HISTORY OF THE BRITISH POSSESSIONS IN THE INDIAN & ATLANTIC OCEANS; COMPRISING CEYLON, PENANG, MALACCA, SINCAPORE, THE FALKLAND ISLANDS, ST. HELENA, ASCENSION, SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMBIA, CAPE COAST CASTLE, 8ic. &c. BY R. MONTGOMERY MARTIN, F.S.S. SEAL OF CEYLON. LONDON: WHITfAKER & Co. AVE MARIA LANE. MDCCCXXXVII. GIFT CONTENTS. POSSESSIONS IN THE INDIAN OCEAN. BOOK I. CEYLON. CHAPTER I. Geography — Area — General History, &c. . . . p. I CHAPTER II. Physical Aspect, Mountains, Rivers, Lakes, &c. — Chief Town — Forts, &c. — Geology — Soil, Climate, &c. — Animal, Vegetable and Mineral Kingdoms — Culti- vation, Stock, &c. . . . . . . . p. 20 273 VI CONTENTS. CHAPTER III. Population White and Coloured — Castes — Religion — Civilization, &c. p. 55 CHAPTER IV. Civil Government — India Establishments — Military — Defence — Finances — Commerce — Shipping — Gene- ral View of Ceylon p- 87 BOOK II. PENANG, MALACCA, AND SINCAPORE. CHAPTER I. PENANG. Locality, Area, Physical Aspect, History, Population, Revenue and Expenditure, Government, Commerce, Social Condition, and Political and General Advan- tages, &c p. 123 CHAPTER II. MALACCA. Locality, Area, History — Physical Aspect, Climate — Natural Products, &c. — Population — Government — Education — Commerce, &c. . . . . .p. 137 CONTENTS. Vll CHAPTER III. SINGAPORE (SINGHAPURA.) Locality, Area, Physical Aspect, History, Population, Revenue, and Expenditure, Government, Commerce, Social Condition, and Political and General Advan- tages, $rc , . . . p. 1 53 VIII CONTENTS. POSSESSIONS IN THE ATLANTIC OCEAN BOOK III. THE FALKLAND ISLANDS CHAITER IV. Locality — Extent — Climate — Soil — Harbours — Pro- ductions, and Advantages to Great Britain . p. 171 ]]nnK IV. ST. HELENA AND ASCENSION ISLANDS. Locality — Area — History — Physical Aspect, Climate, Geology, and Soil — Vegetation — Population — Pro- duce — Revenue and Expenditure, Shipping, &:c. . p. 184 ROOK V. BUrnSH SETTLEMENTS IN WESTERN AFRICA. INCLl DING SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMIUA. AND CAPE COAST CASTLE. CHAPTER I. Locality — Area— History — Physical Aspect— Rivers — Geolofry— Climate — Vegetable and Animal King- doms — Population — Government — Finances — Com- merce—Social State and Future Prospects, &c. &c. p. 213 CONTEVTS. IX CHAPTER II. (reolofiry and Soil — Climate — Disease — Vegetable and Animal Kingdom. &:c p. 259 CHAPTER III. Population of Sierra Leone. Gambia. Src. — Varieties of Races. Character. &rc. . . . . .p. 289 CHAPTER IV. Governments and Finances of Sierra Leone. Gambia, &-C. — Commerce. Imports, and Ex^iorts, Shipping, Sic .p. mo ROOK VI. Steam Navigation through the Atlantic and Indian Oceans — Proposed Plan of Post Office Steam Packets via Madeira, St. Helena, Cape of Good Hope, Isle of France, Ceylon. &^c. — Advantages and Disadvantages of the Red Sea and Cape of Good Hope Route Balanced — Computation of the Ex- pense of Twelve Steam Packets, &-c, . . .p. 339 Appendix. Gold Coast p. 353 CEVLON, &€. BRITISH POSSESSIONS IN THE INDIAN OCEAN; COMPRISING CEYLON, PENANG, MALACCA, AND SINGAPORE. 1 GS* CEYLON, Sfc, BOOK I. CHAPTER I. GEOGRAPHY — AREA — GENERAL HISTORY, &C. Ceylon (Selan, Singhala, Lanka, Serendib, or Tap- rohane), situate between the parallels of ^.^Q. to 9.50. north latitude, and from 80. to 82. east lon- gitude, is one of the most magnificent islands on the face of the globe ; in shape it is somewhat ovate ; the extreme length is about 270 miles from north to south, with an extreme breath of 145 miles (an average of 100), a circuit of 750 miles, and a superficial area of about 24,664 square miles. General History. — The original Singhalese, or Ceylonese, are probably descended from a colony of Singhs, or Rajpoots (to whom, in appearance, even at the present day, they bear a striking resemblance) 500 years B.C. But the Malabars, it is stated, several times succeeded in invading the island 200 years b.c. Mr. George Tumour in his erudite epitome of the history of Ceylon, derived from Pali and CEYLON, &c. B CEYLON, 8fc. BOOK I. CHAPTER I. GEOGRAPHY — AREA — GENERAL HISTORY, &C. Ceylon (Selan, Singhala, Lanka, Serendib, or Tap- rohane), situate between the parallels of 5.56. to 9.50. north latitude, and from 80. to 82. east lon- gitude, is one of the most magnificent islands on the face of the globe ; in shape it is somewhat ovate; the extreme length is about 270 miles from north to south, with an extreme breath of 145 miles (an average of 100), a circuit of 750 miles, and a superficial area of about 24,664 square miles. General History. — The original Singhalese, or Ceylonese, are probably descended from a colony of Singhs, or Rajpoots (to whom, in appearance, even at the present day, they bear a striking resemblance) 500 years B.C. But the Malabars, it is stated, several times succeeded in invading the island 200 years e.g. Mr. George Turnour in his erudite epitome of the history of Ceylon, derived from Pali and CEYLON, &c. B 2 CEYLON. Singhalese records, begins his chronology 543 years before the birth of our Saviour, and names the first king, Wejaya, who landed on the island with 700 followers, and founded a government at Tamana- nowera ; but Mr. Turnour does not state whether the Pali accounts remark if the island was then inhabited. At an early era the island seems to have attracted the attention of the western world ; thus Dionysius, the geographer, mentions Taprobane (its ancient and classic name) as famous for its elephants ; Ovid speaks of it as a place so far distant that it could be no advantage to have his fame extended thither; Pliny thought it the commencement of another continent, and extolled it for the purity of its gold and the size of its pearls. In the reign of Claudius, a Roman, who farmed (says the Rev. Mr. Fellows) the customs in the Red Sea, was driven in his bark by a gale of wind from the coast of Arabia to Taprobane, where he received a most favourable reception, and so extolled the glory of the imperial city that the sovereign of Taprobane sent to Rome an embassy of four persons via the Red Sea. We have existing evidence that, in remote ages, Ceylon was an extensively peopled and civilized country (it has now only fifty-eight mouths to the square mile). Near Mantotte are the ruins of a very large city, con- structed of brick and mortar, and an immense artificial tank, or reservoir for water, the basin of which is sixteen or eighteen miles in extent ; an embankment about nine miles from the tank is formed of huge stones, eight feet long, four feet broad, and three feet thick (these are cemented together by lime), the GIGANTIC ANCIENT WORKS. 6 length of the dam is 600 feet, the breadth about sixty, and the height from eight to twelve feet. This gigantic work is said to have been executed by the Hindoos, who made Mantotte the capital of a kingdom which they established over the northern parts of the island. Of an antiquity, however, more remote than the foregoing, are various buildings and works towards the interior, constructed of vast stones, elegantly cut and dovetailed-like into each other. No mortar has been used in some of the edifices which still exist (as if in defiance of the ravaging hand of time), with visible inscriptions on them, which no existing human being can understand. Among the works of this remote age is the Lake of Kandely, near Trincomalee, which is fifteen miles in circumference, formed by the artificial junction of two hiUs, which in one part in particular exhibits a parapet formed of huge blocks of stone, twelve to fourteen feet long, and broad and thick in proportion. This parapet is at the base J 50 feet broad, and at the summit thirty feet. By means of this wonderful structure the adjoining high lands are connected. It is also singular that arches are to be found in the parapet, and over them conduits, similar to those used by the Romans in Italy, and termed condottori. Belonging also to this age is a gigantic pagoda (forty miles south of Batticaloa), the base of whose cone is a quarter of a mile in circumference, sur- rounded by an enclosure one mile in circumference, consisting of a broad wall of brick and mortal, with numerous cells in it, and an entering colonnade of stone pillars ten feet high. B 2 4 CEYLON. Mr. Brooke, in tracing the course of the Maha Villagunga in 1825, came on the ruined tracks of several verv extensive canals, one of which he esti- mated to have been from five to fifteen feet deep, ana from forty to 100 feet wide. The natives told him that this canal was cut by people whose stature w^as forty feet high ! The largest recorded bridge was one in the southern part of the island, stated to be 280 cubits (630 feet) long ; the next in size was 193 feet long, across the Kaloo-Ganga, on the road from Adam's Peak to Bentotte. The remains of a stone bridge exist near the Fort of Kalawo Oya, the stones of which are from eight to fourteen feet long, jointed into one another and laid in regular lines, the upright pillars being grooved into the rocks below; this bridge was built 1500 years ago, and Captain Forbes demonstrated that the Singalese, at that remote period, used the wedge and chisel for splitting and shaping those huge blocks of stone, after the manner which has also been introduced into Britain in the nineteenth century. It is recorded in ancient manuscripts that, Anora- jhapoora, the ancient Cingalese capital, was sur- rounded by a wall sixteen miles square, and indeed a list of streets of the city is still in existence. To the north of the ruins of this place, are six pagodas of immense magnitude, the form being half a sphere with a spire built on it ; the two largest are each 270 feet high, of solid brick-work, once entirely covered with chunam (lime polished like marble), the solid contents of one of the largest is about 456,071 cubic yards, and with the materials of which it is ANCIENT HISTORY OF CEYLON. 5 composed, a wall of brick might be constructed twelve feet high, two feet wide, and ninety-seven miles long- ; the roofs are composed of curiously- carved rafters of wood, and the expense and labour emp-oyed in the whole of the structures must have been immense. In the ancient histories of Trin- comalee it is stated by Sir Alexander Johnston that two kings of Solamandelum, Manumethy Candesolam, and his son Kalocarta Maharasa, reigned over the greater part of Ceylon, and over the southern pen- insula of India, about the 512th year of the Cadi Yug, or 4400 years ago, who constructed the great buildings and tanks, the remains of which are yet extant. But we must leave these remote ages and come to some later period. In the sixth century Ceylon was the chief mart for eastern commerce. In the six- teenth year of the reign of Praakrama Bahoo the First, (A.D. 1153,) this Singalese monarch sent a fleet of 500 ships, with an army on board, and pro- visioned for twelve months, to avenge the insults offered to the Singalese ambassador and to Singalese merchants by the King of Cambodiae and Arramana. This vast fleet was equipped in six months. In the thirteenth century it was visited by Marco Polo, who pretty accurately narrated the particulars of the island, which he described as ' the finest in the world.' The central situation of Ceylon had led to its port being frequented by ships from China, India, Arabia, &c. by which means Galle and Columbo, from their favourable situation, became intrepots for the general commerce of the east. When the Portuguese first 6 CEYLON. visited the island, a.d. 1505, they found it had for a long period been declining, owing to intestine wars, and invasions from Malabar and Arabia ; the Cinga- lese King availed himself of the assistance of the Portuguese Admiral (Almeida) for the expulsion of the invaders, promising in return an annual tribute in cinnamon. In 1518, the Portuguese, under Alva- renga, began to fortify themselves in Columbo, Galle, &c., and soon after they obtained complete possession of the maritime provinces, and drove the King of Kandy to such extremities, that he w^as glad to re- tain even possession of the interior provinces. For a century the Portuguese held their sway, when in 1 603, the first Dutch fleet arrived at Trin- comalee and Batticaloa, and offered to assist the King of Kandy against the Portuguese. In 1632, a strong Dutch armament, acting in conjunction with the King of Kandy's forces, commenced a series of con- tests with the Portuguese, and after a long and san- guinary struggle, which lasted until 1656-7, the latter were finally driven from an island, of the sea coast of which they had been masters for nearly 150 years. The Cingalese, however, soon found that they had exchanged masters to no advantage, for from 1656 to 1796, the Dutch were engaged in a series of per- petual hostilities with their mountain neighbours. The conduct of the French republican government to Holland towards the close of the last century, in- duced the Dutch to acquiesce in our apparent forcible occupation in 1796 of Columbo, Galle, Trincomalee, &c., but as regards the Kandians, we were not more DUTCH AND ENGLISH CONQUESTS. 7 fortunate than our predecessors, for in 1799, soon after the elevation of a new king to the Kandian throne, we became involved in hostilities, which led to our capture of the Kandian capital in 1803. As this circumstance led eventually to our total occupation of the island, it may be satisfactory to give an abridgment of a memorandum on the affairs of Ceylon, prepared from the official documents in Calcutta in 1803, and which I have just now (Sept. 1837) among the Marquess Wellesley's papers. A short time after the return from Madras to Ceylon of Mr. North, in July, 17^9> there was reason to believe that the court of Kandy began to entertain suspicions of the intentions of the British government, in consequence of an embassy which it had been taught to expect, not having been sent to that Court. These suspicions were increased by the measures which were adopted by Mr. North to place the Malay corps on a respectable footing, and at last assumed so serious an ap- pearance, as to induce Mr. North to send a confidential native agent for the purpose of demanding an explanation from the tirst Adigaar, or minister of the government of Kandy. In consequence of this communication, the first Adigaar re- quested Mr. North to grant him an audience at Setaraca, on the frontiers, as he had something to communicate which was of the greatest importance to the British government. Accordingly an interview took place on the 5th of January, 1800, between Mr. North and the first adigaar. Previously to this interview Mr. North had reason to think, from the in- formation of the native agent whom he had deputed to Kandy, that the object of the first adigaar was to establish an English military force in Kandy, and to pay for it a tribute in Areka- put, and other productions, to the British government, and that this military force was to protect his own power, together with that of his nominal master the King of Kandy, in whose 8 CEYLON. name it was supposed the first adigaar intended to continue to govern the kingdom. At the interview however on the 5th of January, 1800, the first proposal made by the adigaar to Mr, North was to depose the reigning king, who had been placed on the throne ^ by the first adigaar in direct violation of the laws of the kingdom of Kandy. This proposal was rejected in the most positive man^ ner, as Mr. North very justly did not think himself warranted to join in a conspiracy against a prince in perfect amity with the British government, and who had been recognized by Mr. North as the legitimate sovereign, on the grounds of his being in possession of the throne on Mr. North's accession to the government of Ceylon. But although Mr. North did not think himself justified in contributing in any degree to the deposition of the King of Kandy, he was not disposed to insist on that Prince's retaining any large portion of authority in his dominions, and conceived that he provided much more effectually for the king's security and happiness by placing him under the protection of a British military force, than by leaving him in the hands of a daring and ambitious minister, or of a faction which had proclaimed him an illegitimate usurper. Mr. North, therefore, felt no hesitation to promise the adi- 1 This event took place about the year l^Oil. The account given by the adigaar was, that the country had formerly been inhabited by devils, who had been expelled by Seredin. From this period a regular succession of kings of the Cingalese race followed for ages. These in return were afterwards expelled by the accession to the throne of Kandy of the race of Malabar kings. About the year 17^1, the adigaar's brother, who had also been adigaar, placed on the throne a prince of Malabar extraction; and in 1798 the present adigaar, in the midst of civil discord, succeeded in obtaining the tlu'one for the reigning prince, although he had no legal pretensions to it, and was, in fact, illegitimate. EMBASSY TO THE KING OF KANDY. 9 gaar support * in obtaining all authority short of royalty in the country, in case he should be able to prevail on the King to ask for a British subsidiary force, and to put himself and his country under the British protection.' Mr. North in this conference informed the first adigaar of his intention to send General Macdowall as ambassador to the King of Kandy with valuable presents. General Macdowall was instructed to negotiate the treaty with the King of Kandy which was founded on the principles stated in the conference which took place between tlie first adigaar and Mr. North, on the 5th of January, 1800, to which the fii'st adigaar had agreed, and which he had promised to carry into effect. Another im- portant object of the embassy was to obtain a perfect know- ledge of the situation of the court of Kandy, which was essen- tial to the improvement of our general interests, as well as to prevent the dangers which it was apprehended would attend the implicit observance, on the part of Mr. North, of the direc- tions of the first adigaar, whose intentions, Mr. North ' knew to be atrocious, and such as he could never abet.' General Macdowall arrived on the frontier of Kandy on the 20th of March, 1800, where, according to appointment, he met the first adigaar, accompanied by two otficers of inferior rank, and by a great number of followers. On the 8th of April, General Macdowall arrived at Gunarora, and on the 9th had his first audience of the King of Kandy. He was received with every demonstration of respect and kindness, and soon after his audience entered on the subject of his mission. The treaty proposed by General Macdowall, embraced the following objects. 1. The preservation of the reigning king. 2. The permanent establishment of a British force in the Kandian territories. 3. The obtaining some commercial advantages. 4. The prevention of immediate bloodshed and future civil war, by the delivery of the chiefs of the persecuted party into the hands of the British government. 5. The procuring the administration of the revenues of the 10 CEYLON. country, or at least such powers, as might prevent the con- thiuance of the wretched system which had hitherto prevailed, to the detriment of its natural resources. The treaty, however, was rejected by the ministers of the court of Kandy, who proposed a counter project nearly similar to one which had been formerly offered to the government of Madras. The general refused to enter on the discussion of this counter project, and demanded his audience of leave. The ministers then consented to the proposed treaty, with the ex- ception of the article which provided for the establishment of a considerable body of troops near the town of Kandy. They wished to reduce this number to 400, but as such a modifica- tion was little calculated to afford security to the British terri- tories, Major-General Macdowall declined the proposal and quitted the town of Kandy. The ministers also rejected three modified proposals from Mr. North, and the negociation here terminated. The motives which induced Mr. North to declare war against the King of Kandy are explained in a declaration pub- lished at Colombo on the 29th January, 1803 ; it will there- fore be sufficient to observe, that a force was assembled at Colombo amovuiting to I7OO men, under the command of Ma- jor-General Macdowall, and another detachment at Trinco- malee, amounting to 1200 men, under the orders of Lieute- nant-Colonel Barbut. In his letter to Lord Clive of the 30th January, 1803, Mr. North specifically states * that he should not have occasion to trouble Lord Clive for troops, unless he should be obliged to make a second campaign, which consider- ing the force assembled, the moderation of Mr. North's views, and the disposition of the principal head men, and the people in general on the Kandian territories, who were desirous of co-operating with the British troops, or at least of not acting against them, was not (Mr. North trusted) probable.' On the 28th of January, 1803, Mr. North addressed a letter to the King of Kandy, submitting to his Majesty the declara- tion of the causes and objects of the entrance of his troops into the territories of his Majesty, together with the articles of a pacific convention proposed to be concluded between his Ma- PROPOSED CONVENTION WITH THE KING OF KANDY. 1 1 jesty and the nobles of the court of Kandy, on the one part, and the government of Ceylon on the other. This convention stipulated for a compensation for the loss sustained by the merchants of Putelam, as well as for the ex- penses incurred on account of the military preparations, for the security of the payment of which the King of Kandy was immediately to cede to his Britannic Majesty the province of the Seven Corles. By the convention it was also proposed that the King of Kandy should recognise the sovereignty of his Britannic Majesty over all the territories lately occupied by the Dutch in the island of Ceylon, and ceded by them in conformity to the stipulations of the peace of Amiens to his Britannic Majesty ; that the government of Ceylon should be permitted to form a road across the territories of Kandy between Colombo and Trincomalee ; that British troops, with their guns and ar- tillery, should be allowed to pass along this road without mo- lestation, and that the government of Ceylon should be allowed to establish resting-places and post-houses along the proposed road ; that the King of Kandy should permit, (for the benefit of both countries,) a communication by water, if practicable, to be made across the island, under the direction of the British government, and allow such measures to be taken as might render the rivers more navigable for the advantage of both parties ; that the King of Kandy should also engage for him- self, heirs, and successors not to enter into any negociation with any foreign power without the concurrence of the Gover- nor of Ceylon ; and that his Britannic Majesty, through the Governor of Ceylon, recognized the King of Kandy, his heirs, and successors, and engaged to furnish a quota of troops when- ever the King of Kandy might require them, on his paying for their maintenance while employed in his service. The remain- der of the convention related to points of internal economy, and do not require to be stated in this narrative. The King having refused to accede to the terms offered to his acceptance in Mr. North's letter of the 28th of .January, hosti- lities commenced on the 19th of February, by the attack and capture by Colonel Hogan, of the fifty-first regiment, of two strong posts called Galle Gederah and Geriagamrae. On the 12 CEYLOX. same day, Colonel Barbut, of his Majesty's seventy-third regi- ment, advanced with a detachment towards the great Candian river, the banks of which, together with the village of Walla- poola and the neighbouring hills, were occupied by the enemy in force. A few shots from two mortars and one six-pounder soon, however, compelled the Kandians to retire, and the de- tachment crossed the river on the morning of the 20th of February, and took possession of the village of Wallapoola, situated within an English mile and a half of the town of Kandy. General Macdowall marched into Kandy on the evening of the 20th, and found it totally deserted, the King having left it with the adigaar on the 19th February, removed all the trea- sure from the palace, and the inhabitants from their houses. Prior to his flight, the King caused the magazines to be blown up, and set fire to his palace, and to the principal temples. The King, it appears, retired into the distant province of Oora, to the south-west. As he refused to accept the terms offered to him by Mr. North, and did not even propose to ne- gociate with General Macdowall, but after the delay of a fort- night answered Mr. North's letter to him without taking the least notice of the conditions which Mr. North had offered to his acceptance, Mr. North tendered the abdicated throne to Prince Budha Sawmy, the rightful heir, who would have suc- ceeded to it on the demise of the last King, if the intrigues of the adigaar had not intruded the present fugitive prince, in the intention of deposing him to make way for himself. Colonel Barbut was, in consequence, detached soon after the capture of Kandy for the purpose of escorting him to that capital. About this period a dreadful endeniial fever broke out in the interior of the island, and deprived the public service of several valuable military officers, and a very large proportion of the European troops employed in the late service. This most fatal malady appeared under the form of a very bad bilious re- mittent, and was attended with nearly the same symptoms in all cases. The extent of the disease will be fully compre- hended by the following facts: — The 5lst regiment, which marched from Colombo SCO strong, lost before its return one TREATY OF PEACE WITH THE KING OF KANDY. 13 fifth of the men, besides having I70 men sick in the hospital. A detachment of the 65th regiment, consisting of one captain, three subalterns, and eighty men, employed in keeping open the communication with Kandy, and covering a depot of stores and provisions, lost 27 men, besides having 50 in the hospital : of the four officers, one died, and two returned dangerously ill. The native troops, however, did not suffer in an equal propor- tion; and it is a curious circumstance that a journey of eight or ten miles from the sea coast should lead to a country where the source of the endemial disease is so powerful as to affect almost every European constitution exposed to its influence. A treaty was entered into between the new King and Mr. North, for the speedy restoration of peace, and the general security of the inhabitants of the island. By this treaty it was stipulated that restoration should be made to Mootoo Sawmy of the town of Kandy, and all the pos- sessions dependant on the crown of Kandy, then occupied by the British troops, excepting the province of the Seven Corles, the two hill-forts of Geriagamme and Gallegederah, and the line of land across the Kandian territories, sufficient to form a direct road from Colombo to Trincomalee, which province, forts, &c. were ceded to his Britannic Majesty, in perpetual sovereignty. Provision was made for the identification of the interests of the British Government, and of Mootoo Sawmy. The British Government agreed to recognize Mootoo Sawmy as the legiti- mate sovereign of Kandy, as soon as he had assumed that title with the usual solemnities, and consented, under certain sub- sidiary engagements, to maintain, for the preservation of his authority, a British force whenever it might be required. The remaining articles provided for the future intercourse between the subjects of the two states, for the regulation of the internal duties and commerce, the safety and maintenance of the King lately on the throne, and for the residence at Kandy, whenever it might be required, of a public minister, on the part of the British Government. It also appears that, after the conclusion of this treaty, Mr. North determined to hold a conference with the two adigaars 14 CEYLON. of Kandy, for the purpose of procuring their consent to the establishment of a secure and permanent peace. In conse- quence of this resolution, Mr. North left Colombo on the 28th of April, and reached Dombaderria on the 1st of May. On the 3rd of May a conference took place at Mr. North's bungalo, in which it was proposed that the adisfaars and the principal nobles of Kandy should become parties to the treaty lately concluded between the British government and the Prince Mootoo Sawmy, on certain additional conditions, which, after some discussion, were finally agreed to by the adigaars, and sealed, signed, and delivered by the respective parties on the following day. This convention stipulated that the new King Mootoo Sawmy should deliver over ^ the administration of the province belonging to the crown of Kandy to the first adigaar, with the title of grand prince, during the term of his natural life, and that he should reside at JafFnapatam, or in such other part of the British territories, as might be agreed upon between Mootoo Sawmy and the British government ; that the first adigaar should engage to pay an annual sum of 90,000 rix dol- lars for the maintenance of Mootoo Sawmy, and that for the better payment of this sum, as well as for the allowance pro- posed to be granted to the King lately on the throne of Kandy, the first adigaar should deliver to the British government, in the course of every year, a certain gratuity of arckanut (20,000 annually), taken at a specified valuation (six rix. dollars per ammonam), the price of which should be paid to the agents of the first adigaar by the British government, in coined copper, or in such other articles as might be agreed upon between the ' On account of the inertness of his own character, and the timidity of his friends, A[r. North says, ' if he consents by his own signature to exchange a turbulent power which he never could fully obtain, nor securely exercise, for the peaceable en- joyment of high power and an affluent income, we have no reason to oppose his wishes.' TREACHERY OF THE KANDIANS. 15 parties, in which case the British government agreed to charge^ itself with the payment of the allowances ^ stipulated for Mootoo Sawmy, and for the King lately on the throne. That the first adigaar should cede in perpetuity to the Bri- tish government the village and district of Gungavelle, now called Fort Macdowall, in exchange for the hill fort of Geria- garame, which the British government agreed to cede again to the first adigaar. That all the princes and princesses of the royal family then in confinement should be set at liberty, and be allowed to re- tire with their property wherever they might think proper, and that a general amnesty should be observed on both sides to all who might have supported or opposed the claims of Mootoo Sawmy in the late or any former contest. Finally, that the preceding articles should be carried into effect as soon as the Prince lately on ihe throne of Kandy should be delivered into the hands of the British government, and that until that event should take place, a perfect truce and cessation of hostilities should continue between all the con- tracting parties. This truce continued until the month of June, when it was broken by the treachery of the Kandians, who, under the first adigaar, did not scruple to avail themselves of the first favour- able opportunity to attack the British garrison at Kandy. The result of this transaction has been differently represented. The oflacial account communicated by Mr. North to the Go- ^ The advantage of this arrangement was as follows : — The arcka was to be sold to the British government at six rix dollars per ammonam. That article, however, paid a duty on exportation of ten rix dollars, and sold at Colombo before the payment of that duty at from fourteen to eighteen rix dollars per ammonam. The clear gain to government, therefore, was about twenty rix dollars per ammonam for the whole quantity, viz. 20,000 ammonams is 360,000 rix dollars, after paying the specified allowance of 40,000 rix dollars. 2 About 40,000 rix dollars. 16 CEYLON. vernor-General in Council is here stated, and such further re- ports are annexed from private sources of intelligence as may appear to throw any light on this melancholy and almost un- exampled event. It appears that Mr. North had already made preparations towards the middle of June for evacuating Kandy, and a de- tachment of Malays was on its march to that place from Trin- comalee with a number of doolies to bring away the sick and wounded. The Governor of Ceylon had also agreed to a pro- posal from the adigaars to evacuate Kandy, provided the gar- rison might be permitted to retire unmolested. Accordingly, Major Davie, commanding the garrison of Kandy. evacuated that place under a capitulation^ with the first adigaar, on the 24th of June. He was permitted to retire with his arms and ammunition, and was promised every mark of at- tention ; but no sooner had he commenced his march, than he was treacherously attacked, a party of his Malays deserted over to the enemy, and the whole of the British troops^, with their officers, were most inhumanly murdered^. • The force, in Mr. North's statement of the 7th July, amounted to 40 Europeans in good health, and 200 Malays. General Macdowall, on the 4th of July, states the British force to have amounted to about 200 Europeans and 800 natives ; and Mr. North, in a letter of the 20th July, observes, rhat the loss may be estimated at 700 eftective men. These contradic- tions are probably owing to Mr. North not having included the sick, which by all accounts appear to have been numerous, or the gun Lascars, &c. • On the 4th July, 1803, ' not one man had escaped on whom General Macdowall could rely for an authentic account of this melancholy transaction. More than 100 gun Lascars were re- covered in an action with the Kandian army at Hangwelle, on the Gth of September, 1803, and there is every reason to be- lieve that Major Davie and Captains Humphreys and Rumley were not put to death, but were still in confinement at the date of the latest advices from Ceylon.' 2 Return of names of those officers who are reported to have CRUELTY OF THE KING OF KANDY. 17 The garrisons of Fort ?>Iacdowall, to the eastward, and of Dombarcia to the westward, of Kandy, refused to capitulate, and escaped from the enemy's country with inconsiderable loss. Until 1815 we retained the maritime provinces, while the King of Kandy kept the interior, but in that year the monarch being deposed on account of his repeated acts of oppression and cruelty (one act was making the wife of his prime minister pound to death her own children in a rice mortar). General Brown- rigg was invited by the Kandian chiefs to take posses- sion of the interior, and excepting an expensive and troublesome insurrection, which lasted from 1817 to 1819, Ceylon has ever since had the British sway established over the whole island. Captains-General and Governors of Ceylon, whilst IN possession of the Portuguese. Pedro Lopez de Souza, Jerome de Azevedo, Francois de Menezes, Manuel Mascarenhas Homen, Nanha Alvares Pe- been put to death by the Kandians after the capitulation of Kandi, on the 24th of June, 1803 : — Bengal Artillery. — Captain Richard Humphreys. \Qth Foot. — Lieutenants M. H. Byne, Peter Flenderleith, Hector Maclain, Ensign Robert Smith, Quarter-master J. J. Brown, Assistant Surgeon William Hope. 51*^ Foot. — Lieutenant Ormsby, Malay Regiment. — Major Adam Davie, Captain Edward Rumley, Lieutenant William Mercer, Ensigns Robert Barry, Louis Goupill, John Fanthome ; Lieutenant Blackeney of the 19th regiment, commanding pioneer corps; Garrison Surgeon Holloway, Madras establishment. Rt. Mo u bray, Acting Deputy Adjt.-Gen. The sick Europeans in hospital had their brains beat out with clubs and stones. c 18 CEYLON. reira, Constantine de Say Noranlia, D. George d' Almeida, George d'Albuque, Diego de Melho, Antoine Mascarenlias, Phillippe Mascarenlias, Manuel Mascarenhas Honien, Fran- cois de Mello Castro, Antoine de Sousa Continho, under whose administration Colombo was surrendered to the Dutch ; A. D. Mezely Menezes, last Captain-General, in command of Jaffna and Manar. Governors, whilst in the possession of the Dutch. At Galle. — William Jacobszen Coster, Commander at the surrender of that place ; administration commenced I3th March, 1640. Jan Thysz, President and Governor, 1st Aug. 1640. Joan Matsuyker, Ordinary Counsellor and Governor, 24th May, 1646. Jacob Van Kittenstein, Governor, 26th February, 1650. Adrian Van der Meyden, Governor, 11th October, 1653. Colombo. — Adrian Van der Meyden, Governor, 12th May, 1656. Ryklof Van Goens, Governor, 12th May, 1660. Jacob Hustaar, Extraordinary Counsellor of India, and Governor, 27th Dec. 1663. Ryklof Van Goens, Governor, from 19th Nov. 1664/ Lourens Van Peil, Commander, President, Go- vernor, and Extraordinary Counsellor of India, 3rd Dec. 1680. Thomas Van Rhee, Governor, 19th June, 1693. Paulus de Rhoo, appointed Governor and Director of Ceylon, 29th Jan. 1695. Gerrit de Heer, Governor, 22nd Feb. 1697- The mem- bers of the Council, 26th Nov. 1702. Mr. Cornelius Johannes Simonsz, Governor, May, 1763. Hendrick Becker, Governor, 22nd Dec. 1707. Mr. Isaak Augistin Rumph, Governor and Extraordinary Counsellor of India, 7t:h Dec. 1716. Arnold Moll, Commander at Galle, 11th June, 1723. Johannes Her- tenberg, Governor, 12th January, 1724. Jan Paulus Shagen, Commander at Galle, 19th Oct. 1725. Petrus Vuyst, Gover- nor and Extraordinary Counsellor of India, 16th Sept. 1726. Stephanus Versluys, Governor and Extraordinary Counsellor of India ; administration commenced 27th Aug. 1 729. Gual- terus Woutersz, Commander of Jaffnapatam, 25th Aug. 1732. Jacob Christian Pielaat, Extraordinary Counsellor of India and Commissary, 21st Dec. 1732. Diederick Van Domburg, Go- DUTCH AND ENGLISH GOVERNORS. 19 vernor, 21st Jan. 1734. Jan Maccara, Commander of Galle, 1st June, 1736. Gustaff Willem Baron Van ImhofF, Extraor- dinary Counsellor of India and Governor, 23d July, 1736. Willem Maurits Bruininck, Governor, 12th March, 1740. Daniel Overbeck, Governor and Extraordinary Counsellor of India, 3rd Jan. 1742. Julius Valentyn Stein Van Gollnesse, Extraordinary Counsellor of India, 11th May, 1743. Gerrard Van Vreeland, Extraordinary Counsellor of India and Gover- nor, 6th March, 1751. Jacob de Jong, Commander of JatFna- patam, administration commenced 26th Feb. 1751. Joan Gideon Loten, 30th Sept. 1752. Jan Schreuder, Counsellor and Governor of India, 17th March, 1757- Lubbert Jan Baron Van Eck, Governor (under whose administration Kandy was taken on the 19th Feb. 1763), 11th Nov. 1762. Anthony Mooyart, Commander of Jaffnapatam, I3th May, 1765. Iman Willem Falck, Governor, &c. 9th Aug. 1765. Willem Jacob Van de Graaf, Governor, &c. of India, 7th Feb. 1785. Joan Gerard Van Angelbeek, Governor, &c. under whose adminis- tration Colombo surrendered to the arms of his Britannic Majesty, on the 16th Feb. 1796. English Governors. The Hon. the Governor of Madras in Council ; administra- tion commenced 16th Feb. 1796. The Hon. Frederick North, 12th Oct. 1798. Lieut. -Gen. Right Hon. Sir Thomas Mait- land, G.C.B. 19th July, 1805. Major-Gen. John Wilson, Lieut.-Governor, 19th March, 1811. General Sir Robert Brownrigg, Bart. G.C.B. 11th March, 1812. Major-Gen. Sir E. Barnes, K.C.B., Lieut.-Governor, 1st Feb. 1820. Lieut.- Gen. the Hon. Sir E. Paget, K.C.B. 2nd Feb. 1823. Major- Gen. Sir J. Campbell, K.C.B., Lieut.-Governor, 6th Nov. 1822. Lieut.-Gen. Sir E. Barnes, G.C.B. 18th Jan. 1824. Major-Gen. Sir J. Wilson, K.S.S. Lieut.-Governor, 13th Oct. 1831. The Right Hon. Sir Robert Wilmot Horton, Bart. G.C.B. 23rd Oct. 1831. C 2 20 CHAPTER II. PHYSICAL ASPECT, MOUNTAINS, RIVERS, LAKES, &C. — CHIEF TOWNS — FORTS, &C. GEOLOGY SOIL, CLIMATE, &C. — ANIMAL, VEGETABLE, AND MINERAL KINGDOMS — CULTIVA- TION, STOCK, &C. Fa-VOurably situate at the west entrance of the Bay of Bengal, Ceylon is separated on the north west from the Coromandel coast, by the Gulf of Manaar, [in breadth 62 miles,] and 150 miles distant from Cape Comorin ; on the south and east its beautiful shores are laved by the Indian Ocean. The interior of the island is formed of ranges of high mountains, in general, not approaching nearer to the sea than 40 miles, with a belt of rich alluvial earth nearly surrounding the island, and well watered by numer- ous rivers and streams. A picturesque table land occupies the southern centre, and thence, tovrards the coast, is a continuous range of low hills, and elevated flat land extending nearly to the sea-shore. To the west the country is flat, and on the northern shore, broken into verdant rocky islets, and a penin- sula named Jafnapatam. The lofty central division of the island varies in elevation above the level of the sea, from 1,000 to 6,000 feet, but the range of table land may be estimated at from 2,000 to 3,000 feet higher above the sea. The mountains run in sreneral in continuous chains with the most lovelv valleys the sun ever shone on between them ; the hills clothed to the very summits with gigantic forests, from which issue magnificent cascades and PHYSICAL ASPECT. RIVERS. 21 foaming cataracts, that form in the valleys placid rives and babbling brooks fringed with turfy banks, and all the beautiful verdure of the tropics. The heights above the sea, in English feet, of some of the principal mountains, &c. in the interior of Ceylon are (L by levelling ; A by geodesical opera- tions) : — Upper Lake in Kande, 1678, L. : Mattea Pattanna, the hill above it, 3192, A ; Oorraggalle, the rocky ridge of Hantanne to the southward of the town, 4310, A ; Hoonassgiria Peak, 4990, A ; ' The Knuckles,' a part of the same chain, 5870, A ; Highest point in the road leading through the Kad- dooganawa Pass, 1731, L. ; Adam's Peak, 7420, A ; Nammoonnakoolle, near Baddoolla, 6740, A ; Am- boolluawa, near Gampalla, 3540, A ; Pedrotallagalla, close to the Rest House of Nuwera Ellia, 8280, A ; Diatalawe, near Hangoorankette, 5030, A ; Alloo- galle, near Amoonapoore, 3440, A. Rivers. — The rivers, as may be expected, are numerous ; in fact, the whole island abounds with perennial mountain streams, rivulets, and rivers, the latter more numerous on the south and west than on the north east. The principal are — the Maha-Villa- Gunga, which is navigable for boats, and rafts during a great part of the year, from Trincomalee (where it falls into the sea), nearly as far as Kandy (in the centre of the island), where its course is impeded by a ledge of rocks ; the Calany Gunga, or Mutwal, is not inferior in importance to the former, and is the medium for much internal intercourse for 50 miles from Columbo to Ruanwelle ; the Welawe and Gindora, &c., all of which serve rather the pur- 22 CEYLON. poses of irrigation than navigation. There is, how- ever, an inland river navigation over 100 miles of picturesque country from Chilaw to Putlam, thirty miles north of Caltura. Lakes. — ^There are a few lagunes on the table land, the principal advantage of which is, the abund- ant supplies of fish which they afford, and in irri- gating the rice lands. In the maritime provinces, particularly in Batticaloa, the communication between one district and another is maintained by canals con- necting extensive salt water lakes, which have em- bankments of a stupendous nature, constructed by the Cingalese three centuries before the Christian era. Small vessels from India may land their car- goes at Calpentyn in the Gulf of Manaar, and have them conveyed l:y canal to Colombo. Tlie ridge called, ' Adam's Bridge,' which may be said to connect Ceylon with the Peninsula, consists of a mass of loose sand, with no firm foundation of rock or clay to support it. The sand appears to be trans- ported in great quantities from one side to the other of the ridge, according to the direction of the mon- soon ; for, in addition to the action of the surf, which washes it over to the lee side, where it is narrow, — in other parts, w^here it is broad, streams of it, in a dry state, are carried across by the wind itself, and deposited there. The channels through the strait are very shallow, and not more than sufficient for the small country boats to pass ; but it is stated, in the records of the Dutch government at Ceylon, that a Dutch fleet once passed through the channels of Adam's Bridge to avoid a Danish fleet in chase of COLOMBO. 23 them. It has been justly observed, that if such really were the case, the channels must have been in a very different state, as some parts of the * bridge' are now dry, and a few feet of water is the greatest depth any where on it. The principal channel now used by the Dhonies, and other small country boats, lies on the western side of the strait, on which channel some curious dams appear to have been formed by the action of the sea on the soft sand- stone. According to the records of the Pagoda of Ramisseram, it appears that this island was, about the close of the fifteenth century, connected with the Peninsula, at which time, it is recorded, that pilgrims passed over it on their way to the Pagoda. It is proposed to deepen the principal channel, which probably might be accomplished for a moderate sum, so as to make it available not only for the coast- ing trade, but for large vessels, by which a great deal of time would be saved. Colombo. — Ceylon may not inaptly be termed the Malta of the Indian Ocean ; its commercial capi- tal, Colombo, is situate on the south west coast, latitude 6°. 57'. north, longitude 80°. 0'. east, de- fended by a strong fort (built on a peninsula pro- jecting into the ocean), measuring one mile and a quarter in circumference, having seven principal bas- tions of different sizes, connected by intervening cur- tains and defended by three hundred pieces of cannon. The fortress is nearly insulated, two thirds of the works being almost laved by the sea, and with the exception of two very narrow and strongly guarded 24 CEYLON. causeways, the remainder protected by a fresh water lake and a broad and deep ditch with a fine glacis. Four strong bastions are seaward, and three face the lake and command the narrow approach from the Pettah, or native town outside the walls. The sea itself is additional strength for the fortress, for on the extensive southern side the surf runs so high on a rocky shore, that any attempt at landing troops would be attended with certain destruction, and on the west side, where the sea is smoother, the approach is completely commanded by the batteries ; and a projecting rock on which two compact batteries are placed, entirely protect the roadstead ^ ; in fact the fortress of Colombo, properly defended, may be deemed impregnable against any force likely to be brought against it. Trincomalee. — The maritime station of the island, (Colombo is the seat of government) is, in a political point of view, of the most importance, not merely as regards Ceylon, but from being, as Nelson justly described it from personal knowledge, ' the finest harbour in the world.' It is situate on the east shore, latitude 8. 32. north, longitude 81. 17. east, 150 north east from Colombo, (to which a fine road has just been opened) 128 miles, travelling distance from Kandy, and within two days' sail of Madras ^. Its physical aspect may be described as a narrow ^ See large edition for sailing directions. 2 Trincomalee is the port of refuge to ships obliged to put to sea when the stormy monsoon commences on the Coroman- del coast and western side of the bay of Bengal ; the port can be made in any season. TRINCOMALEE HARBOUR. 25 neck of land or isthmus, connecting the peninsula on which the fort of Trincomalee is built, (which juts out a considerable distance into the sea), to the main land ; towards the W. this isthmus gradually ex- pands itself into a plain of considerable extent, which is bounded on the S. E. by a ridge of lofty moun- tains, on the N.W. by low wooded hills, and on the W. at the distance of about a mile from the fort, by the inner harbour. As far as the eye can reach from the fort, excepting in the immediate neighbourhood of the bazaar, the country is covered with wood. The scenery of the spot has been compared to Loch Katrine on a gigantic scale, (the vast harbour appearing land-locked) the grandeur of which cannot be surpassed ; the fortifications sweep along the rocky coast \ipwards of a mile in length, encompass- ing the base of a steep hill on the sides connected wuth the adjacent land : the town and fort are placed at the bottom of a rock, and joined to a narrow neck of land running out towards the sea and separating the inner harbours from two outside bays, which lie on either shore of a three sided or cornered promontory. ' Dutch ' and ' Back ' bays are entirely commanded by the artillery on the south and north side of the fortified rock, and the mouth of the harbour is pro- tected by Fort Ostenberg, situate on a mount three miles west of Trincomalee. No communication can take place with the promontory (the part that pro- jects into the sea being protected by steep rocky cliffs) except through the well- covered gates of the fortress, and the best engineers have pronounced 26 CEYLON. their opinion of its impregnability if the place be well garrisoned. Fort Frederick, where the European troops (con- sisting generally of four companies of a European regiment, a company of royal engineers and artillery, and detachments of the Ceylon rifles) are stationed, is a fortified neck of land projecting into the sea, separating Back Bay from Dutch Bay. The ground rises gradually from the glacis to the flag- staff, a height of about 300 feet, and then slopes towards the sea, till abruptly terminated by a perpendicular cliff, from which a plummet may be dropped to the water, a distance of 240 feet. The depth at the base is so great that a line-of-battle ship may pass close to it. None but military reside within the works. The prospect from the barracks towards the sea is only bounded by the horizon, whilst towards the land, the eye ranges over the splendid scenery of the inner harbour. Fort Ostenberg, and a long extent of wooded country. Fort Ostenberg is near three miles from Fort Fre- derick, and is built on the termination of a ridge of hills that partly form the boundary of the inner har- bour. The fort commands the entrance, and its base is washed by the sea on three sides ; it also protects the dock-yard, which is immediately below it. A detachment of the Royal Artillery are quartered there, and a company of Europeans. The vicinity of Trincomalee is a wild uncultivated country, abounding with game of all kinds, from a snipe to an elephant. Quail, jungle fowl, moose- deer, and monkeys, are found on the Fort Ostenberg POINT DE GALLE. 27 ridge. The Mahavilla Ganga, which runs past Kandy, empties itself into the sea not far from Trincomalee. It has lately heen surveyed by Mr. Brooks, the mast'^'r attendant, who reports favourably of its capabilities. IL is navigable for some distance, and he is of opinion, that with a little expense it might be made so to within 40 miles of Kandy, and thereby open a water- communication by which the coffee, timber, and other produce of the interior could be brought to the sea-coast. The harbour, beautifully diversified with islands covered with a luxuriant vegetation, is spacious enough for holding all the ships in the world, ac- cessible at all seasons, and the depth of water within the bay of Trincomalee is so great, that in manv places, not far from the shore, it is unfathomable, and vessels may lie close alongside the rocks in perfect safety. The rise and fall of the tide is not sufficient for wet docks : mariners prefer Back Bay to Dutch Bay, from its being easier of egress for one half the year. Point de Galle is another strong fortress and excellent harbour, situate at the very southern ex- tremity of the island, in latitude 6^ V north, lon- gitude, 80^ 10' east, distant seventy-eight miles along the sea-shore, south-south-east from Colombo ; the road, shaded the whole way by magnificent groups of cocoa nut trees, forming a belt from the water's edge to some distance inland. The fort is a mile and a quarter in circumference, on a low rocky promontory, commanding the narrow and intricate entrance leading to the inner harbour ; the extensive 28 CEYLOX. and substantial works are like those of Colombo, surrounded for the greater part by the ocean, and there is every convenience of water, &c. capable of enabling the fortress to stand an extended siege. The outer and inner harbours are spacious, and the inner secure at all seasons of the year ^ But if the sea-coast be well defended, not less so is the interior ; every hill is a redoubt, and the passes in the mountains might be defended by a resolute enemy, by rolling the stones off the summits of the heights. Kandy (in 7° 18' north latitude, 80° 47' east longitude ^) the capital of the interior (eighty- five miles from, and 1600 feet above Colombo) is ' Both Monsoons here influence die winds and rains. 2 Ladtude and longitude of the principal places : — Basses (Great) latitude 0° 13' 0"; longitude 81° 46' 0" Ditto, (Litde) latitude 6° 24' 30" ; longitude 81° 55' 0". Batticoloa Road, lantude T 44' 0"; longitude 81° 52' 0". Belligara Bay, la- titude 5° 57' 30" ; longitude 80° 33' 20". Calamatta Bay, la- titude 6° 47'; longitude 81° 2' 58". Colombo, lantude G° 57' 0" longitude 86° 0' 0". Dodandowe Bay, latitude 6° 6' 47" lon- gitude 80° 14' 24". Dondra Head, latitude 5° 55' 15''; lon- gitude 80° 42' 50". Foul Point, laiitude 8° 30' 27" ; longitude 81° 30' 12". Galle, latitude 6° 1' 46"; longitude 80° 20' 0". Gandore, latitude 5° 55' 42"; longitude 80° 44' 30". Ham bantolle, ladtude 6° 6' 58" ; longitude 81° 14' 44". Kandy, latitude 7° 18' 0", longitude 80° 49' 0". Thahawelle Bay, latitude 5° 59' 30" ; longitude 80° 52' 15. Thattura, latitude 5° 56' 26''; longitude 80^ 40' 7". ^■illewel]e Bay, latitude 5° 7' 37"; longitude 80° 50' 21". Point Pedro, ladtude 9° 49' 30"; longitude 80° 24' 0". Jangalle, ladtude 6° 1' 16" ; longitude 80° 54' 48". Trincomalee, latitude 8° 33' 0" ; lon- gitude 81° 24' 0". Vendelo's Inlet, ladtude, 75° 70' ; lon- gitude 81° 44' 0". PARADEINIA BRIDGE. ROADS. 29 situate at the head of an extensive valley, in an amphitheatre commanded by forts on the surrounding hills ; the vale has but two accessible entrances, well guarded, and the city within four miles is nearly surrounded by a broad and rapid river, (the Maha- Villa Gunga) filled with alligators. Paradeinia bridge, which, during the past year has been thrown over the rapid and unfordable river Maha- Villa Gunga, consists of a single arch with a span of 205 feet, principally composed of satin wood ; its height above the river at low water mark is sixty- seven feet, and the roadway is twenty-two feet wide. The arch is composed of four treble ribs, transversely distant from each other five feet from centre to centre ; the sum of the depth of these ribs is four feet, which, with two intervals of two feet each, makes the whole depth of the arch eight feet ; the arch beams, with the exception of those next the abutments, are sixteen to seventeen feet long and twelve inches thick, abutting against each other with an unbroken section, secured at the joints by the notched pieces which support the road-way, the latter being held in their position by means of cross ties below and above the arch, and immediately under the road- way : these cross ties, with the aid of diagonal braces, which are also locked into them, serve to give stability and firmness to the whole structure, which has no other material but timber in its construction. The roads in the maritime country are through groves of cocoa-nut trees along the sea coast ; carriage roads extend from Colombo as far as Chilaw to the northward, and from Colombo through Gallee 30 CEYLON. as far as Matura to the southward. The main road from Colombo to Kandy (the Simplon of the East, on which there is now a ' mail coach and four') is a work of stupendous magnitude ; hills have been cut away, valleys filled up, and (near Kandy) a tunnel five hundred feet long cut through the mountain, while rapid and unfordable torrents and rivers have had elegant iron and wooden bridges thrown across them ; a capital road has been opened between Trin- comalee and Colombo, and before a few more years have elapsed, every town in the island will be con- nected by roads passable at all seasons. Geology, — The island would seem to have been at no very distant period connected with the pen- insula of Hindostan, from which it was probably separated by an irruption of the ocean. Uniformity of formation characterises Ceylon, the whole of the island, with few exceptions, consisting of primitive formations, the varieties of which are extremely numerous ; the most prevailing species is granite or gneiss ; the more limited are quartz, hornblende, dolomite, and a few others. The varieties of granite and gneiss are innumerable, passing often from one into another, occasionally changing their character alto- gether, and assuming appearances for which, in small masses, it would be extremely difficult to find appro- priate names. Regular granite is not of very common occurrence ; well formed gneiss is more abundant, but sienite is not common ; pure hornblende, and primitive greenstone, are far from uncommon ; and dolomite sometimes of a pure snow white, well adapted for the statuary, occasionally constitutes low hills in 7 GEOLOGY. SOIL, 31 the interior : limestone is principally confined to the northerly province of Jafnapatam, and the island ap- pears to be surrounded by an interrupted chain, or belt of sandstone, interspersed with coral. The coral of the Pamban banks is not the zoophyte of the Me- diterranean and the South Seas, but a light, porous, crumbling substance, sometimes cut and shaped into bricks by the Dutch ; and more frequently burnt into lime. Of this species of lime the late fort of Nega- patam was built ; and so great is the hardness which it acquires by long exposure to the weather, that when Major De Haviland, some years ago, requested a specimen of the masonry of the fort to be procured and sent up to him, the iron crows and other instru- ments ased in detaching the blocks, were blunted and bent in all directions by the solidity of the chunara, which is far more adhesive than that obtained from shells. A stone capable of being converted into so valuable a cement would almost pay the expense of its excavation. Soil. — The north division of the island is sandy and calcareous, resting upon madrepore, as it is little elevated above the level of the sea ; the surface of the elevated lands of Saifragam, and Lower Ouva, is much stronger and well adapted for tillage ; the granitic soil of the interior produces the most lux- uriant crops wherever there are a sufficiency of hands to call forth the gifts of industry. The soil of the southern plains is sandy, resting on a strong red marl termed * cabook,' the base of which is granite, and in the neighbourhood of Colombo the lands are 32 CEYLON. low, and subject to inundations from the Mutwal River. The foundations of the island are apparently cal- careous, yet the greater proportion of its soil is sili- ceous, in many places (as in the cinnamon gardens near Colombo), the surface being as white as snow, and formed of pure quartz sand. The soils of Ceylon are stated to be in general derived from the decom- position of gneiss, granite, or clay, ironstone, the principal ingredient being quartz in the form of sand of gravel, decomposed felspar in the state of clay, combined with different proportions of the oxide of iron, quartz in most instances being the predomi- nating substance, and in many places forming nine-tenths of the whole, the natural soils seldom containing more than three per cent, vegetable matter. The most productive earths are a brown loam resulting from the decomposition of gneiss, or granite, exceeding in felspar, or a reddish loam ori- ginating from the decomposition of clay ironstone : the worst soils are those where quartz predominate, proceeding from the disintegration of quartz rock, or of granite and gneis, containing a very large pro- portion of quartz. Climate. — Ceylon is under the complete influence of the monsoons, the north-east prevailing from No- vember to February, and the south-west from April to September; the intervening or equinoctial months having variable winds or calms. The eastern side of the island is hot and dry. like the Coromandel coast, occasioned by the north- east monsoon ; the opposite CLIMATE AND WINDS. 33 division of the isle is temperate and humid hke the southern Malabar shore under the influence of the south-west monsoon ; the climate, however, of the southern coast is more congenial to Europeans than perhaps any part of the continent of India. On the whole the north and north-east mav be said to be drv, and the south-west moist. The south-west wind is more general all over the island, as both at Co- lambo and Trincomalee it blows for five months in succession, whereas the north-east blows at Columbo only in the months of December and January, seldom beyond them. Among the mountains of the interior, the winds are modified by local circumstances, ac- cording to their proximity to the east or west coast : and the highest and most central land have peculiari- ties of their own. Thus, at Badulla, in Upper Ouva (where there is an excellent hospital and military sta- tion), the wind for three-fourths of the year is from the north-east, and in June, July, and August variable. Owing to its intertropical position the quantity of rain that falls in Ceylon is very great, probably three times that of England. Being less frequent, the showers are much heavier while they last, a fall of two or three inches being not uncommon in twenty- four hours ; the average of the alpine region is about eighty-four inches ; on an average, however, less rain falls on the east than on the west side of the island ; a lofty mountainous ridge often acting as a line of demarcation, one side of which is drenched with rain, while the other is broiling under an unclouded sun. Colonel Colebrook, in his valuable report on this lovely island, justly remarks that, the climate and CEYLON, &c. D CEYLON. seasons of the north and south districts are strikingly contrasted. On one side of the island, and even on one side of a mountain, the rain may fall in torrents, while on the other, the earth is parched and the herb- age withered ; the inhabitants may be securing them- selves from inundations, while in another they are carefully husbanding the little water of a former sea- son which may be retained in their wells and tanks. Thus, throughout the southern division, where the rains are copious (owing, probably, to its exposure to the Southern Ocean) canals are not less useful in drain- ing the lowlands, than in the conveyance of produce; and embankments are much required to secure the crops from destruction during the rainy season ; while in the north division of the island, tanks and water- courses are in the greatest request, to secure the in- habitants against the frequent droughts to which those districts are liable. Owing, also, to its insular position, no climate is more favoured than Ceylon, its temperature being moderate when compared with the scorching plains of India. Along the sea-coast the mean annual tem- perature may be taken at 80° Farenheit ; the extreme range line from 68° to 90°, and the medium from 75° to 85°. The climate of the mountains is of course cooler, but its vicissitudes greater. At Kandy, which IS 1467 feet above the sea, the mean annual tempera- ture is 78°; at the top of Mamini CooH Kandi, 5900 feet high, Dr. Davy found the temperature at eight A.M. 57°. At Columbo (the capital) the mean daily variation of the temperature does not exceed 3°, while the annual range of the thermometer is from METEOROLOGY. 35 76° to 86i° Far?nheit. At Galle the mean daily variation is 4°, and the annual range 71° to 87°. Jaffnapatam, mean daily variation 5°, annual range 70° to 90°, Trincomalee, greatest daily variation ] 7°, annual range 74° to 91°. At Kandy (the capi- tal of the mountain, or table land in the interior), mean daily variation 6°, annual range QQ° to 86°. At Newera Ellia, a military convalescent station, mean daily variations as high as 11°, and annual variation from 35° to 80°. CEYLON METEOROLOGY. COLOMBO (SEA SHORE) REGISTER. Thermometer. Barome- ter. til Rain* •^ n _r-] Wind. Guage, 3 •i ta S ^ inches s CO O S Jan.... 78 81 79 82| 76 29.85 29.80 N. 1.0 Feb.... 79 83 811 85 76 30. 29.85 ) N. to N. E. j and S. W. 0.4 March 80 84 82 85 77 29.90 29.80 8.1 April.. 81 84 82 86i 80 29.87 29.85 11.7 May... 82 85 82 86' 79 29.93 29.80 S. W. G.G June.. 81 83 82 86 79 29.88 29. Ditto. 2.3 July... 80 83 81 84 79 29.98 29. Ditto. 10.7 Aug. .. 81 83 82 83 80 29.90 ... Ditto. 3.5 Sept... 82 83 82 85 81 29.90 29.80 Ditto. 8.2 Oct.... 80 83 81 83 78 29.90 29.80 Ditto. 7.1 Nov. .. 80 82 81 83 79 30. 29.90 \ S. W. to N. / and N. E. 7.1 Dec... 80 82 SO 84 73 29.90 29.80 18.6 • The rail 1 guage, shewing a total of 84.3 inches, is fo r Kandy (in 1819), in the interior, which shows the average of the ' moun- tain districts ; on the sea- shore, as at Colombo, the avei ■age an- nual fal lof 1 ain i s froT n 75 to 80 inche s. 1 D 2 (Continued.) 36 CEYLON. CEYLON METEOROLOGY. (Continued.) BADULLA (2107 feet above the sea. )* Thermometer. < 00 d o 00 CO o 1-:! Jan.... 62 72 66 Feb.... 63 74 68 March 62 76 67 April.. 66 78 70 May... 68 78 71 June.. 64 77 72 July... 63 74 71 AU!^. .. 66 79 71 Sept... 66 79 72 Oct. ... 66 79 72 Nov... 67 75 71 Dec... 67^ 73 71 Heavy rains, and very cold nights. No rain ; hot. A little rain, and warm. No rain ; very warm. Light rain ; wind}'. No rain ; hot and" dry. Ditto ; very hot. Ditto; hot. Ditto; ditto. Heavy rains, and cool. Ditto, ditto. Hot and dry ; very cold nights. * BaduUa is situate on a plain, surrounded by hills from 1 to 3000 feet, in a mountainous country, in the south extremity of Ceylon, having the sea at 40 to 50 miles distant on the East, South, and West sides: the elevation above the ocean level of 2107 feet. The climate of Ceylon, where the soil is not cleared, is undoubtedly subject to pernicious miasmata, aris- ing from stagnant marshes, and dank and noisome jungles, and even when the jungles are cleared, it re- quires the sun to act on them for some time before the unhealthy miasmata are dissipated ; at certain sea- sons, therefore, endemic fevers appear in situations favourable to their propagation, but the whole island is becoming more uniformly salubrious as it becomes cleared, and cultivated. The environs of Trinco- make, which were formerly very unhealthy, have be- IMPROVEMENT IN CLIMATE BY CLEARING. 37 come much less so by clearing the jungles in the en- virons, and if the salt-water lake (' Snake Island' I think it is termed) to the northward of Columbo were cleared, the maritime capital of Ceylon, though within 8*^ of the equator, would be one of the healthiest and pleasantest residences in India. It is true that our troops have suffered much in Ceylon, but it should be recollected, that as com- pared with the Indian army, their wear and tare of duty is much more severe than the latter, and they have not the facilities of water communication which the Ganges and its tributaries afford ; the one countrv is in many parts quite unpeopled, and the other com- paratively civilized ; add to which a pernicious sys- tem prevails in Ceylon, of making the troops com- mence marches at midnight, than which nothing can be more injurious. A late intelligent Deputy Inspec- tor General of the hospitals in Ceylon (H. Marshall, Esq.) has drawn up the following comparative table of the health and mortality of troops in India, Ceylon, and Mauritius, but it must be remembered, in the first place, that the data for Ceylon were made some time ago, since which period the country is materially improved, and in order to judge more correctly, we should know the ages of the deceased and invalided, and the tropical servitude endured. I give, how- ever, the table, in the hope that it may induce further inquiry based on more extensive facts ; there are no class of persons better qualified for topographical details than the medical officers of the British army, who have contributed so much to extend the litera- ture and science of England throughout her colonies 38 CEYLON. Health of Troops in India, Ceylon, and Mauritius. Stations. India : Bengal Army Madras Army Ditto ditto i7th Dragoons Royal Regiment, 2d battalion 13th Regiment* 34th ditto 45th ditto 59th ditto 65th ditto G9th ditto 78th ditto Ceylon : 19th Regiment 73d dittot 83d ditto Maurititts : S2d Regiment Period. 1825 1808 1815 1809 1807 1823 1803 1819 1806 1801 1805 1797 1796 1818 1818 1820 1826 1809 1821 1822 1831 1829 1823 1830 1818 1822 1820 1815 1819 1820 1820 1831 7976 8717 12592 730 1067 764 89 738 901 971 844 846 837 654 871 53-1 774 9-7 713 8-1 794 6-3 75 7-8 92I 7-6 ]33 19-6 &9\ 63 69 64! 68' 96 11-3 62' 7-4 184 28-1 78 8-9 20 3-7 Z2 = e 37P 486 37 2-5 M ;3 ^ 2, -^ ■^ *< t^ t^ lO t^ t^ CO •uo;;oo CO CO 'f -ti CI — ■ OC CO C>J CO C5 t^ — I^ •SB9J CO Ci t^ CO C5 Ci «o •tnEjg c; -.- CO 00 lo 00 -^ JO oj Tf. -r^ CV) -*• CO CO -cf< -H CO •piB;sni\[ •^ CO CO Ci CO •laddaj •99503 lO ^C ^ Ci f^ C5 00 >-0 •>*< -^ C5 C^ CO r-. r-. CO — C»l (M M CO CO in t^ — ' t^ M oq C: " CO 0>1 CO CS (M CO •sureig 44424 49772 122748 120008 88131 102069 •XppBj 189476 165350 195497 158649 161238 212126 ■sinaji CO C5 — 1 I^ CO 1^1 C^l CO CO CO CO CO CO CO OC CO 00 3 C C^ •ODOBqox lbs. 2052516 1144140 3624684 •uo;;o3 in 00 uo c^ i^ . "-1 f C5 — > C2 TT to t^ t-* t^ CO 10 i-o ^ Lo -.*< CO •^ CO '-' CO IM CD t^ CO CO O) CO ■SBaj bushels. 2574 2834 2647 24278 •aztBH bushels. 17726 17020 104816 102037 96100 34477 •UIBI£) to "T cc ■* in M t^ i 00 C^ Ci TT '-- --1 (M C5 CO CM CJ S5 in m in US 50 «D 5 .-c J in c; s '- •J9dd9j busliels. 200 192 1531 2658 5437 6273 •39503 bushels. 4669 3225 28938 32756 61110 88378 •surej{) bushels. 576319 494721 670J22 657710 769116 • 804937 •^PP^J bushels. 6042678 5163991 5831187 5299695 4590602 3976540 •siBa^ OC C5 — SM CO M C^ CO CO CO CO 00 00 00 00 00 OC 50 CEYLON. •oooEqox Ph -« " -^ M 0. TO TO '=^ •uoiioo •SBaj per bushel. Is.'Vorf. Is. Gd. to 2s. 2s. Gd. to 4s. 6rf. Is. to 4s. id. ■9ZTEI\[ per bushel. Is. 3d. Is. 1.9. 3d. to Is. Gd. Gd. to Is. llrf. id. to 3s. 8d. •aiBJ£) per bushel. 2s. 3s. 3s. 9d. Is. 9d. to 2s. 3d. 9d. to 4s. to 7s. •piBisniv[ per bushel. Is. Is. Is. 9d. 2s. to 8s. id. id. to 5s. lOd. •jaddaj per bushel. 8s. id. 5s. 6s. is. Gd. to 12s. id. to 25s. Gd. is. 2d. to 22s. Gd. •33503 . a 2 • • ^ «i • ^ ^ ^' o," ^TOTO t^c.-^^^ SUIBJO 3UIJ J3r-l 50TO.^eOTOO •.{ppEJ — ■ ..0.0. g^-^ s *. ^. -e =^ -5: ^ *: « ^ ^ .2 2 i '^•'' ■■''.'* 42 •SIE3\ cc Ci « e 10 «o oc 55 ,^ ^ ■- CO tc 00 TO C5 t^ ■0 — =0 00 »^ -• — t^ t^ -«< t^ — UO 00 .-" TT =5 — C-. CO I^ TO M Tj. tT- 559904 550333 551419 537203 552740 5917G9 CO j^ r^ w T* 00 C^ I^ TO •>»< ) TO ■M ■M CO CO TO TO oc oc 00 OS 00 oc ANIMALS. THE ELEPHANT. 51 Animals. — If the vegetable kingdom be rich in Ceylon, the animated one is no less so, from the gigantic elephant to the many- coloured chamelion ; indeed earth, air, and water is instinct with life. The elephants of Ceylon have long been famed for their size and docility ; as regards the former, some writers have of late stated that the African elephant is the larger of the two. I have, when traversing parts of Ceylon and districts of Africa, had ample opportunities of comparing both beasts in their wild state. Often have I been obliged to sleep in a gigantic cotton or umbrageous jack tree, while a herd of those magni- ficent animals were grazing beneath me, or browsing off the nethermost branches of my nightly shelter ; and at other times I have chosen a safe position for firing (in youthful thoughtlessness) at these sagacious and generous brutes, who have subsequently spared my life when I was at their mercy ; I may, therefore, consider myself qualified to judge between the two animals. The Asiatic elephant is considerably taller than anv I ever saw in Africa ; his head is not so large, nor his limbs so unwieldy as that of the latter, and ac- cording to the accounts of those who catch and do- mesticate them, the former is a much more valuable animal than the latter to man. Though still extremely numerous in Ceylon (I have seen wild herds of 100 and 200 young and old elephants), this extraordinary creature will doubtlessly disappear before cultivation and civilization, particularly as his noble nature dis- dains to produce a breed of slaves. They have been for some time used in government works, in drawing E 2 52 CEYLON. timber and stones for bridges, and in conveying the baggage of a regiment when on the march, a duty which their surefootedness over the mountains renders them peculiarly adapted for. The tiger of Ceylon is a formidable and destructive animal, and so bold that it has been known to come into a bazaar and snatch off some unfortunate cooley, or seize on an European soldier's child while the mother has been spreading out her washed clothes on the hedge opposite her dwelling. The buffalo in its wild state is also a very troublesome opponent, particularly if his antagonist have a red coat or jacket on. The elk of Ceylon assimilates in appearance with the fossil remains of those found in Ireland. Deer of every variety are plentiful, and their flesh, when preserved in honey for two or three years by the wild Veddas, forms a feast which a London alderman once tasting would never forget. Snakes are numerous ; but of twenty different kinds, examined by Dr. Davy, sixteen were found harmless. The tic polonga of the coluber species is the most deadly in its poison ; I have seen a strong dog die in fifteen minutes after being bit, and a fowl in less than three minutes : the cobra capello carawalla, and three or four others, are nearly equally fatal. The natives say that the tic polonga lies in wait on the road side to dart out on travellers ; my observations lead me to believe such is the case. A large snake called the pimbei^ah exists, the length of which is thirty feet. While travelling through Ovah and the central pro- vinces, I have been assured by the Mohanderems of the districts, particularly towards Ruan Welle, of the MINERAL KINGDOM. 53 existence of boas of a much greater size than thirty feet, and their ovi and viviparous habits distinguished. The alligator is found in most rivers, and the jackal in every tope ; the mountain provinces are infested with a species of small leech, that cling with peculiar tenacity to any bare flesh, and draw much blood, their bites in diseased constitutions being productive of considerable after suffering. Wild peacocks are abundant in the interior. The jungle cock of Ceylon is a splendid bird, equal, if not superior, in plumage to the golden pheasant. The quail, snipe, and woodcock of the upper districts would please any epicure, and a fish gourmond, whether on the coast or inland, might never feel satiety, if variety and exquisiteness of flavour could ensure appetite. The beef is small, but sweet, and the mutton of JafFnapatam equal to South Down. Eating is a favourite pursuit with some old Europeans in Ceylon, and certes it is a good place to indulge that faculty in. Mineral Kingdom. — The metallic riches of Cevlon are yet almost unknown ; the island, as before ob- served, is principally composed of granite, with veins of quartz, hornblende, and dolomite ; rock and shell limestone are found near Kandy and Jaffhapatam ; iron and plumbago (the latter now forms an article of considerable export) are abundant ; and gold (some say also quicksilver) and silver are found in the hill streams. Amethyst, topazes, cats' eyes, garnet, cin- namon stone, sapphires, rock crystals, shorl, zircon, rubies, and diamonds, &c. the island has long been famed for : the celebrated pearl fishery in the Gulf of 54 CEYLON. Manaar my limits forbid me here dwelling on. The natural history of the pearl-oyster is imperfectly known ; the banks have been found suddenly to fail when a productive fishery had been anticipated. At certain seasons the young oysters are seen floating in masses, and are carried by the current round the coast ; they afterwards settle and attach themselves by a fibre or beard to the coral rocks, and on sand they adhere together in clusters. When full grown they are again separated and become locomotive. The pearls enlarge during six years, and the oyster is sup- posed to die after seven years : they are fished at a depth of thirty-six feet in the calm season. The length of time which the divers remain under water is almost incredible to an European. Nitre caves are numerous ; alum is plentiful, and the coast from Chilaw to Manaar and Jaffna, on the western side, and from Tangalle, through the Mahagampatoo, to the east- ward, contains the most extensive and valuable salt formations which are to be met with in India. The leways, or natural deposits at Hambantotte, yield the largest supply of the finest salt, owing to the peculiar dryness of the air, and the rapid evaporation at cer- tain seasons ; the salt which thus crystallizes sponta- neously is of great purity, and more slowly dissolved when exposed to the moisture of the atmosphere than that which is artificially prepared. There are many inducements for capitalists to emigrate to Ceylon ; its extensive fisheries of pearl and chank {voluta gravis), the manufacture of coir ropes, cocoa- nut oil, and in- digo, the distillation of arrack, the preparation of plumbago, the collection of Chaya roots {oldenlandia POPULATION. 55 umbellata of Linnaeus, used for dyeing red, orange, and purple), Sapan wood and ivory, for the Indian and English markets, and the cultivation of cinnamon, pepper, cardamoms, tobacco, grain, ginger, cotton, silk, &c. &c. CHAPTER III. POPULATION WHITE AND COLOURED — CASTES — RELIGION — CIVILIZATION, &C. That Ceylon was formerly extensively peopled is evident from the works and structures before alluded to, but it would appear the number of the inhabitants had been declining for the last four or five centuries. An increase has now commenced in the maritime pro- vinces, which had, in 1814, mouths, 475,883; in 1824, 595,105; and, in 1832, 698,611. Colonel Colebrooke states in his report, that the population, in 1824, was, in the southern or Cingalese pro- vinces, 399,408 ; in the northern or Malabar districts, 195,697; and in the interior or Kandyan provinces, 256,835 ; total, 852,940. The returns from the ma- ritime provinces are doubtless correct, as the village registers of marriages, and births, and deaths are kept as punctually there as in England^ ; but having ^ The coroner's inquests held in the maritime provinces for the year 1833 showed 148 deaths, of whom 38 fell from trees, 87 were drowned, 19 fell into wells, 6 from bites of serpents, 1 alligator, 2 elephants, 8 murder, 10 natural, and among the remainder are included 8 murders. 56 CEYLON. myself traversed the Kandyan provinces more exten- sively perhaps than any European, I should think the estimate of their population is under rather than over the mark : it is to be feared, however, that the decreasing of the semi-barbarous inhabitants of this splendid region has scarcely reached its acme, per- haps it may now be considered stationary, as the com- forts of the people are on the increase. A colonial office manuscript affords me a few con- secutive years of the aggregate population of the island: I derive 1831 and 1832 from the Ceylon Almanac. It appears singular that the number of slaves should be on the increase, although every child born of bond parents since 1812 has been born free, according to the generous determination of the slave owners. Census of the Maritime Districts of Ceylon, in 1814. Above the age of Puberty. Children. Total Males. Total Females. Grand Total. to S H 1564-17 142453 95091 81892 251538 224345 ' 475883 1 POPULATION RETURNS. 57 ^ t^ ■4-> '-' •"• '~ ^ d ^ ^ CO ir- •* 0) -■ 00 =o : '*' be O (M CO LO ; CO ^ ; Ci o . t^ O . Cl t^ oo cc o oc LO C5 M t^ O • C-I — l^ C^l -H I >0 Ol CM — 1^ cs ^ — ;:! t^ CM CO CO O Tt* CM C^l CO CO O ' CO O CO C2 05 . O CO O ITS CO Tt< CC -fH — c UO c^i t^ LO oi c^ ; — < LO c>i cc o > "O r— C^) CO -f C5 o o o o CM CO CO CO CO •S9{BIU9J •S9IBJ\[ •S9IBttl9J •S9tBJ^ •S9IBm9J •S91BI\[ •SIB9X lo Lo CO ci i-o 35 t^ ^»• lO LO t^ "^ UO ^ ' — 'CO CO -M ;0 O C^J CO LO CM C500cocoioc5Tt« -HCOOOt^CMCMuOCM 0>^C5t^OC0t^".0l -^coooi^— -Oia3TfOOt--.t^o-ri OOCC^-.OOC^OOC^I cocoTh-fTfoirjio CiCO-^CMO-*^-co ocii-oeoci050t^ i^t>.r-itN.incoifjco Or-i03i©CMO^ LO t>- ■* CM t^ t^ c^i — OlOOiCOO— itOCM GCOr-HC^lCOt^COCO t^t^— i«0-OTfC5CM ^ ^ O C^l C.) CO CO o COCOtJ^'^'^-^-^-^ CM>Ct^W5COOOTti35 OOCOT!'"*'.— ICOt^l^ C50C^-O'^C5^O ■'*'COTt. i> j; > tl ■•^ nS-TS .5 O 0) o to .5 '33 ^ 0) rr a o ^ o o -a ,z^ >, > o c o p. g to 0) o S5' o TS^ 3 JJ cS o H-l 3 o ., ' a ce 0) o ,Q F o g ,c ^ ? 0) o 1 !^0 ,r3 r^ o >. ^ en 3 "3 C G o TS ,= CC yj rl '=^ * s ■D 'i-i Q 'a S < 123746 114035 1871 162 61358 6854 10179 7292 2030 5240 47763 43934 161 150 17510 5221 6415 2600 233 1504 55324 51019 207 45 26247 3414 3207 4435 555 4406 15308 14116 21 9009 370 4921 1293 117 351 7371 5474 550 8 1598 954 447 458 133 726 S4532 822.'^5 215 136 63493 5393 19829 1036 4132 3876 110S4 10702 350 20 4396 450 623 436 698 336 15138 12868 1016 40 6621 941 752 991 210 503 1651 1592 39 117 969 34 7 164 6 83 358317 335975 4319 699 191201 23631 46440 18705 8114 17025 3i921 27985 3179 58 21472 2073 586 18313 13579 600 106 11615 325 160 4751 3536 131 23 3601 47 The returns under 57944 488S1 400 28 57701 243 these heads must 17141 16894 1281 8 15280 234 be wholly conjec- 7595 6868 809 6 2515 361 tural, no registers 24381 19S02 28 25000 having ever been 689 717 2 680 kept referrible to the native popula- 165735 138262 6400 21 112S94 2759 1270 tion. 524052 474237 10719 40 304095 26390 47710 Ceylon, 1,009,C 08. 60 CEYLON. The following- table demonstrates that in the Colombo district, at least, population is on the in- crease ; and it will be observed that the augmenta- tion (except in the fort and pettah) has been steady for the last five years. Population of the District of Colombo. Town of Colombo Grand Pettah or Native Total. Corles or Total of Town. Divisions. Colombo Years. Fort. District. Within. Without. 1816 657 4894 21664 27215 161286 188501 182G 734 4975 25475 31188 184172 215360 1827 514 4736 23916 29162 192982 222144 1828 499 4006 24454 28959 196543 225502 1829 495 4343 24792 29630 198637 228267 1820 465 4500 26990 31955 200768 232723 1831 432 4760 26357 31549 203242 234791 1832 237781 The population of the island, although comprising a variety of different nations, may be divided into four distinct classes : — first, The Singalese or Cev- lonese (descended, as some say, from the Sings or Rajpoots of Hindoostan, and bv others from the Siamese ' ) proper, who occupy Kandy, and the south and south west coasts of the island from Hambantotte to Chilaw. Second, the Malabars, or Hindoos, who invaded Ceylon from the opposite coast, and are in possession of the north and east coasts, and of the Ms it not probable that the Jains of Upper India and Rajpoots are one and the same people with the Siamese or Buddhists of Siam? THE SINGALESE. 61 peninsula of JafFnapatam. Third, the Moors or descendants of the Arabs, or perhaps, from Maho- medans of Upper India, who are dispersed all over the island (as the Moslems are over Hindoostan) and in Pultam district form the mass of population. Fourth, Veddas or Beddas, the aborigines of the island, who dwell in the most untutored state (having neither habitations nor clothing) in the great forests which extend from the south to the east and north, and also in the most inaccessible parts of the interior, wild fruits and beasts being their sole sustenance, and the branches of large trees their resting place. There are some Malays, Caffres, and Javanese, a few Chinese, and Parsee traders, and a good many de- scendants of the Portuguese and Dutch, and even of the English mixed with native blood, scattered over the island. In colour the Singalese vary from light brown or olive to black ; the eyes sometimes hazel, but the hair almost always black, long and silky ; in height they are 5 ft. 4 to 5 ft. 7 ; clean made, with neat muscle, and small bone ; the chest capacious, and the shoulders broad ; and in the mountainous districts, like most other Highlanders, they have short but strong and rather muscular legs and thighs ; the hands and feet, like those of the Hindoos, are uncommonly small ; the head well shaped, perhaps in general longer than the European ; the features often handsome, and generally intelligent and ani- mated ; the beard is unshorn, giving manliness to the youthful countenance, and dignity to that of age. The Singalese women, particularly those of the maritime provinces, are really handsome. The beau 7 62 CEYLON. ideal is thus described by a Kandian courtier, well versed in the attributes of an Eastern Venus : — ' Her hair should be voluminous, like the tail of a peacock — long, reaching to the knees, and terminating in graceful curls ; her eyebrows should resemble the rainbow, her eyes the blue sapphire, and the petals of the blue manilla-flower ; her nose should be like the bill of the hawk ; her lips should be bright and red, like coral, or the young leaf of the iron tree ; her teeth should be small, regular, closely set, and like jessamine-buds : her neck should be large and round, resembling the herrigodea ; her chest capa- cious ; her breast firm and conical, like the yellow cocoa-nut, and her waist small — almost small enough to be clasped by the hand ; her hips wide ; limbs tapering ; soles of feet without any hollow ; and the surface of her body in general soft, delicate, smooth, and rounded, without the asperities of projecting bones and sinews/ The foregoing may be considered the most general external character of the Singalese, who are rather remarkable for agility and flexibility of fibre than for strength and power of limb. What- ever may have been the extent of civilization in Ceylon at a remote period, at present I cannot say that the Singalese are superior, if indeed equal, to the Hindoos, in the domestic and fine arts ; although many branches of manufactures, such as the vv^eaving of cotton and silk, the smelting of, and working in, gold, silver, iron, copper, &c. ; the cutting and set- ting of precious stones, the glazing of pottery, appli- cation of lacker, preparation of gunpowder, casting of cannon, distillation of spirits, &c. &c. are carried ADVANTAGES FOR EMIGRANTS. 63 on, it is by the most simple instruments, and with little aid from mechanics, and less from science. In the fine arts they are scarcely on a par with the Hindoos, and in their structures of a recent period certainly far behind the latter people, or even less advanced than the Burmese. They however possess great capabilities of instruction, and in the neighbour- hood of the principal British stations are beginning to profit by the superior handicraft of the European artizan. It has been justly stated that the peasantry of Ceylon, as well as of India, generally possess land, from which they derive part of their subsistence. The wages of common labourers vary in different parts of the island from 6d. a day in Colombo to Sd. and 4^d. a day in the country. The government has interfered to fix these rates when requiring labourers , but higher demands are made to private employers, according to circumstances. Those who possess small portions of land rarely derive their support from them exclusively, but employ themselves in the fisheries, in trades and manufactures, and in the petty traffic of the country ; and from the small amount of their individual gains there is reason to conclude, that if they could obtain regular employment near their homes, or even at a distance, from 6d. to Is. a day would be generally acceptable to them. The wages of mechanics and artizans are propor- tionally higher than those of labourers. The minute subdivision of land has been accele- rated in the maritime provinces by the Dutch law of inheritance. In fields, gardens, and plantations, which are farmed or held in joint ownership, the 64 CEYLON. interest of an individual proprietor is often limited to such fractional portions as are valued at a few pence. For example, the inheritance of one person will consist, in land, of nine-tenths of a seer of rice ; trees, of five-twelfths of a cocoa-nut tree, and two- thirds of a jack-tree. The attachment of the natives to these possessions is evinced by the fact, that they are often the subject of protracted law suits. There are a few native landholders in the Colombo district who possess about 1,000 acres each ; but under the laws of inheri- tance these will in time be subdivided. In the south-western division of the island, the cinnamon, pepper, cocoa-nut and coffee plantations, would claim attention ; and in the northern division, cotton, opium, and tobacco. By extending the cul- tivation of these and other productions the internal markets for grain would be encouraged ; the cinna- mon gardens planted by the Dutch, which have been abandoned, would be re-occupied, and pepper, which is now imported, would be re- cultivated for expor- tation. The manufacture of cocoa-nut oil, of coir rope and cable, and the distillation of arrack or rum from sugar, would become objects of general speculation, as they are now a source of profit to a few European merchants. Caste, as respects the Singalese and Malabars, is scrupulously preserved, and very widely ramified, almost every occupation having its distinct caste. There are, for instance, the gold and silversmiths' caste, the fishers', the barbers', the washermen. [ CIVIL AND RELIGIOUS CASTES. 65 th

' on sabbath mornings ; and in one of our schools where we preach on Thursday evenings, besides Sun- days, we generally have a small congregation of adults, and intend to form a native class. * In our other schools, in which we have service, there are a fevv^ who attend regularly ; but listlessness and unconcern about the things of eternity charac- terize the bulk of the people. ' Come from the four winds, O breath, and breathe upon these slain, that they may live !' ' Number in society 48. Matura. — " This circuit presents an extensive and interesting field of usefulness among the natives. The work is great but the labourers are few. And I fear that this circuit may have suffered for want of more labourers. However we have still enough to ex- cite our gratitude, and to encourage us to persevere. Number in society 64." MoRUWA Corle. — ' Our congregations in private houses, in the villages, and in the school here, are on the increase, but their attendance is not regular ; it depends altogether upon the state of the weather, and the times w^hich they are not employed in their cultivating business, &c. However, upon the whole it appears that the light of the gospel is now diffusing in these parts, and much solemnity is apparent in our assemblies. I cannot but observe that there is already a visible reformation among several of the people here. Some once notorious drunkards and quarrelsome men are now soberly and industriously employed in providing for their families ; some, who leaving their families were always in the gambling 7 80 CEYLON. places, are spending their time now in better occupa- tion ; others who lived profligately are now ashamed, and confess it with sorrow. The common coolies re- prove each other, when they hear any one cursing or swearing. Number in society 30, children 17 ; total 47.' Total members in the Singhalese District 590. Schools. — Colombo. — Pettah English School. — ' For a time we were obliged to suspend this school. However, w^e have procured two teachers who are equal to their work, and have re-opened it. 21 boys and 3 girls have been received. 2. ' Colpetty School has prospered and given much satisfaction during the past year ; at present it con- tains 64 children, 6 of whom are girls. In this In- stitution both English and Singhalese are taught by the same master, who is laborious in the discharge of his duty. 3. New Bazaar. — ' The discontinuance of a Ba- zaar in that part of Colombo has occasioned the re- moval of many native families, and altogether altered the character of the place; 26 children attend, 7 of whom can read the scriptures. 4. Nagalgam. — ' This school continues to be in- teresting and prosperous. The school contains Q^ children, 22 of whom are girls. Both Singhalese and English are taught. In this school divine ser- vice is held every Sunday, and a native class met by the preacher after service. 5. Kehelwatte School — ' contains at present 36 boys, 9 of whom read the scriptures with considerable accuracy. REPORT OF THE WESLEYAN MISSION. 81 6. Kalohoville School — ' contains 65 boys, 24 of whom can read the scriptures, writft on paper and olas, and repeat a good part of the Catechism. 7. Deheicella. — ' This village contains a numerous population of low caste people, who appear to value in some degree the instruction and improvement of their children; b7 attend the school; 21 can read the scriptures.' Negombo. — ' On this station there are 16 schools in various degrees of efficiency, some of them very useful. They are under the care of 23 male and 2 female teachers, and contain 542 boys and 100 girls ; total 642.' Caltura. — ' Seventeen schools in connection with this station are taught by 27 male teachers and 1 female. They contain 834 boys and 69 girls ; total 903.' Galle. — ' The schoolmasters of this circuit ge- nerally have afforded satisfaction during the past year. The children of two of the nearest schools attend divine service in the Chapel in the Fort, and are regularly catechised after preaching. In all the other schools divine service is held once and in some twice on the Lord's day.' 1. Fort School, — ' This school continues in a prosperous state. At present the number on the books is 54 boys and 14 girls. 2. Kalegane. — ' The number of children in this school is 12. 3. Mahamodem School. — ' contains 43 boys and 8 girls. 82 CEYLON. 4. Dcmgederah School. — ' The state of this school is encouraging, and it at present contains 52 boys and 15 girls. The girls sew plain work neatly. A num- ber of the boys read the Testament, and most of them repeat the Catechism, Creed, and Ten Command- ments. 5. Unuwattime School ' is suspended for the pre- sent. ■'■'''■. 6. Bopey School. — ' The average attendance is 33. 7. Dawatue School. — ' The number of childre^ is 72 ; the master is an active, intelligent man. --* 8. Weiuelle School. — ' The number on the books 74 boys, 28 girls, of which number 19 read in the Testament. 9. Tottagamey School ' contains 50 boys; 16 read the Testament, and 20 know the Catechism, &c. 10. Mallawenne School. — ' This school contains 44 boys. 1 1 . Amhlamgoddey School. — ' At one part of the year the country fever prevailed in this village. The number on our list at present is 42 boys, of whom 16 read in the Testament, 24 repeat the Prayers, Catechism, Ten Commandments,' &c. Matura. — ' The masters of the circuit are met by our assistants at Matura every Saturday forenoon, for the purpose of receiving religious instruction, that they may be better qualified for the discharge of the duties of their office. The meetings are opened and closed with prayer, and the plan of the Sunday REPORT OF THE WESLEYAN MISSION. 83 services is made known. Any complaints which are to be made regarding the pubHc conduct of the masters are then preferred against them, and their characters are investigated. If the charge of open sin, of the neglect of duty, or of their attendance on any heathen ceremonies, is substantiated, they are dismissed from their situation: if no decisive evidence can be obtained, they are suspended for a time until the fact is ascertained. 1 . Matura English School. — ' The number of boys who attend is 40, many of vvdiom are the sons of the most respectable natives in the neighbourhood, who read well in the Bible, and are considerably ad- vanced in arithmetic. All the boys learn the second part of the Conference catechism, and commit hymns to memory. Tracts are frequently distributed amongst them, and much good may be expected to result. 2. Matura Singhalese ' school contains 43 boys. 3. Pittacatua ' school is in a flourishing state, and some of the boys are very promising. The village in which this school stands is very populous, so that we have preaching here on Sabbath mornings and Wed- nesday evenings. The attention v/hich the boys manifest during divine service is truly pleasing. By the blessing of God we hope to see much good done in this village : the number of bovs in the school is 55. Weradura ' school has revived during the past year ; several girls have been added, who are taught to read and to write ; and a woman is employed to teach them to sew, who is paid by the masters. G 2 84 CEYLON. There are at present 28 boys and 20 girls v/ho at- tend the school. Dondrah ' school 1st. has been suspended until we can obtain for it more suitable masters. When this school was discontinued it contained 18 boys who read in the Testament, 17 who repeated the Catechism and Prayers, and 20 who could write. Dondrah ' school 2d. contains 61 boys, of whom 20 read in the Testament, 46 can repeat the Lord's prayer, the Creed, the Ten Command- ments, and the morning and evening prayers. The second master of this school is an active young man, who was himself taught in one of our schools, and the children under his care increase in the know- ledge of divine truth. At one of the public exami- nations, — it having been observed that the scriptures teach us that all things were created by God, but that Budha says, every thing was made of itself, — an appeal was made to the boys, who they thought spoke the truth, Jehovah or Budha, when a little boy about eight years of age boldly cried aloud, that God spoke the truth, for he made all things ; but that Budha told a lie. This saying much surprised many of the worshippers of Budha who were witnessing the examination. Naurunna ' school is situated about eight miles from Matura, and contains 34 boys and 10 girls. Weregampitte ' school contains '6Q boys and 23 girls, manv of whom are newly admitted; 14 boys and 2 girls however read in the Testament. Tudawa School. — ' The village in which this REPORT OF THE WESLEYAN MISSION. So school is situated is thinly inhabited, and I fear we shall be obliged to discontinue it at the end of this year. Nupey School. — * There are 50 boys in this school: 15 read well in the Testament, and a very con- siderable part of the children who attend can repeat the Catechism, the Lord's Prayer, the Creed, the Ten Commandments, and the morning- and evening prayers at the end of the Catechism. During the past year 12 boys have left this school, who are able to read for themselves the word of eternal life. Belligam Boys' School. — ' Of the number who remain in this school, 19 can read the scriptures, and a considerable number attend the public w^orship of Almighty God in the Belligam chapel every Lord's day.' Belligam Girls' School. — ' Most of the girls attend our chapel for divine service every sabbath, and more would attend were they not prevented by great poverty. Pallane School. — ' In this school 30 boys and 1 1 girls are taught. Divine service is conducted in the school every sabbath. We have an average attendance of 15 adults, who, with the children, form an interesting congregation. Merisse School. — ' The people of this village call themselves Christians, being baptized when infants ; but all of them are worshippers of Budha and of devils. The schools contain 60 children, 17 of whom read the scriptures. And we have an average of 20 adults, who attend divine service in the school every sabbath afternoon. 86 CEYLON. ' Mormva Corle. — * On this station there is only one school, containing 40 boys and 10 girls : many favourable opportunities of establishing additional schools have occurred, and are under the considera- tion of the District Meeting. ' In the Cingalese district there are 66 schools, 93 masters, 9 mistresses, 2730 boys, and 447 girls ; total 3177." Tamul District. — 'Jaffna, Mr.Percival; Solomon Valoopulle and J. Matthiez, Assistant Missionaries. Point Pedro, Mr. George. Ttnncomalee, Mr. Stott ; J. Hunter, Assistant Missionary. Batticaloa, J. Katts and John P. Saumuggam, Assistant Missionaries. Twenty Salaried School Teachers. " In this district there are 135 members of society. The schools are as follows : — Jaffna — Pettali Portu- guese Female School contains 46 scholars ; Bazaar Tamul School, 80; Vannarpanne, 84; Thattan, 51 Cockoovil, 50. Point Pedro — Tamul School, 35 Chetty Terru, 52 ; Tampacitty, 37 ; Ploly, 45 Alvoy, 31 ; Caravatty, 49. Trincomalee — Nalavah Theroo Tamul School, 96 ; Temple Tamul School, 62 ; Thamplagam, 60. Batticaloa — Pullyantheevoo Eng- lish School, 22 ; ditto Tamul ditto, 45 ; Nahvacoodah Tamul ditto, 40 ; Ahrelpatthy Tamul ditto, 42 ; Marootha'muny Tamul ditto, 70 ; Ahralioor Tamul ditto, bb ; total in the district, 1032." ( 87 ) CHAPTER IV. CIVIL GOVERNMENT — INDIA ESTABLISHMENTS — MILITARY DEFENCE FINANCES — COMMERCE SHIPPING — GENERAL VIEW OF CEYLON. The legislative administration of the island is con- fided to the governor, aided by a council composed from among the oldest and most distinguished Euro- pean civil servants, appointed by the governor or sometimes by the Secretary of State for the Colonies in England, and comprising six unofficial members selected from the chief landed proprietors, or prin- cipal merchants : it is provided that printed copies of proposed ordinances be sent to the members ten days before the summoning of the council, and the regulations or laws of the government are published in the Official Gazette some time before their enact- ment, in order to elicit public discussion ; w^hen passed into law they take immediate effect in the maritime districts on their publication, and in the Kandyan districts by the governor's proclamation, subject in both to the final approval of the queen in council. There is a special board for the administration of the affairs of the Kandyan Provinces, whom the governor is in the habit of consulting previous to his extension of an enactment there, which may have been ordained for the lower or maritime provinces. In the maritime provinces the governor is restricted from authorising contingent disbursements exceeding 75/., without the concurrence of the council ; but in the Kandyan pro- 88 CEYLON. vinces he orders expenditure on his own control. In his executive capacity the governor refers or not to the council, as he wills, but his proceedings are recorded in the secretary for government's office, or in the department charged with the execution of the measure. The regulations of the government are published with the translations in the native lan- guages (Cingalese and Malabar), and widely dis- seminated. Three classes of persons are employed in carrying on the business of government : first, the civil ser- vants, who are sent out as ' writers' from England, under the patronage of the Secretary of State for the Colonies ; there are twenty-five principal appoint- ments in the island, to which these gentlemen are alone eligible, the seniors being exclusively employed as heads of departments, in the revenue, as govern- ment agents, chief secretary, paymaster, or auditor- general, &c. &c. : as collectors of districts and provincial judges and magistrates. The juniors as assistants to the collectors or magistrates, and in the chief secretary's department. On its present footing the effective civil service consists of thirty-eight members ; an acquirement of one or both of the native languages is indispensable previous to the holding of a responsible situation. The second class is formed of Europeans (not of the civil service), or their descendants, from among whom are appointed provincial magistrates (of which rank there are six- teen), and clerks in public offices. The third class comprises the natives, who hold the situations of modeliars (or lieutenants) of korles (or districts), OCCUPATIONS OF DIFFERENT CLASSES. 89 interpreters to the courts of justice, and to the collectors' offices or cutcheries. The modeliars are still recognized according to ancient custom as com- manders of the lascoreigns or district militia, although at present chiefly employed in the civil administra- tion of the country, and in the execution of public works. There are, of course, gradations of native officers in authority under them ; the assistants of all natives are still regulated in a great degree by caste. Independent of the numerous government * head- men' and the titular ' headmen' who receive no emoluments, there are, in conformity to ancient usage, headmen appointed to each caste or class, some of whom receive certain perquisites as the head of fishermen do of the fish caught, &c. Since 1828 no ' headmen' have been appointed who could not read and write the English language, and the head- men form a valuable connecting link in the social fabric, as well as an intelligent and respectable body of individuals, from among whom the government can select officers for the more immediate service of the state. The number of principal headmen in the Cingalese districts amounts to 243. In the Malabar to 112, and in the Kandyan to 47 ; these num- bers do not include the headmen of villages, w^ho are more numerous. The fourth class consist of officers selected from the regiments serving in Ceylon, for the fulfilment of the post of government agents or sitting magis- trates in the Kandyan provinces, the duties of which are performed efficiently and creditably upon small salaries in addition to their military allowances. 90 CEYLON. Patronage. — All appointments to the hij^lier offices are provisionally made by the governor, vvho selects candidates from the civil service according to their seniority, when otherwise qualified, subiict, however, to the confirmation of the Secreta i State in England. The magistrates and clerks are also appointed b\- the government ; the modeliars and principal head^ men hold their appointments under His Excellency';? warrant, being recommended by the Commissioner of Revenue, the provincial headmen being rr v'om* mended by the Collectors of Districts. Kandyan provinces appointments are similarly by the governor, on the recommendation oi i u- Board of Commissioners (to whom the more im- mediate management of those provinces is com- mitted), including the chiefs or principal headmen of provinces or departments, the chiefs of temples, and the priests in the colleges or wihares. In the northern or Malabar provinces the headmen of villages or castes are commonly appointed on the nomination of the inhabitants, a deputation pf villagers making a return to the magistintc of the candidate approved of by them. Judicial establishment. — Justice is administered first by a supreme court, with powers equivalent to the Court of Queen's Bench, and in equitable juris- diction to the High Court of Chanceiy ; it is presided over by three judges \ appointed from Jilngl^nd, ^ The chief and two puisne judges hold office during the pleasure of the crown, and may be suspended upon proof of incapacity or misconduct by the governor and council. NEW COURTS, 91 aided by a Queen's Advocate (whose functions are similar to the Lord Advocate of Scotland), Master in Equity and Registrar, also appointed from home : and thanks to the enlightened patriotism of Sir Alexander Johnson, trial by jury, (with reference to Europeans or natives), is established under its supremacy. The island has been recently divided into five provinces, the north, south, east, west, and central, each of which are again subdivided into districts. Within each district, there is one court, called the District Court, holden before one judge, and three assessors; the district judge is appointed by the crown, and removable at pleasure ; the assessors are selected from amongst the inhabitants of the island, whether natives or otherwise, twenty-one years of age, pos- sessing certain qualifications. The right of appoint- ing, in each district court, one person to act as per- manent assessor, is reserved to the crown. The officers of the district courts are appointed in like manner as those of the Supreme Court. The Supreme Court is held at Colombo (except on circuit), and the district courts at a convenient speci- fied place in each district. Each district court is a court of civil and criminal jurisdiction, and has cognizance of and full power to hear and determine civil suits, in which the defendant is resident, or in which the subject of action shaU have' occurred, within the district (where the judge is a party, the court adjoining takes cognizance of the cause) ; and to try all oiFences, short of such as are punishable with death, transportation, or banishment. 92 €EYLON, imprisonment for more than a year, whipping ex- ceeding one hundred lashes, a fine exceeding 10/., which shall have been committed within the district. Each district court has the care and custody of the persons and estates of idiots and lunatics resident within the district, with power to appoint guardians and curators ; and power to appoint administrators of intestates' effects within the district, and to deter- mine the validity of wills and to record and grant probate thereof, and to take securities from executors and administrators, and to require accounts of such persons. Offences against the revenue laws are cognizable before the district courts (saving the rights of the Vice Admiralty Courts), limited as in respect to criminal persecutions. The judgments and interlocutory and other orders of the district courts, are pronounced in open court, the judge stating, in the hearing of the assessors, the questions of law and fact, with the grounds and reasons of his opinion ; and the assessors declare, in open court, their respective opinions and votes on each and every question of law or fact : in case of a difference of opinion between the judge and the majority of the assessors, the opinion of the judge prevails and is taken as the sentence of the whole court, a record being made and preserved of the vote of each. The Supreme Court is a court of sole appellate jurisdiction for the district courts, with original criminal jurisdiction throughout the island : civil and criminal sessions of the supreme court are held POWERS OF SUPREME COURT. 93 by one of the judges in each circuit, twice in each year : all the judges are required to be never absent at the same time from Colombo, and also to be resident at the same time at Colombo, not less than one month, twice in each year. At every civil session of the supreme court, on circuit, three assessors are associated with the judge ; and every criminal session is held before the judge and a jury of thirteen men. In all civil suits, the judge and assessors deliver their opinions and votes as in the district courts ; in appeals from the district courts, in criminal prosecutions, the appeal has not the effect of staying the execution of the sentence, unless the judge of the district court see fit. All questions of fact, upon which issue shall be joined at any criminal sessions of the supreme court, on circuit, are decided by the jury, or major part of them ; questions of law are decided by the judge in open court, with the grounds and reasons thereof. Where a person is adjudged to die by the supreme court, at a criminal sessions, execution is respited till the case be reported by the presiding judge to the governor. Judges on circuit holding criminal sessions are re- quired to direct all fiscals and keepers of prisons, within the circuit, to certify the persons committed, and their offences, who may be required to be brought before the judge. The judges of the supreme court, on circuit, examine the records of the district courts, and if it shall ap- pear that contradictory or inconsistent decisions have been 2:iven bv the same or different district courts, the judges report the same to the supreme court at D4 CEYLoy. Colombo, who prepare the draft of a declaratory law upon the subject, and transmit it to the governor, who submits such draft to the legislative council. The supreme court also makes rules and orders for the removal of doubts. The supreme court, or any judge of the same, at sessions or on circuit, may grant or refuse writs of habeas corpus and injunctions ; it may require district courts to transmit to Colombo the records in any case appealed, and may hear and decide appeals, in a sum- marv way, without argument, and may frame and establish rules and orders of the court, not repugnant to the charter, which promote the discovery of truth, economy, and expedition in business, to be drawn up in plain and succinct terms, avoiding unnecessary repetitions and obscurity. Appeals are allowed to the Queen in Council, sub- ject to the following rules and limitations : — 1. The appeal must be brought, by way of review, before the judges of the supreme court collectively, holding a general sessions at Colombo, at which all the judges shall be present. 2. The matter in dispute must exceed the value of 500/. 3. Leave to appeal must be applied for within fourteen days. 4. If the ap- pellant be the party against whom sentence is given, the sentence shall be carried into execution, if the respondent shall give security for the immediate per- formance of any sentence pronounced by the Privy Council, until which the sentence appealed from shall be stayed. 5. If the appellant shall show that real justice requires the stay of execution, pending the appeal, the supreme court may stay execution, on se- curity, as before. G. In all cases the appellant shall APPEALS TO QUEEN IN COUNCIL. 95 give security to prosecute the appeal, and for costs. 7. The court appealed from shall determine the nature of the securities. 8. Where the subject of litigation is immoveable property, and the judgment appealed from shall not affect the occupancy, security is not to be required ; but if the judgment do affect the occu- pancy, then the security shall not be of greater amount than to restore the property, and the intermediate profit accruing from the occupancy, pending the ap- peal. 9. Where the subject of litigation consists of chattels or personal property, the security shall, in all cases, be a bond to the amount or mortgage. 10. The security for prosecution of appeal and for costs shall in no case exceed 300/. 1 1 . The security must be completed within three months from the date of the petition of leave to appeal. 12. Any person feeling aggrieved by any order respecting security or appeal, may petition the Privy Council. The same laws are administered in the district courts as in the supreme court, namely, the Dutch, or Roman law, with certain exceptions. A prisoner can only be tried in the supreme court, upon the prosecution of the Queen's advocate ; he has the right of challenge to the jury before whom he is to be arraigned ; he is entitled on his trial to the assistance of an eminent proctor or barrister, paid by the government (an admirable provision), and the wit- nesses on both sides, in criminal cases before the supreme court, are also paid by the government. Police. — Crimes, except in some of the maritime provinces, where the drinking of arrack leads to every species of vice, are in general rare, and the Singalese being in the aggi-egate a quiet, docile people, petty 96 CEYLON. litigation (owing to the extended division of property) usurps the place of passion and its attendant results. Owing to the peculiar constitution of the village com- munities, each of which has its ' headman' and subor- dinate officers and peons or constables, the commis- sion of an offence is speedily followed by detection. Among the principal offences are ear and nose slitting, and the mutilation of the limbs, for the purpose of carrying off the gold and precious stones with which w^omen and chikben are adorned. Violent murders are more rare than poisonings, the latter mode of revenge being more suited to a timid people. In the Kandyan provinces crime is very unfrequent, and the village police excellent. Military. — The regular armed force maintained in the island consists at present of four Queen's regiments of infantry (the head- quarters of which are stationed at Colombo, Kandy, and Trincomalee), two companies of the Royal Foot Artillery, a mounted body-guard for the Governor, and the 1st Ceylon regiment, composed principally of Malays, nearly 2000 strong, and one of the finest regiments in Her Majesty's service. I have never seen any native troops on the continent of India to equal the 1st Ceylon light infantry, either in appearance or mancEuvring, and their conduct during the Kandyan war proved them to be inferior to no light infantry in the world. Their dress is dark green, and their arms a compact rifle, with short strong sword attachable instead of a bayonet. They are native officered, as in the East India Company's sepoy regiments, with European officers to each of the sixteen companies, and their fidelity to their leaders MILITARY FORCE. 97 has been evinced in every possible manner whenever an opportunity presented itself. I have seen many regiments of different nations under arms, but none ever offered to my view such a striking coup d'oeil as Her Majesty's 1st Ceylon rifle regiment. Return of the Numbers and Distributions of the Effective Force, Officers, Non-Commissioned Officers, and Rank and File of the British Army, including Colonial Corps, in each year since 1815, including Artillery and Engineers. Officers present , or on Detached L Duty at the Stations. to 2 2 «■ M 05 53 "ij uj A 3 g cs S "2 ^=5 > o 25th Jan. 1816 1 5 6 41 59 37 5 445 121 6169 1817 1 5 y 46 75 49 4 5 5 5 9 442 12 i 6103 167 1818 2 4 6 44 85 48 4 5 5 4 9 39t 122 5943 158 1819 1 7 9 58 111 34 4 4 3 4 20 654 182 8219* 191 1820 5 C 41 66 29 4 5 5 3 6 425 118 3330 207 1821 6 7 46 68 40 6 6 6 4 6 363 136 6679 197 1822 7 6 35 55 29 5 5 4 5 4 333 113 6387 208 1823 5 C 27 40 26 1 2 3 3 4 270 85 5423 154 1824 7 35 40 25 2 2 3 3 4 268 80 5196 145 1825 3 6 34 37 21 2 4 3 4 S 268 80 4886 201 1826 4 6 37 40 21 4 3 4 4 2 281 73 4990 219 1827 7 4 41 60 17 5 5 4 3 6 308 83 5205 261 1828 7 4 39 64 20 4 5 4 3 7 304 83 5351 289 1829 8 5 45 63 30 4 5 5 4 6 304 82 5587 271 1830 7 6 41 61 30 4 5 5 5 6 305 80 5461 261 1831 7 7 42 60 29 5 5 5 6 7 306 81 5465 251 1st Jan. 1832 7 '6 41 57 25 4 5 5 4 6 304 81 5196 253 1833 7 6 39 62 26 4 5 5 4 6 277 81 4822 246 N.B. Ceylon Light Dragoon s, an d Gun and Pione( ;r La scars are included in the above numbers , but which are not born e on the Army Estimates. * Including a For ce de tached from Benga 1. CEYLON, &C, H 98 CEYLON. Scale of Island allowances paid by the Colony. Regimental. — Colonel, 45/. 95. per month ; Lieu- tenant Colonel, 32/. 25. ; Major, 23/. 19^. ; Captain, 13/. 165. ; Lieutenant, 8/. 55.: Second Lieutenant or Ensign, 6/. 65. ; Paymaster, 13/. I65. ; Surgeon, 17/. IO5. ; Assistant Sui'geon, 12/. IO5. ; Adjutant, 10/. 45. ; Quarter Master, 8/. 6s. Additional allowances to officers in command of corps. — Colonel, 5/. 45. per month ; Lieutenant Colonel, 5/. 45. ; Major, 8/. 35. ; Captain, 10/. 45. ; Lieutenant, 5/. II5. Additional allowances to officers in command of gar- risons, with the exception of Colombo, Trincomalee, Kandy, and Galle. — Colonel, 29/. II5. ; Lieutenant Colonel, 8/. I85. ; Major, 61. I4s. ; Captain, 3/. 1 95. 6d. ; Lieutenant, 21. I4s. ; Ensign, 2/. 6d. The allowance for the commandants of Kandy and Trin- comalee is fixed at 37/. 10s. each ; of Colombo at 29/. 1 Is. ; and of Galle at 10s. a day. General and Medical Staff. — Medical General on the staff, 275/. I85. 4if/. ; Deputy Quarter- Master- General, being Lieutenant-Colonel, 16/. I5. Qd. ; Assistant Quarter-Master- General, Major, 11/. 195. Qd.', Deputy Assistant Quarter-Master- General, Lieu- tenant, 4/. 25. 6d. ; Deputy Adjutant-General, Lieutenant-Colonel, 16/. IS5. ; Deputy Assistant Adjutant-General, Captain, 6/. I85. ; Assistant Mili- tary Secretary, ditto, 6/. I85. In addition to regimental allowance being regulated where the ranks of staff otficers do not correspond with the table, by MILITARY ALLOWANCES, &C. 99 making the addition equal to one- half of the regimental allowances to officers. To aid-de-camp, if subaltern, the staff and island allowance of a captain are granted ; being the difference of island allowance between a surgeon and an assistant-surgeon. The general as well as military reader will be gratified by the following account of military allow- ances, expenses, amusements, and annoyances, as detailed in a letter from Ceylon, dated July, 1833: — "The barracks in Colombo fort are small detached ones, not holding more than a company, built by the Dutch so immediately under the ramparts as to ex- elude the breeze which is so necessary in this climate. The mortality occasioned last year by the cholera has attracted the attention of government to the accommodation of the troops, and measures are now in progress that will add considerably to their comforts. The hospital is not good, the wards are not sufficient to allow a classification of the diseases, and there is not a proper place for convalescents. The officers hire houses in the fort ; they seldom contain more than four rooms, with accommodation for servants. Bath and stabling, and very good quarters, may be got for 2/. OS. per month, in some situations for ]/. IO5. ; in the principal street, where the houses are very superior, 3/. los, to 61. is paid. Officers find their own furniture, but that is of little im- portance where all the articles for comfort or luxury are to be bought on terms that would astonish a London upholsterer. Six arm-chairs, with rattanned seats, cost about 21. 5s. ; a pair of couches, 21. ; H 2 100 CEYLON. tables, varying from IO5. upwards, but a good one to dine four, may be purchased for that price ; they are all made of jack wood, which is handsome, and takes a high polish. No European servants are allowed, two natives are sufficient for a bachelor, — a head servant at 1 1, per month, a boy at 95. ; if you keep a horse, a servant to attend him, and ac- company his master on foot when he goes out, will cost 15s. a month. They support and clothe them- selves. To meet these extra expenses the island allowance monthly is, for lieutenant- colonel, 32/. ; a major, 23/.; a captain, 13/. I65. ; a lieutenant, 8/. 5s. ; an ensign, 6/. ; a surgeon, 17/. ; assistant- surgeon, 10/.; quarter-master and adjutant, 10/.; 5/. extra is allowed for the commandants of corps. This is to cover all expenses of house rent, servants, fuel, candles, and marching money. The allowance of the subs should be 10/., to enable them to meet the extra expenses they are put to by those who are paid more liberally. Messing is about Is. a day, but 6 550 scholars, 1,200 auditors; Haranni, 800 scholars, 2,500 auditors; Illondi Matual, 650 scholars, 1,200 auditors. The third province is called Waddemarache, hav- ing three churches : — 1st, Catavelli, 600 scholars, 1,205 auditors; Ure- putti, 690 scholars ; 900 auditors; Paretilure, 1,000 scholars, 3,000 auditors. The last and furthermost Province called Palchia- rapalle has four churches and as many schools : — 1st, Poelepolay, 300 scholars, 600 auditors ; Mo- i EDUCATION. Ill gommale, 450 scholars, 500 auditors ; Jambamme, 500 scholars, 900 auditors ; Mulipatto, 215 scholars, 350 auditors. Several of these schools continue ; others have been discontinued, or have merged in similar estab- lishments formed in their neighbourhood. The government schools are in number about 100, of which the far greater part are in the Singalese or maritime districts ; they were originally established by the Dutch , and, according to Colonel Cole- brooke's report, the numbers educated have been as follows : — Protestants 83756 Mahomedans 14847 Roman Catholics . . 38155 Boodhists 78G02 Total .. 121911 Total .. 93449 The expenditure amounts to about 3600/. per an- num ; and it is to be hoped it will be extended to the Malabar and Kandyan districts. The school- masters receive a small stipend of 61. 6s. per an- num, and they derive further emolument from fees received for registering native marriages, a duty which the government are very properly careful in attending to. The following return for 1831 gives the statistics of the state of education, of the churches, chapels, and gaols in Ceylon. 112 CEYLON. ^ Q> X ^ CO 00 02 o <: o ui sqiBaa JO -o^i t 2885 j 14 P.. « 5i •jBaA aii; 3uunp ssaui{jis JO sasBQ Number of Persons who usually attend. «5 •paXoiduiiun sjauosuj JO '0^ CO \-i W Ph < •jnoqei pauH ;b jda^t sjauosuj JO -o^I © 00 00 X Q m w K Number of Persons they are capable of containing. o o 00 oo Total Number of Prisoners. S . 1^ 1^ 00 CO '.ri c: ic o c^i r: CO «o C; t^ 00 eo -^ — »o M O -H Tt< •SBixnii3 I (M 00 t-~ — c 00 00 o oc 00 -jf" -* O -O O LO CO O t>. CO I— 1 — rt o ,=: OH 3 tc tf -^ o o Ts Ojk 1^ e« eu ^ H •SuBuaj •aouiAoij <= o o coo lO ^ o P4^ ^H M C O O XI > o! tn OS rt-s 3 '-~- c > o o u IMPORTS AND EXPORTS. 131 Between October, 1828, and December, 1829, the population had increased 3000. The number of mouths may now be calculated at upwards of 60,000. Commerce. — The trade of Penang is carried on with Calcutta, Madras, Bombay, England, China, Java, Ceylon, Siam, Tenasserim coast, Acheen, Delhi, Quedah, and a few petty native ports. In ]Mr. Ful- larton's elaborate paper on the trade of our eastern islands, printed in the East India papers in 1833 (II. Trade, part 2, Commercial, page 878,) it appears that the total value of imports into Penang were — In 1828-9 . . . S. rupees 52,23,872 Exports from ditto . . . 36,00,900 Excess . 16,22,972 The imports and exports of specie for the same year were — Imports . . . S. rupees 8,32,232 Exports .... 7,19,876 Excess . 1,12,356 The value of imports in sicca rupees from Calcutta was 10,94,986; from Madras, 16,95,850; Bombay, 2,65,290; England, 1,67,670; China, 2,18,440; Siam, 1,77,610; Tenasserim,. 1,77,010; Acheen, 8,08,513 ; Delhi (a petty state on the Sumatra shore), 2,04,905 ; and Quedah, 2,21,200; the exports value to the same places in succession were 3,57,126; 2,38,765; 2,30,146, 50,668; 9,65,834; 96,093; 1,55,152; 10,75,842; 1,58,930; and to Quedah, 1,35,930. K 2 132 PENANG. Of the imports, opium alone consists of upwards of seven lac of rupees ; the other items are comprised of the various produce of the Straits, or of India and British goods, the trade being one of transit. Birds' nests for Chinese soups is one of the most important articles. The value of Penang as a spice island is shown in the following statement, which appeared in the Sin- gapore Chronicle of August 28, 1834 : — Penang has been a spice island from the period nearly of its first settlement. Pepper engrossed the consideration of capi- talists for many years, and until the price fell so low that the returns no more than repaid the outlay. But previous to this check another resource of gain opened by the introduction to the island of the nutmeg and clove tree. In 1798 a few spice plants were imported from the Dutch spice islands ; but in the year 1800 there were brought from Amboyna 5000 nutmeg and 15,000 clove plants. In 1802 a further and larger number arrived, the collection of the govern- ment agent, Mr. Hunter. This consisted of 25,026 seedling nutmeg trees, and 175 plants of ages varying from four to seven years. Shortly before this last period a government spice garden had been established, embracing 130 acres of land, lying on the slopes which skirt the base of the hill near Amie's Mills, a romantic spot, and well watered by a running stream now called Ayer Putih. This plantation, in some respects a n>ere nursery, contained, in the above year, the number of 19,628 nutmeg plants, varying from one up to four years old, 3459 being four years of age. There were also G259 clove trees, of which 669 were above six and under seven years old. In the same year, 1802, Mr. Smith, the Honourable Com- pany's botanist, reported that he had imported in all to the island at tliat date 71>266 nutmeg and 55,264 clove plants, out of which a few were reserved for the botanical gardens at Kew, Calcutta, and Madras. Most of the plantations now in a pro- NUTMEG AND CLOVE TREES. 133 ductive state have been created by plants raised from nuts yielded by trees of the original importations, and a number of nutmeg trees which had been planted on the face of a hill and abandoned, were, after a lapse of about four years, rescued from thick jungle and found to be in a lively condition and in bear- ing. The wild nutmeg tree is indigenous to Penang, being an inhabitant of the hills. It is a tall forest tree, and bears a more oval shaped fruit than the true nutmeg tree. Both the nut and mace are less pungent and more astringent than the true spice, yet the Chuliahs have been in the habit of gather- ing them and selling them in the native bazaars. There are several varieties of the cultivated nutmeg on Penang, distinguished from other by the tinge of the leaf and shape of the nut. In some the former is small and light in colour, in others dark and large. In one the nut is oval or egg-shaped, each nut hanging on a tendril of four or five inches in length ; in another it resembles a small peach ; and in a third it is small and nearly circular. In 1805 there were only 23 bearing clove trees in the Com- pany's gardens ; and in October, 18.34, these gardens were sold for the trifling sum of 9G58 dollars. They contained then 5103 nutmeg trees, 1625 clove trees, and 1050 seedlings. The whole being sold in lots, many of the trees were dug up and transplanted to other quarters of the island, and thus dis- persed ; numbers were lost from mismanagement. In 1810 the total number of nutmeg trees on the island was about 13,000. several hundreds of which only were in bearing, and from such clove trees as were then bearing a supply of 20,000 plants was obtained. The sale of the government plantations gave a temporary stimulus to the private planter ; yet the continued ignorance of the proper method of cultivating spices, necessarily followed by tardy crops, seems to have at length induced such an apathy regarding them, that they ran the risk of a speedy extinction. The late David Brown, Esq. stood alone, in 1810, as a spice planter on an extensive scale, and instead of finding encou- ragement in the sympathy of those around him, he was incon- 134 PENANG. siderately supposed by many to be in search of an El Dorado, and no one ventured to follow his steps. Bold and provident as was this attempt, its success was long retarded by the ob- stacles which always oppose themselves to agricultural innova- ters, and it might, even after a very great outlay of capital, have been dou])tful on the decease of that gentleman, had not his son, the late and lamented George Brown, Esq. managed the estate with a spirit and judgment which finally overcame every difficulty, and displayed for the first time after thirty years of perilous trial the full value of the pursuit. In 1818, the bearing nutmeg trees on the island were esti- mated to be 6900. Since that period spices have been more extensively cultivated. There are now upwards of thirty spice plantations at this settlement, including Province Wellesley, and these may be classed as follow : — Five plantations containing from 4000 up to 20,000 trees. Eight from 500 up to 10,000 trees. Seventeen from 50 up to 2000, containing in the aggregate about 80,000 trees, of which number 45,000 are estimated to be in bearing. When Bencoolen was ceded to the Dutch, the plantations there were estimated to contain 25,000 bearing trees only. The gross annual produce from the plantations may be roughly estimated at 130,000 lbs., but young trees are yearly coming into bearing to swell this quantity ; should the cultiva- tion meet with no serious interruption, it may perhaps in time supply the whole of the English market with spices. Revenue and Expenditure. — The appendix to the select report of the House of Lords, gives the followhig- table of revenue and expenditure (exclusive of commercial charges) for nineteen years ; it will be observed that Singapore and Malacca are included in the two last years ; the reductions ordered in the Court of Directors' Dispatch, 7th April, 1829, will ere long enable Penang to meet its expenditure with its own revenues. REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE. 135 CHARGES. -^ ilitary n the 1 the mts. S to S'-^-i Years. >. S;b s ^ 5 ■^ n -- o Civil. -S Idin dF< alio Total Charges. u i c; o 5- S Bui an tific Pi Exp not i Chai Bei £ £ £ £ £ £ £ 1809-10 99494 15895 16428 131817 70372 61445 44509 1810-11 88299 16274 18447 123020 80440 42580 32822 1811-12 76974 13328 10815 101117 68557 32560 31212 1812-13 83630 16945 12740 113315 48891 64424 32414 1813-14 91091 16190 8478 115759 57075 58684 36604 1814-15 94503 16861 6347 117711 54316 63395 37385 1815-16 91399 19028 9257 119684* 53868 66660 33063 1816-17 86819 13451 9292 109562 54861 54701 28974 1817-18 72582 12659 15036 100277 56585 43692 34582 1818-19 66223 11073 4116 81412 57027 24385 27261 1819-20 66632 7728 2141 76501 49938 26563 33819 1820-21 71667 8235 1510 81412 52022 29390 25094 1821-22 68934 12754 \251 85939 41660 44279 23237 1822-23 72360 13389 3208 88957 44676 44881 24035 1823-24 81761 14478 2063 98302 35956 62346 24164 1824-25 98287 11835 3209 113331 38220 75111 24798 1825-26 113682 14543 7069 135294t 31422 104125 38375 1826-27 121168 23058 4991 §1492171 §55744 94745 37230 * In terest on debts, i i844. t Ditto £ 253. 1 I Ditto £ 1272. § Tl le accoun ts of Sir icapore ai \d Malac ca are in eluded ii 1 these years ; but for I line moi iths only in the j ^ear 1826 -27, and for the whole year in 1 827-28. i The sale of opium is a monopoly in the hands of government, who derive a revenue from it of about 40,000 Spanish dollars a year ; land, licences, and customs, are the remaining chief sources of revenue. The government of Penang, Malacca, and Sin- gapore, is subordinate to the presidency of Bengal, and the civil establishment recently fixed as follows : — Chief resident at Singapore, rupees 36,000 ; first assistant, 24,000; second ditto, 7,200; deputy re. sident at Malacca, 24,000 ; assistant, 7,200; deputy resident, Prince of Wales's Island, 30,000 ; assistant, 136 PENANG. 7,200 ; assistant. Province Wellesley (exclusively of military pay}, 3,600; one surgeon, 9,600, and three assistant surgeons at 4,800, 14,400, 24,000; two chaplains at 8,500 each, and one missionary 2,500, 20,000; office establishment, 12,000. Total sicca rupees 1,95,200. As a commercial and maritime station Penansr has many advantages ; it serves as an entrepot for the various produce of China, the eastern islands and straits, the native merchants from which take back in return British and India goods. It was at one time contemplated to form an extensive arsenal and ship-building depot at Penang, and indeed several fine ships were built there, but the object was ulti- mately abandoned. At present Penang serves as a rendezvous for our naval squadron in the Indian seas, for which its position, healthiness, and abun- dance of provisions admirably qualify it ; during the Burmese war Penang was found a most valuable station, as it would again be in the event of renewed hostilities. When, perhaps, the British dominion in Hindostan shall have terminated, or if a violent con- vulsion should occur to drive us temporarily from its territorv, (circumstances which are not beyond the range of possibilities,) the possession of such insular stations as Penang, Ceylon, &c. will be found of in- calculable worth. Their value now even is vast, and it may be expected wiU be appreciated more and more every day, as a spirit of enterprize leads our fellow subjects to a more intimate connexion with the fertile regions of the eastern hemisphere. ( 137 ) CHAPTER II. MALACCA. LOCALITY, AREA, HISTORY — PHYSICAL ASPECT, CLIMATE — NATURAL PRODUCTS, &C. POPULATION — GOVERNMENT EDUCATION — COMxMERCE, &C. Near the southern extremity of the long- Malayan peninsula^ in latitude 2° 14' north longitude, 102° 12' east, is situated the British settlement of Malacca, extending about forty miles along shore by thirty inland, and containing an area of 800 square miles : bounded on the north by Salengore at Cape Rochado, on the south Johore, at the river Muar, on the east, by the Rumbo country, and on the west, by the straits of Malacca. Physical Aspect. — The sea coast is rocky and ban*en, with detached islets of cavernous rocks, which the Chinese used as places of sepulture. The inte- rior is mountainous (being a continuation of the Al- pine chain, which runs from the Brahmaputra river in Assam to the extremity of the peninsula) ; with several picturesque valleys, the highest mountain (named by the natives Lealdang, by the Portuguese Mount OphirJ has an elevation of 4000 feet above the sea. Colonel Farquhar was nearly six hours ascending to the highest part of Mount Ophir, the table surface on the top of which does not exceed ' The length of the Peninsula is 775 miles, with an average breadth of 125 miles. 13S MALACCA. forty yards square ; the whole mountain appears to 1)6 a solid block of granite, here and there thinly covered with decayed vegeta,ble soil. Stunted firs are found near the summit, and the vegetation of the mountain was quite different from that met with on the plains and valleys. The principal rivers are the Muar and Lingtuah, and the small streams and rivu- lets from the mountains are very numerous. The extreme point of the peninsula is a cluster of small islands ; the roadstead is safe, and in the south-west monsoon vessels not drawing more than sixteen feet of water are secure in a harbour under the lee of the fort. Colonel Farquhar (who has made Malacca his study) observes that violent tempests never occur at its excellent anchoring ground, that the Sumatra squalls, which are common to the straits, seldom last above an hour or two, and that for upwards of twenty- five years while the English had possession of the place no ship had been lost. History. — The Malayan peninsula, although the great majority of the inhabifants are Malays (whence it derives its name), is not the original country of that active, restless, courageous, vindictive, and fero- cious people. The present possessors (or Malayan princes and their subjects) emigrated in the thirteenth century, from Palembang in Sumatra (the original country of the Malays) about a. d. 1252, and founded the city of Malacca. As tliey extended their colonization, the aborigines of the country, w^ho are oriental negroes with woolly hair, jet black skin (the Malays are cop- per coloured), thick lips, and flat nose, like the THE MALAYS. CLIMATE. 139 African, and of diminutive stature, were driven inland to the mountains, where some of their unfortunate posterity still exist. The Malayan chiefs soon became involved in hos- tilities with their neighbours, partly, perhaps, because their sultan, Mohammed Shah, adopted the Mahomme- dan religion from the Arabs, then the great traders in the East. Although the Malacca people were able to resist the attacks of the Siamese on their chief city, they were compelled to yield to the conquering Portuguese, who, in 1511, compelled Sultan Moham- med Shah, the twelfth of his line, and the seventh of the city of Malacca, to fly, after an obstinate resist- ance, to the extremity of the peninsula, where he founded the principality of Johore, which still exists. The Portuguese held Malacca until 1 640, though with great difficulty, against the repeated assaults of the Sultans of Acheen, when it was assailed by the Dutch, who captured it after six months' siege. In 1795 it was seized by the British, but restored to the Dutch at the peace of Amiens in 1801. Qn the breaking out of the European war in 1807, it was again taken by the English, but again restored at the peace of 1815 ; however, in 1825, it was received by England, together with the Fort of Chinsurah on the river Hooghly, 20 miles from Calcutta, in exchange for the British settlements on the island of Sumatra. Climate. — The climate is reckoned one of the healthiest in India, the temperature being uniform, the thermometer ranging from 72 to 85 the whole year round. The mornings and evenings are cool and refreshing, and the sultry nights of Hindostan 140 MALACCA. rarely occur. There is no regular monsoon, but the rainiest months are September, October, and Novem- ber. The fluctuation of the barometer throughout the year is trifling, the range being 30.3 to 29.83, giving an annual variation of only one-fifth of an inch. The average of casualties in the garrison for seven years was two in 100, a fact which attests the salubrity of the climate. Population. — The population of the settlement of Malacca', was in 1750, 1766, 1815, and 1817, thus, [n the first street 1817. 1815. 1766. 1750. 1667 1006 2986 5263 6802 1903 1605 944 2946 5020 4397 1966 Christians 1668 Chinese... 1390 Moors ... 1023 Malays ... 3135 i Christians 2339 Chinese... 2161 Moors .'.. 1520 Malays ... 3615 [n the second street From Tranquerah to Con- dor Banda Hileer to Kassang Bingho Rayo to Pankal- lang Battoo 19627 16878 7216 9635 In 1822 the population was 22,000, and the fol- lowing is the latest return at the India House. ^The inhabitants of Malacca, in 1830, came to a unanimous resolution to liberate every slave in the settlement 31st De- cember, 1841. POPULATION. 141 ■S331J}0J •suBpsuio •sqBJV en •—! » CO m r^ -^ T^" Ci "CO O O C5 o to oa 00 t^ M •SB^jEg; Tf 30 m CO to Tr< t>. •asauiBis •sai^ESuag; ■soopuiH •STJiiniio mo;: ■— 1 1^ . . C^ O M M O LO 05 >-i ^» o •as3um3 rfHC0^c0OC5C0«0^ LI ^ CO O -^ ^ M -f coioiMOr- cc-jeoe^ •siSng ;3 O t - > ti c c g ea ^ ™ «= a i2 tc cS g _C en c3 O -^ CO a> G 4> „ n^ 03 — 53 s n3 cu 5J •5^ 5 H 5 Shs: S bo CJC.S S 3 3 o g ^ o S rt (£ >, bcH o ™ ^ s J2 r, ^ tc^ - :5 if s o -^ ce 3 "C <5 142 MALACCA. Abstract of the whole census of Malacca in 1826. •S3[tjra9J -^ CO CC LTi 0^ ?- CO TC J^ w -■ CO P-, 2 S •S9IBUI3J 2 1 1 1 1 to rt •S9IBW ^ 1 M 1 'O G •S91BJ\[ C«3 O CO t^ ■<*i i> VC t^ t>. W ■- C5 1 'Ti CO ' c > 1- •S91BUI9J SIMM CI ■* -O T- to — . - 1 C- U4 •satuiuoj >;= t^ :c -^ o 1 00 !» S 1 -s-l^H S M M i-O •sjo;q3Q 3S3Uii{3 ?5 M M CO CM 00 oc oc a; lo — CO •S3JBH 'O -^ CO Tfi cv CO irs 1 •saoiBjfug puB s^iooiina jQ ■of) CO lO ,-1 CO CO •pajuBid XppBj o o uo ■'^ o c; «^ O ■*■ CO c; — — t>) jop99SJO.^;UUBno Ti to 1.-1 t^ CC C-1 C-) uo ?■) C^) t^ 00 (M — ca -». « CO LO to - . 1 Ci s •spiD ■>J< I^^ 3C i^ f c CO iC »o C^ f— o CI •IB^ox CM — m CI ^ c; 1 —1 1 CM « CO U5 S>) 1 uo 1 U^ f in ■ 1 - Chih lO »^ OJ M ■^ c t^ •spiD « »>. O 00 Ci >o 1 o 1 •s.^og; rt> C:^ 1^ CO -^ u- CO t>. t^ (>1 — UO CO > 1 « Tt< 50 OQ •sXoa ■* to to to o — 1 era 1 ^ I e<) •paii -IBUIUfl F (M tr -O Ci IM C CO IM JC C^ — ifO to CO Is •U9UI0jVY 05 CO ■* CM «; e^ .-I CO CO C3 t^ to CO O ,— ^ in to •paujBjv: (M LO CO 00 OO ■* CO tt O rf C2 t^ rr 1^ CO ca 1— o CO UO to •a9j\[ O O CI C5 CM C t^ LO .0 CO 00 T* — CI CO to p •a •IBjox t^ Ci t^ 1 C5 C ■*! to 1 c- to <3 •paii CO -o '-C C-. 'O cs CI Tf" t^ — 1 O Tf Cv) to -JBUIUfl CO —- -^ . ~ LO 1 CI t •paiiJBH IM CO -O «0 O C- CO •-< CO eo CO CO ■*!■<♦< t^ CVJ _ to C3 >> •S;(0a c; rh 00 ] j c<: CJ ■*■ to to Its s •U9UI0^ r-'^CM 1 ^-l- •sasno H JO -ON ■M lO CO Ci -f — LO c^i o c-1 1^ to 'T" O CJ IV) ^ to •n9i\[ 1-1 00 1 — to »! 0) -4-> S -l O Q^ * •up '^^ fif^ c S 'S aJ .t! s a en II si ^ to is £i C r « « ^ o g rt H Sf o ,; 3 ?= to x "^ E<3 i^i* b£ - 2 cs^ s =i; 3 ^ rt ;S ~ -^ HikS^Sc NATURAL PRODUCTIONS. l43 Natural Productions. — The staple of the settle- ment is tm mines (which are all within a circuit of twenty- five miles round Malacca), which produce, generally, 4,000 peculs (a pecul is 133 pounds avoir- dupoise) a year. In the valleys vegetation is ex- tremely luxuriant ; rice yields from 200 to 300 fold ; the sugar cane is equal to any produced in any part of the globe ; cofice, cotton, indigo, chocolate, pep- per, and spices, have all been tried, and thrive re- markably well. The spontaneous productions of the soil are very numerous, consisting of an almost end- less variety of the richest and most delicious fruits and vegetables. The country is covered with very fine and durable timber for ship and house building ; the Murhon tree, which is nearly equal to teak, is ex- tremely abundant. Canes and rattans form a con- siderable branch of the exports ; the forests yield gums, resins, and oils in great plenty ; the camphor tree grows near the south-east extremity of the peninsula ; a great variety of medicinal plants and drugs are common in the woods ; the nutmeg grows wild. If the gold and tin mines in the vicinity of Malacca were scientifically worked, they would prove of great value ; at present, the Malay and Chinese miners seldom dig below six or ten feet, and, as the veins become thin, remove from place to place. The gold from Hoolo Pahang, 100 miles inland from Malacca, is of the purest quality ; and there are some small mines of gold at the foot of Mount Ophir, called Battang Moring, about thirty- six miles from Malacca. Birds' nests, wax, cutch, dammeer, fish maws, 7 144 MALACCA. and sharks' fins (for Chinese soups) rattans, camphor, betelnuts, gold dust, sago, dragon's blood, ivory, hides, aguilla and sappan woods, &c. are among the principal productions. Captains of ships will be glad to hear that fruit and vegetables of every variety are abundant and low priced, and that poultry, hogs, buffaloes, and fish are plentiful and cheap. During the progress of the expedition against Java in 1811, 30,000 troops, with their followers were abundantly supplied with fresh provisions of every variety daily. Commerce. — Malacca, being situate between the two great emporiums of trade in the eastern archi- pelago, Penang, and Singapore, the one at the north- west, and the other at the south-east of the straits, has necessarily a trade limited to its own consump- tion and produce. Before the establishment of the two latter named settlements, and during the mono- polizing sway of the Dutch there, it was a place of considerable traffic. Tin forms one of the principal items of export, and as the free trade captains may perhaps enter into the trade, it may be well to caution them of the adulterations practised by the Chinese and Malay miners. Lead is the metal usually alloyed with tin, and in order to detect adulterations, buyers may readily ascertain (with sufficient approximation to correctness) the extent of fraud endeavoured to be practised by melting a standard muster of pure tin in a large sized bullet mould with a small orifice, and then compare a mould of the tin under examination, with that of the pure metal ; if the former be heavier. TIN MINES. 145 the proportion of adulteration may readily be cal- culated. Antimony has the effect of hardening the admixture with lead, thereby increasing the difficulty of detection, as regards external appearances. The tin mines are thus described in the Singapore Chronicle. The whole number of Chinamen con- nected with the mines at Sungie Hujong is probably 600, divided into ten Kung Se's or companies. Thev appeared more respectable, and have a greater com- mand of capital, than those at Lookut. They are much fettered by the rajah, and are not allowed to sell an ounce of tin themselves ; but here there is no such restriction. The mode of working the mines is much alike in both places, except at Sungie Hujong they, have the advantage of the Chinese chain-pump, w^hich is used for raising the water out of the mine pit. The apparatus is simple, consisting of a com- mon water-wheel, a circular wooden chain about forty feet in circumference, and a long square box or trough, through which it runs in ascending. The wheel and chain, I think, revolve on a common axis, so that the motion of the former necessarily puts the latter into action. The chain consists of square wooden floats, a foot distant from each other, and strung as it wete upon a continuous flexible axis, having a moveable joint between each pair. As the float-boards of the chain successivelv enter the lower part of the box or trough (immersed in water), a portion of water is constantly forced up by each, and discharged at the top. At one of the mines we were much struck with the simple but efficient mode of its application. There were three distinct planes, or L 146 MALACCA. terraces, rising above each other. On the middle one was the wheel ; the lower was the pit of the mine : from the higher a stream of water fell and turned the wheel, which, putting the whole machine into motion, brought up another stream from the pit; these two streams, from above and below, uniting on the middle plane, run off in a sluice, by which the ore was washed. The total value of imports in 1828-29, was sicca rupees 10,81,782, of exports, sicca rupees, 6,72,211. The imports of specie amounted to sicca rupees, 4,19,717; and the exports amounted to sicca rupees, 2,65,239. The value of imports from Calcutta is sicca rupees 1,12,565; from Madras 2,43,178; from England 1,01,664 ; and from small native ports 2,98,591. The accounts, however, of this government, as stated by Mr. Fullerton are extremely defective. Weights and Measures. — Throughout the Straits of Malacca the common weights are the pecul, catty, and tael. The Malay pecul, three of which make a bahar, is heavier,than the common or Chi- nese pecul, which is = 133|lbs. Rice and salt are usually sold by the coyan of forty peculs nearly, and gold dust by the bunkal = 832 grs. troy. The gan- tang (by which grain, fruit, and liquids are sold) = li English gallon is divided into two bamboos. Twenty gantanes of rice make a bag, and forty bags a coyan. Cloth is measured by the astah or covid of eighteen inches nearly. Land, by the orlong of twenty jumbas = 14 acre. Currency. — The currency of the straits is Spanish REVENUE. EDUCATION. 147 dollars divided into 100 cents. The Dutch rix dol- lar and guilder (divided into fanams and doits) are also used, chiefly at Malacca. One guilder =12 fanams = 120 doits. The rix dollar is a nominal coin of about 20 fanams, 31 or 32 of which make a Spanish dollar. The silver coins comprise dol- lars of all descriptions, guilders and half guilders. The copper, the cent, half and quarter cent ; there are also doits, stivers, and wangs, including a great variety of copper coins, of different countries. Revenue. — When acquired by the British govern- ment, the whole revenue of the settlement was but 20,000 dollars ; its revenue accounts are now in- coq^orated with those of the other settlement (vide Penang). Education. — One of the most valuable British institutions in the east, is the Anglo-Chinese college at Malacca, established in 1818, by the joint efforts of the late Rev. Drs. Morrison and Milne. The ob- ject in view is the reciprocal cultivation of Chinese and European literature, and the instruction of native youths in the principles of Christianity. The native Chinese students in the college generally average from twenty-five to thirty, all of whom are on the foundation of the college, receiving each a monthly allowance. Several valuable and interesting trans- lations have been made from Chinese books, and English standard works have been translated into Chinese : a foundry for types has been established, paper manufactured, and a periodical commenced. The college is indebted for existence to private con- tribution, and it is to be hoped that so useful an in- L 2 148 MALACCA. stitution will not be allowed to languish for want of support. Attached to the college at Malacca are several schools, the whole of which are supported by the London Missionary Society ; the Chinese schools alone contain nearly 300 boys, and the Tamul schools are increasing. The female schools at Malacca are doing well, and three schools have been established by the Malays for the instruction of their countrymen in the English language. Schools are also esta- blished at Tavoy, Moulmien, and Rangoon. At the latter place, the head master is a Chinaman, who has been brought up in the Anglo- Chinese college at Malacca. The following report of the London Missionary Society, in 1835, relative to Malacca, will be accept- able to every Christian : — Malacca. — The report from this station, for 1833, which was received a considerable time after the last anniversary, contains much gratifying information. The directors learn that Preaching, which our brethren justly consider as the most important, because divinely appointed means of effecting the conversion of men, is assiduously attended to in this depart- ment, in no less than four languages, viz. — English, twice on the Sabbath, and once in the week, Wed- nesday evening. The attendance is tolerably good. On Thurs- day evening, Mr. Evans meets a Bible class, and there is, besides, the monthly missionary prayer meeting. The Lord has granted a blessing upon these labours. Chinese. — Daily worship in the College. Extra services in the same place on Monday and Thursday evenings, attended by the students, the Chinese printers, and the boys and teachers of the school in the College Compound. On Tuesday and Fri- day evenings Mr. Evans has a Bible class for Chinese men, between seven and eight o'clock, which consists of thirty per- MISSIONARY REPORT. 149 sons and upwards : the number is increasing. It is held in the College Hall. After reading, expounding, and questioning upon the portion of Scripture under consideration, an exhorta- tion is given, and the whole concluded with singing and prayer. Sometimes one of the Chinese converts is called upon to engage in prayer, who does it with much sincerity and simplicity. Mr. Evans observes, " It is truly astonishing to hear how well the Chinese begin to understand the word of God ; their improvement is delightful." On Sabbath morning there is preaching in the Mission Chapel. Malay. — Daily worship in a room adjoining the College Hall, attended by the domestics, letter-press printers, and others. Preaching in the Mission Chapel every Sabbath evening, when chiefly the servants of the Dutch inhabitants attend. The average number is about forty, Portuguese. — Preaching every Sabbath afternoon in the Mis- sion Chapel. Average attendance fifty. Prayer meetings on week day evenings, which are well attended. In reference to the attendance on public worship, we subjoin an extract from a letter from Mr. Evans, dated 20th October, 1834, where he writes thus : — " My services, both on Sabbaths and week days, are all well attended. It appears to me that the Lord is stirring up a spirit of earnest inquiry among this immense population of the human race, and that he will, ere long, shine into their souls, and, by the gracious influences of His Holy Spirit, soften their hard hearts." When the report left Malacca, there were several individuals in the English congregation who appeared to have received salutary religious impressions, and also six Malays, who were candidates for baptism. Schools. — The number of schools and scholars were as fol- lows, viz.: — Chinese boys, 4 schools, 180 scholars; girls, 3 schools, 90 scholars ; total, 270 Chinese. Malay boys and girls, 6 schools, 200 scholars. Portuguese boys and girls, 4 schools, 120 scholars; Tamil boys and girls, 2 schools, 70 scholars; in all, 19 schools, 660 scholars. The three Chinese girls' schools were formed after Mr. 150 MALACCA. Evans's arrival at Malacca. The Portuguese and Tamil schools are entirely supported by private subscriptions. The children's progress is said to be encouraging ; and the teachers, especially the Malay teachers, seem ready to afford the chil- dren every facility in acquiring the knowledge of the Christian religion. Distrihution of Books. — The following is the amount of Scrip- tures and tracts which have been issued from the depository at Malacca, viz. — Scriptures. Tracts. To China . . .295 6485 Penang . . .100 1700 Singapore . . .400 9G0 Batavia . . .500 3310 And circulated in and about Malacca 600 4203 Total . 1895 16,658 Several missionary tours to the districts surrounding Ma- lacca nave been made, for the purpose of distributing tracts and Scriptures ; the people, both Chinese and Malays, wil- lingly receive the books. It has been ascertained, that those formerly distributed have been read, and their contents, in many instances, fixed on the minds of the readers. The Chinese carefully preserve the books that are given to them, and it is gratifying to observe, that the Panghooloos, or chiefs of the Malays, seem very favourable to the instruction of the people. On this subject Mr. Evans thus speaks, in a recent letter from Malacca : — " The thirst of the Chinese for our religious books becomes greater and greater every day. They come inquiring for them. Though twelve men are constantly employed in the Chinese printing department, yet pleasing, though painful to add, we are not able to get books finished fast enough. The people around are crying out for them. The brethren at other stations are crying. There seems almost an universal cry among the Chinese, which seems to indicate the dawn of a new era rapidly advancing, and which will shine brighter and brighter, until the perfect day." MISSIONARY REPORT. 151 Printing. — In 1833, the following works were executed at the Malacca press, viz. — Copies. Four of Dr. Milne's popular tracts, bound in I volume 3000 Commentary on the Ten Commandments . . 2200 Collie's Scripture Extracts Ditto, in small sizes Collie's Life of Christ, in poetry Strait Gate Three Character Classic . Commentary on the Lord's Prayer Catechism Comparative Chronology . 400 400 500 1000 700 1500 100 1000 Total . 10,800 During the year that is past, the services of our brethren have been continued. The morning service, in Chinese, held in the College, is attended by seventy Chinese, and sometimes a larger number. On Sabbath, the 4th of May last year, Mr. Evans delivered his first sermon in Chinese, and is now able to engage in all the branches of the Chinese department of the mission. The hearts of the Chinese seem to be opening to the truth, and they receive with eagerness the words of eternal life, whether offered in books or by the living voice ; the mis- sion wears a promising aspect, and the Lord is blessing his work. Four native adults were baptized in July ; one of these was a Chinese female, and the others a Malay and two Malay females. There were then several more candidates, both Chinese and Malays. The females are all instructed in their catechism by Mr. Evans, who is much pleased with their pro- gress. Mr. Evans describes Leang-a-fa as a devoted Christian and a useful man, willing to suffer for the Lord's sake. He now acts as an Evangelist among the thousands of Chinese in and about Malacca. A number of young Chinese are pursuing a course of study and training for missionary work. 152 MALACCA. Anglo-Chinese College. — The report for 1832 and 1833 has but recently come to hand. At the close of 1832 the number of students was 25. During that year there were printed at the College press complete sets of the Scriptures, 130; the four gospels, separately, 500 each, 2000 ; and various tracts, 5900 ; total, 8030. At the beginning of 1833, the number of students was in- creased to 40 ; but several of the elder students having left, 32 remained at the close of that year. A Chinese Bible class was commenced in March, 1833, which is attended by the Chinese schoolmasters, the Chinese teachers, and six of the senior students. The Bible Society and the Tract Society have respectively afforded their constant and liberal aid towards the printing of the Scriptural tracts. The College library has been augmented by presents of se- veral authors, and also from the Societe Asiatique at Paris. General View. — The important geographical po- sition of the settlement as commanding the straits which form the direct passage from India to China, &c. ; its healthiness, and cheapness, render it a fitting place for the establishment of a seat of government for the eastern settlements ; the advantage of which would be more and more appreciated in our new commercial arrangements with China. Both Singa- pore and Malacca are too distant to be kept as mere residences of Bengal ; and the Governor-general has quite enough to do already without attending to those places, although therefore a general control might he kept up from the supreme government, it would be better to make Malacca head quarters for our stations in the eastern archipelago. ( 153 ) CHAPTER III. SINGAPORE (SINGHAPURA.) LOCALITY, AREA, PHYSICAL ASPECT, HISTORY, POPULATION, REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE, GOVERNMENT, COMMERCE, SOCIAL CONDITION, AND POLITICAL AND GENERAL ADVAN- TAGES, &C. This rapidly rising emporium of trade, is situate on the southern extremity of the peninsula of Malacca just described, in latitude P 17^ 22" north ; longitude, 103° 51' 45'^ east^ ; of an elliptical form, about from twenty-five to twenty-seven miles in its greatest length from east to west ; to fifteen miles in its gr.eatest breadth from north to south ; and contain- ing an estimated area of 270 square miles, with about fifty small desert isles within ten miles around it, in the adjacent straits, whose area is about sixty miles ; the w^hole settlement embracing a maritime and in- sular dominion of about 100 miles in circumference. Physical Aspect. — The island is on the north separated from the main land of the Malayan penin • sula, by a very small strait, which in its narrowest part is not more than one quarter of a mile wide. On the front, and distant about nine miles, is an exten- sive chain of almost desert isles, the channel between which and Singapore is the grand route of commerce ^ This is the position of the town. 154 SINGAPORE. between east and west Asia. The aspect is low and level, with an extensive chain of saline and fresh water marshes, in several parts covered with lofty timber and luxuriant vegetation : here and there, low rounded sand hills interspersed with spots of level ground, formed of a ferruginous clay with a sandy substratum. The town stands on the south coast, on a point of land near the west end of a bay where there is a salt creek or river navigable for lighters nearly a mile from the sea ; on the east side of the town is a deep inlet for the shelter of native boats. The town con- sists generally of stone houses of two story high, but in the suburbs called Campong-glam, Campong-Ma- lacca, and Campong- China, bamboo huts are erected on posts, most of them standing in the stagnant water. On the east side of the harbour entei^prising British merchants are erecting substantial and ornament^,! houses fronting the sea, presenting a strange contrast to the wretched tenements of the Malays. The ground is generally raised three feet, and the man- sions have a superb entrance by an ascent of granite stairs, then an elegant portico supported by a mag- nificent Grecian columns of every order of architec- ture : the rooms are lofty, with Venetian windows down to the floor, and furnished in a luxuriant man- ner ; each tenement provided with its baths, billiard tables, &c., while the grounds are tastily laid out with shrubs of beautiful foliage, the tout ensemble affording a most picturesque prospect from the shipping in the roadstead. Geology. — The principal rock is red sand-stone. CLIMATE. 155 which changes in some parts to a breccia or conglo- merate, containing large fragments and crystals of quartz. The whole contiguous group of isles, about thirty in number, as well as Singapore, are apparently of a submarine origin, and their evulsion probably of no very distant date. Climate. — Notwithstanding its lowness, marshi- ness, intertropical position and consequent high tem- perature, with a rapid and constant evaporation by a nearly vertical sun, from a rank and luxuriant ve- getation, and a profusion of animal and vegetable matter in every stage of putrefaction, Singapore has hitherto proved exceedingly healthy, owung perhaps to its maritime position. Being so near the equator there is of course little variety of seasons, either summer or winter : Fahrenheit ranges from 71° to 89^ : the periodical rains are brief, indistinctly marked, and extending over about 150 days of the year. 156 SINGAPORE. •K d Xlg •UOO]^ •wv Xlg •wd xrg •noo^ •WT Xlg •lid Xlg •uoo^ •IfV Xlg •KM Xlg •uooj^ •WV Xlg >.bi ; : : : i^^^l JgS^ : : : it^SjiSg HISTORY. POPULATION. 157 History. — The Malay annals relate that in a.d. 1252, Sri Iscandar Shah, the last Malay prince of Singapore, being hard pressed by the king of Majo- pahit, in Java, returned to the main land, where he founded the city of Malacca. That the Dutch or Portuguese may have settled on the island is probable from the remains of religious buildings and other structures, which indicate its having been once thickly inhabited. On the design of Sir Stamford Raffles the settlement of Singapore was first formed in February 1818, and its sovereignty in its present extent con- firmed to Great Britain in 1825, by a convention with the King of Holland and the Malay Princes of Jehore \ Population. — When taken possession of by our establishment in 1 820, it had been inhabited for eight years by about one hundred and fifty Malays, half fishermen and half pirates. Within the brief space of time from 1820 to 1832, its population has thus rapidly progressed (we have no correct data previous to the end of 1823). ' There is, I believe, a pension of 24,000 Spanish dollars a year paid by the East India Company to this Rajah, as an equivalent for the cession. 15S SINGAPORE. C^l CS C -O Ci © -o — • in t~. t^ tN. CO r- eO 03 -^ Cl C^J CO C5 — CO >-H cc 1-1 TO to Tf t^ — in lo Ci i-i J^ CO c5 f^ WW ot CO 00 (M ■M f C^l C u-i 1 != t^ LO 1 rt* C-l M t^ I^^ ;••: -- u- 1 ts CO t^ 1 00 '^ w ^ ■■r CO ^- « uo ^ <:m 1— 1 m i^ t^ O '-' fco t^ CO fo i-~ t^ L- -f 1 SM to « I >ri *H (M n e^i — C-. Ci 1 LO CO "0 — 1 CO c ZC ^ — c oi c^i CO CO c^j 00 '-' — " lO to •* o ~ ._ . .J ^ o to t^ CO a as t^ ■>f • (M t^ 00 LO »^ C-1 oc 00 r-l -^ r^ ■^ . -f C5 -0 CO c-l CO r-> l^ IM C^l t^ n w '-" ^ Tj> CO C^l CO HI o »o ^ -O 00 t^ LT •* 1 C^l t^ to C. C>1 KO C^l ^ ^ r-< 00 1 -^ 05 rr t^ 00 -^ c^ CO "*• to -^ !M C-. ^.^ ^^ 1— 1 l-O Tf IM c o o ■^ •* IM 05 to 1 Tt< CO 00 1 ^ -i --—'?;• 1 : .-/I : s •C ./, : ^ ^ ^ ^ .— • tx H 2 2 ;£ :;« >. S. « c ,„ ^ : "o c ••S 1^ : — 405— bunkals— 3. The greater part of this immense quantity is sent to Calcutta for opium, &c. General View, — As, a commercial mart, and key to the na\'igation of the seas, in which it is situate, this settlement is of incalculable importance ; we have seen by the foregoing accounts, that it has sprung up within the short space of ten or twelve years from a desert isle to a rich and flourishing settlement, ex- porting annually 3,000,000/. worth of goods. It has two periodical journals w^ell conducted ; its inhabi- tants are imbued with a manly and independent spirit, and its trade is as yet but in its infancy. The open- ing of the Chinese market will not diminish its resort, but on the contrary, increase it ; situate as it is in the ^ A cattie is 1 lb. and 1 .3d avoirdupois. GENERAL VIEW. 167 centre of myriads of active and industrious nations, inhabiting rich and fertile lands, abounding in every species of tropical produce, of which Europe, America, or China has need, ready to receive in return the manufactures of Britain to an almost illimitable ex- tent, and being unmolested in its progress by harbour duties, dues, or charges of any description, it requires nothing but a withdrawal of England from her nar- row minded and miserable commercial policy of ex- cluding eastern produce, to make our trade with the Asiatic Archipelago (of which Singapore is now the entrepot) one of the most valuable branches of our mercantile connexions. While on this subject, I would urgently recom- mend the formation of a mercantile colony at Formosa, as a means of securing our China trade and opening new branches of commerce with Japan, the Leuchoo islands, &c. We want also a permanent footing in the China seas in a maritime point of view, and if Government do not undertake such, it would pay well a Joint Stock Company to form an entrepot on this highly valuable island. My plan for such a Colony may be seen at the Office of the Colonial Secretary in London. BRITISH POSSESSIONS IX THE ATLANTIC OCEAN; COMPRISING THE FALKLAND ISLANDS, ST. HELENA, ASCEN SIGN, SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMBIA, CAPE COAST CASTLE, &c. &c. SEAL OF SIERRA LEONE. BOOK III. THE FALKLAND ISLANDS. CHAPTER IV. LOCALITY — EXTENT — CLIMATE SOIL — HARBOURS — PRO- DUCTIONS, AND ADVANTAGES TO GREAT BRITAIN. The Falkland islands, between the parallels of 51" 10' and 52'' 30' south, and the meridian 58° and 62° west, contiguous to the Straits of Magellan, so ad- vantageously situated as a refreshing port for our numerous ships doubling Cape Horn, and as a cruis- ing station for our ships of war in the Pacific, were first discovered by Sir Richard Hawkins during the reign of Queen Elizabeth, in the year 1594, or, as some think, by Captain Davis, in 1592, an English navigator under Sir Thomas Cavendish ; they were subsequently visited by a ship belonging to St. Ma- loes, from which they were called by the French, ' the ]\Ialouins ;' and also subsequently, by the Spa- 172 THE FALKLAND ISLANDS. niards, ' the Malvinas.' Little, however, was known of them until Commodore Byron, when on a voyage of discovery to the South Seas, visited them in Ja- nuary, 1765, and formally took possession of them for his Majesty Geo. III. under the title of ' the Falkland Islands,' though others say this name had been previously given them by an English navigator named Strong, in 1689. After being there about fourteen days, he left Port Egmont on Sunday, 27th January, and described it as being the finest harbour in the world, capacious enough to hold all the navy of England in fuU security. Geese, ducks, snipes, and other fowl w^ere found in such abundance, that the sailors were quite tired with eating them ; and in every part there was a plentiful supply of water. When the French lost the Canadas, a colony of farmers was transported thither by M. de Bougain- ville, and about the same time a British colony was established at Port Egmont by Capt. M 'Bride ; but their right being disputed by the Spaniards, M. de Bougainville surrendered the possession of his part to the latter in April, 1767. Great Britain, however, by virtue of her original discovery, claimed the so- vereignty, which led to a rupture with Spain in the year 1770, and the point was warmly and strongly contested for a considerable period. Spain, however, finally conceded our right to the islands. The two largest of the islands are about 70 leagues in circumference, and divided by a channel 12 leagues in length, and from 1 to 3 in breadth. The harbours are large, and well defended by small islands, most happily disposed. The smallest vessels may EARLY HISTORY. 1 73 ride in safety ; fresh water is easily to be obtained ; there is seldom any thunder or lightning, nor is the weather hot or cold to any extraordinary degree. Throughout the year the nights are in general se- rene and fair ; and, upon the whole, the climate is favourable to the constitution. The depth of the soil in the valleys is more than sufficient for the pur- pose of ploughing. Since 1767 they fell into comparative insignifi- cance ; and, for many years past, little notice has been taken of them by our government. Ships of war, on their passage round Cape Horn, have oc- casionally touched there for supplies of water, &c. and South Sea whalers and other merchant vessels ; but the navigation being little known, they have not, until lately, been much frequented, although very nearly in the track of ships homeward-bound from thQ Pacific. Latterly, however, circumstances arose which in- duced the last commander-in-chief on the South American station (Sir Thomas Baker), to send down a ship of war for the purpose of reclaiming that pos- session, which lapse of time seemed to have rendered almost absolutely abandoned. The Buenos Ayrean Government have, however, endeavoured to set up a claim to the islands ^ . In the month of December, 1832, Commander Onslow, in H.M.S. Clio, proceeded to Port Egmont, and found on Saunders' Island the ruins of our for- ^ The Spaniards had formerly used the islands as a prison for South American delinquents. 174 THE FALKLAND ISLANDS. mer establishment. The town stood on the south side of a mountain not less than 600 feet high. The settlers had extended their gardens to the westward, the remains of which are still perceptible. Not find- ing any inhabitants, an inscription was left there, at- tached to a signal staff, on a spot which appeared to be Fort George, stating, * That these islands had been visited by his Britannic Majesty's ship Clio, for the purpose of exercising the rights of sovereignty, 23d December, 1832 ^' During their stay of ten days, the boats were em- ployed in examining Brett's Harbour, Byron's Sound, Keppel's Sound, and to the westward to Point Bay, a distance of sixty miles from the Clio's anchorage. At Port Louis, on East Falkland Island, a Buenos Ayrean schooner of war was lying, and a small party of soldiers under the same flag occupied the shore, where there was an inconsiderable settlement of fo- reign persons, chiefly Buenos Ayreans, who w^ere en- gaged in catching wild cattle, &c. for the supply of such ships as occasionally touched there. Port Louis, at the head of Berkeley Sound, is ad- mirably adapted for vessels to refit at, under any cir- cumstances, it is well sheltered, and has an inner harbour for vessels drawing fourteen feet of water, where they may heave down with safety if requisite. Water is also good and plentiful ; and, reflecting on the number of vessels passing and repassing Cape Horn, and the accidents they are liable to, from the ' Lieut. H. Smyth, of H. M. ship Tyne, was subsequently sent down with a boat's crew to settle on the islands. VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL KINGDOM. 175 tempestuous weather frequently experienced off that Cape, the advantages of a port of refuge becomes apparent. Vegetable Productions and Fruits. — The generality of the surface of these islands is covered with a turf, or black peat, found chiefly above a yellow clayey soil, and formed of roots of plants in marshy situations ; there are however spacious meadows, abundantly watered, and producing excellent grasses, much re- lished by cattle. The most curious of the vegetable productions is a resinous plant, or rather excrescence, for it grows from the earth without stalk, branch, or leaves, called the resinous gum plant. It is fre- quently six feet in diameter, and eighteen inches high, and so strong as to bear the weight of a man. Its surface ejects drops of a tough resinous matter, of a vellow colour, and about the size of peas, having a strong odour like turpentine. Great quantities of water cresses, sorrel, and wild parsley, are found in every direction, as well as a small shrub of the na- ture of spruce, which, being made into beer by the help of molasses, has proved an excellent antiscorbu- tic to seamen afflicted with scurvy after a long voyage on salt provisions. Scarcely any fruits are found, indeed only two fit for use, which grow upon creeping plants, and are similar to the mulberry of Europe, and the lucet of North America. Though there are numerous flowering plants, only one, which had a smell like that of a rose, appeared to yield any per- fume. No trees have been met with. Animals. — Only one species of animal was found in the island, a kind of wolf-fox, which B\Ton de- 176 THE FALKLAND ISLANDS. scribes as extremely fierce, running from a great distance to attack the sailors when they landed, and even pursuing them into the boat. It is about the size of a shepherd's dog, and kennels under ground, subsisting on the seals and birds, which it catches along the shore. Sea lions, wallrusses, and seals, are abundant about the coast, many of them of great size, and very fierce. Swans, wild green ducks, teal, and all kinds of sea-fowl, are found in great numbers, and so tame were some of the birds when the first settlers landed there, that they would suff'er themselves to be caught by the hand, and often perch upon the heads of the people. There is a bird, called the grele, of beautiful plumage, and a kind of gentle note, whose flesh is much esteemed, and which suffers itself to be approached so as to be knocked down with a stick ; there are also falcons, snipes, owls, curlews, herons, thrushes, &c. Fish are not so plentiful, but they consist of mullet, pike, sardini, gradlaw ; and in the fresh water, a green trout, without scales ; all sorts of small shell-fish are found around the coast, but it is difficult to get at them, or indeed for a boat to land, on account of the prodi- gious quantity of sea- weed with which the shore is loaded. The tides produce a curious phenomenon, they do not rise at the settled calculated periods, but, just before high water the sea rises and falls three times ; and this motion is always more violent during the fequinoxes and full moons, at which time several coralines, the finest mother-of-pearl, and the most delicate sponges are thrown up with it ; and amongst other shells, a curious bivalve, called la ADVANTAGES. 1/7 poulette, found no where else but in a fossil state. In addition to numerous hogs, wild fowl, and rabbits, there are several thousand head of wild cattle and horses, roaming over a large expanse of delicious pasturage. As it appears likely that more attention will in future be paid to these islands by our Government ^ I subjoin, for the information of navigators espe- cially, the following account of East (it was on the West island at Port Egmont the British settlement was when forcibly broken up by the Spaniards in 1770) Falkland Island, drawn up by M. Vernet (who had an establishment at Berkeley Sound, ad- joining the ruins of that founded by M. de Bougain- ville previous to 1767, near Port Louis), for W. Parish, Esq., and read before the Royal Geographical Society, 14th January, 1833. East Falkland Island possesses large and secure harbours for first-rate ships of war, with facilities for exercising the crews on shore without the risk of losing them, and with abundance of wild cattle, antiscorbutic herbs, and fish, for their support. The country, in the northern part of the island, is rather mountainous. The highest part was called San Simon, at no great distance from the bottom of Berkeley Sound. The tops of the mountains are thickly strewn with large boulders, or detached ^ Within the last few years numerous whalers — English, American, and French, have been cruising off and refitting in the Falkland Isles. N 178 THE FALKLAND ISLANDS. stones, of which quantities have fallen, in some places, in lines along their sides, looking like rivers of stones ; these are alternated with extensive tracts of marshy ground, descending from the very tops of the mountains, where many large fresh-water ponds are found, from one to two feet deep. The best ground is at the foot of the mountains, and of this there is abundance fit for cultivation, in plains stretch- ing from five to fifteen miles along the margin of the sea. In the southern peninsula there is hardly a rising ground that can be called a hill. Excellent fresh water is found everywhere, and may be pro- cured either by digging, or from the rivulets, which flow from the interior towards the sea, through valleys covered with a rich vegetation. The Climate on the island is, on the whole, tem- perate. The temperature never falls belows 26° Fahrenheit in the coldest winter, nor rises above 75° in the hottest summer ; its general range is from 30° to 50° in winter, 50° to 75° in summer. The weather is rather unsettled, particularly in winter ; but the showers, whether of rain, snow, or hail, are generally of short duration, and their effects are never long visible on the surface of the ground. Thus floods are unknown ; snow disap- pears in few hours, unless on the tops of the moun- tains ; and ice is seldom found above an inch thick. Thunder and lightning are of rare occurrence ; fogs are frequent, especially in autumn and spring, but they usually dissipate towards noon. The winter is rather longer than the summer, but the diflerence is not above a month, and the long warm days of MINERALS AND SOIL. 179 summer, with occasional showers, produce a rapid vegetation in that season. The wind blows commonly from the north-west in summer, south-west in winter, and seldom long from the eastward in either season. The finest weather in winter is when the wind draws from the west or north-west, and in summer when it stands at north- west or north-east. A north wind almost alwavs brings rain, especially in summer, and east and south- e£Lst winds are constantly accompanied by thick and wet weather. Snow squalls generally come from the south- south- east, south, or south-south-west. Storms are most frequent at the changes of the seasons, and blow commonly from south- south- west to west-south- west; but they seldom last above twenty-four hours. Minerals. — There are marks of copper ore with some pyrites, and the rocks are chiefly quartz. Ores of difl'erent colours are common, and red and gray slate is plentiful, but no mines or metals have been ever discovered. The soil of East Falkland Island has been found well adapted to cultivation, consisting generally of from six to eight inches of black vegetable mould, below which is either gravel or clay. Wheat and flax W'Cre both raised of quality equal, if not superior, to the seed sown, which was procured from Buenos Ayres ; and potatoes, cabbage, turnips, and other kinds of vegetables produced largely, and of excel- lent quality. Fruit trees were not tried, the plants sent from Buenos Ayres having perished before they arrived. The soil also produces diflerent kinds of vegetables N 2 180 THE FALKLAND ISLANDS. wild, as celery, cresses, &c., and many other esculent plants, the proper names of which were not known to the settlers, but their palatable taste and valuable anti- scorbutic properties were abundantly ascertained by them. Among others is one which they called the tea-plant, growing close to the ground, and pro- ducing a berry of the size of a large pea, white with a tinge of rose-colour, and of exquisite flavour. A decoction of its leaves is a good substitute for tea, whence its name. It is very abundant. No trees grow on the island, but wood for building was obtained tolerably easily from the adjoining Straits of Magellan. For fuel, besides peat and turf, which are abundant in many places, and may be procured dry out of the penguins' holes, three kinds of bushes are found, called fachinal, matajo, and gruillera. The first of these grows straight, from two to five feet high, and the stem, in proportion to the height, is from half an inch to one inch and a half in diameter : small woods of this are found in all the valleys, and form good cover ; it bears no fruit. The second is more abundant in the southern than in the northern part of the island ; its trunk is nearly the thickness of a man's arm, very crooked, never higher than three feet, and bears no fruit. The gruillera is the smallest of the three, growing close to the ground, and abundant all over the island; being easily ignited, it was chiefly used as fuel when the people were away from the settlement, and to light the peat fires in the houses. It bears a small dark red berry of the size of a large pea, of an insipid taste. Herds of wild horned cattle exist on the island. GAME, &C. 181 sufficient to maintain a great many settlers ; and wild hogs are abundant in the northern peninsula. Wild horses are also found there of small size, but very hardy, which, when broken in, as some were without difficulty, were found of great service to the settle- ment. Rabbits are in great numbers, of a large size and fine fur. Foxes, too, are found, but diflering considerably from those of Europe, having a thick head and coarse fur ; they live chiefly on geese and other fowl, which they catch at night when asleep. Game is extremely common, especially wild geese and ducks ; of the former two kinds were distin- guished, the lowland or kelp-geese, and the upland geese ; the latter were much superior in flavour, the former being of a fishy taste, living chiefly on muscles, shrimps, and kelp. Both were very tame, and the upland geese were easily domesticated. They are finest eating in autumn, being then plump, in conse- quence of the abundance at that season of tea-ber- ries, of which they are very fond; the rest of the year they live on the short grass. They have a white neck and breast, with the rest of the body speckled of a fine brown marbled colour. The lowland gander is quite white, and the goose dark, with a speckled breast. Of ducks there are several kinds. The logger- headed are the largest, and almost of the size of the geese ; their flesh is tough and fishy ; they cannot fly, and when cut off^ from the water are easily caught. The next size is also of inferior quality, tough and fishy; but the smaller kinds, which are not larger than young pigeons, are deliciously good, and are 182 THE FALKLAND ISLANDS. found in large flocks along the rivulets and fresh water ponds. Snipes are found so tame that they were often killed by throwing ramroads at them. In addition to these, a great variety of sea birds frequent the shores, of which the most valuable to sailors and settlers, from the quantity of eggs they deposit, are the gulls and penguins. These birds have their fixed rookeries, to which they resort in numerous flocks every spring ; the gulls generally in green places near the shore, or on the small islands in the bay ; the penguins chiefly along the steep rocky shores of the sea. The eggs of both are eatable even with relish, after long confinement on board ship, the penguin's being, however, the best, and less strong than those of the gull. So numerous are these eggs, that on one occasion eight men gathered 60,000 in four or five days, and could easily have doubled that number had they stopped a few days longer. Both gulls and penguins will lay six or eight each, if removed, otherwise they only lay two and hatch them. The gulls come first to their hatching places* the penguins a little later. Fish abounds in all the bays and inlets, especially in spring, when they come to spawn at the mouths of the fresh water rivulets. They generally enter and retire twice every day, at half- flood and half-ebb, and are in such numbers that ten or twelve men could always catch and salt about sixty tons in less than a month. Tliey were usually caught by a sweeping- net, but they also took the hook, being of a kind be- tween the mullet and salmon. Their flavour was excellent, and when salted, thev were considered FISH, SEALS, &C. 183 superior to the cod. Many shiploads might be pro- cured annually. Of shell-fish there are only muscles and clams ; they are very abundant, and easily gathered on the beach at low water. Seals are found on the island, or rather on the rocks close to it, and hair-seals (sea lions and ele- phants) abound along its shores. Many black whales have been also caught in its neighbourhood ; in con- sequence of which the island has of late years been much resorted to by fishing vessels, English, Ame- rican, and French. Of these, eighty-nine touched at it between 1826 and 1831. East Falkland Island is singularly cut into by the sea, forming various good harbours of easy access for ves- sels of almost any burthen. A commandant with a few marines and a small vessel manned from the South American squadron should be placed at these (to us particularly) valuable islands. BOOK IV. ST. HELENA AND ASCENSION ISLANDS. LOCALITY — AREA — HISTORY — PHYSICAL ASPECT, CLIMATE, GEOLOGY, AND SOIL VEGETATION — POPULATION — PRO- DUCE — REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE, SHIPPING, &C. St. Helena Island, celebrated as the prison and grave of the most extraordinary human being that ever tenanted this earth, is situate in the Southern Atlantic, within the limit of the south east trade winds ; in latitude 15° 15' south, longitude 5° 49' 45" west, 1200 miles from the coast of Africa, 2,000 from that of America, and 600 from the Island of Ascension : its area being 30,300 acres, its extreme length being lO^miles, its breadth 6~, and its cir- cumference about 28 miles. History. — St. Helena was discovered by the Portuguese navigator, Juan De Nova Castella, on HISTORY. 185 the 21st May, 1502, and named by him, in honour of the day of its discovery, after Saint Helena. When first visited, the island was uninhabited, covered by one entire forest, and its shores abounding with turtles, seals, sea-lions, and various sorts of wild fowl ; its settlement, and early improvement in 1513, are attributed to the debarkation of a Portu- guese nobleman, who had been mutilated by Al- buquerque for crime committed in India, and sent home in disgrace. This gentleman, Fernandez Lopez by name, prevailed on the captain to set him on shore, in preference to the life of ignominy he was destined to lead in Portugal, and his wishes being complied with, and abundant supplies forwarded to him by his commiserating friends, he quickly brought some spots under cultivation, and imported hogs, goats, domestic poultry, partridges, and wild fowl, besides various sorts of fruits and vegetables, all of which increased and throve exceedingly, such as figs, oranges, lemons, peach-trees, &c. Fernandez was removed from his voluntary exile by orders of the Portuguese government in about four years, and the next inhabitants appear to have been four slaves of different sexes, who escaped from a ship, and multi- plied to the number of 20 ; these people subsisted on the live stock and fruits which had increased prodigiously ; but the Portuguese being jealous of their consuming what was required for the refresh- ment of the ships, which touched here on their passage from India, finally succeeded in hunting them out, and destroying them. Tavernier informs us that a Franciscan friar had also taken up his abode 186 ST. HELENA AND ASCENSION ISLANDS. on the island and led an austere life for 14 years, when he died ; though other accounts say, he was removed in consequence of the great destruction he committed among the goats, for the sake of traffick- ing in their skins. The Portuguese mariners preserved the secret of the existence of St. Helena from other nations until 1588, when it was discovered by Capt. Cavendish, on his return from a circumnavigating voyage. He gives the state of the island very circumstantially, from which it appears, that the Portuguese had built a town and a church : he found abundance of goats, pigs, and poultry, Avith game, wild fowl, and various kinds of fruits and vegetables. The settlement was afterwards frequently visited by English, Dutch, Spanish, and Portuguese ships ; the salubrity of air, and the abundance of fresh provisions invigorat- ing their exhausted crews. It sometimes happened that ships of nations at war with each other visited St. Helena at the same time — accordingly we have accounts of various sea fights between the Dutch and Spaniards at the anchorage, who are, moreover, accused of wantonly destroying the plantations, lest succeeding visitors should profit by the supplies which had proved so beneficial to them. From all these causes the island was deserted by the Portuguese, when they acquired possession of settlements on the eastern shores of Africa, and for some time continued desolate, owing to the wanton excesses which had been committed : however, about the year 1643, two Portuguese ves- sels being wrecked, their crews got safe to land, and HISTORY. 1 87 once more stocked the island with cattle, goats, hogs, poultry, &c. In 1645 the Dutch took formal possession of St. Helena, and established a colony ; but they also abandoned it, when settling at the Cape of Good Hope in 1651. The homeward bound English East India fleet calling at the island at this period, took possession of St. Helena, and the East India Company obtained a charter for its possession from Charles II. ten years after. Under the superintendence in 1658 of Capt. Button, the first English Governor, a fort was erected, and called Fort James, in compliment to the Duke of York, the king's brother. Settlers were encouraged to emigrate thither, and slaves were imported from Madagascar to work in the planta- tions. It is reported to have been captured by the Dutch in 1665, but of this event the accounts are vague and doubtful, and the wTiter of Rennefort's voyage, who visited the island in 1666, makes no mention of such occurrence, but eulogizes Governor Stringer, and his family, for the attentions he re- ceived, and describes the settlement as thriving, being then composed of about 50 Englishmen, 20 women, and some negroes. Its population was shortly after increased by many, who had been reduced by the great fire of London, seeking relief in the island. From 1658 until 1672 various laws and regula- tions were made by the Company at home, or the Governors of the island, of whom there appears to have been, viz. — Dutton, Stringer, Swallow, Coney, Bennett and Beale : in the latter part of 1672, the 7 1 88 ST. HELENA AND ASCENSION ISLANDS. Dutch, through the treachery of a planter, succeeded in landing in the night 500 men from an expedition which had been repulsed the same day ; the fort being thus attacked in the rear, the Governor thought prudent to abandon it, and retired, with his garrison and principal effects, on board some ships in the roads, taking, however, the precaution of placing a sloop to cruise to windward of St. Helena to warn British vessels of its capture, and a squadron arriving soon after (in May, 1673), under Captain Munden, he succeeded in recapturing the island, and, by keeping the Dutch flag flying after he got possession of the forts, decoyed six Dutch East Indiamen, as well as a ship from Europe, having a Governor and reinforcements for the garrison on board, into the roads where they were captured. Having formed a British garrison by detachments from the ships, Captain Munden sailed for England with his prizes, and was knighted. The king having renewed the charter of the East India Company, they lost no time in sending out reinforcements to St. Helena — appointed Capt. G. Field, governor, with a council of four to assist him, and held out great encouragement for the old settlers to remain, and also to induce new ones to repair thi- ther. The Company at home, and the Governor of the island, now passed some local laws for the allot- ment of land, and the management of the plantations, and assigned the service which each individual was bound to perform for the defence of the settlement when called upon : the number of soldiers was shortly afterwards reduced to 50, and several English HISTORY. 189 settlers having arrived a militia was organized, to whom the defence of the island was to be principally entrusted. Fortifications were raised, and lines drawn for the security of the town, which was re- quired to be built on a preconcerted plan ; but, up- wards of a century elapsed before advantage was taken of placing cannon on the heights, which were only occupied for look-out stations. In 1676, Dr. Halley, the celebrated astronomer, arrived at St. Helena for the purpose of completing some celestial observations ; his instruments were erected on the hill which now bears his name, when he observed the transit of Mercury over the sun's disc. Many taxes having been imposed on the settlers, and particularly an impost laid on the w^ood required to distil spirits from potatoes, discontent began again to assume a formidable aspect, and a mutinous dispo- sition spreading amongst the soldiers, it broke out at various times in open rebellion on various pretences, on many of which occasions blood was shed ; in 1 684, two of the mutineers were hanged, and others trans- ported, as an example to the rest : this did not, how- ever, check the disturbances, for constant insurrec- tions occurred, in which more than one of the Go- vernors perished, until at length in 1700, all the spirit- stills were suppressed by order from England, and by the vigorous measures of Governor Roberts, from 1708 to 1714, the island was tranquillized. Various plants, shrubs, fruit, and timber trees, were now introduced ; but only the apple, mulberry, and peach, have become established, although it is IDO ST. HELENA AND ASCENSION ISLANDS. certain the cocoa nut, cypress, and others, may be propagated with a little attention. The Scotch fir and spruce were introduced about the year 1749, also acorns from which timber has been produced, which now measures from 9 to 11 feet in circumference, in the most sheltered parts of the island, although they do not succeed when exposed to the trade winds. Provisions became so plentiful that a clause wa? inserted in the charter party of the Company's ships, obliging them to purchase a certain quantity of beef, at 1 6s. per cwt. Governor Brooke, who succeeded Corneille in 1 787, by his firm conduct and judicious arrangements, soon subdued the mutinous disposition hitherto so prevalent; and during his government (from 1787 to 1800) St. Helena was made a depot for training re- cruits for the Company's army in India, to the num- ber of upwards of 12,000 soldiers. Brooke also im- proved the buildings, and strengthened the fortifica- tions, established a code of signals, and rendered the settlement extremely valuable at the commencement of war with the Dutch in 1795 ; by his energetic conduct in fitting out an expedition destined to sur- prise the Cape, but that object having been anti- cipated from home, the St. Helena squadron was afterwards employed in capturing the Dutch home- ward-bound Indiamen. Governor Brooke was succeeded by Col. Patten, in 1801-2, who carried on the plans of his prede- cessor, and greatly improved the fortifications of the place, particularly in rendering the guns on the heights more effective, and also in encouraging a GOVERNORS. 191 better mode of agriculture. In 1807, the island was visited with a calamity which had nearly destroyed the whole population — a most inveterate species of the measels was introduced by the homeward-bound fleet from the Cape, so fatal in its effects that, be- sides prostrating the strength of nearly the whole population, so as to render them almost incapable of assisting each other, it carried off in two months nearly 200 persons. The visitation of this calamity alarmed the inhabitants respecting the small pox, which, although it had appeared, or had been intro- duced by persons from England or the Cape, had never proved infectious, and it was supposed that something existed in the climate of St. Helena inimical to its contagiousness. To allay their apprehensions the Governor took measures to introduce vaccina- tion, and also to appoint a gentleman as vaccinating surgeon, and we believe no case of small pox has since been known. In 1807, Governor Patten being obliged to retire to England, on account of ill health, was succeeded the following year by Governor Beat- son — to whose history of the island I am indebted for much information. In May, 1810, 50 Chinese labourers were im- ported into St. Helena, and were found so useful, that shortly afterwards 150 more were obtained : some husbandmen from England were also sent out with a view to improving the agriculture of the settlement ; this produced a beneficial effect in ex- tending greatly the amount of land under cultiva- tion. Still, owing to some measures ordered by the government at home, the price of provisions was 192 ST. HELENA AND ASCENSION ISLANDS. enhanced greatly — salt provisions from the Com- pany's stores, which in 1810 were delivered at 4d. per lb. reaching I'Sd. in 1813, which, with the strict abolition of the importation, or manufacture of ardent spirits, gave rise to discontent. A brewery was therefore established, and cheap wines imported from the Cape in abundance, and served out in rations at 6d. per pint. At the close of 1811 these discontents broke out into open mutiny, as had several times before been the case ; by the firm conduct of the Governor, however, it was speedily suppressed, nine of the ringleaders brought to sum- mary Court Martial, condemned, and six of them executed, after which order was restored, and the worst characters sent off the island. In 1813, Governor Beatson was superseded, at his own request, by Colonel Mark Wilks, but he re- mained for several months to induct his successor in the plans he had in progress for the improvement of the settlement. In 1815, it was resolved to appropriate St. Helena as a prison for Napoleon Buonaparte, — on the loth Oct. 1815, he arrived in the island in his Majesty's ship Northumberland, and- continued there a prisoner at large until his death, on the 6th May, 1821. It would be foreign to my purpose, and beyond my limits to enter into any disquisition on the question of the imprisonment of Napoleon at St. Helena ; whether England had a moral right to detain him there is, by no means, a settled point ; still less so is the far more important question, whether Napoleon's actions were calculated to benefit, or to injure man- 15 CHARACTER AND FATE OF NAPOLEON. 1D3 kind ; — granted, even, that Napoleon was a despot : let it, however, be remembered, that he warred against tyrants who endeavoured to hold millions in bondage to the few, or against imbeciles who desired to retain the mass of their fellow-beings in slavish sub- jection to alleged hereditary rights ; — if he be accused of usurping sovereign power, let those who can ap- preciate his genius reflect, that he was endowed with a capacity of soul for which this world was too limited, and that his towering mind could acknow- ledge no chief; nor let any man of talent forget that moral, mental, physical energy was never exhibited before Napoleon in vain — he elicited, encouraged, rewarded the brave, the high-spirited, the eloquent, and the studious ; his presence was a stimulus to some of the greatest enterprises that man has ever undertaken, and thousands of gallant heroes cheer- fully shed their precious blood in the hope of re- ceiving the approving smile of Napoleon : — yet, more, let not the truly British patriot forget that. Napoleon too idolized his country ; his very exist- ence was centered in extending the glory and hap- piness of his adored France, whom he cherished as the most ardent lover does the first object of his choice. I am not blind to the faults of Napoleon, they were many, and deep ; — he would have been more or less than mortal were it otherwise. I look upon his meteoric career as one of those extraordi- nary dispensations of Providence, whose purport is, to us, inscrutable ; and when I contemplate the lofty pinnacle of grandeur on which he was exalted — with kings, princes, and nobles for his servitors — thrones CEYLON, &C. O 194 ST. HELENA AND ASCENSION ISLANDS. for his gifts — and empires for his sway, — when I contrast this summit of Napoleon's earthly glory with his narrow and cheerless prison-house, in the midst of the Atlantic — when I compare the gorgeous Tuilleries with the silent, nameless, and desolate charnel- vault of St. Helena — I witness the most forcible illustration of the instability of mere human greatness that ever was presented for the guidance of mankind, and I read in it a conclusive confirma- tion of those striking lessons with which the page of scripture abounds — which teach that the race is not to the swift, nor the battle to the strong, and that he who giveth not praise and glory to Him to whom praise and glory are alone due, is like unto a reed shaken by every blast of wind, — or, as the flower of the field, which groweth up and is cut down, and no man knoweth its place. Reader, excuse this digres- sion, which I could not well avoid, and return with me unto a dry detail of facts which, though less congenial to my mind, is of far more utility to the object I have in view — the welfare of my countrv. During the residence of Napoleon on St. Helena, in order to prevent his escape ^ a large garrison of ^ Several projects were made to carry off Napoleon from St. Helena. The following (as it appears tome) impracticable scheme was devised by Johnson, the smuggler, who says — ' I constructed two submarine vessels, the Eagle and Etna. The Eagle was of the burthen of 114 tons, 84 feet in length, and 18 feet beam, propelled by two steam-engines of 40 horse power. The Etna, the smaller ship, was 40 feet long, and 10 feet beam ; burthen 23 tons. These two vessels would be propelled, the large one with two engines of 20 horse power PLAN FOR LIBERATING NAPOLEON. 195 king's troops, and a considerable squadron was main- tained at the island, which the East India Company each, the small one with one engine of 10 horse power, high pressure, well arranged, equipped with warlike stores, and 30 well- chosen seamen, with four engineers. They were also to take 20 torpedos, a number equal to the destruction of 20 ships, ready for action in case of meeting with any opposition from the ships of war on the station. These two ships were to be stationed at a convenient distance from the rock (at St. Helena), abreast of Longwood House, the highest point of the island, being 2,000 feet above the level of the sea, and, because deemed inaccessible, of course unsuspected. All the accessible points were well fortified and guarded. In this position the two vessels were to lay at anchor, at a cable's length from each other, the smaller one close to the rock, well fortified with cork fenders, in order to guard against any injury which might be apprehended from the friction of beating against the rock, which could at all times be prevented by hauling off or on, as occasion required. This smaller ship would be pro- vided with a mechanical chair, capable of containing one per- son on the seat, and a standing foot-board at the back, so that the person at the back could regulate the ascent or descent at pleasure. Attached to this chair would be a patent whale-line, 2.050 feet long, with all the necessary apparatus ready when called for. Thus far arranged, the vessels were to remain submerged during the day, and at night approach the surface. Every thing being perfectly in order, I should then go on shore, provided with some other small articles, such as a ball of strong twine, an iron bolt with a block, which I would sink into the ground at the top of the rock, opposite Longwood House, and abreast of the submarine ships. I should then obtain my introduction to his Imperial Majesty, and com- municate my plan. The residence of the Emperor being sur- rounded by a chevaux-de-frise, and the stables being outside, the servants only had access to the house. I proposed that the coachman should go into the house, at a certain hour o 2 196 ST. HELENA AND ASCENSION ISLANDS. placed under the government of the Crown : in 1822, the whole of the king's troops were removed and St. which should be fixed, and that his Majesty should be provided with a similar livery, as well as myself, the one in the charac- ter of a coachman, the other as a groom; and that, thus dis- guised, we should pass into the coach-house, and there remain, unnoticed and unperceived. We should then watch our op- portunity, to avoid the eye of the frigate guard, who seldom looked out in the direction of the highest point in the Island ; and on our arriving at the spot where our blocks, &c. were de- posited, I should make fast one end of my ball of twine to the ring, and heave the ball down to my confidential men, then on the look-out below, who would make the other end fast to the fall belonging to the mechanical chair, by which means I should be able to haul up the end of the fall, which I should run through the block, and then haul up the mechanical chair to the top. I should then place his Majesty in the chair, while I took my station at the back, and lowered away with a cor- responding weight on the other side, until we arrived safe at the bottom. Embarked on board the Etna, into which we should have lowered, as it lay close under the rock, I should then cast off our moorings, and haul alongside the Eagle, and remain there during the day; in the evening prepare our steam, and get under weigh as soon as it became dark. In this position, I should propel by steam until I had given the island a good berth, and then ship our mast and make sail, steering for the United States. I calculated that no hostile ship or ships could impede our progress, so as to offer any very serious obstruction, as, in the event of an attack, I should haul our sails and strike yards and masts, which would only occupy about 40 minutes, and then submerge. Under water we should await the approach of the enemy, and then, by the aid of the little Etna, attaching the torpedo to her bottom, effect her destruction in 15 minutes. On my arrival at a secure and convenient spot on the coast of the United States, I should communicate with his Majesty's Government, through the medium of my friend and patron, the ever-to-be- lamented IMPROVEMENTS IN THE ISLAND. 197 Helena reverted to the possession of the East India Company. In March, 1823, Brigadier General Walker arrived from England as governor : under his administration many judicious plans for the improvement of the set- tlement were persevered in, particularly the abolition of slavery (previously begun) , the establishment of schools, &c.; he also encouraged agricultural societies and fairs, giving prizes for the best cattle, ploughing, and crops. The houses which had been occupied by Buonaparte and his staff were converted into offices for the Company's farm at Longwood \ and the amount of cultivated land extended. He also in- creased the supply of water for shipping, by bringing the contents of another spring to the reservoir, by which means there is now procurable 300 tons of pure water in the twenty-four hours, which can be further increased if necessary. St. Helena remained as the property of the East India Company until the non-renewal of the Company's commercial charter Duke of York, to negociate for a more suitable and honour- able asylum for his Imperial Majesty. Should my negociations, as I anticipated, fail, I should then address his Imperial Ma- jesty, and propose his return to France, where he would meet with a very favourable reception. The whole of the negociations were carried on through O'Meara. The vessels were laid down to be coppered, when news arrived of the exile's death.' [Johnson forgot to state how he was to ascend the inacces- sible precipice.] 1 When I visited them in 1830, Napoleon's bed-room was a cattle-stall, and sheep and goats sheltered themselves in the ex-emperor's saloon. ,198 ST, HELENA AND ASCENSION ISLANDS. in 1833, when the Directors declined to continue burthened with the expense of the island, which it had retained solely for the benefit and protection of its shipping ; St. Helena is now, therefore, one of the crown colonies ; Commissioners have been sent out to make the necessary inquiries and alterations for the transfer — the East India Company's troops, here- tofore garrisoning the forts, will be removed to India, and their place occupied by the head- quarters of the 60th rifles, with a governor appointed by the Queen. ' Chronological account of Governors of St. Helena : — Sir Richard Munden and Captain R. Kegwin, 1G73; Captain G. Field, 1G74; Major J. Blackmore, 1678; Captain J. Johnson, 1690; Captain R. Keelinge, 1693; Captain S. Poirier, 1697; Captain T. Goodwin, I707 ; Captain J. Roberts, I7O8 ; Captain B. Boucher, I7II ; Captain M. Bazett, (actg.) Captain J. Pyke, 1714; E. Johnson, Esq. 1719; E. Byfield, (actg.); Captain J. Smith, 1723; Captain J. Pyke, 1731; J. Goodwin, Esq. 1738; D. Crisp, 1739; R. Jenkins, Esq. 1740; Major T. Lambert, 1741 ; G. G. Powel, Esq. 1742 ; Col. D. Dunl)ar, 1743; C. Hutchinson, Esq. 1747; J. Skottowe, Esq. 1764; D. Corneille, Esq. 1782; Colonel R. Brooke, 1787; Lieu- tenant Colonel F. Robson, 1801; Colonel R. Patten, 1802; Lieutenant Colonel W. Lane, 1807 ; Major General A. Beat- son, 1808; Colonel M. Wilks, 1813; Lieutenant General Sir Hudson Lowe, 1816; T. H. Brooke, Esq. (actg.) 1821; Brigadier General A. Walker, 1823 ; T. H. Brooke, Esq. (2nd actg.) 1828; Brigadier General C. Dallas, 1828. Physical Aspect. — The island of St. Helena, when first seen at sea, presents the appearance of a small barren rock, nearly perpendicular on its northern side, but gradually shelving to the south. On ap- proaching, its eminences appear more broken, and the central ones covered with verdure ; on a near PHYSICAL ASPECT. 1 P9 approach this view is again shut out by the rugged and barren appearance of the shore, which is almost perpendicular, forming a girdle of inaccessible pre- cipices of basaltic rocks, some of them rent to the bases, exhibiting extensive chasms, and all the most fantastic shapes that can be imagined. On rounding Munden's Point to the only anchorage that exists, James' Valley Bay on the north-west, or leeward side of the island, the eye is suddenly relieved by a view of the town and fortifications. James' Town is situate in a narrow valley between two lofty mountains, and presents a pleasant and refreshing appearance, from the trees being generally in full leaf — a species of the banian of India, called in Bengal the peepul tree. Tliere is good anchorage in from eight to twenty- five fathoms ; the tide rising to the height of five feet at times ; the surf upon the shore is generally strong, but about Christmas tremendous. The principal in- lets by which the island can be approached are Lemon Valley, James' Town, and Rupert's Bay on the north- west side, and Sandy Bay on the south-east ; all these, however, are strongly fortified. Even the small ra- vines, where it might be possible to effect a landing, are also fortified. Throughout the whole length of the island there are only two plains, the largest that of Longwood, comprising 1,500 acres of fertile land, sloping to the south-west. The island is divided by a ridge of hills, running nearly east and west, but bending in a curved direction to the south, at each extremity, and from this chain innumerable valleys and ridges 200 ST. HELENA AND ASCENSION ISLANDS. branch off, generally at right angles. The highest point of land in the island is Diana's Peak, which rises 2,700 feet above the level of the sea, and is situated towards the eastern extremity. From the summit of this peak the whole island lies under the view, no point intercepting the horizon : on the same ridge are Cuckold's Point, 2,672 feet, and Halley's Mount, 2,467 feet, which from their extreme altitude, are often enveloped in clouds. The other remarkable eminences, the altitude of w^hich have been ascer- tained by Major Rennell, are Flag Staff, 2,272, and BarnsclifF, 2,215 feet, nearer the coast and overhang- ing the sea ; Alarm House, 1 ,260 feet, in the centre of the island; High Knoll, 1,903 feet, to the southward of Ladder Hill, and the official countiy residence of the Governor, Longwood House, 1,762 do.; most of the central eminences are covered with timber and shrubs, consisting of the cabbage tree, redwood, stringwood, dogw^ood, &c., and formerly the greenwood was to be found in great abundance, but, at present, few of these trees are to be seen, except about 1,500 acres of an irregular forest at Longwood, preserved by order of the East India Company. St. Helena is plentifully watered by clear and wholesome springs, abundant in every direction : those issuing from the sides of the hills frequently form picturesque cascades. Roads have been formed in a zig-zag direction, with incredible labour, which now give easy access to the interior of the island. For the space of a couple of miles from James Town, all appears baiTen, but the sight is soon gratified by the appearance of verdure, with wooded hills, culti- ^RIAL PHENOMENON. 201 vated lawns and valleys, and handsome country resi- dences. Many beautiful views are obtained from the summits : besides the indigenous plants of the island, the coffee of Arabia, the banian and bamboo of India, the aloe of Africa, and the apple, peach, and mul- berry of Europe are found to thrive in the cultivated inclosures. At Longwood there is about 1500 acres of excellent meadow^ land, capable of great fertility when supplied with water. From Sandy Bay the view is also pleasing, the country consisting of alter- nate ridges and valleys, converging towards the sea, amongst w^hich are interspersed the houses and plan- tations of the settlers, the prospect closing with the distant ocean. Many of the hills are naked to the summit ; occa- sionally the sides are partially clothed with a stunted brushwood (as is the case in the lonesome and deso- late looking valley where Napoleon's grave is situate '), ^ The temperament of Napoleon is evinced in the melan- choly-looking spot chosen by himself as his last resting place. The valley is small, verdant, and completely shut out (except by one winding path) from the other parts of the island by two towering, brown, and barren mountains, leaving no other ob- ject visible, save the purple ether and the light fleecy clouds which hover about like aerial messengers. The appearance which the clouds assume here is extremely beautiful and sin- gular, as the following anecdote will evince. In ] 830, I was a passenger in a French ship from India, bound for Havre de Grace. We had sutFered severe gales off the Cape, and being without a good chronometer, lost our reckoning, and were cruising about for several foggy days, looking for St. Helena. During this time, a very large bird, resembling an eagle, but Which no one had seen any thing like, kept hovering about 202 ST. HELENA AND ASCENSION ISLANDS. making the scene more dreary. Yet there are many sweet spots on this rock of the ocean, and those who have been born in St. Helena admire its beauties, and are strongly attached to their wild -looking and rug- ged home. The Climate of this island is not ill adapted to the European constitution ; indeed it has been found congenial to the crews of vessels that have been kept for a long space of time on salt provisions, and with- out vegetables. The thermometer seldom rises above 80° in James Town, and the heat is only excessive when it is reflected from the sides of the valley in calm weather ; in the interior of the island the tem- perature is more even, never so cold as in England, and scarcely so hot. The average temperature our ship. Several of the French officers endeavoured to shoot it; but, although they were excellent shots, and the bird came close to us, in a steady flight, it escaped injury. On the third day, while anxiously looking out at noon, I perceived in the clouds the exact figure of an eagle, in a halt-inclined flying attitude, the fleecy wings beautifully tinged with the hidden sun's rays. Under the influence of the thoughts then passing in my mind, I involuntarily exclaimed, ' Voila Vesprit de Napo- leon!' The idea was electric to the Frenchmen around me ; and an old officer of Napoleon's guard threw himself on his knees, in the attitude of prayer. Never shall I forget the countenances of the young and old, as they soon after beheld the eagle-like cloud slowly resolve itself into thin air; while beneath, and close to our bark, the lofty peaks of St. Helena frowned in dark and gloomy grandeui'. On looking round, the bird which, for three days, had hovered about us, (and but a few moments before visible) was no where to be seen, and we proceeded beneath the embattled cliffs in thoughtful silence. GEOLOGY AND SOIL. 203 throughout the whole year has been found to be at Longwood from 56 to 68, at James Town from 66 to 78, and at Plantation House from 61 to 73 Fahrenheit. State of the Thermometer (Farenheit) at Deadwood, St. Helena, taken by Dr. Short, physician to the forces, from 1st September, 1820, to 31st August, 1822. Months. Range. State of the Wind. Max. Med. Min. Moi Ave ofl nion January 76 76 76 74 72 70 71 68 66 68 72 72 70 70 71 70 68 65 66 64 64 65 66 66 68 67 67 66 64 57 57 62 62 62 61 61 m 71 70 68 64 64^ 64§ 64 65 66i 66J South-east. Ditto. Ditto. Ditto. Ditto. Dito ; 1 day -n-est. Ditto ditto. Ditto. Ditto, Ditto. Ditto ; 6 days west. Ditto. 1 I 1 February March April May June July August September October November December Yearly average 71 67 62 Thunder and lightning are rare, and the rains, which fall most abundantly in February, are for the other months more regular than in other tropical si- tuations. The higher peaks and their vicinity from their approximation to the clouds, are generally visited with a shower daily, and cloudy days are more fre- quent than scorching sunny ones. The atmosphere is, however, generally so clear that a vessel may be descried at a distance of sixty miles. Geology and Soil. — St. Helena is probably of volcanic origin, perhaps like the Mauritius, the re- 204 ST. HELENA AND ASCENSION ISLANDS. suit of a submarine convulsion ; or it is the lofty peak of some vast range of mountains whose base is beneath the ocean. Limestone is plentiful in some situations, as well as iron ore, but the scarcity of fuel prevents the latter being made available. There have been appearances of gold and copper, but not to the extent to encourage mining. There is a sub- stance called terra puzzolana, found in considerable quantities, which in conjunction with lime makes an excellent cement, and is therefore used in forming aqueducts, as it sets hard, and is retentive of water, though subject to become speedily foul by vegetable substances adhering to its surface. The Vegetable Kingdom is not much varied. A vast quantity of furze, produced from seed origin- ally brought from England covers the sides of the interior hills ; there are three kinds of gum tree, all evergreens and indigenous, — the common, the bas- tard, and the dwarf; all of them emit an aromatic gum, which renders the wood pleasant as fuel, for which purpose it is used, and from the trunks of the trees the inhabitants obtain in abundance a sweet fluid which they call toddy. The other native timber or shrubs are dog-wood, red-wood or ebony, string- wood and the cabbage tree, of which the last is used in building. The oak, pinaster, and cypress thrive very well where they have been planted. The myr- tle grows to the height of thirty feet, and the cotton tree flourishes to perfection. The fern is extremely beautiful, growing to the height of twenty feet, with leaves five feet in length. There is a shrub which has been named sapphire, which the natives burn in VEGETABLE KINGDOM. 205 large quantities, its ashes producing- an alkali for the manufacture of soap. All sorts of grasses thrive well ; the wire grass or dwarf heing the most abund- ant ; it is nutritious and suffers little from drought. Lucerne has also been successfully introduced : in short the soil is favourable to the production of any European plant if sheltered from the sea. Most kinds of tropical or European fruits ripen, more particularly in the sheltered valleys. Vines, oranges, citrons, lemons, figs, pomegranates, mul- berries, tamarinds, mangoes, cocoa-nuts, sugar cane, pine apples, &c. thrive well : apples have succeeded tolerably, but the climate is not congenial to cherries, currants, or gooseberries. The common blackberry increased to such an extent after its introduction in 1780, as to cause an order for its extirpation. Three successive crops of potatoes are often pro- duced in the year, and garden vegetables, such as cabbages, beans, peas, &c. are raised on every farm in great abundance. As the principal object of the settlement is to provide fresh meat and vegetables for the refreshment of the homeward bound ships, the cultivation of corn and pulse has not been encouraged, neither is the climate congenial to their production on account of droughts. The provisions exported and brought to market in James Town, and solely grown on the island during the last five years, were — Potatoes, bags, exported 7650, consumed 1960; cabbages, ew. 7470, c. 16250; vegetables, bunches, ex. 33,800, c. 42,030 ; pumpkins, ex. 3800, c. 570 ; hay, cwts. ex. 380, c. 2880; fowls, ex. 21,100, c. 20,240; ducks, ex. 4,100, c. 4,000; bullocks, ex. 206 ST. HELENA AND ASCENSION ISLANDS. 260, c. 560; calves, ex. 30, c. 460; sheep, ex. 220, c. 1230; pigs, ex. 870, c. 390; the total value of the exports of the above was 20,400/. of the consump- tion, 24,500/. Animals. — Cattle produced from English stock are not numerous, owing to the great demand of passing ships ; poultry is plentiful and well tasted ; and in some parts of the island rabbits abound. The stock in the island consists of horses 300, horned cattle 1500, sheep and goats 3000. Birds. — The shores abound with many varieties of sea fowl, which breed amongst the cliffs. Pheasants, partridges, and guinea fow^ls, being strictly preserved, are at this time numerous ; as are also the Java spar- rows, which cause great destruction to the farmers' crops, canary birds and red linnets, the latter build two nests, in the upper one of which the male bird sits and serenades the female in her incubation. Fish are numerous, and more than seventy different kinds have been caught on the coast. Amongst the most prized are the coal fish, which is very delicate but scarce : those commonly taken are jacks, congers, soldiers, mackarel, albicore, bulls' eyes, &c. When lying in St. Helena rcadstead, I have pulled up fish so fast as to be weary in catching them : in general they are excellent eating. Whales are sometimes taken when they approach the roads. The flying fish often drop on the rocks when pursued by the dolphin, &c. In December and March turtle are frequently taken, and shell fish are very abundant, particularly the rock oyster. The number of fish caught near the island during 1 POPULATION. 207 the last five years were as follow: — mackarel, 1 15,300 bulls' eyes, 2500 ; jacks, 35,900 ; congers, 24,000 old wives, 72,000 ; soldiers, 8,400 ; sandspeer, 6000 cavelliers, 6000 ; deep-water bulls' eyes, 3520 ; yel- low-tail, 350 , coal fish, 30 ; cod-fish, 40 ; silver fish, 7050 ; stumps, 4600 ; long-legs, 35 ; bear fish, 35 ; turtle, 40 ; five fingers, 490 ; sword fish, 80 (weighing 10 to 80 lbs. each); barracootta, 50; al- bicore, 8300 (10 to 80 lbs). The Population is estimated at 5000, of whom about 2200 are whites, and the remainder either people of colour, Chinese, or Africans, whom the East India Company's government have for several years liberally and generously aided to purchase their freedom. The total number of paupers in the island is twenty-eight, principally old and blind people. Those who are born in the island evince considerable quickness and talent. The baptisms and burials at St. Helena, from the 30th September, 1820, to the 30th September, 1833, were as follow : — Bps. Bis. Bps. Brs. Bps. Brs. 1821 140 90 182G 129 83 1831 239 73 1822 113 70 1827 180 99 1832 229 89 1823 118 57 1828 159 96 1833 201 70 1824 101 90 1829 156 65 1825 154 125 1830 204 68 Total baptisms, 2123— burials, 1076. The bill of mortality, ending December, 1833, was 80 ; of whom 1 6 died under 1 year ; 5 under 5 years; 5 under 10 years; 4 from 10 to 20; 23 from 20 to 40 ; 18 from 40 to 70 ; and 9 above 70 years of age. 208 ST. HELENA AND ASCENSION ISLANDS. Government. — During the East India Company's sway, the chief authority was vested in a governor, aided by a council, composed of the principal and senior civic servants, how it will in future stand is not yet known. The Military has hitherto been composed of one regiment of Em'opean troops, and a strong artillery, in the service of the East India Company. The head quarters of the 2nd battalion 60th Rifles will, I hear, form the new garrison, with, I suppose, a detachment of the Roval Artillery. The island is so well fortified that properly defended it may be con- sidered impregnable. It has forty-three stations, protected by mounted ordnance. The guns mounted and ready for action are, — brass mortars, howitzers, and guns, 9 three-tenths inch mortar, 1 ; 8 inch howitzers, 2 ; b\ ditto, 8; 6 pounders, 14; 3 ditto, 10. — Iro7i, 13 inch mortar, 8; 8 inch ditto, 2; 32 pounders, 19; 24 ditto, 16; 18 ditto, 36; 12 ditto, 35; 9 ditto, 11; 6 ditto, 17; 4 ditto, 2; 3 ditto, 4; swivels, 3; Carronades, 68 pounders, 4 ; 24 ditto, 22 ; 18 ditto, 24; 12 ditto, 1. Revenue and Expenditure. — Hitherto the charge for St. Helena has been large, unless it be considered in the important view of an invaluable naval station. The revenue derived from a few licenses and fines is small, but increasing in amount. The following is a REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE. 209 Statement of the Revenue and Charges of St. Helena. Years. CHARGES. Civil. Military. Buildings and Fortifi- Total ! Charges. ^ ^ OJ ..^ e!^ <" - > N Oj fH 1809-10 1810-11 1811-12 1812-13 1813-14 1814-15 1815-16 1816-17 1817-18 1818-19 1819-20 i 1820-21 I 1821-22 1822-23 1823-24 1824-25 1825-26 1826-27 1827-28 1828-29 1829-30+ 1830 31 1831-32 1832-33 1833-34 £ 12503 14626 17452 17272 20209 26278 23623 49075 49634 61411 33019 54641 47314 29475 35122 28432 28319 27172 46808 44507 33288 28378 28285 28581 26398 £ 69926 64783 61845 62880 70701 66015 178289 222225 192498 215870 128562 218774 157527 87083 77581 77538 80616 87297 75172 69072 60359 56324 56356 58020 56287 £ 2824 3240 3989 4536 6029 1666 2207 11482 14875 19504 7872 2139 5242 5395 3494 5295 4493 3974 1989 2058 957 1721 1842 1734 1721 £ 85253 82649 83286 84688 96939 93959 204119* 282782* 257007* 296785* 169453* 275554* 210083* 121953 116197 111265 113428 118443 123969 115637 94608 86423 86483 88335 84406 £ 1432 1429 1432 1696 1685 1872 2371 3038 1438 2693 175 989 2045 1860 3929 1816 3015 3943 3398 2583 1600 379 3260 3050 2931 £ 83821 81220 81854 82992 95254 92087 201748 279744 255569 294092 169278 274565 208038 120093 112268 109449 110413 114500 120571 113654 93004 86044 83223 85285 81475 * The Company have since been repaid by Her Majesty's Govern- ment apart of these charges, credit for the amount having been al- lowed to them in their account with Government, settled by the Act 3d Geo. IV. c. 93. t Add to this sundry expenses paid in England— 1829-30, 11,389/. —1830-31, 14-213/.— 1831-32, 10,929/.— 1832-33, 10,268/.— 1833-34, 10,166/. Number of vessels that received supplies at the island in 1833 : British, 1 56 ships, 58 barques, 79 brigs, and 7 schooners, total 300 ; tonnage 131,974, guns 16GG, men 11,459 ; American vessels 93, tonnage 26,275, guns 158, men 1801 ; French 51. 210 ST. HELENA AND ASCENSION ISLANDS. tonnage 17,47^, guns 139, men 1191 ; Dutch 23, tonnage 9995, guns 142, men 589 ; Portuguese 3, tonnage 883, guns 14, men 71; Swedish 2, tonnage G08, guns 10, men 40 ; German 2, tonnage 541, guns 8, men 31; Danish 1, tonnage 145, men 14. Total, vessels 475, tonnage 187,899, guns 2134, men 15,19G ; and 162 vessels sighted the island. Of British vessels touching at St. Helena 7 were from Algoa Bay, 9 Batavia, 42 Bombay, 69 Calcutta, 30 Cape of Good Hope, 7 Ceylon, 23 China, 5 London, 17 Madras, 9 Manilla, 51 Mauritius, 2 New South Wales, 1 Rio Janeiro, 14 Singapore, 2 Van Diemen's Land, and 12 from whaling voyages ; of the above 300 vessels, 189 were bound to London, and 51 to Liverpool, the remainder to different ports in the United Kingdom. Ifwe value the property vested and embarked in 131,974 tons of British ship- ping at 30Z. pound per ton, we shall have nearly four millions annually (3,959,220/.) indebted for its better security to our possession of St. Helena. Prices of stock and provisions at St. Helena, in 1834: — horned cattle, from England, 15/. to 20/. ; from the Cape of Good Hope, 71. 10s. to 10/. ; sheep, Cape, 1/. ; goats, ditto 10*. ; pigs, weighing lOOlbs 1/. 10*.; turkeys lOs. ; geese, 75. ; fowls, 25.; horses, 20/.; flour per lb. 2^d. ; biscuits, ll2]bs. 1/. English; I65. Cape ; oats, per muid. Cape, 12.9.66?.; barley, ditto, II5. Gd. ; hops, pocket, 305. ; malt, per hogshead, 4/. IO5. ; rice, bag of 1651bs. 125. ; English salt, per lb. Id. ; salt fish, per cwt. 1/. ; fresh beef, mutton, &c. Gd. to 4d. per lb. ; ditto, salt ditto, 3d. to 4d. ; sugar, 2d. to 3d. per lb. ; coffee, 5d. to Sd. ; tea, Is. 3d. to 25. Gd. per lb. ; wine, Cape, I5. Gd. to 25. per gallon; foreign wine, 125, to 1/. per dozen; brandy and gin, 1/. per gallon ; English beer, 95. per dozen ; Island ditto, 25. per gallon ; servants' wages, 10.?. to 155. per month with board, or I5. Gd. per day without board ; women, IO5. to 205. per month, with food. The foregoing will convey a sufficiently distinct idea of St. Helena, which as a maritime station is of incalculable value to a commercial nation : it is not the barren rock that has been supposed, nor are ASCENSION. 211 there wanting the finer elements of social life ; slavery has been for several years in the course of abolition ; public schools have been established (eight schools, with about 500 children) ; an excellent ob- servatory, provided with every scientific instrument ; and every effort made to promote religious instruc- tion. As a watering and refreshing station for our homeward-bound eastern vessels, St. Helena, even in peace time, is of great utility ; and it is well situate as a cruising station for our ships of war — as is also Ascension — contiguous to St. Helena, in latitude 7° 57' south, longitude 14° 28' west ; it is a small island of volcanic production, the coast consisting of barren rock, relieved, however, in some places by the verdure on the declivity of the Green Mountain. The island has been of late years well fortified at every accessible part (the sea breaks on the island with tremendous violence), and garrisoned by a de- tachment of marines and marine artillery, who, aided by artificers, have erected a neat establishment for their location. A shaft has been sunk in one of the mountains, and abundance of excellent water con- veyed to the anchorage by iron pipes and hoses ; and a good soil was found two feet under the lava on which an abundant supply of vegetables may be reared. The beach, at first thought to be com- posed of sand, was found to consist of very small fragments of shells, in some places firmly compacted together. These slabs were formed of several layers, of which the size of the fragments differs in each layer ; they are used for tombstones, steps of doors, and are broken and burned for lime. Red volcanic p 2 212 ASCENSION ISLAND. ashes prevail, several hills entirely exhibiting that appearance. Of the vegetable kingdora, the euphorbia only is found growing in small tufts, distributed not very abundantly about the rugged lava, — a beautiful object among such barren scenes. Sea fowl are very numerous, and there are three species of butterflies on the island, of handsome colours. Ponds are kept stocked wdth turtle, w'eighing from 200 to 800 lbs. each, which may be bought for 50 shillings. Abundance of fish and marine birds are obtainable. At a place called ' The Fair,' the birds named sea-swallows, as well as numerous other aquatic birds, congregate ; the eggs of the sea- swallows, which are of a dirty w^hite with dark red spots, and about the size of a crow's egg, are col- lected at certain seasons of the year in thousands, and considered delicate aud excellent eating \ Moorings are laid down in the roads, and vessels in w^ant of water and vegetables can be supplied at a moderate price. During war, these islands in the possession of an enemy would, as outlying picquets, be a means of serious injury to our commerce ; during peace they are refreshing stations, enabling our seamen to have at all times a friendlv haven under their lee. 1 When at Algoa Bay, in 1825, I used to collect thousands of sea fowl eggs at the contiguous bird islands, and they furnished our mess with omelets of a peculiar but rather pleasing flavour, for several weeks. When boiled, the white of the egg is perfectly transparent. Fo Montgom •> Mmims H sto t ol the BmUsli CoLomes A£at BOOK V. BRITISH SETTLEMENTS IN WESTERN AFRICA, INCLUDING SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMBIA, AND CAPE COAST CASTLE. CHAPTER I. LOCALITY — AREA — HISTORY — PHYSICAL ASPFXT^RIVERS — GEOLOGY CLIMATE — VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL KINGDOMS POPULATION GOVERNMENT — FINANCES — COMMERCE SOCIAL STATE AND FUTURE PROSPECTS, &C. &C. None of the colonies of England have been mis- represented more than those situate on the western coast of Africa ; few surpass them in moral, commer- cial, and political interest. Unfortunately my limits compel brevity ; but I trust before these pages be concluded, the reader will agree with me, that our possessions on the shores of Western Africa are an important and essential link in the maritime empire of Britain. The trade between Western Africa and Europe commenced about the middle of the fifteenth century, BOOK V. BRITISH SETTLEMENTS IN WESTERN AFRICA, INCLUDING SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMBIA, AND CAPE COAST CASTLE. CHAPTER I. LOCALITY AREA — HISTORY — PHYSICAL ASPECT — RIVERS — GEOLOGY CLIMATE — VEGETABLE AND AMMAL KINGDOMS POPULATION GOVERNMENT — FINANCES — COMMERCE SOCIAL STATE AND FUTURE PROSPECTS, &C. &C. None of the colonies of England have been mis- represented more than those situate on the western coast of Africa ; few surpass them in moral, commer- cial, and political interest. Unfortunately my limits compel brevity ; but I trust before these pages be concluded, the reader will agree with me, that our possessions on the shores of Western Africa are an important and essential link in the maritime empire of Britain. The trade between Western Africa and Europe commenced about the middle of the fifteenth century, 214 SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMBIA, &C. for we learn that in 1455, Prince Henry of Portugal built a fort on the island of Arguin. At the begin- ning of the sixteenth century, the English, Spaniards, French, Danes, and Dutch had begun to send private ships to trade on this coast ; but during the middle of this century the commerce of each nation was orga- nized under the management of chartered companies, who formed estabUshments on different parts of the coast, built forts at the mouths of several rivers, and prosecuted an active trade, the greater part of which (as stated in my West India volume) was for slaves. The English settled chiefly at Cape Coast Castle ; the French at the mouth of the Senegal and at Goree Island ; the Dutch on the Gambia ; the Portuguese at St. George del Mina ; the Danes at Christianborg, &c. Each of these strong fortresses, mounting from fifty to sixty pieces of cannon, had subordinate posts and stations, several of which continue to this day. At the present moment our settlements are situate at Bathurst, on the Gambia, at Sierra Leone, Cape Coast Castle, and Accra, and a brief description of the sea coast, followed by a succinct account of each settlement, will be therefore necessary. Physical Aspect, Description, and History. — In general the coast of Western Africa, extending for 4000 miles along the Atlantic, with an average breadth of 300 miles, is along the ocean boundary a flat country, backed by ranges of lofty mountains, which in some places approach the sea, and as at Cape Verd, project in bold headlands. The great coast chain runs parallel to the coast from west to east, where, afi'ording a passage for the disemboguing RIVERS. 215 waters of the Nun, one of the mouths of the Niger, tends towards the north-east to join or form the Gebel el Kumri, or Mountains of the Moon ; some of the peaks of this range (those of Cameranca, near Benin) are said to be 13,000 feet in elevation. It is only, however, about the estuaries of the great rivers and along their banks that the country can be said to be flat, in other places it consists of gentle undulations and rising eminences, giving considerable beauty to the landscape, the most conspicuous feature of which are the numerous rivers that disembogue into the ocean, most of them arising in the chain of moun- tains above described, and running a tortuous course to the coast. Among the principal rivers are the Senegal, Gam- bia, Rio Grande, Rio Nunez, Rokelle, Cameranca Mesurado, Nun or Niger, Congo and Coauzo. Be- ginning with the most northerly, the Senegal appears to rise in the Kong range of mountains (heights of Foota Jalloo), in nearly 10° north latitude, and 10° west longitude, where the Niger is thought to rise ; the Senegal, about 15° north latitude, is joined by several ti'ibutary streams, viz. the Woolery, Faleme, Neriko, &c., and after passing Galam and the falls of Felu, makes a circuitous bend to the north-west along the borders of the desert, and falls into the Atlantic at Fort Louis, its course being 950 miles. The Gambia has its source in the same mountain range as the Senegal, near the Faleme, one of the tributaries of the latter named river, and rolls a power- ful and rapid stream, at first to the north-west and then westerly, falling into the Atlantic, after a course 216 SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMBIA, &C. of 700 miles, about 13° 13' north latitude. The country between the rivers Senegal and Gambia is called by the French the Sen-Gambia. The Rio Grande is, as far as we know\ a large stream, nor is any river equal to the Gambia met v;ith until we arrive at the Bight or Gulf of Benin, where, for the space of above 200 miles, there is a succession of large estuaries, now ascertained (through the perse- vering enterprize of the Landers) to be the mouths of the long- sought Niger, whose origin we are still ignorant of, and whose course and embouchures are still to a great extent unexplored ; the delta of this mighty stream stretching into the interior of Western Africa for more than 170 miles, occupies, it is sup- posed, a space of more than 300 miles along the coast, thus forming a surface of more than 25,000 square miles, being a considerably larger area than is embraced in all Ireland. Further south the Congo or Zaire pours its ample volume of waters into the broad Atlantic, 400 miles having been navigated during Captain Tuckey's unfortunate expedition, leav- ing its further course and source still involved in mystery. Of the Coauzo, though a large river, we ^ Captain Belcher, who surveyed the coast line here in 1830-32, in the Etna and Raven, says, that he thinks the whole of the s})ace between the Nunez and Rio Grande is one great archipelago, and navigable, at high water, for vessels of foar or five feet draught, and it is generally believed that canoes can navigate from Isles de Los to the Gambia, within the islands of this (supposed) huge archipelago. It is probable that a large river will yet be found here. The Compome, as fer as exi)lored, is a very extensive stream. FRENCH SETTLEMENTS. 2J7 are not yet in possession of sufficient information to speak positively. With a knowledge of the foregoing" leading physical features, we proceed to examine the coast more in detail as regards its social as well as geographical divisions, beginning on the north with the river Senegal, w^here the French established themselves upwards of a century since. Fort St. Louis, the capital, is situated on an island in the river, a mere sandbank, without any water which can be drunk without being filtered, and de- pendent entirely for provisions on the southern coast, which, however, vields them in abundance. St. Louis never became a large settlement ; Golberry, in 1 786, reckons not above sixty Europeans settled there for the purposes of trade. The military and civil servants of government amounted to 600, the natives to 2400. The French lost St. Louis during the revolutionary war, but we restored it to them on the friendly peace which succeeded in 1814, under a treaty that Portendick was always to be open to us for the trade in gum ; but which treaty the French violated \ The disastrous fate, however, of the ex- pedition sent out in the Medusa frigate has been un- favourable to any attempt to restore and extend the prosperity of the colony. It is said, however, to have experienced an increase within the last few ^ The French recently took umbrage at one of the chiefs of the Trazars, brought him a prisoner down to Port Louis, tried him by a drum-head court martial, and shot him. The natives, of course, declared war against the French ; the latter to force the natives into a compliance, contrary to the letter and spirit of our treaty, blockaded Portendick. 218 SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMBIA, &C. years, and to contain now about 600 inhabitants. The original hopes of its greatness were founded on the supposed identity of the Senegal with the Niger, and on the prospect of a communication by it with the inmost regions of Africa. All the efforts founded upon this erroneous theory proved of course abor- tive, and the commercial advantages of the colony (the procuring of slaves not included) have been con- fined to the gum trade ^ and the gold trade of Bam- bouk. ^ The gum which, from this river and settlement, is called Gum Senegal, is the produce of some scattered oases, or ver- dant spots, that occur in the vast desert of sand to the north of the Senegal. The species of acacia from which it exudes has every appearance of a stunted and desert tree : its aspect is crooked and rough, its branches are thorny, its leaves of a dry or dirty green. The mere blowing of the harmattan causes the bark to crack in numberless places, and the gum to flow in large transparent drops, which remain attached to the surface. The harvest of the gum is in December, when the Moorish tribes, of whom the Trazars are the most powerful, break up from their usual camps, their kings and princes at their head, and proceed in a confused and tumultuous crowd to the forests, of which each claims one or more. After six weeks spent in collecting the gum, they put it in large leathern sacks, with which they load their camels, and proceed in the same tumul- tuous array to the spot fixed on for the gum market, between Fort Louis and Podor. This plain, which is one of the most desolate spots in nature, is suddenly covered with an innume- rable multitude of people enveloped in clouds of dust. The kings appear mounted on beautiful horses, their wives seated in baskets on the backs of camels, the crowd on foot ; the air resounds with the cries of men, women, children, and animals. A cannon is fired as the signal for commencing the trade. A dreadful scene of wrangling and higgling immediately ensues. THE KINGDOM OF BAMBOUK. 219 The kingdom of Bambouk, situate near the head of the river, and so enclosed between its main stream and the great branches of the Kokoro and the Faleme, as to form almost a complete island, is the next object of commercial importance to the French on the Sene- gal. It is almost entirely a country of mountains, whence flow numerous streams, almost all of which roll over golden sands ; but the main depositaries, where the metal is traced as it were to its source, are two mountains, Natakon and Semayla. The former composes almost an entire mass of gold, united with earth, iron, or emery. The first four feet of depth consists of fat earth, from which the grains of gold are extracted by agitation with water in a calabash ; afterwards the precious metal begins to appear in small grains or spangles, and at twenty feet in small lumps of from two to ten grains. The pieces become always larger as the work descends ; but as the natives have no means of propping up the sides, they often fall in and bury the workmen. Semayla, a mountain 200 feet high, presents a difierent structure. The gold is here embedded in hard sandstone, which must The French accuse the Africans of most dishonest arts in order to enhance the value of their commodity. They themselves, it appears, are not far behind, since they have not scrupled to adopt tlie policy of insensibly augmenting the size of the cantar by which the gum is measured, a change which escapes the notice of their rude antagonists. The French take off annually about 1200 tons of gum, which sells in Europe at from 70/. to 90/. per ton. The returns are taken almost exclusively in East India cotton cloths dyed blue, which are called pieces of Guinea, and for which it has been in vain attempted to sub- stitute the manufacture of Europe. 220 SIERRA. LEONE, THE GAMBIA, &C. be reduced to powder before the extrication can be effected. Part of it also is found in red marble, a substance which to the natives is perfectly unmanage- able. Bambouk is said to have been early conquered by a Mahometan force, and afterwards by the Portu- guese. Both have been driven out, and the French never made any serious attempt to establish them- selves in it. The point at which the French attempted to carry on the commerce of the Upper Senegal is at Fort St. Joseph, in the kingdom of Galam or Kajaaga. A voyage thither was reckoned to produce cent, per cent. ; but the unhealthiness of the climate, the diffi- culties of the navigation, and the constant hazard of being plundered by a succession of barbarous chiefs who occupy the banks, rendered it a very precarious speculation. At present the fort is abandoned and in ruins ; but the Serawoolies, who inhabit this fine countrv, are amons: the most industrious of the Afri- can tribes, and have engrossed the trade of Bambouk, Manding, and most of the upper countries on the Senegal and Niger. In descending the Senegal, there are several popu- lous and powerful states, among which is that of Foota Torra, extending considerably both to the south and north of the river, but of which the interior has not been explored by Europeans. The king is a zealous Mahometan, and, under pretext of making converts, has endeavoured to subdue the almost pagan Daniel or Burb of the Jalofs. The latter, however, by the strength of his country and a prudent system of warfare, has been able to baffle his attempt. On THE SEN-GAMBIA TERRITORY. 221 the middle Senegal, the most important personage is the Siratic, who holds his court at Ghiorel, consider- ably to the north of the river. Nearer the sea is the kingdom of Hoval, governed by a petty prince, called the Greak Brak, w^hich, in the language of the coun- try, signifies King of Kings \ The coast between the Gambia and Senegal is chiefly occupied by the kingdom of Kayor. It is stated, by Golberry, to extend 750 miles in length, and to contain 180,000 inhabitants, who are Jalofs. At the little island of Goree, on this coast, the French have established the capital of all their African settle- ments. Its advantages consist solely in its almost inaccessible ^dtuation on a rock, three sides of which are perpendicular, and the fourth very steep. The rock is fortified, but not, it is said, in the most skil- ful manner. The town contains 7000 inhabitants, and presents a very bustling scene, being the entrepot of all the trade with the opposite coast, and also a place of refreshment for French ships on their way to India. It lies on the southern side of the peninsula, which terminates in Cape Verde, the most westerly point of the African continent. Though the soil be sandy, it bears a number of those immense trees called Bao- bab, which give to the Cape that verdant aspect whence it derives its name. On the northern side, two hills, 600 feet high, mark this striking geogra- phical position, and serve as a guide to mariners. * I give these and several other details on the authority of Murray's Encyclopaedia of Geography, who, however, does not state his authority ; it appears to he derived from Golberry. IMy object is to stimulate to further investigation. 222 SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMBIA, &C. The Gambia is almost entirely an English river, the attempts to form settlements upon it having, for nearly two centuries, been confined to our own na- tion. Our settlements on the Gambia will be found subsequently detailed. The Gambia is bordered on its north bank by seve- ral flourishing little kingdoms. That immediately on the sea is Barra, said to contain 200,000 inhabitants. The capital is Barra Inding ; but the chief place of trade is Jillifrey. In the kingdom of Barra there are seven principal towns, with a family entitled to the crown in each, who succeed to the cap or throne al- ternately. Boor Salum is a still more extensive king- dom, situated on a small river that falls into the Gambia, and containing, it is said, 300,000 inhabi- tants. Above it occur successively the two smaller kingdoms of Yani and Woolli. The territory of all these states is flat and fertile, abounding in rice, grain, and other provisions. The inhabitants are chiefly of the Mandingo race, and carry on a con- siderable trade into the interior. At Barraconda, al)out 400 miles up the river, are falls, or rather rapids, above which sandbanks and flats soon render the navigation diflicult. To the south of the Gambia nothing of great im- portance occurs, till we come to the alluvial estuaries of the Rio Grande, a river supposed, as its name imports, to be of some magnitude ; but Captain Owen found it a mere inlet, receiving some inconsiderable streams. At its mouth occur a number of islands, which, with a group opposite to them in the open sea, form what is called the Archipelago of the Bis- THE RIO GRANDE COUNTRY. 223 sagos. The inhabitants of the same name, called also Bijugas, are a tall, robust, warlike people, who hcive driven out the peaceable race of the Biafaras, the original tenants, and have compelled them to confine themselves to the continent and the banks of the Rio Grande. Bissao, the largest of these islands, is inhabited by the Papels, also warlike and enter- prising. In 1792, an association was formed in England, with a view to planting a settlement in the island of Bularaa ; but, though no opposition was made in the first instance, the difficulty of establish- ing a new colony under circumstances so unfavour- able, and especially amidst the hostility of these rude neighbours, obliged us to desist \ Along the heads of the Rio Grande lies the impor- tant kingdom of Foota Jallo, said to extend about 350 miles in length, and 200 in breadth. It appears to be the most improved of all the states in this part of Africa. The inhabitants are Foulahs, and of the Mahometan faith, but not bigots, and their marabouts are held in high reputation for learning. They ma- nufacture cloths of considerable fineness ; they work in iron dug from extensive mines in the country, also in silver, wood, and leather, and they conduct large caravans into the interior, as far even as Timbuctoo and Cassina. Here, where they are the ruling people, they by no means display that pacific charac- ter which distinguishes the tribes on the Gambia and Senegal. They can bring into the field 16,000 men. ^ The Portuguese have lately made a settlement upon this island despite the remonstrances of Colonel Findlay, the late governor of the Gambia. 224 SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMBIA, &C. Timbo, or Teembo, the capital, is said to contain 7000 souls, and Laby 5000. To the south of Foota Jallo is Soolimana, also war- like and considerable. It borders on the Niger in the highest part of its course, though the sources of that river are placed in the hostile territory of the Kissi. The king is at present Mahometan, but the bulk of the nation pagan. They are a gay, thought- less, stirring race. On the eastern side of the Niger is the country of Sangara, still more extensive and more warlike ; the people of which would, it is sup- posed, have by this time conquered Foota Jallo, had they been united among themselves. At present, whenever the Soolimas are inclined to go to war, they can easily command 10,000 auxiliaries from bevond the Niger. In returning to the coast, we pass through the Koorango country, inhabited by the Man dingoes, who, as usual, are gay, thoughtless, hospitable, and enterprising. Farther down are the Timmanees, a more depraved race, who were the chief agents in the slave trade. They are described as treach- erous, and avaricious. Cay)tain Laing met a woman who accused her two children of witchcraft, and on that ground offered to sell them to him at a low price. Their agriculture is peculiarly rude, and the cloths of their manufacture very coarse. They abuse the English as having deprived them of almost their onlv source of wealth, which consisted in the sale of slaves. This people are oppressed by a singular asso- ciation called Purrah, who, united by a bond and always supporting each other, have become almost THE TIMMANEE COUNTRY. 225 masters of the country, and often exercise their power in a very tyrannical manner. The country of the Timmanees horders on that part of the coast where Britain, with the most philanthropic views, has founded the colony of Sierra Leone. Its principal seat at Freetown is on the south side of the bay, which receives the river formerly called by the same name, but now more usually the Rokelle, and which rises in the Soolimana country ; it will be found subsequently described. The space from Sierra Leone to the commencement of the grain coast of Guinea, an extent of about 200 miles, is chiefly marked by the entrance into the sea of the considerable rivers of Sherbro and Mesurado. The former is navigable twenty leagues up, and has a tolerably large island at its mouth. On the banks is found a species of pearl oyster. The Mesurado is a still larger stream, and very rapid \ According to the natives, it requires three months' navigation to reach its source, which would appear to be in the ^ The Americans, in 1820, formed a setdement on this coast, which was called Liberia ; while its capital, on an island at the mouth of the Mesurado, was named Monrovia. The object was to ol)tain an asylum for liberated negroes, who, notwithstanding their emancipation, are, by the prejudices of the Americans, regarded as beings of an inferior order. In spite of disastrous events, which obstructed its progress, it had attained, in 1830, a population of 1500. The population of Monrovia amounted to about 700, the rest were distributed in eight different stations along 150 miles of coast from Cape Mount to Tradetown. The territory is healthy and fertile ; but I regret to hear that the colony has been badly managed, and is now in a wretched state. CEYLON, &c. Q 226 SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMBIA, &C. mountains of Kong, not very far from that of the Niger. The banks are described as finely wooded, fertile, and, in many places, very well cultivated. The states here are entirely negro in religion and manners, none of the Mahometan institutions having penetrated so far. Travellers enumerate the king- doms of Bulm, Quoja, Monon, and Folga, which they sometimes even dignify with the title of empires. The sovereigns are, in general, absolute, and their obsequies are celebrated with human sacrifices, though not to the same frightful extent as in some of the countries to the west. From the Mesurado to Cape Palmas extends what is commonly called the Grain or Malaghetta Coast of Guinea^. The two rivers of Sesters^ and Sangwin, near the centre of the coast, are rather considerable, and their banks are said to be fertile and populous. The state of society seems to be nearly the same as in the countries last described ; the sovereigns absolute, human sacrifices prevalent to a certain extent, and also self-immolation. ^ The species of pepper to which it owes its name is pro- duced from a small parasitical plant, with beautiful green leaves, and the fruit of which, resembling a fig, presents, when opened, aromatic grains, forming the valuable part. At its first introduction into Europe, where such articles were little known, it received the flattering appellation of * grains of paradise.' After the diffusion, however, of the fine species of India, it fell into total disrepute, and this coast, producing no other articles of export, has been the least frequented of any part of Guinea. 2 A settlement, called St. George's, has recently been made at this river by Captain Spence. THE IVORY COAST, WESTERN AFRICA. 227 Great sway is in the hands of a peculiar priest- hood, called the belli. The youthful candidate for a place in this body, must qualify himself by a long initiation, during which he is withdrawn from all his friends, and lodged in the depth of a sacred forest, where, it is said, he is kept in a state of entire nudity. Among the tests of his proficiency is the performance of songs and dances, of a very ex- travagant and often indecent nature ; but peculiar knowledge is also supposed to be communicated on various high points ; and those who have gone through the course with success, and are called the "marked of the belli," look upon all the rest of thecom- munity as quolga, or idiots. They not only administer all the concerns of religion, but conduct the judicial proceedings ; most of which are made dependent on some form of ordeal. Although the Portuguese have lost all their settlements in this part of Africa, con- siderable numbers of their posterity reside there, mixed with the natives, by whom they are treated with some degree of respect. Beyond Cape Palmas, tending to the north-east, and reaching as far as Cape Apollonia, is called the Ivory Coast. The name is evidently derived from the quantities of that valuable product, obtained from the numerous elephants on the sea shore, and in the interior. The teeth are of good quality, and un- commonly large, weighing sometimes not less than 200 lbs. Towards the east, at Assinoe and Apollonia, a considerable quantity of gold is brought down from the countries behind the Gold Coast. There is also a good deal of ivory at the ports of Cape Lahoo, and Q 2 228 SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMBIA, &C. Great and Little Bassam. There are no European settlements upon the coast, except an English fort at ApoUonia, which perhaps belongs rather to the Gold Coast. Navigation along this, as well as the Grain Coast, requires much caution, as the shore is flat and destitute of any conspicuous land marks, while a heavy surf, borne in from the whole breadth of the Atlantic, breaks continually against it. Early navigators de- scribe the natives as the most violent and intractable race on the whole African coast. The teeth filed to a point, the nails long, while their harsh and guttural language, almost resembling the cry of wild beasts, inspired disgust ; they have been accused of can- nibalism ; and their suspicion of Europeans is usually said to be so great, that nothing can induce them to go on board a vessel. Captain Adams, however, the most recent visitor, gives a much more favourable account : he even says, that almost all the business is transacted on board European ships, though, when he did go on shore, he was hospitably received. From Apollonia to the Rio Volta extends what is called the Gold Coast of Africa. It was long the most frequented by European traders, particularly English and Dutch, both for that highly-prized com- modity which its name indicates, and for slaves, while so nefarious a commerce was permitted. The coast presents the appearance of an immense thick forest, only detached spots of which are cleared and cultivated. The soil near the sea, being light and sandy, is scarcely fit for any important tropical product, except cotton ; but six or seven miles inland it improves greatly, and might be made to produce BRITISH SETTLEMENTS AT CAPE COAST CASTLE. 229 sugar, and others of the richest West India products, if the profits of industry were secured to the inha- hitants. Maize is the grain principally cultivated. The gold, which forms the staple commodity, is chiefly brought down from mountainous districts far in the interior. The natives understand the process of smelting the golden ore, but the pure metal is found in such large quantities close to the surface as to require the exercise of little ingenuity. In many places, however, even upon the coast, a small quantity may be extracted from the earth by mere agitation with water in a calabash. Little or no ivory is ex- ported. The ruling people on the coast are the Fantees, a clever, stirring, turbulent race. They exert more ingenuity in the construction of their dwellings, and canoes, than the nations to the west. The form of government is republican, and each village has a large public hall, roofed, but open at the sides, where an assembly is held, and public affairs are debated. The pynins, or elders, possess considerable authority, and the administration of justice is chiefly in their hands. The capital of the British settlements is at Cape Coast Castle, subsequently described. To the west of Cape Coast, we have Dix Cove and Succondee, in the Ahanta country, a very fertile tract, and to which purer gold is brought than to any other part the coast. The inhabitants are also peaceable and tractable, and the chances of improvement, as Mr. Meredith conceives, are on the whole favourable. The British station at Anamaboe was formerly the great mart of the slave trade. The fort is compact 230 SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMBIA, &C. and regular ; and in 1807 it withstood, with a garrison of twelve men, the attack of 15,000 Ashan- tees. Winnebah, in the Agoona country, though in an agreeable situation, has been abandoned ; but Fort James, at Accra, would, in peaceable times, afford great convenience for trade, as no other place on the coast has such extensive intercourse with the interior. Cape Coast Castle and Accra are now the only places vvhere any garrison is maintained. The capital of the Dutch settlements, in this part of Africa, is El Mina, or the Castle ; first founded by the Portuguese, and taken from them in 1637. It is about nine miles w^est of Cape Coast Castle, in an open country, close to a large dirty town of 1 1 ,000 inhabitants. The fort is w^ell built, on a high situa- tion, and vessels of 100 tons can come close to the walls ; but its strength has been doubted. The Dutch maintain here a garrison of 100 men, and keep their establishment, on the whole, upon a more reputable scale than the British. Their forts along the coast are numerous, but none now are garrisoned except Elmina and Axim. The Danes have a re- spectable fort near Accra, called Christianborg Castle, and also one at Ningo, near the eastern extremity of the coast. The country behind the Gold Coast, when first known to Europeans, was divided among a number of considerable kingdoms, Dinkira, Akim, Warsaw, and Aquamboe ; but all these have now sunk beneath the overwhelming sway of the Ashantees. This warlike power has also reduced the interior countries of Gaman, Inta, Dagwumba, and others, of which THE SLAVE COAST, WESTERN AFRICA. 231 some are more extensive and populous than itself. Ashantee Proper is estimated to contain 14,000 square miles, and about a million of people ; but this last number would be more than quadrupled, if we were to include all its subjects, and vassals. The character of the Ashantees is detailed under the head of Population. On the eastern side of the Rio Volta commences what Europeans have called the Slave Coast, because slaves, were there procured of the most docile and tractable character. It consisted originally of the two kingdoms of Whydah and Ardrah, forming the most populous and the best cultivated part of the African coast. The vast and impenetrable forests which cover so much of the continent had here been cut down, leaving only what was requisite for ornament and convenience. The whole country is said to have been like a garden, covered with fruits and grain of every description. Amid this abundance, the Whydans, having become luxurious and effeminate, were unable to make head against the warlike power of Dahomney, in the interior, which invaded and conquered them at the last century. The first ravages were dreadful, and rendered their country almost a desert, nor has its peaceful submission ever allowed it to regain its former prosperity. Dahomey, which is thus predominant both over the coast and over the interior, to a depth of about 200 miles, is governed upon the same system as Ashantee, and with all its deformities, which it carries to a still more violent excess. The bloody customs take place on a still greater scale ; and the 7 232 SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMBIA, &C. bodies of the victims, instead of being- interred, are hung upon the walls and allowed to putrefy. Human skulls make the favourite ornament of the palaces and temples, and the king is said to have his sleeping apartment paved with them. His wives are kept up to an equal number with those of the king of Ashantee. All the female sex are considered as at the king's disposal, and an annual assemblage takes place, when, having made a large selection for him- self, he distributes the refuse among his grandees, who are bound to receive them with the humblest gratitude : in short, this ferocious race allow them- selves to be domineered over in a manner of which there is no example among the most timid and polished nations. The greatest lords in approaching he king throw themselves flat on the ground, laying their heads in the dust ; and the belief is instilled into them, that their life belongs entirely to their sovereign, and that they ought never to hesitate a moment to sacrifice it in his service. The king of Dahomey has been lately worsted in his wars with Eyeo, by whom he is now held in a species of vassalage. His country consists of an extensive and fertile plain, rising from the sea by a gradual ascent. The soil is a reddish clay mixed with sand, and no- where contains a stone of the size of a walnut. Though capable of every species of tropical culture, little is actually produced from it that is fitted for a foreign market ; so that since the abolition of the slave trade, small advantage has accrued from con- tinuing the intercourse with it, and the English fort at Whvdah has been abandoned. THE KINGDOM OF DAHOMEY. 233 Whydah,now commonly called Griwhee, maybe con- sidered the port of Dahomey, from which a route of about 100 miles reaches through Favies and Toro to Abomey, the capital. Griwhee is situated in a fertile country, still highly cultivated, and is plentifully supplied with all the necessaries and conveniences of African life. Captain Adams, whose estimates on this point are unusually low, represents it as contain- ing about 7,000 inhabitants. The despotic and capricious manner, however, in which foreign resi- dents are treated by the tyrant of Dahomey, has gradually induced the different European powers to withdraw their factories. Ardrah is still larger and more flourishing ; containing, according to the same authority, 10,000 inhabitants. It is situated about 25 miles inland, on a long and beautiful lake or lagoon, running parallel to the sea, with which it becomes connected at its eastern extremity by the river of Lagos. The Ardranese are industrious in the manufacture of cotton, interwoven with silk : they make also soap, baskets, and earthenware, and are skilful in working iron. Their market is the best regulated of any on the coast, and exhibits the manufactures of India and Europe, tobacco from Brazil, cloth from Eyeo and Houssa, and every other article that is here in demand. Though so close to Dahomey, the people appear to enjoy a republican form of government. A considerable number of Mahometan residents have made their way hither, and have introduced the management of horses, and the use of milk, to both of which the negroes in general are strangers. Badagry, though it has 234 SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMBIA, &C. suffered by recent contests with Lagos, appears by Lander's report, to be still a large and populous place, situated in a fine plain, and divided into four districts, each governed by a chief, who assumes the title of king. Lagos is built upon a small island, or rather the bank at the point where the channel com- municates with the sea on one side, and on the other with the Cradoo Lake, a parallel piece of water. The town is scarcely a foot above the lake, and is over-run by water rats from it. It has 5000 inha- bitants, with a good deal of stir and trade. Its petty despot assumes all the airs of the greatest African monarchs, never allowing his courtiers to approach him unless crawling on the ground. Some barbarous customs prevail, such as impaling alive a young female, to propitiate the goddess who presides over rain, and hanging the heads of malefactors to some large trees at the end of the town. The cur- rency here consists of cowries, which are imported in large quantities, and transmitted into Houssa and other interior countries, w^here they form the univer- sal circulating medium. At the termination of the Cradoo Lake commences a large tract of coast, of a peculiar character, which, from the principal state, receives the name of Benin. It extends upwards of 200 miles, and presents a suc- cession of broad estuaries, now discovered to be all branches of the Niger, of which this country forms the delta. They communicate with each other by creeks, and, frequently overflowing their banks, ren- der the shore for 20 or 30 miles inland, a vast allu- vial wooded morass. The natives, having thus very BENIN — warre'. 235 extended water comnmnications, are the most active traders anywhere in Africa ; but, except slaves, the commodities in which they deal are entirely changed. Gold has disappeared ; ivory is again found in con- siderable plenty ; but palm oil is the great staple of the eastern districts. A great quantity of salt is made at the mouths of the rivers, both for consump- tion at home and in the interior. The first leading feature is the River Formosa, two miles wide at its mouth ; on a creek tributary to it lies the capital of Benin. This city appeared to Captain Adams the largest he had seen on the coast of Africa; he, therefore, probably under-rates its population at 15,000; being irregularly built, and consisting of detached houses, it occupies an im- mense space of ground. The surrounding territory is well cultivated, though not so thoroughly cleared of wood as that round Ardrah and Whydah. The king is not only absolute, but ' fetiche^ or a god, in the eyes of his subjects ; and all offences against him are punished in the most cruel and summary manner, not only as treason, but impiety. Gatto, about 50 miles below, is the port of Benin ; accessible to ves- sels of 60 tons. The trade on this river has greatly declined. Warre, or Owarri, is another state and city, situated on another creek, communicating with the Formosa, on its opposite side. It consists of a somewhat elevated and beautiful island, appearing as if dropped from the clouds amidst the vast woods and swamps by which it is surrounded. Here, too, the king is 236 SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMBIA, &C. absolute, and carries polygamy to a very great ex- tent. A recent traveller, happening to get a peep into the seraglio, saw about 50 queens, busied in various employments from the toilette to the washing-tub. New Town, on the Formosa, is the port of Warre. After doubling Cape Formosa, and passing several estuaries, we come to that of the Brass River, called by the Portuguese, the River of Nun. Though not the largest estuary of the Niger, yet, being most directly in the line of the main stream, and that by which Lander entered the Atlantic, it at present en- joys the reputation of being the principal channel. It is divided into two branches ; but the navigation is greatly impeded, and the trade limited, by a dan- gerous bar at its mouth. Brass Town is built not on either branch, but on one of the numerous creeks connected with both, and in a country overgrown with impenetrable thickets of mangrove. It is a poor place, divided by a lagoon into two parts, each of which contains about J ,000 inhabitants. Bonny River forms the next important estuary having on its opposite sides the towns of Bonny and New Calabar. Being only a few miles up, they are in the midst of the morasses which overspread all this country. The people support themselves by the manufacture of salt, and they trade in slaves, and palm oil. Bonny, in particular, is become the great mart for these last commodities, and is supposed to export annually about 20,000 slaves ! The dealers go in large canoes two or three days' sail to El)oe, the great interior market. The king is absolute, and more barbarous OLD CALABAR RIVER. i37 than the rest of his brethren on this coast. He boasts of having twice destroyed New Calabar, and ornaments his fetiche house with the skulls of enemies taken in battle. To the eastward of Bonny is the estuary of Old Calabar River, the broadest of all and navigable for large vessels 60 miles up to Ephraim Town, governed by a chief, who assumes the title of duke. It ap- pears to contain about 6,000 inhabitants, carrying on a considerable trade ; and the duke has a large house filled with European manufactures and ornaments of every kind, received by him in presents. This river is followed by that of Rio del Rey, and then by the Rio Cameroons. The country yields a good deal of ivory and palm oil. The continuity of that vast wooded flat, which has extended along the coast for more than 200 miles, is now broken by some very lofty mountains, the principal of which is supposed to reach the height of 13,000 feet. Several islands lie in the Bight of Biafra. Fer- nando Po, in 3^ 28' north latitude and 8"" 40' \o' east longitude, is a fine large island, lately occupied only by a lawless race, composed of slaves, or male- factors, escaped from the neighbouring coast. The British government, formed, in 1827, a settlement at this island, the mountainous and picturesque aspect of which afibrded hopes of a healthy station ; the settle- ment is, I believe, abandoned by government, but I think prematurely, for as the island became cleared, its insalubrity would have diminished ; and it would be an extremely valuable colony to Great Britain, 238 SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMBIA, &C. from its vicinity to the mouths of the Niger. Prince's Island, situate also in the Bight of Benin, 9j miles long by 6 broad, is high (the loftiest peak, 4,000 feet), and wooded. St. Thomas is large and fertile ; towards its south extremity it presents a mass of steep elevations, with abrupt craggy faces, and two or three pinnacles, resembling gigantic nine-pins : one half the island is mountainous. The pretty little Isle of Annabona is inhabited by a simple native race, to the number of 3,000 ; it is near 3,000 feet high, but its length does not exceed four, nor its breadth two miles : its heights are rounded like those of Fernando Po rather than peaked and pointed like Prince's Island. These islands run in a chain to the south west from the Rio Calabar ; and the last three are in nominal subjection to the Cro^Yn of Portugal. The next division of Western Africa consists of Congo and Loango, the coast of which is generally named Angola. The principal feature is the Zaire, or Congo, a powerful and rapid river, which rushes by a single channel into the Atlantic. Its course was traced upwards by Captain Tuckey, in his unfor- tunate expedition, about 400 miles, yet nothing w^as ascertained as to its origin and early course ; though the hypothesis of its forming the termination of the Niger is now completely refuted. The population along the river is said to be small ; the largest villages, Cooloo, Embomma, and Inga, containing only from 300 to 600 inhabitants. The interior capital of Congowar, however, mentioned as the THE CONGO COUNTRY AND BENGUELA. 239 residence of the Blindy North Conge, to whom all the chiefs pay a species of vassalage, is probably what the Portuguese called St. Salvador : and where, according to Mr. Bowdich, they still maintain a mis- sion ; but no recent details have been obtained respecting it. There is regular distinction of ranks, the Chenoo, or chief, hereditary in the female line ; the Mafoots, or collectors of the revenue ; the Foo- moos, or cultivators ; and the domestic slaves, which latter are not numerous. The slave trade, for which alone this part of Africa is now frequented, is chiefly carried on at Malemba and Cabenda, on the North side of the river. Malemba has been called the Montpelier of Africa. It stands on a hill about 100 feet high, commanding a beautiful prospect of the windings of the Loango Louisa, through an extensive plain. Its dry and elevated situation preserves it from those deadly influences which operate so fatally on the health of mariners. Cabenda, near the mouth of the river of that name, also a beautiful city, is situated at the foot of a conical wooded mountain, and has been called the Paradise of the Coast. It is a great mart for slaves, who are brought from the opposite territory of Sogno. The country to the South of Congo is called Ben- guela, and its commerce is still almost entirely in the hands of the Portuguese. They frequent the bay and river of Ambriz, in which there is a tolerable roadstead ; but their great settlement is at St. Paul de Loanda, a large town in an elevated situation. It is said to export annually 1 8,000 or 20,000 slaves. 240 SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMIilA, &C. chiefly to BraziP. S. Felipe de Benguela, in a marshy and unhealthy site, is now considerably de- clined ; and its ])opulation does not exceed 3,000, mostly free negroes and slaves. There is also a smaller port, called Nova Redondo. The Portuguese claim a certain jurisdiction over the native states for several hundred miles in the interior, obtain- ing presents and purchasing slaves. Further inland is the country of Jaga Cassanga. The Jagas are celebrated by the writers of travels, two centuries ago, as a formidable devastating tribe, addicted to the most ferocious habits ; and no change is since asserted to have taken place in their character. Be- hind them, and in about the centre of the continent, the nation of the Molouas are represented as more numerous, more intelligent, and possessing a higher degree of industry and civilization than any other in Africa, under this latitude. Of the remainder of the coast, towards our own territories, in Southern Africa, little is known. Portugal at first claimed the whole of the coast just described, but was driven from it by the Dutch, who took El Mina in lo43 ; the latter were in turn compelled to retreat by the English, in 1661, who took Cape Coast Castle, and having formed an African Company, commenced the establishment of forts for the protection of trade. The settlements at present belonging to England in Western Africa are as follows : ' It is a disgrace to England to permit the continuance of this infamous iralhc. FORMATION OF SIERRA LEONE COLONY. 241 Sierra Leone. — The first settlers here were the Portuguese ; shortly afterwards, the English esta- blished themselves upon Bance Island, in the middle of the river. At the suggestion of Dr. Smeathmane the negroes discharged from the army and navy after the American war, to the amount of about 400, with 60 whites, were conveyed to Sierra Leone, furnished with all things necessary to establish a colony, in the \ear 1787 ; and a piece of ground 20 miles square having been purchased from one of the native chiefs, a town, called Freetown, was founded. A dreadful mortality shortly afterwards reduced the colonists to one-half, and a native chief, taking advantage of their weakness, plundered the settlement in 1789, and drove the colonists to seek for shelter in Bance Island. In 1791 and the following year, the African Association having become incorporated and obtained a charter ^ conveyed thither a number of settlers, among whom were the Maroon negroes, who had been sent from Jamaica to Nova Scotia. Freetown was plundered by the French in 1794, and so great was the disaster, and so destitute the condition of the settlers, that the company entered into an arrange- ment with the government to place the colony under His Majesty's jurisdiction. It was subsequently placed by the British Govern- ^ A charter was granted in 1802 to the Sierra Leone Com- pany ; it was subsequently revised and (with some aherations) confirmed, first in 1808, when the settlement was transferred to the Crown, and, finally, in 1821, when the forts and posses- sions of the late African Company on the Gold Coast were annexed to Sierra Leone. 242 SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMBIA, &C. ment under the management of the African Institu- tion, estabhshed for the improvement of the Western part of Africa ; and its population was recruited by sending- thither all slaves captured in vessels engaged in that traffic. Since the dissolution of the African Com- pany, Sierra Leone has been again placed under the control of the crown. (See section on Government.) The boundaries of the settlement are difficult to define; in 1787 a tract of the peninsula of Sierra Leone was ceded to England by the native chiefs ex- tending fifteen miles from north to south by four from east to west : — the western boundary subsequently advanced to the sea as far as the point of land called False Cape. In the charters gi'anted to the Sierra Leone Company in 1800, 1809, and 1821, the colony is described as the peninsula of Sierra Leone, bound- ed on the north by the river of that name ; on the south by the Camaranca River ; on the east by the River Bunce ; and on the west by the sea. The peninsula, as at present known, is bounded on the north by the Sierra Leone river ; on the south and west by the sea at Calmont Creek, and on the east by a line up the Calmont to the Watslod Creek, and down this last to the Bunce (which is in fact part of the Sierra Leone River) constituting a tract, eighteen miles from north to south and twelve from east to west. By a convention in 1819 between Sir C. M'Carthy and a Timmanee Chief, named Ka Konka, possessing country on the boundary of the peninsula, that chief ceded to Great Britain the unlimited sovereignty of the lands, known by the name of Mar Ports, and Roe Boness, situate on the banks of the Bunce PHYSICAL ASPECT OF SIERRA LEONE. 243 River. In 1824, Ba Mauro, King of the North Balloms, ceded to Great Britain the islands of Bance, Tasso, Tombo, and all the other islands on the north side of Sierra Leone, between Zogrine Point, and Ka Keeper Creek ; as well as the north banks of the river for one mile inland from the river Conray Bay, on the West to the Ka Keeper Creek, on the east ; with a right and title to the navigation of the River Sierra Leone, &c. On the North the boundaries touch the River Memgo or Little Learciss, in 8° 50' north ; on the south as far as the line which separates the King of Sherboro's territory from that of the Gallinos, in latitude 70° north embracing the estuary of the Sherboro and its tributaries ; on the west the Atlantic, as far north as Sierra Leone River ; and on the east an imaginary line, imperfectly defined. Our possessions at Sierra Leone ^ extend over a mountainous tract of country, formed by two rivers, which nearly intersect it. The general appearance of this Sierra presents an outline of an irregular congeries of conical mountains, with valleys and prairies in their interstices ; the mountains are covered to their summits with lofty forests, giving to the distant scenery a beautiful, rich, and romantic appearance ; the territory on the north side of the river is however low and flat. Many streams of water descend from the hills, and are concentrated in a large basin, called the Bay of Franca, which is ^ So called from the district having been the favourite re- sort of lions. R 2 244 SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMBIA, &C. considered the best watering place along the whole line of coast. The river called Sierra Leone is more properly speaking an estuary, about twenty miles in length, and varying in breath from ten at its entrance, between Leopard's Island and Cape Sierra Leone, to about four miles at the island Tombo, where it terminates : it has several arms, which extend themselves in dif- ferent directions ; the Rokell River is, however, the only one which offers the advantage of water com- munication for any considerable distance ijito the interior ; its source being stated to be within 30 miles of Fallaba, and "200 from Sierra Leone ; falls or rapids intercept its course at Rocon, 50 or 60 miles from Freetown. The Kates River, 25 miles from Freetown, is navigable for boats upwards of 70 miles. Freetown, the capital, is built upon the south side of the SieiTa Leone River, and at the north extremit\' of the peninsula. It is five miles from Cape Sierra Leone, which is considered to mark on the south as Leopard Island does on the north the entrance of the river, to which the access is easy and safe. Imme- diatelv in front of the town, the river forms a bav, where there is good and commodious anchorage for vessels of all classes, and timber ships, of 400 or 500 tons' burden go with facility nearly 20 miles higher up the stream for the purpose of taking in their cargoes. The settlement has the advantage of a modern plan for its formation ; it occupies a large space of FREETOWN. 245 ground, extending in a very gentle ascent from the banks of the river, and is about three-quarters of a mile long, with spacious streets, intersecting each other at right angles. Most of the houses were at first built of mud or wood, not however without taste, but many of the natives are now constructing storehouses. The town is open to the river on the north, but on the south-east and west completely hemmed in by a semicircular range of mountains, from 12 to 1500 feet high, and wooded to the summit. The distance between the town and the base of these mountains varies from three-quarters to a mile and a half, the intervening space broken by numerous undulations, the outline exhibiting the appearance of a sylvan theatre, replete with highly picturesque scenery. With the exception of the cultivated spots the hills are thickly clothed to their summit with wood, and ascend almost in regular gradation towards Leicester Mountain, above which the Sugar-loaf is seen to rise at some distance in the rear. The amphitheatre includes, from east to west, a space, the semi-diame- ter of which is nearly a mile, embracing the town, the Tower Hill, and a small portion of land, called ' King: Tom's Point.' The Tower Hill is nearlv in the centre of this amphitheatre, and Freetown stretches from the water- side towards its base ; about half way up its sides are situate the fort, the barracks, hospital, and a Martello tower, the whole when viewed from the sea forming a striking coup d'ceil. Throughout the peninsula several villages have 246 SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMBIA, &C. been formed at the following periods : in 1809, Lei- cester ; 1812, Regent; 1816, Gloucester; 1817, Kissey and Leopold ; 1818, Charlotte, Wilberforce, and Bothwell; 1819, Kent, York, WeUington, Wa- terloo. These villages are generally situate in dif- ferent parts of the mountain, but all connected by good roads with each other, and with Freetown, the capital. The Bannana Islands, two in number, south-west of Freetown, may be termed one island, six miles in length and one in breadth, and were ceded to the crown in 1819 by the family of the Caulkers, who receive for them an annual payment. The Isles de Los, in north latitude 9° 16'; west longitude 16°, five in number, are situate about sixty miles to the northward of Sierra Leone, and five or six miles from the coast, and were ceded to Great Britain by the Chief, Dalla Mahomeda, to whom an annual payment is made for them. Fac- tory Island, the second in extent, is four and a half long, by half a mile broad : they are however very valuable for the trade which is from them carried on with the rivers of the adjacent continent, consisting in the exchange of British goods for hides, ivory, gold dust, &c. There is also a considerable com- merce in rice on this part of the coast, some of which is exported by the traders at Sierra Leone to the West Indies, but the quality is much injured by the imperfect process in use amongst the natives for cleaning it. British factories have recently been established in several of the rivers between the Gambia and Sierra Leone, particularly at the Rio BRITISH SETTLEMENTS ON THE GAMBIA. 247 Nunez, Scarces, &c. ; but, unfortunately, the pro- gress of lawful commerce is much impeded in this as in many other parts of the coast by the slave trade, which is carried on by the Spaniards and Portuguese to a very considerable extent, and with little inter- ruption, as this part of the coast is seldom visited by the ships of our squadron appointed to suppress the trade. They cruize chiefly in the bight of Benin, leaving the windward coast from the Gambia to Sierra Leone without protection. There should never be less than one vessel in that quarter, and one vessel could do little more than mitigate the evil. The trade is carried on with so much cunning in fast- sailing vessels, so well adapted to the iniqui- tous object, that few of them are taken compared with the numbers that escape. A steam-boat in that part of the coast would afford by far the cheapest and most effectual check to the traffic. The Gambia. — St. Mary's Island (our principal settlement on the Gambia) lies quite close to the continent ^ on the south side, running nearly east and west about fifteen miles, but of very inconsiderable breadth, and commanding the entrance to the river Gambia. The island is an uninterrupted flat, some- what elevated, and covered with a thick brush of underwood, denoting the fertility of the soil. Bathurst town is built on the east side of the island, on a point which admits of a strong battery, being surrounded on nearly three sides by the tole- rably deep and rapid river. The strata is a gravelly ^ Cattle can cross over at low water to Cape St. Mary's. 248 SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMBIA, &C. soil, eonsisting of the brown oxyd of iron strewn over a stratum of rock of the same composition ; the other parts of the island consist, principally, of a rich, dark, loamy mould. The river from which the settlement derives its name, empties itself into the ocean by a mouth about nine miles wide between Cape St, Mary on the south and the Bird's island on the north. It was formerly supposed to be a branch of the Niger, but this notion was refuted by Mr. Park. Its sources have never been explored by European travellers, but it has been ascertained to take its rise amongst the lofty range of mountains which form the eastern front of Foota falls. It communicates with the Senegal River bv the Neriko, and is called by the natives River Ba Deema in the upper country. Vessels of 300 tons navigate it for sixty leagues, and smaller vessels as far as Barraconda, 250 leagues from the entrance ; here the obstructions commence which render further navigation impossible. From December to June, which is the dry season, the flow of the tide is felt, but in the rainy season, from June to September, the stream sets down so strong, that vessels cannot stem the current by ordinary means ; though no doubt advantage might be taken of navigating by steam throughout the year. Colonel Findlay, the late intelligent and humane Governor of the Gambia, has justly observed to me that it is greatly to be lamented the British govern- ment have not yet surveyed the various large rivers and creeks which empty themselves into the Gam- bia ; if this were accomplished there can be no doubt BRITISH SETTLEMENTS ON THE GAMBIA. 249 but an extensive inland navigation would follow, which would increase the trade, by affording a more ready and friendly intercourse with the natives. There are two channels into the Gambia, the nor- thernmost of which has six or seven fathoms water, is six miles wide, and lies between the Bird's Island and the Banguion bank ; the smaller, on the other side of the bank and under Cape St. Mary, has about nine feet water. The river is at all times muddy, and is in- fested with crocodiles, and also inhabited by the hip- popotamus. It abounds with fish of various kinds. There are several establishments on the Gambia belonging to Great Britain, as well as Bathurst. Macarthy's Island is up the river, more than 300 miles. Fort James is situated on an island about thirty miles up the river ; it is only 200 yards long and 50 broad, and was, formerly, strongly fortified, but the French, on capturing it in 1688, destroyed the works, which have never been entirely restored. Opposite Fort James on the north bank is Jillifree, in a healthy situation, and surrounded by a fertile dis- trict. On the south bank are Vintain, Tancrowal, and Jouka Konda, the first two, the second twelve leagues from Fort James, and the last, considerably up the river. About a league above Fort James on the south side the River Bittan flows into the Gambia, and this is at all times navigable for large boats to the village of that name, inhabited by African Portuguese. The sovereignty of a tract of country (one mile inland from the beach between Burragadoo Creek and Junkarda Creek) was ceded to the King of Great Britain by treaty with the King and Chiefs of 250 SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMBIA, &C. Barra, signed at Jillifree, 15th June, 1826, a small spot of 400 yards by 300 yards called Albredar, near James's Island, excepted. This tract is extremely valuable from its position on the left bank of the river Gambia, opposite St. James and St. Mary's islands, giving us a control of the navigation of the stream from its entrance to James's island. The French have a factory called Albredar, about three miles below JiUifree, which they retain posses- sion of, in defiance of the treaty of 1783 (confirmed by the treaty of Paris), and despite the repeated re- monstrances of the English Government. The fol- lowing is the article of the treaty in question : — " Art. X. The most Christian King, on his part, gua- rantees to the King of Great Britain the possessions of Fort James and of the River Gambia." When Senegal and Goree fell into our hands by conquest, during the last w^ar, in 1809, the commerce of the Gambia was carried on by the English traders ex- clusively from Goree. On the restoration of those places to the French by the treaty of Paris, exclusive possession of the Gambia was reassured to us on the same footing as by the treaty of 1783, and our set- tlement at Cape St. Mary's was immediately formed for the protection of its trade. Shortly afterwards the French, for the purpose of securing a footing in the river, dispatched an agent from Goree to establish a trading post, or comptoir, as they call it, at Albredar, under pretence of their having formerly had a comptoir at that place. Unfortunately this was not resisted at the time by the English commandant, Col. Grant, for want of suflftcient information on the nature of the VIOLATION OF THE FRENCH TREATY. 251 treaties, and every attempt made since to dislodge them by fair means, has failed of success. It is but justice to our government to add, that the most persevering remonstrances have been addressed in vain to the French government on this subject. Akin to this conduct on the part of the French is their behaviour in respect to our right by treaty to carry' on the gum trade with the Moors at Portindic. That right is solemnly guaranteed to us by the treaty of 1783, (since confirmed by the treaty of Paris), in the following words of Art. XI. " As to the gum trade, the English shall have the right of carrying it on from the mouth of the river St. John, to the Bay and Fort of Portindic inclusively : provided that they shall not form any permanent settlement of whatso- ever nature in the said river St. John, upon the coast or in the Bay of Portindic." Nothing can be more clear and definite than this article of the treaty, which has been faithfully ad- hered to on our part ; no permanent (nor even tem- porary) establishment having been formed by the English within the prescribed limits. But what has been the conduct of the French } During the gum trade of 1834, under pretence of a war with the Trazar tribe of Moors, from whom we obtain our supply of gum at Portindic, they sent from Senegal a naval force, and seized our vessels trading there ; which, however, on the remonstrance of Lieutenant- Governor Rendall, they subsequently gave up, and it was supposed that the outrage would not be re- peated. In this, however, the English traders have found themselves mistaken : the desire of the French 252 SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMBIA, &C. at Senegal to monopolize the gum trade is not to be restrained by the faith of treaties. The governor of Senegal has given notice to our governor at the Gambia that Portindic is this season^ to be formally and effectively blockaded against our trade by French ships of war, and as the notice has not been given in time to prevent arrangements being made, and supplies being sent out for the trade of the season, very serious losses must be sustained by the mer- chants engaged in the trade. Parallel to this is the conduct of the French, in respect to the fisheries at Newfoundland, as explained in the volume referring to that colony, where, in defiance of the faith of trea- ties and of common justice, they deny us the right of fishing on the coast of our own colony ! How long are these encroachments to be submitted to ? The trade of the Gambia has recently suffered severely from outrages committed up the river by a native chief, who has seized and plundered the trading vessels belonging to the merchants at Bathurst. The most valuable part of our traffic is carried on high up the river, above Macarthy's Island, where no protection by government has yet been pro- vided for the trade. This, by means of block houses, might be afforded at a small expense, which the value of the trade would amply repay. The immense ex- tent of the River Gambia, and the thickly populated and fertile country through which it has its course, will render it, ultimately, the most valuable of our possessions in that quarter of the world. 1 1835. CAPE COAST CASTLE. 253 We now approach the Gold Coast, the British forts and stations on which are at Dix Cove, Sucundee, Comenda, Cape Coast Castle, Annamaboo, Tantum, Winnebah, and Accra ; of these only a few here re- quire notice. Dix Cove, is a few miles to leeward of Cape Three Points, affording only shelter to boats of fifteen or twenty tons' burthen, but yielding much gold of a fine quality. Cape Coast Castle (long the seat of the British government on the Gold Coast, and residence of the chief governor during the sovereignty of the late African Company), stands upon a rock of gneis and mica slate, about twenty feet above the level of the sea, in latitude 5° 6' north, longitude 1° 10' west. It may be considered the centre capital between Sierra Leone and the Bights of Benin and Biafra ; as also the great emporium of trade for the intro- duction of British manufactures, and the obtaining gold dust, palm oil, and ivory. The castle is an irregular figure of four sides, with four bastions at each angle ; the whole mounting about eighty pieces of cannon. Two-thirds of the walls of the fortress are washed by the very heavy sea which invariably runs along this line of coast, and it is well protected on the land side. Within the castle is an extensive line of spaciotis buildings, three stories high, running north and south, dividing the fort into nearly two equal parts, and containing the government-house, &c. ; a nearly similar structure runs east, forming a triangular space of considerable extent. '254 SIERRA LEOXE, THE GAMBIA, &C. The Cape, on which the castle stands, is an angular promontory, bounded by the sea on the south and east sides. It was originally settled by the Portu- guese, but the Dutch dispossessed them in a few years, and took great pains to strengthen the fortifi- cations. Admiral Holmes captured it, and demo- lished the citadel in 1661, since which time it has remained in the possession of Great Britain, having been confirmed by the treaty of Breda. When the Dutch Admiral De Ruyter destroyed all the English factories along the coast in 1665, this place withstood his utmost endeavours, although he attacked it with thirteen men of war. The Company, who obtained a charter in 1672, subsequently added greatly to its strength by building some bastions, though the fort is considered to be too near the town, and com- manded by some of the houses. Smollett, in his History of England, relates a circumstance relative to this castle deserving notice here. In 1757, the French, in furtherance of the plan which they have ever sedulously pursued — the ruin of the British Colonies — sent a naval commander named De Kersin, to reduce our forts on the coast of Western Africa. The chief aim was to capture Cape Coast Castle, for its conquest would lead to the re- linquishment of all the minor forts. When Mr. Bell, the governor, received intelligence that M. de Kersin was onlv a few leasrues to windward, his whole force did not exceed thirty white, a few mu- latto soldiers, half a barrel of gunpowder, and a few crazy guns : Mr. Bell immediately provided gunpow- der, and about fifty Europeans, from some vessels on \ COUNTRY AROUND CAPE COAST CASTLE. 255 the coast, mounted a few spare cannon upon a tem- porary battery, assembled 1200 armed negroes, under the command of their chief, received the French squadron, consisting- of two ships of the line and a large frigate, and poured such a steady and well-directed fire for two hours into M. Kersin's fleet, that the latter thought it most prudent to make sail for the West Indies, without inflicting any great damage on the castle. Cape Coast Castle was originally surrounded with wood, but a large tract of country has been now cleared and rendered fit for cultivation. The native towns on the sea coast are generally built close to the walls of the European forts ; the houses are principally constructed of mud, and co- vered with Guinea grass, and so crowded together as to render it almost impossible to pass through the spaces allotted for streets ; ventilation is of course quite out of the question, and as the inhabitants are filthy beyond description, their villages are pro- ductive of much disease, not only to themselves, but to those Europeans who happen to reside near them. To this description. Cape Coast Town is, however, an exception ; streets are now formed, immense masses of filth have been removed, the surrounding hills have been cleared of their luxuriant foliage, roads have been cut, and the tout ensemble presents pro- spects of gratifying improvement. About five miles north-west from Cape Coast Castle is a small river, running in a southerly direc- tion, and emptying itself into the sea within two 256 SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMBIA, &C. miles of Elmina, foraiing the boundary between the Dutch and British possessions ^ At a distance of about two miles to leeward (east- ward) a chain of hills, forming an irregular amphi- theatre 1 60 feet above the level of the sea, commences and runs in a semicircular direction approaching the castle at some places within a quarter of a mile, and terminating on the shore about a mile to windward. There are no mountains within several miles of Cape Coast Castle, the highest land not being more than 200 feet above the sea ; nor are there any plains of gi'eat extent ; clumps of hills, with their correspond- ing valleys, are hov/ever every where to be seen co- vered with a most luxuriant foliage throughout the year. As far as the eye can reach the face of the country appears a continued forest, until the boun- daries of the Winnebah and Accra territories are reached, where extensive verdant plains, are inter- spersed with clusters of trees ; and chiefly indebted for their fertility to being annually overflowed during the rains. Annamahoe, ten miles to eastward of Cape Coast Castle, is a good fortification, of a quadrangular form, built on the extreme margin of the shore, the sea washing the foot of the southern boundary wall, and ' The number of European stations on the Gold Coast was at one time considerable. From Apollonia to Accra, a dis- tance of G4 leagues, there were, in 1808, of Dutch forts, 13, of Danish 4, and of British 10; namely, Apollonia, Dix Cove, Succondee and Commenda, to westward of Cape Coast Castle, and Annamaboe, Tantum Querry, Winnebah, Accra, Pram- pram and Whydah, to leeward of Cape Coast ('astle. ACCRA SETTLEMENT. 257 the town of Annamaboe taking the form of a crescent, embraces it. Tantum and Winnebah require no separate notice. Accra lies in 5° 33' north latitude, and 0° 5' west longitude ; there are three settlements there, English, Dutch, and Danish. The view from sea- ward is picturesque, the houses white and regularly built, and in their rear a large plain, studded with * bush,' or groves, of various foliage. As the voy- ager advances towards the River Succomo the pros- spect widens — and is finally bounded by high lands, whose slopes yield excellent sheep pasturage. The country around is in general a fine, open, and level land, with a sandy, red, and black soil or rich mould. Accra carries on a considerable trade with the Ashantees, who bring ivory, gold dust, horses, &c. to exchange for romals, silks, tobacco, and rum, creating a considerable extent of business, for the Ashantees are a shrewd and intelligent people, well acquainted with the advantages of social intercourse, and greatly superior to the Fantees, and other water- side people. Indeed, it is a remarkable fact, that the people nearest the shore on the whole line of coast, are more treacherous, cowardly, and unprincipled, than those of the interior ; a striking proof how little the natives have hitherto benefitted by their in- tercourse with the civilized nations of Europe while slavery existed. But the natives, near the British forts, are now receiving daily advantage and improve- ment fi-om the residence and example of Europeans who are no longer, as formerly, engaged in the slave trade. Mr. President Maclean, the present governor CEYLON, &c. S 258 SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMBIA, &C. of Cape Coast Castle, has, I am informed, exerted himself with the most praiseworthy zeal and ability to wean the natives from many of their barbarous customs (that of human sacrifices, on the death of their kings and chiefs in particular, which were for- merly sometimes performed within sight of the castle walls), in which he has been eminently successful, and for which he merits the thanks of every friend of humanity. Mr. Sewell, who resided eighteen years at Cape Coast Castle, and who is now in London, says that he considers the natives on the Gold Coast more re- markable for their humanity than for their ferocity. It is true that under the influence of religious fana- ticism they perpetrate (although now but seldom) human sacrifices ; but during the eighteen years he resided on the coast he scarcely ever heard of a mur- der, or any other act of personal violence amongst the natives, and certainly fewer than amongst an equal given number of the inhabitants of any nation in Europe. James Fort, Accra, belongs to the English; — not quite a cannon shot to leeward lies the dismantled Dutch fortification of Crevecoeur ; and about two and a half miles distant from James Fort is situated Christianborg Castle, built on a promontory, and the chief settlement in Western Afi-ica belonging to the Danes. 259 CHAPTER II. GEOLOGY AND SOIL — CLIMATE — DISEASE — VEGETABLE AND ANIMAL KINGDOM, &C. Geology and Soil. — On this head, of course, nothmg- more than isolated facts can yet be expected. The soil in the vicinity of Sierra Leone consists chiefly of a slight stratum of brown gravel on a semi- vitrified rock of the same colour, containing a large portion of the oxide of iron. This is what is called the brown iron stone ; the red iron ^tone is also found in extensive strata, but the brown appears to be the more prevailing one. Both these varieties of haematites are cellular throughout their entire sub- stance, strongly indicating volcanic origin ; they are intersected with yellow streaks, and kidney-shaped segments. Magnetic iron ore is found in the moun- tains in small detached masses. Some of the moun- tains are chiefly composed of granite, large blocks of which are frequently seen studding the surface of the plains. No limestone has hitherto been discovered in the colony, but fortunately there is a large abund- ance of fossil shells. Gold is abundant, as will be subsequently shewn by the quantities exported to England during the last three years. Tliere is very little diflerence in the soil of the coast from Cape Palmas to the River Volta ; within five or six miles of the shore it is of a siliceous na- ture ; the clumps of hills which are to be met with in every direction are composed principally of gneis and granite : mica slate is found to enter into the §2 260 SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMBIA, &C. composition of some at no great distance from Cape Coast Castle. These rocks, from containing large proportions of feldspar and mica, are rapidly passing into decomposition, more especially such as are ex- posed to the influence of air and water ; the result of the decomposition is the formation of a clayey or an argillaceous soil. As the sandy sea-coast is receded from, the soil is siliceous, mixed with decayed vegetable or animal matter, where no granite or micaceous rocks inter- vene ; it is in the valleys where the rich alluvial soil is met with, formed of the disintegrated materials of the surrounding hills (washed down by the heavy torrents of rain) and deposited along with the vege- table decomposition, giving richness to the clayey mould. It is in such valleys, from ten to twelve miles inland, that the natives delight to make ex- tensive plantations. Climate. — According to the distance north or south of the equator, and to the elevation of the country, the temperature and seasons of course vary; on the north of the Equinoctial line May, June, July, August, September, and October, may be considered . the wet winter months ; and the remainder of the year the dry or summer months ; harmattans and tornadoes are peculiar to the latter, and fogs to the former. The rains commence with the end of May or beginning of June, and terminate in August. October, November, and December are cold, with oc- casional fogs. The winds along the Gold Coast may be divided into the land and sea breezes, the former from the north-north-west generally, and the latter CLIMATE OF WESTERN AFRICA. 261 from the south-west west-south-west generally ; during the rains the land breezes are irregular. The land breeze generally continues from 9 a.m. to 7 p.m. The range of the thermometer is not great; during 1819 it did not rise higher than 95° — the minimum being 76°, making a range of only 9°. In 1820 maximum 84°, minimum 74°, range 10°. In 1821 maximum 86°, minimum 66°, range 20°. In 1822 maximum 89°, minimum 74°, range 15° — and so on ever since, with this exception, that there is a visible change in the duration of the respective sea- sons ; thus, as Dr. Tedlie in his valuable Report to the Army Medical Board observes, solar heat alone is not a cause of disease. The range of the thermometer at Sierra Leone is very slight, and the average heat throughout the year is eighty-two. The rains continue for six months, and the torrents which pour down from the mountains deluge the plains beneath. The mountains in the vicinity of Free Town are now, however, generally cleared and cultivated, and the settlement is as healthy for European residents as any other tropical climate. 262 o ^ to 'o o piiy Apt! 013 •s.iva ;3Ai •s.{Ba -tiuj 'tunip3i\[ •lur.raiuiH •mnmixBi\[ *i , . >-.,—. C^ I^J m CO oo oo-<*-'3e) O ^o — oo^O'o^»^-. b g jj S F^ •< ^ J-S P-J ■«' ■ ; - cj iJ . o o o MEDICAL REPORT. 263 In the Annual Medical Report from the West African Stations for 1832 ^ I find these remarks : * Sierra Leone. — This station has continued during this year as during the two preceding years, to maintain its character for salubrity, the total number of casualties in the sick returns is eight ; the strength being 446, and the total number of sick treated 230, of which last number (as in the preceding year) more than one-fifth were cases of sexual disease.' Not only are febrile and other climatorial diseases less prevalent than formerly, but their type is of far greater mildness, and during the years 1831-32, and 1833, when most parts of the globe were suffering from cholera and other pestilential diseases, the Bri- tish settlements in West Africa were in the enjoy- ment of perfect health. The Deputy Inspector of Hospitals at West Africa, states in his official report, in reference to the causes of disease in Europeans — " Breakfast is taken at rising — at eleven a.m. they sit down to * relish,' con- sisting of soups, meats, and the highest seasoned dishes ; wine is drank as at dinner, and afterwards sangaree, or brandy and water, which too frequently they continue sipping and drinking till late in the afternoon, sometimes to the dinner hour." (6 p.m.) •' In all the countries," says Dr. Nicoll, " w^hich I have visited, I never saw so much eating and drinking." The wet season, as in some parts of India, is ' Transmitted to the Army Medical Department. 264 SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMBIA, &C. usually ushered in by tremendous tornadoes ^ or violent gusts of wind, which come from the eastward, attended by thunder, lightning-, and, in general, heavy rains. The violence of the wind seldom con- tinues longer than half an hour; but the scene during the time it continues may be considered as one of the most awfully sublime in nature. Its approach is foretold by certain appearances, which enable people to be on their guard. A dark cloud, not larger than ' a man's hand,' is indistinctly observed on the verge of the eastern horizon. Faint flashes of lightning, attended sometimes by very distant thunder, are then seen to vibrate in quick succession. The clouds in that quarter become gradually more dense and black ; they also increase in bulk, and appear as if heaped on each other. The thunder, which at first was scarcely noticed, or heard only at long intervals, draws nearer by degrees, and becomes more frequent and tremendous. The blackness of the clouds increases until a great part of the heavens seems wrapped in the darkness of midnight : and it is rendered still more awful, by being contrasted with a gleam of light which generally appears in the western horizon. Immediately before the attack of the tornado, there is either a light breeze, scarcely perceptible, from the westward, or, as is more common, the air is perfectly ^ The harinattan, or north-east wind, generally blows once or twice in January and February; it is of extreme siccidity, and near the great desert of Sahara in particular, accompanied by a dense haze, occasioned by a vast quantity of impalpable pow- der floating in the gusty atmosphere. VEGIETABLE KINGDOM. 265 calm and unusually still. Men and animals fly for shelter ; and, while ' expectation stands in horror,' the thundering storm in an instant bursts from the clouds. It is impossible for language to convey a just idea of the uproar of the elements which then takes place. The temperature of the air is greatly affected by a tornado (it becomes cool and clear) ; and it is not unusual for the thermometer to suffer a depression of eight or ten degrees within two "or three minutes after the storm has come on. After a tornado, the body feels invigorated and more active, and the mind recovers much of that elasticity which long continued heat tends to impair. Vegetable Kingdom. — From the River Senegal, in about 16° north latitude, to the Congo, which is in upwards of 6° south latitude, there is a remark- able uniformity of vegetation, not only as to principal orders and genera, but even to a considerable extent, in the species in which it consists \ Many of the trees, the palms, and several other remarkable plants, which characterise the landscape, as Adansonia, Bomhax pentandrum, Elais gumeensis, Raphia vinifera, and Pandanus Candelabrum, appear to be very general along the whole extent of coast. Sterculia acuminata, the seed of which is the Cola, mentioned in the earliest accounts of Congo, exists, and is equally valued in Guinea and Sierra Leone, and, what is re- ' I am indebted to Murray's descriptive geography for a collection of data relative to the vegetable and animal kingdoms of this coast. 266 SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMBIA, &C. markable, it bears the same name throughout the west coast. The ordeal tree, called by Professor Smith Cassa, and by Captain Tuckey, erroneously, Acassia ; if not absolutely the same plant as the red water tree at Sierra Leone and the Gold Coast, be- longs at least to the same genus. A species of the cream fruit, remarkable in affording a wholesome and pleasant saccharine fluid, used by the natives of Sierra Leone to quench their thirst, though belong- ing to that generally deleterious family the Apocynecd, is also met with. The Sarcocephalus of Afzelius, which is probably what he has noticed under the name of the country-fig of Sierra Leone, is found on the banks of the Congo. Anona senegalensis, whose fruit, though smaller than that of the cultivated spe- cies, is said to have a flavour superior to them all, and appears to be a general plant along the whole extent of coast : and Chrysohalanus Icaco, or a nearly allied species, is equally common from Senegal to Congo. The trunk of the Draccena Draco cleaves open in many parts, and distils, at the time of the summer solstice, a fluid, which condenses into red tears, soft at first, afterwards hard and friable : this is the true dragon's blood of the shops, and must not be con- founded, though dry, friable, blood-red, and inflamma- ble, with other resinous substances, known under the same name, and derived, the one from a species of Calamus (Rotang), and the other from a Pterocarpus. To the dragon's blood are attributed astringent, desiccatory, and incrassating virtues. It is adminis- tered internally for dysentery, haemorrhage, violent ESCULENT PLANTS, &C. 267 bowel complaints, and inward ulcers; and externally, to dry up running sores, to heal wounds, and to strengthen the gums. The painters make use of it, in the red varnish with which they colour the Chinese boxes and chests. Mr. Sew^el informs me that the castor nut grows abundantly in the neighbourhood of Cape Coast Castle, and also on most parts of the Western Coast. The esculent plants of the Congo, cultivated, as well as indigenous, are very similar throughout the west coast. On the banks of rivers the principal articles of vegetable food are the Indian corn, or Maize {Zea Mays) Cassava, both sweet and bitter {Jatropha Manihot), two kinds of pulse extensively cultivated; the Cytisus Cajan and a Phaseolus Q), with ground nuts (Arachis hypogcea). The most valuable fruits are plaintains {Musa sapientum), the papaw (Carica Papaya), pumpkins {Ciicurhita Pejjo), limes and oranges, pine apples, the common tamarind, and safu, a fruit the size of a small plum. One of the most important plants, not only of the Congo, but of the whole extent of coast, is Elais guineensis, or the oil palm, which also affords the best palm wine. The palm tree is truly called the * native s friend;' it supplies wine, oil, fishing-lines, hats, baskets, palm nuts, cabbage, tinder, &c. &c. The w^ine is obtained by driving a hard peg or a gimlet into the cabbage-like head of the palm, when a stream of sweet liquor flows into a calabash sus- pended beneath, and by the time it is filled (six to eight hours) fermentation has reduced the whole into a milky tinted pleasant beverage ; the natives. 268 SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMBIA, &C. sometimes, allow it to have a harsh and bitter flavour ; the process and liquor is, in fact, somewhat similar to that obtained from the cocoa nut blossom, and termed toddy. Wine is likewise obtained from two other palms. Among- the other alimentary plants, of less importance, or imperfectly known, are the shrubby holcus, the common yam, and another dio- scorea, found wild only, and very inferior to the yam, requiring it is said, four days' boiling to free it from its pernicious qualities. Two kinds of sugar canes, capsicums, and tobacco are generally cultivated, ac- cording to the herbarium of Captain Tuckey. A second kind of ground nut, orpea {Glycine suhter- ranea ?), which is extensively grown at Madagascar, also appears. A species of ximenia {X. americana ?) is likewise found, the fruit yellow, the size of a plum, and acid, but not unpleasant, in the higher parts of the Congo, where it is generally planted. An anti- desma, perhaps like that mentioned by Afzelius, as having a fruit of the same size and taste as a currant, is met with. The edible fruits ^ of Sierra Leone are numerous and luscious. The peach of the negroes fSarco- cephalus esculentusj is a large, fleshy, and solid fruit, hard and eatable throughout, and full of small seeds, not much unlike a strawberry in flavour and consistence. The tree grows plentifully throughout * Drawn up by J. Sabine, Esq. from the Journal and notes of Mr. George Don, who was engaged by the London Horti- cultural Society to make a collection of the useful vegetables in Western Africa. FRUITS. 269 the colony of Sierra Leone, ten to fifteen feet high ; leaves large and elliptical, flowers pink, produced in globular heads, and seated on a receptacle, which afterwards becomes the fruit. The Anona senega- lensis, or African custard apple, fruit not much larger than a pigeon's e^^, and with the same or a superior flavour to the rest of the species. The monkey-bread fAdansonia digitatd) is much used by the negroes ; its fruit, which is of considerable size, and of an oblong shape, is full of seeds, and tastes like gingerbread, with a pleasant acid flavour. Tlie locust tree of Sierra Leone (Inka higlohosa) is a beau- tiful tree when in blossom, covered with compact biglo- bular heads of fine vermillion-coloured flowers, which are succeeded by compact bunches of pods, containing a yellow farinaceous substance, of which the natives are very fond. It is mentioned by Park as affording an agreeable and nutritive food. The country cherry is rare, growing on the mountains, and bearing a small oval reddish fruit, somewhat like a plum in flavour, and produced in clusters on the topmost branches. Anisophyllea laurina, the monkey apple, is a fruit of the size of a pigeon's Q^g, red on one side and vellow on the other, with a flavour between the nectarine and plum. Country grapes are the pro- duce of Vitis ccesia, they are black, austere, and acid ; chiefly eaten by the negroes. Country currants re- semble elder-berries, and are found plentifully on the mountains. The shrub (Fiscus Brassii), which bears the large fig, grows about the colony ; fruit pleasant : as is also a smaller fig, that bears abun- dantly, and is the size of a hazel nut. Wild guavas 270 SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMBIA, &C. {Psidium pyriferum) are natives of the country : Mr. Don saw and tasted the fruit, but could not exactly identify the plant with the West Indian guava. The hog- plum is the fruit of Spondinus Myrobalanus ; it is well tasted, and sharper than the plum of our gardens, but the stone forms half the bulk of the fruit. The grey plum tree {P armarium excelsum) is more valuable for its compact and durable wood than for the fruit, which, though large and abundant, is dry and farinaceous, with a very large stone ; an allied species (P. macropkyllum) is called by the colonists, ginger-bread-plum. Of four other fruits, called plums, the small pigeon plum {Chrysohalanus ellipticus), the yellow pigeon plum (C. luteus), the black plum {Vitex umhrosa), and the sugar plum; it may be said that the first three, though good, are inferior to the latter, which is sold in large quantities in Sierra Leone, and is one of the very best fruits in the colony. The tree is very handsome, sixty feet high, and bears many fruits of the size of a buUace ; at ten feet from the ground the stem throws out roots like a mangrove or pan- danus, but its botanical affinities are not known. From the fruit of the sweet pishamin {Carpodinus dulcis), a quantity of sweet milky juice exudes, the pulp is also pleasant and sweet. The sour pishamin (C. acidus) though sharp, acid, and rather bitter, is much relished by the natives. The Mammee apple {Mammea africana) is a lofty tree, with useful wood, and a very large fruit. The butter and tallow tree (Pentadesma butyraceaj abounds in a yellow greasy juice, to which it owes its name, and which is given FRUITS. 271 out plentifully when the fruit is cut ; this is mixed by the natives with theii* food, on account of its turpentine flavour, which renders it disagreeable to the European settlers. Two kinds of star apple (Chrysophyllu7n macro'phyllum and C ohvatmnj are very inferior to the West Indian star apple fC. CainitoJ. Tonsella pyriformis bears a rich and sweet fruit, like a bergamot pear. There is a tree, called pome- granate, said to be excellent : but having no affinity to punica. The seeds of StercuUa acuminata are called cola by the negroes, who hold them in great esteem, as possessing the same virtues as Peruvian bark. They are like horsechesnuts, and produced in pods, which grow two to five together. A some- what similar seed, named tola, is used in the same way. Velvet tamarinds, the fruit of Codarimn acuti- folium are produced in beautifully black velvety pods, and possess an agreeably acid taste, while brown tamarinds differ little, except in the colour and larger size of the pods. Pine apples both grow wild and are cultivated by natives : they abound in the woods so as to obstruct the passage through them in every direction, shooting most vigorously, and yielding fi'uit abundantly. Two kinds only, the black and white, are grown at Sierra Leone : though not so large as those cultivated in England, the flavour is superior. The wild varieties are innumerable ; and a very pleasant kind of wine is made in the colony from the juice. Besides the fruits already mentioned as found wild near Sierra Leone, the following are cultivated ; plantains (Musa sapientumj, bananas (M. para- 272 SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMBIA, &C. disiaca) ; the cocoa nuts are still rare, and papaws (Carica papaya) are only seen near the settlers' houses. Oranges are abundant, and have now grown wild; lemons are rare, but limes plentiful. Cashew nuts have been cultivated in large quantities of late : rose apples (Eugenia JamhosJ, and tamarinds from the West Indies, love apples fSolanum Ly coper siconj, melons, water melons, cucumbers, gourds, &c., of many kinds and qualities ; among the melons some, which having the smell of musk, are called musk melons. Two sorts of capsicum are grown. The Baobab, or Monkey Bread, above mentioned fAdansonia digitataj, mav be deemed one of the most valuable productions of Western Africa. It is like- wise said to be found in Egypt and Abyssinia, and is cultivated in many of the w^armer parts of the world. It is the largest known tree ; its trunk being some- times no less than thirty feet in diameter. At one year old, its diameter is one inch, and its height five inches : at thirty years old, when the diameter has attained to two feet, the height is but twenty-two feet ; and so on, till at 1000 years old, the Baobab is fourteen feet broad, and fifty- eight feet high, and at 5000 years ^ the growth laterally has so outstripped ' I have met with this gigantic tree of a vast size in several parts of Eastern Africa, particularly near Mombas. The Chapultepee, in Mexico (Cupresses districha L.) which is 117 feet in circumference may be still more aged than the Baobab, whose duration of vitality is said to be indicated by rings of annual growth ; but physiologists have recently ascertained that the number of concentric rings in a tree is owing very much to the soil and climate in which it grows, and to the nature of the tree itself. THE BAOBAB. 273 its perpendicular progress, that the trunk will be thirty feet in diameter, and only seventy-three feet in height. The roots are of a most extraordinary length ; in a tree with a stem seventy-seven feet round, the main branch, or tap root, measures 110 feet in length. The foliage is not so abundant as to conceal the vast proportion of the trunk ; but it often hap- pens that the profusion of leaves and of drooping boughs almost hide the stem, and the whole forms an hemispherical mass of verdure, 140 to 150 feet in diameter, and sixty to seventy feet high. The wood is pale coloured, light, and soft, so that in Abyssinia, the wild bees perforate it, and lodge their honey in the hollow, which honey is considered the best in the country. The negroes on the western coast apply these trunks to a singular purpose. The tree is liable to be attacked by a fungus, which, vegetating in the woody part, without changing the colour or appearance, destroys life, and renders the part so attacked as soft as the pith of trees in general. Such trunks are then hollowed into chambers, and within them are suspended the dead bodies of those to whom a]*e refused the honour of burial. There they become mummies, perfectly dry and well pre- served, without further preparation or embalming, and are known by the name of Guiriots. The Baobab, like all plants of the same order fMalvacea), is emollient and mucilaginous. The pulverised leaves constitute lalo, a favourite article with the natives, which they mix with their daily food to diminish excessive perspiration, and which is even used by Europeans in fevers, diarrhoeas, &c. The fruit is T 274 SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMBIA, &C. perhaps the most useful part of this tree ; its pulp is acid and agreeable, and the juice expressed from it, mixed with sugar, constitutes a drink that is deemed a specific in putrid and pestilential fevers. Owing to these circumstances, the fruit forms an article of commerce. Bowdich mentions that it possesses such an agreeable flavour, and is so abundant, that it con- stitutes a principal article of food with the natives, who season many of their dishes with it, especially their corn gruel. The Mandingoes convey it to the eastern and southern districts of Africa, and through the medium of the Arabs, it reaches Morocco, and even Egypt. If the fruit be injured, it is burned, the ashes.' being mixed with rancid palm oil, and serving for soap. The flowers are large, white, and handsome, and on their first expansion, bear some resemblance, in their snowy petals and violet mass of stamens, to the white poppy (Papaver somniferumj . Both the flowers and fruit are pendant. The Baobab tree loses its leaves before the periodical rains come on. The Arachis hypogaea deserves notice on account of the singular economy of its fruits. It belongs to the very few plants which mature their seeds under ground ; the flower- stalk, after the blossom has withered, bending downwards, and burying the germen in the soil, where it soon increases in bulk, and perfectly ripens. The fruit is a pod, containing one or two seeds, the size of small nuts, with a flavour of almonds ; the natives of several countries eat them, either boiled or fried, and make very pleasant confections of them, the taste resembling PLANTS COMMON TO EQUINOCTIAL AFRICA, &C. 275 chocolate. A valuable oil is also extracted from the seeds of the Arachis, alike useful in food and for supplying lamps, as it never turns rancid. Many- attempts have been made to naturalise this plant in Europe ; but the climate is too cold for it every where north of the southern coast of France. List of plants common to Equinoctial Africa, Amei'ica, and Asia ^ — Gleichenia Hermanni Prodr. Flor. Nov. Holl. ; Mertensia dichotoma, Willd. ; Agrostis Virginica, L. ; Cyperus articulatus, L. ; Cyperus niloticus, Fahl. ead. sp. ; Lipocarpha ar- gentea, Nob. ; Hypselyptum argenteum, Vahl. ; Fui- rena umbellata, L. fil. ; Pistia Stratiotes, L. ; Boerhaavia mutabilis, Prodr. Flor. Nov. Holl. ; Ipomoea pes caprse, Noh. ; Convolvulus pes caprae, L., convolvulus Brasiliensis, L. ead. sp. ; Ipomoea pentaphylla, Jacqu. ; Scoparia dulcis, L. ; Helio- tropium indicum, L. ; Sphenoclea zeylanica, Goerb. ; Ageratum conyzoides. L.\ Waltheria indica, L., Wal- theria americana, L. ead. sp. ; Hibiscus liliaceus, L. ; Sida periplocifolia, L. ; Cassia occidentalis, L. ; Gui- landina Bonduc, L., Guilandina Bonducella, L., ead. sp. ; Abrus precatorius, L. ; Hedysarum triflorum, L. Plants common to Equinoctial Africa and America ,- but not found in India. — Octoblepharum albidum, Heda. ; Acrostichum aureum, L. ; Eragrostis ciliaris, L. ; Poa ciliaris, L. ; Cyperus ligularis, L. ; Schwenkia americana, L. ; Hyptis obtusifolia, Nob. ; Struchium (americanum) Bejam. 312 ; Sida juncea Banks, et Soland. Mss. Brasil. ; Urena americana, L., Urena ^ From Tuckey's voyage up the Congo. t2 276 SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMBIA, &C. reticulata, Cavan. ead. sp. ; Malachra radiata, L. ; Jussiaea erecta, L. ; Crotalaria axillaris, Hort. Kew. et Willd. ; Pterocarpus lunatus, L. Plants common to Equinoctial Africa and India ; hut not found in America. — Roccella fuciformis Achar. Lichenog. 440; Perotislatifolia Soland. in Hort. Kew. ; Centotheca lappacea, Beauw. ; Eleusine indica, Goert. ; Flagellaria indica, L. ; Gloriosa superba, L. ; Celosia argentea, L. ; Celosia margaritacea, L., Celosia albida? Willd. ; ead. sp. ; Desmochyeta lappacea Decand. ; Grangea (maderaspatana) Adans. ; Lavenia erecta, Sw.; Oxystelmaesculentum,iVo6., Periploca esculenta, Roxh., Nympheea lotus, L., Nymphaea pubescens, Willd., ead. sp. ; Hibiscus surattensis, L. ; Leca sambucina, L. ; Hedysarum pictum, L. ; Indigofera lateritia, Willd. ; Glinus lotoides, L. List of species which have not been satisfactorily ascertained. — Acrostichum alcicorne, Sic. ; Acrosti- chum stemaria, Beauv. ; Imperata cylindrica, Prodr. Flor. Nov. Holl. ; Panicum crus-galli, L. ; Typha angustifolia, L. ; Giseckia pharnaceoides, L. ; Cassytha pubescens, Prodr. Ylor.Nov. Holl.; Celtis orientalis, L. ; Cardiospermum grandiflorum, Z/Z^;. ; Paullina pin- nata, L. ; Hydrocotyle Asiatica, L. ; Hedysarum adscendens, Sw. ; Hedysarum vaginale, L, ; Ptero- carpus Ecastophyllum, L. The native names of the different species of timber exported from the River Sierra Leone for ship building and carpenter's w^ork are — 1. Co-Tartosar, or African oak ; 2. Tolongah, or brimstone ; 3. Bumia, rather scarce ; 4. Cooper ; 5. Kon ; 6. Conta ; 7. Roth ; 8. Wossomah; 9. Jumo; 10. Backam; 11. Toper- ANIMAL KINGDOM. 277 canico ; 1 2 Mooll, the tree produces vegetable butter ; 13. Sop; 14. Kelill ; 15. Cong; 16. African almond; 17. Bombay; 18. Dye-wood; 19. Pissaman ; 20. Pissaman, (no marine animal of any kind attacks it) ; 21. black oak; 22. Wismore ; 23. African cedar; 24. White wismore ; 25. Cronko ; 26. Shiu-shinginara ; 27. blue Wismore; 28. Arwoora ; 29. African mam- mee apple; 30. Catepy ; 31. Lowland box- wood ; 32. Singa-singa marah ; 33. African pine; 34. Highland box-wood; 35. Singuoora ; 36. Cabooco ; 37. Brimstone; 38. Bessey ; 39. African mulberry; 40. Mangrove. The grain of several of these woods is very rich, and the furniture made therefrom not only durable but extremely beautiful. In Mr. Forster's elegant mansion at Hampstead, there are several articles of furniture made from African mahogany, vv'hich would vie with the wood of any country in the world : and for ship-building the African teak is now generally and deservedly esteemed. Animal Kingdom. — Of this interesting depart- ment of natural history little is yet known, owing to our slight knowledge of the interior ; the species yet seen are principally those met with around the European settlements on the coast. In the following lists are enumerated the chief quadrupeds of Western Africa, arranged under those countries where they have been particularly observed : — Senegal. Cercopithecus ruber, Red Monkey ; Cer- copithecus sabaeus, Green Monkey; Megaderma frons, Foliaceous Bat ; Taphozous senegalensis, Senegal Bat ; Oryx besoastica Sm., Senegal Oryx ; Gazella 278 SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMBIA, &C. dama Stn., Swift Antelope; Cercopithecus petau- rista, Vaulting Monkey. Guinea. Cercopithecus nictitans, White-ncsed Mon- key ; Cercopithecus petaurista, Vaulting Monkey ; Cercopithecus diana. Palatine Monkey ; Cercocebus fuliginosus, Smokey Monkey ; Cercocebus sethiops, Ethiopian Monkey ; Cyanocephalus papio, Guinea Baboon ; Papio Mormon, Mandrill ; Papio sylvicola. Wood Baboon ; Canis cancrivorous. Crab-eating Wolf. Sierra Leone and Congo. Simla troglodytes. Chim- panzee; Colobuspolycomos, Full-bottom Monkey; Ga- zella mytelopes, Sin., Broad-footed Antelope; Antilope redunca, Nagor Antelope ; Cephalophus sylvicultrix, Stn., Bush Antelope ; Cephalophus quadriscopa Sm., Four-tufted Antelope ; Cephalophus mergens, Duckre Antelope ; Cephalophus Grimmia, Guinea Antelope ; Cephalophus Maxwellii, Sm., Maxwell's Antelope ; Cephalophus Philantomba, Sm., Sierra Leone Ante- lope ; Tragelophus phalerata, Sm., Ribbed Antelope. Lions, elephants, panthers, buffaloes, hippopotami, and deer abound. The most interesting quadrupeds of Senegal appear to be the Red Monkey, the Green Monkey, and the two antelopes, named Dama and Scripta. M. Adanson says, that the Red Monkey is a pretty animal, but capricious, mischievous, little susceptible of attachment, and possessing the dis- tinguishing characteristic of the monkey tribes, curiosity in a remarkable degree. During his aquatic excursion, they descended from the tops of the trees to the extremity of the branches, earnestly noticing, and apparently much amused by, the boats passing ANIMAL KINGDOM. 279 up the river. After a time they took courage, and began to pelt the travellers with pieces of wood, thus provoking a most unequal contest. Upon being fired upon, they uttered the most frightful cries, and although many were killed, the survivors returned to the contest with redoubled courage, and with a most determined spirit : some flung stones at their adver- saries, w^hile others even collected their own excre- ments for the same purpose. The Green Monkey, is so named from the upper parts being of a greenish yellow colour : the lower are greyish ; tail terminated by a long pencil of yellow hairs ; face, ears, and hands black ; this spe- cies are in immense numbers. They remain on the trees in large troops, and preserve the most profound silence, even when they are wounded. Adanson did not at first notice them, from the similarity of their colour to that of the foliage, until they sud- denly began flinging at him pieces of the dead branches ; and although he killed twenty-three of them in less than an hour, they did not appear in the least frightened by the discharge of his guns. In confinement, it is stated by M. Cuvier to be remarkably beautiful and gentle ; fond of being caressed by those it knows, and seldom exhibiting any malicious propensity : when fully contented, it expresses satisfaction by a peculiar gentle grunt, which may be compared to the syllable grau. The Dama Antelope so closely resembles the species so named by Mr. Riippell, and found by him in the deserts of Nubia, that they are probably one and the same. 280 SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMBIA, &C. The Harnessed Antelope is a most beautiful animal, first noticed by Adanson by the native name of Gerih. It is about the size of a fallow deer : the ground colour of a bright bay, but marked with stripes in various directions, and with such regularity as to give the idea that a harness of some white material, was thrown over its body. Another species, closely resembling this, named the Ribbed Antelope {A. phalerata) inhabits the barren plains above the great falls of the Zezere, or Congo. Large baboons, of the most grotesque but repulsive forms, are com- mon in this part of Africa. The PapioUy or Common Baboon, is of a yellowish green, verging more or less to brown ; visage black, and tail long ; when adult, it is a most ferocious and disgusting animal. From the same country comes the Mandrill Baboon (Simla Maimon Lin.), of an olive colour ; its chin has a small yellow beard, and the cheeks are naked, blue, and furrowed. In the adult males, the nose grows red, and the end is sometimes of a bright scarlet, while the buttocks are of a beautiful violet. M. Cuvier well remarks that it is impossible to conceive an animal more ex- traordinary and more hideous. It very nearly attains the height of a man, and is looked upon by the negroes with great fear. The Chimpanzee, of all the apes yet discovered, makes the nearest approximation to the human form. It was designated by Linnaeus as a variety of the human species, under the name of Homo troglodytes. The Chimpanzee appears to have an affinity, if not identity, with the large African apes so often men- ANIMAL KINGDOM. 281 tioned by travellers, or to the Barris, or great Wild Man of the African woods. In size it exceeds that of the Orang-Otan, and exhibits the same docility, submissiveness, and gentleness. It is heard of more especially in Congo. The Perruque, or Full- bottomed Monkey {Colohus polycomos Geof.) has the neck furnished with a variegated mane of long hair, fancifully compared to a full-bottomed wig, but truly representing the lion in its own family. Several of the antelopes are very elegant. The Bush Antelope {A. sylvicultrix) , called by the colonists of Sierra Leone, the Bush Goat, is of considerable size, and measures five feet in length ; the venison is excellent ; it is not so fleet as other antelopes. The Ducker Antelope {A. mergens) is remarkable for its great timidity, being alarmed at the least unusual noise, and concealing itself on hearing thunder. It lives solitary or in pairs ; its peculiar name originates from its singular habit of rising upon the hind legs to look round, making a blowing noise with its nostrils, and then stooping and flying under cover of the vegetation, to stand and rise up again. Another species, the dodger antelope of Major Smith, also from Western Africa, appears to resemble this very much. The Lamantin, or Sea Cow (Manatus senegalensis), an amphibious quadruped of great dimensions ; occa- sionally frequents the mouth of tne Senegal. It is essentially herbivorous, and of a mild and inoff'ensive character. Adanson describes it as full eight feet long, having some resemblance to a seal : four nails are at the edge of the fins, and the tail is horizon- 282 SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMBIA, &C. tally flat ; the eyes very small, and the ears not visible. The negroes call it Cercou. Birds d^-e in great variety, and of unsurpassed beauty ; but we as yet know little of the ornitholo- gical treasures of the country. The rapacious birds are few : only one species of vulture is yet known to inhabit the Western Africa ; this is the Angola vul- ture of Latham, which is probably the same with the vultur percnopterus of Egypt and Southern Europe ; although Latham's name has recently been erro- neously applied, in an English translation of Cuvier's Animal Kingdoyn, to a totally different bird. The Crowned Eagle of Guinea (F. coronatusj, is more than two feet in length, or one-third the size of the larger European eagles : it is only occasionally seen on the Gold Coast, and is remarkable for a crest over each eye, while the legs are clothed with feathers to the toes. The Senegal Fishing Eagle feeds almost entirely upon fish, in the manner of our osprey. Five other falcons, peculiar to this country, have recently been noticed. The grey-necked shrike (Malaconotus olivaceus, Sw.J ; the Barbary shrike (Malaconotus barbarus, Sw.J, and two or three other species of the same group, equally conspicuous for the richness of their plumage, occur in Senegal, and, probably, also in the neighbouring states. The beautifully coloured sun-birds fCinnyrida, Sw.J are met with in great numbers, sipping nectar from the numerous blossoms which a luxuriant vegetation yields. The Senegal, the long-tailed, and the chaly- beate, are three species of exquisite beauty, and not larger in size than many of the American humming- BIRDS. 283 birds. There are numerous flocks of golden-coloured orioles of different species. Migratory Rollers, decked with the brightest tints of azure, purple, and green, occur in large flocks, with crested hoopoes, and beautiful bee-eaters. The water-birds, also, are but imperfectly known. The galUnaceous birds, so numerous in India, and even in America, under the same parallels of latitude, are here thought to be very few. Some of the par- tridges, loosely mentioned by travellers, are probably of that particular race called sand grouse, found only in the hot latitudes of the Old World fG. Ptero- cles, T.J, while the rest cannot be referred to their true species. The only gallinaceous birds of any size, peculiar to tropical Africa, are the Guinea fowl. Of these, the most common species (Numida melea- grisj has long been domesticated in Europe. In a wild state these birds associate in numerous flocks of 200 or 300 each : they chiefly frequent marshes and morasses, where they seek for worms, insects, and seeds. During the night they perch on high places, and are well known for their discordant noise. Four of the most remarkable land birds are : — 1st. The Plantain-eater {Musophaga violacea), as large as an ordinary sized pigeon, but with the tail much longer ; the whole plumage of a deep black, highly glossed wath bluish purple ; but the quill feathers, when opened, are then seen to be of the deepest and richest lilac, reflecting violet ; the feathers of the head are of the same colour, and so short and soft as to resemble velvet ; the bill is orange, mixed with red, its substance very thick, and elevated in front 284 SIERRA LEOXE, THE GAMBIA, &C. like a helmet. Another species, the variegated plan- tain-eater, is also found in Senegal, but its plumage is plain. 2nd. Tlie Touracco, or Web-crest of Senegal, is of the same natural family ; rather smaller in size, but living equally and exclusively upon fruits ; the wings are also of a crimson lilac, but the rest of the body is green. On the head is a compressed and erect crest of thin and delicate feathers. It lives in the deepest forests, and perches only on the loftiest trees. 3rd. The Beef-eater {Buphaga africana, L.) receives its name from its habit of alighting on the backs of cattle, and picking from their hides the troublesome insects by which they are infested, climbing round their bodies, much in the same way as the creepers or woodpeckers do on trees ; this is rendered appa- rent by the formation of their claws and tails, both of which are of the scansorial structure ; the bill also is very thick. The bird is not so large as a thrush, and is plainly coloured. Another species is said to inhabit Abyssinia. 4th. The Long -shafted Goat-sucker (C. macrodip- terus) peculiar to Sierra Leone, is varied with brown, yellowish, and black, much like the European spe- cies, yet it is smaller ; its most remarkable character is a very long single feather, issuing from the wing covers, measuring near twenty inches, the shaft of which is only expanded into a broad web at the end. Nature has, no doubt, designed for this extraordinary appendage some peculiar use. IcTHYOLOGY. — The rivers and coasts abound with many fish, beautiful in their colours, or nutritious for ENTOMOLOGY. 285 food; and there are swarms of alligators, serpents, and other reptiles. The Mollusca and Shell-fish are abundant and cu- rious. The voluta cymbium and sccBpha, two large volute shells, the animals of which are carnivorous, appear to be in profusion in Senegal. Cones, olives, and various other predacious races, are no less com- mon ; the Cypraa moneta, or money cowry, passes current among the negro tribes as coin of a very low value. Entomology offers an extensive field for the natu- ralist. The number of locusts and cicades is every where striking ; but in the sandy plains thinly covered with grass their numbers are immense, and their chirping is intolerable ; they are seen of various kinds, sizes, and colours, skipping or flitting about in all directions, at every step of the traveller. The larvce or caterpillars, of all the beetles that feed upon decayed wood, are rich and delicate eat- ing, so that every forest affords the traveller plenty of nourishment did he know where to search for it. The children in Africa, at the proper season, are busilv employed in digging out of the ground the females of a particular sort of cricket, which are then full of eggs, and so enclosed in a bag as to resemble part of the roe of a large fish : these, when roasted, are deemed very delicate. The myriads of ants which sv/arm in tropical Africa can scarcely be conceived by those who have never visited hot climates. They are of numerous species, but all seem intent on removing from the face of the earth every animal or vegetable substance 286 SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMBIA, &C. no longer necessary or useful. Like the destroying angel they walk steadily forward in the line ordained them, and spare neither magnitude nor beauty, nei- ther the living nor the dead. One species, which seems at times to have no fixed habitation, ranges about in vast armies ; being armed with very strong jaws, they attack whatever animal impedes their pro- gress, and there is no escape but by immediate flight, or instant retreat to the water. The inhabitants of the negro villages, has Mr. Smeathman has himself witnessed, are frequently obliged to abandon their dwellings, taking with them their children, &c. and wait until the ants have passed. So numerous are these hosts, that a deer, hog, &c. being killed, and left on the ground, in one night will have the flesh entirely cleaned from the bones, and made a complete skeleton. There are near twenty other species in Western Africa, of difi'erent sizes and colours, each possessing peculiar habits. Some attack the collec- tions of the botanist, and in spite of weights laid upon his books of drying plants, get in, cut the leaves and flowers to pieces, and carry them away ! Others attack all sorts of victuals. Mr. Smeathman has had four large sugar dishes emptied in one night, when the least opening was left ; some assail the side- board, and cover every glass that has had wine or punch left in it ; nay, innumerable multitudes fre- quently even ascend the table, and drown themselves in the very bowls and vessels before you. {Preface to Drury's Insects, vol. iii.) — I tried in Africa to pre- vent the ants ascending my table by placing each of its legs in a large dish of water, but these astonishing ENTOMOLOGY. 287 insects soon made a bridge of the dead bodies of their comrades ; placing the feet of the table on globes of very smooth glass is a better expedient to ward off this plague. The Termites, or white ants of Western Africa have had their wonderful economy attentively inves- tigated by Mr. Smeathman, They build pyramidical or conical structures, divided into appropriate apart- ments, magazines for provisions, arched chambers, and galleries of communication. These are so firmly cemented that they easily bear the weight of three or four men ; and on the plains of Senegal, appear like the villages of the natives. [I observed the same in Eastern Africa.] The destruction they effect is won- derfully rapid : they destroy food, furniture, books, clothes, and timber of whatever magnitude, leaving merely a thin surface ; and in a few hours a large beam will be eaten to a mere shell not thicker than writing paper. On emerging from the egg, the in- sect is in its larva state, furnished with a great hard head and strong toothed jaws, but it is destitute of eyes. These are the labourers, who, although not more than a quarter of an inch long, build these edi- fices, procure provisions for the community, and take charge of the eggs. On changing to the pupa state, they become larger and more powerful : the head is nearly as big as the body, while the jaws project be- yond the head, they are very sharp, but without teeth. They now become soldiers, and assume higher duties; never working themselves, but superintending the labourers ; they act also as guards to defend the common habitations from intrusion or violence. 7 288 SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMBIA, &C. When a breach is made in the dweUing:, thev rush forward and defend the entrance with great ferocitv ; frequently beating their jaws against the walls as a signal to the other guards, or as encouragement to the labourers ; they then retire, and are succeeded by the labourers, each with a burden of tempered mortar in his mouth, and who diligently set about and repair the injury. One soldier appears to attend every 600 or 800 labourers when building a wall ; he takes no active part himself, but frequently makes the noise above mentioned, which is constantly answered by a loud hiss from all the attendants, who, at this signal, evidently redouble their diligence. The next change brings the pupae, or soldiers to their perfect state as male and female winged insects. They then emerge into the air, either during the night, or on a damp and cloudy day : in a few hours, however, the solar heat causes the wings to wither and become dry ; the insects then fall to the ground, and are eagerly sought after by hosts of birds, lizards, and even by the negroes themselves, who roast and eat them. The few which survive this general destruction are collected by the labourers and soldiers, who inclose them, by pairs, in apartments made of clay, the en- trance to which is so narrow that they cannot mi- grate; but where they are diligently fed and attended by the labourers, whose bodies are small enough to admit an easy entrance. Afterimpregnation, the ab- domen of the female extends to an enormous size, exceeding the rest of her body nearly 2000 times; in which state it is filled with an immense number of eggs, protruded to the amount of about 8000 in POPULATION. 289 twenty-four hours. These are instantly taken away by the labourers, and conveyed to separate chambers, where, after they are hatched, the young are attended and provided for till they are able to shift for them- selves, and take their share in the labours of the com- munity. {Smeathman, Phil. Trans, vol. Ixxi.) Other species of termites build their nests on trees of an oval form, while that of another {T. arda) is cylindrical, two or three feet high, terminated by a round vaulted dome, and surrounded by a prominent terrace. CHAPTER III. POPULATION OF SIERRA LEONE, GAMBIA, &C. VARIETIES OF PACES, CHARACTER, &C. Population. — Of the numbers, characters, and almost of the names of the people of Western Africa (estimated at twenty-six to the square mile, 1,200,000 square miles, thus giving 31,000,000 mouths) we know very little. The three great negro races inhabit the country : — 1st. The Foulahs, from Fooladoo on the Upper Senegal, or of the same race with the Fellatahs, in Central Africa, have now spread all over the banks of that river, besides the great kingdom of Foota Jallo to the south, and many districts on the banks of the Gambia. They have not the extreme negro charac- teristics ; neither the deep jet hue, the flat nose, nor CEYLON, &c. U 290 SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMBIA, &C. the thick hps ; on the contrary, their features are high, with an ohve tint, and an agreeable expression. They have embraced the Mahometan faith, but with- out that bigotry which almost universally accom- panies it. Their manners are peculiarly courteous and gentle: they practise the most liberal hospitality; and relieve the wants not only of their own aged and infirm, but even of those belonging to other tribes. Their employments are pastoral, and their habits, in some degree, nomadic. Occupying countries where there is no fixed property in land, they drive their flocks, according to the season, to the tops of the mountains, or the banks of the rivers. At night they collect their herds within the circle of the tents, and light large fires to deter the approach of wild beasts. Such is their good conduct and industry, that it is considered infamous to injure them, and a blessing is said to rest on any territory that contains one of their villages. Their internal government is republican, under chiefs of their own ; and this form they insist upon retaining, even when they settle under a sovereign of another tribe. 2nd, The Mandingoes are a race more numerous and more decidedly negro both in form and disposi- tion. Though capable of great occasional exertion, they have by no means the steady industry of the Foulahs. Their employments are chiefly a shght agriculture, fishing with nets and baskets, and, above all, traffic, in which their enterprise exceeds that of the other negro races. They conduct large kafilas to a considerable distance in the interior, and their lan- guage is well understood in all the commercial dis- THE MANDINGOES. MUMBO JUMBO. 291 tricts. They are cheerful, inquisitive, credulous, and so g-ay, that they will dance for twenty-four hours without intermission to the sound of the drum or balafon. Polygamy is practised to a great extent, and the numerous households to which it gives rise live in tolerable outward harmony, which must not, however, be considered very secure, since it requires to be cemented by the extraordinary expedient of Mumbo Jumbo. This bugbear of the African ladies is called into service whenever the simpler expedients of scolding or beating fail to queU domestic dissen- sion. Mumbo Jumbo, being then summoned, arravs himself in a fantastic coat hung for his use on a neigh- bouring tree, crowns his head with a tuft of straw, and soon after dusk marches into the market place. Thither the unhappy fair one being summoned dares not disobey, and the love of stir and mischief causes her to be soon followed by the majority of her fellow citizens. In their presence she is stripped naked, and undergoes a severe whipping, inflicted by the rod of Mumbo Jumbo, amid the applause of all the specta- tors. The Mandingoes have some tastes more refined than are usual among Africans, particularly in poetry, the extemporary composition and recitation of which forms one of their favourite amusements. The origi- nal country of these people is the elevated territory of Manding ; but they are now widely difiiised over all this region, and particularly along the banks of the Gambia. The third gi*eat race are the Jalofs, who occupy nearly the whole of that inland territory which inter- u 2 '29*2 SIKUUA LKONK, THK GAM 111 A. (!\C. vencs botwoou the Gambia ami the Senegal, ami the extent of \vhieh is estimated by Golberry at 4S00 leagues. A mimber of them are subject to a ])Ower- ful inland ])rinee called Burb-y-.Talof, who boasts of himself as anciently the sole ruler in this part of Africa. The Jalofs. though of a deep black com- plexion, and with the decided negro features, are considered a handsome race. They boast of their antiquity, and in many respects excel their neigh- bours. Their language is softer and more agree- able ; thev manufacture huer cotton cloths, and give them a superior dye ' : in horsemanship they are fear- less and expert, and as hunters they rival the Moors. Thev possess not. however, the invention of writing, and reckon by lives instead of by tens. The Feloops are a wild and rude race, inhabiting the shores to the south of the Gambia ; their traffic with us is carried on through the Mandiugo mer- chants, and we consequently know little of them. The Tinunanees border on our colony of Sierra Leone. The Ashantees. amounting, it is thought, to 1,000.000 people, with o,000,000 of dependants, be- longing to other nations, inhabit Ashantee Proper, a region behind the Gold Coast, comprising about 14,000 square miles. They are a very superior class ' Mr. Forstor has jToscntod mo witli soino spooiiuons of tlio cotton cloths nianufacturcil by the natives o( Western Africa; these cloths have a softness, weip-ht. and textnre, whieli our manut'aciurers at Manchester cannot eqnal : the patterns bet'ore nie are novel and tasteliil, provino- that the African is not tlte degraded being he has been so nnjnstly represented. THE DAHOMTAXS. 293 of natives to those oi\ the coast, manufacture excel- k^nt cotton, smelt metals, and huild large houses. The country is g-overned by a king, aided by four chiefs as counsellors. Notwithstanding that the man- ners of the Ashantees are more polished and digni- fied than their neiglibours. annual hecatombs of un- fortunate slaves and captives arc otfercd to propitiate the nianes of their ancestors, and on the death of any member of the roval familv, thousands of human beings arc slain as attendants for the next world. In no country, indeed, is life less valued than in Africa. The Landers were dreadfully tormented by the rude curiosity of the natives, who almost suflbcated them by crowding to and about their tents. On complain- ing of this nuisance to the chief of one place, he said. ' Take your gun and kill a few ; you have my full leave to slaughter as many as you please. After you have cut off the heads of some of them, the rest will not molest you.' Polygamy is carried to a dreadful extent ; the legal allowance of wives for the Ashantee monarch is 3000 ! The Dahomians (who have conquered the fearful and effeminate Wydans) predominate along what is termed the Slave Coast, and in the interior to the depth of about '200 miles ; their rule is equal in bar- barity to that of the Ashantees. The Fantees manu- facture cottons interwoven with silk, earthenware, iron, soap, &c., and enjoy a republican form of go- vernment. Other tribes and nations exist, of whom we do not know even the names, but all, more or less, sunk in a state of savage barbarism. A few observa- tions on the system that has been pursued in our 294 SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMBIA, &C. expeditions of discovery into the interior of Africa may not be here out of place. From the time of Park several expeditions have been fitted out by go- vernment, none of which have been attended with a success commensurate with the expectations of the country, and the money expended on them. If the subject were inquired into, it might not be difficult to trace the failure of these undertakings to the errors committed in planning and conducting them. The most considerable was that under Major Peddie, than whom a more estimable man, and a braver officer, never entered the field, but one more unfitted to lead an expedition of discovery into the interior of Africa could not well have been selected. Had his orders been to fight his way through the country no man would have done it better ; but he was ill calculated to win his way through the unknown regions of Africa by patience, perseverance, and persuasion. There are persons now in this country who witnessed what took place after the expedition arrived on the coast (where it remainednear twelve months, engaged in ill-judged preparations for the inland journey), and they declare that the attempt may be considered to have failed before the party left the shore. They started with a numerous train of camels, and other animals, laden with an immense quantity of valuable property, for use as presents to the kings or chiefs through whose territories they had to pass. The consequence was, what those acquainted with the natives and the country expected, they met with difficulties at every step. The cupidity of the natives was excited by the temptation of such a display of valuables ; impedi- EXPEDITIONS OF DISCOVERY. 295 ments were thrown in the way of the expedition, for the purpose of arresting the property ; this created delay, with delay came sickness, despondency, and the total failure of the attempt, upon which an enor- mous sum of money was entirely thrown away. The next expedition was made under Major Gray, and was attended with the same errors and the same dis- astrous results. And now, after having expended use- lessly tens of thousands on such ill-planned schemes, government has gone from one extreme to the other, and cannot spare even fifty pounds in aid of any un- dertaking for the like purpose. Park and Clapperton were both eminently qualified for the task they under- took ; but it may be questioned, whether the right plan has yet been hit upon for ensuring success. It is the opinion of those who have resided long on the coast, that persons should be selected for the purpose who are seasoned to the climate by a residence in the country, and that they should set out attended by two or three natives belonging to the interior, moderately provided with the means of procuring subsistence on the journey, and to whom a handsome reward should be guaranteed, on condition of their bringing the traveller safe back ; rewards might be promised to the chiefs in the interior on the same terms. It is thought that this plan afibrds the fairest prospect of success. A Marrabout (Moorish priest) offered to Major Gray, at Senegal, before he started, to conduct him to Timbuctoo, and from thence to the saltwater (sea) by the Niger, on condition of receiving 1000 pieces of bafts (about 800/.) on his safe return back 296 SIERRA. LEONE, THE GAMBIA, &C. to Senegal. The offer was declined, as not being in accordance with his instructions. It is difficult to obtain corrected statements of the population of our settlements on this coast. The most thickly inhabited by British subjects is Sierra Leone, the census of which, at two intervals, was as follows : — 297 o c « u f ■o •Ib;oi CI CO C<1 Oi CO •ss^Braaj •paSuBiio Aiou C 00 •saiBH •uoisiAia JO saiUB^ - l--3C5I300iC0C0CCClOC0'--;;0<^00OlOi^ CI •IBJOX oOvOOSOOi— 'COOCsmciOCsr^cC — c t^^MT^ir5oqo^(Nco.--'.-*C5^I^— 'COCv «>. oo •s.tog Ci ^ _ M ^ _ O C OOiOOOCl^OOiOirs-^OOOb-C^.! >- o •uaraoAV. COGl-O'^— •-r'-rOOOOt^lMCO.-iMM : M O ^ ^ M IM O . O '^ CO COKI'fcOi-'COC^lMC'lClCiCCO^iOMCv o •uaH M C^l 1^1 -t" — M CI ■<+* 'O •!»< — 1 n O C^) CO 05 c»- o — C^lrtC^lC^lOCOr-i.— .-1 — COCJ o t-- C^l o ^ o x: H M 3 D • ^ «4.i "P "oJ rt • ^ fU 1-^ o J" ^ .« ^ ci S S >.o : c 0iJSP'C^i3&o=5iH='^ - xiitri^xnv^vim-Jimrn^> _c3 ,Q "3 s s S • r-< >. ^ ^ ^ ^ W2 ;- •is c > c '33 Free Tow: Leopold Charlotte Bathurst Glouceste Regent ai Kissey an Wilberfor Kent and Waterloo Hastings Wellingto York Leicester Villages ii Peninsula 298 SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMBIA, &C. Of the total population at Sierra Leone (35,000), about 200 are Europeans ; the remainder are either captured and liberated slaves \ or their descendants, together with some Kroomen, or native Africans, who ply for hire in the settlement. Many of the colonists possess wealth, some of the liberated slaves being now worth upwards of 1000/. sterling. There are, of course, some instances where indolence prevails, but on the whole the freed African shows that he prizes his liberty, and is grateful for the boon con- ferred on him by the humanity of Britain. There are public schools in each parish, and from 3000 to 4000 children daily attend them. It is, however, much to be lamented, that the in- fluence of certain individuals, by whom the affairs of the African Institution had been mainly directed, con- tinued to sway for a considerable period, the policy of government, whereby the ample resources, provided ^ Abstract of returns, shewing the number of slaves captured, emancipated, and registered in the mixed commission courts at Sierra Leone, since their establishment to the 6th day of Feb. 1826. Died before Adjudication 1462 Emancipated, but died before their descriptions could be taken to be registered 38 Delivered over to the Colonial Government, not emanci- pated or registered 626 Emancipated, but not regis- tered 254 Emancipated and registered... 7122 9502 Captured in 1819.... .... 96 1820.,.. .... 455 1821.... ....1399 1822.... ....2753 1823.... .... 670 1824.... ....1331 1825.... ....1752 To Feb. G, 182(5.... ....1045 9502 At Sierra Leone the total number of slaves emancipated between June, 1819, and January, 1833, was 27,697« POPULATION OF THE GAMBIA. 299 by parliament in furtherance of the philanthropic objects for which the colony was established, were applied to measures of a transitory nature, connected with the private pursuits in trade of those who re- commended them, in place of being spent in founding a permanent system of moral and commercial im- provement for the natives of the country. The money was frittered away in contracts and jobbing in the settlement, while the surrounding country, with its countless inhabitants, was left without an effort for its improvement, and to this day bears scarcely a trace of advantage arising from all the money that has been devoted to the colony. No encouragement has been offered to the native chiefs, in the way of premiums for the productions of the soil, nor has any regular system ever been adopted for supplying them with tools, seeds, or agricultural instruction. Had this been done, and persons been brought from the West Indies capable of instructing the natives in planting, England might, at this day, have had some- thins: to show and boast of for the monev she has spent in Africa, in place of having to deplore the con- sequences of her ill -directed efforts, and ill- applied resources, which have so dispirited government and the country, that the smallest items are now grudg- ingly admitted in the estimates for the coast, in place of those reasonable resources which, if granted, and properly applied, might yet realize the fondest hopes of the friends of African improvement. The Gambia. — The population of this settlement I can only show as regards the island of St. Mary, which was, in 1823, 1826, and 1833, thus :— 7 300 SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMBIA, &C. Population of St. Mary's Island, Gambia. Class. 1823. 1826. 1833. j u S »3 o S 3 o H VI 11 5 Pm '3 o o H Europeans Mulattoes Ditto children . Blacks 37 29 20 428 110 152 293 2 8 50\ 36/ 467\ 169/ ■2} 4.5 135 1204 152 309 28 47 17 679 112 131 7 9 44 1 14/ 624 \ 162/ 30 122 1577 131 7 31 51 1399 5 75 1179 36 126 2578 Ditto children . Sailors Strangers Ditto children . Total 1101 744 1845 1021 846 1867 ^ 1481 1259 2740 The foregoing does not include the garrison, which consists of about 150 of the Royal African corps. The population of Cape Coast Castle is about 8000 ; of Accra about 5000 ; of Annamabou about 3000 ; of Dix Cove about 2000. In the aggregate we may estimate the number of British subjects on the western coast of Africa at about 50,000, of whom but 500 are Europeans. CHAPTER IV. GOVERNMENT AND FINANCES OF SIERRA LEONE, GAMBIA, &C. — COMMERCE, IMPORTS, AND EXPORTS, SHIPPING, &C. Government and Finances. — SieiTa Leone is governed by a civil lieutenant governor, assisted by a council. There is a chief justice, and a vice court of GOVERNMENT AND FINANCES. 301 admiralty. Here is also established the mixed com- mission for the adjudication of vessels taken in the slave trade. A detachment of the Royal African corps (blacks) is stationed in the settlement under a lieuten ant-colonel . The following" is the succession of governors of Sierra Leone : — J. Clarkson, Esq. superintendent, 16th March, 1792; W. Dawes, Esq. 31st Dec. 1792; Z. Macauley, Esq. pro temp. 1st April, 1794; W. Dawes, Esq. returns 1795; Z. Macauley, Governor, 1796 ; T. Ludlam, Esq. pro temp. 1799 ; W. Dawes, 4th January, 1801 ; Captain W. Day, R.N. 15th February, 1803, J. Ludlam, Esq. 28th Aug. 1803; Ditto, pro temp, ist Jan. 1808; T. Perrinet Thomp- son, Esq. 27th July, 1808; Captain Columbine, R.N. 12th Feb. 1810; Lieut. R. Bones, R.N. pro temp. 1st May, 1811; Lieut. -Col. Maxwell, Gover- nor-in-Chief, Ist July, 1811; Lieut.-Col. M'Carthy, (Lieut. Gov.) 11th July, 1814 ; Lieut.-Col. M'Carthy, Governor-in-Chief, 29th Nov. 1815; Captain Grant, 2nd \V. L Reg. pro temp. 25th July, 1820; Brig.- Gen. M'Carthy, Gov.-in-Chief ; from 20 N. to 20 S. lat. 28th Nov. 1824. Major-Gen. Turner; Major- Gen. Sir Niel Campbell ; Col. Denham ; Lieut.-Col. Lumley ; Major Ricketts ; Col. Findlay ; Mr. Temple ; Major Campbell. The administration at the Gambia is under a civil lieutenant-governor ; but no council has yet been established to assist him, and the want of one has been repeatedly complained of by the settlers. Cape Coast Castle was replaced under the manage- ment of the merchants, in 1828. The forts are go- 302 SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMBIA, &C. vemed by a president and council, according to cer- tain rules and regulations agreed upon with govern- ment. The business in London is managed by a committee of three merchants, appointed by govern- ment, and accountable to the secretary of state for the due application of the funds allowed for the maintenance and defence of the settlements, which is 3500/. per annum. With this small sum eighty men are clothed, armed, and maintained for the defence of the castle, the forts kept in repair, the president's salary and all other expenses provided for. The establishment for the support and maintenance of Cape Coast Castle and Accra is — Cape Coast Castle. — President of the council, trea- surer, warehouse keeper, and commander of the troops, per annum, 400/. ; secretary, accountant, as- sistant warehouse keeper, and register, 200/. ; captain of the guard, adjutant, chief engineer, and surveyor, 200/. ; surgeon and superintendant of schools, 200/. ; schools, 100/.; 80 men, at 12/. per man, 960/.; clothing for ditto, at 2/. lOs. per man, 200/. ; labour- ers, male and female, 400/. ; extraordinaries, includ- ing ammunition, presents, forts' repairs, stationery, medicines, canoe hire, funerals, non-commissioned officers, messengers, &c. 740/. Accra. — Officer in charge of fort, per annum, 100/. ; 12 men, at 12/. per man, 144/. ; clothing, at 2/. 10s. per man, 30/. ; labourers, 50/. ; extraordinaries, in- cluding ammunition, presents, forts' repairs, &c. 176/. Home Establishment. — Secretary, and office rent, 100/. ; stationary, postages, &c. . ; total, 4000/. The preceding charges are now reduced to 3500/., REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE OF SIERRA LEONE. 303 and yet with this trifling amount the forts are kept in a better state than when ten times that sum was laid out on them by the colonial authorities ; it is, in fact, a system of self government, which it would be very desirable to extend to the other settlements on this coasts The local revenues are of course trifling; the forts are solely trading stations, and cannot be ex- pected to yield a direct profit. The statements that have been put forth by its enemies, relative to the cost of Sierra Leone, have been much exaggerated ; but it grieves me to admit that patriotism and philan- thropy were, in this instance, a pecuniary speculation, yielding a temporary (and but a temporary) advan- tage to those who practised on the Christian prin- ciples of England ; the time is now, I trust, gone past for allowing jobbing and peculation of the public money. The expenditure on Sierra Leone was, for the five years ending 1824, 75,000/. per annum ; for the suc- ceeding five years it was diminished to nearly half that sum. 1 I would strongly advise the formation of an association in London, similar to the East India Company, with delegated powers of sovereignty in Western Africa, viz. empowered to acquire and possess territory — to make war and peace — to form military establishments, and to possess trading privileges — such would be the most effectual mode of civilizing Africa, to whose present state Hindostan bore so strong a resemblance previous to the formation of our East India Company. — [See vol. vi. on Asia.] 304 SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMBIA, &C. Revenue and Expenditure of Sierra Leone by a Colonial Office Document. «3 REVENUE. EXPENDITURE. s i .2 ^ >> -^ Oh o H c S s o Eh 1830 1831 1832 £ 9697 7050 16751 16747 £ 13910 14219 14144 £ 31761 1286 1411 £ 45672 15505 15555 The military charges for the latter years are, I sup- pose, solely for the militia at Sierra- Leone and the Gambia. In aid of the parliamentary grant there are local duties collected upon imports ; the progress of which for Sierra licone is thus shown ; the amount for the Gambia will be found under Commerce. Amount of duties collected upon imports at Sierra Leone. 1818 £5124 1812.. . . £1922 1813.. 1528 1814.. 1163 1815.. ,...1816 1816.. ....2486 1817.. . . . . 3096 1819.... 1820 1827 1828.... 5124 1830 £6839 4656 1831 .. 7265 6153 1832 . . 6457 4846 1833 .. 6316 4191 In all 1834 .. 7170 The following is the estimate of the charges in- curred for the civil establishment on the western coast of Africa, for the year ending 31st March, 1835, and voted by parliament : — Sierra Leone — Governor, 2000/. ; chief judge, 1500Z. ; colonial secretary, 600/. ; king's advocate, 500/. ; first writer, 400/. ; second ditto, 300/. ; third ditto, 250/. ; fourth ditto, 200/. ; EXPENDITURE OF SIERRA LEONE. 305 colonial surgeon, 500/. ; apothecary, 100/. ; and chap- lain, 500/. ; total, 6800/.' — The Gambia — Lieutenant- governor, 1000/.; secretary, 450/.; commandant at M'Carthy's Island (75. 2c?. per day), 130/. ; surgeon, 400/. ; chaplain, 400/. ; public buildings, 831/. ; total, 3211/. — Gold Coast — viz. Cape Coast Castle and Accra, 3500/. ; grand total, 13,561/. The pay- ments out of the military chest at Sierra Leone and the Gambia, for the year ending 31st March, 1833, were, for Sierra Leone, pay, &c. of the Royal African corps, and West India regiments, 4508/. ; of commis- sariat and ordnance offices, &C.2968/.; armyextraor- dinaries, including 7972/. as pensions to discharged negro soldiers from the West Indian and African regiments, 12,518/. ; for the service of liberated Africans, 9325/. ; sundries for ditto, 328/. ; total for Sierra Leone, 29,657/. — For the Garnbia — African corps, 3155/., including 746/. which is paid out of the local revenue for militia and volunteers ; commis- sariat officers, 497/.; naval disbursements, 517/.; army extraordinaries, 11,946/.; sundries, 3023/.; total Gambia, 19,138/. ; grand total for Sierra Leone and the Gambia, 48,795/. The African corps consists of 20 officers and 511 non-commissioned officers, and rank and file ; the charges for which in the army estimates are 14,205/. The ordnance at three of our forts in Western Africa was, in 1815, as follows : — At Cape Coast Castle, 6 42-pounders, 9 24-do., 2 18-do., 11 12-do., 18 9.do., 5 6-do., 26 3-do., 2 ^ The pay of the collector of the customs is 800/. per annum, which is defrayed out of the import duties. x 30C SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMBIA, &C. 3-inch mortars, 1 7-do. ; at Accra, 7 18-pounders, 5 12-do., 4 24-do., 9 4-do. ; at Annamaboe, 14 24- pounders, 8 18 do., 7 12-do., 12 6-do., 14 3-do. The main advantages arising from these forts is the power which they enable us to exercise for the sup- pression of the slave trade, and the security which they afford to our commerce, which increases in pro- portion to the total suppression of the traffic in human beings. Mr. James Swanzy, an officer in the service of the late African company of merchants, stated in his evidence before a committee of the house of com-| mons, on the 16th June, 1816, that when he servec on the coast, from the year 1789 to 1799, the pro- portion of the slave trade, to the other trade of the coast, was at that period nine-tenths of the whoh trade. In the same committee, Mr. Swanzy (who hac resided ten years on the Gold Coast) was asked the following question : ' Of \vhat nature is the accommo- dation which the forts afford to trade ?' ' Very great; they open the communication with the inte- rior ; they are the depots for goods ; they protect the British subjects residing near them ; by these means the trade is collected, day by day, and a col- lection of three months is shipped in twenty -four hours, without which no ship could profitably trade to the Gold Coast, as she would otherwise be obliged to stay three months at each point to collect the same quantity of goods. I would wish to add also that these forts give an exclusive trade to a considerable extent to the British subject.' Mr. Swanzy was asked whether the legitimate trade of the Gold COMMERCE. 307 Coast had increased or diminished since the aboli- tion of the slave trade (then only eight years ago) ; to which he answers, ' I should think the Gold Coast produces 100,000 ounces of gold per annum : during the slave trade not more was collected than was sufficient for the currency of the country, and I think it may still be increased ; it requires only exer- tion to increase it.' The late African committee, in a letter to the Lords of the Treasury, correctly remark that ' Set- tlements on the coast of Africa are valuable on two grounds, as conferring an exclusive right of trade upon the power possessing them ; and second, as the only medium through which it can be safely and advantageously carried on. It is a lamentable but certain fact, that Africa has hitherto been sacrificed to our West India colonies ; her commerce has been confined to a trade which seemed to preclude all advancement in civilization ; her cultivators have been sold to labour on lands not their own, while all endeavours to promote cultivation and improvement in agriculture have been discouraged by the govern- ment of this country, lest her products should inter- fere with those of our more favoured colonies. With better views, and a more liberal policy, we are now returned to our original object : the country promises much ; and it has long been a subject of regret, that her resources have never been called into action. The extent of territory is immeasurable, its fertility great, and its products (some of which are peculiar to Africa) are all valuable in the European market.' Commerce. — The trade of the different settlements X 2 308 SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMBIA, &C. it is difficult to give ; I will endeavour however, to convey an idea of it, commencing with that of Sierra Leone. S o bD ■T3 s &. Ph j/MCOC^GCCSl — Tf-^'-OCOOO 3 13 ^Gi;ooc>icoCit^- o ^ h| o oC0C2^0«^00^0— 1^0C3->*< o ►irOC5050t-.t^CJOt^lOOO /h 1-1 1-1 H 2 -^ 00 1^ — i/^ 00 o CO o : CO 1 S • "r -^ CO M ■*■ CO lo cs « >o . C3 1 sc « Ococo-h;ooco'0'J-i^Ot^t^l^-T-t^O*^0 I'a Kco-fCO^coocOTri-oi-oco J-ccoioco'-'su-jcoc^ooi^i--. Mcqi^i^ — r-e^^<^^e^^— If— ir-H hI p— ( ocococooooomt^'ocoro O "'loooi^t^'^ft^-^'t^ooiooo C O LO » L'> TT^ -^^^ 00 CO ■^ CO CO P^ tC ■;« 0CiC0'-'C0O'^t^00"O'<* ® — ■^00COt>.t^I^M'^ Pi 12;- < oJi-iM— iCOOCt^cOC^O-*! — ^ m "J r^C^iOOdOCOt^vCf'OCO Scoeooci-> T O 5 oinoOJ^— lOOOrf-^O— <00 ^-HC^^(^^ — — c^jcv)^ — ^-™ .COOJiCOO'+'JM — — "Tj-COOO a;H>cot^ — t^Cicooo — coco -*-» 25 coo-*JM^^.(M • ^H ."3 CO Ci CO 03 § » 3 3 !>• I— ( •> , Ci (M Ci ~iO w w — i C5 ^-H — CO -* C 4D (M f~> •s ^- lO *-* t- ^ H 1— ( ■^ 3 , ^ CO ,m-i •^ Tf ,-1 ^ »o 'g "s «o (M -; '^ 1:0 -. t>.o 10 CO -^ (N (N . CO bD"i^ *-" ^ • . • CO c 3 •S^ 3 . M . a> bC> -7= > bo 3 T3 -C -3 ctf H D CO Ol _o "" .ti .« s g eq .n pq >H 3 ^ Si i- ti»« EiH P5 f=^ 310 CO CO CO -' L-5 eo «^ ■* 50 © f ■* ^ ^ CO O •-■"*' lO t^ 00 tc t^ -i 3 «,-> c^ C5 '-'; 'f 00 c c^i H«ir5COTt1 M CO O Tj- o O C5 'M ■*! o in ^ c lO !>< lO t>. J>. OC C5 o o 4) ra t3-otocnr--l ■1^ O in eo CO »o O t>. in in ^fs OO Tfi o 00 O — C5 3§ CC t^ C5 «■ 00 lO CO h1 t>. t^ lO t^ O 00 o r^ 00 1^ W IC 00 lO >-c % So w •S2 IN CO O ^ O O ■*! tiJioci^Treocoio ^ O ^^ •'I t-H 1-^ o PS g5 r-1 i-H 1 pL^CC 1 , H rt _< M r*< CO -rj* in O CO O o ,£i .t^ CO o ^ yfi MOCMlOLOOO -Ot^OS-*' o t^ CO M 00 O 00 i-o I-J 5« oo — c t-i Tt< Oi 5^ 00 -o (M p— , CO CO 00 0) o ^ r^ l-l A "S •— 1— lO'JMiCt^O— HOJ^Ci :*^ -*1 o ^ ir5^'+iox:o0'-ocoo0ooco . C^l «D o CO C5 Ci LO t^ r^ 00 t-o rt CO ,—1 oo «o . . • o ^ - u u g lo u — lOOCli-O^-^'t^OCOO : ■=> o CO O l^ 3= C-. t^ C5 O C^ — CO O . CO 1?^ ■-s CO t^Sl^CloOCOMClCCrtCN C5 3i j^ o . ^ ;o C5 o . o CO > CO O O 00 O rl O^ r- Tfl Cnooo lO o o ooci-ocioco :ooo-H t^ CO Caiooocoi^r^ acco o 0) CO 00 .CO . lo c^ r— < 1-1 -w U " CO ^ .2 e o CO 09 tc" 00 hi 3 1 » s? 1^ (-1 _Q. H ci 00 o s o 3 0) "^ 'cS F^ ^ o^ > -^<2 -* CO -o ■* t^ -o o -H : : CO CO i) 00 ^ 'O t^ •»< o O ■*! . . ^ 15 s *^ c^ « r3 i2 t^ — O C^ cr "^ 00 r— UO C^l O ■*> o o S c ^^ J>. -^ *r H o c^ ^ rt - > >, WOi-<00'>J-fOO ;-H CI rt>io— 'i-OCi— ii-ot^ .00 (U r^ uo O c; CO r-H o '^ 1—1 C^J ^ o o w c3 'S o tJ 1— 1 cd »r ■*J .M teeth 922 1 shell 30 bags 58125 }» 266 ISoi logs§ 40 292 1500 1830. 244i 14625 500 2 boxes 52 cwt. 76471 82 82 1711 502 loads 54 3443 225 3714 196 9 207 1140 700 1476 1833. 175J 29240 1139 254 lbs. 275 tons 76900 272| 15A 3636 14900 660 48 loads 74i 1819 6780 1225 680 15 13 1264 220 4200 4 0) 5t: S o ^ 'i a £ 22815 5117 4556 318 13750 15380 3545 67 3151 124 2288 166 1043 272 54 135 25 130 28 547 23 105 86 ^1 • 3 o 5^ §^^ C rt r- £. 1755 £60 12 3300 961 4091 39 330 24 56 16 14 55 17 £66127 £173-18 t Large quantities shipped and not invoiced. I The Bordeaux is 60 gallons. § The logs average 50 feet. VALUE OF ARTICLES AT THE GAMBIA MARKETS. 31 3 The following shows the nature andquality of pro- duce at Sierra Leone. -3 C c o o o ^ a 3 o o o o IS o ca S >2 c .3 •a s 3 o Ph 2 < a 5 2 s 3 c a bush. bush. cwt. bush. bush. cwt. cwt. bush. bush. 1831. 12000 3069 53210 2643, 7645 601 10 20 2642 7238 Average ") prices the> Is. 5s. 6a. 6d. 5s. 6d. 2s. 6d. 6*. 37*. 4d. 37*. id. Is. 3d. lOd. same yearj The following shows the prices of different articles in the markets at the Gambia : — Yellow bees*~wax, 130/. per ton; African teak, 31. lOs. per load; camwood, 121. per ton; ivory, Ss. 6d. per lb. Mahogany of various kinds at 41. currency, or 3/. 95. 4d. sterling, (Exchange dollar at 45. 4c?.) Ebony of very good quality grows abundantly in Salum River, and partially in Gambia. Dittach, a very hard and durable wood, stands well under water, and is used in the construction of vessels, wharfs, &c. Toulacouna, or bitter oil, 35. 6d. (currency) per gallon. ■ Cotton, Nominal or barter price, in the rough, 2d. per lb. Indigo, in the rough cake, 25. 6d. each. Hemp, made into ropes or cords, and sold at about 6d. each. 314 SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMBIA, &C. Potash, about od. per lb. Honey, retailed in Mandingo country at 2s. 6d. per gallon. Butter same price as honey. (N.B. The natives preserve the butter by a process of melting, and retail it in the liquid state at 2s. 6d. per gallon.) Cola nut, 35. 9d. per 100. Cardamums, sold in barter among the natives, at about 105. the lb., and brought from a distance in the interior by the gold merchants. Goat, calf, and bullocks' skins, dressed by the natives, but usually made into articles of use. (The natives dress these skins well by means of potash and banna seeds.) Cayenne pepper of all kinds, in plenty. Beef, good, at Sd. (sterling) per lb. Fowl, 1 to Ij dollar per dozen. Mutton, generally private pro- perty, seldom in market. Goats 1 dollar 1| (with one or more kids.) Wines, Claret, 5 dollars the case. Tea, 2 dollars the lb. Dried oysters (good.) Eggs, 14 to 16 for quarter dollar. 315 S-^ ^« cc «^ — M t^ oo o •aSBuuox C OO -f C5 o? O t^ Ci t^ c^ o to f_, m ec <>) . CO t^ CO o (U uoi[bS lad -SI 's}u ^--HC^ 1* CO CO "5 -3 -ids uo X;n(j Buxg 9 o •pSS3A qOBG U0 71 'sailQ aUTlUBIBtlQ jj cv) CO eo <: oo to O t? 3 to 1° •^assaA qoBa uo jj «^ c -i^ •uoj * IM lunoray aoiOAui o S .2| ■^' CO* CO CO to a; OD CO •4J CJ ' ^ ti .s QJ '3 d ■^ 1— 1 y ^ oQ «t: w X 'o D jj H ^ '^c "^ rt >5 C O.C J2 3 « !J W r> (1) C g^a^O ^ 'T3 G -*-> r^ ^ -^ 3 C CJ CO -^ *j r 1— 1 O O '-> "S oj !:1h CO CO CO CO e^ 316 SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMBIA, &C. The trade returns of Cape Coast Castle are less perfect ; I am enabled, however, through the kind- ness of Mr. NichoUs, to shew the Exports from Cape Coast Castle, between the 1st of August, 1829, and 30th of June, 1834. 1st Aug. 1829, to 30th May, 1830, 1st June, 1S30, to 31st Dec. 1830, 1st Jan. 1S31, to 30th Sept. 1831, 1st Oct. 1831, to 31st Dec. 1831, 1st Jan. 1832, to 30th June, 1832, 1st July, 1832, to 31st Dec. 1832, 1st Jan. 1833, to 31st Dec. 1833, 1st Jan. 1834, to 30th June, 1834, Palm Oil, Ivory, &c Do. Do. Do, Do. Do. Do. Do. Oz. Value. (11958 Gold included;, £79718 5510 Do. 36377 10888 Do. 78818 1255 Do. 11464 12580 Do. 87654 12117 Do. 93450 21475 Do. 140344 15351 Do. 106156 Oz. of Gold, 91134 Total, £633981 The trade of Western Africa is of considerable importance to this country, and yearly increasing ; — it has been stated by Mr. M'Culloch, in his Com- mercial Dictionary at only from 40,000/. to 60,000/. per annum. Let the following return demonstrate the truth of this assertion. 317 M CO OJ n CO '/} ^ r:} CO GJ o • ^H i^ c o u o 3 ii O o ^ o D Ul ^ w ■iX RS c ^ r ^ ■^ Tt >» (T! ^ ^ O! 02 ri O ■^ U lj_ o OJ a, 0) c -3 5^ J^ o « a, o c o H . o « CO Tj" CO — < ITS ^=o •XBAV •sapiH •^BSauag rang •PIOQ ^f2 S ^ S i2 iS^I lO 1-1 ^ - .1) „- «^ LO •-Or'' 2 C 1^ : ^ .a 1-H ^ j:^ r! *^ ^^ ^ • a» (£ n o a o &. c X o is C^) r?- -o 00 S 73 " ^ rt ■2 - r o s C3 CO H.3 11 c Pi Ci o c: ^ — o o !>. 4-d •* Ol o K c3t^ OJ es tf>i o O r2 4) S: L-5 rt O CJ -r-j S -' c O u 3) 'w CO c o _0 •— o o o "W ;s o T*< t^ rs fi C5 o "S so &5 C^ 1— 1 w , -, r rf\ C^) trj ^ o ^ H 00 00 J >o •^ ■o o JS >-l CO -+ CO o -2 p.t^ >< CO ■??? . r! -t-t O ^ a ^■i CO OJ o 00 M^ *r; Ci -a •- 00 l-H 00 o 30 _;* - O ^* X3 1 ■^ ■^ K-O '. 1^ r^ t-i s te >^ -1 ti U 3 _o fi rt i-i < -a< ^" ■? ci _. p< A S "^ -.^ t3 c^ , C O Ci ra 3o"^ O rt 318 SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMBIA, &C. The annual importations of palm oil are now up- wards of 12,000 tons, which, at the market price of 28/. per ton, amounts to 336,000/. per annum! giving constant employment to 15,000 tons of ship- pm s: ! Here then in one article we have a value nearly seven times greater than Mr. M'CuUoch's estimate of the whole trade, — a striking proof both of the author's inaccuracy, and how little is generally known upon the subject. But it is on such state- ments, and on such want of information that govern- ment, and the public, have been led to undervalue the importance of the trade of the west coast of Africa : and to such a length has this been carried, that both in parliament and out of doors it has been more than once suggested to abandon our settle- ments there as valueless, or at all events unworthy the trifling expenditure now awarded for their sup- port. Such settlements may truly be regarded as foreign shops for the sale of our goods abroad, and those who sell in them the manufactures of Man- chester and Birmingham to the natives of Africa, are as much entitled to protection from the mother country, as the shopkeeper who sells the same articles in Cheapside or Dover. Importations of Palm Oil since 1828. — (Brokers' Circular, Jackson.) Liverpool, tons London, Bristol, &c. Total. 1828. 1829. 1830. 1831. 1832. 1833. 1834. 565C 8290 570 COO C220 8890 9930 1070 1 1000 7100 950 8050 10401 10800 1250 2100 11650 12900 11400 1250 12650 Duty reduced in July 1834 from 25. Gd. to Is. 3d. per cwt. IMPORTS INTO BRITAIN FROM WESTERN AFRICA. 319 The total of our commerce with Western Africa for 1829, (the latest return in a complete view before me) was — I. Imports into the United Kingdom, in 1829, from the Western Coast of Africa, distinguishing their Quantities and Values. Articles imported. ^. o £ "T3 Coffee lbs, Dye and hard woods, viz. Barwood tons Camwood tons Ebony tons Red or Guinea wood, tons Elephants' teeth cwt. Grains, Guinea lbs. Gum, copal lbs, Senegal cwt, Hides, untanned cwt. OU, palm cwt Skins, calfand kip cwt. Timber, viz. Teak wood .loads Wax, bees' cwt. Other articles, official value Quantities imported. £S. 5^ ■C 4) 1°. ill' " So ■SusS c— ^■»-' So tip •a 3 fe 3 ^f^ ^3 BO o> 1 o£ u o^ £ £ £ ^ £ 7172 10 670 1333 9186 Brass and Copper cwt. 328 10 77 242 1637 45 360 1162 3205' Cottons, entered by 7 , the yard 5 *'* Hosiery, Lace, and small 7 wares 5 558187 119484 551908 681361 41501 8961 40049 51068 141581 218 218 Glass and Earthenware 878 13 139 931 1962 Guns and Pistols No. 21151 2960 14585 37955 15783 2220 10938 28466 57408 357604 420 25000 23(1400 1549350 1194 10802 1157 755 5 6960 119 46803 3285 65321! Hardwares and Cutler}-, cwt. 2 43 4567 1 Iron, wrought, & un. 7 ^^^^ wrought 5 527 20 151 1157 8347 210 2220 11684 22762 Lead and Shot tons 8 4 35 4 85 47 369 45 548 Leather, wrought and un-7 wrought 3 Linens yards 772 174 947 36502 3818 1853 1736 178 79 1994 38440 500 " 20 141700 270 1279 1795 "69 4723 810 6003 2675 958 44 1002 Sugar, retined cwt. 199 14 261 590 41 478 1110 Swords and Cutlasses ... No. 16193 400 12162 4048 100 3040 7188 Wood, viz. Staves and Casks packs 170 200 1285 10747 113 60 755 7164 8084 Woollens, entered ) . by the piece 5 ^^^^^^ 193 3 228 40 934 13 435 180 1552 by the yard yards 800 80 650 53 5 48 107 Hosiery and small wares 161 3 66 1323 1554 7560 133 2nP5 1588 11377 350331 107882 12468 65791 1 16421g i Exclusive of the above, we exported in 1829 to Western Africa 161,431/. worth of British, Colonial, and foreignmerchandize, making a total of 511,792/., which is now considerably increased. As near as T can ascertain, (gojd not being entered Y 2 324 SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMBIA, &C. at the Custom-house) the following- are the importa- tions of African gold for three years ; weight after melting, taken from the refiner's books. lbs. oz. (hvt. £ s. d. For 1832 186G 4 12 at 77s. 9^. i SIOGfi 15 7^ 1883 1712 8 12 at do. 79898 4 7^ 1834 1091 4 14 at do. 78902 8 4f 5270 5 18 245868 8 7| The commerce in gold dust from West Africa, presents to us a prospect of increasing our circu- lating medium, if our paper currency be not relaxed, and notwithstanding the difficulty of arriving at an estimate of the value of some of the returns (for the reasons already stated) I trust I have adduced facts sufficient to demonstrate the little reliance to be placed on Mr. M'Culloch's assertion respecting the value of the trade of Western Africa. 1 cannot indeed better illustrate the mere com- mercial importance of the British settlements in West Africa than by placing before the reader the following luminous and truly patriotic statement draw up by M. Forster, Esq., (of the mercantile firm of ' Forster and Smith *,' New City Chambers) in a letter ad- ^ The quality is generally above standard, making the actual value about 4/. per ounce. 2 These gentlemen, with a view of opening to the natives of Africa a market for their rice (an article the culture of which the natives so well understand), have erected, near London, at a very considerable expense, a mill worked by steam, for cleaning it from the husk in this country; and have made arrangements for largely importing the paddy : some of this VALUE OF AFRICAN COMMERCE. 325 dressed to the Secretary of State for the Colonies ; the officers of the Colonial Office are qualified to judge whether the assertions herein made are in the slightest degree exaggerated. The letter is datea the 9th January, 1832. * Attempts have frequently been made to depre- ciate the commercial importance of our settlements on the west coast of Africa, compared with the cost of maintaining them : and conceiving that parliament and the public are not fully aware of the nature and extent of the trade dependent on those settlements, I have taken the liberty of drawing up a statement shewing the benefit arising from them to the revenue grain aheady received is equal to the best Carolina, and superior in my mind to Bengal rice. To parts of the coast where the quality is inferior, they propose sending Carolina seed to improve the crops; indeed they have already sent out seed to the Gambia. They are thus doing, as private indi- viduals, what government should have done long ago, in this as well as in other articles of produce. In these humane and patriotic efforts, it is grievous to learn that Messrs Forster and Smith have had to contend against the vexatious and strenu- ous opposition of interested parties, who are desirous of pre- serving to the United States a monopoly of the rice market of England, and to themselves a monopoly of cleaning it. Ame- rican rice, be it observed, is produced entirely by slave labour in Carolina! It is, however, but justice to add, that the Board of Trade have stood firm in defence of our colonial interests, and in philanthropically promoting the efforts of Messrs. For- ster and Smith to encourage free labour in Western Africa. I have examined specimens of Messrs. Forster & Co.'s African rice — I had it cooked in a variety of modes, and I found it in- finitely superior to the insipid rice of America: it was quite equal to the delicious reddish grain of Ceylon and Western India.— R. M. M. 326 SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMBIA, &C. and national industry of this country, which I have the honour herewith to annex for your Lordship's inspection. ' The annual direct and indirect advantages to the national industry from the trade, I estimate as per statement No 1, at 463,234/. 195. and the annual benefit to the revenue, as per statement No. 2, at 207,873/. 135. exclusive of ship-building materials and labour, as also of some other minor sources of national benefit not enumerated. The total gain to the industry and revenue of the mother country can- not be less than 600,000/. per annum. * Within the last twenty years the increase in the trade in palm oil, timber, and bees' wax, has been very great. Attempts are making in the Gambia and elsewhere on the coast to introduce the cultiva- tion of some articles of produce new to the trade of Africa; but these endeavours require time on account of the unenlightened state of the natives, the very recent abolition of the slave trade, and its partial continuance by other nations. In several cases, how- ever, the natives have proved themselves capable of entertaining new ideas of trade and cultivation more readily than might have been expected. The trade in teak timber for ship-building was unknown in Africa twenty years ago ; the annual importation of that article from Sierra Leone at present is from fifteen to twenty thousand loads, giving employment to nearly twenty thousand tons of British shipping annually. ' Fifteen years ago it was not known that maho- gany grew in the Gambia ; since that period several ADVANTAGES OF COLONIAL POSSESSIONS. 327 thousand loads of mahogany have been imported into England from our settlement on that river ; and although the natives would not at first cut and pre- pare it for shipping, they are now willing to supply any quantity of it which this market may require. The low price of Honduras mahogany, however, ren- ders it impossible to afford any encouragement to their industry in this article at present, but these in- stances afford pleasing and conclusive proofs that the natives will turn their attention to trade whenever the opportunity is afforded them. ' The annual cost of our settlements on the Western Coast of Africa, as respects the protection of our commerce, exclusive of those expenses incidental to the suppression of the slave trade, which ought not to be charged to the account of those possessions, is better known to his Majesty's Government than to me, but I may venture to assume that it bears but a trifling, indeed insignificant, proportion to the advan- tages derived from the trade : and those settlements are to be considered not with reference to their pre- sent value alone, but to their future importance as outlets to British manufactures, when time shall have removed some of those difficulties w^hich at present obstruct the trade. The policy of most foreign governments is directed against our com- merce, the acknowledged source of our national powder. The territorial extent of the British islands is too limited ever to have raised this empire to its present proud pre-eminence in the scale of nations, without the aid of manufactures and foreign trade; consequently I humbly submit, that every 328 SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMBIA, &C. foreign settlement, which gives facihty to the sale of British goods, is to be estimated not only with re- ference to the direct amount of revenue received or the produce imported from it, but still more by the employment it affords to our manufacturers, artizans, and shipping. Without a large manufacturing popu- lation, the revenue necessary to pay the interest of the national debt and the annual cost of the civil and military establishments of the country cannot be raised ; hence the vast importance of our foreign possessions, which a too limited view of colonial policy leads some persons to undervalue. ' Striking out of the public estimates every charge belonging to the account of the slave trade, I do not think the annual cost of maintaining our settlements on the western coast of Africa exceeds from twenty- five to thirty thousand pounds per annum, probably not so much, while the national gain is considerably above half a million per annum. It is a common error to regard those settlements in the light of colo- nies having a taxable population, from w^iich they may be expected to raise a revenue sufficient to main- tain themselves ; but the fact is, that nothing can yet be raised from the natives for their support, while the protection they afford is indispensable to the pro- tection of our trade ; a trade even now important, and which time may render of incalculable value, when the effect of the slave trade shall have ceased to exer- cise its baneful influence over the native population. * Neither is it reasonable or politic to require indi- viduals trading on the coast to contribute towards their maintenance beyond the duties they at present UTILITY OF BRITISH AFRICAN FORTS. ,'^29 pay to the colonial funds on the goods they import from England, and the personal services they are called upon to render as militiamen in defence of the forts. I humbly submit, that British subjects are as much entitled to protection in carrying on a trade, by which the national industry is benefited, in Africa as at home. In applying their industry, and risking their capital and health in a trade giving employment and profit to their countrymen at home, and by which the national revenue gains so largely, they may surely not only claim the protection but the gratitude of their country. Besides wdiich, you cannot invest indivi- duals with a property in public works necessary for the defence of our trading establishments in Africa. Individuals change, bat the advantage is national and permanent, and so should be the protection. * By upholding these forts on a footing to com- mand the respect of the natives, our Governors in charge of them may render the most important ser- vices in carrying into effect the convention recently concluded with France, for the suppression of the trade in slaves, the due execution of which treaty cannot fail to produce efiects as favourable to the trade and civilization of Africa, as to the cause of humanity, now hourly violated by the continuance of the traffic. France, America, Holland, and Den- mark, have each their settlements on the coast, which they evince the utmost anxiety to retain and encourage. Our settlements on the Gold Coast cost lately only 4000/. and are now to be reduced, I un- derstand; to 3500/. per annum ; and this is the sole expense of protecting a valuable trade. The Dutch 330 SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMBIA, &C. settlement of Elmina, which is only seven miles from our settlement at Cape Coast Castle, costs the Dutch an equal sum to ours, while Holland has not one- twentieth part of the trade on the Gold Coast that we have. * It should be borne in mind that every article im- ported from Africa is in exchange for goods, and that consequently it is one of the very few legiti- mate trades remaining to this country. The article of palm oil, which has increased so much of late years, can be obtained only in Africa, and is already extensively used as a substitute for Russian tallow in the manufacture of soap, &c. The recent addi- tional duties imposed on British goods imported into the Russian market may suggest to us the policy of cherishing a trade which consumes the products of our national industry without limitation or restraint by hostile tariffs. * The abolition of the slave trade took effect on the 1st of March, 1808. Twenty-three years is too short a period to effect a change in the character and pur- suits of a people corrupted by three centuries of war and cruelty consequent on that traffic, and whose kings and chiefs have been taught by the sordid slave dealers of enlightened Europe to despise and neglect the pursuits of legitimate commerce, in favour of a trade in the persons of their people. I^et, how- ever, those chiefs be convinced by experience that they will gain more by the labour of their people at home, than by the sale of their persons for expor- tation, and you lay at once the foundation of a new svstem, under which war and treachery shall give •WESTERN AFRICA TRADE, 331 place to the regenerating influence of peaceful in- dustry. Europe owes to Africa a heavy debt for the crimes that have been committed under the slave trade. England has been the first to offer pay- ment of her portion of that debt, and she wiU not only have the high consolations of humanity for her reward, but probably, at no very distant period, the advantages of a trade with Africa, of which it is dif- ficult at present to foresee the extent.' No. I. Annual value of Exports from London, Liverpool, and Bristol, to the West Coast of Africa, be- tween the Gambia and Angola, calculated from the amount of Shipments by the several Merchants trading to the Coast from those places. A few introductory remarks may be necessary to render these tables more clearly understood by those who have not been accustomed to estimate the im- portance of our foreign and colonial trade on the principles on which they are drawn up. Perhaps I cannot more clearly illustrate those principles than by the following examples : — Let us suppose two cargoes of British manufactured goods to be sent to Canada, one consisting of cotton fabrics, and the other of hardware articles. In the case of the former we may assume that the average cost of the cotton wool of which the goods are made is about 25 per cent, of the export value, the remaining 75 per cent, having been added to the value of the raw material by the application of British capital and labour, and 332 SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMBIA, &C. is therefore so much value gained to the national wealth and industry. In the case of the hardware cargo, the iron of which the articles are made being a native production, we may assume that the total value is an actual creation of national capital and labour. Many persons limit their notions of the importance of our colonial and foreign trade to the profits of the exporter who ships the goods abroad, whereas that is a point scarcely worth considering compared with the advantage to the national industry in manufacturing them. Hence the importance of keeping open every possible outlet for the consump- tion of our manufactures, without which our capital and artizans must lie idle, the revenue fall off, and the wealth and power of the nation rapidly decay. In addition to this it mav be stated, that as everv thing which the capitalist and labourer who produce these goods consume, is taxed either directly or in- directly, (which tax is included in the cost of pro- duction) you virtually obtain the help of the foreign consumer to pay your taxes, or in other words, you make foreigners contribute towards the national revenue. London and Bristol Exports. — Amount of colonial goods, 58,000/. ; ditto foreign ditto, 52,000/. ; ditto British manufactures, 213,000. Total. 323,000/. The principal articles in these exports are Man- chester cotton and India piece goods. The freight, insurance, &c. particularly of the teak timber, hides, palm oil, and those articles collected in the floating trade, compose a large portion of the gross import value of the returns. WESTERN AFRICA TRADE. 333 Liverpool Exports. — Colonial goods, 13,000/.; British ditto, 102,500/. ; foreign ditto, 5,500/. Total, 121,000/. Outward freight, duties here and in Afi-ica, in- surance and shipping charges 15 per cent. 666,600/. Aggregate amount of the above, 510,600/. The exports from Liverpool are chiefly for the palm oil trade, and the cargoes are differently as- sorted from those shipped from Bristol and London. The freight, insurance, &c. of the shipping employed in the Trade, constitute a large portion of the cost of the oil. Hence the large gross amount of the re- turns compared with the value of the exports. Estimate of National profit thereon. — On colonial goods amounting to 71,000/. the value of British labour in transit and other charges (including profits) may be estimated at 30 per cent, thereon \ 21,300/. ; foreign ditto, 57,500/. ditto 17,280/.; British ditto, 315,500/. the value of the raw material on an average being 25 per cent, leaves 75 per cent, for labour and manufacturers' profit, 236,625/. The shipping em- ployed in long voyages in the palm oil and floating trade is about 16,083 tons, which, at the low esti- mate of 9/. per ton for sailing charges per annum, amounts to 114,747/. The shipping employed in short voyages (of six months) in the teak timber and other trades, about 17,000 tons, at 4/. 10s. per ton, 76,500/. Deduct for raw material of stores, &c. ^ On some articles, on rum for instance, these charges are nearer 70 than 30 per cent, and the average amount cannot be less than my estimate. 334 SIERRA LEOXE, THE GAMBIA, &C. 15 per cent. 33, 187/. Is. Total annual gain to the national industry, exclusive of ship-building, 463,234/. 195. N.B. Of this sum of 463,234/. 195. one-third may be estimated as paid to the revenue in the consump- tion of exciseable and taxed commodities, consumed by the labourers and artizans to whom the trade gives employment, amounting to the sum of 154,411/. 135. carried to Statement No. 2. No. II. Estimate of the annual duty on Imports from the British Pos- sessions on the West coast of Africa, between the Gambia and Angola. Imports, London and Bristol. gross import value. Timber, 15,000 loads £127.500 Bees'-wax, 200 tons 28,000 Hides, 60,000 12,000 Ivorv, 72 tons 25,200 Palm oil, 1,200 tons 36,000 Sundries, including gum\ gn OOO Senegal, &c J ' Gold, 45,000 oz. at 75s 168,750 Import Duties Thereon. Duty £7,500 Excise and Customs 8,000 Duty 500 Ditto 1,400 Ditto 3,000 Ditto . Ditto. 1,000 nil. Bills. 25,000 : Ditto. £442,450 i £21,450 Liverpool Imports. Palm on, 9,000 tons £270,000 Duty £22,500 Ivory, is tons 22,750 Ditto 1,300 Gum copal, 15 tons 900 | Ditto 840 Timber. 3,000 loads 25,500 i Ditto 1,500 ^S^S. ™°.?.'!:} «■«»» i «'••<> >.222 Gold, 3,000 oz 11,250 £355,400 I £27,362 Duty on policies of Insurance 3,150 Ditto, Customs outwards 1,500 Revenue from Labour, as per Statement No. 1 154,411 13 Total annual gain to the Revenue from thistr">Ie,£207,873 13 SOCIAL STATE AND FUTURE PROSPECTS. 335 Balance. — Gross amount of imports as per No. 2 797,850 By direct annual gain to the Reve- nue, brouglit from No. 2 207,873 13 Balance of national industry, being the difference between the sum of 403,234/. 105. as per Satement No. 1, and 154,411/. 135. charged to the Revenue as above 308,823 6 Total annual gain to the nation, direct and indirect, exclusive of ship-building, &c £516,696 19 Nett cost of Foreign goods, deduct- ing transit and other charges 89,450 Cost of raw materials for English manufactures, including Iron, Wool, and other articles vvholly of English growth and production. 78,875 Insurance 35,000 Interest on capital 7o per cent, re- turns not in cash on an aver- age in less than 18 months, mer- chants in England and traders' profit in Africa 77,828 £797,850 Social State and Future Prospects. — Of the domestic condition of the people in Western Africa we know but little, — and that little, while it is favour- able to our hopes of improvement, leads us to lament the more the terrible and sanguinaiy political des- potism spread over the \vhole continent. Our own settlements have made no slight progress in social improvement ; life and property are secure ; and ex- 1 336 SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMBIA, &C. nmple and education are now exercising their all powerful influence; time, and a wise and generous policy on the part of England, will do the rest, if England compel Spain and Portugal to cease the nefarious and extensive slave trade now carried on under their flags \ Sierra Leone and Gambia ought ' I give the following on the authority of Mr. Nicholls, the Secretary to the African Committee. In order to prevent slave vessels bound to Whydah and Bagadry, from purchasing their cargoes at these great marts, it would be desirable, that a soldier or two should be placed at Dix Cove and Winnebah, to hoist the British flag, and by British influence prevent canoes being supplied, without which at the above mentioned ports no slaves could be procured. The Governors of St. George D'Elmina (Dutch) and Christiansborg (Danish), are imperatively forbidden by their respective governments, to allow the natives to supply canoes, or in any way mix them- selves up in the carrying on a slave trade ; and this country, in conjunction with France, are in a situation to command the total abolition of that trade by Spain and Portugal, declaring that any person found engaged in it should be considered as a-*' pirate. Unless some strong measures are adopted, and that \ speedily, the legitimate African trade must be annihilated, for the natives will not sell produce except to those who purchase their slaves. If this object could be attained, the natives would turn their attention to cultivation, and by encouraging the growth of the palm nut, in a few years the quantity of oil would be so great as to preclude the necessity of Russian tal- low being used in the manufacture of soap ; moreover, by eradicating wholly slave commerce, we would relieve the country from the expences of a large naval force, and also from another large item of expenditure, hard money, for captured negroes. The establishment ot ? few steam vessels on the coast would be productive of much good in checking the slave trade, and a permanently stationed steam-boat for communicat- AFRICA PEACEFUL, FLOURISHING, AND FREE. 337 to be placed on a similar footing of government with Cape Coast Castle and Accra, subject to the controul of the Colonial Office and Parliament. Experience shows, that by judicious management the two latter settlements are as well taken care of at present as when five times their existing expenditure was laid out upon them under the old system. Sierra Leone and its dependencies were too long under the jobbing and speculating management of a certain party, who, under pretence of ' saving government the trouble of thinking,' interfered to divert the generous aid of the legislature, granted for the im- provement of the Africans, into channels of private gain. When the purposes of this party were served, and they found it impossible longer to dupe the British nation, the failure (as they said) of our settle - ments in Western Africa was owing to the deleteri- ousness of the climate, and the indolence and apathy of the natives ; the public, without examination, took for granted the assertions of men who made a cloak of religion to cover their woildliness ; and Western Africa, that once excited the attention of the best and noblest in England, is now scarcely thought of, except by a few good men who have penetrated the veil of vice and folly which encircled a cause hal- lowed in itself, and even pregnant with vast benefits to England. Africa will yet arise from the deadly sleep of ages, and from the effects of three centuries of unparalleled desolation, which Europe has spread ing between the Gambia, Sierra Leone, &c. would be a desir- able measure. 338 SIERRA LEONE, THE GAMBIA, &C. over a beautiful and fertile land ; — and I trust Bri- tain will reap the reward of a bright career of phi- lanthropy, by being made, through the medium of commerce, the instrument under the guidance of Providence of rescuing millions of our fellow crea- tures from a long night of ignorance, bondage, and crime. BOOK IV. CHAPTER I. STEAM NAVIGATION THROUGH THE ATLANTIC AND INDIAN OCEANS — PROPOSED PLAN OF POST OFFICE STEAM PACKETS VIA MADEIRA, ST. HELENA, CAPE OF GOOD HOPE, ISLE OF FRANCE, CEYLON, &C. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF THE RED SEA AND CAPE OF GOOD HOPE ROUTE BALANCED — COMPUTATION OF THE EXPENSE OF TWELVE STEAM PACKETS, StC. The facilitating and accelerating of the communica- tion between Europe and Asia will be equivalent to the annihilation of space, or the application of a lever which would have the power of bringing into closer approximation two distant continents. The public mind in both hemispheres is now being directed to so highly important an object, and private munifi- cence and liberality appealed to for the accomplish- ing a national good : this is obviously improper, for the governments both in India and in England have made the post-office department a monopoly in the hands of the executive authorities ; with those should the opening of the post-office system originate, and by those only indeed can it be efficiently executed. That the governments of India and of England may not only without pecuniary loss, but with considera- ble profit, open a steam-packet post-office communi- cation with India, is demonstrated by the following table : z 2 340 STEAM NAVIGATION TO INDIA. Monthly Post-ofl5ce steam-packets between England and India, Receipts for Branch P. 1 Ucals, La Kullion, Packages home Madeira. 1*5 - Ascension and St. Helena. Cape of Good Hope. Isle of France. Sierra Leone, o -"3 O" Gambia, 'B i ^ . &c. £ O w M 3 "^^0 X ^ 1 '°.tc i °o a. °." c = «: a. rs, News pers, am ie, and J nd Passe o^ ^ o aX i g .O o 2 £ o si "3 3 15 Co So 1 u "3 3 1^. 1 « ,= j' o C u c S fp c Cue C c J c c,j C = M c J C c ^ c 5-3 s < c < s < C <" c <^ c < < < < <: < < 1 £ je je ^ £ ^ 40000 12000 10000 .. 63400 92134 138673 No. 406209 at at at 1 at at at 4f. 8000 5». 3000 6*. JSOOO 6*. 19040 5i. 6d. 25336 6j. 41603 jei06929 30000 6000 10000 . 60000 100000 300000 No. 531000 at at at at at at 4a, 500 4d. 100 5* 213 60. 1500 6d. 2500 6d. 7500 ^£12602 5000 2000 2500 lOOOC 1500C: 30000 No. 68950 at at at at at at St. 500 2*. 200 2*.6d. 312 2i.6ci. 1250 2j.6d. 1875 2».6d. 3750 JES198 10000 . 4000 6000 ,, 10000 15000 40000 No. 93500 at at at at at at 9$. 1000 2,. 400 2«.6d. 750 2t.6d. 1250 2».6d. 1575 3*. 6000 £11567 .. 200 1600 .. 5000 3000 5000 10000 £26450 •• 3000 Bcere< 2500 i^ipts. .. . 2000 independent c if Passe 5000 ngers. 5000 compu 20000 tation £45000 Total Post-ol on a moderate £211046 500 200 100 1 .. 500 700 .. 1000 at at at 1 at at at • £50 30000 70 14000 70 7000 iESO 40000 Grand ^70 49000 JE90 :e receij 90000 ts JE242500 totalP ost-oflSi ^453546 Indian route ; they are now merely haunts for pirates and slave ships. East India Af&irs, appendix to " Finance and Commercial," page 999. The scale of postage it the Ar^^o-Indians. 342 STEAM NAVIGATION TO INDIA. I have taken the lowest calculation for letters, newspapers, parcels, passengers, &c. passing be- tween both countries, without allowing for the im- pulse which rapidity of communication gives to com- merce and social intercourse, or to the recent changes in the respective relations of the Eastern and West- ern hemisphere. My reasons for advocating the Cape of Good Hope route in preference to that via the Red Sea, or the Euphrates, are — 1st. That we would bring into closer and speedier communication the whole of our Asiatic and African colonies, whereas by the Red Sea route, even if certain difficulties (to be hereafter noticed) could be overcome, only a part of our eastern pos- sessions would be benefitted : — 2nd. That therefore the prospect of remuneration for the large expenditure requisite is more secure by the Cape than by the Red Sea or Euphrates route. 3rd. That the commercial, political, and social ad- vantages to England and her colonies would be in- finitely superior. 4th. That whereas we are mistress of the ocean, and have our route by the Cape open so long as the British trident rules, but we are not masters of Egypt, Syria, or Persia, on the contrary we are not only at the mercy of Mehemet Ali's successors, but subject to the caprice of the French and Russian govern- ments in their intrigues with the Porte or the Pacha. [This chapter stands as it was printed in the first and second editions of my large work (Vol. I. Asia) — and the want of practical success in Colonel Chesney's expedition is now fully demonstrated.} CAPE OF GOOD HOPE ROUTE TO INDIA. 343 5 th. In the event of war the Red and Mediterra- nean Seas' narrow route would be (particularly in Europe) very hazardous both for letters and passen- gers, and much less secure than on the highway of the ocean, independent of the liability to complete interruption for years, and the consequent loss of the capital embarked in the undertaking. 6th. That although the travelling distance is greater by the Cape than by Egypt, yet, owing to qua- rantines and numerous impediments, it is in reality shorter, and would be practically found so by com- paring twelve voyages by either route, even under the now most favourable aspect which Egypt and Persia presents, but which would be entirely reversed on the breaking out of hostilities. 7th. That the delay (if it be admitted for argu- ment sake) of a few days by the Cape route as com- pared with the Red Sea, or Euphrates, is far more than counterbalanced by the numerous British pos- sessions it brings into close contact, and by the route being much healthier for Indians or Europeans over the health invigorating ocean, than over the burning sands of Egypt, and plague infested delta of the Nile. [Plague is now (June 1835) raging furiously at Alexandria.] 8th. That depots of coal can be more expeditiously, and cheaply provided from England, from Calcutta, and New South Wales, where coal mines are now in fuU work, and from Ceylon, and the Cape of Good Hope, where they exist, but have not yet been worked, than by the tedious shipments of fuel from 344 STEAM NAVIGATION TO INDIA. England to Alexandria, and from Calcutta to Bom- bay and the isthmus of Suez. 9th. The voyage may be as safely performed vid the Cape (if not more so than against the monsoon in the Red Sea,) as by the Mediterranean and Red Sea, as demonstrated by Captain Johnson, in the Enterprize steamer, while the improvements which have taken place in steam navigation since 1825, and the experience derived from the voyage, demon- strate the certainty and despatch with which the Cape route may now be effected ^ Mr. Perkins proposed to build a steam ship of 1000 tons, carrying 800 tons of coal, to make no stop between London and Calcutta, and to perform the voyage (13,700 miles) in 60 days! The following was the run of the Enterprize under the vaiious dis- advantages attendant on a first experiment, wdth the A'ery limited powers of an 1 20 horse engine, and with only one depot of coal, at the Cape of Good Hope. She left the land on the 16th of August, 1825; reached Calcutta on the 7th of December, 1825 ; that was 113 days (of which she was 103 actually under w^elgh) from the land to Diamond Harbour. She used both sail and steam. The greatest run by sail in 24 hours was 211 miles; the least, 39 : the greatest by steam assisted by sail, 225 ; the least, ' I have doubled the Cape of Good Hope many times and liave crossed the Irish Channel in winter frequently, but the weather and danger of the former was nothing almost compared with that of the latter. It is now well known that a steamer is more buoyant and better adapted to ride out a gale than a mere sailing ship. EXPERIMENTAL STEAM VOYAGE. 345 80 : the greatest heat in the engine-room during the voyage was 105°, the air at the same time being 84^"^. The total distance was 13,700 miles; and the consumption 580 chaldrons of coal, being nine chaldrons per day for 64 days ; the rest being under sail. The speed of the engine in calm weather was eight knots an hour, the log giving nine, from the wash of the paddles. Mr. T. L. Peacock states that coals burnt in the Red Sea cost 71. per ton. Lieu- tenant Johnson states that there should be depots of coal at Lisbon, at Madeira, at one of the Canary Islands, at Cape Verd, Cape Palmas, Ascension, St. Helena, the island of St. Thomas, at St. Philip de Benquil, at the Cape of Good Hope, in Algoa Bay, Port Dauphin, Isle of France, at Diego Garcia, Pono Molubque, if anchorage for a hulk can be found at that place. Point de Galle, at Trincomalee, at one of the Andaman or Nicobar Islands, at Madras, and at Calcutta ; and, in the passage to Bombay, it would be necessary to have one at Delagoa Bay, at Joanna, at the Seychelles, Cochin, and at Bombay. By this means, says Lieutenant Johnson, the average voyage to India would be eighty days, while the fair average for sailing vessels is 120 or 130 days. Another plan proposed for speedy communication with India, vid the Cape of Good Hope, is to fit a steam engine of thirty horse power into a fast vessel of 600 tons, to use it only as an auxiliary to move the vessel through calms, &c. Vessels thus constructed would be appli- cable to commercial purposes, the sacrifice required would not exceed from 100 to 130 tons, and the 346 STEAM NAVIGATION TO INDIA. average voyages to Calcutta would be from eighty- five to ninety-five days. Several persons, namely, Captain Chesney, Mr. Bowater, &c. are sanguine as to the facilities and speed with which the passage to India can be made, vid the Euphrates or Persian Gulf ; and Mr. Peacock thinks that, by making the best possible use of every circumstance, the passage to Bombay from an Eng- lish port may be made in five weeks. The course would be across France to Marseilles or Trieste, thence by steam to Latichea, thence by land to Beles, thence by steam down the Euphrates to Bussorah, thence by steam again to Bombay. A great deal of trade is at present carried on from Bagdad to Damascus, by a line which crosses the Euphrates at Hillah, and from Hillah to Bussorah on the Euphrates, and from Bussorah to Bagdad on the Tigris. Over-land di- spatches from Bombay principally — 1st, Bussorah, Great Desert, Aleppo, Constantinople, Venice, Lon- don, 4804 miles ; 2nd, Bussorah, Bagdad, Mosul, Diarbekir, Constantinople, London, 5116 miles; 3rd, Red Sea, Suez, Alexandria, Venice, London, 5492 miles. The distance from Bombay to Bussorah is 1600 miles, and thence to Aleppo 718 miles by land; from Bombay to Suez 3000 miles ; from Suez to Cairo 70 miles ; from Cairo to Alexandria 140 miles by the river. Russia, in fact, is at present planning her route to India, and extending the facili- ties to this purpose. It is a doubtful point whether by adopting a line of communication with India vid the Euphrates or Red Sea, we would not be smooth- PROJECTED RUSSIAN ROUTE TO INDIA. 347 ing the road for the Autocrat's troops. It is in evi- dence before parliament, that the Russians have been accurately surveying the river Oxus and all the country to India, with great care ; they prefer this route to India rather than Alexander's through Persia, as in the latter, a large army would suffer by want of water. The projected Russian route to India is by the Wolga into the Caspian Sea (on which, as well as on the Wolga, they have steam navigation) across the Caspian to the Gulf of Mertvoy. Then there are 100 miles of land to the sea of Vral, where there is abundance of coal ; then there is the navigation of the Oxus, on which there is now a great deal of traffic, by Khiva, where a Russian Military colony has been established. Or the Russians may come down the Euphrates or the Tigris on rafts, which could be put together with great rapidity to any ex- tent : then might they so establish themselves at Bussorah, that it would not be easy to dislodge them, and they could build sufficient shipping at Bussorah with timber floated down from Armenia. Is it then wise or prudent of England, on the one hand, to facilitate the progress of Russia to India vid the Eu- phrates ; or of the French vid Egypt ? These con- siderations, in a political point of view, ought to prompt the British government to give every facility to the route to India vid the Cape of Good Hope ; and as to cutting a ship canal from Cairo to Suez (the difference in the height of the Mediterranean and Red Sea (10 feet) being remedied by locks), at an expense of 700,000/., the result would be to throw the eastern commerce of the British possessions 348 STEAM NAVIGATION TO INDIA. into the hands of the French and other foreign ports in the Mediterranean. In a pohtical and commercial point of view, the estabhshment of steam navigation with India vid the Cape of Good Hope is of the ut- most value without any of the drawbacks as de- tailed above '. 1 now come to consider the mode in which my project may be efficiently put into execution. It would be necessary that a packet start on the 1st and 15th of every month, from Falmouth, or Port Valentia, on the West Coast of Ireland ^ and from Calcutta, for the maintaining of which communica- tion, twelve steam and sailing boats of 300 tons each (including the branch packets) would be necessary ; the packets to be of a stable and buoyant nature, ' I understand that the East India Company are now aware of the impracticability of the Red Sea and Euphrates routes, and are disposed to adopt my plan. 2 A grand national undertaking, — viz. the connecting Dublin and Valentia harbour by a rail-road, and making the latter the starting station for the American, West India, Mediter- ranean, and Portugal packets— is contemplated by Pierce Mahony, Esq., M.P,, whose public spirited eftbrts have already conferred so much good on Ireland. Port Valentia is the most western port in Europe, and vessels sailing thence are not merely free from the dangerous and often tedious navigation of the channel, but they are so far to the westward as to be better situate for beating to the windward against the prevalent westerly gales. The project would be of the utmost benefit in a political point of view, by enabling government, at a given moment, to dispatch troops or ships of war to any point ; in a commercial light, it would facilitate trade by a speedier, cheaper, and more certain packet intercourse with all our colonies; and with the United States and foreign STEAM COMMUNICATION WITH INDIA. 349 with Gurney's improved engines ; tanks ^ to hold the coals, in order that they may be filled with water^ to serve as ballast, according as the fuel is consumed (the water to be shipped and emptied by means of the lately invented pumps). The vessels to be schooner rigged, and the masts, chimnies and paddles to strike or ship as occasion demands (in the trade winds and monsoons, the packets would sail when not opposing those periodical breezes, consequently the steam engines would be at rest, and the con- countries, it would also make the British isles the highway for travellers between the Old and New World — between the eastern and western iiemispheres ; above all, it would secure to England her maritime supremacy, by atfording a constant oceanic ingress and egress, which she was too often denied during the war, by her fleets being windbound in the Channel, and even at the Cove of Cork, for three months. There are many other important considerations which ought to stimu- late Government to give every possible aid towards the com- pletion of such a national undertaking. ^ Lieutenant Johnson says, the Enterprize was capable of stowing thirty-five days' consumption of coal ; for eleven days after leaving England he steamed without intermission, and then found himself to the south of the Canary Islands. Lieu- tenant J. states that he experienced some very rough weather off Cape Palmas ; that the steamer behaved very well, and that while a steam vessel's engines remain in order, she is less exposed to danger than a sailing vessel. On opening the Mozambique channel, the Enterprize experienced a heavy gale ; the fires were then put out, the wheels disconnected from the engine, and the ship scudded under her main -top and foresail ten knots per hour. * She steered admirably, answered her helm as well as a ship could possibly do, and behaved in every way like an admirable sea-boat.' — (Evidence before Parliament.) 350 STEAM NAVIGATION TO INDIA. sumption of fuel saved ^) and a tube to be attached to the engine for the conversion of steam into fresh water. The packets to carry each four 18 lb. car- ronades of a side, with two long nine pounders ; to be commanded by an officer of the British Navy (salary 500/.) with a First Lieutenant (300/.) ; two midshipmen or mates (100/. each) ; a purser, (300/.) ; a surgeon, (300/.) : two engineers, (250/. each) ; an as- sistantditto (100/.); one gunner and armourer (100/.), one carpenter (100/.) and mate (60/. each) ; eight stokers, (60/. each) ; four fire men, (50/. each) ; twelve able seamen, (50/. each) ; and four boys as apprentices (20/. each), making a complement of forty hands, and an expenditure in wages and pro- visioning under 4000/. sterling, which for twelve packets would give the cost of wages and provisions at 60,000/. a year, and this sum deducted from the Post Office's lowest computed receipts, would leave nearly 400,000/. sterling, to provide vessels, engine and fuel. Let us now examine the expense for fuel'; and as I have on the one hand estimated the income at the lowest, so on the other, I would desire to ^ There was no depot for coals but the Cape of Good Hope when the Enterprize made the voyage. 2 The application of thermo-electricity as a motive power to machinery will be productive of the most extraordinary re- sults. Instead of a heavy expenditure in fuel, a vessel may cross the Atlantic at the cost of some zinc and copper plates, and a few jars of mineral acid ! I understand that a ship is now building at New York for experimenting on the subject. If successful, what a revolution will be effected in locomotive engines, &c. ! EXPENSES OF STEAM VESSELS. 851 compute the expenditure at the highest. The twelve packets would on an average be employed each, two hundred days during the year in steaming (thus scarcely allowing any thing for performing half the voyages to and from India by means of the monsoons, trade, and other favourable winds) making in all two thousand, four hundred days, which at ten tons of coal per day at forty shillings per ton (on an average, allowing for freight to some depots) would cost 48,000/. ; thus we see the expense of wages, pro- visions and fuel, would on an extreme calculation, be scarcely more than 100,000/. a year, not one fourth of the Post Office income ; but there is another item to be provided for, and that is the wear and tear of the vessels, and the interest of money on their first cost. Twelve steam vessels of 300 tons each, with engines of 160 horse power, may be con- structed in England, and amply provided with every requisite store at 20,000/. each = 240,000/. ; allowing 10 per cent, interest, and insurance on the capital thus employed, the annual cost would be 24,000/. to which add 26,000/. a year for wear and tear, and we have a further charge of 50,000/. making a grand total of 150,000/. per annum, as the amount of the whole Post Office establishment, to defray which there is an almost certain income of full 450,000/. a year, thus yielding at the very outset, a revenue of upwards of a quarter of a milhon to the state. The facts here brought forward, are submitted to the ex- amination of the government, in the firm belief that on mature reflection it will be found deserving of adoption, not less for the sake of India and the 352 STEAM NAVIGATION TO INDIA. colonies, than for the welfare of England ; for what- ever promotes the prosperity of the one enhances in a corresponding ratio the weal of the other. If the transmission even of letters to India, vid Egypt, be adopted, I shall hail it with much satisfaction, as the prelude to a far more important and beneficial un- dertaking, — namely, the annihilating of at least 5000 out of the 13,000 miles between India and England, and removing our numerous and valuable Eastern Colonies by several thousand miles nearer to the parent state, thus connecting and consolidating our vast maritime empire. Government having made the Post-office establishment a monopoly, is bound to make the attempt ; but in England the sole dutv of its rulers [of every party] seems to consist in levying taxes and making and unmaking laws, — in- stead of taking the lead in social improvement. Let us hope that a new era is dawning, when the apathy of Government will yield to the quickening influence of enlightened popular feeling, and that the bitter- ness of politics will be succeeded by a moral harmony productive of general good. i APPENDIX CEYLON, &C. A a APPENDIX. Gold Coast. — The best part for anchorage in Cape Coast Roads is the flag-staff on the Castle, bearing from north to north-west, in about six fathoms water. Small trading craft may approach nearer, but as a very heavy swell almost constantly sets in, care is necessary not to be too near the breakers. The same bearings may be observed at Annamaboe and Accra, but if the latter fort be brought to bear north- west half west, or north-north-west, in the depth of five fathoms, the difficulty which often arises in weighing the anchor will be lessened. The bottom at Accra is a very stiff clay ; and if a ship lies with the fort bearing to the eastward or north in six or seven fathoms, there is a great probability she will lose her anchor in attempting to weigh it. The strength of the current varies considerably along the coast, but its average rate is one mile and a half an hour to the eastward. The sea breeze is much more A a2 356 APPENDIX. regular than on the west coast, and sets in earher ; the land wind is neither so constant, nor of so long duration. River Gcmihia. — Bird Island is on the northern shore of the River Gambia : the flag may be seen in common clear weather from twelve to fifteen miles off; it bears from Cape St. Mary north by east half- east by compass. This island may be approached from the westward within three or four miles by any vessel drawing less than twenty feet water; houses have been erected close by the flag-staff for the ac- commodation of a pilot ; and there is a small de- tachment of the second West India regiment here. Portindic, Western extremity oftheSahara Desert. — The tall and bare palm or date tree, just above the sea beach ought to bear north-east and by east to a vessel coming to anchor in ' Waterman's Bay.' The best anchorage is about one mile from the shore, in four or five fathoms water. There is less surf in this little bay than in any other part of the Bay of Portindic ; and the gum arabic trade, which is always carried on with the Moors afloat is done there with the greatest facility, safety, and advantaged Latitudes and longitudes of places on the western coast of Africa, and the islands adjacent, deduced from the surveys of Her Majesty's ship ' Leven,' and the squadron under Commo- dore Sir G. Collier:— Cape Bojador, 26-7' N. 14-32' W.; Cape Blanco, 20o0- N. IT'lO-W. ; Portindic, 18-19- N. 16-3- W. ; ' It is this Bay which the French have recently blockaded. APPENDIX. 357 Senegal, Fort Louis, IGS-N. 16-29-W. ; Cape Verd. 14-43- N. 17-33-W. ; Cape St. Mary, River Gambia, 18-30- N. 16-42-W. ; West Bird Island, do. 13-42- N. 16-40-W. ; Cape Roxo, 12-22- N. 16-53- W. ; Mud Bar, River Pongos, 9o7- N. 13-56-W.; Cape Sierra Leone, 8-30- N. 1312- W. ; Free Town, 8"30' N. 13'o"30" W., (variation of the compass 1717-W.); Shoals of St. Ann, 8-0- N. 13-40- W. ; River Gallinas, 6-57- N. 11-41-\V. ; Cape Mount, 643- N. 11 -IS- W Cape Mesurada, 6-13- N. 10-44- W-. ; River Junk, 6-7- N, Settra Kroo,4-o2-N. 8-44'W.; Cape Palmas,4-24.N. 7-38-W Lahou Town, 4-58- N. 4-48- W. ; Cape Apollonia, 5-3- N. 2-40-W.; Cape Three Points, W. Cape, 4-45-, 2 7' E. Cape 4-45- 1 -SO- W. ;^Dixcove, 4-48- N. \5o- W. ; Tackarary, 4-53- N. 1'42-W.; Succondee, 4-55- N. 1-39- W.; Chamah, 4-58- N. 1-34- W. ; Commenda, 5-3-N. 1-27- W. ; Elmina Castle, 54' N. 1-17- W. ; Cape Coast Castle. 5-6- N. MO- W. ; Annamaboe, 5-10- N. 0-O9-30- W. ; Tantumquerry, 5-1 2' N. 3930 W. ; Accra, 533' N. 0-50- W.; Prampram, 5-44- N. 01230- E. ; Ningo, 5-46' N. 0-18-30- E. ; River Volta, 5-47- N. 51 •49- E. ; Cape St. Paul,5-47- N. 1-1'49- E. ; Quittah, 5-55- X. 1-3-45- E. ; Little Popoe, 6-15- N. 1-45-30- E. ; Grand Popoe, 619- N. 1-57-27- E. ; Whydah, 6'-20' N. 2-14- E. ; Appee, 6-22- N. 2-31-45- E.; Porto Novo, 6-25- N. 2-43-33- E. ; Badagry, 6-26' N. 2-52-45- E. ; River Lagos, 6-27- N. 3-32- E. ; River Benin, 5'46' N. 5'17" E. ; River dos Escravos, 5 35' N. 5-20- E. ; River dos Forcados, 5-22- N. 5-30-33- E. ; River Ramos, 5-9- N. 5-33-30-E.; River Dodo, 4-50- N. 5-38-30'E.; Cape Formoso, 4-28- N. 5'59*15'E. ; River Formoso, or first river, 4*28' N. 6' E. ; Cape Nun, or second rivei*, 4*17' N. 6-1 0- E. ; River St. John, or third river, 4-18- N. 6-16-30- E. ; River St. Michael, or fourth river, 4*1G' N. 6*21'45" E. ; River Santa Barbara, or fifth river, 4-20-30- N. G-34- E. ; River St. Bartholomew, or sixth river, 4-20 30- N. 6-45-30- E. ; River Sombrero, or seventh river, 4"20' N. 6"52"30' E. ; Foche Point, 4-21-30- N. 7-10- E., and Rough Corner, 4-22- N. 7'22' E., (entrance to River Bonny) ; River Old Calabar, (entrance) 4"34" N. 8'38' E. ; Bembia, Cape and River, 358 APPENDIX. 4-0-2- N. 9-20- E. ; Cape Cameroons, 3-54 • N. 32- E. ; River Campo, 2-20- N. 10-3-10- E. ; Cape St. John, 1-9' N. 9"29" E. ; Corisco Island, E. Point in front of the River Dan^ ger, 0-58- N. 9-2G- E. ; Cape Clara, 0-30-44- N. 9-24- E., and Round Corner, 0-14'29- N. 9-22- E., (entrance to Gaboon River.) THE END. Gilbert & Rivingtox, Printers, St. John's Square, London. JUST PUBLISHED BY WHITTAKER, & CO. AVE-MARIA LANE. Complete in Ten Volumes, Foolscap 8vo. Price £3. Illustrated bv original Maps and Frontispieces, and handsomely bound in cloth and lettered. THE BRITISH COLONIAL LIBRARY, Forming a popular and authentic Description of the several Colonies of the British Empire, and embracing the History — Physical Geography — Geology — Climate — Animal, Vegetable, and Mineral Kingdonls — Government — Finance — Military De- fence — Commerce — ^Shipping — Monetary System — Religion — Population, white and coloured — Education and the Press — Emigration, Social State. &c. of each Settlement. Founded on Official and Public Documents, furnished by Government, the Hon. East India Company, &c., and dedi- cated, by express command, to his Majesty, William the Fourth. By R. Montgomery Martin, Esq. F.S.S. CONTENTS : Vol. I.— The CANADAS, UPPER and LOWER. Vol. II.— New SOUTH WALES, VAN DIEMEN'S LAND, SWAN RIVER, and SOUTH AUSTRALIA. Vol. III.— The CAPE OF GOOD HOPE, MAURITIUS, and SEY- CHELLES. Vol. IV.— Tlie WEST INDIES, Vol. I.— JAMAICA, HONDURAS, TRINIDAD, TOBAGO, GRENADA, the BAHAMAS, and the VIRGIN ISLES. Vol. v.— The WEST INDIES, Vol. II.— BARBADOS, ST. LUCIE, ST. VINCENT, DEMERARA, ESSEQUIBO. BERBICE, ANGUILLA, TORTOLA, ST. KITTS, BARBUDA, ANTIGUA, MONTSERRAT. and DOMINICA. Vol. VI.— NOVA SCOTIA, NEW BRUNSWICK, CAPE BRETON, PRINCE EDWARD'S ISLE, and NEWFOUNDLAND. Vol. VII.— GIBRALTAR, MALTA, the IONIAN ISLANDS, &c. Vol. VIII.— The POSSESSIONS of the HONOURABLE EAST INDIA COMPANY, Vol. I. Vol. IX.— DITTO, Vol. 11. Vol. X.— The BRITISH POSSESSIONS in the INDIAN and AT- LANTIC OCEANS, viz. Ceylon, Penang, Malacca, Singapore. Sierra Leone, the Gambia, Cape Coast Castle, Accra, the Falk- land Islands, St. Helena, and Ascension. •^* Each Colony is complete in itself, and can be had sepa- rate. Price 65. per Volume, cloth lettered. PUBLISHED BY WHITTAKER & CO- THE BOOK OF GEMS : The Modern Poets and Artists of Great Britain. Edited by S. C. Hall. « On extra Vellum Paper, in one thick Volume, Octavo, with numerous highly-finished Engravings on Steel, from the burins of the first-rate Engravers, after original Pictures and Draw- ings by tlie most eminent Artists, price 1/. II5. 6V. *,* This splendid Volume, which has been got up with the greatest care, presents the choicest selections from the works of the celebrated Poets and Artists, who have shed such a lustre on the last thirty years. The value of the Poetry and the Paintings having been aided by the selection of the first-rate Engravers, and by the bestowal of every care on the editing and on the typograpliical portion of the Work, the Publishers trust they have produced a volume which will be unrivalled as a present, both for the elegance of its embellish- ments, and the intrinsic and unexceptionable nature of its literary and artistic contents. Succinct Biographies of the Poets are given, (in most in- stances from materials furnished by themselves,) and Plates of their Autographs are appended. POETS. Wordsworth — B3Ton — Southey — IMoore — Shelley — Coleridge — Slilman — Elliot — Lamb — Montgomery — White — Wilson — Crabbe — Scott — Sotheby — Keats — Hogg — Hemans — Cunningham — Hunt — Clare — Norton — Rogers — Landon — Croly — Wolf— Landor — Campbell — Procter — Bowles — Tighe — Wolcot — Pollok— Hood — Dibdin — BailUe — Tennyson — Hervey — Bayly. ARTISTS AND ENGRAVERS. E. T. Parris; W. H. Simmons, — F. W. Topham ; C. Rolls— H. W. Pickersgill, R.A.; C. Rolls— E. Landseer, R.A. ; L. Stocks— J. M. W. Turner, R.A. : W. Miller— T. Uwins, A.R.A. ; E. J. Portburj-— R. P. Bonington ; AV. Miller— E. T. Parris ; F. Bacon— J. Martin ; J. R. Wil- more — T. Hofland ; J. R. Wilmore — R. Westmacott, R. A. ; A. R. Freebairn — T. Creswick; R. Cousins — E. Barrett; J. Hinchlitf — A. Cooper, R.A.; J. Brain— D. Cox; E. Radcliffe— S. Hart, A.R.A. ; C. Rolls— D. M'Clise, A.R.A.; L. Stocks— G. Jones, R.A. ; W. H. Sim- mons — J. Wilson ; W. J. Cooke — D. Roberts ; J. Sands — W. Collins, R.A. ; L. Stocks— W. Wyon, A.R.A. ; J. Thomson— W. Mulready, R.A. ; A. R. Freebairn— T. Stothard, R. A. ; J. Bull— P. Williams ; E. J. Port- bury — J. Inskipp; W. IL Simmons — J. Salmon; E. Roberts — W.Harvey; J. Brain— W. Muller; W. J. Cooke— R. Reinagle, R.A. ; J. Hinchliff— C. Stantield, R.A. ; C. Rolls— J. C. Bentlev; W. Miller— J. Robson ; J. Hinchlitf— C. Hancock; R. Parr— R. Edmonstone ; C. Rolls— T. Y. Hurlstone ; W. H. Watt— S. Prout ; E. Kernot— J. Boaden ; J. Wagstatf — B. R. Haydon ; J. Brain— W. Chambers ; W. Wallis— R. B. Pyne ; A. R. Freebairn— T. S. Cooper; H. Rolls— F. W. Topham; F. W. Topham. *,* A few sets of Proofs of the Plates have been taken on India paper Colombier, Price £2 2s. in a Portfolio. ^ I RETURN TO the circulation desk of any University of California Library or to the NORTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY BIdg. 400, Richmond Field Station University of California Richmond, CA 94804-4698 .L BOOKS MAY BE RECALLED AFTER 7 DAYS month loans may be renewed by calling (510)642-6753 year loans may be recharged by bringing books to NRLF jnewals and recharges may be made 4 days prior to due date DUE AS STAMPED BELOW 4 (/ft " a ^^ ^ -f 1S96 • P'^TURNED SEP 2 9 1995 S^ntaCruT J;ir;jV JAN 1 2 2006 'fefu c ^^2 'i^lF-S ^So '^os asm* mm^mmmmmm^'mm