route did Gen. Burnside intend to advance to Richmond ? 310 Lee occupied the town with a part of his forces, and concentrated the rest on the heights in the rear of the town. When the Union army attacked it, no greater opposition was made than was suffi- cient to allure the Union soldiers to push forward. But as soon as the Union army tried to storm the enemy's works on the heights, it was received with such a fire of infantry and artillery that Gen. Burnside gave up the attack (December 13). During this year (1862 A. D.) military movements m the west were numerous and important. In January, Gen. Thomas won a brilliant victory at Mill Springs, where the rebel Gen. Zollicoffer was killed. In February Gen. Grant, aided by Commodore Foote with his gun-boats, captured Fort Henry, on the Tennessee river, and Fort Donelson, on the Cumberland — the latter place with 13,000 men. These federal successes obhged the rebels to withdraw from Kentucky. Within two months of this brilliant affair, while Grant's army lay encamped at Pittsburg Landing (Shiloh), awaiting a federal corps under Gen. Buell, Generals Beauregard and A. S. Johnston attacked Grant, rendering themselves master of a part of his camp. But Johnston was killed in the contest, and during the afternoon Buell's army came up, so that the confederates, on the next day, were compelled to give way and retreat (April 6-7). The rebels retreated to Corinth, Miss., where they were besieged by Gen. Halleck ; after severe fighting, they evacuated the place. When Gen. Halleck was made general-in-chief. Gen. Grant took com- mand of the army of the Tennessee. Gen. Price made a vigorous attempt to drive him from Corinth, but was defeated by Gen. Rose- crans in the battle of luka. At Pea Ridge, Arkansas, the confed- erates were defeated by Generals Curtis and Sigel after three days' fighting (March 8th); Columbus, Kentucky, was abandoned early in the year by the rebels, who then fortified Island No. 10, in the Mis- sissippi. Gen. Pope co-operated with Commodore Foote for its capture. After twenty-three days' bombardment the rebels with- drew, but Pope cut off their retreat, taking many prisoners. Flag- Where was he vanquished ? Describe the battle. Where were the forces of Gen. Lee concentrated ? How was the Union army received on the heights of the town ? What forts were taken by Grant and Foote ? With how many prisoners ? From what State were the confederates obliged to withdraw ? Give an account of the battle of Shiloh. W^here did the rebels retreat to ? Who be- sieged them? Who, after Halleck, took command of the army of the Tennessee? Who defeated Gen. Price ? Who defeated the confederates at Pea Ridge ? What town of Kentucky did they abandon ? What island did they then fortify ? Who captured it ? 311 officer David Farragut was sent to the Gulf in command of a squad- ron, designed to co-operate with the land forces under Gen. Butler for the capture of New Orleans. Forts Jackson and St. PhiHp, below the city, having been in vain bombarded for six days, Far- ragut ran past the forts with part of his fleet, destroyed the rebel fleet above, and reached the city (April 25th). The forts surrendered to Commander D. D. Porter, and Butler took command in New Orleans. At the end of the year Gen. Rosecrans gave battle to Bragg at Murfreesboro (Stone River), in Tennessee, and defeated him (Dec. 31, 1862, Jan. i and 2, 1863); both armies suffered a heavy loss. The most important naval combat during the year 1862 was waged between the Merrimac and Monitor, in Hampton Roads. The Merrimac was a confederate iron-clad war-vessel, which destroyed a sloop-of- war and a frigate of the Union (the Cumberland and the Congress). But during the night the Monitor, a peculiar iron-clad war-ship, constructed by Captain Ericsson, arrived from New York, and in the morning attacked the Merrimac, which, after a fierce fight, was badly damaged and compelled to retire to Norfolk. During this year immense havoc was committed on the commerce of the North by the Florida and Alabama, two privateers built m England, which were permitted by the British government to pass into the service of the confederates. The latter, commanded by Captain Semmes, was two years after attacked and sunk by the Kearsarge, Captain Winslow, in the harbor of Cherbourg, France.' After the war, America called upon England to indemnify her for the loss suffered from these cruisers. Commissioners of arbitration were chosen, to whom America submitted her claims. The judges ordained that England should pay three million sterling as a suitable indemnity for the evil which she had wrongfully permitted. — West Virginia was admitted to the Union in 1862. Who was sent to capture New Orleans ? What forts did Farragut bombard ? Give an account of the naval battle on the Mississippi. To whom did the forts surrender ? Who took command in New Orleans ? Who fought the battle of Murfreesboro ? Who was defeated ? Give the details of the naval combat be- tween the Merrimac and Monitor. What kind of war- vessels were they ? What cruisers caused serious damage to the commerce of the North ? Where had they been built ? Where and by whom was the Alabama sunk ? How were the claims of Anfierica against England adjusted after the war? How much indem- nity did England pay ? What new State was admitted into the Union ? 312 I 129. Continued. Emancipation of the Slaves. Battle at Gettysburg. Surrender of Vicksburg and Port Hudson. In 1862, slavery in the District of Columbia had been abolished by congress, and forever prohibited in the territories of the republic. Congress, induced to do so by the president, had also, in the same year, offered a fair compensation to the slave States for the manu- mission of their slaves. But none were wise enough to accept the offer. Moreover, the president had warned them betime to re- turn into the Union, proclaiming that, in case of reluctance, he would declare their slaves free ; but they did not heed this warning. Therefore, on New Year's day of 1863, he issued the Emancipation Proclamation which declared free all the slaves within the borders of the Confederate States. Their number amounted to four millions. Henceforth, the freedmen vigorously supported the cause of the Union. Within six months there were 50,000 colored troops in the Union armies, within another year 150,000, notwithstanding the rebel congress decreed that all white officers of such troops should suffer death if captured, and some privates who were taken were instandy shot. In March the Conscription Act became a law, and the preparations made to enforce it caused great excitement. In New York City the commencement of the draft was followed by a riot in which a great amount of property was destroyed, and many persons, chiefly negroes, were killed.. The next advance upon Richmond was undertaken by Gen. Hooker, who had succeeded Gen. Burnside in command, but he was entirely defeated at Chancellorsville, Virginia, with a loss of 18,000 men (May 2 and 3, 1863). The confederates lost their brave and favorite general, Stonewall Jackson. After this battle, Gen. Lee marched through Maryland into Pennsylvania, and concentrated his forces at Gettysburg. Here he was met by Gen. Meade, who encamped his troops on a hill-slope. This action, the g 129. Where was slavery abolished in 1862? Where prohibited? What did congress offer to the slave States ? With what effect ? What warning did the president proclaim to them? What proclamation did President Lincoln issue on the first of January, 1863 ? What was the number of slaves ? How did they prove their gratitude ? How many of them, within six months, were in the Union army ? How many within another year ? What did the rebel con- gress decree ? What did the Conscription Act cause ? Where did a riot occur ? Who undertook the next advance upon Richmond ? How did Gen. Hooker suc- ceed ? Mention the circumstances of the battle at Gettysburg. 313 greatest of the war, lasted three days (July i, 2 and 3). All attacks of Gen. Lee were repulsed, and he was compelled, after having lost 30,000 men, to retreat into Virginia with the remnants of his army. Two other heavy blows were at the same time inflicted upon the confederates. Thus far the navigation of the Mississippi river had remained closed between Port Hudson (Louisiana) and Vicksburg (Mississippi). Gen. Grant, with the design of opening the river entirely, undertook an expedition against Vicksburg. But the approach to this place proved most difficult, owing to its position, and the eftbrts of the enemy, under Gen. J. E. Johnston, to retain the key of the great river. A previous attempt to cut a new chan- nel for the river, which should leave Vicksburg inland, had failed, as did also another to get in its rear by the Yazoo river. Gen. Grant now ran the transports past the batteries during the night (April 22), then marched the army down the west side of the Mis- sissippi far below Vicksburg, crossed it to Grand Gulf, and from there advanced on the rear of Vicksburg. During this movement he met- and defeated the confederates under Pemberton in five actions. The latter then retired to his works in Vicksburg, and Grant laid siege to it, which lasted six weeks. The garrison, num- bering over 30,000 men, made a gallant defense ; but their provis- ions becoming very scarce, and no hope remaining of receiving relief, they surrendered (July 4). The surrender of Vicksburg was followed by that of Port Hudson. The capture of these two strongholds of the confederates opened the Mississippi to naviga- tion and commerce, and broke up their communication between the States west and east of that river. After the battle at Murfreesboro, Gen. Rosecrans remained there until June, when he drove the confederates, under Gen. Bragg, across the Cumberland Mountains to Chattanooga, Ga., where the latter was reinforced by Generals Longstreet and Johnston, with many paroled men from Vicksburg. Rosecrans was defeated by How long did it last ? How many men did Gen. Lee lose ? Where did he then retreat to ? What two other blows were inflicted upon the confederates ? ' Why was the approach to Vicksburg difficult? What previous attempts failed? Give the narrative of the siege and capture of Vicksburg. By what maneuver did Gen. Grant get into the rear of Vicksburg ? How many times during his movement did he defeat Pemberton? Why did the latter surrender? With how many soldiers ? What other harbor was then captured ? What advantages did the Union gain by the capture of the two places ? Where did Rosecrans drive Gen. Bragg after the battle at Murfreesboro ? By whom was Bragg rein- forced ? 314 Bragg in the great battle of Chickamauga, a few miles south of Chattanooga, but Gen. Thomas, who commanded the Union left, repulsed all attacks of the enemies, and fought so stubbornly that the army was able to retire and fortify itself in Chattanooga. Here it was shut up by Bragg, and nearly starved out. But Grant, joined by Sherman, raised the siege by a battle lasting three days (Nov. 23-25). The confederates were attacked at Lookout Mountain and on Missionary Ridge, and completely defeated. At the same time Gen. Burnside was struggling for the possession of East Ten- nessee, being besieged at Knoxville by Longstreet, who had moved northward after the battle of Chickamauga. But Sherman hastened to his relief from Chattanooga, and Longstreet, raising the siege (Dec. 3), rejoined Lee in Virginia. In the same year almost the whole State of Arkansas was restored to the federal government. — Two more marked exploits of the navy were the capture of the " Nashville" by the " Montauk," and of the ram " Atlanta" by the " Weehawken," both on the coast of Georgia. The main campaigns for 1864 were to be made by the armies of the Potomac and of Chattanooga. Grant, now made lieutenant- general, who superintended in person the army of the Potomac, met the confederates in the stubborn and bloody combat of the Wilderness, which lasted about three days, without decided victory on either side (May 4-6). He then effected several flank move- ments which, after six weeks, brought him before Petersburg, the key to the capital. The Union army, in this movement, lost 60,000 men. Lee took his stand between Petersburg and Richmond, occu- pying an extended line of about thirty miles. Grant then settled down to a long siege, in order to " wear out " the confederates (from June, 1864, to April, 1865). Several assaults were made on Petersburg, but repulsed. A tremendous mine of powder, which had been run under one of the confederate forts before the town, was fired, carrying the earthwork into the air (July 30). A storm- Where did he defeat Rosecrans ? What general effected the safe retreat of the latter? Where was Rosecrans then shut up? Who relieved him? By what battle ? How long did it last ? Where was Burnside besieged ? Who ' hastened to his relief ? What State was mostly restored to the Union ? Men- tion two further exploits of the navy. What armies had to rnake the main cam- paigns in 1864 ? Who was now Lieulenant-General ? What of the battle of the Wilderness ? How many days did it last ? What movements brought Grant be- fore Petersburg ? How many men were killed ? Where did Lee take his stand ? What operation did Grant resolve upon ? What of the assaults on Petersburg ? Of the great mine of powder ? 315 ing column then advanced to press through to Petersburg, but the troops were repulsed with great slaughter. At this time, while Grant stopped before Petersburg, Lee sent Gen. Early with a col- umn to threaten and, if possible, to capture Washington. Early advanced to the works around the capital, but finding them stronger than had been expected, he returned to Virginia. He took with him great booty from Maryland and Pennsylvania. After this, Sheridan, general of the cavalry, and commander in the Shenan- doah valley, defeated the confederates in the battle of Winchester (September 19). At Cedar Creek his army (he being absent), was routed ; after retreating some miles a stand was again made. Sheri- dan arrived, and late in the day, in turn routed the enemies. ^ 130. Concluded. Sherman's March to the Sea. Sur- render of Richmond and of the Confederate Army. Lincoln Assassinated. Amend- ment of the Constitution. Free Homestead Bill. Gen. Sherman's army at Chattanooga was put in motion (May 5th), towards Atlanta, distant 140 miles. This whole route was contested by Johnston in a series of battles, among which the most severe were at Resaca and around Dallas and Kenesaw Mountain. By the middle of July, Sherman's army was before Atlanta, where furious fighting occurred on the 20th, 22d and 28th. Gen, McPherson was killed here. Gen. Hood, who had superseded Johnston, withdrew from the city (Sept. i), and Sherman at once occupied this important town, being the center of railroad com- munication between the Western and the Atlantic and Gulf States. Hood, by seizing Sherman's line of suppHes, compelled the army to fall back. Sherman, after following Hood some distance, sent Gen. Thomas with a large force to oppose Hood, while he himself returned to Atlanta ; he burned the town, and then set out on his remarkable " March to the Sea," through Georgia. The confed- erates had no army that could offer any serious resistance. Sher- Whom did Lee send towards Washington ? Wherefore ? Did Early suc- ceed ? In what battle was Sheridan victorious ? What of the battle of Cedar Creek? § 130. Where did Sherman's army move in May, 1864.'* Who con- tested the route ? In what battles ? Before what town did furious fighting oc- cur ? What general was killed ? Who withdrew ? Why was Atlanta an import- ant town ? Why was Sherman compelled to fall back ? Whom did he send against Hood ? Where did he return to ? 316 man, on his march, destroyed their supplies, depriving them, by this stratagem, of the means of sustaining their armies. Five weeks after his departure from Atlanta he reached the sea, and carried Fort McAllister by assault (Dec. 13); Savannah surrendered eight days later (Dec. 21). This done, the Union army was in communi- cation with the Union fleet off the coast. Meantime Gen. Hood, tempted by Sherman's withdrawal from Atlanta, attacked Schofield at Franklin, Tenn., and after a severe battle (November 3d) forced him to retreat to Nashville, which place Hood then besieged; but Thomas, concentrating his forces here, suddenly attacked him, drove him from his entrenchment and com- pletely routed him (December 15-16). Hood had to retreat, and being pursued by the victor, his army was nearly destroyed. Other operations during the year 1864, not directly connected with the two main campaigns, were: First: Gen. Banks, in March, led an expedition from New Orleans into the Red River country, Louisiana. Two actions were fought — the first, Sabine Cross Roads (April 8th), being a confederate victory, and the second. Pleasant Hill, indecisive. The expedition was given up. Seco?id : In February, Gen. Sherman, before he went to Chat- tanooga, made an expedition from Vicksburg, during which the rebel Gen. Forrest defeated his cavalry column and captured Fort Pillow, where he most cruelly massacred a number of negroes who composed the garrison. Generally, cruelty was the animating spirit of the rebelHon, and its prison discipline, at Anderson, Salisbury, and other places where Union soldiers were held, was a rigidly observed poHcy of delivering to death the greatest number in the briefest time, and by the most barbarous measures. The confeder- ates, in the treatment of their prisoners, outdid the cruelty of Indian warfare. In July, Admiral Farragut, with a powerful fleet and land force was sent against Mobile; he succeeded in running the batteries of the forts in the harbor with the loss of but one vessel ; he attacked the Give an account of his march to the sea. What stratagem did he carry out ? What was his success ? Whom did Gen. Hood attack ? Where did Schofield retreat to ? Who vanquished Hood here ? What of the expedition of Gen. Banks ? Who defeated the cavalry column of Gen. Sherman ? How did For- rest deal with the negroes in Fort Pillow ? In general, how did the confeder- ates deal with their prisoners at Anderson, Salisbury and other places ? De- scribe the action of Admiral Farragut against Mobile. 317 rebel fleet, destroying among other vessels the " Tennessee," the most formidable ram ever fitted out by the confederates. Aided by the land forces of Gen. Granger, he took the forts and secured pos- session of Mobile Bay. The city surrendered in the next spring (1865). Another confederate stronghold. Fort Fisher, North Car- olina, which commanded the entrance to the port of Wilmington, was attacked by Admiral Porter and Gen. Butler (in December), without success; but the following month Gen. Terry assaulted and captured it (Jan. 15, 1863). In the fall of 1864, Abraham Lincoln was re-elected president, the candidate of the Democratic party being- General McClellan. The field of decisive operations was now reduced to the States of North and South Carolina and Virginia. During the winter Gen. Sherman overran the CaroHnas with his victorious army, and thereby cut off the resources of Gen. Lee. He found nothing to oppose his march in order to join Grant, except a small confederate force which Gen. J. E. Johnston had hastily gathered together. The first point to which Sherman marched was Columbia, S. C, which he captured and burned (February 17th). This move compelled the confeder- ates to evacuate Charleston (February 17th). Near Averysboro, N. C, he defeated a confederate force, and at Bentonville fought a successful battle against Johnston. On March 23d he entered Goldsboro, where he was joined by forces under Generals Schofield and Terry. In Virginia Gen. Grant, in the spring of 1865, renewed active operations against Petersburg. Attacks on the rebel works were made daily, with heavy losses on both sides. Sheridan, with his cavalry, rode through the Shenandoah valley, capturing most of the remnants of Early's force, destroyed the canal at the James river, tore up the railroads, and joined Gen. Grant (March 26). On the I St of April the decisive battle was fought at Five Forks, in which Sheridan broke through the rebel forces, and thereby decided the contest for Richmond. An attack was then made along the whole What did he destroy, and what take ? When did the city surrender ? By whom was Fort Fisher attacked ? By whom captured ? What States did Gen. Sherman overrun in the winter of 1864-1865? What did he thereby cut off? What general opposed him on his march ? What towns did he take ? Where did he defeat Johnston ? What of Gen. Grant in Virginia ? Of Sheridan ? Whom did he join ? When was the decisive battle fought ? Who broke through the rebel forces ? Where was an attack made on the 2d of April ? What was the result ? 318 line of works in front of Petersburg, and the line carried at several points (April 2). During the night Lee abandoned Petersburg and Richmond, which were entered by the Union army the next day (April 3). Lee retreated, hoping to join Johnston in North Caro- Inia. A hot pursuit was immediately begun by Grant. The con- federate army was completely surrounded at Appomattox Court House, and here Lee surrendered (April 9). Gen. Johnston, hear- ing the news of Lee's yielding, also surrendered (April 26). By the end of May all the confederate forces had surrendered, and the civil war was at an end. The news of this happy event occasioned the greatest joy throughout the country, but it was soon changed into deep mourn- ing, for Lincoln was assassinated in the theater at Washington, where he was shot in the head (14th of April), and he died in a few hours. His murderer was the actor John Wilkes Booth. On the same night Secretary Seward was dangerously stabbed by another ruffian, in his own house, while lying ill in bed. — Mr. Lincoln was an honest, clear-headed, and large-hearted man. His wise and firm administration of affairs in such perilous and difficult times had won for him a high respect and love. He was carried to his grave amid the tears of a nation, which will keep his memory equally sacred with that of Washington. — The assassin fled into Maryland, where he was shot by one of his pursuers. Booth, and the assail- ants of Mr. Seward, were members of a band of conspirators, of whom several were afterwards hanged. — Jefferson Davis was cap- tured, then kept in prison for a time, and finally liberated. — It is stated that in the civil war on both sides over one milHon of men were either killed or wounded. The national debt, at the end of the war, was about $2,800,000,000, of which thus far over one-third has been paid off. — It is worthy of notice that the United States gov- ernment did not make foreign loans', a market for its notes and bonds being found at home, chiefly among the loyal people of the What of Gen. Lee ? Where did he retreat to ? Where was his army sur- rounded ? What was the effect of it ? What of Gen. Johnston ? Where and when was President Lincohi assassinated ? By whom ? Who was assailed at the same time ? What was the character of Mr. Lincohi .-' How was his burial honored? With whose memory will that of Mr. Lincoln be kept equally sacred? How were Booth and some other conspirators punished ? What of Jefferson Davis { How many men during the civil war, on both sides, were either killed or wounded ? What of the national debt ? Did the government make foreign loans ? Where was a market found for its notes and bonds ? 319 North. The war was carried on by means of paper money called greenbacks. These were first issued in 1862. At this time all the banks of the United States had suspended specie payments. As the war went on, gold began to command a premium. It was at its highest premium in 1864, when a dollar sold for $2.85 in green- backs. The confederates also carried on the war by means of paper money. About the middle of the war this money began to depre- ciate very much. Before the close of the contest confederate notes had become almost worthless. The people voluntarily contributed milHons of dollars to the sup- port of the sick and wounded soldiers. From the humblest country towns, as well as from the great cities, money and stores were freely tendered. The Sanitary and Christiaji Commissions, with their supplies and aid, penetrated into every camp and hospital in the federal army, while the Union and various Freedmen'' s Commissions were devoted to the special wants of the distressed Unionists and destitute freedmen of the South. In this way the enemies of public liberty were vanquished ; but the nation must not become careless, for other enemies of liberty can and will still arise. She must always keep wide-awake in order to preserve that precious gem of her country. The starry banner of the Union, planted firmly on the ramparts of Liberty, " — Long may it wave. O'er the land of the/r^^ And the home of the braved By two amendments of the constitution (articles 13 and 15) slavery was abolished in the United States and the right of suffrage given also to the colored people. — Congress reconstructed the Southern States, but the difficulties of this task were much aggra- vated by the conflict of opinion between this body and President Johnson, Lincoln's successor. In 1867 congress passed the Tenure of Office Bill, which said that all those civil officers whose appoint- ment by the president required the consent of the senate, should not be removed from office without the senate's permission. After By what kind of money was the war carried on ? What of the banks ? How much was a dollar of gold worth in greenbacks in 1869? What of the money used by the confederates ? What is said of the voluntary contributions of the people, and of charitable organizations ? Of what ought the nation to take care ? In what manner ? What was abolished by amending the constitution, and what right given by it to colored people ? Who reconstructed the Southern States ? By whom was this task rendered difficult ? What was the meaning of the Tenure of Office Bill ? 320 the session of congress closed, Jolinson suspended Mr. Stanton, the secretary of war, from office. When congress met again, they rein- stated Secretary Stanton. The president issued an order removing him. Congress then impeached him for violating the Tenure of Office Bill, and only one vote was lacking to convict him. — The United States bought the peninsula Alaska from the Russian gov- ernment for $7,200,000 (1867 A. D.) — After Johnson, Gen. Grant was twice elected president. The last president, Garfield, was assassinated by Guiteau, because the former did not appoint him to a consulate (1881 A. D.) The ruffian murderer was executed. The vice-president, Arthur, followed Garfield in the office. — By the Homestead Bill (passed 1862, and revised 1866) citizens are entided to settle, free from expenses, on unsold government land, to the ex- tent of 160 acres. — The United States now comprise thirty-eight States and ten territories, with more than fifty-seven miUion inhab- itants, whose number increases annually by one hundred thousand immigrants. ? 131. Japan. The ruling dynasty of Japan boasts of an unbroken succession during twenty-five centuries. The assumed date of the ascension of its founder (660 B. C.) is styled the year i of the Japanese era. Its emperors are called Mikados. In the sixth century A. D. Budd- hism was introduced from China; with it came the Asiatic civiliza- tion. A stream of skilled artisans, scholars, teachers and missiona- ries poured into the country, and thenceforth the Japanese charac- ter was molded by the same forces that gave to the Chinese its peculiar features. The Shogun (commander-in-chief of the army) in 1192 A. D. acquired the entire control of political affairs, the Mikado retaining only the religious supremacy and the symbols of royalty. Under this dual form of government, there grew up a feudal system, the In what manner did President Johnson act contrary to it ? Who impeached him then ? Was he convicted ? What peninsula did the United States buy from Russia ? For what sum ? Who was president after Johnson ? How did Presi- dent Garfield die ? Who was his successor ? What right does the Homestead Bill give to poor settlers ? How many States and Territories do the United States now comprise ? How many inhabitants do they contain? ^131. Dur- ing how many centuries had the present dynasty of Japan (as it boasts) ruled? In what year (B. C.) begins the Japanese era,'' What are the Japanese emperors called ? When was Buddhism introduced into Japan ? What civilization came with it ? Who acquired the entire control of political affairs in 1 192 ? What did the Mikado retain ? 321 iniiitary leaders securing land in fief, erecting castles, and support- ing a host of retainers. This system lasted until 1868, when a revolution restored the Mikado to supreme power, destroyed the Shogun's rule, and abolished the feudal tides and tenures. At tJs^. command of the Mikado, 250 vassal nobles, resigning their prirKs^lyr incomes, lands and retinues, retired to private life. The Portuguese, during their ascendency in the sixteenth^ cen- tury, came to Japan. The missionary quickly followed the sailor.. Francis Xavier, the apostle to the Indies, introduced Christianity (1549 A. D.), and, in time, 6oo,05o converts were made. This sec- '<)\\d influx of foreign civilization was stopped by the expulsion of the Poi'tViguese and a violent persecution of the Christian Japanese. The t)utch alone were allowed a residence upon an island in the haitbor of Nagasaki, and to exchange a single ship-load of mer- chandise per year. Commodore Perry, with a s'(\Uadron of United States vessels,, entered the harbor of Yokohama (1854 A. D.) He made a treaty with Japan, and secured the opening of certain ports to our trade- Since then, the third foreign immigration followed. Successive commercial treaties have been n)ade. The former exclusiveness has^ been broken down, old ideas have been uprooted, and the nation has been thrust into the path of modern civilization. In 1875, ^^ Mikado established a senate. In 1878 he inaugurated provincial! and departmental assemblies, and in 188 1 he promised to convoke in 1890 a national congress. SEOOND OHAPTEK-HISTORY OF OIVILIZATIOi!J IN THE lONTH AND TENTH PERIODS. § 132. Constitutions. Political and Social Tendencies.. Position of Woman. Military Condition. The Church. Most of the European princes, in our century, acknowledge the principle that the constitutional monarchy which unites the rights What system grew up under this dual form of government ? How long did it last? What reforms did the Mikado make? Which Europeans came to Japan in the i6th century ? What of Francis Xavier ? What adversity befell the Portuguese and the Christian Japanese? Which nation alone was permitted, to stay in Japan ? Where? What of Commodore Perry ? What then followed ?■ What civilization did since spread ? What reforms did the Mikado inaugurate ia 1875? I^ 1878? What did he promise? ^132. What principle do most of the European princes acknowledge ? (21) 322 of the rulers and of the nations, is the form of government that best corresponds to the spirit of the age, and to the desires of the peo- ple, therefore the representative system became prevalent. Accord- ing to it the people, through their representatives, exert the right to levy taxes, to take part in legislation, and to enjoy more liberty of the press. Russia and Turkey only did not adopt this new form of constitution. The last revolutions endeavored to enlarge the demo- cratic foundation of the States, and the principle of the sovereignty of the people is more generally acknowledged. Two parties, thus far, contended inside of the States, namely, the Liberals (democrats, repubUcans), and the Aristocrats (conservatives). The latter would grant the least possible rights to the people. The governments sided with them. The former represented the opposition party. Other outgrowths in the State organism, are sociaHsm and com- munism ; they appear especially in France, England and Germany, where the number of proletaries, in proportion to the capital- ists and landed proprietors, has greatly increased. The socialists desire a juster distribution of property, progressive taxes, limitation of the heirship, abrogation of monopolies, lease of public land by the State, right of woman suffrage, workmen associations, etc. The communists, on the contrary, demand complete community of property, by abolishing the right of ownership. The late revolu- tions in France and Germany were, in part, of the socialistic kind. In Russia, the socialists are called Nihilists, because they aim to destroy and annihilate all tyrannical institutions of the govern- ment. They are organized in secret societies, whose members are numbered by thousands; they form the opposition party of the despotic government. The position of woman is far better now, at least in the United States, in England and in France, than it was fifty years ago. The property of the wife is withdrawn from the control of the husband in England, in France and in most of the United States. Many trades and professions are now thrown open to the practice of What political system became prevalent ? What rights do the people exert through their representatives ? What States did not adopt the new form of con- stitution ? What was the aim of the last revolutions .-* What two parties are contending inside of the States ? What of the conservative party ? In what States does socialism especially manifest itself? What do the socialists desire? What are they called in Russia? What do the communists demand? What is the condition of woman now? Give some details of its improvement; of the free property of the wife; of the trades and professions practiced by women; of their admission to the higher professions; and of their right of suffrage. 323 woman. Thousands are school-teachers, governesses and music- teachers ; painters, photographers, lithographers, book-keepers, cash- iers and attendants in retail stores; compositors, telegraph clerks and operators. Many are employed in post-offices and other branches of civil service. At Washington there are at least i,ooo women appointed in the different offices of the national govern- ment. Some make a good living on the stage, because the preju- dice against the reputation of actresses is vanishing. In some places women are also admitted to the higher vocations of life ; e. g., to the bar and medical practice. There are many female phy- sicians in England and America. In several of the larger cities of those countries are medical schools for women. Since 1870 twenty- three ladies (most of them from Russia, and some from the United States of America), were graduated in the medical department of the University of Zurich. In the United States the right of woman suffirage is advocated by many, and has been thus far granted by the legislature of Minnesota, and in the Territories of Wyoming and Washington. As most of the great powers of Europe have, in their States, copied the military system of Prussia, it will suffice to give the out- lines of the latter. All Prussians are trained to niilitary service ; every young man enters the army at twenty, and serves for three years ; for the next nine years he is in the reserve, liable to serve in offensive war; thereafter, for another eighteen years, till he has attained the age of fifty, he may be called on to serve at home in case of invasion. The standing armies of the European States are increasing, devouring their revenues and wealth. New and more liberal views also made their appearance in mat- ters relating to the Church. In general. Christians became more tolerant of their opponents. Liberty of conscience was granted in most countries by the new constitutions. The Lutherans and Re- formers in Germany, for the most part, united. A host of ingenious writers, like Buckle, Darwin, Tyndall, Herbert Spencer, Huxley, Lecky, Macaulay, Theo. Parker, Draper, Alex, von Humboldt, Feuerbach, Dr. David Strauss, Louis Biichner, Colenzo, Renan, etc., and a number of liberal periodicals and orators disseminated more religious enlightenment. In the Catholic Church, the German Describe the Prussian military system ? What is the condition of the church ? What liberty is granted by the new constitutions ? What of Lutherans and Re- formers in Germany .'' What authors did and do disseminate more enlighten- ment ? Who separated from the papacy ? 324 Catholics, as they are called, separated from the papacy. The Protestants in Germany and America established free religious con- gregations, and a congress of liberal Americans organized a National Liberal League, the object of which is to accomplish the total separation of Church and State (1876 A. D.) But the spirit of reaction was also at work against the efforts of progress; e. g.y the Order of Jesuits, revived in the last period. Pope Pius VII. re-established it (18 14 A. D.); it was admitted not only into the papal dominions, but into most countries of Europe. True, by the last revolutions it was almost everywhere abolished again, still it returned, together with the old state of reaction. ^ 133. Arts and Sciences. Public Schools. France — Poets : Victor Hugo, Lamartine and Beranger. The latter encouraged the people in the time of the restoration by his pohtical poems, etc. Historians : Chateaubriand, etc. The first French revolution was described by Rabaut, St. Etienne and Thiers ; the history of the Consulate and Empire, by Thibaudeau ; the Russian campaign, by Segur ; the revolution of July, in 1830, by Salvandy and Dupin. Philosophers : August Comte was the greatest philosopher ; his work, " Positive Philosophy," is a great achievement. Others: V. Cousin and Volney; the latter is known by his work "The Ruins.'* Mathejuaticians and Astronomers : La Place, La Grange, Lalande, Arago and Leverrier, who discovered the planet Neptune. Cuvier was the most eminent naturalist. Composers : Auber, etc. Political Orators: Mirabeau, Vergniaud, Manuel, Benj. Constant, Gam- betta, etc. England — Walter Scott and Lord Byron, in the two last periods, earned the highest applause of all English poets. The former, besides several poems, wrote many novels, which are founded on historical subjects. Byron was an epic, narrative and dramatic poet ("Childe Harold," " Don Juan "). He took part in the contest of the delivery of the Greeks, in which he sacrificed a great part of his fortune and his life. Other poets: Shelley ("Queen Mab"), What congregations did the Protestants establish ? What league was organ- ized in America? What is the object of the league? What of reaction ? Give an example of its activity. \ 133. France — Poets ? What of Beranger ? His- torians ? What of August Comte ? Astronomers ? What planet did Leverrier discover ? Orators ? Composers ? Eitgland — Poets ? Which were the greatest ? What did Walter Scott write ? What of Byron ? In what war did he take part ? What did he sacrifice ? Other poets ? 325 Coleridge, Alfred Tennyson ("Queen Mary"), Thomas Moore {" Lalla Rookh," " Irish Melodies "), Bulwer (" Lady of Lyons "), Robert Burns, the great national poet of Scotland, Jerrold ("Mrs. Caudle's Curtain- Lectures," " Biack-eyed Susan"), T. Hood (" Song of the Shirt "), etc. Historians : Hume (" History of England "), Macaulay (" History of England "), Froude (" His- tory of England and Ireland "), Buckle (" History of Civilization in England "), Lecky, Carlyle, Gibbon (" Decline and Fall of the Ro- man Empire"), etc. Philosophers : Herbert Spencer, who imparted a systematic knowledge of all branches of philosophy ; Stuart Mill, Hume ("Essays"), Lecky, Hamilton, etc. Natural Philosophers : Tyndall, Faraday, Lyell (" Geology "), Huxley (" Lay Sermons "), Wallace, and the most eminent of all, Charles Darwin, author of the doctrine of natural descent, propounded in his celebrated work ^' Origin of Species," by which he inaugurated a new era of natural science. Mathematicians : John Hershel (the son of William Her- shel). Hind, the discoverer of many planets, etc. Novelists : Charles Dickens, Bulwer (Lord Lytton), Thackeray, Mr. and Mrs. Brown- ing, M. Ann Evans (under the assumed name of George Eliot), Miss Harriet Martineau, etc. Parliamentary Orators: George Canning ; Wilberforce, who, by his speeches, greatly aided in the abolishment of the slave trade; Daniel O'Connell, etc. Italy — Poets: Metastasio, Alfieri, Silvio Pellico. The latter was arrested because he was a member of the society of the Carbonaris (1820 A. D.), and kept in prison for ten years. He represented the sufferings he endured beneath the leads of the jail in Venice, in an aftecting manner. Mathematicians : Galvani, Volta, Y\2iZ7A^ the dis- coverer of the planet Ceres. Composers : Rossini, Verdi, etc. Germany — Poetry attained its highest standard with Klopstock, Herder, Wieland, and the two most perfect German poets, Schiller (t 1805 A. D.), and Goethe (t 1832 A. D.) Wieland's numerous writings express a cheerful view of life. In his philosophical novels he attacks superstition with delicate irony. Schiller's works breathe love of liberty, fervor of emotions, and a lofty Historians ? Philosophers ? About what did Herbert Spencer write ? Natural philosophers ? Who was the most eminent ? Why ? Astronomers ? What did Hind discover ? Novelists ? What is the assumed name of M. Ann Evans ? Orators ? What of Wilberforce ? Italy — Poets ? What did Silvio Pellico describe .? Mathematicians ? Composers ? Germany — Poets ? Who were the two most accomplished poets ? 326 moral earnest. Therefore he became the favorite poet of the Ger- man nation. Goethe was great almost in every branch of poesy. Only the best known of the many excellent poets can here be named. Epic Poets : Wieland (" Oberon"), Goethe (" Herman and Dorothea"), Salomon Tobler. Poets of Idyls : Voss ("Luisa"), Gessner. Lyric Poets : Klopstock, Mathisson, Burger (" Elenore ")y Herder, Salis, Uhland, Heine, Riickert (harnessed sonnets), the most productive among the modern ones ; Holty, Geibel, Gottfried Keller, Auersperg (under the assumed name of Anastasius Griin) (" Walks of a Poet of Vienna"), Freiligrath, Herwegh (" Poems of a Living One" — '* Gedichte eines Lebendigen"), Prutz. The four last named gained the highest applause by their political songs. Auersperg was banished from Vienna, and Freiligrath, of his own accord, relinquished a pension granted to him by the king of Prussia. Tragic Poets : Frederic Schiller (" Don Carlos," " Wallenstein," " William Tell"), Goethe (" Egmont," " Faust "), Grillparzer, Rau- pach, etc. Writers of Cofuedies : Henry Kleist (" Kate of Heil- bronn" — " Das Kathchen von Heilbronn"), Bauernfeld, and Kotze- bue, who wrote more than 200 plays. Fabulists : Pfeffel, Gellert, Frohlich. Historians: Rotteck, who was dismissed from his professor- ship by reason of his " Universal History," written in a liberal spirit; Schlosser, Schiller (" Thirty Years' War"), and John Mueller (" His- tory of the Swiss Confederacy"), Heeren, Ge. Kolb (" History of Civilization of Mankind" — " Culturgeschichte der Menschheit")^ G. Weber, etc. Historians of Literature : Gervinus, L. Ettmiiller, Johannes Scherr, etc. Philosophers : Fichte, Schelling, Hegel, L. Feuerbach, Schoppenhauer. Natural Philosophers: Alexander Humboldt (" Cosmos"), Karl Vogt, Baumgartner, Louis Biichner, Moleschott, Berzelius (chemist), Liebig (chemist), etc., Ritter (geographer). Astronomers : F. W. Bessel, while living the lead- ing astronomer of the world ; Gauss, Bode, Littrow, Struve, etc. Theological Writers : Dr. David Strauss (" Life of Jesus," " Old and New Faith"), Zschokke, etc. The latter wrote also good novels, a history of Switzerland, etc. Philologues : Adelung, Jacob Grimm, Becker, C. Orelli (editor of " Cicero"), L. Ettmiiller (author of an Anglo-Saxon dictionary, etc. Sculptors : Dannecker, Thor- waldsen, etc. Painters : Cornelius, Kaulbach, etc. Public Ora- Epic poets ? Poets of Idyls ? Lyric poets ? Political poets ? Tragic poets ? Writers of comedies? Fabulists? Historians? Wherefore was Rotteck dis- missed from the professorship ? Philosophers? Natural philosophers ? Astron- omers ? Theological writers ? Philologues ? Sculptors ? Orators ? 327 tors : Saalfeld, Rotteck, Welker; and in Switzerland: Dr. Keller, Dr. Furrer, Caspar Hirzel, etc. Composers : Mozart (''Don Juan," " The Enchanted Flute"), Joseph Haydn, Beethoven, Mendelssohn, Carl Maria Weber, Schubert, Wagner, etc. Russia — Ivan Turgenjew, the ingenious Russian novelist, was much admired for the lofty imagination, love of liberty and patriot- ism expressed in his works. They were translated from the Rus- sian into several modern languages. He died in voluntary exile (1883 A. D.) Untied States of America — Poets : Bryant (" Thanatopsis "), Longfellow (" Miles Standish," " Golden Legend," " Hiawatha "), Whittier, Simms, Mrs. Sigourney, Holmes, Poe, J. G. Saxe, Fitz- Green Halleck (" Marco Bozzaris"), Mrs. Maria Brooks (" Maria del'Occidente "), Mrs. Frances Osgood, Misses Alice and Phoebe Cary, etc. Historians : Geo. Bancroft (" History of the United States of America"), Pfescott, Hildreth, Modey, Bryant ("Popular History of the United States of America "), etc. Philosophers : J. Fiske, Emerson, Draper, etc. In Natural History : Louis Agassiz, Asa Gray, etc. In Natural Science : J. D. Dana, J. W. Draper, F. Mawry, etc. Mathematicians : Nath. Bowditch, Benj. Peirce, Ch. Davies, etc. Philologers : Noah Webster (Dictionary); J. Wor- cester (Dictionary). Pedagogical Writers: Horace Mann, Susan Wixon, Elmina Slenker, S. G. Goodrich ("Peter Parley"), Mrs. Sigourney, Mrs. Parton (" Fanny Fern "), Mrs. L. M. Child, N. Hawthorne, etc. Romance and Miscellaneous Writers: Cooper, Wash. Irving, Hawthorne, Channing, Sam Putnam, Frances Osgood, Harriet Beecher Stowe (" Uncle Tom's Cabin"), and a hundred other good authoresses who cannot be mentioned in a compendium. Orators: Dan. Webster, Clay, Calhoun, Benton, Edward Ever- ett, Wendell Phillips (f 1884), Seward, Prentice, Chas. Sumner, Stephens, Douglas, Choate, Blaine, Robert Ingersoll, Henry Ward Beecher, etc. In the Fine Arts, also, the American school of painters and sculptors stands very high. Newspapers — Americans are pre-eminently a newspaper-read- mg people. The newspaper is the people's library. It is estimated that there are about eight thousand different newspapers and per- iodicals published in the United States. Composers ? United States — Poets ? Historians ? Philosophers ? Authors in Natural History and Natural Science ? Mathematicians ? Philologers ? Pedagogical writers ? Romance writers ? Orators ? What of Fine Arts ? Of newspapers ? 328 Public Education — The following pedagogues deserved well of the public education: Lancaster (1798 A. D.) and Bell (181 2 A. D.) in England, by institution of mutual instruction ; in Switzerland, H. Pestalozzi, Thomas Scherr; in Germany, Campe ("Robinson Crusoe "), Niemeier, Diesterweg, etc. In Germany, Switzerland, the United States of America, and other countries, Turner Associations are organized in order to develop the physical strength and abiHty of their members and of the youth. In the United States the Turners have a membership of 28,000. In Prussia, the schools of which are believed to be the best (in Germany), education is compulsory, and in practice almost universal. Over four million children, or nearly one in every six of the population, attend the elementary schools. A small fee is charged ; the balance is contributed by a local tax. The Minister of Public Education is at the head of the educational system. In Switzerland, too, the public schools of the Protestant cantons are in an excellent condition. It takes six years to pass through the several grades of the elementary* education. There are, besides, many high schools, six universities, polytechnical schools, academies, etc. Some cantons spend the fourth part of the public revenues for public instruction. — In America^ Co?n?non Schools are established, which are well organ- ized, and in which all classes can be educated. These schools pro- vide the means of education to all classes, including the children of the freedmen. The teachers are prepared in Normal schools for their vocations. Most of them are female teachers. Over 400 colleges and universities supply the wants of higher education. ^ 134. Inventions. Steamboats. Railroads. Telegraphs. Cable. Telephones, Photography. Cotton-gin. International Exhibition of Arts and Industry. During this (the 19th) century there has been an almost complete revolution in nearly every branch of industry. The substitution of Of public education ? Give the names of some renowned pedagogues in England, Switzerland and Germany. Who wrote " Robinson Crusoe " for the youth ? Give an outline of the Prussian school system. How many children attend the elementary schools ? How are the expenses of the schools provided for? What of the public schools in the Protestant cantons in Switzerland? What of elementary and higher education ? Explain the system of the common schools in America. Where are the teachers prepared for their vocation ? How many higher institutes are there ? ^ 134. What good effects did the introduction of machine labor and the application of steam to machinery produce ? 329 machine labor for that of human force has added immensely to the production of the comforts of Hfe, and the application of steam to the machines has made them more rapid in production. The prac- tical application of the steam-engine to navigation was made in 1807, when a steamboat, built by Robert Fulton, was launched on the Hudson river, and finally the ocean, as well as rivers and lakes, was traversed by steam vessels. The application of steam to carriages was the next step in modern invention. This was effected in the United States by Oliver Evans, and in England by George and Robert Stephenson. The first railroad of the United States was operated m Quincy, Massachusetts (1827 A. D.) The second, the Baltimore and Ohio (1828 A. D.) Another early railroad was the South Carolina (1833 A. D.), of 135 miles, at that time the longest in the world. There are at present about 100,000 miles of railroad in the United States. The trans-continental railroad from New York to San Francisco is 3,600 miles long. It was completed in 1869. — Steam was also employed for printing, and thereby the printing of books greatly facilitated and their price materially lessened. The Daguerreotype, and the photographic art seems to supersede portrait painting. — The sewing-machine faciUtates the work of the seamstress. The electro-magnetic telegraph, and its appliance to submarine cables, are also American inventions. Prof. Samuel F. B. Morse in- vented the telegraph. The first telegraph line was stretched be- tween Washington and Baltimore (1844 A. D.) There are at present over one hundred thousand miles of telegraph wires in operation. The first submarine Atlantic cable was laid between Newfoundland and Ireland by the Atlantic Telegraph Company, President Field (185 7-1858 A. D.) It was worked for a brief period, and then failed. Another cable was laid under the superin- tendence of Mr. Field, and proved an entire success (1866 A. D.) The first submarine cable was laid in the Straits of Dover, connect- ing Dover and Calais (1851 A. D.) Who built the first steamboat ? When i* On what river was the trial trip made? Who, in America, first applied steam to railroads? Who in England? Where was the first railroad built in America ? Where the second ? Where the longest of that time? How many miles of railroad are there in the United States ? How long is the central trans-continental railroad ? ^When was it com- pleted ? For what press was steam also* employed ? What of Daguerreotype and photographic art ? Who invented the electro-magnetic telegraph ? Where was the first telegraph line stretched ? How many miles of telegraph wires are in operation in the United States ? Between what islands was the first Atlantic cable laid ? 330 The telephone was invented by Reis, of Frankfort (1861 A. D.), to telegraph musical sounds and the sounds of speech. Bell of Boston, and Edison of New Jersey, are also claimants for its inven- tion. — The electric light is also used for lighting streets, large halls, hotels, palaces, beacons, etc. Another American invention is the cotton-gin. This machine, by which the seeds are separated from cotton, was constructed by Eli Whitney while in Savannah (1792 A. D.) It greatly stimulated the cultivation of cotton. Gradually cotton became almost the ex- clusive staple of the Gulf States. America controls the cotton sup- ply of the world. — Immigration from Europe helps to build up the power of the United States. They received in ten years (from i860 to 1870) four and a half million emigrants. The amount of their surplus products which they can sell to other countries is growing with their population. Year by year their imports diminish. In London, an international exhibition of the different goods of all cultivated countries on earth took place, in order to promote industry and commerce (1851 A. D.) It took eight hours in order to pass around all the tables in the immense Crystal Palace where the goods were exposed. There were, side by side, Swiss and Ameri- can manufactures, shawls of Norwich and Cashmere, English,. Turkish and Persian carpets, jewels from Paris and Delhi. The committee of a jury, at the end of the exhibition, distributed 7,000 prizes. Similar presentations were since made in several countries. In Philadelphia an exhibition was arranged when the Centennial Festival of the Union was celebrated there (1876 A. D.) EXERCISES. Biographies : I. Lafayette — {a) in the American war, {b) in the French revohition, (<:) during the days of revolution in Paris in 1830. 2. Bolivar. — Describe the following contests for liberty : i. Contest of the Poles in 1830 ; {a) causes of the insurrection, {b) its beginning, {c) the arming for contest, {d) the warfare, {e) the issue, and the consequences of the contest. 2. Com- bat of the Greeks ; {^a) fight of Ypsilanti, {^b) contest in Greece, {c) single exploits, {d) downfall of Missolonghi, {e) foreign assistance, (/") termination of the combat. 3. War of the Hungarians. — Give an account of the French By whom ? When } When again ? When was the cable between Dover and Calais laid ? Whp invented the cotton-gin ? What success did the machine have in America? How many immigrants did the United States receive in ten years ? What influence has the increase of population in selling the products of the land ? Give an account of the international exhibition in London in 185 1 ? Where and when was a similar one arranged in America? 331 revolutions in 1830 and 1848 ; also of the revolutions in Berlin and Vienna. In what countries did levolutions break out in the years 1820, 1830 and 1848 ? In what months did the revolutions of 1848 take place ? When did the Mexican war with the United States begin ? When did the Americans enter the city of Mexico ? W^hat American generals excelled in the Mexican war ? How long did the war last ? When were the Catholics emancipated in England ? W^hat chieftain of the Caucasians became renowned in their war against Russia ? Give the names of some eminent public orators of England and the United States in the two last periods. What important events happened in the years 1348, 1648, 1748 and 1848? Who captured the Forts Henry and Donelson ? Had the Southern States the right to secede ? When did Fort Sumter surren- der ? When Vicksburg ? Which was the greatest battle during the secession war ? When were the slaves of the Confederate States emancipated ? What general of the Union gained the victory at Nashville ? Why did General Sher- man undertake a campaign through the Confederate States ? When was Rich- mond taken ? When did General Lee surrender ? ERRATA. Page ID, line 7 from above, instead of Athense, read Athene. " " Athena, read Athenge. ** " Aphis, read Apis. ** ** Egyptians, read Egyptian. ** " maga, read magian. " ** their, read the. " " pleague, read plague. " •* Conossa, read Canossa. Philip IV., read Philip VI. Philip I., read Philip II. " " Alexander I., read Alexander II. below, •* Alexander I., read Alexander II. 14, 6 23, 4 23, 16 23, 18 68, 8 88, 16 118, 15 149, 3 186, 4 306, 25 306, 4 334 in. MODEEN TIMES. 1492-1883 A. D. Seventh Period. J4g2-id48 A. D. 1492, Columbus discovers America. 1498, Passage by sea lo the East In- dies discovered. 1515. Battle at Marignano. 1517. Reformation beginning in Ger- many. Martin Luther. 1519. Zwingli. Magellan. 152 1. Diet at Worms. 1523. Gustavus Vasa. 1529. Protestants. 1530. Confession of Augsburg. 1532. Nicholas Copernicus. 1540. Order of Jesuits. 1555. Peace of religion at Augsburg. 1564. W. .Shakespeare (died 1616). Galileo. 1566. Nicholas Zrini. 1572. St. Bartholomew of Paris. "^STy-'^o. Drake's voyage around the earth. 1589-1610. Henry IV. of France. 1598. Edict of Nantes. 1618-1648. Thirty years' war. 1629. Restitution edict. 1630. Gustavus Adolphus in Germany. 1631. Battle at Leipsic. 1632. Battle at Liitzen. Gustavus Adolphus dies. 1642. Is. Newton (1725). 1648. Westphalian peace. Eighth Period. i648-i'j8g A. D. 1643-1 7 1 5. Louis XIV. 1649. Charles I. executed. 1653. Cromwell protector. 1682-1725. Peter the Great. 1683. John Sobieski delivers Vienna. 1684. Peter Corneille, French poet. 1685. Revocation of the edict of Nantes. 1688. James II. fled from England. 1689. William III., king of England. 1692. Witches burnt at Salem. 1694. Lafontaine dies. 1695. Voltaire (1778). 1697-1718. Charles XII. of Sweden. 1701-1714. Spanish succession war. 1 70 1. Battle of Narva. 1 702-1 7 14. Anne, queen of England. 1703. Peter I. founds Petersburg. 1704. Battle at Hochstedt (Blenheim). 1709. Charles XII. defeated at Pul- towa. 1 714-1727. George I. of England. 1 724-1803. Klopstock, the poet. 1 724-1804. Kant, the philosopher. 1 729-1 78 1. Lessing flourished. 1 733-1813. Wieland, the poet. 1 740-1 786. Frederic II. of Prussia. 1 749- 1 832. Goethe, the poet. 1755. Braddock's defeat. Earthquake in Lisbon. The French driven into exile from Acadia. 1 756-1 763. Seven years' war. 1757. Battle at Rosbach. 1759-1805. Frederic Schiller, the poet. 1759. The Jesuits expelled from Por- tugal. 1759. Battle of Quebec, and death of Wolfe. 1765. Passage of the Stamp act. 1 768-1 769. Cook's voyages of discov- ery. 1772. First partition of Poland. 1773. Abolishment of the Order of the Jesuits. 1773. Destruction of tea in Boston harbor. 1774. The English shut up the harbor of Boston, A congress of the colonies meets at Philadelphia. 1775-17^3- Contest of the United v^^tates for independence. March 17, 1776. The British evacuate Boston. July 4, 1776. Declaration of Independ- ence adopted by the American Congress. Aug. 27, 1776. Battle at Long Island. Dec. 25, 1776. Battle at Trenton. Sept. II, 1777. Battle at Brandywine. Oct. 4, 1777. Battle at Germantown. Oct. 15, 1777. Burgoyne capitulates at Saratoga. Feb. 6, 1778. French alliance with America. Aug. 16, 1780. Battle at Camden. 1 780-1 790. Joseph II. Oct. 19, 1782. Cornwallis surrenders. Nov. 30, 1782. The independence of America acknowledged by Eng- land. 335 Ninth Period. lySg-iSij A. D. 1 789-1 797. George Washington Presi- dent of the United States. 1789- 1 79 1. National Assembly in France. July 14, 1789. Storming the Bastile. Aug. 4, 1789. Abolition of the feudal service. 1 791-1792. Legislative assembly. 1792. Austro-Prussian war against France. 1 792- 1 795 . National convent. 1 792- 1 804. French republic. 1792. Cotton-gin invented. 1793. First coalition war. Second partition of Poland. 1794. Abolition of slavery in the French colonies. July 27, 1794. Downfall of the reign of terror. 1 795-1 799. Directorial government in France. 1795. Third partition of Poland. 1796. Napoleon Bonaparte in Italy. Nov. 15 and 16. Battle at Arcole. 1796. Invention of lithography. 1797. Peace of Campo P^ormio. 1798. Second coalition war. Expedition to Egypt. Battle at the Pyramids. Aug. I, 1798. Naval battle at Abukir. 1 799-1804. Consular government in France. June 14, 1800. Battle at Marengo. Dec. 4, 1800. Battle of Hohenlinden. 1 80 1. Peace ol Luneville. 1804-1815. French empire. 1805. Third coalition war. Oct. 21, 1805. Naval battle at Trafalgar. Dec. 2, 1805. Battle of Austerlitz, Peace of Presburg. 1806. Prusso-Russian war against France. 1806. The double battle at Auer- stedt and Jena. 1807. Battle of Friedland. Peace of Tilsit. The first steamboat built by Fulton. 1808. Spanish war. 1809. Austrian war. May 2 1 and 22 . Battle at Aspern. July 5 and 6. Battle at Wagram. Peace of Vienna. 1810-1825. Contests of the Spanish colonies for mdependence. 1 8 12. P'ranco-Russian war. Battle at the Moskwa. Sept. 15-19, 1812. Conflagration of Moscow. 1812-1814. English-American war. 18 13. A British squadron captured by Commodore Perry. Aug. 24, 1 8 14. The capitol in Wash- ington burned by the English. Sept. II, 1814. Commodore McDon- ough destroyed, in the harbor of Plattsburg, a British flotilla. Jan. 8, 1815. General Jackson defeated the English at New Orleans. 1813. Last coalition war. Oct. 16-19, 1813. Battle at Leipsic. 1 8 14. Restoration of the Bourbons. Napoleon banished to Elba. May 30, 1 8 14. First peace of Paris. Nov. I, 1814. Congress in Vienna. March i, 18 15. Napoleon returns to France. June 18, 1815. Battle at Waterloo. Aug. 7, 18 1 5. Napoleon taken pris- oner, and carried off to St. Helena (1821). 18 15. The Holy Alliance concluded. Abolition of the slave trade. Nov. 20, 18 1 5. Second peace of Paris. Tenth Period. 1815-^883 A. D. 1820. Insurrections in Naples and Piedmont. Revolution in Spain. 1821. Insurrection in Portugal. 1821-1829. Combat of the Greeks for liberty. 1823. Bozzaris' heroic death. 1824. Brazil separated from Portugal. 1826. Capture of Missolonghi. 1827. Naval battle at Navarino. First railroad built in the United States. 1829. Irish Catholics admitted to Par- liament. 1830. Revolution of July in Paris. Charles X. dethroned. Louis Philippe, king of the French. Belgium separates from Holland. The cholera in Europe. 1 83 1. Battle at Ostrolenca. Reform of Parliament in England. 1832. Cuvier and Walter Scott die. 1835. Slave emancipation bill passed in England. 1842. The English Corn laws relaxed. 1844. Electric telegraph invented. 1845. Annexation of Texas to the United States. YC 15646 770040 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY