IRLF
THE LIBRARY
OF
THE UNIVERSITY
OF CALIFORNIA
PRESENTED BY
PROF. CHARLES A. KOFOID AND
MRS. PRUDENCE W. KOFOID
OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
AN ACCOUNT OF THE INSECT-PESTS FOUND
IN DWELLING-HOUSES
BY
EDWAKD A. BUTLER, B.A., B.Sc. (LoND.)
AUTHOR OP "POND-LIFE," "SILKWORMS," ETC.
LONDON
LONGMANS, GKEEN, AND CO.
AND NEW YOEK: 15 EAST 16 tb STEEET
1893
All rights reserved
PREFACE.
THE contents of this book originally appeared as a
series of articles in Knowledge, and I am indebted to
the courtesy of the editor and proprietors of that
journal for their re-issue in the present form. My
aim has been to give a plain and easy account of such
insect pests as may be met with in ordinary dwelling-
houses, and thus to show that every one has ready to
hand, with very little trouble in the way of collection,
abundant material for the practical study of that most
fascinating branch of natural history, entomology. As
the book is written primarily for those who have no
special knowledge of the subject, I have endeavoured
to put the descriptions of insect structure into ordinary
language as far as possible, and to abstain from the
unnecessary introduction of technicalities. Where tech-
nical terms have been of necessity used, an attempt has
been made to explain each on its first introduction.
Though the book is intended primarily for the novice,
I would yet venture to hope that it may be of some
service to more advanced students of entomology, as
bringing into one volume items of information that
5
vi PREFACE
at present exist scattered throughout the vast mass of
entomological literature. The arrangement of the matter
was necessarily determined to a great extent by the
method of the original issue as a series of detached
articles ; had the work been written for publication
in the present form, the plan would have been somewhat
modified and made more systematic.
The seven page-plates have been made from photo-
graphic enlargements prepared for the oxy-hydrogen
lantern by Messrs. F. Newton & Co. of No. 3 Fleet
Street, London, who have kindly lent the negatives for
the purpose.
E. A. B.
CONTENTS.
CHAP. PAGE
I. WOOD-BOEING BEETLES ....". . I
II. CLUB-HOKN BEETLES . . . . . . 22
III. CELLAR BEETLES AND MEAL WORMS . . -32
IV. LONGHORNS AND PREY-HUNTERS .... 46
V. ANTS AND WASPS . 55
VI. SOCIAL WASPS AND HORNTAILS .... 66
VII. CLOTHES MOTHS AND OTHER TINE^ . . .89
VIII. MEAL AND TABBY MOTHS . . . . .107
IX. THE COMMON COCKROACH Il6
X. CRICKETS AND EARWIGS . . . . . . 147
XI. HOUSE FLIES AND BLUEBOTTLES . . . .172
XII. HOUSE FLIES AND BLUEBOTTLES continued . -195
XIII. GNATS, MIDGES, AND MOSQUITOES . . .221
XIV. THE COMMON FLEA .... . . . 248
XV. THE BED-BUG . . 273
XVI. THE BOOK-LOUSE AND SILVER-FISH INSECT . . 304
XVII. HUMAN PEDICULI 325
INDEX 343
vii
LIST OF PLATES.
PLATE I.
PORTIONS OF CORNEA OF FLY'S COMPOUND
EYE AND FLY'S FOOT . . . Frontispiece
PLATE II.
FLY'S "PROBOSCIS," AND PORTION OF ONE
LABELLA OF SAME . . . . To face p. K)2
PLATE III.
MALE AND FEMALE GNAT 225
PLATE IV.
LARVA AND PUPA OF GNAT . . 2 3
PLATE V.
MALE AND FEMALE FLEA . . . . . . 258
PLATE VI.
BED-BUG . j.^-i ---- '- ' 2 86
PLATE VII.
TRACHEA OF SILKWORM AND WATER-BEETLE . 296
OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS.
CHAPTER I.
WOOD-BORING BEETLES.
MAN is accompanied in his migrations, not merely by
what are familiarly known as the "domestic animals,"
but also by hosts of insects, which find improved means
of subsistence by linking their fortunes with his, and
which, though often causing him infinite annoyance,
sometimes render considerable, though generally un-
recognised and unappreciated services. In their persis-
tent accompaniment of their lord and master, some have
travelled over vast areas of land and sea, getting free
passages in all the navies of the world ; and we in this
country owe several of our commonest insects to our.
commerce with foreign nations. It is " cupboard love "
that impels insects to accompany man : they follow
him for what they can get; his food they pilfer; his
heirlooms they destroy ; his house, his furniture, his
clothes, they attack ; and even his very person is not
held sacred, especially if he himself so sins against
nature as to violate the laws of cleanliness and health.
So, not an abode can be found whether of the most
degraded barbarian on the one hand, or of the very
cream of civilised society on the other which can boast
A
2 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
of immunity from the intrusion of representatives of this
immense horde of living creatures.
That some of this vast host should have special re-
lations to mankind is not to be wondered at, when we
remember that two of the chief functions of insect life
in the world seem to be the repression of superabundant
vegetation, and the removal of effete and waste matters ;
for while man in his agricultural capacity bids mother
earth bring forth the "herb yielding seed after his
kind " more and more abundantly, he often finds a
serious ch,eck to his efforts in the mighty hosts of
insects which the very success of his agricultural opera-
tions has been the means of vastly increasing; and,
again, while in his constructive and manufacturing
capacity he is busily engaged in converting natural
products of the animal and vegetable worlds into
things suitable for his own use, he thereby attracts
the scavenger hosts, who, evidently regarding his ac-
cumulations of manufactured articles as so much lumber
to be got rid of as quickly as may be, set to work on
his cherished hoards with right good will, and tax all
his ingenuity to save them from ruin. So it comes to
pass that there are many species of insects that more
.or less permanently take up their abode with us, either
actually in our houses and outbuildings, or in our culti-
vated lands, and depend in large degree upon us and our
belongings for their support. It is only with the former
of these groups that we propose to deal, but we shall
find in them good representatives of insect life in
general ; and any one may obtain excellent material for
the practical study of entomology and the examination
of insect structure without going beyond the four walls
of an ordinary dwelling-house.
As there are some animal pests found in houses
WOOD-BORING BEETLES 3
that are often called insects, though not really such,
it will be best first of all briefly to indicate what
kind of creature is implied zoologically by the term
"insect."
Insects constitute a class of the animal kingdom dis-
tinguished from other invertebrate animals by having
the body divided into three parts, head, thorax, and
abdomen, and by possessing in the adult condition six
legs disposed in three pairs, and usually four wings as
well. The head carries first the mouth organs, which
vary much in different groups, and will be particularly
described hereafter, and secondly the organs of sense,
consisting chiefly of the eyes and antennae, the latter
being that pair of long jointed appendages popularly
known as " horns." The thorax carries the legs beneath
and the wings above. The abdomen carries no legs in
the adult insect, but has frequently in the females a
more or less complicated apparatus at the end, some-
times looking like a long tail, and used for depositing
the eggs, and therefore called an ovipositor. Most
insects also pass through a series of transformations
during the course of their life, which are called col-
lectively "metamorphoses." They are first the egg;
secondly the larva, grub, or caterpillar; thirdly the
chrysalis or pupa; and fourthly the perfect insect or
imago. There are other characteristics of a less obvious
nature, but these are in most cases sufficient for practical
purposes, and will enable one to determine what animals
are insects and what are not. The class is subdivided,
according to the nature of the wings, the feeding appa-
ratus, and the life history, into groups called " orders ; "
and our household insects are so varied in structure that
there is not a single important order unrepresented in
domestic entomology.
4 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
We will turn our attention first to that order which
is usually placed at the head of the class, viz., the
Coleoptera, or Beetles.
Of these, a considerable variety make our houses their
foraging quarters, and one of the most important sec-
tions is that of the " Wood-borers." These often commit
great depredations in the beams and other woodwork
used in the framework of houses, as well as in articles
of furniture, producing the result known as "worm-
eaten." Formerly, their ravages were more considerable
than at the present day, owing to the then more exten-
sive use of timber (and especially unpainted timber) in
building construction. The external indications of the
presence of these destructive insects are usually twofold :
small circular perforations in the surface of the wood,
and little heaps of yellow dust on the ground beneath
them. The perforations are the entrances to, or rather
exits from, long cylindrical tunnels traversing the wood
in various directions, generally in that of its length,
and often to so great an extent as to leave only the
narrowest of partitions between them, and so reduce
the whole interior to a mere network, which is so
fragile as to crumble away on the slightest touch,
while the outside still remains intact, except for the
few perforations, and gives the wood the appearance of
being almost as sound as when first put up. The beetles
themselves are not so often seen, as they spend a large
proportion of their life in their burrows. Their ravages
are similar in result to those of the shipworm upon
submerged timber, though the latter animal belongs
to the Mollusca, and is a relative of such animals as
the mussel, oyster, &c.
Several species of beetles are answerable for these
damages; the commonest is a small cylindrical insect
WOOD-BORING BEETLES 5
called Anobium domesticum (Fig. i). It is scarcely one-
sixth of an inch long, of a dark brown colour, and, like
most of its allies,
has the head much
sunk in the thorax,
which is raised be-
hind into a protu-
FIG. i. Anobium domesticum.
berance in such a
way as to cause it to resemble a hood or cowl. When
viewed sideways this has a most quaint appearance, and
irresistibly reminds one of a coal-scuttle bonnet almost
entirely enveloping the head. The upper pair of wings
are in the form of hard horny pieces, quite useless for
flight, and employed only to cover and protect the
delicate membranous hind-wings. They are called elytra,
or wing-covers, and it is from this peculiarity of struc-
ture that the order gets its name Coleoptera (sheath-
wings). The wing-covers are marked with narrow,
parallel, longitudinal furrows, and are covered with
short soft hairs, termed collectively " pubescence ;"
under them are folded a pair of large -sized wings. The
legs are of moderate length, but can be closely packed
away under the body, when the insect looks like a mere
cylindrical pellet of wood, earth, or other inorganic
matter, or like a miniature cartridge fitting well into
the tubular burrows. In this condition it may be rolled
about without manifesting signs of life. The antennae
have the last three joints much larger and longer than
the rest, a peculiarity which also pertains to other
members of the family.
In its larval condition this insect is a thick fleshy
grub, somewhat curved, and swollen at each end (Fig. 2).
On the anterior part of the body it carries six tiny
legs, a pair on each of the three segments immediately
6 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
succeeding the head. It is of a whitish colour, as might
be expected in a creature which spends its time in the
darkness of a tunnel ; only in the jaws, and that part
FIG. 2. I^arva of Anobium domesticum (a, back view ; b, side view).
of the head immediately surrounding the mouth, is any
more definite colour to be found, and this part appears
as a dark brownish-black spot oh the otherwise imma-
culate insect.
. Except in the head, the skin is soft and yielding, and
a few hairs are scattered along its sides. These larvae
are very seldom seen, as, in order to get at them, the
wood in which they are domiciled must be pulled to
pieces. Their food consists of the wood itself, which
by their powerful though tiny jaws is bitten off in
minute particles, many of which, however, are left un-
eaten, and either clog up the burrows or are ejected at
their openings, where they constitute the tiny heaps of
yellow dust referred to above. No wood is so old and
dry that they cannot extract nourishment from it ; in
fact, the older and drier it is the better they like it.
An animal subsisting on such food might be expected
to be a lean wiry creature of half-starved aspect, but
exactly the contrary is really the case ; for these white
grubs are fat and flourishing, and a full-grown one
might be supposed to have been fattening up for a
prize competition, for it looks as bloated as a prize pig.
WOOD-BORING BEETLES
They become a chrysalis in their burrows, enveloping
themselves in a silken cocoon, in which are interwoven
particles of the dust they make. On emerging from the
chrysalis they remain inactive for some time, not coming
out of their burrows, and only gradually acquiring their
normal colour and consistency, and with these their
activity.
An insect allied to Anobium domesticum, and formerly
referred to the same genus, but now known as Xesto-
bium tessellatum, has often been a
source of terror to the superstitious,
by whom it is known as the Death
Watch. It is a stout reddish-brown
beetle, sprinkled with small patches
of pale hairs ; but, while very similar
in shape, it is a great deal larger than
any of the Anobia proper, sometimes
attaining a length of one-third inch,
and a corresponding obesity (Fig. 3).
The ticking or clicking noise that
is sometimes heard in old houses, and
has so often been considered to por-
tend the death of some inhabitant of
the dwelling within the year, is caused by these insects
striking the wooden walls of their burrows with their
hard heads or jaws, and is generally supposed to be a
love-call, for when one has made some four or five
taps in quick succession, it pauses, and is immediately
answered by another in some different quarter. The
tapping is not sufficiently loud to attract much attention
in the daytime, when so many other noises are going on ;
but in the stillness of the night, when every sound that
does occur seems magnified to an enormous degree, this
regular succession of knocks, proceeding from no apparent
FIG. 3. Xestobium
tessellatum.
8 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
physical cause, might, on the principle of omne ig~
notum pro mirifico, easily awake apprehension in the
minds of the ignorant and superstitious, already by
habit accustomed to look out for "omens," "visita-
tions," " warnings," and the like ; and it is, perhaps, not
altogether to be wondered at that amongst those engaged
in nursing the sick, who, from the stillness of the sick-
room, and the fact of their being night-watchers, would
generally be the most likely to meet with such experi-
ences, some should have seen in these mysterious tap-
pings a confirmation of their own anxious forebodings
with respect to the loved ones of their charge. But the
application of a little practical common- sense soon dis-
pels these illusions, and demonstrates the very material
nature of the omens, or, as Swift quaintly puts it :
" A kettle of scalding hot water ejected
Infallibly cures the timber affected ;
The omen is broken, the danger is over,
The maggot will die, and the sick will recover."
In the "Philosophical Transactions" for 1698 is a
curious paper entitled " An Account of the Scaraboeus
Galeatus Pulsator, or the Death Watch, taken August,
1695, by Mr. Benjamin Allen." It is accompanied by an
enormously magnified figure of the insect, and from this
and the description, it is evident that the Scarabseus is
none other than our present acquaintance ; and the
article appears to be the earliest detailed scientific ac-
count of the insect. The writer commences in a some-
what spasmodic and inconsequent style: "The second
Animal I observ'd is a Death Watch : I have taken
some before this, it is that which makes a noise resem-
bling exactly that of a Watch ; it is faithfully the very
same, and liv'd Four Days with me, beating exactly, for
WOOD-BORING BEETLES 9
I took two, I suppose one was the Female, that is only
conjecture." He is a little bit sceptical as to the pro-
phetic character of the tappings, saying, "This small
Beetle . . . being rarely heard, and not known, has
obtain'd the name of a Death Watch, which yet I have
known to be heard by many, when no mortality followed,
and particularly by myself, who have taken Two of the
same, Seven years since, without any Death following
that Year." A quarter of a century later, another ob-
server, Mr. Hugh Stackhouse, communicates a further
note on the subject, wisely abstaining, however, from
any reference to the theory of prognostications. He
prefaces the article by an account, almost needlessly
minute and circumstantial, of the way in which he gra-
dually tracked the insect by its ticking, till he found it
in the seat of a rush-bottomed chair. Here he watched
the little creature at work, and was so delighted with
his discovery that he " called up others to see it beat,
which they did, not without admiration." He then pro-
ceeds to describe the " manner of its beating." In its
helmet-like thorax or galea, as he calls it he sees " a
very notable and providential defence against such falls
as are frequent in rotten and decayed places." He
transferred his captive to a box, and kept it alive about
a fortnight, but was unable to get it to beat again during
its captivity, apparently through not knowing how to
induce the action, for in the Entomologist's Monthly
Magazine for 1866, the late Mr. F. Smith states that he
had no difficulty in getting some that he kept to tick
whenever he wished, by simply tapping five or six times
with a lead pencil upon the table close to the box in
which they were confined. They very shortly answered
the summons. Raising themselves on their front legs,
they commenced bobbing their heads up and down,
io OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
rapidly tapping with their jaws on the bottom of the
box. The number of taps on each occasion was either
four or five, usually the latter.
The Dutch naturalist Swammerdam, who flourished
during the latter half of the seventeenth century, speaks,
in his " Book of Nature," of an insect, no doubt either
the present or an allied species, which "makes a con-
tinual noise in old pieces of wood, walls, and ceilings,
which is sometimes so loud that, upon hearing it, people
have been persuaded that nocturnal hobgoblins, ghosts,
or fairies wandered about them." He adds, " I think
this may\ be properly called Sonicephalus, or Noisy-
headed Beetle."
A totally different insect, known generally as the
"book-louse," has also been credited with being the pro-
ducer of Death Watch tappings. It is an extremely
minute, soft-bodied creature, belonging to the order
Neuroptera, and is a very common inhabitant of houses.
But it does not seem possible that a creature of such
delicate structure should create these noises; however,
we will recur to this subject when, later on, we come
to the consideration of the insect in question.
Xestobium tessellatum, being so much larger than the
Anobia, is, of course, far more destructive to timber, if
allowed to have full scope for its powers. Spence speaks
of the whole of the woodwork of a house in Brussels
requiring to be renewed in consequence of its depreda-
tions, and states that he was informed that this was no
uncommon occurrence there, the inhabitants calmly
acquiescing in the attacks of their tiny foe, through
ignorance of any plan of exterminating it, or at any
rate checking its ravages. Like most wood- feeders, it is
long-lived in the larval state. Westwood kept one for
three years before it attained its perfect form.
WOOD-BORING BEETLES n
Though Xestobium tessellatum is the principal beetle
which, in this country, has been identified with Death
Watch tickings, it is not alone in this claim to the
character of harbinger of death. Anobium domesticum
also ticks, and has, no doubt, scared many a rustic
equally with Xestobium. One entomologist at least
the indefatigable Professor Westwood once kept a
regular diary of its tickings, the particular specimens
whose doings were chronicled being inhabitants of a
wooden mantel in the Professor's study. They ticked at
intervals during the winter months, as well as at other
seasons, though at such times the noises could scarcely
have been intended, as they probably are during the
warmer months, as an exchange of compliments between
love-sick couples.
Notwithstanding the obscurity and retirement of their
life, these wood-boring beetles have not managed to
escape the attacks of parasites. Several species of
ichneumon flies and other allied insects prey upon them ;
and the delicate little gauzy-winged persecutors may
sometimes be seen running about hither and thither
over Anobium-infested wood, in maternal anxiety to
find a suitable nidus for their brood. Some, too large
to enter the burrows, are furnished with a long ovi-
positor with which to reach their victims, into whose
bodies they insert their eggs. Others are small enough
to enter the burrows bodily, and hunt their prey like a
ferret after a rabbit. One of these latter, Theocolax
formiciformis, superficially something like a minute
ant, in consequence of the absence of wings, I have
obtained in .considerable numbers from a colony of
Anobium domestidum which had established themselves
in an old aquarium stand.
Yet another member of this family of wood-borers,
12 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
of very similar appearance to Anobium, sometimes does
considerable damage to woodwork. It is especially partial
to willow-wood, in which it
makes neat cylindrical burrows.
It is called Ptilinus pectinicornis,
and the specific name refers to a
remarkable peculiarity in the
antennae of the male, the sex
which, for a reason that will
appear presently, is most com-
monly seen. It may be recog-
nised by its extremely cylindrical
FIG. 4 .-Ptiiirms pectinicornis reddish-brown body and rather
(male). *
swollen black thorax (Fig. 4).
The antennas are marvellously beautiful. Instead of
being composed of a mere string of simple joints, such
as constitute those of the allied species, and, in fact,
of beetles in general, they appear, when fully spread
out, like two pieces of deep fringe. This results from
each joint, except the two at the base and the one
at the apex, carrying a lateral appendage generally
far longer than itself. The apical joint is itself of the
same form as these appendages, so that altogether there
are nine of them ; but the one nearest the base is much
shorter than the rest, and seems little more than like a
stout tooth ; while the last seven, which are of nearly
equal length, are several times as long as the joints
to which they belong. Antennae of a similar character
occur in a few other British beetles, though in none is
the peculiarity so greatly exaggerated as in the present
species.
It is not easy to conjecture the raison d'etre of this
remarkable feature, for there seems to be little in the
habits of the insect to account for its differing from its
WOOD-BORING BEETLES 13
congeners in so peculiar a way. It can scarcely be
merely a sexual distinction, but seems to point to some
greater acuteness in the organs of sense, perhaps necessi-
tated by the fact that the female rarely leaves her
burrows, only advancing to the entrance thereof to
receive the addresses of her lord and master, who, on
his part, remains on the outside, and conducts his court-
ship from that position. It is a curious fact that the
males of certain moths, which have similarly complex
antennae, possess also a marvellous power, quite inde-
pendent of sight, of detecting, even from great distances,
the presence of a virgin female of their own species.
Ptilinus is sometimes terribly destructive to timber;
and apparently the most remarkable instance on record
of this undesirable characteristic is one given by West- '
wood, who states that a perfectly new bed-post (those
were the days of the great four-posters that lumbered
up our fathers' bed-chambers) was, in the space of three
years, completely destroyed by countless numbers of
these insects. But such depredations are necessarily
becoming more and more things of the past, and in
these days of iron bedsteads, &c., Ptilinus, and others
of that ilk, must be beginning to find that they have
fallen on evil times, and that the conditions of life are
not nearly so favourable as they used to be in the happy
days of old. I have found it also in a printing-office,
where, in the abundance of wooden "plant" stored up,
it must have discovered a perfect mine of wealth.
Anobium domesticum is not the only representative of
that genus in our household fauna ; another is A. pani-
ceum, a shorter and broader insect of somewhat paler
colour. It is almost omnivorous in its tastes, attacking
any sort of vegetable substance that may fall in its way,
though less of a wood-borer than its relative. Such things
14 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
as dry bread, biscuits, rhubarb root, ginger, wafers, and
even so unlikely a substance as Cayenne pepper, have
been greedily devoured by it ; and it has also not un-
frequently attacked ships' biscuits, riddling them through
and through, and damaging them to such an extent as
to render them quite unfit for human food. Nor does
it make any difference it the vegetable matter is not in
its primitive condition, but has had its character so
much altered as is involved in having passed several
times through the hands of the manufacturer : thus,
paper will furnish it with an enjoyable meal, and books
even yield it physical sustenance. A curious case of the
latter is recorded of either this insect or some closely
allied species : twenty-seven folio volumes in a public
library were perforated in a straight line by one and
the same insect, and so regular was the tunnel that a
string could be passed through the whole length of it,
and the entire set of books lifted up at once thereby a
tolerably clear proof that the library, or, at any rate,
that particular portion of it, could not have been in
great request with human bookworms, or the insect
ditto would scarcely have found its course so entirely
unimpeded.
Drawings and even paintings have also been destroyed
by this insect, and on one occasion it invaded the sacred
seats of learning and made away with some Arabic
manuscripts in a library at Cambridge, and at another
time wrought havoc in the herbarium of a botanist.
The powerful jaws of the larva, too, are not deterred
even by a thin coating of metal, for Westwood records
having seen tinfoil perforated by it, no doubt for the
purpose of pilfering some treasure contained beneath.
So, while A. domesticum destroys chairs, tables,
picture-frames, cupboards, floors, &c., and sometimes
WOOD-CORING BEETLES 15
terrifies nervous old ladies by its ticking, its relative A.
paniceum attacks the stores of comestibles, works of
art, and literature of the dwelling, and between them
they would, in the course of time, if unchecked, produce
terrible ruin.
When found in woodwork out of doors, the direct
damage insects of this kind do by the actual excavation
and devouring of the wood is not the only injury for
which they are responsible; for damp air enters the
substance of the wood through the burrows, and meet-
ing with the excrement, which is stored in great quan-
tities in the burrows, renders it a good basis for the
growth of microscopic fungi, whereby the decay of the
wood is accelerated.
All the insects hitherto enumerated belong to the
family Ptinidce, of which they constitute one section, the
Anobiides, distinguished, at least so far as our house-
feeders are concerned, by their more cylindrical form,
compact make, and shorter legs. In the other section,
the Ptinides, to which we now turn our attention, the
shape is more globose, the antennae and legs much
longer, and the thighs so much thickened at the outer
extremities as to become club-like. From their shape
it would be easy to conjecture what would be in accord-
ance with facts, that they have less to do with cylin
drical burrows than their companions who "swear by"
Anobium.
The typical genus of the Ptinides is Ptinus, and the
commonest species of that genus P. far (Fig. 5). This is
also a household insect, and is of somewhat varied habits.
It well exemplifies a peculiarity exhibited with more or
less distinctness in several species of this genus, viz., dis-
similarity in shape between the sexes : the body of the
male is almost cylindrical, but that of the female inflated
6 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
or rounded at the sides, a feature which so alters her
appearance that a novice would be certain to divorce her
FIG. 5. Ptinus fur (A, male ; B, female).
from her husband, and consider her a distinct species. It
is a reddish-brown, hard insect, with two narrow and some-
what indistinct bands of white hairs on the elytra ; the
head is so much bent under the thorax that it cannot be
seen from above, so that the insect appears as though it
had been decapitated. The legs are long and straggling,
notwithstanding which the creature is slow and heavy in
its movements. The thorax is a good deal contracted
behind, appearing as though it had been tied round
tight while soft, and had hardened in that condition.
By attending to these few points of distinction, there
can scarcely be much difficulty in recognising a Ptinus.
This insect is a great foe to Natural History collections,
whether of animals or plants : and if by any chance it
can manage to effect a surreptitious entrance into such,
it does its best to execute the sentence " dust to dust "
upon them. But its tastes are varied, and range from
such excellent diet as the precious grain stored in
granaries to the apparently less attractive nutriment
WOOD-RORING BEETLES 17
furnished by the threadbare fabric of an old coat, the
vegetable and the animal diet seeming equally suited to
its taste, though it was at one time considered to be so
largely an animal feeder as to have been called by De
Geer vrillette carnassiere, "the carnivorous borer."
Those who keep collections of foreign insects may
sometimes have the privilege (?) of breeding (uninten-
tionally) exotic species of Ptinus. Dried insects, when
arriving from abroad, sometimes contain in their car-
cases living larvae of Ptinidve, which fare sumptuously,
though silently and unobserved, upon the " dried meat "
by which they are surrounded a veritable "life in
death." I remember on one occasion looking at a store
box of exotic insects that had not been opened for some
time, and being astonished at finding a colony of some
dozen or so of a beautiful bright red Ptinus, prettily
ornamented with snow-white spots, gaily disporting
themselves amongst my stores, quite regardless of such
insecticides as were present. I succeeded in tracing
them to the huge carcase of a gigantic beetle that I had
unfortunately introduced into the society without pre-
viously submitting to quarantine, and in whose interior
the larvae had evidently been holding carnival at the
time of his introduction.
The Ptini turned out to be a Polynesian species, which
had thus completed their life cycle many thousands of
miles from their birthplace. On their exclusion from
their coleopterous host, they seemed to have decided on
a change of diet, and so had calmly attacked the cork
lining of the box, neatly excavating in it a series of
hollows, to the extreme detriment of its appearance, at
least from my point of view.
A most extraordinary trio of beetles now calls for
notice. They are closely allied to the genus Ptinus,
B
to
18 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
and .belong to the same section of the family. They
have very much the appearance of spiders, for which,
indeed, they are often mistaken.
The first is Niptus hololeucus
(Fig. 6). It is a small beetle,
completely covered with a yellow-
ish silky down, and its resem-
blance to a spider is produced by
three peculiarities. A spider,
which, be it remembered, is not
an insect at all, but 'a member of
u 'TTTrrrrrr a the class Arachnida, has only two
y V apparent divisions to its body,
FIG. 6.-Niptus hololeucus. the hindermost of which is usually
highly convex and rounded at the sides, and it has also
eight legs. Now, though Niptus has distinctly the usual
three divisions of an insect's body head, thorax, and
abdomen the first of these is so bent under the second
that, as in Ptinus, it cannot be seen from above; and,
in consequence, the body seems, like that of a spider, to
be composed of only two parts. The elytra are very
convex above, and much inflated and rounded at the
sides, and as the line of their junction is completely
obliterated, the abdomen acquires the globose and un-
divided form of that of a spider. Again, the antennae,
which are about equal in length to the legs, and, of
course, on account of the bending of the head, appear
to come from underneath as much as the legs themselves
do, make up, with the usual six legs, a number of ap-
pendages that may readily be taken for the eight legs
of a spider. The imitation is so complete, that, when
only casually seen, the beetle might easily deceive even
those who are perfectly familiar with the difference be-
tween an insect and a spider. When once one examines
WOOD-BORING BEETLES 19
it closely, however, the apparent resemblances vanish,
and the creature is easily seen to be a true insect, and
is moreover found to be as hard -bodied as a Ptinus,
instead of exhibiting the soft and yielding integument
of a spider.
It occurs commonly in houses, often in considerable
numbers. It is not a wood-borer, but feeds on anything
it can come across that is at all edible, and, in con-
sequence, most frequents cupboards where stores of pro-
visions are kept. It was once found in great numbers
in a plate-cupboard, where it was said, though with
what degree of justice it is very difficult to understand,
to have done considerable damage to the silver stored
there. It has no wings, and is therefore not much of a
wanderer, so that when a colony has once established
itself in any part of a house, the successive generations
are likely to remain in those quarters as long as pro-
visions last, unless forcibly ejected. It is probably not
a truly indigenous insect, but, like many others, has
been imported from abroad, so that, although not blessed
with great powers of locomotion, it has yet been a con-
siderable traveller.
Under the microscope, the yellow clothing of Niptus
is seen to be composed of two totally distinct elements.
There are a number of longitudinal rows of long hairs
or bristles, projecting considerably above the general
surface, and pointing backwards ; and beneath these,
closely covering the body, a quantity of tiny yellow
scales, overlapping one .another. Each scale is bluntly
pointed at the place of its attachment to the body, and
at the outer extremity is usually produced into two long
pointed projections at the sides, with a shorter one
between them (Fig. 7). Not unfrequently the central
process is also cleft. When the scales are removed, the
20 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
body beneath is seen to be highly polished, and of a
deep chestnut colour.
To return to our spider-like trio : the first we have
FIG. 7. Scales of Nip tus. FIG. 8. Mezium affine.
already considered ; the second, Mezium affine (Fig. 8),
is even more spider- like than its predecessor. Unlike
Niptus, however, it is clothed with hairs only on the
head and thorax. Its elytra are perfectly bare, of a
chestnut-brown colour, brilliantly shining, and extremely
globular, very much like what those of Niptus would be
if denuded of their scales. The head and thorax are
covered with yellowish- white hairs, so thickly disposed
that one might imagine the creature was of an asth-
matic temperament, and so needed to protect itself by
wrapping its upper regions in a great woollen muffler
or comforter.
This is not nearly so common an insect as the last,
but it is equally varied in its tastes. An old opera-hat,
which had been laid aside for some time, once nourished
a considerable colony; and it has also been found
inside the carcase of another beetle, the greater part
of whose contents its larva had devoured. The creature
had passed through the whole .of its changes in these
contracted quarters, the larva having formed there
a silken cocoon intermixed with particles of its own
excrement.
The third member of our little party is Gibbium scotias
(the hump-backed lover of darkness) (Fig. 9). It is much
WOOD-BORING BEETLES 21
like Hezium, but more stumpy, and entirely destitute of
hairs, except on its antennae and legs. It looks more
like a great mite than
a spider, and from its
colour and rotundity
has been fancifully com-
pared, especially when
tucking its legs underits
body, to a drop of blood. FIG - 9--Gibbium scotias.
At Newcastle this insect has been found in some
numbers in a dry cupboard, where, it would seem,
they had obtained a comfortable living from the wall-
paper and the dried remains of the paste with which
it had been hung. This latter is a very favourite repast
with several small insects that are pests in Natural
History collections; it is well, therefore, to take the
precaution to mix a little corrosive sublimate with the
paste used in preparing the mounting-boards for zoo-
logical specimens, that by being thus poisoned, it may
become safe from the attacks of the tiny depredators.
GibHum has also been found amongst old hay, and
on one occasion a heap of their carcases was discovered
amongst a resinous substance in a vase obtained from
a mummy at Thebes, but whether they were an ori-
ginal embalmment or a subsequent invasion was not
very clear.
CHAPTEK II.
CLUB-HORN BEETLES.
WE now turn to another family of beetles, the Derme-
stidcB, q, group of small extent, but of most destructive
habits. ' One of them has rendered itself sufficiently
obnoxious to have acquired a popular name, the " Bacon
Beetle," a designation which indicates not a necessary
association, but merely a casual one, which, however,
has, more than any other, brought the insect under
the notice and reprobation of human kind. In scientific
language it is still called by the name under which the
great Linne wrote of it in his " Systema Naturae," viz.,
Dermestes lardarius, the second word of which is an
almost literal translation of
the popular name. The gene-
ric title Dermestes is from the
Greek derma, a skin, and in-
dicates that the tastes of the
insect lie, not only in the
direction of fat bacon, but
equally in that of tough
leather.
It is a parallel -sided convex
rather elongate insect, about
one-fourth inch long (Fig. 10), and may be at once
recognised by the yellowish-grey band which sweeps
right across the elytra, occupying almost the whole of
FIG. 10. Dermestes'lardarius.
CLUB-HORN BEETLES 23
their basal half (i.e., the part next the thorax), in sharp
contrast to the black of the remainder of the body, both
before and behind. The two colours meet abruptly in a
well-defined, somewhat wavy boundary line, running
across from side to side. In the present order it very
frequently happens that, as we have already seen in
Niptus, the colours that appear on the surface are not
ingrained into the skin of the insect itself, but are
produced by hairs or scales, with which it is more or
less thickly coated ; and it is not until these have been
removed that the true colours of the body, which do
not necessarily correspond with the superficial orna-
mentation, can be clearly ascertained. The present
insect is covered tolerably thickly with hairs, and the
parts that are superficially black are also of that colour
when denuded of their covering, but under the pale
patch the elytra are of a very deep reddish-brown.
The head is of small dimensions, and, when the insect
is at rest, is carried bent down beneath the thorax, a
position from which, in a defunct individual, the cole-
opterist who desires all parts of his specimens to be
properly displayed, finds it no easy matter to coax it
out. The antennae are of the type known as clubbed,
a feature which indicates that the insect belongs to that
large section of the beetle order called Clavicornia, or
Club -horns, a group containing about 600 British
species, a good many of which are feeders upon carrion
and the dried carcases of other animals.
A clubbed antenna is usually almost abnormally short,
and may be at once distinguished by the fact that the
terminal joints, two, three, four, or five in number, are
much broader than the rest. It is surprising how many
varieties this very simple peculiarity is capable of,
and these variations are of much importance in the
24 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
systematic arrangement of the insects. In our present
species the club consists of three flattened joints,
broadened inwardly only, whereby it acquires a one-
sided appearance.
The legs are of moderate length, and are packed up
under the body when their owner counterfeits death, as
it very readily does on the slightest alarm, being, as
well becomes so inveterate a pilferer, of timid and retir-
ing habits. But this folding up is not so perfectly
carried out as in many other insects, for the last section
of the limbs, viz., the five- jointed tarsus, or foot, is not
folded back upon the preceding part, or tibia, but simply
brought up so as to make an angle with them. - t .
The larva of Dermestes is something like a very hairy
caterpillar, and is no connection of those lively maggots
that also infest bacon, and whose acrobatic feats have
earned for them the name of " jumpers." It casts its
skin several times in the course of its life, and on
account of the multitude of hairs (which are shed with
the skin and renewed each time), the rejected vestment
does not shrivel up, but retains the form of the larva,
a very substantial ghost of its former self.
We possess five British species of this genus, all of
which are essentially devourers of skins and dried
carcases; in fact, they are the jackals of the flesh flies,
coming round when the maggots of the latter have
finished up all the soft and juicy parts of a fresh carcase,
and clearing off the hard and dry remnants of the skin,
tendons, ligaments, &c., which their predecessors have
left untouched. This is their natural function in the
economy of nature, and when man also accumulates
stores of dried meats, skins, feathers, horns, and hoofs,
it is not to be wondered at that they forsake the scanty
and precarious provisions of dame Nature, and invade
CLUB-HORN BEETLES 25
his precincts who has so thoughtfully laid up such
grand stores for them.
Some years ago, D. vulpinus, a black species with a
white patch on each side of the thorax, swarmed to
such a degree and was so destructive in large skin ware-
houses in London as to bring forth the handsome offer
of ^"20,000 for an available remedy. But satisfactory
remedies against the ravages of insects are usually diffi-
cult to discover, and difficult also to apply; and it is not
altogether surprising that even so tempting an offer failed
to secure the desired result. The curators of museums,
too, are likely to have their peace of mind affected by the
ravages of Dermestes. The larvae are by no means parti-
cular as to the class to which a preserved animal belongs,
and so birds, beasts, and fishes, crabs, insects, and spiders
may any or all fall before their jaws. Sometimes they
will attack a skin by nibbling away at the roots of the
hair or feathers, and so make a nice clean shave of the
whole affair ; occasionally they will forsake an animal for
a vegetable diet. Cork is a substance much favoured with
their attentions, and an account has been placed on
record of the destruction of a whole ship's cargo of this
material by vast numbers of them. On another occa-
sion they actually abandoned some tempting skins on
which they had been feasting for a set of corks that had
been introduced into their quarters. Nor is the house-
wife exempt from anxiety on the score of Dermestes.
Not only flitches of bacon, but even the meat in larders,
and the bladders covering the tops of jam-pots, have on
occasions yielded to their rapacity; books and papers,
too, are not safe, and, strangest of all, they have
sometimes actually imitated the example of Anobium,
and bored into wood, feeding on the timber as they
advanced.
26 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
But the most repulsive charge against them is that of
anthropophagy. Some years ago, some Egyptian mum-
mies were discovered, which, perhaps through straitened
circumstances in the family to which they belonged,
or through the shiftiness of some dishonest firm of
embalmers, had evidently been prepared with less care
than was usually expended on such objects. On being
unswathed, the bodies were found to be pierced in some
places by an insect identical with the London warehouse
pest above referred to, viz., D. vulpinus, some examples
of which had worked their way through two or three
folds of the mummy-cloth and there perished. The
bodies, on being opened, were found to contain thou-
sands of the larvae, together with many more of the
perfect beetles of course, all mummified and saved from
decay by the same drugs as had preserved the mummy
itself. From the facts that death had overtaken the
larvae in the fulness of their powers, that only a few
beetles had escaped from the body, and that these had
not been able to work their way out completely, it is
manifest that they must have commenced their attacks
during the preliminary processes of embalmment, when
evidently the body had been somewhat neglected, and
that most of them had been killed by the later stages of
the operation, a few only surviving its completion, and
they were without strength sufficient to eat their way
completely through the investing mass into daylight.
The Dermestes were accompanied by another beetle, a
bright blue species called Corynetes violaceus, which also
is a common British insect, and a devourer of carrion
and skins, though belonging to a different family. It
was well for the feelings of the survivors and owners of
the precious relics that all these insects perished where
and when they did ; for think what a shock it would
CLUB-HORN BEETLES 27
have given to the family to see a host of beetles come
trooping out of the corpse of their respected relative,
the integrity of whose remains had been an object of
their pious care ! In consequence of the great amount
of preservatives used, the bodies themselves, when once
properly prepared, would probably be exempt from in-
sect attack, but not so the wooden cases in which they
reposed, which could easily be, and were, perforated by
wood-borers such as AnoMwn; and, to judge from some
in the British Museum, the ancient Egyptian may have
had to look as sharply after the coffins of his grand-
fathers as the modern Englishman after his chairs and
tables, to prevent them from becoming worm-eaten.
Belonging to the same family as the Bacon Beetles
are a few other insects that sometimes augment our
household fauna. One of these, called
Attagenus pellio (Fig. n), is very much
like a small Dermestes, both in form and
in life history. It is a black insect,
about one-fifth inch long, with a small
but bright white spot (composed of hairs)
nearly in the centre of each elytron, and
also three similar but less brilliant ones
on the hinder edge of the thorax, of Fia -
which the centre is the most conspicuous.
There is also usually a slight indication of a second and
much smaller spot on each elytron, placed nearer the
thorax and more at the side than the two bright silver
points before alluded to. Of course, all these spots,
being simply composed of hairs, easily become obliterated
by the wear and tear of life, friction against obstacles
causing their speedy abrasion.
This insect is of very similar habits to a Dermestes, and
in domiciling itself with us may generally be regarded
28 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
#s being engaged in fur-hunting. The name "pellio,"
which is Latin for a " furrier " a preserver of and
dealer in furs is somewhat contradictorily given to
this destroyer of such wares. Linne, who says that it
will sometimes entirely strip a fur garment of its hair,
accuses it also of attacking the household stores of food,
and, besides this, it is occasionally a nuisance in Natural
History collections, and has sometimes eaten holes in
carpets. Its larva is closely covered with reddish-brown
hairs, which give it a shining silky appearance, and it
has a long brush of hairs at the tail.
Our la,4t representative of this family is a much smaller
insect, which has nevertheless rendered itself notorious
by its invasion of museums a fact, the
memory of which has been perpetuated
in the second half of its name, Antlirenus
musceorum (Fig. 12). It is a short oval
insect, about one-twelfth of an inch long,
prettily sprinkled with variegated scales,
FIG. 12. Anthrenus which give it a mottled appearance, the
musseorum, as it . : A
appears when pale ones on the elytra being distributed
feigning death. . / fc
in three more or less distinct, irregular,
transverse bands. The scales are pretty objects for the
microscope. They are triangular in shape, and, of course,
attached by the apex of the triangle, and their principal
colours a very deep brown and pale yellowish-white. On
their removal, the whole insect appears black.
In the power of feigning death, by bending the head
under and packing up the legs, this insect is quite equal
to the most obstinate of its allies. The larva is hairy,
like that of Dermestes, but, of course, much smaller.
Its hairs are in bundles, and at its tail are a pair of
tufts of larger size ; when it is at rest these two are laid
along the back, but when disturbed it erects them/^and
CLUB-HORN BEETLES 29
spreads them out like a couple of shuttlecocks. On
account of its hairy nature it is a very slippery creature,
and this, combined with its small size, makes it a diffi-
cult captive to hold, and enables it easily to slip between
the fingers. It is nearly a year in attaining its full
size, though not equally vigorous during the whole time;
it is much more active in summer than in winter, and
feeds chiefly during the warm weather. At length, after
several moults, the time for pupation arrives ; the last
larval skin, however, is not thrown off as its predeces-
sors have been, but, a slit having been made down the
back, the insect becomes a chrysalis inside the hairy
shroud, from which, on attaining its final form, it makes
its exit at the aforementioned slit, leaving its last two
coverings one inside the other.
Five species of Anthrenus are known as British, and
it is curious that the perfect insects frequent living
flowers, especially those of the UmbelliferEe, in which
they may sometimes be found gregariously. The larva
of A. musceorum, however, feeds upon skins, hairs,
feathers, and other dried remains of animals, though it
is difficult to understand what temptation there can be
for an insect's taste to oscillate between fragrant and
aromatic flowers on the one hand and evil-flavoured and
malodorous animal remains on the other. Apparently,
however, it is not much affected by smells, for the
powerful odour of camphor, which is destructive to many
insects, seems not to incommode it at all; and, there-
fore, the keeper of natural curiosities will not permit
himself to be deluded into the persuasion that all must
necessarily be right with his collections if he has but
applied camphor to them after the usual manner. This
is no effectual preservative against Anthrenus; in fact,
the wretched little creature has actually been found
30 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
snugly nestling under the very camphor that had been
inserted for its destruction, in utter scorn of all such
precautions. Its smaller size, too, renders it a more
difficult enemy to guard against than Dermestes, as it
can both enter through smaller interstices and is less
conspicuous, though not less destructive when once an
entrance has been effected.
Still keeping to the great section of the Club-horns,
we come now to a minute insect called Mycetoea hirta
(Fig. 13). This little creature has
been at times bandied about from
one family to another, and its true
location is difficult to determine. It
is only one -sixteenth inch long, of a
pale chestnut colour, with rows of
large and deep (comparatively) pits or
" punctures " on the elytra, (the word
FIG. 13. Mycetsea punctures, as used in entomology, does
not imply complete perforation, but
merely indicates sudden and minute depressions, usually
circular in form) ; the whole surface of the insect is
beset somewhat scantily with long coarse hairs, which
stand out like chevaux-de-frise all over its body, and
have gained for it the name of hirta, "hairy." The
thorax seems as though its lateral edges had been turned
up, folded back, and fastened down along the sides of
the dorsal surface, somewhat as the edge of a piece of
needlework is folded over to make a "hem." It is
obvious, when one remembers the small size of the
insect, that none of these peculiarities can be seen with-
out the aid of a lens. This little insect is an inhabitant
of old wine-cellars, where it feeds upon the fungoid
incrustations on the walls, and, according to some, also
attacks the corks of the bottles. Some people, however,.
CLUB-HORN BEETLES 31
believe this last charge to be unsubstantiated, consider-
ing the real damage to have been done by other insects
found in the cellars, in which case Mycetcea has got into
ill repute through association with evil companions.
Its larva is a whitish fleshy grub, with six small legs in
front.
In its cellar experiences, this insect is often accom-
panied by other minute beetles, especially certain tiny
yellowish-brown ones of the genus Cryptophagus, a word
derived from the Greek, and signifying an "eater in
concealment." This is a large genus, and a very
puzzling one, on account of the great similarity of the
species. They may easily be distinguished from other
small, similarly coloured beetles by the fact that the
lateral edges of the thorax are produced into tooth-like
projections, which differ in shape and position in the
different species, but are almost characteristic of the
genus as a whole.
CHAPTEE III.
CELLAR BEETLES AND MEAL WORMS.
THE beetles whose ravages and life history have already
occupie4 our attention illustrate very well two of the
great primary divisions of the Coleoptera, viz., the Tere-
dilia or wood-borers, containing the Death Watch and its
allies, which are all summed up in a single small family,
and the Clavicornia or Club-horns, to which the Bacon
Beetle and its skin-devouring relatives are referable.
We thus see that in each section, out of some hundreds
of species of more or less similar structure, only a very
small proportion, and those almost entirely confined to
a single family in each case, bring themselves into
collision with human household interests.
And in the same way, to get our next illustrations,
we must go to another great primary section of the
order, and select a few species therefrom. This section
is called the Heteromera, a word which, being literally
translated from the Greek, means "different joints, 7
and is given in reference to a peculiarity by which these
insects are sharply distinguished from most of those
already referred to, viz., that while the tarsi, or feet,
of the first two pairs of legs consist of five little joints
succeeding one another in longitudinal row, those of the
hind pair have only four such joints, our preceding
examples, except the little oddity Mycetcea, having been
furnished with five on all their limbs.
32
CELLAR BEETLES AND MEAL WORMS 33
The Heteromera are a remarkable set of insects, more
fully represented in tropical countries than in our own
islands. We possess less than 120 species, and these
do not all rightfully belong to us ; but even this small
number includes insects of such diverse habits and struc-
ture as to necessitate their subdivision into nearly sixty
genera. The economy of some, too such as the fami-
liar oil-beetle is more wonderful than that of any other
Coleopteron whatever.
Our first example from this group is the insect known
to science as Blaps mucronata (Fig. 14), and popularly
FIG. 14. Blaps mucronata. A, side view of elytra.
called the "Churchyard Beetle" and "Cellar Beetle."
It is utterly unlike any other British insect, except
the other two members of its own genus, and these it
resembles so closely as to be with difficulty distinguish-
able from them. It is a dull-black creature, nearly an
inch in length, with long, straggling legs, and without
wings, though the wing-covers, or elytra, are even more
largely developed than usual. These cannot, however,
be opened, and are, indeed, actually fastened together
" soldered " is the technical term along their central
c
34 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
line of junction, thus forming a flattened arch over the
body.
It shows no trace of ornamentation on any part of
its body, not even the customary longitudinal furrows
and rows of punctures so characteristic of beetles ; and at
first sight the integument seems to be perfectly smooth.
Examination with a lens, however, reveals a minute and
indistinct, irregularly scattered punctuation. The body
is broadest a little behind the middle, and at the tail
the elytra, instead of terminating in a smooth, evenly
rounded edge, are each produced at the tip into a blunt
projection, curled upwards (Fig. 14, A). The name mucro-
nata, from the Latin mucro, a spear point, refers to this
odd little tail, which is, nevertheless, not confined to this
species, but is represented in one form or other through-
out the genus. Turning next to the organs of sense, we
find another striking peculiarity in the eyes : instead
of forming projecting rounded masses, as is usually the
case, they consist of two long, narrow, almost kidney-
shaped strips, just behind the antennae, and not raised
above the general surface. This want of prominence of
the visual organs finds its explanation in the darkling
habits of the creature. Finally, the last four joints of
the antennae are like round black beads.
Blaps has really very little to recommend it. Its dull
sombre aspect is the reverse of attractive, and agrees
well with the retirement and obscurity of its life. Clad
so completely in the deepest of mourning, it could not
be let alone by superstition, and has therefore been
regarded with terror as an ally of the powers of dark-
ness, and an associate of death a creature whose natural
abode could be none other than a charnel-house. Ideas
so fostered found apparent support in the repulsive odour
it continually emits, resembling that of putrid flesh, and
CELLAR BEETLES AND MEAL WORMS 35
in its not unfrequent occurrence in churchyards. Its
disgusting odour is produced by the vaporisation of a
fluid found in two oblong vesicles near the tail.
An unusual length of legs is generally an indica-
tion of agility, but not so with Blaps, which is a very
tortoise in speed. It leisurely lifts one leg after the
other, cautiously bringing them again to the ground, as
though its vitality were well-nigh exhausted, and these
were its last feeble efforts before giving up the ghost.
Nothing could be farther from the truth, however, for
its stock of vitality is extraordinary, and enables it to
survive dangers and difficulties which would speedily
be fatal to less hardy creatures. About a century and
a half ago, when entomology was hardly yet a science,
and the means of destruction of insect life not so varied
or efficacious as at present, a struggle, so celebrated as
to have been thought worthy of permanent record in the
'' Transactions of the Royal Society," took place between
a Blaps and an entomologist. The latter made no less
than four different attempts at the execution of the
former, by immersing it in spirits of wine for periods of
increasing length, the last extending over some twelve
hours. On each occasion life appeared to be extinct,
but each time also, on being removed from the fluid, the
apparent corpse became reanimated, and the victim of
alcoholic excess entered on a new lease of life, till at
last the sentence was remitted, and the insect lived with
its captor unmolested for three years afterwards, and
even then the record of its experiences was brought to a
close, not by its own decease, but by the carelessness of
a domestic, who allowed it to escape.
This insect is often found in cellars, stables, and out-
houses, dark and damp spots being especially congenial
to its tastes. It shuns the light of day, and is chiefly
36 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
nocturnal in habits. Though so disgusting in smell, it
found a place in the Materia Medica of the Romans,
being recommended by Pliny as an infallible remedy
in the case of ulcers which would yield to no milder
treatment.
The larva is a long narrow creature, with six short
legs in front, very similar to an ordinary meal worm,
to which, indeed, it is not very distantly related. It is
of a pale, yellowish- white colour, and not hairy, like those
of the Dermestidce. This, therefore, is the third type
of larv^, we have met with : the first, of the Ptinidce,
plump, fleshy, soft, pale, and curved ; the second, of the
Dermestidce, densely hairy, like moths' caterpillars ; and
the third, that of Slaps, long, narrow, and smooth. The
larva of an allied species has been turned to account
by the women of Egypt, who, following the precepts of
" insectarianism," are said to make a savoury dish of the
grub by roasting it and serving in butter, partaking of
it with a view to the cultivation of embonpoint.
In order to find the other household members of the
Heteromera, we must leave for a time the cellars in
which we were hunting for our first representative of
the group the foul churchyard beetle and visit loca-
lities of an altogether different description, viz., bakers'
shops, bakehouses, flour-mills, and granaries. Farina-
ceous substances, such as wheat, barley, maize, meal,
flour, bread, cakes, &c., are specially liable to the attacks
of various species of beetles belonging, curiously enough,
to several totally distinct sections of the order. In stores
of corn in granaries no less than eighteen species of
beetles have been found amongst the refuse, though it
is probable that several of these were there, not to eat
the grain themselves, but to prey upon such of their
CELLAR BEETLES AND MEAL WORMS 37
associates as were addicted to that practice. Still, it is
certain that there is a gang of nearly a dozen species
that will engage in this work of destruction whenever
they can get a chance, and the ringleaders are those
two great sinners, the corn and rice weevils. As these,
however, belong to the granary rather than to the
dwelling-house, we need not stay to describe them here.
Our old friend, the omnivorous Niptus, sometimes
joins the ranks of these "corn-lovers," and Dr. Power
records having found it in hundreds in a quantity of
meal, which he transferred to a closely stoppered bottle,
where, notwithstanding that the bottle was never opened,
the insects continued to breed for three years, though in
gradually decreasing numbers.
But our concern at present is with the Heteromerous
members of this gang of freebooters. They are chiefly
of small size, and none of them equal Blaps in stature.
By far the largest are those whose larvae constitute
the well-known " meal worms," belonging to the genus
Tenebrio, from which the whole family is named the
TenebrionidcB. The meal worms themselves we reserve
for a future notice, and turn our atten-
tion at present to the smaller species.
First, we have two very closely allied
insects, called Tribolium ferrugineum
and T. confusum, the former of which
(Fig. 15) is much the commoner. They
occupy a position very inferior to the
corn-weevils in point of destructive- FIG. 15. Tribolium
ferrugineum.
ness, but still they are an enemy not
to be despised. They are both small, dark, reddish-brown
insects a colour referred to in the name ferrugineum,
" rusty " of insignificant appearance, and, like several
others of the group, do not rightfully belong to the
38 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
British fauna, having been introduced here with foreign
merchandise. They have, however, established them-
selves, at least under the shelter of human roofs, where
they will breed freely, and therefore, though they do
not yet appear to have become naturalised in the truly
wild condition, they are usually included in lists of
British insects.
They are so much alike that to a casual observer they
would appear identical. By a very close and careful
comparison under the microscope, minute points of dif-
ference in the antennae, thorax, and punctuation can be
made out, but these are of too minute and technical a
character to be rendered intelligible here. In the name
confusum, the " confused," given to the second species,
we have an indication of the difficulty that attends their
separation, and of the probability of their being con-
founded together. There is one peculiarity, however,
possessed in common by these insects and their allies
which is worth notice; it is that the eyes, which look like
piles of tiny, polished, black beads, are much encroached
upon by a projecting ridge in front of the head, which is
produced backwards in such a way as to appear to have
grown partially across the eyes, almost entirely dividing
each mass into two unequal parts, one above, the other
beneath.
The larvae of these insects are tolerably active, some-
what hairy creatures, with six short legs in front. In
common with larvae generally, they change their skin
several times, each time making their exit from the
slough through a slit along the back of the neck, drag-
ging out therefrom, first the segments that afterwards
become the thorax, then the head and legs, and finally
the abdomen.
Previously to assuming the pupal form, they become
CELLAR BEETLES AND MEAL WORMS 39
restless, and search about for a suitable place of lodg-
ment; having found one to its taste, the grub arches
its back and divests itself of its last larval skin, and
then passes very rapidly through the resting-stage of
pupadom, appearing in an incredibly short time as a
perfect insect, ready again to take part in the activities
of life. At first it is pale, and the elytra are so trans-
parent that the body can be seen through them ; after
a few days, however, they acquire their characteristic
ferruginous colour and opacity. The pupa shows dis-
tinctly all the parts of the perfect insect, the head,
wings, and legs being bent down underneath the body.
These insects do not confine their attentions to farina-
ceous substances ; they are also animal feeders, and are
amongst the enemies to be dreaded by the keeper of
collections of natural objects ; their larvae will excavate
the carcase of a dried insect as effectually as will those
of Dermestes or Anthrenus.
Another bakehouse insect is Gnathocerus cornutus,
which is identical in colour with TriboUum, and very
similar in shape, but somewhat larger. Its names, Ghiath-
ocerus, "jaw-horn," and cornutus, "horned," both refer
to a peculiarity of the male
only, by which that sex can
be easily distinguished from
all other members of this
group. The mandibles, i.e.,
the biting jaws, are each in
the form of a long horn,
the pair of which, project-
iTiw wmei'rlaT>ahlv in ffrmt FIG. 16. Head of Gnathocerus
ing considerably in tront cornutus (much magnified).
of the head, and curling
upwards, give the insect a most formidable aspect.
The head (Fig. 16) is altogether an odd-looking object,
40 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
for, besides these mandibular horns, there are two blunt
horns on the forehead, and the ridge that almost divides
the eyes is produced into a kind of flap or scoop on
each side.
By these remarkable structures we are reminded of
what seems almost like a law in the insect world, viz.,
that of all the different parts that make up the whole
organism of a typical insect there are some, such, for
example, as the legs, that preserve a very great uni-
formity of type throughout the class, varying in the
differen^ groups, and through the thousands upon thou-
sands of species, only within comparatively narrow limits,
while others seem possessed of much greater plasticity,
so to speak, and run off occasionally into such eccen-
tricities, extravagances, and apparent monstrosities, that
it seems as though there were no limit to the modifica-
tions of which they are capable. Perhaps the best
illustrations of this are to be found in the thorax and
antennae, in both of which most marvellous and unex-
pected developments, both in shape and size, are to be
met with. And in our present insect we see the head
and mandibles partaking of this same tendency to fan-
tastical modification, a tendency which, so far as man-
dibles are concerned, is manifested in a most remarkable
degree also in the stag-beetle, the " horns " of which are
really its jaws. And in that case, too, as in the present,
it is in the male sex that the structural peculiarity is
found.
We conclude our notice of the family Tenebrionidce
with the creatures called " meal worms," which are the
larvae of two species of beetles, Tenebrio molitor and
T. obscurus. Both larvae and perfect insects are found
in granaries, flour-mills, and bakehouses, where they
CELLAR BEETLES AND MEAL WORMS 41
sometimes do much damage to meal, bran, and flour.
The larvae are much more familiar objects than the
imagos, though probably the reverse is the case with
the rest of the family. They are used as food for cer-
tain singing- birds, and other insectivorous creatures,
and hence are bred in large numbers by bird-fanciers.
This may readily be done by keeping them in bran,
when they will propagate themselves freely. The word
Tenebrio is Latin for a night-walker, or lover of dark-
ness, and, so far as the mere meaning is concerned, the
name would be just as applicable to the rest of the
family as to the present insects, the whole set being
devotees of obscurity. Molitor is Latin for grinder of
corn, and obscurus finds its explanation in the dull
appearance of the second species.
T. molitor (Fig. 17) is a narrow, parallel-sided beetle,
a little over half-an-inch in length. Above, it is almost
B'IG. 17.- A, Tenebrio molitor ; B, larva of ditto (natural size) ;
C, pupa of ditto.
black, the faintest possible tinge of a dark brown-red
preventing it from being quite so ; or perhaps it might
be more correctly described as deep brown-red, so deep
as to appear almost black. Beneath and in the legs the
lighter colour is much more apparent. It is slightly
shiny, but only just sufficiently so to be redeemed from
42 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
the utter dulness and dinginess which characterise its
relative, T. obscurus. Down the elytra run the inevitable
parallel furrows, sixteen in number, not deep, but dis-
tinct enough to form a little " set-off " to the otherwise
uninteresting appearance. The front of the head forms
a ridge, which, as in some other species previously re-
ferred to, encroaches considerably on the eyes. The legs
are rather short, and the antennae are inelegant, thick,
and stumpy. Unlike Slaps it is furnished with wings,
and therefore, of course, the elytra are not soldered
together.
T. obscurus is a trifle larger than T. molitor, perfectly
dull black above, without a trace of the red-brown tint,
which, however, appears again on the under side ; in
other respects it is almost the exact counterpart of its
slightly less inelegant congener.
Such are the parents of our meal worms. The "worms"
themselves (Fig. 17, B) are as different as can well be
imagined long, narrow, cylindrical, caterpillar-like
creatures, consisting of a head and twelve similar and
perfectly distinct segments.
The colour is pale yellow, shading off into yellowish-
brown towards the head and tail. Each segment at its
hinder edge carries a rather broad band, and at its front
edge an exceedingly narrow one, of the darker colour,
so that the body is adorned with a series of double
rings encircling it at intervals along its length. The last
segment is rounded behind, and terminates on its upper
surface in either one or two small black curved hooks.
The head is furnished with a pair of not very large,
but nevertheless strong, dark brown jaws, which, in
repose, close in between the upper and lower lips, so
that only their outer edges are seen. There is also a
pair of tiny antennae.
CELLAR BEETLES AND MEAL WORMS 43
Under the three segments immediately succeeding the
head are three pairs of short legs, each terminating in
a sharp curved claw. By means of these the " worm "
is able to progress at a tolerably rapid rate, provided
there are sufficient irregularities in the surface to afford
foothold to its tiny claws ; but if transferred to a
polished surface it presents a ludicrous spectacle; the
front part of the body makes mighty efforts, struggling
vigorously with its legs, and twisting itself from side to
side, in vain endeavours to stir the inert mass of legless
body which acts like a drag behind. The two legs in
each pair are moved forward simultaneously, and the
order of movement, which is not always quite uniform,
and is extremely difficult to follow, appears generally to
be first the front pair, then the third, and lastly the
second. As the insect walks along, that part of the
body immediately over the legs is, of course, somewhat
raised, but the head is kept near the ground, so that
it may feel its way with vibrating antennae and palpi.
When walking slowly, or endeavouring to extricate
itself from a difficult position, it also makes use of a
pair of fleshy tubercles underneath the front part of
the terminal segment, thereby either helping the hinder
part of the body forward, or acquiring leverage for the
proper action of the legs. But when trotting briskly
along there seems to be no necessity to call these
tubercles into play, and the hinder part of the body
therefore simply trails helplessly over the ground.
When fully grown, the larva is nearly double as long
as the beetle it produces, but what the latter loses in
length it gains in breadth, as it is fully twice as broad
as its ancestral worm. Having spent some months in
devouring farinaceous substances, and changed its skin
several times during that period, the " worm " enters
44 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
its penultimate stage by another moult, but without
forming any cocoon. It is now shorter and broader
(Fig 17, c), no longer a roving pirate, but a restful
helpless mummy, giving prophetic indications of its
future destiny in its altered form a beetle to all in-
tents and purposes, but a caged and helpless one. After
a few weeks the needful changes in its internal economy
have been accomplished; it throws off its last skin,
and appears a fully developed winged beetle, at first
soft and red, but destined soon to acquire its natural
firmness vand pitchy colour. Previous to every moult,
the meal worm acquires a bloated appearance, and
becomes inactive for a time, lying on its side in a
curved position, and resenting all interference with
petulant twitchings of its form.
These meal worms will attack bread, cakes, &c., as
well as uncooked cereals, and they have also been
accused of devouring corks.
When we remember how many different species of
"corn-loving" beetles occur in our corn-stores, and
how excessively abundant some of them are, we are
forced to the conclusion that many must often be ground
up with the flour, and that we, therefore, sometimes get
our bread adulterated with pulverised beetles, and un-
consciously become " insectarians " for the nonce. But
"what the eye doth not see, the heart does not grieve
over," and possibly we may not really be any the worse
for this slight admixture of animal matter with our
farinaceous diet, though there are not wanting those
who have thought otherwise. Many of these " corn-
lovers" are Heteromera, as we have seen, and to this
section belongs also the blister-beetle, renowned in
medicine, and no very distant connection of our Tene-
brios. Moreover, a Brazilian species of Tenebrio is
CELLAR BEETLES AND MEAL WORMS 45
known to eject from its body a caustic secretion, and
some other allied insects cover themselves with a similar
substance. Now, if our mealworms, &c., have properties
at all analogous to those of Spanish Fly, this internal
application of cantharides, even in homoeopathic doses,
might not, perhaps, be altogether desirable. Some,
too, have supposed! the celebrated corn-weevils to be
prejudicial to health when in a comminuted state.
Flour is not the only article of food that is liable to
adulteration in this way. Curtis, in his " Farm Insects,"
has the following uncomfortable and suggestive passage :
"I have known bushels of cocoa-nuts (i.e., of course,
cacao) which were, every one, worm-eaten and full of
maggots, with their webs, excrement, cast-off skins,
pupae, and cocoons all ground down to make chocolate,
flavoured, 'I suppose, with Vanilla."
CHAPTEE IV.
LONGHORNS AND PREY-HUNTERS.
ONE of the finest, though at the same time most destruc-
tive, divisions of the beetle order is that called Longi-
cornia, or Longhorns. The beetles are many of them
remarkably handsome, and of considerable size, and
are readily distinguished by the great length of their
antennae, which, in some cases, many times exceed even
that of the body itself. These insects, in their larval
condition, burrow into the solid wood of timber trees,
where they live, often from three to five years, devouring
the heart wood, and utterly ruining the timber by exca-
vating through it in various directions neatly cut galleries,
which, commencing on the outside in a small and scarcely
noticeable opening, constantly increase in diameter with
the growth of the larva.
As a consequence of their longevity and the seclusion
of their life, it not unfrequently happens that when an
affected tree is cut down, and has been sawn up into
planks, the latter contain some of the immature larvae,
which escape notice through their burrows not having
been sawn through, and thus get conveyed into timber-
yards, and even used in building construction, before
their occupants have had time to complete the necessary
arrangements for making their debut in beetle society.
After a while, however, this important era in the life of
the insects arrives, and the beetles make their exit from
4 6
LONGHORNS AND PREY-HUNTERS 47
their burrows, only, however, to find themselves far
away from their native forests, strangers in a strange
land, and suddenly introduced into a human society,
which is as astonished to receive them as they are to
find themselves in its presence. In this way many fine
exotic Longicorns have been captured alive in different
parts of England, and this, too, is the explanation of
the not unfrequent occurrence of the Longicorn beetle
called the "timberman" in mines. They have been
introduced in the larval condition in the timbers used
in roofing and supporting the passages, and have some-
times established themselves and bred there. Various
forest trees are liable to the attacks of Longicorn beetles,
but, of course, it is those that burrow in fir-wood that
are chiefly imported into this country.
So, then, there are some of these Longicorns that may
every now and then be expected to turn up in houses.
Our British species are few in number, and, as a rule,
not common ; still, I have received one of our smallest
in considerable numbers from two different houses. It
is a quaint little brown beetle,
which is said to be partial to
old wood-work, and is called
Gracilia pygmcea (Fig. 18).
It is a narrow linear insect,
with antennae only a little
longer than the body, the
length being produced, as in
all this section, not by a mul-
tiplication of the joints, but
,,-,..,.., ,, .. FIG. 18. Gracilia pygmsea.
by their individual elongation.
It is remarkable for the disproportionate size of the
thorax, which, with the head, occupies about one-third
the length of the whole body, and for the great breadth
48 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
of the thighs at their outer extremity. The antennae, as
might be expected, are very liable to damage, and as the
insects are pugnacious, if several of them are confined
together, they are sure to fight, and, as a consequence, a
great mutilation of antennae and legs ensues, the battle-
field being strewn with the fragments.
It has also been found in large numbers burrowing in
the twigs of a hamper, which, small though they are,
afford plenty of scope for our pigmy beetle. Baskets
form, in one way or other, an easy means of transfer-
ence for insects from one country to another. Many
continental species are brought over with fruit and
vegetables, and the Borough Market, in London, is
quite noted for the number of such insects that have
been found alive there. About twelve years ago, a
French Longicorn was introduced in large numbers by
means of a basket ; some escaped, and were afterwards
found in the open, when it seemed as though a new
British beetle had been discovered. Fortunately, how-
ever, their captor was a coleopterist of repute, and he,
by means of careful observation and inquiry, managed
to elucidate their history. The account is best given in
his own words : " During the July of 1880, one of my
servants brought me two specimens taken in the garden
at the back of the house (the only two specimens then
noticed). Last July, however (1881), two or three more
were captured, and a day or two after they called my
attention to the fact that numbers (dozens, in fact) were
creeping upon the floor in the scullery ; upon examina-
tion, I traced them to an old basket used for potatoes,
and generally kept under the slopstone, and consequently
moderately damp; in this they showed their presence
by numerous small round holes, about the size of a pin's
head. The basket, on being submitted to a professional
LONGHORNS AND PREY-HUNTERS 49
basket-maker, was pronounced to be 'of French make,
from Dutch willows.'" They had, therefore, evidently
established themselves in the basket while in their
native country, and subsequently accompanied it across
the Channel, when it was used for the transport of
vegetables.
The larva of a much larger beetle, called Hylotrupes
lajulus (Fig. 19), has sometimes done considerable
damage to the rafters of houses,
not only perforating the wood,
but even gnawing its way
through sheets of lead with
which the rafters were covered.
Kirby states that Sir Joseph
Banks once gave him a specimen
of sheet-lead, which, though only
measuring eight inches by four,
was pierced with twelve oval _
!l<J. 19. Hylotrupes bajulus.
holes, some of which were as much
as one-fourth inch in longest diameter. The generic
name Hylotrupes, which is Greek for " borer of timber,"
at once stigmatises the insect as destructive in this way.
The beetle is a blackish insect, covered with greyish
down ; and the name bajulus, which is Latin for a
"labourer," is apparently given in allusion to the dusty
appearance caused by this down.
The antennae are of no more than ordinary length,
so that at first sight it would perhaps hardly be taken
for a Longicorn at all. The thorax is very globose, and
carries two polished knobs on its upper surface. The
thighs, like those of Gracilia, are clubbed, only more
conspicuously so.
The larvae of these beetles are fat, white, fleshy grubs,
with small, but very powerful, black jaws the tools by
P
50 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
which all the damage is effected. The pupa is formed
in the burrows.
Fir palings in gardens sometimes produce plentiful
supplies of a most lovely beetle, the resplendence of
whose appearance is such as to suggest, though falsely,
an acquaintance with the glowing rays of a tropical
sun, instead of the comparatively feeble beams with
which Old England is favoured. It is entirely of a
most lovely violet or deep blue colour, and is shaped
not unlike Hylotrupes, but flatter, and with longer
antennae. In allusion to its colour, it is called Calli-
dium violaceum.
Here is a marvel in physiological chemistry ! The
larva is absolutely white, except for its little black
jaws; there is not a trace of blue or any other colour
about it, even up to the very time when it ceases
feeding and changes into a chrysalis; and yet, during
its larval existence, has been stored up in its body
something from which, by the changes that take place
during the pupal stage a period during which no addi-
tional nutriment is taken is elaborated the gorgeous
hue which glorifies its adult form.
Longicorns are frequently very variable in size, as is
usually the case with wood-boring insects. Imprisoned
as they are in a burrow which, as larvae, they never
leave, they have very little power of selection of food,
and are, therefore, entirely dependent upon the supply
into the midst of which their excavating labours carry
them ; and according to the quality of this will be the
vigour, or otherwise, of their constitution, and the
stature to which they will attain.
We have only one other group from which to select
examples of British household Coleoptera. These are
LONGHORNS AND PREY-HUNTERS 51
the most highly developed of all, the Geodephaga (or
predaceous ground beetles, as the name signifies), which
in classification are placed at the head of the whole
order. Two species of this important group are found
in cellars and dark outhouses. They closely resemble
one another in shape, but, nevertheless, may easily be
distinguished, both by size and colour. The larger,
Sphodrus leucopJitUalmus (Fig. 20), which is also a
bakehouse insect, is black ; and the
smaller, Pri stony clius terricola, of a
steel-blue colour. Both are ex-
ceedingly active, as well befits
creatures which carry on a per-
petual warfare against their smaller
and weaker brethren, and subsist
by rapine ; indeed, the whole section
Geodephaga are renowned for the
extraordinary agility of their move-
ments, in which characteristic they
surpass all other Coleoptera, and
in conformity with these habits,
their legs are long and slender.
._. rv 7 7 r^ i c FlG - 20. Sphodrus leuc-
Ihe name bphodrw is Greek tor ophthaimus (natural
the " active, violent, or vehement
one," and so far as mere meaning is concerned, would be
equally applicable to almost all the Geodephaga.
Sphodrus is a fine insect, fully an inch long, but Pris-
tonyclius attains little more than half this length. They
are so similar in shape that a figure of one will be quite
sufficient to enable both to be recognised. The most
elegant part about them is the thorax, which is of the
form called by entomologists " heart-shaped " that is,
the outline of the margins consists of a double curve on
each side, the front half being convex and the hinder
52 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
concave. This has the effect of forming something
like a waist, and of imparting an air of neatness and
refinement, so to speak ; and, therefore, even Sphodrus,
though so large, can certainly not be considered either
coarse or clumsy.
A formidable pair of jaws, with which the insects can
give an unpleasant nip, if incautiously seized, project
in front of the head like a pair of shears. The pair of
small jointed appendages, like two minute antennae, by
the side of these, are maxillary palpi, or feelers, attached
to the fnaxillse or secondary jaws, which underlie the
mandibles, or true biting-jaws. The insects lurk under
stones and in dark corners, and if suddenly disturbed
in their hiding-places, make the most frantic efforts
to recover their shelter. They can always find plenty
of food in the shape of the other cellar Coleoptera, to
which we have already referred, and many other kinds
of insects that frequent such situations.
Besides the more legitimate coleopterous inhabitants
of our houses, which we have described in the preceding
pages, there are, of course, plenty of stray visitors that
may at any time turn up. On a fine summer day,
windows into which the. sun is shining brightly often
have a considerable insect population, amongst which
many beetles may be found, especially such as ladybirds
and tiny rove-beetles. Sometimes great rarities may
be met with in this way. Thus the Rev. W. W. Fowler
records having taken off a lodging-house window at
Hunstanton, two minute beetles which had scarcely
ever been met with in Britain before, beetles which
were not household species at all, but simply casual
visitors which had flown in and been unable to find
their way out again. The corridors of the Crystal
Palace, similarly, often yield hosts of tiny beetles ; and
LONGHORNS AND PREY-HUNTERS 53
there is one species that is specially noted as occurring
there.
Our food, too, sometimes introduces us to more insects
than we care for. House flies, drowned in milk or soup,
or fossilised in bread, and caterpillars boiled with peas
or cabbage, will, of course, at once occur to one's mind ;
and, indeed, considering the inquisitive nature of some
of our household pests, it is a marvel that we do not get
more of them served up to table than we do. Foreign
beetles sometimes occur in brown sugar, easily hidden
amongst the crystals as long as the sugar is in the solid
form, but brought into undesirable prominence when it
has been dissolved in our coffee. The only specimen my
cabinet boasts of, of a certain species that is now reckoned
as British, though, no doubt, originally imported, was
thus fished out of a cup of tea. And it is not merely
small insects that appear in this way. I once met with
a fine large South American weevil in a gooseberry tart.
It was a handsome species, of a purplish-brown colour,
with some clear yellowish-white circular spots, and was
about half-an-inch long. It was in excellent condition,
and not in the slightest degree damaged by the cooking
it had undergone, but able to be set up as a perfectly
respectable cabinet specimen. I have known, too, of an
instance in which the shell of a pond-snail came to table
in a loaf, apparently having reached so strange a posi-
tion through the medium of the water used in mixing
the dough.
Beetles, too, may be found on our doorsteps, or climb-
ing the walls of our houses. I once met with two
specimens of a rare beetle, one, in fact, which has only
of late years been recognised as British, climbing up a
pillar just outside the front door of a house. Many
may also be found in thatch. If an old thatched roof,
54 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
which has become black with age, be beaten with a
stout stick, and the dust and rubbish that come out be
caught in a bag, and afterwards carefully examined by
shaking it over a piece of white paper, the beetles it
contains will easily be seen. They are mostly exceed-
ingly small, but some are very interesting forms. In
birds' nests, built in the gutter or under the eaves,
and in pigeon-cotes and fowl-houses, many species also
habitually live. If a quantity of the filthy refuse that
accumulates on the floor of a fowl-house be shaken over
paper, hundreds of beetles will come tumbling out, some
of them even sufficiently valuable to make amends for
the unpleasantness of the method of obtaining them.
In country houses, if an old log be put on the fire,
any insects it may contain, speedily finding their quarters
becoming too hot for them, make their escape, and, as
often as not, find their way to the window, when, of
course, they are readily observed, and may be easily
captured.
Here we may conclude the consideration of the first
order of insects the Coleoptera. In the next chapter
we shall proceed to notice the second order the Hymen-
optera.
CHAPTER V.
ANTS AND WASPS.
THOUGH the order Hymenoptera is a very extensive one,
including, as it does, the bees, wasps, ants, ichneumon-
flies, saw-flies, and gall-flies, it will not detain us long,
as only a very few of its members can legitimately be
claimed as household insects. Bees, saw-flies, and gall-
flies are so intimately associated with living plants that
there is nothing to tempt them indoors ; and it is only
amongst the parasitic ichneumon-flies and their allies,
and the omnivorous ants and wasps, that we can expect
to meet with domestic examples.
We will first take the ants. Of these insects we have
one species that is found exclusively in houses. It is
not a truly British insect, but has been imported with
merchandise. It does not seem to have been noticed
here before the year 1828, nevertheless it has completely
established itself, and, having found supplies plentiful,
and the climate of our houses congenial to its taste, it
will, no doubt, remain with us. At different times it
has been known to English entomologists under a variety
of names. In the latest systematic work on this par-
ticular group of insects, the " British Heterogyna and
Fossorial Hymenoptera " of Mr. Edward Saunders, it is
called Monomorium Pharaonis, but it was formerly known
as Myrmica molesta and Diplorhoptrum molestum.
Ants, as is well known, are what are called social
55
56 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
insects, that is, they form large communities, which are
something more than mere collections of many indivi-
duals of the same species living in close proximity to
one another (in which case they would be called grega-
rious, but not social) ; they form well-organised societies,
the members of which share a common dwelling, and
contribute to the common well-being by their united
exertions in erecting or excavating the abode, in pro-
viding the common stock of food,- and in rearing the
young. Insects which manifest this social instinct ex-
hibit th^s further peculiarity that the species is consti-
tuted not of two, but of three distinct factors, which are
frequently called males, females, and neuters, though the
last-mentioned are more suitably denominated workers.
As far as British insects are concerned, the only true
social species are ants, certain wasps, the humble bees,
and the hive bee ; and it is only in these that the three
so-called sexes are found.
There is nothing comparable to the worker in any
other British insects, whether Hymenopterous or other-
wise. In the highest development of the social com-
munity, such as is met with in the hive bee, the males
and females are simply concerned with the propagation
of the species, whilst the various labours of the community
are performed by the workers, who are themselves, as a
rule, incapable of reproducing their kind, being a kind
of abortive females. Now, in the ants, the males and
females are, primarily at any rate, winged, but the
workers are always wingless ; moreover, the males and
workers are usually smaller than the females, sometimes
very much so, and the workers are usually also smaller
even than the males. The males and females appear in
the late summer or autumn, and the former perish after
pairing, so that their period of perfect existence is a
ANTS AND WASPS
57
very short one. The females, previous to undertaking
the duties of maternity, lose their wings, which either
drop off spontaneously, or are torn off by the workers.
Winged ants, therefore, are only to be seen at certain
seasons of the year : and the majority of the wingless
creatures that we commonly speak of as ants, and that
are so frequently seen running about on the ground, are
merely the workers.
So much with respect to ants in general. We may
now proceed to the study of the particular species above
referred to, viz., Monomorium
Pharaonis (Fig. 21). It is a
minute reddish insect, which,
though apparently not yet
distributed throughout the
country, being most plentiful
in the south-east, is never-
theless very abundant where
it occurs, and therefore, in
consequence of its voracious
habits, a source of consider-
able annoyance.
The worker, the only mem-
ber of the community usually
seen, is reddish -yellow in
colour, and is very minute,
being scarcely one-twelfth inch FIG. 21. Worker of Monomorium
i ,1 j e , v Pharaonis.
in length, and so one or the
smallest of our British ants. There is a peculiarity in
the abdomen of this little creature, which at once reveals
the family to which it belongs. British ants are divisible
into three families the Formiddce, the Poneridce, and
the Myrmicidce. The last is readily distinguished from
the other two by the fact that the first two joints of the
58 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
abdomen are much narrowed, so as to form what is
called a " petiole," because it seems as though the
abdomen were united to the thorax by a kind of stalk ;
in the other two families it is only the first joint that
is modified in this way. Microscopical examination
shows that our present insect has two lobes to the
petiole, therefore it belongs to the Myrmicidce. These
two lobes are consider-
ab ^ ra i se d r swollen
above, so that, when
FIG. 22. Side view of body of same. , , ,
the insect is viewed
in profile (Fig. 22), its contour presents a succession of
elevations and depressions.
The head is very large, and the antennae are about
half as long as the whole body, elbowed at the base and
clubbed at the tip. Two black specks at the sides of the
head are the compound eyes, which for an insect are
unusually small in proportion to the size of the head.
The abdomen is smooth and shining, but the rest of the
insect is dull, in consequence of the minute and close
punctuation with which it is covered.
The life history of an ant is similar to that of a bee.
It commences life as an egg, which is very minute, as
might be expected from the small size even of the
perfect insect. The oval, yellowish- white objects so
frequently found in ants' nests in the summer, and
popularly called "ants' eggs," are not eggs at all a
conclusion the truth of which a little thought would at
once render apparent, since they are as big as the insects
themselves, and therefore could not be their eggs. From
the eggs are hatched little footless maggots of a whitish
or greyish colour, which are tended and fed with great
assiduity by the patient workers.
In due course they become pupae, in which condition
ANTS AND WASPS 59
they resemble in shape the perfect insect, but have, as
usual, all their limbs folded up underneath them. Pre-
viously to the assumption of this stage, some ants,
such as the Formicidce, envelop themselves in an oval
silken cocoon, and thus acquire a resemblance to eggs ;
and it is these pupae, thus enveloped, that constitute the
so-called " ants' eggs " referred to above. But the Myr-
micidce, to which our present insect belongs, do not form
cocoons, but pupate without this protection. The pupse,
since they are more helpless even than the larvae, equally
need the care of the nurses, though there is now no
feeding to be done.
When the insect is ready for its final change, there is
still more work for the nurses to do : they have to assist
it out of its enveloping pellicle, to help it straighten its
cramped limbs, to lead it about the nest, and generally
to introduce it to all the activities of its new life.
We have said that these little ants have a voracious
appetite ; this the householder who is unfortunate enough
to shelter colonies of them in his dwelling will soon find
out. Nothing edible comes amiss to them, but they are
specially partial to sweets and greasy substances. Cakes,
pastry, sugar, and dripping may perhaps be said to be
their especial favourites. Any dainty little morsels
which the careful housewife has put away, as she thinks,
in safety, ready for future use, are soon found out by
stray members of the ant community. The news is
telegraphed to the rest, and soon crowds are wending
their way to the feast. When once they have assembled
in considerable numbers at the place of entertainment,
it is difficult for their human foe to know how to get
rid of them. They are almost too small to be picked off
by the finger, and the operation, too, would be somewhat
tedious ; an endeavour to blow them off might have just
60 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
the opposite effect to that intended, and cause them to
adhere to the somewhat sticky compound they might be
attacking ; and altogether it is not surprising that male-
dictions are often showered on their devoted heads when
they are caught in the act of pilfering.
It is extremely difficult to protect anything from
them ; they are so small that they will insinuate them-
selves into the smallest possible openings and crevices,
and very little short of hermetical closing is of any
avail against them. Should they happen to invade the
home oft an entomologist, he may well tremble for his
treasures, for dead insects are just as acceptable to them
as cakes or fruit. I remember having had in my young
days several painful experiences of this kind. On one
occasion I had just braced out on the setting-board a
beautiful specimen of the Wood Leopard Moth (the
first of its kind that had fallen to my lot), and had
put it aside to dry ; on looking at it the next morning
I was horrified at discovering that two large holes had
been excavated in its great fat body, and that as a
cabinet specimen it was ruined; the crowds of tiny
red robbers clustered round the insect, and, running
over the board, told the tale of the origin of the holes,
and many were the corpses that fell as an expiation.
On other occasions I have had the bodies of small
moths completely eaten up by these destructive little
creatures while the specimens were drying on the
setting-boards.
Monomorium is not the only foreign ant that has
taken up its quarters with us, though by far the com-
monest. One or two others are found occasionally in
hothouses, the high temperature of which serves to
remind them of the tropical climate of their native
regions.
ANTS AND WASPS 61
The ants we have just been considering are genuine
household insects, spending the whole of their lives in
the shelter of our abodes, breeding amongst us, and
bringing up their extensive families year after year in
the same spot, as long as provisions are plentiful in
the immediate neighbourhood. But this is not the case
with the wasps, the next section of the Hymenoptera
which will engage our attention. It is true that
occasionally their nests are found in outhouses or lofts,
or under the eaves of thatched roofs ; but this is ex-
ceptional, and, as a rule, they enter our houses only
in their adult condition ; still, they are then such tire-
some pests at least, in imagination, if not always in
reality that we cannot forbear to grant them a place
amongst our household insects.
Notwithstanding the popular prejudice against wasps,
there are many points of interest in connection with
them. Their economy is remarkable, and inferior in
interest only to that of bees and ants ; their courage
is certainly extraordinary; and though they are fre-
quently an annoyance to us through their intrusive
habits, yet there are, as we shall presently see, some
counterbalancing advantages following from their mode
of life ; and, finally, their character is not really quite
so black as it has been painted. That they are not,
as some people seem to suppose, actuated by an irre-
concilable hostility to human kind has been sufficiently
demonstrated by observers, who, like Sir John Lubbock,
have closely studied their habits, and have found it
possible to tame them and make pets of them, and to
induce even such fiery-tempered beings calmly to feed
out of their hands, and to crawl over their persons
without bringing their murderous weapons into requi-
sition. Indeed, one observer, Dr. Ormerod, expressed
62 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
his opinion that they are much less fickle and more
reliable than bees an opinion, however, which will
probably not be generally endorsed.
They will rarely attack unless provoked, and, though
it is not easy to maintain a philosophic composure and
indifference when a wasp is buzzing round one's head,
yet such would no doubt be the best policy ; at any rate,
the violent nourishes and dashes so often made against
them with handkerchiefs, knives, or what not, are more
likely to irritate than to drive away insects so renowned
for valour. Of course, when we attack their citadel,
they will at once assume the offensive (as who would
not ?) and fight to the death for house and home. Yery
hot or windy weather, too, seems to bring out whatever
spitefulness they possess ; but this also is a psychological
experience not altogether foreign even to Homo sapiens
himself ! ' .
In distinguishing wasps from other Hymenoptera no
reliance must be placed on the mere presence of yellow
bands on the body, for though all wasps, of whatever
habit, have these, such a style of ornamentation is by
no means confined to them, but is of frequent occurrence
throughout the whole order. But there is a certain
peculiarity of the wings that will at once separate a
wasp from the crowds of other yellow-banded insects.
All wasps have four wings, and this will serve to dis-
tinguish them from certain two-winged flies of the
order Diptera, with which they are sometimes con-
founded, but will not distinguish them from other
Hymenoptera, as four is the natural number of wings
in this group. But the anterior wings are folded longi-
tudinally in repose, i.e., when a wasp closes its wings
it does not merely lay them along its back, as a bee
would do, but also folds each fore- wing along a line
ANTS AND WASPS 63
running from its attachment to the thorax to the
middle of the outermost or rounded edge of the wing
(Fig. 23), the lower and more flexible part being bent
FIG. 23. Wing of Wasp, showing line of folding.
under the rest, so that the wing becomes only half as
broad as before.
In consequence of this peculiarity, the name Dip-
loptera, or "doubled-wings," is given to that section of
the order which contains all the wasps, and by this
peculiarity they may at once be distinguished from all
other Hymenoptera. One would naturally suppose that
there must be some connection between this curious
habit and the economy of the insects something to
account for so strange a departure from the general
practice of the order; but if there be, it has yet to
be discovered.
Our British wasps are of two totally distinct kinds.
Those that usually obtrude themselves upon our notice
are the social wasps of the family Vespidce, and, like
the ants and other social insects, they exhibit the
peculiarities of the three so-called sexes, the common
abode, and the common labour for the common welfare.
But besides these, there are the solitary wasps of the
family Eumenidce. which, from their habit of burrow-
ing in sandy banks, are often called Sand Wasps and
Mason Wasps. These have but two sexes, do riot form
large communities, and, after having provisioned their
nest with food sufficient to last the whole lifetime of
64 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
the larvae, leave their young to take care of themselves.
They are less robust than the Vespidce, and though still
yellow-banded, have a much larger proportion of black
about their bodies.
It is only very occasionally that we find solitary
wasps in our houses ; their young feed upon small
caterpillars and other insects, and the chief business
of the parents' life is to provide a stock of these, so
that they have not the temptation to intrude on our
privacy which the Vespidw have, for the latter are
almost omnivorous, and there are plenty of things in
our houses which suit their taste admirably. The solitary
wasps of the genus Odynerus do, however, sometimes
construct their small nests in the most outlandish
places. The nests consist of separate cells, each closed
in and complete in itself, and devoted to the use of a
single grub. Each contains an egg and a store of little
caterpillars, each stung by the mother wasp sufficiently
to prevent it from being at all lively, but not sufficiently
to cause it to dry and shrivel up.
These little clusters of cells have been found, amongst
other strange places, inside the lock of a kitchen door,
where, notwithstanding the noise and disturbance caused
by the passing and repassing of persons continually
going in and out of the kitchen, the mother built
cells for her brood, provisioned them, and sealed them
up, and the young went through all their metamorphoses
successfully, appearing in the kitchen when they had
assumed the perfect form, to the no small surprise of
its inmates.
In the keyhole of an eight-day clock-case, too, one
family was brought up, appearing to be in no way
disturbed by the ticking or periodical winding-up of
the clock. They have also been found in the drawer
ANTS AND WASPS 65
of an old-fashioned looking-glass, in the folds of a
piece of paper that had fallen behind some books, in
hollow reeds used as thatcb, and in the barrels of a
pistol that was hanging invitingly on a post. In all
these cases accident furnished the insects with cavities
ready made, and saved them the trouble of excavating
their own burrows.
These wasps are also sometimes seen in windows,
buzzing about, apparently endeavouring to discover why
a medium so transparent as glass should yet be able
so successfully to bar their exit into the outer world.
The abdomen of an Odynerus is of a very curious,
shape (Fig. 24), In all the wasps, the first segment
seems more or less like a cap on the
succeeding ones, but this is much more
markedly the case in the solitary than
in the social species. In the genus
Odynerus the abdomen bears a ludicrous
resemblance to a peg-top surmounted
by a polo -cap which is rather too
small for it. The second segment is
of enormous size compared with the
succeeding ones, and being very convex $w- 24. Abdomen of
above, forms the head of the top. This
segment is black, except the hind border, which is
yellow, and the succeeding segments are more or less
deeply margined with the same colour. The basal
segment, i.e., the cap, is also furnished with a yellow
marginal band, the shape of which is an important
aid in the identification of the species. The folded
wings and the top-shaped abdomen are quite sufficient
to enable any one to recognise a sand-wasp.
CHAPTER VI.
SOCIAL WASPS AND HORNTAILS. .
OF the Vespidce, or social wasps, we have seven British
species, , including the hornet, which is by far the largest
and most easily recognisable. The discrimination of the
other species is not by any means an easy matter, and
needs a very close attention to minute details. But
the hornet is at once distinguished both by its size
and colour; its hues are brown and yellow, instead of
black and yellow, as is the case with all the other
species.
Before, however, we can properly understand the
differences of the species, or the reasons for their in-
vasion of our homes and their pilfering of our food,
it will be needful to sketch the life-history of a Vespa.
As the plan is nearly the same in all, we need not at
present particularise species, but only premise that we
choose a subterranean, as being more common than
an arboreal builder.
We begin with a fine old female, or queen, as she
is called, whom the warmth of advancing spring has
aroused from her long winter sleep. She is an ancient
dame, one of the few relics of a past generation. She
is, too, a widow, having lost her spouse at the advent
of the previous winter, because his constitution, like
that of all his compeers, was unable to endure the
rigour of the frosty season. His progeny are all
66
SOCIAL WASPS AND HORNTAILS 67
posthumous, and even yet his widow is no more than
an expectant mother. As she issues from her winter
retreat, the responsibilities of life crowd thick upon
her; she finds herself without a home, without a
helper ; and yet in a few short weeks she will be sur-
rounded, in a commodious retreat, with hundreds of
her own species, she herself not only their mother, but
also their queen. She has no thought of returning to
the old home which was the scene of her youth ; that
has long since been dismantled, and what with winter
rains, and the invasion of earwigs, woodlice, and other
such barbaric hordes, few traces of it now remain. So,
like her mother before her, she has to undertake pioneer
life, and to make a clearing for her future colony.
Fortunate is she if she can find some hole a deserted
mouse-burrow, or other tiny cavern ready to hand;
much labour of excavating will thus be saved, and she
may begin at once to form the nest. But should nature
not thus favour her, she must herself set to work, and by
repeated attacks upon the virgin soil with her powerful
jaws, gradually hollow out a cavern to her mind.
She will then repair to some oaken fence, or row of
palings, and with those same useful tools that she always
carries with her, and that have just done such good
service as excavators, she will snip off particles of wood,
clinging to the fence all the while, gradually working
her way along the paling, and leaving behind her a
pale streak where the thin outer layer of weather-
stained wood has been removed. With a bundle of
woody fibres thus collected, she flies away home, and
working them up into a pulp with a secretion from
her own mouth, plasters them out into a greyish
material that looks something like crumpled tissue
paper. This is first formed into a kind of stalk,
68 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
attached at one point to the roof of her cavern for,
unlike most builders, she does not lay her foundations
below, but builds from above downwards. At the ex-
tremity of this pedicle, three shallow, cup-shaped cells
are formed of the same material, and placed vertically,
with the mouth downwards ; then a number of layers of
the same papery substance are arranged above the cells,
so as to form a dome -shaped roof.
Now there can be a commencement of egg-laying;
each cell is furnished with one egg, which is glued to its
side. The egg soon hatches, and the footless grub that
issues from it is said at first to maintain its position in
the inverted cell, and prevent itself from falling out of
its bed, by a sticky secretion from its own body. The
first batch of eggs produces workers, and it is essential
for the queen to get them through their metamorphoses
as speedily as possible, that she may have assistants to
relieve her of some portion of her multifarious duties,
which would soon become too onerous for her.
She has now to collect food for the hungry grubs,
which cannot provide for themselves, and are entirely
dependent on what she brings them. Sailing forth, she
will soon seize a luckless fly or other small insect, whose
corpse will be carried home, and doled out to the nest-
lings as they are able to receive it, their mother having
made a previous mastication of the morsels. They open
their little jaws, each armed with three teeth, and
the mother puts their food into their mouths much as a
bird would feed her callow brood. Fed several times a
day, and fattening on such food, the ugly grubs increase
rapidly in size, while the mother enlarges their cells as
necessity requires, making them hexagonal in their upper
part, and raising their walls by the addition of layer
upon layer of her building material till the grubs are
SOCIAL WASPS AND HORNTAILS 69
ready to slip out of their larval skin and enter pupahood,
when her constructive exertions cease, and the larvae
have now to look after themselves.
Each first spins a convex cap of silk, covering the
open end of the cell, and then, in the seclusion of this
snug retreat, shielded from the curious gaze of inquisi-
tive neighbours, the incipient wasp is " unclothed " and
"clothed upon." Not many days elapse before the final
change occurs, and, in something under a month from
the laying of the egg, the perfect insect is ready to join
its mother in her exertions for the enlargement of the
home, or rather to relieve her of them.
So batch after batch of workers is produced, and each,
as it arrives at maturity, takes its share in the duties of
nest-enlargement and feeding the young.
When one tier of cells has reached its appointed
limits, another is commenced beneath and parallel to it,
and connected with the former by sundry tiny pillars of
the same papier indche. We note here, therefore, three
differences between a wasp's comb and that of bees, viz.,
first, the combs are made of paper instead of wax ;
second, they are placed horizontally instead of vertically ;
and, third, the cells are formed only on one side of the
comb (the lower) instead of both. The number of insects
produced cannot be accurately estimated from the number
of cells, because several inmates often successively occupy
each. It is manifest, therefore, that the population of
the nest, including insects in all stages, is always in
excess of the number of cells.
It is not till quite late in the season that the males
and females are produced. They are both larger than
the workers, and therefore occupy in their preliminary
stages cells of larger dimensions than those mentioned
above, and those of the females are placed in a part of
70 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
the nest more or less separate from the rest. The males,
of course, have no stings, since this organ is but a modi-
fied ovipositor, but both females and workers are provided
with them. The males, therefore, may be handled with
impunity, and if only one could readily recognise the
sex, there would be no hesitation in handling them.
When all three sexes are seen side by side, there is little
difficulty in separating the males, as their antennae are
longer than those of either of the others ; but as this is
a comparative character it is not so easy of application
when only a single sex is seen. To some people, no
doubt, a stingless wasp may seem altogether incredible,
and, perhaps, contrary to experience; but it must be
remembered that the majority of the specimens people
in general meet with are workers, which regale them-
selves on our dainties, not for their own delectation
only, but chiefly to minister to the wants of the grubs
which are their care. The males live only for a short
time at the close of the season, and, as they have not the
important foraging duties of the workers to perform,
they are not so likely to force themselves on our
notice.
Wasps are easily affected by changes of temperature ;
as with most insects, cold has a benumbing influence
on them, and consequently the first frosts of autumn
begin to tell upon their numbers, and before long the
whole population perishes with the exception of a few of
the females, who manage, in the shelter of some retired
spot, such as in moss or under bark, to survive the
winter, and upon these hibernated specimens depends
entirely the perpetuation of the species from season to
season. Since, therefore, they are so dependent on
climatic conditions, it is not surprising that their
numbers are very different in different seasons ; in some
SOCIAL WASPS AND HORNTAILS 71
years, as was the case in 1878 and 1880, they are so
numerous as to be a positive plague, and in others com-
paratively few are seen.
In country places, wasps' nests are not unfrequently
found in thatched roofs or under the eaves of houses, as
well as attached to beams in lofts, barns, and outhouses.
Even the ground- wasps sometimes select such situations,
and the hornet, too, occasionally establishes itself in a
loft or barn. Sometimes amongst thatch are found
numbers of the rudimentary nests constructed by the
queens only, which have never advanced beyond their
primitive condition, having been, for some reason or
other, abandoned shortly after their construction.
The insects themselves are quite omnivorous in their
tastes; one might almost say, " Whatever man can
eat, that wasps can eat." The swarms that, in a hot
summer, crowd the windows of country grocers' and
bakers' shops are a pretty good proof of this. Sweets
of all kinds, including ripe fruits, are very attractive
to them ; but cakes and bread, or even meat, will also
be readily devoured. Living insects, too, they catch
in great numbers, especially flies, and it has been well
remarked that, while they will at one moment be
robbing the butcher by devouring his meat, they will
at the next be making valuable restitution by devour-
ing the flies that would lay their eggs upon it; arid
it is probable that the advantage that accrues to us
through their destruction of so many disagreeable in-
sects is more than sufficient to counterbalance any loss
we may sustain through their attacks upon our fruit
and other stores. In catching their insect prey they
are very dexterous. Professor West wood says, " I have
watched the common wasp hovering over and darting
hawk-like upon flies upon excrement, careful not to
72 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
soil its own legs and wings." So, too, they will pick
flies off the backs of pigs in their styes. They are
clever, too, in chasing and dodging insects to catch
them on the wing. When the prey is caught, the
wings, head, and legs, being more or less hard and dry
morsels, are bitten off, and the rest of the body de-
voured. Flies, butterflies, and even bees are treated in
this way. Unlike the Odyneri, they do not use their
stings in giving a quietus to their prey ; the action of
their powerful jaws is quite sufficient, without the aid
of the more deadly weapon.
They are most industrious in the obtaining of supplies,
and well they may be, considering the number of hungry
mouths they have so constantly to fill; greedy grubs,
ever on the look-out for something good, demand all
the energies of even the large staff of workers that are
in continual attendance upon them. Sir John Lubbock
records a case of one of his wasps, which paid no less
than ninety-four visits to a store of honey in one day.
And in the performance of these duties they are not
only industrious, but wonderfully persistent, and un-
daunted by obstacles or dangers. The same diligent
observer records several instances in point. One wasp
had smeared its wings with the syrup on which it was
being fed, and so rendered itself incapable of flight ;
Sir John, therefore, put it in a bottle of water, and
gave it a bath, transferring it then to a dry bottle
placed in the sun, as the best means of getting it
dry. When quite recovered, it was allowed to go free,
and after thirteen minutes it returned to the syrup-
saucer that had been the scene of its former disaster,
and began to sip the liquid with as much avidity as
before, evidently quite undeterred by its sad experience.
Another was immersed in water till quite insensible,
SOCIAL WASPS AND HORNTAILS 73
in other words, virtually drowned ; on being taken out,
it recovered after a while, and at once set to work
again at the business of its life, as though there had
been no interruption.
The head of a wasp is a remarkable structure (Fig. 25),
and well worthy of a close and attentive examination,
if only to see what a
variety of adornment fi^ f
is lavished on even
minute and otherwise
obscure parts of the
insect, and to marvel at
the number of organs
that can be collected
into so small a space.
The entomologist who
wishes to distinguish
the different species FIG 25 _ Head of Wa ^ : ^ antemife;
from one another must clypeus ; e, compound eyes ; m, mandibles ;
o, ocelli ; s, coronet spot.
pay great attention to
the minutia3 of this part of the insect, because some of
the best distinguishing marks are to be found here. In
shape the head is something like a triangular cake with
the angles rounded off ; it is set on the body vertically,
with the base of the triangle placed horizontally, and
forming the crown. In front it is slightly convex and
behind concave, and it is attached to the thorax only
by a small junction in the centre of the hinder surface.
The apex of the inverted triangle is formed by the
meeting of the two exceedingly stout and broad jaws,
or mandibles, each furnished on its cutting edge with
an inner and an outer row of notches or teeth, separated
by a groove. They move laterally, and are in most
cases attached by a sort of hinge- joint just below the
74 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
compound eyes. The jaws themselves are yellow, but
the teeth black. Occupying the centre of the head,
just above the jaws, is an important and conspicuous
organ called the clypeus. It is slightly projecting, and
is like a broad plate with an outline which is curved
above and angular below. This, too, is bright yellow,
but it carries certain black marks upon it, which vary
in the different species, but are in most cases sufficiently
constant in the same to be used as diagnostic characters.
Just above the clypeus the two antennae are inserted,
not very far apart from each other, in the centre of
the heacl. Each consists of a long basal joint, the
scape, and a stout, many-jointed, terminal part, the
flagellwn. Between the antennae, and stretching from
the base of one to that of the other, is a remarkable
bright yellow spot of most elegant shape. It usually
bears some resemblance to a sort of coronet, and situated
as it is, just above the equally brilliant yellow clypeus,
it suggests, in conjunction with the latter, the idea of
a nobleman's coat-of-arms surmounted by his coronet,
as though the wasp were carrying the evidence of its
rank and identity on its brow; and it is not a little
remarkable that in this coat-of-arms, so to speak viz.,
the combined clypeus and coronet we really do find
some of the best distinguishing marks of the species.
The sides of the head are occupied by the compound
eyes, which, being situated just on the bend, of course
command the most extensive horizon possible. They
are reniform, or kidney-shaped, there being a deep
indentation in their inner outline at that point which is
just behind the antennae when they are in their most
natural position; and it would almost seem as though
this limitation to the extent of the visual organs were
in some way or other connected with the presence,
SOCIAL WASPS AND HORNTAILS
75
immediately in front of the spot, of the great black
antennal scape, which would certainly render useless for
direct vision any eyes situated immediately behind it.
Yellow streaks bound more or less of the outline of the
eyes, and greatly improve the appearance.
On the top of the head we see three small, polished,
glassy-looking knobs, frequently of a ruby or yellow
colour, and arranged in triangular form. These are the
ocelli, or simple eyes, and their number and arrangement
are both very characteristic of the order Hymenoptera.
We find the same little organs in bees, appearing like
tiny sparkling gems, half hidden by the hairs amongst
which they are imbedded. In the ichneumon-flies, saw-
flies, &c., we find a similar arrangement.
These are all the parts that are visible from above in
the natural position of the organs ; to get at the rest of
the complex apparatus of the head we must open the
jaws, and then underneath we are introduced to a be-
wildering collection of organs, as- puzzling at first sight
as a piece of modern machinery. But a little turning
and twisting about, and examination from various points
of view, soon enables us
to make out the general
plan and to see the rela-
tion of the parts to one
another.
First, and just under-
neath the position occu-
pied by the mandibles
when closed, are two thin
blade-like pieces beset with
hairs pointing forward
(Fig. 26). These are the terminal portions of the max-
illae, or secondary jaws, which, as well as the mandibles,
Ttl
FIG. 2.6. Labium and maxillae of
Wasp : I, labium ; m, maxillae ; Ip,
labial palpi ; mp, maxillary palpi ;
p, paraglossae.
;6 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
are capable of lateral movement. Tracing them back to
their point of attachment to the head, we find that the
basal part is of a somewhat more substantial character
than the terminal, and that at the junction of the two
parts, on the outer margin, each maxilla carries a
slender six-jointed appendage, the maxillary palpus.
When the maxillae are moved aside, a single central
organ, previously partly covered by them, comes into
view; in its front part it is thin, flat, and band-like,
but behind it is much thicker. This is the labium
or so-called tongue. The flat portion is rather deeply
bifid in front, and carries two narrow organs, the
paraglossse, attached to its sides, but not quite reach-
ing the tip ; thus the free edge of the labium presents
four rounded divisions. Further back it carries two
jointed appendages, the labial palpi ; they are stouter
than those of the maxillae, and are only four-jointed.
It is this tongue that the insect uses as a trowel in
its plastering operations, when it is manufacturing its
nest. When the mandibles are closed, they almost
entirely conceal all this mechanism, only the tips of the
palpi being visible.
From the above description it will be evident that a
wasp's head is not quite so simple an object as it might
at first sight appear; nevertheless, there is no great
difficulty in making out for one's self all the above
points. Only two tools are necessary, a needle to open
out the mouth organs, and a hand -lens to examine the
different parts. The examination is best conducted on
an amputated head. The junction between head and
thorax is so slight that there is no difficulty in decapitat-
ing a wasp (a dead one, of course !), and if a stout pin or
the end of a match cut down to a point be inserted in
the small hole that will be found at the spot where
SOCIAL WASPS AND HORNTAILS 77
decapitation took place, and the head be thus impaled
after the fashion in which the authorities in this country
once upon a time delighted to treat the heads of political
offenders who had suffered death for their indiscretion,
the head may be more conveniently handled and placed
in any desired position for examination.
Of our seven British species of Vespa, the hornet
stands by itself, both as regards size and colour, and
may be conveniently left till we have considered the
remaining six, which are more or less alike, and consist
of three that form their nests underground and three
that build in trees. The latter are F sylvestris, arborea,
and norvegica. The second of these we need not trouble
ourselves about, as it is a rare insect, and not at all
likely to be met with. Norvegica occurs principally in
the north of our island, being fairly common in Scotland ;
and sylvestris, while generally distributed, is yet not so
common as the ground builders.
The latter are F vulgaris, the so-called "common
wasp " (not that it is always the commonest, though
often so), germanica, and rufa, and it is the two former
of these that are most likely to fly in at our open
windows and manifest a disposition to join us in our
meals. On one occasion a large number of females of
germtinica were found gregariously hibernating in an
upper room of a large buildingHhat was used for storing
furniture. Some were amongst some blankets used in
covering the furniture, and others were clinging to some
rough woodwork, into which, as with a consciousness
that their limbs would become benumbed and useless
during the winter, they had firmly dug their mandibles.
To give an idea of the proportionate distribution of these
species, I may mention that a friend of mine in the
OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
south of England, some years ago, on examining sixty
wasps that had been captured quite promiscuously in his
garden one day in the summer, found them to consist of
twenty-four germanica, fourteen vulgaris, seventeen rufa,
and five sylvestris. This, however, probably represents
an unusually large proportion of rufa.
For the distinction of these six yellow and black
species, we must look mainly at the face and the first
segment of the abdomen. Turning first to the former of
\ I
FIG. 27. Coronet-spots and clypei of wasps. A, V. vulgaris, female ; B,
vulgaris, worker ; c, germanica, worker ; D, germanica, female ; E,
sylvestris, worker.
these, we examine carefully the central plate referred
to on p. 74 viz., the clypeus and are at once
struck by differences here : in all the clypeus itself is
yellow, but the black markings upon it vary (Fig. 27).
SOCIAL WASPS AND HORNTAILS 79
Vulgaris and rufa carry on the clypeus a vertical black
stripe, descending, in the workers, from the centre of its
upper edge to the centre of the lower, and more or less
dilated near the lower extremity into two lateral projec-
tions. In the males and females the mark usually does
not quite reach the lower margin of the clypeus, but
terminates at these projections, and it thus acquires
something of the appearance of a cheese-cutter with a
long and stout handle. It has also been likened, with
less justice, to an anchor, and hence both these species
are sometimes called anchor-faced wasps. Norvegica also
carries the anchor-mark on its clypeus ; so that there are
three species adorned in this way, two ground-wasps and
one arboreal species.
Germanica, on the other hand, carries in the workers
a central black stripe, stretching only part of the way
down the clypeus, and often more or less imperfect, and
two black dots placed triangularly with the free end of
the stripe. In the males and females, there are usually
simply three black dots, placed triangularly, without a
black stripe at all. Lastly, sylvestris has only a single
black dot in the centre of the clypeus, or, in the females,
often no black markings at all.
Turning now to the basal segment of the abdomen,
we find that rufa has some rusty stains around the black
spots there, in addition to the yellow band which occupies
the greater part of the segment ; and the same rusty hue
often occurs on other segments as well. It is from this
peculiarity that the species derives its name (rufa = red).
But it would not be safe to conclude that any anchor-
faced, red-spotted wasp is rufa, since norvegica is usually
similarly coloured; the red colour, however, will serve
to distinguish rufa from vulgaris, both of which, it will
be remembered, are anchor-faced.
8o OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
The basal segment of germanica carries three large
and distinct black spots in its yellow band, the centre
of which is diamond-shaped ; vulyaris, instead of this
diamond, has simply an angular indentation. But these
two species are sometimes very difficult to separate,
especially the workers, since the markings on the abdo-
men vary a good deal, and even those on the face are
not quite constant. Sylvestris is sufficiently separated
from the rest by its single clypeal spot.
We still need a reliable means of separating norvegica
from rufa. This is to be found in the compound eyes,
which, in the latter species, are continued to the base
of the jaws, but in the former do not extend so far.
Sylvestris agrees with norvegica in this respect. We
may add to these distinctions, that while the ground -
wasps have a yellow stripe in the scape of the antennae
only in the males, the tree wasps have it in all sexes.
As if, however, to prevent the use of this as a reliable
diagnostic character, the female of rufa sometimes takes
on a yellow stripe. The coronet-shaped spot, too, varies
in the different species, but not in such a way as to be
rendered easily intelligible in words; and the above
distinctions will, in most cases, suffice for the determina-
tion of the species.
Few people seem to be familiar with the hornet,
except by name; and two totally different insects are
commonly mistaken for it. One of these is a large
Dipterous, or two-winged insect, the largest fly we
have in this country. It is a robust, black and yellow
creature called Asilus crabroniformis, the specific name,
which means "hornet-like," being given in allusion to
the above error, crabro being the Latin name for a
hornet. It is a common insect in the summer-time in
many places (not indoors, however), and dashes about
SOCIAL WASPS AND HORNTAILS
8l
with bold and vigorous flight and great buzzing, and
with so martial an air that it is not surprising that those
who do not know its real nature should be intimidated
by it. It is, however, a perfectly harmless creature.
The other insect sometimes mistaken for a hornet
comes a little nearer the mark, for it is hymenopterous ;
but still it does not belong to that section of the order
which contains the wasps and other stinging insects.
It is closely related to the group of saw-flies, and is one
of the largest hymenopterous insects we possess. It is
a yellow and black
powerfully flying
creature, called
Sir ex gig as (Fig.
28) (the specific
name is given in
allusion to its
gigantic size), and
the female, which
is the sex most
often seen, pos-
sesses a long and
stout ovipositor,
which looks dan-
gerous enough, though it is simply a kind of auger, and
not a poisonous weapon at all, so that the insect, though
so formidable in appearance, is in reality harmless.
This great ovipositor has acquired for its possessor the
name of " Horn-tail."
Both the above insects are yellow and black, and, as
we have already seen, the latter colour forms no part of
the ornamentation of a hornet; moreover, when one
comes to look at them closely, they are at once seen to
be altogether unlike wasps, though, of course, when they
FIG. 28. Sirex gigas (female), natural size.
82 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
are on the wing, and dashing rapidly about, it is not so
easy to see this. Now the hornet, the scientific name
for which is Vespa crabro, i.e.. reversing the order of
the words, the "hornet wasp," is in shape exactly like
an overgrown wasp, so that its form must be familiar
to every one. We have only to imagine the yellow of
the wasp's body to be deepened in tone, the black to be
replaced by brown, and the whole insect to be consider-
ably magnified, and the wasp becomes a hornet. If this
be borne in mind, there should be no difficulty whatever
in recognising a hornet, for there is no other British
insect to which the description will apply. Since the
Sirex is not unfrequently found in houses, as well as the
hornet, it is all the more necessary to be able to distin-
guish the harmless insect from the dangerous one. The
hornet's wings, like those of a wasp, are covered with a
profusion of tiny hairs, which, however, are so small as
to be quite invisible without the aid of a microscope.
The hornet constructs its nest of a material prepared
similarly to that used by the rest of the genus, but it
is of a coarser texture, and inclines to a yellowish
brown, instead of the delicate grey of the smaller species.
As an instance of the rapidity with which these insects
work, the following particulars, given by Mr. R. S. Stan-
den, concerning a hornet's nest found, in the summer of
1 88 1, in a shed in Norfolk, may be quoted. It was
constructed in a thin shell of mortar about the size of
a lemon, and open at one end. It was commenced on
June 24, and the writer goes on to say, "Although
when I first observed her (the queen hornet) the shell
was perfectly empty, by the morning of the 28th less
than five days she had constructed twenty-six cells ;
two were empty, seventeen contained eggs, five had
good-sized larvae, and the remaining two were already
SOCIAL WASPS AND HORNTAILS 83
sealed up for the pupa stage." Prudential considerations
at this moment suggested the advisability of putting
a stop to the further development of this interesting
colony, lest battle might have to be done against scores
of winged warriors, instead of one solitary heroine;
and the whole colony, together with its foundress,
were accordingly massacred. Many other instances are
on record of the occurrence of hornets' nests in sheds,
lofts, and thatched roofs.
The Sirex mentioned above may now come in for a
somewhat more detailed notice. It occasionally occurs
in houses in the same way as the large Longicorn beetles
referred to in a previous chapter; it is a wood-borer,
and attacks fir-wood chiefly, and its larvae and pupse
are therefore sometimes present in the timber used in
the construction of houses ; and, enclosed in this, the
immature insect may be introduced into the edifice,
the completion of its metamorphosis being delayed till
after the timber has been placed in position, when it
emerges, to find itself, not amidst its native pines, but
an uninvited guest in society to which, on account of
its size, its appearance, and its loud buzzing, it is often
an object of unnecessary terror. Sometimes it does not
issue from the wood for a considerable time, which may
occasionally amount to years. Amongst other instances,
there is a record of the emergence of several specimens
from the floor of a nursery in a house that had been
built for three years, and where, very naturally, they
caused quite a fright to the children who were its
occupants. Usually they occur in houses either singly,
or at most in twos or threes, but sometimes considerable
numbers have been met with; for instance, in the
summer of 1878, no less than a dozen specimens were
captured in an ironmonger's shop in Chichester. It is
84 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
obvious that in many cases these household specimens
may not really be British at all, but, if the timber be
foreign, may have been imported with it.
The female of Sirex gigas has a black head and
thorax, and a long cylindrical yellow abdomen, with a
broad black band, like a mourning band, across the
middle. Behind the eyes, which are not situated on
the bend of the head, as they are in wasps, are also
two yellow patches, which are so conspicuous and shin-
ing that they might very probably at first sight be
mistake^ for the eyes themselves. The antennae and
legs are long and yellow, and the former are proportion-
ately much longer than in the wasps, since they consist
usually of about twice as many joints. The four large
membranous wings are shining and transparent, though
strongly tinged with yellow, and are without the minute
hairs that cover those of wasps. When the wings are
fully spread, the insect may measure as much as two
inches across, but specimens are often found much
smaller than this. Like all wood-feeding insects, they
vary greatly in size. The abdomen is attached to the
thorax by the whole of its base, instead of the slender
peduncle that constitutes the familiar and proverbial
wasp's waist.
But the most interesting part of the insect is the
ovipositor, which consists of three parts, two yellow
side-sheaths, which are toothed outwardly towards the
extremity, and a black central borer, which is notched
at the end, and is therefore able to act something
like a gimlet. This instrument runs up underneath
the abdomen, and has its origin more than half-way
up the latter; it also projects beyond the abdomen
to about the same extent, and measures almost an inch
in total length. In addition to this, the last segment
SOCIAL WASPS AND HORNTAILS 85
of the abdomen is produced above into a long and stout
spine, which is nearly half as long as the free part of
the ovipositor. With the ovipositor the mother pierces
the bark of the tree she has chosen for the support of
her progeny, in order that she may deposit her eggs
in such positions as shall place the young grubs in
circumstances of comfort and opulence from the moment
they first see the light.
Her consort is altogether a slenderer smaller insect,
and has a reddish body, without the mourning band
and, of course, without the formidable boring apparatus ;
all he can show in the way of offensive or defensive
weapons is a very sharp point at the end of the last
segment of his abdomen, in the same position as the
much larger spine of his spouse.
Sirex gifjas is sufficiently large to show with tolerable
ease a certain structure in the wings which is eminently
characteristic of the Hymenoptera, though often too
small to be readily seen. When spread out, the fore
and hind wing on each side will be found to be in
some mysterious way connected, so as to move in con-
cert, and to offer, over the greater part of their area,
one unbroken resisting surface to the air. If, however,
they are waved about in various directions, they may
at length be caused to spring apart, and then, if the
front edge of the hind wing be held towards the light,
the explanation of the mysterious union will be found.
Here will be seen, running part of the way along the
margin, a row of between fifty and sixty tiny hooks,
bent upwards and backwards in such a way that when
the wing is brought into position behind its fellow
they clasp from underneath the stout nervure which
bounds the forewing on its hinder edge, and thus hook
the two wings together. In the centre they are placed
86 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
much more thickly than at the ends, and show a
tendency to form two distinct rows. It is obvious that
this arrangement greatly increases the power of the
wings, and no doubt largely contributes towards that
vigour of flight which is so prominent a feature in
the Hymen optera.
The larvae are fat whitish maggots, with six very tiny
feet in front, and the tail ending in a spine ; and from
their size, it will be easily understood that they work
great havoc in fir trees in which they have established
themselves, devouring, as they do, the solid timber.
When the insect reaches the end of its larval life, it
forms a silken cocoon in its burrow, and in this changes
to a pupa, which, as is customarily the case amongst the
Hymenoptera, looks like a mummy of the perfect insect.
In this same burrow it enters on its perfect life by cast-
ing its pupal skin ; but when thus freed, it has still to
make its way into the open air ; its burrow has already
been carried as far as the bark of the tree, and it there-
fore has now to perforate the bark in order to escape
from its prison. This it does by gnawing through it,
and then creeping through the opening thus made. It
often recruits its strength after its exertions by sitting
on the tree trunk just outside for a time, before starting
on its noisy flight.
When domiciled with man, however, its escape from
its prison-house is not always so easy. At a military
clothing-store in France, one of the shelves on which
the clothes were piled contained a pair of Sirices, pre-
sumably in the larval condition when first introduced.
On arriving at maturity, the insects proceeded to work
their way out of the wood as usual, but when they
reached the surface they found their further pro-
gress barred by the piles of clothing, which happened to
SOCIAL WASPS AND HORNTAILS 87
consist of a number of pairs of woollen trousers. Nothing
daunted, however, they set to work upon these also, and
pierced them in several directions, as they had previously
done the wood, until at last they reached daylight, when,
as a rather disappointing reward for their perseverance,
they fell into the hands of one of the officers, who was
himself an entomologist.
Like one of the Longicorn beetles before alluded to,
this insect has sufficient strength and perseverance not
to be hindered in its burrowing operations, even by so
formidable an obstacle as sheet -lead, or, indeed, by a
still thicker layer of the same metal. Two instances of
this have been reported to the Entomological Society of
France by M. Lucas. In one instance it was a lead-
covered roof that was perforated, the lead being about
one-eighth of an inch in thickness. The other was a
very curious case. It occurred in an arsenal at Grenoble.
A box of cartridges was discovered in which some of the
bullets had been pierced by these insects, the explanation
apparently being that the larvae had been in the wood
of which the box was composed, and that the perfect
insects, in endeavouring to work their way out, had
directed their course inwards instead of outwards, and
had thus encountered the cartridges, through which
they had been compelled to eat their way; some of
them, however, had perished in the attempt, and they
were found dead in the box, with their beautiful yellow
bodies blackened with the lead and powder.
There is an allied species, called S. juvencus, in which
the female has a shorter ovipositor, and is entirely of a
splendid steel-blue colour. This also occurs in houses,
similarly to S. gigas, which it equals in destructiveness
as well as in size. Some years ago, no less than two
huiidred fir trees were destroyed by this insect on a large
88 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
estate in Norfolk. It seems probable, however, that the
Sirex must not be charged altogether with this whole-
sale destruction ; the insects appear to have a tendency
to attack trees that are already enfeebled by disease or
damage, instead of those that are vigorous and healthy,
and, therefore, perhaps in some cases they merely accele-
rate a death which could not have been long delayed.
Still, of course, when they do attack a tree, they often
utterly spoil the wood as timber by their numerous
burrows in all directions. As an instance of this, we
may take a tree that was found in Bewdley Forest some
years ago. Twenty feet of the length of this tree was
so perforated by this insect as to be completely useless
as timber, and serviceable for nothing but firewood. It
was transferred to an outhouse, and while lying there
for some months, the insects emerged from their bur-
rows at the rate of some five or six a day. It is curious
to note that the first specimens hatched were chiefly
males, but, as time went on, the females became more
numerous and the males less so, till at last only females
appeared.
CHAPTER VII.
CLOTHES MOTHS AND OTHER TINE&.
IN previous chapters we have studied the household
representatives of the first two orders of insects, the
Coleoptera and Hymenoptera ; we may now pass to the
third, viz., the Lepidoptera, or butterflies and moths.
The insignificant but abominable pests referred to in the
heading of this chapter will be at once recognised as
very familiar examples of this order. The term clothes
moth, however, like most popular names, is a vague and
indefinite one, and in most cases it is not easy to say
what insect really is meant when the term is used. Any
small moth found indoors usually gets branded with this
opprobrious epithet, which is thus applied indiscrimi-
nately to several species to some justifiably, to others
the reverse, There are at least half-a-dozen kinds of
small moths that regularly and more or less commonly
take up their abode with us ; but while some of them are
indeed fearfully destructive to woollen and other animal
stuffs, others are either general feeders, or depend for
their sustenance upon various vegetable substances, and,
as a rule, probably do no harm to our clothes at all, and
it will be our business here to endeavour to discriminate
carefully between these different insects.
The term " moth" itself even is but a vague one, for
it is the only popular designation for a great variety of
insects, differing considerably in structure and habits ;
8 9
90 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
and to get a clear and accurate notion of those that
inhabit our houses, and of their relations to one another,
and to the other members of the group, it will be neces-
sary first to say a few words about the order Lepidoptera
in general.
The word Lepidoptera means " scale wings," the scales
being that mealy powder which constitutes the colora-
tion and pattern of the wings above and below, and
which, in one form or other, is found in all species of
the order, and may be regarded as characteristic. Now,
in the first place, this large order may, for convenience
sake, be roughly, though not very scientifically, divided
into two great groups, which are known as the Macro-
Lepidoptera and the Micro-Lepidoptera, i.e., the " great "
and " small " Lepidoptera. For brevity's sake, these long
names are usually curtailed to Macros and Micros respec-
tively. In the former group are included the butterflies,
and the majority of the more conspicuous and familiar
of the insects called moths all those insects, in fact,
which are sought after so eagerly by the majority of
"butterfly catchers." Most of them are of tolerably
imposing proportions. The latter group, on the other
hand, few people, except those who specially study them,
know or care anything about ; the reason for this neglect
being merely the small size of the majority. To be small
is often to be despised, and so the Micros get scant atten-
tion, even from professed collectors. Yet it is to these
despised Micros that our household moths belong, so
that, economically at least, some of them are of con-
siderable importance, and ought to be of corresponding
interest.
A few of the Macros often choose our houses to hiber-
nate in, but the members of this group do not, as a rule,
court our society. The chief inducements for them to
CLOTHES MOTHS AND OTHER TINE^E 91
enter our dwellings are an open window and a brightly
shining lamp within, and then in suitable localities they
will enter in great numbers, and sacrifice themselves on
the funeral pyre. But these are, of course, but chance
visitors; and none of the Macros can be regarded as
permanent residents with us, propagating themselves as
the Micros do, generation after generation, without ever
visiting the outer world.
The Micro-Lepidoptera are subdivided into some five
or six very distinct groups, to two only of which, how-
ever, our strictly household species belong; these two
are called the Pyrales and the Tinese. The former of
these, which are placed at the head of the Micros, are
amongst the largest of that group, most of them, indeed,
being (notwithstanding the names) larger than the
smallest of the Macros ; and they can usually be readily
recognised by their rather pointed wings and their long
slender bodies and legs. To this group we must refer
the household species known as the Meal Moths, and
the Tabby, or Grease Moth. The Tinese, which may be
regarded as some of the lowest of the order, are a very
large group of exceedingly varied and interesting habits,
and remarkable as containing the smallest of all Lepi-
doptera. They usually have long narrow wings, edged
with deep fringes ; and to them belong the true clothes
moths, together with several other insects that make
themselves obnoxious to the careful housekeeper in other
ways than by attacking furs and woollen garments.
The Tineae, as containing the more familiar insects,
may profitably first occupy our attention. This section
numbers about seven hundred British species, and our
household pests belong to several genera scattered
throughout this host. The clothes moths, however, are
all members of one genus, Tinea, which contains about
92 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
thirty British species, of which only a very few trouble
us indoors; the rest feed upon lichens, bark, &c., and
are therefore found in the open country. The word
Tinea is the Latin name for the caterpillar of a clothes
moth ; in other words, the Romans applied this name to
any grub-like insect that damaged clothes, &c., whatever,
according to our modern notions, the species might be.
Pliny speaks of " a certain Tinea, which is capable of
hanging by a thread, or is clad in a jacket, gradually
forming for itself its own garment, like a snail its shell,
and whefr this is taken from it it immediately dies ; but
when its garment has reached its proper dimensions, it
changes into a chrysalis, from which, at the proper time,
a moth issues." It was natural, therefore, that this
term should be adopted by modern naturalists as the
generic name for the insects that possess the above-
mentioned habits ; and it is from this genus Tinea that
the whole section derives the name Tineas or Tineina,
though it is far from being implied by this that the
whole group are the foes of textile fabrics. The word,
therefore, has nothing to do with our English word
" tiny," though it so happens that members of this group
are the tiniest of the whole order.
At least four species of the genus Tinea are included
under the general name clothes-moth, i.e., as attacking
some kind or other of animal fabric. They are T. pel-
lionella, bisellietta, tapetzella, and rusticella. As the
habits of these are somewhat different, it will be neces-
sary to treat of the species separately.
And first as to T. pellionella. This is a little creature
about half-an-inch in expanse of wings. Its fore wings
are of a shining greyish yellow colour, with three in-
distinct brownish spots in the middle, and the hind
wings are whitish grey. It is an abundant species in
CLOTHES MOTHS AND OTHER TINE^ 93
houses, and may be found at any time between January
and October, though most abundantly in the early
summer months. Of course the moth itself is innocent
enough; it is in the larval state that it does all the
damage to clothes, furs, feathers, &c. The larva is a
tiny caterpillar, dull whitish, with a reddish brown head.
It is remarkable as being the only one of our four
clothes moths that makes a tunic or movable case for
itself, protected by which it roams in search of congenial
food over our stores of unused and undisturbed garments.
Muffs, tippets, and other fur garments it particularly
delights in, and many are the valuable furs it has alto-
gether ruined, not so much by the actual quantity of
hair devoured, as by the amount it has snipped off and
wasted.
The case is most ingeniously constructed ; it is made
of two materials, an outer layer of fragments of the
fabrics that have formed the little creature's food, and
an inner layer of silk, which forms a beautifully soft
and smooth lining, and is secreted by the caterpillar
itself in a manner similar to that in which the silkworm
forms its well-known cocoons. It is nearly cylindrical
in form, but of slightly larger diameter across the
middle, and a little flattened above, and is open at both
ends "j when crawling or feeding, the little inhabitant
thrusts out of one end its head and the three segments
of the body behind it, these being the ones that carry
the three pairs of legs by which locomotion is effected.
As it proceeds on its way it keeps this anterior part of
the body exserted, and holding on to the silken lining of
its case by its claspers, which are situated towards the
other end of the body, drags its house along with it. If
danger menaces, it retires completely into its case. The
cases are of course very varied in appearance ; from the
94 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
method of their construction it is manifest that their
colour will depend upon that of the material upon which
the insect has been feeding, and by judicious variations
of its dietary the little tailor can be induced to form
cases of all conceivable tints, or mixtures of such. The
method employed for adapting the case to the needs of
the growing caterpillar is truly marvellous. It is obvious
that two kinds of enlargement will be necessary : with
the growing stature of the larva the case will need
elongation, but it will require an increase of circumfer-
ence as well; and though the meeting of the former
demand presents no difficulty nor necessitates the exercise
of much sagacity in the device of a method, the latter
might well be the subject of considerable perplexity, and
one is scarcely prepared for the extreme ingenuity mani-
fested by the little creature in meeting the difficulty.
When it finds its quarters becoming too strait it slits up
the case on one side for half its length by means of its
scissor-like jaws, and fills up a certain space between the
severed edges with the same materials as compose the
rest of the case. This done, a similar slit is made, say,
at the other end, and the like process gone through
again. Though the circumference is now increased
throughout, this is not the end of the operation, for the
new pieces having been let in only on one side, the case
thereby becomes a little un symmetrical ; therefore, to
restore the symmetry of its form, two precisely similar
operations are carried out on the other side, so that to
complete the process no less than four slits have to be
made two at each end and to be successively filled up
with the usual materials. It would appear, however,
from- the observations of Reaumur, that the insect does
not always observe the same order in making these slits,
but may vary the order indefinitely.
CLOTHES MOTHS AND OTHER TINE^ 95
To lengthen the case all that is necessary is to add
successive rings of silk and woollen fibres to the ends ;
but even in this simple operation there is a choice of
methods, for the addition might be made at one end
only or at both. The latter device is the one adopted.
First of all a ring of new material is added at one end,
to effect which the grub does not need to leave its tunic,
the whole operation being able to be performed from the
inside ; a layer of silk is spun out in the form of a con-
tinuous thread, and then a number of tiny fillets of the
woollen fabric, or fur, are attached to its outer surface
by other silken threads. This done, the caterpillar, still
without quitting its shelter, rapidly reverses its position,
bringing its head into the position previously occupied
by its tail. The extreme flexibility of its body, and the
rather wider diameter of the case in the centre, enable
it to do this very quickly ; then the same addition of a
ring of felt is carried out at the tail end, and in this way
the case is elongated equally at the two ends, and what
was originally the middle always remains such, and
therefore the oldest part is always to be found in the
centre, and the newest at the ends.
When the grub is full fed, it must set its house in
order and prepare for the helpless condition which pre-
cedes its final metamorphosis. The chrysalis state is
assumed inside the case, the caterpillar becoming, by
throwing off its last larval skin, a little yellowish-brown
helpless thing, similar in form to the well-known
chrysalis of the larger moths. Now a danger has to be
guarded against : the insect has to remain some weeks
in this state of inactivity, and if the case with its
precious freight were simply left lying on the cloth as
usual, any moving of the latter might cause the little
bundle to roll off and fall, no one knows whither, and
96 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
into one knows not what perils. To guard against such
a catastrophe, the caterpillar, when it feels the inward
promptings which are prophetic of its approaching
change, spins some fine silken threads from the ends of
the case, and attaches them at their outer extremity to
the cloth on which it has been feeding, thus, as it were,
casting many anchors out of both bow and stern of its
little boat. Its fate is in this way linked with that of
the larger object, and a much greater degree of security
is thus ensured. Very frequently, however, it altogether
forsakesvthe cloth, and chooses some retired corner or
crevice in which to anchor its little craft. Thus all
through the three weeks of waiting for its wings it lies
in its case, like a mummy in its sarcophagus.
At length the time arrives for the final change. The
chrysalis, by the aid of sundry little spines arranged in
transverse rows along its back, one row on each segment,
works itself along till it reaches the end of the case,
and then the imprisoned moth, bursting its chitinous
covering at the head, gradually extricates itself from its
cerements, which it leaves half projecting from the now
useless sarcophagus. The cast chrysalis-case forms a
very pretty microscopic object ; it is almost transparent,
slightly tinged with yellowish brown, and shows distinct
cases for the antennae, which clearly present slight con-
strictions corresponding to the multitude of joints of
which the organ itself was composed. It also very
plainly shows the hooks along the back, and those on
the terminal segment are seen to be the largest and
most powerful. On its first exclusion from the chrysalis,
the moth's wings are very small and soft, but after a
while they expand until they have reached their normal
dimensions, and acquired their normal consistency.
Now the little being is ready for the fulfilment of its
CLOTHES MOTHS AND OTHER TINE^ 97
mission, the propagation of its species. Its methods
of locomotion are twofold : with its four glossy and
beautifully fringed wings it can fly tolerably well ; but
with its six long- jointed legs it can also run rapidly,
carrying its wings close alongside its body, and vibrating
its antennae with an incessant tremor indicative of the
excitement which now thrills through its little frame.
It needs no food, and indeed there is probably nothing
within reach that could serve it as such ; for the gross
aliment which delighted it when a grovelling grub, pos-
sesses no charms for it in its higher state of existence ;
and indeed, were its tastes to tend in that direction, it
could not gratify them, for, like the rest of its order, it
has no jaws wherewith to reduce the tough fibres of
cloth ; and even the usual flexible maxillae, the two long
coils which form the sucking apparatus of moths for
imbibing honey, are present only in a rudimentary con-
dition, as is the case throughout the genus Tinea. Its
sole business, therefore, is to get mated, lay its eggs,
and die.
As might be expected, the eggs are extremely minute,
and they are carefully deposited by the mother on the
cloth, or in crevices and corners close to a supply of food.
The young grubs hatched from these soon manifest their
tailoring propensities, but they seem, at this early stage,
to prefer secondhand garments, or rather shoddy, to an
entirely new "rig out." In other words, they attack
the old cases of their progenitors, which are sure to be
lying about in plenty, and by cutting up these larger
garments, manage to make some respectable coverings
for their own tiny forms. The filaments of wool and fur
which have been submitted to the action of the more
powerful jaws of their adult ancestors are in a more
manageable condition for the weaker weapons of the
G
98 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
juveniles than would be those of cloth that had never
undergone such a preparatory process.
Tinea pellionella is one of the commonest and most
destructive of our clothes moths, and is especially partial
to furs and feathers. Its attachment to the former is
indicated in its name, which is derived from the Latin
pellio, a "furrier." It is sometimes, therefore, called
the fur moth. Its larva has also been known to feed on
cobwebs.
It noV remains to consider the other members of the
genus Tinea to which the epithet clothes moth is appli-
cable. And first as to T. biselliella. This is a little
creature, something like pellionella, but usually rather
larger and with shining ochreous fore-wings, which are
perfectly devoid of spots ; the hind-wings are paler, and
the head reddish. Its caterpillar feeds upon various
animal substances, such as hair, feathers, wool, &c., and
so may occasionally be found in the linings of sofas and
chairs, and in mattresses. It is an abundant insect,
and its habits are similar to those of the before-
mentioned species, but there is this difference, that the
present insect does not, when a caterpillar, weave for
itself a coat in which to go on its travels. At the
commencement of its larval life it is said to feed without
any covering by way of protection ; but after a while it
finds the necessity of preserving its delicate body from
the attacks of its somewhat ill-tempered and aggressive
companions, if from nothing else, and therefore con-
structs a kind of tubular tunnel in which to take shelter.
This, however, is fixed to some support, and is thus a
shed rather than a garment. It is in this run, too,
that the change to the chrysalis takes place ; but then
the ends are closed up, and the dormant insect is
CLOTHES MOTHS AND OTHER TINE^l 99
thus secured from molestation during the period of its
seclusion.
Even at this stage of its life it is a lively little being,
any disturbance of its retreat being resented by petulant
wrigglings of its brown mummy-like form. When the
time for its final change arrives, it shifts itself along to
the entrance of the cocoon by means of tiny hooks on
its back, and then works its way out of its pupa case,
which it leaves projecting from the end of the cocoon.
The larvae may be found in our houses from February
to September inclusive, and the moths from April to
November.
The next species is T. tapetzella (Fig. 29). This is
considerably larger than the two preceding, and very
different from them in
coloration, though suffi-
ciently similar in shape
to show that it should be
referred to the same genus. -^^^^ i \
When the wings are fully
J FIG. 29. Tinea tapetzella.
spread, the moth has an
expanse of three-quarters of an inch, and it may very
easily be recognised by the startling contrast in the dis-
tribution of its colours. The fore-wings are black over
their basal third part, and then over the rest of their area
creamy white, slightly mottled with darker, especially
at the tip. The hind- wings are shining brownish-grey,
and have long fringes. When the wings are closed,
they are laid close alongside the body, and then, of
course, no trace of the hind pair is seen. We have simply
a long narrow object with the front part black and the
hinder white.
This insect, in its larval condition, delights in coarser
food than its predecessors, and devours with avidity such
loo OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
fare as carpets, horse-cloths, &c. The thickness and
more substantial character of this food affords the grubs
protection also, and renders the construction of a
separate case unnecessary. As they burrow into the
cloth, it is thick enough to conceal them, and they,
therefore, only care to line their burrows with silk. In
these tunnels they can reside and feed quite secure
from observation. This insect is sometimes called the
" tapestry moth," from the fact of its depredations
occurring chiefly in such materials; the linings of
carriages^ too, are sometimes destroyed by it. The
caterpillar may be found in April and May, and the
moth in June and July. From its habits one may
easily gather that it is less frequently met with in the
house than in outbuildings, such as stables, coach-houses,
&c. I once found quite a family of them in a piece of
carpet that was used as a bandage round a young
sapling in a garden to prevent the cord by which it
was tied up from injuring the bark.
Lastly, there is T. rusticella. This is less strictly a
clothes moth than the others ; it seems to be in no way
particular as to the exact character of its diet, provided
it be of an animal nature, and sufficiently dry, and in
consequence it has been found in the most unlikely
places. For instance, Mr. C. G. Barrett one winter
collected a number of old nests belonging to chaffinches
and other birds of that sort nests that are largely com-
posed of wool and hair and on keeping them till the
summer he obtained from them large numbers of Tinece,
the Iarva3 of which had been feeding on the materials
of which the nests were composed ; and amongst these
were some specimens of the above insect. Again, it
was found by Mr. C. Eales in a more unsavoury locality
still. He one day came across the dried-up corpse of a
CLOTHES MOTHS AND OTHER TINE^ loi
cat, and observing that it contained larvse and pupae of
some moths, he kept it till the perfect insects appeared.
Many of these turned out to be T. rusticella. In its
natural state, therefore, this insect is clearly a devourer
of animal refuse; in fact, one of nature's most useful
scavengers. And if we introduce animal matters, though
of far less objectionable character than these, into our
houses, we need not be surprised that sometimes the
scavenger follows them, intent upon the fulfilment of
its natural function.
The caterpillar is, as usual, a whitish creature with
a brown head. The moth, which is about the size of
T. bweltiella, is dark greyish-brown on its fore-wings,
slightly tinged with purplish and minutely speckled
with yellowish dots. It has also a pale transparent spot
on the disc of the wing before the middle, and another
similar but smaller one at the outermost lower angle of
the wing.
Various methods have been suggested for getting rid
of these pests; this, however, is hardly the place for
discussing the merits of rival insecticides. But there is
one ingenious method which, if not very practicable, is
yet so interesting that it must receive a passing notice.
It is well known that silkworms are a prey to a certain
disease called " muscardine," which arises from the
growth of a parasitic fungus. The idea occurred to
Balbiani, that if the larvse of clothes moths could be
inoculated with this disease, the result would be similar
to what it was amongst the silkworms : their numbers
would be rapidly diminished, and a benefit would thus
be conferred upon mankind. He accordingly reduced
the remains of some " rnuscardined " silkworms to a
powder, and laid his trap by sprinkling this bait over
clothes infested with the destructive larvse. The grubs
102 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
ate of the fatal meal, developed the disease, and miser-
ably perished. The powder, however, was found to lose its
efficacy to some extent if kept for any length of time.
These are all the insects that can fairly be called
"clothes moths;" but there are several other small
moths that occur in our houses, and, being general
feeders, are destructive in other ways, though they
are generally credited with designs upon our woollen
fabrics. Some of these belong to the same extensive
genus as the clothes moths proper, e.r/., Tinea ferrugi-
nella (very similar to rusticella, but smaller), fuscipunc-
tella (also somewhat similar, but without the transparent
spot), misella (yellowish -brown, with paler markings,
and two dark dots), and nigripunctella (yellowish, with
several blackish spots). Some of these occur not unfre-
quently, but others are rare.
But there are two insects which greatly exceed in
numbers both these and most other household species,
and are often more abundant and universally distributed
than the clothes moths themselves. They are Endrosis
fenestrella and CEcqphora pseudo-spretella, both repre-
sentatives of a new and very extensive family of Tinece,
the G-elechidce. A glance is sufficient to show this ; for,
first, in rest, the wings lie flat along the back, instead
of by the sides, as in the Tineidce ; secondly, a hand-
lens shows that the head, instead of being crowned with
the erect, hair-like plumes of a Tineid, is covered, at any
rate in front, with broad, flat-lying scales, which suggest
the idea of their having been brushed over the forehead,
like the " fringe " of a modern English female ; and,
thirdly, there is a pair of enormously large curved palpi,
much longer than those of the Tineidce, pointing upwards
from beneath the head, like a pair of miniature bull's
horns.
CLOTHES MOTHS AND OTHER TINE^ 103
The former of these insects (Fig. 30) is literally
ubiquitous. From appearing usually on windows, it
has received the name fene-
strella, or " window moth,"
but it has also been called
lacteella, or "milk moth,"
in consequence of being so
frequently found drowned
,. .,, . FIG. 30. Endrosis fenestrella.
in the contents or milk- jugs.
The water-jugs and basins in our bedrooms also often
testify to similar fatalities. It is really a very pretty
little creature, and, if only it were rare, would be highly
prized on account of its beauty ; but being so abundant,
and a " moth " to boot, its fair exterior goes for nothing,
and it is only considered a nuisance. It has brownish
fore- wings, speckled with darker, but its head and thorax
are of a pure snow-white. This description is quite suffi-
cient to enable it to be recognised, for there is no other
moth like it. It is a larger insect than most of the
preceding; and the wings, when fully spread, stretch
about two-thirds of an inch. Its white head, which is
an exquisite object for a low power of the microscope,
renders it easily seen, and in consequence it has often
to pay the penalty of death for crimes it has never com-
mitted. The finger of the careful housekeeper often
comes down upon it with vengeance, treating it as a
devourer of woollen goods, when the real culprits such
insignificant creatures as T. pellionella and biselliella
by their smaller size and obscure appearance, escape
notice. It is, in fact, not a clothes eater. Its larva
feeds upon all sorts of waste substances, especially those
of a vegetable nature, and thus, no doubt, often clears
up for us a good deal of rubbish out of odd corners. It
may be found all the year round, and probably there
io 4 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
is scarcely a house anywhere of which it is not an
inhabitant.
Though the presence of the window-moth in our
houses may be condoned, the same cannot be said of its
near ally, the detestable pest OEcoplwra pseudo-spretella.
This is one of the most destructive insects imaginable,
and is apparently a perfectly general feeder; nothing
that is in the smallest degree edible comes amiss to it.
It is rather larger than Endrosis fenestrella, of a pale
brown colour, more or less completely mottled over with
dark brown and with three very deep brown spots,
two before the middle of the wing, placed one above the
other, like a colon, and one beyond the middle. The
distinctness of these spots depends upon the intensity of
the ground colour of the wings, which varies a good
deal. The hind-wings are paler, without markings, and,
as usual, have long fringes. When in good condition,
which is not likely to be the case except just after
emergence from the pupa, the fore-wings are shiny.
They are placed in a flat position over the back, and
thus cause the insect to appear larger than a Tinea of
the same size would. The moth is fond of concealment,
and often hides amongst the substances that have
suffered from its depredations. When disturbed, it
runs rather than flies, and that very rapidly, at once
seeking shelter again. To pursue it with one's fingers
is no easy task ; it is so rapid in its movements and so
slippery when touched, in consequence of the glossiness
of its scales, that the pursuit is apt to try both patience
and temper of pursuer.
The caterpillar is a whitish creature with a brown
head, of an active habit, but concealing itself most
effectually by spinning together quantities of the
material it happens to be feeding upon. It does not
CLOTHES MOTHS AND OTHER TINE^E 105
take the trouble to bite off neat pieces of this material,
and weave them carefully and deftly together, as the
clothes moths would do, but seizes hold of anything
near, whatever its size, and attaches it as it is by one
of its ends, so that the pile seems little more than an
accidental heap. Under this it can feed at its ease.
But a keen eye will soon detect traces of its presence, in
the shape of pellets of excrement thrust out from the
end of its tunnel. It is particularly fond of invading
an entomologist's store of insects, and if he be by any
means careless enough to grant it a footing, he will find
immense damage done before he suspects anything, and
also find that his little foes are very difficult of eradica-
tion. The ravages in such cases are really very cleverly
concealed, e.g., the unfortunate collector, noticing one
of his larger moths, say, with its wings drooping appa-
rently a little more than usual, essays to remove the
specimen with a view to discovering the cause, when he
finds that, as he pulls out the pin on which it is impaled,
he removes no more than a mere shell of the body, and
leaves the wings attached to the bottom of the box;
pseudo-spretella has been at work, and has cleverly
fastened down the wings of the moth, but in such a way
as hardly to disturb their position, and then, using them
as a roof, has proceeded to scoop out the contents of the
body, being still careful to leave the skin entire, so that,
until the tug at the pin reveals to the chagrined ento-
mologist the utter destruction of his specimen, it looks
almost as perfect as ever.
From this habit of concealment, practised by both
larvse and perfect insects, it often happens that vast
damage is done before the presence of the destroyer is
suspected, and in any case the damage is sure to be
great, so much more being spoilt by being woven into
io6 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
the roof of the shed than is really destroyed by being
eaten. Mr. C. S. Gregson speaks of tons of rice in a
warehouse having been destroyed by this insect. Each
caterpillar had spun together six or eight rice grains,
and they thus made numbers of little bundles of rice,
which they used both as shelters and as food. The same
observer speaks of having been informed that some small
caterpillars were doing great damage amongst the stores
of sweeping brooms belonging to one of the Local Govern-
ment Boards in Liverpool. On receiving specimens of
the damaged articles, he found that they were ling
besoms (brooms made of heather or ling), and that the
destroyer was none other than pseudo-spretella, which,
notwithstanding that all it had to live upon was dry
heather brooms, was nevertheless more fat and nourish-
ing than usual.
The larva of this insect is a winter feeder, and may be
found in the early months of the year, the moth appear-
ing in July and August.
A very near relative of these two insects, called
(Ecogenia Kinder manniella, is sometimes found in houses,
especially near London. It is smaller than either of its
allies, and is a very pretty insect, having the narrow
fore-wings dark purplish-brown, with three broad pale
yellow patches.
CHAPTER VIII.
MEAL AND TABBY MOTHS.
WE may occasionally see perched here and there about
our houses, especially in the kitchen regions, little tri-
angular moths, of a considerably more robust build than
the insignificant little marauders referred to in our last
chapter, but still of no very great size. They are
members of that exceedingly curious group of moths
called the " Pyrales," a group not very largely repre-
sented in the British Isles ; several of the species,
however, are amongst our very commonest insects. All
the members of this section have the fore-wings rather
narrow, but the hind pair broad and ample ; the latter
have to be folded lengthwise when closed, in order to
allow the narrower fore-pair to cover them, and so, by
the close apposition of their edges, to give the insect,
when it takes up its position of rest, the shape of an
isosceles triangle. The body is narrow, rather long, and
tapering almost to a point a characteristic which at
once distinguishes this group from the common Noctuse,
or full-bodied moths ; the legs, too, are long and slender,
and the antennae are usually delicate and thread-like.
In many cases the wings are very shiny, and even
iridescent, and one family, in consequence of their deli-
cate pearly lustre, are popularly called the " Pearls."
Some of the Pyrales are exceedingly handsome in colora-
tion, being resplendent with crimson and golden yellow,
107
io8 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
or richly adorned with the deepest velvety black, relieved
by spots and streaks of silvery white ; but, as usual, the
majority are more soberly clad in drabs, greys, and
browns.
To the ordinary observer, no doubt the most familiar
species is the "meal-moth," Pyralis farinalis (Fig. 31).
This is a very pretty little insect,
measuring about an inch in ex-
panse of wings, though specimens
are frequently met with con-
siderably smaller. The actual
size is largely determined by the
F IG . 3I .-MeaiMoth. amount and character of the
food that was available to the
insect in its immature stages. If food is scarce or of an
inferior quality, the moth becomes small and stunted ;
but if rich and plentiful, a superior size and more sleek
appearance is sure to attest the fact. The dark patches
at the base and apex of the fore-wings are reddish-grey,
the colour being richest towards the upper edge of the
wing. Bounding the basal patch on its outer side and
the marginal one on its inner edge are two exquisitely
delicate wavy white lines, and then all the space between
these is of a rich yellowish-grey, slightly clouded below
with darker. The hind-wings are grey, and are crossed
by two wavy white lines, which appear like feebler con-
tinuations of those on the fore-wings, and a row of
distinct black dots at the inner edge of the marginal
fringe gives a pretty chequered appearance, and relieves
the monotony of the ground colour.
The caterpillar is a pale, uninteresting-looking creature,
with reddish-brown head, and a hard, pale, reddish-brown
plate just behind the head, and another at the other end
of the body. In its gastronomic relations it is specially
MEAL AND TABBY MOTHS 109
attached to the cereals, the produce of which it will eat
in any condition, whether as corn, flour, meal, bran, or
even straw. It has also been known to feed on clover.
The moth appears during the summer months, and its
presence in houses is most to be expected when the flour-
box is kept constantly well stored, or better, when a sack
of flour is kept. Hence such institutions as workhouses,
hospitals, asylums, &c., where large stores of farinaceous
substances are necessarily kept, may be expected to pro-
duce it more abundantly than ordinary houses. For this
reason also it occurs in flour-mills, barns, granaries, and
stables, and in bakers' shops, and, indeed, it may be ex-
pected to turn up wherever its food is housed in quantity.
For example, a certain French entomologist found his
house infested with the insect, and for a long time could
not discover whence they came. At last he traced them
to a large box of bran on his neighbour's premises.
Here they had bred in hundreds, and then had entered
his house by the open window. It has even been met
with in a coal-mine in Yorkshire more than a quarter of
a mile underground. An entomologist, on visiting the
colliery, saw some of the moths flying about in the
workings, and quantities of the remains of others on the
cobwebs with which the place abounded, so that the
species was evidently well established there. It had,
no doubt, been introduced with the oats for the horses
employed below ground.
The caterpillar of this moth is not nearly so easy to
find as the perfect insect. The latter delights to perch
on walls, and may sometimes be seen in scores, boldly
sitting in perfectly exposed situations on the walls of
a flour-mill. But the caterpillar loves retirement, and
this alone, apart from its unattractive appearance,
will account for the fact that its habits remained very
no OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
imperfectly known to entomologists long after the moth
had become a most familiar insect. The caterpillar
constructs long tubes composed of particles of dust
and flour or meal, or whatever its food happens to be,
spun toughly together with silk of its own manufacture ;
and, protected by these, it easily pursues its depredations
without being discovered. But though it may thus
escape the vigilance of human eyes, it cannot manage
to elude the penetration of the maternal instinct of
the ichneumon-flies, which are ever on the watch for
the well-nourished bodies of caterpillars in which to
deposit their own eggs ; and so even this well-concealed
larva has sometimes to succumb to the attacks of Exochus
mansuetor, an ichneumon-fly whose maggotlike offspring
devour its very vitals. The life of most caterpillars
extends over only a few months, or even weeks, but the
caterpillar of the meal moth is blessed with greater
longevity, for, being hatched in the autumn, it survives
the snows of two winters, and does not become a perfect
insect till the summer of the second year. It spins a
tough white silken cocoon, which fits closely upon the
glossy chrysalis within.
Two other members of this genus are well-known
British insects, though they are not to be regarded as
house-frequenters. One of them, P. glaucinalis, usually
about the same size as the meal moth, or a trifle larger,
has glossy, dark, reddish-grey fore- wings, crossed by two
delicate yellow lines; the other, P costalis, is much
smaller, and is one of the most exquisitely coloured
insects we have. It is popularly known as the " Gold
Fringe," because the marginal fringes of all the wings
are bright golden yellow, a most unusual style of orna-
mentation. The ground colour of the wings is a delicate
pink, which, especially in the fore pair, is more or less
MEAL AND TABBY MOTHS in
suffused with glossy grey ; on the front margin of the
same pair there are also two large yellow blotches,
which towards the middle of the wing suddenly thin
away into tiny golden threads, and thus finish their
course to the opposite edge. Anything more charming
than this little gem, when freshly disclosed from the
pupa, can scarcely be imagined, and words seem too
tame to do justice to its glories. It is not so common
as the meal moth, and seems chiefly to frequent
gardens.
With the meal moth one always mentally associates
another common insect called the " Tabby " or " Grease
Moth" (Fig. 32). Though not
belonging to the genus Pyralis,
it is nearly related thereto, and
exhibits kindred habits in its
earlier stages, and is, moreover,
a house frequenter. It is scien-
tifically known as Aglossa pin-
rnii'nnT'I* Tf is nrmdrlprflhlv FIG. 32. Grease Moth or
guinans. .eraoiy Tabby Moth,
larger than its cousin of the
meal- tub, often reaching an expanse of an inch and a
half ; but it is far less attractive in appearance, being
merely dark greyish- brown, with the fore-wings crossed
by zigzag blackish lines, suggestive of the markings on
the sides of a tabby cat, whence one of its popular
names.
The caterpillar begins life as a minute, pale, flesh-
coloured grub, but as it grows its colour deepens, until
at last, when full fed, it becomes quite black. Like
that of P. farinalis, it constructs silken tubes in which
it obstinately remains concealed till full-fed, living in
almost total darkness. It is to be sought for in barns,
stables, and outhouses, amongst the accumulations of
ii2 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
vegetable rubbish that abound in the corners of such
places. The rubbish serves it both as food and as
materials for strengthening the walls of its tubes on
the outside ; on the inside they are smoothly lined with
dark grey-brown silk.
The pertinacity with which the larvae remain in the
seclusion of their galleries renders any observations on
their habits and life-history a difficult matter, and often
information can only be gained at the cost of the lives
of some of the specimens, as they are pretty sure to
be more or less injured in the endeavour to eject them
from their place of shelter.
The popular name " Grease Moth," and the scientific
name pinguinalis (greasy), both refer to habits with
which this species has been credited for the last 150
years, though considerable doubt has during the last few
years been thrown upon them. It has usually been
stated that the caterpillar feeds on fat, butter, lard, and
other greasy matters; but as the creature is of such
retiring habits, it was not easy to make reliable observa-
tions on the subject in order to test the accuracy of the
statement. It seems,, however, a priori rather unlikely
that the food should be of this character, as greasy sub-
stances such as those enumerated have an injurious
effect on insect life in a way the following considerations
will indicate. Insects breathe through their sides, air
being admitted through a series of minute openings, the
spiracles, which lead into the breathing tubes which run
throughout the body ; now, if in any way these spiracles
should become clogged, the insect would necessarily be
suffocated. But if the caterpillar were to be perpetually
eating soft oleaginous substances like butter and lard,
and thus to be always living in the midst of grease, it is
difficult to understand how it could avoid getting its
MEAL AND TABBY MOTHS 113
body in a very oily condition and nothing would tend
more easily and effectually to clog up the spiracles than
such a condition. Accordingly, it has been stated that
this insect is gifted with a special power of retracting its
spiracles and protecting them by folds of its skin ; but
the evidence for this is not very satisfactory, and the
recent and very careful investigations of the late Mr.
W. Buckler, who devoted much time to the study of the
subject, do not tend to substantiate the statement at all,
but seem rather to indicate that the insect has no more
power than any other to protect itself from the injurious
effects of an oily condition of its skin. Mr. Buckler
tried on several occasions to induce a caterpillar to eat
butter and lard by putting it with these substances
under a large glass, but he says, " In every case it
seemed carefully to shun both, and though I contrived
once that it should at least walk over some lard, it did
so nimbly enough, but could not be induced to walk over
it a second time, invariably swerving aside." Nor did
greas}' cloth present any greater attractions, though the
insects fed readily enough on a collection of rubbish
which contained husks of wheat and oats, fragments of
straw and thatch, and of pods of beans, small seeds of
various kinds, short bits of grass and other dried stems,
woolly dust, empty pupa skins of small moths, and a
quantity of undeterminable chaffy and earthy matter.
A good idea of the mode of life of these insects may
be obtained from a description given by Mr. Buckler of
a colony he discovered in a stable. They were found in
a dark corner between the oat-bin and the wall. There
was only a very narrow space between the two, but
quantities of grain and chaff, and particles of straw,
frequently fell into it when the oat-bin was opened. On
the cool and damp floor beneath, the caterpillars had
H
ii 4 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
constructed their tubular galleries, which were perfectly
flexible, and readily adapted themselves to any irregu-
larities of the surface. The tubes were covered with
fragments of straw and husks, and therefore, on being
removed, they looked simply like strings of rubbish held
together in some mysterious and invisible manner, so
completely were the silken tunnels concealed. The
caterpillars made no attempt to resist the forcible de-
portation of their residences, and took good care to
remain indoors until summarily ejected.
In such situations as these the caterpillars live and
thrive from September till the following April, spending
the coldest parts of the winter, however, in a more or
less torpid condition. When the time for pupation
arrives, at the beginning of May, they desert their
galleries and wander about, seeking a suitable situation
for forming the cocoon. Having found one to its taste,
the grub proceeds to surround itself loosely with a tough
silken cover, taking care to intermix with the silk
particles of rubbish such as will render its appearance
sufficiently similar to that of its surroundings, and thus
serve as an effectual disguise. To the inside of this
cocoon the pupa clings by some recurved hooks, with
which, like the meal-moth, the tip of its tail is furnished.
The moths appear in July and August.
Reaumur has described this insect as making a tube
and devouring the leather coverings of books, a species
of depredation which was much more practicable in the
days when books were always bound in leather than it
would be in these modern days of cloth and paper bind-
ings. He also states that he found it eating the dry
bodies of dead insects.
There is a smaller species of Aglossa, similar in appear-
ance to A. pinguinalis, but much less common. It is
MEAL AND TABBY MOTHS 115
called the "Small Tabby" (A. cuprealis}. It is paler
than the common species, especially in the hind wings.
Its habits are very similar to those of the insect already
described, and it occurs in similar situations, where, like
its congener, it feeds on vegetable refuse. This must,
however, not be too dry, or the larvae become smaller and
appear half starved. Too much moisture, on the other
hand, would generate mildew, which would be equally
harmful to health. The duration of the life of this
insect is uncertain ; sometimes it completes all its
changes in a twelvemonth, but more frequently it pro-
longs them over a period of two years, the excess of time
in the latter instance being caused by a longer larval
existence, the egg and pupa stages lasting for the same
time in both cases.
CHAPTEE IX.
THE COMMON COCKROACH.
UNDER this name some may perhaps hardly recognise
the insect so well known as a kitchen nuisance, and
popularly called a
" black beetle." A
more inappropriate
name than black beetle
could hardly be con-
ceived. The epithet
" black " is apparently
applied in a loose sort
of way to indicate
merely a dark colour,
for, when closely exa-
mined, the creature
is seen to be really
reddish-brown, . of a
deeper or brighter
tinge according to age
FIG. 33. The Common Cockroach (Peripla- and S6X, only approach-
neta orientalis), Female. . .
ing black in the older
females, and then merely on the back. Again, in many
important structural characteristics, as well as in the
nature of the changes it undergoes in the course of its
life, it is widely removed from the true beetles. Not
but that there are black beetles (Slaps, &c.) rightly
116
THE COMMON COCKROACH 117
named, that domicile themselves with man (as we have
already seen), lurking in cellars and outhouses, but
these are totally different insects from Periplaneta
orientalis (Fig. 33), the common cockroach, with which
we are now concerned, and they never appear in
enormous swarms in our kitchens, as the cockroach
frequently does.
English soil did not produce this much-maligned
insect ; it is an immigrant from foreign parts. It is,
in fact, not an inhabitant of temperate climes at all,
but came originally from the tropical parts of Asia.
While importing cargoes of the productions of other
countries, we often unwittingly and unintentionally
add considerably to our own insular fauna. Probably
no shipload of animal or vegetable produce from distant
lands starts for our ports without the accompaniment
of an assemblage of living creatures, chiefly insects,
from the same parts of the globe. Such of these as
survive the voyage stand a chance, after unshiprnent,
of becoming naturalised, if only they can speedily find
suitable food and a locality which yields a congenial
temperature. Amongst such established importations,
of which we may now count some dozens of examples,
the common cockroach stands pre-eminent as regards
both size and numbers, and is probably as cordially
hated as any of them except the bed-bug. When the
first Asiatic cockroach set foot in Britain, it is im-
possible to say with certainty, but it was probably
not more than about four centuries ago. By the end of
the sixteenth century, they had been introduced into the
two chief maritime countries of Europe England and
Holland ; but we do not get any specific notice of them
in zoological literature till near the middle of the
seventeenth century, when we read of them as found
ii8 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
in flour mills, wine-cellars, &c., in England. At this
early date, it was, of course, only the seaport towns,
and principally London, that were frequented by the
insect, and it took a long time to spread to inland
and country districts indeed, in all probability, the
conquest of England by the cockroach is hardly yet
complete. Gilbert White, writing towards the close of
the last century, speaks of the cockroach as an unusual
insect in the village of Selborne, saying that he had
never seen it in his house before ; and no doubt there
are evel^L now remote country places whither it has
not yet penetrated.
Cockroaches are strictly nocturnal in habits, seeking
in the daytime the utmost concealment. Hence it
happens that they often exist in our houses in multi-
tudes that are perfectly unsuspected until one surprises
them in their midnight revels. You visit the kitchen
after the lights are out; and as you approach, a faint
rustling like the rattling of distant rain, or the pattering
of tiny feet, catches your ear. You throw a light on
the scene, and on the floor stands revealed a sort of
pandemonium, crowded with dark forms hurrying hither
and thither, hastening to get into obscure corners away
from the glare of the hateful and unexpected light. But
when you go in again by daylight they have all dis-
appeared, and no trace of them can be seen. They have
packed and squeezed themselves away into niches, cracks,
and crevices, under sacks or matting, behind jars or
pans, or even under boards, bricks, or stones any-
where to be out of the light. The flatness of their
bodies gives them unusual facilities for thus bestowing
themselves.
They have a double reason for frequenting the
kitchen premises. First, a tolerably high temperature is
THE COMMON COCKROACH 119
essential to their well-being, as might be expected from
importations from the tropics ; they cannot stand cold,
and much less than the frosts and snows of winter is
sufficient to kill them. Therefore they have the good
sense to take up their quarters in that part of the
house where artificial warmth is most constantly kept
up. Then, again, the kitchen regions are the land of
plenty, and contain things edible to a greater extent
than the rest of the house. Not that they are at all
fastidious as regards diet; the most unpromising materials
yield them sustenance, and they will absolutely thrive
on what might have been supposed to be totally innutri-
tious. They are truly omnivorous : articles of human
food, both animal and vegetable, are much to their
taste, but they do not stop at these ; woollen clothes,
newspapers, blacking, ink, leather, and even emery
paper will do equally well, and they will even devour
their own cast skins, and enjoy a cannibal feast on
the corpses of their relations. Professor Moseley
records how, during the circumnavigating voyage of
H.M.S. Challenger, a number of cockroaches, stowaways
on the voyage, established themselves in his cabin,
and devoured parts of his boots, "nibbling off all the
margins of leather projecting beyond the seams on the
upper leathers."
The same naturalist gives an amusing account of the
attempts he made to rid himself of one particularly
unpleasant visitor (apparently a different species from
P. orientdlis, though of similar habits), which seems to
have manifested a considerable degree of intelligence.
He says, " One huge winged cockroach baffled me in
my attempts to get rid of him for a long time. I could
not discover his retreat. At night he came out and
rested on my book-shelf at the foot of my bed, swaying
120 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
his antennae to and fro, and watching me closely. If I
reached out my hand from bed to get a stick, or raised
my book to throw it at him, he dropped at once on
the deck, and was forthwith out of harm's way. He
bothered me much, because, when my light was out,
he had a familiar habit of coming to sip the moisture
from my face and lips, which was decidedly unpleasant,
and awoke me often from a doze. I believe it was
with this object that he watched me before I went
to sleep. I often had a shot at him with a book or
other missile as he sat on the book-shelf, but he
always do l dged and escaped. His quickness and agility
astonished me. At last I triumphed by adopting the
advice of Captain Maclear, and shooting him with a
pellet of paper from my air-gun, a mode of attack for
which he was evidently unprepared."
On board ship cockroaches, of one kind or other, often
do much damage. Mr. R. H. Lewis speaks of two
kinds of them attacking a cargo of 300 cases of cheeses.
Holes had been left in the packages to prevent the
cheeses from "sweating," and the cockroaches thus
found entrance and damaged them considerably, devour-
ing a great quantity and befouling all. Their disgusting
odour, arising from a foetid fluid poured out from the
mouth, renders them far more obnoxious than they
would otherwise be, and often causes food to be spoiled
by their proximity.
In the perfect condition the male and female cock-
roaches differ considerably. The males are smaller
and less robust than the females ; they stand higher
on their legs, i.e., do not allow their abdomens to trail
along the ground as their partners do, and are furnished
with two pairs of wings, the females being apterous,
or nearly so. The upper pair of wings, called elytra
THE COMMON COCKROACH
121
FIG. 34. A, Elytron ; B, Wing
of Male Cockroach.
or tegmina (Fig. 34), are rather stiff and horny, and
being dark coloured, do not easily show the very
peculiar course of the so-called
nervures ; but the under pair,
called specifically wings, are '
membranous and transparent,
and the nervures can be easily
seen. In repose the wings
are folded in half lengthwise,
the inner half being bent
under the outer, and then
itself folded like a fan, and
they are then covered by the
elytra much as in a beetle,
though in that case the fold-
ing would be transverse instead of longitudinal, and
the elytra would not, as they do here, overlap. When
closed, the elytra cover the greater part of the back.
The females simply have a rudimentary pair of elytra
and no wings at all, and flight is impossible to them.
A cockroach issues from the egg, not, like many
insects, with a form totally unlike that of its parents,
but shaped very similarly to the adult, and differing
from that chiefly in its minute size, its pale colour, and
the absence of wings. These young cockroaches may
often be seen in kitchen hearths in great numbers
little, pale, whitey- brown creatures, running about with
extreme agility, and moving their legs so quickly that
they seem to skim along or glide over the ground. As
they grow, like other insects they cast their skins
periodically, after each moult becoming larger and
darker. During the first year of its life the young
cockroach changes its skin three times the first imme-
diately after hatching, the second a month later, and
122 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
the third not till the end of the year. There would
appear to be seven moults in all before the fully
developed form is attained, but after the first three,
these are made only annually. This, at least, is the
conclusion arrived at by Cornelius from observations
made on captive cockroaches; but it may be open to
question whether the course would have been precisely
the same under more natural conditions, and, unfortu-
nately, no other observations have been recorded on this
particular species.
If, however, the above results represent the usual
state of things, cockroaches are certainly gifted with
extraordinary longevity, for their life evidently extends
over a period of at least five years. One is accustomed
to think of insects as truly ephemeral creatures, and it is
probable that the majority of them do not require more
than a single twelvemonth to complete their cycle of
existence ; where the preliminary stages occupy a longer
time than this, the species chiefly feed in concealment,
as buried in the ground, like the grubs of the cock-
chafer, or in solid wood, like those of the stag-beetle.
The experience of Sir John Lubbock with his ants has,
it is true, demonstrated that the life of insects may,
under favourable conditions, last much longer than we
should have expected. Some of his ants lived with him
upwards of eight years ; but these were in their perfect
condition all that time, and their early life and periods
of transformation and growth had been, as usual, rapidly
accomplished. Cockroaches, on the other hand, if the
above results are to be accepted, take a long time to
pass through their introductory stages, but we have no
evidence at all as to how long they live after becoming
full grown. To so active an insect, the dangers and
possible mischances of a long larval life would necessarily
THE COMMON COCKROACH 123
be very numerous, and it is highly probable that great
numbers of them would never reach maturity at all.
Be that as it may, their swarms are still quite large
enough for human comfort. Further observations on
their life-history, however, are much to be desired,
though no doubt difficult to carry out. A closely allied
species, Blatta germanica, was studied by Hummel with
a very different result, the generations being found to
succeed one another with much greater rapidity, and
analogy suggests that P. orientalis, which is similarly
an active, surface-living insect, should run a similar
course, and should, at any rate, complete its cycle of
changes more rapidly than sluggish grubs which live in
solitariness and concealment.
When a cockroach is about to moult, the hard skin
splits along the back just behind the head, the split
gradually extending throughout the length of the three
thoracic segments, and through the opening thus made,
the insect slowly and with much exertion extricates
itself from its old covering, drawing even its legs and
its long tapering whip-like antennae out of their sheaths,
and also leaving behind in the discarded shell parts of
its internal anatomy in the shape of the linings of some
of its respiratory tubes. The cast skin, which, when
thus left, remains clinging to its support just as when
the insect was in it, is usually so perfect, except for the
slit along the back, that at a distance it might easily be
mistaken for a living specimen. Fig. 35 represents the
cast skin of a specimen, which, somewhat unusually,
performed its moult, fully exposed, half way up the wall
of a room where it had been resting for some time in
anticipation of the change. Immediately after the moult
the insects are of a creamy-white colour, but after the
lapse of three or four hours, if exposed to air and
124
OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
FIG. 35. Cast Skin of
Cockroach.
light, they acquire the depth of coloration characteristic
of their age, the skin at the same time hardening. As
the skin, while soft, is some-
what transparent, the beating
of the heart, which, as usual
with insects, lies along . the
middle of the back, just under-
neath the skin, can be pretty
easily observed just after a
moult. Cornelius determined in
this way that the pulsations
were so rapid as eighty per
minute. It would hardly be
safe, however, to conclude from
this that the rate is always so
high, for at moulting times
the insects are in a very ab-
normal condition, and their internal economy is much
disturbed.
At the last moult but one the rudiments of wings
appear, and the insect is, at this period of its life, some-
times called a " pupa." Many entomologists, however,
prefer the term " nymph " for this stage, reserving the
name " pupa " for the quiescent condition which pre-
cedes the final moult in beetles, bees, butterflies, and
flies. No such quiescent condition is observable in the
cockroach, and as a nymph it is undistinguishable from
the larval or earlier stages, except by the presence of
the rudiments of wings, and its life is just as active and
rapacious as heretofore. Sometimes the insect is called
a nymph throughout the whole of its immature life.
At the last moult it appears in its final form and of its
final size, the female differing little from its nymph ; but
the male now acquires its wings, and both are by this
THE COMMON COCKROACH 125
time sexually mature, and possess for the first time the
power of procreation.
There are many other insects which develop in a
similar way, as, e.g., earwigs, field-bugs and the bed-
bug, frog-hoppers and tree-hoppers, lantern- flies, dragon -
flies, grasshoppers, locusts, and crickets. All these,
together with the cockroaches, as they are active
throughout the whole of their life, and pass into their
final forms by gradual and slight changes instead of by
sudden and strongly marked ones, are said to undergo
an "incomplete metamorphosis," and are, for that
reason, described as " hemimetabolic." But, on the other
hand, the true beetles, together with bees, ants, and
wasps, butterflies, moths, flies, and fleas never develop
in this way, but always lose their powers of locomotion
and eating, and become dormant and inactive as a
chrysalis for a certain time immediately before assuming
their final shape, and appear in at least three totally
distinct forms in the course of their life : such are said
to undergo a " complete metamorphosis," and are there-
fore described as " holometabolic." From this it is
evident that the cockroach, the changes in which are
so slight as scarcely to deserve the name of meta-
morphosis at all, is not a beetle in fact, its nearest
allies are the crickets, locusts, and grasshoppers, with
which and a number of less familiar insects, such as the
curious exotic walking-sticks and walking-leaves, it con-
stitutes the order Orthoptera, a group entirely distinct
from the Ooleoptera, or true beetles. Of this order, the
cockroaches form a numerous and important section,
usually called Blattina or Blattidce, of which upwards of
800 existing species have already been described.
Some very curious phenomena occur in connection with
the formation and deposition of the eggs. These are
126
OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
laid, not singly, but in purse-like cases containing sixteen
each. Cockroaches are not alone in this peculiarity : a
somewhat similar method of oviposition is practised by
others of the Orthoptera, and the egg-cases of the
Mantidcie, or praying insects of tropical Africa, in par-
ticular are remarkably elegant. The egg- contain ing
case (Fig. 36) is a horny oblong body with rounded ends,
FIG. 36. Egg-Case of Cockroach. A, outside view ; B, inside view, showing
eggs, one side having been removed. (After Miall and Denny.)
and has a longitudinal toothed ridge along the edge,
which is uppermost when it is laid. This toothed edge
consists of the enlarged borders of a slit which, by the
elasticity of the material, is kept closed till pushed open
from within. The material of which the case is com-
posed is secreted by a special gland the colleterial gland
consisting of branching tubes, and is poured out in
a fluid condition into the cavity from which the case
will ultimately issue. It lines the walls of this space,
and, hardening in that position, forms a sort of hollow
mould of the cavity itself. Eggs are now passed into it
one by one, and, as it is gradually filled, its length is
increased by fresh additions to its inner end till it is
completed.
The question may be asked, why there are always
sixteen eggs in each capsule. The answer is simple.
The two ovaries each consist of eight tubes, and no
more than one egg is ripe in each of these at the same
THE COMMON COCKROACH 127
time, hence sixteen are passed into the capsule, one from
each ovarian tube alternately from the two sides. They
are regularly placed, like rows of soldiers, eight on each
side, with that aspect turned innermost which will
ultimately become the under surface of the insect ; hence
the embryos all face inwards towards the central plane,
with their heads towards the serrated edge, while they
are arranged, not exactly opposite one another, but
alternately, to admit of close packing. When full, the
case protrudes from the end of the abdomen of the
female, and is carried about by her in this position for
about a week, after which it is dropped into a suitable
crevice in a warm situation. These dark-brown oblong
cases, nearly half-an-inch long, may frequently be found
during the summer in kitchen cupboards, &c. The
eggs, each of which has a thin but tough and prettily
ornamented shell or skin of its own, develop in the
cases, and the young, when hatched, issue from the
slit at the toothed edge above referred to, having pre-
viously, according to some observers, softened the cement
with which the opening is closed, by means of a fluid
secreted by them perhaps their saliva. After their
exit, the case closes up and looks much as it did before.
On hatching, the larvae are almost colourless, except for
their conspicuous black eyes. The female takes no
interest in her progeny when once the egg-case is
deposited, and the young, when hatched, are left to
look after themselves, a business which they perform
with entire success.
Periplaneta orientalis is an insect of a comparatively
low type of organisation. One evidence of this is seen
in its incomplete metamorphosis, and another in the
generalised character of the neuration of its wings; a
third may be found in the distinct separation and
128 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
nearly equal development of the three segments that
constitute the thorax; and yet a fourth is supplied by
the condition of the mouth organs. To examine these,
a little care is requisite. The head can scarcely be seen
at all from above, under ordinary circumstances, partly
because it is bent underneath at an acute angle to the
body, and partly because the greater portion of what
would otherwise be visible is concealed by the projecting
front of the semicircular shield which forms the roof of
the anterior segment of the thorax. If, however, the
insect be fixed on its back by a couple of pins thrust
through the sides of its thorax, and the head then lifted
up and turned back with the point of a pin, and retained
in that position by means of two pins crossing one
another, the mouth parts will be disclosed and may be
examined in detail with a hand lens.
They consist of the usual parts. Taking them in the
order in which they are now placed, we find, first, the
labium, centrally situated, and clos-
ing the aperture of the mouth
below. By a little manipulation
with the point of a pin it may easily
be removed entire (Fig. 37), and if
then mounted in glycerine, may be
examined either with a hand-lens or
the compound microscope. It con-
sists of two basal transverse plates,
the larger one (submentum) behind,
and the smaller (mentum) in front. To
FIG. 37 .-Labiumof cock- the front of the mentum are attached
roach, sm, submen-
tum ; m, mentum; i i n the centre two separate organs,
ligula;p, la Dial palpi. f L
called collectively the ligula ; each
is divided longitudinally into two divisions. Outside
these two organs are a pair, one on each side, of
THE COMMON COCKROACH 129
freely movable three-jointed appendages beset with hairs
(labial palpi). We shall recur to the structure of the
labium presently ; meanwhile we may pass to the next
part of the feeding apparatus. This consists of a pair of
jointed organs (maxillae), one on each side, clearly revealed
by the removal of the labium. One of these may be
removed (Fig. 38) and examined in the same way as
the labium. It is seen to consist
of two basal joints, the cardo and
the stipes, followed by a blade-
like piece attached to the end of
the stipes, and divided longi-
tudinally into two parts, the
inner (lacinia), hard, blade-
shaped, arid beset with stiff
bristles along its inner edge, and
the outer (galea) less hard, and
receiving the tip of the lacinia
in a groove in itself. Outside
this second segment of the jaw, Fjo _ 3 ' 8 _ Maxilla of Cockroach .
and also attached to the stipes, c \ c ard ; s > stipes; z, la-
cinia ; g, galea ; p, palpus,
is a freely movable five-jointed
organ, the maxillary palpus, set with hairs.
From this description, taken in conjunction with the
figure, it is evident that the structure of a single maxilla
is very much like that of each half of the labium ;
indeed, if we were to imagine the cardo and stipes of
each maxilla considerably broadened, and then those of
the opposite sides united by their inner edges, we should
get an organ on a somewhat larger scale, indeed, but
otherwise almost the exact counterpart of the labium.
And such, in fact, is the composition of this complex
organ, the labium ; it consists, namely, of a pair of jaws
(second maxillae) fused together by their basal portions,
130 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
the united parts constituting the mentum and sub-
men turn. But while in the cockroach it is obvious
enough that such is the origin of the labium, it is not
by any means so easy to make out in more highly
specialised insects, as the fusion of parts is in them
much more complete, and the whole organ is frequently
so greatly modified in form as to entirely obliterate any
resemblance to the maxillae. The cockroach is therefore
valuable to the philosophical zoologist, as exhibiting a
less altered and therefore more primitive form of this
organ than is to be found in the higher orders of insects,
and as thus shedding light upon the constitution of
a part of the mouth apparatus, which would otherwise
be more difficult to understand, The incipient ento-
mologist, therefore, who desires to obtain a sound and
practical knowledge of his science, could not do better
than take his first lessons in insect anatomy from this
very abundant and primitive species.
After the maxillae succeed the mandibles, two broad
and strong jaws of simple structure, with toothed inner
edges, each capable of moving laterally through an angle
of about 30 degrees. These form very efficient biting
organs, and are the chief instruments for the division of
the food. The whole feeding apparatus, when closed, is
partly covered above by a central plate, the labrum. The
two pairs of palpi are in incessant motion, even when
food is not being taken, and seem to be used as tactile
organs, to explore the surface over which the insect
passes.
The extraordinary agility of cockroaches is matter of
frequent comment with every housewife ; and in con-
sequence of their speed, and the extreme slipperiness of
their smooth and polished skins, they are the most
exasperating of insects to endeavour to catch ; while, if
THE COMMON COCKROACH 131
one tries to crush them as they run, by bringing some
heavy body down upon them, the blow too often descends,
much to the mortification of the would-be slaughterer,
not on the insect aimed at, but upon the ground con-
siderably in its rear. There is a fussiness and bustle
about their movements which is eminently characteristic :
it is not merely that much ground is covered in a short
time, but also that the legs themselves are moved with
remarkable rapidity. You rarely see a cockroach do any-
thing but run ; it hardly ever condescends to walk, and
for this reason it and its associates are called the "cur-
sorial " or running group of the order Orthoptera, while
the grasshoppers, our other chief division of the order,
which are distinguished by their leaping powers, and
could not possibly run, are described as the " saltatorial,"
or leaping Orthoptera.
And yet, notwithstanding the speed of which the cock-
roach is capable, there is nothing exceptional in the
mechanism of the movements, and the slowest crawling
insect moves its six legs by precisely the same means,
and in precisely the same order, as this agile creature.
We may, therefore, take the structure and method of
use of a cockroach's legs as typical of all creeping,
walking, and running insects; and there is much in
them that will well repay a careful and thoughtful
examination. Like those of all other insects, and of
centipedes, spiders, scorpions, crabs, and lobsters, and
many other allied animals, the legs are composed of a
series of pieces jointed together in longitudinal order:
and each piece is essentially a hollow tube, the hard and
stiff walls of which give the limb its unalterable form,
while they furnish support inside to the muscles by
which it is moved. In some of the above animals addi-
tional firmness and strength is imparted to this hard
132 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
covering by the deposition within its substance of mineral
salts, especially carbonate of lime ; but that is not the
case with insects, the hard skin of which owes its strength
and power of resistance to the animal substance chitin,
which has a chemical composition represented by the
formula C 15 H 26 N Q 10 . No greater contrast could be
imagined to the vertebrate leg, with its well-nigh solid
rods of bone up the centre, and its soft muscles wrapped
round the outside of these, than this arthropterous
(jointed-footed) limb with its hard tubular envelope, to
the insid^ of which its soft muscular apparatus is fitted.
At the point where the leg is attached to the body, the
skin is soft and flexible, whereby alone any motion with
regard to the body becomes possible.
At this point the limb may be easily
detached with a pair of scissors, and
we will suppose one of the hind pair
to have been amputated in this way.
Four main divisions to the limb now
become apparent (Fig. 39), and in
order thoroughly to understand the
process of locomotion, it will be
necessary to consider these divisions
in some detail. First, there is a
stout triangular portion, by one edge
FIG. 39. Left Hind Leg of ,, 1-1,1 T i n j j. 0.1
cockroach, a, coxa; or which the limb is attached to the
murTttrb&V^'tar: body ; it is capable chiefly of a back-
ward and forward movement, as will
become manifest by working a leg about while it is still
attached to the body. This triangular basal joint is
called the coxa, and in the cockroach is chiefly re-
markable for its large size and for the great extent to
which it projects from the body. Following the coxa
is a longer narrower piece, flattened at the sides, and
THE COMMON COCKROACH 133
furnished with stout spines on its lower edge ; this is
the femur or thigh. It is movable upon the coxa with an
up-and-down movement, i.e., in a vertical plane. When
the insect is viewed from above, the coxae are not seen, as
they are then concealed by the body, and the legs thus
appear to commence with the femora. The femur is
succeeded by a longer and narrower straight piece, set
with spines on both edges, which is called the tibia or
shank. It is movable upon the femur in a vertical plane,
but in the opposite direction to that of the femur upon
the coxa. Finally, the leg terminates in a series of five
joints, called collectively the tarsus, or foot, of which the
one attached to the tibia is by far the longest, and the
next three regularly diminish in length ; but the last one
is longer again, and carries at its extremity a pair of
hooked claws. The joints of the tarsus are movable
upon one another in the same plane as the tibia and
femur, and possess at the same time the power of motion
to a slight extent from side to side. These are all the
parts of the leg that are obvious at a first glance, but
there is still another small joint which a careful exami-
nation will detect at the outer extremity of the coxa ; it is
a tiny triangular piece called the trochanter, and has very
little freedom of motion. The other two pairs of legs are
similarly constituted to the hind pair, the chief differences
being in the proportional length of the parts, a matter
in which great uniformity is preserved in all specimens.
But though the structure of all six legs is similar, the
functions of the three pairs are somewhat different. In
running, the first and third leg of one side are moved
forward simultaneously with the middle one of the
opposite side ; then the other three follow for the next
step, and so on. There are, therefore, never less than
three legs in contact with the ground at the same time,
134 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
and the tarsus is the only part that is applied to the
ground, the tibia and femur being set at an angle to the
tarsus and to one another. Now it is obvious that when
the front leg is advanced and placed in position for a
step, it is in a state of extension, the thigh being set at
an obtuse angle to the shank ; but the hind leg, under
the same circumstances, is in a state of contraction, the
thigh and shank being drawn more closely together.
Therefore, when the body is advanced, the front leg is
bent up , and the hind leg opened out ; in other words,
the front leg acts in such a way as to pull the body
along, the claws at the end of the feet giving secure foot-
hold meanwhile. The hind leg, on the other hand, is not
a pulling but a pushing organ, while the middle leg of
the opposite side serves chiefly as a support and pivot
for the body. The whole of these movements are effected
by means of muscles inside the legs, each of which has
one end of itself attached to one division of the leg, and
the other to the succeeding one. Such, then, is the
method of locomotion of the cockroach, and not only of
it, but of every creeping, walking, or running six-footed
animal. Most swimming and jumping insects, naturally
enough, however, adopt a different style, the correspond-
ing legs of the opposite sides being moved simultaneously
instead of alternately.
The digestive system of the cockroach (Fig. 40) is
very complete, and as there is not much difficulty in its
dissection, any one may easily make out its details for
himself. The only thing to be borne in mind is that all
such delicate dissections as these should be performed
under water, i.e., the insect is fastened to a layer of solid
paraffin or cork (or any other substance that will receive
and hold pins readily), with which the bottom of a shallow
dish has been coated, and then water has been poured
THE COMMON COCKROACH
135
over it to the depth of an inch or so. Under these
circumstances, when the body is opened, the organs
V
FIG. 40. Digestive System of Cockroach, a^, oesophagus; a, 2 , crop ; b, giz-
zard ; c, hepatic caeca ; d, mesenteron ; e, Malpighian tubules ; /, ileum ;
g, colon ; h, rectum,
within, being buoyed up by the surrounding liquid, are
displayed and rendered distinguishable to a much
greater extent than would be possible in the absence
136 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
of such a medium. We will suppose the insect to have
been pinned down to its support in its natural posi-
tion ; then, on slitting open the skin along the middle
of the back with a pair of fine-pointed scissors, a mass
of whitish substance is revealed, which, by its extent
and opacity, obscures all the chief organs of the body.
This is the " fat body," and must be removed before the
digestive apparatus can be properly seen. It may be
gently pulled out piece by piece. When this is done,
the digestive system is seen to occupy the greater part
of the cavity of the body, most of it being situated in
the abdomen.
The hinder wall of the cavity of the mouth forms a
raised fleshy organ, called the lingua, which assists in
taking in the food. At the hinder end of this the throat
contracts into a narrow tube, the cesophagus, which
passes back through the thorax, and gradually expands
into a capacious pear-shaped bag with thin walls, called
the crop. So gradual is the enlargement from oesophagus
to crop, that it is impossible to say where the one ends
and the other begins. The crop is the receptacle which
receives the multifarious objects of the cockroach's diet,
after they have been roughly chewed, or rather chopped
up, by the mandibles. It is really of enormous size,
considering the dimensions of the insect, and its capacity
affords a very good measurement of the voracity of its
possessor. At its further extremity the crop suddenly
narrows, and is immediately succeeded by another and
very much smaller pear-shaped body, set the other way
round, i.e., with its large end foremost and narrowing
behind. It has thick muscular walls, and is furnished
inside with a circle of six large chitinous prominences
called teeth, as well as with little cushion-like bodies set
with hairs. The whole organ is called the gizzard.
THE COMMON COCKROACH 137
The gizzard opens behind into a short narrow tube of
about the same diameter as the resophagus, and called
the mesenteron, or mid-gut. Where this joins the
gizzard, there are eight blind tubes radiating from it,
tubes, i.e., that are closed at their outer extremity but
open at the other end into the mesenteron. They
are called hepatic cceca, and secrete a juice which is
needed in digestion, and which, when food has to be
digested, is forced up into the crop, and there performs
that operation, the passage leading into the gizzard being
meanwhile closed, that no food may pass the junction
till it has been suitably modified. The gizzard would
seem to be not very correctly named, as it appears to
act more as a strainer than as a triturator. At the end
of the mesenteron we again meet with a circle of blind
tubes, but these are far more minute and far more
numerous than those at its commencement. They are
some sixty or more in number, and are arranged in six
sets. They are so fine that they look simply like a
tangle of the finest gossamer threads. Individually they
are very long, and twist about in all directions, and
amongst the other organs situated in their neighbour-
hood. They are called Malpigliian tubules, and though so
fine, are in reality tubes, closed at their outer end, but
opening into the intestine. They are excretory in func-
tion, and appear to perform the office of kidneys. Suc-
ceeding the mesenteron, we get the intestine, which is
divisible into three regions. The first is a short narrow
tube, called the ileum ; the second a much longer and
broader one, the colon, with loose baggy walls, and con-
tracted towards its hinder extremity ; and the third a
pear-shaped body, with its internal walls set into six
prominent ridges or folds ; this is called the rectum.
The whole alimentary canal, from the commencement
138 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
of the oesophagus to the end of the rectum, measures
about twice the length of the animal's body. All the
earlier part, as far as the end of the gizzard, runs
straight through the body without twisting ; but the
parts after this are more or less twisted about, in order
to accommodate their length and bring the rectum to
the middle of the hinder end of the body ; hence that
portion of the canal after the gizzard needs unravelling
to display its parts. In the figure it is shown in this
extended condition, but in nature the rectum would be
situated 1 , near to the bundles of Malpighian tubules,
and the intestine would be twisted about in that neigh-
bourhood. It is impossible in the figure to show all the
windings of the Malpighian tubules ; they are not
merely clustered about the mesenteron as shown, but
their ends are interlaced amongst the breathing tubes
and the fat body, and spread all over the abdomen. In
all these parts they are bathed by the blood which fills
all the cavities of the body, and eliminate from it the
nitrogenous waste products, which thus ultimately find
their way into the intestine. That part of the alimentary
canal extending from the mouth to the end of the gizzard
is called the stomatodoBum, and that from the commence-
ment of the ileum to the end of the rectum the procto-
doeum. Each of these cavities was formed as a gradual
growth inwards of a depression of the outer surface of
the body ; hence each is lined with a continuation of the
chitinous skin which invests the body, and this is,
therefore, renewed each time the skin is cast. The
mesenteron, on the other hand, originated in a different
way, and hence is not so lined. The " teeth " of the
gizzard are simply extra hard portions of this chitinous
lining.
In order to complete the sketch already given of the
THE COMMON COCKROACH
digestive system, we have yet to notice some important
accessory organs, the salivary glands, which in the cock-
roach are enormously developed. On opening the body,
they may be seen lying along just outside the walls of
the crop in its anterior part. Each
consists of a pair of white glands
(Fig. 41), and a very thin -walled
elongated bag or receptacle, quite
distinct from these. Each gland,
though apparently compact, really
consists of a flattened tree-like
structure, the foliage portions of
which contain the cells which se-
crete the saliva, while the branches
are minute tubes which convey it,
when secreted, from the gland. A
narrow tube, or " duct," formed by
the union of the above branches,
receives the salivary fluid from FIG. 4 i. Salivary Glands of
each gland; but the two ducts of
each side soon unite into a single
one, and the two thus formed
again coalesce and form one main central tube lying
under the oesophagus.
Similarly the ducts of the receptacles unite in a
single central canal, which receives a little beyond this
junction the common duct of the glands, and so finally
only one tube remains as the representative of the
original six, and this opens into the mouth behind the
tongue.
Like other terrestrial insects, a cockroach breathes by
taking in air, not through its mouth, but at certain
openings in the sides, called spiracles, or stigmata.
There are ten of these on each side, eight pairs being
tacles-
140 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
situated in the abdomen, and the other two in the
thorax. Those belonging to the abdomen are not very
easy to detect, as they are small, and all but one pair
obscurely situated. The chitinous integument which
bounds and determines the form of each segment of the
abdomen is not a complete ring round the body, but
consists of two distinct parts, a band across the back,
called the tergum, and another underneath, the sternum.
These are united towards their edges by a membranous
junction; and it is in this, at the junction of the
segments,, that the stigmata lie, concealed by the over-
lapping edges of the terga and
sterna. Bach is an oval aperture
situated on the summit of a small
conical eminence (Fig. 42), and
capable of being closed by an
internal valve, whereby dust and
other foreign matters are excluded.
FIG. 42. Abdominal Spir- A large tracheal tube proceeds from
acle of Cockroach. -, -, , -,
each, and very soon begins to sub-
divide into smaller ones, the ultimate ramifications of
which pass to the remotest parts of the body, and even
into the jaws, wings, legs, and antennae. By means of
this system of tubes, air is conveyed to all parts of the
organism, so that the blood is aerated, not, as in
most kinds of animals, by being brought from the body
at large and collected in some special organ, such as a
lung or a gill, there to come into contact with the air,
but by having the air conveyed to it in all parts of the
body at once.
The introduction and expulsion of air is, of course,
accompanied by movements of the body walls ; but these
are not very easy to see, as they are but slight in
amount. Plateau succeeded in demonstrating their
THE COMMON COCKROACH 141
character and extent by the ingenious method of pro-
jecting the form of the body of the living insect on a
screen by means of the lantern, and then tracing its
outline during inspiration and expiration respectively.
In general, an insect at rest performs its respiratory
movements with the hinder part of its body, in other
words, it pants with its abdomen, the movements con-
sisting of an alternate contraction and recovery of shape
of that region. Amongst British insects there is perhaps
no species in which it is easier to watch these movements
than the great green grasshopper, a large locust-like
insect, found not un frequently in some parts of the
country. By the contraction of certain abdominal
muscles, the upper and lower walls of the abdomen
are drawn together to the extent, in the cockroach, of
one-eighth of the entire depth of the body, and a
compression from side to side takes place at the same
time. The tracheal tubes are thus compressed, and air
is forced out at the stigmata ; on the relaxation of the
muscles, the elasticity of the tracheal tubes themselves,
resulting from the coiled spiral thread in their interior,
then restores the body to its normal form, while air in
consequence enters at the stigmata. In the cockroach,
the thoracic segments have sufficient mobility to permit
of their taking some part in the movements of respira-
tion, even when the insect is at rest, in which respect
it differs from most other insects. In order, therefore,
clearly to realise how a cockroach breathes, we have to
bear in mind that, concurrently with the rise and fall
of the body walls, ten little jets of air alternately enter
at and issue from as many openings in the insect's
sides, the outward-tending jets of course carrying with
them" the carbonic acid and water vapour produced as
the insect discharges its vital functions.
142 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
But the respiratory movements above described can
scarcely be regarded as providing a complete explanation
of the mechanism of breathing, for they would simply
have the effect of renewing that portion of the contents
of the tracheal tubes which is in the parts nearest the
spiracles, and the air in the minute and remote sub-
divisions of the tracheas would have no chance of being
expelled, and would simply oscillate up and down the
tubes, and never reach the outer air at all. How this
difficulty is met is not at present altogether clear, but
it seems certain that we must look to the principle of
gaseous diffusion as at any rate aiding in producing
the required result of the penetration of oxygen to the
remotest parts of the system, and the corresponding
outward passage of the carbonic acid formed. The rate
of breathing depends upon a variety of circumstances.
It is quickened by whatever increases the general
activities of the insect; thus, a swiftly running cock-
roach breathes more quickly than one at rest; and,
again, a well-fed individual is naturally more vigorous
and inclined for exertion than a lean and emaciated
one, and its respiration becomes in consequence more
rapid. Cold, on the other hand, has a benumbing
effect, and the rate of breathing therefore falls with
the temperature.
The extreme perfection of the respiratory system is
closely connected with and correlated to a very rudi-
mentary condition in the circulatory apparatus. As
the air is conveyed to every part of the body, and
oxygenation can take place anywhere, there would
clearly be no object in having any special apparatus
for the collection and guidance of the blood. A cock-
roach has indeed, as already mentioned, a heart, but
beyond this it can scarcely be said to possess any
THE COMMON COCKROACH 143
circulatory system. Any one who brings to the exa-
mination of a creature such as this the popular
conception of what a heart is like, will certainly fail
to find anything which bears the remotest resemblance
to such conception. There is, in fact, no compact,
chambered, fleshy, conical body such as we are familiar
with in vertebrate anatomy; the "heart," so called
from its function, not its form, is merely an incon-
spicuous, elongated, soft tube, with sundry openings in
its sides through which blood enters it from the body
at large. Nor is its position such as might have been
anticipated ; we must look for it, not towards that
side of the body which faces the ground, but on that
which is uppermost, for it lies along the whole length
of the back, just beneath the skin, in the middle line.
Nor, again, does this rudimentary heart communicate
with any system of blood-vessels for conducting the
blood on its tour round the body ; for the blood, on
being expelled from the orifice at the extremity of the
tube, is simply passed on through the various interstices
between the different viscera, until it ultimately finds
itself back again at the place it started from. Hence
it is manifest that every movement of the body which
in any way disturbs the relative position of the internal
organs, will assist, to some extent, in urging the blood
along its course. Nor, finally, is the blood itself
exactly what its name might suggest. If a cockroach
is wounded, blood will, of course, issue from the wound,
but as it is only a colourless liquid, a little stretch of
the imagination is required to realise that it is the
true nutrient fluid of the body.
By the dissection which removes the digestive tract,
the main part of the nervous system is laid bare. It
is constructed similarly to that of the earthworm, and
144 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
consists of a chain of nervous centres or ganglia, in
pairs, connected with one another by nervous threads
(Fig. 43), and extending from one end of the body to
a the other. The greater part of it lies
between the digestive tract and the
under surface of the body, and is
therefore nearest the ground when the
animal walks. Here again, therefore,
all preconceived notions gathered from
the familiar vertebrates are upset, as
we trace the great nerve-centres, not
down the back, but in exactly the
reverse position. The foremost pair
of ganglia, however, which are situated
in the head, and have been dignified
with the name of " brain," as they
send nerves to the sense organs, viz.,
the eyes and antennas, lie above the
oesophagus, being connected by two
thick bands of nervous tissue with the
first pair that underlie it, so enclosing
that portion of the digestive tract as
in a collar. While examining the dis-
tended crop as it lies in its natural
FIG. 43. Nervous position, a small nervous ganglion may
Chain of Cockroach, i u j TJ.J.I i. i i *.!_ i
a, supra- cesopha- be observed as a little triangular whitish
ha; b, sub- ^ Q ^ Qn ^ upper surface about half-way
down its length. From this two nerves
minai ganglia. pags o bli que ly backwards towards the
hinder part of the crop, while a single one, running for-
ward along the middle line, connects this centre with
some small ganglia in the neighbourhood of the brain.
This small collection of nerves and ganglia is called the
visceral nervous system.
THE COMMON COCKROACH 145
Such is the insect which foreign commerce has intro-
duced to our island, and which, by reason of the
persistence with which it clings to the fortunes of the
human race, has become truly cosmopolitan, and seems
to be almost a necessary adjunct of modern civilisation.
Nowhere a welcome guest, it yet quietly pushes on its
conquests, and even the determined hostility of the tidy
housewife does not avail to check its progress. Its
nocturnal habits and love of concealment make it a
very difficult insect to eradicate when once it has
established itself in a house, and it is to be feared
that no certain remedy for this nuisance has yet been
discovered. Spite of "beetle-traps" and "vermin-
powders," it maintains its ground; neither rats, cats,
nor hedgehogs (all numbered amongst its foes, and
the last especially a greedy devourer of it) are able
materially to lessen its numbers. By reason of some
subtle superiority, perhaps impossible for our gross
senses to perceive, it continues to be victorious over
all its enemies, and in the face of all opposition and
efforts to exterminate it, still flourishes and continually
spreads. It is, indeed, gradually dislodging an old and
familiar inhabitant of kitchens, the house-cricket, an
insect of very similar habits to itself, and no very
distant relation of its own.
P. orientalis is not the only species of cockroach which
attaches itself to man. A considerably larger species,
P. Americana, which is winged in both sexes, has spread
a good deal from its native haunts in tropical America,
and has effected a lodgment in some places in this
country. But for some reason or other, it does not
seem likely to displace orientalis, a curious fact, inas-
much as it is a stronger insect, and, being gifted with
wings in both sexes, might be supposed to have had
K
146 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
better opportunities of establishing itself. It is a
common species on board ships. An Australian species
also appears to be beginning to spread. Again, Blatta
germanica, a closely allied form, called in America the
"Croton Bug," is known all over the United States,
and sometimes gets a footing in Britain. In a baker's
shop at Leeds it established itself, and is said to have
been introduced by soldiers after the Crimean war,
coming with them to the barracks, and being thence
conveyed to the bakery in bread baskets. According to
Hummel, this species assists its young to escape from
the egg-case. He introduced a female into a bottle con-
taining one of the cases ; she immediately seized it and
slit it open with her jaws, and tore off the enveloping
membranes of the contained young.
Besides house cockroaches, we have in this country
field cockroaches, i.e., indigenous species that habitually
live out in the open and do not attach themselves to
mankind. They are smaller than P. orientals, and may
be found in sandy places and amongst dead leaves and
other vegetable rubbish. They have sufficient superficial
resemblance to P. orientalis to be recognisable as coming
into the same category, although their colour is generally
much paler. In addition to these, large numbers of
species occur wild in other countries ; but why just those
particular species mentioned above, and especially P.
orientalis itself, should have become dependent upon the
human race, while so many others have either not
attempted to do so, or have not succeeded if they have
attempted, is still shrouded in mystery. The chief
peculiarity by which orientalis is distinguished from its
fellows, viz., the apterous condition of the female, seems
rather as though it might militate against its chances
than favour them.
CHAPTER X.
CRICKETS AND EARWIGS.
FEW domestic insects have succeeded in inspiring such
widely different sentiments in the minds of their hosts
as the house cricket. To most people it is far better
known by the evidence of the ears than of the eyes.
Its shrill chirping, prognosticatory, according to popular
belief, of cheerfulness and plenty, reveals the performer's
presence when no trace of its person can be discerned ;
and like the similar sound made by its near relative,
the grasshopper, it is one which there is great difficulty
in localising or tracing to its origin. Distinct and
intensely penetrating though this " shrilling " is, yet
most people find it a perplexing task to decide exactly
from what quarter it proceeds. This constitutes an
element of mysteriousness, and it is not surprising that
the invisible minstrel should have been accredited with
occult influences. The feelings with which the sound
has been regarded have accordingly varied with the
disposition of the hearer, from superstitious reverence
to downright dislike and extreme irritation. While to
Milton, for example, " the cricket on the hearth " seemed
no unsuitable accompaniment of thoughtful solitude,
when the devotee of " divinest melancholy " retires to
" Some still removed place . . .
Where glowing embers through the room
Teach light to counterfeit a gloom,"
147
148 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
on Gilbert White, the naturalist of Selborne, the chirp-
ing of crickets had quite an opposite effect. Speaking
of the field cricket, which is in most respects much
like its cousin of the house, he remarks, " Sounds do
not always give us pleasure according to their sweetness
and melody, nor do harsh sounds always displease. We
are more apt to be captivated or disgusted with the asso-
ciations which they promote than with the notes them-
selves. Thus the shrilling of the field cricket, though
sharp and stridulous, yet marvellously delights some
hearers, filling their minds with a train of summer ideas
of everything that is rural, verdurous, and joyous."
If poet and naturalist do not agree here, still less are
they in accord in other instances ; if to the former the
cricket is " Little inmate, full of mirth," " Always har-
binger of good," one whose song is " soft and sweet " (!),
to the latter it is a "garrulous animal," keeping up a
" constant din," "a still more annoying insect than the
common cockroach, adding an incessant noise to its
ravages." And while the simple and easy-going rustic
life of olden times might tolerate and even enjoy this
incessant clatter, the state of nervous tension at which
so much of present-day life is lived will no doubt lead
most people to agree with the naturalist here, rather
than with the poet, and vote the cricket a household
nuisance. The noise upon which such different views
have been held is apparently a love-call, and is accord-
ingly produced only by the males, the female crickets
being, in fact, through the absence of the requisite
machinery for chirping, absolutely dumb. To the cause
of the noise we shall recur presently; meanwhile, we
may consider the zoological position and the structure
of the insect.
As a family, the crickets enjoy a wide distribution
CRICKETS AND EARWIGS
149
and in this country five species have been met with,
though for some reason best known to themselves, only
one has domesticated itself. The
family is called Gryllidoe, and is
closely allied to those of the grass-
hoppers and locusts, forming with
them one of the great divisions of
the order Orthoptera, viz., that
of the " leapers." To another
section of the same order, viz.,
the " runners," it will be remem-
bered, the cockroach belongs. Our
English domestic species (Fig. 44)
is called Gryllus domesticus. At
first sight a cricket strikes one as
being not unlike a grasshopper in
general form, the resemblance
being caused chiefly by the great
proportionate length and elevated position of the hind
legs. In body, however, it is broader and flatter than a
grasshopper, and in other respects is sufficiently distinct
to be regarded as the type of a different family.
The mouth organs bear a close resemblance to those
of the cockroach, as a comparison of the accompanying
figures with those on pp. 128, 129 will testify. As one
looks in the insect's face, the greater part of the mouth
organs is concealed by a not very stout flap, hinged above
and shaped like a cheese-cutter; this is the labrum, or
upper lip. On lifting it, like the visor of a knight's
helmet, there is disclosed a pair of stout, dark brown,
horny, toothed jaws (mandibles) (Fig. 45), which are used
not merely to divide the food, but also as excavating imple-
ments, to hollow out retreats into which the insects can
retire in the daytime or when alarmed. These mandibles
FIG. 44. House Cricket
(Gryllus domesticus).
150
OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
again, when closed, completely cover the rest of the
mouth organs ; on their removal, the secondary jaws, or
maxillae, come into view (Fig. 46) ;
these are very much like the cock-
roach's, the inner lobe (lacinia)
being tipped with two sharp teeth,
and received for protection's sake
into a groove of the outer (galea),
and they are furnished with a pair
of five-jointed palpi. Beneath, or
rather behind them, is the labium,
showing again a similar structure
to that of the prototype, and equally
obviously composed of a pair of jaws
which have coalesced, i.e., have become united into a
single organ in their basal portion ; this, too, carries a
FIG. 45. Mandible of
Cricket.
FIG. 46. Mouth Organs of Cricket, m, maxillae ; mp, maxillary
palpi ; I, labium ; Ip, labial palpi ; t, tongue.
pair of palpi. The chief difference between the two
insects is to be seen in the appendage to the labium in
its centre, which is called the ligula, or "tongue." This
CRICKETS AND EARWIGS 151
is a most marvellous and exquisite structure, and
deservedly a great favourite with microscopists. As
shown in the figure, it is pressed out of place. On
opening the mouth, it will be seen on the floor, rising
into a grooved, hollow, fleshy eminence. When flat-
tened out, it is found to be a kidney-shaped, leaf-like
expansion, strengthened throughout by radiating fibres
of chitinous material, which, when highly magnified,
show a beautiful mosaic structure. Kitchen refuse of
various kinds constitutes the food of these creatures,
and a good deal of moisture as well seems necessary for
their well-being. No doubt this curious tongue helps
them in drinking. They have been accused of gnawing
holes in stockings hung before the fire to dry, in order
to satisfy their cravings for moisture. Hence, also, it
is not an infrequent experience to find them drowned in
pans or jugs of liquid.
The house cricket is more or less of a pale brown
colour throughout, and, unlike the cockroach, it is fully
winged in both sexes, and, therefore, has no need of
man's agency to supplement its powers of locomotion.
It flies with an undulatory motion, making long rising
curves in the air, and dropping at regular intervals.
The wings are extremely beautiful objects ; in fact, the
house cricket contains so many exquisite and delicate
structures, that any one who has a few hours to spare,
and can devote them, with a good microscope, to the
dissection of the insect, will find ample material for
interesting study and observation. There are two pairs
of wings, the upper pair being more or less horny, and
exceedingly different in males and females; and the
under pair thin and membranous, and similar in both
sexes. When closed, the right upper wing partly over-
laps the left, and the under wings project in the form of
152 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
long, tapering, rod-like pieces beyond the tips of the
fore wings, extending about half as far again as these.
The fore wings are much broader than a casual glance
would suggest, seeing that only about two-thirds of
their width lies flat along the back, the other third being
bent down at right angles to the rest, and lying close
along the side. Those of the female are very regularly
veined, there being two systems of nervures proceeding
in opposite directions, one on each side of the stout ridge
at which the wing is bent. But the wings of the male
(Fig. 47) are extremely peculiar, and it is in them that
"
b c
FIG. 47. Right Fore Wing of Male Cricket, a, line of bending ;
&, file ; c, drum.
the power of chirping resides. There is the same divi-
sion into two areas as in the female, but the hinder
section, i.e., the one that lies on the back, has its veins
distributed very irregularly. A stoutish nervure runs
straight across this near its base, and then beyond it
a large clear triangular area is left almost devoid of
nervures. At the apex of this, nearer still to the tip of
the wing, is another similar, but smaller and four-sided,
patch, with a single, pale, delicate nervure running across
it, and the rest of the wing is covered pretty closely with
a network of nervures. If, now, these wings be turned
over and examined beneath, it will be found that the
straight nervure aforesaid is crossed transversely by a
CRICKETS AND EARWIGS 153
large number of little hard ridges, giving it the appear-
ance of an extremely fine file. These are much too small
to be seen with the naked eye, but a moderate magnifica-
tion, coupled with careful focussing, soon brings them into
view. When the chirping is to be produced, the insect
bends the fore part of the body slightly downwards, and
then slightly raising the fore wings, rubs them rapidly
across one another. During this motion, the file of one
rubbing against the surface of the other produces a
creaking vibration, which is greatly intensified by the
clear open plates above-mentioned, which are therefore
called "drums." It will now be evident why the females
are mute: they have neither "file" nor "drum," and
hence are physically incapable of " singing."
It is clear from the above that the chirping is in no
true sense of the word either a voice or a song, being
quite unconnected with the respiratory organs ; it is a
purely external and mechanical sound, comparable, as a
means of expressing sentiments, rather with the human
device of clapping the hands, or flipping the fingers, than
with the utterance of sounds with the mouth. Of course
it is not to be expected that an insect should make any
noise with its mouth other than that produced by eating,
since the mouth does not, as is the case with us, commu-
nicate with the breathing organs. The entrances to
these are in the cricket, as in all other insects, along the
sides, and any sound that might be produced in them by
the passage in and out of the air would be more strictly
comparable with the voice of vertebrate animals. Some
insects, as for example the common blue- bottle fly, are
able to produce a noise in this way, and may therefore be
truly said to possess a voice. But that is by no means
the rule, and the sounds insects produce are in general the
result of the friction of external parts upon one another.
154 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
The hind wings of the cricket are exceedingly delicate,
and are each strengthened by about fifty nervures, radiat-
ing fan wise from the base. As about half these nervures
are weaker than the rest, the weak ones being placed
alternately with the strong ones, the whole wing can be
folded up lengthwise like a fan, and this accounts for its
pointed form as it protrudes from beneath the upper
wing. It is this peculiar method of straight, longi-
tudinal folding that has caused the name Orthoptera
(straight-winged} to be given to the order.
Of course the power of chirping implies the power of
hearing. It is only natural to suppose that the male
crickets would long ago have abandoned the habit of
serenading (if, indeed, they had ever perfected it) if their
mates had not been able to recognise their attentions.
It is rather curious, however, that this insect, notwith-
standing its living in our houses, and the considerable
curtailment of its field of quest for partners consequent
thereupon, should have preserved almost as strongly as
its out-door relative this power of chirping. One cannot
help feeling a suspicion that, if this vigorous minstrelsy
be merely of an amatory nature, either the gentler sex
in the cricket must have become extremely coy, or else
there is a vast deal of wasted energy on the part of their
swains. However that may be, as the power of recog-
nition of this call seems as though it must be an impor-
tant matter in cricket economy, we naturally look about
for some special apparatus suitable for the detection of
sounds, of a much more indubitable character than is
generally met with in insects. And the search is soon
rewarded. It is only necessary to examine the tibia, or
shank, of the fore legs, just below its junction with the
thigh, to find an organ, to which it is difficult to assign
any other function. Here, on the flattened outer edge,
CRICKETS AND EARWIGS
155
is a long, oval, transparent, membranous disc, stretched
over a corresponding aperture in the walls of the leg
(Fig. 48), and exactly opposite it, on the
other side of the leg, there is a similar,
but round and much smaller disc. Be-
tween these two, in the centre of the
hollow shaft of the leg, is a bladder-like
expansion of the main breathing tube of
the leg. Numerous curiously shaped
nerve-endings, having the peculiar form
of those of special sense, are distributed
at this spot, and the action of the compli-
cated apparatus seems to be such that the
membranous disc, vibrating in response to FIG. 48. Fore
,, , . . ,. , , . ,. ., , Tibia of Cricket,
the chirping ot some distant individual, showing audi-
communicates its motion to the air within
the breathing-tube, which in its turn affects the neigh-
bouring nerves, thus enabling the insect to perceive the
sound.
Projecting from the hinder part of the female's body
is a long ovipositor, consisting of a double boring
implement, used in depositing the eggs in suitable situa-
tions. Large numbers of eggs are laid, and the course
of development is similar to that of the cockroach,
the eggs yielding small, active, six-legged creatures,
something like their parents in form. After a series
of moults, these attain by progressive changes, but
without any pause in their activity or suspension of
their functions, the adult size and form, acquiring
wings only at the last moult. The metamorphosis is
thus incomplete.
Two long, un jointed, tapering appendages, pointing
backwards, project from near the extremity of the
abdomen in both sexes. They are furnished abundantly
156 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
with very fine hairs, and are probably sense organs, pos-
sibly giving notice of impending danger from behind.
Crickets are pugnacious insects amongst their own
kind; notwithstanding similarity of habits, however,
they are often found inhabiting the same houses as
cockroaches. But it seems probable that the steadily
advancing armies of the latter insect will, in the course
of time, either exterminate them, or compel them to
take to an out-door life. This latter they are not
averse to doing in the summer time, even now. But
from the way in which they hug the kitchen fire, it
seems as if artificial warmth is essential for them in
the winter.
The family of British Earwigs is a small one, number-
ing at present six species ; no more than two of these,
however, are common, and probably most people know
only one, which to them therefore ranks as the earwig.
This is the insect whose scientific name is Forftcula
auricularia, the well-known species which is to be found
abundantly everywhere. We will take this common
and easily obtained insect as the type of the group, in
the hope that our readers will catch one, and follow
with us the outline of its form; the deviations of
structure which the other species present will then be
easily appreciated. The common earwig is so well
known that only a few words will be necessary to add
accuracy of detail to the rough general idea of its shape
and structure that is already in everybody's mind.
Exclusive of the forceps at the end of the body,
which vary considerably in size, the common earwig
has a length of about half an inch. It has a flat,
rounded, reddish head, carrying a pair of fifteen-jointed
antennae, at the base of which, but outside them, are
the black, oval, compound eyes, which lie flat and do
CRICKETS AND EARWIGS 157
not project from the head. No ocelli, or simple eyes,
are present.
Behind the head is the thin, flattish, shield-like cover
of the first segment of the thorax, which projects at the
sides as a kind of flap, and behind laps over the front
of the wing-covers. It is dark brownish-black in the
centre, with pale yellowish borders. Behind this is a
pair of pale yellowish- brown wing-covers, or elytra,
which are thin and flexible, and lie flat on the back,
but bend down at the sides like those of the house-
cricket; when closed they exactly meet, with a straight
junction along the middle line. Their hinder edge in
reality forms almost a straight line across the body,
but at first sight this does not seem to be the case;
they appear to have two projecting pieces in the middle
of this edge, which remind one of the shape of the two
halves of the cloven hoof of a cow, save that they are
almost flat. These, however, are not part of the wing-
covers at all, as may easily be proved by raising the
latter with the point of a needle, when these projections
are seen to be in no way attached to them ; they belong
in fact to the wings, which, except for this part, are
entirely concealed under the covers. The wings and
their covers when closed, as one usually sees them, are
so short that they conceal little more than the hinder
part of the thorax, and thus leave almost the whole
of the abdomen exposed.
The abdomen is by far the largest part of the insect,
being the longest, the widest, and the deepest, so that
when the earwig walks, the fore part of the body is
elevated a little on the legs, while the abdomen almost
trails along upon the ground (Fig. 49). Nine distinct
segments can be seen above in the abdomen of the male,
but only seven in the female. They are of a mahogany-
OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
brown colour, more or less tinged in places with black.
To the hindmost segment are attached the forceps, by
which feature
alone earwigs
can be distin-
guished from all
other insects.
They differ con-
siderably in shape in the two sexes (Fig. 50). In the
male each forms a curve, so that when closed they
constitute the boundaries of an open oval space. On
the inner edge, near the base, they are ornamented
with small, irregular, tooth-like projections, and beyond
these, on each side, there is a solitary but much larger
FIG. 49. Position of Earwig when walking.
FIG. 50. Forceps of Earwigs. A, male ; B, female. Shown in the position
they take up after death. Magnified six diameters.
one, just where the "legs" of the forceps begin to
diverge. The forceps are strong stout organs, of a
yellowish-brown colour, with the teeth blackish; they
are highly polished, and exhibit in different specimens
considerable variety as to length and degree of curvature.
Sometimes, through accidents in early life, they become
CRICKETS AND EARWIGS 159
twisted, or otherwise deformed. Those of the female are
simpler and less elegant. They do not curve outwards
when closed, but lie side by side as far as the tip, where
they cross one another slightly. In both sexes they are
habitually carried widely open, and pointing obliquely
upwards. The six legs are yellowish and almost trans-
parent, and are composed of the usual parts.
Such is the external aspect of the common earwig,
from which we may now pass to consider the structure
and manipulation of the wings, which are by far the
most beautiful part of the insect, and deserve special
attention. It is very seldom that the wings can be
seen when the earwig is alive, for they are used chiefly
by night, and one can have no conception of their size,
or of the beauty that lies concealed under their covers,
if one merely watches the running insect ; indeed, it is
difficult under such circumstances to believe even in
their existence. To examine the wings properly, the
earwig must be killed. This may be done instantaneously,
and without damage, by plunging it into boiling water.
Let it then be placed on blotting-paper to dry it, and
afterwards laid full length upon some hard surface.
Then let the wing-covers be raised and separated a
little towards the right and left ; a neat little package
will thus be found under each, which, strange as it may
appear, is really a beautiful transparent wing, folded up
into extremely small compass. By dint of care and
patience it may be opened fold after fold, till its full
extent is exposed, when it will be found to spread over
an area some seven or eight times as large as the cover
under which it was hid.
The complete unfolding of the wing is a delicate
operation, and must be managed methodically. The
following method will succeed very well if the directions
160 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
are carefully attended to. The wing-cover having been
removed by raising it behind, and then gently snipping
it off in front with a fine pair of scissors, the folded
wing lying beneath may be carefully seized with forceps,
lifted up, and snipped off in the same way as the cover,
or it may be gently pulled away from its attachment.
As it is too small to be conveniently manipulated unless
when fixed to some support, a card should be provided
on which may be placed, with a small camel's-hair brush,
a very little gum tragacanth, made by soaking a small
piece of, the solid gum in water till it is of the con-
sistency of rather thick paste. The gum will very
quickly dry if only small quantities are used, and leave
no trace behind. It should not be put on the card till
the wing is ready to be transferred to it. The wing
packet may now be placed gently on the gum with the
upper surface downwards. In a few minutes the gum
will be dry and the wing will thus be fixed (Fig. 51, A).
By aid of a needle it will now be found that there are
two layers of material folded upon one another like the
leaves of a book. One of the edges will be observed to
be straight, the other curved ; the straight one is where
the fold occurs. By aid of the needle the flap may be
lifted and turned over along this hinge, and pressed
down on to another small supply of the gum, which
may be put on just in time to receive it. The wing
will now of course be twice as broad as before, and will
present the appearance shown in Fig. 51,^. It will now
become evident that the part that has been turned back
itself consists of two layers bent upon one another, not
in the same direction as before, but with the hinge lying
across the wing at its upper end. The uppermost flap
may easily be bent back across its hinge, when the wing
will appear as in Fig. 51, (7. This last piece should not
CRICKETS AND EARWIGS
161
be fastened down, but simply pressed back. Now comes
the most difficult part of all. The long smoky part
which occupies the whole of one side of the wing, as
it is now displayed, consists of a thin membrane
strengthened by leathery rays, and arranged in a
number of longitudinal folds; and the whole is bent
.-c
FIG. 51. Tour stages in unfolding Earwig's Left Wing. The small letters
represent the same parts in all the figures. Magnified six diameters.
back upon that part of the wing that is attached to
the card at the end opposite to the position of the
former hinge. It may be lifted at d, and as it is raised
the membrane gradually opens itself out in all directions.
The outer edge may be gently pushed back on to the
card, on which another small supply of gum has just
been spread; and if care be taken to keep the narrow
L
162 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
dark triangle -shown at b (Fig. 51, D) in the same line as
the original outer boundary of the wing, the rest will
fall pretty easily into its place, and become neatly spread
out on the card. If it does not settle on the gum quite
smoothly, the wrinkles may be got rid of by using the
needle as a sort of rolling-pin, and rolling it out from
the stouter towards the weaker margin of the wing.
This last operation requires care, as the membrane is
very easily torn. We have now the whole wing ex-
panded with its under surface uppermost. It will keep
any length of time in this position.
To understand why the wing always folds in precisely
the same way, attention should be directed to the
membranous part last exposed. From the joint b
(Fig. 51, D) nervures will be seen radiating like the
framework of a fan. About half-way down its length,
each dilates into a minute swelling ; and as the individual
rays diverge more and more, other shorter ones are
seen to spring up alternately with them, passing out-
wards to the edge of the wing, but not reaching the
hinge aforesaid. These also have each a similar but
much larger swelling, the whole set forming a row
parallel to the hind margin of the wing. The mem-
brane, having been folded like a fan along the lines
of the radiating nervures, all these little leathery spots
are brought up side by .side, and the whole collection is
then bent across at this spot, thereby reducing the
membrane to half its length. A transverse nervure
running parallel to the hind margin, but nearer to the
line of bending than to it, serves to give stability to
the wing when fully expanded. The rays are the
divisions of the anal nervure, the area of which in
most insects forms only a small part of the wing
nearest the body, but in the earwig has so far
CRICKETS AND EARWIGS 163
expanded and encroached as to constitute almost the
whole wing.
The wing readily closes of its own accord at the
transverse bends, in virtue of its own elasticity; but
obviously this must be overcome in opening by some
external force, and it is just here that the forceps at
the end of the body come in usefully. The earwig is
said to use its forceps to aid the operation, turning them
over its back to do so. There is great difficulty in
verifying this statement, owing to the nocturnal habits
of the creature, and its general disinclination to use its
wings. If the wings are opened artificially, the earwig
will often go for hours without closing them, and then
when it finally does so, probably the experimenter is
absent. It is said also to use the forceps in closing the
wings, though from the nature of things it would seem
that they would be less required then. There are some
foreign species whose forceps are as long as the body,
and it is difficult to see how these can make such a use
of their exaggerated tail appendages. The forceps are
of course weapons of offence and defence as well, and
are probably quite as effectual by giving a terrifying
appearance to the insect as by being actually used for
pinching.
The earwig is one of those insects whose meta-
morphosis is incomplete, like the cockroach and cricket.
The eggs are little, oval, yellow things ; they may some-
times be found under stones, &c. De Geer has left an
account of a mother earwig which he found with a
batch of eggs, which implies that these insects, contrary
to the general practice, show maternal solicitude. He
placed the eggs in a jar, scattering them over the
surface of some earth it contained, and then put the
mother in. She immediately set to work picking up
164 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
the eggs with her jaws, and conveyed them all to the
same spot, where she remained jealously guarding her
treasure till the young were hatched. And even then
the cares of maternity were not over, for the young
ones clustered round their mother, running in and out
between her legs and under her body, like chickens
under the mother hen.
When first hatched the young are quite white, except
for the eyes and jaws, which are reddish. They soon
darken, however, into a tolerably uniform pale brown.
They are very similar in shape to the adult, but have
no wings or wing-covers; while their antennae also have
fewer joints, and their forceps are more simple in form.
After several moults, each accompanied by an increase
in size and a darkening in colour, they appear, like the
cockroaches and crickets, with the outline of wings
sculptured on the thorax ; in this form they are called
nymphs or pupae. The next moult yields the perfect
and mature insect, with the full number of joints to
the antennae, wings, wing-covers, and forceps all perfect,
and the sexual organs fully developed. At each moult
the insect is soft and white immediately after casting
the skin, but gradually becomes harder and darker
by exposure.
Earwigs are extremely voracious; they are chiefly
vegetable feeders, and are especially fond of the corollas
of flowers, so that they are a great annoyance to gar-
deners by nibbling the flowers, and thus spoiling their
symmetry. Their method of procedure can be easily
watched by putting a few specimens in a glass jar, and
supplying them with flowers such as the garden nastur-
tiums (tropceolums). The jaws work in the same way as
those of cockroaches, the palpi being in incessant motion
all the time.
CRICKETS AND EARWIGS 165
Earwigs can run up and down the perpendicular sides,
even of a glass jar, with perfect ease, an accomplishment
very essential to their well-being, as their favourite food
so often lies up on the end of a tall stalk. Hence, one
can account for their presence in sunflowers and other
tall flowers, without assuming that they have flown
thither. They habitually rest with legs widely spread
out, and this, no doubt, helps to give them a firm foot-
hold. On the other hand, however, as everybody knows,
they are extremely ready to relax their hold, and drop at
once to the ground if disturbed. They are fond of the
darkness, and it would almost seem as though light were
painful to their eyes, for they habitually endeavour, when
disturbed in the daytime, to poke their heads into some
obscure corner.
Earwigs, although they make a good deal of mess in
the places they frequent by the abundant accumulation
of their excrement, are yet not in themselves of uncleanly
habits, but are in person usually scrupulously clean. If
watched for a little while, they will be seen cleaning
themselves as a cat would do, putting the fore foot up to
the mouth, and then rubbing it round the head ; the
hind foot will also sometimes be bent round underneath,
and brought up to the mouth in the same way, and after
some tremulous movements with the jaws and palpi, it
will be stroked down the back several times, evidently
with the intention of removing particles of dust, &c.
There is a surprising air of intelligence about them as
they perform their ablutions, and a steady, business-like
application to the work, which is highly amusing.
A similar appearance of a power of resource and
vigour of purpose are often to be seen while they are
feeding, especially when an earwig, reaching up to a
flower above its head, and almost too high for it, gives
166 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
it little tugs with a jerk of the head, like a horse pulling
hay out of a rack.
The partiality of earwigs for flowers, and particularly
for dahlias, has led to the adoption of various devices in
gardens to get rid of them, advantage being taken of
their fondness for dark corners. Mouffet, an old writer,
speaks of " ox-hoofs, hogs'-hoofs, or old cast things " as
being set up in his time on sticks as traps by the country
FIG. 52. Tropseolum flower, with Earwig in spur. Part of the flower
has been removed, to disclose the Earwig.
women, to whom earwigs, or erriwiggles, as they call
them, are exceedingly hateful, as he says, " because of
the clove gilliflowers that they eat and spoyl." Crabs'
and lobsters' claws have been used with effect in a similar
manner. Into the recesses of these the earwigs delight
to penetrate in the daytime, just as they have learned to
do into the spurs of the tropseolum flowers (Fig. 52),
since these were introduced into British gardens. But
the creatures are so ubiquitous, so abundant, at least in
CRICKETS AND EARWIGS 167
this country, and so determined to skulk out of sight
in the daytime, squeezing themselves into most out-of-
the-way places, under stones, tiles, bark, leaves, or garden
rubbish of any kind, wherever there are but a few cubic
millimetres of breathing space, that it is next to impos-
sible to devise means which shall be very effectual in
reducing their numbers.
Not only do they damage flowers, but, like wasps, they
are destructive to ripe fruit as well. De Geer fed some
of those he kept with chopped apples, which they eagerly
devoured. Windfalls from the fruit trees in orchards
are soon found out and excavated by earwigs, which
in the daytime curl themselves up in the hollows they
have made in the fruit, sticking close to their booty,
ready to fall to again as soon as the promptings of
hunger and the return of darkness combine to render
a banquet desirable and safe. Though, as a rule,
vegetarian in diet, yet they have no objection to eating
animal food if opportunity serves, and may even, when
hard pressed, resort to cannibalism ; but experiments
seem to indicate that they will be prepared to suffer
great extremities before falling back on such a practice.
They may be kept for a long time in numbers together,
without showing any disposition to attack one another,
even if the supply of food be scanty. They are not
often found indoors, but if accidentally introduced,
may sometimes do irretrievable damage. The entomo-
logist especially has to be on his guard against them.
If they do manage to gain access to his setting boards,
they have no hesitation in trying their jaws upon the
insects that may be stretched on them. The antenna
of dried insects, particularly of certain special kinds,
seem to be peculiarly delicate morsels, and the earwig
makes for them first. One collector records that a single
168 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
earwig passed along his boards, and in two days removed
the antennae from thirty-six moths all belonging to one
species, while examples of other species were left un-
touched. The entomologist who hunts for moths at
night by smearing the syrupy liquid, technically called
"sugar," on the trunks of trees, as a bait, often finds, on
revisiting his trap, that crowds of earwigs have found
out the store, and are revelling in the tempting sweets.
Notwithstanding their retiring habits, earwigs do not
escape the attacks of parasites. Westwood states that
there is\ a kind of ichneumon-fly which attacks the
common earwig, depositing eggs in its body, the con-
tents of which are devoured by the larvse hatched from
them ; and I have myself found a large fleshy maggot,
apparently that of a flesh-eating Dipterous fly, inside the
body of a full-grown earwig. Internal insect parasites,
such as these, whether Hymenopterous, like the ichneu-
mon-fly, or Dipterous, like the maggot above referred to,
when attacking insects which pass through a complete
metamorphosis, usually become mature while their host
is in the chrysalis condition, and thus the latter does
not itself reach maturity, but perishes while still a
chrysalis through the development and exit of the
parasite. Here the very fact of the host's being in a
quiescent condition, and taking no food, is the means
of sounding its own death-knell, the parasite absorbing
its vital tissues, while it has no power of repair. The
parasite is complete master of the situation, and, in
consequence, it is the rarest thing imaginable for the
host to struggle on to maturity. But with such an
insect as the earwig, the case is different. Here we-
have an insect which has no quiescent pupa stage, but
continues to take food throughout life, thereby to some
extent perpetually neutralising the effect of the parasite's
CRICKETS AND EARWIGS 169
attacks; and it is hardly surprising, therefore, that
in such a case the maturation of the parasite should
be delayed till much later in the life of the host, and
that the latter should thus be able to reach maturity in
safety. As a factor in the perpetuation of its race,
however, it would probably be just as devoid of influence
as if it had died in pupahood, as the parasite would
probably subsist at the expense of its reproductive
organs, and thus render it barren. The exit of the
parasite, under such circumstances, would be an inte-
resting event to witness, and one would be glad to know
the precise point at which it escapes, as well as the
means by which it bursts through, for the skin of the
perfect earwig is much harder and tougher than it is
during the larval and pupal stages, and the parasite is
therefore much more effectually imprisoned. Besides
these insect parasites, a Filaria, or threadworm, has
been discovered infesting the common earwig, as well as
a Gregarina, a creature of much simpler organisation
even than the threadworm.
The systematic position of earwigs has been a matter
of considerable controversy. They constitute a very
compact family the Forficulidce and were placed by
Linne in the order Coleoptera, or Beetles. In some
respects they certainly do exhibit a tolerably close
resemblance to one particular group of this order, viz.,
the rove-beetles, a set of carrion and dung-feeders which
are technically called Braclielytra. These are beetles of
narrow elongate body, with very short wing- covers, so
that the greater part of the abdomen is exposed, instead
of being, as is generally the case, concealed beneath the
over-arching elytra, or wing-covers. It was this small
size of the flying apparatus which suggested the name
of the group, Brachelytra being Greek for " short
170
OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
elytra.'* Some of the larger species of this group
(Fig. 53) are about the size of earwigs, and in conse-
quence of their elongate form and
short elytra, are very generally mis-
taken for them, the resemblance being
sometimes heightened by the presence
of short, pointed, projecting organs at
the end of the body in the position of
the true earwig's forceps. But the
resemblance is after all only a super-
ficial one. No true projecting forceps
are ever developed in the rove-beetles ;
their wings are differently veined and
differently folded from those of ear-
wigs ; and lastly, and most important
of all, the life-histories of the two
groups are utterly unlike, for the rove-
beetles pass into a quiescent chrysalis
stage before becoming perfect insects,
which is never the case with earwigs. By later systema-
tists, the earwigs were removed from the Coleoptera
and put into the Orthoptera, amongst the cockroaches,
crickets, grasshoppers, and locusts, forming, however, a
distinct section of the order. In the nature of their
mouth-organs and the style of their metamorphosis they
do indeed resemble these insects, yet they are so peculiar
in the matter of the wings that their location with the
Orthoptera did not satisfy all naturalists ; consequently
Kirby, in 1823, removed them and made them into a
separate order by themselves, under the name Der-
maptera, an unfortunate piece of nomenclature, since
this term had previously been adopted as the name of
the whole order which is now called Orthoptera. West-
wood therefore proposed to replace the name Dermaptera
FIG. s^.Philonthus
ceneus, a Rove-
Beetle, sometimes
mistaken for an
Earwig. Magni-
fied three dia-
meters.
CRICKETS AND EARWIGS 171
by Euplexoptera (well- folded wings), in allusion to the
complicated system of wing-folding which distinguishes
earwigs; but the pendulum has again swung round
in the opposite direction, and they are now again
grouped, at least by professed entomologists, in the
order Orthoptera.
We may conclude with a brief reference to the
peculiarities of the popular names of these well-known
pests. It is remarkable that in almost all the languages
of Europe they are known by names which have some
connection with the word "ear." It is always the ear
" worm," " borer," " piercer," " twister," or something
of that sort names which obviously reflect the vulgar
and wide-spread superstition that the earwig creeps into
the human ear, and causes death by effecting thence an
entrance into the brain. It is curious that so manifestly
absurd an idea should ever have gained such wide
credence so wide indeed as to have been incorporated
into the traditional lore of all the most civilised nations
of the world and still more so, that it should even yet
show strong signs of vitality. Such a notion, of course,
explains the popular prejudice against the earwig, which,
indeed, is not an insect that has ever succeeded in
inspiring either admiration or respect ; on the other
hand, superstitious fear, hatred, or contempt have gene-
rally been the feelings with which it has been regarded,
and even its name was once used as a scornful epithet,
a synonym for an " inquisitive informer " no doubt in
allusion to its habit of poking its head into corners.
CHAPTER XI.
HOUSE FLIES AND BLUEBOTTLES.
THE swarms of flies which in the summer months
invade our houses, and disturb our peace, both of mind
and body, are of several different kinds. Popularly,
the smaller species are usually called indiscriminately
"house flies," or, indeed, simply " flies," and the larger
ones " bluebottles," whereby names that, strictly speak-
ing, belong to certain species only, are vaguely used for
a variety of forms more or less distinct. In the heading
to this chapter we have deferred to popular usage, and
intend to include under these two well-known names all
members of the family Muscidce that render themselves
obnoxious to us in our indoor life, either by their
persecution of our persons or their raids on our belong-
ings. At the outset, therefore, it may be as well to
make some attempt at discriminating species, that we
may know exactly what insects we are talking about.
The Muscidce are an enormously large and very
puzzling family of the two-winged flies, which constitute
the order Diptera. Only a very few species of this great
family can in strictness be included as household pests,
and first on the list may be placed the house fly proper
(Musca domestica). This is a medium-sized and incon-
spicuous insect, which, at first glance, seems to have no
special adornment of any kind, but to be simply of a
more or less uniform greyish black, with transparent
172
HOUSE FLIES AND BLUEBOTTLES 173
wings slightly tinged with grey. But this first impres-
sion will be corrected by a closer scrutiny, which will
discover many quiet beauties of one kind and another.
Two of the chief items which determine the personal
appearance of a fly belonging to this group are stiff
projecting hairs (or rather bristles), and what at first
looks rather like a kind of rime; but on microscopic
examination turns out to be crowds of exceedingly
minute hair-like or scale-like bodies lying close to the
skin. The latter are mainly instrumental in producing
whatever colour forms patterns or markings upon the
otherwise frequently dull bodies of flies, while the vary-
ing size and number of the former exercise an important
influence upon the general aspect of the insect, and make
all the difference between a sharply defined and an
indistinct outline of the body.
The skin of the house fly, on the upper surface, is in
itself chiefly black ; but the rimy covering (called col-
lectively " tomentum "), which is scattered pretty thickly
over it in most parts, gives it a greyish spotted appear-
ance on the abdomen, causes also the resemblance of
four dark lines of the thorax, where bare spaces are
left, and beautifully adorns the face with a bright
silvery covering. The large compound eyes are of a
vinous red, and present a pretty contrast to the soberer
colours of the rest of the insect. Underneath, the fly is
quite pale, i.e., the ground colour of the skin itself is
pale, as well as the tomentum. Its bristles are not
sufficiently large or numerous to become a noteworthy
feature in its aspect. It has no power of stinging or
piercing, and, therefore, is not a bloodsucker, and simply
worries us by the tickling sensation it produces when
trying to sip the perspiration from our hands or face,
or when simply running over the exposed parts of our
174
OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
bodies. It further annoys us by the dark spots of
fluid excrement (fly-spots) with which it disfigures any
object over which it runs. It is notably the fly of the
sugar-basin, for sweets seem very attractive to it; but
it is not addicted to the habit of laying eggs on cold
FIG. 54. Wing of Homalomyia canicularis.
meat. It is most abundant in the end of summer and
towards autumn.
Very much like this insect, but rather smaller, is a
fly which was formerly known as Musca domestica minor,
the " smaller house fly." It is now called Homalomyia
FIG. 55. Wing of Musca domestica.
canicularis, and may be distinguished from M. domestica
by its paler and much more pointed body, which is of
a conical shape, and especially by the arrangement of
its wing-nervures. To appreciate this distinction, the
accompanying diagrams (Figs. 54 and 55), representing
HOUSE FLIES AND BLUEBOTTLES 175
the wings of the present insect and Musca domestica,
may be compared. The chief difference will be seen
towards the tip of the wing. If the third nervure on
the disc of the wing in this part be compared in the
two, it will be found to make an obtusely angular bend
forward to the tip in Musca, but only to run forward to
the margin without any angular bend in Homalomyia.
This feature, taken in conjunction with the others here
mentioned, will greatly aid the identification of this little
fly. The male, which is by far the commoner sex, has
at the base of the abdomen large pale patches, which
are semi-transparent; hence, when the fly is sporting
about on the window-panes, as it delights to do, the
light shines completely through that part of the body,
the pale patches looking like windows provided for the
inspection of its internal anatomy. This little fly,
especially the male, delights to hover and sport about
in our rooms, and is exceedingly common. It has
brilliant red eyes in exquisite silvery settings, like its
larger relative, save that the colours are more intense.
Of a more robust type than this, with broader and
shorter body than even the house fly proper, is an
insect which may be at once distinguished by the
curious shape of its proboscis, which projects straight
in front of its head like a sharp-pointed needle. It is a
far more troublesome creature than the other two, as a
glance at its vicious-looking proboscis would immediately
suggest. It is one of the so-called biting or stinging
flies, and has earned an evil reputation by its persistent
habit of piercing the skin for the purpose of sucking
blood. It will, of course, not be confounded with the
gnat or mosquito, which belongs to a totally diffe-
rent family, and one to which we are not now alluding.
This stinging fly is named, very descriptively, Stomoxys
176 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
calcitmns, the " sharp-mouthed stinger." If seen by it-
self, it would probably be mistaken for a house fly, unless
the extraordinary nature of the proboscis were noticed ;
but when the two insects are placed side by side, many
other differences become apparent, at least to the trained
eye. Stomoxys is not only smaller than M. domestica,
but it carries its wings wider apart when not flying, and
is more thickly covered with a greyish tomentum ; its
eyes, moreover, are not so red. But the strongest point
of difference lies in the proboscis, and in the disagree-
able habits of which that is the surest indication.
These three flies constitute the majority of what in
houses are commonly regarded as house flies, or are
simply called flies.
But, besides these, there is the far larger bluebottle,
blow-fly, or meat-fly; this is usually one or other of
two closely allied species, Callipliora vomitoria and C.
erythrocephala. A bluebottle is easily recognisable by
its much larger size, its proportionally broader body, of
a shiny blue or violet colour, and the loud buzzing with
which it heralds its approach. Like its companions, it
is red-eyed, but its face is not silvery, only a narrow
margin of silver being visible behind each eye, while all
the lower parts of the face are more or less of a pale
reddish-yellow ; it is also more hairy than the other
species. When in good condition, it may be seen to
possess a tomentum like the others ; and this, in certain
lights, imparts a curious appearance to the steely blue
of the skin, reminding one of the lustre of shot silk.
These flies are, in the house, the chief assailants of cold
meat, of which they not merely suck the juices, but an
which they deposit great numbers of eggs, known as
" fly-blows," whence will issue maggots whose one busi-
ness will be to demolish the solid parts. Thus each
HOUSE FLIES AND BLUEBOTTLES 177
of the above species, all of which are exceedingly common
household pests, is distinguished not merely by a charac-
teristic form, but also by habits peculiar to itself.
Besides these, several other species also sometimes
invade our houses, and it must be remembered that in
all cases it is an invasion : none of them are home-bred,
but all have spent their early life and passed through
their metamorphoses out of doors. It would indeed be
a disgrace to our civilisation if the interiors of our houses
afforded any suitable breeding-ground for such creatures :
they are all nurtured amidst putrid and refuse matters,
and the mere sight of their hideous, worm-like larvae,
commonly known as maggots or gentles, is enough to
fill one with disgust and loathing. Most valuable, how-
ever, are their labours in this stage of their life : they
are the great scavengers of the earth, and contribute in
no slight degree to the purity of its atmosphere. Of the
other Muscidce, that, in their adult condition, more or
less frequently occur indoors, we need not stay to speak
now, but will reserve a few remarks about them till the
end of the next chapter. The above five species will be
the only ones we are concerned with at present, as they
will probably be the chief representatives of the family
met with in towns. In the country, of course, many
others will be added to the list, since an open window
in such situations proves to not a few of the other rest-
less two-winged insect inhabitants of fields, hedges, and
ditches, a temptation too strong to be resisted. But
even in such cases, the above species will greatly pre-
ponderate. Some years ago, I was staying, in the month
of August, at a country house which was suffering from
an exceptionally severe plague of flies : they swarmed
in every window, of which there were not a few, and
made an intolerable buzzing. As they died their carcases
178 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
accumulated on the window-sills. On examining the
heaps of bodies, a considerable variety of species was
discovered, and several were noticed whose presence was
quite unexpected ; still, out of many scores of specimens
examined, by far the largest proportion consisted of the
one species, Stomoxys calcitrans.
As all five of the flies mentioned above belong to a
single family, the Muscidce, they exemplify the same
structural type, and, except in a few matters of detail,
one may be taken as representing all. To illustrate the
main points in a fly's structure, therefore, we will select
the bluebottle or blow-fly (CaUiphora), as it is the largest
of the indoor species, and can always be easily obtained.
We will suppose that we have before us one of these
flies, which has been killed without crushing or other-
wise damaging the body. This can be done by means of
the fumes of chloroform, cyanide of potassium, or crushed
laurel leaves, any of which will, in a few moments, render
such an insect insensible, while a longer exposure to the
poisonous vapours will kill it entirely, and leave it in a
good condition for examination.
The distinguishing feature of the order is at once
noticed in the single pair of membranous wings placed
horizontally over the back when at rest, and extended
at right angles to the body when in use. As the Diptera
are the only order of insects in which a single pair of
wings is normally present, there is very little difficulty
in distinguishing them, and there are very few other
insects that can possibly be mistaken for them. Each
wing consists of a thin double membrane, strengthened
by six longitudinal hollow ribs or "nervures," of which
the larger contain breathing-tubes (tracheae) and nerves.
The nervures are not scattered at random, but always,
as in other orders, follow a definite course, which varies
HOUSE FLIES AND BLUEBOTTLES 179
somewhat in different genera or even species, but is con-
stant in the same, and the general plan is sufficiently
definite to permit of the individual nervures being identi-
fied and named, so as to be used as aids in classification.
A comparison of the accompanying drawing of a blue-
bottle's wing (Fig. 56) with those of the larger and
smaller house flies given on p. 174 will further show
what sort of differences may be expected in this respect.
The present plan is very much like that of the house fly
proper, and the chief difference is in the prsebrachial
nervure (the third 011 the disc of the wing towards the
FIG. 56. Wing of Bluebottle (Calliphora).
tip). In the present species it will be found first to bend
at right angles towards the nervure above it, and then
to slope towards the margin, while the little cross
nervure (discal transverse) which joins it to the next
below, meets it very much nearer its upward bend than
in Musca domestica. The front edge of the wing is
bounded by the strongest of all the nervures, the costal,
which is furnished, towards the base, with a row of short
bristles. To the naked eye the wing appears to con-
sist only of membrane, and to have no clothing of any
kind ; but microscopic examination shows a multitude of
i8o OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
extremely minute hairs distributed all over its surface,
but very evenly and regularly disposed. There are also
larger hairs on the nervures, which may perhaps be
sensory in function.
The wings can be vibrated with marvellous rapidity,
sufficiently so to produce a recognisable musical note.
Attempts have been made to determine the number of
vibrations per second by observing the pitch of the note.
The usual pitch of a fly's hum is somewhere about the
notes E or F, and the corresponding number of vibrations
would b$ something between 320 and 350. The charac-
teristic buzzing of our bluebottle, however, is not due
to the vibration of the wings, nor, like the shrill song of
the grasshopper, or the squeak of the water- beetle, to
the friction of one part of the body against another j for
Landois discovered that the thorax of a bluebottle con-
tinued to buzz with scarcely diminished vigour after the
separation of the wings, legs, head, and abdomen. There
is also a large and beautiful yellow - banded fly, called
Sericomyia borealis, not uncommon in our mountainous
districts, which has by several observers been noticed to
"sing" whilst at rest. The Rev. J. Hellins, of Exeter,
thus writes of it in December 1881: " One day during
the past autumn I went with a small party for a walk
on Dartmoor, near Okehampton. After some miles of
rough tramp up and down several tors, as the afternoon
was drawing on, we found ourselves on a heap of stones
on the top of Cawsand, and were glad to rest there
awhile. Before long, a piping sound was audible, and one
of the party said the wind was whistling; but to this
explanation I demurred, having some recollection of
having heard the noise before ; so, looking round, I soon
saw several large flies resting on the stones, and was
presently able to convince my friend that the sound
HOUSE FLIES AND BLUEBOTTLES 181
came from them." In the case of the bluebottle, at
least, and also probably in that of the other fly as well,
the sound-producing organ is connected with the thoracic
spiracles or breathing apertures, and the harsh and stri-
dulating character of the sound suggests what appears to
be really the case, that it is caused by the vibrations of
hard solid bodies. A hemispherical cavity intervenes
between the spiracle and the main tracheal trunk, and
in this are situated some hard chitinous processes, by
the vibrations of which it is believed that the sound is
produced.
Closely connected with the remarkable power of the
wings is the peculiar development of the thorax, which is
so characteristic of the Diptera. Roughly we speak, with
reference to insects in general, of the second apparent
division of the body as the thorax ; but it by no means
follows that the part occupying that position and most
distinctly visible when viewed from above is hornologically
the same in all cases. The complete thorax is composed
of three segments, called respectively pro-, rneso-, and
meta-thorax ; but in the more highly specialised groups
of insects, these three are not equally developed, and
sometimes it is one, sometimes another of the three
parts, the development of which on the upper surface
preponderates over that of the rest. Thus in the Cole-
optera (beetles) and Hemiptera (bugs), what is frequently
called the thorax on the dorsal view, is in reality only
the pro-thorax ; in the Hymenoptera (bees, &c.) it consists
mainly of both meso- and meta-thorax, and in the Diptera
almost entirely of the meso-thorax. This is the division
to which the fore-wings of all insects are attached ; and
as in the Diptera this is the only pair of wings that is
developed as such, the peculiar conformation of the thorax
of a fly finds herein an explanation. The chief thoracic
182 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
muscles are not attached to the wings themselves, but
run from one part of the walls of the thorax across to
the opposite wall, so that the greater part of the vibra-
tion of the wings is produced by alternating changes in
the shape of the thorax.
.fJifc
FIG. 57. Right Winglet of Bluebottle (Calliphora).
At the base of each wing is a double membranous scale,
the alula, or "winglet" (Fig. 57); each of its divisions
has a rounded and thickened outer edge, and the membrane
is extremely closely covered with minute hairs similar to
those on the wings, the larger part having in addition
some long flexible hairs arranged pretty regularly but
not closely, in rows. The free edge of each is also very
closely fringed with delicate hairs. When the wings are
stretched out for flight, these scales form a continuation
of their area as far as the centre of the hind margin of
the thorax; hence the inner scale has, as shown in the
accompanying figure, a sloping edge where it fits under
the side of the triangular termination of the thorax. But
when the wings are closed, the outer scale is folded over
the inner side along their line of junction, as well as
under the wing itself, so that they lie one upon another
like the leaves of a book. It is impossible to say what
HOUSE FLIES AND BLUEBOTTLES
183
is the significance of these alulce. Though connected with
the wings, they can hardly have much influence upon
flight, and the peculiar arrangement of the double fold,
together with the remarkable profusion of hairs, seems
to suggest some other function. They reach their highest
development in the family Muscidce.
A little distance beneath the larger fold of each alula,
and entirely overarched and concealed
by it, is an organ (Fig. 58) which is
highly characteristic of flies. It consists
of a slender stalk carrying a globular
expansion at its outer end, and near
the point of attachment of the stalk to
the thorax are three minute sets of
rows of papillae with hairs. These
stalked globes are called halteres,
balancers, or poisers. They are most
conspicuous in such flies as the daddy
long-legs, or crane flies, and in the
bluebottle are reduced to extremely
small dimensions, so that they are not
likely to be noticed at all unless care-
fully looked for. It is curious that the
development of the alulce is always in
inverse proportion to that of the hal-
teres. Though so minute, their struc-
ture is sufficiently elaborate to suggest
that they must be of considerable impor-
tance in the economy of the insect, and
many different functions have been more or less con-
jecturally assigned to them. Their names, as above,
indicate a notion once current that they helped the insect
to maintain its equilibrium during flight ; they have,
again, been considered to be organs of hearing, or to be
FIG.
Bluebottle (Calli-
pkora). Showing
Basal Papillae and
Nerve.
184 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
in some way connected with respiration. Situated as
they are on the meta-thorax, they appear to be the
representatives of hind wings.
The legs of the bluebottle consist of the usual parts,
and there is nothing of special interest or importance
till we come to the feet (Plate I.). All the tarsi
consist of five joints each, and are terminated by a pair
of curved claws, under each of which is placed a fleshy
pad, fringed with hairs, and between the pads is a
straight sharp-pointed spine. In these pads, or " pul-
villi " aa, they are called, lies the secret of the power
flies possess of running over surfaces in any position,
often in defiance of gravity. A fly finds no more diffi-
culty in running up or down a vertical window-pane,
or across a ceiling, than in walking on the upper side of a
horizontal surface. This is not the case with all insects,
many of which would struggle in vain to mount a
perpendicular glass surface; hence it cannot depend
entirely upon the claws, for these are developed in all
insects, and would therefore give all equal facilities.
No doubt the claws are of some help when the surface
is at all irregular, as, for example, on a ceiling; but
they can hardly be of much use in travelling over glass.
We therefore look to the pulvilli for the explanation.
It was at one time supposed that their efficiency de-
pended upon atmospheric pressure, and that they acted
like suckers, the edges being closely applied to the
surface, and the centre part pulled up so as to create
a vacuum beneath. This explanation, however, seems
to be negatived partly by the absence of any mechanism
to produce such a vacuum, and partly by the presence
of great numbers of minute hairs on the under surface,
which could hardly do otherwise than interfere with
such a close application of the edges of the pad to the
HOUSE FLiES AND BLUEBOTTLES 185
surface as is required by the hypothesis. The mechanism
which brings about these curious results must rather be
sought for in the hairs themselves. The pads are, in
fact, hollow, and contain, protruding into their cavity,
the nipple-shaped ends of a sac which occupies more or
less of the interior of the last four tarsal joints. This
sac secretes a perfectly clear viscid liquid, which exudes
into the pad, and from that into the hairs which project
from it. These hairs, which are said to number about
1200 on each pad, are hollow, terminate in tubular
orifices, and are kept full of the secretion. Hence the
entire surface of each pad is crowded with a number
of viscid points; and as there are in all twelve pads,
two to each foot, these, when applied to the surface
over which the fly is walking, produce an adhesion
sufficiently strong to support the slight weight of the
insect. The viscid liquid soon hardens on exposure to
the air, but no doubt remains liquid while covered by
the pad. Thus the insect is, as it were, at every step,
temporarily glued to the surface over which it is travel-
ling, and leaves on a clean surface little rows of dots
as its footprints. This does not necessarily involve any
violent strain in wrenching the foot off again, since the
tarsus is raised obliquely, and each row of hairs is
therefore successively detached, somewhat in the same
way as a piece of court plaster may be easily removed
from the hand by taking it up at one end and raising it
obliquely, though it might resist a considerably greater
strain if merely pulled at one end without raising, all
the points of contact then combining to resist the
strain.
There yet remains the head of our bluebottle to be
examined. It is a broad almost triangular plate, united
to the thorax by a junction so slender and delicate that
:86 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
the whole head is readily rotated round it through an
angle of more than ninety degrees either way ; hence
often happens in the dead and dried specimen a catas-
trophe most unwelcome to the possessor of a collection ;
a jar or jerk, or an accidental touch, instantly severs
the head from the body and ruins the specimen. This
unenviable notoriety flies share with dragon flies. Under
the microscope the head is a really handsome object,
especially when viewed with reflected light. The multi-
tude of detail, the quaintness of form of many of the
parts, and the harmony of coloration throughout, com-
bine to make it an object to which only a long and
attentive examination can do justice.
The sides are almost entirely occupied with the
enormous and strongly convex masses of the compound
eyes (Fig. 59), of a colour varying from bright red to
dark brown. This appearance is caused by the pigment
beneath showing through the transparent cornea; be-
hind, they are delicately bordered with silvery tomentum.
The facets, very numerous, and for the most part hexa-
gonal in outline (Plate I.), cannot be made out at all with-
out the help of a lens, and then only when a good light is
playing on them. Their form is best seen by stripping
off the transparent cornea, and examining it with trans-
mitted light. It depends on the sex what proportion
the area of these eyes bears to the whole surface of the
head. In the males the eyes spread farther towards the
centre of the face than in their partners, and in some
flies, as, e.g., the smaller house fly (H. canicularis) ,
the eyes of the males come completely into contact on
the forehead, those of the females remaioing some
distance apart. Flies whose eyes meet in this way are
said to be " holoptic " (whole-eyed).
On the summit of the head, or crown as it is called,
HOUSE FLIES AND BLUEBOTTLES
187
there is a small raised area, in which are situated three
shining hemispherical knobs of a ruby-red colour.
These are the simple eyes, or " ocelli " (Fig. 60). They
are placed so as to form a triangle with the apex point-
ing forwards, an arrangement in which, as already
pointed out, flies resemble bees, wasps, and other
FIG. 59. Head of Bluebottle, the hairs having been removed.
e, eyes; a, antennae; p, proboscis partly unfolded ; m, maxillary palpi.
Hymenoptera. In the centre of the triangle two stout
bristles stand more or less erect, like guardians of the
ocelli, as perhaps they are, and others, larger still, stand
facing one another at the sides, forming the commence-
ment of two rows, which run down the face. Quite a
forest of much smaller bristles rise amongst the ocelli,
188 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
forming a sort of brushwood undergrowth to the large
ones. As these bristles readily break off, they can only
be seen in their perfection in comparatively fresh speci-
mens. It is a curious fact that the large bristles are
very constant in their arrangement and position, so that
names have been assigned to them, and the plan of their
distribution has been called by Osten-Sacken "chseto-
taxy," i.e., bristle arrangement. There are several
groups of flies that are entirely devoid of these bristles ;
and it has been pointed out that those flies that possess
them are\far less cautious in their flight than those that
are without them ; and, as an instance of this, we may
FIG. 60. Profile view of head from above. /, face ; e, eyes ; o, ocelli.
notice the headlong way in which a bluebottle dashes
about, flinging itself often with great violence against
the window-panes. On the other hand, a bristleless fly
would proceed much more cautiously, and would be
prone, which a bluebottle is not, to poising itself in the
air on the wing. The best example of this may be seen
in the beautiful yellow-banded " hoverer flies," or " wasp
flies," as they are sometimes called (Syrp/ridce), which
delight to hover round flowers, maintaining themselves
in one position by an extremely rapid vibration of the
wings, which gives them the appearance of a distinct
dark body, surrounded by a sort of misty halo. Now
HOUSE FLIES AND BLUEBOTTLES 189
the flies that have no bristles rarely use their legs for
locomotion ; they fly rather than run from place to place ;
whereas the bristly flies use their legs quite as readily
as their wings, and hence run more risk of collisions
with other objects than do those whose time is spent
chiefly on the wing. In consideration of these distinc-
tions, it has been suggested that the bristles are protec-
tive in function, and serve as a sort of buffer in case of
collisions. Whatever may be thought of this idea, the
constancy of both number and arrangement of these
bristles in the species in which they occur seems to
indicate that they have some important function to
fulfil in the economy of the insect.
Below the platform on which the ocelli are situated,
there is, in the female, a broad flat area between the
compound eyes, which slopes outwards and forms the
ascent to the summit of a conical protuberance, which
is best seen when a profile view of the head is .obtained
from above. It is a kind of avenue, bordered on each
side by the rows of bristles above referred to. In the
male, and more particularly in those species which are
holoptic, this avenue is, of course, largely encroached
upon by the eyes, and in the latter case becomes merely
an elongated triangle. Below this bordered avenue is
a considerable depression, the outline of which is egg-
shaped ; at the upper and narrower end of this are
attached the antennae, which are of a most peculiar
form, quite characteristic of the particular section of
the fly order to which the bluebottle belongs.
Each antenna consists of three joints, the two basal
ones being short and conical, and the outer one long
and parallel-sided, and far larger than the others. Near
the end of this nearest the head, springs, at an angle,
a sort of feathery plume, consisting of two or three
190 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
minute joints, followed by a long tapering bristle, from
the sides of which project other similar but smaller hairs.
This style of antenna, viz., three joints and a terminal
bristle, is the usual type amongst a large section of the
order Diptera, which, from the shortness of the organ,
are called Brachycera (short-horns), the other division,
Nemocera (thread-horns), containing only the gnats,
mosquitoes, daddy long-legs, &c., in which the antennae
are of the ordinary tapering, hair-like type. In the
bluebottle, the terminal joint of the antennas is excep-
tionally large, and is probably connected with the
wonderful acuteness of the sense of smell which dis-
tinguishes the species. Its whole surface is crowded
with tiny hairs, and between these the skin is covered
with enormous numbers of extremely minute clear dots,
some 17,000 or 18,000 having been estimated by Lowne
as the number for each antenna. Scattered amongst
these are also a few larger ones of a similar character :
they are minute pits, the larger of which at least are in
communication with nerve-threads.
That antennae may be organs of smell seems to be
indicated by experiments on the part of several observers.
Take, for example, one of Sir John Lubbock's. Speaking
of an ant which had been tethered to a board, he says,
" I approached the feather of a pen very quietly, so as
almost to touch first one and then the other of the
antennae, which, however, did not move. I then dipped
the pen in essence of musk, and did the same; the
antenna was slowly retracted and drawn quite back.
I then repeated the same with the other antenna. If
I touched the antenna, the ant started away, appa-
rently smarting. I repeated the same with essence of
lemon and with a second ant. The result was the
same." Now, when we remember the annoying cleverness
HOUSE FLIES AND BLUEBOTTLES 191
bluebottles manifest in finding out where the meat-safe
is kept, and that, too, not merely should the meat be
actually becoming tainted, and therefore distinctly odori-
ferous, but even before with our blunter senses we can
detect any odour at all, except on close approximation,
it seems clear that the olfactory sense must be highly
developed. When again, bearing this in mind, we
notice the exceptional development and peculiar struc-
ture of the third joint of the antennae, and couple with
this such experiments as that referred to above, it seems
highly probable that the antennas, of whatever other
use they may be, at least serve the bluebottle in lieu
of a nose. The very position of the antennae, too, in
front of the face, gives the fly an advantage in following
the scent, and thus we may think of this hyaena of the
insect world pursuing its hunt for carrion, and, blood-
hound-like, following the trail by trusting to the
guidance of its antennal nose, searching for that which
is not merely to serve as temporary food for itself,
but also, and chiefly, as permanent subsistence for its
progeny.
All the lower part of the face is red, and the two
bulging cheeks are thickly whiskered over with black
bristles. Below the hollow in which the antennae are
lodged is a wide groove, which receives the mouth-
organs when they are not in use. These are all in one
piece, the so-called "tongue" or "proboscis," which is
hinged to the head at the hinder part of the groove.
As it is gradually opened out, the two bright reddish
club-shaped maxillary palpi are seen guarding the
aperture. Plate II. shows a photograph of about two-
thirds of the "proboscis," taken from a microscopic
slide. This is all that is generally mounted, the basal
part being cut off because it does not so readily flatten
192
OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
as the rest. As this preparation is much flattened out,
and only its chitinous parts are present, all the rest
having been dissolved away, it should be compared with
the organ in its natural condition, in order to under-
stand the action of the
different parts. The
proboscis itself consists
of three regions (Fig.
61), the basal part by
which it is hinged to
the head, a central part
bounded above and be-
FIG. 61. Side view of Proboscis, partly low by hard chitinous
opened, b, basal division; c, central
rn:
division ; I, labella) ; m, maxillary palpi,
portions, and thirdly
the two flexible lobes
which form the extremity of the whole organ, and are
called labellae. These will, of course, be closed up like
the leaves of a book, and not opened out as seen in the
photograph, and their true shape and exquisite structure
cannot be made out in this position. Each lobe contains
about thirty channels, some of
which spring from an inner
marginal tube on each side,
and all are open to the air by
a narrow groove along the
under surface. Their form is
maintained, and their walls
kept in position by numbers
of incomplete chitinous rings,
in the form of a curve, pointed at one end and forked at
the other (Fig. 62) ; these are placed alternately in
opposite positions, so that, on each side, the forked ends
of one series alternate with the undivided ends of the
other. This arrangement gives the channels somewhat
g'
0.2
J= o .ii
:i
S o
Ml
w "2 5
> s
HOUSE FLIES AND BLUEBOTTLES 193
the appearance of breathing tubes or tracheae ; they differ,
however, in being open on their ventral faces, and in
having the strengthening rings, not merely incomplete
and unconnected with one another, but also much stouter
and farther apart than would be the case with tracheal
tubes. On account of their superficial resemblance to
the latter, however, they are called pseudo-tracheae. The
photographs in Plate IT. show their microscopical appear-
ance. They are, of course, not breathing organs, but
serve as a sucking and straining apparatus, for conveying
to the mouth the juices on which the fly feeds.
They communicate, either directly or indirectly,
through the two inner marginal tubes, with the mouth,
whence they can receive a supply of saliva, to be used
in moistening the object which is to yield nutriment
and dissolve whatever soluble matter it contains, the
resulting liquid being then conveyed along the channels
to the mouth. For example, when a house fly brings
its proboscis down on a lump of sugar, saliva is poured
out and dissolves a little sugar, and the syrup is then
sucked along the pseudo-tracheae into the mouth, which
is situated at the junction of the two labellae. Similarly
the juices of flesh, whether cooked or uncooked, can be
extracted by the bluebottle. The supply of saliva is
very copious, and the glands which secrete it are corre-
spondingly large, extending right down into the abdomen.
If a fly be held between the fingers so that the move-
ments of the proboscis can be seen, there will soon be
observed a clear drop of saliva collecting over the inner
surface of the labellse, and retained there partly by the
aid of numerous hairs round the edges.
But there is at the same time another set of organs
used in the taking of food, consisting of some fifty or
sixty forked rods called " teeth," placed in a radiating
N
I 9 4 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
manner just round the mouth. When the labellse are
closed, or only partially open, the teeth are concealed
between their folds, and cannot therefore be brought
into use. But when the labellse are opened to the fullest
extent, they are used for rasping the surface of the food,
thus aiding in exposing new surfaces to the action of
the saliva. It follows, therefore, that repeated attacks
of the teeth and the tips of the chitinous rings of the
pseudo-tracheae upon any delicate surface, must produce
numberless little scratches and asperities, which will be
more or.less detrimental to the aspect of that surface.
This, quite apart from fly-spots, i.e., dabs of excrement,
is a source of damage to pictures, the covers of books,
or other objects the exposed surfaces of which are
delicate enough to receive impressions from such en-
graving tools as the fly's proboscis carries. The extreme
flexibility and power of movement the labellae possess
can easily be observed by holding the fly between finger
and thumb, when they will be set in incessant motion,
their outline continually changing as first one part and
then another is bent, now up, now down. Thus the tip
of the proboscis can be closely applied to any kind of
surface, into the little irregularities of which the flexi-
bility of the labellse easily enables it to fit. Flies, Musca
domestica in particular, seem to have the power of ex-
tracting nutriment from the most unpromising materials,
witness the perseverance with which, on a hot summer's
day, they keep dabbing their proboscis down upon one's
coat as they course hither and thither over its surface ;
for it can hardly be supposed that they would so per-
sistently keep up the practice if they found that they
derived no benefit from it.
OHAPTEE XII.
HOUSE FLIES AND BLUEBOTTLES Continued.
THE description given in our last chapter of the mouth
organs of the bluebottle will not apply without consider-
able modification to our fifth species, Stomoxys calciirans.
This, it will be remembered, is the blood-sucking fly
that has the annoying habit of piercing our skin in a
manner which reminds us of gnats and mosquitoes. No
one can look attentively at this fly without suspecting it
of possible powers of annoyance : the needle-like pro-
boscis, projecting straight forwards, like a lance ready
for action, looks vicious enough, and by the weapon of
which it forms the sheath, the insect can certainly make
a sharp and painful puncture. Apparently, however, its
powers in this direction have been somewhat exagge-
rated ; such, at least, is my own experience, and although
the puncture is irritating enough at the time, there are
no painful after-effects, as in the case of gnats and
mosquitoes.
With the naked eye we see in this proboscis nothing
more than a black, slightly curved, rod-like organ, pro-
jecting nearly horizontally from the lower margin of the
head. A hand lens shows it as a somewhat cylindrical
polished rod, enlarged towards the base, and with the
free end considerably more rounded and less acute than
it appeared before. The compound microscope exhibits
it as a highly polished, deep brownish- black body
195
196
OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
(Fig. 63), closely covered, from the base to near the tip,
with minute grooves marking it transversely; at the
base these are at right angles to its length, and this
direction is preserved till about the middle of the more
slender part, where they
begin to slope towards
''/////'* *^ e ^P' ^ e inclination
^- **- gradually increasing up
to the place where they
cease, a little before the
tip. At the hinder end
of this hard polished
body is a funnel-shaped
piece running up perpen-
dicularly to attach the
whole organ to the head.
On the front edge of this
are the maxillary palpi,
differently shaped from
those of the bluebottle,
being more uniform in
diameter throughout, and
FiG.63.-Proboscisof^omo^ C aZ- there f O re slenderer and
citrans. in, maxillary palpi.
less club-shaped. At the
tip of the proboscis are the labellse, fringed with hairs,
as in the bluebottle ; but they are reduced to very small
dimensions, and scarcely exceed the rod-like portion in
diameter. This is all that can be seen superficially.
If, however, the organ be severed from the head and
pressed, it is soon discovered to be grooved, and from
the groove on the upper surface shoots out a long blade,
like that of a penknife, with an exceedingly sharp tip.
This lancet is the weapon that does the mischief when
the fly settles on one's hand for a draught of blood.
HOUSE FLIES AND BLUEBOTTLES 197
It is sufficiently strong to be able to perforate a thin
garment and reach the skin beneath. Under a high
power of the microscope its whole surface, except the
extreme tip, is seen to be beset with excessively minute
hairs.
All the five species of flies of which we have hitherto
been speaking pass through practically the same series
of changes in the course of their life. The long oval
eggs are produced in great numbers, and are laid on the
substances which are to serve as food for the larvae.
This is different in different cases. The bluebottles
select flesh, either raw or cooked, and even wounds in
the living animal are not exempt from their attacks.
The frightful story of "Old Prue " in "Uncle Tom's
Cabin " has had its counterpart in real life, and the
torments of the wounded on a field of battle have some-
times been increased in this loathsome way. In the
summer time no animal substance can be long exposed
without being visited by these and other flesh-devouring
flies; but if it is in the open air, the chief visitor is
likely to be the flesh-fly, Sarcophaga carnaria, a voracious
devourer of animal matter, which, however, rarely enters
houses. It is quite different in appearance from these
others, being prettily chequered with black and white.
The larger house fly does not select meat, but deposits
its eggs amongst stable refuse, as the larvae feed upon
horse dung, of which they eat the softer decaying parts
and leave the bits of hay and straw. The smaller house
fly (H. canicularis) selects decaying vegetable matter;
but Stomoxys, like M. domestica, prefers the manure
heaps.
Closely connected with the extraordinary nature of
the food of the Iarva3 is the rapidity with which these
flies pass through the earlier stages of their life. As an
198 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
influence tending towards shortness of larval life, we
may no doubt reckon the fact of the great abundance
of food amidst which the larvse find themselves imme-
diately on being hatched ; they have literally nothing to
do but to eat. No exertions of their own are necessary
to procure food; it is all ready to hand. And, again,
the condition in which the food is found putrefaction
having probably already set in necessitates haste if the
grubs are to anticipate the ordinary chemical processes
of nature, and seize upon the food material while it is
still in tjie condition of organic compounds, and before
it has passed into the greater simplicity of combination
which restores it to the inorganic world and renders it
unfit to support animal life. The eggs, therefore, are
hatched very soon after being laid, only a few hours
intervening between their deposition and the appearance
of larvse. The eggs of the flesh-fly above mentioned
(Sarcophaga) are, indeed, hatched before they are laid,
i.e., while still in the abdomen of the mother, so that
they are laid as living maggots ready at once to com-
mence the work of their life. Most of these flies, too,
are gifted with extraordinary fecundity, a fact which,
while it adds to the annoyance we receive from the
perfect insects, at the same time considerably increases
the counterbalancing benefits conferred on the world at
large by the continued and extensive consumption of
putrefying matter.
The eggs are of a long oval shape, opaque, and of a
dull chalky colour. Great numbers are laid in a single
batch ; a solitary house fly, which had been enclosed in
a bottle, was observed by Dr. Packard to lay 120 eggs
in the course of fourteen hours. These were depo-
sited in piles, or stacks, loosely at the bottom of the
bottle. Twenty-four hours after the completion of the
HOUSE FLIES AND BLUEBOTTLES
199
laying, some had already hatched, and the rest very
soon followed suit. As such a degree of fecundity was
manifested when no manure was at hand, and the
circumstances were therefore unfavourable, it seems pro-
bable that the number would have been exceeded in the
open under natural conditions. If a little fresh horse
dung be exposed at an open window during the month
of August, the flies will soon discover it, and may be
watched as they proceed to lay their eggs in all the little
crannies they can discover.
The larvae are all similar in appearance (Fig. 64),
whitish footless grubs, known as maggots or gentles.
FIG. 64. A, Newly hatched Larva of House fly ; B, More advanced
Larva of same ; C, Puparium of same. (After Packard.)
Their shape is rather difficult to determine by observa-
tions on the living specimens, as the skin is soft and
flexible, and they are in continual motion, contracting
or relaxing their muscles, and thereby perpetually alter-
ing their form. When still, they are of a somewhat
conical form, the anterior end being the smaller of the
two. They subsist not merely on the juices, but on the
more solid matter of the mass of corruption amongst
200 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
which they find themselves, and hence, unlike the perfect
insects, are furnished with a biting apparatus, which is
in the form of two strong hooks. These are cast off
when the pupa stage is reached, and left behind with the
pupa case on the emergence of the perfect fly. The
trifling amount of locomotion necessary to the maggot
is performed by muscular contortions of the body, aided
by the hook-like jaws, and by rows of tiny hooks at the
junctions of the segments. The larval life, as we have
already said, is but short; that of the house fly, for
example, lasts about a week, during which time the
maggot is said to change its skin twice, altering its form
to some extent on each occasion. By the end of this
time it is full-grown, and passes into the pupa condition,
which in about another week gives place to the perfect
form. The larvae are apparently tenacious of life, and
can continue to exist even under very unfavourable con-
ditions. Thus it is recorded in the French Naturalists
of the maggots of a bluebottle, that they had been put
into an aquarium to serve as food for the newts, and two
days afterwards they were still alive, and some had even
changed into pupae, though at the bottom of the water.
They are very dependent on temperature, and unless
there is sufficient warmth their development is delayed,
and they become more or less dormant ; hence all speci-
mens that are in the larval or pupal condition at the
approach of winter have their further development
stopped, and remain in a torpid condition till the return-
ing warmth of spring enables them to complete their
cycle of changes.
The pupae are extremely peculiar. With most in-
sects, it is customary for the pupal condition to be
assumed by means of a casting of the last larval skin.
Such, however, is not the case with these flies; but
HOUSE FLIES AND BLUEBOTTLES 201
instead, the last larval skin simply hardens and is not
shed at all, the true pupa being formed inside it. In
most cases, the larva burrows into the ground before
accomplishing this change. The hardening process ap-
pears to be completed very suddenly ; the skin contracts,
especially in length, and becomes hard, brittle, and dark
coloured, until what was a few minutes before a soft,
wriggling, conical maggot, becomes a short cylindrical
body with rounded ends, enveloped in a hard reddish-
brown skin, faintly marked with a succession of grooved
rings transversely to its length, and utterly incapable
of the slightest movement. Evidently, therefore, this
so-called pupa is not strictly comparable to the chrysalis
of a butterfly or moth, notwithstanding some superficial
resemblance. Each, it is true, is covered by a hard
reddish-brown skin; but that of the moth is the true
pupa skin, whereas that of the fly is not a pupal skin
at all, but the last larval skin, and corresponds to the
thin, crumpled, and collapsed skin that is left at the
tail end of the moth's chrysalis. The true pupa skin
of the fly is to be found inside, in the shape of a thin
membrane in which the contained pupa is enveloped.
Such a pupa is described as coarctate, and the brown
skin is called the puparium.
When the fly is ready to issue from the pupa-case, it
is found to be furnished with a large membranous pro-
tuberance on the head between the eyes. This is the
outer surface of a hollow sac, which is capable of great
distension, and is used in pushing off the. top of the
barrel-shaped pupa case, which separates along the line
of one of the circular grooves. By muscular contractions
the fluids of the body are forced into this sac, distending
it, and causing it in turn to press against and ultimately
force off the lid, thus liberating the fly. In Fig. 65 the
202
OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
insect is shown just after the lid had been forced off, with
its body still enclosed within the lower part of the pupa
case, and the distension of the frontal sac
is still at its height. The fly soon wriggles
out of the case, and, while its body is still
soft and pale, runs about with its wings in
a crumpled and baggy condition ; as it thus
runs along, the membranous sac on the
head alternately dilates and contracts,
being connected with the breathing-tubes.
But as the skin gradually hardens and the
wings become fully expanded, the move-
ments of this sac become less perceptible,
and finally, when the hardening process is
completed, and the fly is ready for flight,
all power of dilatation is lost.
It is impossible to speak definitely with
regard to the duration of the life of the
perfect fly ; but it would appear to be longer than that of
the larva and pupa, except when these exist through the
winter. Bluebottles are often caught with very ragged
edges to their wings, and with their proper proportion
of hairs much reduced, both of which mutilations seem
to imply a good deal of knocking about in the world. In
addition to this, bluebottles, at least, hybernate, and are
thus able to exist from one year into the next, though
probably only a very small proportion of the specimens
of a given season survive in this way. During the
winter they stow themselves away in the most perfect
concealment in unsuspected corners and crevices, from
which, however, an unexpectedly warm and sunny day
in spring will at once entice them. Most people have
probably noticed the sudden appearance of flies on
such occasions, and their equally sudden and complete
FIG. 65. Fly
inPuparium,
lid removed.
a, Frontal
sac.
HOUSE FLIES AND BLUEBOTTLES 203
disappearance as soon as the weather becomes cold
again, when they return to their hiding-places. In cold
weather they appear to be partly paralysed, and have
scarcely any power over their wings, and but little over
their legs. They are truly creatures of the sunshine.
Like many other insects, the two house flies are
subject to the attacks of a parasitic fungus which
destroys great numbers of them, especially towards the
end of autumn. We sometimes see the corpses of such
as have met this fate glued to the window-panes in the
attitude of life, with legs widely spread and wings
raised, as if in preparation for flight, but with a white
halo on the glass all round them, and with bodies pale,
unhealthy-looking, and distended. The spores of the
fungus, which are excessively minute and are present
in the air, are carried against the fly's body ; and such
as strike its under surface may become adherent, when
each spore sends out a long tubular projection which
penetrates the skin and enters the body. Once here, its
host's doom is certain, for it meets with suitable nourish-
ment in the shape of the fluids of the fly's body, by aid
of which it will speedily propagate itself until its victim,
drained of its life support, finally succumbs. The thread-
like tube first produces a series of detached rounded
bodies, something like the cells of the yeast plant.
These cells, which have an indefinite power of self-
multiplication, are carried by the blood to all parts of
the body, and thus the disease spreads. They, in their
turn, give rise to a number of branching tubular threads,
similar to those of the earlier stage, which in process of
time penetrate the skin. Each thread which thus makes
its appearance outside gives rise to a sort of head, which
contains spores like those with which the series started.
These are cast off with considerable force, and multitudes
204 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
of them no doubt perish, while others are ultimately
wafted against the bodies of other flies to deal destruc-
tion among them as among their predecessors. The
particular species of fungus which makes havoc with
the house flies is called Empusa muscce, and is one of
a group which are distinguished by their habit of sub-
sisting upon living insects. The maturation of the
fungus involves the death of the fly, the fluids of whose
body serve as food for the parasite. Under its attack,
the fly becomes gradually feebler, and finally quite unable
to move, ai^d then the viscid secretion from the pads on
the feet hardens and glues the insect to the surface to
which it is clinging, while the fungus spreads round it
and leaves some of its spores adhering, so as to form
the halo above described.
Besides the five species of which we have hitherto
been speaking, there are several other Muscidce that
frequent our houses, though perhaps none to so great
an extent as those already described. One of the
commonest of the less familiar species is Cyrtoneura
stabulans, which is at times almost abundant enough
to be classed with the other five. It is a very widely
distributed insect, occurring in the neighbourhood of
dwellings, not only in Europe but in America, and at
the Antipodes as well. As its name imports, it is fre-
quently abundant in stable-yards. It is a robust, dirty
grey insect, in size ranking next the bluebottles. The
thorax is distinctly marked with four dark longitudinal
streaks, consisting of the usual bare patches amongst
the grey tomentum ; the tip of the triangular hinder
termination of the thorax is reddish, and the legs,
except the tarsi, are of a clear yellowish or reddish-
brown. The neuration of the wings (Fig. 66) is very
similar to that of H. caniciilaris, but the chief nervures
HOUSE FLIES AND BLUEBOTTLES
205
are pale at the base. These four characteristics will
probably enable the insect to be recognised. At the
moment of writing, it is sharing the window-panes
with the smaller house fly and a bluebottle.
The habits of this fly are apparently very varied. Its
larvae have been usually said to live on rotten fungi, but
no doubt they also eat decaying vegetable matter of
other kinds, and, judging by their abundance in stable-
yards, apparently they devour manure as well. But
that they are not confined to such diet is proved by the
following observations of Mr. J. E. Fletcher: writing
in October 1883, he says, "For several years I have
FIG. 66. Wing of Cyrtoneura stabulans.
grown a patch of shallots, being uniformly successful
with them until last year, when they were moderately
attacked by Diptera, which, however, I was glad to find,
as I was desirous of breeding them. I noticed two
species of larvae, one much larger than the other ; and
when the images appeared in the autumn and following
spring, they proved to be Cyrtoneura stabulans and
Phorbia cepetorum, Meade. This year about a peck of
shallots were planted, which should have yielded a crop
of, say, seven pecks ; instead of which they yielded little
more than a quarter of a peck, the rest having been
utterly spoiled by larvae of the Dipterous insects named."
206 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
As the pupae of these insects are formed underground,
no doubt in the above instance members of the autumn
brood survived the winter in the pupa condition, and
the ravagers of the second year were the offspring of
these ; hence the advisability, apart from any other
reasons, of not sowing onions two years in succession
on the same ground. As many of the Muscidce are
destructive to living plants, their larvae either forming
galls, mining in the leaves, or causing, as in the instance
quoted, a rottenness of the part affected, there is nothing
unusual in the above occurrence, except that an insect
which is generally credited with being a dung-feeder
should unite with such habits that of feeding upon living
plants. But a much more remarkable change of diet
has been recorded of the same insect. It has been
found by Professor Biley to be an internal parasite of
the so-called cotton-worm of America, its maggots feed-
ing upon the viscera of the insect in the same way as
those of the ichneumon flies. Such parasitism again is
a habit of other Muscidce, and the peculiarity in the
present case consists simply in the abandonment of a
vegetable for an animal diet, for which it is difficult to
conceive the inducement.
By far the handsomest of all our household Diptera is
the greenbottle, which, though extremely abundant out
of doors, is only an occasional visitant indoors; it is,
however, closely associated with man and his surround-
ings. Its body is of a most brilliant metallic golden -
green colour, whence its popular name. Its scientific
name is Lucilia Coesar; its habits are similar to those
of Calliphora. It attacks meat, but is more frequently
seen on raw flesh than on cooked, and preferably sucks
that in which decomposition has already set in. It is
a great pest to fishmongers, and a piece of stale fish
HOUSE FLIES AND BLUEBOTTLES 207
is sure to be a great attraction. It also frequents
excrementitious matters in large numbers. It is as prolific
as the bluebottles, laying from 300 to 600 eggs, and,
like them, is in its larval condition essentially a carrion-
feeder. That carrion is its most natural food has been
decisively shown by the experiments of M. Portchinski,
a Russian entomologist, who placed eggs of three
different species of flies on each of three different food
substances, and carefully watched the results. The
species experimented upon were the present insect, one
of the bluebottles (C. eri/throcephala), and one of the
flesh-flies allied to the Sarcophaga already mentioned ;
and the foodstuffs were meat, cattle-dung, and decaying
mushrooms. The eggs soon hatched, and in all three
cases the maggots derived from those that had been
placed on the meat throve rapidly, and soon completed
their metamorphoses ; while all the rest grew but slowly,
and finally perished, with the exception of one batch,
viz., those of L. Ccesar, which had fed on the cattle-
dung; these, however, grew much more slowly than
those of the same species that had been fed on the meat ;
still they survived, and finally completed their meta-
morphoses. All that had been placed on the rotting
fungus died without exception. Carrion, therefore, is
the natural food of the larvae of the greenbottle, though
they will subsist on excrement, and those of the blue-
bottles are still more emphatically carnivorous.
Though the greenbottles and bluebottles are so diffe-
rent in appearance as perfect insects, their larvae are
very similar, and in fact, as Sir John Lubbock has
pointed out, the form of a larva is dependent not only
upon the type of insect it is destined to produce, but also
upon its environment, so that those which live under
similar conditions may be expected, for that reason, to
208 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
be more or less alike, however dissimilar the perfect insects
may be. This law is strikingly exemplified in several of
the carrion-feeding flies, whose larvse are sometimes al-
most indistinguishable, though the flies are totally unlike.
As regards adornment, L. Caesar is really a splendid
insect, and so far well deserves a detailed examination.
But beauty is only skin-deep, and Ccesar is rather like a
whited sepulchre; so that on the whole it is best to
avoid too close contact, as its food usually betrays its
disgusting nature by imparting more or less of an
offensive ddour to the insect. If one should gain
entrance to a room and become annoying by its buzzing,
and if death be in consequence decreed against it, it
is well to remember that it should on no account be
crushed ; for if it has come direct from a meal, its
digestive tube is pretty sure to be filled with a most
foetid fluid, which, when exposed, will not be slow to
make its presence disagreeably manifest. And in this
connection it should be noted with regard to flies in
general, that if they are to be killed by crushing, it is
not sufficient to crush the abdomen. The most vital
part is the thorax ; here are situated some of the largest
parts of the nervous system; serious damage done to
these nerve centres is irremediable, and death follows at
once. Not so, however, with regard to the head and
abdomen : the latter may be crushed, or even removed
entirely, without by any means destroying life, and a fly
which has received such damage to its abdomen that
part of its contents protrude, will still continue to run
about as though nothing had happened. The destruc-
tion or removal of the head of course puts an end to the
action of the organs of sense, unless any such capability
is located in the halters, but it by no means deprives the
insect of the power of movement. The decapitated head,
HOUSE FLIES AND BLUEBOTTLES
209
which contains those ganglia that may be regarded as
equivalent to a brain, soon ceases to show any signs of
life; but the body, if touched, will for hours after
decapitation respond to the stimulus by reflex move-
ments of the legs and wings. The ganglia in the thorax,
therefore, are all-important as the centres of animal life,
and it is by crushing them that the life of the insect is
most effectually and speedily destroyed. There is all
the more reason for this with the Muscidce than with
other insects, because of the remarkable concentration
of the nervous system in that family. The whole of the
ganglia belonging to that part of the nerve-chain which
lies behind the head have become fused into one mass,
and that mass is situated in the thorax (Fig. 67); it
may easily be discovered in a blue-
bottle by removing the skin from
the upper surface of the thorax, and
then cutting away the masses of
muscle which are thus exposed, as
well as that part of the alimentary
canal which lies immediately beneath
them. The nervous mass is then
seen as a whitish body from which
threads pass in various directions.
This dissection should be performed
under water.
There is a very pretty fly called
Pollenia rudis, which is often
common on the window panes in
the spring, before M. domestica
appears. It is about the size of the latter species, and
hibernates in the house, whence its presence on the
windows. It is of a shining brownish-black colour, the
thorax being sprinkled with thin golden hairs in addition
FIG. 67. Thoracic Gan-
glia of Bluebottle.
(After Lowne.)
210
OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
to the black bristles which are scattered over the body
at large. The abdomen is very pretty, but is difficult to
describe, inasmuch as the distribution of colour varies
with the position in which it is seen. On each segment
there is a pattern of patches with zig-zag outlines, some
of which appear ashy grey, and the rest deep brownish-
black ; but it depends entirely upon the light which of
them shall appear grey and which brown. The pale
tint is that of the tomentum, while the dark is the real
colour of the skin, and according to the angle at which
the insect is placed, the one or the other becomes more
plainly visible. Thus, if the fly be turned towards the
source of light, the patches marked a 2 and b 1 in Fig. 68
appear brown, and those
marked a v b 2 pale grey ; but
if it be turned round in the
opposite direction, the colours
are reversed, and a 2 ^ appear
pale and a x b 2 dark.
Very little is known of the
earlier stages of this fly, but
the perfect insect is often
common, and occasionally
even becomes a great annoy-
ance. The worst instance
on record is one from the
United States, where the insect is called the "Cluster
Fly." Professor Riley gives the following extract from
a letter descriptive of the visitation which occurred at
Geneva, N.Y. : " They were at once a terror to all neat
housekeepers, and from their peculiar habits a constant
surprise. People soon learned to look for them every-
where in beds, in pillow-slips, under table-covers,
behind pictures, in wardrobes, nestled in bonnets and
FIG. 68. Abdomen of Pollenia
rudis, female.
HOUSE FLIES AND BLUEBOTTLES
2It
hats, under the edge of carpets, &c. A window-casing,
solidly nailed on the wall, when removed, showed a solid
line of them from top to bottom. They like new
houses, but are also found swarming in old unused
buildings. But most of all they like a clean dark
chamber, seldom used, and, if not disturbed, form in
large clusters about the ceilings. Under buildings,
between earth and floor, they are often found in in-
credible numbers."
Flies are subject to the persecutions of animal as well
as vegetable parasites, some of which attack them
externally and some internally. The chief external one
is a reddish kind of mite (Fig. 69). These creatures
may be found, principally
during the summer months,
on different parts of the
bodies of the flies, especially
on the under surface ; here,
in the neighbourhood of the
attachments of the legs, and
at the junctions of the body
segments, there are plenty
of places the joints of the
armour, as it were where
the skin is thin enough for
the mites to pierce with
their snouts. They show a
good deal of enterprise in
endeavouring to secure the
best places no easy matter
when there are a good num-
ber of them and when one has plunged its proboscis
into the flesh, it adheres most tenaciously, and its body
may be lifted up and pushed from side to side without
FlQ. 69. Mite Parasite on Fly.
Taken from body of Pollenia
rudis.
*I2 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
causing it to relax its hold. The flies, though so
particular in removing from their persons the slightest
trace of inanimate foreign matter, by sweeping and
scraping themselves with their legs, yet submit patiently
to the presence of their living burdens, even wjien they
get into places whence they could, one would imagine,
easily be removed. For example, a Musca domestica
that has just at the moment of writing alighted on the
window-pane, flew about unconcernedly with a large
mite clinging to its face in such a way as one might
suppose would have seriously interfered with the use
of both eyes and antennae. It did not seem, however,
in the slightest degree incommoded. Another external
parasite sometimes, but not so commonly, found, is an
animal belonging to a group closely allied to the mites,
viz., the book-scorpions or chelifers. It is a little
reddish creature with a pair of great pincers in front
like a scorpion, but differing in that the body does not
taper away into a tail, but ends abruptly.
Amongst the internal parasites are various kinds of
small hymenopterous insects allied to the ichneumon
flies ; and an instance is recorded of an exceedingly fine
and hair-like nematoid worm, of the enormous length
of three inches, having been taken from the abdomen
of a house fly. M. Fourment, who records the fact,
states that, notwithstanding that the parasite had caused
a considerable enlargement of the body of its host, the
latter did not seem in any way inconvenienced in its
flight.
We have now enumerated eight species of Musddce
which are more or less intimately associated with man,
and which, either by reason of some peculiarity % in
their economy, or simply in consequence of their nu-
merical abundance, often become a source of trouble and
HOUSE FLIES AND BLUEBOTTLES 213
annoyance in the premises we occupy, damaging our
food or other property, attacking our persons, or worry-
ing and harassing our nervous susceptibilities. Some
interesting questions arise in connection with this
undesirable intimacy of relation, but many more ob-
servations will be needed before any very satisfactory
answers can be given to them. It is not easy to under-
stand, for instance, why these particular species of flies,
rather than any others, have elected to attach themselves
to man, and to follow his fortunes, as some of them have
done, all over the world. It is not that they are so
different from other flies that one would necessarily
expect them to behave in an exceptional way ; neither
in structure nor even in habits, except in this one
particular, is there anything which will broadly dis-
tinguish them from allied species which do not trouble
us. There is absolutely nothing that would enable a
person ignorant of the species to separate, in a given
assortment of flies, those that are household pests from
those that are not. We get one from one group, another
from another, and so on, but they do not form a compact
and isolated company. Their association with man, it is
true, is not so complete as that of several other insects,
such as the cockroach, the clothes-moth, and the bed-
bug, which spend their whole lives under the shelter of
our houses, and propagate themselves generation after
generation, without ever troubling themselves about the
outside world. As already mentioned, it is only in the
last stage of their life that, as a rule, we are annoyed
by these flies; but perhaps this limitation may be re-
garded as making the association all the more remark-
able. That as the perfect stage is reached in each
succeeding generation, the instinct to betake itself to
the abodes of men should regularly recur to an insect
214 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
born and bred in the open air, is, it would seem, more
remarkable than that the association should be a con-
tinuous and permanent one. As the nature of the food
on which they are reared necessitates, as a rule, that
they should pass through their earlier stages exposed,
it is rather curious that the perfect insects should
not confine themselves to similar localities, but should
also enter our dwellings, and often in such surprising
numbers.
Nor is it, again, that they are so much more abundant
than all other species, and that, therefore, mere excess
of numbers causes them to be the species represented
indoors : that, in other words, we simply get the over-
flow from outside. Of course they are abundant this
is implied in their being pests but there are other
species equally so, of which it is the rarest occurrence
to find a specimen in the house. Take, for example,
the case of Sarcopliaga carnaria, the flesh-fly, which has
been several times referred to already. This is an insect
of most extraordinary fecundity : it is said that as many
as 20,000 eggs have been found in the ovaries of a single
female, and. in consequence, it is an extremely common
fly; but though its habits are similar to those of the
bluebottle, and it swarms round human dwellings, it is
very seldom seen indoors. The facts of its distribution
seem to show that it is far less dependent on man, and
far more inclined to ignore his movements, than our
household pests. It is an extraordinarily hardy insect,
and shows wonderful powers of adaptation to circum-
stances. Even in the matter of food, which is often
such a critical point with a larval insect, it can stand
some degree of variation, feeding not merely on meat,
either fresh or putrid, and wounds and ulcers on men
and other animals, but even on decaying vegetable
HOUSE FLIES AND BLUEBOTTLES 215
matters, and dung as well. Even if half-starved, it will
still undergo its metamorphoses, though, of course, the
perfect insects will be dwarfed. Like several others,
it can even withstand the action of the digestive fluids
of the stomach and intestine of living vertebrate animals.
Bernard introduced it artificially into the stomach of a
dog, but it passed along the intestine and was voided
in the usual way alive. Portchinski's similar experiment
with a frog had the same result. In the case of a little
song-bird, however, the larva was dead when voided,
but still undigested. That so common and so hardy a
European fly should be one of the most likely to follow
man's lead and migrate with him to other parts of the
world, would be only what was to have been expected ;
and yet, though the five flies mentioned at the com-
mencement of the last chapter, together with Cyrtoneura
stabulans, are as common in the United States as in
Europe, though not indigenous there, S. carnaria has,
according to Osten-Sacken, not yet been introduced into
America, so that four centuries of European communi-
cation with the New World have not sufficed to import
this abundant but independent species.
The curious observations of Portchinski have an im-
portant bearing on the subject, though perhaps they
will hardly justify the conclusions he has drawn from
them. He finds that carrion-feeding flies are, as a
group, enormously prolific, while dung-feeding species
are much less so : for example, Calliphora, a carrion-
feeder, lays from 300 to 600 eggs; while Musca domestica,
a dung-feeder, lays only about 120 (Fig. 70). These
differences, he argues, are connected with the different
conditions, as regards the struggle for existence, under
which the contrasted species live. There are, accord-
ing to him, comparatively few species of carrion -feeding
216
OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
flies in our regions, so that they have it all to them-
selves, with little competition, the numerous beetles
that have similar habits being said to feed quite as
much on the fly-larvse themselves as on the carrion.
Their action must, from the nature of the case, be
rapid, and the supply of food he regards as plentiful.
All these conditions .favour multiplication, and have
contributed towards producing the extraordinary fecun-
dity for which the insects are noted. There is one other
FIG. 70. A, Portion of Left Ovary of Bluebottle, containing about eighty
Eggs. , Side View of Portion of Eight Ovary, showing Distribution of
Tracheae, or Air-Tubes (), to the Organ.
point which lessens the competition, viz., that the
different species to some extent succeed one another
during the summer in point of time (i.e., in the larval
form), instead of being contemporaneous. This was
proved in the following way: he laid out of doors
the dead bodies of small vertebrates, such as rats, birds,
&c. The flies soon laid eggs upon them, and these
were then collected and the maggots bred to maturity,
whereby the relative numerical abundance of the species
was ascertained. One of the chief results thus estab-
lished was that Cynomyia mortuorum, an out-door
HOUSE FLIES AND BLUEBOTTLES 217
flesh-fly, was abundant in spring; but Calliphora vomi-
toria, a bluebottle, did not begin to appear till about
the beginning of June, when the former species had
begun to decline. Later on, the proportions were re-
versed, the bluebottle being in excess, and the flesh-fly
scarce. Thus everything favours the fecundity of the
carrion-feeders.
But with the dung-feeders the case is different. Here
there is much competition, there being large numbers of
dung-feeding flies, as well as beetles, which latter do not
feed on the former. The supply
of food, too, Portchinski re-
gards, curiously enough, as less
abundant. These are circum-
stances which place fecundity
at a disadvantage, and hence
have sprung the more moderate
powers of multiplication pos-
sessed by the dung-feeding flies.
But here, again, a very curious FIG. 7 i. Distribution of Colour
e * _ on Abdomen of Muscat, cor-
circumstance has arisen, which vina. The clear parts are
yellow, the shaded parts black.
gives an extra advantage to the
less prolific species. There is a fly which is structurally
very like M. domestica, differing chiefly in the brighter
colour of its abdomen (Fig. 71), which is of some tint
of yellow or brown. Its name is Musca corvina, and
it frequently hibernates in houses, and may therefore
be reckoned amongst the household species. Notwith-
standing the close resemblance between these two
species in their perfect condition, as well as in that
of the full-grown larvae, there is a most extraordinary
difference in the circumstances of their development.
While the house fly lays 120 eggs, M. corvina lays only
24 ; but they are much larger, and hence the larval life
2i8 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
is able to be shortened. This is done at the expense
of one of the two transformations. M. domestica, as
before mentioned, passes through three stages in its
larval life, while M. corvina has only two, the second
of the three being, in its case, omitted altogether. This
enables it to come to maturity sooner than its relative,
and hence gives it an advantage which counterbalances
its low degree of fecundity. In some such way as this,
Portchinski considers that more prolific flies have been
weeded out by less prolific ones from amongst the dung-
feeders, so that the majority are now of the less prolific
type. But M. domestica, with a degree of fecundity
which, though low as compared with the carrion-feeders,
is yet high for a dung-feeder, is apparently an exception
amongst the latter, and herein M. Portchinski finds the
explanation of its close association with mankind, the
bond of union being, in fact, in this particular species
probably closer than in any other, for the house fly
is said to be rarely found far from human dwellings.
According to the above theory, the house fly has
sought the protection and additional resources of man's
society to aid it in its struggles with less prolific insects,
which, by their shorter larval life, would otherwise have
hurried it out of existence. Whatever may be thought
of these speculations, and it would obviously not be
difficult to raise objections to them, still the observations
on which they are based have revealed some very curious
facts which require to be accounted for in some way or
other, and which invest with special interest the history
of the relations between insects and man. Farther
researches by the same investigator show that the
developmental history of an insect may depend very
much upon climate, the same kind of fly developing in
a different way in northern and in southern latitudes.
HOUSE FLIES AND BLUEBOTTLES 219
However exclusive the tastes of their larvae may be,
some at least of these flies seem to be almost omnivorous
in their perfect stage, and therefore, possibly, food is
one attraction which allures them into our houses ; but
then again comes the question, "Why these alone?
Why do not the abundant supplies man's providence
stores up become equally enticing to other closely allied
forms, whose tastes and needs one would suppose to be
similar ? " Flies generally manage to find out the room
in which the provisions happen to be placed, though
the aspect of the apartment has certainly quite as much
to do with the numbers that find their way thither as
the mere presence of eatables. If the room be bright
and sunny, the flies will swarm, while the same provi-
sions in a dull and shady room will be almost ignored.
And again, apart from the occasional intrusion of an
unwelcome bluebottle making straight for the cold meat,
the bringing in of meals does not usually produce any
noticeable increase in the number of flies in the room ;
often many of those that are there seem supremely
indifferent to the viands that may be displayed, and
continue to amuse themselves by sporting about the
windows, mirrors, picture-frames, or gas pendants. We
must not forget, however, that what is not food to us
may yet be so to them, and they appear to find in
these various household objects some sort of nutriment,
to judge from the industrious way in which, for example,
they will travel over the painted window-frames, dabbing
their proboscis down with as much persistence and
energy as if they were making a most luxurious feast.
What is it they get? Is it the varnish, or the oil with
which the paint was mixed, or is it the thin film of
miscellaneous matter dirt we call it which gradually
accumulates on every exposed surface ? On any of these
220 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
suppositions, one would imagine that there would be
at least as much to be obtained out-of-doors as inside,
and probably a good deal more.
Such species as hibernate in the house, like Pollenia
rudiSj no doubt come in for the sake of shelter from
winter's cold. These gradually accumulate, instead of
suddenly coming in a swarm. An instance has been
recorded of two other species of the same genus swarm-
ing in the same building, to the exclusion of others,
for seven successive years. The suggested explanation
was that\ there were certain conditions which facili-
tated the entrance of the flies, but rendered their exit
difficult.
CHAPTEE XIII.
GNATS, MIDGES, AND MOSQUITOES.
UNDER these names are included a variety of small,
delicately constructed flies, the very types, in the insect
world, of slenderness, grace, and fragility. But fairy-
like elegance of form is no guarantee of gentleness of
disposition, and it is united, in the case of some of these
insects, with a persistence and hardihood in attack, and
a bloodthirstiness of nature, that make them some of the
most intolerable of pests. In this country, it is true,
we are now, for reasons which will appear later on,
tolerably free from annoyance on their part; but as
they are world-wide in distribution, ranging from the
tropics to the Arctic zone, there are many less-favoured
lands, in which they still exist in countless myriads,
and in which their extermination would be hailed,
whether justifiably or not, as an unmixed blessing.
They form a sub-section of the enormously extensive
order of Diptera, or two-winged flies, an order which is
probably responsible for the infliction of a larger amount
of suffering and annoyance upon human beings and
other vertebrate animals than can be charged upon any
other. At least two very distinct types of Diptera .may
be recognised : on the one hand, there are stout-bodied
and comparatively short-legged flies, with minute and
curiously-shaped antennae, like those of the blow-fly, and
on the other, slender-bodied, exceedingly long-legged
222 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
flies, with antennae of ordinary size and of less extra-
ordinary shape. To the former division (Braehycera
short-horns) are referred the house flies and allied insects
discussed in the previous chapters, as well as hosts of
others less familiar ; while to the latter (Nemocera
thread-horns) belong a weak-limbed and fragile group,
the daddy-longlegs or crane-flies, together with the
numerous kinds of gnats, mosquitoes, midges, merry-
dancers, &c. (though not the equally, or even still more,
fragile May-flies or day-flies). It is with the section
Nemocera, therefore, viz., the thread-horned flies, that
we are now concerned.
There is amongst the members of this group a strik-
ing variety, both as to habits and life-history. Some,
in their early stages, lead an active life in the water ;
others, of a more sluggish temperament, inhabit fungi
or rotten wood ; others, again, like the notorious Hes-
sian fly, are parasitic on plants, producing gall-like
excrescences within which they reside ; while yet others,
like the daddy-longlegs, whose larvae are the detested
"leather-jackets" of the gardener, live underground,
devouring roots of plants as well as vegetable refuse.
It might be expected that, with such diversity of habits,
there would be correspondingly great differences of form
in the adult insects. Such, however, can scarcely be said
to be the case, and thus many that are superficially
similar in the adult condition may have passed through
their preliminary stages under totally different circum-
stances. This fact, coupled with the fragile and easily
damaged structure, and consequent difficulty of preser-
vation, the obscure colours, and the comparatively un-
marked characters of the perfect insects, makes the nice
discrimination of species a very difficult task ; and it is
not surprising that the popular judgment has declined
GNATS, MIDGES, AND MOSQUITOES 223
this task, and has seen in all these different creatures
but varieties for which three or four names at the out-
side will suffice. Our first business, therefore, must be,
as is usually the case in dealing with insects under their
popular names, to define our terms, and to say what
insects we include and what we exclude, and in what
sense we use the terms " gnats, midges, and mosquitoes."
Without in the least attempting accurately to distin-
guish species, it may suffice to say that, when we speak
of gnats and mosquitoes as household pests, we do not by
any means refer to all gnat-like creatures, nor even to
all which would be commonly called gnats, but only to
such as belong to one particular family, the Culicidce,
and which, by their blood-sucking propensities, trouble
mankind indoors, either in this country or elsewhere.
Nor shall we draw any definite line of distinction between
gnats and mosquitoes. It is often imagined that mos-
quitoes are creatures confined to warm climates, and have
nothing to represent them in this country ; but the fact
is that the difference between a gnat and a mosquito is
little more than one of name. To an entomologist they
are practically the same thing; both are members of
the same genus, Culex, and the difference is, at the out-
side, not more than that between closely allied species.
It is true that the virulence of the "bite" of these
creatures in tropical countries is much greater than it
is here; and, when one remembers the frightful effects
that are sometimes produced on the human body by
these little pests, and the strenuous efforts that are
made, and the elaborate precautions that are taken,
whether in the way of oily unguents, of curtains and
nets, or even of burying the body in the sand, to guard
against their attacks, it is no doubt disappointing to
discover that after all there is nothing so very remarkable
224 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
in the creatures, and that they can hardly be distin-
guished from insects with which we are familiar at
home. Nevertheless, it is a fact which we must con-
stantly bear in mind, that the insects to which these
names are applied are to all intents and purposes identical
both in structure and in life-history, and we are therefore
justified in making no distinction here. Moreover, there
is no doubt that, even in the matter of virulence, our
own gnats vary a good deal, both according to season
and to the temperament and sensitiveness of the person
attacke^. We must not, however, fail to note that there
are other flies, belonging to different families, that are
also blood-suckers, and in some cases are almost as trouble-
some as the true gnats and mosquitoes. This is specially
the case with the small flies called Simulice, which are
closely allied to the family CuUcidce, and are, it would
appear, sometimes called mosquitoes in America. Such
insects, however, are not referred to at present, and what
we have to say about " gnats and mosquitoes " concerns
only the family Culicidce, and, in fact, the genus Culex.
Of the term "midges" it is somewhat more difficult
to fix the application ; it is indiscriminately used of at
least two types of flies, quite distinct from one another,
one, in most respects except persecuting powers, similar
to the gnats and mosquitoes, the other very different in
appearance, and at first sight more like tiny moths than
flies ; but it appears also to be popularly used in a loose
manner for small and annoying insects of whatever kind,
without any definite conception as to the actual form
intended. It is obvious, therefore, that when the ento-
mologist hears people talking vaguely of gnats and
midges, it is not always easy to understand exactly what
insects are being referred to.
With these preliminary precautions, and bearing in
GNATS, MIDGES, AND MOSQUITOES 225
mind that not every small, long-legged, fragile fly is a
gnat in the sense in which the word is here used, i.e.,
a blood-sucking gnat, we may now proceed to con-
sider first what sort of being a blood-sucking gnat or
mosquito really is, referring afterwards to those which
seem to be more correctly called midges. The photo-
graphs shown in Plate III. will give a pretty good
idea of the general form of a gnat. A small head, a
considerable portion of which is occupied by the com-
pound eyes, is attached by means of a short neck to a
huge globular thorax, so disproportionately large as to
give the insect, when viewed sideways, a hump -backed
appearance. Behind this the trunk is completed by a
long, slender, cylindrical abdomen. A long, straight,
beak-like appendage, carrying the mouth organs, points
forward from the head, and a pair of more or less tufted,
thread-like antennae form an elegant head-gear, counter-
balancing this above. From the upper part of the
thorax spreads at each side a single membranous wing,
exquisitely delicate, and gracefully fringed along its
hinder edge ; the place of the customary second pair is
taken by the " poisers," long knobbed stalks, as already
described in the other division of flies, but propor-
tionately much larger than in those. From the under
surface of the thorax start the three pairs of inordinately
long legs, upon which, when at rest, the body is, as it
were, slung up off the ground as if on springs. Though
the legs consist only of the ordinary parts, yet the
divisions seem at first sight to be more numerous than
usual, by reason of the great proportionate length of
some of the parts, and particularly of the tarsi, or feet,
which in the hind pair constitute more than half the
entire length of the leg, the leg itself becoming nearly
three times as long as the abdomen. The insect is
p
226 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
beautified by the addition, on various parts of the body,
of minute iridescent scales (Fig. 72), similar to those of
butterflies and moths ; rows of them
adorn the wings, especially along the
nervures.
A marked difference appears between
the sexes. The male can be distin-
guished by the extraordinary develop-
ment of the antennae, which, as fre-
quently in insects of that sex, are, if
one may judge from their structure, far
more delicate organs of sense than those
of his mate. The antennae of the female
consist of a string of cylindrical joints
like long beads, each provided with a
FIG. 72.- Scale of circlet of fine hairs of no very great
length. Those of the male, however,
while similarly constructed, have the brushes much
longer and more thickly set, especially at the base, for
the extreme tip is almost bare. In the photograph the
hairs of the female are indistinct, through their extreme
tenuity, and the charming symmetry of form and
arrangement which those of the male naturally exhibit,
is unfortunately destroyed, because the insects have been
preserved in balsam, and it is impossible then to ensure
that appendages so delicate should be spread out with
all the hairs in proper position ; no conception, there-
fore, of their great beauty can be formed from a specimen
so preserved.
The greatest interest, of course, attaches to the pro-
boscis, for herein are contained the weapons of attack.
In this, again, the sexes differ greatly, and it is against
the female only that the charge of blood-sucking can be
substantiated. The male is an inoffensive creature, and
GNATS, MIDGES, AND MOSQUITOES 227
usually remains in his native haunts, not invading our
apartments ; for it must be remembered that these flies,
like those treated of before, pass their early stages out
of doors, and enter our houses only when fully grown.
The straight cylindrical spike, projecting from the head,
though itself no thicker than a hair, is a tube, or rather
trough, terminated by two small fleshy lips, the dwarfed
representatives of the two large folding leaves which
terminate the proboscis of the blow -fly. This tube
represents the labium of the normal insect's mouth, and
concealed within it lie the much finer piercing organs ;
for the so-called " bite " consists really of a boring and
sucking operation. Along by the upper slit of the
trough lies a long bristle-shaped organ, which represents
the labrum or upper lip j and of course all the rest of
the mouth organs, except the palpi, lie between this and
the labium, i.e., in the trough of the latter. The man-
dibles and maxillae, which in insects that feed on solid
food are efficient biting weapons, are here replaced by
four fine-pointed, needle-like bristles, the maxillae being
further barbed at the tip like a savage's spear, and the
mandibles slightly broadened into a lancet-shaped tip.
Besides these, another piercing bristle is found, which is
an appendage of the labium itself. Thus there are no
less than six boring organs, all contained within a sheath
which is itself almost of hair-like fineness. The sheath
itself, like so many other parts of the body, is beautifully
ornamented outside with abundance of battledore-shaped
scales. At its base are two short jointed organs, the
maxillary palpi, representatives of the two un jointed
red clubs which are such conspicuous appendages of the
mouth of the blow-fly. This straight, unjointed spike
is, at first sight, as different as could well be imagined
from the elbowed, broad-tipped apparatus with which the
228 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
house-fly and the blow-fly sip their liquid nutriment;
yet both are but extreme modifications of the same plan,
the rasping and sucking elements being carried to the
summit of perfection in the one case, and the boring
or piercing ones in the other. Many intermediate forms
may be seen, as in the drone-flies, breeze-flies, wasp-flies,
and others which have no popular names, and a very
interesting series showing the gradations might without
much difficulty be prepared.
Now how is this collection of weapons used ? The
little inject drops gently and daintily down on to the
spot it has selected for its attack, and the descent of
so light and airy a being is likely to leave the victim
unconscious of its presence, unless he has actually seen
it settle. Then the proboscis is pointed downwards, and
the tiny lips that form its tip pressed against the flesh.
The bristles within the gutter-like sheath being then
pressed together into one solid boring implement, their
common tip is forced down on the flesh, and as they
enter the wound, the trough in which they were lying
separates from them in the middle, and becomes bent
towards the insect's breast, the two little lips all the
while holding on tight. The greater part of the length
of the stilettos is then plunged into the victim's flesh,
and the blood is drawn up the fine interstices of the
composite borer. The wound, though six instruments
are concerned in making it, is extremely minute.
So far, our description has concerned the proboscis of
the female gnat or mosquito only. That of the male
is somewhat different. There is still the straight, stick-
like labium, but the palpi are greatly elongated, running
along by the sides of the tubular proboscis as far as, or
even beyond, its tip, and tufted at the end. A fine
rod-like organ may be separated from the labium, but
GNATS, MIDGES, AND MOSQUITOES 229
whatever else the insect may have in this way, it
does not use for sucking blood, being in fact perfectly
harmless.
Gnats and mosquitoes are amongst that section of the
" thread-horned " flies whose early life is aquatic, and a
truly remarkable history is theirs. That creatures so
fragile should have at any time any connection with
so unstable and treacherous an element as water is
indeed strange, and unquestionably large numbers perish
through the mischances involved in this very associa-
tion. Nevertheless, so great is their fecundity that
the race runs no risk of extermination, notwithstanding
the dangers that beset the path of the individual in its
advance to maturity. The eggs are long oval objects,
and from the time of laying they are intrusted to the
water. The female, when about to lay, rests with her
first pair of legs on some floating stick or leaf, or other
support, the second pair gently touching the water,
while the third project over its surface. Crossing these
like an X, she allows an egg to pass into the angle
where they meet ; this is soon followed by another and
another, their moist and glutinous surfaces causing
them to adhere to one another with the long axis nearly
perpendicular. In this way a collection of some 200 or
300 is built up into the form of a tiny raft, concave
above a sort of miniature lifeboat, so constructed that
no capsizing can take place. The egg-raft once made,
the maternal duties are over, and the little craft drifts
rudderless away, exposed to sun and storm. This
venturesome voyage, however, lasts but a few days ;
and then, the eggs having been from the first placed
upside down in the water, the lower end of the shell is
forced off, and the newly hatched grub finds itself at
230 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
once in position to take a header into the watery world
in which it has to pick up its living.
These larvae (Plate TV.) are odd-looking objects, fore-
shadowing the form of the adult to a somewhat greater
extent than is usually the case with those insects which
pass through a complete metamorphosis. The three
regions of the body are distinctly marked out, quite
the reverse of what obtains amongst the " short-
horned " flies, whose shapeless " maggots " we described
in the preceding chapter. If we imagine the full-grown
gnat's body to be bereft of all its long appendages
wings, legs, antennae, and beak and to be provided at
intervals with tufts of hair instead, we get some idea
of the outline of the larva. They move by a series of
jerks, accomplished by swaying the body from side to
side, and the natural position is head downwards.
Though living in the water they inhale air, and hence
come to the surface occasionally to breathe. The en-
trance to the breathing tubes is at the end of a sort
of arm or branch jutting out from the hinder, i.e., the
upper, end of the body, and all that is necessary for
taking in a fresh breath is to expose this little orifice
just above the surface of the water. The larva is fur-
nished with biting jaws, and spends a good deal of its
time in devouring all sorts of rubbish and decaying
matters, such as may be found in abundance in the
pond it inhabits. Thus it swims about with tail most
appropriately pointed to the sky, and head to the muddy
bottom, where lie its chief stores of food.
It is easy to understand that thousands of these larvae,
working away in a pond on the decaying organic matter
there, will do a good deal towards arresting the pollu-
tion of its waters, and gnats, therefore, in this stage of
their life, may be regarded as sanitary agents, of more
GNATS, MIDGES, AND MOSQUITOES 231
or less use to society at large. It follows, then, that
their extermination from any district might not be
altogether an advantage, unless accompanied by other
changes, such as drainage, &c. ; and in estimating the
influence of mosquitoes, for example, in the economy of
nature, one has to set their services as scavengers over
against the annoyance they cause by sucking blood. It
might be a philosophical, if not very comforting, reflec-
tion for any one suffering from the persecutions of these
pests, that the more mosquitoes there are, the more
scavenging work must have been done in bringing them
to maturity, and the more must the sanitary condition
of the country round have been thereby improved !
There is another curious fact connected with this
stage in the life-history of these insects : when fully
grown, as we have already seen, they subsist only
on liquid food, their mouth organs being excellently
fitted for taking in liquids, while they would find it
absolutely impossible to make any use of solid food.
But in this earlier stage, the conditions are reversed ;
solid food is the order of the day (though plentifully
steeped in water, it is true), and no sucking apparatus
exists, the mouth being armed with biting jaws instead.
The change, however, is not suddenly made from the
one style to the other. There intervenes a condition in
which the insect takes no food at all, either solid or
liquid, having no available mouth ; for, when several
moultings of the jerky larva have taken place, it makes
another change of skin, which results in an entire
upsetting of all its arrangements. After this moult
it appears as a kind of animated " comma," with a big
head and a curved tail (Plate IV.).
The apparent head is really head, thorax, beak, an-
tennse, limbs, and wings of the perfect insect, all bound
2 3 2
OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
of sculling apparatus.
together under a thin skin, sufficiently transparent
for the individual
parts to be traced
from without, as
shown in the photo-
graph ; the "tail"
is, of course, the
abdomen, and it is
terminated by a
couple of broad
leaf - like paddles
(Fig. 73) of ex-
FlQ. 73. Terminal paddle or leaflet of pupa of a nn : 51 > p cfvnr>hirp
species of Gnat (Corethra plumicornis). quiSlte Struct .re,
which form a sort
It no longer jerks about head
downwards, but, turning a
somersault, passes the next
stage of its life right way
up, notwithstanding its ap-
parently top-heavy shape.
Conformably with the altered
position, though whether as
cause or consequence it is
not easy to say, the opening
to the breathing organs is now
on the thorax. Two horn-like
projections (Fig. 74) are here
seen, which are the prolonged
lips of the spiracles. Into
these is taken, by periodical
visits to the surface, what-
FIG. 74 .-s P iracuiar horn of same ever air may be necessary for
breathing purposes; such
visits are, however, by no means frequent, the insect
GNATS, MIDGES, AND MOSQUITOES 233
being capable of enduring prolonged submergence without
inconvenience. The pupa is as capable of active exertions
as was the larva, and in fact is freely locomotive, though
it takes no food. This is a most exceptional circum-
stance amongst insects with a complete metamorphosis.
Nothing, moreover, could be in stronger contrast to
the style of life of the "short-horned" flies than that
of this roving gnat pupa. It will be remembered that
the blow-fly, which may be taken as a type of the
" short-horns," when about to become a pupa, does not
cast its skin, but becomes a barrel-shaped, absolutely
motionless body, by the hardening of the last larval
coat, whereas the gnat or mosquito does cast its skin
to become a pupa, and that pupa is a lively wrig-
gling creature, free to wander whither it chooses, though
110 more capable of feeding itself than the aforesaid
barrel.
When the time for the emergence of the perfect
insect arrives, which will be about a month after the
hatching of the eggs, the pupa ascends to the surface,
and tipping up its tail, lies in a nearly horizontal position
with the back of the thorax just above the water. The
skin now splits, and the fly gradually extricates itself,
of course in a limp condition, and incapable of flight till
its wings are dried and stiffened. The empty shell of
the pupa gives it foothold till it is strong enough to
spread its wings and mount into the air for the first
time in its life. The occasion of the transformation
from pupa to fly is evidently the supreme moment in
the gnat's career, and the risks involved are considerable.
Not merely is it still exposed, as it has been hitherto, to
the jaws of hungry fish or predaceous water insects, but
there are also chances of wind and weather that may
prove fatal. However, vast swarms escape these perils
234 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
and rise into the air, where new dangers await them in
the form of cobwebs and insectivorous birds, to say
nothing of human beings.
V 7 e have now followed our gnat or mosquito through
a complete cycle of changes, and have thus seen that it
is essentially an insect not of the house but of the
pond, the marsh, and the swamp, whence it follows
that blook-sucking is a practice that can but occasionally
be indulged in, and it seems probable that great numbers
of gnats perish without ever tasting such food at all,
and that\in fact the habit is an acquired one, and not
really essential to their existence. If this be so, it is
all the more remarkable when taken in conjunction
with the extraordinary perfection of the blood-sucking
apparatus, and the problem of their economy is as
difficult to solve as that of fleas on the seashore far
from human habitations.. Gnats, however, seem to be
quite ready to drink the juices of flowers if they cannot
get blood, and several observers have chronicled their
fondness for honey. But still this will scarcely explain
the presence of needle-like piercers amongst the mouth
organs, since such instruments would not be necessary
to get at the nectar of flowers.
In the days when every house had its water-butt, and
when stagnant ponds abounded on every side, often in
close proximity to human dwellings, the conditions were
so much the more favourable for the multiplication of
gnats; and wherever such conditions now obtain, the
insects are still likely to be both numerous and trouble-
some. But the extensive abolition of the water-butt,
the introduction of closed and indoor cisterns, and the
better drainage of the land, have all tended to throw
hindrances in the way of the Culicidce, and have helped
to reduce their numbers in our own country, whatever
GNATS, MIDGES, AND MOSQUITOES 23$
may be the case elsewhere. There is evidence enough
of this in literature. Enormous swarms of gnats, of
one kind or another, seem formerly to have been a
not unusual experience, though such a thing now scarcely
ever occurs here. The poet Spenser, for example, men-
tions as a familiar sight " a swarm of Gnats at eventide "
that " out of the fennes of Allan doe arise,"
" Whiles in the air their clust'ring army flies,
That as a cloud doth seem to dim the skies ; "
and that Culices are intended seems certain, since they
persecute man and beast,
"Till the fierce northern wind with blust'ring blast
Doth blow them quite away, and in the ocean cast."
There are several records of swarms that have looked in
the distance like clouds of smoke, and have consequently
given rise to an alarm of fire, as was the case at Salis-
bury Cathedral in 1736. According to Professor Riley,
the northern mosquitoes of America pass the winter in the
perfect state, hybernating in a semi-torpid condition ;
and a writer in Insect Life describes an enormous con-
gregation of them as having been found hybernating in
the corner of a cellar. This habit does not appear to
hold good in all parts of the world.
A very peculiar connection between human beings
and mosquitoes has been made out in recent years. It is
well known that there is a class of worm-like creatures
differing from the earth-worm and other similar animals
in not having the body divided into a series of rings,
that inhabit various parts of the bodies of vertebrate and
other animals. Man is subject to the attacks of several
parasites of this sort, and shares them with other animals,
i.e., the parasites pass through their early life in the
236 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
body of one host, and their later life in that of another.
Numerous experiments and investigations, by Dr. Manson
and others, seem to have proved that such a connec-
tion exists between man and a particular kind, or some
few kinds, of mosquito. The parasite is called Filaria
sanguinis hominis (the thread-worm of the blood of man).
The adult female of this creature inhabits the lymphatic
glands of man, and is the cause of the curious and re-
pulsive disease called elephantiasis, and of kindred
maladies. Embryos produced from these sexually
mature forims, pass from the lymphatic system into the
blood of man, and circulate with it, causing in this stage
certain kidney diseases. No forms intermediate between
these two have been found in man, and it is therefore
evident that the intervening stages of the life of the
parasite, whatever they may be, are spent elsewhere.
From the blood of man, the embryos pass into the
body of the mosquito as it sucks its victim. Only a few
of these seem to be digested with the blood; the rest
escape from the mosquito's digestive tube, and establish
themselves in its thorax, at the same time undergoing
a change of form indicative of an advance in develop-
ment. Thus far the history of the parasite has been
traced, but exactly what happens afterwards is still to
some extent a mystery. The mosquito infested with
Filarice appears soon to die, the parasite apparently sub-
sisting on the contents of its thorax. It has been
thought that the mosquito's body falling into the water
on its death, the parasites escape and pass a free exist-
ence for a time, being after a while re-introduced into a
human host by the drinking of the water that contains
them. In investigating these facts, Dr. Manson got a
Chinaman whose blood was known to contain Filarice,
to sleep in a small curtained chamber, placed in a larger
GNATS, MIDGES, AND MOSQUITOES 237
room in which mosquitoes were flying. The door of the
" mosquito house " having been left open for some hours
after the man had gone to sleep, was then closed, and
the mosquitoes which had entered were thus entrapped.
These were found in the morning clinging to the netting,
gorged with blood, and were carefully collected day by
day, and preserved ; some were examined under the
microscope at once, others not until after an interval, so
as to secure a later stage of the parasite ; in this way,
by the examination of large numbers of the insects,
after intervals of different length, the fate of the
swallowed Filarice was at length made out up to the
point indicated above.
One of the most curious of the annoyances that have
been recorded as occasioned by gnats was illustrated in
some specimens exhibited at a meeting of the Bristol
Naturalists' Society in 1878. Mr. J. W. Clarke showed
some sheets of writing paper from Sweden, which formed
part of a large consignment that had been greatly in-
jured during the process of manufacture through a
swarm of gnats having got mixed up with the pulp.
The remains of the flies were to be seen in the material
of the paper, and some specimens were so perfect as to
be easily identified as a Culex, and all seemed to belong
to the same species. Another record is made of a
centipede similarly preserved in paper, and no doubt
paper manufacturers could supply many others, though
perhaps few on so extensive a scale as that alluded to
above.
It is difficult for a stay-at-home Englishman, used
only to the minor inconveniences caused by insects
in this highly denaturalised country, to conceive the
horror with which gnats and mosquitoes are viewed in
those more primitive regions in which they still exist in
238 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
incredible multitudes, and to realise the terrible suffer-
ings they are answerable for ; he is inclined to treat the
whole matter almost as a joke, and to laugh at the
violence of the execrations which have been heaped on
the heads of such insignificant offenders. But there can
be no question that the plague has been, and is still, in
many parts of the world, a most real and serious one,
and experience shows that the descriptions travellers
have given of the numbers of the insects, and the pain
and disfigurement caused by their attacks, highly
coloured though they often seem, may yet be accepted
as having a solid foundation in fact. The exact effect
of a gnat or mosquito bite, however, upon the human
body, varies with the species of insect which produces
the wound, with the sensitiveness and temperament of
the individual attacked, and with surrounding circum-
stances. On the borders of the great rivers of the
Brazilian forest, where mosquitoes are probably as
troublesome as anywhere in the world, the effect is
quite different upon Europeans and natives. According
to Humboldt, who paid great attention to the subject
when he was in the region of the Upper Orinoco, blisters
and swelling are not produced upon the skin of the
natives, i,e., the copper-coloured Indians, though such
results follow in the case of the white man, new settlers
being much more severely dealt with than old residents.
Speaking of a white man who had had "his twenty
years of mosquitoes," he says, "Every sting leaving a
small darkish-brown point, his legs were so speckled
that it was difficult to recognise the whiteness of his
skin through the spots of coagulated blood." That, not-
withstanding their immunity from the above secondary
effects, the natives still suffer acutely, is manifest from
the numerous and energetic devices they adopt to free
GNATS, MIDGES, AND MOSQUITOES 239
themselves from the plague, as well as from the extent
to which the mosquitoes form a staple subject of conver-
sation. Elevated platforms have been resorted to as
retiring places, since the flies are most numerous near
the ground, the greater number not rising above fifteen
or twenty feet; a calico tent, suspended from the
branches of trees when in the forest, is another device,
while indoors there are the well-known nets and
curtains. Humboldt speaks of his workmen as vigo-
rously slapping one another's bare backs to drive away
the tormenting insects, and as getting so used to the
action that they sometimes slapped themselves in their
sleep ; some rubbed the wounds on their comrades' backs
with rough bark (!) or again, the women patiently set
themselves to pick out from the pustules the drops of
coagulated blood. " How are you with regard to the
mosquitoes ? " was a common form of salutation ; while to
the native mind, the absence of mosquitoes formed the
highest conception of the bliss of heaven. " How com-
fortable must people be in the moon," said an Indian to
his European teacher, "she looks so beautiful and so
clear, that she must be free from mosquitoes ! "
Dr. A. R. Wallace, visiting the same region, says :
" Immediately after sunset they poured upon us in
swarms, so that we found them unbearable, and were
obliged to rush into our sleeping-rooms, which we had
kept carefully closed. Here we had some respite for a
time, but they soon found their way in at the cracks and
keyholes, and made us very restless and uncomfortable
all the rest of the night." And so far from getting
used to them : " After a few days' residence we found
them more tormenting than ever, rendering it quite im-
possible for us to sit down to write or read after sunset."
The people used dried cow-dung burnt at their doors to
2 4 o OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
keep away the insects, and this seemed the most effectual
remedy, so that by adopting it, and walking about at
the same time, the explorer managed to "pass an hour
pretty comfortably." Mr. H. W. Bates, speaking of
Fonte Boa, also in the same region, says that, "in
addition to its other amenities, it has the reputation
throughout the country of being the headquarters of
mosquitoes, and it fully deserves the title. They are
more annoying in the hours by day than by night,
for they swarm in the dark and damp rooms, keeping
in the daytime near the floor, and settling by half-
dozens together on the legs. At night the calico tent is
a sufficient protection, but this is obliged to be folded
every morning, and in letting it down before sunset
great care is required to prevent even one or two of the
tormentors from stealing in beneath, their insatiable
thirst for blood, and pungent sting, making these enough
to spoil all comfort." From these extracts we see that
the experience of the traveller in South America is by
no means uniform, and this partly results from there
being several distinct species of flies concerned in these
attacks, some inhabiting one stream and some another,
according to the character of the water, and having also
their time of flight at different hours of the day and
night. These peculiarities were particularly noticed by
Humboldt.
Mungo Park considered that crocodiles were but of
little account to the traveller in Africa, "when com-
pared with the amazing swarms of mosquitoes, which
rise from the swamps and creeks in such numbers as to
harass even the most torpid of the natives." With his
clothes almost worn to rags, he was ill-prepared to resist
their attacks, and frequently, therefore, passed the night
walking backwards and forwards, fanning himself with
GNATS, MIDGES, AND MOSQUITOES 241
his hat, perpetual motion being necessary to keep them
at bay. Linne" testified to their extraordinary abun-
dance in Lapland, where smoke and grease were in his
time, as they probably are still, the best preventives
known. And in recent years, Nordenskjb'ld and others
have recorded meeting with enormous swarms in high
Arctic latitudes, in which regions, indeed, it is not only
Culices that exist in myriads, but other Diptera as well.
For instance, Dr. F. A. Walker, speaking of a visit to
Iceland, mentions not only that bluebottles were to be
found in great numbers on rotting fish everywhere, but
especially that the little black flies that frequent sea-
weed on the sand flew in multitudes on board the
steamer, blackening the windows of the deck-saloon.
Dr. Clarke, travelling in South Russia, tells a pitiful tale
of the persecutions to which he was subjected in passing
through a morass which teemed with mosquitoes to such
an extent that a lamp which was lit in a closed carriage
was soon extinguished by the swarms that flew into it.
As may be imagined from their habits and life-history,
mosquitoes are not equally distributed in the countries
in which they occur ; in low-lying, marshy districts they
are most abundant, but as one recedes from the water, or
reaches greater elevations, they become less numerous.
They attack not only human beings, but also cattle, and
hence the proximity of the latter in places much infested
may sometimes give relief to men ; on the other hand,
they have often been noticed accompanying cattle on
their return from marshy pastures, clustering round
them, and thus becoming ultimately introduced into
houses. It has been said that they object to the strong
smell of the alligator, but if this be so, they can over-
come their dislike when there is a chance of a draught
of human blood, for Humboldt relates that, while
Q
242 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
dissecting a large alligator, eleven feet long, the odour
of which infected all the surrounding atmosphere, he and
his assistants were fearfully stung. From the method
of life of the mosquito, especially in its early stages, it
is clear that it would be next to impossible to trans-
port them accidentally, except as perfect insects, from
one country to another, across large tracts of ocean ; and
the reports that are sometimes spread of mosquitoes
appearing in hotels in this country frequented by
Americans need to be received with great caution.
Probably, in most instances, investigation would show
that they were simply English gnats rather more
virulent than usual, which had been propagated in
some neighbouring cistern or pond.
Opinions have differed as to the cause of the swelling
and pain resulting from a gnat or mosquito bite. Some
have maintained, in accordance with what has always
been the popular belief, that effects of such magnitude
could not be produced without the introduction of a
poisonous fluid, though they have failed to show that
any apparatus exists which would be capable of com-
pletely fulfilling such a function. Though this poisonous
fluid is itself conjectural, a purpose has been assigned to
it, viz., that of rendering the blood more liquid, so that
it may the more easily be sucked up. And that some
such function would have to be assumed is tolerably
certain, since the poison could hardly be regarded merely
as an implement of offence, and consequently an advan-
tage to its possessor. It seems scarcely open to question
that, apart from some such function for the poison as
above, the insects could far more easily obtain the blood
they covet, and far less precautions would be taken
against them, if they did not produce any painful results,
and thus rouse the hostility of their victims ; and that,
GNATS, MIDGES, AND MOSQUITOES 243
therefore, from that point of view, a poison could not be
an advantage. If, therefore, a poison exists, its func-
tion must undoubtedly be, to facilitate the drawing of
the blood, and not to serve as a weapon.
Influenced by the anatomical difficulties above men-
tioned, other observers have maintained that no poisonous
fluid is injected, but that the laceration of tissues pro-
duced by the six minute, acutely pointed, and in some
cases barbed, organs which constitute the borer, is
sufficient to account for the inflammation and itching.
This hypothesis, again, is not without objection. It
would appear that the insect sometimes experiences diffi-
culty in getting at the blood it desires, for deep per-
forations of the skin may be made without drawing
blood, and then no swelling occurs, and little pain is
felt : this certainly appears a formidable difficulty in the
way of the latter explanation. Mr. G. Dimmock, one of
the most recent experimenters with Culices, forcibly says :
" I am convinced that there is use made of a poisonous
saliva, for when biting, if the mosquito fails to draw
blood, which it often does on parts of the back of my
hand, it may have inserted its proboscis nearly full
length in from one to six directions in the same place,
and withdrawn it again ; indeed, it may have inserted its
proboscis, as often occurs, in extremely sensitive parts ;
yet in such cases, if no blood be drawn, no more effect
is produced upon my skin than is produced by the prick
of a sharp needle; a red point appears, only to dis-
appear in a few hours. Certainly there has been as
much tearing of tissues in such a' case as above men-
tioned as there is when the gnat settles on a place
richer in blood, and with a single probing draws its
fill." He remarks also that "the poisonous effect on
me, as proved by numerous experiments, is in direct
244 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
proportion to the length of time which the gnat has
occupied in actually drawing blood," and argues, perhaps
somewhat inconsequently, that this indicates the con-
stant outpouring of some sort of poisonous fluid during
the blood-sucking process. But notwithstanding this,
he was unable to detect any channel for the conveyance
of poison into the wound. And, moreover, it is difficult
to conceive of a double flow of liquid poison downwards
and blood upwards as taking place simultaneously
within the narrow compass of the proboscis of a gnat
or mosquito. Or, again, if the movements were not
simultaneous, but a downflow of poison were followed
by an updraught of blood, it would seem that the
greater part of the poison would be sucked out of the
wound almost as soon as it was instilled, and that,
therefore, it could hardly exercise much influence upon
surrounding tissues. Humboldt, who was a firm believer
in the poisonous nature of the bite, considered this
sucking out of the poison to be the explanation of the
painlessness of some wounds. His experience was
almost the reverse of that of Mr. Dimmock, as detailed
above. He affirmed that if the insect were allowed to
suck to satiety, no swelling took place, and no pain was
left behind, and considered that when pain was produced
it resulted from the hasty interruption of the process of
sucking, since then the last infused poison would not be
able to be withdrawn. He experimented with one of
the most virulent species, allowing it gently to settle on
the back of his hand, and reports of it : "I observed
that the pain, though violent in the beginning, diminishes
in proportion as the insect continues to suck, and ceases
altogether when it voluntarily flies away." The follow-
ing experiment, however, seems to throw some doubt on
the poison theory altogether. He says, "I wounded
GNATS, MIDGES, AND MOSQUITOES
245
my skin with a pin, and rubbed the pricks with bruised
mosquitoes, and no swelling ensued." On the whole,
therefore, it must be admitted that great difficulties
beset both of the two hypotheses that have been com-
monly advocated in explanation of the swelling and
pain consequent on the bite. Of course similar remarks
would apply in the case of both bugs and fleas.
There seem to be chiefly two species of true gnats
that infest houses in this country, which are named
Culex annulatus and ciliaris.
The former has pretty spotted
wings, but must not be con-
founded with another spotted-
winged gnat-like fly (Fig. 75),
which is frequently found in
windows, and is generally
called the "Window Gnat"
(Rliyplms fenestralis). The
specific name fenestralis (from
Latin fenestra, a window) was
given to it in consequence of
its usual habit of flitting
about windows. It belongs,
however, to a different family,
and its habits and life-history
are totally unlike those of the
true Culices. Its larva is
terrestrial, not aquatic, and
lives in dung. Culex ciliaris, specially known as the
"house gnat," is a reddish-brown insect, with greyish
wings.
The Culices, or true gnats and mosquitoes, are not the
only "thread-horned" flies that trouble mankind by
sucking blood, though they are usually the chief ; it is
FIG. 75. Window Gnat
(Rhyphus fenestralis).
246 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
difficult, however, to give definite popular names for the
other species. The word " midge " is perhaps most com-
monly used as a general term for them, though it is also
employed for insects of similar structure, but of less annoy-
ing habits. To the genera Simulium and Geratopogon
belong some of the most annoying of these persecuting
midges ; and some of the former become occasionally
almost as bad a plague as the mosquitoes proper.
The Simulia are also known as "sand-flies," and in
America, where they have occasioned great annoyance
and trouble amongst the cattle, they are called " Turkey
Gnats" and "Buffalo Gnats." They are small, dark-
coloured insects, of a less fragile nature than the Cidices,
but still " thread-horned," and not, therefore, to be con-
founded with any of the " short-horns," such as the
great, stout-bodied "breeze-flies," which are also terribly
bad stingers. The flies have the peculiar habit of emerg
ing from the chrysalis beneath the surface of the water.
The Ceratopogon which is sometimes troublesome in
this country is a minute, greyish-brown insect. It is
sometimes abundant in marshes and fens, where the
females are very annoying.
But besides these, many other insects are called midges,
though they are not troublesome. There are, for example,
first, the Chironomi or Plumed Gnats, the larvae of one
species of which are the grotesquely wriggling, red worm-
like creatures, found in ponds and water-butts, and called
"blood- worms." These are more uniformly cylindrical
than the larvae of the Culices, and, besides wriggling
about in the water, they construct amongst the mud at
the bottom, tubes composed of particles of decayed leaves,
fastened together with silken threads. The pupa, which
is similar in shape to that of the Culices, and has an
enormous fore-part, may be distinguished by the pair of
GNATS, MIDGES, AND MOSQUITOES 247
exquisite, white, plume-like tufts that project from the
sides of that part of the body. Each consists of five
hairs, which are delicately fringed, so that the whole
makes a large rosette. The pupa usually lies at the
bottom helplessly, though it can swim if obliged. A few
hours before becoming a perfect insect it mounts to the
surface to prepare for the change. The perfect insects
are called "Plumed Gnats," because of their beautiful
antennae, which are even more deeply feathered than
those of the Culices. They have no long beak, and are
not adorned with scales like the true gnats. These Chi-
ronomi form in the air dancing swarms, which usually
consist chiefly of males. Then there are the "Winter
Midges " (TricJwcera), which form little hovering swarms
on bright days during winter and spring. These again
are quite different from the gnats, and belong to the
daddy-longlegs group. The last
" midges " to which we shall refer
are the family called Psychodidce,
most exquisite, though minute
creatures (Fig. 76), some of which
are commonly found in houses,
on the walls, or running in little
zigzags up and down the windows.
They, too, are "thread-horns," m ' 6
but can be easily distinguished from the others by the
peculiar shape and adornment of the wings. These are
lancet-shaped, and are thickly covered with hairs, often
so distributed as to form a pretty pattern, and this,
coupled with the fact that they rest with wings not
crossed over their backs as gnats do, but spread out
and sloping backwards at their sides, causes them to
look like tiny moths. They are harmless little crea-
tures, and their larvae live in dung.
CHAPTEE XIV.
THE COMMON FLEA.
NOTWITHSTANDING his elevated position in the animal
creation^ man is no more exempt humiliating though
the confession may be from the attacks of personal
parasites than other animals ; but of the various species
that link their fortunes with his, and subsist upon his
person, fleas seem less dependent than any others upon
uncleanly conditions and habits of personal neglect on
the part of their host, and hence they are not restricted
to the lower strata of society, but become a universal
nuisance. The ever-present desire to exterminate them,
no doubt, operates powerfully against their being min-
utely studied, and hence very little seems to be generally
known about their structure, habits, and life history
beyond what painful experience teaches. And yet they
are really extremely curious creatures ; and were it not
for the popular prejudice against them, they would, no
doubt, attract the attention they deserve. It is no
exaggeration to speak of them as zoological oddities.
There are many different kinds besides that particular
species that infests man. They have been observed on
various mammals, especially small ones with thick fur
or hair, such as moles, shrews, squirrels, mice, rats,
dormice, hares, and rabbits, as well as on dogs and cats.
Many birds also are infested by true fleas, in addition
to their own proper parasites, the bird-lice. The species
248
THE COMMON FLEA 249
which attack these different hosts seem to be distinct,
each animal, as a rule, supporting its own special para-
site, but they resemble one another so closely that they
form a perfectly natural family, which is called Pulicidce,
from the principal genus Pulex. On the other hand, in
their most characteristic peculiarities, they are utterly
unlike any other insects, and hence have been a great
puzzle to systematists. It is not easy to find a suitable
corner for them in our schemes of classification, and
many have got over the difficulty by placing them in an
order by themselves, which, from the apparent absence
of wings, has been called Aphaniptera (without distinct
wings). Others have, however, seen in them some
affinities to the two-winged flies, or Diptera, and have
located them somewhere in that order; but here again
there has not been unanimity, and some have placed
them at the end, while others have inserted them in the
body of the order, following the Mycetophilidce, a family
of small flies which possess considerable jumping power,
and live gregariously amongst decaying vegetable matter,
or in fungi, dung, &c. That their affinities are strongest
with the Diptera is now generally recognised, and they
are therefore regarded as a sort of apterous flies, which
have addicted themselves to parasitic habits. The reasons
for this opinion will become evident as we proceed.
Having premised thus much as to the zoological
position of the group, we may now endeavour to get
a clear notion of the structure of Pulex irritans (Fig.
77), the common human flea, so called, and afterwards
deal with its life history. In the shape of their body,
fleas are quite exceptional ; it is flattened from side
to side, so that when the insect is standing upright
its greatest diameter is the vertical one. This form
of body is called " compressed " ; it is exactly the
25
OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
reverse of what obtains in that other nocturnal pest,
the bed-bug, whose body is flattened in the vertical
direction, and whose greatest diameter is the trans-
verse. This shape of body is called " depressed." Cer-
tain fishes present similar extremes of structure : thus
a skate is depressed, but a plaice or sole compressed.
The flea's body is covered with a hard, slippery, reddish-
FlG. 77. Common Flea (Pulcx irritans), female ; e, epimeron ; c, coxa ;
t, trochanter ; /, femur ; s, tibia ; p, tarsus.
brown chitinolis skin, showing plainly enough the division
into rings or segments which characterises insects and
other annulose animals. The head, which is rounded
above, is small in proportion to the size of the insect,
and is followed by three small and separate segments,
which represent the thorax ; these are again succeeded
by several much larger segments forming the abdomen,
which, in the female, is at least three times as deep as
THE COMMON FLEA 25!
the head. To the thoracic segment are attached, as
usual, the three pairs of legs, which increase in length
from before backwards.
The legs are remarkable in several ways. At first
sight they seem to have an extraordinary number of
joints, and yet the parts are exactly the same as in
insects generally, and follow the plan typified in the
cockroach. It will be remembered that that joint of an
insect's leg by which the limb is attached to the thorax
is called the coxa. Now the coxae of a flea are not only
enormously large, being indeed the broadest and almost
the longest section of the leg, but they are also far more
completely freed from the thorax than is usually the
case, being only attached by one extremity : this causes
the leg to appear to have an extra joint. But this is
not all. In the first pair, especially, we seem to have
yet another additional joint, and this appearance is due
to the fact that the epimera (viz., those elements of the
thoracic segment to which the coxae are directly attached)
themselves project from the body of the segment, and
point obliquely forwards. These arrangements give an
extremely awkward appearance to the legs, but no doubt
facilitate the leaping process. The trochanter is small,
and both femur and tibia are about the same length as
the coxa ; but the tarsus, which, like that of the cock-
roach, consists of five joints, is remarkably long, and is
terminated by a pair of long curved claws, which the
insect must find extremely useful as it works its way
about amongst the garments of its host, or between the
bed-clothes. Most leaping insects have the hind femora
very largely developed, since in them are placed the
muscles which originate the impulse of projection. This
arrangement is especially noticeable in grasshoppers, and
in the tiny beetles called turnip-fleas, which do so much
252 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
harm to cruciferous plants. The hind legs of the flea,
however, scarcely differ from the other pairs, except in
length, and the proportionate dimensions of all three
pairs are much the same, all having COXSB larger than
would be requisite for a walking insect. All parts of the
legs are beset with bristly hairs, those towards the end
of the tarsus being especially closely, packed. The ab-
dominal segments also are furnished with bands of long
stiff hairs across the back. No doubt these hairs all
pointing, as they do, away from the head aid the flea
quite as much as its compressed form in its endeavours
to insinuate itself into the small spaces between our
garments it has often to travel along in order to reach
its pastures ; and help, at the same time, to explain the
difficulty that one experiences in attempting to hold the
insect between finger and thumb.
Turning now to the mouth organs (Fig. 78), we find a
far more complicated apparatus than might have been ex-
pected. The type of mouth
is that called suctorial, i.e.,
it is adapted, as we are
painfully aware, for the
swallowing of liquid food,
obtained by a process of
perforation. In this respect
fleas agree with flies, and,
for the matter of that, with
bugs; but are totally un-
like bees, wasps, and ants,
FIG. 78. Mouth Organs of Flea, s, to which group of insects
labrum ; mb, mandibles ; mx, max- -, , ,, , ,.
mso;mp, maxillary palpi ;lp, labial Some people have thought
they show some affinity.
The labrum, or upper lip, seems to be represented only by
a slender saw-edged bristle, which is perforated throughout
THE COMMON FLEA 253
its length by an exceedingly minute canal. This is
situated in the centre, and on each side of it are the
mandibles in the form of two straight flat blades, point-
ing downwards, and notched on each side like a double
saw. The mandibular teeth number about 75 in each
row on each side, which, at the rate of two double rows
to each mandible, gives a total of some 600 glistening,
tooth-like projections on these weapons alone. The
maxillae are two sharp-pointed triangular pieces, which,
when seen in profile, as in a specimen mounted for the
microscope, have the appearance of a sharp beak ; they
are furnished with a pair of long four-jointed palpi,
which project in front of the head, and might easily be
mistaken for antennae. The labium is reduced to a small
membranous plate, which carries a pair of palpi, not
quite so large as those of the maxillae; each of these
is formed into a keen blade on one edge, and rather
obscurely jointed into four on the other. It is not easy
to say exactly how these organs are used, since whenever
we are consciously subjected to their operation, we are
more anxious to get rid of the operator than to examine
minutely into its method of proceeding. The whole
evidently constitutes a piercing apparatus of exquisite
delicacy, and the mandibles are no doubt the most
effective part. We are accustomed to speak of flea-bites,
but this is scarcely a correct way of designating the
operation : the appendages of the mouth are not in any
sense biting organs ; the action is that of vertical pierc-
ing, not lateral pinching or nipping. In possessing
palpi, fleas agree with flies, and differ entirely from
the other chief order of insects with a piercing,
suctorial mouth, viz., the bugs, which are never pro-
vided with such organs. On the other hand, in pos-
sessing both labial and maxillary palpi, they differ from
254
OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
the ordinary flies, which are furnished with the latter
only.
In the structure and arrangement of their organs of
sense, again, fleas justify our statement that they are
zoological oddities. While the eyes of flies are com-
pound, each mass often containing thousands of facets,
those of fleas are simple, and consist only of one rounded
knob on each side; and as most of the insect's preda-
tory operations are carried on in either partial or total
darkness, it would seem that even these numerically
reduced .visual organs are of no great avail in the
obtaining of food. The eyes are placed in the front of
a hollow space, in the hinder part of which the an-
tennae are lodged; these are short,
curiously shaped organs, and are
so obscurely situated that they
would certainly escape notice un-
less carefully looked for (Fig. 79).
The hollow in which they lie is
partially covered by an extension
of the chitinous integument of
the head, and the part still left
open is further protected at a
lower level by a membranous flap,
which can be pushed aside when
the antennae are protruded. Their
FIG. 79. Antenna of Dog's
Flea (Puiex canis). After extraordinary shape, as well as
their concealed and guarded posi-
tion, indicates that many interesting problems await
solution as to their functions and the particular uses of
the several parts.
The last two thoracic segments carry a rounded scale
on each side, projecting from their hinder edge. The
first is a minute one, but the second very much larger,
THE COMMON FLEA 255
overlapping parts of the first two abdominal segments.
They are, apparently, rudimentary wings.
Fleas sometimes exist gregariously on their hosts, and
those of the lower animals especially have the habit of
attaching themselves most pertinaciously to some part
of the body, from which no effort of their host can
dislodge them. Some years ago, Mr. Yerrall exhibited
before the Entomological Society a colony of living fleas
which had been taken shortly before from the inside of
a rabbit's ear, where they were congregated on a spot
from which the animal could not remove them by
scratching. The neck of a fowl, again, is another place
on which large numbers of a certain species have been
found, collected in a small area, with their lancets buried
deep in the flesh. They are not slow to discover when
their host can furnish them with no further nourish-
ment, and it is curious to notice how soon they abandon
a dead body. This may easily be observed in the case
of the cat's flea : if a recently defunct cat be watched,
as the body becomes cold and stiff, the fleas will soon be
seen struggling out from amongst the fur, though not a
single specimen may ever have been seen as long as
the animal was alive and warm, and its blood therefore
readily obtainable.
The human flea is pugnacious, and one observer, who
had confined a couple of females in a glass tube, in
order to induce them to deposit eggs, describes them
as immediately becoming "rampant, confronting one
another like microscopic kangaroos."
Fleas are peculiar amongst parasites as being parasitic
only during one stage in their career. It is only the
fully grown insects by which we are troubled, and
though we find them of different sizes, little ones and
big ones, it must not be supposed that the former are
OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
merely younger forms of the latter. A flea has not,
throughout its life, the form with which we are familiar,
nor does it in that form grow at all. The little fleas
are simply the males, which are considerably smaller
than the females, in accordance with a rule very fre-
quently illustrated amongst insects. The males also differ
in shape, and have the hinder end of the body some-
what turned upwards (Plate V.). In its life history a flea
differs totally from a bug :
the former is an insect
with a complete meta-
morphosis, and therefore
altogether differently
shaped in its larval con-
dition, while the latter
is almost identical in
shape during the whole
of its life, and exhibits
similar habits through-
out ; hence the tiny bugs
are really young ones,
though this is not the
case with fleas.
The digestive apparatus
of a flea (Fig. So) consists
of parts very similar in
their arrangement and
function to those of the
cockroach, and therefore
FIG. 80. Digestive Apparatus of Dog's
Flea. CB, oesophagus ; g, gizzard ; needs no detailed descrip-
s, stomach; m, Malpighian tubules; , .
i, intestine; r, rectum. (After tion. Ihe Oesophagus IS a
Landois.) r e
rather short and narrow
tube, leading into a thick-walled gizzard, which, again,
opens by its broader end into a capacious bag, the
THE COMMON FLEA 257
stomach, big enough to hold a large draught of blood,
such as the insect is only too eager to suck in whenever
it can get the opportunity. At the junction of the
stomach with the intestine are four long, thin, blind
tubes, the Malpighian tubules. The hinder end of the
intestine expands into an inverted, pear-shaped cavity,
the rectum, on the walls of which are six oval glands.
The alimentary canal, when gorged with blood, can be
rapidly emptied by the insect, and its contents ejected
with considerable force, when a new and good supply of
food presents itself before the last meal is disposed of.
The dark stains on linen, that indicate where fleas have
been, consist of their dried excrement, and are composed
of the undigested remains of the blood corpuscles con-
tained in the food. Judging from the fact that rooms
that have long been unoccupied are sometimes found to
be swarming with fleas, it would seem that the perfect
insects can subsist for a time without their customary
food, although they are rapacious and insatiable enough
when it is obtainable. And even under ordinary cir-
cumstances, their living must not unfrequently be pre-
carious, and their meals most irregular. As is well
known, it is not every human being that they regard as
fit to supply them with nutriment; some individuals
they seem instinctively to avoid, whether by reason of a
greater thickness and toughness of skin, or of something
distasteful in the blood, or from some other cause, it is
impossible to say. That they should prefer a host with
a soft and delicate skin is only natural, and is evidenced
by their marked partiality for females and young chil-
dren, though it must not be forgotten that some of
this apparent partiality may be due to the extra facilities
that are afforded to the parasites, in the case of these
sections of the community, by the character of the
258 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
clothing, the greater looseness of which renders them
easier subjects for the fleas to gain access to, and there-
fore to operate upon.
In consequence of the compression of the body and
the comparative transparency of the skin, many details
of internal anatomy may be made out in the living flea,
if it be examined under the microscope with good illumi-
nation by transmitted light. The tracheae, or breathing
tubes, can thus be very easily traced, even down to
many of their finer branches ; and the large trunks that
traverse the length of the body are especially conspicuous
objects ; large branches may also be easily seen running
down the legs. If the flea is confined so that it can
only move slightly, the contraction of the muscles,
especially in the coxae, can be watched without any
difficulty, as any little twitchings occur in the legs.
A living flea is a very pretty object when viewed with
polarised light.
The original photographs of which Plate Y. is a re-
production were obtained from specimens prepared for
the microscope, and therefore completely flattened. In
the process of mounting, the thoracic segments un-
avoidably become slightly dislocated from their natural
position : this is especially noticeable in the male. The
greater part of the contents of the body also have been
dissolved out, in order to increase the transparency of
the object, and hence very little of the internal anatomy
can, in these specimens, be seen. The most prominent
object in this connection is the reproductive apparatus
of the male : the bars and coiled threads at the hinder
extremity are all parts of these organs, and are really
internal in position, though they hardly seem so. The
coiled threads are attached to the part of the organ that
can be protruded.
/
THE COMMON FLEA 259
We have now to trace the life history of the flea.
The eggs are oval, whitish, sticky things, and though,
of course, actually minute, are yet rather large in pro-
portion to the size of the insect itself, their longest
diameter being about ^th of an inch, and the shortest
g^th. So far as the human species is concerned, the
eggs appear to be laid, not upon the body or clothes of
the host, but amongst rugs, mats, and other accumu-
lators of dust and dirt. It is commonly believed that
cats and dogs bring fleas into a house, and there is
certainly good evidence that at least their own parasites
may be introduced in this way. For example, Mr. S. J.
M'Intire states that, wishing to obtain some eggs of the
cat's flea, he placed, late one night, a cloth for his cat to
lie upon, and early in the morning inspected it in order
to collect any eggs that might have been deposited. On
the first night 62 eggs were obtained, on the second 78,
on the third 67, and on the fourth 77, a total of 284
eggs from one cat in the course of four nights ! No
doubt many of these, if left to themselves, would never
have reached maturity ; still, the number is sufficiently
startling, and, unless the animal in question was literally
swarming with vermin, seems to indicate on the part of
the cat's flea a fecundity considerably in excess of what
is usually attributed to the human species, which is said
to produce only about a dozen at a laying. Of course it
by no means follows that the fleas which would have
resulted from these eggs would have been troublesome
to the human inhabitants of the house; in fact, con-
sidering the great zoological difference between man and
the cat, the presumption would be in the other direction.
It has, however, been asserted that the cat's flea will
attack a human host ; but, however that may be, it is
evident that, to be on the safe side, rooms in which cats
260 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
and dogs are accustomed to lie should be frequently
swept, and that the sweepings should be burnt.
From the eggs are hatched, not brown leaping fleas,
but whitish, footless, worm-like maggots, whose bodies
v
FIG. 8i.i-Larva of Cat's Flea (Pulexfelis). After Kti nc
are set with long hairs (Fig. 81). Each larva consists
of a head and twelve segments, the last terminated by a
pair of hooks. The head carries four tubercles, a pair
of short antennae., and a good pair of biting jaws (Fig.
82), for at this period of
its life the young flea
devours solid food ; it is
neither parasitic nor a
blood-sucker. These little
grubs are extremely lively
FIG. 82. Biting Jaw of Flea's Maggot. e J J
creatures, wriggling about
vigorously, and working themselves along by aid of their
hairs and caudal hooks. They appear to feed upon dry
animal substances of various kinds, some fragments of
which they are pretty sure to find in the neighbourhood
of their birthplace. At the end of the seventeenth
century Leeuwenhoek, to whom we owe some of the
earliest recorded observations on fleas, kept a colony of
larvae, and fed them on the bodies of dead flies. About
fifty years later, Rosel tried some larvae with various
substances, and found that they refused sawdust, both
from old and fresh wood ; and that so far from enjoying
THE COMMON FLEA 261
fresh blood, they became drowned in it when small
quantities that had been extracted from a pigeon were
offered them. He found, on the other hand, that they
fed readily on the bodies of gnats, and on dried and
pulverised blood, and these observations have since been
confirmed by other observers. Bearing these facts in
mind, then, it is evident that, quite apart from the
parasites of our domestic quadrupeds themselves, rugs,
mats, or carpets, on which such animals lie, are likely,
by the accumulation there of hairs, fragments of skin,
&c., to constitute an environment eminently adapted to
the propagation of human fleas, the larvae of which would
find there excellent pasturage. In this connection may
be quoted an experience of Professor Westwood, who
discovered some larvae in a very unexpected way. He
says that, having dropped a very minute insect on the
floor of his library, close to the spot where one of his
spaniels was in the habit of lying, he was obliged, in
order to find it, to sweep the carpet very carefully with
a fine brush upon a piece of white paper. By so doing
he found the insect he was in search of, and at the same
time swept up what he was certainly not looking for,
some small, hairy, wriggling maggots, which he at once
recognised as flea larvae. From what he subsequently
states, the Professor seems to imply that these were the
larvae, not of the canine species, but of the human flea.
The frequent use of the broom, therefore, wherever cats
and dogs habitually take up their quarters, is eminently
desirable; and not the dustbin, but the fire, should be
the final destination of all rubbish so swept up. It is
obvious, also, that the frequent sweeping out and cleans-
ing of kennels, especially at the edges and in the corners
of the floor, would be helpful as a preventive measure
towards ridding dogs of fleas.
262 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
In the form of its larva, the flea is in complete agree-
ment with the order Diptera, the footless, jaw-bearing
maggot being, as we have seen, the usual type amongst
flies.
The young flea does not enjoy a long larval life ; in
summer it becomes full-grown in about twelve days, and
then spins a little cocoon wherein to become a pupa.
This habit is apparently sometimes departed from, for
Rosel records that some of his larvae pupated without a
cocoon. The cocoon is, of course, extremely minute, and
to the silken threads of which it is composed are usually
attached particles of dust or cotton or woollen fibre,
whereby its identity is al-
most completely obscured.
Inside the snug little abode,
the tiny maggot divests itself
of its larval skin, and ap-
pears as an odd, humpbacked
FIG. 8 3 . Pupa of Flea. (After chrysalis (Fig. 83). In this
the maggot shape has alto-
gether disappeared, and the outline of the perfect form
becomes evident. Legs for the first time appear, but
they are quite useless, as, in common with the rest of
the insect, they are encased in a thin investing pellicle,
each leg being enclosed in a case of its own. In the
character of its pupa the flea resembles the Hymen-
optera (ants, bees, wasps, &c.), and differs markedly
from the generality of the Diptera.
The developing flea remains in the condition of a pupa
about a fortnight, of course taking no food during this
time; it is at first dirty white, but soon darkens and
assumes the well-known yellowish brown tint of the
adult. From this pupa issues the perfect flea, and then,
for the first time in its life, the spirit of bloodthirstiness
THE COMMON FLEA 263
comes upon it; never hitherto have its mouth-organs
been adapted for taking liquid food, but now it is fur-
nished with the extraordinary collection of lancets
referred to on p. 253, and would find it equally difficult
to partake of solid aliment. Those larvae which hatch
from eggs laid towards the beginning of winter do not
pass through their metamorphoses so quickly, but spend
the winter in the larval state, remaining in a torpid
condition till the warmer weather comes round and
wakes them into renewed activity, and enables them to
complete their cycle of changes. The flea, then, is an
insect with a complete metamorphosis, therein differing
in toto from both the bed-bug and the cockroach, and
agreeing with Dipterous flies in general.
Fleas do not seem to be confined to human habitations ;
there is a common belief that sandy sea-shores are
infested by them, and that visitors to such spots may
expect to return home "with company." In support of
this notion may be adduced a statement made by Mr.
T. J. Bold before the Tyneside Naturalists' Club about
twenty-eight years ago, to the effect that he saw fleas
" dancing about quite merrily between Hartley and
Whitley, and at other times they have been noticed quite
frequently from South Shields to Marsden." There are,
no doubt, many fragments of animal remains scattered
about amongst loose sand, such as would serve very well
for the larvae to prey upon ; but what the perfect insects
can find to live upon in such situations is a mystery, for
it can hardly be maintained that they frequent the spot
with a view to possible human visitors.
That fleas can be excluded from houses by the use
of odoriferous plants has long been a firmly believed
tradition, witness the name of our common wayside
plant, the fleabane. The smoke of this when burnt was
264 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
held to be particularly distasteful to fleas, which would
forthwith abandon any premises in which they detected
it. Several species of Compositse have been credited with
this potency. A preparation made from the leaves of a
Pyretlirum from the Caucasus was at one time exten-
sively used in Russia for driving away fleas. Wormwood
(Artemisia) also was believed to possess similar powers,
and Tusser has the following lines in illustration :
" While wormwood hath seed, get a handfull or twaine,
To save against March, to make flea to refraine ;
Whelre chambere is sweeped and wormwood is strown,
No flea for his life dare abide to be known."
The "sweeped chambere" had no doubt quite as much
to do with the matter as the wormwood. In folk-lore
the ist of March is intimately associated with fleas. It
is still a practice in Kent to keep the doors shut on that
day for the same purpose, and thus it is believed that
immunity from their attacks will be secured for a
twelvemonth.
The muscular strength of the flea, like that of insects
in general, is, in proportion to its size, exceedingly great.
In instituting numerical comparisons, however, between
it and the higher animals, by way of illustrating this
fact, there are many points, not altogether obvious at
first sight, which need to be considered before we can be
satisfied that we have got results that are reliable, and
not merely exaggerated and sensational statements
devoid of any scientific value. For example, a flea is said
to be able to leap to the height of a foot, which, taking
the insect as a large female, is about a hundred times its
own length ; and it is commonly assumed that this is a
stupendous feat, corresponding in magnitude to what we
should get if, for the sake of comparison, we were to
THE COMMON FLEA 265
imagine larger animals, such as the vertebrates, similarly
constituted and endowed with powers enabling them in
all cases to perform gigantic leaps to similar propor-
tionate heights; on such a showing, thjs flea's leap
certainly would be a marvel of muscular effort, for it
would be as if an ordinary-sized man, supposed to be
constituted like a flea, were able to take a vertical bound
into the air which would carry him to a greater height
than that of the top of St. Paul's.
A popular writer, taking a more moderate estimate
of a flea's capabilities, says, "Perhaps we have not
reflected that the average jump of a flea is about thirty
times its own height, and that, supposing a man of six feet
in stature were to perform the same leap, he would jump
as high as the gallery of the Monument." Now, such an
assumption is altogether erroneous, and a leap of that
height would not by any means represent a similar
muscular efficiency, but, on the other hand, a far greater
one in other words, it would not be " the same leap,"
but one immensely in excess. The problem is, in fact,
not quite so simple as it seems at first sight. Suppose
we consider the work done. The flea raises its own mass
against its own weight through the height of a foot
(taking our former estimate of the maximum leap). If
a man leapt up, say, only through the same height, he
also would raise his mass against his weight through the
height of a foot, and therefore the work done in the two
instances would be proportional to the weights of the
two animals. Next arises the question of the energy
available for doing this work ; this, on the supposition
of the two animals being similarly constituted, and
having muscles of a similar character, will be pro-
portional to the volumes of the muscles, and therefore
to their weights, which, again, in animals similarly
266 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
constituted, would be as the weights of the animals them-
selves. The work done, therefore, being in the proportion
of the weights, and the energy available for doing it
bemg also in the same proportion, it follows that a leap
through equal distances would represent equal muscular
efficiency. And hence, on the above suppositions, a man's
leap of a single foot, instead of something like 500 feet,
would be more strictly comparable with a flea's leap of
one foot. The height of the leap, therefore, does not by
itself indicate any great superiority in relative muscular
strength 6n the part of the flea.
But the question may be looked at in another light.
Plateau has recently carried out some investigations as
to the muscular strength of different insects by deter-
mining the maximum weight that they can lift; and
though the flea itself does not happen to have been
one of the insects experimented upon, yet the results
obtained will tend to throw great light upon our subject.
The modus op&randi was as follows : A narrow groove
was lined with cloth in order to give foothold, and the
insect to be tested was placed in the groove. One end
of a delicate thread was then attached to its body, and
the other passed over a small pulley at the end of the
groove. To the free end of the thread was attached a
small pan, and sand was put into this till the insect
could no longer raise it. The weight of the maximum
load having been determined, as well as that of the
insect itself, the ratio of the weight lifted to the weight
of the insect's body could at once be calculated. By
experimenting in this way with several well-known
insects, Plateau established some very curious results,
which at first sight seem rather paradoxical. He found
that the smaller the insect, the stronger relatively it
becomes, and that in every instance the strength is
THE COMMON FLEA 267
proportionately far greater than that of vertebrate
animals. Thus a hive-bee, weighing .09 gramme, was
found to be able to lift a weight equal to 23.5 times that
of its own body; while a large humble bee, weighing
more than four times as much, had a relative muscular
force only a little more than half as great, or, more
exactly, could lift only 14.9 times the weight of its body.
Similarly, a large cockchafer, weighing .94 gramme,
could not raise more than 14.3 times its own weight;
while a much smaller, but allied species, weighing only
.153 gramme, i.e., about one-sixth part as much, was
strong enough to raise 24.3 times its own weight, or
more than half as much again as its lumbering relative.
If now we compare these results with those derived
from the higher animals, we find that, while insects can
raise from about 14 to 23.5 times their own weight, the
muscular force of a man or a horse, when expressed in the
same way, are represented by the ridiculously small
numbers .86 and .53 respectively. This high relative
muscular force of insects, however, is not due to any
superiority in the quality of their muscles, but is simply
a direct consequence of their small size. For, with
muscles similarly constituted, the contractile force de-
pends, of course, on the number of muscular fibres, i.e.,
it varies as the cross section of the muscles, and is there-
fore proportional to the squares of linear dimensions;
the weight, on the other hand, depends on the volume,
and is therefore proportional to the cubes of linear
dimensions. Hence the ratio of the contractile force to
the weight decreases rapidly as the animal increases in
size, or, in other words, the smaller the animal, the
stronger, relatively, it must become, by virtue of that
very decrease in size. While, therefore, it is quite true
that, considering their size, insects are very much stronger
268 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
than human beings, horses, or other large animals, such
advantage does not necessarily proceed from any supe-
riority in the quality of their muscles, but simply from
their being so much smaller. And further than this, if
their muscles were really as good as those of vertebrates,
they ought, in accordance with the above calculation, to
be far stronger than they are. Their " absolute muscular
force," indeed, as Plateau terms it, is low in comparison
with that of higher animals, although their " relative
muscular force " is extremely high. So, then, if we were
to magnify the dimensions of our flea, without altering
the character and quality of its muscular fibres, we
should gradually lessen its relative strength, and, by
the time it had reached human proportions, it would
have turned out to be a far inferior animal. This
somewhat complex subject may be found more fully
discussed in Miall and Denny's excellent work on the
" Cockroach," from which the above illustrations are in
substance derived, and to which those who wish to
pursue the subject further are referred.
In this connection, a passing reference may be made
to the so-called educated or performing fleas, which have
sometimes been exhibited in different places. The chief
difficulty met with in the training of fleas is, it seems, to
restrain them from jumping, and to induce them to walk
in an even and regular manner. One of the methods of
overcoming this tendency to sprightliness is to imprison
them in circular glass-topped boxes which are kept re-
volving : every leap they take brings retribution in the
shape of violent collision with the sides of their cell;
and, as they are at the same time dazed, it is believed,
by the movement of the box, they seem to get tired of
this unpleasant experience, and, after a while, cease leap-
ing, and settle down to a steady walk. Mr. W. H. Dall,
THE COMMON FLEA 269
an American entomologist, who once visited an exhibition
of performing fleas with the view of determining to what
extent the performances were really the result of train-
ing, and how far, therefore, they indicated any docility
in the performers, came to the conclusion that all the
movements consisted of struggles on the part of the in-
sects to escape, and that what looked like concerted action,
in which, of course, the greatest amount of intelligence
seemed to be exhibited, could be accounted for in other
and more natural ways. Take, for example, the waltzing,
in which the fleas go spinning round in pairs to the
sound of a musical box. Two fleas of equal size and
strength are attached to an extremely delicate piece of
wire, one at each end ; but as they are fastened in such
a way as to face in opposite directions and at right
angles to the wire, their struggles produce equal and
opposite pulls at the end of the bar, or, in other words,
form what in the language of mechanics would be termed
a "couple," and therefore necessarily produce, without
any intention on their part, a rotary motion. To aid in
the illusion, a small orchestra is added, consisting of
fleas fastened before tiny models of musical instruments.
As they are set upright, their legs can only flourish
about in the air, suggesting the idea of their performing
on the instruments ; and if they should be at all slow to
begin their "pa wings," an attendant stirs them up by
running a little barb from a feather across their legs,
when, of course, they set to work kicking about vigo-
rously. In the duelling performance we have something
very similar to the orchestra : two fleas are fastened up-
right to little wire pillars, and tiny wands in lieu of
swords attached to their fore-legs; they are placed
opposite one another, but at such a distance that they
are just out of one another's reach, except with the
270 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
"swords." As they brandish their legs about in their
efforts to liberate themselves from their constrained
position, it will occasionally happen that their " swords "
will meet and produce the semblance of the clashing of
weapons in a combat. Frank Buckland, in the account
he gives of performing fleas, speaks of the supply as
coming chiefly from elderly females (!), and of the price
as ranging from 3d. a dozen in summer to 6d. in winter.
He also states that the best fleas for this purpose are
obtained from Russia, whence they are sent in pill-boxes,
packed in \cotton wool.
The common flea is cosmopolitan in distribution ; not
so, however, that far more formidable but allied pest,
the chigoe or jigger (Sarcopsylla penetrans) of tropical
America. This villainous insect (Fig. 84), a short notice
of which may appropriately close this chapter, is some-
thing like a small flea, and is particularly noteworthy
for two peculiarities, viz., the enormous size to which
the abdomen of the female swells, by reason of the
development of the eggs, and the marvellous habit . it
has of burrowing beneath the skin of its victims, thereby
producing intense pain, ulcerations, and even sometimes
death. It is only the female that thus burrows. After
impregnation, she seeks the foot of a suitable host, and
by means of her powerful mandibular lancets, perforates
the skin obliquely, usually beneath the toe-nail, and
works herself under the surface till the tip of the
abdomen only is visible. While she is in this position,
the eggs, which are said to be as many as a hundred in
number, advance towards maturity, and the body of the
insect now swells to a large globular form, the head and
thorax, of course, still retaining their original diminutive
proportions ; the increase in size continues till the eggs
are ready for laying, when the abdomen is about the size
THE COMMON FLEA
271
of a small pea. After so enormous a dislocation of the
abdominal viscera, it is perhaps not surprising that the
deposition of the eggs should be the supreme effort of
FIG. 84. The Chigoe, or Jigger (Sarcopsylla penetrans). A. Female. B. Male.
the insect. From the time of fecundation to that of
oviposition it lives solely to develop its progeny, and
when the eggs are laid it perishes, leaving in the wound
272 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
which has formed its resting-place only a shrivelled skin,
which soon falls away.
The larvae are of similar habits to those of our own
flea -, they live on sandy shores, often in great numbers ;
and the perfect insects seem also to be normally found
in such situations, and their occurrence in houses may
perhaps be accounted for by the fact that they do not
confine their attention to the human species, but attack
various other animals as well. Hence, dogs and mice,
both of which are attacked by chigoes in the feet in the
same waj^, as man, may be the means of introducing
them. This intolerable pest, the worst of all human
parasites, has unfortunately been introduced into Africa
by commercial intercourse with its headquarters, but it
seems unable to spread to districts beyond the tropics.
CHAPTEE XV.
THE BED-BUG.
IT has already been pointed out that the migrations of
some insects are largely dependent upon the commercial
enterprise of nations, and that it is to our own widely
extended commerce that we can trace the introduction
into this island of our kitchen pest, the common cock-
roach. We have now to consider another and much less
desirable importation, which we owe to a similar source.
The bed-bug, though now, unfortunately, firmly enough
established, is not indigenous here, and appears to have
been known as British for about the same length of time
as the cockroach, although it is, of course, impossible to
assign a definite date for its introduction. Like the
cockroach, it appeared first in seaport towns, whence it
spread to other parts ; but its advance to inland regions
was slow, if we may judge from a brochure entitled
"A Book of Buggs," written by John Southall in the
year 1730, in which he points out that at that date,
i.e., nearly 250 years after we first hear of the insect,
though " not one seaport in England is free from them,
in inland towns buggs are hardly known." The earliest
record of its occurrence in Britain is to be found in
a Latin treatise on "Insects, or Minute Animals," by
Thomas Mouffet, published in 1634. This writer, who
does not state whence he obtained his information, says
that in the year 1503, two ladies of noble family,
2 73 a
274 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
residing at Mortlake, became greatly alarmed at finding
themselves one morning bug-bitten, not knowing the
cause of the inflamed swellings which had appeared
upon their persons, and thinking they had contracted
some frightful contagious disease. That even at this
early date the insects were not entirely unknown,
though certainly strange, appears from the ease with
which the disquietude of the noble sufferers was allayed
by their physician, who was at once able to point out to
them the real cause of their disfigurement.
The inelegant monosyllable we are now accustomed
to use as the name of this horrid parasite does not seem
to have been applied to it at first; even Mouffet, who
speaks of it in Latin as Cimex, gives as the English
equivalent of this "wall-louse," but does not mention
the word " bug " at all. This, however, is only negative
evidence ; and as there appears, to be an undoubted
reference to the insect under the shorter name in a
play of Massinger's, dated twelve years earlier than
Mouffet's treatise, it must have been at least in occa-
sional use at that period. " Chinch " is another old
name for it, which appears to have become extinct only
a generation or two ago.
The origin of the modern name is somewhat obscure.
As applied to the insect, the word "bug" has usually
been supposed to be identical with the old British word
of the same form, meaning -a hobgoblin, or nocturnal
apparition, a word still existing in the compound "bug-
bear " ; and the idea was that the name was transferred
to the insect in consequence of its nocturnal and dis-
gusting habits, and the alarm they occasioned when,
as in the instance above referred to, the cause was
unknown. But Dr. Murray points out in the ''New
English Dictionary " that this is mere conjecture, and no
THE BED-BUG 275
direct evidence of the transference of the name is forth-
coming; hence it is safer to regard the etymology of
the word, as applied to this and other insects, such as
the May-bug, &c., as at present unknown. In Shake-
speare the word occurs several times, in the sense of
a spectre, but never as the name of the parasite, which,
indeed, does not appear to be mentioned by that obser-
vant author, a tolerably good indication that it was
not very common in his time. Southall, indeed, main-
tains that when he wrote, bugs had been established in
England only for about sixty years, which would throw
their first appearance down to the year 1670; but this
idea is plainly refuted by the notes of time already
mentioned.
To entomologists the bed-bug is known as Oimex lectu-
larius. Cim,ex was the name by which it was known to
the Romans, and hence was selected by Linne as the
generic term for bugs in general. The specific name
lectularius is derived from the Latin word for a couch
or bed, and of course refers to the locality in which we
most frequently meet with it.
Though annoying us in the same way as the flea,
the bed-bug is yet a totally different sort of insect,
and in its life-history departs as widely as possible from
its companion bedroom pest. The flea, it will be re-
membered, we regarded as a sort of wingless fly, and
therefore located it in the order Diptera. The bug, on
the other hand, belongs to the order Hemiptera, and
finds some of its nearest allies in the plant-bugs, water
scorpions, water boatmen, skaters, &c. The most funda-
mental distinction between these two orders lies in the
nature of the metamorphosis. The Diptera, or flies,
as we have already shown, pass through the usual
changes in the course of their development, appearing
276 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
first as a grub or maggot, next as a limbless motionless
chrysalis, and then as the perfect fly ; but the Hemiptera
or bugs pass through no such remarkable alterations
of form, and in their early life show a general resem-
blance to what they will ultimately become, differing
from the adult chiefly in size and depth of coloration,
and in the absence of wings and the immature condition
of the reproductive organs. Thus, while the young flea,
when hatched from the egg, is a wriggling, worm-like
creature, without limbs, and utterly unlike its parents,
the youngand newly hatched bug is a six-legged running
creature, to all intents and purposes a miniature repro-
duction of its parents, and a forecast of what it will
itself in a few weeks become. Hence fleas and bugs,
though alike in blood-sucking habits, and human para-
sitism, are yet at almost opposite poles in the series of
developmental types.
In the form of the body, again, there is the strongest
possible contrast between these two parasites. Both are
extremely narrow
in one direction,
and broad in an-
other; but in the
flea, the body is
extended vertically
and contracted
FIG. 85. Diagrammatic Section of Body of laterally, and in
(A) Flea, and (B) Bed-Bug. J . .
the bug it is ex-
tended laterally and contracted vertically ; the former is
compressed, the latter depressed. Fig. 85, representing
diagrammatically a vertical transverse section of the two
insects, strikingly shows this difference. The extremely
depressed and flattened form which the bed-bug exhibits
is by no means exceptional in the order Hemiptera ; in
THE BED-BUG 277
fact, this order contains amongst its species by far the
flattest of all insects ; "B flat" is a sobriquet not more
applicable to the bed-bug than to several other kinds
that are not parasitic at all. Such flatness is always
associated with the habit of hiding in cracks and crevices
a habit in which, every one knows, our bedroom pest
is a perfect adept. In flatness, however, it does not
equal a certain wild British species which lives under
the bark of willow-trees, and has a body of almost paper-
like thinness.
The disgusting odour which attends the bed-bug
would alone be sufficient to excite repugnance, and to
prevent its habits from being much studied. But as
this smell completely goes off after death, there is
nothing but the natural prejudice against a personal
parasite, and one so closely associated with uncleanly
conditions, to render a careful examination of the dead
insect an unpleasant experience. There are many
delicate touches in the portraiture, even of an insect
which, when alive, is so repulsive ; it is not all coarse-
ness and vulgarity, and the compound microscope, the
use of which is necessary to make out the minuter
details, reveals many interesting features.
For examination, the insects may be killed by being
plunged into boiling water, or by being exposed for a
time to the fumes of chopped laurel leaves. In either
case, their sickening smell soon disappears. Even at
their largest, they are not more than a quarter of an
inch long, and hence are too small and delicate to be
touched with the fingers without great risk of damage,
and a pair of fine forceps is necessary for handling
them. When fully grown, they are of a deep rust-red,
tinged with black here and there in the abdomen. The
head and foreparts are somewhat lighter than the rest
OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
of the insect. Of the three divisions of the body, the head
is the smallest (Fig. 86) ; its hinder part is of an oblong
FIG. 86. Head of Bed-Bug, with Rostrum extended, a, antennae; c, crown;
e, eyes ; I, labrum ; r, rostrum. N.B. The last joint of the antennae and
part of the next have been removed.
shape, broader than long ; the eyes form projecting knobs
at the sides, and the base of the mouth organs a con-
siderable prominence in front, whereby the head, as a
whole, acquires roughly a pentagonal outline.
The mouth organs form a sort of beak, called the
rostrum; and this, as is usually the case in the Hemiptera,
is tucked back underneath
the head (Fig. 87), running
along the central line, as
far as the base of the first
pair of legs, the head being
slightly grooved beneath for
its accommodation. At its
junction with the head, the
rostrum is more flexible than elsewhere, so that it can
be brought out from the position of rest and held either
FlG. 87. Side view of Head of Bed-
Bug, showing position of rostrum
(r) in rest.
THE BED-BUG 279
pointing vertically downwards, or even sloping forwards,
when required to be used. By reason of the constant
presence of such a beak-like apparatus as this, the name
Rhynchota, i.e., beaked insects, is frequently used in-
stead of Hemiptera as the name of the order. Lapping
over the front of the beak, at the spot where it joins the
head, is a triangular plate, the labrum, or upper lip.
The beak itself consists of a three- jointed, tubular, or
rather gutter-shaped organ the labium the channel
of which is nearly closed above (i.e., on the surface
which is forward-looking when it is in use) by a thin
transparent membrane, which is easily bent aside.
Within the channel lie, side by side, and perfectly free,
four fine, straight, bristle-like organs, which, like those
of the gnat or mosquito, represent the mandibles and
maxillae of other insects. The mouth is therefore of the
suctorial type, and suited only for feeding on liquids;
but it is adapted, not solely for sucking up exposed
juices, as is that of butterflies and moths, nor for licking
them up like that of bees, but for getting at liquids
which are enclosed within covers or boundaries which
need to be pierced before their contents can be reached.
There is thus no power of biting, strictly so called;
hence the term "bug-bite," like " flea-bite," is somewhat
inexact.
In the presence of this boring apparatus, the whole
order of bugs agrees with many of the flies, and notably,
as we have seen, with gnats and mosquitoes. Not-
withstanding the general agreement, however, there is
one strongly marked difference between the two orders ;
flies always have one pair of palpi, and sometimes two,
attached respectively to the maxillae and the labium, but
no such organs are ever found in bugs ; hence the mouth
in the Hemiptera is of a simpler construction than in
28o OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
the Diptera, through the suppression of parts which are,
except in this order, almost universally present, and
generally very prominent. This suppression and simpli-
fication is the more remarkable because the bugs are in
some respects a more primitive race of insects than the
flies, and might so far have been expected to show a
more generalised type of mouth. It is impossible at
present to do more than speculate as to the significance
of this absence, as separate organs, of parts which are in
most insects amongst the most prominent of the food-
taking apparatus, and which are endowed with such a
power of persistence, so to speak, that in some cases
they remain distinct after the organs to which they
belong, and of which they are appendages, have become
fused with the rest, or have disappeared altogether.
Too little is yet known of the function or functions of
palpi in general, to be able to imagine what can be the
influence upon the economy of the insects of the defect
under which they labour. One would think that by
contrasting the habits of the not -palpi -possessing
Hemiptera with those of the palpi-possessing Diptera,
it would become possible, by detecting constant differ-
ences between the two orders, to arrive at some valid
conclusion as to the function of these organs. Such,
however, does not seem to be the case ; and if there is
any marked difference in the way of taking the food, or
in other respects, it has yet to be discovered. We know
no more why the blood-sucking mosquito should possess
palpi than why the equally blood-sucking bug should be
without them. Some maintain, however, that the
channel-like beak itself consists of the fused labial palpi
instead of the pair of jaws to which they belong, in
which case the above remarks would lose some of their
force.
THE BED-BUG
281
Of the two pairs of bristles (Fig. 88), one (the man-
dibles) is considerably stouter than the other (the
maxillae), and the latter are exceedingly
fine and delicately saw -like at the free
end. Each mandible possesses a sort
of flange, along which the correspond-
ing maxilla slides, and thus the four
bristles unite into one boring weapon.
As every one knows, the wound this
weapon can inflict is, at least in some
cases, exceedingly painful, and pro-
ductive of considerable inflammation.
Not that any poison is instilled into
it, so far as appears ; but the very FIG. 88. Piercing Ap-
'. J paratus of Bed-Bug.
minuteness or the punctures seems to md, mandibles ; mx,
... maxillae.
be the cause or the irritation, just as
a prick with an exceedingly fine needle often causes
intense pain. A few words are necessary to complete our
picture of the bed-bug's head, for we have yet to speak
of the antennae and eyes. The former (Fig. 89) proceed
from the upper surface of
that part of the head which Jtif*
lies between the eyes and
the base of the rostrum,
FIG. 89. Antenna of Bed-Bug.
and are remarkable for the small number of their joints,
four only being discernible ; the basal joint is small and
stout, but the other three long, and, except the second,
very slender much finer, in fact, than a human hair.
In the fewness and length of the joints of the antennae,
the bed-bug is quite in accord with the rest of the
members of the division of Hemiptera to which it
belongs, viz., the Heteroptera. One usually thinks of
antennae as composed of a great number of short joints,
and such an idea would be correct for the vast majority
282 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
of insects, but not for the Heteroptera, in which sub-
order alone we find antennae composed of a small number
of long joints. Like all the rest of the body, the bug's
antennae are clothed with hairs, which are, no doubt,
more or less sensory in function ; those on the basal
joints are much coarser and more thickly set than those
towards the tip. The last joint, as will be observed
from the figure, is slightly clubbed at the end, and is
probably the most highly sensitive part.
The eyes are black and very prominent, appearing as
two masses like little blackberries at the sides of the
head, reminding one of the corresponding organs in
certain small ant-like beetles (Pselapliidce) which inhabit
moss or lurk under stones. The bed-bug is somewhat
exceptional amongst Hemiptera in not possessing, in
addition to its compound eyes, the small simple ones
called "ocelli." Two such are usually to be found, in
this order, between the compound eyes, but our present
insect is destitute of them.
The thorax, or, as we ought rather to say, the pro-
thorax (Fig. 90), is curiously shaped, being much wider
than long, and having broad leaf-
like expansions of its chitinous
covering at its sides. These run
forward by the side of the head
almost as far as the eyes, and
so form a notch into which the
h ead loosely fits, and whereby its
lum - sideward motion is considerably
restricted, as if by a stiff collar. A similar peculiarity,
viz., the winged margin to the thorax, will be familiar
to microscopists as occurring in the little lattice-winged
insects called " thistle-bugs " (MonantJiia cardui), which
are found abundantly on thistle-heads, and are often
THE BED-BUG 283
mounted whole as opaque objects for the microscope,
under the name of Ting is. The other two segments
which go to make up the complete thorax are not very
easy to trace above, though evident enough beneath.
The only part that appears prominently is a central
triangular plate of the mesothorax, called the scutellum.
On each side of this we see the fore- wings, which are
in a very rudimentary condition, and, fortunately for
our comfort and peace of mind, quite useless for
flight.
In these little scale-like appendages can still be recog-
nised, though in a greatly abbreviated form, one of the
essential elements of the hemipterous wing ; and it will
be necessary here to consider the general plan of the
complete wing, if we are to understand the ridiculously
reduced and utterly inefficacious scraps which the bed-
bug retains, perhaps as the relics of a former super-
abundance. In hemipterous insects generally, then, the
fore- wings, or rather elytra, are so constructed that some
of the principal nervures divide them very distinctly
into separate areas, at the junctions of which the wing
can be angularly bent downwards. The degree to which
this is the case varies in different species, and we will
take one of the commonest insects we possess as illus-
trating a very usual type, and one of considerable com-
plexity. During the summer months there may be
found in profusion on many wayside weeds, as well as
on plants in gardens, a bright green insect, a little over
a quarter of an inch long, which by an inspection of its
mouth, or by its odour, may be easily recognised as a
member of the order Hemiptera. Its name is Calocoris
bipunctatus, and it is an active four-winged creature,
which readily takes to flight; a few specimens may
easily be secured in a pill-box, and thence transferred
OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
FIG. 91. Left Elytron of Calocoris
Mpunctatus. a, corium ; b, cla-
vus ; c, cuneus ; d, membrane.
to a killing-bottle. After death, the fore- wings may be
easily detached and mounted on white cardboard, when
they will be ready for examination with a lens.
Fig. 9 1 shows one of the elytra of this insect ; the
basal part is rather stiff and horny, and brightly
coloured with green or orange ;
the tip is of much more deli-
cate texture, being quite thin,
flexible, and transparent, and
devoid of bright colour. This
difference of texture in the
two parts of the wing, which is a very constant char-
acter, is the foundation for the name Hemiptera, i.e.,
" half- wings," as well as for that of Heteroptera, i.e.,
"dissimilar wings."
The horny basal part consists of two areas divided by
a flexible junction : the outer one, a four-sided piece,
with two long and two short sides,
being called the corium, and the inner,
a roughly triangular piece, the clavus.
At the margin of the corium furthest
from the body is a small triangular or
wedge-shaped area, almost as stout as
the corium itself, but distinctly divided
both from it and from the more remote
part; it is called the cuneus. The
rest of the wing, constituting the
FIG : 92- -closed Elytra whole of the tip, is quite flexible,
of Calocons bipunc-
tatus. a, corium; and is spoken of as the membrane.
b, clavus ; c, cuneus ;
d, membrane ; e, scu- When the elytra are closed (Fig. 02)
tellum;/,prothorax. \ !
The right membrane the shortest sides of the two triangular
overlaps the left. . . , . , . , , , .
clavi exactly meet on the back below
the apex of the scutellum, while the inner edges abut
on its sloping sides. The membranes, however, overlap
"THE BED-BUG 285
one another, and the elytra then extend at least as far
as the end of the body, not unfrequently projecting a
little beyond it.
Such is one of the commonest types of fore-wing in
the Hemiptera; but it is a peculiar fact that in this
particular order the different areas of the wing seem
possessed of varying degrees of stability, so to speak, and
nothing is more common than for one or more of these
parts either to be very much reduced in size or to remain
altogether undeveloped, not as a mere accident in some
one unfortunate individual, which may take place in any
order, but as a permanent arrangement for the whole
species. The membrane is the first part to be affected, and
in many species it either disappears entirely or is reduced
to a mere narrow border on the harder part of the wing.
The cuneus is in many cases omitted altogether, and in
the so-called apterous forms, of which the bed-bug is
one, both the clavus and corium may be reduced to an
indefinite extent. Now, in the bed-bug there is only
one scale-like piece on each side without subdivisions ;
this is a rudimentary corium ; clavus, cuneus, membrane,
are all absent. The elytron, thus
abbreviated, is a somewhat oval,
reddish-brown object (Fig. 93), very
deeply punctured, i.e., covered with
rounded pits, not perforations, FlQ . 93 ._L e ft Elytron of
which are technically called punc-
tures. Similar punctures cover the whole body, except
where the segments overlap, in which places the surface
is smooth and polished, whereby friction is lessened ;
the punctures on the elytra are, however, larger than
elsewhere, and each gives origin to a hair.
The hind-wings of the Hemiptera are as unstable as
the fore-wings, and very generally, if the latter are
286 OUR HOUSEHOLD TNSECTS
abbreviated, the former are entirely absent. When
present, they consist of an extremely delicate mem-
branous expansion supported on a few nervures; they
may be seen in one of their most beautiful forms in such
an insect as the Water Boatman (Notonecta glaucd).
The bed-bug (Plate VI.) has no hind- wings at all.
But there is a further puzzling peculiarity connected
with the wings of the Hemiptera that is worthy of
thoughtful consideration. Those species in which the
wings are usually more or less imperfectly developed
occasionally yield individual specimens in which the full
degree of development is attained, all the parts being
present in their proper proportions. Such cases are
usually rare, sometimes extremely so, and the causes
which produce the fully matured forms still await dis-
covery. Take, for example, a very common insect, the
so-called Ditch Skater or Water Cricket ( Velio, currens).
Every one will remember to have seen this creature
living gregariously on the surface of ponds or streams,
skating about in lively fashion, like a company of spiders
enjoying an aquatic picnic. Almost always this insect
is entirely destitute of wings, showing not even the
merest rudiments of them. And yet, very occasionally,
amongst a crowd of specimens, all of the ordinary form,
there may be detected an individual with fully formed
elytra and wings, and therefore capable of flight. But
the occurrence is a most exceptional one, and the dis-
covery of a fully developed Velia always marks a red-
letter day in the diary of an hemipterist. And the
same thing holds good of the majority of those bugs
which as a rule have undeveloped wings.
Now, as our domestic pest is one amongst the number
of these unfinished forms, the question arises whether it
ever assumes the fully winged condition, and if so, what
PLATE VI,
FEMALE BED-BUG.
Viewed from above, and magnified about 9 diameters.
In consequence of the flattening necessary for mounting as a
transparent object, the abdomen is unduly elongated, showing,
between the segments, clear, thin spaces, wJiich should be concealed
by their overlapping. Inside the abdomen, near the middle, an egg
may be seen.
THE BED-BUG 287
it looks like then, and what its power of flight may be.
That such a disgusting insect should add to its resources
the power of flight, whereby it might become increas-
ingly annoying by settling on the bodies of respectable
citizens as they walk the streets, and by regarding every
open window, in even well-to-do neighbourhoods, as an
invitation to enter, would immensely increase the loath-
ing with which it is now regarded in respectable society ;
and it is a comfort to know that no record exists of
winged bed-bugs having ever been met with in this
country. There have been reports that such specimens
have been seen somewhere in the East, but there appears
to be no authentic record of any such occurrence ; still,
it is well to bear in mind that such a thing is a possi-
bility, though most likely an exceedingly remote one.
If wings were present, there would probably be no cuneus
to the elytra.
The acquisition of wings by insects that are usually
unwinged of course greatly facilitates the spread of the
species, which would otherwise have to trust, for extend-
ing the area of their distribution, to their own legs, or
to conveyance upon, or by means of some other animal
gifted with superior powers of locomotion. As the bed-
bug, however, has chosen to attach itself to the most
migratory animal in the world, and gains all the ad-
vantage of man's artificial as well as natural means of
locomotion, it would seem that a winged form is not a
matter of such prime importance to it as to wild species
that do not possess these extra advantages, and therefore
the mere fact of the bed-bug's parasitism probably mili-
tates against its occurrence as a fully developed insect.
There is not much externally to distinguish the sexes ;
in both the abdomen is broad and flat, but that of the
male is rather the smaller and narrower of the two, and
288 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
there are differences in the form of the terminal segments.
In most of the field-bugs the abdomen is rather widely
bordered on each side by a flat margin, distinctly marked
off from the rest of the body. In the bed-bug, however,
this margin, which is called the connexivum, is reduced
to an exceedingly narrow line, and is scarcely per-
ceptible.
Turning the bug over on its back, we now proceed to
examine the under side. The chief point to be noticed
here is the position and attachment of the legs. They
are all let into hollows in the thorax as usual by the
FIG. 94. Under side of Thorax of Bed-Bug, c,vc,, 'e,,, coxse of ist, 2nd, and
3rd pairs of legs ; I, I,, l ul ist, 2nd, and 3rd pairs of legs ; s, flap under
which the scent-glands lie.
coxae (Fig. 94). The coxse of the first pair are almost
close together, there being only room for the tip of the
rostrum between them, but the other two pairs are
separated by a considerable interval, and the space
between them is occupied by a raised surface covering
THE BED-BUG 289
the glands by which the volatile fluid is secreted which
imparts to the insects the disagreeable odour they are
noted for. The glands open by a very fine aperture
situated beneath a kind of flap, which runs from the
meso-thorax down between the coxae of the hind legs.
In the possession of these odoriferous glands the bed-
bug is by no means exceptional ; it is one of the usual
characteristics of the order, and the odour of some of the
larger wild species is far more powerful, though of the
same class. The liquid secreted is a colourless oily sub-
stance, and it would appear to be continually being given
off during life. Its smell is of a compound nature, and
a keen-scented person will detect, underlying the more
disagreeable elements, the scent of a freshly cut cucum-
ber. That the disagreeable character of the bed-bug's
secretion is not due to the animal nature of its food
appears from the fact that a precisely similar odour is
exhaled by those species that subsist on vegetable juices.
In some wild species the fluid seems to be of a different
constitution, as it is quite pleasantly fragrant. Coranus
subapterus, for example, a grey species which is found
running on the ground in heathy and sandy places, ex-
hales, when handled, a perfume which has been compared
to that of jargonelle pears. But of whatever nature the
scent may be, it is no doubt protective in function, and
the insects are by its presence rendered nauseous and dis-
tasteful to birds and other enemies. The bed-bug does
not seem, however, as it is now circumstanced, to derive
much protection from its odour, for, apart from its pre-
sence being thus plainly advertised to man, the common
cockroach will, notwithstanding the smell, devour it with
avidity; and no doubt tragedies of this kind are of nightly
occurrence in the slums of seaport towns, where both of
these intruders have taken up their quarters and multiplied
290
OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
till their armies have amounted to tens of thousands.
Here, then, is a good word for the cockroach, although
it may fairly be questioned whether the remedy is not
almost as bad as the disease.
The eggs of the bed-bug are small, white, oval objects
(Fig. 95) ; they are laid in cracks and crevices, and are
caused to adhere to the surface on which
they are deposited by a kind of varnish
with which they are wet when laid. Ac-
cording to Southall, about fifty eggs are
laid in each batch. The young bugs make
their entry into the world by pushing off a
kind of lid at the end of the egg, and the
empty egg-shell then looks like a little
round -bottomed china jar, with a neat rim
round the opening. The newly hatched
bug is a very minute, transparent, six-
^ e e( ^ crea ture, showing no trace of the
brown colour which characterises it in
adult life. It is sufficiently transparent to reveal some-
thing of its internal economy through the skin ; and
after it has had a meal of blood,
a dark red spot appears in the
region of its digestive apparatus.
It has a broad triangular head,
and the antennae are short, and
proportionately much thicker
than when full grown. Of course,
no signs of wings are apparent
while the insect is in this im-
FIG. 9 6.-Newiy hatched Bug. mature condition (Fig. 96).
During the course of the larval
life the skin is shed several times, each moult being
accompanied by a closer approach to the form of the
THE BED-BUG
291
adult. The operation is effected in the same^way as in the
cockroach, viz., by the splitting of the skin along a straight
line down the middle of the back in the region of the
thorax, and the whole animal gradually extricates itself
at this aperture, carefully removing not merely the more
robust parts of the body from their covering, but neatly
withdrawing also the more slender parts, such as the
legs and antennas, each
separately from its
own sheath. During
the moult, the claws
at the tips of the tarsi
are useful in obtain-
ing a foothold on the
irregularities of the
wood, paper, &c., on
which the change
takes place; by this
means the shells of
the limbs are pre-
vented from becoming
crushed and collapsed,
and are enabled to
retain their proper forms ; hence, but for the distortion
caused by the fracture along the back, and the paler
tint, the cast skin (Fig. 97) might easily be mistaken
for the insect itself.
The last moult but one introduces the form usually
called the nymph (Fig. 98), which corresponds to the
chrysalis of those insects whose metamorphosis is com-
plete. As the bug grows with each moult, its colour
deepens, and its skin becomes harder and less flexible, so
that when it has reached the nymph stage it closely
resembles the adult, though still rather smaller. The
FIG. 97. The Cast Skirf of an Adult Bug,
seen from above.
292
OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
chief differences perceptible are in the region of the hinder
part of the thorax and the fore part of the abdomen. The
prothorax is very similar to that of the adult, the leaf -like
margins projecting by the sides of the head ; the next
two segments, however, have not become so specialised
as will ultimately be their fate, and they appear as
distinct bands right across the body. The first of them,
which is the meso-thorax, already shows, however, a slight
FIG. 98. Bed-Bug at the Nymph Stage.
indication, at the sides, of the outline of the fore wings.
The next three segments are very similar to one another,
and no distinct line of division shows where the thorax
ends and the abdomen commences. But if we remember
that the thorax consists in all of only three segments,
and that the first of these is the very distinctly marked
prothorax, the determination of the line of junction of
the chief regions of the body becomes easy.
THE BED-BUG 293
While in the nymph condition the bug is still just as
active as before, and continues to take food with equal
readiness. At length the final moult occurs, and the
insect is sexually mature, and acquires its rudimentary
elytra, or upper wings. No further growth takes place,
as, owing to the inflexibility of the skin, this can only
be effected by moulting. The food now taken, therefore,
serves not for increase of bulk, but to maintain the
proper balance of the activities of the body, and to supply
materials for the perfecting and discharge of the repro-
ductive functions. The insect is said to require in all
about eleven weeks to reach maturity, but the exact
duration of its metamorphoses is no doubt greatly
dependent upon the regularity and amount of the supply
of food. In the adult condition it can certainly endure
long fasts with impunity. De Geer kept several in a
sealed bottle for more than a year without food. It is
also a well-known fact that bugs sometimes absolutely
swarm in houses that have for a long time been un-
inhabited. In such cases it is obvious that they have
managed to exist without access to human blood ; still
it does not necessarily follow that they have been entirely
without food of any kind ; and when we remember that
their human parasitism is probably an acquired habit,
their appearance under such conditions will be less
difficult to understand.
It has been supposed that they are able to abstract
juices sufficient to support life from the woodwork of
buildings ; and if we take into consideration the absorp-
tive properties of unpainted soft woods, such as deal, it
seems far from incredible that such may be the case.
That an insect which has been accustomed, during the
greater part of its individual life, to subsist upon animal
matter, should suddenly change its diet and feed upon
294 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
vegetable substances, or upon mere inorganic moisture,
and the slight amount of organic matter that may con-
tain in solution, would in most cases be an unprecedented
proceeding ; and there are hosts of insects which would
rather starve than do it. But it is not at all an unusual
circumstance in the order Hemiptera ; and several of the
wild bugs seem to be quite indifferent as to whether
they are supplied with an animal or vegetable diet.
Another suggestion by which it has been proposed to
account for their presence in uninhabited houses is that,
the colony having been established during the human
occupation, they have, since the desertion of the premises
by their hosts, preyed upon one another, and so sustained
life. But an obvious objection to the -theory is, that by
such a course their numbers would be speedily thinned,
and the colony would probably soon become extinct, a
result which by no means tallies with experience. If
in such cases the bugs really found any difficulty as to
the commissariat, of course migration would be open to
them ; and it is difficult to believe that, enterprising as
they are, they would not avail themselves of such an
expedient, if really hard pressed by famine.
While it may be admitted that the hard-skinned,
ungrowing adults can subsist for long periods without
food, it is probable that the younger and softer skinned
forms, in whose bodies the vital processes are more
rapid, require more frequent supplies. Such, at any
rate, is the experience of those who have attempted to
rear any of the wild species of Hemiptera with which
our woods, fields, and hedges swarm. As the surest and
safest way of avoiding bugs in the house is the cultiva-
tion of scrupulous cleanliness, it would seem probable
that the miscellaneous material included under the name
"dirt," which is, much of it, of organic origin, may
THE BED-BUG 295
contribute in some way to their support ; but still it
must be borne in mind that, owing to the peculiar struc-
ture of their mouth organs, whatever be the nature of
the material from which they derive their food, only its
liquid portions can be partaken of. Anyhow, there
seems little doubt that human blood is not an absolute
necessary of life to this disgusting parasite, and perhaps
may be more correctly regarded as a luxury ; and it is
quite possible that before its association with mankind,
Cimex ledularius may have been a purely vegetable
feeder, subsisting on the sap of trees. Southall declares
that he fed the numerous families he kept on such food
as this, using chiefly deal for the purpose. Hard woods,
such as oak, walnut, and mahogany, or scented woods
such as cedar, they failed to extract any nutriment from,
and died if confined with these alone.
Like all other insects, bugs, of course, breathe by
inhaling air, not at the mouth, but at certain openings
in other parts of the body, whence it is passed along
delicate tubes (tracheae) to all parts of the system. The
stigmata, or openings to the tracheae, are in the present
instance extremely small, and therefore not easy to trace.
They are situated on the under surface of the abdomen,
not far from the edge of the body. Perhaps the best
way to see them is to remove the chitinous band which
forms the boundary of any of the central abdominal
segments on the under side, and, after relieving it of
any adhering viscera, to examine it with the compound
microscope. A low power will be sufficient to show the
stigmata, one on each side, as minute roundish openings,
surrounded by a rim-like lip. From these pass the main
tracheal trunks, branches of which, like tiny threads of
silver, run hither and thither over the body. Their
silvery appearance is due to the air they contain. The
296 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
body of the living or freshly killed bug is usually suffi-
ciently transparent for some of the chief branches to be
traced from the outside.
The photographs in Plate VII. show the correspond-
ing organs of a water-beetle and a silkworm, and will
serve to indicate, more clearly than any verbal descrip-
tion can do, the sort of thing that is to be looked for in
a dissection.
The structural details cannot be properly made out
till the tubes are removed from the surrounding organs,
and freed from the air they contain. The fine thread
which projects round their inner walls prevents collapse ;
and so well does it perform its function that even in the
dead and dried bodies of bugs, however ancient, such as
may sometimes be found in swarms behind panels and
wainscoting in badly infested houses, the tracheae can
still be recognised as perfect tubes after all the rest of
the soft parts have dried up and disappeared. All that
it is necessary to do with the dried carcase is to soak it
in water till it becomes sufficiently flexible to be mani-
pulated without breaking. On cutting through the skin,
the tracheal tubes will be found spreading about in
various directions, and may be examined where they
lie, or removed and placed between glass, when a high
power may be brought to bear upon them. There is no
object in insect anatomy that is more easily identifiable
than these breathing tubes, or more easily demonstrable,
and hardly any that forms a more beautiful and attrac-
tive subject of study or exhibition.
Bugs are extremely prolific, and according to Southall,
who kept many for observation, sometimes produce eggs
as frequently as four times during the course of the
summer, whence their remarkably rapid multiplication
can be readily understood. The small size of the eggs,
1
W o
O -o
'
ffi ' e
u I
04 I
H
fc
O
O
h
3^
-
^ %
1}
s
I I
U o
< ^
THE BED-BUG 297
and the lurking, nocturnal, and obscure habits of the
insects themselves, caused their true origin, like that of
many another insect pest, to remain for a long time
unknown, and indeed unsought. Their constant associa-
tion with uncleanly conditions resulted in their presence
being accounted for by a recourse to that common refuge
of ignorance, the doctrine of spontaneous generation, and
by this convenient hypothesis the occurrence of all small
creatures whose real origin was unknown was explained
away, even down to comparatively recent times. So
acute and painstaking an observer as Harvey, the dis-
coverer of the circulation of the blood, falls into the
commonly received error, and speaks of " grubs and
earth-worms, and those that are engendered of putre-
faction, and do not preserve their species." In Aristotle's
time it was believed that bugs originated from the sweat
of animals. And even when we come down to a period
of 2000 years later, so full of vitality is error, Mouffet,
from whose treatise we have already quoted, states,
without any hesitation, and, in fact, with strong asse-
veration, that they arise from juices which exude from
wood, and from putrefying moisture around beds(!);
the latter, let us hope, a gross libel on the sanitary
arrangements of his time. He mentions also a current
popular belief that new bugs arise, hydra-like, from the
crushed remains of other bugs a belief which, one
would have thought, would have operated largely in
favour of the persecuted ; for who would crush one if
thereby two were created 1
Bugs are extremely tenacious of life, and, being so
thin of body, a multitude of them can pack themselves
away in the narrowest cracks and crevices, placing their
legs in the same plane as the body ; hence the difficulty
of eradicating them if they once obtain a firm lodgment
298 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
in a house. The ordinary insect-powders are of very
little avail when they retreat to their narrow hiding-
places, between floor-boards, behind wainscoting or
loose wall-papers, or in the chinks of the joints of
bedsteads, and something which will be more penetrat-
ing needs to be employed. Hence one or the other of
two methods has chiefly to be relied upon either the
application of a mobile and penetrating liquid, or the
production of a noxious vapour. Liquids of the benzine
and petroleum type are the best to use under the former
head. Br. Packard recommends an exceedingly simple
preparation, consisting of "thirty parts of unpurified
cheap petroleum, mixed with 1000 parts of water."
Frank Buckland recommended benzine, which he squirted
into their hiding-places by means of a small glass
syringe, with the effect that they turned out at once,
and could be despatched by further applications of the
same fluid. The same naturalist describes, with his
customary quaintness, a raid he made on kitchen cock-
roaches with similar artillery : "I took with me an
assistant, three glass squirts, and a wide-mouthed bottle
of benzol. As the blackbeetles scuttled away to their
holes, I kept firing at them, killing some dead, and
wounding others, for next morning we found plenty
of ' dead birds ' about the kitchen. With an active
loader to manage the second syringe, and plenty of
black game, blackbeetle-shooting at night in the kitchen
will give as much sport as rabbit-shooting in a warren
by day." Methylated spirit, and diluted carbolic acid,
are other liquids that may be employed with more or
less success, whilst boiling water is certain death to
any that it may reach, in whatever stage of life they
may be.
For the vapour method, sulphuric dioxide appears to
THE BED-BUG 299
be the best insecticide capable of application on the large
scale. This gas, which is the cause of the suffocating
odour when sulphur is burnt, is easily produced in
sufficient quantity by burning a little brimstone in a
metal dish. Of course the room to be operated upon
must be kept closed as completely as possible during
the process, to prevent the escape of the fumes. A
thorough fumigation by this method may be expected
to destroy all that happen to be beyond the egg state ;
but unless the gas is in a very concentrated condition,
the bugs will withstand its action ; also further fumiga-
tions may become necessary to reach those that were
in the egg condition at the time, and do not hatch
till afterwards.
In the days of wooden bedsteads, the extermination
of these pests was a much more difficult matter than it
is to-day. A good four-poster, with all its parapher-
nalia of trappings, was a perfect paradise for them, and
afforded endless retreats in which they could secrete
themselves by day, creeping out at night to assail their
unconscious victims. Their eradication then became so
formidable a business that it was necessary to call in
the aid of experts. John Southall himself made bug-
hunting his specialty, and evidently regarded himself as
a great benefactor to humanity in consequence of the
prowess he achieved in this direction. Of course he
had a specific of his own, the composition of which he
kept a profound secret, relating that he had obtained
the knowledge of it from an old grey-haired negro whom
he met in Jamaica. On the title-page of his " Book of
Bugges " he describes himself, with the customary cir-
cumlocution of the period, as the " Maker of the Non-
pareil Liquor for destroying Buggs and Nits, living at
the Green Posts in the Green Walk near Faulcon Stairs,
300 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
South wark." He seems to have found abundant em-
ployment for a considerable staff of employes, who
worked under his personal supervision ; and his clients
were to be found even amongst the most well-to-do
classes. His charges were half-a-guinea for ridding the
most elaborate bedsteads, and proportionately smaller
amounts for those of an inferior style, an ordinary four-
poster with plain furniture being undertaken for six
shillings.
This was the state of affairs in London about a century
and a half ago, and so common was the infliction that
it can scarcely have been considered much of a disgrace
to be in need of Southall's services. The substitution
of plain iron bedsteads for the heavily draped wooden
structures used by our ancestors, and the increase of
habits of cleanliness in households, have greatly dimi-
nished the liability of respectable families to the attacks
of these hideous pests, and have therefore been the
means of more completely confining them to the poorer
districts and slums, where, needless to say, they are still
as numerous as ever. Southall charges the builders of
his day with introducing bugs into newly built houses,
by using second-hand doors, chimney-pieces, &c., obtained
from infested dwellings, the eggs of the insects being
thus unintentionally brought in ; in particular he states
that houses in Hanover and Grosvenor Squares were
thus supplied before they were inhabited. He under-
takes to inspect houses for intending tenants, guaran-
teeing to determine whether they are infested or not.
Bugs have some natural enemies which might aid in
their extermination, were they not themselves too repul-
sive and annoying to be endured. The cockroach, as
already mentioned, devours them, and spiders are said
to do the same. There is also an insect called the
THE BED-BUG
301
fly- bug, which is occasionally found in houses, and preys
upon them to a large extent. It belongs to the order
Hemiptera, and indeed is not very remotely related to
the bed-bug itself. It is called Reduvius personatus, and
is a large dark-brown insect, about two-thirds of an inch
long (Fig. 99). Both pairs of wings are fully developed,
and it is a good flyer, being active chiefly at night ; it is
readily attracted by a light, and
hence sometimes flies in at the
open windows of rooms in which
a light is burning. In its larval
and nymph condition it has the
remarkable habit of enveloping
itself in a coating of dust and bits
of rubbish, the whole surface, in-
cluding legs and antennae, being
thus covered. The antennae, which
are slender, become by this process
apparently as stout as the legs,
and hence the insect has the
appearance of an eight-legged
creature, and might be mistaken FIG J
for a spider, but for the deliberate-
ness of its movements. The refuse
matter simply rests on the skin, and may be removed by
brushing with a camel's-hair brush. This insect is one
of the largest of our British Hemiptera, and is a rapa-
cious creature, entirely carnivorous in its tastes. It
destroys various kinds of insects, and the bed-bug
amongst the number. Of course the insects are not
devoured ; they are pierced by the short proboscis or
rostrum, which is constructed similarly to that of the
bed-bug itself, and only their juices sucked out.
Several plants were formerly used as cimicif uges, their
302 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
smoke, when burnt, being believed to be obnoxious to
the insects. Cow-dung and horse-hair were used in a
similar way. Superstition and credulity went so far as
to place confidence in the occult influences of such
objects as stags' horns, rabbits' feet, foxes' ears, &c.,
when hung up near beds.
So disgusting an insect as Cimex lectularius could not
fail to have medicinal virtues attributed to it at a time
when the pharmacopoeia contained multitudes of name-
less horrors. Pliny states that it was in his time
regarded, as an antidote to the bite of serpents,
" especially of asps," adding that fowls which had eaten
bugs would not be injured if bitten on the same day by
an asp. Another Roman author says that an infusion
of the bodies of seven crushed specimens was adminis-
tered to patients who were sinking into an insensible
condition, with the intention of rousing them from their
lethargy !
The bed-bug is not the only species of its genus that
is found in this country, though by
far the commonest. Three others
have been described, none of which,
however, are to be regarded as di-
rectly parasitic on man, though some
of them, and probably all, do not
object to a meal of human blood
when they can get the chance. One
is found in pigeon- cotes, where it
attacks the birds, another in martins'
FIG. TOO. Nymph of Lye- . .
tocoriscampestris(some- nests, and the third in bats nests.
times mistaken for Bed- mi ,, , ,., ,
Bug). They are all very much alike, and
closely resemble our domestic pest.
The first two may sometimes be found climbing the
walls of houses, or on window-sills, in the neighbour-
THE BED-BUG
303
hood of dove-cotes, and under martins' and swallows'
nests.
Besides these, another insect (Fig. 100) is, in its larval
condition, sometimes confounded with the bed-bug. It
is commonly found in barns amongst the miscellaneous
rubbish that accumulates on the
floor, as well as under and around
haystacks, &c. It is called Lyctocoris
campestris, and is an outdoor insect,
and may be found in hedges amongst
dead leaves and other debris. In its
perfect condition (Fig. 101) it could
not be mistaken for our domestic
pest, as it is fully equipped for flight,
both pairs of wings being completely
developed. But in its immature
stages it certainly does present a
superficial resemblance to the corre-
sponding forms of its not very remotely connected ally.
Reddish brown in colour, it is, however, smoother and
more elongate than the bed-bug, as well as considerably
smaller. It is not parasitic, and is therefore harmless.
FlG. 101. Lyctocoris cam-
pestris, in its perfect
winged form.
CHAPTEE XVI.
THE BOOK-LOUSE AND SILVER-FISH INSECT.
To all who have the care of collections of insects or
other natural history specimens, there has come, at some
time or other, the vexation of seeing on the bottom of
drawers or store-boxes some swiftly running, almost
transparent, but exceedingly minute, insects, rushing
about from one specimen to another, playing hide-and-
seek, as it were, under them, in a manner most provoking
to their owner. They are there for no good purpose,
and must be ruthlessly hunted to death, for they are
the destructive creatures known as book-lice (Atropos
divinatoria), an extremely familiar and much-detested
pest. Without strenuous and persistent efforts it is
impossible to protect specimens, whether animal or
vegetable, from their depredations; and though so
minute, Atropos is none the less capable of causing serious
damage if allowed to go on its way unchecked, as many
have found to their cost, who have permitted the
quarantining of their collections to be intermitted for a
time. Its popular name is a somewhat unfortunate one,
since the suggestions of unpleasant associations which it
conveys are altogether unfounded in fact. The little
creature is not parasitic, and becomes a pest solely by
reason of the readiness with which it will attack and
devour anything that is in the least degree edible. It
is a widespread and common inhabitant of houses, there
BOOK-LOUSE AND SILVER-FISH INSECT 305
being probably few from which it is entirely absent.
Its minuteness, however, is an effectual means of con-
cealment, and its presence is usually unknown and
unsuspected.
The accompanying illustration (Fig. 102) will give an
idea of its form, but it is so small that no details of
figure can be definitely made out in
a living specimen except by aid of a
lens, its length when full-grown not
exceeding one-twentieth of an inch.
Hence it is hardly likely to be
recognised from its portrait, except
by those who are accustomed to the
constant use of the hand-lens, for to
the naked eye it appears as little
more than a rapidly gliding short
streak, or an animated scrap of
thread. It is semi-transparent, and
has little colour except when mature,
at which time a brownish grey or smoky tint is per-
ceptible over its back. The head is remarkably large
when compared with the body, and carries, amongst
other organs, two long, many -jointed antennae of
wonderful thinness, finer than the most delicate of
hairs, and a small pair of black eye -masses, one at each
side, inclining towards the upper surface, and not at all
prominent.
The front of the head is
considerably swollen above, a
feature which becomes evi-
dent when a profile view is
obtained (Fig. 103). Its ex-
treme tip, or nose, as it is sometimes called, has a ruddy
tinge. A pair of palpi, which, like the antennae, are in
FIG. 102. Book-Louse
(Atropos divinatoria).
FIG. 103, Side View of Head of
Book-Louse.
306 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
incessant vibration whenever the insect moves, can be
seen from above, projecting forwards from the front
margin of the head, the real point of attachment
being, however, below, on the secondary jaws or
maxillsB. A strong pair of short, stout, primary jaws
(mandibles) constitute the only weapons of offence,
and these, as having a greater thickness of chitinous
covering, are darker coloured than any other part of
the body. Their shape cannot be seen without dis-
section, and this is no easy matter with such minute
creatures ; they can, however, be easily separated from
their attachments by the somewhat rough-and-ready
method of crushing the delicate little being between
two surfaces of glass ; on running in a drop or two of
water to clear away the fragments of soft tissues, they
may be isolated, and their outline
can then be readily traced. Fig. 104
shows their form, regularly curved
on the outer edge and toothed on
the inner. They work across one
another like the blades of a pair of
scissors.
The thorax is the narrowest part
of the animal. The usual three divi-
FIG. 104. Mandible (Jaw) sions are of course present, but thev
of Book-Louse. J
seem like two, as the hinder two are
united into a single piece, which is, however, quite
separate from and movable upon the prothorax, which
in its turn forms a kind of narrow collar stretching
across just behind the head. The legs are attached to
the three divisions beneath, one pair to each ; they are
remarkable for the thickness of the thighs, which in the
hind pair are extraordinarily broad, presenting an appear-
ance such as usually indicates the possession of leaping
BOOK-LOUSE AND SILVER-FISH INSECT 307
powers; the habits of the insect, however, do not bear
out this indication. The remaining part of the legs is in
each case slender and almost transparent, and the feet
consist of three joints only, terminated by the usual pair
of claws. As with some other of our household insects,
no wings are developed, though most species of the
group to which it belongs have the full complement. A
long, stout, but soft-skinned abdomen succeeds the thorax,
a little broader behind than in front, and bluntly rounded
at the end, where a few bristles project.
Very little change takes place in the form of the
insect during the course of its life, and it is at all times
active, never losing its limbs to become a quiescent chrys-
alis, and belonging therefore to that section of the class
Insecta in which the metamorphosis is incomplete, the
division to which the cockroach and bed-bug also belong.
When quite young it has but two joints to its feet,
instead of three, and at the same time the number of
joints in the antennae is smaller than when fully grown.
As regards systematic position, it belongs to a family
which includes several insects that are extremely abun-
dant, but at the same time almost entirely unknown to
any but professed entomologists, and hence have no
popular names. The family is called Psocidce, and most
of our British species are pretty little winged creatures
of delicate structure, in appearance something like
Aphides, or plant-lice. Some are found in profusion
running about over palings and fences, or on the trunks
or branches of several kinds of trees, especially those of
the pine and fir tribe. If the branches of a larch or
Scotch fir, for example, be shaken over a sheet of paper,
numbers of little creatures belonging to this family will
fall out. The family Psocidve, again, is reckoned as
comingjwithin the domain of the order Neuroptera (nerve-
308
OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
wings), an order which we have not hitherto met with
amongst our domestic pests. It is a very mixed assem-
blage, containing, for want of a better arrangement, in
addition to the Psocidce, such insects as the lace-wing
flies, scorpion-flies, May-flies, white ants, and, according
to some authors, dragon-flies as well. The most uniform
and characteristic feature of the majority of these in-
sects is that the nervures of the wing are extremely
FIG. 105. A. Fore-wing of Lace-wing- Fly (Chrysopa vulgaris).
B. Fore-wing of Psocus longicornis.
numerous, dividing its surface into so large a number of
minute areas that it appears to be covered with a small-
meshed network, whence the name Neuroptera. The
Psocidce, however, are but an outlying section of this
oroup, and do not exhibit such a minute subdivision of
the wing surface, as will be seen by comparing the
accompanying illustrations of the fore-wings of a lace-
wing fly and a Psocid (Fig. 105). For this reason,
these insects have sometimes been spoken of as Pseudo-
BOOK-LOUSE AND SILVER-FISH INSECT 309
Neuroptera, i.e., false Neuroptera. If Atropos were ever
found with wings, they would no doubt be of the nature
of the second figure rather than of the first ; but no such
occurrence is known ; if, on the other hand, the winged
Psocidce were deprived of wings, they would somewhat
resemble Atropos, and in their earlier stages, when
they are wingless, they do actually exhibit a tolerably
close approximation to it. These facts are a sufficient
justification for including it in the same family.
The book-louse is most abundant in summer time,
when it may be found, not only in neglected collections
of animals or plants, but in cupboards, on window
ledges and library shelves, and generally amongst old
books (whence its popular name) or stores of any kind,
and-the more undisturbed the stores the more the insects
will flourish. With their stout little jaws they some-
times do considerable damage to books, dried plants,
insects, &c., nibbling away at the leaves and covers of
the former, and destroying all the smaller and more
easily accessible portions of the latter. Farinaceous sub-
stances seem to be peculiarly acceptable to them, and
one of the most flourishing colonies that have come
under my notice was in a small quantity of "oat flour,"
which had been left for some years in a tin canister.
The little creatures had the store all to themselves, and
were perfectly revelling in it.
They are very interesting little things to watch the
movements of, and this is easily done by enclosing them
in a glass- topped box, and examining them under a low
power, say a two-inch objective, of the compound micro-
scope. There is a sprightliness and apparent intelligence
about their actions which is quite surprising in creatures
of such very minute size; and as one gazes at them
down the tubes of the instrument, one cannot help
310 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
thinking that if they were but a little larger, they might
be made pets of, and become quite companionable. One
habit they have which is extremely curious. After
running about for a time, they will suddenly stop, arch
up the body, and raising one hind-leg, bend it under the
arched body, and, like the ear- wig, turn it round towards
the mouth, pressing the foot close against the jaws ;
what they do with it there it is difficult to make out, but
they remain in this position for some seconds, and seem
to be occupied in nibbling at the foot, like a dog biting
the nails of its hind-foot, and are apparently either
cleaning it or using it to clean the jaws and other parts
immediately round the mouth. That a /ore-foot should
be used in this way would not be at all surprising, but
it is certainly a curious acrobatic feat thus to employ a
hind-foot.
The most interesting circumstance connected with the
book-louse is the reputation it has of being a " death-
watch," i.e., of producing a ticking sound, formerly
believed to be of ominous import, and to prognosti-
cate the speedy death of some inmate of the house in
which it occurs. The beetle, Xestobium tessellatum,
which tunnels into the woodwork of old houses, pro-
duces, as we have already seen, such ticking sounds, and
is the true " death-watch," the tappings of which were
for a long time regarded with awe, and have grievously
frightened many a superstitious soul. But the present
insect, which is an altogether different creature, has also
been credited with a similar habit, and there has no
doubt been much confusion between the two, as both
have been called "death-watch." The Rev. William
Derham of Upminster was the first in this country to
place on record statements attributing such noises to
Atropos. He communicated two papers on the subject
BOOK-LOUSE AND SILVER-FISH INSECT 311
to the Royal Society, in which he roughly described and
figured the insect, and detailed his own observations.
These papers may be found in the Philosophical Trans-
actions for the years 1701 and 1704. He is careful to
distinguish the insect, as regards its form and the
character of its beating, from the ticking beetle above
referred to, the habits and form of which had been
described and illustrated in a paper from which we have
already quoted, and which was presented to the same
society a short time before by Mr. Benjamin Allen.
Derham gives the subject of his observations the name
of Pediculus pulsatorius (the drumming-louse), but there
can be little doubt that it was the same as that now
called Atropos divinatoria.
He especially notices its minute size, saying that he
was obliged to use a magnifying glass to watch its move-
ments and habits. He points out, further, that whilst
the death-watch beetle beats only seven or eight strokes
at a time, and quicker, "the other will beat some hours
together without intermission, and his strokes are more
leisurely, and like the beats of a watch." The ticking
was hardly ever heard except in July and August, and
was much more frequent in some seasons than in others.
In the year 1702 "they ticked very much, scarce ever
ceasing day or night," but the next year they were far
less active, and the sound was rarely heard. The insect
produced the sound by beating the front part of the
head against the object on which it was resting j and
Derham regarded it as in some way connected with the
mating period a sort of love-call which would account
for its being heard only at certain seasons. These two
points form, indeed, as already mentioned, the correct
explanation of the ticking of the true death-watch, and
so far are, therefore, possibly operative causes in other
312 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
instances as well, and are such as might readily be
admitted in the present case, if it could be shown that
the insect possesses the requisite mechanism. But it is
just here that the difficulties come in : the extremely
minute size of the insect itself, and the softness of its
body, seem to be sufficient reasons to preclude the possi-
bility of its being the author of such ticking sounds.
The death-watch beetle is covered with an extremely
hard integument, and is, moreover, not very minute,
being about a quarter of an inch long ; and it is easy to
understand how blows given by its hard head against
timber are sufficiently violent to be audible as repeated
taps or ticks. But such is by no means the case with
the book-louse, and it is difficult to understand how an
insect so soft as to be crushed to death by the slightest
pressure, and so minute as to require a lens for the
purpose of observing even its true form, can by any
mechanical means at its disposal produce a sound loud
enough to be audible at all, much less at a distance. It
is true that the jaws are the hardest part of the body,
and these, it is said, are the parts by which the noise
is made ; nevertheless, one would suppose that the im-
pact of such minute specks upon any substance whatever
would, except under the most favourable conditions, be
quite inadequate for the production of any sound that
would be audible without the aid of a microphone.
However, Derharn was very positive in his statements,
and since his time several other observers have recorded
somewhat similar experiences, from which we may quote
the following as perhaps the most circumstantial and
apparently convincing. It is a record by Mr. J. Black-
wall in the Entomologist's Monthly Magazine for 1867 :
" A ticking sound, so precisely similar to that of a watch
as scarcely to be distinguished from it by the nicest
BOOK-LOUSE AND SILVER-FISH INSECT 313
discrimination, was perceived to proceed from a small
work-box, comprising several compartments. Now, as
this very remarkable noise, which differs widely from
the tapping sound produced by Anobium tessellatum, is
supposed by many persons to be caused by some species
of spider, I resolved to investigate the phenomenon;
accordingly, having placed the work-box on several sheets
of writing-paper, I proceeded to open the compartments
in succession, examining each, with its contents, in a
good light, assisted by the employment of a large lens.
After having carefully inspected the compartment first
opened, a pause ensued, till the sound, which had been
interrupted, was renewed. Proceeding cautiously in the
manner described, the ticking sound was ultimately
traced to the last compartment, which served the pur-
pose of a pincushion, and was filled with bran. On the
cover being withdrawn, the bran was removed in very
minute quantities to a sheet of writing-paper, each
portion, when lightly spread by means of a feather,
being closely examined under the lens. The only occu-
pant of the box detected by this complete scrutiny was
a living Atropos pulsatoria ; and I think the facts of the
case fairly warrant the deduction that the ticking sound
was produced by it, more especially as no such sound
was ever after heard to emanate from the box. I may
add that the Atropos, which was placed in a clean phial,
died in the course of an hour, without emitting any
perceptible sound."
The insect called A. pulsatoria in the above extract is
the same as what is now known as A. divinatoria, and
the evidence is obviously so strong in its favour that it is
only the very great mechanical and acoustical difficulties
involved that cause one to hesitate about accepting it.
To those, moreover, who have known these insects for
314 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
many years, and have more or less continuously had
them under observation, and yet have never heard the
slightest sound proceed from them, it may perhaps be
allowed to be still somewhat sceptical.
Another kindred insect sometimes accompanies Atropos
in its burglarious visits to insect collections. It is a
rather larger creature, with more prominent eyes, and
with roundish scales in lieu of wings. It is called
Glothilla pulsatoria. Another, still larger, of a blackish
colour, may also very occasionally be found in extremely
neglectefl collections, especially of foreign insects. It
is known as Clothilla or Lepinotus picea. There is a
family likeness about these insects that is unmistakable,
and renders them easily recognised, and they can
scarcely be confounded with the larger, more rotund,
and slower eight-legged mite, which is even a worse
enemy to collections of dried insects.
Our next example of household insects is the silver-fish
insect. This curious little creature has had a varying
reputation, at one time being regarded as harmless, and
at others accused of causing serious damage. There is
abundant evidence to show that the latter is the true
view, and we are therefore justified in including the
silver fish in the list of our domestic pests. Scientifi-
cally it is known as Lepisma saccharina, and its popular
names, which are numerous, such as silver witch, sugar
fish, wood fish, sugar louse, bristle-tail, and silver fish,
refer to different details of its structure or habits. It
is an elongated, flattened, conical, or fish-shaped, wingless
creature (Fig. 106), with six legs, two long antennse,
and three long, bristle-like organs by way of tail ; the
whole being of a bluish or greyish silvery lustre, tinged
with yellowish colour about antennse and legs. The
BOOK-LOUSE AND SILVER-FISH INSECT 315
silvery appearance is due to vast numbers of minute
scales with which the body is covered, and which are
well known to micro-
scopists as test objects,
closely allied to the
celebrated Podura
scales. The insect is
about one-third of an
inch long, and is not
unfrequently found in
houses, though appa-
rently less commonly
now than formerly.
The earliest notice
of this little creature
is to be found in a
curious book, entitled
" Micrographia," pub-
lished by R. Hooke in
1665, at the instance
of the Royal Society,
to detail some of the
first observations made
in this country by
means of the micro-
scope. In this book,
which represents a
good deal of careful
work, the insect is Fia Io6 ._The Silver-fish Insect (Lepisma
called the "Small
Silver-coloured Book-worm," and, after the manner of the
times, an enormously magnified figure is given, executed
with great care, and sufficiently accurate to be easily
recognisable. Hooke's notice of the insect is introduced
316 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
as follows : " As among greater Animals, there are many
that are scaled, both for ornament and defence, so are
there not wanting some such also among the lesser
bodies of Insects, whereof this little creature gives us an
Instance. It is a small white Silver-shining Worm or
Moth, which I found much conversant among Books
and Papers, and is suppos'd to be that which corrodes
and eats holes through the leaves and covers ; it appears
to the naked eye a small glittering Pearl-colour'd Moth,
which, upon the removing of Books and Papers in the
Summer, is often observ'd very nimbly to scud, and
pack away to some lurking cranney, where it may the
better protect itself from any appearing dangers. Its
head appears bigg and blunt, and its body tapers from
it towards the tail smaller and smaller, being shap'd
almost like a Garret." In connection with this extract
it is to be remarked that the words "moth" and "worm"
were at that time used with a less restricted signification
than at the present day ; the former did not necessarily
imply the existence of wings in the animal so denomi-
nated, nor the latter the absence of legs. It was a time
when the classification of natural objects was in a most
imperfect condition, and no very definite conception was
attached to many of the terms employed. " Moth " and
"worm" were interchangeable words, implying any
small invertebrate creature, especially if of destructive
proclivities.
To proceed to a more detailed examination. The
insect consists of a head, three segments constituting
the thorax, and eleven composing the body. The rounded
head, as already mentioned, carries two long slender
antennae, composed of a multitude of minute joints, and
pointing forwards. They are generally more or less
imperfect, from damages received in consequence of the
BOOK-LOUSE AND SILVER-FISH INSECT 317
delicacy of their structure. When complete, they are
about two-thirds the length of the body. There are also
two little black heaps of
eyes, one at each side.
The usual mouth parts
are present, and there are
two pairs of palpi the
maxillary, five - jointed,
and the labial, four- jointed
(Fig. 107). The mandi-
bles, or biting jaws (Fig.
1 08), are long and narrow,
and toothed at the free
end with several hard
prominences. All three
thoracic segments are of
large size, being, in fact,
both the widest and long-
est segments in the whole insect. The prothorax is the
largest of the three, in marked contrast to the last pest
we considered, the book-louse, where it
was the smallest. Each of these three
segments, as usual, carries a pair of legs,
consisting of the customary parts, and
each terminated by a pair of claws. No
wings are ever developed, nor are any
traces of such organs ever perceptible.
The abdomen consists of a series of seg-
ments tapering gradually towards the tail,
,-, i i ,1 FIG. 108. Mandi-
the last one carrying three long, bristle- b ie of Lepimia.
shaped appendages. The skin is of a ( AfterLubl
delicate texture, and is covered with multitudes of
minute iridescent scales of exquisite structure (Fig. 109),
closely resembling those of butterflies, and readily
FIG. 107. A. Labium and Palpi of
Lepisma. B. Maxilla and Palpus
of ditto. (After Lubbock.)
OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
FIG. 109. Scale of Le-
pisma.
detached by a touch. These are the cause of the silvery
appearance, and produce a very slippery surface, which,
combined with its extraordinary
agility, makes the silver fish a diffi-
cult creature to catch and hold.
Like other animals belonging to
the Arthropodous (jointed-legged)
division of the animal kingdom, the
silver fish sheds its skin periodically,
thereby providing for an increase
in size; but apart from the slight
changes produced by this regular
renewal, its appearance is not altered
throughout life. When hatched
from the egg, it has six fully-deve-
loped legs, as when mature, and
is similar in form, differing only in the proportions
of the parts and in depth of colour. As there is no
quiescent stage corresponding to the pupa of other
insects, and no acquisition of wings, the silver fish may
be truly said to undergo no metamorphosis. And the
same remark applies to all the members of the group to
which it belongs ; none of them ever possess wings or
exhibit that succession of changes of form to which the
name " metamorphosis " is applied. We have here, then,
quite a different case from that of the bed-bug or book-
louse. These were apterous members of groups which
are normally winged in the adult stage. The silver fish,
on the other hand, belongs to an order which is normally
apterous throughout life. This order is called Thysanura,
and, as restricted by Sir John Lubbock (i.e., without the
Collembola, or springtails, small jumping insects found
in profusion under stones, logs of wood, &c.), contains
only a very few British insects. Three only are likely
BOOK-LOUSE'AND SILVER-FISH INSECT 319
to have been generally noticed, viz., the present one;
a similarly shaped but considerably larger brown one,
found amongst heaps of stones near the coast; and a
minute, pale, yellowish-white creature with two long tails,
which may be found under stones that have lain long on
soft damp ground. A special interest attaches to this last
(Campodea staphyUnus), seeing that, in the words of Sir
John Lubbock, "there are good grounds for considering
that the various types of insects are descended from
ancestors more or less resembling the genus Campodea.
... If these views are correct, the genus Campodea
must be regarded as a form of remarkable interest,
since it is the living representative of a primaeval
type, from which not only the Collembola and Thysanura,
but the other great orders of insects have derived
their origin." Some naturalists regard the Thysanura
as allied to the Neuroptera, including them amongst
that section of the order called Pseudo-Neuroptera.
Little need be said as to the digestive system, since it
is constructed on the usual insect type. The alimentary
canal is a straight tube running through the body. The
gullet enlarges into a crop, which is succeeded by a
grinding apparatus, in the form of a globular gizzard
furnished with six tooth -like projections; after this
comes the true or digestive stomach, succeeded again by
the intestine, at first narrow, but in its hinder part
broader; the Malpighian tubules are four in number.
When contemplating the functions of the silver fish in
nature, Hooke, the author of the Micrographia, falls
into the following curious reflections, very characteristic
of the physiological ideas of the times in which he lived :
" When I consider what a heap of Sawdust or chips this
little creature (which is one of the teeth of Time) con-
veys into its intrals, I cannot chuse but remember and
320 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
admire the excellent contrivance of Nature in placing
in Animals such a fire, as is continually nourished and
supply'd by the materials convey'd into the stomach,
and fomented by the bellows of the lungs; and in so
contriving the most admirable fabrick of Animals as
to make the very spending and wasting of that fire to
be instrumental to the procuring and collecting more
materials to augment and cherish itself, which indeed
seems to be the principal end of all the contrivances
observable in bruit Animals." The nervous system is of
the usual type, consisting of a pair of ganglia above the
gullet, in the head, and a chain of eleven pairs down
the body, beneath the digestive apparatus. The little
creature breathes by means of tracheae, like other in-
sects, and some of these may be seen through the skin
during life, or immediately after death, especially those
running down the legs.
Lepisma saccliarina is essentially a vegetable feeder,
and the substance most in accord with its taste is
apparently starch. This preference makes it sometimes
a by no means insignificant foe ; for starchy substances
are so largely used in connection with books and papers,
that Lepisma may do serious damage in libraries and
museums if not carefully guarded against. Several
instances of this are on record, and doubtless many
more might be collected if the foe were more generally
known and more easily detected in the act of maraud-
ing; but as it is a lover of darkness and concealment,
and easily takes alarm, rapidly slipping away in a weird
ghost-like manner when interrupted, it is frequently
difficult to obtain anything more than circumstantial
evidence of its depredations. In 1879 Professor West-
wood exhibited to the Naturalists' Association a print,
the plain border of which had been eaten in holes by
BOOK-LOUSE AND SILVER-FISH INSECT 321
Lepisma, while the parts covered by the printing-ink
had been left untouched. In India, Government records
have been similarly damaged ; for this insect is very
generally distributed, and reports of the injuries it has
caused come in from all parts of the world. The paste
used in bookbinding or in papering walls forms a prime
attraction to these starch-loving creatures, and its age
is a matter of little importance : the oldest and driest
seems as attractive as the newest and freshest. Hence
they do damage to the bindings of books and to paper-
hangings, often eating holes in the paper, either for its
own sake or for the sake of the paste behind. I once
had an unpleasant experience in this direction : a large
case of transparencies, made of different thicknesses
of paper pasted together, had been laid aside for some
years, when, on being opened, a colony of Lepisma,
that had evidently discovered and been revelling on
the store, hurriedly scuttled away into remote and dark
corners. On inspection, it was found that while com-
paratively little damage had been done to the paper
itself, only the thinner parts having been nibbled, yet
in many places the paste that united different thick-
nesses had completely disappeared, the papers in con-
sequence falling apart and hanging in tatters. Muslin
curtains, again, have been attacked in consequence of
the starchy stiffening in them, and eaten in holes.
Similarly, starched collars, cuffs, and other articles of
clothing have been damaged. Silk garments and silken
tapestry have also suffered, the material in this case
being destroyed, apparently not so much for itself as
for the stiffening it contained. In 1882, Gustav de
Rossi complained that Lepisma had eaten holes in a
carpet, in the dust-covers of chairs, and other furniture,
in the paper lining of an insect store-box, and lastly
322 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
in the wings of such specimens as it could reach in
a rather carelessly preserved collection of butterflies.
Some of these last instances evidently indicate that the
silver fish, though very partial to vegetable matter, is
quite prepared to seek its food in the animal kingdom
should the opportunity be afforded.
Some of the most curious and annoying of the damages
wrought by this insect have taken place in museums,
where the inscriptions on the labels of specimens have
been rendered illegible by their little jaws, though the
labels \themselves have been left intact. One such
instance is recorded by Dr. Hagen from the Geological
Museum at Boston, U.S.A. A new form of label,
printed on good card, had been employed for re-labelling
the collection. The specimens being kept in little square
boxes, the ticket was folded in half, one portion being
placed under the stone, whereby it was kept in place,
while the name of the specimen and its locality were
written on the upturned half. The whole collection
having been thus neatly labelled, in the course of the
next twelvemonth the surfaces of the cards gradually
changed in appearance, looking as if they had been
scraped, many of the inscriptions being in consequence
completely destroyed, and others partially obliterated.
The change being a gradual one, and no foe of course
being visible, as the work of destruction was done at
night, it was at first a puzzle what could be the cause.
After a while, however, the culprit was discovered
in the shape of a certain species of Lepisma, not
quite the same as our L. saccharina. The insects
had evidently been attracted by the superior finish
of the labels, the glaze on which, composed of starch,
had proved so strong a temptation to them, that
every exposed part was scraped, the only portion left
BOOK-LOUSE AND SILVER-FISH INSECT 323
untouched being that on which the specimen was actually
resting, which was of course inaccessible. Labels of
ordinary common writing-paper had not been attacked.
The damage done was a serious one, as the whole col-
lection had to be re-labelled, and in such cases the loss
sustained may be far more serious than the mere cost of
a set of cards, since, the use of the specimens depending
to a great extent upon the details of locality, &c., if
these be obliterated and not recoverable, their value
is much diminished. Another instance is from the
Museum of the Jardin des Plantes, Paris. Here some
white labels had been printed with a red border, the
colour of which was due to red lead. The white parts
of the labels were eaten away, but all the red parts
were left untouched, the pattern being sometimes neatly
picked out. A third instance occurred in a museum in
New South Wales, where some hundreds of labels were,
after only fifteen months, rendered useless. It is
evident that loose papers are much more obnoxious to
the attacks of the silver fish than those that are
closely packed, there not being room in the latter case
for so large an insect to creep between the leaves ;
hence an obvious and useful precaution would be to
keep all separate papers, where possible, tightly packed
together.
The case of books is particularly unfortunate, for the
wood-loving beetle, Anobium, which makes furniture
worm-eaten, will also attack the covers and leaves of
books, boring holes in them ; but it does not like starch,
hence it has been proposed to use paste made of that
substance as pure as possible in binding books. But it
now appears that by so doing they will be made, though
distasteful to Anobium, only all the more acceptable to
Lepisma. It does not appear to be always so easy to
324 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
keep out this foe of books as one might have imagined ;
even an iron safe has been found insufficient to protect
the treasures enclosed therein, for in the year 1885 Mr.
R. Adkin exhibited, at a meeting of the Entomological
Society, a Lepisma of some kind which was found swarm-
ing on some account books that were constantly kept
in an iron safe in Aldgate, London. Visions of the
possible erasures which might thus be effected in im-
portant legal documents are not reassuring, and show
Lepisma to be an enemy to which no quarter must be
given. Perhaps one of the strangest spots in which the
silver fish has been found is old martins' nests, where
on one occasion M. Cornelius discovered more than forty
examples in the middle of winter.
CHAPTER XVII.
HUMAN PEDICULI.
IF occasional parasites, such as fleas and bugs, creatures
which simply visit our bodies at intervals, and spend
only a small proportion of their lives actually on our
persons, excite repugnance and disgust, what can be
said of the feelings with which we contemplate those
hideous pests that make men's bodies their lifelong
home, born and bred thereon, generation after generation,
living there and there alone, and, as units of life, almost,
if not entirely unknown, apart from such association ?
And yet, though cleanly people nowadays hold them in
such utter abhorrence that they can hardly be named in
polite society, they were not always objects of loathing
and disgust. In former times people were more inclined
to joke about them than to shudder at them, and some,
it is said, even went so far as to be proud of their guests.
In Hooke's " Micrographia," which, as we have already
seen, was written some 230 years ago, there is a brief
account of the head-louse, accompanied with an enormous
figure representing a specimen magnified to the length
of nearly two feet. Hooke introduces his description
with the following highly suggestive passage : "This is
a creature so officious that 'twill be known to every one
at one time or other, so busie, and so impudent, that it
will be intruding itself in every one's company, and so
proud and aspiring withall that it fears not to trample
on the best, and affects nothing so much as a Crown ;
325
326 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
feeds and lives very high, and that makes it so saucy, as
to pull any one by the ears that comes in its way, and
will never be quiet till it has drawn blood." Whatever
we may think of the good taste of this passage, and the
quaint conceit it contains, it is evident that personal
cleanliness was not considered in the days of the Stuarts
a matter of such vital importance as it has come to be
regarded by respectable society in the Victorian era, and
visions of the shady side of domestic life in the time of
the " Merry Monarch " are called up, which it is as well
to drawva veil over.
Man is not exceptional amongst mammals in harbour-
ing these vermin, he is but in the same category with
the rest ; for it seems to be the rule, from elephant to
mouse, largest to least, that some member of this group
of parasites should be attached to each species ; and even
aquatic mammals, such as the seal and walrus, do not
escape their attacks. But just as the human flea is not
the same as those of other animals, so human lice are
distinct from those which infest the lower mammalia,
and indeed each species of mammal may be expected
to have its own distinct parasite. Man, then, is not
exceptional in suffering from these parasites, but rather
in having to some extent, as has taken place amongst
civilised nations, shaken himself free from them.
Of these disgusting insects three species are known to
infest human beings, the head-louse (Pediculus capitis\
the body-louse (P. vestimenti), and the crab-louse (Phthi-
rius ingumalis). The first is the kind that occurs most
commonly, and the last is the rarest. The two Pediculi
are very much alike, the body-louse being best distin-
guished by the locality in which it is found, and by its
larger size ; the Phthirius is very different from both.
Taking as our type the commonest species (Fig. no), we
HUMAN PEDICULI
327
may first note its structural peculiarities. It is a flattish,
semi-transparent insect, of a pale ashy-grey colour, with
a comparatively small
head and a very large
body. The head, which
is narrowed in front and
behind, carries a pair of
short, five-jointed an-
tennae, a pair of simple,
rounded, unfaceted
eyes, and the mouth
organs, of which more
presently. Behind it
merges into the thorax,
which again is not de-
finitely marked off from
the abdomen, but the
three pairs of legs show
how far its three seg-
ments extend. The
legs succeed one an-
other without interval,
and the first pair are
placed immediately behind the head. No wings of any
kind are ever developed, nor is any trace of such organs
perceptible; hence some naturalists have questioned
whether the lice should be included amongst insects at
all. Not only is the thorax considerably broader than
the head, but this increasing breadth is continued into
the abdomen, so that the widest part of the insect is
about half-way down the body. The margins of the
abdomen show a scalloped edge, there being a series of
indentations where the segments adjoin. On each of
these rounded projections is placed a small circular
FIG. no. Head-Louse (Pediculus capitis).
Female, viewed from beneath. Magnified
22 diameters.
328 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
spiracle, or breathing hole, the terminal orifice of a short
tracheal branch. Six spiracles are thus arranged along
each side, and the short branches from them join two
great tracheal trunks which run parallel to the margins
of the body. The whole body is covered with minute
scattered hairs, which are sharp-pointed and perfectly
straight.
The legs are composed of the usual parts, but all the
joints are short and stout, giving an appearance of
clumsiness, and the feet are extremely peculiar, their
remarkable structure forming one of the distinctive
characteristics of a louse. The tarsus, or foot proper,
consists of two small joints, the division between which
is not very easy to see, and these are succeeded by a
terminal appendage in the form of a single, curved,
movable claw of large size, which is usually carried bent
more or less inwards, and is capable of being completely
folded back upon the foot. At the end of the tibia, or
shank, there is a movable pointed prominence, and by
means of this, which acts as a sort of thumb, and the
great claw, the insect is enabled to exercise that strong
grasping and clinging power for which it is noted, and
which is of great importance in its economy, facilitating
its movements amongst the hairs in the midst of which
its life is spent. In the figure one of the claws is shown
bent back upon the " thumb " as in the act of grasping.
The claws are very similar in shape to those of fleas, but
differ in being single on each foot, instead of double.
In the structure of the mouth organs again, lice are
exceptional. When the dead or inactive insect is
examined, no mouth organs can be seen, for, when not
in actual use, they are retracted within the head. The
mouth is of the suctorial type, the insect feeding on
the blood of its victims, to obtain which, an incision
HUMAN PEDICULI 329
must of course be made through the skin. But, in
consequence of its retractile character, there has been a
great deal of difficulty in determining the real structure
of the sucking apparatus, and it is necessary to carry
out careful observations on the living or recently killed
insects, before the details can be made out. The old
Dutch naturalist Swammerdam took great pains in
investigating the matter, and showed clearly that there
was a suctorial proboscis, which could be thrust out
from the head and entirely retracted again. But, as
he himself says, " this proboscis is, on account of its
diminutive size, not to be demonstrated except with
great painstaking, and it is perhaps nothing but a piece
of good luck if one succeeds in seeing it." This being
the case, it is perhaps not surprising that since Swam-
merdam 's time some authorities have denied the ex-
clusively suctorial character of the apparatus, and have
maintained that true biting organs are present, whence
they attributed the irritation produced by the insects on
their hosts to the effects of a real pinching bite. This,
however, was a mistake, arising from the fact that only
dead specimens were examined, and those, too, under
pressure, so that the apparatus could only be seen
through the skin as it lay contracted inside the head,
in consequence of which it was misinterpreted. About
twenty-five years ago Professor Schiodte, a Danish
naturalist, by careful observations on the living insect
(in this case P. vestimenti), confirmed Swammerdam's
statements, and determined with greater accuracy the
true nature of the proboscis. He obtained an abundant
supply of material from a workhouse (Danish), and
having enclosed some specimens in a glass tube for two
or three days without food, so that they might the more
readily fall to when released from confinement, he
330 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
transferred one of them to the back of his hand, and
prepared to watch its movements with a lens. He thus
describes what followed : " Scarcely does the abominable
little monster feel the heat of the skin before it lays
aside its former disheartened attitude, and begins to
feel at ease, its antennae oscillate for joy, and it stretches
all six legs complacently out from the body. But
though the pleasure and surprise at the sudden trans-
portation into congenial surroundings for the first
moment eclipse everything else, hunger soon asserts its
claim, sharpened as it is by the long fast, which has
rendered its stomach and intestines quite transparent.
The animal raises itself on its legs, walks on a few steps,
seeking and feeling its way with its antennae, while we
follow it with the magnifier. Presently it stops, draws
in its legs a little, arches its back, bends the head down
towards the skin at an oblique angle, while it pushes a
small dark and narrow organ repeatedly forward, and
draws it back through the fore end of the head ; at last
it stands still, with the point of the head firmly abutted
against the skin." While the animal was in this posi-
tion, he seized it gently with forceps, and endeavoured
to detach it from the skin, hoping thus to see the
extended proboscis. But in this he was disappointed,
for though a slight resistance to his efforts was ex-
perienced, showing that the proboscis had really pene-
trated the skin, yet when the insect was detached, no
trace of a proboscis, or anything of the sort, could be
seen; it had instantly shot back into the head, and
returned to the normal position of rest. This method,
therefore, having proved ineffectual, the experimenter
decided for a time to confine his observations to the
upper surface of the insect during the progress of its
meal, so as to watch, through the transparent skin, the
HUMAN PEDICULI 331
gradual drinking in of the blood. Allowing it, therefore,
to attach itself once more, he sees "at the top of the
head, under the transparent skin, between and a little
in advance of the eyes, a triangular blood-red point
appear, which is in continual movement, expansion and
contraction alternating with increased rapidity. Soon
this pulsation becomes so rapid that several contractions
may be counted in a second." Swammerdam also had
noticed this, and likened the rapid movements of this
little pumping machine to the quick oscillation of the
balance-wheel of a watch. Schibdte continues, "The
whole digestive tube is now in the most lively peristaltic
movement, filling itself rapidly with blood, as is easily
observed ; the long oesophagus is particularly agitating,
throwing itself from one side to another inside the neck,
bending itself so violently as to remind one of the
coiling of a rope when being shipped on deck."
The insect was now thoroughly hard at work, and
this was therefore the opportunity for the next stage in
the proceedings. In order to prevent the retraction of
the proboscis, which would have followed the withdrawal
of the insect, the experimenter determined to decapitate
it suddenly, hoping that thereby the proboscis might
remain extended. The forepart of the insect was there-
fore rapidly severed with a pair of fine scissors without
previously disturbing it in its feast. The decapitated
head, having been left as it was for a short time, was
then gently raised with forceps, and the proboscis
gradually withdrawn ; the whole was then transferred to
a slip of glass, and placed under the microscope without
pressure. The appearance presented was such as is
shown in the accompanying diagram (Fig. in). A
long fleshy tube was depending from the mouth ; at its
base was a stouter part, furnished at its apex with
332
OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
a number of hooks, but the rest of the tube was thin,
flexible, and transparent.
Within the latter could be
traced four thin chitinous
bands, the representatives of
the two pairs of jaws, the man-
dibles and maxillae of the ordi-
nary insect's mouth. Thus we
have an arrangement resem-
bling in some degree that of
the mouth of the bed-bug and
other Hemiptera, a tubular
labium containing four setae,
the mandibles and maxillae.
During the process of the extru-
sion of this apparatus, the first
part to appear is the strong
base of the tubular labium,
but the hooks are at first in-
side the tube. They can, how-
ever, be everted, and by a con-
tinuance of the same process,
the membranous lining of the
tube is brought out and forms
* G& the long delicate sucker which
constitutes the greater part of
the proboscis. The labium
having been inserted into the
skin, say through a sweat
pore, the hooks become everted
and hold the proboscis steady
by clinging to the tissues
around. The piercing man-
dibles are then thrust out ; towards their tip they are
FIG. in. Proboscis of Body-
Louse. (After Schiodte.)
HUMAN PEDICULI 333
united into a tube from within which the second pair of
setae is protruded, similarly united, and terminating in four
small lobes, which seem to act as feelers. All this mechan-
ism can be thrust out to varying distances, and hence the
length of the exserted proboscis can be accommodated to
the thickness of the skin of the victim in the particular
place in which the animal is feeding ; by this means the
capillaries of the host are at length reached, when blood
will at once ascend the proboscis, the flow being accele-
rated and continued by the vigorous action of the pump-
like cavity in the digestive tube already mentioned.
But to return to our decapitated head. The observer,
wishing to examine the structure of the proboscis under
a higher power of the microscope, put it under pressure
for that purpose, when instantly the whole apparatus
shot back into the head^ : and no further observations
could be conducted ; in this position the two sides of a
chitinous band, marked a in the diagram, look something
like biting jaws, and had been mistaken for such by those
who had not seen the protruded instrument. These appear
as a dark band across the under surface of the head in
Fig. no, which was drawn from a specimen prepared for
the microscope, and therefore more transparent than
usual, and beneath them the outlines of the retracted pro-
boscis can be traced. Schiodte had to carry out many other
observations on specimens prepared in a variety of ways
before the whole of the details enumerated above could
be determined; and whoever wishes to verify these results,
must be prepared to exercise great patience in the in-
vestigation. Leeuwenhoek was so much struck with the
beauty and delicacy of this feeding apparatus, even so far
as it was known in his time, that he appeals to its com-
plex character as evidence that a creature which possesses
so elaborate a sucking pump could not have been, as was
334 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
formerly believed to be the case, spontaneously generated
from "dirt, sweat, or excrements," but must have an
origin similar to that of more highly organised animals.
The sexes of Pediculus capitis differ considerably in
size ; the female is about one-eighth of an inch long, but
her partner is sometimes not more than half that length,
and is proportionately much narrower. They may be dis-
tinguished also by the shape of the terminal segment
of the body, which in the female, as shown in Fig. no,
is notched, but in the male is evenly rounded. A large
sharp-pointed organ, which may often be seen protruding
from the end of the male's body, was formerly taken for
a sting, and was supposed to be one of the causes of the
itching produced by the insect. This, however, was a
mistake, no such organ as a sting being possessed by
these creatures : the instrument in ques-
tion is part of the reproductive apparatus.
The eggs, generally called "nits," are
conical, or rather pear-shaped bodies,
which are attached to the hairs of the
host, especially near their roots. The
secretion with which they are moistened
when laid is formed into a sort of long
cylindrical collar, which clasps the hair
towards the lower and smaller end of the
egg, holding it up like a bracket (Fig.
112). The eggs hatch after a little more
than a week, the young making their exit
from the broader end. The young are
quite similar in form to the adult, for
tne insec t passes through no metamor-
phosis whatever, being thus in a more
generalised condition than any other we have described,
except the "sugar-fish." Like other insects, they
HUMAN PEDICULI 335
cast their skin several times as they increase in size,
and ultimately mature their reproductive organs, but
no other change ensues. The young Pediculus be-
comes full-grown in about a month, and is active
throughout life, and ever ready for blood-sucking. Thus
man's three personal blood-sucking parasites exhibit
three distinct types of development, the flea, passing
through a complete metamorphosis larva, quiescent
pupa, and perfect insect ; the bug, an incomplete meta-
morphosis, having an active pupa stage, and acquiring
rudimentary wings ; the louse, no metamorphosis at all,
there being no resting stage, and not the faintest sem-
blance of wings ever appearing.
Pediculi are extremely prolific creatures, producing
large numbers of eggs, and, as we have seen, passing
rapidly into the adult and procreative condition, so that
generation succeeds generation with undesirable speed
and detestable powers of multiplication. Exact experi-
ments as to the degree of fecundity they exhibit it is
obviously not easy to persuade any one to undertake;
nevertheless, some naturalists have so far conquered
their repugnance as to investigate the matter slightly.
There has long been a popular saying, evidently begotten
of despair at their excessive multiplication, that a louse
can become a grandfather in twenty-four hours. This,
as mentioned above, is a great exaggeration, and so
thought Leeuwenhoek, who nourished about 200 years
ago ; he decided, therefore, to undertake a series of
experiments in order to settle the point and to work out
the life-history, if possible. The species he experimented
upon would appear to have been P. vestimenti, the body-
louse, but the conclusions would probably have been
similar with either species. His first thought was to
hire some poor child whom he might use as a host, the
336 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
method proposed being to put a clean stocking on the
child's leg and to enclose two or three female lice in it,
then to tie the stocking tight at the garter, and keep it
in this condition without change for a week, and then
to examine it and see to what extent multiplication had
taken place. This method of conducting the experiment,
however, seemed likely to be too uncertain and too little
under his own control ; not that he expected to find any
difficulty in securing the services of a suitable host, but
because interference with the progress of the experiment
would ^>e left so much in the child's power. On further
consideration, therefore, he resolved to overcome his re-
pugnance, and try the experiment on his own person, at
the expense, as he observes, "of enduring for a short
time in one leg what most poor people are obliged to
suffer in their whole bodies during all their lives."
He therefore selected a fine black stocking, so that
the insects might the more easily be seen, and enclosed
in it two large female specimens, fastening the stocking
tightly above the knee. After leaving it thus undis-
turbed for six days, he took it off and found one insect
in the place where he had put it, and around it fifty
eggs, and in another part of the stocking forty others,
apparently laid by the other specimen, which, however,
had escaped. Opening the body of the parent of fifty,
he counted in it about fifty more, and as he adds, " who
knows how many eggs it had laid before I put it in
the stocking, and how many more it might then have
in its body which my sight could not reach ? " Having
worn the stocking for another ten days, he found in
it about twenty-five crawling creatures of different sizes,
the largest being apparently some three days old; but
the sight of such a progeny caused even his endurance
to reach its limit, and he was so disgusted that he
HUMAN PEDICULI 337
tossed the stocking and its contents into the street,
and would have no more to do with it. On this slender
evidence he based calculations by which he arrived at
the conclusion that, though the fecundity of these insects
was not nearly so great as the popular saying implied,
yet that it was quite great enough to excite astonishment
and alarm that, in fact, a single female might in the
course of eight weeks become a grandmother, and witness
the birth of some 5000 descendants. Even if large
deductions were made from this, yet powers of multi-
plication would still be left which show how unsafe it
would be to let even a single specimen pass unheeded.
The head louse is usually found amongst the hairs of
the head, but it may occur on other parts of the body
as well. According to Andrew Murray, its general
appearance varies with the nationality of its host, the
colour especially being considerably different when it
is found on dark-skinned races; e.g., on West Africans
and Australians it is nearly black, on Hindoos dark
and smoky, on Hottentots orange, on the Indians of
South America dark brown, while on the Chinese and
Japanese it is said to be yellowish. An attempt has
been made, though without success, to show that these
forms are distinct species. Amongst some uncivilised
tribes these insects are actually eaten, and apparently
with relish. The mother, innocent of thoughts of a
comb, relieves her child by hand-picking, and transfers
her captures to her mouth, apparently as an easy way
of disposing of them, thus imitating a habit which may
also be seen in monkeys. In his " Primitive Folk,"
Reclus says that the Apache Indians, " when they have
leisure to attend to their comfort, cover their heads,
like the Australians and Andamanese, with a mud cap.
This is agreeably cool, and rids them of vermin. For
338 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
like reasons they coat their bodies with a layer of mud."
The Esquimaux are said to make use of a little stick
ending like a spatula, to scratch themselves; with it
they can more easily reach their backs and dive into
the depths of their clothing.
Many remedies have been proposed against these
vermin, but to secure immunity from their attacks it
should always be borne in mind that the prime requisite,
which is the foundation of everything else, is cleanliness.
For although there is no truth in the old idea of their
being spontaneously generated from dirt, yet uncleanly
conditions seem to constitute a peculiarly favourable
environment for the introduction and propagation of the
species. Frequent head-washing, therefore, especially in
the case of children, is of the utmost importance, and
yet it is surprising what an antipathy many people have
to letting water come in contact with their head; it
would seem that this is one of the last parts of his body,
which, in the advance of civilisation, man is prepared to
submit to the action of soap and water, though, as being
exposed to all sorts of begriming influences, it certainly
is not the part which needs it least. The habit of using
oil, pomatum, and other greasy compounds on the hair,
now happily declining, though objectionable for other
reasons, had its uses, and was advantageous as a pre-
ventive against these parasites, since oily matters tend
to clog up their spiracles and so suffocate them. Horrible
mixtures were formerly recommended as means of exter-
mination, e.g., Mouffet advises a compound made of hogs'
blood mixed with wine and essence of roses. The only
true preventives are personal cleanliness and isolation,
or avoidance of contact with those on whom the insects
are found. For curative purposes, a wash made by
boiling cheap tobacco in water has been recommended,
HUMAN PEDICULI 339
as well as rubbing snuff into the roots of the hair ; but
for such purposes nothing better can be used than very
weak solutions of petroleum or carbolic acid. Frequent
washing with carbolic soap is also a good thing in this,
as in other afflictions connected with the skin. By those
who do not object to the use of mercury compounds, an
ointment made of " white precipitate " mixed with lard
has been found efficacious.
Whilst P. capitis is usually confined to the head,
P. vestimenti, the body louse, is found on the body at
large, and, as its scientific name imports, is closely con-
nected with clothing. It is rather larger than P. capitis,
and as it is found on those parts of the body that are
comparatively devoid of hair, it takes advantage of the
seams and folds of the inner garments to deposit its eggs
upon. Its chances of flourishing, therefore, depend
mainly upon the clothing remaining unchanged for a
long time ; hence, in long marches, or on other occasions
when few opportunities can be obtained for washing or
changing clothes, it may become troublesome. It has
often been an army pest during long campaigns. When
Leeuwenhoek showed some of his specimens to " a certain
great personage," the latter exclaimed that they were
just like those with which his soldiers were infested,
and stated that the men found them much more trouble-
some in wet weather than in dry. In the Crimean war,
it is said that the soldiers were much annoyed by these
horrible creatures, finding them far more of a nuisance
than P. capitis. Their attacks produce an intolerable
itching of the skin, often accompanied with inflamma-
tion. Of course warm baths and a thorough cleansing
of the clothing are the chief remedies.
The crab louse (Fig. 113) is a very different creature
from either of those we have been considering, and is
340 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
probably the most disgusting and hated of all the para-
sites to which mankind is subject. The thorax is much
broader than in the other two species, and is even wider
than the abdomen itself. This great and sudden width
of the thorax, combined with the shortness of the abdo-
men and the lateral expansion of the legs, give it a
crab-like shape, which is the origin of its popular name.
The two hind pair of legs are much stouter than the
front pair, and their claws are very strong, and curved
completely back upon the foot, giving it an intense
FIG. 113. Crab Louse (Phthirius inguinalis).
clinging power. It ranges from ^ to T ^ inch in length,
and its life-history is similar to that of the rest, though
it appears to multiply rather more rapidly, and to be
communicated rather more freely. As its scientific
name implies, it is an inhabitant chiefly of the groin,
though when it exists in swarms, as is sometimes the
case, it may be found on other parts of the body as well,
such as the breast, the arm-pits, the beard, the eyebrows,
and even the eyelashes. A frightful degree of multipli-
cation of this insect, or of P. vestimenti, is either the
HUMAN PEDICULI 341
cause or the accompaniment of the mysterious diseases
called pediculosis and phthiriasis, which have become so
celebrated through their reputed connection with some
of the vilest of historical personages.
A word or two on the systematic position and classi-
fication of these vermin may fittingly conclude our
subject : this is the more necessary as there are several
other insects that might easily be confounded with them.
Pediculi are now regarded as forming a degraded section
of the order Hemiptera, which, as we have already seen,
contains the various species of bugs, &c. The nearest
approach to the peculiar structure of the mouth in the
Pediculi is certainly to be found in this order, the lice
differing from the rest chiefly in having the suctorial
trunk retractile, and capable of being completely with-
drawn inside the head. The lice thus bear much the
same relation to the rest of the Hemiptera that the fleas
do to the Diptera (two-winged flies) with which they are
now associated. The section of the order to which they
belong is called Anoplura ; but this term is often made
to include another set of parasites externally something
like them, but furnished with biting jaws instead of a
suctorial proboscis. These are the insects called Mallo-
phaga, or bird-lice, which devour the feathers of birds.
But here again we must guard against being misunder-
stood. It is not implied that all parasites found on
birds are true Mallophaga, nor that the latter are exclu-
sively confined to birds. As a matter of fact, birds are
troubled not only with the feather-eating Mallophaga,
but with true lice allied to the Pediculi above mentioned,
which suck their blood, just as the latter do that of
mammals. These, of course, belong to the same section
as the vermin whose life-history and habits we have been
considering. The Mallophaga, however, being biting,
342 OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS
not sucking insects, seem to find their nearest relatives
in the order Neuroptera, to which, in the previous
chapter, we referred the little book-louse. Some of
these Mallophaga also occur on mammals, whose hair
they devour, just as those that infest birds make havoc
upon their feathers.
INDEX.
AGE.of flies, 202
Aglossa ctiprealis, 115
,, pinguinalis, in
Anobium domesticum, 5
,, paniceum, 13
Antennae as organs of smell, 190
Anthrenus muscewum, 28
Ants' "eggs," 58
Atropos divinatoria, 304
Attagenus pellio, 27
BACON BEETLE, 22
Bed-bug, as medicine, 302 ; breathing
organs, 295 ; contrasted with flea,
2 75 5 etymology of name, 274 ; ex-
termination of, 298 ; fecundity, 296 ;
food of, 293 ; importation of, 273 ;
life history, 290; mouth organs,
278 ; scent glands, 288 ; wings, 283
Beetles in food, 53 ; in mummies,
21, 26
Bird-lice, 341
Black beetle (see Cockroach)
Blaps mucronata, 33
Blatta germanica, 146
Blow-fly, antennae, 188; balancers,
183 ; bristles, 188 ; eyes, 186 ; feet,
182 ; head, 185 ; proboscis, 191 ;
wings, 176
Bluebottle (see Blow-fly)
Body-louse, mouth organs, 328
Book-louse, 304; systematic position
Buffalo gnats, 246
CALLIDIUM VIOLACEUM, 50
Calliphora erythrocephala, 176
,, vomitoria, 176
Cellar beetle, 33
Ceratopogon, 246
Chigoe, 270
Chironomi, 246
Churchyard beetle, 33
Cimex lectularius, 275
Clothes moths, 91
Clothilla pulsatoria, 314
picea, 314
Cluster- fly, 210
Cockroach, breathing of, 139; diges-
tive system, 134; egg-sac, 126;
habits, 118 ; heart and circulation,
142 ; importation of, 117 ; legs, 131 ;
life history, 121; mouth organs,
128 ; nervous system, 144 ; sexes,i2o.
343
Corynetes violaceus, 26
Crab-louse, 339
Cricket, auditory organ, 155; chirp-
ing, 147, 153; file and drum, 153;
mouth organs, 149 ; wings, 151
Croton-bug, 146
Cryptophagus (genus), 31
Culex (genus), 224
Culices in paper, 237
Culwidce, 223
Cyrtoneura stabulans, 204
DEATH-WATCH, 7, 310
Dermestes lardarius, 22
,, vulpinus, 25
Ditch skater, 286
EARWIGS, 156 ; forceps of, 158 ; habits,
164 ; life history, 163 ; parasites in,
168 ; systematic position, 169 ; wings,
J 59
Eggs of flies, 198, 214, 215, 217
Empusa muscce, 204
Endrosis fenestrella, 103
FlLARTA SANGUINIS-HOMINIS, 236
Flea, antennae, 254 ; digestive system,
256; legs, 251; life history, 259;
mouth organs, 252 ; systematic posi-
tion, 249
Fleabanes, 263
Flea's leap, 264
Fleas on sea-shore, 263
Flesh-fly, 197, 198, 214
Flies in Iceland, 241
Fly -bug, 301
Food, beetles in, 53
Foreign Ptini in collections, 17
Forfaula auricularia, 156
French longicorn in willow basket, 48
Fungus, parasitic, on fly, 203
GlBBIUM SCOTIA S, 20
Gnat-bite, 242
Gnathocerus cornutus, 39
Gnats, '225; life history, 229; mouth
organs, 226; swarms of, 236; in
paper, 237
Gold fringe moth, no
Gracilia pygmcea, 47
Grease moth, 112
Greenbottle fly, 206
Gryllus domesticus, 149
344
INDEX
HEAD-LOUSE, 326 ; eggs, 334 ;
cundity, 335 ; remedies, 338
Homalomyia canicularift, 174
Hooke's "Micrographia," 315,
Micrographia'," 315, 319,
3 2 5
Hornet, 82
Horn-tail, 81
House ant, 55, 57
House fly, 172 ; life history, 198
Hylotrupes bajuhis, 49
INSECTS, characteristics of, 3
Imperfect wings in Hemiptera, 286
JIGGER, 270
LEPISMA SACGHARINA, 314
Luciiia Ccesar, 206
Lyctocoris campestris, 303
MALLOPIJAGA, 341
Meal motlh, 108
,, worms, 42
Mezium affine, 20
Midges, 224, 246
Mites on flies, 211
Monomorium Pharaonis, 55, 57
Mosquitoes, 225; as pests, 238; bite
of, 242 ; thread-worm in, 236
Mummies, beetles in, 21, 26
Musca corvina, 217
,, domestica, 172
Mycetcea hirta, 30
NEMOCERA, 222
Nervous system of fly, 209 ; of cock-
roach, 144
Niptus hololeucus, 18
ODTNERUS (genus), 64
(Ecogenia Kindermanniella, 106
CEcophora pseudo-spretella, 104
PARASITES on Anobium, n
Pediculus capitis, 326
,, vestimenti, 326
Performing fleas, 268
Periplaneta Americana, 145
,, orientalist, 117
Phthirius inguinalis, 340
Plateau's experiments on strength of
insects, 266
Plumed gnats, 246
Pollenia rudis, 209
Portchinski's observations on flies, 215
Pristonychus terricola, 51
Psychodidce, 247
Ptilinus pectimcornis, 12
Ptinusfur, 15
Pulex irritans, 249
Puparium of fly, 201
Pyralis costalis, no
,, farinalis, 108
RED uvius PERSON- AT us, 301
Hhyphus fenestralis, 245
SAND-FLIES, 246
Sarcophaga carnaria, 197, 198, 214
Sarcopsylla penetrans, 270
Sericomyia borealis singing, 180
Silver-fish insect, 314; damage done
by, 320 ; structure, 316 ; systematic
position, 318
Simulium (genus), 246
Sirexgigas, 81, 83
,, juvencus, 87
Smaller house fly, 154
Small tabby moth, 115
Social insects, 56
Social wasps, life history, 66
Solitary wasps, 63
Sounds produced by insects, 153
Sphodrus leitcophthalmus, 51
Stomoxys calcitrans, 175 ; proboscis,
T 95
Strength of insects, 266
TABBY MOTH, m
Tenebrio molitor, 40
obscurus, 40
Thread-worm in mosquito, 236
Tinea (genus), 91
Tinea biselliella, 98
,, pellionella, 92
,, rusticella, 100
,, tapetzella, 99
Tribolium confusum, 37
,, ferrugineum, 37
Turkey gnats, 246
VELIA CURRENS, 286
Vespa, species distinguished, 77
WASP, head of, 73
Wasps, characteristics of, 62 ; species
distinguished, 77
Water cricket, 286
Window gnat, 245
,, moth, 103
Wings of Hemiptera, 284
Winter midges, 247
Worm-eaten wood, 4
XESTOBIUM TESSELLATUM, 7
Printed by BALLANTYNE, HANSON & CO.
Edinburgh and London
MESSRS. LONGMANS, GREEN, & CO.'S
CLASSIFIED CATALOGUE
OK
WORKS IN GENERAL LITERATURE.
History, Politics, Polity, and Political Memoirs.
Abbott. A HISTORY OF GREECE. By
EVELYN ABBOTT, M.A., LL.D.
Part I. From the Earliest Times to the
Ionian Revolt. Crown 8vo., IQJ. 6d.
Part II. 500-445 B.C. Cr. 8vo., IQJ. 6d.
Acland and Ransome. A HAND-
BOOK IN OUTLINE OF THE POLITICAL
HISTORY OF ENGLAND TO 1890. Chro-
nologically Arranged. By the Right Hon.
A. H. DYKE ACLAND, M.P., and CYRIL
RANSOME, M.A. Crown 8vo., 6s,
ANNUAL REGISTER (THE). A Re-
view of Public Events at Home and
Abroad, for the year 1892. 8vo., i8.r.
Volumes of the ANNUAL REGISTER for
the years 1863-1891 can still be had.
iBs. each.
Armstrong. ELIZABETH FARNESE ;
The Termagant of Spain. By EDWARD
ARMSTRONG, M.A., Fellow of Queen's
College, Oxford. 8vo., i6j.
Arnold. Works by T. ARNOLD, D.D.,
formerly Head Master of Rugby School.
INTRODUCTORY LECTURES ON MODERN
HISTORY. 8vo., 75. 6d.
MISCELLANEOUS WORKS. 8vo., 75. 6d.
Bagwell. IRELAND UNDER THE
TUDORS. By RICHARD BAGWELL,
LL.D. 3 vols. Vols. I. and II. From
the first Invasion of the Northmen to the
year 1578. 8vo., 32$. Vol. III. 1578-
1603. 8vo., i8s.
Ball. HISTORICAL REVIEW OF THE
LEGISLATIVE SYSTEMS OPERATIVE IN
IRELAND, from the Invasion of Henry
the Second to the Union (1172-1800).
By the Rt. Hon. J. T. BALL. 8vo., 6s.
Besant. THE HISTORY OF LONDON.
By WALTER BESANT. With 74 Illus-
trations. Crown 8vo. School Reading-
book Edition, is. gd.\ Prize-book Edition,
2s. 6d.
Buckle. HISTORY OF CIVILISATION IN
ENGLAND AND FRANCE, SPAIN AND
SCOTLAND. By HENRY THOMAS
BUCKLE. 3 vols. Crown 8vo., 24^.
Chesney. INDIAN POLITY : A View of
the System of Administration in India.
By Lieut.-GeneralSir GEORGE CHESNEY.
New Edition, Revised and Enlarged.
\Jn the Press.
Crump. A SHORT INQUIRY INTO THE
FORMATION OF POLITICAL OPINION,
from the reign of the Great Families to
the advent of Democracy. By ARTHUR
CRUMP. 8vo., 75. 6d.
De Tocqueville. DEMOCRACY IN
AMERICA. By ALEXIS DE TOCQUE-
VILLE. 2 vols. Crown 8vo., i6s.
Fitzpatrick. SECRET SERVICE
UNDER PITT. By W. J. FITZPATRICK,
F.S.A., Author of 'Correspondence of
Daniel O'Connell '. 8vo. , 75. 6d.
Freeman. THE HISTORICAL GEO-
GRAPHY OF EUROPE. By EDWARD A.
FREEMAN, D.C.L., LL.D. With 65
Maps. 2 vols. 8vo. , 315. 6d.
LONGMANS & CO.'S STANDARD AND GENERAL WORKS.
History, Politics, Polity, and
Froude. Works by JAMES A. FROUDE,
Regius Professor of Modern History in
the University of Oxford.
THE HISTORY OF ENGLAND, from the
Fall of Wolsey to the Defeat of the
Spanish Armada.
Popular Edition. 12 vols. Crown
8vo. , 3-y. 6d. each.
Silver Library Edition. 12 vols.
Crown 8vo., %s. 6d. each.
THE DIVORCE OF CATHERINE OF ARA-
GON : the Story as told by the Imperial
Ambassadors resident at the Court of
Henry VIII. In usum Laicorum.
Crown 8vo. , 6s.
THE SPANISH STORY OF THE ARMADA,
and other Essays, Historical and
Descriptive. Crown 8vo. , 6s.
THE ENGLISH IN IRELAND IN THE
EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. 3 vols. Cr.
8vo., i8s.
SHORT STUDIES ON GREAT SUBJECTS.
4 vols. Cr. 8vo., y. 6d. each.
CAESAR : a Sketch. Cr. 8vo. , y. 6d.
Gardiner. Works by SAMUEL RAW-
SON GARDINER, M.A., Hon. LL.D. ,
Edinburgh, Fellow of Merton College,
Oxford.
HISTORY OF ENGLAND, from the Ac-
cessi< n of James I. to the Outbreak of
the ( ivil War, 1603-1642. 10 vols.
Crown 8vo. , 6s. each.
A HISTORY OF THE GREAT CIVIL WAR,
1642-1649. 4 vols. Cr. 8vo., 6s. each.
THE STUDENT'S HISTORY OF ENGLAND,
With 378 Illustrations. Cr. 8vo. , iaj.
Also in Three Volumes.
Vol. I. B.C. 55 A.D. 1509. With 173
Illustrations. Crown 8vo. 45.
Vol. II. 1509-1689. With 96 Illustra-
tions. Crown 8vo. 4^.
Vol. III. 1689-1885. With 109 Illus-
trations. Crown 8vo. 45.
G-reville. A JOURNAL OF THE REIGNS
OF KING GEORGE IV., KING WILLIAM
IV., AND QUEEN VICTORIA. By
CHARLES C. F. GREVILLE, formerly
Clerk of the Council. 8 vols. Crown
8vo., 6s. each.
Hart.~PR ACTICAL ESSAYS IN AMERICAN
GOVERNMENT. By ALBERT BUSHNELL
HART, Ph.D., &c. Cr. 8vo., 6s.
Political Memoirs continued.
Hearn. THE GOVERNMENT OF ENG-
LAND : its Structure and its Development.
By W. EDWARD HEARN. 8vo. , i6s.
Historic Towns. Edited by E. A.
FREEMAN, D.C.L., and Rev. WILLIAM
HUNT, M.A. With Maps and Plans.
Crown 8vo., %s. 6d. each.
BRISTOL. By the Rev. W. HUNT.
CARLISLE. By MANDELL CREIGHTON,
D. D. , Bishop of Peterborough.
CINQUE PORTS. By MONTAGU BUR-
ROWS.
COLCHESTER. By Rev. E. L. CUTTS.
EXETER. By E. A. FREEMAN.
LONDON. By Rev. W. J. LOFTIE.
OXFORD. By Rev. C. W. BOASE.
WINCHESTER. By Rev. G. W. KIT-
CHIN, D.D.
YORK. By Rev. JAMKS RAINE.
NEW YORK. By THEODORE ROOSEVELT.
BOSTON (U.S.) By HENRY CABOT
LODGE.
Horley. SEFTON : A DESCRIPTIVE AND
HISTORICAL ACCOUNT. Comprising the
Collected Notes and Researches of the
late Rev. ENGELBERT HORLEY, M.A. ,
Rector 1871-1883. By W. D. CAROE,
M.A. (Cantab.), Fellow of the Royal
Institute of British Architects, and E. J.
A. GORDON. With 17 Plates and 32 Illus-
trations in the Text. Royal 8vo., 315. 6d.
Joyce. A SHORT HISTORY OF IRELAND,
from the Earliest Times to 1608. By P.
W. JOYCE, LL.D. Crown 8vo. , los. 6d.
Lang. A HISTORY OF ST. ANDREWS.
By ANDREW LANG. With Illustrations
by T. HODGE. [In the Press.
Lecky. Works by WILLIAM EDWARD
HARTPOLE LECKY.
HISTORY OF ENGLAND IN THE EIGH-
TEENTH CENTURY.
Library Edition. 8 vols. 8vo., j 45.
Cabinet Edition. ENGLAND. 7 vols.
Cr. 8vo., 6s. each. IRELAND. 5
vols. Crown 8vo., 6s. each.
HISTORY OF EUROPEAN MORALS FROM
AUGUSTUS TO CHARLEMAGNE. 2
vols. Crown 8vo. , i6s.
HISTORY OF THE RISE AND INFLUENCE
OF THE SPIRIT OF RATIONALISM IN
EUROPE. 2 vols. Crown 8vo., i6s.
LONGMANS 6 CO. 'S STANDARD AND GENERAL WORKS.
History, Politics, Polity, and Political Memoirs continued.
Macaulay. Works by LORD MAC- j Macaulay. Works by LORD MAC-
AULAY. AULAY. continued.
COMPLETE WORKS.
Cabinet Ed. 16 vols. Pt. 8vo. , /4 i6s.
Library Edition. 8 vols. 8vo., $ $s.
HISTORY OF ENGLAND FROM THE AC-
CESSION OF JAMES THE SECOND.
Popular Edition. 2 vols. Cr. 8vo., 5*.
Student's Edition. 2 vols. Cr. 8vo. , I2S.
People's Edition. 4 vols. Cr. 8vo. , i6s.
Cabinet Edition. 8 vols. Pt. 8vo. , 48*.
Library Edition. 5 vols. 8vo., 4.
CRITICAL AND HISTORICAL ESSAYS,
WITH LAYS OF ANCIENT ROME, in i
volume.
Popular Edition. Crown 8vo., 2s. 6d.
Authorised Edition. Crown 8vo. ,
2s. 6d. , or 35. 6d. , gilt edges.
Silver Library Edition. Crown 8vo.,
35. 6d.
CRITICAL AND HISTORICAL ESSAYS.
Student's Edition, i vol. Cr. 8vo., 6s.
People's Edition. 2 vols. Cr. 8vo. , 8s.
Trevelyan Edition. 2 vols. Cr. 8vo.,9J.
Cabinet Edition. 4 vols. Post8vo.,24J i .
Library Edition. 3 vols. 8vo. , 36^.
ESSAYS which may be had separately
price 6d. each sewed, is. each cloth.
Frederick the Great. Lord Clive.
Lord Bacon. The Earl of Chat-
Addison and Wai- ham(Two Essays).
pole. Ranke and Glad-
Croker's Boswell's stone.
Johnson. Milton and Machia-
Hallam's Constitu- velli.
tional History. Lord Byron, and The
Warren Hastings Comic Dramatists
($d. swd. , 6d. cl. ). of the Restoration.
SPEECHES. Crown 8vo. , y. 6d.
MISCELLANEOUS WRITINGS.
People's Ed. i vol. Cr. 8vo. , 45. 6d.
Library Edition. 2 vols. 8vo., 2is.
MISCELLANEOUS WRITINGS AND
SPEECHES.
Popular Edition. Cr. 8vo., 2s. 6d.
Student's Edition. Crown 8vo., 6s.
Cabinet Edition. Including Indian
Penal Code, Lays of Ancient Rome,
and Miscellaneous Poems. 4 vols.
Post 8vo. , 243.
SELECTIONS FROM THE WRITINGS OF
LORD MACAULAY. Edited, with
Occasional Notes, by the Right Hon.
Sir G. O. Trevelyan, Bart. Crown
8vo., 6s.
May. THE CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY
OF ENGLAND since the Accession of
George III. 1760-1870. By Sir THOMAS
ERSKINE MAY, K.C.B. (Lord Farn-
borough). 3 vols. Crown 8vo. , i8s.
Merivale. Works by the Very Rev.
CHARLES MERIVALE, Dean of Ely.
HISTORY OF THE ROMANS UNDER THE
EMPIRE.
Cabinet Edition. 8 vols. Cr. 8vo. , 4&f .
Silver Library Edition. 8 vols. Cr.
8vo. , 35. 6d. each.
THE FALL OF THE ROMAN REPUBLIC :
a Short History of the Last Century
of the Commonwealth. i2mo., js. 6d.
Parkes. FIFTY YEARS IN THE MAKING
OF AUSTRALIAN HISTORY. By Sir
HENRY PARKES, G.C.M.G. With 2
Portrai ts ( 1 854 and 1 892). 2 vols. 8vo. ,
32S.
Prendergast. IRELAND FROM THE
RESTORATION TO THE REVOLUTION,
1660-1690. By JOHN P. PRENDERGAST,
Author of ' The Cromwellian Settlement
in Ireland'. 8vo., 53.
Round. GEOFFREY DE MANDEVILLE :
a Study of the Anarchy. By J. H.
ROUND, M.A. 8vo., i6s.
Seebohm. THE ENGLISH VILLAGE
COMMUNITY Examined in its Relations
to the Manorial and Tribal Systems, &c.
By FREDERIC SEEBOHM. With 13 Maps
and Plates. 8vo., i6j.
Smith. CARTHAGE AND THE CARTHA-
GINIANS. By R. BOSWORTH SMITH,
M.A. , Assistant Master in Harrow-
School. With Maps, Plans, &c. Cr.
8vo., 6s.
Stephens. PAROCHIALSELF-GOVERN-
MENT IN RURAL DISTRICTS: Argument
and Plan. By HENRY C. STEPHENS,
M.P. 410. , I2S. 6d. Popular Edition.
Cr. 8vo., is.
LONGMANS & CO:S STANDARD AND GENERAL WORKS.
History, Politics, Polity, and Political Memoirs continued.
Stephens. A HISTORY OFTHE FRENCH
REVOLUTION. By H.MORSE STEPHENS,
Balliol College, Oxford. 3 vols. 8vo.
Vols. I. and II. iSs. each.
Stubbs. HISTORY OF THE UNIVERSITY
OF DUBLIN, from its Foundation to the
End of the Eighteenth Century. By J.
W. STUBBS. 8vo., i2s. 6d.
Thompson. POLITICS IN A DEMO-
CRACY : an Essay. By DANIEL GREEN-
LEAF THOMPSON, Author of ' A System
of Psychology, &c. Cr. 8vo., 5.?.
Todd. PARLIAMENTARY GOVERNMENT
IN THE COLONIES. By ALPHEUS TODD,
LL.D. [In the Press.
Tupper. OUR INDIAN PROTECTO-
RATE : an Introduction to the Study of
the Relations between the British Govern-
ment and its Indian Feudatories. By
CHARLES LEWIS TUPPER, Indian Civil
Service. Royal 8vo., i6s.
Wakeman and Hassall. ESSAYS
INTRODUCTORY TO THE STUDY OF ENG-
LISH CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY. By
Resident Members of the University of
Oxford. Edited by HENRY OFFLEY
WAKEMAN, M.A., and ARTHUR HAS-
SALL, M.A. Crown 8vo., 6s.
Walpole. Works by SPENCER WAL-
POLE.
HISTORY OF ENGLAND FROM THE CON-
CLUSION OF THE GREAT WAR IN
1815 TO 1858. 6 vols. Crown 8vo.,
6s. each.
THE LAND OF HOME RULE : being an
Account of the History and Institu-
tions of the Isle of Man. Cr. 8vo. , 6s.
Wylie. HISTORY OF ENGLAND UNDER
HENRY IV. By JAMES HAMILTON
WYLIE, M.A., one of H. M. Inspectors
of Schools. 3 vols. Vol. I.. 1399-1404.
Crown 8vo. , ios. 6d. Vol. 1 1. [Inike Press.
Vol. III. [In preparation.
Biography, Personal Memoirs, &c.
Armstrong. THE LIFE AND LETTERS
OF EDMUND J. ARMSTRONG. Edited
by G. F. ARMSTRONG. Fcp. 8vo. , js. 6d.
Bacon. LETTERS AND LIFE, INCLUD-
ING ALL HIS OCCASIONAL WORKS.
Edited by J. SPEDDING. 7 vols. 8vo. ,
Bagehot. BIOGRAPHICAL STUDIES.
By WALTER BAGEHOT. 8vo. , i2s.
Boyd. TWENTY-FIVE YEARS OF ST.
ANDREWS, 1865-1890. By A. K. H.
BOYD, D.D. , Author of ' Recreations of
a Country Parson,' &c. 2 vols. 8vo.
Vol. I., i2s. Vol. II., 15*.
Carlyle. THOMAS CARLYLE : a History
of his Life. By. J. A. FROUDE.
1795-1835. 2 vols. Crown 8vo. , js.
1834-1881. 2 vols. Crown 8vo., js.
Fabert. ABRAHAM FABERT : Governor
of Sedan and Marshal of France. His
Life and Times, 1599-1662. By GEORGE
HOOPER, Author of 'Waterloo,' 'Wel-
lington,' &c. With a Portrait. 8vo.,
los. 6d.
Fox. THE EARLY HISTORYOF CHARLES
JAMES Fox. By the Right Hon. Sir G.
O. TREVELYAN, Bart.
Library Edition. 8vo. , i8j.
Cabinet Edition. Crown 8vo., 6s.
Hamilton. LIFE OF SIR WILLIAM
HAMILTON. By R. P. GRAVES. 3 vols.
15^. each.
ADDENDUM TO THE LIFE OF SIR WM.
ROWAN HAMILTON, LL.D., D.C.L.,
8vo. , 6d. sewed.
Hassall.- -THE NARRATIVE OF A BUSY
LIFE: an Autobiography. By ARTHUR
HILL HASSALL, M.D. 8vo., 5^.
Havelock. MEMOIRS OF SIR HENRY
HAVELOCK, K.C.B. By JOHN CLARK
MARSHMAN. Crown 8vo. , y. 6d.
Macaulay. THE LIFE AND LETTERS
OF LORD MACAULAY. By the Right
Hon. Sir G. O. TREVELYAN, Bart.
Popular Edition, i vol. Cr. 8vo.,2S. 6d.
Student's Edition, i vol. Cr. 8vo. , 6s.
Cabinet Edition. 2 vols. PostSvo., I2s.
Library Edition. 2 vols. 8vo. , $6s.
Marbot. THE MEMOIRS OF THE BARON
DE MARBOT. Translated from the
French by ARTHUR JOHN BUTLER,
M.A. Crown 8vo. , 7*. 6d.
Montrose. DEEDS OF MONTROSE :
THE MEMOIRS OF JAMES, MARQUIS OF
MONTROSE, 1639-1650. By the Rev.
GEORGE WISH ART, D.D. (Bishop of
Edinburgh, 1662-1671). Translated,
with Introduction, Notes, &c. , and the
original Latin, by the Rev. ALEX-
ANDER MURDOCH, F.S.A. (Scot.),
and H. F. MORELAND SIMPSON, M.A.
(Cantab.). 410., 36^. net.
LONGMANS & CO.'S STANDARD AND GENERAL WORKS.
Biography, Personal Memoirs, &c. continued.
Seebohm. THE OXFORD REFORMERS
JOHNCOLET, ERASMUS AND THOMAS
MORE : a History of their Fellow- Work.
By FREDERIC SEEBOHM. 8vo. , 141.
Shakespeare. OUTLINES OF THE
LIFE OF SHAKESPEARE. By J. O.
HALLIWELL-PHILLIPPS. With nume-
rous Illustrations and Fac-similes. 2
vols. Royal 8vo., ^i is.
Shakespeare's TRUE LIFE. By JAS.
WALTER. With 500 Illustrations by
GERALD E. MOIRA. Imp. 8vo., 215.
Sherbrooke. LIFE AND LETTERS OF
THE RIGHT HON. ROBERT LOWE, VIS-
COUNT SHERBROOKE, G.C.B., together
with a Memoir of his Kinsman, Sir JOHN
COAPE SHERBROOKE, G.C.B. By A.
PATCHETT MARTIN. With 5 Portraits.
2 vols. 8vo., 36s.
Stephen. ESSAYS IN ECCLESIASTICAL
BIOGRAPHY. By Sir JAMES STEPHEN.
Crown 8vo. , js. 6d.
Verney. MEMOIRS OF THE VERNEY
FAMILY DURING THE CIVIL WAR.
Compiled from the Letters and Illus-
trated by the Portraits at Claydon House,
Bucks. By FRANCES PARTHENOPE
VERNEY. With a Preface by S. R.
GARDINER, M.A., LL.D. With 38
Portraits, Woodcuts and Fac-simile. 2
vols. Royal 8vo. , 421.
Wagner. WAGNER AS I KNEW HIM.
By FERDINAND PRAEGER. Crown 8vo. ,
^s. 6d.
Walford. TWELVE ENGLISH AUTHOR-
ESSES. By L. B. WALFORD, Author of
' Mischief of Monica,' &c. With Portrait
of Hannah More. Crown 8vo. , 4^. 6d.
Wellington. LIFE OF THE DUKE OF
WELLINGTON. By the Rev. G. R.
GLEIG, M.A. Crown 8vo., 35. 6d.
Wordsworth. Works by CHARLES
WORDSWORTH, D.C.L., late Bishop of
St. Andrews.
ANNALS OF MY EARLY LIFE, 1806-
1846. 8vo., 15-r.
ANNALS OF MY LIFE, 1847-1856. 8vo.,
ioj. 6d.
Travel and Adventure.
Arnold. SEAS AND LANDS. By Sir
EDWIN ARNOLD, K.C.I.E., Author of
'The Light of the World,' &c. Reprinted
Letters from .the 'Daily Telegraph.'
With 71 Illustrations. Cr. 8vo. , js. 6d.
Baker. Works by Sir SAMUEL WHITE
BAKER.
EIGHT YEARS IN CEYLON. With 6
Illustrations. Crown 8vo. , 3^. 6d.
THE RIFLE AND THE HOUND IN CEY-
LON. 6 Illustrations. Cr. 8vo. , y. 6d.
Bent. Works by J. THEODORE BENT,
F.S.A., F.R.G.S.
THE RUINED CITIES OF MASHONA-
LAND : being a Record of Excavation
and Exploration in 1891. With Map,
13 Plates, and 104 Illustrations in the
Text. Cr. 8vo., js. 6d.
THE SACRED CITY OF THE ETHIOPIANS:
being a Record of Travel and Re-
search in Abyssinia in 1893. With 8
Plates and 65 Illustrations in the
Text. 8vo.
Brassey. Works by LADY BRASSEY.
A VOYAGE IN THE ' SUNBEAM ' ; OUR
HOME ON THE OCEAN FOR ELEVEN
MONTHS.
Library Edition. With 8 Maps and
Charts, and 118 Illustrations. 8vo. ,
Cabinet Edition. With Map and 66
Illustrations. Crown 8vo., js. 6d.
Silver Library Edition. With 66
Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 3^. 6d.
Popular Edition. With 60 Illustra-
tions. 4toT, 6d. sewed, is. cloth.
School Edition. With 37 Illustrations.
Fcp., 2J. cloth, or 2 s - white parch-
THREE VOYAGES IN THE ' SUNBEAM '
Popular Edition. With 346 Illustra-
tions. 410., zs. 6d.
LONGMANS & CO. 'S STANDARD AND GENERAL WORKS.
Travel and Adventure continued.
Brassey. Works by LADY BRASSEY
cont.
SUNSHINE AND STORM IN THE EAST.
Library Edition. With 2 Maps and
141 Illustrations. 8vo., zu.
Cabinet Edition. With 2 Maps and
114 Illustrations . Crown 8vo. , js. 6d.
Popular Edition. With 103 Illustra-
tions. 410., 6d. sewed, is. cloth.
THE LAST VOYAGE TO INDIA AND
AUSTRALIA IN THE 'SUNBEAM'.
With Charts and Maps, and 40 Illus-
trations in Monotone (20 full-page),
and nearly 200 Illustrations in the
Text from Drawings by R. T. PRIT-
CHETT. 8vo., 2 is.
IN THE TRADES, THE TROPICS, AND
THE ' ROARING FORTIES '.
Cabinet Edition. With Map and 220
Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 75. 6d.
Popular Edition. With 183 Illustra-
tions. 4to. , 6d. sewed, is. cloth.
Curzon. PERSIA AND THE PERSIAN
QUESTION. With 9 Maps, 96 Illustra-
tions, Appendices, and an Index. By
the Hon. GEORGE N. CURZON, M.P.,
late Fellow of All Souls' College, Ox-
ford. 2 vols. 8vo. , 42s.
JProude. Works by JAMES A. FROUDE.
OCEANA : or England and her Colonies.
With 9 Illustrations. Crown 8vo.,
2s. boards, zs. 6d. cloth.
THE ENGLISH IN THE WEST INDIES :
or the Bow of Ulysses. With 9 Illus-
trations. Cr. 8vo. , 2s. bds. , ss. 6d. cl.
Howard.-LiFE WITH TRANS-SIBERIAN
SAVAGES. By B. DOUGLAS HOWARD,
M.A. Crown 8vo. , 6j.
Howells. VENETIAN LIFE. By
WILLIAM DEAN HOWELLS. With 18
Illustrations in aqua-tint from original
Water Colours. 2 vols. Crown 8vo. ,
2IS.
Howitt. VISITS TO REMARKABLE
PLACES, Old Halls, Battle-Fields,
Scenes illustrative of Striking Passages
in English History and Poetry. By
WILLIAM HOWITT. , With 80 Illustra-
tions. Crown 8vo. , y. 6d.
Knight. Works by E. F. KNIGHT,
Author of the Cruise of the ' Falcon '.
THE CRUISE OF THE ' ALERTE ' : the
Narrative of a Search for Treasure on
the Desert Island of Trinidad. With
2 Maps and 23 Illustrations. Crown
8vo. , y. 6d. " {Continued.
Knight. Works by E.F.KNIGHT cont.
WHERE THREE EMPIRES MEET : a Nar-
rative of Recent Travel in Kashmir,
Western Tibet, Baltistan, Ladak,
Gilgit, and the adjoining Countries.
With a Map and 54 Illustrations.
Cr. 8vo. , 7 s. 6d.
Lees and Clutterbuck. B. C. 1887 :
A RAMBLE IN BRITISH COLUMBIA. By
J. A. LEES and W. J. CLUTTERBUCK,
Authors of ' Three in Norway '. With
Map and 75 Illustrations. Cr. 8vo., y. 6d.
Nansen. Works by Dr. FRIDTJOF
NANSEN.
THE FIRST CROSSING OF GREENLAND.
With numerous Illustrations and a
Map. Crown 8vo., 75. 6d.
ESKIMO LIFE. Translated by WILLIAM
ARCHER. With 16 Plates and 15
Illustrations in the Text. 8vo., i6s.
Pratt. To THE SNOWS OF TIBET
THROUGH CHINA. By A. E. PRATT,
F.R.G.S. With 33 Illustrations and a
Map. 8vo., i8s.
Riley. ATHOS : or the Mountain of the
Monks. By ATHELSTAN RILEY, M.A.
With Map and 29 Illustrations. 8vo. , zis.
Stephens. MADOC : An Essay on the
Discovery of America, by MADOC AP
OWEN GWYNEDD, in the Twelfth Cen-
tury. By THOMAS STEPHENS. Edited
by LLYWARCH REYNOLDS, B.A. Oxon.
8vo., js. 6d.
Von Hohnel. DISCOVERY OF LAKES
RUDOLF AND STEFANIE : Account of
Count SAMUEL TELEKI'S Exploring
and Hunting Expedition in Eastern
Equatorial Africa in 1887 and 1888. By
his companion, Lieutenant LUDWIG
VON HOHNEL. Translated by NANCY
BELL (N. D'ANVERS). With 179 Illus-
trations, 2 Large and 4 Small Coloured
Maps, giving Route of Expedition. 2
vols. 8vo., 42^.
THREE IN NORWAY. By Two of
Them. With a Map and 59 Illustra-
tions. Cr. 8vo. , 2s. boards, zs. 6d. cloth.
Whishaw. OUT OF DOORS IN TSAR-
LAND; a Record of the Seeings and
Doings of a Wanderer in Russia. By
FRED. J. WHISHAW. Cr. 8vo., js. 6d.
Wolff. Works by HENRY W. WOLFF.
RAMBLES IN THE BLACK FOREST.
Crown 8vo. , js. 6d.
THE WATERING PLACES OF THE
VOSGES. Crown 8vo., 4^. 6d.
THE COUNTRY OF THE VOSGES. With
a Map. 8vo. , iaf.
LONGMANS & CO.'S STANDARD AND GENERAL WORKS.
Sport and Pastime.
THE BADMINTON LIBRARY.
Edited by the DUKE OF BEAUFORT, K,
ATHLETICS AND FOOTBALL. By
MONTAGUE SHEARMAN. With 51
Illlustrations. Crown 8vo. , IQJ. 6d.
BIG GAME SHOOTING. By C. PHIL-
LIPPS-WOLLEY, F. C. SELONS, W. G.
LITTLEDALE, Colonel PERCY, FRED.
JACKSON, Major H. PERCY, W. C.
OSWELL, Sir HENRY POTTINGER, Bart.,
and the EARL OF KILMOREY. With
Contributions by other Writers. With
Illustrations by CHARLES WHYMPER
and others. 2 vols. \Jn the Press.
BOATING. By W. B. WOODGATE. With
an Introduction by the Rev. EDMOND
WARRE, D.D., and a Chapter on ' Row-
ing at Eton,' by R. HARVEY MASON.
With 49 Illustrations. Cr. 8vo., IQS. 6d.
COURSING AND FALCONRY. By
HARDING Cox and the Hon. GERALD
LASCELLES. With 76 Illustrations.
Crown 8vo. , los. 6d.
CRICKET. By A. G. STEEL and the Hon.
R. H. LYTTELTON. With Contribu-
tions by \NDREW LANG, R. A. H. MIT-
CHELL, W. G. GRACE, and F. GALE.
With 63 Illustrations. Cr. 8vo. , IDS. 6d.
CYCLING. By VISCOUNT BURY (Earl
of Albemarle), K.C.M.G., and G.
LACY HILLIER. With 89 Illustra-
tions. Crown 8vo. , los. 6d.
DRIVING. By the DUKE OF BEAUFORT.
With 65 Illustrations. Cr. 8vo. , IQJ. 6d.
FENCING, BOXING. AND WREST-
LING. By WALTER H. POLLOCK, F.
C. GROVE. C. PREVOST, E. B. MITCHELL,
and WALTER ARMSTRONG. With 42
Illustrations. Crown 8vo., los. 6d.
FISHING. By H. CHOLMONDELEY-PEN-
NELL. With Contributions by the
MARQUIS OF EXETER, HENRY R.
FRANCIS, Major JOHN P. TRAHERNE,
FREDERIC M. HALFORD, G. CHRISTO-
PHER DAVIES, R. B. MARSTON, &c.
Vol. I. Salmon, Trout, and Grayling.
With 158 Illustrations. Crown 8vo.,
los. 6d.
Vol. II. Pike and other Coarse Fish.
With 133 Illustrations. Crown 8vo.,
ios. 6d.
G., assisted by ALFRED E. T. WATSON.
GOLF. By HORACE G. HUTCHINSON,
the Rt. Hon. A. J. BALFOUR, M.P.,
Sir W. G. SIMPSON, Bart., LORD
WELLWOOD, H. S. C. EVERARD,
ANDREW LANG, and other Writers.
With 91 Illustrations. Cr. 8vo., loj. 6d.
HUNTING. By the DUKE OF BEAUFORT,
K.G., and MOWBRAY MORRIS. With
Contributions by the EARL OF SUF-
FOLK AND BERKSHIRE, Rev. E. W. L.
DAVIES, DIGBY COLLINS and ALFRED
E. T. WATSON. With 53 Illustrations.
Crown 8vo. , xos. 6d.
MOUNTAINEERING. By C. T. DENT,
Sir F. POLLOCK, Bart. , W. M. CON WAY,
DOUGLAS FRESIIFIELD, C. E. MA-
THEWS, C. PILKINGTON, and other
Writers. With 108 Illustrations. Cr.
8vo. , ioj. 6d.
RACING AND STEEPLE-CHASING.
Racing: By the EARL OF SUFFOLK AND
BERKSHIRE and W. G. CRAVEN.
With a Contribution by the Hon. F.
LAWLEY. Steeple-chasing: By ARTHUR
COVENTRY and ALFRED E. T. WAT-
SON. With 58 Illusts. Cr. 8vo., los. 6d.
RIDING AND POLO. By Captain
ROBERT WEIR, J. MORAY BROWN, the
DUKE OF BEAUFORT, K.G. , the EARL
of SUFFOLK AND BERKSHIRE, &c. With
59 Illustrations. Cr. 8vo., IO.T. 6d.
SHOOTING. By Lord WALSINGHAM
and Sir RALPH PAYNE-GALLWEY,
Bart. With Contributions by LORD
LOVAT, LORD CHARLES LENNOX
KERR, the Hon. G. LASCELLES, and
A. J. STUART- WORTLEY.
Vol I. Field and Covert. With 105
Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 10^. 6d.
Vol. II. Moor and Marsh. With 65
Illustrations. Cr. 8vo., ios. 6d.
SKATING, CURLING, TOBOGA-
NING, AND OTHER ICE SPORTS.
By JN. M. HEATH COTE, C. G. TEBBUTT,
T. MAXWELL WITHAM, the Rev. JOHN
KERR, ORMOND HAKE, and Colonel
BUCK. With 284 Illustrations. Cr.
8vo. , los. 6d.
SWIMMING. By ARCHIBALD SINCLAIR
and WILLIAM HENRY, Hon. Sees, of
the Life Saving Society. With 119
Illustrations. Cr. 8vo. , ios. 6d.
\Continued.
8 LONGMANS & CO.'S STANDARD AND GENERAL WORKS.
Sport and Pastime continued.
THE BADMINTON LIBRARY ^w/
TENNIS, LAWN TENNIS, RAC-
QUETS, AND FIVES. By J. M. and
C. G. HEATHCOTE, E. O. PLEYDELL-
BOUVERIE and A. C. AINGER. With
Contributions by the Hon. A. LYTTEL
TON, W. C. MARSHALL, Miss L. DOD,
H. W. W. WlLBKRFORCE, H. F.
LAWFORD, &c. With 79 Illustrations.
Crown 8vo. , IQJ. 6d.
YACHTING. By the EARL OF PEMBROKE,
the MARQUIS OF DUFFERIN AND AVA,
the EARL OF ONSLOW, LORD BRASSEY
Lieut. -Col. BUCKNILL, LEWIS HER-
RESHOFF, G. L. WATSON, E. F.
KNIGHT, Rev. G. L. BLAKE, R.N.,
and G. C. DAVIES. With Illustra-
tions by R. T. PRITCHETT, and from
Photographs. 2 vo'.s. \In the Press.
Campbell- Walker. THE CORRECT
CARD: or, How to Play at Whist; a
Whist Catechism. By Major A. CAMP-
BELL-WALKER, F.R.G.S. Fcp. 8vo.,
2s. 6d.
DEAD SHOT (THE) : or, Sportsman's
Complete Guide. Being a Treatise on
the Use of the Gun, with Rudimentary
and Finishing Lessons on the Art of
Shooting Game of all kinds, also Game
Driving. Wild-Fowl and Pigeon Shoot-
ing, Dog Breaking, etc. By MABKS-
MAN. Crown 8vo., los. 6d.
Falkener. GAMES, ANCIENT AND ORI-
ENTAL, AND How TO PLAY THEM.
Being the Games of the Ancient Egyp-
tians, the Hiera Gramme of the Greeks,
the Ludus Latrunculorum of the Romans,
and the Oriental Games of Chess,
Draughts, Backgammon, and Magic
Squares. By EDWARD FALKENER.
With numerous Photographs, Diagrams,
&c. 8vo. , 215.
Ford. THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF
ARCHERY. BY HORACE FORD. New
Edition, thoroughly Revised and Re-
written by W. BUTT, M. A. With a Pre-
face by C. J. LONGMAN, M.A. 8vo., 145.
Francis. A BOOK ON ANGLING: or,
Treatise on the Art of Fishing in every
Branch ; including full Illustrated List
of Salmon Flies. By FRANCIS FRANCIS.
With Coloured Plates. Cr. 8vo., i>y.
Hawker. THE DIARY OF COLONEL
PETER HAWKER, author of " Instruc-
tions to Young Sportsmen ". With an
Introduction by Sir RALPH PAYNE-
GALLWEY, Bart. With 2 Portraits of
the Author and 8 Illustrations. 2 vols.
8vo., 32J.
Hopkins. FISHING REMINISCENCES.
By Major E. P. HOPKINS. With Illustra-
tions. Crown 8vo. , 6s. 6d.
Lang. ANGLING SKETCHES. By
ANDREW LANG. With 20 Illustrations.
Crown 8vo. , js. 6d.
L o n g m a n. CHESS OPENINGS. By
FRED. W. LONGMAN. Fcp. 8vo. , zs. 6d.
Payne-Gall wey. Works by Sir
RALPH PAYNE-GALLWEY, Bart.
LETTERS TO YOUNG SHOOTERS (First
Series). On tne Choice and Use of a
Gun. With Illustrations. Crown
8vo., js. 6d.
LETTERSTO YOUNG SHOOTERS. (Second
Series). On the Production, Preserva-
tion, and Killingof Game. With Direc-
tions in Shooting W T ood-Pigeons and
Breaking-in Retrievers. With 103
Illustrations. Crown 8vo., i2s. 6d.
Pole. THE THEORY OF THE MODERN
SCIENTIFIC GAME OF WHIST. By W.
POLE, F.R.S. Fcp. 8vo., 2s. 6d.
Proctor. Works by RICHARD A.
PROCTOR.
How TO PLAY W r msT : WITH THE
LAWS AND ETIQUETTE OF WHIST.
Crown 8vo. , 35. 6d.
HOME WHIST : an Easy Guide to Cor-
rect Play. i6mo. , is.
Ronalds. THE FLY-FISHER'S ENTO-
MOLOGY. By ALFRED RONALDS. With
20 Coloured Plates. 8vo., 14^.
Wilcocks. THE SEA FISHERMAN : Com-
prising tlv: Chief Methods of Hook and
Line Fishing in the British and other
Seas, and Remarks on Nets, Boats, and
Boating. ByJ. C.WiLCOCKS. Illustrated.
Crown 8vo'. , 6s.
LONGMANS &> CO. 'S STANDARD AND GENERAL WORK'S.
Mental, Moral, and Political Philosophy.
LOGIC, RHETORIC, PSYCHOLOGY, ETC.
Abbott. THE ELEMENTS OF LOGIC. By
T. K. ABBOTT, B.D. i2mo., y.
Aristotle. Works by.
THE POLITICS: G. Bekker's Greek Text
of Books I., III., IV. (VII.), with an
English Translation by W. E. BOL-
LAND, M.A. ; and short Introductory
Essays by A. LANG, M.A. Crown
8vo., js. 6d.
THE POLITICS : Introductory Essays.
By ANDREW LANG (from Boiland and
Lang's 'Politics'). Cr. 8vo. , 2s. 6d.
THE ETHICS: Greek Text, Illustrated
with Essay and Notes. By Sir ALEX-
ANDER GRANT, Bart. 2 vols. 8vo. ,
THE NICOMACHEAN ETHICS : Newly
Translated into English. By ROBERT
WILLIAMS. Crown 8vo. , 75. 6d.
AN INTRODUCTION TO ARISTOTLE'S
ETHICS. Books I. -IV. (Book X. c.
vi.-ix. in an Appendix.) With a con-
tinuous Analysis and Notes. Intended
for the use of Beginners and Junior
Students. By the Rev. EDWARD
MOORE, D.D., Principal of St.
Edmund Hall, and late Fellow and
Tutor of Queen's College, Oxford.
Crown 8vo. , los. 6d.
Bacon. Works by.
COMPLETE WORKS. Edited by R. L.
ELLIS, J. SPEDDING, and D. D.
HEATH. 7 vols. 8vo. , ^3 13^. 6d.
THE ESSAYS: with Annotations. By
RICHARD WHATELY, D.D. 8vo.
ioj. 6d.
Bain. Works by ALEXANDER BAIN,
LL.D.
MENTAL SCIENCE. Crown 8vo. , 6s. 6d.
MORAL SCIENCE. Crown 8vo., 4*. 6d.
The two works as above can be had in one
volume, price ioj. 6d.
SENSES AND THE INTELLECT. 8vo. , 15.?.
EMOTIONS AND THE WILL. 8vo., 15^.
LOGIC, DEDUCTIVE AND INDUCTIVE.
Part I. , 4*. Part II., 6s. 6d.
PRACTICAL ESSAYS. Crown 8\o. , 2s.
Bray. Works by CHARLES BRAY.
THE PHILOSOPHY OF NECESSITY: or
Law in Mind as in Matter. Cr. 8vo. , $s.
THE EDUCATION OF THE FEELINGS : a
Moral System for Schools. Crown
8vo. , 2s. 6d.
Bray. ELEMENTS OF MORALITY, in
Easy Lessons for Home and School
Teaching. By Mrs. CHARLES BRAY.
Cr. 8vo., is. 6d.
Crozier. CIVILISATION AND PRO-
GRESS. By JOHN BEATTIE CROZIER,
M.D. With New Preface, more fully
explaining the nature of the New Orga-
non used m the solution of its problems.
8vo., i4J.
Davidson. THE LOGIC OF DEFINI-
TION, Explained and Applied. By
WILLIAM L. DAVIDSON, M.A. Crown
8vo., 6s.
Green. THE WORKS OF THOMAS HILL
GREEN. Edited by R. L. NETTLESHIP.
Vols. I. and II. Philosophical Works.
8vo. , i6s. each.
Vol. III. Miscellanies. With Index to
the three Volumes, and Memoir. 8vo.,
2IS.
Hearn. THE ARYAN HOUSEHOLD : its
Structure and its Development. An
Introduction to Comparative Jurispru-
dence. By W. EDWARD HEARN.
8vo., ioj.
Hodgson. Works by SHADWORTH H.
HODGSON.
TIME AND SPACE : a Metaphysical
Essay. 8vo. , i6s.
THE THEORY OF PRACTICE : an Ethical
Inquiry. 2 vols. 8vo. , 24^.
THE PHILOSOPHY OF REFLECTION. 2
vols. 8vo., 2 is.
Hume. THE PHILOSOPHICAL WORKS
OF DAVID HUME. Edited by T. H.
GREEN and T. H. GROSE. 4 vols. 8vo.,
$6s. Or separately, Essays. 2 vols.
28s. Treatise of Human Nature. 2
vols. 28.5-.
to LONGMANS & CO.'S STANDARD AND GENERAL WORKS.
Mental, Moral and Political Philosophy continued.
Johnstone. A SHORT INTRODUCTION Mill. Works by JOHN STUART MILL.
TO THE STUDY OF LOGIC. By LAU
RENCE JOHNSTONE. With Questions
Cr. 8vo. , 2s. 6d.
Jones. AN INTRODUCTION TO GENE
RAL LOGIC. By E. E. CONSTANCE
JONES, Author of ' Elements of Logic as
a Science of Propositions '. Cr. 8vo.
41. 6d.
Justinian. THE INSTITUTES OF JUS-
TINIAN : Latin Text, chiefly that o"
Huschke, with English Introduction
Translation, Notes, and Summary. By
THOMAS C. SANDARS, M.A. 8vo. iSs.
Kant. Works by IMMANUEL KANT.
CRITIQUE OF PRACTICAL REASON, AND
OTHER WORKS ON THE THEORY OF
ETHICS. Translated byT. K. ABBOTT,
B.D. With Memoir. 8vo., iss. 6d.
INTRODUCTION TO LOGIC, AND HIS
ESSAY ON THE MISTAKEN SUBTILTY
OF THE FOUR FIGURES. Translated
by T. K. ABBOTT, and with Notes by
S. T. COLERIDGE. 8vo., 6s.
Killick. HANDBOOK TO MILL'S SYS-
TEM OF LOGIC. By Rev. A. H. KIL-
LICK, M.A. Crown 8vo., 3^. 6d.
Ladd. Works by GEORGE TURNBULL
LADD.
ELEMENTS OF PHYSIOLOGICAL PSY-
CHOLOGY. 8VO., 2IS.
OUTLINES OF PHYSIOLOGICAL PSY-
CHOLOGY. A Text-Book of Mental
Science for Academies and Colleges.
8VO., I2S.
Iiewes. THE HISTORY OF PHILOSOPHY,
from Thales to Comte. By GEORGE
HENRY LEWES. 2 vols. 8vo. , 32^.
Max Miiller. Works by F. MAX MUL-
LER.
THE SCIENCE OF THOUGHT. 8vo. , 2is.
THREE INTRODUCTORY LECTURES
ON THE SCIENCE OF THOUGHT.
8vo., 2s. 6d.
Mill. ANALYSIS OF THE PHENOMENA
OF THE HUMAN MIND. By JAMES
MILL. 2 vols. 8vo. , z8s.
A SYSTEM OF LOGIC. Cr. 8vo. , y. 6d.
ON LIBERTY. Cr. 8vo. , is. ^d.
ON REPRESENTATIVE GOVERNMENT.
Crown 8vo., 2s.
UTILITARIANISM. 8vo., 55.
EXAMINATION OF SIR WILLIAM
HAMILTON'S PHILOSOPHY. 8vo., i6j.
NATURE, THE UTILITY OF RELIGION,
AND THEISM. Three Essays. 8vo. , 5.5-,
Monck. INTRODUCTION TO LOGIC.
By H. S. MONCK. Crown 8vo., $s.
Ribot. THE PSYCHOLOGY OF ATTEN-
TION. By TH. RIBOT. Cr. 8vo., y.
Sidgwick. DISTINCTION : and the
Criticism of Belief. By ALFRED SIDG-
WICK. Crown 8vo. , 6.r.
Stock. DEDUCTIVE LOGIC. By ST.
GEORGE STOCK. Fcp. 8vo. . 3,?. 6d.
Sully. Works by JAMES SULLY, Grote
Professor of Mind and Logic at Univer-
sity College, London.
THE HUMAN MIND: a Text-book of
Psychology. 2 vols. 8vo., zis.
OUTLINES OF PSYCHOLOGY. 8vo.. 9.?.
THE TEACHER'S HANDBOOK OF PSY-
CHOLOGY. Crown 8vo. , 55.
Swinburne. PICTURE LOGIC : an
Attempt to Popularise the Science of
Reasoning. By ALFRED JAMES SWIN-
BURNE, M.A. With 23 Woodcuts.
Post 8vo. , jr.
Thompson. Works by DANIEL
GREENLEAK THOMPSON.
A SYSTEM OF PSYCHOLOGY. 2 vols.
8vo. , 36^.
THE RELIGIOUS SENTIMENTS OF THE
HUMAN MIND. 8vo., 75. 6d.
THE PROBLEM OF EVIL: an Introduc-
tion to the Practical Sciences. 8vo.,
TO.C. 6d.
LONGMANS & CO.'S STANDARD AND GENERAL WORKS.
Mental, Moral and Political Philosophy continued.
Thompson. Works by DANIEL
GREENLEAF THOMPSON continued.
SOCIAL PROGRESS. 8vo. , 75. 6d.
THE PHILOSOPHY OF FICTION IN
LITERATURE. Crown 8vo. , 6s.
Thomson. OUTLINES OF THE NECES-
SARY LAWS OF THOUGHT: a Treatise
on Pure and Applied Logic. By WIL-
LIAM THOMSON, D.D., formerly Lord
Archbishop of York. Post 8vo. , 6*.
Webb. THE VEIL OF Isis : a Series of
Essays on Idealism. By T. E. WEBB.
8vo. , io.f . 6d.
Whately. Works by R. WHATELY,
formerly Archbishop of Dublin.
BACON'S ESSAYS. With Annotation.
By R. WHATELY. 8vo., IQJ. 6d.
ELEMENTS OF LOGIC. Cr. 8vo. , 4*. 6d.
ELEMENTS OF RHETORIC. Cr. 8vo.,
4_y. 6d.
LESSONS ON REASONING. Fcp. 8vo.,
is. 6d.
Zeller. Works by Dr. EDWARD ZEL-
LER, Professor in the University ot
Berlin.
HISTORY OF ECLECTICISM IN GREEK
PHILOSOPHY. Translated by SARAH
F. ALLEYNE. Cr. 8vo., los. 6d.
THE STOICS, EPICUREANS, AND SCEP-
TICS. Translated by the Rev. O. J.
REICHEL, M.A. Crown 8vo., 15*.
OUTLINES OF THE HISTORY OF GREEK
PHILOSOPHY. Translated by SARAH
F. ALLEYNE and EVELYN ABBOTT.
Crown 8vo., ioj. 6d.
PLATO AND THE OLDER ACADEMY.
Translated by SARAH F. ALLEYNE
and ALFRED GOODWIN, B. A. Crown
8vo., i8s.
SOCRATES AND THE SOCRATIC SCHOOLS.
Translated by the Rev. O. J. REICHEL,
M.A. Crown 8vo., IQJ. 6d.
THE PRE-SOCRATIC SCHOOLS : a His-
tory of Greek Philosophy from the
Earliest Period to the time of Socrates.
Translated by SARAH F. ALLEYNE.
2 vols. Crown 8vo. , 30?.
MANUALS OF CATHOLIC PHILOSOPHY.
(Stonyhurst Series. )
A MANUAL OF POLITICAL ECONOMY.
By C. S. DEVAS, M.A. Cr. 8vo., 6s. 6d.
FIRST PRINCIPLES OF KNOWLEDGE. By
JOHN RICKABY, S.J. Crown 8vo., 55.
GENERAL METAPHYSICS. By JOHN RICK-
ABY, S.J. Crown 8vo., 5.?.
LOGIC. By RICHARD F. CLARKE, S.J.
Crown 8vo., 5^.
MORAL PHILOSOPHY (ETHICS AND NATU-
RAL LAW. By JOSEPH RICKABY, S.J.
Crown 8vo., 5*.
NATURAL THEOLOGY. By BERNARD
BOEDDER, S.J. Crown 8vo., 6s. 6d.
PSYCHOLOGY. By MICHAEL MATTER,
S.J. Crown 8vo., 6s. 6d.
History and Science of Language, &c.
Davidson. LEADING AND IMPORTANT
ENGLISH WORDS: Explained and Ex-
emplified. By WILLIAM L. DAVID-
SON, M.A. Fcp. 8vo., y. 6d.
Farrar. LANGUAGE AND LANGUAGES:
By F. W. FARRAR, D.D., F.R.S., Cr.
8vo. , 6s.
Graham. ENGLISH SYNONYMS, Classi-
fied and Explained : with Practical
Exercises. By G. F. GRAHAM. Fcp.
8vo., 6s.
Max Miiller. Works by F. MAX
MULLER.
SELECTED ESSAYS ON LANGUAGE,
MYTHOLOGY, AND RELIGION. 2 vols.
Crown 8vo. , i6.y. \Conlinned.
12 LONGMANS & CO.'S STANDARD AND GENERAL WORKS.
History and Science of Language, &c. continued.
Arranged so as to Facilitate the Ex-
pression of Ideas and assist in Literary
Composition. By PETER MARK ROGET,
M. D. , F. R.S. Recomposed throughout,
enlarged and improved, partly from the
Author's Notes, and with a full Index,
by the Author's Son, JOHN LEWIS
ROGET. Crown 8vo.. io.y. 6d.
Max Miiller. Works by F. MAX
MULLER contin ued.
THE SCIENCE OF LANGUAGE, Founded
on Lectures delivered at the Royal
Institution in 1861 and 1863. 2 vols.
Crown 8vo., z\s.
BIOGRAPHIES OF WORDS, AND THE
HOME OF THE ARYAS. Crown 8vo. ,
75. 6d.
THREE LECTURES ON THE SCIENCE
OF LANGUAGE, AND ITS PLACE IN
GENERAL EDUCATION, delivered at
Oxford, 1889. Crown 8vo., y.
Roget. THESAURUS OF ENGLISH
WORDS AND PHRASES. Classified and
Strong, Logeman, and Wheeler.
INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF
THE HISTORY OF LANGUAGE. By
HERBERT A. STRONG. M.A., LL.D.,
WILLEM S. LOGEMAN, and BENJAMIN
IDE WHEELER. 8vo., IDJ. 6d.
Whately. ENGLISH SYNONYMS. By
E. JANE WHATELY. Fcp. 8vo., $s.
Political Economy and Economics.
Ashley. ENGLISH ECONOMIC HISTORY
AND THEORY. By W. J. ASHLEY,
M.A. Crown 8vo., Part I., 55. Part
II., IQS. 6d.
Bagehot. ECONOMIC STUDIES. By
WALTER BAGEHOT. 8vo. , los. 6d.
Crump. AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE
CAUSES OF THE GREAT FALL IN PRICES
which took place coincidently with the
Demonetisation of Silver by Germany.
By ARTHUR CRUMP. 8vo. , 6s.
Devas. A MANUAL OF POLITICAL
ECONOMY. By C. S. DEVAS, M.A.
Crown 8vo. , 6s. 6d. (Manuals of Catholic
Philosophy. )
Dowell. A HISTORY OF TAXATION
AND TAXES IN ENGLAND, from the
Earliest Times to the Year 1885. By
STEPHEN DOWELL (4 vols. 8vo. ) Vols.
I. and II. The History of Taxation,
2ij. Vols. III. and IV. The History of
Taxes, 2is.
Jordan. THE STANDARD OF VALUE.
By WILLIAM LEIGHTON JORDAN. 8vo.,
6*.
Leslie. ESSAYS IN POLITICAL ECON-
OMY. By T. E. CLIFFE LESLIE. 8vo. ,
Macleoci. Works by HENRY DUNNING
MACLEOD, M.A.
THE ELEMENTS OF BANKING. Crown
8vo., 3-y. 6d.
THE THEORY AND PRACTICE OF BANK-
ING. Vol. I. 8vo., i2s. Vol. II.
i4j.
THE THEORY OF CREDIT. 8vo. Vol.
I. ioj. net. Vol. II., Part I., v 6d.
Vol. II. Part II. , IQS. 6d.
Meath. Works by The EARL OF
MEATH.
SOCIAL ARROWS : Reprinted Articles
on various Social Subjects. Crown
8vo., 5J.
PROSPERITY OR PAUPERISM? Physical,
Industrial, and Technical Training.
8vo., $s.
Mill. POLITICAL ECONOMY. By JOHN
STUART MILL.
Silver Library Edition. Crown 8vo. ,
y. 6d.
Library Edition. 2 vols. 8vo. , 30*.
Shirres. AN ANALYSIS OF THE IDEAS
OF ECONOMICS. By L. P. SHIRRKS,
B.A., sometime Finance Under Secretary
of the Government of Bengal. Crown
Svo., 6s.
LONGMANS &> CO.'S STANDARD AND GENERAL WORKS. 13
Political Economy and Economics continued.
Symes. POLITICAL ECONOMY : a Short i
Text-book of Political Economy. With i
Problems for Solution, and Hints for j
Supplementary Reading. By J. E. I
SYMES, M.A., of University College,
Nottingham. Crown 8vo. , 2s. 6d.
Toynbee. LECTURES ON THE IN- !
DUSTRIAL REVOLUTION OF THE i8th j
CENTURY IN ENGLAND. By ARNOLD
TOYNBEE. 8vo., IQJ. 6d.
WILSON.
Investors'
IN-
Wilson Works by A. J.
Chiefly reprinted from The
Review.
PRACTICAL HINTS TO SMALL
VESTORS. Crown 8vo., is.
PLAIN ADVICE ABOUT LIFE INSURANCE.
Crown 8vo., is.
Wolff. PEOPLE'S BANKS : a Record oi
Social and Economic Success. By
HENRY W. WOLFF. 8vo. , js. 6d.
Evolution, Anthropology, &c.
Clodd. THE STORY OF CREATION : a
Plain Account of Evolution. By
EDWARD CLODD. With 77 Illustra-
tions. Crown 8vo. , 3*. 6d.
Huth. THE MARRIAGE OF NEAR KIN,
considered with Respect to the Law of
Nations, the Result of Experience, and
the Teachings of Biology. By ALFRED
HENRY HUTH. Royal 8vo. , 2u.
, CUSTOM AND MYTH: Studies
of Early Usage and Belief. By ANDREW
LANG, M.A. With 15 Illustrations.
Crown 8vo., 3^. 6d.
Lubbock. THE ORIGIN OF CIVILISA-
TION and the Primitive Condition of
Man. By Sir J. LUBBOCK, Bart., M. P.
With 5 Plates and 20 Illustrations in the
Text. 8vo. i8s.
Romanes. Works by GEORGE JOHN
ROMANES, M.A.. LL.D., F.R.S.
DARWIN, AND AFTER DARWIN : an Ex-
position of the Darwinian Theory,
and a Discussion on Post-Darwinian
Questions. PRrt I. The Darwinian
Theory. With Portrait of Darwin
and 125 Illustrations. Crown 8vo. ,
ioj. 6d.
AN EXAMINATION OF WEISMANNISM.
Crown 8vo. , 6s.
Classical Literature.
Abbott. HELLENICA. A Collection of
Essays on Greek Poetry, Philosophy,
History, and Religion. Edited by
EVELYN ABBOTT, M. A., LL.D. 8vo.,
idr.
uS. EUMENIDES OF AESCHY-
LUS. With Metrical English Translation.
By J. F. DAVIES. 8vo. , 7$.
Aristophanes. The ACHARNIANS OF
ARISTOPHANES, translated into English
Verse. By R. Y. TYRRELL. Crown
8vo., is.
Becker. Works by Professor BECKER.
GALLUS : or, Roman Scenes in the Time
of Augustus. Illustrated. Post 8vo.,
7s. 6d.
CHARICLES : or, Illustrations of the
Private Life of the Ancient Greeks.
Illustrated. Post 8vo. , 75. 6d.
Cicero. CICERO'S CORRESPONDENCE.
By R. Y. TYRRELL. Vols. I., II., III.
8vo. , each i2s.
Clerke. FAMILIAR STUDIES IN HOMER.
By AGNES M. CLERKE. Cr. 8vo. , 75. 6d.
Farnell. GREEK LYRIC POETRY : a
Complete Collection of the Surviving
Passages from the Greek Song-Wrking.
Arranged with Prefatory Articles, In-
troductory Matter and Commentary. By
GEORGE S. FARNELL, M.A. With 5
Plates. 8vo., i6s.
Harrison. MYTHS OF THE ODYSSEY.
IN ART AND LITERATURE. By JANE
E. HARRISON. Illustrated with Out-
line Drawings. 8vo., i8s.
Lang. HOMER AND THK EPIC By
ANDREW LANG. Crown 8vo. , 95. net.
14 LONGMANS & CO.'S STANDARD AND GENERAL WORKS.
Classical Literature continued.
Mackail. SELECT EPIGRAMS FROM
THE CREEK ANTHOLOGY. By J. W.
MACKAIL, Fellow OF Balliol College,
Oxford. Edited with a Revised Text,
Introduction, Translation, and Notes.
8vo., i6s.
Plato. PARMENIDES OF PLATO, Text,
with Introduction, Analysis, &c. By T.
MAGUIRE. 8vo. , js. 6d.
Rich. A DICTIONARY OF ROMAN AND
GREEK ANTIQUITIES. By A. RICH,
B.A. With 2000 Woodcuts. Crown
8vo., ?s. 6d.
Sophocles. Translated into English
Verse. By ROBERT WHITELAW, M. A. ,
Assistant Master in Rugby School : late
Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge.
Crown 8vo., 8s. 6d.
Tyrrell. TRANSLATIONS INTO GREEK
AND LATIN VERSE. Edited by R. Y.
TYRRELL. Svo. , 6s.
Virgil. THE ^NEID OF VIRGIL. Trans-
lated into English Verse by JOHN CON-
INGTON. Crown 8vo., 6s.
THE POEMS OF VIRGIL. Translated
into English Prose by JOHN CONING-
TON. Crown Svo. , 6s.
THE ^ENEID OF VIRGIL, freely translated
into English Blank Verse. By W. J.
THORNHILL. Crown 8vo., 73. 6d.
THE ^ENEID OF VIRGIL. Books I. to
VI. Translated into English Verse
by JAMES RHOADES. Crown Svo.,
Wilkins. THE GROWTH OF THE HOM-
ERIC POEMS. By G. WILKINS. Svo. 6s.
Poetry and the Drama.
Allingham. Works
ALLINGHAM.
by WILLIAM
IRISH SONGS AND POEMS. With Fron-
tispiece of the Waterfall of Asaroe.
Fcp. Svo. , 6s.
LAURENCE BLOOMFIELD. With Por-
trait of the Author. Fcp. 8vo. , 3*. 6d.
FLOWER PIECES ; DAY AND NIGHT
SONGS ; BALLADS. With 2 Designs
by D. G. ROSETTI. Fcp. Svo. , 6s. ;
large paper edition, i2s.
LIFE AND PHANTASY : with Frontis-
piece by Sir J. E. MILLAIS, Bart.,
and Design by ARTHUR HUGHES.
Fcp. Svo. , 6s. ; large paper edition, i2s.
THOUGHT AND WORD, AND ASHBY
MANOR : a Play. With Portrait of the
Author (1865), and four Theatrical
Scenes drawn by Mr. Allingham. Fcp.
8vo., 6s. ; large paper edition, i2s.
BLACKBERRIES. Imperial i6mo. , 6s.
Sets of the above 6 vols. may be had in
uniform ha If -parchment binding, price 30^.
Armstrong. Works by G. F. SAVAGE-
ARMSTRONG.
POEMS : Lyrical and Dramatic. Fcp.
8vo., 6s.
KING SAUL. (The Tragedy of Israel,
Part I.) Fcp. Svo. 5*.
KING DAVID. (The Tragedy of Israel,
Part II.) Fcp. Svo., 6s.
KING SOLOMON. (The Tragedy of
Israel, Part III.) Fcp. Svo., 6s.
UGONE : a Tragedy. Fcp. Svo. , 6s.
A GARLAND FROM GREECE: Poems.
Fcp. 8vo., 7-f. 6d.
STORIES OF WICKLOW: Poems. Fcp.
8vo., 7-y. 6d.
MEPHISTOPHELES IN BROADCLOTH: a
Satire. Fcp. Svo. , 4_r.
ONE IN THE INFINITE : a Poem.
Svo., js. 6d.
Cr.
Armstrong. THE POETICAL WORKS
OF EDMUND J. ARMSTRONG. Fcp.
8vo., 5.?.
LONGMANS & CO. 'S STANDARD AND GENERAL WORKS. 15
Poetry and the Drama continued,
Arnold. Works by Sir ED WIN ARNOLD, | Lang. Works by ANDREW LANG.
K.C.I.E., Author of 'The Light of
Asia,' &c.
THE LIGHT OF THE WORLD : or, the
Great Consummation. A Poem.
Crown 8vo., js. 6d. net.
Presentation Edition. With 14 Illus-
trations by W. HOLMAN HUNT,
&c., 410., 2os. net.
POTIPHAR'S WIFE, and other Poems.
Crown 8vo. , $s. net.
ADZUMA : or, the Japanese Wife. A
Play. Crown 8vo. , 6s. 6d. net.
Barrow. THE SEVEN CITIES OF THE
DEAD, and other Poems. By Sir JOHN
CROKER BARROW, Bart. Fcp. 8vo. , 5-r.
Bell. Works by Mrs. HUGH BELL.
CHAMBER COMEDIES: a Collection of
Plays and Monologues for the Draw-
ing Room. Crown 8vo., 6s.
NURSERY COMEDIES: Twelve Tiny
Plays for Children. Fcp. 8vo., is. 6d.
Bjornsen. PASTOR SANG : a Play.
By BJORNSTJERNE BJORNSEN. Trans-
lated by WILLIAM WILSON. Cr. 8vo. , $s.
Dante. LA COMMEDIA Di DANTE. A
New Text, carefully revised with the
aid of the most recent Editions and
Collations. Small 8vo., 6s.
Goethe.
FAUST, Part I., the German Text, with
Introduction and Notes. By ALBERT
M. SELSS, Ph.D., M.A. Cr. 8vo., 5*.
FAUST. Translated, with Notes. By
T. E. WEBB. 8vo. , i2s. 6d.
FAUST. The First Part. A New
Translation, chiefly in Blank Verse ;
with Introduction and Notes. By
JAMES ADEY BIRDS. Cr. 8vo., 6s.
FAUST. The Second Part. A New
Translation in Verse. By JAMES
ADEY BIRDS. Crown 8vo., 6s.
Haggard. LIFE AND ITS AUTHOR:
an Essay in Verse. By ELLA HAGGARD.
With a Memoir by H. RIDER HAGGARD,
and Portrait. Fcp. 8vo., y. 6d.
Ingelow. Works by JEAN INGELOW.
POETICAL WORKS. 2 vols. Fcp. 8vo.,
I2S.
LYRICAL AND OTHER POEMS. Selected
from the Writings of JEAN INGELOW.
Fcp. 8vo. , 2s. 6d. cloth plain, y.
cloth gilt.
GRASS OF PARNASSUS. Fcp. 8vo.,
2S. 6d. net.
BALLADS OF BOOKS. Edited by
ANDREW LANG. Fcp. 8vo. , 6s.
THE BLUE POETRY BOOK. Edited by
ANDREW LANG. With 12 Plates and
88 Illustrations in the Text. Crown
8vo., 6s.
Special Edition, printed on Indian
paper. With Notes, but without
Illustrations. Crown 8vo. , js. 6d.
Lecky. POEMS. By W. E. H. LECKY.
Fcp. 8vo., 5-r.
Leyton. Works by FRANK LEYTON.
THE SHADOWS OF THE LAKE, and
other Poems. Crown 8vo., js. 6d.
Cheap Edition. Crown 8vo., $s. 6d.
SKELETON LEAVES : Poems. Crown
8vo. , 6s.
Longfellow. THE HANGING OF THE
CRANE, and other Poems of the Home.
By HENRY W. LONGFELLOW. With
Photogravure Illustrations. i6mo.,
5-y. 6d. net. {Ready.
Lytton. Works by THE EARL OF
LYTTON (OWEN MEREDITH).
MARAH. Fcp. 8vo., 6s. 6d.
KING POPPY: a Fantasia. With i
Plate and Design on Title-Page by
ED. BURNE-JONES, A.R.A. Crown
8vo. , IQS. 6d.
THE WANDERER. Cr. 8vo. , ios. 6d.
Macaulay. LAYS OF ANCIENT ROME,
&c. By Lord MACAULAY.
Illustrated by G. SCHARF. Fcp. 410.,
T.OS. 6d.
Bijou Edition.
iSmo., 2s. 6d., gilt top.
Popular Edition.
Fcp. 410., 6d. sewed, is. cloth.
Illustrated by J. R. WEGUELIN. Crown
8vo., 3^. 6d.
Annotated Edition. Fcp. 8vo. , is.
sewed, is. 6d. cloth.
Nesbit. LAYS AND LEGENDS, by E.
NESBIT (Mrs. HUBERT BLAND). First
Series. Crown 8vo. , 35. 6d. Second
Series, with Portrait. Crown 8vo., 5^.
Piatt. AN ENCHANTED CASTLE, AND
OTHER POEMS: Pictures, Portraits and
People in Ireland. By SARAH PIATT.
Crown 8vo., 35. 6d.
16 LONGMANS & CO.'S STANDARD AND GENERAL WORKS.
Poetry and the Drama continued.
Piatt. Works by JOHN JAMES PIATT.
IDYLS AND LYRICS OF THE OHIO
VALLEY. Crown 8vo., 55.
LITTLE NEW WORLD IDYLS. Cr. 8vo. ,
Rhoades. TERESA AND OTHER
POEMS. By JAMES RHOADES. Crown
8vo., y. 6d.
Riley. Works by JAMES WHITCOMB
RILEY.
POEMS HERE AT HOME. Fcap. 8vo.,
6s. net.
OLD FASHIONED
i2mo., 5-f.
ROSES : Poems.
Roberts. SONGS OF THE COMMON
DAY, AND AVE : an Ode for the Shelley
Centenary. By CHARLES G. D.
ROBERTS. Crown 8vo., 3.1. 6d.
Shakespeare. BOWDLER'S FAMILY
SHAKESPEARE. With 36 Woodcuts,
i vol. 8vo. , 14.?. Or in 6 vols. Fcp.
8VO., 2IS.
THE SHAKESPEARE BIRTHDAY BOOK.
By MARY F. DUNBAR. 321110., 15. 6d.
Drawing-Room Edition, with Photo-
graphs. Fcp. 8vo., T.OS. 6ct.
Stevenson. A CHILD'S GARDEN OF
VERSES. By ROBERT Louis STEVEN-
SON. Small fcp. 8vo. , 55.
Whittier. Works by JOHN GREEN-
LEAF WHITTIER.
SNOW-BOUND : a Winter Idyl. With
10 Photogravure Illustrations by E.
H. GARRETT. Crown 8vo., 6s. 6d.
AT SUNDOWN : A Poem. With Por-
trait and 8 Illustrations by E. H.
GARRETT. Crown 8vo., $s. 6d. net.
Works of Fiction, Humour, &c.
Anstey. Works by F. ANSTEY, Author
of ' Vice Versa '.
THE BLACK POODLE, and other Stories.
Crown 8vo., 2s. boards, 25. 6d. cloth.
VOCES POPULI. Reprinted from
' Punch '. With Illustrations by J.
BERNARD PARTRIDGE. First Series.
Fcp. 410. , 5>y. Second Series. Fcp.
4to., 6s.
THE TRAVELLING COMPANIONS. Re-
printed from 'Punch'. With Illus-
trations by J. BERNARD PARTRIDGE.
Post 410. , 5>y.
THE MAN FROM BLANKLEY'S : a Story
in Scenes, and other Sketches. With
24 Illustrations by J. BERNARD PART-
RIDGE. Fcp. 4to., 6s.
ATELIER (THE) DU LYS : or, an Art
Student in the Reign of Terror. Crown !
8vo. , 2s. 6d.
BY THE SAME AUTHOR.
MADEMOISELLE MORI : a Tale of
Modern Rome. Crown 8vo. , ss. 6d.
BY THE SAME AUTHOR continued.
THAT CHILD. Illustrated by GORDON
BROWNE. Crown 8vo., 2$. 6d.
UNDER A CLOUD. Cr. 8vo., 25. 6d.
THE FIDDLER OF LUGAU. With Illus-
trations by W. RALSTON. Crown
8vo., 2s. 6d.
A CHILD OF THE REVOLUTION. With
Illustrations by C. J. STANILAND.
Crown 8vo. , 2s. 6d.
HESTER'S VENTURE: a Novel. Crown
8vo. , 2s. 6d.
IN THE OLDEN TIME : a Tale of the
Peasant War in Germany. Crown
8vo. , 2s. 6d.
THE YOUNGER SISTER: a Tale. Cr.
8vo. , 6s.
Baker. BY THE WESTERN SEA. By
JAMES BAKER, Author of 'John \Ve?ta-
cott '. Crown 8vo. , 3^. 6d.
LONGMANS & CO.'S STANDARD AND GENERAL WORKS.
Works of Fiction, Humour, &c. continued.
Beaconsfield. Works by the Earl of
BEACONSFIELD.
NOVELS AND TALES. Cheap Edition.
Complete in n vols. Cr. 8vo. , is. 6d.
each.
Vivian Grey.
The Young Duke,
&c.
Alroy, Ixion, &c.
Henrietta Temple.
Contarini Fleming,
&c.
Venetia. Tancred.
Coningsby. Sybil.
Lothair. Endymion.
NOVELS AND TALES. The Hughenden
Edition. With 2 Portraits and n
Vignettes, n vols. Cr. 8vo., 425.
Comyn. ATHERSTONE PRIORY : a
Tale. By L. N. COMYN. Crown
8vo., 2s. 6d.
Deland. Works by MARGARET DE-
LAND, Author of ' John Ward '.
THE STORY OF A CHILD. Cr. 8vo., $s.
MR TOMMY DOVE, and other Stories.
Crown 8vo. , 6s.
Dougall. Works by L. DOUGALL.
BEGGARS ALL. Crown 8vo. , y. 6d.
WHAT NECESSITY KNOWS. 3 vols.
Crown 8vo., ji y. 6d.
Doyle. Works by A. CONAN DOYLE.
MICAH CLARKE : a Tale of Monmouth's
Rebellion. With Frontispiece and
Vignette. Cr. 8vo., 3^. 6d.
THE CAPTAIN OF THE POLESTAR, and
other Tales. Cr. 8vo. , 3^. 6d.
THE REFUGEES : a Tale of Two Con-
tinents. Cr. 8vo., 6s.
Farrar. DARKNESS AND DAWN: or,
Scenes in the Days of Nero. An His-
toric Tale. By Archdeacon FARRAR.
Cr. 8vo. , 7-r. 6w .
Proude. THE Two CHIEFS OF DUN-
BOY : an Irish Romance of the Last
Century. ByJ. A. FROUDE. Cr. 8vo.,
3-r. 6d.
Haggard. Works by H. RIDER HAG-
GARD.
SHE. With 32 Illustrations by M.
GREIFFENHAGEN and C. H. M.
KERR. Cr. 8vo., 35. 6d.
ALLAN QUATERMAIN. With 31 Illus-
trations by C. H. M. KERR. Cr.
8vo., y. 6d.
MAIWA'S REVENGE; or, The War of
the Little Hand. Cr. 8vo., is. boards,
is. 6d. cloth.
COLONEL QUARITCII, V.C. Cr. 8vo.,
y. 6d.
Haggard. Works by H. RIDER HAG-
GARD continued.
CLEOPATRA. W T ith 29 Full-page Illus-
trations by M. GREIFFENHAGEN and
R. CATON WOODVILLE. Cr. 8vo.,
y. 6d.
BEATRICE. Cr. 8vo., y. 6d.
ERIC BRIGHTEYES. With 17 Plates
and 34 Illustrations in the Text by
LANCELOT SPEED. Cr. 8vo., y. 6d.
NADA THE LILY. With 23 Illustra-
tions by C. H. M. KERR. Cr. 8vo., 6s.
MONTEZUMA'S DAUGHTER. With Illus-
trations by M. GREIFFENHAGEN. Cr.
8vo.,6.f.
Haggard and Lang. THE WORLD'S
DESIRE. By H. RIDER HAGGARD and
ANDREW LANG. Cr. 8vo. , 6^.
Harte. IN THE CARQUINEZ WOODS,.
and other Stories. By BRET HARTE.
Cr. 8vo., y. 6d.
KEITH DERAMORE: a Novel. By
the Author of ' Miss Molly '. Cr. 8vo.,,
65.
Lyall. THE AUTOBIOGRAPHY OF A
SLANDER. By EDNA LYALL, Author
of 'Donovan,' &c. Fcp. 8vo., is. sewed.
Presentation Edition. With 20 Illus-
trations by LANCELOT SPEED. Cr.
8vo. , y.
Melville. Works
MELVILLE.
The Gladiators.
The Interpreter.
Good for Nothing.
The Queen's Maries.
by G. J. WHYTE.
Holmby House.
Kate Coventry.
Digby Grand.
General Bounce.
Cr. 8vo., is. 6d. each.
Oliphant. Works by Mrs. OLIPHANT.
MADAM. Cr. 8vo., is. 6d.
IN TRUST. Cr. 8vo. , is. 6d.
Parr. CAN THIS BE LOVE? By Mrs.
PARR, Author of 'Dorothy Fox'. Cr.
8vo., 65.
Payn. Works by TAMES PAYN.
THE LUCK OF THE DARRELLS. Cr.
8vo., is. 6d.
THICKER THAN WATER. Cr. 8vo.,
is. 6d.
Phillipps-Wolley. SNAP : a Legend
of the Lone Mountain. By C. PHIL-
LIPPS-WOLLEY. With 13 Illustrations
by H. G. WILLINK. Cr. 8vo., y. 6d.
Robertson. THE KIDNAPPED SQUAT-
TER, and other Australian Tales. By A.
ROBERTSON. Cr. 8vo., 6s.
LONGMANS & CO.'S STANDARD AND GENERAL WORK'S.
Works of Fiction, Humour, &c. continued.
Sewell. Works by ELIZABETH M.
SEVVELL.
A Glimpse of the World. Amy Herbert.
Laneton Parsonage. Cleve Hall.
Margaret Percival. Gertrude.
Katharine Ashton. Home Life.
The Earl's Daughter. After Life.
The Experience of Life. Ursula. Ivors.
Cr. 8vo., is. 6d. each cloth plain, zs. 6d.
each cloth extra, gilt edges.
Stevenson. Works by ROBERT Louis
STEVENSON.
STRANGE CASE OF DR. JEKYLL AND
MR. HYDE. Fcp. 8vo., is. sewed.
is. 6d. cloth.
THE DYNAMITER.
is. 6d. cloth.
Fcp. 8vo. , is. sewed,
Stevenson and Osbourne. THE
WRONG Box. By ROBERT Louis STE-
VENSON and LLOYD OSBOURNE. Cr.
8vo. ( 35. 6d.
Sturgis. AFTER TWENTY YEARS, and j
other Stories. By JULIAN STURGIS. !
Cr. 8vo., 6s.
Suttner. LAY DOWN YOUR ARMS
Die Waffen Nieder: The Autobiography
of Martha Tilling. By BERTHA VON
STUTTNER. Translated by T. HOLMES.
Cr. 8vo., 73. 6d.
Thompson. A MORAL DILEMMA: a
Novel. By ANNIE THOMPSON. Cr.
8vo., 6s.
Tirebuck. Works by WILLIAM TIRE-
BUCK.
DORRIE. Crown 8vo., 6s.
SWEETHEART GWEN. Cr. 8vo. , 6s.
Troliope. Works by ANTHONY TROL-
LOPE.
THE WARDEN. Cr. 8vo., is. 6d.
BARCHESTER TOWERS. Cr. 8vo. , is. 6d.
Walford Works by L. B. WALFORD,
Author of ' Mr. Smith '.
THE MISCHIEF OF MONICA : a Novel.
Cr. 8vo. , 2S. 6d.
THE ONE GOOD GUEST : a Story. Cr.
8vo, 6s.
"West. HALF-HOURS WITH THE MIL-
LIONAIRES : Showing how much harder
it is to spend a million than to make it.
Edited by B. B. WEST. Cr. 8vo., 6s.
Wey man. Works by STANLEY J.
WEYMAN.
THE HOUSE OF THE WOLF : a Romance.
Cr. 8vo., y. 6d.
A GENTLEMAN OF FRANCE.. 3 vols.
Cr. 8vo.
Popular Science (Natural History, &c.),
Butler. OUR HOUSEHOLD INSECTS.
By E. A. BUTLER. With 7 Plates and
113 Illustrations in the Text. Crown
8vo., 6s.
Furneaux. THE OUTDOOR WORLD;
or The Young Collector's Handbook.
By W. FURNEAUX, F.R.G.S. With
16 Coloured Plates, 2 Plain Plates, and
549 Illustrations in the Text. Crown
8vo. , 7S. 6d.
Hartwig. Works by Dr. GEORGE
HARTWIG.
THE SEA AND ITS LIVING WONDERS.
With 12 Plates and 303 Woodcuts.
8vo., 75. net.
THE TROPICAL WORLD. With 8 Plates
and 172 Woodcuts. 8vo. , js. net.
THE POLAR WORLD. With 3 Maps, 8
Plates and 85 Woodcuts. 8vo., js.
net.
Hartwig. Works by Dr. GEORGE
HARTWIG continued.
THE SUBTERRANEAN WORLD. With
3 Maps and 80 Woodcuts. 8vo. , 73.
net.
THE AERIAL WORLD. With Map, 8
Plates and 60 Woodcuts. 8vo. , js.
net.
19
HEROES OF THE POLAR WORLD.
Illustrations. Crown 8vo., ss.
WONDERS OF THE TROPICAL FORESTS.
40 Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 2s.
WORKERS UNDER THE GROUND. 29
Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 2s.
MARVELS OVER OUR HEADS. 29 Il-
lustrations. Crown 8vo. , 2S.
SEA MONSTERS AND SEA BIRDS. 75
Illustrations. Crown 8vo. , 2s. 6d.
LONGMANS & CO.'S STANDARD AND GENERAL WORKS.
Popular Science (Natural History, &c.).
Hartwig. Works by Dr. GEORGE
HART WIG continued.
DENIZENS OF THE DEEP. 117 Illustra-
tions. Crown 8vo., zs. 6a.
VOLCANOES AND EARTHQUAKES. 30
Illustrations. Crown 8vo. , zs. 6d.
WILD ANIMALS OF THE TROPICS. 66
Illustrations. Crown 8vo., %s. 6d.
Helmholtz. POPULAR LECTURES ON
SCIENTIFIC SUBJECTS. By Professor
HELMHOLTZ. With 68 Woodcuts. 2
vols. Crown 8vo. , 35. 6d. each.
Lydekker. PHASES OF ANIMAL LIFE,
PAST AND PRESENT. By R. LYDEKKER,
B.A. With 82 Illustrations. Crown
8vo. ( 65.
Proctor. Works by RICHARD A.
PROCTOR.
And see Messrs. Longmans & Co.'s
Catalogue of Scientific Works.
LIGHT SCIENCE FOR LEISURE HOURS.
Familiar Essays on Scientific Subjects.
3 vols. Crown 8vo., 5^. each.
CHANCE AND LUCK: a Discussion of
the Laws of Luck, Coincidence,
Wagers, Lotteries and the Fallacies
of Gambling, &c. Cr. 8vo., 2s.
boards, zs. 6d. cloth.
ROUGH WAYS MADE SMOOTH. Fami-
liar Essays on Scientific Subjects.
Crown 8vo., $s. Silver Library
Edition. Crown 8vo., 3^. 6d.
PLEASANT WAYS IN SCIENCE. Cr.
8vo., $s. Silver Library Edition.
Crown 8vo. , %s. 6d.
THE GREAT PYRAMID, OBSERVATORY,
TOMB AND TEMPLE. With Illustra-
tions. Crown 8vo., $s.
NATURE STUDIES. By R. A. PROCTOR,
GRANT ALLEN, A. WILSON, T.
FOSTER and E. CLODD. Crown
8vo., 5J. Silver Library Edition.
Crown 8vo. , y. 6d.
LEISURE READINGS. By R. A. PROC-
TOR, E. CLODD, A. WILSON, T.
FOSTER, and A. C. RANYARD. Cr.
8vo., S.T.
Stanley. A FAMILIAR HISTORY OF
BIRDS. By E. STANLEY, D.D., for-
merly Bishop of Norwich. With Illus-
trations. Cr. 8vo., $r. 6d.
Wood. Works by the Rev. J. G. WOOD.
HOMES WITHOUT HANDS : a Descrip-
tion of the Habitation of Animals,
classed according to the Principle of
Construction. With 140 Illustrations.
8vo. , 7-f. net.
INSECTS AT HOME : a Popular Account
of British Insects, their Structure,
Habits and Transformations. With
700 Illustrations. 8vo., 75. net.
INSECTS ABROAD : a Popular Account
of Foreign Insects, their Structure,
Habits and Transformations. With
600 Illustrations. 8vo. , js. net.
BIBLE ANIMALS : a Description of
every Living Creature mentioned in
the Scriptures. With 112 Illustra-
tions. 8vo. , js. net.
PETLAND REVISITED. With 33 Illus-
trations. Cr. 8vo., 3-y. 6d.
OUT OF DOORS ; a Selection of Origi-
nal Articles on Practical Natural
History. With n Illustrations. Cr.
8vo. , y. 6d.
STRANGE DWELLINGS: a Description
of the Habitations of Animals,
abridged from ' Homes without
Hands '. With 60 Illustrations. Cr.
8vo., 3J. 6d.
BIRD LIFE OF THE BIBLE. 32 Illustra-
tions. Cr. 8vo., 3*. 6d.
WONDERFUL NESTS. 30 Illustrations.
Cr. 8vo., 3^. 6d.
HOMES UNDER THE GROUND. 28 Illus-
trations. Cr. 8vo., $s. 6d.
WILD ANIMALS OF THE BIBLE. 29
Illustrations. Cr. 8vo., y. 6d.
DOMESTIC ANIMALS OF THE BIBLE. 23
Illustrations. Cr. 8vo., 3^. 6d.
THE BRANCH BUILDERS. 28 Illustra-
tions. Cr. 8vo., 2s. 6d.
SOCIAL HABITATIONS AND PARASITIC
NESTS. 18 Illustrations. Cr. 8vo..,
2S.
20 LONGMANS & CO.'S STANDARD AND GENERAL WORK'S.
Works of Reference.
Maunder's (Samuel) Treasuries.
BIOGRAPHICAL TREASURY. With Sup-
plement brought down to 1889. By
Rev. JAMES WOOD. Fcp. 8vo. , 6s.
TREASURY OF NATURAL HISTORY : or,
Popular Dictionary of Zoology. With
900 Woodcuts. Fcp. 8vo. , 6s.
TREASURY OF GEOGRAPHY, Physical,
Historical, Descriptive, and Political.
With 7 Maps and 16 Plates. Fcp.
8vo., 6s.
THE TREASURY OF BIBLE KNOW-
LEDGE. By the Rev. J. AYRE, M.A.
With 5 Maps, 15 plates, and 300
Woodcuts. Fcp. 8vo. , 6s.
HISTORICAL TREASURY : Outlines of
Universal History, Separate Histories
of all Nations. Fcp. 8vo., 6*.
TREASURY OF KNOWLEDGE AND
LIBRARY OF REFERENCE. Com-
prising an English Dictionary and
Grammar, Universal Gazeteer, Classi-
cal Dictionary, Chronology, Law
Dictionary, &c. Fcp. 8vo., 6s.
Maunder's (Samuel) Treasuries
continued.
SCIENTIFIC AND LITERARY TREASURY.
Fcp. 8vo., 6s.
THE TREASURY OF BOTANY. Edited
by J. LINDLEY, F.R.S., and T.
MOORR, F.L.S. With 274 Wood-
cuts and 20 Steel Plates. 2 vols.
Fcp. 8vo., i2s.
R,Oget.--THESAURUS OFENGLISHWORDS
AND PHRASES. Classified and Ar-
ranged so as to Faciltiate the Expression
of Ideas and assist in Literary Com-
position. By PETER MARK ROGET,
M.D.. F.R.S. Recom posed through-
out, enlarged and improved, partly
from the Author's Notes, and with a
full Index, by the Author's Son, JOHN
LEWIS ROGET. Crown 8vo. , 10^. 6d.
Willich. POPULAR TABLES for giving
information for ascertaining the value of
Lifehold, Leasehold, and Church Pro-
perty, the Public Funds, &c. By
CHARLES M. WILLICH. Edited by H.
BENCE JONES. Crown 8vo., ios. 6d.
Children's Books.
Crake. Works by Rev. A. D. CRAKE.
EDWY THE FAIR ; or, the First Chro-
nicle of ^Escendune. Crown 8vo.,
2s. 6d.
ALFGAR THE DANE : or, the Second
Chronicle of ^Escendune. Cr. 8vo.,
aj. 6d.
THE RIVAL HEIRS : being the Third
and Last Chronicle of ^Escendune.
Cr. 8vo., 2s. 6d.
THE HOUSE OF WALDERNE. A Tale
of the Cloister and the Forest in the
Days of the Barons' Wars. Crown
8vo., 2s. 6d.
BRIAN FITZ-COUNT. A Story of Wal-
lingford Castle and Dorchester Abbey.
Cr. 8vo., 2s. 6d.
Lang. Works edited by ANDREW LANG.
THE BLUE FAIRY BOOK. With 8
Plates and 130 Illustrations in the
Text by H. J. FORD and G. P.
JACOMB HOOD. Crown 8vo. , 6s.
Lang. Works edited by ANDREW LANG
continued.
THE RED FAIRY BOOK. With 4 Plates
and 96 Illustrations in the Text by H.
J. FORD and LANCELOT SPEED.
Crown 8vo., 6s.
THE GREEN FAIRY BOOK. With n
Plates and 88 Illustrations in the Text
by H. J. FORD and L. BOGLE. Cr.
8vo., 6j.
THE BLUE POETRY BOOK. With 12
Plates and 88 Illustration in the Text
by H. J. FORD and LANCELOT SPEED.
Crown 8vo., 6s.
THE BLUE POETRY BOOK. School
Edition, without Illustrations. Fcp.
8vo. , 2s. 6d.
THE TRUE STORY BOOK. With 8 Plates
and 58 Illustrations in the Text, by
C. H. KERR, H. J. FORD, LANCELOT
SPEED, and L. BOGLE. Crown 8vo. ,
65.
LONGMANS & CO. 'S STANDARD AND GENERAL WORKS. 21
Children's Books continued.
Meade. Works by L. T. MEADE.
DEB AND THE DUCHESS. Illustrated.
Crown 8vo., y. 6d.
THE BERESFORD PRIZE. Illustrated.
Cr. 8vo., 5-r.
DADDY'S BOY. Illustrated. Crown
8vo., y. 6d.
Moles worth. Works by Mrs. MOLES-
WORTH.
SILVERTHORNS. Illustrated. Cr. 8vo., $s.
THE PALACE IN THE GARDEN. Illus-
trated. Crown 8vo., $s.
THE THIRD Miss ST. QUENTIN. Cr.
8vo., 6s.
NEIGHBOURS. Illustrated. Cr. 8vo., 6s.
THE STORY OF A SPRING MORNING, &c.
Illustrated. Crown 8vo., y.
Reader. VOICES FROM FLOWER-
LAND : a Birthday Book and Language
of Flowers. By EMILY E. READER.
Illustrated by ADA BROOKE. Royal
i6mo., cloth, 2s. 6d. ; vegetable vellum,
y. 6d.
Stevenson. Works by ROBERT Louis
STEVENSON.
A CHILD'S GARDEN OF VERSES. Small
fcp. 8vo., y.
A CHILD'S GARLAND OF SONGS,
Gathered from ' A Child's Garden of
Verses '. Set to Music by C . VILLIERS
STANFORD, Mus. Doc. 410., 2s.
sewed ; 35. 6d. , cloth gilt.
The Silver
CROWN 8vo. 3-r. 6d,
Baker's (Sir S. W.) Eight Years in
Ceylon. With 6 Illustrations. y. 6d.
Baker's (Sir S. W.) Rifle and Hound in
Ceylon. With 6 Illustrations. y. 6d.
Baring-Gould's (Rev. S.) Curious Myths
of the Middle Ages. y. 6d.
Baring-Gould's (Rev. S.) Origin and
Development of Religious Belief. 2
vols. y. 6d. each.
Brassey's (Lady) A Voyage in the ' Sun-
beam '. With 66 Illustrations. y. 6d.
Clodd's (E.) Story of Creation : a Plain
Account of Evolution. With 77 Illus-
trations, y. 6d.
Conybeare (ReY. W. J.) and Howson's
(Very Rev. J. S.) Life and Epistles of
St. Paul. 46 Illustrations. y. 6d.
Dougall's (L.) Beggars All; a Novel.
y. 6d.
Doyle's (A. Conan) Micah Clarke : a Tale
of Monmouth's Rebellion. 3^. 6d.
Doyle's (A. Conan) The Captain of the
Polestar, and other Tales. 3^. 6d.
Froude's (J. A.) Short Studies on Great
Subjects. 4 vols. 3.?. 6d. each.
Froude's ( J. A.) Caesar : a Sketch, y. 6d.
Froude's (J. A.) Thomas Carlyle: a
History of his Life.
1795-1835. 2 vols. 75.
1834-1881. 2 vols. js.
Froude's ( J. A.) The Two Chiefs of Dun-
boy, ss. 6d.
Froude's (J. A.) The History of England,
from the Fall of Wolsey to the Defeat
of the Spanish Armada. 12 vols.
y. 6d. each.
Library.
EACH VOLUME.
Gleig's (Rev. G. R.) Life of the Duke of
Wellington. With Portrait. y. 6d.
Haggard's (H. R.) She: A History of
Adventure. 32 Illustrations, y. 6d.
Haggard's (H. R.) Allan Quatermain.
With 20 Illustrations. 3^. 6d.
Haggard's (H. R.) Colonel Quaritch,
V.C. : a Tale of Country Life. y.
6d.
Haggard's (H. R.) Cleopatra. With 29
Full-page Illustrations. 3^. 6d.
Haggard's (H. R.) Eric Brighteyes.
With 51 Illustrations. y. 6d.
Haggard's (H. R.) Beatrice. 3*. 6d.
Harte's (Bret) In the Carquinez Woods,
and other Stories, y. 6d.
Helmholtz's (Professor) Popular Lec-
tures on Scientific Subjects. With
68 Woodcuts. 2 vols. y. 6d. each.
Hewitt's (W.) Visits to Remarkable
Places. 80 Illustrations. y. 6d.
Jefferies' (R.) The Story of My Heart:
My Autobiography. With Portrait.
y. 6d.
Jetferies' (R.) Field and Hedgerow. With
Portrait, y. 6d.
Jefferies' (R.) Red Deer. With 17
Illustrations, y. 6d.
Jefferies' (R.) Wood Magic: a Fable.
y. 6d.
Knight's (E. F.) The Cruise of the
' Alerte' : the Narrative of a Search for
Treasure on the Desert Island of
Trinidad. With 2 Maps and 23
Illustrations. y. 6d.
22 LONGMANS 6- CO. 'S STANDARD AND GENERAL WOKKS.
The Silver Library continued.
Lang's (A.) Custom and Myth : Studies
of Early Usage and Belief. 35. 6d.
Lee,-, (J. A.) and Clutterbuck's (W. J.)
B.C. 1887 r A Ramble in British
Columbia. With Maps and 75 Illustra-
tions. 3^. 6d.
Macaulay's (Lord) Essays and Lays of
Ancient Rome. With Portrait and
Illustrations. y. 6d.
Macleod (H. D.) The Elements of Bank-
ing, y. 6d.
Marshman's (J. C.) Memoirs of Sir Henry
Havelock. 35. 6d.
Max Mailer's (F.) India, what can it
teach us ? y. 6d.
Max Mailer's (F.) Introduction to the
Science of Religion. y. 6d.
Merivale's (Dean) History of the Romans
under the Empire. 8 vols. y. 6d. ea.
Mill's (J. S.) Political Economy, y. 6d.
Mill's (J. S.) System of Logic, y. 6d.
Milner's (Geo.) Country Pleasures : the
Chronicle of a Year chiefly in a
Garden. 3^. 6d.
Newman's (Cardinal) Apologia Pro Vita
Sua. 3-y. 6d.
Newman's (Cardinal) Historical
Sketches. 3 vols. 3^. 6d. each.
Newman's (Cardinal) Callista : a Tale
of the Third Century. 3J. 6d.
Newman's (Cardinal) Loss and Gain : a
Tale. 3j. 6d.
Newman's (Cardinal) Essays, Critical
and Historical. 2 vols. 75.
Newman's (Cardinal) An Essay on the
Development of Christian Doctrine.
y. 6d.
Newman's (Cardinal) The Arians of the
Fourth Century. y. 6d.
Newman's (Cardinal) Verses on
Various Occasions. y. 6d.
Newman's (Cardinal) The Present
Position of Catholics in England.
y. 6d.
Newman's (Cardinal) Parochial and
Plain Sermons. 8 vols. 3^. 6d. each.
Newman's (Cardinal) Selection, adapted
to the Seasons of the Ecclesiastical
Year, from the ' Parochial and Plain
Sermons'. 3^. 6d.
Newman's (Cardinal) Sermons bearing
upon Subjects of the Day. 3^. 6d.
Newman's (Cardinal) Difficulties felt by
Anglicans in Catholic Teaching Con-
sidered. 2 vols. 35-. 6d. each,
Newman's (Cardinal) The Idea of a
University. y. 6it.
Newman's (Cardinal) Biblical and
Ecclesiastical Miracles. y. 6d.
Newman's (Cardinal) Discussions and
Arguments. 3^. 6d.
Newman's (Cardinal) Grammar of
Assent. 3?. 6d.
Newman's (Cardinal) Fifteen Sermons
Preached before the University of
Oxford. y. 6d.
Newman's (Cardinal) Lectures on the
Doctrine of Justification. y. 6d.
Newman's (Cardinal) Sermons on
Various Occasions. y. 6d.
Newman's (Cardinal) The Via Media
of the Anglican Church, illustrated
in Lectures, &c. 2 vols. 3^. 6d. each.
Newman's (Cardinal) Discourses to
Mixed Congregations. 3^. 6d.
Phillipps-Wolley's (C.) Snap : a Legend
of the Lone Mountain. With 13
Illustrations, y. 6d.
Proctor's (R. A.) Other Worlds than
Ours. 3^. 6d.
Proctor's (R. A.) Rough Ways made
Smooth. 3_y. 6d.
Proctor's (R. A.) Pleasant Ways in
Science. 3^. 6d.
Proctor's (R. A.) Myths and Marvels
of Astronomy, y. 6d.
Proptor's (R. A.) Nature Studies. 3^. 6d.
Stanley's (Bishop) Familiar History of
Birds. 160 Illustrations. 3^. 6d.
Stevenson (Robert Louis) and Osbourne's
(Lloyd) The Wrong Box. y. 6d.
Weyman's (Stanley J.) The House of
the Wolf : a Romance. 3^. 6d.
Wood's (Rev. J. G.) Petland Revisited.
With 33 Illustrations. 3^. 6d.
Wood's (Rev. J. G.) Strange Dwellings.
With 60 Illustrations. 3J-. 6d.
Wood's (Rev. J. G.) Out of Doors. TI
Illustrations, y. 6d.
Cookery, Domestic Management, &c.
MENTOF THEIR HE ALTH DURING THE
PERIOD OF PREGNANCY. Fcp. 8vo.,
u. 6d.
THE MATKRNAT. MANAGEMENT OF
CHILDREN IN HEALTH AND DISEASE.
Fcp. 8vo. , is. 6rf.
Acton. MODERN COOKERY. By ELIZA
ACTON. With 150 Woodcuts. Fcp.
8vo., 4^. 6d.
Bull. Works by THOMAS BULL, M.D.
HINTS TO MOTHERS ON THE MANAGE-
LONGMA.VS &> CO. '5 STANDARD AND GENERAL WORKS. 23
Cookery, Domestic Management, &c. continued.
De Sails. Works by Mrs. DE SALIS.
CAKES AND CONFECTIONS A LA MODE.
Fcp. 8vo., is. 6d.
DOGS : a Manual for Amateurs. Fcp.
8vo., is. 6d.
DRESSED GAME AND POULTRY A LA
MODE. Fcp. 8vo., is. 6d.
DRESSED VEGETABLES A LA MODE.
Fcp. 8vo., is. 6d.
DRINKS X LA MODE. Fcp. 8vo., is. 6d.
ENTREES A LA MODE. Fcp. 8vo., is. 6d.
OYSTERS X LA MODE. Fcp. 8vo. , is. 6d.
PUDDINGS AND PASTRY A LA MODE.
Fcp. 8vo. , is. 6d.
SAVOURIES A LA MODE. Fcp. 8vo.,
is. 6d.
SOUPS AND DRESSED FISH X LA MODE.
Fcp. 8vo. , is. 6d.
SWEETS AND SUPPER DISHES X LA
MODE. Fcp. 8vo., is. 6d.
TEMPTING DISHES FOR SMALL IN-
COMES. Fcp. 8vo., is. 6d.
De Sails. Works by Mrs. DE SALIS
continued.
FLORAL DECORATIONS. Suggestions
and Descriptions. Fcp, 8vo., is. 6d.
NEW-LAID EGGS : Hints for Amateur
Poultry Rearers. Fcp. 8vo., is. 6d.
WR;NKLES AND NOTIONS FOR EVERY
HOUSEHOLD. Cr. 8vo., is. 6d.
Harrison. COOKERY FOR BUSY LIVES
AND SMALL INCOMES. By MARY HAR-
RISON. Cr. 8vo., is.
Lear. MAIGRE COOKERY. By H. L.
SIDNEY LEAR. i6mo., zs.
Poole. COOKERY FOR THE DIABETIC.
By W. H. and Mrs. POOLE. With
Preface by Dr. PAVY. Fcp. 8vo. ( 2s. 6d.
Walker. A HANDBOOK FOR MOTHERS:
being Simple Hints to Women on the
Management of their Health during
Pregnancy ?nd Confinement, together
with Plain Directions as to the Care of
Infants. By JANE H. WALKER, L.R.C.P.
and L.M. L.R.C.S. and M.D. (Brux.).
With 13 Illustrations. Cr. 8vo., zs. 6d.
Miscellaneous and Critical Works.
Armstrong. ESSAYS AND SKETCHES.
By EDMUND J. ARMSTRONG. Fcp.
8vo., y,
Bagehot. LITERARY STUDIES. By
WALTER BAGEHOT. 2 vols. 8vo., 28s.
Baring-Gould. CURIOUS MYTHS OF
THE MIDDLE AGES. By Rev. S.
BARING-GOULD. Crown 8vo. , 3*. 6d.
Boyd ('A. K. H. B.'). Works by
A. K. H. BOYD, D.D.
AUTUMN HOLIDAYS OF A COUNTRY
PARSON. Crown 8vo. , 35. 6d.
COMMONPLACE PHILOSOPHER. Crown
8vo. , y 6d.
CRITICAL ESSAYS OF A COUNTRY
PARSON. Crown 8vo. , y. 6d.
EAST COAST DAYS AND MEMORIES.
Crown 8vo. , y. 6d.
LANDSCAPES, CHURCHES AND MORA-
LITIES. Crown 8vo. , y. 6d.
LEISURE HOURS IN TOWN. Crown
8vo., y. bd.
LESSONS OF MIDDLE AGE. Crown
8vo., y. 6d.
OUR LITTLE LIFE. Two Series. Cr.
8vo,. y. 6d. each.
OUR HOMELY COMEDY: ANDTRAGEDY.
Crown 8vo. , 3^. 6d.
RECREATIONS OF A COUNTRY PARSON.
Three Series. Cr. 8vo., 3^. 6d. each.
First Series. Popular Ed. 8vo.,6rf. swd.
Butler. Works by SAMUEL BUTLER.
Op. i. EREWHON. Cr. 8vo., 55.
Op. 2. THE FAIR HAVEN. A Work in.
Defence of the Miraculous Element
in our Lord's Ministry. Cr. 8vo.,
js. 6d.
Op. 3. LIFE AND HABIT. An Essay
after a Completer View of Evolution.
Cr. 8vo., js. 6d
Op. 4. EVOLUTION, OLD AND NEW.
Cr. 8vo., IQS. 6d.
Op. 5. UNCONSCIOUS MEMORY. Cr.
8vo., js. 6d.
Op. 6. ALPS AND SANCTUARIES OF
PIEDMONT AND CANTON TICINO.
Illustrated. Post 410., IQS. 6d.
Op. j. SELECTIONS FROM OPS. 1-6.
With Remarks on Mr. ROMANES'
1 Mental Evolution in Animals '. Cr.
8vo. , js. 6d.
Op. 8. LUCK, OR CUNNING, AS THE
MAIN MEANS OF ORGANIC MODIFI-
CATION? Cr. 8vo., js. 6d.
Op. 9. Ex VOTO. An Account of the
Sacro Monte or New Jerusalem at
Varallo-Sesioa. IQJ. 6d.
HOLBEIN'S ' LA DANSE '. A Note on
a Drawing called ' La Danse '. y.
24 LONGMANS & CO.'S STANDARD AND GENERAL WORKS.
Miscellaneous and Critical Works continued.
Halliwell-FMllipps. A CALENDAR Max Miiller. Works by F.
HALLIWELL - PHILLIPPS
OF THE
COLLECTION OF SHAKESPEAREAN
RARITIES. Enlarged by ERNEST E.
BAKER, F.S.A. 8vo., los. 6d.
Hodgson. OUTCAST ESSAYS AND
VERSE TRANSLATIONS. By W. SHAD-
WORTH HODGSON. Crown 8vo. , Ss. 6d.
Hullah. Works by JOHN HULL AH,
LL.D.
COURSE OF LECTURES ON THE HIS-
TORY OF MODERN Music. 8vo., 8s. 6d.
COURSE OF LECTURES ON THE TRANSI-
TION PERIOD OF MUSICAL HISTORY.
8vo., los. 6d.
Jefferies. Works by RICHARD JEF-
FERIES.
FIELD AND HEDGEROW : last Essays.
With Portrait. Crown 8vo. , 3^. td.
THE STORY OF MY HEART : my Auto-
biography. With Portrait and New
Preface by C. J. LONGMAN. Crown
8vo., 35. 6d.
RED DEER. With 17 Illustrations by
J. CHARLTON and H. TUNALY.
Crown 8vo. , y. 6d.
THE TOILERS OF THE FIELD. With
Portrait from the Bust in Salisbury
Cathedral. Crown 8vo., 6s.
WOOD MAGIC: a Fable. With Vig-
nette by E. V. B. Crown 8vo., 35. 6d.
Jewsbury. SELECTIONS FROM THE
LETTERSOFGEKALDINE ENDSOR JEWS-
BURYTO JANE WELSH CARLYLE. Edited
by Mrs. ALEXANDER IRELAND. 8vo.,i6^.
Johnson. THE PATENTEE'S MANUAL:
a Treatise on the Law and Practice of
Letters Patent. By J. & J. H. JOHN-
SON, Patent Agents, &c. 8vo. , los. 6d.
Lang. Works by ANDREW LANG.
LETTERS TO DEAD AUTHORS. Fcp.
8vo. , 2s. 6d. net.
BOOKS AND BOOKMEN. With 2 Coloured
Plates and 17 Illustrations. Fcp. 8vo. ,
2.?. 6d. net.
OLD FRIENDS. Fcp. 8vo., as. 6d. net.
LETTERS ON LITERATURE. Fcp. 8vo.,
2s. 6d. net.
Macfarren. LECTURES ON HARMONY.
By Sir GEO. A. MACFARREN. 8vo., izs.
Matthews. PEN AND INK : Papers on
Subjects of more or less importance. By
BRANDER MATTHEWS. Crown 8vo. , 55.
Max Miiller. Works by F. MAX
MtJLLER.
HIBBERT LECTURES ON THE ORIGIN
AND GROWTH OF RELIGION, as illus-
trated by the Religions of India.
Crown 8vo. , js. 6d. {continued.
50,000/11/93.
MAX
M ULLER . contin ued.
INTRODUCTION TO THE SCIENCE OF
RELIGION : Four Lectures delivered at
the Royal Institution. Cr. 8vo. ,y. 6d.
NATURAL RELIGION. The Giftbrd
Lectures, 1888. Cr. 8vo. , los. 6d.
PHYSICAL RELIGION. The Gifford
Lectures, 1890. Cr. 8vo., los. 6d.
ANTHROPOLOGICAL RELIGION. The Gif-
ford Lectures, 1891. Cr. 8vo., IQS. 6d.
THEOSOPHY OK PSYCHOLOGICAL RELI-
GION. The Gifford Lectures, 1892.
Cr. 8vo., los. 6d.
INDIA : WHAT CAN IT TEACH us >
Cr. 8vo., 3J. 6d.
Mendelssohn. THE LETTERS OF
FELIX MENDELSSOHN. Translated by
Lady WALLACE. 2 vols. Cr. 8vo. , io.y.
Milner. COUNTRY PLEASURES : the
Chronicle of a Year chiefly in a Garden.
By GEORGE MILNER. Cr. 8vo. , 3^. 6d.
Perring. HARD KNOTS IN SHAKE-
SPEARE. By Sir PHILIP PERRING, Bart.
8vo., 7S. 6d.
Proctor. Works by RICHARD A,
PROCTOR.
STRENGTH AND HAPPINESS. With 9
Illustrations. Crown 8vo., 5^.
STRENGTH : How to get Strong and
keep Strong, with Chapters on Row-
ing and Swimming, Fat, Age, and the
Waist. With 9 Illus. Cr. 8vo, 2s.
Richardson. NATIONAL HEALTH.
A Review of the Works of Sir Edwin
Chadwick, K.C.B. By Sir B. W.
RICHARDSON, M.D. Cr., ^s. 6d.
Roget. A HISTOKY OF THE ' OLD
WATER-COLOUR SOCIETY ' (now the
Royal Society of Painters in Water-
Colours). By JOHN LEWIS ROGET.
2 vols. Royal 8vo. , 42^.
Rossetti. A SHADOW OF DANTE : be-
ing an Essay towards studying Himself,
his World, and his Pilgrimage. By
MARIA FRANCESCA ROSSETTI. With
Illustrations and design on cover by
DANTE GABRIEL ROSSETTI. Cr. 8vo.,
io.y. 6d.
Southey. CORRESPONDENCE WITH
CAROLINE BOWLES. By ROBERT
SOUTHEY. Edited by E. DOWDEN.
8vo. , i^s.
Wallaschek. PRIMITIVE Music : an
Inquiry into the Origin and Develop-
ment of Music, Songs, Instruments,
Dances, and Pantomimes of Savage
Races. By RICHARD WALLASCHEK.
With Musical Examples. 8vo., izs. 6d.
14 DAY USE
RETURN XDJ3ESK FROJVfr WHICH
Badbgy '
OWED
This book is due on the last date stamped below, or
on the date to which renewed.
Renewed books are subject to immediate recall.
JAN* '58
[FVERSIDE
LD 21-100w-6,'56
(B9311slO)476
General Library
University of California
Berkeley