THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LOS ANGELES THE FAUNA OF BRITISH INDIA, CEYLON AND BURMA. PUBLISHED UNDER THE AUTHORITY OF THE SECRETARY OF STATE FOR INDIA IN COUNCIL. EDITED BY LI.-COL. C. T. BIffGHAM. MOLLUSCA. TESTACELLIDjE AND ZONITID^. BY THE LATE DR. W. T. BLANFORD, F.R.S., AND LT.-COL. H. H. GODWIN-AUSTEN, F.R.S. LONDON: TAYLOR AND FRANCIS, RED LION COURT, FLEET STREET. CALCUTTA AND SIMLA : THACKER, SPINS, & CO. BURMA : MYLES STANDISH & CO., RANGOON. BOMBAY: TH ACKER & CO., LIMITED. BERLIN : R. FRIEDLAJfDER & SOHJS" 11 CARL8TRASSE. 1908. PRINTED BY TAYLOR AND FRANCIS, RED LION COURT, FLEET STREET. \ 7 ?3 PREFACE. THE present short volume of the * Fauna of British India ' series deals with the families Testacellidae and Zonitidse of the Indian Land-Mollusca. This account of these two important families of land-shells is founded on the all too short manuscript left by the late Dr. Blanford, who in it had dealt with the shells chiefly from the conchological side. It was fortunate therefore that Lt.-Col. Godwin-Austen, whose unique knowledge of Indian Mollusca is well known to students of the Indian Fauna, willingly consented to take up and complete the malacological part required for the volume. This, however, necessitated a re-arrangement of the MS. and a considerable amount of further study and dissections, all of which retarded the publication of the work. C. T. BINGHAM. London, June 1908. a2 529937 LIST OF THE PRINCIPAL WORKS QUOTED IN THE STNONYMT. Abh. Ver. Hamb. Abhaudlungen aus dem Gebiete der Naturwissen- scbaften, herausgegeben vom Naturwissenscbaftlichen Verein in Hamburg. Hamburg, 1845-1908. Act. Soc. Lin. Bord. Actes de la Socie'te' Linn6enne de Bordeaux. (Began as the Bulletin, 1830-1845.) Bordeaux, 1831-1908. Adams, Gen. Rec. Moll. The Genera of Eecent Mollusca. By Henry and Arthur Adams. London, 1833-1858. Albers, Heliceen. Albers, Die Heliceen. 2nd edit. Leipsig, 1860. Am. Jour. Conch. American Journal of Oonchology. Philadelphia, 1865-1872. A. M. N. H. Annals and Magazine of Natural History. London, 1838- 1908. Ann. Mus. Civ. Gen. Annali del Museo Civico di Storia Naturale di Geneva, 1870-1908. Arch. Naturgesch. Archives fur Naturgeschichte. Berlin, 1835-1908. Beck, Ind. Moll. Index Molluscorura Musei Prince Christiani Frederici. H. Beck. Hafnia;, 1837. Belanger, Voy. Zool. Voyage aux Indes-Orientales. Zoologie, par M. Charles Belanger. Paris, 1831-1834. Bost. Jour. N. H. Boston Journal of Natural History. Boston, 1834- 1863. (Continued an Memoirs, 1806-1908.) Bull. Soc. Bordeaux. See Act. Soc. Lin. Bord. supra. Faun. Geog. Maid. Lac. Is. The Fauna and Geography of the Maldiye and Laccadive Archipelagos. Cambridge, 1901-1906. Fer. Hist. Nat. Ferussac et Deshayes, Histoire generate et particuliere des Mollusques. Paris, 1820-1851. Godwin-Austen, Mol. Ind. Land and Freshwater Molluaca of India. By Lt.-Col. H. H. Godwin-Austen. London, 1882-1907. (In process of publication.) Gray, Cat. Pulm. B. M. Gray and Pfeiffer, Catalogue of the Pulnionata, or Air-breathing Mollusca, in the British Museum. London, 1855. H. &, T. C. I. Hanley and Theobald, Conchologia Indica. London, 1876. J. A. S. B. Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. Calcutta, 1832- 1908. Vi WOBKS QUOTED. Jour. Bomb. N. H. Soc. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society. Bombay, 1886-1908. Jour, de Conch. Journal cle Conchyliologie. Paris, 1850-1908. Jour. Linn. Soc. Journal of the Proceedings of the Linnean Society. London, 1857-1WS. Jour. Mai. Journal of Malacology. London, 1894-1904. (Commenced as 'The Conchologist,' London, 1891-1893.) Lea, Obs. Observat ions on the Genus Unio. J. Lea. 13 vols. Philadelphia, 183:M874. Le Nat. Le Naturaliste. Paris, 1879-1908. Loudon, Mag. N. H. London's Magazine of Natural History. London, 1829-1830. (Afterwards incorporated with the ' Annals and Magazine of Natural History.') Mai. Bl. Malakozoologische Blatter als Fortsetzung der Zeitschrift fiir Malukozoologie. Cassel, 1854-1888. Mart. &. Chemn. Syst. Conch.-Cab. Neues system at isches Conchylien- Cabinet. 1st, edit. 12 vols. Niirnberg, 1769-1829. 2nd edit. Niirn- berg, 1868 (in progress). Mem. Soc. Zool. Fr. Memoires de la Society zoologique de France Paris, 1888-1908. Nautilus. The Nautilus, a Monthly Journal devoted to the Interests of Conchologists. Philadelphia, 1880-1908. Nev. Hand-1. Hand-list of Mollusca in the Indian Museum, Calcutta. G. Nevill. Calcutta, 1878-1884. Nev. Yark. Miss., Mol. Scientific Kesults of the Second Yarkand Mission. Calcutta, 1878-1891. (Mollusca, by G. Nevill, 1878.) Nev. Yunnan Exped., Mol. Anderson's Zoology of Western Yunnan. Mollusca. Species collected on the two expeditions to Western Yunnan G. Neyill. London, 1878-1879. Pfr. Mon. Hel. Monographia Heliceorum. 8 vols. L. Pfeiffer. Leipsig, 1847-1877. Pfr. Nov. Conch. Novitates Oonckologicae. 5 vols. L. Pfeiffer. Cassel, Pfr. Symb. Mol. Symbolae ad historian! Heliceorum. L. Pfeiffer. Cassel. 1841 -184(i. Proc. Bost. Soc. N. H. Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History. Boston, 1841-1908. Pr C L< Ma Lo SOC ' Proccedin g a of the Malacological Society. London, P. Z. S. Proceedings of the Zoological Society. London, 1830-1908. Rv ', C ," Ch -o IC ' Concnolo gia Iconica. 20 vole. L. A. Reeve. London, JS4i>- I Orfo, Rev. et Mag. Zool. Revue et Magasin de Zoologie pure et appliquee, par Gue-nn-Meneville et Ad. Focillon. Paris, 1849-1879. WORKS QUOTED. Vll Semper, Reis. d. Phil. Keisen iin Arcbipel der Philippinen, von Dr. 0. Semper. Leipsig und Wiesbaden, 1868-1883. Theob. Cat. Catalogue of the Shells in the Museum of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. Calcutta, 1860. Verh. zool.-bot. Ges. Wien. Verhandlungen de botanischen Gesellschaft in Wien. Wien, 1852-1908. Vidensk. Medd. Videnskabelige Meddelelser fra den Naturhistoriske Forening i Kjobenhavn. Copenhagen, 1849-1859. Zeitschr. Mai. Meuke, Zeitschrift fur Malakozoologie. Hanover, 1844- 1852. Zool. Jour. Zoological Journal. London, 1824-1835. SYSTEMATIC INDEX. MOLLUSCA p f 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 4 4 5 5 5 6 6 7 8 8 8 9 9 10 10 11 11 11 12 12 12 22. gracilis, Collett 23. Isevis, Blf Page 13 13 13 14 14 14 15 15 15 16 16 17 17 17 18 18 18 19 19 19 21 21 22 22 22 22 23 23 23 24 25 25 26 29 30 30 24. ravanae, Blf. Order PULMONA.TA 25. personatus, Blf. 26. pronus, Blf. 27. elisa, Gould 28. canaricus, Blf. 29. subacutus, Blf Suborder Geophila or Stylo- matophora 30. compressus, Blf. . . 2. Ennea, H. Sf A. Adams. . 1. vara, BK Family 1. TESTACELLID.S: . . Subfam. 1. Streptaxince .... 1. Streptaxis, Gray 2. stenopylis, Bs 3. nagaensis, Blf. 4. blanfordiana, G.-A. . . 5. fartoidea, Theob 6. imlium,Godurin- Austen 7. cylindrelloidea, Stol. . . 8. seatoni, Beddome .... 9. brevicollis, Blf. 10. bicolor, Button 11. inacrodon, Blf. 12. subcostulata, Blf. 13. turricula, Blf. 1. petiti, Gould 2. bombax, Bs 3. andamanicus, s 4. blanfordi, Theob 5. layardianus, Bs. ..... 6. burmanicus, Blf. .... 7. pfeifFeri, Zelebor 8. solidulus, Slol 9. exacutus, Gould 10. sankeyi, Bs 11. hanleyanus, Stol 12. obtusus, Stol. . . 14. exilis, Blf. 15. pirriei, Pfr in. sculpta, Blf. 17. beddomii, Blf. 18. canarica, Blf. 19. planguncula, Bs 20. moercbiana, Nev Family 2. ZONITID^; Subfain. 1. Ariophantina . . 1. Ariophanta, Desmoulins. . 1. Isevipes, Mull. 2. laidlayana, Bs 3. kadapaensis, Nev 13. theobaldi, Bens 14. daflaensis, G -A. 15. peroteti, Petit 16. footei,W~ $ H. Blf. .. 1-7. watsoni, W. $ H. 'Blf. . 18. beddomii, Blf. ....'.. 19. concinnus, Blf. 20. scalptus, Blf. 21. cingalensis, Bs SYSTEMATIC INDEX. 4. interrupta, Bs 5. immerita, Jil 0. bajadera, Pfr 31 32 32 3.". 34 35 36 37 37 37 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 40 46 48 49 50 51 51 f-r 55 56 50 50 57 58 58 58 (JO (il 01 02 02 03 03 04 04 04 05 05 00 07 08 08 08 27. granulifera, Blf. .... k> 8. hyphasma, Pfr , . Page 69 69 70 70 71 71 72 74 70 7(5 77 77 79 80 81 81 81 83 83 84 84 85 80 87 88 88 89 89 90 90 92 93 94 94 95 90 97 98 98 99 99 29. turritella, H. Ad 30. nmcronifera, Blf. 31 . phidias, Thorp MS. djmd llanley 32. concavospira, Pfr 33. apicata, Blf. 34. orbiates, Blf. 35. mucosa, W. $ H. Blf. . 5. Uatnadvipia, Godivin- Austen 1. imulians, Pfr 2. edgariana, Bs Subfam. 2. Mdcrochlamyina. . 1. Macrochlamys, Benson . . 1. vesicula, "#s 2. glauca, Bs. 7. intmnt'scens, Blf. .... 8. canarica, Blf. 9. cvsis, Bs 10 tnvreufl, J>.< .... 11. semirugata, Berk .... 12. belangeri, Desk 13. albata, Blf. 14. sisparica, Blf. 15. novella, Pfr. 1(5. ceraria, Jin 17. lipulata, Per 18. bistrialis, Beck 19. basih'ssa. Bs 20. basileiis, Bs 21. beddomii, Blf. 22. cbenui (Xestina), Pfr. 23. Juliana (Xeatina), Gray 24. maderaspatana, Gray . . 25. gassii, Blf. 20. solata, Bs 3. nuda, Pfr. 4. kuluensis, Blf. 5. tugurium, Bs 0. mainwaringi, Godwin- A usten 2. Indrella, Godwin-Austen . 1. ampulla, Bs 3. Havana, Godwin-Austen. . 1. politissima, Pfr.. 7. dalingensis, Godwin- Austen 8. opipava/rWw/w-^ usten 9. damsangensis, Godivin- Ausfen 4. Kupleota. Semper 1. layardi, Ifr 2. subdccus.sata, Pfr 3. baconi, Bs ! 4. acalles, Pfr 5. pulchella, Blf. 10. bodgsoni, Bs 1 1 . sequax, Bs 12. sequiQSjGodwin-Austen ] 3. superflua, Blf. 14. rakaensis, Godwin- Ansten 6. semidecussata, Pfr. . . 7. rosamonda, Bs 8. subcastor, Beddome . . 9. travancorica, Bs 10. indica, Pfr 15. lubrica, Bs. 1 0. patane, Bs 17. perfragilis, Godwin- Austen . 11. albizonata, Dohm .... 1-2. emiliana, Pfr 18. richilaensis, Godwin- Austen 19. satbilaensis, Godwin- A usten . . 13. Irevis, Blf. 14. binoyaensis, Godwin- A usten 15. verrucula, Pfr 16. Huctuosa, Blf. 20. zemoensis, Godwin- Austen . 21. rorida, s 22. darjilinpensis, ft'evill . . 23. indica, Godwin-Austen. 24. petrosa. Hut ton 25. nardwickii, Godwin- Austen 26. subjecta, Bs k) 7 lecythis Bs 17. prestoni, Godwin- Austen 18. scobinoides, Sykes .... 19. gardoneri, Pfr 40 20. subopnca, Pfr. . , 21. partita, Pfr. 22. trimeni, Joitssecnime . . 23. acuducta, Bs 24. isabellina, Pfr 25. colletti, Si/kes 26. cacuniinifera, Bs 28. perplana, Nevill 29. atricolor, Godwin- Austen SYSTEMATIC INDEX. Page 30. castaneo-labiata, God- win- Austen 101 31. hepatizon, Godwin- Austen 102 32. lata, Godwin-Austen . . 102 33. decussata. Bs 102 34. Ihotaensis, Godwin- Austen 103 35. rubellocincta, Blf. . . 103 36. bilineata, Godurin- Austen 103 37. uda, Godwin-Austen . . 104 38. shengorensis, Godwin- Aust.en 104 39. cacharica, Godwin- Austen 104 40. salmonea, Ancey .... 106 41. godwini, Try on 106 42. terminus, Godwin- Austen 106 43. beata, Godwin-Austen . 107 44. manipurensis, Godwin- Austen 107 45. fragosus, Godwin - Austen 108 46. mahadeoensis, Godwin- Austen 108 47. hengdanensis, Godwin- Austen 108 48. razamiensis, Godwin- Austen 109 49. lahupaensis, Godwin- Austen 109 50. hookeri, Godwin- Austen 109 51. plicifera, Blf. 110 52. shisha. Godwin- Austen 111 53. nengloensis, Godwin- Austen Ill 54. koliaensis, Godwin- Austen Ill 55. roberti, Godwin-Austen 112 56. tanirensis, Godwin- Austen 112 57. longicauda, Godwin- Austen. 112 58. dorani, Godwin-Austen 113 59. originaria, Godwin- Austen 113 GO. umbraticola, Godwin- Austen 113 61. sata, Godwin-Austen . . 114 62. pacata. Godwin-Austen 114 63. rusticula, Godwin- Austen 114 64. consepta, Bs 115 65. petasus, Bs 115 66. aspides, Bs. . . 116 67. chaos, Blf. 116 68. kumahensis, Theob. # Stol. 117 69. causia, Bs 117 70. salwinensis, Godwin- Austen 118 71. dugasti, Morelet 118 72. subpetasus, Godwin- Austen ..' 119 73. noxia, Blf. . , 119 74. nebulosa, Blf. 120 75. notha, Blf. 120 76. hypoleuca, Blf. 120 77. spreta, Blf. 121 78. andersoniana, Nevill . . 121 79. patens, Blf. 121 80. pungi, Theobald 122 81. molecula, Bs 122 82. curvilabris, Blf. 123 83. perpaula, Bs 123 84. pauxillula, Bs 124 85. choinix, Bs 124 86. pseudochoinix, Blf. . . 125 87. exul, Theob 125 88. stephus, Bs 127 89. woodmasoni, Godwin- Austen 127 90. aulopis, Bs. . 128 91. pseudaulopis, Godtvin- Austen 128 92. foT 145 1 nViniiifji Pfr 147 3. altiraga, Godwin - Austen . - . . 148 6. jacquemonti, v. Mart. . 174 7 wynnii, Blf. 175 4. austeniann, Neinll .... 148 3. Kuaustenia, Cockerel! .... 148 1 monticola Pfr 149 8. camura, Bs 175 9. nepalensis, Blf. 177 8. Dalingia, Godwin- Austen . 177 1. bhutanensis, Godwin- Austen . 178 4> cassida Hutton 150 3. gurhwalensis, Godwin- Austen 151 4. paurhiensis, Godivin- Austen . 152 Subfam. 3. Helicarionina .. 179 1. Ilelicarion, Fer 179 2. Cryptaustenia, Cockerel!. . 180 1. succinea, Rv 180 5. theobaldi, Godwin- A u tten 1 52 4. Synma, Godwin- Austen .. 152 1. splendens, Hutton.... 153 2. prona, Nevill 154 3. prona, var. huttoni, Godwin- Austen .... 155 4. promiscua, Godwin- Austen 150 2. ovata, H Blf 182 3. heteroconclia, H. Blf. . 183 4. verrucosa, Godwin- Austen 183 5. durrangensis, Godwin- Austen 183 6. zemoensis, Godwin- Austen . 185 5. masuriensis, Godtcin- Aiisten 156 0. annandalei. Godwin- Austen 157 7. silcharensis, Godwin- Austen 180 8. globosa,Godirin-Austen 187 9. bensoni, Pf>- 187 10. panrhetensis, Godwin- Austen 188 7. theobaldi, Godtoin- Aimfen .. . 157 5. Khasiella, Godwin-Austen 157 ]. vidua, H. $ T. 158 2. climacterica, Bs 100 . austeni, Blf. 1GO 4. ornatissima, Bs 160 5. pansa, Bs 161 6. t'alcata, Blf. 1(51 11. papilla^pira, Godwin- Austen 301 12. canefrii, Tap. Canefri. . 301 3. Eurychlamys, Godwin- Austen ' . . 188 1. platychlamvs, Blf. . . 188 2. regulate, Bs 190 4. Austeiiia, Nevill 191 1 . gigas, Bs 1 92 2. butleri, Godwin-Austen 194 3. resplendens, Nevill 194 4. venusta, Theobald .... 195 5. magnifioa, Godwin- Austen 195 7. pingoungensis, Godwin- Austen 102 8. serrula, Bs 102 9. hvba, B* 102 10. chloroplax, Jin 105 11. kashmirensis, Neri/l . . 165 12. sonamurgensis, Nevill . 100 13. tandianensis, Theobald. 10(5 6. Oxytes, Pfr 100 1 oxytes, Bs 107 0. nagaensis, Godioin - Austen 195 7. caclmrica, Godwin - Austen , 190 8. solidn, God win- Austen. 196 9. peguensis, Theobald . . 197 10. shanensis, Godwin - Austen 197 11. ^ikkimensis, Godwin- Austen 198 2. slianensis, Godwin- Austen 108 3. ovcloplax, Bs 108 4. blaufordi, T/ieolmld . . 168 5. i-astor, T/ieofxiM 1(58 0. pollux, Theobald 109 7. sylvicola, Blf. 109 8. oVobia, Bs. '. 169 7. Bensonia, Pfr 171 1. monticola, Hutton .. 171 5 Girasia, Gray . . . . 198 1. hookeri, Gray 200 SYSTEMATIC INDEX. Page 2. radka, Godwin-Austen. 201 3. crocea, Godwin- A ustm 201 4. pankabariensis,GWiZM- Austen 201 5. dalhousiae, Godwin- Austen 202 6. burtii, Godwin-Austen. 202 7. cinerea, Godwin- Austen 203 8. affinis, Cockerell 203 9. dikrangensis, Godwin- Austen 203 6. Cryptogirasia, Cockerell. . 203 1. rubra, Godivin- Austen. 201, 204 7. Marialla, Gray 204 1. dussumieri, Gray .... 205 2. beddornei, Godwin- . Austen 206 8. Pseudaustenia,Coc^ere. . 206 1. atra, Godwin- Austen . . 207 2. auriformis, Blf. 209 9. Cryptosoma, Theobald . . 209 1. prsestans, Gould 211 2. inusitatum, Godioin- Austen 211 3. birmanicum, Phil 212 4. austeni, CoUinge 212 Subfam. 4. Durgellince 213 1. Durgella, Blf. 213 1. levicula, Bs 213 2. TogeTsi,Godtvin-Austen 215 3. concinna, Godwin- Austen 215 4. erratica, Godwin- Austen 216 5. assamica, Godwin- Austen 216 6. mairangensis, Godwin- Austen 216 7. salius, Bs 217 8. seposita, Bs 217 9. khasiaca, Godwin- Austen 218 2. Ibycus, Heynemann 218 1. tissidens, Heynemann. . 219 2. minutus, Godivin- Austen 219 3. Satiella, Godwin-Austen. . 221 1. dekhaneneis, Godwin- Austen... .. 221 2. christianae, Theobald. . 223 3. levidensis, Godwin- Austen 223 4. flexilis, Godwin- Austen 223 5. compressa, Godwin- Austen 224 6. pertenuis, Godivin- Austen 224 7. membranacea, Bs 224 4. Sitala, H. Adams 225 1. infula, Bs 225 2. attegia, Bs 227 3. vulcania, Godwin- Austen 228 4. culmen, Blf. 229 5. confinis, Blf. 229 6. arx, Bs 229 7. palmaria, Bs 230 8. liricincta, Stoliczka . . 230 9. gratulator, Blf. 231 10. gromatica, Godwin- Austen 231 11. haroldi, Godwin- Austen 231 12. phyllophila, Bs 232 13. pyramidalis, Sykes 232 14. operiens, Sykes 232 15. balliana, Godwin- Austen 233 16. phulongensis, Godwin- Austen 233 17. limata, Godwin- Austen. 233 18. subnana, Godwin- Austen 234 19. crenicincta, Godwin- Austen 234 20. injussa, W. Sf H. Blf.. 234 21. srimani, Godwin- Austen 235 22. placita,Godwin-Austen. 235 23. iutonsa,Godwin-Austen. 235 24. uvida, Godwin- Austen . 235 25. recondita, Godwin- Austen 236 26. rimicola, Bs 236 Subfamily position most doubtful*. 1. Sakiella, Godwin-Austen . 237 1. honesta, Gould .. 121, 238 2. tenuior, Godwin- Austen. .. .. 239 * [The fullowing nine genera cannot satisfactorily be placed in any of the previous subfamilies, and until more is known of the animals of the majority of the species they include it is not advisable to create new divisions for their reception.] XIV SYSTEMATIC INDEX. Page 2. Holkeion, Godwin - 2. sigurensis, Godwin- Austen 239 Anxffn Page 259 259 260 260 260 260 261 261 261 262 262 262 263 263 263 264 264 264 265 265 265 266 266 266 266 267 267 268 268 268 f>69 1. anceps, Gould 240 2 arata, Blf. 241 3. rissomerisis, Godwin- Austen 3. Sesara, Albert 241 1. infrondt'iis, Gould .... 243 '2. hungcrfordiana, Theo- bald . . 244 4. vulcani, Godwin- Austen 5. jaintiaca, Godwin- Austen G. jaintiaca, var., Godwin- Austen 3. ataranensis, Thcnluld. . 244 4. mouleyitensis, Guile . 245 o. bidentifera, Godwin- A ttsten 245 7. cherraensie, Godwin- Austen 8. manipurensis, Godwin- Austen 6. episema, Pimsonby. . . . 245 8. helicifera, W. T. Stan- ford 246 9. mamillaris,ir. T. D Ian- ford . . 246 9. khasiaca, Godivin- Austen 10. costulata, Godtoin- Aitste?i 11. subcostulata, Godwin- Austen 12. salicensis, Godwin- Austen 10. basseinensis, W. T. Stanford 247 11. ineruiis, Theobald .... 247 12. diplodon, Kens 247 13. hanneri, Gude 248 14. ingrnmi, Blf. 248 15 galea Bs 249 l.'j. aspirans, W. Sf H. Blanf. 14. fastigiata, Hutton .... 15. elongata, Godioin- Attsten .... 4. Rahula. Godwin- Austen. . 249 1. macropleuris, Us 249 2. corys, Bs 251 3. bascauda, Bs 251 4. polypleuris, Blf. 252 5. bascaudula, Godwin- Austen 252 Ifi. colletti, St/kes 17. gratiosa, Godwin- Austen 18. animula, Godwin- Austen 19. vagata, E. A. Smith . . 20. kjellerupi, March 21. teriaensis, Godicin- Austen 6. daflaensis, Godwin- Austen 252 7. Ihotaensis, Godicin- Amten 253 8. munipurensis, Godwin- Austen 253 22. nagaensis, Godwin- 5. Microcvstina, Morch 253 1. riuk'i, Miirch 254 2. moerchiana, Godwin- Austen 254 3. warnefordi, Godwin- Austen 255 4. harrietensts, Godwin- Austen 255 5. stewarti, Blanford 255 6. bintennensis, Godwin- Austen 56 23. paucistriata, Godivin- Austen 24. richilaensis, Godwin- Austen . 25. richilaensis, var., God- win-Austen . . 26. nana, Hutton .... 27. bullula, Hutton 28. resinula, Godwin- Austen 29. sikkimensis, Godioin- Austen 7. shevaroyana, W. T. Blanford. ... . . 256 30. Ihotaensis, Godwin- 8. lita, Si/Ices 257 9. cryptomphalus, God- win-Austen 257 6. Kaliella, Blf. 257 1. barrakporensis, Pfr. . . 258 31. shillongensis, Godwin- Austen. . . 32. flat ura, Godwin - Austen . . . SYSTEMATIC INDEX. Pago 33. flatura, var., Godwin- Austen 269 34. burrailensis, Godivin- Austen 270 35. ruga, Godwin-Austen. . 270 36. dikrangensis, Godwin- Austen 270 37. nongsteinensis, God- win-Austen 271 38. bhutanensis, Godwin- Austen 271 39. tirutana, Godwin- Austen 271 40. chennelli, Godioin- Austen 272 41. conulus, Blf. 272 42. peliosanthi, March . . 272 43. fete, Tapp. Canefri . . 273 44. delectabilis, Sykes 273 45. leithiana, Godwin- Austen 273 46. kezamahensis, Godwin- Austen 274 47. lailangkotensis, God- win-Austen 274 48. nevilli, Godwin - Austen 274 7. Sararaa, Godwin- Austen. . 275 1. kala, Godwin- Austen. . 275 8. Sarika, Godwin- Austen . . 276 1. resplendens, Phil 277 2. burrnana, Pfr 278 9. Taphrospira, W. T. Blf. . 279 1. convallata, Bs 279 2. compluvialis, Blf. 280 3. excavata, Blf. 280 4. bathycharax, Theob. . . 280 I Subfam. 5. Sophinina 283 I 1. Sophiua, Benson 283 1. calias, Bs 286 2. schistostelis, Bs 286 3. discoidalis, Stol 288 4. conjungens, Stol. .... 288 5. forabilis, Bs 288 6. forabilis, var. bensoni, Godwin-Austen .... 289 Subfamily position doubtful*. 1. Hemiplecta, Albers 289 1. uter, Theobald 291 2. undosa, Blf. 291 3. textrina, Bs 292 4. theodori, Phil 292 5. gordoniae, Bs 293 6. auriettae, Tapp. Canefri 293 2. Haughtonia, Godwin- Austen 294 1. conferta, Pfr 295 3. Staftbrdia, Godioin- Austen 296 1. daflaensis, Godwin- Austen 296 2. daflaensis, var., God- win-Austen 299 3. toruputuensis, Godwin- Austen 299 4. staffordi , Godwin- Austen 299 4. Dyakia, Godwin- Austen . . 299 1. retrorsa, Gould 300 Macrochlamys ? anonee, Godwin- Austen . . 302 planiuscula, Godwin- Austen 302 [Footnote p. xiii applies to the next four genera.] INTRODUCTION. BY the death of Dr. W. T. Blanford, the late talented Editor of the 'Fauna of British India ' series, the writing of the Introduction to this volume has devolved on me. Up to a few days of his death, 23rd June, 1905, Blanford was engaged on this the first volume on the Indian Mollusca, and it was with bitter regret he feared he could scarcely be spared to complete it. It saddens me now to think that, perhaps, had I been able to go up to town oftener in those days and help, the work might have progressed faster, but I could not neglect duties in the country. On commencing the work, now some years ago, Blanford asked me if I would assist him in the malacological part while he undertook the conchological. "With regard to the latter, I may safely say there was then no man living who knew the Indian Land-Shells and their distribution better than Dr. Blanford, to which he added an intimate knowledge of the external form of the animal. In a Field Note-book of his I have found many valuable drawings and descriptions made from life and have used some in this work. In going over his manuscript I could not but see what long and laborious work it had entailed with the constant use of the microscope as the fresh descriptions of the shells were written. Since 1877 I have been constantly at work on the internal anatomy of the Indian land-shells, having brought home a large collection preserved in spirits. To gain some further knowledge, particularly of the range of genera, I examined all the material I could obtain from Borneo and the Malay Archipelago, the Mascarene Islands, Socotra, and Africa. The results of this have been published from time to time. Many species obtained by Blanford during the last tAvo or three years of his life he placed in my hands for examination, so that the generic position of a large number of forms is now very fairly arrived at. It is a great loss to science that Blanford did not live to put together his full and matured ideas on distribution, phylogeny, &c. He was eminently fitted to do this by his extensive knowledge of the country, his powers of observation, and his studies in other branches of the animal kingdom. I, who really took up the collection and study of land-shells at his instigation and owe much that I have learnt to him, feel far from equal to the task. b XV111 INTRODUCTION. With regard to the shells merely, there is very little more to be made known, but a reclassitieatiou of the family Zonitida), based upon all the characters of the animal and the shell combined, is very desirable. There is so much to be done that it seems even now somewhat premature to bring out this volume, the more so as it deals principally with the above-mentioned family and because our knowledge of the Pulmonata (the Land-Mollusca of India) is far behind our knowledge of any other group among the Invertebrata. This is due to the fact that until comparatively recently the shell only, and not the animal that constructs it, has been taken into consideration. It is well known that the building up of the shell is a process performed invariably in the same way by one part of the animal. These neglected forms of life are found by those who will examine them to differ, generically speaking, widely one from the other. It will be seen in the following pages that a very large number of them have never been examined at all, so that it is still doubtful to what genus many of them should be assigned. Any satisfactory conclusion therefore regarding their phylogeuy is impossible aud regarding their distribution most uncertain. In examining the shells alone we find in several genera these are so extremely alike, the differences so subtle that the eye fails to appreciate them. Again, the uncertainty regarding habitat is increased in some cases by the types being lost ; in others by the doubtful authenticity as to habitat of their representatives in museums. Occasionally three different species may be found in one tablet under the same name, and these from two or more localities. In such cases it is only by collecting de novo in the localities where the types were procured that we can be certain of absolute and true identification. Only the families Testacellidte and Zonitid are included in this volume. The classification adopted has been that employed in the manuscript left by Dr. W. T. Blanford, which was the subject of many conversations and constant correspondence with him. I conclude he based it upon the classification used by Paul Fischer in his ' Manuel de Conchyliologie ' (1887), one which has to some extent been adopted in the arrangement of the molluscan col- lections at the Natural History branch of the British Museum. With regard to the different genera Dr. Blanford had worked through, the order in which some had to be placed had yet to be decided ; the last morning's work we did together when he was staying with me at Nore, 7th May, 1905, had reference to this very point. I have given very considerable thought to this question of classification and adopted a sequence which is as natural, I trust, as our limited knowledge of the animals at the present time will permit and as consonant as I can now make it with Blanford's views. Blanford left the descriptions of three new genera, and I have INTBODUCTION. xil thought fit to create three more, for the reception of certain species which had points in their anatomy differentiating them from the species with which they had been placed. In that very specialized division of the animal kingdom, the Land-Mollusca, and particularly in the family Zonitidae, great uniformity of the general main structure obtains with at the same time very remarkable variation of the several parts, particularly those of mastication and generation ; it may be safely said that in some genera a greater amount of variation is met with in the internal organs than is to be found in the form of the shell. When we come to compare molluscous animals from far distant parts of the world, either proceeding from east to west, or from the Northern to the Southern Hemisphere, we find each land-area has its own distinctive set of genera. Fossil evidence again shows some have had in the past a much more extended range, and it becomes evident they have gone through a remote, extremely slow, and separate evolution. This is, after all, not so remarkable when the great antiquity of the Pulmonate Mollusca is considered : land- shells extremely like those of the present day go back to the Palaeozoic period, being first known from the Devonian, and to- gether with other life on the earth demand many subsequent eras for their specialization. While the Vertebrates have been classified scientifically by their internal anatomy, Invertebrates such as the Mollusca have received comparatively desultory notice. For this reason Dr. Blanford in arranging for the publication of a volume on the Land-Mollusca decided to incorporate all that was known of the animal. Many years must elapse before the necessary material can be got together to elucidate and advance the knowledge of the generic relationship of these Indian land-shells. In the case of the Zonitidae, it happens a large number of very fragile shells are found differing very slightly from each other in shell-character, yet on examination of the animal such marked differences are presented that they have to be placed in separate genera ; in fact satisfactory determination is quite uncertain without a knowledge of the animal. Space will not admit of dealing with the anatomy in any great detail ; I have therefore only attempted so much as seems desirable to give the collector some idea of the position and function of the different parts, from which he will more readily understand that the shell alone is of very uncertain value in all questions relating to phylogeny or relationship, evolution, and range in connection with problems relating to the former distribution of land and sea. BODY AND FOOT. Animal soft and flexible, covered with an epidermis which in the land forms secretes much mucus from an elaborate system of not only mucous, but sensory and pigmentary glands, rendering 62 Fig* i. Girasia liookcri. Silt-liar, Cncliar. ISTBODTJCTIOT*. 1X1 the surface moist and acutely sensitive to touch and smell. There is no internal bony skeleton assisting in the movements of the animal ; all action is produced by a beautiful contractile and protrusive muscular system, one part as it were pulling against and acting on the other. In the Mollusca the primitive plan of structure was a body symmetrical to a median vertical plane, the alimentary canal running from the mouth at one end to the anal aperture at the other. This body had a lower ventral or neural face, an upper dorsal or haemal face, and a right and left side. Only in a few of the Mollusca has this symmetry of the body been retained undis- turbed, as in the very ancient classes Amphineura, Scaphopoda, and Pelecypoda, and the haemal face is not produced into a visceral sac ; but in the great majority of mollusks such a visceral sac is found. In the Gasteropoda the ventral face gives rise to a muscular foot. The structure of this foot is important; it shows considerable modification, which renders it of much value in classification, according as it has been modified for digging, swimming, or creeping as in the land forms. The dorsal face is generally produced at its margin into a free fold, called the mantle or pallium, derived from the primitive Explanation of Fig. i. A. Diagrammatic view of right side, to show the position of the generative organs within the body-cavity and that of the rudimentary shell. About nat. size. B. Similar view, to show the position of the nervous ganglia and a few of the nerves radiating from it ; also to show the general plan of the muscular system, a tew of the main muscles at the position of their attachment points, the buccal mass and alimentary system with the salivary glands, and the position of the branchial chamber and pericardium. About nat. size. C. The cerebral and pedal ganglia with some of the various nerves, together with the main muscles of the buccal mass and eye-tentacles. Viewed from above, laid out. Drawn under microscope. X 4*5. D. The same, drawn by eye, showing the nerves to middle of the foot (6') and position of the buccal mass and oesophagus. Viewed from above. E. The left eye-tentacle and oral tentacle, severed from the part in C. Viewed from the inside, showing the small retractor basal muscles (m). R E. Right eye-tentacle. L E. Left eye-tentacle. O T. Oral tentacles. S G. Salivary glands. sd. Salivary ducts. rm E. Retractor muscles of eye- tentacles. rm B. Do. of buccal mass. r. Renal organs. i. Intestine covered by salivary gland. j. Jaw. h. Heart. ant.ar. Anterior artery. a/. Side of foot. B. Buccal mass. ce. (Esophagus. m. Muscles. 1. Cerebral ganglia. 2. Pedal ganglia. 3. Nerve to base of left eye- tentacle. 4. Nerves to lips. 5. Do. to posterior right side of foot. 6, 6 r . Do. to basal edge of foot. 7. The position of the otocysts. Xlii INTRODUCTION. shell-gland, the edges of which secrete and form the shell. Between the mantle and the rest of the body is a cavity, the pallial chamber, the seat of the respiratory organs, which may consist of gills (branch i< r) , or, as iii the Pulmouates, of a sort of lung formed by a network of blood-vessels developed on the roof. The pallial margin forms a complete zone with only a small aperture for respiratory and excretory purposes, and thus the mantle becomes divided into lobes, an anterior left and a posterior right, the dorsal lobes being below them. Gasteropods with conical or spiral shells, with gills placed in front of the heart, and sexes distinct that is to say, nearly all the marine and a large series of terrestrial genera belong to the order Prosobrauchia. In the Pulmonata, with which this volume deals, the mantle is large as well as the unsymmetrically coiled visceral sac, in which the intestines, liver, and part of the genital organs lie. The mantle-cavity lies on the fore part of the sac, and the anus (a) opens at its margin, generally on the right side. Thus in all the ordinary Pulmonata the end of the intestine is twisted from its primitive position at the hinder end forwards to tlie right dorsal side of the body. In the cephalic area all the organs of sense are situated, the common generative aperture lying on the right side at a varying distance behind the right eye-tentacle. The head or prosoma is symmetrical, bearing on the upper side two cylindrical, tapering, hollow, reversible tentacles, with swollen or bulbous tips carrying the eyes, also two much shorter below them, the oral ; both pairs are contractile within the body-cavity. On the anterior ventral side is the mouth, with the more or less solid jaw above and visible externally. The radula with its teeth below is not usually seen unless when protruded. The mouth is quite distinct from the respiratory system and is used for feeding only. The upper lip has a ring of rounded tubercles on its edge ; the lower lip is simpler and more fleshy, but in certain carnivorous forms the corners are produced into lappets. The pedal area consists of the muscular foot or podium, and is characteristic of the Land-Mollusca and all Gasteropods. It varies greatly in sixe and form in different genera. When fully extended the portion behind with respect to the shell or visceral sac may be very short, that in front very long, or they may be equal in length. It may be either narrow or broad and flat, almost circular, possessing thus great power of adhesion to the surface on which the animal rests. The foot-sole in the Cyclostomidze is divided longitudinally into two portions, and the animal crawls by advancing the halves alternately. The sole has either a smooth uniform surface or it is divided into three nearly equal parts (trifasciate) longitudinally, the central area being the true ambu- latory one. This is the type generally found in genera of the Zonitido?, and has as well, on the outer" side of the foot, a border broken up into segments by lines giving it a fringed appearance. INTBODUCTION. Above this are the very pronounced parallel peripodial grooves, generally two, in a few eases three, broken into oblong spaces (vide fig. 38, A, p. 75). The rest of the body is covered with {japillate tubercles or fine rugosities, separated by deep grooves eading from the upper peripodial groove towards the dorsum of the foot. The Zonitidae also have a conspicuous caudal mucous gland variously formed (fig. 57, C, p. 159). The upper surface of the foot behind may be keeled above, but it is generally rounded. Even in those genera of the Zonitidse, such as Girasia (fig. i, A, B, p. xx), where the shell has been reduced to a mere membrane, the foot never reaches the true slug-like stage found in Limax, Arion, &c., in which genera the viscera fill the whole foot to its extreme posterior point, or rather the visceral hump is spread over the whole dorsal surface of the creeping-organ. The foot in the Eastern forms of Zouitidse is solid in form, and their other anatomical details present so great a similarity to the component parts in the shell-bearing genera from which they have descended, that they furnish closer links in a chain of evolution than is often to be met with. THE MUSCULAB SYSTEM. The greater mass of the body is a network of muscular tissue most perfect and complicated. The larger muscles are very tough, ribbon-like, smooth, and shiny. The largest is the shell-muscle attaching the animal to the shell, and most of the stronger most important muscles are given off from it. In those species where there is only a remnant of a shell and no columella the attach- ments of the principal muscles lie around the thickened mantle- edge, principally on the posterior margin ; these include the buccal retractor and the retractors of the foot and eye-tentacles (fig. i, B, C). Some 4 or 5 fine muscles lead from the sides of the mouth and pass through the nervous collar in a posterior direction. There is a localized series in the buccal mass known as the depressor, protractor, and levator muscles. THE NEBYOUS SYSTEM. The main mass of the nervous system is situated just behind the buccal mass (fig. 2, 6, p. 3) and mouth, forming a ring or collar (eg) (fig. 4, ng, p. 4), through which the alimentary canal passes posteriorly. It is made up of paired ganglia, more or less united by commissural bands completing the collar. According to their position above or below the oesophagus (ce), they have been termed the cerebral or supra- cesophageal ; the pedal with the visceral or parieto-splanchnic, sub-cesophageal. Taking the genus Girasia to exemplify the nervous system in the Zonitidae (fig. i, C, D), these ganglia are all, as it were, coalesced together, and the side connectives are not seen. The several nerves leading from the upper or dorsal side of the mass define the cerebral position, while those below show by the direction they take the pedal and visceral parts of the ganglionic mass. From the cerebral parts nerves lead to the eye and oral tentacles and to the sides of the mouth one (large) to the side of the buccal mass and another (smaller) to where the salivary ducts are given off from it. From the pedal ganglia numerous nerves, some very minute, lead to the sides of the foot, distributed along its edge ; one, conspicuous and long, extends to the edge of the mantle on the right side. Some of these nerves bifurcate before reaching the foot. These visceral nerves thus break up and extend all over the body of the animal along the course of the alimentary canal and the generative organs, &c. Land-Mollusca possess sensory organs, and their sense of touch and smell is acute, both combined directing them in their search for food and hiding-places. The seat of the olfactory organs is the apex of the tentacles, more particularly the dorsal pair, but the ciliated surfaces of the body round the mouth and respiratory aperture assist in the sense of smell. Two auditory sacs (otocysts) are usually found situated on the anterior side of the cerebral ganglia. They are lined with cilia and contain minute calcareous particles, called otoconia, of varied forms in different genera and species. ALIMENTARY SYSTEM. The alimentary canal is very long, extending back in a loop within the apical whorls of the shell and returning forward to the side of the respiratory orifice (fig. i, B). In different genera there is considerable difference and complexity in the way in which it is coiled. The fore portion, called the fore gut, includes^the buccal cavity. The narrow oesophagus or gullet leaves this on tbe dorsal side, passes through the nervous collar, and expands into the crop. Spread upon this are the salivary glands (fig. 2, sg, p. 3), gene- rally paired but sometimes coalesced together ; fine ducts, one on either side, called the salivary ducts, connect them with the buccal cavity (6). The fore gut contracts and again enlarges into the mid gut or stomach (st), and here a duct connecting it with the anterior (al) and posterior lobes of the liver occurs, and at about midway in its length the coils of the intestine buried in the poste- rior lobes (pi) return again and continue in a long straight portion of the rectum to the anus (a), which in shell-bearing forms is near the upper and inner angle of the aperture or near the junction of the right and left dorsal lobes ; in the more slug- like forms (Avstenia and Oirasia) it is on the side of the body. Where the shell has become reduced, as in these two Indian genera of the Zouitidae, the viscera never occupy the foot to its terminal end, as is seen in Limax and other Palsearctic genera. THE BUCCAL MASS. This lies between the nervous ring and the mouth, is a large globose muscular sac, on its exterior sides having a wonderful *ystem of powerful muscles leading to different parts of the INTBODUCTIO1T. XIV animal, principally to the shell-muscle, by which the animal can move it in every direction, protrusive or otherwise. These muscles have been termed the anterior, lateral protractors, and pharyngeal or buccal retractors. ODONTOPHOEB AND JAW. Just within the circle of the mouth is the buccal cavity, and on the upper anterior side is the solid chitinous jaw set in the strong mandibular muscles. In the genera treated of in this work there are only a few in which the jaw is absent ; in those possessing it, it is sometimes solid, sometimes thin and of oxygnathous type, i. e. with a sharp cutting-edge. The jaw serves to press down upon, hold, or even cut off what the animal may feed upon. Within the buccal cavity on the lower side is a cartilaginous globose cushion on the floor of the mouth, the odoutophore ; its upper surface is covered with a tough, long, ribbon-like membrane, set with rows of minute, recurved, chitinous teeth, extending backward to the radular sac. In this last the teeth are formed and pass gradually forward as the rows in front become worn away. These teeth help, with the edge of the jaw above and the action of the lingual protractors and retractors, to the rasping off and breaking up of food. The surface of the radula can be folded together, as in the state of rest, or spread out laterally over a plane surface. The odontophore is developed early in life in some ovoviviparous forms ; the radula is found complete in the embryo enclosed in the eggs lying in the oviduct. The teeth of the radula are arranged in rows, generally about a hundred the rows either nearly straight or forming with the central tooth at the apex an obtuse angle. The central tooth and its neighbouring admedians are usually set upon thin, broad, quadrate plates, which merge gradually into lateral teeth rising from much narrower plates. The cutting-tooth is sharp-pointed and raised well above the basal plate, the whole series forming a most perfect natural file. In carnivorous genera the teeth are aculeate or scimitar-shaped, rising from elongately ovate bases. Perhaps one of the most interesting morphological characters to be noticed in the radula of these Eastern slug-like mollusks, comprising even some with Helicarion-Yike shells, is the existence of two very distinct groups or subfamilies, one with a Macrochlamys- like radula, the other with a very different polydont one of several hundred teeth, all similar in form throughout on very narrow basal plates, and rarely having any large admedian, though a few intermediate forms occur. OEGAN OF EESPIEATION. The respiratory orifice is distinctly seen on the right side of the body, lying in a dextral shell near the upper inner angle of the aperture, in a slug-like mollusk it is on the right side, in both IX VI 1NTEODUCTION. Fig. ii. A. Sakiclla honesta, enlarged. Dorsal side, viewed from above, to show position of the pericardium (p\ heart with auricle (ah) and ventricle (vh), kidney (A-), pulmonary cavity (pc), liver (/), anu (a), mantle-edge (m). A'. Dorsal side, seen from below. Eectum (rcc), kidney-opening (ko), pulmonary vein (pv), right shell-lobe (rsl), left shell-lobe (Isl). B. Microcystis amlte, showing embryonic shells within the oviduct, x 0. B'. An embryonic shell, showing development of the foot, with eye arid anal and respiratory orifices. X 44. C. Shell of Sitala attegia. Diagram to illustrate the different parts and usual measurements. D. A spermatophore of Sasara infrcndens, much enlarged. After Stoliczka. Parts of the shell and usual measurements. 1-7. The apical whorl to the 7th (the last or body-whorl). 5. The antepenultimate whorl. 6. The penultimate whorl. 8. The apex. D. The umbilical region. 8-9. The axis. 8-14. Spire. 10. The aperture : the upper, outer, and inner angles of, the interval between being the wall of the aperture. 11. The peristome and outer lip. 12. The columellar margin. 13. The suture. 14. The periphery or keel. A-B. Major diameter. A-C. Height of shell. A-D. Do. of axis. E-F. Do. of aperture. G-H. Breadth of aperture. IXTEODUCTIOS. XXV11 near where the dorsal lobes meet. The pulmonary chamber or cavity lies beneath the shell on the left side just behind the upper margin of the peristome and continues back for some distance, its general shape and size presenting variation in different genera. The upper surface is an extremely transparent thin wall, showing, in most species, a system of small veins uniting in a main pulmonary vein (pv) and forming a respiratory surface by which they breathe air directly. On the posterior left side of the pulmonary chamber is the pericardium (fig. ii, A, p). HEAET AND CIECITLATOEY SYSTEM. The pericardium (fig. ii, A, p) is a sac lying on the left anterior side of the body in dextral shells, adjacent to the branchial cavity and close against the renal organ (&), all these lying on the dorsal surface of the body. Within it is the heart, composed of a single auricle (ah) and a single ventricle (yh) : the first receives the blood from the respiratory organs, which passes by a short constricted valvular passage to the second. A short duct, the aortic trunk, follows : it branches into two separate veins, the anterior and posterior aorta, conveying the generally colourless blood to the various organs of the body. Thence it collects in the venous sinuses in the foot and viscera and the circumference of the body before entering the respiratory (pv) and renal organs (fc). In the former of these oxidation takes place and the blood returns to the heart again by the pulmonary vein (pv). In the renal organ waste products in the blood are taken up, which are thrown out by way of a narrow passage (ko) lying parallel to the rectum and so on to the anus (a). BEPBODUCTIVE OEGAJTS. The generative orifice is situated close behind the right eye- tentacle (fig. i, A, p. xx). The animal is hermaphrodits or monoacious, the male and female systems being brought together in one indi- vidual, and the animals unite for mutual fecundation. The source of the system lies far back in the visceral sac (fig. i, A), where buried in the posterior lobe of the liver is the ovo-testis (Jig) (a mass of cells), on the internal surface of which both ova and spermatozoa are produced : the former are rounded cells, the latter long and hair-like, with variously-shaped heads massed together. From the ovo-testis extends a long duct called the hermaphrodite duct (hd), usually very much convoluted, and down which the ova and spermatozoa pass. The duct enters the albumen-gland (cdg\ an elongate mass, and just before it does so there is a small enlargement or sharp bending termed the seminal vesicle. The ova here undergo a certain change and are separated from the spermatozoa the one to pass down the oviduct, the other down the prostate. The oviduct (ov) is of a whitish colour, with large convoluted folds. These two coalesced ducts run side by side for a con- siderable distance and then separate, the ovo-testis becoming a xxviii INTRODUCTION. stout hollow tube, the free oviduct leading onwards to the genital aperture (yen.aj*), the prostate or sperm-duct becoming a slender tube, the vas deferens (vd) carrying the spermatic contents to the male organ. We have now reached the vicinity of the head and buccal mass. Before the free oviduct reaches the genital aperture it gives off a more or less globose or pear-shaped sac, varying much in size ; this is the spermatheca (sp). It receives, when the animals are in coitn,ihe spermatophore, which issues from the male organ of the other individual. The male organ (p} consists of a muscular reversible sheath or tube extending a short distance from the genital aperture backwards, and gives off, generally where it doubles back, a strong muscle called the retractor penis muscle. The next part contracts into a smaller length of tube, the epi- phallus, to which the vas deferens joins after this latter has formed a loop forward and close up to the genital aperture. At the junction of the vas deferens and the epiphallus is usually a caecum-like appendage, the kale-sac, or flagellum when more whip- like. Within this the spermatophore is formed. Yet another organ, not universally present, remains to complete this com- plicated system, viz. the amatorial organ or dart-sac (am. or). It is usually tough and muscular, cylindrical in form, with a retractor muscle at the distal end ; within it is a pointed style, which is protrusive at the genital orifice. This is analogous to the calcareous dart of the Helicidae. The male organ and adjacent parts is reversible and protruded externally during copulation. The spermatophore (fig. ii, D) is a complex structure built up or moulded within the walls of the flagellum during the period of generative activity. It consists of two distinct parts one long and gutter-like, generally spined ; the other a thin-walled cylindrical sac in which the spermatozoa passing down the vas deferens collect and are retained until transplanted into the sperm-sac of another individual to fructify its ova. The spermato- phore takes on many various forms in different genera and is as yet quite unknown in the great majority of the Land-Mollusca ; it would appear to be secreted rapidly and its remains broken up are soon absorbed and disappear. The eggs when laid hatch out naturally by the warmth of the atmosphere, but in some genera an ovoviviparous habit has come about, and the eggs are retained in the oviduct (fig. ii, p. xxvi, B, & tig. 2, p. 3) and go through the early stage of development there, so that the young have well-formed shells and are able to crawl about and feed themselves as soon as they are born. The shell makes its appearance is very early embryonic life, in the form of a little rounded inverted cup or bowl, and as the infolded viscera begin their spiral growth it is built up on the free outer edge (the peristome). It is deposited by the edge of the mantle in different layers, the external either horny or membran- aceous ; in many cases it is very hard, glassy, and polished. In ovoviviparous genera mentioned above, where the shell attains INTRODUCTION. XXIX a development of two whorls or so, the subsequent shell-growth after birth is well marked by its different texture ; the first whorls are generally smoother and are distinguished as the protoconch. It is seen that the organs of generation in these creatures are very complicated and present great variation, not only shown in different genera, but even in detail in different species of the same genus. It is only to be expected that the more complicated an organ becomes, and the greater the number of its component parts, the play and possibility of variation in those parts increases in proportion. This diversity of structure is rendered still more difficult to observe, owing to the great changes that take place in the reproductive organs as the pairing-season approaches, also artificially by the means adopted to preserve the animal. If, for instance, it is put into too strong spirit, great shrinking and hardening ensues, and the parts assume a shape and size very unlike their appearance in life. All this must be allowed for in descriptions. Perhaps too much has already been written on the form of such an organ as the spermatheca or sperm-sac, sometimes empty, at other times distended with one or more sperinatophores. The Mollusca form a very distinct and highly organized division of the Invertebrates. They were very early inhabitants of the globe ; their remains are found in the oldest stratified rocks, their shells often most beautifully preserved. It is the knowledge of the animals of their living representatives which gives us an insight into the conditions under which the different formations were deposited. It is remarkable to note how highly organized they were so far back in time and how little has been the change since then, scarcely more than generic. Marine forms are more abundantly represented, and naturally so, than the land and freshwater. Probably the earliest fresh- water form is the Archanodon, which closely resembles the modern Anodonta (Swan Mussel) and occurs as far back as the Devonian. At the close of the same epoch the first land-snails, Strophites and Dendropu2)a, allied to the Chrysalis Shells (Pupidae), have been found in the Plant-beds at St. John, New Brunswick. The Coal- Measures of the succeeding Carboniferous period have yielded further species of Dendropupa, a small land-shell (formerly referred to Zomtes) closely allied to the living Pyramidula if not identical with that genus. Also from the same beds come the oldest brackish- water snail and freshwater snail belonging to the existing genera Ampidlaria and Pliysa respectively, as well as the first repre- sentative (Zaptyclms) of the Auriculidae (the most primitive of the Pulmonates), and Daii'sonella the earliest example of the terrestrial Helicindse. Other freshwater mussels (Unio) appeared in the Trias, but the greater number of freshwater snails are first known from the Jurassic : Planorbis, Valvata, Melania (doubtfully from xxx INTRODUCTION. the older, but certainly from the later beds of that epoch), with LiHimra, Vivipara, and others. In India the Cretaceous rocks of the South Peninsular area are the oldest in which land-shells have been found, and one species was identified by Ferd. Stoliczka as being closely related to the existing Ceylonese genus Corilla. Further close search in these beds will probably result in the discovery of other species and they would be of extreme interest. The Intertrappean beds of Southern India contain several freshwater genera, and a doubtful Pupa is recorded from the Bombay rocks of that age, and land-shells have been obtained in the Lower Intertrirppeans referred to Acliatina; here, again, further search is wanted, minute forms have probably never been looked for. Coming down to more recent times, the species of Mollusca which have been found in the Sewalik formation are similar to those now living : only one land-shell, Pupa (Cylindrus) insularis, a species with a range from India to Africa, has hitherto been found; others are freshwater forms belonging to Paludina, Melania, Amputtaria, and Unto. My own experience of the beds in which these fossils occur points to the possibility of much more coming to light when they are worked in the careful manner similar beds have been in this country and in Europe. From the later Tertiaries of the Kashmir Valley (Karewah deposits) species of Planorbis and a Helix (?) occur, but those found by me were all flattened by subsequent pressure the beds had undergone : this formation, which is extensive, would reward further search. It must be remembered by those who may use this work that the material on which many of the anatomical details here given have been drawn up has been very scanty, and frequently founded on but a single badly preserved specimen, such, for example, as the dried-up animal found within the shell and soaked out ; for in most cases the possibility of obtaining additional specimens from very inaccessible parts of India was remote in the extreme. With regard to the conchological side, the descriptions of the genera and species have been drawn up and all measurements taken afresh by Dr. Blanford, in most cases from types or from typical specimens. The descriptions of the anatomy have been abridged and the figures taken from those given by Dr. Ferdinand Stoliczka in the ' Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal,' and those by me in the ' Land and Freshwater Mollusca of India,' and in other papers contributed to various Scientific Societies. The distribution, habits, &c. have been taken from the writings of W. H. Benson, T. Hutton, F. Stoliczka, H. F. & W. T. Blanford, W. Theobald, G. Nevill, E. Sykes, O. Collett, Ac., or based on the knowledge of a very large number of species collected by myself. Though the land-mollusca are not, like birds, butterflies, &c., conspicuous to the ordinary observer, yet they are to be found in every part of India, even on so parched a rock as Aden. Hence a few words on where and how to collect them may be of service to a naturalist proceeding to the country. These mollusks are by no means easy to find at first, and they are naturally much more numerous in the rainy season, but with patient search they are to be found at other times of the year. On limestone rocks they are sometimes conspicuous by their abundance, old shells litter the ground. In the forest-clad slopes of the mountains, particularly the northern sunless ravines, they are generally plentiful. Owing to the annual burning that takes place, very few are to be found in the great grass-tracts of the plains. Their favourite resorts are tinder large stones, old logs lying in the woods, under the decaying bark of trees, on the wet lichen-clad bark, on the damp moss near waterfalls, on walls, on the leaves of shrubs, the plantain and bamboos, under decaying leaves, beneath the surface of the ground in the worm-burrows, in the roots of plants, and in the exuviae left by floods on river-banks many shells are to be found washed off the land. It is a good plan when collecting from shrubs and trees to place an open, inverted umbrella beneath and to beat the shrubs or boughs above, when the specimens dislodged will be caught in the umbrella. In streams and lakes the surface of the water-plants and the decaying stems of reeds and bulrushes should be looked over. The animal is by no means difficult to dissect, patience and a steady hand are all that is required ; to dissect, draw, and mount the radula and other parts will take some hours of work, and a a microscope is indispensable. In the field the preserving, the accurate labelling (which is most important), with necessary notes on external characters, colour, &c., are as much as the collector can undertake. Some parts of India have been well worked, there are others where nothing has yet been collected. Among the latter I may mention Nepal up to the Kali Eiver; Bhutan east of longitude 89 up to the Dafla Country, eastward again the Miri and Mishmi Hills ; south of the Brahmaputra River, the Abor and Singpho Hills ; south of Manipur, the Lushai and Tipperah Hills, and the high range, the Chin Hills, southwards. The Shan States have been partially collected in, but there is much to be done in many parts of Eastern Burma. On the North-west Frontier, with the exception of a species of Petrceus, I have never seen any land-shells from either Swat, Dir, or Chitral. From the Kuram Valley a few species have been received ; but since Captain Hutton, in 1842, collected in the neighbourhood of the Bolan Pass, the land-shells of the Suliman Eange and hills to the south, lying west of the Indus, have been disregarded. In conclusion, I must not forget to mention those who have given much valuable assistance to Dr. W. T. Blanford while the work was in preparation and those who have given similar aid to myself : to all sincere thanks are due. Among them I would particularly mention Mr. Edgar A. Smith, I.S.O., in charge iNTHODfCTIOir. of the Molluscft Department of the British Museum, who was ever ready to place species at our disposal and often added his valuable opinion on the determination or history of the species in hand. The late Professor Alfred Newton and Prof. S. F. Harmer gave every facility for the examination and loan of specimens contained in Benson's typical collection forming part of the McAndrew Collection in the University Museum of Zoology, Cambridge. Colonel It. H. Beddome placed his tine collection and his great knowledge of the Southern Indian land-shells at Dr. Blanford's disposal. I have myself to thank him for many valuable species preserved in spirit. Messrs. John Ponsonby and G. K. Gude's collections have been available for study. I am indebted to Mr. B. B. Woodward for many suggestions relating to molluscan anatomy as well as to their geological ancestry. Much valuable material, without which the work would have been more incomplete than it is, was received from India collected by Messrs. Edgar Thurston in Madras, the late O. Collett in Ceylon, as well as H. B. Preston ; in Southern India and Siam by the late W. M. Daly ; in Cachar by F. Ede. The Superintendents of the Indian Museum, Calcutta, Col. A. W. Alcock in the first instance, and more recently Dr. Annandale, have given very valuable aid in collecting and sending home many interesting species properly preserved as well as specimens for comparison. The late Wm. Theobald placed the whole of his valuable collection of spirit-specimens in my hands. I sincerely trust that the publication of these two Families, which is only a small portion of the Land-Molluscan Fauna of India, will lead naturalists resident in or visiting that country to collect and study this branch of its Natural History : not to be content with collecting the shells alone, but to bear in mind whenever they find the living animal to preserve it and send it, should they not require it for their own examination, to the Indian Museum in Calcutta or to the British Museum at home, where sooner or later it will be available for the investigation of Malacologists. H. H. GODWIN-AUSTEN. Nore, July 1908. ERRATUM. Page 2"). fig. 16, Ariophaiita lavipes : transpose letters C and D. [MOLLUSCA. Class GASTEROPODA. Order PULMONATA. Suborder GEOPHILA or STYLOMATOPHORA. Group A GNAT HA. Family TESTACELLULE. Subfamily STREPTAXIN^.] * Animal carnivorous, slug-like or snail-like; a shell generally present, but varying much in form. No jaw (hence the group is often distinguished as Agnatha). Radula with numerous rows of long, narrow teeth, usually pointed. Distribution. Temperate and tropical regions of the world. The majority of the genera are African or South American. Two are Indian, both shell-bearing. Synopsis of Genera. Shell heliciform, last whorl excentric STREPTAXIS, p. 1. Shell pupiform ENNBA, p. 16. Genus STREPTAXIS. Streptaxis, Gray, London's Mag. N. H. new ser. i, 1837, p. 485 ; Stol. J. A. S. B. xl, 1871, p. 159 (anatomy). Type, S. nobilis, Gray, from Sierra Leone. Eange. South-eastern Asia and a few of the islands ; Mascarene Islands ; Tropical Africa and South America. Found in the Indian Peninsula to the southward only, in Ceylon, [Andaman and Nicobar Islands,] Assam, and Burma, but not in the Himalayas except east of Bhutan. 3IHIfe-!^C Fig. 1. Streptaxis pfeifferi. {. (After Stoliczka.) Shell thin hyaline, or thicker alabastrine, heliciform, the last whorl or last two whorls excentric, diverging from the axis of the upper whorls. * In this volume the additions to the MS. as left by Dr. W. T. Blanford have been made by Lt.-Col. H. H. Godwin- Austen and are placed between brackets. B O TESTACELUD.E. Animal, as in other members of the family, with the anterior portion of the body, or neck, much longer than the posterior portion, or tail, which is very short. The colour is bright yellow, often becoming scarlet on the eye-pedicels and upper portion of the head. Upper tentacles or eye-pedicels elongate, lower tentacles short. Genital orifice on the right side, near the respiratory orifice and at a considerable distance from the tentacle. [The description of the internal anatomy is taken from Ferd. Stoliczka's paper on the genus : In the main points (vide fig. 2) " the organs are quite similarly arranged as in the Helicidae The mantle is above, at the pulmonary orifice, considerably produced, receding ventrally, but remaining entire. On the inner side it has near the margin an elongated, thickened appendage on each side of the pulmonary opening. The pulmonary cavity itself is very long, but the lungs narrow. The digestive system differs from all Helicidae which I have examined by the peculiar development of the buccal parts. The mouth is wide, and immediately behind it, where it makes an angle, lies the nervous ring Immediately behind the nervous ring the buccal parts are produced into a cylindrical muscular tube, which extends in a slight curve up to the end of the chief retractor muscle of the body, where it is firmly attached by a special thick muscle. A few separated threads connect the mouth direct with the anterior end of the retractor. The ring- muscles forming the outer layer of the tube are almost horny, or, at least, very tough. The longitudinal muscles forming the internal layer are much softer, but considerably thicker." This description recalls the buccal mass of Testacella and its powerful muscles. It suggests Streptaacis being carnivorous and having a protrusive mouth, enabling it to enter and use the radula within the whorls of other snails. Stoliczka pointed out the similarity of the teeth of the radula to those of Testacella. There are other points of similarity, such as the tube-like clusters of the hermaphrodite gland and the form of the male organ (vide Proceedings of the Malacological Society of London, vol. i. plate i. figs. 14 & 16).] Genital organs simple, albuminous gland elongate ; herma- phrodite gland small, composed of a cluster of tubes, the duct long and much twisted. Spermatheca small and globular, with a narrow neck [attached to uterus for nearly the whole length]. Vas deferens very short. Penis short, muscular, the retractor muscle long and thin and attached to the commencement of the penis close to the junction of the vas deferens ; no flagellum or kale-sac. Eggs large and well developed in the oviduct. Kadula long and narrow, composed of numerous rows of simple, almost straight and pointed teeth, [40-60 in row,] each furnished with a small swelling or projection about halfway between the point and the base. The median tooth in each row scarcely differs in form from the lateral teeth. The row is curved into an arc on each side of the middle, with the concavity in front. STREPTAXIS. a. dh. al. alg. b. f. gen.ap. hd. hg. i. k. [Fig. 2. Anatomy of Streptaxis Anus. Auricle of heart. Anterior lobe of liver. Albumen-gland. Buccal mass. See oe, fig. 4. i Retractor of buccal mass. \ Cavity where hermaphrodite and albumen gland were originally situated. Cerebral ganglia or nervous ring- Foot. Generative aperture. Hermaphrodite duct. Hermaphrodite gland. Intestine. Kidney or renal organ. obtusus. (After Stoliczka.) ko. Kidney-opening. m. Mantle. ml. Mantle-lobe. o. Ovum.