BERKELEY LIBRARY UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA HOW TO PARSE. HOW TO PABSE. gut Attempt tor gipplg % principle! of ^tfwlarsjnp TO ENGLISH GRAMMAR. WITH APPENDIXES ON ANALYSIS, SPELLING, AND PUNCTUATION. BY THE REV. EDWIN A. ABBOTT, D.D., Head Master of the City of London School. FIFTEENTH THOUSAND. SEELEY, JACKSON, & HALLIDAY, FLEET STREET, LONDON. MDCCCLXXXIII. LONDON : R. CLAY, SONS, AND TAYLOR, PRINTERS, BREAD STREET HILL. f£nil PREFACE. The First Part of this book is intended for pupils so far advanced as to be able to distinguish the Parts of Speech. The author's object has been to teach elemen- tary English Grammar as simply as is consistent with the honest recognition of difficulties, and not to accu- mulate masses of information that might be of use to foreigners, but must be useless to English boys. I have been accused, by a very friendly and favour- able reviewer, of " unkindness " in completely ignoring the " Article " in my introductory treatise How to Tell the Parts of Speech. It has occurred to me, in con- sequence, to prefix to this work a Glossary of Gram- matical Terms — many of them, let us hope, obsolete or obsolescent. Here the pupil may now and then refresh his memory as to the meaning of Article, Genitive, Nominative, Accusative, Case, Proper Noun, Conjugation, Decline, and the like ; and by this means he will be able to satisfy himself that many of these terms, when applied to the Grammar of his native tongue, are absolutely superfluous or erroneous. It is also prob- able that ready access to a Glossary, explaining ety- mologically Cardinal, Inflection, Apostrophe, Climax, Bathos, Verse, &c, may in many cases be of positive as well as negative benefit. The Exercises are specially written to illustrate the rules. This has involved some labour ; but I am con- vinced that the labour was well spent. A pupil cannot 175 vi HOW TO PARSE. be regarded as thoroughly tested in his knowledge of grammatical rules till he has applied them to con- nected narrative. As long as he is tested in nothing but short sentences, you can never feel sure that his accu- racy is not merely mechanical. Paragraphs 1 — 82 are of a much simpler character than those that follow ; and the pupil should be well drilled in them before passing onward. The grammar- lessons of three or four months may be very well spent in teaching boys how to select the Subjects and Objects of the different Verbs in a Sentence, and a month or two more may well be given to Relative Sentences. Indeed, if the majority of a class of boys, between 11 and 12 years old, can, after six months' training in grammar, parse " jay " in : — " The jay that robbed the other birds of their feathers was afterwards punished for robbing them " — I should, myself, think the six months spent to very good purpose. Paragraphs 82 — 162 are decidedly more difficult, and constitute work for a higher class. The chapter on the Subjunctive Mood is put last, out of its place, owing to the extreme difficulty of the subject. The chapter on Irregularities, Paragraphs 191 — 230, is of a different nature from the former part of the book. It is intended to prepare the pupil for Part II., and is an attempt to apply the principles of scholarship to the explanation of the irregularities of English Grammar. These principles are few, and capable of brief enunci- ation, viz., (1) that every irregularity is a deviation from a "regula" or rule; (2) that there must be some attract- ing force to produce this deviation ; (3) that this attracting force is generally one of three causes, of which the " confusion of two constructions " is by far the most common. Simple and brief though they are, these prin- ciples require, as every teacher knows, careful and con- stant inculcation before the pupil is imbued with them. But when the pupil has once mastered them, he has the key to unlock any idiomatic irregularity, in any PHEFACE. vii language — always provided that he is well acquainted with the particular language in its regular expressions. Not much space is given to Analysis ; but perhaps as much as the subject deserves. If this subject is to be taught at all. — and there is much in it that constitutes a useful mental exercise — it ought, in the opinion of the author, to be disencumbered of its present technicalities, and to be taught more logically. For example, in most treatises on Analysis, it is assumed that, in such a sentence as : — ' ' Feeling the man's hand in my pocket I turned suddenly round," — the words " feeling the man's hand " are an Adjective Phrase, or " Enlargement of the Subject" But nothing surely ought to be more obvious than that (whatever the grammatical construction may be) u feeling " here mea?is " when, or because I felt," and is nearly the same as " on feeling ; " so that the words in question form really an Adverbial, and not an Adjectival Phrase. It is almost startling that this Adjectival error should have been gravely inculcated for a generation in the best, as in the worst, treatises on English Grammar. Possibly the servile imitation of Latin Grammar — the ruin of all good English teaching — has been at work here, as in so many other cases, assimilating the English to the Latin Active Participle, and ignoring the extent to which the English Participle has been merged in the English Verbal Noun. 1 For these reasons, in the Chapter on Analysis, several changes have been introduced with the view of dis- carding technicalities : and the terms Phrase, Clause and Sentence, are rigidly used according to their defini- tions. (See Glossary and also Par. 239.) 2 In the "Hints on Spelling," Paragraphs 266—291, an attempt has been made to give explanations, or i See Paragraphs 5S5— 595. 2 I gladly acknowledge my obligation to Mr. Mason for his excel- lent method of indicating the Subordination of Sentences by under- lining. viii HO W TO PAESE. suggestions of possible explanations, of a few among the thousand anomalies that strew this wilderness and despair of teachers. The author has at least succeeded (Par. 283) in impressing upon himself, what he never could remember before, the right spelling of " succeed," " proceed," and " exceed." Whether others will derive the same benefit from the explanation is perhaps doubtful ; but the mere fact that an explanation exists is a just cause for thanksgiving. Mr. Laurie's useful Manual of Spelling has been of great service in the com- position of this chapter. Part II. Chapter I., is explained by its title, " Diffi- culties and Irregularities in Modern English. " It is intended for the higher (not for the highest) classes in our first-grade schools. Here I must acknowledge very- large obligations to Matzner's two volumes on English Syntax. Adopting his arrangement, I have selected from these two volumes every difficulty that appeared likely to be a difficulty to an English boy — I believe I may add, in many cases, to an English man — as distinct from a foreigner. A few examples from Campbell, Scott, and Byron have been quoted from Matzner, unverified ; but in such cases, the reader is always warned by a foot-note. The vast majority of the examples have been modified or re-written toillustrate the difficulty under consideration, or they are the fruits of my own reading. In this part of the work it has been of course neces- sary to illustrate modern English by older English of different periods : and here, w hi'e again acknowledging my obligations to Matzner, I must also add the name of Dr. Morris, whose elaborate Historical Outlines of English Accidence — a book that, the more you study it, impresses you the more with the feeling that much is left to study — have been laid under large contribu- tions for this part of my work, and more especially for the Appendix on the " Growth of the English language." Here I have also to acknowledge the invaluable assist- ance of Mr. Skeat, who was kind enough to correct the proof-sheets of the Appendix, and from whose PREFACE. ix edition of the Gospel of St. Mark 1 I derived great iielp in obtaining an insight into the " Period of Confu- sion" in early English. I have had the less hesitation in occasionally referring to statements and examples abont early English found in the Shakespearian Grammar, because all of these were supervised and many of them originated by Mr. Skeat, but for whose kindness and learning I should scarcely have ventured on ground of which it may be said, no less than of the field of criticism, that — "Fools rush in where angels fear to tread." The chapter on Poetical Constructions will, I hope, be found as useful as any in the book. It is an attempt to draw out in grammatical detail the principles of poetry as laid down by Professor Seeley and myself in English Lessons for English People, and to lead the pupil to see the reason and the beauty of "poetical irregularities." In the Appendix on the "Growth of the English Language," I have ventured so far to differ from Dr. Morris, in his account of the " Periods of the English Language," as to assign a separate period to the sixteenth century, and also to give names to the several periods. I do not think boys will find it easy to remember the periods without epithets of a rather more picturesque nature than ordinal numbers. I have also added some remarks on the Elizabethan period. A few tables of the Early Forms are added in the Appendix with the view of illustrating remarks scat- tered through the book. But no attempt has been made to give any complete system of Accidence. To try to do this completely, in the face of Dr. Morris's Accidence, would have been superfluous : and to do it imperfectly, in the way in which it has been done in many Grammars, under the title of "Etymology," i The Gospel according to St. Mark, in Anglo-Saxon and Northum- brian Versions, Synoptically Arranged. Edited for the Syndics of the University Press by the Rev. Walter W. Skeat, M.A. Cambridge : Deighton, Bell, & Co. 1871. x BOW TO PARSE. would have been worse than superfluous, mystifying English children by telling them what, when they know what well enough already, and need only to be told why. But to tell the why of English Accidence requires — and it is useless disguising the fact — a great deal of knowledge in the teacher and not a little m the pupil. If it is to be done at all, it should be done thoroughly, with the aid of such a book as Dr. Morris's, and by pupils old enough to appreciate it. Consequently, though the pupil will find "strong" and " weak" verbs defined in the Glossary, he will see no lists of them in the book. Lists of irregular plurals will also be missing ; the teacher will look in vain for focus, foci; datum, data; nebula, nebula. The only apparent sacrifice to the mania for "learning something by heart " is this, that the modern verb will be found "conjugated" in the Appendix to Part II. But this has been done, not to give the pupil something to learn by heart, but to enable him to compare the old verb with the new at a glance. Throughout the book, the author has endeavoured to keep in view the main object of a teacher teaching English grammar to English children, viz., to teach, not so much what as why. The division of the book into parts, the first of which is differently arranged from the second, might cause some difficulty in referring, were it not that a full Alphabetical Index is inserted at the end — an appendage that, in the Author's opinion, may fairly claim to be accepted as a compensation, in a book of this kind, for many faults of non-arrangement or mis-arrangement. In passing the book through the press I have derived most valuable assistance from the two gentlemen whose names I had occasion to mention in the preface to How to Tell the Parts of Speech, viz., Mr. G. S. Brocking- ton, one of the Assistant Masters of King Edward's School, Birmingham, and Mr. T. W. Chambers, B.A., Scholar of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, one of the Assistant Masters of the City of London School, whose sound judgment and practical experience have PREFACE. xi frequently induced me to modify or even re-cast large portions of the First Part. I must also mention two others among my colleagues, Mr. T. Todd, and Mr. James Pirie, M.A., whose criticism and corrections have been of very great service. Lastly, while expressing my obligations to the admir- able " Shakespeare Lexicon," compiled by Dr. Schmidt, and published by Messrs. Williams & Norgate, I may be also permitted, coming nearer home, to say that I have gained much help and many apt examples from the inspection of the proof-sheets of a Complete Con- cordance to the Poetical TForks of Pope, compiled by rny lather, and now in course of publication. CONTENTS. PABT I. ETYMOLOGICAL GLOSSARY OF GRAMMATICAL TERMS . XVU RULES AND DEFINITIONS . „ „ XXV'iii CHAPTER I. SUBJECT AND OBJECT 1 CHAPTER II. THE RELATIVE PRONOUN 17 CHAPTERS III. and IV. USES AND INFLECTIONS : I. Nouns, Pronouns, Adjectives, &c 28 II. Verbs 45 1 For all detailed reference the reader is referred to the Alphabetical Index at the end of the book. xiv HOW TO PAESE. CHAPTER V. THE INDIRECT OBJECT, &C 88 CHAPTER VI. THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD 112 CHAPTER VII. IRREGULARITIES 127 APPENDIX I. THE ANOMALIES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD . . . i48 APPENDIX II. THE ANALYSIS OP SENTENCE* 153 SCHEME OF ANALYSIS 172 APPENDIX III. HINTS ON SPELLING 174 APPENDIX IV. HINTS ON PUNCTUATION 185 SCHEME OF PARSING 195 CONTENTS. xv PART II. DIFFICULTIES AND IRREGULARITIES IN MODERN ENGLISH. CHAPTER 1. PROSE 199 CHAPTER II. POETICAL CONSTRUCTIONS 281 APPENDIX. ON THE GROWTH OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE . . 293 ALPHABETICAL INDEX . . . . t 327 ETYMOLOGICAL GLOSSARY OP GRAMMATICAL TERMS. Few of the terms explained below are used by the author, and many of them are misused or badly constructed, e.g. "article," "accusative." But, as they are used in many grammatical treatises, it has been thought desirable to ex- plain them, especially as an explanation is sometimes the best means of proving them to be superfluous or erroneous, when applied to English Grammar. The References, when not otherwise stated, are to the Paragraphs in How to Parse. The meaning given opposite to each word is the Etymological meaning. For a fuller or more accurate definition the pupil is referred to the Paragraph mentioned in each case. Ablative ( Case ) [L. ab., "from;" latus, "carried"]. The name for a Latin case denoting, among other things, ablation, or carry- ing away from. Absolute (Construction) [L. ab, " from -"solid-, " loosed"] . A construction in which a Noun, Participle, &c, is used apart, i.e. loosed from, its ordinary Grammatical adjuncts (Par. 135). Abstract (Noun) [L. abs, " from ;'* tract-, " drawn "]. The name of an abstraction, i.e. of something considered by itself, apart from {drawn away from) the circum- stances in which it exists. Accent [L. ad, "to;" cantus, "song"]. Perhaps origin- ally a sing-song, or modula- tion of the voice, added to a syllable. Now used of stress laid on a syllable. Accidence [L. accident — "befall"]. That part of grammar which treats of the changes that befall words. 1 Accusative (Case). 2 The Latin name for the Direct Objective Inflexion. Pos- 1 Quintilian i. 5, 41 : " frequentissime in verbo, quia plurima huic accidunt." 2 Probably a Latin mistake. The Greek original meant (1) cause, (2) accusation. The Latins took it in sense (2) instead of (1). b xviii ETYMOLOGICAL GLOSSABY OF sibly the Komans regarded the object as being in front of the agent, like an accused person confronted with the prosecutor. Active (Voice). The form of a Verb that usually de- notes acting or doing. Adjective [L. ad, "to;" jact, "cast or put"]. A word pat to a, Noun. Apbseresis [Gr. ap, "from;" hairesis, "taking"]. Taking a letter or syllable from the beginning of a word. Adjunct [L. ad, "to ;" junct, "joined"]. A word gram- matically joined to another word. Adverb [L. ad, "to ; " verb, "word" or "Verb"]. A word generally joined to a Verb (45). Adversative [L. adversus, " opposite "]. An epithet applied to Conjunctions that (like " but") express oppo- sition. Affix [L. ad, " to ; " fix, "fixed"]. A syllable or letter fixed to the end of a word. Agreement. The change made in the inflections of words so that they may suit or agree with one another in a sentence. (78). Alexandrine, A rhyming verse of twelve Iambic syl- lables, said to be so called from its being used in an old French Poem on Alex- ander the Great. Alphabet [Gr. alpha, beta; "a," "b"]. The list of letters, so called from the names of the first two let- ters in Greek. Anacolouthon [Gr. a-, " not ;" acolouthon, "follow- ing"]. A break in the Grammatical sequence, or following. Analysis [Gr. ana, "back;" lusis, "loosing"]. Unloos- ing anything {e.g. a Sen- tence) back into its con- stituent parts. Hence an analytical period in a lan- guage. See Par. 556. Anomaly. A Greek-formed word meaning " uneven- ness, " " irregularity. ' ' Antecedent [L. ante, "be- fore ; " cedent, " going " ]. (a) That part of a sentence which expresses a condition (167). So called because the condition must go before its consequence. See con- sequent (2). (b) Also used for the Noun that goes before a Relative Pronoun. Anti-climax. The opposite of a climax. A sentence in which the meaning sinks in importance, instead of rising at the close. Antithesis [ Gr. anti, "against;" thesis, "pla- cing"]. The placing of word against word, by way of contrast. 1 Apodosis [Gr. apodosis, "a paying back "]. A Greek nameforthe "Consequent." The condition was regarded by the Greeks as demanding its consequence, as a sort of debt, to be paid in return for the fulfilment of the con- dition. See Horn to Write Clearly, Par. 41. GRAMMATICAL TEEMS. Apostrophe [Gr. apo, 1 ' from ; " strophe, " turn- ing"]. A mark shewing a vowel is omitted, so called because it is turned aivay from the next consonant. l Appellative [L. appella, "call to."] Another name for the Vocative or calling use of a noun. Paragraph 32. Apposition [L. ad, "near;" posit, "placed"]. The pla- cing of one noun or pro- noun near another, for the purpose of explanation (137). Archaism [Gr. archaios, " ancient "]. An ancient word or expression. Article [L. articidus, "a little joint or limb"]. A name(a)correctlygivenbythe • Greeks to their "article" because it served as a joint uniting several words to- gether : (b) then loosely used by the Latins (as was natural I seeing they had no ' ' article' ' ) of any short word whether Verb, Conjunction, or Pro- noun ; (c) foolishly intro- duced into English, and once used to denote " the " and "a." Aspirate [L. ad, " to ; " spira-, "breathe"]. The strongly breathed letter, h. Asyndeton [Gr. a, "not;" syndeton, " bound to- gether "]. The omission of Conjunctions, so that sen- tences are not bound to- gether. Attribute. A quality attri- buted to a person or thing. Auxiliary (Verbs) [L. aux- ilia-, "to help"]. Verbs that are used as helpers or companions to other Verbs (95). Bathos [Gr. bathos, "depth"]. A ludicrous fall to a depth, i.e. a descent from the elevated to the mean in writing or speech. 2 Cardinal (Numbers) [L. cardin-, "hinge."]. That on which anything hinges or turns : hence, "import- ant," " principal." A name given to those more important forms of Numeral Adjectives from which the Ordinal forms are derived. Case [L. Casus, "falling"]. The Latin translation of the Greek term for the uses of a Noun. The Greeks re- garded the subjective form as "erect" and the other forms as more or less fal- ling away from it. Hence the terms "oblique," "de- cline " &c. Clause [L. claus-, "shut"]. A number of words shut up within limits. In this book the word is used of a sen- tence preceded by a Con- junction, the sentence and Conjunction together being called a Clause (239). Climax [Gr. climax, " iad- * In Rhetoric, the apostrophe is the turning away from one's audience to address some absent person. The old name for the Grammatical apostrophe was apostrophus ; and this would be useful to distinguish it from the Rhetorical term. * See Par. 40, Row to Write Clearly. b 2 ETYMOLOGICAL GLOSSARY OF der"]. The arrangement of a sentence like a ladder so that the meaning rises in force to the last. 1 Cognate (Object) [L. Co-, " together ; " not- " born "]. The name given to an object that denotes some- thing akin to (bom together with) the action denoted by the Verb (125). Colon [Gr. colon, "limb"]. The stop marking off a limb or member of a sentence. Comma [Gr. comma, a "sec- tion"]. The stop marking off a section of a sentence (294-308). Common (Noun). A name that is common to a class and not peculiar or proper to an individual. Comparative (Degree). The form of an Adjective deiot- ing that a quality exists in a greater degree in some one thing than in some other with which it is compared. Complementary [L.comple-, "fill up"]. That which completes or fills up (97, 106). Complete (State). A name given to an action (whether Past, Present, or Future) that was, is, or will be complete (72). Complex (Sentence) [L. con- '* together ; " plic-, "fold"]. A sentence that is folded together, or involved. Hence a sentence containing one or more Subordinate sen- tences (250). Compound (Sentence) [L. con, or com, "together;" pon- "place"]. -A sentence made up of a number of Co- ordinate sentences placed to- gether (247). Concord. The name given to syntactical agreement be- tween words, e.g. between Verb and Subject. Conjugation [con, " to- gether;" jugatio "joining"]. A number of Verbs joined together in one class. 2 Conjunction [L. con, "to- gether ; " junct-, "joined" ]. A word that joins two sentences together. Consequent. The name given to that part of a Sentence which expresses the consequence of the ful- filment of a condition. See Antecedent, and Paragraph 167. Consonant [L. con, "to- gether ; " sonant-, " sound- ing"]. Letters (such as p) that can only be sounded to- gether with a vowel. Continuous (State). The name given to an action (whether Past, Present, or Future ) that is, was, or will be continuing or incomplete (72). Copula [L. copula, "bond"]. The word " is," so called be- cause it binds or connects Subject and Predicate in. Logic. Correlatives. Words that are related together or mutually related, e.g. » See Par. 39, How to Write Clearly. a Hence to conjugate a Verb is to repeat the inflections belonging tc the class or conjugation. But the Romans used decline and not con- jugate in this sense (Madvig). GRAMMATICAL TERMS. xxi " either," "or;" "both," "and;" "-when," "then." Dative [L. dativ, 1 "that which has arisen from giving-"]. The Latin name for the Indirect Objective case j used after Verbs of giving &c. (126). Declension. The bending or declension of the Oblique (see Oblique below) cases from the Subjective form, which was regarded as ''erect." Hence applied to the state- ment of the cases of a Noun. Definite (Article). A name given to the Adjective "the" from the fact that "the" defines its Noun. See Article.' Definition [L. de, "from :" finit-, " marked out," "bounded"]. That which marks out the boundaries of anything so as to distinguish it from all other things. N.B. Not a mere "descrip- tion." Degree (of comparison) [L. gradus, Fr. degre, "step"]. The forms expressing the steps or degrees in which a quality can be expressed by an Adjective. Dentals [L. dent-, "tooth"]. Consonants pronounced with the aid of the teeth ; d, n, t. Dependent (Sentence). Some- times used for Subordinate. But generally applied to Subordinate sentences that are the Subjects or Objects of Verbs. Diaeresis [Gr. diairesis, "separation"]. The mark placed over one of two vowels to shew that each is to be pronounced separately e.g. in "aerial." Diphthong [Gr. efo',"twice;" phthongos, "sound"]. Two vowel sounds pronounced as one. Direct"(Object). The Noun that denotes what is re- garded as the direct object of the action of a Verb. 2 Ellipsis [Gr. elleipsis, " omission "]. The omission of words (said to be "under- stood" i.e. implied) in a Sentence. Emphasis [Gr. emphaino, "I make clear"]. Stress of the voice laid on par- ticular words or syllables in order to make the meaning clear. Epigram [Gr. epi, " on ; " gramma, " writing "]. A writing on a monument. Hence a short poem. Hence a short pointed poem or saying. 3 Epithet [ Gr. epithetos, " placed to "]. An Adjective placed to a Noun to describe some quality of the person or thing denoted by the Noun. Etymology [ Gr. etymon, " true meaning ; " logia, 1 Termination -ivus in Latin, when added to Participles, denotes that which has arisen from, e.g. "captivus," that which has arisen from "capture." 2 See Par. 14. 3 The point will generally be at the end. Intentional " bathos some- times borders on " epigram." See How to Write Clearly, Par. 42 xxii ETYMOLOGICAL GLOSSABY OF " science "]. The science of the true meaning of words, according to their deriva- tion. Euphony [Gr. eu, ' ' well ; " phone, "sound"]. That which sounds well. Flat (Consonants). B, d, g. Foot. The metrical sub- division of a verse. A verse being supposed to run, its limbs or members might well be called feet. Frequentative (Verb). A Verb that expresses a fre- quently repeated action, e.g. " pat-t-er." Gender [L. genus, Fr. genre, "breed," or "class"]. Forms to denote classification according to sex. There are no inflexions for Genders in English (37). Genitive (Case) [L. genitiv-, " generating "]. The name for the Latin case denoting generation, origination, pos- session. Sometimes applied to the English Possessive Inflection. 1 Gerund [L. gero, " I carry- on "]. Part of a Latin Verb denoting the carrying on of the action of the Verb. There was once a gerundive form in English (551). Grammar [Gr. gramma, a " letter;" Fr. " grammaire"]. The science of letters ; hence the science of using words correctly. Gutturals [ L. guttur, "throat"]. Throat letters, h, and hard g. Heterogeneous (Sentence) [Gr. hetero, " different ; " genos, " kind"]. A Sentence combining a number of Sentences of so different a kind from each other that they ought not to be com- bined. 2 Iambus [Gr. iamhos]. In English, a foot of two syl- lables, the first unaccented, the second accented. Idiom [Gr. idioma, " pecu- liarity '']. A mode of ex- pression peculiar to a lan- guage. Imperative (Mood). [L. im- pera-, " command "]. The commanding Mood (70). Impersonal (Verbs). Verbs not used in the first or second Person (328). Incomplete (State). The forms of the Verb den »ting an action in an Incomplete State (72). Indefinite (Article). A name given to "an," "a," because the Adjective leaves its Noun undefined, or in- definite. See Article; also Definite. Indefinite (State). The forms of the Verb denoting an action of which the State is not defined (72). Indicative (Mood), [L. indica-, " point out "]. The Mood that points out or indicates an action, &c, 1 The Latin "genitivns" is a mistranslation of the Greek genike, which meant the generic case i.e. the case, that denoted the genus or class. For example, "life," "What class of life? " " Man's life." a See Par. 43, How to Write Clearly. GRAMMATICAL TERMS. as a past, present, or future existence (70). Indirect (Object). The Noun or Pronoun denoting the person or thing regarded as not directly but only in- directly influenced by the action of the Verb. But see Paragraph 118 for a more satisfactory test. Infinitive (Mood) [L. **, "not ; " fnit-, " limited "]. A Mood not limited by any definition of Person or Number (70). Inflection. [L. inflecto, "I bend "]. The bending of a word from the simple form, by means of varying the ter- mination. See Oblique below. Interjection [L. inter-ject-, "thrcwn between"]. An utterance thrown in beticeen words, to express emotion. Not a Part of Speech, Intransitive (Verb). [L. in, "not"; transitiv-, " passing across "]. A Verb whose action is not supposed to pass across to any Object. But see Transitive below. Labials [L. labium, "lip"]. Vyi'/>-letters : f, v, p, b, m, hw (the real sound in which) and w. Language [L. lingua, Fr. langue ; "tongue"]. The expression of meaning by the tongue. Linguals [Latin lingua, "the tongue"]. Letters whose sounds are produced by the tongue: sh, s in pleasure. Liquids. Letters of a flow- ing, liquid sound, as I, r, Metaphor [Gr. meta, "from one to another"; phora, "carrying"]. The carrying of a relation from one set of objects to another e.g. of the relation of ploughing from "plough" and "land," to "ship " and "sea." x Metre [Gr. metron, "mea- sure"]. The measuring of language out into verses. Monosyllable [Gr. mono, "only"]. A word of only one syllable. Mood [L. mod-, "manner".] The form of a Verb express- ing the manner of action (70). Mutes [L. mut-, " dumb "]. Letters that are dumb with- out the aid of a vowel : k, g, t, d, n, p, bj m. Nasal [L. nas-, "nose"]. Consonants sounded through the nose ; n, m. Nominative (Case) [L. nomina-, " to name "]. An old Latin term for the Sub- ject, used because the Sub- ject was regarded as a person or thing named. Noun [L. nomen, Fr. nom, " name "]. The name of anything. Object. The word, or group of words, denoting that which is regarded as the object or mark aimed at by the action of a Verb or the motion of the Preposition. 2 (13). But see Definition in Paragraph 14. 1 English Lessons for English People, page 78. 2 This Definition, though in accordance with Etymology, is often Grammatically inapplicable. xxiv ETYMOLOGICAL GLOSSARY OF Oblique (Case). A given to all Cases but the Subjective. By the Greeks the Subjective form of a Noun was regarded as erect, and all the other forms as fallings or oblique deviations from the Subjective. Ordinal (Adjective) [L. ordin-, * order"]. An Ad- jective, that answers to the question "in what order." Orthography [Gr. ortho, " correct " ; grapho, " I write"]. The correct writ- ing of words, i.e. correct spelling. N.B. Not "calli- graphy/' "pretty writing." Parenthesis [Gr. para, "aside"; ent/iesis, "inser- tion "]. A word, phrase, or sentence, inserted aside, or by the way, in a sentence complete without it. Participle [L. particip-, "participating "]. A form of a verb participating of the nature of a Verb, and of the nature of an Adjective. Partitive [L. part-, "part"]. Denoting partition. Passive (Voice) [L. pass-, " suffering "]. The form of a Verb in which the Subject is supposed to suffer an ac- tion i (60). Palatals. Letters whose sounds are produced by the 'palate : ch, j. Perfect (Tense) [L. perfect-, "complete"]. The Name for the Latin Tense that has to represent (owing to paucity of their Tenses) Indef. Past and Complete Present. Period [Gr. peri, ie round'' ; od-, "path"]. (1) The full, rounded path of a complex sentence, (2) a mark at the end of a sentence. Person [L. per, "through"; son-, " sound ; " hence, per- sona "a mask through which an actor sounds;" "an actor's part in a play."]. The part played in conversa- tion, whether (1) speaking ; (2) spoken to ; (3) spoken of (79). Personification. Endow- ing what is impersonal with a Personal Character. 2 Phrase [Gr. phrasis, a "say- ing"]. A group of words not expressing a statement, question, or command (239). Pluperfect (Tense) [L. plu-, "more ;" perfect-, "com- plete "]. A more than com- plete Tense. A Latin way of expressing the Complete Past. Plural (Number) [L. plu-, "more"]. The form of a Noun that denotes more than one (34—36). Poetry [Gr. poietes, a " maker"]. Language that is artistically made, as dis- tinguished from that which is ordinarily written or spoken. Polysyllable [Gr. poly, " many "]. A word of many syllables. Positive. The simple form of an Adjective ; so called i This definition is unsatisfactory, see Par. 60 a English Lessons Jor English People, page 131. GRAMMATICAL TERMS. because it expresses a quality not comparatively, but positively (42). Possessive (Use) [L. pos- sess-, "possessed".] The name given to the use or case of a Noun denoting possession (37). Potential (Mood) [L. potent- " powerful "]. An old name for a supposed Mood, which is really either the Mood of Purpose, or else simply the Indie, of an Auxiliary Verb. So called, because it involves the meaning of power or possibility. Predicate [L. " prcedica-, ,} " proclaim," "state"]. A word or group of words making a statement about a Subject (263). Prefix [L. prce, "before;" fix-, "fixed"]. A letter, syllable, or word fixed before another word. Preposition [L. prce "be- fore;" posit-, "placed"]. A Word (not a Verb) placed before a Noun or Pronoun as its object. Preterite (Tense) [L. prce- terit-, " past "]. A pe- dantical expression for "the Past Tense." Protasis [Gr. pro, "be- fore;" tasis, "stretch- ing,"]. Literally, stretching before. Hence, in a sen- tence, the Antecedent or Condition. See Apodosis Pronoun [L. ' pro, " for ; " L. nomen, " noun "]. A word used for a Noun. Proper (Noun). [L. pi'opri-, F.propre; "peculiar"]. A name that is peculiar or proper to the individual, not common to a class. See Common. Prose [L. prosa, for prorsa, for pro-versa, 1 i.e. "turned forward " ]. Writing that does not turn like verses (see Verse below) but runs straight on. Hence, the straight forward arrange- ment of prose. Prosody [Gr. prosodia, a " song " ]. Hence, that part of Grammar which treats of verse, whether intended to be sung or not. Punctuation [L. punctum, ** point "]. Dividing a sen- tence by means of points representing the pauses. Quantity. The quantity of time necessary to pronounce a syllable. Redundant [Latin re{d), "back;" undant- "flow- ing"]. Flowing back or over, i.e. superfluous. N.B. This word is oiten lazily used to appear to get rid of a difficulty. But few words are, strictly speaking, redundant ; they serve some purpose, although the pur- pose may not be easy te detect. Reflexive (Verb) L. [reflect-, " bend back "]. A Verb in which the action of the Subject is as it were bent back on the Subject, so that the Subject and Object de- note the same person or " thing. Relative (Pronoun) [L. re, "back;" lat-, "carried"]. Compare our e'er, o'er for ever, over. xxvi ETYMOLOGICAL GLOSSARY OF A name given to who, which, &c. when they do not carry one forward (as they do when used Interro- gatively) but carry one back to the Antecedent. 1 Retained (Object). The name given to one of the Objects of a Transitive Verb when retained as the Object of the same Verb in the Passive (123). Rhyme [A.S. rim, "num- ber"], identity of sound (from the vowel to the end) between two syllables at the end of two lines. 2 The Anglo-Saxon Poetry was not based on rhyme but on alliteration. Rhythm [Gr. rhythmos, "flowing motion"], the flowing regular motion of verse and of periodic prose. Root. That form from which another word springs, as a tree springs from its root. Semicolon [L. semi, half; Gr. colon, " limb " ]. Half of the colon, i.e. of the stop that marks off a separate limb or member of a sen- tence. " Sensuous " [L. sensn-, "sense "]. Appealing to th e senses. Milton says that Poetry should be " simple, sensuous, and passionate." Sentence [L. Sententia, a •' meaning ]. A group of words of a meaning so far complete as to express a statement, question, com- mand (239). Sharp (consonants) : k, p, t, so called from their sharp sound. Sibilant L. [sibila-, hiss]. Hissing letters : s, z, sh. Simile. A sentenceexpressing the similarity of relations e. g. between " plough " and "land," "ship" and "sea. "3 Solecism [Gr. soloikismos ; " speaking like the men of Soloi " 4 ]. Inaccuracy of expression. Spirants [L. spira-, "breathe"]. Letters in the pronunciation of whose sounds the breath is not wholly stopped, as it is in the pronunciation of "mutes." Stanza [It. stanza, a "stop"]. A division of a poem containing every variation of measure in the poem, and generally fur- nishing a stopping place at its termination. Strong (Verbs). Verbs that make their Past Tenses and Passive Participles not by adding -ed, -t, but by.vowel changes. Style [L. stilus, "an instru- ment for writing"]. A manner of expressing thought in language. Subject [L. subject-, "placed under ']. That which is placed under one's thoughts, as the material or topic for * See How to Tell the Parts of Speech, p. 124. 2 Syllables altogether identical do not rhyme. 3 See English Lessons for English People, page 126. 4 The derivation usually given, but probably inaccurate. GRAMMATICAL TERMS. XXVll speech. Hence, the Suhject of a Verb is said to be that about which the Verb makes a statement. But see Par. 1, note. Subjunctive (Mood) [L. subjunct- , ' ' subjoined " ]. A Mood expressing a pur- pose, condition, &c, sub- joined to some statement, ' question, or answer (163). Subordinate (sentence) [L. sub, " beneath ; " or 'din- , " rank "]. A sentence that ranks beneath another sen- tence. See Par. 249. Substantive (Noun) [L. sub- stantia, " substance "]. A useless name given to Nouns denoting things said to have substantial existence. Suffix [L. sub, " beneath , " fix-, "fixed"]. Same as Affix. Superlative ( degree) [L. super, "above;" lot-, " carried "]. An Adjectival form denoting the expression of a quality in a degree carried above other degrees (42). Supplement [L. sub, "up;" pie-, "fill"!. That which fills up, or supplies what is wanting in a Verb (148). Syllable [Gr. syn, "to- gether ; " lab-, " take "]. A group of letters taken to- gether so as to form one sound. Syncope [Gr. syn, "alto- gether " or " quite ;" cope, "cutting"], A considerable curtailment 1 or cutting of a word, by omitting letters in the middle, e.g. ne'er for never. Syntax [Gr. syn, "together;" taxis, "arranging"]. The arrangement of words to- gether in a sentence. Synthesis [Gr. syn, " to- gether ; " thesis, " placing"]. Placing together parts so as to form a whole. The opposite of analysis. Hence a synthetical period in lan- guage. See Par. 551. Tense [L. tempus, Fr. temps, "time"]. The forms of a Verb indicating the time of an action (71). Transitive [ L. trans, " across ; " it-, " going "]. A Verb that has an Object, so called because the action of the Verb is regarded as passing or going across to the Object (55). Trochee [Gr. trochos, "a running"]. InEnglish,afoot of two syllables consisting of an accented, followed by an unaccented syllable. So called from its brisk, or run- ning nature. Verb [L. verb-, "word"]. The chief word in a sen- tence. Verse [L. vert, "turn"]. A line of poetry at the end of which one turnstoa, new line. Vocative [L. voca-, "call"]. The use or case of a Noun when the person or thing is called to (32). Vowels [L. vocalis " having voice "]. The letters that have a voice or are sounded (not as the "consonants * Perhaps " a cutting in the middle so as to pull the extremes together.- xxviii RULES AND DEFINITIONS. . but) by themselves : a, e, i, o, u. Weak (Verbs). Verbs that form their Past Tenses and Passive participles by add- ing d or t, and not by changed Vowel. _ RULES AND DEFINITIONS. It is assumed that the ten following Definitions are known to the pupil : — 1. A Noun is a name of any kind (page 19 x ). 2. A Pronoun is a word used for a Noun (page 21 1 ). 3. An Adjective is a word that can be put before a Noun either to distinguish it, or to point out its number or amount (page 32 1 ). 4. A Verb is a word that can make a statement (page 39 1 ). 5. An Adverb is a word that answers to the question ' ' how ? " when ? " "where ? " or "how far is this true ? " (page 54 *). 6*. A Preposition is a word that can be placed before a Noun or a Pronoun, so that the Preposition and Noun or Pronoun together are equivalent to an Adjective or Adverb (page 76 1 ). 7. 2 A Sentence is a collection of words expressing a statement, question, or command (page 45 *). 8. 2 Any other collection of words, having a meaning, is called a Phrase (page 45 x ), or Clause. See Glossary. 9. A Conjunction is a word that joins two sentences together (page 85 1 ). 10. A Relative Pronoun is a Conjunctive Pronoun used so as to refer to a preceding Noun or Pronoun called the Antecedent (page 125i). 1. The Subject of a Verb making a statement is the word or words answering to the question ' ' who ? ' or " what ? " before the Verb (Par. ]). 2. The Object of a Verb or Preposition is the word or words * The figures denote the pages of Bow to Tell the Parts off Speech on which the first ten Definitions will severally be found. 2 A Sentence preceded by a Conjunction ceases to state, command, or question; it therefore becomes a Phrase, e.g. " When I saw John." Such a Phrase may conveniently be called a Claxise. See Par. 239. RULES AND DEFINITIONS. xxix answering to the question "whom?" or "what?" after the Verb or Preposition (14 l ). 3. When the Relative is followed by a Conjunction intro- ducing a new Sentence, leave out this sentence in parsing the Relative (24). 4. The Antecedent must sometimes be supplied from the sen- tence (25). 5. The Relative is sometimes omitted (26). 6. Some Pronouns are used Interrogatively, Conjunctively, and Relatively (28). 7. The Uses or Cases of a Noun are four, viz. Subject, Object? Possessive, and Vocative (32). 8. The Plural of a Noun is formed by adding -s to the Sin- gular (34). 9. The Possessive Use or Case, in the Singular and Plural, is formed by adding 's to the Singular or Plural form (37). 10. An Adjective has three Degrees of Comparison, vis. Positive, Comparative, and Superlative (42). 11. To form the Comparative and Superlative, add -er, -est to Positives of one Syllable. "More" and "most" are used in other cases (43). 12. A Verb that can have an Object is called Transitive; a Verb that cannot, is called Intransitive* 13. The Passive Voice of a Transitive Verb is the form assumed by the Verb when its Object is made the Subject (60). 14. The Active Voice of a Transitive Verb is the form that can be used with an Object (61). 15. A Participle can be distinguished by the fact that it can be, in part, replaced bj a Conjunctive word (66). 16. Each Voice has four Moods: Infinitive, Indicative, Im- perative, and Subjunctive (70). 17. The Infinitive Mood speaks of an action without defining the doer (70). 18. The Indicative Mood definitely points out an action (70). 19. The Imperative Mood commands an action (70). 20. The Subjunctive Mood expresses condition, purpose, wish, &c. (70). 21. Verbs have three Tenses: Past, Present, and Future (71). 22. Each Tense has four " States " of Action : the Indejinite, i These and the following Eeferences are to the Paragraphs in How to Parse. 2 If the Indirect Ohject is called a separate use, there will he five Uses of a Noun. 3 The usual Definitions are given in Par. 55 ; but they are very un- satisfactory. xxx BULES AND DEFINITIONS. the Complete, the Incomplete, and the Complete Post-Continuous (73.. 74). 23. A Verb agrees with its Subject in Person and Number (78). 24. "May," "can," "must," "will," "shall," "let," be. are called Auxiliary Verbs (95). 25. "To" is omitted in the Infinitive after the Auxiliary Verbs, and after "see," "hear," "feel" (96). 26. An Infinitive may be used (1) as a Noun ; (2) as an Adverb ; (3) as an Adjective. 27. The Indirect Object of a Verb is the word or phrase answering to the question " For, or, to, whom ? " " For, or, to, what ? " when used after the Verb and the Direct Object (118). 28. When an Active Verb taking two Objects is changed into the Passive Voice, one Object becomes the Subject of the Passive Verb, but the other is retained as Object (122). 29. Some Verbs, generally Intransitive, can take an Object of a nature akin or cognate to the Verb, called the Cognate Object (125). 30. The Object is sometimes used Adverbially to denote extension, price, point of time (127 — 131). 31. The Subject, generally with a Participle, is sometimes used Adverbially (135). 32. A Noun or Pronoun, not Subject or Object of a Verb, but so connected with another Noun or Pronoun that we can understand between them the words "I mean," "that is to say," &c, is said to be in Apposition to the latter (137). 33. Nouns and Pronouns are used Subjectively when in Appo- sition to Subjects, and Objectively when in Apposition to Objects (138). 34. The (1) Intransitive Verbs "is," "looks," "seems," " appears," &c, and (2) the Transitive Verbs " make," " create," •' appoint," " deem, " esteem," being used to express identity, and, as it were, to place one Noun or Pronoun in apposition ■with another, may be called Verbs of Identity, or Appositional Verbs (147). 35. Verbs of Identity, when Intransitive and Passive, take a Subjective Supplement; when Transitive, take an Objective Supplement (150). 36. " It" and "there" are sometimes irregularly used to prepare the way for the Subject or Object (151). 37. In a Conditional Sentence, (1) the Clause expressing the condition is called the Antecedent ; (2) the Clause expressing the consequence of the fulfilment of the condition is called the Con- sequent (167). 38. Auxiliary Verbs (when not following "if" or any other Conjunction expressing Condition) are used Indicatively, when- ever they can be altered into the Indicatives of other Verbs (181). RULES AND DEFINITIONS. xxxi 89. Whenever language is irregular, there is some cause foi the irregularity (192). 40. The three principal causes of irregularity are I. Desire oj brevity ; II. Confusion of two constructions ; III. Desire tc avoid harshness of sound or of construction (198). 41. A Simple Sentence is a sentence that has only one Sub- ject and only one Stating, Questioning, or Commanding Verb (245). 42. When several Simple Sentences are connected by "and," " but," " so," " then," kc, so that each sentence is, as it were, independ3nt, and of the same rank as the rest, each is called a co-ordinate Sentence 1 (246). 43. A Compound Sentence is a Sentence made up of Co- ordinate Sentences (247). 44. When a number of Sentences are connected by Conjunc- tions that are not Co-ordinate, the Sentence that is not intro- duced by a Conjunction is called the Principal Sentence (248). 45. Sentences connected with a Principal Sentence by Con- junctions that are not Co-ordinate are called Sub-ordinate 1 (249). 46. A Complex Sentence is the whole Sentence formed by the combination of the Principal and Subordinate Sentences (250). 47. When a word passes from one form to another, a letter is often changed or doubled in order to preserve the original sound (266). , 48. Final -e is dropped before an affix beginning with a vowel, but retained before an affix beginning with a consonant (270). 49. A monosyllable ending in -11, when followed by an affix beginning with a consonant, or when itself used as an affix, generally drops one -I (275). 50. If the termination of a word is a consonant preceded by a vowel, then, on receiving an affix beginning with a vowel, the final consonant in the word is doubled, provided that the word is a monosyllable, or accented on the last syllable (277). 51. When a word is separated from its grammatical adj unct by any intervening Phrase, the Phrase should be preceded and followed by a comma 2 (224). * The mark of a Subordinate Sentence is that when preceded by it* Conj unction, it cannot generally stand as a Sentence by itself. A Co- ordinate Sentence can thus stand by itself. 2 For words, idioms, &c, the pupil is referred to the Alphabetical Index at the end of the book. HOW TO PAESE. CHAPTER I. SUBJECT AND OBJECT. The Subject in a Stating Sentence. All Verbs that make a statement must be ac- companied by some Noun, or equivalent of a Noun, about which the statement is made : — (1) " Thomas failed." (2) "He failed." (3) " The attempt to take the city failed." (4) " That he failed is certain." In each of the three examples above, if you ask the question "Who or what failed'*" the answer, being the subject of our statement, is called the Subject of the Verb. This leads us to a Definition : The Subject of a Verb in a stating sentence is the word or collection of words answering to the question asked by putting " Who ? " or " What t " before the Verb? 1 It is not enough to saj' that the Subject is "that about which the statement is made." For, in "A tempest wrecked our ship," tht statement is just as much about "ship" as about " tempest " ; but "ship" is not the " Subject." B A 2 SUBJECT. [Par. 2—4 2 Caution I. If the Verb is accompanied by an Adverb, as — (1) "He seldom sleeps." (2) " She does not sleep." — the Adverb should be repeated in the question : (1) "Who seldom sleeps?" Answer: "He," Subject. (2) "Who does not sleep?" Answer: "She," Subject. 3 Caution II. If the Verb is accompanied by words necessary to give the meaning, as — (1) " John is a mere boy." (2) " Thomas was made happy" — these words may be repeated in the question : (1) "Who is a mere boy?" Answer: "John," Subject. (2) " Who was made happy ? " Answer : ' ' Thomas, " Subject 4 The Subject in a Questioning Sentence. In a Questioning Sentence, e.g. — (1) " Did John come ? " — ask r "Did who comer' Answer: "Did John come 1 " Therefore " John " is the Subject. Par. 5— 7J SUBJECT. 3 5 Caution. If the Sentence only answers our ques- tion by repeating " Who ? " " What 1 " " Which 1 " &c. as — (1) " What made you so foolish ? " (2) " Who saw him die ? " —then, " Who % " " What 1 » « Which 1 " are them- selves the Subjects. 6 The Subject in a Commanding Sentence. 1 The Subject in a Commanding Sentence is almost always "you"; or, in Poetry, "thou" or "ye." It is generally not expressed : (1) " Stay (you) where you are : the rest may go." (2) "Follow (thou) me." 7 Caution. Where a Verb follows a Conjunction, as — (1) ". . . that the attempt may prosper. " (2) ". . . if Thomas helps me." — it is useful sometimes to repeat the Conjunction before " Who 1 » or " What 1 " :— (1) " That what may prosper ? " Answer : " The attempt," Subject. (2) "If who helps me?" Answer: "Thomas," Subject. i In these sentences, the name "Subject" is usually given to the Pronoun denoting the person to whom the command is addressed. B 2 4 SUBJECT. [Par. 7 The Conjunctions "and," "but," "for," "then," " so," " therefore," &c. need not be repeated. Exercise I. (Specimen). Find ont the Subjects of the italicized Verbs in the following Exercise : x — Once upon a time there* lived 2 a mighty king whose* name was Xerxes, and he reigned over Persia. Does every boy know where Persia is ? If you do not know, look it out in the Map. Though he was king of the Persians, and reigned over almost all the nations of the East, yet he was not satisfied with this ; nothing but the whole world could satisfy him. So, learning that a little nation lived not far from him, on the other side of the iEgean sea, and had not yet submitted to him, the king determined to conquer it. This nation, which consisted of several independent cities — Athens, Sparta, Thebes, and many others — was called altogether by the name of " Greeks." All the Greeks together, when they mustered all their fighting men, did not amount to a hundred thousand, while Xerxes was obeyed by more* than a million of soldiers. Besides, the Greeks were often divided against themselves, one city fighting against another, so that they seemed to have no chance against the Great King — for this was the name by which the King of Persia was known, Xerxes did not believe for a moment that the Greeks, few and divided as* they were, would resist him. So before he collected an army, he determined to try peaceable means. Accordingly he sent heralds to all the principal i In this Exercise, and in those that follow, the Pupil may be asked to point out Nouns, Verbs, Adverbs, &c. But in that case, words marked thus * should be omitted. a The term " Subject " includes not merely the Noun that answers to the question 'Who?" or "What?" before the Verb, but also all Adjectives or Adjective Phrases put to the Noun; e.g. "a mighty king" is the Subject of "lived." "King" maybe called the "Noun part of the Subject," or the "Noun Subject." Par. 7] SUBJECT. 5 cities in Greece, and bade them demand from each city " earth and water." What made him ask for that ? Why, you must know this was the Persian way of demanding obedience and subjection ; for, among them, giving earth was the sign of surrendering their land to the Great King, and giving water meant that they surrendered their sea and navy to him. The heralds therefore, with this message from Xerxes, went forth on their several journeys. "Who lived?" "A mighty king," Subject. " Does every boy know ? " " Does who know ? " "Every boy," Subject. " If who do not know ? " " You," Subject. " Look it out." A command : Subject " you," implied. "Though who reigned?" "He," Subject. (Note that reigned is joined by the Conjunction " and " to the Verb was, and both these Verbs follow the Conjunction "though." We therefore repeat "though," in asking the question to find the Subject. Note, also, that the answer is ' ' he," not * ' Xerxes. " The answer must always be a word in the sentence. ) "Who or what could satisfy him?" "Nothing but the whole world," Subject. " Who or what had (not yet) submitted ? " "A little nation," Subject. These words are also the Subject of lived, which is joined to had submitted by " and." "Who or what was called ? " " This nation," Subject. "Who or what did (not) amount?" "All the Greeks," Subject. "Who was obeyed ? " " Xerxes," Subject. " Who were often divided ? " "The Greeks," Subject. " Who seemed ? " " They," Subject. "What made him ask ?" Here the answer is the same as the question, viz. " What ; " and "What " is the Subject of "made." " What was (the sign of surrendering) I" " Giving earth/' Subject. 6 POSITION OF THE SUBJECT. [Par. 8-10 8 Position of the Subject. The Subject of a Verb expressing a statement generally (a) comes before the Verb ; but it (b) some- times comes after the Verb, e.g. when " there " or an emphatic Adverb, or some other emphatic word, comes at the beginning of the sentence : — (a) (1) "He reigned in Persia." (b) (1) " There is no doubt about it." (2) "Next came my brother." (3) " ' Stop,' cried the soldier." 9 In Poetry, the Subject often comes after the Verb (See Pars. 513—4) :— (1) " Loud blew the blast." 10 In Questions, the Subject is generally (1) in the middle of the Verb, but sometimes (2) after the Verb— (1) " What did the man say ? " (2) " What said the man ? » — unless the Subject happens to be " Who " or " What "— (1) " Who saw him die ? " Exercise II. Write down the Subjects of the italicized Verbs in the following Exercise : — When the heralds had arrived at the cities of Greece, and delivered their message, they were received differently in Par. 11] FORMS OF THE SUBJECT. 7 different places. Some cities gave earth and water, be- cause they were afraid of the Great King ; others, because they were jealous of their neighbours, and hoped the Great King would help them and destroy their enemies. But the men of Athens and of Sparta would give neither earth nor water. Indeed the Athenians were so angry at the message, that they threw one of the heralds into a pit, and bode him take his earth thence ; another they threw into a well, telling him that he could find water there. Xerxes, when he heard how his heralds had been treated, and how the men of Athens and Sparta had refused earth and water, determined at once to levy an army and to conquer Greece. Never before was so vast a host collected. They drank whole rivers dry.* The Hellespont, across which they had to pass into Greece, was bridged with boats : a promontory (its name was Mount Athos) was cut through to give a passage to their fleet. And now this monstrous army, amounting to a million at least, had penetrated Greece, and was marking southward. Still no one ventured to oppose them, and in a few days the hosts of Xerxes, with undiminished numbers, had reached a pass called Thermopylae. Different forms of the Subject. The Subject may be — 1. A Noun, Pronoun, or Adjective put for Noun :— "John runs," "He runs," "Who runs?" "That is a mistake." 2. A group of Nouns connected by "and" :— " Two and three make five." " You and I are cousins. " 8 FORMS OF THE SUBJECT. [Par. 11 3 A Noun-Phrase, or Noun-Clause:— (1) " To write an exercise without a fault requires much care." (2) " That he was guilty was not proved." 1 Is Exercise IIL Write down the Subjects of the italicized Verbs in the following Exercise : — " What is a pass ? " perhaps you ask. A narrow path with steep mountains on hoth sides is called a pass. In this case there* were mountains on one side, and, on the other side, was a marshy place stretching down to the sea, so that there* was only room for a cart or two to pass,,; In such a place, to resist a host was an easy matter for a few* brave men. But, just then, the Greeks were terrified. To remain at Thermopylae seemed to them certain death ; so they determined to retreat. Then Leonidas, who was king of the Spartans, when he found that he could not persuade the other Greeks to remain, determined to remain by himself with a few* brave Spartans, to resist Xerxes, and to gain time for his countrymen. With him remained about three hundred men, and the* rest* departed. When Xerxes, after arriving at Thermopylae, saw the hand- ful of Spartans prepared to resist him, he laughed at them, and bade his soldiers bring them to him in chains. But the Persian soldiers, on advancing to the charge, found that their master was mistaken in his laughter. Charge after charge was made by the Persians, but to no purpose. The Persians were slain in hundreds, but the Greeks were neither taken nor driven back. That the Persians were J The Noun-Clause in (2) may be called & Noun-Sentence, for conveni- ence ; but it must always be borne in mind that a Sentence preceded by a Conjunction, so that it no longer states, questions, or commands — ceases, strictly speaking, to be a Sentence, and becomes a Clause. See the Definitions, p. xxviii. The word Phrase includes Clause. Par. 12, 13] OBJECT. 9 no match for the Greeks was made evident even to the proud King Xerxes ; and, when the sun set, he retired to his tent in great sorrow. ) / 12 The Object. Supply what is wanting to complete the sense after the following Verbs and Prepositions : — 1. The grey-hound killed — . 2. I am travelling towards — . 3. The woodman felled — . 4. The soldier shot — . 5. "We wish for — . 6. We desire — . 7. I look for — . 8. John is seeking — . 9. I come to — . 10. They reach — . 11. The cart-wheel ran over — . 12. I am think- ing about — . 13. I am living in — . The best way to supply what is wanting is to repeat the Verb or Preposition, and ask whom ? or what ? (not before the Verb, as when you were finding the Subject, but) after the Verb. For example, "Killed what?" Answer: "A hare." " Towards what 1 " Answer : " Paris." Now "hare" is called the Object of the Verb " killed," and " Paris " the Object of the Preposition "towards." 13 " Object " means "put in the way." Just as a target is put in the way of the marksman, and is called the object at which he shoots, so the word or group of words answer- ing to the question whom ? or what ? after a Verb or Pre- position, often denotes the object of the action of the Verb, or of the motion implied by the Preposition. For example, "the hare" is the object of the action of "killing": "Paris" is the object of the motion implied in "towards." 10 OBJECT. [Par. 14, 15 Hence the name "Object" is given to the words answer- ing the question whom ? or what ? after the Verb or Preposition, even in some cases where the name may seem misapplied. For example, in "He is travelling from Paris," you can hardly say that Paris is the object of motion. Never- theless, in conformity with the general rule, " Paris" is called the " Object" of the Preposition "from." 14 The word or collection of words answering to the question whom ? or what ? after a Verb or Prepo- sition is called the Object. 1 15 Different forms of the Object. The Object, like the Subject, must be a Noun, or the equivalent of a Noun : — 1. A Noun or Pronoun:— " I like playing, John, nothing." 2. A group of Nouns connected by "and":— " He is sitting between you and me" : " This railway connects Paris and Brussels." 3. A Noun-Phrase, or Noun-Clause:— (1) "I like to play, to hear music, hearing music, a rascal to be punished." (2) "I know that he was not guilty." " I asked whether he had arrived. " i As in finding the Subject, so here, if the Verb is modified by " not." or any other Adverb, the Adverb may be repeated with the Verb in asking the question. Par. 16—19] OBJECT. 11 16 Position of the Object. The Object generally follows the Verb or Pre- position, but not always. For example : — I. When the Object is an Interrogative or Rela- tive Pronoun : — (1) " Whom did. you see?" (2) "The house that I live in." 17 II. When the Object is emphatic : — (1) "Silver and gold have I none." (2) "Not one word did he say." (3) "Some he killed, others he took alive." 18 HI. In Poetry (514):— " A monarch's sword when mad vain -glory draws." 19 Some Verbs have no Object. Some Verbs denote (1) states, e.g., "be," "remain," " seem," " appear," and generally all forms of " be " followed by the Verbal forms in ~ed, -en, &c. ; others denote (2) actions not regarded as having an external object, e.g., "run," "walk," &c. These two classes of Verbs do not take a Gram- matical Object. The former class suggests the question "who?" not "whom?" e.g., "He seems — "; " seems who or what ? " Answer, " He seems a rascal." Here " rascal" answers to the question 12 OBJECT. [Par. 19 " who ?" (not " whom 1 ") and is not called the Object of " seems." See Par. 147. Exercise IV. (Specimen). Find out the Objects of the italicized Verbs and Prepositions in the following Exercise : — Next day the Persians attacked the Greeks again, but to no purpose. Not the slightest impression did they make on the little Greek phalanx. Their gold and silver armour was no match for the steel spears of the brave Greeks. Besides, the Greeks were righting for their country, while the Persians did not want to fight, and were driven to the battle with the lash. So the sun set again, and Xerxes found that he was again defeated. But, that night, while the King teas angrily thinking that he should have to retreat, a traitor came to his tent and offered to show him a path over the mountains, by which the Persians might come down behind the Greeks, and thus (might) attack them in the rear as well as in front. At once, a Persian battalion set out under the guidance of the traitor, and by sunrise next morning, the Persians, with two vast hosts, had shut in x the little band of Greeks between the sea, the mountains, and their enemies. " Attacked whom ? " " The Greeks," Object. "They did (not) make what?" 2 "The slightest impres- sion," Object. l " Shut in " is one Compound Verb. See How to Tell the Parts of Speech, p. 77. = See Note on page 10. Tlie term " Object " includes, not merely the Noun, but the whole of the answer to the question " whom ?" or " what?" after the Verb. The Noun-part of the Object, may, for convenience, be called the Noun- Object, and may be stated separately, if desired, e.g., "the slightest impression " is the " Object," but *' impression " is the " Noun-Object" of ' did make." Par. 20] OBJECT. 13 "For what?" "The steel swords of the brave Greeks," Object. " For what ? " "Their country," Object. « ' Did (not) want what I." "To fight, " Object. " With what ? " " The lash," Object. " Found what ? " " That he was again defeated, " Object. "Was (angrily) thinking what ? " " That he should have to retreat," Object. " To what ? " " His tent," Object. " Offered what ? " "To show him a path over the moun- tains," Object. The rest you can answer for yourself. 20 Many parts of the Verb that take no Subject may take an Object. For example, you cannot ask " Who or what killing ? " but you can ask " killing whom or what 1 " Consequently " killing " can have no Subject, but may have an " Object." And so may " to kill." Exercise V. Find out the Objects of the italicized Verbs and Prepositions in the following Exercise : J — Leonidas saw at once that he and his men had no chance of escape. But instead of lamenting, he seemed delighted at the thought of d ying honourably. He told his men to clean their armour and weapons, and to prepare them- selves as if for a feast. Then, when the sun was sinking, " Take your suppers," said he, "and remember that you * The Subjects of the italicized Verbs may also be found both in this and in the preceding Exercise. 14 OBJECT. [Par. 20 will take your breakfast elsewhere." But in that little band there was not one man that feared to die ; for a soldier's death was counted an honourable, and not a terrible thing, among the Greeks. When night came, out marched the Greeks against the army of Xerxes. Wherever they went, they carried death and terror with them ; they overturned the tent of Xerxes and slew his guards. The proud king was forced to flee for his life ; and, if the night could have lasted for a night and a day, perhaps they might have destroyed the whole of that vast host. But, when day began to dawn, the enemy discovered the small number of the Greeks, and took courage. The Greeks were weary with slaying their thousands, the Persians were fresh ; the Greeks were three hundred men, the Persians were more than three hundred thousand. So the Persians gathered round the Greeks, attacking them with slings and darts and spears, because they did not dare to attack them in close fight. When the Greeks charged, the Persians fled from them ; when the Greeks retired, the Persians approached them. First one and then another of the Greeks fell beneath the shower of darts, others were wounded and could scarcely stand ; but none would surrender. Before sunset, every Greek was slain, and the Persian army had gained the victory. But, from that day to the present (day), all men have honoured the names of Leonidas and his brave Greeks, who have left for us and for all men an example teaching us not to be afraid of dying honour- ably. Exercise VI. Write or repeat the Subjects of the italicized Verbs, and the Objects of the italicized Verbs and Prepositions, in the following Exercise : — Par. 20] OBJECT. 15 Tommy had heard from Mr. Barlow many stories about the taming of wild animals ; so he thought to himself he should like to tame 1 a pig. He had heard that the youngest animals are most easily tamed 1 / so he chose out the youngest pig in the farm-yard, and approached it with some bread in his hand. " Come here, little pig," said he ; but the pig ran away. "Then I must fetch you," cried Tommy, and, so saying, he caught it by the leg. The little pig squeakeoTand the old sow, coming up, ran between Tommy's legs, and knocked him down in the mud. "Who did all this mischief?" said Mr. Barlow, coming out that moment from the house. " That foolish~pig," said poor Tommy. " Oh ! no," replied Mr. Barlow, "that foolish boy." In doing the above Exercise, make three columns, thus : — Answer to the ques- tion, who ? or what ? before the Verb, i.e. SUBJECT. Answer to the question whom? or what? after the Verb or Preposi- tion, i.e. OBJECT. WORD. had heard from to tame Tommy many stories about the taming of wild animals Mr. Barlow a pig * Some of these Verbs, e.g. to tame, have no Subjects; some, e.g. are tamed, have no Objects. 16 OBJECT. [Par. 20 Exercise VII. Write or repeat the Subjects of the italicized Verbs, and the Objects of the italicized Verbs and Prepositions, in the following Exercise : — A lion, while* quietly sleeping, was surrounded by some mice. They began dancing round him, and at last 1 one young mouse, bolder than* the rest,* jumped up on his body and scampered across his face. The lion awoke with a roar, and the mice ran away: but the j r oung mouse was stopped by the lion's* paw. "Spare me!" cried she, " and 1 will never disturb you again." The lion good-humouredly took his paw off her, and lay down again. Some days afterwards, the lion was caught in a net spread by some huntsmen. In vain 1 he roared and struggled : he found that his struggles only entangled him more in the net, and he cried in despair, " I have no chance of escaping." Just then, up came the little mouse with a thousand brothers and sisters. To work they fell, gnawing the net, and in ten minutes the lion was released by the mice. * An Adverbial Phrase. See How to Tell, <&c, page 7S>. CHAPTER IT. THE RELATIVE PRONOUN. 21 How to Find whether the Relative is Subject or Object. In the sentence " Bring the book that pleases you best," what is the Subject of " pleases ? " Perhaps you may ask the question in the usual way, " What pleases 1 " Answer, " the book." But this is not right. " Book " is the Object of " bring." " Bring what % " Answer, " the book." Now the same word is never both Object and Subject ; so " book " cannot be the Subject of "pleases;" and the real Subject of "pleases" is the Relative Pronoun " that." You will generally answer questions of this kind rightly if you remember that the Relative Pro- noun ■ is in some sense a Conjunction, so that it joins together two sentences, one of which states, commands, &c, and may be called (Par. 248) the Principal Sentence ; while the other — as it is intro- duced by the Relative Pronoun — may be called a Relative Sentence. If these Sentences are kept quite distinct — the Principal Sentence being first repeated * How to Tell, &c, page 125. 18 THE RELATIVE PRONOUN. [Par. 22 and parsed by itself, and afterwards the Relative Sentence — the pupil will have no difficulty. 22 In parsirjg the Relative Sentence, the Noun or Pronoun for which the Relative Pronoun is used — that is, its Antecedent 1 — should be written in brackets by the side of the Relative Pronoun. Thus, in parsing the Sentences of the next Exer- cise, write down the Principal and Relative Sen- tences as follows : — Principal Sentence (1) Relative (2) The jay was very soon punished for her rob- bery." That (jay) robbed the peacocks of their fea- thers." If the Sentence contains two or three Relative Sentences, they may be taken separately, e.g. in the seventh Sentence of the following Exercise : — Principal Sentence (a) (1) " The girl that I told you of was taught a lesson that she never forgot." \ Relative „ (a) (2) " Who (the girl) counted her chickens before they I were hatched." Principal ,, (b) (1) " The girl was taught a lesson that she never forgot. " Relative „ {b) (2) " I told you of that (girl.)" Principal ,, (c) (1) "The girl was taught a lesson." Relative „ (c) (2) " She never forgot that (lesson)." * How to Tell, &c, page 125. Par. 22] THE RELATIVE PRONOUN. 19 The form who, or whom, will of itself tell you at once whether it is Subject or Object. In parsing a Relative Pronoun, state — 1. Antecedent. 2. Subject of what Verb, or, 3. Object of what Verb or Preposition. Exercise VIII. Parse the Relative Pronouns in the following sentences : — 1. The jay that robbed the peacocks of their feathers was very soon punished for her robbery. 2. The ass that frightened the beasts of the forest was laughed at when he began to bray. 3. The crow dropped the cheese, which the fox immediately snapped up. 4. The lion that spared the mouse was afterwards released by the mouse. 5. The travellers, all of whom had seen the chameleon, could not agree about its colour. 6. Shakespeare tells us that the man that does not love music is fit for murders and conspiracies. 7. The girl that I told you of, who counted her chickens before they were hatched, was taught a lesson that she never forgot. 8. Have you ever heard of Horatius Codes, who defended the bridge against a host of enemies, and whom the Romans honoured by erecting a statue to his memory ? Write these down as follows : — Word. Antecedent. Subject of Object of that which jay cheese robbed snapped up c 2 20 THE RELATIVE PRONOUN, [par. 23, 24- Find out the Subjects and Objects of all the Verbs in the foregoing sentences, 23 The Position of the Relative. Note that the Kelative Pronoun, when used as Object, precedes both the Subject and the Verb. The reason is that the Pronoun, serving the purpose of a Conjunction, has to precede the sentence that it joins to the Principal Sentence. 24 When a Parenthetical Sentence intervenes be- tween the Eelative Pronoun and its Verb, that sentence must be carefully separated from the Eelative Sentence. A Parenthetical' sentence is a sentence inserted in the midst of another sentence, the latter being com- plete without the former. The following are examples of sentences contain- ing Relative Pronouns followed by Parenthetical sentences : — (1) "Yesterday I met Robert, wlio — you will hardly believe it — has grown to be six feet high, with a beard reaching to his watch-chain." (2) "Yesterday I met Robert, whom (though I had not seen him for ten years) I recognized at once." In the following Exercise, the Conjunctional sentences are inserted between parenthetical marks; Par. 24] THE RELATIVE PRONOUN. 21 but the pupil must be prepared to parse the Relative hereafter without the aid of these marks. The following will be found a useful Rule : — When the Relative is followed by a Conjunction (e.g. "though" above in (2)) introducing a new sentence^ leave out this sentence in parsing the Relative. Exercise IX. Parse the Relative Pronouns in the following Exercise, stating the Antecedent, and the Verb or Preposition of which each is Subject or Object : — Once there was a quarrel between the eyes and the nose about the ownership of the spectacles, which (so said the nose) were undoubtedly intended for him and not for his two neighbours the eyes ; who, on their part (although they admitted that the nose had a share in the spectacles), yet claimed the largest share for themselves. The two ears, whom both parties accepted as judges, called on the tongue, who was counsel for both, to plead first the cause of the eyes, and then that of the nose. So the tongue began by saying that spectacles that had no eyes to look through them, were of no use ; the word "spectacle," which the Latins used to denote a "place for seeing, " proved, of itself, that the instrument was meant for seeing and not for smelling. The judges, who (though they became rather inattentive while Latin was being quoted) had listened with great patience to the arguments that the tongue brought forward, now desired to hear what the nose had to say. So the tongue, taking that side of the question, which he pleaded remarkably well, called attention to the saddle that was between the two glasses, 22 THE RELATIVE PRONOUN. [Par. 25 which, said" he, was clearly intended for the nose. He added, with great force, that, if the eyes were closed or even altogether removed, the spectacles would still remain faithfully in their place, but a man that suddenly lost his nose would certainly lose his spectacles as well— "ivhich," J said he, "clearly proves that the nose is the owner of the spectacles. If a dog were placed between two claimants, should we not readily admit that the claimant to whom the dog went would be the rightful owner? My lords, the spectacles, which (because they have no power of motion) sit patiently there between my two clients, would clearly shew you, if they could move, to which claimant they adhered. Cut out the eye, the spectacles will sit unmoved : cast down the nose, the trusty spectacles will immediately follow their fallen master." Here the judges, declaring that what 2 they had heard was enough to enable them to arrive at a decision, stopped the counsel, and at once decided in favour of the nose. Exercise X. "Write or repeat the Subjects and Objects of the Verbs italicized in the last Exercise. 25 Omission of the Antecedent. Tell me the Antecedent of which in the following sentence : — "The ass in the lion's skin frightened all the beasts in the forest till he began to bray :* which at once changed their fear into laughter." * See "Omission of the Antecedent," Par. 25. ■ What should be parsed here thus: "what is put for that which ; that is the Subject of was ; which is the Object of had heard." The sentence, fully expressed, would run thus : " declaring that that (Subj.) which (Obj.) they had heard was enough," &c. Par. 26] THE RELATIVE PRONOUN. 23 There is no Noun or Pronoun here that can be called the Antecedent of which. Which stands lor " the ass's beginning to bray," or " the braying of the ass," or some other words to be supplied from the previous sentence. In parshig which you must say, " which stands for an Antecedent to be supplied, viz. ' the braying of the ass.' " 26 The Omission of the Relative. When the Eelative would be the Object, it is often omitted : — (1) " The book {that) you sent me is not mine." (2) "Where is the parcel (that) I left here yester- day ?" (3) "The message (that) I was sent with was to this effect." In Poetry it (Par. 520) is sometimes omitted, even where, if inserted, it would be the /Subject : — (1) "'Tis distance (that) lends enchantment to the view. " Exercise XI. Write down the Subjects and Objects of the italicized Verbs, and parse the Relatives, as in the last Exercise : — The sun had nearly set when Harry, having delivered the , message he had brought, began to turn his steps home- 24 THE RELATIVE PRONOUN. [Far. 26 wards. There was no moon, which 1 (together with his ignorance of the neighbourhood) made him quicken his pace across the common. For some time he managed to keep the path, which was nothing but two cart ruts leading from one farm to another. Presently, however, a track that turned off to a gravel-pit, led him astray. When he had once gone wrong, he found that he could not find the path he hud lost. Through brambles, over furze-bushes, he scrambled onward, till, at last, he fell into a deep pit which, having been left by the peat- cutters, had been filled with water oozing from the bog around, and would have drowned him, if he had not been able to swim. Suddenly, to his great joy, he saw a light, which 2 he wondered that he had not noticed before. He ran towards it, supposing it came from some cottage belonging to a shepherd he had seen in the morning keep- ing his sheep near the middle of the common. Just when he was close on the light, he fell into another deep pool, which was so broad that he had great difficulty in swimming across it. Scrambling out, he looked round for the light he was seeking ; but to his surprise, it seemed to be' behind him. Just at this moment another light appeared, straight before him, which, when he approached it, retired from him. Thinking it was the torch of some traveller that, like himself, had lost his way, he shouted to the man to stop, and ran towards him ; but, instead of stopping, the light ran away faster than before, seeming to choose the most miry and boggy spots it could find, so that poor Harry soon fell a third time into the water. * See Paragraph 25. a Which is not the Object of wondered. Par. 27, 28] INTERROGATIVE RRONOUNS. 25 07 Uses of "Who," "What," «cc. The Pronouns "who," "what," "which," were once always used Interrogatively : — A. (1) " Who has a good conscience ? " In time, questions of this kind were used with their answers, thus : — (2) u Whohas a good conscience ? He is prepared to die." Afterwards, for shortness, the two sentences were blended in one. Then, sometimes the whole of the Interrogative sentence was treated as a Noun — (3) " (Who, or whoever, has a good conscience) is pre- pared to die." But, more commonly, the Interrogative force of the first sentence was quite forgotten, and, " who " being treated like " that," the two sentences be- came — B. " (4) "He who has a good conscience is prepared to die." 23 Again, when Sentence A was made the Object of a Verb in a preceding sentence, e.g. " I asked," the second sentence lost its Interrogative force : and " who," instead of being Interrogatively used, was used Conjunctively, so as to join the sentence " I asked " with the following words : — C. (5) "I asked who had a good conscience." 26 THE RELATIVE PRONOUN. [Par. 29 Carefully distinguish the three uses : — (A) " What say you ? " (Interrogative.) (B) " What you say is true. " (Relative.) (C) "I asked what you said." (Conjunctive.) If you are asked where are the Antecedents of the Relatives " what " and " whoever," you can often supply the Antecedents, thus : — (1) "What you say, {that) is true." (2) " Whoever said that, (he) was mistaken." 29 Sometimes, as in the fourth line of the next exercise, " what " may be parsed either as (1) Con- junctively, or as (2) Relatively used : — (1) u What should he do ? Harry did not know." (2) "Harry did not know what, i.e., that which he should do. " Exercise XII. Parse the italicized words, stating the Subjects and Objects of Verbs and Prepositions : — Harry's* efforts had almost exhausted him. Wet, weary, and almost in despair, he stood shivering on the pool's* brink, looking at the waters from which he had escaped, not knowing what he should do. Another light began to dance before him, but the chase he had had after the light already, made him decide not to pursue it. "I have had enough of following you, Mr. Traveller,"* said he ; " yet what, shall I do ? If I stand here much longer, the little strength I have, will be exhausted ; yet I do not know which way to turn, and what I have seen of this com- Par. 29] THE RELATIVE PRONOUN. 27 mon convinces me that a man that does not know the road well, may go on walking round and round for hours and only come back to the place he started from. " Just then the clouds, which, while he had been wandering about, had hitherto covered the sky, now parted and shewed a few stars. Among them was a constellation he knew very well, called the Great Bear. Then, all at once, what Mr. Barlow had told him occurred to his mind, that two of the Great Bear's* stars always point to the Pole-star, which is always in the North. Now he knew that the farm he had lately left was six miles to the soutb of his home, so that the path he ought to take, lay to the north. Off he started at once, keeping his eyes on the Pole-star, which, though it led him through more brambles and furze and pools, yet at last brought him out of the com- mon. When he came home, he told his father about the movjng lights, which, his father informed him, were called Will o' the Wisps, or Jack o' Lanterns. Those lights came from the marshes, and it* was* the wind* that* made* them shake and dance about — which poor Harry mistook for the motion of a traveller. Words marked * are not to be parsed for the present. CHAPTER III. USES AND INFLECTIONS OF WORDS. 30 Inflections. The different forms of the same words, as, (1) "like," "likes," "liked;" (2) "man," "man's," " men ; " (3) " quick," " quicker," " quickest," are called Inflections. The word "Inflection" means a "bending," or slight altera- tion. 31 Some words in a sentence are inflected to suit or agree with other words with which they are put. For example, we say " He likes me ; " but, if "he" is altered into "they," "likes" must be altered into "like" to agree with " they." The rules for the " putting together " or arrange- ment of words so as to agree with one another, are called Eules of Syntax (syn-> together ; taxis, putting). 32 Uses of the Noun. I. A Noun may be used in the (1) Singular Number. Apple, man, mouse, ox. Par. 33] NOUNS 29 (2) Plural Number. Apples, men, mice, oxen. Singular is nearly the same word as "single." Plural means "more (than one)." II. Again, a Noun in a sentence may be used as — (1) Subject. "John strikes." (2) Object. "I strike John." (3) Possessively (i.e. to denote the Possessor). " John's book," "men's thoughts." (4) Vocatively (i.e. " calling by "). "Come here, John." 33 These Uses, inasmuch, as they represent the con- dition or case in which the Noun stands relatively to other words in the Sentence, are sometimes called " Cases." The word case, in its original Greek use, muxnc, meant "falling." By the Greeks the Subject was regarded as erect, while the action, and those affected by the action, were regarded as subordinate, bent, or falling. Hence the Greeks would not have used such an expression as the Subjective case at all : to them it would have been as absurd as to speak of "an erect falling." But the Latins, translating mGxrig into casus, lost the Greek sense, and we have lost it also ; so that now case means little more than " use in connection with other words." 30 USES AND INFLECTIONS. [Par. 34-36 34 Inflections of the Noun. I. The Plural use of a Noun is denoted by an Inflection, which is generally formed according to the following Rule : — The Plural of a Noun is formed by adding -s to the Singular ; as apple, apples. 35 To this rule there are some exceptions well known to all English children. The reason for the exceptions generally is, that the regular Plural would be harsh and hard to pro- nounce : hence for "churehs" we say "churches," and for "calfs," "calves." 36 Some of our irregular Plurals are remains of old Plural forms, and are made by — (1) Adding -en: e.g. "oxen." (2) Changing the vowel sound of the monosyllable : e.g. "mice," "men," "feet," "teeth." (3) Leaving the singular form untouched : e. g. "sheep," "deer." In some cases the modern Plural is derived from an old disused Singular. For example, the old Singular forms, "flie," "citie," are retained in the modern Plurals, "flies," "cities." In other cases words (1) early introduced into the language received (and retain) the old -e, while (2) words, with similar terminations, later introduced, are spelt without -e : — (1) Echoes, heroes, potatoes. (2) Grottos, tyros, dominos. See Par. 283 ; also Morris's Historical Outlines of English Accidence, p. 95. Par 37, 38] NOUNS. 31 II. The Possessive Use or Case, in the Singular and Plural, is formed by adding 's to the Singular or Plural form, e.g. " sun," " sun's ; " " children," "children's." The mark ('), called an Apostrophe (see Glossary), denotes that something is omitted. In Early English there was a vowel instead of the Apostrophe. The Apostrophe serves the purpose of distinguishing the Possessive, e.g. "sun's" from the Plural "suns." When the Plural Noun ends in -s, the Possessive -s is omitted, and nothing is added but the Apo- strophe : " boys' books." This is also the case in the Singular, where a Singular Noun of more than two syllables ends in -s, e.g. " Lycurgus' laws." The other uses of Nouns have no Inflections to denote them. 1 38 Uses and Inflections of Pronouns. The uses of Pronouns are the same as those of Nouns, except that (1) some of the Pronouns, e.g. " I," "he," cannot be used Yocatively ; (2) instead of being used Possessively, they have Possessive Adjectives formed from them. These Possessive Adjectives are really old Possessive In- flections or Cases of the Pronouns, which have now ceased to be recognized as Cases. See Par. 569. 1 Some inflections were once used to denote gender, e.g. -ster, (' gpia- iter,' meaning a female spinner) and -ess. But these inflections cannot now be used to denote the genders of all or even of many Nouns : con- sequently they are now terminations, and no longer to be called inflections. 34 USES AND INFLECTIONS. [Par. 41—43 Uses and Inflections of the Adjective. 41 I. Use. — The use of an Adjective is to point out, qualify, or " enumerate," a certain Noun. 1 42 II. Inflections —There are three degrees {degree means step) in most Adjectives, e.g. " long." (1) "Longer" of two things, i.e. long when compared with one other thing. This we call the Comparative degree. (2) " Longest " of more than two. This is, as it were, carried above the Comparative degree, and we therefore call it the Superlative degree (super- above, lat- carried). In poetry the Superlative inflection is sometimes used, without any notion of comparison, to mean " very." M A little ere the mightiest Julius died." (3) " Long," without any thought of comparison at all, but simply and positively long. This is called the Positive degree. 43 To form the Comparative and Superlative, add — (1) -er y -est, to Positives of one syllable. 2 (2) „ „ two syllables ending in -y. -le, -ow, -er. i See How to Tell, &c, page 32. "Enumerate" here means to answer the question how many? or how much ? before a Noun. 2 For changes in spelling, see Par. 268. Par. 44] ADJECTIVES. 35 These forms sound as though they had only two syllables, e.g. "happier," "nobler." Hence the exceptional forma- tion. (3) More and most in other cases. "More," "most," are not Inflections, but substitutes for Inflections. A few disyllabic Adjectives are occasionally found with -er, -est, e.g. "sublimer." But this license is best reserved for Poetry. (4) Other formations are quite irregular, eg. not " good-er," but " bet-ter," from an old form " bet ; " so " worse." " Every " has no Inflections. Some few Adjectives (e.g. " these ") have a Plural Inflec- tion ; but these are so few that they need not be considered. There was once a Definite form in -e, of which perhaps " olden" retains a trace (Morris). 44 How to Parse an Adjective. In parsing an Adjective, state — I. Degree of Comparison. II. Function of Adjective, i.e. whether it qualifies, defines, enumerates, &c. This may be found by answering the question, "What does the Adjective tell me ? " III. Noun or Pronoun, qualified, defined, enume- rated, &c. Where the Noun is omitted, as in "I do not like these books ; are they the best {books) that you have ? " — you may say that "best" qualifies the Noun "books," implied or understood. D % i ^ USES AND INFLECTIONS. [Par. 45 Exercise. Parse the Adjectives in Exercise I., thus ': — Adjective. Degree. Function. Noun or Pronoun. Mighty positive tells you what sort, or "quali- fies" king. Whose — tells you whose, or "defines** name. Every tells you how many, or ; ' enumerates" boy. The other Adjectives in this and other Exercises may be similarly parsed. Uses and Inflections of the Adverb. 45 I. uses. An Adverb may be used with — 1 (a). A Verb: "He declared positively that he would not come." 1 (b). Aii implied Verb having for its Subject a Noun Clause made up of the Sentence : — (1) "He will positively not come," i.e., "That he will not come it positively true." * (2) "Perhaps he made a mistake," i.e., "That he made a mistake is perhaps true." 1 2. An Adjective: m He is very, more, less, least, successful." * Adverbs thus used are sometimes said to modify sentences. Par. 45] ADVERBS. 37 3. (a) An Adverb, or, (b) Adverbial Phrase : (a) "More, less, very, often." (b) " I laboured altogether in-vain." " I came merely to-help-you." "You live far froni-me." 4. A Noun (rarely) ; "Even Homer sometimes nods." This is a short way of saying " Even (so wakeful a poet as) Homer ; " so that, in reality, " even " modifies an implied Adjective. Only requires care in such sentences as : "Only a tyrant would act thus." In early English " one " (an) was used in many places where we should use "only," or "alone." (For the use of "one" as an Adjective to signify "only," cf. the Latin " Ego unus supersum.") Thus, instead of "not (this) only that," they wrote : — (1) " Not that one (an) that," &c. (2) "God one (i.e., God alone, or only God) can do this." (3) " He was king one," i.e., " He alone, or, only he." In the earliest times ' ' only " (dnlich) appears to have been used as an Adjective for " lonely, " ' ' solitary, " and to have had a Superlative form (dnlukest). In this sense we still speak of "an only child." But the Adverbial termination •ly (cf. the -y in "many") (Par. 218) has encouraged the Adverbial, and discouraged the Adjectival, usage. Our modern Adverbial "only " is therefore a compromise between an Adjective and an Adverb. It is not exactly an Adjective in the sense of " an only tyrant" ; nor yet is the "only " an ordinary Adverb modifying "would act." It is a con- fusion between "A tyrant is the only or one person that would act thus," and " A tyrant by himself (one-ly) would act thus." "Only" should be parsed as "Adjectival Adverb irregu- larly modifying ' tyrant.' " 38 USES AND INFLECTIONS. [Par. 46—49 46 IL inflections. Adverbs have their Degrees of Comparison expressed (rarely) by Inflections, e.g. " soon," " soon-er," " soon-est " ; more commonly by the addition of " more," " most," e.g. u happily," " more happily," " most happily." 47 I n parsing an Adverb, therefore, you may state — I. With what Verb, Adjective, Adverb, or Noun it is connected. Always ask yourself before parsing an Adverb, " What does this Adverb tell me ? " The answer will contain the Verb, Adjective, or Noun with which the Adverb is used. II. Whether it is in the Positive, Comparative, or Superlative degree. 48 Caution. Some Adverbs are used as Conjunc- tions : — " You say you wish me well ; will you help me then?" Here " then " must be parsed as a Conjunction, or as an Adverb used Conjunctively. 1 49 The Adverbs " where," " when," " whence," &c, are used (1) Interrogatively, (2) Conjunctively, (3) Eelatively. 2 (1) " Where is the book ? " (2) "I asked him where (in what place) the book was." (3) "You will find the book wJiere (in the place in which) you laid it." 2 * See How to Tell, catching." (8) "I shall have been J This " state " denotes an action completed, after being contimious. It may therefore be called the Complete Post Continuous. Hence all the Tenses may be arranged as fol- lows : — Par. 75] STATES OF ACTION. 59 02 611 If d ■ P d V o 1 4-> i p 1 s d d Stfl i aj 1 1 1 ° 3 o ° 4) > .Q •a s^ i 1 .«■** CO O A A tn NH v "' w ' d uaifei 0) ' . H H Ph d i d i 3 1 been een tavebeen m 9 o o s 9 ■0 i . * 2 t "S "3 3 3 A 1 4 ^ w 3 s s s p be taking PASS] ua^Tj; t-> o ! 1 ft. in d 2 d 1 » 1 1 .S 0) JB 9 o o 5 I •** tn \ i-i i am be was b ihallbe E* £^ £^- cj /-*. y-N ■ V ^ C» c» g ua^-e) H o / " .. H a ■ 55 *> £ i M o o 3 am was shall .— s ^— * v ~' w «• «» «s» w i 1 ^ £ H s s § "3 E § 3 CO S a; h ft. ft, ft. w o 60 TENSES AND [Par. 76, 77 76 Common Mistakes in Tenses, The Tenses and Participles of Irregular Verbs will be best learned by practice. But the pupil may be cautioned against confusing : — I. "Lay," "lie," "lie." LA.Y (Transitive) = "to place or put down." Present Past. Passive Participle. (I) lay (I) laid (I have) laid LIE (Intransitive) = "to recline." (1) lie (I) lay (I have) lain LIE (Intransitive) = " to tell a falsehood." (I) lie (I) lied (I have) lied II. The Past Indefinite, and Passive Participle of "ring," "sing," &c. ; often confused by Milton and Pope, but to be kept distinct in Modern English : — (I) sing (I) sang (I have) sung (I) ring (I) rang (I have) rung See Dr. Morris's Historical Outlims, dtc. In E.E. , sang was used in the Singular, sxing in the Plural, of the Past Tense. "Lay" is the Causative form of "lie," as "raise" of "rise," "set" of "sit," "fell" of "fall," "drench" of "drink." nn The Negative, or Interrogative Form. In questions and denials we prefer a different form of the Indefinite Present and Past. Instead of " I came not ; " " Why speak you 1 " we say " I did not come ; " " Why do you speak 1 * The advantage of this form of the Verb is, that it enables us to put the Verb at the end, while the Par. 78, 79] STATES OF ACTION. 61 did or do prepares the way for it. You may call this the Negative or Interrogative form of the Verb. More rarely this form is used affirmatively, to em- phasize the truth of a statement : — "Who says I did not come ? I did come.'* Person and Number. If you alter the Subject of a Verb, you often have to alter the Verb so as to agree with the Subject. 1. If you alter "I" into "he," you must alter "catch" into " catches," so as to agree with " he." 2. Again, if you alter " he " into " they " you must alter "catches" to "catch," so as to agree with the alteration of the Subject from Singular to Plural. This is expressed by saying that — A Verb agrees with its Subject in Person and Number. As an explanation of our distinction between First, Second, and Third Persons, it may be remembered that the Romans, whose grammar we have copied, thought it natural for a person speaking to think jirst of himself (7), secondly of the person to whom he was speaking {you), and thirdly of any one else about whom he was speaking (him or her). The following Scheme shews how a Verb agrees vrith its Subject : — PERSON AND NUMBER. [Par. SO Subject Verb agreeing with its Subject. 1st Person Sing. 2nd „ 3rd „ 1st Person Plural 2nd „ „ 3rd „ „ I thou 1 he, she 2 we you 3 they am art is are are are walk walk est walks walk walk walk The Verb " to be " is the only Verb in English that has a separate form of the Verb when the Subject is in the Plural. In other Verbs the Plural form is the same as that of the First Person Singular, e.g. " I have," " they have." QQ How to Parse a Verb. * If asked to parse a Verb in the Indicative Mood fully, e.g. "has caught," in " He has caught a fish," you may state — 1. The kind or nature of the Verb : Transitive. 2. The Voice: Active. 3. The Mood : Indicative. 4. The Tense : Complete Present. i Old Form. 2 It is sometimes called a Personal Pronoun, for convenience ; it does not stand for a Person (except in the curious idiom mentioned in Par. 158.) Not only he and she, but it and all Nouns spokenof, are said to be in the Third Person. A Noun denoting a Person spoken to is said to be in the Second Person, e.g. " come here, John." 3 There was once an old form of the Subject ye, still used in Poetry, and sometimes now used as Object. 4 For the present, only the Indicative Mood is here spoken of. Par. 81] HOW TO PARSE VERBS. S3 5. The Person : in the Third Person. 6. The Number : Singular. 7. It agrees with its /Subject "he." 8. It has for its Object "a fish." Caution. — Note that the Present Indicative is often used where, logically, the Future should be used : — (1) " He will come when he is able." (2) "1 shall wait till he comes." After " when," " till," &c, Shakespeare often uses the Future or Subjunctive, e.g. " When he shall be able." The modern Present may in these cases be parsed as " used for Future." For the Present after "if," see Par. 168. The Noun- Subject, and Noun-Object. It is usual, in parsing a Verb, and stating the Subject and Object, not to state the whole of the Subject or Object, but only the Noun or Pronoun, omitting any Adjectives or Adjective Phrases con- nected with the Noun. For example, in the sixth Verb parsed in the Exercise below, the Subject of " had seen " is " the keen eyes of the lion ; " but you need only take the Noun part of the Subject, and may answer simply " eyes." 64 HOW TO PARSE [Par. 82 In the same way, when stating the Object of " didst thou leave," you need not write down " thy cruel master," but only the Noun part, " master." 82 Exercise XVII. 1 Caxton brought the printing press to England from Bruges in 1476. In addition to the difficulties that attended the new art of printing, the language had come into such a state that an author needed much judgment to select his words and frame his style. A conflict was raging be- tween the new-fangled French affectation and English pedantry, and Caxton was sorely distracted between the "honest and great clerks," who advocated the former, and the "gentlemen," who stood up for " old and homely terms." "Our language," says the printer, " varieth far from that which was used and spoken when I was born ;" and he adds that "the English that is spoken in one shire varieth from the English spoken in another." He goes on to tell a tale how certain merchants on the Thames sailing to Zealand and compelled by contrary winds to remain on the Foreland, went into a farmhouse and asked for " eggs." The good-wife answered that she spoke no French. "Why talkest thou of French?" replied the merchant, angry at being taken for a French- man, " I speak no French, nor understand it, I ask for eggs." But the farmer's wife, in spite of all his anger, could none the better understand him, till one of his companions said he wanted "eyren," and the eggs came fast enough. i( Lo what shall a man in these days now write ? " adds the puzzled printer. "Shall he write 'eggs' or 'eyren?' Certainly, it * is hard to please every man, by cause of diversity and change of language." * This Exercise is modified from the admirable Short History of the English People, J. R. Green, M.A. (Macinillan, London). It may be parsed after the following Specimen Exercise. Par. 82] VERBS. C5 Exercise XVIIa. (Specimen). State the Noun-Subjects, Noun-Objects, Kinds, Voices, and Tenses of the italicized Verbs : — Many centuries ago, a slave, who had made his escape from a cruel master, fled to a forest where night surprised him, so that he %oas forced to take refuge in a cave. Scarcely had he closed his eyes in the attempt to sleep, when he heard the roar of a lion beside him. He started up, but it was too late ; the keen eyes of the lion had seen him, and were slowly coming nearer. Androcles — who had no arms of any kind — now gave himself up for lost. "What shall I do ? " said he : "I have no spear or sword — no, not so much as a stick to defend myself with." And he cried aloud in agony, "0 foolish Andro- cles, why didst thou leave thy cruel master, who at least would have spared thy life because thou wast useful to him, whereas now thou wilt be the meal of this hungry lion?'' "What was his surprise, however, to find that the lion, instead of springing on him, was walking quietly up to him, limping as though he were in pain. Gaining courage at this, Androcles made no attempt to run away. Presently the lion held out his paw, and on examining it Androcles found that it was inflamed l and swelled. Looking more closely, he perceives that a thorn has pierced the ball of the foot, and that it is from this that the lion is suffering. i Notice that here "inflamed" and "swelled" are Adjectives describ- ing the condition of the foot. But in the sentence "on hearing this, the king was inflamed with fury," was inflamed would be a Verb. You can say "an inflamed foot," but not " an inflamed king. 66 BOW TO PARSE [p ar . 83, 84 83 Verb Kind and Voice. Tense State, or Division of Tense had made fled was forced had closed was 2 Trans. Act. Intr. Act. Passive x Tr. Act. Past Past Past Past Past Complete Indefinite Indefinite Complete Indefinite had seen were coming had 3 shall do cried Tr. Act. Intr. Act. Tr. Act. Tr. Act. Tr. Act. Past Past Past Future Past Complete Incomplete Indefinite Indefinite Indefinite didst leave wast wilt be Tr. Act Past Past Future Indefinite Indefinite Indefinite was walking held found Intr. Act. Tr. Act. Tr. Act. Past Past Past Incomplete Indefinite Indefinite has pierced is suffering Tr. Act. Intr. Act. Present Present Complete Incomplete 84 u Governing M an Object. Where a word, e.g. he, has one form when used as a Sub- ject, he, and another when used as an Object, him — the Verb is sometimes said to govern the Object, because the Verb, as it were, controls and alters the form of the Object. 1 Passive Verbs are necessarily almost always Transitive in their Active Forms ; this, therefore, may be taken for granted, and " Tran- sitive" need not be repeated every time with "Passive." 2 "Be," "was," &c.,are not called either Active or Passive. See Par. 147. 3 Carefully distinguish the Indefinite Past "had," when used by itself, from the Complete Past " had seen him." Par. 85] VERBS. 07 Person Number Subject Object 3rd Sing. who escape 3rd Sing. slave — 3rd Sing. lie — 3rd Sing. he eyes 3rd Sing. it {i.e. his start- ing up) 3rd Plural eyes him 3rd Plural eyes 3rd Sing. who arms 1st Sing. I what 3rd Sing. he " 0, foolish," &c. 2nd (old) Sing. thou master 2nd (old) Sing. thou — 2nd (old) Sing. thou — 3rd Sing. lion 3rd Sing. lion paw 3rd Sing. Androcles "that it was in- flamed," &c. 3rd Sing. thorn hall 3rd Sing. lion — Only in cases where the Objective differs from the Subjective form, can a Verb be said, with truth, to govern the Object. Exercise XVIII. Parse, as above : — Gathering fresh courage from the behaviour of the lion, Androcles at last ventures to lay his hand on the ex- tended paw ; he touches and handles the swelling, and, in spite of the growing darkness, succeeds in drawing out a large thorny splinter, which had run deep into F 2 68 VEBBS. [par. 86, 87 the foot. A3 soon as the thorn icas extracted, the lion showed his joy by evident signs, and at first lay down by the side of his bone factor, as though to* protect him; but presently he departed.* Nixt morning, however, before the sun had risen, buck conies the lion to the cave with a deor in his jaws, which he sets down at the feet of Androeles ; ami, for several days, while Androcles was hiding in the cave, he was protected from all danger and 1 supplied with ample food by the grateful lion. But one day, just when the slave was coiujralulating himself that he had escaped his pursuers for ever, a party of soldiers, passing through the forest, catch 3 sight of him resting in the cave in the absence of the lion. At once they arrest him, and carry him back to the city whence he Iiad escaped.^ 36 Singular Nouns with Plural Verbs. Some Nouns, though Singular, are sometimes treated as Plural, because they are Plural in meaning, e.g. "party" in " A partij of friends are coming to dine with me to-day." Here, although "is coming" would not be absolutely wrong, yet "are coming" sounds more natural, because 11 party " menus i number of persons coming from distinct quarters, and regarded as distinct. See Pars. 334 — 9. 87 Shall, Will. "Note that in the Indefinite Future, shall is used in the First Person, and will in the Second and Third Persons : — ist Person I shall We shall. 2nd Person Thou wilt You will. 3rd Person He will They will. 1 'Repe.nt '• a Note "catch** not "catches." See next Paragraph. 3 t'ontirniod in Par. 108. Par. 88] THE IMPERATIVE. 69 The reason is this: shall, like "must," implies compulsion. Now we do not mind using a word implying compulsion about ourselves ; but it seems rather rude to use it about others. For this reason ire dislike saying, except in lager, "you shall," "he shall," and prefer to say, " you will," "he will." "You will" once meant "you wish or are willing to ;" but now it generally means no more than "you are going (to)." When we are bestowing a favour that does not depend on the recipient but on our own will, we may use " shall " with the Second Person : — (1) " You shall have a holiday to-morrow." Here the context absolutely destroys the notion of com- pulsion, and therefore " shall " may be used without rude- 188. For a similar reason, there is no rudeness in — (2) " Shall you see him to-morrow ? " (3) " He says he shall be out of town all the summer." Imperative Mood. You cannot command a man to do anything unless you speak to him ; consequently the com- manding or Imperative Mood is, strictly speaking, always in the Second Person, Singular or Plural, e.g. "come." Sometimes we, as it were, exhort or command ourselves, e.g. " let me see," " let us run." But this is the same as " suffer me to see," " suffer us to run." Here, therefore, " suffer " and " let " are Imperatives, addressed to some imaginary person ; but " see" and "run" are not Imperatives, but In- finitives, the " to " being left out (See Par. 94). 70 THE IMPERATIVE. [ Par . 89-91 59 Again, sometimes, when we are speaking of a Third Person, we seem to command him, e.g. " let him beware;" but this is explained in the same way, and is put for u let him (to) beware." The Imperative is almost always in the Active. The Passive, when used, is formed (like every other Mood and Tense of the Passive) from the Passive Participle preceded by "be " : — (1) " Be pleased to enter. " (2) " Be pacified, be persuaded that all is well." 90 In the Bible, the Subject of the Imperative is often ex- pressed, e.g., "come ye": but it is generally omitted in modern English. As a command applies mostly to the present time, there are no Tenses in this Mood. A command relating to the future is sometimes expressed by the Future Indicative ; either the compulsory form, " You shall bring the book to- morrow," or the courteous form, "You will have dinner ready by seven." We also say " Have done," Pres. Compl. 81 How to Parse the Imperative. An Imperative has no Inflections, and therefore cannot with truth agree with its Subject. It is therefore wrong to use agree about the Imperative. The Imperative has a Subject. In parsing an Imperative, use the form given in Par. 80, remembering that, though the Subject of an Imperative is seldom expressed, yet it is always implied. Par. 92, 93] TEE INFINITIVE. 71 02 Forms of the Infinitive. The Tenses of the Infinitive Mood of a Verb, e.g. " send," are as follows : — Indefinite Incomplete Complete f Complete (Post- Continuous Active. Passive. (to) send (to) be sending (to) have sent (to) have been sending (to) be sent (to) be being sent 1 (to) have been sent (to) have been being sent* There is no Past Tense. The Future is expressed by different phrases, such as "to be on the point of sending," " to be about to be sending," " to be going to send," &c. The " to " is inclosed in brackets, because it is sometimes omitted, e.g. "I saw him (to) fall" where " fall" is Infinitive. See next Paragraph. 03 "To" Omitted. We can say indifferently — (1) " He dares not come. " (2) " He has not dared to come." Why is "to" inserted in the second, and omitted in the first, example 1 i Rarely or never used. 72 TO" OMITTED. [Par 94, 95 Again, compare together- I can I am able I dare I venture I may I am allowed I must ■ come I am compelled I shall I am certain I should I ought I will I am willing I bade him ) I ordered him ) I let him J- come I permitted him > to come I made him ( I compelled him j • to come To is also omitted after the Verbs see, hear, need, feel, e.g. " I saw him die," " I heard her sing." What is the reason for the omission of to after all these Verbs 1 94 The reason is that our ancestors used not to put to before the Infinitive. Instead of "to walk" they used to say ° walk-m." " To " was only used to denote purpose, with a special form of the Verb, " to walk-ewe," i.e. " in order to walk." In time, the inflections -en and -ene became disused. So, to denote the Infinitive, they used " to " in all cases, not only in its proper sense of purpose, but also as the mere sign of the Infinitive, even where the Infinitive was nothing but a Noun. Thus, instead of saying " I like walk-era," they began to say " I like to walk." 95 But after some Verbs, such as let, may, can, &c, it was not found necessary to use to. These Verbs, Par. 96, 97] THE INFINITIVE. 73 because they are so often companions or allies to other Verbs, are called " allied " or Auxiliary Verbs. When these Verbs therefore were used, everybody knew that an Infinitive was pretty certain to follow, even though to was not put in : "let us (to) pray." For a similar reason, to was not inserted after see, hear, &c, because they were Verbs of such common use that everybody understood that a Verb could be in the Infinitive after them, without the insertion of to. 1 - But remember, the Verbs after the Auxiliary Verbs, e.g. "let us pray" are Infinitives, just as much as after other Verbs where to is inserted, e.g. " permit us to pray." 11 To" is omitted in the Infinitive after the Aux- iliary Verbs "may" "can" "will" 2 "let" "must" dec, and also after "see," "hear," "feel," . om itted, see Par. 93. "To explain," see Par. 105 2 'Used' is a Transitive Verb, and can govern a Noun or an Infini- tive as its Object, e.g. "we use steel pens," " we used to walk. " The Object Infinitive now rarely occurs after use, except after the Indefinite Past, as here. ' Began ' is also a Transitive Verb and can be followed by an Object. 3 'Strive ' is not a Transitive Verb ; therefore "to make" should be considered as an Adverbial Infinitive of purpose "striving for the Par. 104-] THE INFINITIVE. 79 1. If Complementary, state the Par- Subject or Object of what Verb. tial Subject or Object. 2. If Adverbial, replace by a Prepo- sition and Verbal Noun. 3. If Adjectival, state Noun qualified. was ordered Androcles for the purpose of striking might wish — was made the slave had been suffered which for the purpose of increasing made the slave at seeing see the beast "began — bade the officers forced it must the slave for the purpose of explaining begged the Governor qualifies " importunity " upon the waggon and let* the horses carry him, while he cracked his whip and sang songs. * Presently the road began 2 to rise, but still the waggoner kept his seat. Soon they came to a place where a torrent seemed to have dashed across the road, wearing a deep pit with its waters. The horses put forth all their strength to pull the waggon across, but in vain ; all their efforts could 4 not even move the wheels, which "began 1 to sink deeper and deeper into the pit. Now, when it was too late 5 to do anything, the good-for-nothing purpose of making his way." On the other hand, "try" is a Transitive Verb, and therefore can take an Object after it. 4 " Could " is the same as "was able." The following Infinitive may be regarded as the Object of "can" or "could;" " can " was once a Transitive Verb. " Let" is the same as " suffer ;" " dare " is the same as "venture." "Help" meant 1st "to remedy," 2nd "get rid of," 3rd "avoid." "Than he could help," " Than he could avoid." 5 "To sit" is the same as "with sitting." "Too late to do any- thing " is " too late for the purpose of doing anything." 80 THE INFINITIVE. [ Pa r. 105 carter got down from his waggon ; but all that he did was to curse and swear at the horses. Finding that cursing did not move the waggon, he at last thought he would try what praying could 4 do. So, falling on his knees, he besought Hercules, the god of hard work, to come and help him in his troubles. In an instant Hercules was on the spot ; but, instead of helping him, "You lazy fellow!" said he, "how dare 4 you send for me, till you have tried 3 to do without me ? Learn that Hercules helps none but those that are willing to help 5 themselves. " 105 Caution. After Verbs of asking, commanding, advising, compelling, it is not always easy to determine whether the Infinitive is Adverbial or Complementary. For example, in — (1) "They besought him to Jielp them." — the meaning is the same as — (2) " They besought him that he would help them." Here there is a notion of purpose : and hence "to help" in (1) maybe parsed as an Adverbial Infinitive meaning " for the purpose of helping." 3 "Strive" is not a Transitive Verb; therefore "to make" should be considered as an Adverbial Infinitive of purpose, "striving fur the purpose of making his way." On the other* hand, "try" is a Tran- sitive Verb, and therefore can take an Object after it. 4 " Could " is the same as " was able." The following Infinitive may be regarded as the Object of "can" or "could;" "can" was once a Transitive Verb. " Let " is the same as " suffer; " " dare " is tin- s.nne as "venture." 5 You might be disposed to say here that" are willing" is the same as "wish," and that "to help" is the Object of "wish," which is im- plied in "arc willing" Hut, If JOB bear in mind how often to is used in such sentences, e.g. "I am sorry, glad, willing, able, J 1 " do this," it will seem better to take "to help' as an Ad^arbial Infinitive, meaning 'as regards doing," "in the matter of helping." Par. 106, 107] THE INFINITIVE. 81 But "him to help" might also be treated as meaning " his helping," and regarded as the Object of " they besought." Either parsing may therefore be allowed, Ad verbial or Complementary. When the pupil has once grasped the notion that could, would, &c, are followed by Infinitives, it will be no longer necessary to separate the Auxiliary from the Infinitive. The whole may be parsed together as a Compound Verb. For example, in the last exercise, "could do," maybe treated as a Compound Verb. The Complementary Subject Infinitive. Note that the Complementary Object Infinitive cannot always be converted into a Complementary Subject Infinitive. You can say — (1) "I like a rascal to le punished." But not — (2) "A rascal is liked to be punished." The reason is this, that in (2) the Noun " rascal " is separated and disconnected in meaning from the Infinitive " to be punished ; n and therefore " rascal " would be in danger of being regarded as the com- plete Subject of " is liked." Consequently the Complementary Subject In- finitive is seldom used except where the Noun- Subject and the Verb are so related that the former G 82 THE INFINITIVE. [Par. 108 might be made the Complete Subject of the latter, without making utter nonsense. For example, "he" might be made the Complete Subject of "is known," " was heard," " was asked " ; although in a very different sense from that of the following examples, in which " he " is Partial Subject : — (1) "He is known to be honest." (2) " He was heard to say, seen to do," &c. (3) " He was asked to do, ordered to come" &c. In all these cases it is better to parse the In- finitive as Complementary ; but it may be parsed, though not so well, Adverbially, e.g. " he is known as regards being honest," " he was heard in the act of saying," &c. 108 The Infinitive after Adjectives. I. As an Adjective can be modified by an Adverb, so can it by an Adverbial Infinitive : — (1) " Pleasant to see," i.e., " in seeing," or, "for the purpose of seeing." (2) " This is hard to bear," i. e., " in " or ' 'for bearing. " (3) "I am content to be poor, 1 ' i.e., "with being poor. " (4) "He is quick to detect imposition," i.e., "at detecting." (5) " This apple is fit to eat," i.e., "for the purpose of eating. ' Par. 109, HO] THE INFINITIVE. 83 109 The Ad J ectival Infinitive Explained, An Adjectival Phrase may be made up by the Preposition to and the Infinitive, as easily as by a Preposition and Noun. There is no difi'erence, in principle, between " a monkey with a long tail ; " " apples for eating ; " " paper for writing ; " "water for drinking," and — (1) "Apples to eat ; " " paper to write with ;" " a house to let." (2) " Duties to perform ; " " debts to pay ; " " work to do." (3) "A. time to work, and a time to play ;" " nothing to do." (1) " This is not to be believed ;" " it is not to be denied." (2) " It is to be deplored, to be reinembered," &c. The Adjectival force of the Infinitive may be seen by the ease with which, in many cases, " to " may be replaced by -ing or -able, so as to convert the Adjective-Phrase into an Adjective: " writm^-paper," "playm<7-time," "deplom^e," " undeniable" &c. HO Tne Parenthetical Infinitive. The Adverbial Infinitive of Purpose is often briefly used in a Parenthesis : — (1) "I came by a circuitous path, or rather — to tell the truth — I completely lost my way. " This seems to be a short way of saying " (In order) to tell the truth (I must say that), I com- pletely lost my way." (2) " Will you come then ? " " To be sure, I will." This seems to be a condensation of "(In order for you) to be sure, (I say distinctly) I will come." g 2 84 THE INFINITIVE. [Par. ill, u« HI The Exclamatory Infinitive. The Infinitive is sometimes used absolutely in exclamations : — (1) "To think that he should be so foolish ! " (2) "Simpleton! To dream that he could succeed without effort ! " In (1) "to think" appears to be the Subject of some Verb understood, e.g. " astonishes me ; " in (2) " to dream " is probably an Adverbial Infinitive modifying " simpleton " repeated. " Simpleton to dream " is the same as " foolish to dream" or "for dreaming." 112 Exercise XXI. Parse the italicized words in the following Exer- cise : — A lean hungry wolf one day met a mastiff, who had lost him- self in the forest, and asked the wolf to shew him the way home.* For a moment the wolf thought of springing at the dog's throat ; he was so plump and sleek and seemed so good to eat. But the mastiff was too strong to be over- powered ; so the wolf replied, "Show you the way, Sir? To be sure I will " : and away they trotted together. Presently the mastiff looked askance at the wolf. "You seem to me," said he, " to be in good condition for the chase, but you are not shapely to look at : one can count your ribs." '* I am content to be poor," replied the wolf: "here in these woods there is not much to eat. Bat what makes you so fat ' and sleek ? * I would give any- thing to be in such condition." " Then I advise you to Par. 113, 114] THE INFINITIVE. 85 come with me," replied the mastiff, " and you will be sure to get what you want. You will have nothing to do, but to bark at beggars and vagrants, and then you may eat as much as you like of good beef and mutton. "Will you come ? " At the mention of mutton, the wolf could not contain himself ; his mouth watered and he began to weep for joy. " To think of your doubting whether I would come," he cried : "most gladly will I accept your offer : my life is no longer to be endured. Indeed, to tell you the truth, I have not tasted food for the last four days." So on they went at a quickened pace. 113 As they walked and talked, the wolf could not forbear eveiy now and then turning to admire his companion. While * doing* so, he noticed a mark round the dog's neck where the hair appeared to be worn away. "What's that?" asked the wolf. "Nothing." "Nothing?" "Nothing to speak of, " answered the mastiff in a rather confused way. " But what is it ? " asked the wolf again : for he began to be suspicious. "Well then, if you are deter- mined to know — it is only the mark of the collar round my neck. Sometimes I am ordered to be tied up to pre- vent my losing my way, as I have done to-day. It is of no consequence." "It is of so much consequence," in- terrupted the wolf, "that I must wish you* good-bye,* and bid you go home by yourself. To lose one's freedom is a loss not to be endured. I prefer to starve free 1 rather than to be a plump slave." 114 The Tenses of Participles. Participles, like Adjectives, have no Tenses of their own, but borrow the time they express from 1 Cf. " to live happy," " die rich," &c. This use of the Adjective is a sort of compromise between (1) an Adverb, and (2) the Supple- mentary use in Par. 149. 86 THE TENSES [Par. 115 some other Verb in the sentence. Thus " walking " or " supported " may be Past, Present, or Future : — 1. Past: — (1) " Walking on, I soon reached Windsor," i.e., 4 'after I walked on." (2) " Supported by this scanty food, he lived for ten days longer," i.e., " since he was supported." 2. Present : — (1) "I see an old man walking towards me," i.e., " who is walking" or, " and he is walking." (2) "I see an old man coming this way, supported by his son," i.e., ** who," or, "and he, is being sup- ported. " 3. Future: — (1) " Walking on, you will soon reach Windsor," i.e., "if you (will) walk on." (2) " Supported by his son's daily labour, he will live for the rest of his life in comfort," i.e., " since he will be supported." 115 The Participial forms might be arranged as fol- lows, according to their forms : — Incomplete Complete Active. Passive. supporting having sup- ported (being) sup- ported having been supported Par. 116] OF PARTICIPLES. 87 But the Incomplete form may sometimes denote an action in the Indefinite Past, as in the first example of Paragraph 114. Note that the Complete as well as the Incomplete form of the Participle can be used either for Present, Past, or Future. For example, " Having walked on, I came to Windsor " means not " when I have walked on," but " when I had walked on," so that the Participle is here put for the Complete Past. A future action is expressed in a Participle by a Phrase with " being," e.g. " being on the point of death" " being about to die" (where " to die " must be regarded as the Object of " about "). 116 The confusion in the uses of the Participle is, perhaps, in part explained by its having been confused with the abbre- viated Adverbial use of the Verbal. For example, *' in," or, "on walking" could naturally mean either "engaged in walking," or "upon," i.e. "after walking." When this Adverbial Phrase was contracted to " a- walking," or simply "walking," it was easily confused with the Participle. Originally the Participle ended in -nd, and the Verbal in -ng ; but very early, the Particle assumed -ng. See Par. 554—8. . CHAPTER V. 1 THE INDIRECT OBJECT. 117 Find the Object of the Verb in the first of the following sentences : — (1) "John brought Thomas a book." (2) "I will forgive them their fault." (3) " The father allowed his son two hundred pound. a year." (4) "I envy her her good health." (5) ' • This conduct will lose you your friends. " (6) "Fill me the cup." (7) "My mother taught my brother French." (8) "I will ask your sister this question." Ask the question in the usual way, " Brought whom or what 1 " Answer, " Brought a book ; " therefore " book " is the Object of " brought." If any one were to say, " No, the sentence gives the answer ' brought Thomas,' " you would reply, " John did not bring Thomas, he brought the book for or to Thomas; and ' brought Thomas' is only a short way of saying ' brought for or to Thomas.' " 1 The Subjunctive Mood, which would naturally follow here, is deferred to Par. 163, owing to its difficulty. Par. 118-120] THE INDIRECT OBJECT. 89 118 Nevertheless, as "Thomas" does (in a certain sense) answer to the question " whom 1 " after the Verb, it is called an Object. But " book " is called the Direct Object, as it is the first and direct object of the action ; and Thomas is called the indirect Object, as being the second object in- directly affected by the action. Rule. The Indirect Object of a Verb is the word or phrase that answers to the question " For, or, to whom ? " " For, or, to what ? " when asked after tlie Verb and its Direct Object. H9 There are a few exceptions to this rule. In "he played me a trick," " on," not "for," would be supplied before "me." Also, after "ask," "of" or "from" hasto.be supplied : "he asked {of) his sister a question." ■ 120 NB- The Indirect Object can easily be detected as follows : it always comes before the Direct Object, and cannot be placed after the Direct Object without the insertion of a Preposition, in which case it ceases to be the Indirect Object of the Verb, and becomes the Object of the Prepo- sition : — (1) "John brought a book for Thomas." i Probably in (8), after "ask," the word "sister" maybe regarded as the Direct Object, and " ask-a-question " as a Compound Verb having as its Object, " sister." 90 THE OBJECT [Par 121, 122 (2) "I will forgive their fault to them." ■ (3) "The father allowed two hundred pounds a year to his son." Exercise XXII. 121 Which are the Direct and which the Indirect Objects of the italicized Verbs 1 — 1. John fetched me a book. 2. He forgave me my fault 3. My mother taught me French. 4. The judge asked him a question. 5. He refused me this slight favour. 6. My cousin did me a good turn. 7. The thief gave me a sudden blow. 8. My uncle left me a small sum of money. 9. She will tell me what she wants. 10. You shall send me some more soldiers at once. 11. He lent me a thousand pounds. 12. I will shew your friend everything that is to be seen. 13. This man owed me money. 14. He played me a trick. 15. This conduct will lose you the esteem of your friends. 16. He promises us much, but does little. 17. He answered me nothing. 18. I envy you your good health. Ij9. A little fore- thought will save us a great deal of trouble. 20. His father allowed him two hundred pounds a year. 122 The Object after a Passive Verb. When an Active Verb, taking two Objects, is changed into the Passive Voice, one Object becomes the Subject of the Passive Verb, but the other is retained as Object. This Object may be — 1 This and other similar constructions, e.g " I envy your good health to you," are extremely harsh, and not to be imitated. Par 123, 124] AFTER PASSIVE VERB. 91 I. The former Indirect Object of the Active : — (1) "Their lives were offered them by the conqueror, if they would surrender." (2) " His fault was forgiven him by his master upon his promise of amendment." (3) "This favour was refused me by my friend." (4) " Much trouble was saved me by his kindness." (5) " Three questions were asked me by the exa- miners." (6) "Writing was taught me by my mother." II. The former Direct Object of the Active : — (1) " They were offered their lives by the conqueror." (2) "He was forgiven his faults (3) "I was refused this favour." (4) "I was saved much trouble by his kindness." (5) "I was asked three questions by the examiners." (6) "I was taught writing by my mother." 123 If a distinction is needed between the two kinds of Objects used after a Passive Verb, the terms Direct and Indirect Object of the Active may be used. But unless such a distinction is asked, it will be enough to say that it is the Object retained after a Passive Verb, or, for shortness, the retained Object. 124 Caution. Carefully distinguish the Retained Object from the Supplement (Par. 148) of a Verb in itself incomplete. For example, "to make king," is a Compound Verb, equi- valent to "to king," or "to be-Jcing." Consequently, 92 COGNATE OBJECT. [Par. 125, 126 "king" is not the Retained Object, but the Supplement of an incomplete Verb in : — " They made him king," i.e., " they made-Icing " or "be-kinged him." 125 The Cognate Object. Some Verbs, though, generally Intransitive, take occasionally after them an Object whose meaning is akin to the Verb. Such Objects are called Cognate (co-, together ; nate, born : hence " born together," "related," "akin"). This usage is more common in Poetry and in elevated language than in ordinary Prose : — (1) " They have slept their sleep." (2) "He has fought a good fight; " "They shouted applause." (3) " We have walked a long walk to-day." 126 The Early English Dative. In the earliest English there was a special Inflection to denote the Indirect Object. Being mostly used after such Verbs as "give," "lend," "send," "forgive," "refuse," &c. — all of which imply " giving" or "not giving" — this Use or Case of the Noun or Pronoun was called the Dative (i.e., giving) Case. In the earliest English, this Inflection would make it per- fectly clear which was the Direct and which the Indirect Object. Compare together (1) the modern English, and (2) the earliest English, in the following examples : — (1) " This king gave (to) the minsters large gifts." (2) " This king gave large gifts mynstr-um." Par 127, 128] ADVERBIAL OBJECT. 93 In (2), but not in (1), we see distinctly by the Inflection -um (which is the sign of the Dative use), that " mynstrura " is the Indirect Object. If the old Dative case had to be specified, wherever it is found in Modern English, we should have to call the Objects in the following examples, Datives : — (1) " Trust me and believe no one else." (2) "A calamity has befallen us." (3) " Obey me and disobey him." x (4) "It displeased the king, though it pleased the people." * But in modern English the Object after " trust," " befall," &c. must now be called the Direct Object. The Adverbial Object. 127 An Adverbial Phrase is sometimes contracted into a Noun with, a Prepositional Prefix, e.g., "a- board," " a-foot," " a-field ; " and sometimes still further contracted into a Noun without Prefix of any kind : (1) "I am going fishing" (this is a contraction for "go on fishing" or, "go a-fishing"). Home (E.E. ham) is repeatedly used as an Adverb in "Layamon," and also as an Inflected Noun. 128 Again, in the earliest periods of the language, an Adverbial Phrase was sometimes represented by an Inflected Noun, the Inflection representing a modern Preposition (see last paragraph) : (2) " He that was dead came forth, bound hand-wwi and fot-wm," i.e., " as regards," or, in, "hands and feet." (3) (Modern English), " — bound hand and/oo^." i In (3) and (4) the Verbs are derived from French, and were followed (generally) by the Preposition "a." 94 ADVERBIAL OBJECT. [Par. 129-131 129 Hence, even where no Preposition was ever in- serted, the Objective form is sometimes nsed in answer to the questions " How far % n " How much ! " " When 1 " " Where 1 " e.g.— (1) " He is worth you and me put together." (2) " He walked a mile." (3) " He is ten years old." The Objective form me in the first sentence shews that all these Nouns and Pronouns must be regarded as Objectively used. 130 These Adverbial Objects are sometimes, as it were, compromises between Adverbs and Direct Objects. For example, " is worth " implies the Transitive Verb " equals," and may therefore, naturally be followed by a Direct Object. On the other hand, it is in form Intransitive, so as to require an Adverb rather than an Object. 131 In some of these cases a Preposition may be in- serted before the Object, as — (1) "We waited (for) an hour." (2) " He is (by) a trifle taller than 1." (3) " We will come (in) three days from this time." (4) " (At) that moment, Thomas appeared." (5) "He came (by) the shortest way." (6) " He stood (on) this side of me." But it is not to be supposed that a Preposition was thus inserted in early English. Par. 132, 133] INDIRECT OBJECT. 95 Exercise XXIII. (Specimen). 132 Parse the italicized Nouns and Pronouns in the following Exercise : — The Romans had given Lars Porsena offence by banishing their king Tarquin the Proud. So Porsena sent (hem an am- bassador bidding them take back their king or prepare for war. But the Romans knew well that they would never be forgiven their rebellion by king Tarquin ; and, although pardon was offered them if they would submit, they knew they could not trust his promises. So they gave the ambassador an answer of defiance, and sent him away. Then king Porsena, after waiting some days to see whether they would submit, determined to teach the Romans a lesson and to humble their pride. So, two months after the banishment of Tarquin, the Tuscan king set out for Rome. 133 Great was the fear that the Tuscan army caused the Romans, when it suddenly appeared on the other side of the Tiber. The senate was just then taking counsel ; but on hearing of the enemy's approach, all rushed that instant toward the wall. Messenger after messenger had arrived bringing the consuls word that this town had been taken or that village burned ; but still the Romans had not expected that the army could reach Rome that day. Forcing his way through crowds that pressed round asking him anxious questions about their friends and re- lations, the consul mounted the wall and at once cried out : "If yonder bridge is not broken down, the enemy will be upon us this moment." Then out spoke Horatius and said : "I and two others will keep the bridge for you : hew it down at once." So Horatius and two other brave Romans, took their stand on the bridge, to fight their battle against the whole Tuscan army, while the rest of the Romans, Senators and Commons together, worked hard at the bridge, loosening the props and tearing down the planks. 96 ADVERBIAL SUBJECT. [Par. 134, 135 134 An Object may be parsed as follows : — Object. A |j£ e )l. Direct. Verb J 2 " Indirect - Passive} 3 - "Stained." 4. Adverbial. 2. } After what Verb. 8.J ' 4. Answering what question. Lars Porsena Them Rebellion Them Days Romans Lesson Indirect Indirect Retained Retained Adverbial Indirect Direct had given, sent. would be for- given, was offered. "How long?" to teach, to teach. Answer the rest for yourself. 135 Adverbial Subject I. The Subject is sometimes used with the Par- ticiple (without any Verb of which it can be called the Subject) so as to make an Adverbial Phrase : — (1) "They dragged my friend away, /in vain resist- ing and protesting," i.e. "while T$ &c. (2) " Up we climbed, he remaining below." (3) " This done, they departed." (4) " Breakfast ended, they went out for a walk." Examples (1) and (2) shew us that in this con- struction the Noun is used Subjectively, and not Par. 136, 137] APPOSITION. 97 Objectively; for the Subjective forms "I" and " he " are used, not " me " and " him." The Subject may be explained as Subject of the Verb implied in the Participle ; e.g. in (1) " /resist- ing " is the same as " while, or, though, I resisted." The Subject in this construction being free from or loosed from its usual connection with the Verb, is sometimes called the Subject Absolute (ab, from ; solut-, loosed). 136 U* Sometimes the Participle is omitted : — (1) '* Sword in hand, the captain led on his men." (2) " I was lying on the grass, an unopened book by my side." (3) "Breakfast over, we prepared for our journey." In all these cases some Participle, such as "being," can be easily supplied. Apposition. Sometimes a Noun or Pronoun is used not as the ordinary Subject or Object of a Verb, but as a sort of repetition and explanation of the Subject or Object. In such cases, " I mean," or " that is to say," or some similar expression, may be supplied between the two Nouns : — (1) " Next came ) Thomas, (that is to say) the boy Then we saw \ that cleans the boots." 98 APPOSITION. [Par. 138-140 Here " the boy," being in close connection with " Thomas," is said to be in Apposition (ad, near; position, position) to "Thomas." 138 For "the boy," write the Third Personal Pro- noun. Then the sentence becomes — (2) " Next came Thomas, he that cleans the boots." (8) "Then we saw Thomas, him that cleans the boots." In (2) " Thomas " is the Subject, and the Pro- noun in Apposition has the Subject-Inflection; in (3) " Thomas " is the Object, and the Pronoun in Apposition has the Object-Inflection, Hence we get this Eule : — Nouns and Pronouns are used Subjectively when in Apposition to Subjects, and Objectively when in Apposition to Objects. 139 ^ "used Subjectively" or " Objectively" is meant that — if the word has Subject and Object Inflections — the Sub jective Inflection or Objective Inflection must be used. 140 1 Q mos t cases it may be shewn that words " used (1) Subjectively" and (2) "Objectively" respectively, answer the question (1) "who?" or "what?" before the Verb, or (2) " whom ? " or " what ? " after the Verb— so that they are logically entitled to be described as being themselves Subjects or Objects. Thus " he," above, answers " who came ? " Nouns or Pronouns in Apposition may be therefore described as Appositional Subjects or Objects respec- tively. Par. 141-143] APPOSITION. 99 Apposition with Indirect Object, &c. The Indirect Object is not often emphatic enough to have another Indirect Object in Apposition to it. But such a construction may occur : " Will you give him your confidence— a rascal banished from all respectable society ? " The Noun when used Possessively, being almost an Adjective, is rarely or never followed by a Noun in Apposi- tion. It would scarcely be English to say : "This picture was not mine but my brother's— an artist himself, and a great connoisseur. " Even were such an Appositional use allowable, the Pos- sessive could not be tolerated in Apposition ; the Objective would have to be employed, e.g. " artist " above, and would have to be regarded as the Object of an implied "of." In the following examples there is no Apposition ; the Noun that was once Appositional has now become part of a Compound Noun : — (1) "William the Conqueror's character; " " King Alfred's reign." The word "house" must be supplied after each of the Possessive Nouns in the following Example : (1) " Let us go to Macmillan's the Publisher's." Apposition with an Implied Noun. 143 Sometimes a ]Noun is "in Apposition" not to another preceding Noun, but to some Noun implied from the preceding words : — (1) " He was said to have disobeyed his parents — a fault deemed unpardonable in those days." (2) " You were silent when accused— a clear confes- sion of guilt. " H 2 100 INDIRECT AND ADVERBIAL [Par. 144 In some cases the Noun implied from the pre- ceding sentence would, if expressed, be Objective. For example, the sentences might have run — (1) "He was guilty of disobedience — & fault," &c. (2) "You kept silence— & confession, " &c. But in other cases the implied Noun might be Subjective, e.g. : — "If he were elected a Member of Parliament — not a very probable event" i.e. " if his election were to happen," &c. Exercise XXIV. Parse the italicized words in — • By this time the Tuscan army had come up, their spears ad- vanced, and trumpets sounding in triumph. When they fec.w the three brave Romans on the bridge offering them battle, at first the sight caused them laughter, and three of the bravest chiefs spurred forth at Porsena's command to open him a, path. But the next moment, their three bodies lay bleeding beneath the Roman spears. Then three more Tuscans rode forward ; but, these too being slain by the three Romans, fear and wrath fell on the whole army. So now, with levelled spears and closeu ranks, they advanced all together against the champions, a sight to make the bravest shrink back.o But the three stood their ground: and now they had gained their countrymen time enough to loosen the props of the bridge, which began to shiver under the force of the 14;4 stream. "Back, Horatius, back," shouted the Consul; and back rushed his two friends, just in time, the bridge cracking beneath their feet, and thundering downward, Par. 145] OBJECT. 101 as they touched the bank. But the brave Horatius, his wound retarding him (for he had been wounded in the last contest) could not run back in time, and go was left alone, the enemy pressing on him in front, and the river — which was fully fifty yards broad — surging and foaming behind.^ One moment he paused, and offered up a prayer ; then leaped into the stream. Romans and Tuscans, all alike, eagerly watched the brave swimmer, swimming a strong stroke, wounded though he was : and Porsena cried aloud that he was worth twelve ordinary lives, and prayed that he might live and fight many another battle. One minute he seemed to be sinking, but the next he rose, and at last, weary and faint, he reached the shore. From that time all the Romans paid Horatius due respect, and bestowed gifts upon him, and set up his statue in the market-place, an honour rarely bestowed on any Roman citizen. Exercise XXY. Parse the italicized words in — A great battle was raging between the birds and the beasts : it had lasted all day, and was not yet decided. Not a bird or beast but * had taken one side or other in the battle — all x but the bat. She alone, the cowardly creature, would take no part with either side. In vain the eagle, the general of the birds, being hard pressed by his enemies the beasts, sent her his commands by the swallow to join the army of the birds. " How can you give me the name of bird ? " she replied ; ' ' what bird has teeth as I have?" Soon afterwards the lion, the king of the beasts, finding the battle going against * " All " is in apposition with a Subject understood. It is as though the sentence had run, '"the birds and beasts had all taken sides in the battle, all but the bat ; " and " all " is an Adjective ased as a Noun, and in apposition with "birds and beasts," implied from the preceding sen- tence. 102 APF0SITIONAL [ Pa r. 146, 147 him, sent to say that he would forgive her her past cowardice if she came at once to join his army. " What 146 right has he to ask me such & favour ? " replied the bat. ' ' How can he take me for a beast ? Even a mole can see that I have wings. Who ever saw a beast with wings ? " Saying these words, she flew to the birds, who seemed on the point of gaining a complete victory, and eagerly offered the eagle her services. But the eagle answered, " Just now you told us you were a beast. Go to your friends the beasts : they need your help more than we." The bat retired in confusion ; but an hour afterwards, fortune inclining toward the beasts, she humbly ap- proached the lion, offering him her help. " You would not de us a kindness when we were in trouble, 3 ' roared the lion, " and now do you talk about giving us your help i Away with you ! The battle once over, 1 will make short work with you. " Rejected by both narties — the natural result of her cowardice — the bat was forced to lead a solitary life. So she skulks in dark places, and prefers the night to the day — a warning to all men that they must not " trim." 147 Appositional Verbs, or Verbs of Identity It has been shewn that two Nouns or Pronouns when " in Apposition" are both used Subjectively, or else both used Objectively. There are some Verbs whose nature it is thus to connect Nouns or Pro- nouns, placing them, as it were, in Apposition. These Verbs sometimes express the identity be- tween two persons or things. The Verb " is " is commonly used thus : — (1) " The author of this book is my brother." Par. 148] VERBS. 103 Here " is " expresses the identity between " my brother" and the Subject of "is," i.e. "the author." Hence the name Object could not be given to "my brother." Indeed, if you alter the sentence by putting yourself in your brother's place, it be- comes — (2) "The author of this book is I." Since, therefore, you are obliged to use the Sub- jective form " I " (not " me "), it follows that " brother " in (1) is Subjectively, not Objectively, used. For a similar reason, the ordinary term " Object" cannot be given to the Noun following the Yerb in — (3) V He was made, appointed, created, king." (4) " He was thought, deemed, believed, supposed, called, named, a, rascal." (5) "Ke seems, appears, looks a rascal." In these sentences the Verb by itself is incom- plete. " He was made" is not only not the complete meaning; it is even untrue. The Verb is, not "was made" but "was made-king." "To mahe- king" and "to make-beautiful" are, each, just as much one Verb, as "to he-king" and "to beauti-fy." Since the words " rascal " and " general " supple- ment the preceding Verbs, they may be called the Supplement of the Verb ; and, since they are here 104 APFOSITWNAL [ Pa r. 149 used Subjectively, they may be called tlie Sub- jective Supplement of the Verb. 1 Od the other hand, in — (6) " They made, appointed, created, him general." (7) " We thought, deemed, supposed, believed, called, named, him a rascal." — since the identity is here between the Object " him " and the " rascal " or " general," we may call " rascal " and " general " Objective Supplements of the Verb* 149 Adjectives are sometimes thus used as Supple- ments : — (1) "We thought her foolish." (2) " I painted my house white. " Here " thought- foolish " may be regarded as a Compound Yerb. Somewhat different is the Participial use of Adjectives in — (1) " They found the man dead." (2) "I bought the house new." (3) "I ate my dinner cold." Caution. Distinguish carefully between : — 1. The Complementary Infinitive, which is the Complement of a Noun or Pronoun (see Par. 97). 3. Tlie Supplement, which is the Supplement of a Verb. * The term " Supplement," and not Complement, is used, for fear of confusion between the Supplement of the Verb, and the Complement of the Subject or Object mentioned in Par. 97. Par. 150-152] VERBS. 105 KB.— The Intransitive Verbs " is," " looks" "seems" "appears" and the Transitive Verbs "make" "create" "appoint" "deem" "esteem" being often used to express identity, may be called " Verbs of Identity" Rule — Verbs of Identity, when Intransitive and Passive, take a Subjective Supplement ; wlien Transi- tive, take an Objective Supplement. Preparatory 'it* and 'there.' 151 Instead of saying " To walk is healthy," " To steal is dishonest," we sometimes wish to put the Subject, e.g. " to walk," at the end. But we should not like to say " is healthy to walk ; " we want to put in some little word as the Subject of is, as it were to prepare the way for the real Subject that is coming later on. So we say "It is healthy to walk," i.e. "it is healthy — I mean to walk is healthy." This " it " may be called the Preparatory Subject of " is ; " for it is like a servant sent on to prepare the way for his master and to secure room for him at an inn. " To walk " is the real Subject of " is." The Adverb there is used in the same preparatory 152 way, though of course it is not a Subject. For example, if you are beginning a story about a boy, it does not sound well to say "once a little boy 106 PREPARATORY, [par. 153. 154 was ; " so we place " little boy " last, and put in the word " there," not to mean " in that place," but simply to make us feel that something is coming : — " Once there was a little boy." "When there is thus used, you may say " it pre- pares the way for the Subject, and is a Preparatory Adverb." Exercise XXVI. (Specimen). State the Subjects and Objects of the italicized Verbs, and parse the italicized Nouns in the fol- lowing Exercise : — 153 Once there was a stag in a forest. Looking one day at the reflection of his antlers in the water, he thought himself the most beautiful creature he had ever seen, till his eyes fell on the long, slim, shadows of his legs. " Why," cried he, "has not Providence made all my limbs orna- ments to me ? Why has not Heaven given me the legs of the horse, which, though they do not carry him quite so swiftly as I run, are nevertheless swift and beautiful at the same time ? It is certain that then I should l be the king of the forest, and there would ! be none to dispute the title with me. But alas ! my legs are mere sticks, and make me the scarecrow of the forest. However, complaints being unavailing, I must submit." 154 Scarcely had he spoken, when there was a sound of the huntsman's horn. Away flew the stag, through the thick wood ; but he was sadly hindered, his long antlers catch- 1 You need not state the Mood of this Verb, Par. 155] IT" AND "THERE." 107 ing in the low branches, and checking his furious leaps. Before he had gone a mile, the hounds were close upon him ; but luckily he reached the open plain. Here his fine antlers, the ornaments of which he had been so proud, no longer hindered him ; and by the aid of his legs, the ugly sticks that he had been so contemptuously despising, he soon got safe away. Lt is a mistake you see, sometimes, to despise what is ugly. 155 Supplement of Verb. 1 Subject. Direct Object. the Verb. 1. Objective. 2. Subjective. 3. Adjective. Indirect Object. was a stag (Prep Adverb, "there.") - - - thought he himself "the, &c. seen" (Obj.) ornaments (Obj.) — has made Providence limbs has given Heaven legs, &c. — me are which — swift, &c. (Adj.) — is that then \ should, Era's*- i l: 116 AUXILIARY VERBS. [Par. 171, 172 Exercise XXYIII. lfl Replace the italicized Auxiliary Verbs by their equivalents in a non-auxiliary form ; and, where they cannot be replaced, state the Mood represented by them : — 1. " If I might choose," said the camel to Jupiter, "I would have the neck of the swan, and the legs of the horse ; then / should be the king of the beasts." " You could not have made a greater mistake," replied Jupiter ; "if you had your way you would be nothing but a giraffe." 2. "If you would but throw me into the water," said the gudgeon to the fisherman ; " I should soon grow fatter and bigger, and then, whenever you wanted me, I would come and be caught." "If I could feel sure of that," replied the fisherman, "perhaps I might let you go ; but, as I am not at all sure, I must pop you into my basket. " 3. " I could Jiave won the race, if I had wished;" said the hare in a rage to the successful tortoise ; "but I would rather lose the prize, than trudge for a dozen hours together, as you do, over a dozen yards." 4. The ass in the lion's skin might have kept the beasts in awe for ever, if he could have kept quiet. 5. " If I could sell my milk at a good price, I might buy a hen ; the hen's eggs ivotdd give me money enough to buy a new gown ; then I should be the best dressed girl at the fair, and I would 1 walk like a fine lady, tossing my head — like this. " 172 Caution. Might. — " I might have " is often used for "I should have had power to," where " power " means "lawful power." It differs very little, in such cases, from i See Par. 173. Par. 173, 174] AUXILIARY VERBS. 117 " I could have," except that in " could " there is no notion of " lawful " power. (1) " If he had wished he might have helped me." (2) " If he had not been too scrupulous, he could soon have made his fortune." But the two words are often confused Very often also it is doubtful whether " might " and " could " are not Indicatively, rather than Sub- junctively, used. "He might have helped me" sometimes (see Par. 175) means "He had (Indie. ) the power to have helped me (but did not use it)." Since, according to the proverb, "no one knows what he can do till he tries," power may always be regarded (1) as existing though unused, i.e. Indicatively ; or (2) as a possibility, subject to the fulfil* ment of condition, i.e. Subjunctively. Hence, in Latin, the Indicative " potui " is often used in Conditional language. Will, would. — Note that — just as "I may come" means "I shall possibly come," — in the same way "I will, or would come" often means "I shall willingly, or, should willingly, come." In other words, "will" is used for the Future of itself, i.e. "I shall will," just as "may" is for " I shall may." Hence " would " is not quite the same in — (1) " John said he (John) would be punctual." (2) " John thought he (John) would take a walk." In (1) the meaning is little more than "John said he was going to be punctual; but in (2) "will" is for "shall will" or "shall like," and "would" is, therefore, for "should will" or "should like," so that the sentence means " John thought he should like to take a walk. ' This explains the use of "would" for "might " after Verbs of pray- ing (Par. 166). "We begged that he would come" is put for "we begged that he might will, i.e. might be pleased to come." Indicative Use of Auxiliary Verbs, The Verbs " can," " may," " shall," " will," to- gether with their Past Tenses " could," " might," " should," " would," being sometimes Indicatively and sometimes Subjunctively used, require much care. Here are examples of the Indicative use of these verbs : — 174 Can, could, " to be able." 118 AUXILIARY VERBS. [ Pa r. 175-178 11 He did help me, but he could not (was not able to) help me much. " 175 May, might (i), "to be allowed;" "to have power." (1) "I may (i.e. am allowed to) play now, because I have finished my work. " (2) " When 1 was a boy I might (i.e. was allowed to) always play after I had worked three hours." (3) " My father says that I may (i.e. am allowed to) go out." (4) "My father said that I might (i.e. was allowed to) go out." (5) " You might (i.e. had the, 'power to) have helped me, but you would not." 176 May, might (ii), "to be possible." (1) "He says that he may possibly come, but he does not feel certain;" i.e. "his coming is , possible." (2) "He said that he might come, but that he did not feel certain;" i.e. " his coming was pos- sible." 177 Shall, should (i), " to be obliged ; to be bound." (1) "You should (i.e. were, and are, bound to) control your temper." (2) " You should not (i.e. were bound not to) have been so hasty." 178 Shall, should (ii), " to be going." (1) " John says that he shall 1 (is going to) help me." (2) "John said that he should (was going to) help me." » There is no rudeness in " shall " here, hecause John is here avow- ing liis own fixed intention. You do not use "shall" about John John uses it about himself. Par. 179-182] AUXILIARY VERBS. 119 179 Will, would, "to be willing; to wish; to like." (1) " He would not {i.e. willed not, or, refused to) help me, although he could (i.e. was able to) easily have done it." (2) ''Although he was warned of the danger, yet the foolish boy would (i.e. willed, was determined to) run upon the thin ice. " (3) "After breakfast the old man would (i.e. liked to) generally take a walk. " 180 Caution. — Notice that Indicative Tenses of " may," " can," " shall," " will," when depending on a Principal Verb in the Present, are Present ; but when depending on a Past, are Past : — (1) "I say that I may, can, shall, will, help you." (2) " I said that I might, could, should, would, help you." 181 Rule, — The Auxiliary Verbs " can" " could," "may," "might," &c. {when not following " if '" or any other Conjunction expressing Condition) are used Indicatively, provided they can be altered into the Indicatives of other Verbs. 182 How to Parse the Subjunctive. 1. Where the Mood expresses Purpose, parse the Verb as " Subjunctive of Purpose." 2. Where the Mood expresses Condition, but in the Indicative form, e.g. u If he comes, came, had come," you may parse the Verb as " Conditional 120 THE SUBJUNCTIVE. [ Pa r. 183 (Indicative form) ; " otherwise as simply " Con- ditional." 3. State whether the Conditional Verb is in the Antecedent or Consequent. It is good practice to replace Auxiliary Verbs by their equivalents, either in the Indicative or the Subjunctive, as the case may be. 183 Exercise XXIX. (Specimen). State the Moods of italicized Verbs in the follow- ing Exercise : — Hundreds of years ago, in the centre of the city of Rome there suddenly appeared one morning a deep chasm or pit. No one knew what could have caused it, and no one could till it up. If earth or stone could have filled it up, it would not have remained open long ; but, al- though heaps upon heaps of stone and rubbish were cast down, the pit still remained unfilled. The people now began to fear that the gods of Rome might intend to punish the city, and they thought the pit might be a sign of their anger. So they went to the priests to ask them what they ought to do. The high priest replied that the gods had sent the pit in anger at the citizens ; " Even though you went on casting in earth for centuries," said he, "the pit would never be closed: it will always remain open, until the most precious thing in Rome is cast into it." On learning this, the citizens cast in their gold and the women their bracelets and ear-rings, in the hope that thus they might satisfy the gods and close the pit. But all was in vain, and it seemed as if nothing would be of use. At last a young soldier named Marcus Curtius, clothed in full armour and mounted on his Par. 184, 185] THE SUBJUNCTIVE. 121 horse, cried aloud tliat if a brave man had cast himself into the pit, it would have been closed long ago. Saying this he set spurs to his horse and leaped into the pit ; which at once closed, and never opened afterwards. Could have caused. "Was able to have caused." Indi- cative. 1 Could have filled. " Had been able to fill." Indicative form of the Conditional : Antecedent. Would hare remained. Conditional : Consequent. Might intend. " It was possible that they intended (put for ' they were possible to intend ')." Indicative. 1 Might be. " It was possible to be (put for 'was possible to be')." Indicative. 1 Ought. " Were bound. " Indicative. 1 Went on. "Should go on." Indicative form of the Con- ditional : Antecedent. Would be closed. Conditional : Consequent. 7s cast. " Shall be cast." Indicative form of the Subjunc- tive. Might satisfy. " It was possible that they were going to satisfy (put for ' they were possible to satisfy')." Indi- cative. x Would be. Conditional : Antecedent, Full sentence is, " as (it would seem) if nothing were going to be of use." Had cast. Indicative form of the Conditional : Antece- dent. Would have been closed. Conditional : Consequent. Exercise XXX. State the Moods of the following italicized Verbs : — "If we had but a king," said some noisy frogs in a pond, "we should be peaceful and orderly ; as it is, every one i Note that the Indicative is used not only in questions, hut also after Verbs of fearing, hoping, &c. , in many places where it cannot be said to express a, fact, e.g. (1) "I hope he has come," (2) " I fear he has not come," (3) " I will ask who has come, or, if any one has come." In Latin, the Subjunc. would be used in (2) and (3), the Infin. in (1). 122 THE SUBJUNCTIVE. [ Par . 186 may do as he pleases, and say what he likes, and there is as much uproar in our pond as 1 if we were a set of noisy ducks, instead of being quiet respectable frogs. A king would 2 soon set us to rights. ! that Jupiter 3 would give us a king." So they held an assembly and offered up a prayer to Jupiter that he would 4 give them a king. Scarcely were the words of their prayer out of their mouths, when down came a big black monster from the sky, splashing the water up like a fountain. Away swam the frogs in a fright. "Jupiter should not have sent us such a terrible monster," cried they ; " why could he not send us a decent quiet king, who might 5 keep us in order without frightening us out of our wits? As for this tyrant, if he terrifies 6 us thus at his first coming, what will he do when he is^W used to oppressing us ? V» 186 But the big black monster took no notice of their terror. There he lay silent and sullen, and would not so much as move a limb. Astonished at his silence, the frogs, after their first fright, began to wish that their new king would* say or do something, so that at least they might be relieved from their suspense. So they took out of prison a frog that had committed murder, and pro- mised him free pardon if he would swim within three frog's leaps of the king. Shivering with terror the poor frog swam towards the king, scarcely daring to hope that he might' 1 r(6) escape, and expecting every moment that i i.e. "as (there would be) if we were." 2 Here, as very often, the Antecedent is left out, but can be supplied, "if he were here." 3 "Ol that Jupiter would" is a short way of saying "(we pray, desire) that Jupiter would." This is a more earnest and less hopeful way of expressing oneself than "we pray that Jupiter will, or stay." If fnlly expressed, the sentence would perhaps be " if it were possible that one's prayer could be granted, we would pray that Jupiter would give us a king." This is " would " of purpose ; Par. 167 4 (1) After "prayer" would expresses purpose,; (2) after "wish " it may be changed into "was going to," and treated as Indicative. 5 " Who might keep us in order" is put for "that he might" and denotes purpose. 6 " If " here is the same as " since." Hence ' teirifies " is Indicative. 7 (a) See Par. 80 ; (b) " might," see Par. ISO. Par. 187] THE SUBJUNCTIVE. 123 the huge monster would dart upon him with open jaws, and swallow him up. Closer and closer he swam ; still the king floated silent, motionless. Taking courage from this, the frog thought he would 1 awake his ma- jesty by croaking. He croaked, but the king made no reply. He swam closer, and still closer, and at last, his suspicions being aroused, he extended one of his legs, and stroked the monster's face with it. It was as he had suspected. The king was no king, nothing but a big black log. Immediately the whole tribe of frogs, who had been watching from a distance, lifted up their voices and began to abuse Jupiter: "If he had wished to insult us," cried they, "he could not have treated us more contemptu- ously. We should not have minded a strong and somewhat fierce king, even if he had swallowed up a few of us now and then.^ Anything would be better than this do-nothing, this King Log. Why may not we have a king as the birds and the beasts have ? Jupiter should not have treated us thus ; he might 2 at least have sent us no king instead of thus insulting us. We will pray to him no more until he sends 3(a) us a real king. " So the frogs shut up all their temples,- and for a whole day would say no more prayers to Jupiter. But at the end of the day there suddenly hopped down into the pond a monstrous stork to be their king. He began by gobbling up a dozen of the noisiest frogs, and ordered that no frog should 3 (6) croak in any part of the pond while he was asleep. This pleased the rest, who sajd, " Now we shall have order : it is worth while having a strong king that we may have peace and quiet." But, when they came swimming round 1 " He thought he would " is put for "he thought he should will, i.e. should like." See Par. 173. 2 This is Indicative, if you take it to mean "he had the power ;" but, if you take it to be "he would have been able (if he had pleased)," is Conditional, Consequent. See Par. 172. 3 (a) See Par. 80 ; (b) " should croak," notion of Purpose. 124 THE SUBJUNCTIVE. [ Pa r. 188 him next morning, to pay their respects, and to ask him to judge their disputes, he would not^hear them, but ate them up by scores, quiet and noisy alike, choos- ing the fattest. So now the frogs saw they had made a mistake, and they said, "If we were once rid of King Stork we would not find fault with King Log, and indeed we could be content to have no king at all. " 18S The Indefinite Subjunctive. Sometimes " should " is used where a Condition is implied rather than expressed : — (1) "It would be unjust that I should suffer for other people's misconduct." This is really equivalent to — (2) " It would be unjust if I should suffer," &c. But it is more difficult to explain why we say — (3) " It is a shame that I should be thus insulted," i.e. "am thus insulted." (4) " I am sorry that my son should thus misconduct himself," i.e. "thus misconducts himself." (5) " To think that he should have so far disgraced himself I" i.e. " has so far disgraced himself." In the last three examples facts are spoken of : why then is the Subjunctive used 1 The answer is, that we desire here to speak of the facts, not as definite facts, but as possibilities. In the same indefinite way we sometimes use the Infinitive, as being an Indefinite Mood : — (6) " It is a shame for x me to be thus insulted.^ 1 "For to ... he insulted " is really here the Old Infinitive with " for to " instead of "to." See Par. 402. Par. 189, l9o] THE SUBJUNCTIVE. 125 Consequently, this use of " should " may be called the Indefinite Subjunctive. Tenses of the Subjunctive. It is usual to speak of the Present and Past Tenses of a Subjunctive: but, in reality, "if he comes" refers to future time, and so does "if he came or should come." It may perhaps be said that, in "if he come(s), I will see him ; " the Condition, though having to do with the Future, is regarded as Present to the speakers. Nevertheless, the fact that the Elizabethan writers often used to say "if he shall come," indicates that this form is more like a Future than anything else. The form " if he should come " seems to be a combination of Future and Past — the Future being represented by the shall, and the Past by the Inflection -d — as though with the intention of making a Condition that should apply to no time in particular, but to all time. The same intention seems obvious in " if he were to come," where the Past time is included in " were," and the Future in " to," which looks " to- ward" the future. The False Subjunctive. " If " is sometimes used not in its ordinary Con- ditional sense, nor, on the other hand, exactly like "since," but rather in the sense of "assuming as a fact." In such cases it is followed by a true Indicative (not an Indicative form of the Con- 126 THE SUBJUNCTIVE. [ Par . 190 ditional), and the Indicative (Present or Past) is also used in the Consequent : — ■ (1) "If he says that, he is more ignorant than I supposed." (2) "If he said that, he wow more ignorant than I had supposed." This must not be confounded with the true Sub- junctive. Pope seems to use the Present and the Future indiffer- ently after "while " in — "While lasts the mountain or while Thames shall How." CHAPTER VII. IRREGULARITIES. J91 Regularity means that which is like a ruled line, for " regular " means " ruled." Irregularity, there- fore, means that which is not like a ruled line. Language is said to be regular when it follows straight fixed rules. 1 192 Irregularity of Idioms. For example, it is regular to say, " I have a score of sheep." Here " score" is a Noun, and therefore is regularly followed by "of." On the other hand, it is irregular to say, " I have a dozen marbles," leaving out "of." Now bear in mind — Whenever language is irregular, there is some cause for the irregularity. * For a Summary of the Rules of Syntax, see "Rules and Defini- tions," p. xxviii. 123 IRREGULARITIES. [ Pa r. 193, 194 Language does not bend away from its straight fixed rules for nothing; there is some cause that makes it bend. 193 In the last example there are perhaps two causes : (1) when we say, " I have a dozen," we confuse this with " I have twelve," that is to say, we confuse the use of a Noun with the use of an Adjective. So we treat " dozen," partly as though it were an Adjective, leaving out the " of " after it, and partly as though it were a Noun, keeping the " a " before it. We do the same thing in " I have a hundred sheep ; " we ought to say, by rule, " I have a hundred {Noun) of sheep," or, " I have hundred {Adjective) sheep ; " but we keep the " a," as though " hundred " were a Noun, and yet leave out " of" as though " hundred " were an Adjective. Thus we mix or confuse two constructions. (2) Another reason why the " of " is omitted after " dozen " and " hundred " is probably the desire to be brief. 194 Here then there are two causes, and they are very common causes, of irregularity : (1) Con- fusion of two constructions, (2) the desire to be brief. (3) The desire to avoid harshness of sound or of construction, and (in Poetry more especially) the desire to give special emphasis to certain words, are also causes of irregularity. Par. 195-197] IBREGULARITIES. 129 195 Irregularity of Words. The " confusion of two constructions," or rather the "reduplication of constructions," affects the formation of words, as well as of idioms. It is very common for an Inflection to become obsolete and forgotten, and then to receive a second Inflection as an appendage, the two being blended or " confused " together. 196 For example (1) the old Genitive in 's, which is now retained only in our " Possessive Inflection," had once a wider use, so that it represented our "at" or "by," and was used for an Adverbial termination. Hence were formed : (1) " One-s " or "once ; " " unaware-s ; " " door-s ; " " day-s ; " i.e. "by day." In time, the Adverbial use of the Inflection be- coming obsolete, a Preposition was inserted, but the old useless Inflection was retained : (2) "At once;" "at unawares" (Spenser); "in doors;" "now-a-days." z 197 In the same way (1) "near " was recognised as a Comparative form, from " neah " nigh : (2) " song- ster" was recognised as a Feminine, with the old Feminine termination -ster. But, as the sense of 1 Occasionally there is found "by littles and little-.'" K 130 IRREGUL AMITIES. [ Par . 198 the Inflection in each word became lost, new In- flections were added : (1) "Near-er;" (2) "Sons-stress." In thi3 way may be explained the use of " yours " in " a friend of yours." (See Par. 434). The use of " yours " ■ for " your," is in part ex- plained by " confusion/' and in part by Law III. Law III, the " Desire to avoid harshness," accounts for the irregular retention of the following old forms for emphasis : — (1) "I want a book, give me one (emphatic form of a, an, ane)." (2) " Give me a book, for I have no{ne)." (3) " Keep my book, and I will keep your(s), 1 till you have done with mi{ne)." 198 How to Explain Irregularities. Just as the attraction of the earth makes a bullet deviate from the straight line in which it is dis- charged, so some attracting cause makes language deviate from the straight path, i.e. from regularity, into a path that is not straight, i.e. into irregu- larity. * '' Yours was early used in the Northern Dialects Par. 199] IRREGULARITIES. 131 This may be illustrated by a diagram : — J, Attracting force : — I. Desire of Brevity. II. Influence of some other construction. III. Desire to avoid harshness of sound or of construc- tion, &c. &c. First, therefore, ascertain the regularity from which the irregularity in question has deviated. Secondly, ascertain the cause of deviation, whether it be (i) desire of brevity ; (ii) confusion of two constructions ; (iii) desire to avoid harshness of sound or of construction. (1) "He loved her as his own daughter," i.e., "as (he would have loved her, if she had been) his own daughter. " (Brevity). (2) "All of us remonstrated," i.e., confusion of the two constructions : " All 1 we remonstrated," and "some, many, ten, &c. of us remonstrated." iqq (3) " It is you that say so " » Compare "All we, like sheep, have gone astray K 2 132 IBBEGULABITIES. [ Par . 200 In this last example two principles are at work. The regular construction would have been — (1) " It that says so is you." Here steps in (III) the desire to avoid the harsh- ness of " it," used so emphatically ; hence " it " is deprived of its emphasis by being separated from its Relative " that." (2) " It is you that says so." Here steps in (II) " confusion " between this con- struction and the straightforward construction " You say so " — resulting in the idiom logically incorrect, but by process of custom stamped as perfectly good English : — (3) " It is you that say so." * 200 Irregularities are very common (i) with the Relative Pronouns and Relative Adverbs, (ii) with Adjectives and Adverbs of Number and Amount. A few of these irregularities are given below, in order to prepare the reader for dealing systemati- cally with all irregularities in the English language. In every case the same method will be adopted, viz. to ask — I. What would be the regular construction ? II. What is the cause of irregularity ? 1 See also Par. 160. Par. 201, 202] RELATIVE WOIWS. 133 Relative Pronouns and Adverbs. 201 1. " That " is often omitted as the Object, and sometimes (rarely except in Poetry) as the Sub- ject :— (1) " 'Twas you (that) I saw." (2) " 'Twas you (that) said so, not I." The regular construction inserts " that." The cause of irregularity is (I) 1 " the desire of brevity," and (II) 1 " confusion " with the straight- forward construction " You said so." 202 2. " But "seems put for " that... not" or " who ...not," e.g. in — (1) " There is no one here but hates you," i.e. u that does not hate you. " The radical meaning of " but " is " be-out " or "with-out;" hence "except." And therefore the regular construction is — (2) "There is no man here but or except (he) hate you." ^ Compare Julius Ccesar, v. 5, 35 : — (3) "I found no man but he was true to me." Brevity steps in and omits "he." Also "but" is confused with a Relative Pronoun, just as " as " is. (See next Paragraph). For other uses of " but," see Index. * These Numbers refer to the Laws of Irregularity mentioned iu Para- graph 198. 134 IRREGULARITIES. [Par. 203, 204. 203 3. " So." The radical meaning of " so " (Early English " swa ") is " in that way ; " and the radical meaning of "as " (which is a contraction of an emphatic form of " so," Early English " all-swa," " alse," u als," " as ") is * in which way," or " in that way." Consequently, " as " has the Demon- strative meaning of "so," besides having its own Relative meaning. (1) "If you are busy, say so." (2) " I thought he was a rascal, and he is so." The Regular Construction would be — (3) "Ke is it." But (Law III) 1 the harshness of " it " in so emphatic a position has tended to irregularity; and (Law II) this construction has been confused with — (4) "I thought he was a rascal and he turned out so, proved so," &c. In (4), "so " is used in its proper sense, viz. " in that way," and it has been confused with and substituted for " it " in Example (2), in which " so " must be parsed as " used for it." 204 4. " So as-to." (1) " The sailors furled the sails so as to be prepared for the storm." * These Numbers refer to the Laws of Irregularity mentioned in Paragraph 198. Par. 205] RELATIVE WORDS. 135 The Eegular Construction would be — (2) " The sailors furled the sails so (in the way) as (in which way) [they would furl the sails] to be pre- pared for the storm." Brevity (Law I), disliking the repetition, omits the bracketed sentence. In the same way we say— (3) "lam not so credulous as (I should have to be) to believe this. " The words "so as " add indefiniteness, by suggesting con- dition. If they had been omitted : (4) "The sailors furled the sails to be prepared for the storm." — the purpose of the sailors would have been definitely ex- pressed. But the insertion of "so as" implies rather that the work was of a nature tending towards a certain result, without distinctly stating the purpose. 205 5. "As." " In that way," " in which way." (1) "I have not such kind treatment as I used to have." (2) " Brills; such books as you have." (3) " Parse such a sentence as this (is)." (-4) " Such as it is, I give it you." The Eegular Construction would be (since " such " means " so-like," and is the Demonstrative corre- sponding to the Eelative " which," i.e. what- like) :— (5) "I have not such kind treatment which I used to have." 136 IRREGULARITIES. [Par. 206-208 206 Hence, in Shakespeare, we often find "such" followed by " which " and " that " (Eelative Pro- nouns) : — (6) "Such an affection which cannot choose but branch. " (7) "You speak to Casca, and to such a man That is no fleering tell-tale." But (Law II) 1 the Eegular Construction in (5) is confused with — (8) "I have not kind treatment as (i.e., in the way in which) I used to have." 207 The result is the irregularity in (1), which is now recognized as good English. But while this process of " confusion of constructions " was going on, many idioms were formed that have been discarded, and are not recognized as good English. We all know that it is vulgar to say — (9) " This is the boy as I saw yesterday." Yet Shakespeare, using " as " for " that," precisely in this way, writes — (10) "I have not from your eyes that gentleness And show of love as I was used to have. " 208 Hence we can explain the use of " as " in paren- theses, as follows : — (11) " So you are late again, as (is) usual." (12) "As I told you before, you must work before you play." * These Numbers refer to the Laws of Irregularity mentioned in Para- graph 198. Par. 209] RELATIVE WOEDS. 137 In both (11) and (12) "as" is used for the Relative Pronoun " which," while the Antecedent (see Par. 25) must be supplied from the context, thus : — (11) in full, " So you are late again, which (lateness) is usual with you. " (12) in full, " You must work before you play, which (saying) I told you before. " 209 6. "As" redundant. (1) " He was appointed as general." (2) " We will have him as our leader." (3) "I esteem him as a rascal." (4) '* This shall serve us as ink." In (3) and (4) the Eegular Construction would be- ts) in full, "I esteem him as (I should esteem) a rascal. " (4) in full, " This shall serve us as ink (would serve us)." It is more difficult to give the Eegular Con- struction for (1) and (2), and probably the irregu- larities of (1) and (2) are caused not only by (I) desire of brevity, but also by (II) confusion of con- struction. For example, it is an easy transition to " We will have him as " from : — c (5) " We will obey him, serve him, honour him, treat him, hold him, as (we would obey, serve, honour, treat, hold) our leader." 138 IRREGULARITIES. [Par. 210-212 210 " As," in many similar sentences, is used to give the impression that the writer is not stating a fact, but somebody else's opinion : — (1) "He considered pleasure as (it would be con- sidered if it were) the object of life." (2) " He represented the results of the expedition as (they would be represented, if they were) most disastrous. " In all these cases " as " may be parsed as " re- dundant." The full construction should be given, or the construction that has caused the irregularity by "confusion." For " as yet " and other uses of " as," see Index. 211 7. " As if," " as though," are often used where (I) the Consequent is omitted : — (1) " He loved her as (he would have loved her) if she had been his own daughter." (2) " He loved her as (much as he could have loved her, for he could not have loved her more) though she had been his own daughter." In both examples, Brevity is the Cause of Irregu- larity. 212 Words of Number. 1 Some much-used Adjectives and Adverbs of * (I), (II.), (Ill), refer to the "Laws of Irregularity," mentioned in Par. 198. Par. 213] WOBDS OF NUMBER. 139 Number and Amount present many irregularities. The same word is used sometimes — 1. As a Numeral Adjective, answering the ques- tion " How many 1 " 2. As an Adverb, answering the question " How much ] " " In how great a degree 1 " &c. 3. As a Noun, being the name of a collection, e.g. " score." 213 Hence the principal " Cause of Irregularity " here will be the " Confusion of Constructions," viz. the Constructions of an Adjective, Adverb, and Noun. (1) "A dozen (of) pens, a hundred (of) men, half (of) the country, 1 all (of) the men, more (of) pudding a little (of) pudding." 2 Here the Eegular Construction would have been — (2) "Hundred men, twenty men," &c. But a feeling that each number represented a single "collection" led to the insertion of "a" without the grammatically consistent and necessary insertion of " of," so that the Noun Construction 1 Note that you cannot say " quarter the country." Why ? Because " half" is more commonly used than "quarter " (insomuch that " halt" is sometimes used for " part," e.g. " the larger half ") ; and remember irregularities feed upon custom. It is where men have to say the same things often and quickly, that men are most apt to cut and clip and modify their language to suit their convenience. Hence, in Latin, " venio Romam," but " venio ad Italiam." 2 See Par. 217. 140 IRREGULARITIES. [Par. 214, 215 was confused with the Adjective. In the same way, in earlier English, we find — (3) "A score sheep," " a ten furlongs." And even in our Authorized Version of the Bible we have — (4) "About an eight days after these sayings." 214 I* 1 some of these cases probably the Adjective and Noun are regarded as one Compound Noun. Compare "a fortnight," i.e. "afourteen-night," "a twelve-month." But in modern English the irregularity is only licensed with a few much-used Adjectives — "dozen," " hundred," " thousand " (perhaps " million "). 215 l. " All." (1) "Alio/ us rejoiced." Regular Construction " All we." Cause of Irregu- larity, partly (III) the harshness of " all we," partly (II) Confusion of (1) with " ten, twenty, many, &c, of us." Note the following various uses : — (2) "He rushed up all out of breath," " all the better," Adverb. (3) "All is in vain : he will not help us at all," Noun. (4) In " The men all perished " — " all " may be parsed as an Adjective, just as we can say "The men — twenty in number — perished." Par. 216-218] WORDS OF NUMBER. 141 But undoubtedly " all " owes its position in (4) to a confusion of its Adjectival use with its Adverbial use, viz. " altogether." 216 2. "Enough:"— (1) "He has been punished enough," Adverb. (2) " We have had enough of wandering," Noun. (3) "We have not enough men," Adjective, though really a Noun with " of" omitted ; (II.) (4) "I have not men enough," Adverb in position, Adjective in use ; (II.) 217 " Few," " little : "— (1) "A few (of) men," " a little (of) pudding." Adjectives, with (II.) Confusion of Noun Con- struction. Distinguish " a little (of) pudding " from "alittle," i.e. " a small pudding." See Pars. 213—14. 218 3. " Many:"— (1) " Many a man has tried, but few have suc- ceeded." The Eegular Construction would be " Many men;" but this appears to have been confused with — (2) "Many times a man has tried." The -y termination of " many " has doubtless favoured this Adverbial use. There is abundant proof that in Early English 11 many " was used either as an Adverb, or as part of 142 IRREGULARITIES. [Par. 219 a Compound Adjective " many-one," i.e. in Modern English " many-a." (See Shakespearian Grammar, Par. 85.) This began in the thirteenth century. In the same way the Germans say "mancher (Adj.) mann," but "manch (Adv.) ein inann." The insertion of " a " is common after Adjectives that are Semi- Adverbial. Compare — (3) " What a man he is ! " (4) "Such a man as he is ought to know better." And, in Early English : — (5) "Each a man," "which a wife," i.e. "what a wife." Shakespeare also has — I (6) "Poor (i.e. barely) a thousand pounds." It is rare to find " many " (like " few ") now treated as a Noun (Shakespeare has "a many of our bodies M ) : — (6) "A many (of) men." 219 4. " More : "— (1) " Give me some, no, much, &c. more pudding." (2) " Give me three more books, one more book." Here " more " is an Adverb, and means " besides." But it owes its position to a confusion of the Adverbial with the Adjectival use of " more." Hence, instead of saying " Some pudding more, i.e. in addition," we say " some more pudding." Par. 220-222] WORDS OF NUMBER. 143 220 " ^°>" " anv >" " some," are used as Adverbs answering to the question " How much more % " in — (3) " He slept no more,'''' i.e. "no longer ; " " did not sleep any more, much more," i.e. "any, much, longer." 221 " More " is used as a Noun in — (4) " He is always asking for more." (5) "I want, (or) I said, no more." Here " no " may be regarded either as an Adjec tive making up part of a Compound Noun, "no- more," or perhaps, more correctly, as an Adverb modifying the anomalous Adverbial Noun " more." z 222 " Some : "— (1) "I had some difficulty," Adjective of Amount. (2) "I saw some children," Adjective of Number. (3) " He will come some time or other," Adjective of Indefiniteness. (4) "Some one or other said so," Adjective of Inde- finiteness. (5) "Some twenty men arrived," i.e. "about," Adverb. Compare, for the Adverbial use of "some," Shakespeare's use of the word : — (6) " T would detain you here some month or two." (7) " Some hour (i.e. about an hour) before you took me." i For the Adverbial use of " no," see Index. 144 "EACH" "EVERY;' &c. [Par. 223, 224 And Early English (modern Scotch) use : — (8) "It is- some late." "Five mile or some {i.e. thereabouts)." "Each," "every," "one," "none," " other." 223 1. "Each," "other:"— (1) "They hated each other (or) one another. 1 " This is (I) a contraction for — (2) "They hated, each (hated) other," or, "They hated, one (hated) an other." I In the same way we must explain (I) by the Desire of Brevity : — (3) "They inquired after — each (inquired after) other's health." Here, in modern English, 1 we are inclined to treat " each other " as a Compound Noun ; but it is not so. " Each " is in Apposition to " they," or Sub- ject to " inquired " understood. 224 Caution. It is a common fault to use " each " with a Plural Verb. "Where " each" appears to be the Subject of a Plural Verb, it is really not so, but only in apposition to the true Subject, e.g. : — (4) " They are each going to their several homes." i See Tar. 680 Par. 225, 226] " EVERY; 7 " ONE." 145 Here also "their homes" for "his home" is hardly logically correct. 1 The following line of Pope is an example shewing that, though " all " takes a Plural, " each" does not : — (5) " All join to guard what each desires to gain." 225 2. " Every " (once "ever-each,") is used like " a " before a Numeral Adjective and Noun : — (1) "There is a lamp-post every hundred yards." (2) "He wakes up every ten minutes." In such cases probably " ten-minutes," " hundred- yards," are Compound Nouns like " fo(u)rt(een)- night," "twelve-month." See Par. 214. 226 3. "One" (which is the same word, by deri- vation, as " ane," " an," " a ") may mean (a) a par- ticular " one ;" (b) any " one " you like; (c) a single " one ; " (d) being used for " one person " or " one thing," it has come to mean a "person," "animal," (e.g. " young ones") or " thing " : — (b) " One knows very well that perseverance is necessary for success," Pronoun : " any one." (d) " All creatures love their young ones," Noun. (1) " I do not like this book ; give me that one." (2) " I have no book ; give me one." In (1) " one " is a Pronoun put for " book ; " in (2) an Adjective (with the Noun to be supplied) put for " one (book) " or " a (book)." Sometimes the meaning of " one " depends on its emphasis. 1 The Latins would have used the Singular, "domum." L 146 IRREGULARITIES, [par. 227-229 For example, in (2) "one" is unemphatic, and means " a " ; but where it is emphatic, it may mean " a single one," e.g. in — (3) " Lend me a book ; I have not one left." 227 ^- " None," when used as a Subject, ought to be followed by a Singular Verb, as in Dryden : — (1) " None but the brave deserves the fair." But when you are denying something about a number of persons, the Verb falls naturally into the Plural : — (2) "None of my friends were at home." This arises from a confusion (II) between " none was at home " and " all were not-at-home." QQQ It is a common fault (not quite sanctioned by custom), to say : — (3) " Neither you nor he were to blame," for "was to blame." * Thi'5 arhes from a confusion (ID with — (4) " You and he were both not to blame." 229 " None " was once used as an Adjective ; and this usage is still retained in — (5) " Where is your book ? I have none." (6) " Hope have 1 none. " i The Rule is that when two Subjects are separated by "nor," or "or," the Verb agrees with the latter. There is a little harshness in the correct " was." The harshness mny be evaded by writing, "Neither he nor you were to blame." Here "were'm?(6« be right, whether the Subject be regarded (incorrectly) as Plural " he nor you," or (correctly) as " you. " Par. 23o] IRREGULARITIES. 147 Here " none " is used for the sake of emphasis. " I have no book " would not lay emphasis enough on " no." " Book have I no " would be intolerably harsh. And therefore we use the old emphatic form " none ; " just as we cannot say " this book is my" but have to say " this book is mine." " None " is Adverbial in — (7) " He is none the happier for all his wealth," i.e. "no one whit," or "naught," Adverb. 230 5. "No." If in the last example "the" were omitted, we should use, instead of " none," the less emphatic form " no " : " — (1) " He is no happier for all his wealth," Adverb. " No " does not seem to be a Numeral Adjective in — (2) "You are no soldier." It is rather Adverbial : " You are in no way, in no respect, a soldier." * Compare " none the less" with the less emphatic form of " none" in "pathless." L 2 APPENDIX I. THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. It is interesting to trace the processes that have shaped our modern anomalous Conditional Mood. For this purpose we will compare the Mood " as it is," with the Mood " as it might have been." 231 Conditional Mood, as it is. Antecedent. Consequent. ( sees 1 were to see If he should see j saw K had seen _ me, ( will know \ lie I would know me. 1 would have known J 232 As it might have been. Out of the five forms of the Conditional Ante- cedent, three (those italicized above) are identical with the Indicative ; and out of three in the Con- sequent, one is indicative. Once there were many more separate Conditional forms ; but they have now fallen into disuse, and the Conditional Mood is assimilated to the Indicative. Par. 233, 234] CONDITIONAL MOOD. 149 The reasons for this are (1) the general tendency in every language to drop distinctions wherever they can be dropped ; (2) the " if," expressing the Condition by itself, has enabled us to dispense, in the Antecedent, with the Verbal forms ; but, in the Consequent, there being no " if," the Verbal forms have been retained. 1 There is no ambiguity in " if he had seen me" used in the Antecedent ; but, were that form used in the Consequent, e.g. " he had known me," there would be danger of ambiguity. It is neither possible nor desirable to revive the old forms, but it is of use to perceive their regu- larity. There are two ways of expressing the Conditional : (1) by Inflections, (2) by the use of Auxiliary Verbs. Supposing the Conditional Mood were regularly formed by Inflections, it would be — I. A. Regular Conditional Mood with Inflections. Antecedent. Consequent. (be ) (If it) ] were 2 [ (true), (had been ) ( M ) (he) < were 3 > (guilty. ) ( had been' 3 ) i Similarly, in the Antecedent when the "if tinctive form of the Conditional must be used, to, see him " — not " saw I him." 2 Generally used of an unfulfilled condition. 3 Still used in Poetry. is omitted, the dis- ' Should I, or, were I 150 APPENDIX. [Par. 235 Or, taking another Verb, e.g. " come" : — Antecedent. Consequent. ( come 1 ) (If he) < came > ( had come ) ( [see 2 ] ) (he) < [saw 3 ] > (me.) ( had seen 4 ) 235 I. B. Modern Conditional Mood with Inflections. With the general decay of Inflections, the Con- ditional " if he come " has fallen into such disuse that it may now be called extinct. Hence the new scheme with Inflections is — Antecedent. Consequent. ( comes ) (If he) < came > ( had come ) ( (no form) ) (he) < (no form) > (me). ( had seen 4 J * Rarely used, except by pedants. But " be " is still allowable as an exception : "if it be true." 2 Not used. 3 This ambiguous form of the Subjunctive is used two or three times by Shakespeare. See Shakespearian Grammar, Par. 361, " If I rebuked yon, then I check'd (i e. should check) my friends." 4 Used only in poetry, and archaic or elevated prose. Par. 236, 237] CONDITIONAL MOOD. 15 1 236 II. A. Regular Conditional Mood with "shall." Bearing in mind that "shall " and "should" are nearly equivalent to *' am to *' and " were to," the reader will perceive the regularity of the follow- ing :— Antecedent. Consequent. (shall, 2 [be 1 to] Tf he (should, were to ( 11 ne ]should* have, f come ' or [had been 1 to] 1 | shall see •i 1 should see \ \ should have seen ( 237 II. B. Modern Conditional Mood with " shall." In course of time people came to think " shall " and " should " harsh words to use to any one to whom (Second Person), or about whom (Third Person), they were speaking. But when " shall " ar»d " should " were preceded by u if," the " if" removed the notion of compulsion. Consequently " shall " and " should " were replaced by " will " and i Rarely, or never used. 2 Used by Shakespeare. Compare " If you should have taken ven- geance on my faults, I never had (i. e. should have) lived. " — Cymbeline, v. i. 8. " If he shall come " is common in Shakespeare. 152 APPENDIX. [Par. 238 " would " in the Consequent, {with the Second and Third Persons), but not in the Antecedent. Hence arose the following scheme : — Antecedent. Consequent. shall \ If he should,orwere to > come, should have ) ( will see ] lie ^ would see / me. ( would have seen J 238 III. Modern Mixed Conditional Mood. This is formed by blending the New Inflectional Mood with the New Auxiliary Mood, as follows : — Antecedent. Consequent. comes , C should If he came, or ] come , ' I were to ^•come had come ) ) he( - will see 1 would see b would have seen I me. Hence we see that the Inflectional Mood, having been assimilated to the Indicative, and being superior in brevity to the Auxiliary form, has gained the victory, as it were, in the Antecedent, where the resemblance to the Indicative does not cause much danger of ambiguity ; but the Auxiliary form has gained the victory in the Consequent. 239 APPENDIX II. ON THE ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. Hitherto we have treated a sentence as composed of words : now we shall treat it as composed of groups of words. Sentences, Phrases ; Clauses. Def. A group of words expressing a statement, command, or question, is called a " Sentence" Def. A group of words expressing a meaning, but not a statement, ike, is called a "Phrase." Def. A " Phrase " that includes a " Sentence " may be called a " Clause." (1) " He came." Sentence. (2) "To come;" "Upon his coming;" "In a short time." Phrases. (3) " That he came ; " "When he came ; " " Because he came ; " " If he had come." Clauses. Note that some Phrases, e.g. those in (3), include Sentences. But they are not Sentences ; for they are neither statements, nor commands, nor questions. 154 ANALYSIS [ Par . 240 Such Phrases as those in (3), are sometimes, however, called, for shortness, Noun- Sentences, because they include Sentences. But it must be always borne in mind that they are not really sentences, though they become Sentences if the Conjunction is removed. 240 Phrases and Clauses. A Phrase or Clause may express : 1. A Noun. 2. An Adjective. 3. An Adverb. 1. Noun Phrases » are exemplified by the italicized words in the following sentences : — 1. To be anxious is useless. 2. That he is in error is certain. 3. Why you act thus I cannot understand. 4. I like a rascal to be punished. 5. What is done cannot be undone. 6. Whether he meant what he said, it is hard to determine. 7. Walking to school is being injuriously super- seded by trains and omnibuses. Exercise. The pupil should construct other sentences on the model of each sentence above, having Noun- Phrases 1 for Subjects and for Objects. For example, beginning with (I), the pupil should make Noun * For brevity, the word " Phrase" is used to include "Clause." Par. 2S41, 242] OF SENTENCES. 155 Phrases out of Infinitives; then passing to (2), let him use the Conjunction ''that," and so on. 241 2. Adjective Phrases or Clauses : — 1. The monkey with the long tail. 2. The monkey that has the long tail. 3. A man without principle. 4. A man of honour. 5. Sing for the oak-tree, the monarch of the wood. 6. The light of the sun. 7. The moon's orbit. 8. The book be- longing to my uncle. 9. The cow in the pad- dock. 10. The business in which I am engaged. 11. The painter of that celebrated picture. 12. This is an action to be deplored. 13. I have water to wash {i.e. washing water), but none to drink {i.e. drinking water). 14. The boy at the top. Exercise. As with the Noun Phrases, so with the Adjective Phrases, the pupil should construct other phrases according to the several models above. 242 3. Adverbial Phrases or Clauses: — ■ 1. Knowing 2 this {i.e. since I knew this) I was not surprised. 2. Surprised at his answer, I knew not what to reply. 3. When, while, after, before, as, since, I perceived my mistake, I i Note that an Adverbial Clause, e.g. " when I came," becomes, if the Conjunction is removed, a Sentence. 2 One of the first things to be done in the Analysis of Sentences is to understand the difference between (1) a Participle implying a Con- junction, and (as here) representing an Adverbial Clause, and (2) a Participle implying the Relative Pronoun " that," and representing an Adjectival Clause. 156 ANALYSIS [ PaP . 243, 244 apologized. 4. I am living in, near, not far from, &c. St. John's Wood. 5. I go daily to, from, past, across, &c. the city. 6.- This done, ^243 they departed. 7. This house was built, (Cause) owing to the increase of the owner's family; (Purpose) to command a view of the river ; (Agency) by a wealthy man : (Instrumentality) by foreign icorkmen : (Means) with timber off his own estate ; (Source) out of his capital ; (Place) near London ; (Time) ten years ago ; (Manner) with great haste ; (Circumstance) amid the derision of the neighbours, in spite of the oppo- sition of his friends, though he was in debt at the time ; (Result) to the great detriment of his fortune, so expensively that he ruined himself by it. 8. I am moving (Purpose) in order to be nearer to my friends, or (Cause) because I am too far from my friends. 9. He is unwise to say this, i.e. "for saying this." 10. Wherever he goes he prospers. 11. He is too foolish to succeed, i.e. "for the purpose of success." Jjrxrr. Note especiall3 r the following : — 12. The soldiers disliked their general, who seemed to take a pleasure in exposing them to hardships, i.e. " because he seemed — ." 13. (Circumstance) 1 Admitting that your facts are correct, I still deny your inferences. 14. (Circumstance) 1 If he comes, I will come. Exercise. Make Adverbial Phrases and Clauses on the model of the above. » The condition subject to which anything happens, mayoonvenientlj be called a " circumstance." Par. 245, 246] OF SENTENCES. 157 Sentences. 245 1- A Simple Sentence. — A Sentence that has only one Subject and only one Stating, Questioning, or Commanding Verb is a Simple Sentence : — "John struck Thomas." Note that "John came, but soon departed," is not "simple," because (though it has only one Subject) it has two stating Verbs ; again, " John came that Robert might take a holiday," is not " simple " because, though there is only one stating Verb, 1 yet there are tivo Subjects. 2. A Co-ordinate Sentence. — When several Simple Sentences are connected by " and," " but," " so" " then" (fcc., 2 so that each Sentence is, as it viere, independent, and of the same rank as the rest, each is called a Co-ordinate Sentence : — "John struck Thomas, so, and, but, &c. Thomas struck John again. " The mark of a Co-ordinate sentence is that it can generally stand as a sentence by itself, preceded by its Conjunction, e.g. : — " He made all possible haste. For he was afraid of being late." » In " Robert might take," "might take" may be (Par. 174) a stating Verb : but, when preceded by "that," the Verb ceases to state. 2 The Co-ordinate Conjunctions are and, also, besides, moreover, too, Jor, accordingly, consequently, hence, so, then, now, therefore, but, how- ever, nevertheless, notwithstanding, or. 158 ANALYSIS [par. 247-24-9 247 3. A Compound Sentence. — A Sentence made up of Co-ordinate Sentences is called a Com- pound Sentence : — "John struck Thomas, and Thomas struck John again. " 248 4. The Principal Sentence. — When a num- ber of Sentences are connected by Conjunctions that are not Co-ordinate, the Sentence that is not introduced by a Conjunction is called the Principal Sentence. 249 5. Subordinate Sentences. — Sentences con- nected with a Principal Sentence by Conjunctions that are not Co-ordinate are called Sub-ordinate. 1 The Sub-ordinate Conjunctions are " that " (intro- ducing (1) Subject or Object, (2) Purpose, (3) Re- sult) ; "because," "when," "how," "since," "as" in the sense of " since," " after," " before," " while," &c. ; and they are so called because " purpose," " time," " circumstance," &c, are regarded as being Sub-ordinate to the statement, question, or com- mand expressed in the Principal Sentence. "Before (Subord.) he had heard the evidence (Princip.) he asserted that (Subord.) the prisoner was guilty." The mark of a Sub-ordinate Sentence is this, that, * Implied Sub-ordinate Sentences are sometimes introduced without Conjunctions, by means of Interrogative and Relative Pronouns and Adverbs, e.g. "He asked what John said," where the italicized wordi imply the Sentence " What did John say ? '' See Par. 28. Par. 25o] OF SENTENCES. 159 when preceded by its conjunction, it cannot generally stand as a Sentence by itself. You cannot write : " He made all possible haste. Because he was afraid of being late." N.B. All Sub-ordinate Sentences, when preceded by their Conjunctions, or introduced by their Eelative Pronouns, become either : — (1) Noun-Clauses : " That he was guilty is certain." (2) Or, Adjective Clauses or Sentences: 1 " The boy that cleans the boots." x (3) Or, Adverb Clauses: "I will come when I can." 250 6. The Complex Sentence. — The whole sen- tence formed by the combination of the Principal and Sub- ordinate Sentences is called a Complex Sentence. Now construct " Complex Sentences " using : 1. Noun Phrases or Clauses for Sub- jects, &c. 2. Adjective Phrases or Clauses to qualify the Noun Phrases. x It may be said that the italicized words are a Sentence, not a Clause. Taken by themselves, if "that" be regarded as Demonstrative, they undoubtedly constitute a Sentence : but, when attached to a Principal Sentence, they cease to make a statement, and therefore cease, strictly speaking, to be a Sentence. See Par. 239. 160 ANALYSIS [Par. 251 3. Adverbial Phrases or Clauses, the Clauses being Sub-ordinate Sentences pre- ceded by Conjunctions, thus : — "After the capture of this important city {Adverb 1 of Came or Time), this great general {Subject) — the Hannibal of his day {Adjective qualifying Sub- ject) — unsurpassed for military intuition and promptness of action {Adjective qualifying Sub- ject), incurring the suspicion of having be- trayed the town {i.e. "since he incurred," therefore Adverb of Cause) was (part of Principal Verb) so completely {Adverb) distrusted (rest of Principal Verb) even by his own soldiers (Ad~ verb of Agency) who had won so many battles under him (i.e. "though they had won," there- fore Adverb 2 ) that he was deprived of his com- mand, and would have been executed, but for the influence of his wife {Adverb of Result)." 251 Exercise. Expand the following Simple Sentences into Com- plex Sentences by introducing Adverbial Phrases to describe cause, purpose, material, agency, instru- ments, manner, place, time, circumstances, i.e., con- dition, obstacle, &c. : — 1. The house was built. 2. Napoleon died at St. Helena. 3. Charles I. was executed. 4. James II. was deposed. 1 For brevity, the terms Adverb, Adjective, &c, are used for Adverbial Phrase, Adjectival Phrase, &-c. 2 If it had been "The soldiers that had won", the Relative Clause "that had won," (fee. would have described the soldiers ; therefore it would have been an Adjective Clause. But "who" also sometimes in- troduces an Adjective Clause. Par. 252, 253.] OF SENTENCES. 161 5. Elizabeth was respected. 6. David killed Goliath. 7. Alfred defeated Guthrum. 8. Columbus discovered America. 9. The Spanish Armada was defeated Contracted Sentences. "When two Sentences are con- nected by (1) the Co-ordinate Conjunctions "and" and "but;" (2) by Comparative Conjunctions, e.g. "as," " than ; " the Verb in the second Sentence is often omitted and sometimes the omission extends to other words : — (1) "I saw John yesterday and (I saw) Thomas the day before." (2) " He is taller than I (am tall)." See "than," Index. (3) " I have as many apples as you (have apples)." In all such cases the full Sentences should be expressed if the whole Sentence is to be analysed. See Par. 209. The Sentences introduced by "than" and "as" (in this sense) are Subordinate ; for "than" and "as" (in this sense) cannot stand at the head of a Sentence placed by itself. Degrees of Subordination (Synthesis). Note that a Complex Sentence may contain (1) a Principal Sentence ; (2) a Sub-ordinate Sentence depending on the Verb 1 in the Principal Sentence ; (3) a second Sub-ordinate Sentence depending on the Verb in the first Sub-ordinate ; (4) a third Sub- ordinate depending on the Verb in the second Sub- ordinate ; and so on i Not always on the Verb The implied Sentence in a Relative Phrase may qualify a Noun J 62 ANAL YSIS [Par. 253 The degrees of sub-ordination may be indicated by lines in the following way : — 1st Degree of Subordination " Socrates knew that he knew nothing." 2nd ,, ,, „ "Socrates was declared hy the oracle to be the wisest of men, because he knew that he knew nothing," 3rd ,, ,, ,, "Socrates said that he was declared by the oracle to be the wisest of men, merely because he knew that he knew nothing." 4th ,, „ „ "We are told that Socrates said that he was declared by the oracle to be the wisest of men, merely because he knew that he knew nothing. " The process of putting a Sentence together as above is called Synthesis (syn, together; thesis, putting). The reverse process of taking a Sentence to pieces again, loosening its structure as it were, and exhibit- ing the different parts and joints of the Sentence, is called Analysis {ana, "back again ; " lysis, "loosen- fag)-" Par. 254] OF SENTENCES. 163 254 Degrees of Sub-ordination (Analysis). Reversing the process in the last paragraph, we can take a Complex Sentence to pieces, beginning first with the Principal Sentence, then taking the first degree of Sub-ordination, then the second, and so on. Take, for example — "He said that I did not come last Tuesday though I had promised that I would come to see him before he left town." 1. The Principal Verb is " said." Read on from " said " to the first Sub-ordinate Conjunction "that." "That" introduces the Object of "said," viz., the following Sub-ordinate Sentence : " I did not come last Tuesday, though I had promised... town." This is a Sub-ordinate Sentence of the first Degree, which is therefore underlined once. 2. The Principal Verb in the first Sub-ordinate Sentence is " did (not) come." Read on from this to the next Sub-ordinate Conjunction " though." The following words, "I had promised... town," make up a Sub-ordinate Sentence of the second Degree, and muat be underlined a second time. 3. The Principal Verb in the second Sub-oidinate Sentence is " had promised." Read on to the next Subordinate Conjunction " that." The words " I would come... town" make up a Sub-ordinate Sen- m 2 164 ANALYSIS [ Par . 255 tence of the third Degree, and must therefore be underlined a third time. 4. The Principal Verb in the third Sub-ordinate Sentence is " would come." Read on to the next Sub-ordinate Conjunction "before." The following words, " he left town," make up a Sub-ordinate Sen- tence of the fourth Degree, and must therefore be underlined a fourth time. 1 255 Relative Clauses. A Relative Clause sometimes introduces (1) an implied Coordinate, sometimes (2) an implied Sub- ordinate Sentence. The Sub-ordinate Sentence may- form part, sometimes of (2) an Adverbial, sometimes (3) of an Adjectival Clause. (1) " I heard it from the landlord, who heard it from the policeman,'' i.e. "{and) he," &c. ; a Co- ordinate Sentence, " who " being put for " and he." (2) " I ought not to have been beaten b)- John, who has never beaten me before," i.e. " (since) he has, &c. ; " Subordinate Sentence. (Adverb. ) (3) " 1 heard it from the boy that cleans the boots," Sub-ordinate Sentence. (Adjective.) 2 1 Note that, if the meaning had been "Though I had promised—town, yet he complained," then the words "though. ..town" would have made up an Adverb of Circumstance, modifying "complained." In that ease, " (though) I had promised" would have been in the first Degree (not the second) of Subordination. 2 "That (boy) cleans the boots " may perhaps be called a Subordinate Sentence introduced by the Conjunctive force of the Relative "that." See Par 249. Note. Par. 256, 257] OF SENTENCES. 165 In Sentences (2), (3), (4), and (5) of the next Exercise the Eelative introduces an Adjective Clause j in Sentence (6) " which " is the same as "and these," and therefore the words "might be sold " make up an implied Sentence Co-ordinate with " she could get." 256 The different degrees of Subordination may be in- dicated in the implied Sentences of Eelative Phrases by underlining, as above. For example : (1) " The man that will not accept what is offered to him by opportunity, often lives to seek oppor- tunity in vain." Here the two Sentences are (1) " That (man) will not accept what is offered to him by opportunity ; " (2) " What is offered to him by opportunity 1 " * (2) "The man that ought to have met me at the station where 1 got out was not to be found. " Here the two Sentences are, (1) "That (man) ought to have met me at the station where I got out ; " (2) " I got out." Exercise. 257 Express, by underlining, the Degrees of Sub- ordination in the following Sentences : — 1. He asked me whether I had said that I should not come. 2. You would have acted wrongly if you had i For the originally interrogative use of "who," "what," "which," lee Par. 27. 166 ANALYSIS [ Pa r. 258 refused help to the friend from whom you obtained help when you needed it. 3. When I heard that the train had started before I had arrived at the station where we had agreed to meet, I at once 'telegraphed. 4. Though you asked me when I would come and pay you the visit that I had promised, you did not mention a definite day. 5. I confess that I was irritated when I heard that my cousin, after he had accepted my invi- tation, wrote to decline it, because he had been subse- quently invited by some one whose society he preferred to mine. 6. The market-girl reckoned that, if her milk sold well, she could get at least six dozen eggs, which, when they were hatched and grown to be chickens, might be sold, before May came round, for as much money as would buy her the best dress that could be found in the village. 258 Analysis of Sentences. Reversing the process in Paragraph 250, we can analyse a Sentence into — I. Principal Verb. The term Principal Verb includes the "Subjective or Objective Supplement," e.g. in " He was appointed general," " was appointed general " will be called the "Verb ; " and so, in "They appointed him general," "appointed general" will be called the "Verb." See the Scheme on page 168. II. Subject. The terms Subject and Object here include their "Complements"; e.g. " a rascal to be punished " is the Subject in " A rascal is expected to be punished," and the Object in " I like a rascal to be punished." III. Object. The Indirect Object may either be treated separately, or be treated as an Adverb. If we can say, in " The house was built by Thomas " that "by Thomas" is an "Adverb-Phrase of Agency," there seems no reason why we should not say "for Thomas" and "to Thomas" are " Adverb-Phrases of Reception." Hence in "Give me the book," we may call "me" either Indirect Object, or an abridged " Adverb- Phrase of Reception" The latter would probably be found, in the end, the simpler course. Par. 259, 26o] OF SENTENCES. 167 IV. Adjectives, or Adjective Phrases. V. Adverbs, or Adverb Phrases. 259 Specimen Exercises. 1. " Not knowing the value of his prize, the cock gave away the diamond. that he had found for a single grain of barley, when he saw that the jewel did nothing but shine, and was : not good to eat." I. Verb "Gave away." II. Subject "The cock." III. Object "The diamond." IV. Adjectives "That he had found" qualifies Object. V. Adverbs : (a) of Cause. "Not knowing— prize," i.e. " since he did not know." „ ,, : (b) of Circum- stance . " For a single grain of barley." „ ,, : (c) of Time or Cause . "When he saw— to eat." If further Analysis is required, the Adverbial Clauses may in turn be analysed, as in the follow- ing Example : — 260 2 - "A reacler acquainted with the treasures of English litera- ture will not unnaturally feel surprised, when he sees that so large a portion of time is devoted to the in- adequate study of a few ancient authors, whose works have no direct bearing on the studies and duties of our own generation, while our English classics are compara- tively neglected. " 168 ANALYSIS [ Par . 260 First Analysis. I. Verb " Will feel surprised." " II. Subject "A reader." „ III. Adjective "Acquainted with — litera- ture, " qualities the Sub- ject. IV. Adverb (a) of Cause . "When he sees — neglected." ,, ,, (b) of Manner. " Not unnaturally." Second Analysis. "He sees that so large — neglected." I. Verb "Sees." II. Subject "He." III. Object "That so large— neglected." Third Analysis. "So large a portion — neglected." I. Verb "Is devoted." II. Subject "So large a portion of time." III. Adverbs (a) Manner or Purpose. " To the study — generation." ,, „ (b) Circumstance "While 3 our English — neglected." No further Sentence remains for analysis ; but it may be well to mention that, in Clause (a) the Relative Clause "whose works — generation," is an Adjective Clause quali- fying "authors" ; and that the Phrase "of a few ancient authors" is an Adjective Phrase, qualifying "study." * " Feel surprised " is a Compound Verb, like " He fell lame," "He grew tall." 2 " While " may either mean "at the very time when " (as perhaps here,) or "although." or simply " but on the other hand." In the last case " while " approaches a Co-ordinate Conjunction in meaning, for is nearly the same as "but, on the other hand." Par. 261, 262] OF SENTENCES. 169 Caution. The principal difficulty in the Analysis of Sen- tences consists in distinguishing between Participles implying an Adverbial Phrase and Participles im- plying an Adjectival Phrase. The same difficulty exists in distinguishing between Eelative Phrases. As " who " (or " which ") and " that " are loosely used by many writers, the pupil must not depend on these words for help, but upon the sense of each (1) " 1 saw a ship sailing into harbour" i.e. "that was sailing," Adjective Phrase. (2) " Sailing too near the rocks the ship went down," i.e. " because she sailed," Adverbial Phrase. (3) " Yesterday 1 saw a schooner here, which has now sailed away," i.e. "and, or but, it has sailed," Co-ordinate Sentence. (4) "The schooner that was here yesterday," Ad- jective Clause. (5) " The potent rod Of Amram's son in Egypt's evil day, Waved round the coast, up-called a pitchy cloud Of locusts, warping in the eastern wind." In the last example, " waved round the coast " seems to mean "when or after it was waved," and not " the rod that was waved." Consequently it seems far better to treat the italicized words as an Adverbial and not as an Adjectival Phrase. But " warping " may fairly be replaced by " that came warping," and 170 ANALYSIS [Par. 263 may therefore "be treated as an Adjectival Phrase qualifying " locusts." (6) " But me, scarce hoping to attain that rest, Always from port withheld, always distressed — Me howling winds drive devious — tempest- Sails rent, seams opening wide, and compass lost." Here the second line is clearly Adjectival to " me ; " but " devious " is not Adjectival, it is the Supplement of the Verb " drive ; " to " drive de- vious " is to " drive out of the way," and is as much a Compound Verb as to " drive mad." On the other hand the abrupt pause between " devious " and " tempest-tossed " allows us to treat " tempest- tossed " as co-ordinate with " withheld " and " dis- tressed," and therefore as Adjectival to " me." " Sails rent M is of course an Adverbial Phrase, and "sails "is an "Adverbial Subject." See Par. 135. Phraseology of Analysis. 263 The Principal Verb of a Sentence is sometimes called the Grammatical Predicate, or, simply, Pre- dicate. Adjectives and Adjective Phrases are called, as the case may be, Attributive Adjuncts to the Sub- ject or Object; and, when attached to the Pre- Par. 264] OF SENTENCES. 171 dicate, Adverbs are called Adverbial Adjuncts to the Predicate. Again, Adjectives and Adjective Phrases are sometimes called " Enlargements of the Subject or Object ; " and, when attached to the Predicate, Adverbs are called "Extensions of the Predicate." This phraseology does not appear to he necessary ; hut, if thought desirable, it can easily he substituted for the terms "Adjective," " Adverb," &c. used in the Scheme appended below. Summary of the parts of a Sentence. The following Summary will be a useful prepara- tion for the "Scheme of Analysis" on Page 172, and will also illustrate the comparison of the different technical terms of Analysis. a / SUBJECT . . . Noun : or Pronoun ; or Adj. a « | put for Noun ; or Noun J 3 ' Phrase. 1 COMPLETION OF m V PREDICATE . Verb. Object, Direct x (If the Verb is Trans.) Object, Indirect (With some PREDICATE Verbs.) Supplement (If the Verb is (^ Intrans. or Pass.) / EXTENSION OF ) . . . . , u . .' !3 S PREDICATE. Adverb I or Adverbial Phrase. a a J ATTRIBUTIVE 1 2-g ) ADJUNCT, { ._. . ,. .. D1 £*\ or ENLARGE- f Adjective; or Adjective Phrase. m vmentofnounJ i Note that the Subject or Object may sometimes consist of a Noun or Pronoun with a Complementary Infinitive, e.g. " I know him to be in error." "He was believed to be dishonest." See Par. 97. 172 265 ANALYSIS [Par. 265 SCHEME OF For convenience, in order to preserve the order of the sentence as In order to distinguish the Adjective or Complement from the rest Object from the Adverb, underline Adjective, Complement, Supplement, Analyse the following passage : — "la one of the large rich cities of China there once lived a tailor named Mustapha. wife and one son. This son, who was a very idle fellow, was called Aladdin, his shop, to learn the use of the needle ; but all his father's endeavours to keep was gone. Soon after Aladdin was thirteen years old, poor Mustapha— who was Adverb. Subject (including Adjective, or Complement.) Verb with Supplement. (1) In one of the large rich cities of China (2) there (3) once a tailor named Mustapha lived Being, i.e. (since he was) very poor he could maintain * This son who was a very idle fellow was called Aladdin When he was old enough to learn a trade his father wished (1) all his (2) father's endea- vours to keep him to his work 2 were vain his back was turned Soon after Aladdin was thirteen years old. poor Mustapha fell sick (Mustapha) died (he) . . .(Comply* to predict that his son would come to no good was heard 1 The Auxiliaries could, would, can, will, may, might, &c. may be treated as ■ This Infinitive describing the nature of the " endeavours" mny be regarded 3 These words might be analysed still further if desired. Any subordinate be analysed as a separate sentence. 4 It will generally be advisable to analyse a Parenthesis after the rest of ihe Par. 265] OF SENTENCES. SIMPLE ANALYSIS. 173 far as possible two columns are made for the Adverb. of the Subj. or Obj., the Supplement from the Verb, and the Indirect and Indirect Object. Write {Compl.) before the Complement. Being very poor he could hardly maintain his family, which consisted only of his Wlien he was old enough to learn a trade, Mustapha wished the boy to enter him to his work were vain ; for no sooner was his back turned than Aladdin often heard to predict that his son would come to no good — fell sick and died." Object (including Adjective, or Complement.) 1. Adverb, or 2. Indirect Object. Conjunction, (introducing next Sentence.) 1 his family, which consisted only of his wife and one son (1) hardly the boy (Compl.) to enter his shop to learn the use of the needle but for no sooner than (3) Alad- din was gone and [""who" = "and, or now, he " 4 often.] parts of Compound Verbs. as an Adjective, see Par. 100. sentence may be taken out of the Adjective, Adverb, or other column and may sentence. APPENDIX III. HINTS ON SPELLING. 266 English Spelling is so irregular that no systematic rules can be laid down for it. The knowledge of the derivation of a word is often a help towards the spelling of it ; but this is not always the case. The best w T ay to spell well is to read often, and so to become familiar with words. Thus misspelt words will be detected by their strange look. Change of Letters. — The following principle will explain many of the variations in the spelling of words : Rule. — A letter is often changed or doubled in passing from one form of a word to another, in order to preserve tlie original sound. 267 """* — y* ■^ or exani pl e > -V nna l preceded by a con- sonant, as in " happy," is changed into i upon the addition of -er, -est, -al, -ed, -ous, or of any other affix (except -ing) beginning with a vowel. Other- Par. 268] HINTS ON SPELLING. 175 wise the sound of the word might be altered, e.g. "happ-yer," " gidd-yest." Hence — Defy, deft-ance ; easy, easiest ; remedy, remedz-al rernedi-ed ; merry, mem-er; country, countn'-es. In many of these words the original termination was -ie, which indeed was the regular English equivalent of the French -e : Citie ; nobilitie ; felicitie ; clergie. From a very early period y and i were interchanged (for example in the Present Participle which ended, in -inde or -ynde) so that in the Utopia (1516 a.d.) we have " writynge," "myghte," "thynge," "fyne." Hence y began to supersede i in these terminations, so that in the Utopia, we find on the same jjage, "felicitye" and. "felicitie." By degrees, the e after y, being found unnecessary, was dropped. It might have been expected that the same curtailment would have been attempted in the Plural : and accordingly in the Utopia we find "qualityes." But, owing perhaps to the danger of mispronunciation, " qualit-yes " — the innovation — did not succeed in supplanting the old Plural "qualit-ies." This rule is also extended to -y before other affixes, viz. -ment, -ly -ful : — Necessan-ly ; greedt-ness ; beautt'-ful. 268 II.— y- When (1) the affix is -ing, or (2) -y is already preceded by a vowel, or (3) -y terminates a monosyllable — in all these cases -y remains gene- rally unchanged : — (1) Pity-ing (not "pitnng"); (2) enjoy-ment, val- leys; (3) dry-ness. The reasons are in (1) the desire to avoid ii ; in 176 HINTS [Par. 269-271 (2) and (3) because the sound is not altered by the retention of -y. Exceptions. — Nevertheless, out of conformity to other words — " Dry" makes " dri-er," " dri-est ; " M try," " tri-al," " trc-er ; " " day," " dai-ly ; " " pay," " pai-d ; " " fly," " fli-es ; " " lay," " laid ; " " lay " (Past Tense of "lie") " lai-n ; " "say," "sat'-d;" " gay," " ga?'-ly," " gaiety." KB. Pite-ous, plente-ous, from "pity," "plenty." 269 III. When a word ends in -ie, the juxtaposition of iei in the Active Participle is avoided by changing -ie into -y : — Die, dy-ing ; he, ly-ing, but K-ar. 27.0 Omission of Letters. — Rule, -e final is (IV.) dropped before an affix beginning with a vowel; but (V.) retained before an a fix beginning with a consonant. IV. Instances of Rule IV. are — Grieve, griev -ance ; tame, fam-ous ; sense, sens-ible ; judge, }udg-ing ; please, pleas-wre ; remove, re- mov-able ; blame, hl&m-ing ; sphere, spher-icaZ. 271 Exceptions to IV. — (a) C and g, though soft (e.g. in " service," " outrage ") must necessarily become hard if followed by an affix beginning with a, o, or u. To prevent (1) this and (2) other changes of sound, final -e is sometimes retained : — (1) Service, service-a&Ze ; outrage, outrage-ows. (2) Unsale-able. Par. 272-276] ON SPELLING. 177 272 Exceptions to IV. — (b) When -e is preceded by -i, -o, -e, -y, it is often retained before -ing, -able. This is in order to preserve the sound : — Shoe-ing (not "shomg"); agree-able (not "agrea- ble "). 273 The -e is also retained in " dye-ing" " singe-ing" " swinge-ing," in order to distinguish them from " dy-ing," " sing-ing," and " swing-ing." 274 Exceptions to V. : — Abridg-ment, acknowledg-ment, argu-ment, aw-ful, du-ly, judg-ment, tru-ly, whol-ly. 275 Rule VI. — Monosyllables ending in -11 (1) when followed by an affix beginning with a consonant, or (2) when used as affixes, generally drop one -1 : — x Al-most, aZ-though, aZ-ready, aZ-beit, almighty, also, aZ-together, aZ-ways, bel-iry, ful-fil, wel- fare, el-bow, ful-ly, drol-ly, ful-ness, re-cal. 276 ^ ne °^ a ffi xes an( l prefixes with single -I appear to have been so common that they assimilated to themselves other words {e.g. ve-cal) in which an I was really dropped. But in some words the syllable in -11 has not coalesced so com- pletely with the other syllable as to be regarded as a prefix or affix. Consequently the syllable in -11 is treated as a separate word and retains -11. Hence — Tinder-sell (and several words ending in -ness), tall- ness, small-ness, illness, shrill-ness, droll-ness, fzxe-well, nn-well, he-fell, down-fall, cat-call. 1 This is the shape in which the rule would suggest itself to modern Englishmen. But. in reality, the old spelling was al, wel, el, and this is retained in " al-though," " wel fare," " el-how." " Bel-fry " was not in reality derived from " tell " (See Etym. Diet.) 178 HINTS [Par 277-279 277 Doubling Letters.— Rule VII. If the termination of a word is a consonant pre- ceded by a vowel (e.g. " -it "), then, on receiving an affix beginning with a vowel (e.g. "-ing"), the final consonant in the word is doubled (e.g. "-ittiiig"), provided tliat the word is a monosyllable (e.g. "sit"), or a polysyllable accented on the last syllable (e.g. "remit"). This is in order to preserve the sound. If the consonant were not doubled, "hop-ping" would be confused with " hop-ing " : — (1) Hop, homing ; thin, thin-ner ; fat, fastest. Accent on the last. forgeWing, remising infer-ring, refer-ring occur-ring, acquiring Accent not on the last. bracketing, debiting cover-ing, offer-ing sever-ing, crediting 278 Exceptions to VII. — Words ending in -I, al- though not accented on the last syllable, never- theless double -I : — TraveZ-Zing, -Zer ; connseZ-Zing, -Zor ; reveZ-Zing, -Zer ; marveZ-Zing, -Zous ; rivaZ-Zing ; level-led ; un- rammeZ-Zed. Also, worship-ping. Unparallel-ed is an exception. ■ Exercises. 279 I- and II. Add as many as possible of the affixes 1 Possibly, owing to the fact that "unparalleled" is of Greek derivation, containing the Greek long e, it may have been once pro- nouaced " unparalleeted," and spelt accordingly. Par. 280-282] ON SPELLING. 179 -at, -ed, -er, -s, -ly, -ness, -ous, -s, to the following words : — Lonely, employ, gaudy, daisy, decay, steady, accompany, enjoy, effigy, silly, occupy, busy, giddy, jelly, colloquy, chimney, ready, journey, shabby, annoy, prophesy, felony, try, lovely, efficacy, convey, lofty, supply, dis- may, defy, gay, vary, penury, stately, day, accompany, pity, marry, plenty, continue. 280 IV. and Y. Add as many as possible of the affixes -able, -ing, -ly, -ment, -021s, -er, -y, to the following words : — Love, peace, move, blame, marriage, whole, sole, decree, ease, feeble, advantage, true, spice, village, due, charge, trouble, trace, pledge, judge, guarantee, manage, abridge, disagree, excuse. 281 VII. Add -ing, -ence, -er, -ous (where possible), to— Control, bargain, meai, peril, benefit, admit, ballot, danger, infer, pencil, debit, acquit, abhor, glutton, begin, poison, suffer, traitor, gambol, extol, rebal, travel, compel, level, worship, cancel, model, sever, equip, allot, riot, murder, befit, ruin, sin. Reasons for apparent Irregularities. 282 I. -eive, -ieve. — It is sometimes difficult to decide, in such words as " receive," " believe," &c, whether the e ox i should come first ; but the diffi- N 2 180 HINTS [Par 283 culty will vanish if it is borne in mind that (except after c) i comes first : — (1) Believe, reprieve, retrieve, grieve, mischief, mis- chievous. (2) Deceive, deceit, conceive, conceit, receive, re- ceipt. The reason for the exceptional spelling of -ceive is that this termination represents the Latin cap-, French cev-; whereas -ie is the non-Latin termi- nation. 283 EL " ee d> -ede. — A few compounds from the Latin ced- were introduced early and received the English spelling : — Succeed, proceed, exceed. These words are very common in Shakespeare's plays. Other compounds were not introduced till afterwards, when it was no longer the custom to Anglicize the spelling of foreign words. Hence the Latin or French spelling is retained in — Accede, concede, precede, recede. These four are not found in Shakespeare's plays. 1 The English spelling also accounts for the double e in " agreeable " (Fr. agreable), " degree " (Fr. degre). * "Preceding" is used once as an Adjective, and once as a Parti- ciple ; in the latter case it is spelt "preceading." Par. 284-286] ON SPELLING. 181 284 III. -or, -our, -er. — These terminations are from different sources : -or is Latin ; -our is Latin through French ; -er is English. Hence — Latin : (1) Actor, collector, demonstrator. French : (2) Colour, honour, odour. English : (3) Painter, player. Note that, wherever a Noun is formed according to English and not according to Latin rules, then, though the Verb be of Latin or French-Latin origin, the terminat is generally -er ; e.g. "defend-er," " extinguish-er " (the Latin Nouns would be defem-or, extinct-or) ; " vict-or," but " vanquish-er. " There is a tendency, especially in advertisements, to save space by omitting the French -u. " Governor " (for "governour ") is now recognized as correct, and " honor" is aspiring to correctness. 285 IV. Latin : -(a)ble, -ible. — Strictly speaking, -ble, and not -able, is the Latin termination, a being part of the Root. Thus the Latin word waspenetra-, and the termination -ble. In the same way, in a few cases, but not many, i is part of the Root, and Me is the termination : — (1) Penetra-ble, indisputa-ble, delecta-ble, indispensa- ble, inconsola-ble, indomita-ble, insupera-ble, demonstra-ble. (2) Audi-ble, ed-ible, incorrupt-ible, indigest-ible, indestruct-ible, reprehens-ible, incomprehens- ible, incompress-ible. 286 V. English : -able. — This termination is used with English Verbs, e.g. "lovable," and also with many Latin Verbs /even where the Root does not 182 HINTS [Par 287-289 end in -a), provided that the Verb is so common as to be regarded as English : — Latin words with English termination : Indefinable, inextinguishable, redeemable, perishable, attributable, disposable. 287 VI. Latin (1) -(a)nt, (2) -ent, represent the Latin terminations for the Active Present Par- ticiples from (1) Verbs whose roots ended with -a, (2) other Verbs :— (1) "Litiga-nt," "disputa-nt," " recalcitra-nt" (2) "Immine-nt," "reg-ent," " trans-ient." 288 VII. Latin-French -ant.— The French have bnt one termination, -ant, to represent tlie two Latin terminations. Hence, sometimes, similar words are spelt differently : where direct from Latin, -ent ; where through French, -ant. (1) Transcends. (2) Defenda?^, descends. Hence the Latin dependens has, curiously enough, given rise to two English words, with different ter- minations : (1) "depended," Adjective, direct from Latin, and with Latin spelling ; (2) " dependant" Noun, through French, and with French spelling. Similarly, " ascendant " (though used by Pope as an Adjective) is now only used as a Noun. 289 VIII. (1) -ise, (2) -ize.— If -ize is to be re* Par. 290, 291] ON SFELLING. 183 tained, it ought, in strictness, to be retained only as the affix for Greek Roots : — (1) Equalise, recognise. (2) Baptize, emphasize. 1 290 IX. (1) -se, (2) -ce. — Distinguish between (I) the termination of the Verb in -se, and (2) the termination of the Noun in -ce : — (1) Advise, license, practise, devise, prize. (Verbs.) (2) Advice, licence, practice, device, price. (Nouns.) Spelling List. The following words should be noted. They may be combined in sentences for dictation, or may be set by the pupils to one another. They are pur- posely unarranged : — Niece, awkward, seize, courageous, ceiling, league, colonel, leisure, almond, treasure, intrigue, ker- nel, clothing, grandeur, ghastly, heifer, punish- ment, intelligence, villains, gardener, realm, principal, mountainous, principle, friar, poniard, sergeant, abhorrent, pony, necessarily, unparal- leled, quarrelling, ecstasy, cavilling, kidnapping, limiting, dignitary, practice (Noun), reprieve, continually, character, potato, pedlar, annually, anomaly, business, mischievous, indictment, onions, cabbages, vengeance, deign (Verb), em- barrassment, anonymous, committee, couple, i "Analyze" is a mistake. The word is Greek, but contains an justifies no z. It should be spelt " analyse." 291 184 HINTS ON SPELLING. [Par. 291 camphor, giraffe, syrup, guerilla, mosquito verandah, azure, hammock, phosphorus, apart ment, annalist, apparition, license (Verb), recede decalogue, etymology, apparel, courteous, sue ceed, furlough, miscellany, scythe, morocco chocolate, cemetery, proceed, accessory, bouquet paroquet, exchequer, banquet, masquerade, ac cede, gelatine, obsequies, gazette, effigies, eti quette, balloon, encyclopaedia, leopard, gudgeon counterfeit, pigeon, menagerie, besiege, bereave concede, inveigle, obeisance, complaisant, bivouac, neighbour, pleurisy, journeys, quarantine, unique cylinder, symptom, hydrophobia, rubies, valleys mimicking, noticeable, milliner, sepulchre, avail- able, sedentary, peremptory, pelisse, analyst. APPENDIX IV. HINTS ON PUNCTUATION. 292 Stops, or Marks of the Division of Sentences. 1. Full Stop. . (.) 5. Note of Interrogation . (?) 2. Colon. . . (:) 6. Note of Exclamation . . (!) 3. Semi-colon . (;) 7. The "dash" or " break". (— ) 4. Comma . . (,) 8. Marks of Parenthesis . ( ) 9. Inverted commas, or, Marks of Quotation (" ") 293 Use of Stops. — The meaning of a sentence often depends on the pauses after certain words. These pauses are represented by marks, sometimes called (from their effect) Stops, and sometimes (from their appearance) Points. The Latin for " point " is punctum, and accordingly the arrangement of points in a sentence is called Punctuation : — "John," said Thomas, "would come if he could." Omit the points in the foregoing sentence, and it becomes ambiguous. 294 Th e Comma.— The Comma (meaning "that which is cut off") marks the smallest "cutting off," or division of a sentence. 186 HINTS ON [Par. 295 I. Rule. — When a word is separated from its grammatical adjunct by any intervening phrase, the phrase should be preceded and followed by a Comma : — Verb separated from Subject. "The traveller, after alighting from his horse, entered the inn." " His conduct, according to his own account, is inexcusable." "The king, wearied by the woman's im- portunity, granted her request." Verb separated J "He endeavoured, in every possible way, from ) to undermine his rival." Object. \ Verb ("When, after hearing your explanation, / separated I promised to forgive you, I believed, in from ( accordance with your assurance, that Conjunction. I this was your first offence." x Verb / " Now, thought he, he had succeeded. J" separated ; "He frustrated all the efforts his friends from \ were making for him, by his silly Adverb. \ vanity." 295 II. Hence the Comma is often used before and after an Adverbial Clause, including a Subordinate Sentence, whether the sentence be (1) introduced by a Conjunction, or (2) implied in a Participle : — (1) "I replied, as soon as I had recovered my presence of mind, that I could not consent." (2) "I replied, on recovering my presence of mind, that I could not consent." * The Conjunction "that," not being capable of much stress, nor allowing much pause after it, often dispenses with the comma : — " Remember that in almost all business, it is best to make hasto slowly." Par. 296-298 PUNCTUATION. 187 296 A Comma will therefore necessarily be inserted between two Conjunctions : — "It was said that, when the Capitol was built, a human head was discovered amid the founda- tions. " " It cannot be denied that, if this statement is true, your brother has acted most culpably." When a Subordinate Clause or Adverbial Phrase comes at the beginning of the sentence, the Com- ma is inserted after it, if the Clause or Phrase precedes the Subject of the Principal Verb (see Par. 306) :— (1) " When I recovered my presence of mind, I re- plied, &c." (2) " On recovering my presence of mind, I replied, &c." (3) " Having recovered my presence of mind, I re- plied, &c." (4) "To be brief, there are but three courses open to us." (5) " The colonel having fallen, the major took the command. " 297 HI. The Comma is often used between co-ordinate sentences connected by Conjunctions : — 1 ' He went back to his home, and I went forward on my journey." In accordance with the Eule in Par. 294, — 298 IV. When a number of co-ordinate words have 188 HINTS ON [Par. 299-301 the same grammatical adjunct, all but the last are followed by a Comma : — (1) "John, Thomas, and Henry came."* (2) "I saw John, Thomas, and Henry." (3) " He was dutiful, kind, and brave." (4) " He is acting wisely, justly, and mercifully." (5) "She loved, honoured, and obeyed her husband." 299 But, if words are in pairs, then each pair (even the last) is followed by a Comma : — (6) " To carp and to criticize, to slander and to re- buke, to warn and to discourage, are very different actions." ■ 300 But sometimes, where "and" is repeated between a number of Co-ordinate Nouns the writer may regard them (1) as a mere list of names, all of one kind, requiring rapid enumeration, and therefore may omit the comma, or (2) as expressing different notions and may therefore insert commas. Compare — (7) " Havoc and spoil and ruin are my gain." — P. L. ii. 109. (8) "Where all is cliff, and copse, and sky. "*— Scott. No doubt the omission of the comma here, as in Par. 306, is more easy before the Verb, when the reader is hurrying on to the Verb, than after the Verb, where pauses are more natural. 301 "V". A Noun used Vocatively or Appellatively must necessarily have no grammatical adjuncts, * The reason is that in this case "and " is not inserted before the last pair. Hence the termination is somewhat abrupt ; and, after an enu- meration of the pairs, the reader requires a pause, as though to insert " these " : " — — (these) are very different actions." 2 Quoted by Matzner. Par. 302-304] PUNCTUATION. 189 and should therefore (unless uttered very passion- ately; Par. 313) be marked off by Commas : — "Your conduct, Thomas, surprises me." VI. In all the above Examples the principle is the same, that the Comma denotes separation from the grammatical adjunct. But sometimes the Comma denotes the omission of the grammatical adjunct : — " To carp is easy ; to criticize, difficult." VII. When a Subject is a lengthy Phrase, it is often separated from the Verb by a Comma, espe- cially when the Subject-Phrase contains some Noun that might at a hasty glance be supposed to be the Subject of the Verb. The object of the Comma is to indicate that not the word immediately preceding the Verb, but the whole of the preceding phrase is the Subject of the Verb : — (1) "To resent injuries inflicted on the weak and helpless, is the duty of all." (2) " That he made a very great mistake, is clear." VIII. A Comma is sometimes employed when a statement or speech is introduced as the Object of a Verb, to mark a pause before the statement. But this is scarcely necessary or justifiable, except where the statement is in Apposition to a previous Noun : — (1) "Who does not know the well-known proverb, that seeing is believing ? " 190 HINTS ON [Par. 305, 306 (2) "Some people seem scarcely aware of this prin- ciple, that all men are better contented to make progress in small matters than to remain at a stand in great." Where the Noun in Apposition intervenes be- tween the Verb and its Object, the Comma is justi- fiable on the principle stated above, Par. 294; where there is no intervening Noun, the Comma is un- justifiable. 305 IX. It has been seen, from Example (5) in Par. 298, that, when the same Object follows several Verbs, the Comma is not inserted after the last Verb ; but, when the same Object follows several Prepositions, the Comma is inserted after the last Preposition : — (1) "I am desirous of, and earnestly hoping for, an amicable settlement." 2) "I am sent by, and acting as the representative of, a large number of my fellow-citizens." The reason is that a Verb, being a more emphatic word than a Preposition, allows a greater stress to be laid upon it, and a longer pause after it. The Preposition, not allow- ing this, requires the aid of a Comma to denote the neces- sary pause. The purpose of the pause is to summarise, as it were, what has preceded, and to indicate that the Object is the Object not of the last Preposition alone, but of all the Prepositions. 306 Omission of the Comma. — T. When (I) an Adverb follows its Verb, or when (2) a subordinate Par. 307-309] PUNCTUATION. 191 sentence follows its principal Verb, there is not so much need of a pause or division, and consequently the Comma may be dispensed with. Compare — 0) (2) "Very gradually, his health and strength re- turned.'' " His health and strength returned very gra- dually." " As soon as he caught sight of me, he ran away." "He ran away as soon as he caught sight of 307 II. When the Subject-phrase is short, and the omission of the Comma produces no ambiguity, it I is omitted : — (1) " What you say is very sensible." (2) " To be ignorant is to be weak." 308 III. Caution. — The Comma ought not to be in- serted (1) before " that " introducing an Object- phrase, nor (2) before " that " introducing a Subject after " Preparatory it" Avoid the following : — (1) "The ambassador replied, that no interference was needed." (2) " It was the common belief, that the house was haunted by the ghost of a murdered woman." 309 The Colon and Semicolon. — The Colon (meaning " limb " or " member ") is used after a "member " of a sentence ; that is, after a portion 192 HINTS ON [Par. 310-312 that has a complete sense by itself. The Colon is therefore used to shew some close relation between two or more sentences by combining them in one. The relation indicated may be consequence, cause, antithesis, similarity, &c. : — *' How the door was opened no one knew : on the evening of the robbery it had been locked as usual." 310 The Semi-colon (" half-member") is used between co-ordinate statements where a shorter pause is desired than that marked by the Colon. Generally, where there are more than two co-ordinate statements in a graphic description, the Semi-colon would be preferred to the colon : — "After a terrific struggle, the infantry were forced back into the gates ; the combined fleet and army opened fire upon the city ; and prepara- tions were made for an immediate assault. " 311 If the Co-ordinate Conjunction is inserted, the Semi-colon is generally preferred to the Colon : — " Trial by jury is popularly attributed to Alfred the Great ; but this is only an instance of the com- mon tendency to associate popular institutions with popular names." The Full- Stop requires no comment. 312 The Note of Interrogation is used, not only after questions asked for information, but also after Par. 313, 314] PUNCTUATION. 193 " questions of appeal." where no answer is ex- pected : — " "What can be toilsome in these pleasant walks ? " Paradise Lost, x. 179. " Grave ! where is thy victory ? Death ! where is thy sting ? " — Pope. 313 The Note of Exclamation is used (1) after Vocatives ; (2) after words or sentences uttered with sudden emotion : (3) very rarely after semi-inter- rogatory exclamations : — (1) "Go, ivondrous creature! mount where science guides ; Go, measure earth, weigh air, and state the tides." — lb. (2) " But hark! he strikes the golden lyre ; And see ! the tortur'd ghosts respire, See, shady forms advance! " — lb. (3) "What sounds were heard, What scenes appear'd, O'er all the dreary coasts ! " — lb. 314 The Dash is used (1) to mark a very abrupt break in the sentence, often introducing some quite unexpected word ; (2) in a long sentence, to mark a return to the thread of the principal sen- tence : — (1) Conceal, disdain — do all things but forget." — lb. " Oh come ! oh teach me nature to subdue, Kenounce my love, my life, myself — and you." — lb. (2) "The strong-headed, manly, sharp-tempered, secular carpenter, with his energetic satisfaction o 194 HINTS ON PUNCTUATION. [Par. 315 in work, his impatience of dreamers, and his early passion for Hetty's earthly loveliness" (then follows a long description of" the principal characters in 'Adam Bede') " — these, with tlie slighter, but equally true outlines with which the picture is filled up, form one of the truest and most typical groups of English life I have ever seen delineated." — Hutton. 315 Brackets are used to mark the insertion of a Phrase or Sentence that is allowed to interrupt another sentence : — " Yesterday, Thomas {you know whom Imean) assured me that you were no longer in England." This kind of insertion is called a Parenthesis, i.e. a " side-insertion " (para, aside ; enthesis, inser- tion). Such expressions as " said he," " replied I," &c. ? are generally marked off, not by brackets, but by commas. Inverted Commas, or Marks of Quota- tion, require no comment. SCHEME OF PARSING. 1 Owing to the confusion and ambiguity caused by the use of different abbreviations in Parsing Exercises, the following list is given below : — ABBREVIATIONS. Active — Act. Number as Nr. Adjective ss Adj.* Object = O. Adverb =: Adv. 2 Participle = Part. Antecedent SB Ant. Passive = Pass. Apposition = App. Past Tense = P. T. Auxiliary = Aux. Person S3 Pers. Cognate = Cogn. Phrase = Phr. Comparative = Compar. Plural = PL Complement ss Complem. Positive = Pos. Complete = Compl. Possessive = Poss. Conditional = Cond. Preposition = Prep. Conjunction = Conj. Present = Pres. Conjunctive = Conjve. Pronoun = Pron. Direct Object — D.O. Relative = Rel. Future = Fut. Retained Object SS Retd. 0. Imperative = Imper. Singular = Sing, Impersonal = Impers. Subject = S. Incomplete SS Incompl. Subjunctive =: Subj. Indicative = Indie. Superlative = Superl. Indirect Object S3 Ind. 0. Supplement SS Suppl. Indefinite sa Indef. Tense =: T. Infinitive 53 Inf. Transitive = Tr. Interrogative = Interr. Verb — V. Intransitive SB Intr. Verbal = VI. Mood S3 M. Vocative = Voc. Noun = N. Voice SS Vc.3 i For explanation of all the technical terms in this "Scheme," the pupil is referred to the " Glossary of Grammatical Terms," page xvii, where will also be found references to the Paragraphs in the Grammar, giving fuller explanations. 2 Adjectival, Adverbial, and other Adjectives, maybe distinguished by adding -I, thus : Adji-, Advi , &c. " Clause. " may be written CI. 3 Voice need seldom be expressed, as it is implied by Active or Passive. o 2 196 SCHEME OF [Par. 317-320 317 I. NOUNS.— Mention (i) Form; (ii) Use. i. Form : Singular or Plural. ii. Use: (1) Subjective; (2) Possessive; (3) Vocative; (4) Objective. iii. Subdivisions of each Use : 1. Subjective, (a) Subject, Partial or Complete, of a Verb ; (&) in Apposition to some Subject ; (c) Adverbial Subject, or Subject Absolute ; (d) Sup- plement to a Verb. 2. Possessive. (No Subdivision ; always defines some Noun. ) 3. Vocative. (No subdivision.) 4. Objective, {a) Object, Partial or Complete, or Cognate, or Indirect, or "Retained;" (b) in Apposition to some Object ; (c) Adverbial Ob- ject ; (d) Supplement to a Verb. 318 JI - M PRONOUNS (ordinary). — i. ii. iii. same as Nouns ; iv. stands for what Noun ? II. (b) PRONOUNS RELATIVE.— i. ii. iii. same as Nouns ; iv. has for Antecedent — ? II. (c) PRONOUNS CONJUNCTIVE.— i. ii. iii. same as Nouns ; iv. joins what sentences ? 319 III. ADJECTIVES.— Mention (i) Form ; (ii) Use. i. Form : Positive, Comparative or Superlative Degree, ii. Use : (i) joined to what Noun or Pronoun ? (2) Sup- plementary to what Verb ? 320 IV. VERBS.— (i) Nature; (ii) Form ; iii. Use. i. Nature : Transitive or Intransitive. Par. 321, 322] PARSING. 197 ii. Form : Mention (1) Voice ; (2) Moud . (3) Tense and " State " ; (4) Person ; (5) Number. iii. Use: A. (a) has for Subject — ? {unless Infin.) (b) has for Object — ? (unless Intr. or Pass.) 1 (c) may have Subjective Supplement — (if Intr. or Pass.) (d) may have Objective Supplement — ? If in the Infinitive Mood, the Verb may be used as — B. (a) Noun ; Subject or Object (Comple- mentary or otherwise) of — ? (b) Adverb ; modifying — ? (c) Adjective; qualifying — ? 321 V. PARTICIPLES.— (i) Nature; (ii) Form; (iii) Use. i. Nature : Transitive or Intransitive. ii. Form : (a) Active or Passive. iii. Use : (a) joined to what Noun or Pronoun ? (b) implies what Conjunctive word ? A. If Active (see IV. above), may have Object, &c. B. If Passive (see IV. above) may have Supplement. 322 VI. VERBAL NOUNS.— (i) Nature; (ii) Form; (iii) Use. i. Nature : Transitive or Intransitive. ii. Form : Active 2 or Passive. i A Passive Verb may have a " Retained Object." 2 The "State" of the action, whether "Complete" with having, or " Incomplete," without having, might also be mentioned. But these forms are often used indiscriminately. 198 PARSING. [Par. 323—325 iii. Use: A. Noun-Uses. See I. above. B. Verb-Uses. See IV. above. 323 VIL ADVERBS.— Modifywhat Verb, Adjective, Adverb, or Sentence ? x Many Adverbs are used as Conjunctions, in which case call them Conjunctions or Conjunctive Adverbs, and parse them as Conjunctions. Some Adverbs are used in three different ways : (1) Inter- rogatively; (2) in dependent Interrogation, or Conjunctively ; (8) Relatively. 324 VITL PREPOSITIONS -— Have what Object t Prepositions are sometimes used as (1) Adverbs ; (2) parts of Compound Verbs y and, when thus used, must not be parsed as Prepositions. 325 IX - CONJUNCTIONS.— Join what two sentences together ? 1 It is so seldom that a Noun is modified by an Adverb (and the ellipsis of an Adjective, is so probable in such cases), that a Noun is not here included in list of words mod-ficd by the Adverb. See Par. 45. The Degree of Comparison of the Adverb is also omitted. PAET II. DIFFICULTIES AND IRREGULARITIES IN MODERN ENGLISH. 326 CHAPTEE L PROSE. Paragraphs 191 — 230 contained a few examples of Irregularities, shewing the method by which Irre- gularities must be explained. The present Chapter is intended to enumerate more fully and systemati- cally the difficulties in Modern English Prose. The method of explanation will not be so fully given as before, in Part I. ; but the pupil must bear in mind that in explaining these, and all other irregu- larities in English, and indeed in explaining any irregularity in any language, there is but one method : — I. Ascertain the Regular Construction. II. Ascertain the cause of Irregularity. 200 DIFFICULTIES [Par. 327 The following is a key to the arrangement adopted in this Chapter. But only those idioms are selected that present difficulty to an English student : — 32 7 Syntax of Words and Sentences. Syntax of "Words ; or, the Simple Sentence. 1. The Subject, " It" (328—32). For the Infinitive used as Subject, see 3, c, below. 2. Agreement of Verb with Subject (334 — 9). 3. Adverbs and Adverbial Phrases. (a) Uses or Cases of Nouns (340 — 6). (b) Prepositions : "against" (349) ; "at" (350—5) ; "by" (353—7) ; "for" (358—64) ; "of" (365— 372); "on" (373—5); "to "(377— 9); "but" (380—1) ; used before Adverbs (382—3). (c) The Infinitive, used (1) as Subject or Object (386—9) ; (2) Adverbially (390—402). (d) The Participle (404—12). (e) The Adverb (413—20). 5. The Adjective, "The" (421—6) "a" (427—9); the Possessive Objectively used (432 — 4) ; Noun with Prepo- sition Adjectively used (436); Appositional use of "of" (437—9). Syntax of Sentences. 1. Co-ordinate Sentences. Co-ordinate Conjunctions (440 —443). 2. Subordinate Clauses. Condensed Clauses (444 — 7) ; Subject and Object Clauses (448 — 54) ; Adverbial Clauses (455 — 8); Conditional Clauses (459—71); Concessional Clauses (472—7) ; Result, Purpose (478—82) ; Clauses of Comparison (483—97) ; Adjective Clauses (497- 500). For a full Alphabetical Index referring to each idiom ex- plained in this and other Chapters, see page 327. Without Par. 328, 329] AND IRREGULARITIES. 201 the aid of this Index, the reader will not find it easy to refer to a particular idiom. For example, the Conjunctional use of "but" will not be found under "but" as a Prepo- sition. But a reference to " but " in the Index will at once guide the reader to the right paragraph. 328 "It" Used as Subject. 1 1. "It " is often used for (1) " the time, season," &c. ; (2) " matters, affairs " : — (1) "It will soon be November." (2) "It will come to a quarrel." This use has its origin in the earliest period of the lan- guage. It is explained not only by (I) desire of brevity, but also by the desire to express some unknown cause of inexplicable results: "it snows, hails, thunde7'S," &c. Hence also in Early English, even up to the Fifth Period, "it repents, shames, yearns, pities, me." The same ten- dency is observable in Latin to express feelings that are not controlled by the person, by means of Impersonal Verbs. A relic of the old usage is "methinks," i.e., "it seems to me." Compare Shakespeare : — "Where it thinks (seems) best unto your royal self." A similar explanation applies to "if (it) you please," which is illustrated by Shakespeare's " So (it) please him (to) come." 329 " It " is also used to prepare the way for the Subject. (See Par. 151) : — (3) " It is said that he will come." (If the sentence ran "that he will come is said," * For the Infiuitive used as Subject, see Par. 386. 202 DIFFICULTIES. [Par. 330, 331 an undue emphasis (III) 1 would be laid on " is said.") (4) " It is necessary to make a choice." * More rarely " this " and " that " are used after the Subject for the purpose of recapitulation : — (5) " To fail after a third attempt — that indeed would be disgraceful." tl It " is also used to prepare the way for the Object : — (6) " I do not think it right to take this course." (7) "I can make it clear that I am guiltless." 330 " It " often prepares the way for a clause intro- duced by the Conjunction that : — (8) "It was then that the cavalry charged," i.e., " the cavalry's charging was then. " (9) " When was it that they were in prison ? " (The redundance of it here is shewn by the fact that in the last example, which is modernised from Robert of Gloucester, the author omits the it : — (10) " When was that they were in prison ? ") Sometimes the Conjunction may be " whether": — (11) " It is doubtful whether he will succeed." 331 It stands for " the person," and is the Antecedent of a Eelative Pronoun in — (12) " Who was it that said so ? * (13) " Thou art it that hath cut Kahab." i The Roman numbers in brackets refer to the "Laws of Irregu- larity," Par. 198. Par. 332, 333] "IT." 203 In the earliest English (Anglo-Saxon) version of the Gospel, "it," or rather the Saxon equivalent of " it," is not placed first, and we find St. John vi. 63 in this form : — (14) "Spirit is it that giveth life." But as early as Wickliffe the it had been separated from its Relative, and had been placed at the be- ginning of the sentence. (15) "It is the Spirit that quickeneth." 332 I n consequence of this change of position, the Verb agrees with the Preparatory Subject " it." Thus, instead of — (16) " You were it that he laughed at," we say — (17) " It was you that he laughed at." 1 333 A Noun is sometimes used as the Subject or Object of some Verb understood, connected with another Verb by " and " : — (1) (There were) "A few more struggles, and all was over. (2) (We must walk) "A mile further, and we shall be at our journey's end." * See Pars. 15S — 61. This construction is said not to be found in the earliest English, Matzner, ii. page 25. 204 AGREEMENT OF VERB [Par. 334, 335 334 Agreement of Verb with Subject. 1. The Verb sometimes has the Plural Inflection to agree with an implied Plural Subject : — (1) " Nor yew nor cypress spread their gloom," x i.e., " yews and cypresses do not spread. " (2) u Neither you nor your brother were mentioned," i.e., "you and your brother were not men- tioned." It would be intolerably harsh to write, however correct it might be — (3) ". Neither you nor your brother was mentioned." Evade the difficulty by writing : — (4) "Neither your brother nor you were mentioned," so that the Verb may either agree with the Gram- matical Subject "you," or with the implicit Subject "your brother and you." 335 2. A Subject is sometimes introduced without a Verb, in a parenthesis, the Verb having to be sup- plied by repetition — (1) " His faults, not his recent misfortune, have alien- ated him from us. " where " has alienated " must be repeated after " misfortune." * Campbell, quoted by Matzner. Par. 336, 337] WITH SUBJECT. 205 336 ^- -^ ne Verb is in the Singular after a number of Nouns as Subject — I. When the Nouns collectively express one notion : — (1) "Much blood and treasure was wasted in these wars." (2) "The poHry and eloquence of that age deserves our study." In these cases the Nouns are often preceded by one Adjective, as above " much," " the." II. "When the last Singular Noun (coming at the end of a climax) is prominently emphatic : — (3) " Honour, justice, religion itself is derided by such policy." III. When the Yerb precedes a number of Sub- ject Nouns, the first of ivhich is singular. (4) " Blessed is the womb that bare thee and the paps which thou hast sucked. " IV. When the Verb is followed by a Comple- mentary Subject in the Singular Number : — (5) "To inferiors, gentleness, condescension, and affability is the only true dignity. " 337 ^' ^ Collective Noun in the Singular may be used with a Plural Verb, where the notion of a number of individuals is more prominent than the notion of a collective whole : — (1) " The crew are rushing to the boats." 206 DIFFICULTIES. [Par. 338, 339 (2) " The whole family are in tears." (3) " The majority of the inhabitants are ready to petition against his return." (4) " The army are anxious for a war." But where the notion of unity predominates, the Singular of the Verb is used : — (5) " The whole nation rouses itself like one man. " (6) " The army it mainly composed of raw recruits." 338 There is an apparent inconsistency in — (7) " The army — which a month ago was pining for peace — are now, to a man, clamorous for war. " (8) "This people, who knoweih not the law, are cursed. • But this is explained (III) 1 by the harshness of using a Plural Verb after a Relative with a Singular Antecedent. Where the Plural Verb closely follows the Noun of Multitude, the meaning of multitude naturally affects the Verb, but the intervention of the Relative Pronoun 2 diminishes the effect of the Noun's Plural meaning. 339 The following examples (Matzner, ii. 144) admi- rably illustrate the use of the Singular where the i The Roman numbers in brackets refer to the Laws of Irregularity Par. 198. 2 The effect of the intervention of the Relative is seen in the, strictly, ungrammatieal passage of Pope, where the Third Person ia used for the old Second : " Thou great first Cause, least understood: Who all my sense confin'd To know but this, that Thou art good." par. 340] ADVERBIAL PHRASES. 207 notion of unity, and of the Plural where the notion of plurality, is the more prominent : — (9) "There goes" (unity) "a pair that only spoil" (mutual action necessarily implying plurality) "one another." (10) "The stork-assembly meets " (unity) "for many a day. Consulting deep and various " (notion of plu- rality introduced) " ere they take Their arduous voyage through the liquid sky. " ADVERBIAL PHRASES. I. The Uses of Nouns. 340 The Object is used (see Par. 129) to denote extent, distance, duration, or point of time : — l (1) "A short distance from the town was a small stream. " (2) "One summer's day I was walking in the country." (3) "I shall expect you this day" (point of time) "three montJis" (distance or interval of time.) 2 (4) " I saw him live days ago." 3 (5) " He bathes summer and winter." i Only a few unusual idioms are mentioned here. For the more ordinary idioms, the reader is referred to Par 127 — 131. 2 In Old English (Layamon i. 344) a preposition "on" or ''in" would be inserted before " months." 3 In old English, "days" was sometimes made the Subject in a Parenthesis ; " I saw him, gone is five days," " ago" being for " agone," the Passive Participle of "go." 208 ADVERBIAL PH11ASES. [Par. 341—343 341 I n Early English this was expressed by what is now the Possessive Inflection, so that the last Example would have then run — (6) " He bathes summeres and winters." x In the same way they used " nightes," " dayes," "yeares," &c. In later times the Inflection was replaced by a Preposition " on," or " an," or " a- " ; but sometimes we find the new Preposition intro- duced and the old Inflection retained, e.g. in " now- a-days." And this explains " in doors," " of late years," " o'nights." The old Inflection is retained, or has been introduced, in "always," "sometimes;" " sideways," " needs." 342 Erom a confusion (II) of " at three years of age " and " he was three years (Object) old " (see Par. 129), there has arisen the following irregu- larity : — (7) "At three years, nine months, old." Here " three-years-old," " nine-months-old," must be now regarded as Compound Nouns. 343 ^ ie ^ n J ec * 1S a l so used to denote price : — (8) " Mutton is eight-pence a pound." (Here " pence " is not the Subjective Supple- ment. " At " might be inserted before " eight.") The distributive use of " a pound " in the last * Morris's Accidence, page 194. Par. 344—346] ADVERBIAL PHRASES. 209 Example demands attention. It may be compared with — (9) "I ride once a day." (10) "He gave them five shillings a-piece, or a man." Tn Early English (Morris's Accidence, page 195) this "a" is seen to be the old Preposition "on," "an," or " a." It is not (though it might seem to be) the Indefinite Adjective. 344 The Object is also used with Comparatives, to denote the amount of excess or defect ; — (11) " He is a trifle taller than my brother." (12) " The sooner, the better." In (12) "the" is not the Definite Adjective; it is a Use or Case of the old Eelative or Demon- strative Pronoun (our " that "), and the meaning is "By what (in what degree) sooner, by that (in tbat degree) better." (13) " Thi, (or thy) sooner, thi better." 345 A Prepositional force implied in the Adverbial Phrase " on this side " explains the use of the Object in : — (14) " On this side (of) the Tweed." 346 The Object is irregularly used for the Subjective form in : — (15) " Whom say ye that lam?" P 210 DIFFICULTIES. [Par. 347 The reason is, obviously, (II) Confusion with the regular construction : — (16) " Whom say ye me to be ?" But, doubtless, euphony (the same feeling that makes the French say "c'est moi" and English children "it's me") is the reason for such irregu- larities as Shakespeare's : — (17) "No mightier than thyself or me." (18) " Is she as tall as me." (19) t( It is thee 1 fesiT." Milton has " Than whom." Perhaps, " than" and "as "were regarded as quasi-Prepositions. Pope (Sat. viii. 275) has — "And lin'd with Giants deadlier than 'em all" II. Prepositions. 347 The English Prepositions originally represented local meanings, i.e. they indicated rest or motion in place. For example, "of," "off," meant "motion from ;" " by " meant " neighbourhood," and so did " with ; " " for " meant " before." By degrees the uses of the Prepositions were extended to denote the relations of time as well as of space. For example, " before" and " after" are used of both relations. But sometimes a Prepo- sition assumed two forms, one to denote space, the Par. 348, 349] FEE POSIT ION'S. 211 other to denote time, e.g. " to " for space, " til " or " till " for time. See Par. 376. Then the uses of the Prepositions were still further extended to denote other relations, e.g. agency, instrumentality, and the like. For ex- ample, we now say that a box is " made of (i.e. out of, motion from) wood." But there is no reason why we might not have used, instead of " of," some Preposition denoting " neighbourhood," e.g. " with" or " by." And here also (as with " to " and " till " above) the Preposition sometimes assumed two forms, one to denote the original local relation, e.g. " off," " the leaves are falling of the trees ; " another to denote the secondary relation, e.g. " the light oj the sun." Hence, in explaining the uses of Prepositions, the student should go back at once to the radical meaning of rest or motion, and thence should trace the derived meaning, whatever it may be. 1 "A," "a-piece;" see Par. 343: "aground," " a-sleep," for " on ground," " on sleep ;" Par. 127. 1. " Against," now generally restricted to space, but still rarely (once commonly) used of time : — (1) "We shall not be ready against the day of battle." 1 Before the Pupil deals with Prepositions ana tneir metaphorical meanings derived from their local meanings, he should thoroughly master the meaning of a Metaphor, and be able to expand a Metaphor nto a Proportion or Simile. See English Lessons for English People, page 125. 212 PBEPOSITIONS. [Par. 350—352 It is more commonly used in modern vernacular English as a Conjunction (like "after," "before," used for " after that," "before that")':— (2) " We shall not be ready against (that) he comes." 350 2. "At," meaning " neighbourhood," was early used to denote " proximity of value," " equivalence," or " price " : — (1) "The house is valued at a thousand pounds." (2) " He lends money at a high rate of interest." (3) " We are travelling at a great pace." Hence it was used in Adverbial Phrases, where "estimated," "rated," can be supplied from the context : — (4) " (Estimating your compensation) At (the) least, you will surely receive half the value of your loss" : so, "at most." 351 Hence it denotes (not " consequence," like " on," but) " immediate proximity, consequence, or de- pendence " : — (5) "He fires up at a word" : "At the word he vanished. " (6) "The tiger cleared the avenue at a bound." (7) " He lies at the king's mercy ": " He is removable at pleasure. n 352 Hence " instrumentality," mostly of games at which one may be regarded as present : — (8) " He plays at cricket, football, chess, draughts," &c. : " He is beaten at his own weapons." Par. 353—355] "AT," "BY." 213 353 jSTote that "at" is used with reference to points, while " on " and " in " are used with reference to places. Hence "at" is used for a point of time, but " on," " in," or " by " for a space of time : — (9) "On Monday," "at dawn"; "by day," "at, sunset " ; "in the afternoon," "at noon." * (10) "At first" ; "at last" ; "at length." So also of place, " at " is used for small places regarded as points, " in " of large places regarded as spaces : — (11) " In London " ; "at Clifton." Hence, metaphorically : — (12) " Distinguished mwar, literature, &c. ; " "Skil- ful at jumping, dancing, &c." 354 "In" denotes the sphere of action regarded as influencing the agent, e.g. " in wrath," " in anger," " in haste." " At " denotes the point at which one rests, without the notion of influence, e.g. " at ease," " at peace," " at liberty," " at large," " at rest," " at leisure " :— (13) "He that marries in haste will repent at leisure." 355 3. " By," meaning originally " near the side of," i.e. neighbourhood, is used to denote "time" ("by four o'clock "), " instrumentality," and " agency." i "At night " really means " at night-fall." 214 PREPOSITIONS. [Par. 356, 357 From the notion of "instrumentality," it came to express " manner," " number," &c. : — (1) "They sell corn by the bushel, drink beer by the gallon," &c. (2) " He is dying by inches, is wise by fits," &e. (3) " The citizens streamed out by hundreds." 35 g In Old English, the repetition of an action, e.g. "streamed" in the last Example, was sometimes expressed by repeating the Adverbial phrase "by hundreds," so that the sentence ran — (4) " The citizens streamed out by hundreds, by hun- dreds : by one and by one ; by thousand and by thousand ; by little and little," &c. So even Pope : — (5) " Loth to enrich me with too quick replies, By little and by little drops his lies." When some of these phrases were condensed for brevity's sake, the first "by" was omitted : — (6) " They streamed out one by one." (7) "The water oozed out drop by drop." (8) " He is growing stronger year by year." (9) "The army is diminishing little by little." 0517 From false analogy, i.e. Confusion (II) with "They emigrated by hundreds," we say, even speaking of a single person — (10) " He emigrated by himself." But even in the Earliest English we find, not the Adjective " self " (i.e. same) and the Pronoun " he," Par. 358— 360] " BY," " FOR." 215 " he-self," in Apposition to the Subject, but a kind of Adverb formed out of the Dative Case of " he." Consequently " by himself " is simply a Prepositional equivalent of the old Case-Adverb. 4. " For," radical meaning " before," " in front of ; " hence (as a champion may fight in front of, or in the place of the person he is championing) "in- stead of," i.e. in the stead or place of, 1 " as " : — (1) " She passed for his sister." (2) " This was meant for a joke." Hence, "for the purpose of," and hence, "con- sidered for the purpose of," or "having regard to":— (3) "Fit for food." (4) " Small for his size." (5) " These apples are too sour for eating," ie. " for the purpose of eating, the apples are too sour. " Hence, " for the sake of," " because of " : — (6) "All kept away for fear of infection." (7) "For shame," i.e. "(I cry alack) because of shame." Some exclamation has to be supplied, and was often inserted in Old English. It is easy to see how, after a negative, " for " may assume the meaning of " despite of " : — (8) " He was not liked for his good temper," or (9) " He was disliked for all his good temper." * Hence " I buy an apple for, i.e. in the place of, or sell it for, i.e. for the sake of, a penny." 210 PEEPOSITIONS. [Par. 361, 362 Hence, even where there is no negative preceding, " for " might be thus used : — (10) "I shall succeed {and you will 7U)t prevent me) for all your .tricks." It is fair to say, however, that in Old English "for" is used in the sense of "prevention," with- out any negative preceding. 1 3(31 From the notion of " purpose," " for " came to be used, even in Early English, with words denoting future time : — (11) " I have food stored up for (the purpose, or need, of) many years." (12) " I will repeat the Psalter daily for a year." In the same way, "for " is used of space, with a notion of motion towards a purposed Object — (12ft) "lam setting out for Paris." 362 Hence " for " came to be used of time and space, without any notion of purpose, but with the mere notion of extension : — (13) " "We have loved one another for many years." (14) " For fifteen weary miles they plodded onward." (15) " For a short time." Hence (II) by Confusion (where there is no notion of " extension ") : — 1 It has been suggested that "for" might derive a meaning of op- position from its radical meaning of "before," "in front of." See Shakespearian Grammar, page 103. Par. 363-365] " FOR," il OF." 217 (16) " He is now sleeping, for the first time since last Monday." (17) " Be sensible, for once. " r%f>r% The use of " for " after " but " is to be explained by reference to the radical meaning of " but," i.e. "except" (see Par. 381) :— (18) " He would have died hit for me," i.e " except, or only, (that it happened otherwise) because of me." "For," in the sense of "in front of," i.e. "in *^ behalf of," is often used at the beginning of a sen- tence, to call attention to that about which one is going to speak : — (19) "For his part, he is indifferent." Hence — (20) " As for him, he is indifferent," i.e. " (So far) as (one may speak) or, i.e. in behalf of, about, him." In the middle of the Sentence " for" is not now so common as it was once, e.g. in Bacon's time : " (The counsel of Kehoboam) was young counsel for (as regards) the persons, and violent counsel for (as regards) the matter." " For to," see Par. 402. 5. "Of," having originally the force of off, is &vO still used with this meaning in — (1) "Within ten miles of (i.e. from) the coast." 218 PBJSPOSITIONS. [Par. 366, 367 (2) " Of late." " Of old." « Of a child. "—Mark ix. 21. (3) "Upwards of (i.e. rising from) ten years." From saying, logically, " ten of us," i.e. " ten out of our number," we have come to say, illogically — (4) "Alio/ us." 366 " Of " is also used with Verbs signifying " motion from " : (a) deprive, bereave, strip, rob, cheat, de- fraud ; (b) rid, deliver, acquit ; (c) cleanse, purge, cure ; (d) beware. Also with Adjectives signifying emptiness. This use explains — (5) "Void of sense." "Clear of debt." "She was delivered of a child." 367 " 0*V' f rom meaning " motion from," comes to mean (6) " out of," (7) " belonging to," (8) " re- sulting from " : — (6) "This box is made of wood." "He comes of good parentage." " Evil must come of evil." (7) "The light of the sun," i.e. "the light off or from the sun." (8) "The canal is full of water," i.e. "as the result of" " He did it of malice aforethought." " She died of a fever." " It smells of musk." " Of his own accord." "Of course," i.e. "as the result of the ordinary course of things. " Compare Bacon's — (8a) "If Time, of course (i.e. as the result of its or- dinary course) alter things to the worse. " Par. 368—371] "OF." 219 368 From meaning " resulting from," " of " comes to mean (9) " on account of," (10) " because of" : — (9) "I accuse him of treason." (10) " He is glad of success, afraid of death." 369 Hence, from meaning " that which comes from, has to do with, belongs to, or concerns," "of" has come to mean " coticerning," " about " : — (11) " What of John ? Tell me of his adventures." (12) " I am going of 1 an errand." Lastly, from meaning " about," it comes to mean " as regards " : — (13) " Light of foot." "Hard /heart." 370 Only in vernacular English is " of " now used for "during," a use that springs naturally from the meaning " coming from," " belonging to," i.e. " in," or " on " :— (14) "I can't get up of a morning." (15) "Of a sudden." But this was once more common. Compare Shakespeare's — "My custom always of the afternoon." 371 Since the action comes of, or from, the agent, " of " may be, and once was, commonly used where we use " by " :— (16) " He was despised and rejected of men. 1 ' i This might be explained by (8) "as the result of." 220 PREPOSITIONS. [Par. 372—374 (17) " That it might be fulfilled which was spoken of the Lord." (18) " When he was demanded of the Pharisees." 372 The Partitive use of "of" without a preceding Noun, Pronoun, or Numeral Adjective, is now rare ; (19) " He gave us (some) of his best." (20) " The dogs eat {some) of the crumbs that fall from their master's table." "What sort of" "A rascal of a cabman," &c. See Par. 438. 373 6. " On," " Upon." Since one event can happen on the top of another, or can be based upon certain conditions it is easy to understand the use of the Preposition in — (1) " Upon my arrival I will give you an interview." (2) "He acted thus on your suggestion." (3) " On hearing this, he rushed out of the house." (4) " They surrendered the city on these conditions." (5) " Pillage was prohibited on pain of death." 374 -^ s we s P ea k of being supported or sustained by bread, which we call the " staff of life," we naturally use " on " in the metaphorical expressions — (6) "He lives on bread, feeds on success," &c. Since an oath is taken " over " or " on " a Bible, sword, &c, it was natural to swear — (7) "On the faith of a Christian." " On my honour. " " Upon my word." Par. 375—378] "ON," "TO." 221 Since an action may spring " out of " a feeling, or be based " on " a purpose, we can say — (8) " He did it of malice," but " on purpose." 375 " On " is often abbreviated into " a- " :— (9) "A-board," "a-sleep," "a-live," "a-ground." Shakespeare also has — (10) "A-land," "a-sea," "an-end," i.e. "on end."* 376 ?. " Till," which is now used only of time, was once used of space : — (1) " They went til Snowdon." (2) " Title him came his son Richard." 377 8. " To," meaning " toward," is sometimes used, without a Verb of motion, to denote " neighbour- hood " or " equivalence," where now u for " would be more commonly used : — (1) "I call God to (i.e. as) witness." In the last Example, motion may possibly be implied in " call ; " but there is no motion implied in — (2) " The seven had her to wife." 378 " ^° " seems t° mean " up to," " as far as con- cerns," " as to " in — (8) " To all appearance he is guilty." i 1 Even Pope has — " A little house with trees a-row." 222 DIFFICULTIES. [Par. 379—381 379 " To" was early used (in the sense of neighbour- hood) for "toward" or "about" of past time, as well as of future, e.g. " to-ewe " (yesterday evening). This explains the modern — (4) "I saw him fo-day." "As to." See Pars. 487—489. 380 " But." See Alphabetical Index. When used as a Preposition, " hut " should be followed by the Objective form ; but, probably owing to confusion between the Prepositional and the Conjunctive usage, " hut," even when a Preposition, is often followed by the Subjective form : — " And was not this the Earl ? 'Twas none but he." — Philip Van Artevelde. 381 * n explaining the many idiomatic usages of "but," two things should be borne in mind ; (1) that the radical meaning of "but" is "leaving out," and that it was a Preposition; (2) that a negative is often omitted, for shortness, before it. The transition from the Preposition to the Conjunction is well illustrated by the following modernised examples from Lay anion : — (1) "Buten laeve," i.e. "without leave." — (Preposition.) (2) " He saw that the Britons must fall buten heo wd haveden," i.e. "without, or, unless they had counsel (rede). "— Subordi- nate Conjunction. (3) "If you do this, well; bute (i.e. otherwise), he will never deliver Evelin to thee."— Co-ordinate Conjunction. The omission of the negative was facilitated by the blend- ing of the negative ne with the Verb, so that nam meant "am not." Par. 382—384] PBEPOSITIONS. 223 (4) " A'abbe we buten the west end," i.e. we have but the west eiid." (5) " Nas he there bute one night," i.e. "he was there but one night." 382 9. Prepositions are sometimes used with Adverbs (used as JNouns) for their Objects: — (1) "What kind of country is it between here and Dover ? " (2) " The light comes from behind, not from above." (3) "Until quite recently." "Since then." "For once." "Of yore." The older and preferable forms " Whither 1 " " Whence 1 " seem in danger of being supplanted by the modern " Where-to ? " " Where-from 1 " — (4) " Where does this road lead to?" 383 Sometimes the Preposition precedes not an Ad- verb, but an Adverbial Phrase : — (5) "The mountain trembles from on-high." (6) " From beneath-the- ground. " ' ' From beyond-the- seas." (7) "Not till about- six-years-afterwards." "Till within-afew-weeks-of-his- death. ' ' (8) " It was sold for under-half -its-value." 384 10. The Object of a Preposition is sometimes omitted, (1) when the Object is a Relative Pro- noun, (2) when the Preposition completes a Verb in the Infinitive : — (1) " The will (that) I told you of is lost." (2) " He lent me his horse to escape upon." 224 THE INFINITIVE. [Par. 385, 386 Such sentences as (2) are found without the Eelative Pronoun in Old English ; it seems best to consider the Preposition in such cases as part of a Compound Verb— "escape on," like "ride on." In Shakespeare we should often find " thereon " inserted — " to escape thereon." 385 " One another," " each other," have now come to be regarded as Compound Pronouns : — (1) "They looked at one another, or, each other." But the explanation of the construction is as follows : " They looked one at another, or, each at other " — " one " and " each " being in Apposition to "they," while "other" is the Object of "at." See Pars. 223, 531. Preposition omitted; see Pars. 127 — 131. The Infinitive. 1 386 The " to " is omitted, not only after the Auxiliary Verbs, but also in a few very common idioms : — (1) "Better {to) 3 wait awhile." (2) "You had better (to) be quiet." Here " had " is Subjunctive, meaning " would have ; " and the sentence would be in full — i For convenience, the Infinitive, even when not Adverbial, is dis cussed here. ' « This was the Infinitive, not the Imperative. Par. 387, 388] "TO" OMITTED. 225 (2) "You would have (find) it better (to) be quiet." (3) "I had rather (to) be a doorkeeper," i.e. " I sooner ('rathe' (Adj.) meant 'early,' 'soon') would have, i.e. u I prefer (to) be a doorkeeper." u To " is also omitted after " have " in — (4) "I must have you (to) attend." (5) "You will have your father (to) blame you." It is impossible to tell whether "Please help me" is for (I) "May- it please you to help me," or for (2) " Help me, please," which is an abbreviation of " Help me, if you please, or, so please you." "Do," O.E. don, originally meant "cause," e.g. "dome drenche, ' "cause (some one) to drench me." About the thirteenth century it began to be used for simple emphasis, and in the fifteenth century, was regularly used thus. In " How do you do," the first do is the ordinary one, O.E don, the second is O.E. dugan " to be good, or worth." (Morris). The omission of " to " after such Verbs as let, bid, make, dare, see, hear, feel, may be explained (1) by the desire of brevity manifesting itself, specially in the use of words so common as these are ; and (2) by the fact that old constructions (i.e. the Old In- finitive without " to ") are to be looked for in common words. (See Par. 95, 96.) But this explanation does not explain the omission of " to " after such uncommon words as " view," " behold," "mark," "watch," "observe," "per- ceive," &c. The explanation here is perhaps as follows : when the " to " form of the Infinitive came in, the construction would become — (7) "I observed him to come." Q 226 "TO" OMITTED. [Par. 389 But, side by side with this, there would be the Old Participial or Verbal construction : — (8) "I observed him coming or ^.-coming.' In (7) the Object of the Verb is a fact, viz. "the fact that he came." In (8) the Object of the Verb is a person. But between these two constructions a com- promise or confusion of thought was made, in which it was left uncertain whether the fact or the person was the more prominent ; and, to represent this confusion of thought, there was made (II) a compromise or confusion of language, in which (I brevity) " to " was omitted as in (8), and " come " was substituted for " coming," as in (7), the result being — (9) "I observed him come." ' The confusion between the Infinitive and the Participle or Verbal would be facilitated by the similarity of sound between the old Infinitive in -en, and the Participle in -nd, or the Verbal in -ng. See Pars. 585 — 6. 389 The ' : to"is often omitted after "than," where it can be supplied from some other clause in the sentence : — (1) " Sooner than (I am prepared to) make this con- cession, I am prepared to go to law." (2) "I will {i.e. wish ; Par. 93) (to) die sooner than (to) desist." « This Infinitive would be rendered in Latin and Greek by a Par- ticiple. Par. 390— 392] THE INFINITIVE. 227 III. Infinitive with "to." (1) "I was given to understand by him." The Active form is — (2) " He gave me to understand," where " me " is the Indirect Object, and " to under- stand " the Direct Object, of " gave." Consequently the correct Passive form would be — (3) " To understand was given me." But " give to understand " being loosely treated as a Compound Verb, " me," in (2), has been taken as the Direct Object of the Active j and therefore the same Person, "I" in (1), has been made the Subject of the Passive. This may be illustrated by — (4) " So am I given in charge." * The modern meaning of " I am given in charge " would be " I am placed in custody." But, in the foregoing example, " to give-in-charge " is treated as a Compound Verb meaning "to charge," "to commission," so that the sentence means, in Shake- speare, " I am charged, or instructed." " To " follows naturally after " come," but ex- presses not a purpose, but a result, in — (5) " How came you to be left behind ? " (6) " It came to pass ." * 2 Henry VI. ii. 4, 80. Q 2 228 THE INFINITIVE. [Par. 393—395 After several Intransitive Verbs of the feelings, e.g. " wonder," " rejoice," " sorrow," " to " followed by a Verb is used, or " at " followed by a Verbal Noun : — (7) "I wondered, rejoiced, laughed, &c., to see him there," i.e. " at seeing." (8) "I blushed, was ashamed, angry, sorry, &c., to hear it." 393 After Adjectives, the Infinitive is sometimes used to limit the scope of the Adjective, " to " being used very much iike " in " : — (9) "Sad to relate," i.e. "in relating, " ■ rather than " for the purpose of relating." (10) " He was the first to come," i.e. " in coming." (11) "You are unwise to speak so hastily," i.e. "for speaking." (12) "This was strange- to hear, after all his profes- sions." 394 " To " is also used after many Nouns resembling or implying Verbs that would naturally take "to" after them : — (13) "I have no wish, hope, ambition, desire, &c, to succeed. " (14) '* Give me your promise to obey." 395 Somewhat different is the use of " to " after Nouns preceded by " the " : — (15) "He had the sense to perceive his mistake," i.e. " the sense necessary, or enough, to perceive." * Compare '* mirabile dicta. " Par. 396, 397J "TO" 229 Some Adjectives, such as "necessary," "fit," have to be supplied in such cases : — (16) "I have the pleasure, honour, &c., to inform you," i.e. "the pleasure, honour, that goes so far as to," &C. 1 In all the above Examples there are two causes for the use of "to" instead of "at," "for," "of," &c. (1) A Transitive Verb is often implied ; (2) " to " being constantly used with the Gerundive of purpose, came to be used with the Infinitive (used for the Gerundive) even where there is no sense of purpose. See Par. 94 ; also 585 — 6. "So as to." "To" is often found after " so... as" : — (17) " Be so kind as to excuse me." This might have been written without " so... as : " " Be kind to excuse me," i.e. " Be kind to the extent of excusing me ; " and this idiom is actually found, only with " enough " added : — (18) " Be kind enough to excuse me." In Early English " so " was added in the sense of "to that extent :" " Be so kind to excuse me." Afterwards, to join together the two parts of the sentence, the Eelative form of " so," viz. " as " (see Far. 203), was inserted. * This Infinitive appears to describe the " honour," " pleasure," &c, and therefore rather to be Adjectival than Adverbial. 230 THE INFINITIVE. [Par. 398, 399 " To " in Questions and Relative Clauses. 398 There appears to have been an old Interrogative use of the Infinitive, of which we still retain rem- nants in such expressions as — (1) " Where to begin ? How (to) excuse myself?" ■ In dependent questions this Infinitive was, and is, very common : — (2) " I know not where to begin, nor how to excuse myself." No doubt this idiom is facilitated by the analogy of " I know not the place to begin, nor the way to excuse myself," which may be compared with the Noun-use of " wherewith," e.g. " I have not the wherewith to keep a carriage," " I must know the how and the why." Add — (3) " I know not whether to term it a fault or a mis- fortune." (4) " The difficulty is how to teach him that he needs teaching. " 399 The sentence " I have no money to buy food " is logically correct, but is felt to be unsatisfactorily incomplete. It has therefore been completed in different ways : (a) " I have no money to buy food with, or withal, or therewith;" (6) " I have no » Although the words are not inserted, yet one feels that this is a short way of saying : " Where (am I) to begin ? How (am I to) excuse myself?" Par. AOO, 40l] THE INFINITIVE. 231 money with which I may buy food ; " and the con- fusion between (a) and (b) has resulted in — (1) " I have no money with which to buy food." (2) " I have no object for which to strive." (3) " I want a place in which to feel at rest. " The Infinitive in Exclamations. The Subject, not the Object, 1 is usually found before the Infinitive in exclamations : — (1) " / to be so happy ! " " He to desert me ! " The Parenthetical Infinitive. This is an Infinitive of purpose : — (1) " To tell you the truth, I was not up," i.e. "in order to tell you the truth (I must say that), I was not up." (2) " To be brief, or, not to be tedious, the expedi- tion failed." (3) " To be sure he is not very clever, but he is very kind-hearted." (4) "Will you help me?" "To be sure I will." The meaning of "to be sure " seems to be " cer- tainly," but used in (3) concessively, in (4) emphati- cally. Compare " to wit," i.e. " to know (the truth.)" 1 Compare the use of a Subject used absolutely with the Parti- ciple, where Latin and Greek usage would prepare one to expect some other form. Milton uses the Object with the Participle Absolute ; but this is a Latinism. See Par. 408. 232 THE INFINITIVE. [Par. 402 The Subject of the Infinitive, in " to be sure " and in u to wit," appears to be the person addressed, "that you may be sure," " that you may- wit." 402 The Infinitive with ' c for to." In the Bible, the old Infinitive with " for to " is still found : — (1) " What went ye out for to see t " In Old English this Infinitive was nsed as Com- plement to a Noun, in the Object clause, just like the Infinitive with " to," e.g. — (2) "A many of rude villains made him for to bleed." (3) " If he will not suffer my people for to pass." "We still, unconsciously, use this idiom, e.g. — (4) " It is rare for a man to starve in this country." Here the meaning is, not that " starvation is rare for a man " (for of course a man can only starve once), but that "a man's being starved, or, that a man should be starved, is rare " But, as this idiom is completely forgotten, we seldom use it, except where " for " might take for its Object the Noun preceding the following Infinitive, as in — (5) " The night is too dark for us to travel." Here " us " may be called the Object of " for." But, in reality, the sentence owes its origin to the Par. *03] THE INFINITIVE. 233 old use of " for to." It is impossible to treat " for " as governing a Noun Object in the first or third, and it is difficult in the second, of the two follow- ing Examples : — (6) " He was too much accustomed to deeds of violence for the agitation he had experienced to be of long continuance." — Scott. 1 (7) " The wind sits fair for news to go to Ireland." (8) "He belonged to a race that was too much detested — outside the cities — for him to hope anything from charity." — Spectator, 1874. The Complete Infinitive. Hopes and wishes about what is completed are necessarily reserved for cases where one has failed, and not fulfilled one's purpose. Hence with Verbs of hoping, wishing, intending, the old and correct use of Complete Infinitive (which it is most desirable to retain) expresses an unfulfilled pur- pose : — (1) "I hoped to have succeeded, but I failed." (2) But, on the other hand, "I hoped to succeed, and I succeeded." So with some other Verbs : — (1) " I could have repeated all Homer by heart once," i.e. "if any one had challenged me, but no one did." * Matzner, Vol. iii. page 58. 234 THE PARTICIPLE, [par. 404, 405 (2) But, on the other hand, "I could learn a hundred lines in an hour once," i.e. "and 1 sometimes did." 404 IV. The Participle. The Participle qualifying a Noun is sometimes incorrectly used, instead of a Verbal Noun qualified by a Possessive Adjective or Possessive form of the Noun, e.g. " In consequence of the king saying this" for "In consequence of the king's saying this." " Trusting to the certainty of the old man (for man's) interrupting him." This is rare, and not to be imitated. Putting " me " instead of " king " or "man" above, you see the incorrectness of the idiom. It is not now English to say " in conse- quence of me saying this " : " my " would be required in both cases. 405 The Passive Participle is perhaps allowable in this construction, e.g. — (1) "He insisted on the match being deferred," instead of, u the match's being deferred." (2) "In consequence of this motion having been brought forward without due notice." These are not exactly Participles. For example, (1) does not mean " He insisted on the match when it was being deferred," or, "that was being de- ferred:" but "He insisted on the-matck-being de- ferred," i.e. "the deferring of the match." This Par. 406, 407] THE PARTICIPLE. 235 (which may be called the Noun-use of the Parti- ciple) 1 is a Latin construction, alien to the genius of the English language; the native Verbal use should be retained, wherever euphony and clearness allow : — (3) " He insisted on the man's being reprimanded." The Participle with Conjunctions. 406 The Participle is ambiguous ; see Par. 66. " Walk- ing" may mean "though he walked," " because he walked," &c. Partly to prevent ambiguity, and partly by (II) Confusion of Construction, we blend together (a) " Walking on the ice I slipped," and (6) u While, or when, I was walking on the ice, I slipped ; " and, combining the clearness of the latter with the brevity of the former, we say — (1) " While, or when, walking on the ice, I slipped." (2) " Though walking very carefully, I slipped." 407 I* would be convenient to say " because walking ; " but "because" and "since" 2 are not used with Participles. We sometimes, however, use " as " in « It is sometimes called the Gerundive use of the Participle. Gerun- dive means " describing that which is to be done." The Latins had a special form for the Gerundive. See Glossary. 2 "Since" is nsed, as a Preposition, with a Verbal Noun as its Object, but not with a Participle. " If" and " unless " are rarely used with Active Participles. 236 THE PARTICIPLE [Par. 408, 409 this way, generally with "being," more rarely with other Participles : — (3) "He was exempted from serving on the jury, as being over sixty. " (4) " Our remaining horse was unfit for the road, as waDtiiig an eye. " (5) "If conquered, I am at least not disgraced." (6) "I should never have attempted it unless per- suaded by you. " (7) "I always failed till helped by my brother." 408 The Participle used Absolutely with Subject. In Early English the Objective form of the Pronoun was used, e.g. by Wyckliffe : — (1) "Him speaking these things," i.e. "while he spoke. " Milton (probably imitating the classical usage) uses " him " and not " he " in — (2) "Him destroyed ... all this will soon follow." The Participle used Absolutely. 409 Some Participles, through frequent use in certain expressions, have come to be used even where the Noun or Pronoun qualified by them has been Par. 410] USED ABSOLUTELY. 237 dropped out, so that some of them have almost the force of Prepositions : — Regular Construction. (1) "Concerning 1 you the decision is as follows." Irregular ,, . . (1) " We talked for some time con- cerning the arrangements." Regular ,, . . (2) " Considering the circumstances, I do not think him to blame." Irregular ,, . . (2) " Considering the circumstances, it was thought that he was not to blame." Respecting, regarding, and touching are thus used. More rarely we have — (3) " Talking of books, here is a very rare book." (4) " Judging from his own behaviour, he cannot be a desirable companion." (5) " Granting tbar you are right, what do you infer from this ? " (6) " Assuming that he is guilty, what ought to be done ? " In most of such cases the Infinitive might be substituted for the Participle ; and it is possible that the old sound of the Infinitive " talken " being like the sound of " talking," may have facilitated the introduction of the latter : but it is more pro- bable that the direct cause of the construction is (a) the frequent use of the Participle regularly, and (6) its retention when the Pronoun is changed : — (a) " Talking of books, I must tell you, &c." (6) "Talking of books, there is a very fine copy of," &c. 1 Here "concerning" may be said to qualify "decision." 238 THE PARTICIPLE. [Par. 411, 4ia " In talking," or " a-talking" (compare the French '* en attendant "), might also naturally be contracted into " talk- ing," and might then be confused with the Participle. The Participle with Implied Noun. 411 1^ is scarcely correct, though not very uncommon, to say — (1) " Having disposed of his first argument, his second argument remains to be considered," in- stead of " we have to consider." (2) "My farm consisted of twenty acres of excellent land, (/) having given a hundred pounds for my predecessor's good will." — Goldsmith. 1 412 Where a Possessive Adjective is used, e.g. " his," it may be sometimes said that " his " is the same as "of him," and that the Participle qualifies "him," which is implied in " his " : — (3) "Having finished his breakfast, his thoughts began to run on dinner." (4) "Repulsed at all points, their courage grew cold. " Adjectives, as well as Participles, are thus used : — (5) "Once free from debt, his best course is to emigrate. " Such an expression as the following is by no means to be imitated : — * Matzner, Vol. iii., page 80 Par. 413, 414] ADVERBS. 239 (6) " He has a certain grandeur of soul, which cannot be contem plated unmoved," i.e., "by any-one unmoved." V. Adverbs. 413 Some Adjectives appear to be used as Adverbs, e.g.— "He van. fast." The explanation of these forms is as follows : In Early English an Adverb was often formed by adding -e to an Adjective, e.g. " bright * Adjective, " bright-e " Adverb. In Modern English the -e has been dropped (with many other Inflections), but several of the old Adverbs are retained, e.g. " quick,' " sweet," &c " There " redundant ; see Par. 152. 414 "So " is used (1) for an Adjective, (2) for a Noun. The explanation of this is as follows : " So " means "in this way," and is a less emphatic form of "also," "all-so." Hence— (1) "He is an Englishman, and so (also) are you," i.e., " and you also are an Englishman." \2) "I am sorry, and so (also) is he," i.e., "he also is sorry." In time this restricted use of "so " (restricted to indicate the repetition of a previous statement) was 240 ADVERBS. [Par. 415—417 forgotten, and " so" was used in other constructions, e.g.— (3) " The prince (for so he was) threw off his mask." (4) "The blest to-day is as completely so As who began a thousand years ago." In the two last Examples " so " must be parsed »s put for " prince " and " blest " respectively. In " I thought so, did so, said so," u so " may often be treated as an Adverb, and also in "It i* so," i.e. " matters are in that condition." 415 S° * s sometimes used, not for the preceding Noun, but for something like (" in the same x way as ") the preceding Noun, i.e. for a 'preceding Noun modi- fied by some Adverb, such as " about" "nearly" : — (1) "I am going out for a minute or so {about a minute. ) " 416 "Other" is used for "other-how" 2 (compare " other- wise ") in the expression — (1) "I must help you some how or other " 417 "No*' is often used with Comparatives, e.g. "no better," i.e. "in no degree better," and hence — (1) " We saw him no more,' 1 where the Adverb " no " modifies the Adverb "more." "No," ("na," or "ne") was used for * See Par. 203. 3 "How" is used as a Noun in "I must know the how and the why." See Par. 398. Par. 418, 419] ADVERBS. 241 * not " (" no-whit," " naught ") in Old English, and is as correct as " not " in : — (2) " Whether he comes or no, it matters little." 418 " Why "■ and " well " are used as expletives : (1) "Why?" appears to have been originally thus used as an exclamation of impatience or surprise, equivalent to " Why do you say this 1 Why are you surprised % Why are you acting thus 1 " (2) " Well " seems to mean " This having been well settled," and is used in the sense of " enough of this," "to pass on," &c, in order to prepare the way for a new point : — (1) "Snakes ! Why, there are no snakes in Ireland. " (2) " Well, now let us come to more practical matters." 419 Some Adverbs, especially those of place, are used with Nouns almost like Adjectives, except that they rarely come before the Noun : — (1) " God above knows best." (2) "What is the cause of your arrival here? I thought your education abroad would prevent your return homeward." It is allowable to put the Adverb first in " The above argument." Byron also writes " The then z world" " My almost drunkenness of heart." Shake- 1 This construction, sanctioned by Byron and Thackeray, is too con- venient to be given up. 242 ADVERBS. [Par. 420 speare has " thy here-approack," " our hence- going, 1 ' " till Harry's bach-return." 420 Adverbs repeated. — Many Adverbs are re- peated, sometimes to denote repetition, sometimes for emphasis. Thus we use " again and again" " in and in " (of horse-breeding), " over and over" logically ; for the repetition of the action requires the repetition of the Adverb. But we also illogi- cally use " through and through," " out and out," and Pope has : — M Know there are rhymes which fresh and fresh J applied." This explains " by and by" " By " meant " near," either of space or time. Hence " by and by " meant " very near," either of space or of time. Chaucer uses it of space and speaks of " two knights sleep- ing by and by, i.e. close by." But we now use it only in the sense of " very soon." In early English (Layamon ii. 447) we find "with and with" for " again and again" 2 1 So a dinner is served up " hoi and hot.' 2 The later text has one "with " only. Par. 421, 422] "TEE." 243 ADJECTIVES. "The" and "A." 421 " The " is often used to denote "that which is known as," e.g. — (1) " The hero differs from the brute." " The earth " means " the planet, known as earth," " the earth known as distinct from the sea," x &c. "Earth" means "our Parent Earth" personified : — (2) " The earth is larger than the moon." (3) "Earth smiles around, with boundless bounty blest." We still use " the " before a Noun denoting a class, to define the individual selected out of that class — " The Prophet Daniel " ; " the Astronomer Adams " ; i.e., "the astronomer known by the name of Adams." Also, in the case of foreign titles, e.g. — " The Tycoon So-and-so"; "the Consul Appius " ; " the Centurion Paullus." 422 But a familiar title is treated as a part of the * Bacon says " The (substance known as) matter is in a perpetual flux." R 2 244 ADJECTIVES. [Par. 423, 424 proper name, and therefore dispenses with " the." Compare — " The Centurion Paullus," with " Captain Smith." "King Edward," with " tlie Emperor Napoleon." In the earliest English, before this distinction was recognized, "the" was inserted before "king," " bishop," &c. ; but Chaucer often omits " the." 423 Some epithets are distinctive of certain persons. For example, " Alfred * is known as " the Great ; " Wellington as " the victorious ; " " Minos " as " the inflexible." (1) In cases of great notoriety, "the" may come after its Noun ; (2) in other cases before its Noun : — (1) "Alfred tJte Great is wrongly supposed to have established the form of trial by jury now existing among us." (2) ** The classical Addison did not disdain to write a commentary on the ballad of ' Chevy Chase.' " On the other hand, an epithet (like a title) is often treated as though it were part of the name, especially in Poetry, e.g. "god-like Turenne," and " the " is consequently omitted. See Par. 523. 424 Sometimes a proper name is used for a type of character ; e.g. " Rupert " is used for " a dashing, impetuous leader." In such cases " the " may be prefixed, and we can say — (1) " Lord Derby was called tJie Rupert of debate." (2) "He was the Thersites (i.e., wrangling re viler) of the assembly." Par. 425, 426J "THE." 245 "The" is used before names that are regarded not so much as names as epithets, e.g. — 11 The Thames (river) ;" " the Atlantic (ocean) ;" "the Mediterranean (sea) ; " " the (range called) Chilterns;" "the (district known- as) Crimea, Tyrol, Netherlands, 1 Levant, Palatinate." " The " is omitted before names of towns, coun- tries, and isolated mountains, all of which may be regarded as individuals requiring " proper names," e.g. "Paris," "England," "Snowdon," ''Saddle- back." " The " in " the Eigi," " the Matterhorn," " the Schreck- horn," &c is probably of foreign origin. 425 " The " i s the old Demonstrative and Eelative Pronoun " by how much " and " by so much " (See Par. 344) in— (1) " The sooner he leaves, the better for everybody." 426 There is no fixed rule as to repeating " the " between two I^ouns, both of which are intended to be defined. Compare — " He arose and rebuked the winds and the sea," St. Matthew, viii. 26, with St. Luke viii. 25, "He commandeth even the winds and water." " The " is perhaps more often omitted than in- serted, provided the omission causes no am- biguity :— (1) " The prince and princess are expected ; " "During the first and second centuries." i "The Netherlands" = "The Low Lands." 246 U A." [Par. 427, 428 427 "A" is used before " dozen," "hundred," "thousand," "million," "few," " great. many ;" all these words being half Nouns, inasmuch as they are preceded by " a," and half Adjectives, inasmuch as they are not followed by " of." See Par. 193. Anomalous uses of " a," or rather of Numerals preceded by " a," arose very early : — "A(n) 5 mile;" "a(n) 2 furlong;" "a(n) seven mile ; " " a(n) twelve year." Here, as in " a sennight (seven-night) ", "a fort- night (fourteen-night)", (Shakespeare uses " one seven years"), the Numeral and the Noun seem to form a Singular Compound Noun. But we some- times meet with " a nine, or a ten, of men," where the Numeral by itself is treated as a Noun. 428 " A " appears to have (but has not) the meaning of " one " in — (1) " Five-pence a quart, " "a year," "a man." For in Early English the Preposition "on," " in," or " an " was used in such cases : — (2) "Once in or on the year;" "1 fast twice in the week;" "if lie sin against thee on day seven times." Hence "a" must here be regarded as an old Preposition. Par. 429, 430] ADJECTIVES. 247 429 " A " (like " the " above) is used before names, when the name represents a character, e.g. "a Crcesus," i.e. " a man of immense wealth." "A little." See Par. 217. With many Adjectives that from use or termi- nation approach Adverbs, " a " is often placed after, instead of before, the Adjective, e.g. " many a," * " what a," " such a," " half a." In Early English we also find " each a," " which a." Hence, though we cannot say " severe a man," we can say " so severe, too severe, as severe, a man." "A" is for "one "in "all of a sort, a piece." Com- pare : — "And surely, Heav'n and I are of a mind?" — Pope. Other Adjectives. 430 Very once meant "genuine" (Lat. verus). Hence it came to mean " itself," " themselves," &c. ; e.g. — (1) " Your very looks betray you." The Adjective follows, instead of dividing or pre- ceding, " something," " anything," " everything," and other similar Compounds of " thing." The reason seems to be that in Early English these words were sometimes used Partitively and followed by w of," thus : — (1) "Of Nazareth may something of good be ? " Wyckliffe. r See Shakespearian Grammar, Paragraph 81 ; See also Par. 218 above. 248 ADJECTIVES. [Par. 431, 432 This has been shortened into — (2) "I have heard something good." 431 The Superlative form of the Adjective is some- times used as a Noun, e.g. — (1) "He plunged into the thickest, hottest, of the fray." This is easily explained by the confusion (II) with such expressions as "the best (fish) of your fish," " the finest (streets) of your streets." Here the Noun can logically be supplied, and the construction (owing to its convenient brevity (I) ) has encroached, where, logically, it is unjustifiable. A few Adjectives of French origin follow their Nouns, accordance with French usage, e.g. " heir apparent," " blood royal," "prince regent." In poetry the transposition is common, for emphasis. See Par. 515. Possessive Adjective, &c. 432 The following curious idiom requires explana- tion : — (1) "That ugly face of his quite frightened the child." The regular construction would have been " that ugly face of him j " and, in the same way, instead of saying — (2) "This news of John's is very strange." (3) "A friend of mine is here." Par. 433, 434] "THAT FACE OF HIS." 249 — the regular construction would be " this news of John," "a friend of me." In (3) it may be said that " mine " is put for " my friends j " but this explanation will scarcely apply to (2), and certainly not to (1): " that ugly face of his (faces) ! " The truth is that " of him ■ and " of me," used Possessively, are intolerably harsh ; and ambiguity also might often result from the regular construc- tion ; for " this news of John " would naturally mean " news about John." Consequently, partly to avoid the ambiguity caused by the double meaning of " of " (viz. " belonging to " and " about "), and partly to avoid harshness of sound, we adopt the following illogical but serviceable device to make our meaning clear ; we retain the Possessive " of," but we also add the Possessive 's. Thus we combine the French Prepositional Idiom with the English Inflectional Idiom. A similar desire to avoid harshness (III) has made us add an illogical but euphonious 's to " your " and " our,' which are severally the Pos- sessive Inflections of "you" and "we." "Your" sounds harshly at the end of a sentence, and re- quires some modification. Then steps in (II) confusion between " this is your " and " this is John's, William's, the man's," &c. " Your " has been treated as though it were a Noun, and has been changed into " your's " or " yours." But, 250 PREPOSITIONS [Par. 435, 436 logically, "yourV is as absurd as "of of you;" for " your " means " of you," and the addition of 's adds a superfluous " of." 435 "These forms were confined in the 13th and 14th centuries to the Northern Dialect, and are probably due to Scandinavian influences." — Morris. The more ordinary form in the Southern Dialect omits the *. " I wol be your in alle that ever I may." — Chaucer. The vulgar youm is an old provincial form, and exemplifies the same tendency.viz. , to emphasize an unemphatic termination, where emphasis is required. (Prepositions in Adjective Phrases). 436 A Phrase consisting of a Preposition between two Nouns (especially when the former Noun is pre- ceded by " the " or " a ") often has the force of an Adjective, the Eelative being implied, eg. — (1) "A bird {that is) in the hand is worth two {that are) in the bush." Consequently, it is sometimes difficult to tell whether the Preposition is thus used to connect two Nouns, or to connect a Verb with an Adverbial phrase ; e.g. " Send back the horse from the Red Dragon" may mean — (1) " Send back the-horse-from-the- Red- Dragon," i.e., "the horse that has come from the Red Dragon," or : (2) (l Send-back the horse from-the- Red-Dragon," i.e. t "send back from the Red Dragon my horse." In the same way there is an ambiguity in — (3) "Did you see my agents at- Portsmouth ? " (4) " Did you see my agents at Portsmouth?" Par. 437, 438] ADJECTIVE PHRASES. 251 437 " Of." When a name is given to a place, the name being regarded as the name of a person, and the town, land, castle, &c, as belonging to the person, the Preposition "of" was used in early times to denote the relation between the two : — (1) " The city of London " ; " the isle of Wight " ; "river of Cydnus " (Shakespeare) ; " the lake of Gennesareth." Hence, in the same way, " of n is used after other words denoting a class, to prepare the way for the particular uame of the individual : — (2) "The mouth of May" ; "the hour of three"; "the feast of Tabernacles"; "the year of Jubilee" ; "the name of George"; "the cry of 'breakers ! ' " ; " the play of 'Hamlet'" ; " the art of medicine "; " the element of fire " ; " the virtue of resentment." 438 It is not so easy to explain — (3) " He is a jewel- of -a man." (4) " This scarnp-of-a coachman." Probably " of " is here partitive, as in " What sort, kind, of man is he 1 " The " man " is the class ; the " sort " or " kind " is a part of the class, and therefore is naturally followed by the partitive " of." The answer to this question will necessarily be some part of the class " man : " he is " a good sort, bad sort, rascally sort, precious sort, of man ; " hence, for shortness, "He is a rascal, or jewel, of man." 252 CO-ORDINATE [Par. 439, AAO But, owing to the Semi-Adverbial use of " What," " What sort," the Indefinite Adjective "a" is in- serted before "man" (see Par. 219), so that the notion of class is lost, and " a man " appears to denote an individual, and " what sort of," " a jewel of," &c, come to be regarded as Compound Semi- Adverbial Adjectives. 439 The use of " of " after " whole," " all " :— (5) " The whole-of the day ;" "alio/ us," — may be accounted for as a natural extension of, and (II) confusion with, similar expressions, e.g. "half, quarter, &c, of the day; ; ' "ten, eleven, almost all, &c, of us." SYNTAX OF SENTENCES. Co-ordinate Clauses. 440 " And " sometimes joins a sentence to a previous sentence implied but not expressed. It is often used in passionate exclamations : — (1) " (Is it true ?) And will you then desert me ? '" "And" sometimes comes between an Adverb repeated twice, the repetition having the force of emphasis :* — (1 ) " More and more ; " *' worse and worse." » See Par. 420. Pai-. 441, 442 J CONJUNCTIONS. 253 441 Remembering that " by " means " near " of space, but also may mean " near " of time, we can under- stand — (2) "By and by," i.e. "near, very near (of time)," or, ' ' very soon. " l An Adverb, when introduced emphatically, might be emphasized by the repetition of the Verb and Object with " and " : "I must see him, and see him quickly." Instead of this, " that " was often in early times substituted for the previous phrase (just as " it " is a preparatory substitute for a sen- tence or phrase ; see Par. 151) : — (1) " I must see him, and that quickly." Relatives used Co-ordinately. 442 " What " is sometimes used instead of " both " and " and" : — (1) " What with his persuasive eloquence, and wha with the presence of his armed followers, he soon overcame all opposition." This might naturally be explained as a con- densation of "Reckoning what he effected with," &c. ; but, more probably, "what" is to be treated i Both "by and by" and "presently" (owing to the natural habit of exaggerating one's readiness) have come to mean much less than they once meant. '* Presently " used to mean " at once. " 254 CONJUNCTIONS. [Par. 443, as a kind of Noun meaning "part, ,; and used Adverbially, like " partly." Compare " some-ivhat." " What " had come, very early, to be -used as a Noun, so that men could say, not only " some-what" but also "a little what." * 443 " Whether * is sometimes used with " or," not to introduce an indirect question, but (like " what " above) as a Co-ordinate Conjunction, to mean " both ...and;" " either... or " :— (1) "The landlord reserves all game, whether birds or ground-game. " The full construction would be " whether it be ; " but " whether " has so completely assimilated itself to " either in such expressions that it seems best to parse " whether " as used for " either," and " birds " as Object, in Apposition to " game." Subordinate Clauses. Condensed Clauses. 444 1. Some Conjunctions are formed from Preposi- tions or Adverbs followed by " that," e.g. " after (that)," " before {that)" " now (that)." In such cases " that " is often omitted : 2 — (1) " Now (that) we have arrived," But — t STiakespearian Grammar, page 5. Compare in Latin "quum — turn," "qua— qua." 2 In Shakespeare, "that" is used after "when," "while," "whe- ther," " because," " if ;" and also after the Prepositions in, for. Par. 445, 446] CONDENSED CLAUSES. 255 (2) " On the day that thou eatest thereof thou shalt surely die." (3) " The instant (that) he saw me, he retired." 445 2. Conjunctions used with Participles : see Par. 406. Conjunctions are also used with. Adjectives and Nouns, the Verb being omitted : — (1) " This news, if (it he) true, will alter our plans." (2) " Though (he was) honest, he was not trusted." (3) "However thoughtless (he may be), he is at least not deliberately mischievous." (4) "Although (he is) a rascal, yet he's a very amusing rascal." In parsing Conjunctions so used, the Verb should oe supplied. 446 3. " As " is used with Nouns, (1) sometimes for as being," i.e. " since he is ; " (2) sometimes it seems loosely used for " like," " in the character of":— (1) "As (being) a foreigner, he claims our special consideration." (2) "As (in the character of) an author, he did not succeed. " (3) " They regarded him as (in me character of, like) an adventurer." Such sentences can generally be reduced to their regular construction by bearing in mind the radical 256 CONJUNCTIONS. [Par. 447, 448 meaning of " as," viz. " in that way "or " in which way," or, as here, " in the way in which " : — (1) In full, " He claims our special consi deration in the way in which a foreigner (would naturally claim it)." (2) In full, "He did not succeed in the way in which an author (would be said to succeed)." (3) In full, " They regarded him in the way in which (they would regard) an adventurer. " With " possible," after Conjunctions, ellipses are very common : — (1) " Come as soon as (it is) possible." (2) " Come if (it be) possible." 447 " That " sometimes implies a principal Verb before it in passionate exclamations : — (1) " Oh, (I would) that I had wings like a dove ! " (2) " (To think) That it should come to this ! " Object Clauses. 448 "That" (the Conjunction) often introduces a Clause as the Object of a Compound Transitive Verb implied J in a previous sentence. For example, " I am sure," " I had no notion," " I have some hope," " I have evidence," all suggest the question r Compare the use of the Infinitive after the implied Transitive Verb Par. 392. Par. 449, 450] OBJECT CLAUSES. 257 " Of what ? " after them. " That " is here equivalent to " of the fact that." Distinguish the above use of " that " from its use when introducing a Clause in Apposition to a previous Noun, as in the following Examples : — (1) "They made an agreement that they would share equally." (2) "The axiom, that a whole is greater than its part, seems so true that its statement seems, at first sight, unnecessary." 449 On the other hand, " that " seems used for " for tJiat" "in that," "because," 1 after Verbs of rejoic- ing, sorrowing : — (1) : ' I am sorry that {i.e. because) he failed." Also, in parentheses after " not " : — (2) "I must go now, not that {i.e. because) I want to go, but I have an engagement." In— (1) " Did you see John I* " Not that I recollect—" " that " is a Eelative Pronoun, and the Antecedent must be supplied from the previous sentence : " not I (a seeing) that I recollect." 450 " But that," in its radical meaning, was " except that ;" hence " barring," " to the contrary of." This explains — (1) "I cannot be persuaded hut that (to the contrary of the belief that) he meant mischief." * Compare Latin "quod." S 451 258 OBJECT CLAUSES. [Par. 451, 452 (2) "We did not know but that (to the contrary of the knowledge that) he might come." Here " but " was originally a Preposition having for its Object the sentence following it. Sometimes " what " is used for " that " : — . (3) "Not but what he meant mischief," i.e. "I do not admit, however, anything to the contrary of his meaning to do mischief." This may possibly be a confusion arising from the gram- matical constructions : — (4) " He says nothing but what is true." (5) "Not a man (was there) but what cried shame." (6) " Not a tree but what has suffered from the frost." From these uses, " not but what " perhaps came to be used ungrammatically to mean "without any exception," "with- out any doubt ; " but I have been unable to trace this con- struction. Yet it seems to be illustrated by the change from the Relative "that" in " For all that you did," to the Con- junctive "that" in "For all that you tried so hard." See Par. 475. 452 In time the "that" was omitted for brevity; and then " but " (though really a Preposition with the meaning of " prevention ") appeared to be an ordi- nary Cod junction : — (6) " Not but there are who merit other palms." — Pope. which originally would have meant, "I do not say anything but {i.e. to the contrary) that there are," &c, but it gradually came to mean " I deny it Par. 453, 454] "BUT THAT." 259 not; but, so far from denying, I admit that there are," &c. (7) " Never dream but (i.e. anything but, except, or to prevent that) ill must come of ill." 1 — Shelley. (8) "Who knows, but (anything but, except, or to prevent that) he'll come yet ? " 453 Hence, after " doubt not," " but " came to be used regularly with its ordinary adversative force, so that there is no difference between — (9) " Doubt not that God will help you," and (10) " Doubt not, but God will help you." (11) "It cannot be denied but, or that, he is a rascal." The curious inconsistencies of idiom are illus- trated by comparing — (1) "He is all but perfect," and (2) " He is anything but wise." In (1) the meaning is " He is altogether (perfect)," "all except (being absolutely) perfect;" 2 in (2) the meaning is "He is anything except wise." 454 The Prepositions "of" and " about " are (rarely) used before Object-sentences : — (1) " He tells us a good deal about why he travelled, but nothing of how he travelled." The Adverb " where " is not only used as a Noun 1 Matzner. 2 Compare '6 lufig-e \ lufig-on SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Past. Sing. Plural. 2. \ luf-o-de \ luf-o-don IMPERATIVE MOOD. Sing. 2. luf-a Plural. 2. lafi-ath 318 THE MODERN PERIOD. [Par. 584 584 "TO ACTIVE Simple or Indefinite. Incomplete or Continuous. Infinitive (to) help (to be) helping Parti helping helping Indicative Present V Past I Future / (he) helps (he) helped (he) is helping (he) was helping {Ml helping Obsolescent Sub Present (he) help (he) be helping Antecedent Con Present Past ( helps _ helped 2 J=i -i should help ^ ' "were to help ( is helping .— 1 were helping A J should be j~ 1 helping 1 were to be k helping * This Verb has been chosen because (if it is to be learned by heart, may oblige the pupil to pronounce distinctly. 2 Same as Indicative. 3 Several of these forms are not used. And there is not the least symmetry with which Tenses might be constructed with the aid of Par. 584] THE REGULAR VERB. 319 HELP." 1 VOICE. Complete. Complete, Post-Continuous. Mood. (to) have helped CIPLES. having helped Mood. (he) has helped (he) had helped !?;!£" j^ve helped junctive Mood. (he) have helped ditional Mood. : i r has helped I had helped 2 should have helped 2 -were to have v. helped (to) have been helping having been helping (he) has been helping (he) had been helping (iTshall | have been hel P in S (he) have been helping t -! r has been helping I had been helping 2 should have been helping were to have been helping which is quite unnecessary) the difficulty of pronouncing " helped " use in committing them to memory. But it is useful to see the logical the Auxiliary Verbs. 320 THE MODERN PERIOD. [Par. 584 ACTIVE Simple or Indefinite. Incomplete or Continuous. 1 ! Consequent Con Present 1 Past (he) will | . , (1) shall j nel P (he) would j , , (I) should P elp (he) would \ be help- (I) should / ing Mood of Present Past £ ( may help J5 1 might help 'ST ( may be ~ 5 helping « J might be g> ( helping Impera help be helping i Same as The Passive Voice is easily formed from the Verb " to be," by placing after it the Passive Participle " helped." It has no pretensions to be called a Passive " Voice," and would not have been called so but for a desire to ape the terras of Latin Grammar. The Latin Passive Voice has distinctive Inflections, and deserves its name. The English " Voice" is a mere imposture. Par. 585] THE REGULAR VERB. 321 VOICE. Complete. ditional Mood. Purpose. "cT ( may have 2 ) hel P ed j| 1 might have g, ( helped tive Mood. have helped Complete, Post-Conditional. (he) would ) have been help (1) should j ing been may have helping might have been helping Future Indicative. The Infinitive. The results of the confusion between the Noun Infinitive, the Gerundial Infinitive, the Active Par- ticiple, and the Verbal Noun, are so important in their influence on modern English that they deserve special mention. The old forms of the Infinitive mentioned in Par. 551 had been modified as fol- lows : — Y 322 INFINITIVE, GERUND. [Par. 586, 587 A.D. Noun Infinitive. Gerund, or Infinitive of Purpose. Active Participle. Verbal Noun. —1100 -an (to), anne (-enne) -ende -ting —1250 -en, -e (to), -ene, -en, -e -inde -yng —1350 (to), -e (to), -en, -e -inde. rarely -inge -yng, -ing —1500 (to), -e sometimes omitted usually -ing(e) -yng, -ing -1600 (to) -ing 586 The law of these changes is not difficult to per- ceive. (1) The Noun Infinitive has become con- fused with the Gerundial Infinitive ; (2) the Active Participle with the Verbal Noun. In both cases there has been a compromise: (1) the Noun In- finitive has dragged down the Verbal to its own Inflectionless state, but it has also accepted the " to " from the Gerund ; (2) the Active Participle has accepted the termination of the Verbal Noun, but has communicated to the Verbal Noun, as will be seen below, some of its own syntactical pecu- liarities. 587 While these processes of assimilation were going on, various experimental confusions were introduced and rejected : — Par. 588,589] PARTICIPLE, VERBAL. 323 1. The Participle (1) in the twelfth century, in the form -Tide, (2) in the fourteenth century, in the form -inge, in- vaded the province of the Gerundive; and we find "for to witiende," i.e. "to guard;" "to v/itinge," i.e. "to wit;" "the night that is to eomyng" i.e. "to come ;" "to ber- inge," i.e. (ready) to bear." 1 But in the fifteenth and following centuries these forms died out. 2. In the latter part of the fifteenth century we find an attempt, on the part of the form in -ing, to appropriate the province of the Noun Infinitive : " Our lord will jenyng (= yeven) hym pardon." But this is both late and ex- ceptional. 1 588 -But * ne g rea * an( i important change was the assimilation of the syntax of the Verbal Noun to the syntax of the Participle. At first the uses were distinct : — Participle. " He is huntmcfc." 2 " Lesende ane finger." Verbal. He went on hunting e." 2 Up peyn of losing of finger." 589 While this distinction was preserved, the Verbal Noun was not used (according to Dr. Morris) after " is " or " was," except in Passive signification : — "The churche was in byldynge;" "As this was a (i.e. in, on, or an) doyng." * Morris's Historical Outlines, page 177. 2 So also " He fell on sleepinge," but not " he was on huntinge," ib. p. 177. "Was" and "is" were followed by the Active Participle. But the Active Participle is said to be very rare between 1150 — 1250 a.d., only occurring twenty-two times in the whole of the earlier text of Layamon, and only eleven times in the later. See Par. 24, Disserta- tion on the English Verb, by Emil Schwerdtfeger, Holt and Co., New York. T 2 324 INFINITIVE, GERUND. [Par. 590-593 But in course of time the two usages became confused. 590 1. Hence, Ben Jonson, while carefully selecting the (then) archaic termination in -and, with the intention of representing the old Participle, places "of" after it, just as though it were a Verbal Noun : — " With all the barJcand parish-tikes set at her,* "While I sat whyrland of my brazen spindle. " Sad Shepherdess, i. 2 ad fin. 591 2. On the other hand, Shakespeare, while in- serting -a, as though he were using the Verbal Xoun nevertheless omits " of," using the Verbal just like the Active Participle, even after " is " and " was " in Active signification : — " He's a-birding ; " " When green geese are a-breed- ing." " The slave that was a-hanging thee." ' 592 3. Again, sometimes the "of" is inserted, but the a- omitted : — u The shepherd blowing of his nails." 593 4. Again, sometimes both -a and " of " are x See Schmidt's admirable Shakespeare Lexicon for these and many other instances. Par. 694, 595] PARTICIPLE, VERBAL. 325 omitted, but " the " is inserted, indicating the Noun nature of the word : — " Nothing in his life Became him like the leaving it. " 594 5. Further, to such an extent had the Verbal Noun encroached under the Participial mask, that we not only have the legitimate uses " a riding- whip," " a walking -stick" but also in Shakespeare and Bacon : — "A trembling contribution," i.e. "a contribution that has to do with trembling. " "The loading side," i.e. "the side that has to do with loading." These and other idioms give the impression that the Active Participle may be Passively used, e.g. that "loading" is put for " laden ; " and perhaps this in part explains the apparent use of " seeing " for " it being seen ; " " pro- viding" for "it being provided;" "considering" for "it being considered." 595 The modern result of all these confusions is this : our modern Participle often represents a latent Verbal Noun and an omitted Preposition, and is therefore used where, in strictness, a Participle could not be used : — (1) "I shall go (a-) fishing." (2) " The kettle is (a-) boiling." (3) (Perhaps) "I saw him (a-) walking." 326 MODERN PARTICIPLE. [Par, 595 (4) "Speaking roughly, there were about a hundred." "In speaking," or "it being spoken," or "to speak." (5) ' ' (On) walking on, you will see the river." It is not at all unlikely that in (3) and (4) there are also traces of some confusion with the Infinitive, such ae is mentioned in Pars. 67, 68, Note 388. Dr. Morris gives instances of "he fell to, of, on, a fight- ing," which shew the diversity of the Prepositions that may be supplied before the Verbal. INDEX. (For an Explanation of Grammatical Terms, see the Glossary, page xvii.) Accuse, "I accuse him of trea- son," 368. Active (Form), 59—62. Addison, his mistake about "who " and " that," 567, Note. Adjectives, uses and Inflec- tions of, 41 — 44. sometimes used as Sup- plements," 149. inflected in Chaucer's time, 43, 557. degrees of comparison, 43. used for Adverb, 113, note, 522. used Participially after Nouns, 149. after Nouns in poetry, 515. •with implied Nouns, 412. (Clauses) with Relative Pronouns, 497—500. (Phrases) with Infinitive, A (adj.), "a ten furlongs," 213, 427. " a dozen sheep," " a little pudding," &c, 193. "many a," "what a," 218. " a jewel of a, what sort of a, man," 438. "a Croesus," 429. "we are all of a mind," 429. A-, Prefix to Verbal Nouns, 591. from " on," 375. " «-fishing," "a-foot," &c, 127. " a-year," 428. " «-row " for " in a row," 375, note. " eightpence a-pound," " a-piece," 343. Ablative (Absolute), imitated by Milton, 408. -able, Suffix, 285. About, "he tells us nothing about how he travelled," 454. Absolute, Subject used abso- lutely, 135. " the thickest of the fray," 431. " heir apparent," 431. Adverbs, 413—20. uses and Inflections of, 45—54. Interrogative, how used, 49. The references are in all cases to the Paragraphs, and not to the pages. 328 INDEX. Adverbs, repeated, 420. used as Nouns, 382, 454. in -e, old form, 413, 522. used like Adjectives with Nouns, 419. in -e, 557. Adjectives used as, 562. Adverbial Clauses, 455 — 8. Phrases, 340-420. Phrases, omit Preposi- tions, 131. Phrases, containing In- finitive, 98. Against, a Conjunction, 349. Ago, " five days ago," 340. Agreement of Verb with Noun, 78, 79. not true of the Impera- tive Mood, 91. apparently violated, 86. violated alter " nor," 228, 334. violated in use of "none," 227 A-ground, 348, 375. Albeit, 476. Almost, " my almost drunken- ness of heart," 419. All, "all of us," 199, 215, 365. "for all that," = " though," 475. All, "all-it," like "^though," 476. Analysis, scheme of, 265. of Sentences, 239—265. meaning of, 253. Analytical structure of language, 556. And, "and will you leave me?" 440. "and that, quickly," 441. "by and by," 441 ■ant and -ent % by, ,288. Antecedent, in Conditional sen- tence, 167. Antecedent (of Relative), omitted, 25. implied in Possessive Adj . , 497. Apostrophe, when inserted and omitted, 37. in 'em, 569, Note 4. Apposition, 137 — 143. with implied Noun, 143. Apposition, with Ind. Obj. and Possess. -Case, rare, 141, 142. Appositional verbs, 147 — 150. Archaisms, Poetical, 502 — 512. Are, origin of, 577. As, radical meaning of, 203. used for Rel. Pron., 205. vulgar use of, 207. parenthetical use of, 208. redundant, 209. for "that" (Conj.), 480. in condensed clauses, 446. "so as" = "provided that," 461. in Early English, 487. " as far as I know," 483. " as — so " = " both — and," 484. "as good as" but "not so good as," 483. for " as if," 486. "as yet ;" "as then," 487. "as for;" "as to," 364, 489. " this will serve as ink," 209. "as if," "as though," 211. "Thus is as fine a horse as I have seen," 493. £3T The references are in all cases to the Paragraphs, and not to the pages. INDEX. 329 As, "he was so kind as to promise," 479. provincial, "he says he'll come as to-morrow, "488. " inasmuch as," 458. '•'as far as," &c, 53. " young as I am," 464. " as being," 407. Ascendant, used by Pope as Adj., 228. Ask," he asked me a question," 119. " I was asked three ques- tions," 122. 1 ' he was asked to explain," 103, 105. Asleep, 348. At, 350-353. difference between at and "in," 353, 354. " at three years old," 342. Auxiliary (Verbs) take the old Infinitive, 93—96. used Conditionally, 170. used Indirectly, 174. used in Past Tense after a Past Tense, 180, 181. B Be, an Appositional Verb, or Verb of Identity, 147— 150. takes a " Supplement," 148. old form of, conjugated, 573-576. in the Indicative, 578 — 579. Subjunctive modern, 168, note. omitted"woe to the man," 519. Beest, "if thou beest," 578. Ben Jonson used Participle in — a7Kibefore"of,"590. Better, origin of, 43. "you had better" 386. " better wait a while," 386. Bin, origin of, 580. Blue, "the breezy blue," 529. Brackets, when used, 315. But (Preposition), 380—1. Radical meaning and uses of, 381. " 'twas none but he," 380. transition to adversative use, 452. But, (Conjunction) put for "that not," 202. *' but for," 469. =' ' that not," rarely as object, 498. "we did not know but that," 450. "not but tchat" 451. "not but there are, &c," 452. " it cannot be denied but," 453. "it never rains but it pours," 467. " I'll be hanged but," &c. 467. _ " there is no one but hates ' me," 468. " No sooner — but," 456. "I had scarcely gone a mile, but," 456. "he is all but perfect," " anything but," 453, " but for me," 363. But that, "but that he has a family," 468. " I cannot be persuaded but that," 450. g3T The references are in all eases to the Paragraphs, and not to the pages. 330 INDEX. By, 355—357. "little 6.y little," 356. " ty himself," 357. " By and by," 420. By and by, change in meaning of, 441, Note. Came, "It came to pass," 392. Cardinal (Numbers), see Glossary. Cases, 32. meaning of term, 33. Causative (Verbs), ''lay," "fell,' "raise," " set," &c, 76. . Caxton, his romarks on the English of his time, 82. — ce, se, "licence," "li- cense," 290. Charge, ** I am given in charge," 391. Celtic terms, 533, 541, 542. Clause, defined, 239. Clauses, Subordinate, 444 — 500. Condensed, 444—447. Object, 448—454. Adverbial, 455—458. Conditional, 459—471. Concessional, 472—482. Comparative, 483. (Adjective) with Relative Pronouns, 497—500. Clear, " Clear of debt," 366. Collective (Noun) with Plur. and Sing. Verb, 337, 338. Cognate (object), 125. Colon, 309. Come, " he is come," 62. Comma, 294. general rules for, 294 — 308. Complementary (Infinitive), 97 (Infinitive) as Subject, 106, 107. Complete the Complete "State" of an action, 72. Complex (Sentence), 250. Compound (Sentence), 247. Concessional (Clauses), 472 — 482. Condensed (Clauses), 444 — 4^7. Conditional (Mood), 163—180. anomalies of, explained, 231—238. difference between Mood in Antecedent and Con- sequently, 231—233. with » should," 236. (Clauses), 459-471. Conjunctions, 52. used with Participles, 407. Co-ordinate, 246, note. Sub-ordinate, 249. Considering, Participial Pre- position, 409. Could, " I could have," 403. Course, " Of course" 367. Courtesy, discards " thou," 569. substitutes " will " for "shall," 87. D. Danish influence on Inflec- tions, 534, 543, 552. Dare, with and without " to," 96, note. Dash, used as stop, 314. tSF The references are in all cases to the Paragraphs, and not to the pages. INDEX. 331 Dative, Early English, 126, 128. "him " used, for Accusa- tive, 554. Plural in -um supplanted, 554. Dependent, oxAdependant, 288. Do, original meaning of, 386. " how do you do," 386. "do what I may," 474. Done, "this done, they de- parted," 135. Doors, "in doors," 196, 341. Doubt, "doubt not but," or " not that ," 453. Dozen, "a dozen sheep," 193. Distance, * ' it was a short dis- tance off," 340. Drier, spelling of, 268. E. -e final dropped and retained before affixes, 270. what it represented, 557. used for -en, e.g. "bro- ke(n)," 558 Each, not with Plural Verb, 224. ' ' They hated each other," 223. Each other, "each other sheds," 530. -ede, -eed, spelling of, ex- plained, 283. Either, "either a or b was," not ' ' were," 228. - ive, affix spelling of, 283. -el, Verbs ending in -el, double I in Pres. Participle. Ellipses, see As, Than, That, &c. 'em, represents not them, but hem, 569, note 4. -en, Participial Adjectives in, 558. Infinitive termination, 94 —96, 585, 586. -ene, enne, Gerundive termi- nation, 585, 586. Enlargement, of Subject or Object, 263. English, Periods of, 533—595. recognized as the Nation- al language, 536. Caxton's remarks on ,82. Enough, 216. " kind enough to," 397. Epithet, used for thing de- noted, 529. -er, suffix for Comparative, 43. Verbs ending in -er ac- cented, double r in Pres. Part., 277. Ever, "he was ever so ill," 473. Every, "every hundred years," 225. Exclamation, note of, 313. Extension (of Predicate), 263. Extent, Adverbial Phrases of, 340. F. Feel, followed by Passive Par ticiple, 260, Note. Few, "a, few men," 217. Foot, "bound hand and foot," 128. For, 358-364. "for a year," "for once," 362. "for my part," 364 "for shame ! " 359. The references are in all cases to the Paragraphs, and not to the pages. 332 INDEX. For, "for all," &c. 360. "for all that" = " though," 475. For to, with Infinitive, 402. ' ' what went ye out for to see?" 402. Fortnight, derivation of, 214. Free, " 1 had rather starve free," 113, Note. French, influence of on posi- tion of Adjectives, 431. terms, 535, 556. debased, 535. later influence of, 539, 549, 565. idiom combined with English, 433. Fresh and fresh, 420. Genders, none in Modern Eng- lish, 37, Note, confused, 554. Genitive, see Possessive, also the Glossary, p. xxii. Give, "1 was given to under- stand"390. Gerundial Infinitive, changes in, 554, 585, 536. " Governing" an Object, 84. Grow, "I grew tall," 260, Note. H Had, " you had better," 386. Half, "half the country," 213. Hand, "bound hand and foot," 128. Have, " I liave caught," a Present Tense, 73. " I hoped to have, could have, succeeded," 403. M You might have helped me," 177. " I must haveyou attend, " 386. He, "He of Tusculum," 511. Hear, " I heard her sing," 94—96. Help, " More than I can help," 104, Note. Her, old form of, 569. Him, old form of, 569. for " himself," i.e. "the same him," 508, 569. Himself, "by himself," 357, 569. Home, ' ' go home : " some- times Adverb in E.E., 127. Honour, or " honor," 284. "I have the honour to inform you, " 395. Hope, • ' I hoped to have suc- ceeded," 403. How, ' ' I know not how to begin," 398. derivation of, 463, Note. However, derivation of, 474. /, old form of, 569. "/wis," 561. -ible, suffix, 280. Identity, Verbs of, 147—150. -ieve, affix, spelling of, 282. If, influence of on Conditional forms, 233. £ST The references are in all cases to the Paragraphs, and not to the pages. INDEX. 333 If, of admitted facts, 459. " if true," 445. Imperative (Mood), defmed,70. always in Second Person, 88. Passive, 89. generally omits Subject, 90. or Subjunctive, doubtful, 474. used to express condition, 462. Impersonal (Verbs), 328. In and "at," difference be- tween, 353, 354. Inasmuch as, 458. Incomplete, State of action, 72. Indefinite (Article), see Glos- sary, Article and Inde- finite. state of action, 72. Indicative (Mood) defined, 70. used illogically, 80. even after " hope," " fear," &c. 184, Note. after "if," illogical, 189. Indirect Object, 117—120. after Passive Verb, 122. "retained," 123. rarely admits " apposi- tion," 141. Infinitive (Mood), 92—113, 386—403. defined, 70. Tenses of, 92. preceded by " to," 390— 401. without "to," 93—96. ordinary, in -ing, very rare, 587. after Adjectives, 108, 393. Adjectival use of, ex- plained, 109. Infinitive, changes in Inflec- tion, 551—559. changes table of, 585 — 586. " Complete " after Verbs of hoping, &c, 403. as Noun, Adverb, Adjec- tive, 98—100. after Nouns, 394, 395. Exclamatory, 111. in exclamations, 400. Parenthetical, 110, 401. See " to " for examples. Inflections, see Noun, Verb,kc. confused, 553./ •ing represents -ung, -inde, -enne, and perhaps -en, 585-588. Intend, "I intended to have come," 403. Interrogation, note of, 312. Interrogative, the old, without "do," 507. used to express condition, 463. (Adverbs) used Relatively, &c. 49. (Subjunctive), 472—474. " Do what I may," 474. (Pronoun) supplants Rela- tive, 559, 567. Intransitive (Verbs), 55 — 58. Verbs followed by " Sup- plements," 147 — 149. Irregularities, how explained, 191—199. bred by custom, 213, Note. of words, 195—197. in poetry, 513 — 516. -ise or -ize, 289. It, old form of, 569. as Antecedent, 331. as Antecedent, "who was it that you saw ? " 158. £JT The references are in all cases to the Paragraphs, and not to the pages. 334 INDEX. It, as Antecedent, "it is you that say so," 160. preparatory, 329. "it was then that," &c, 162, 330. "it is said that he is com- ing," 151. " it will soon be Novem- ber," 328. " it pities me," 328. "it thinks " for "it seems," 323. -ize or -ise, 289. -it, Verbs in -it accented double t in Pres. Part. , 277. K. Know, "he is known to honest," 107. Latin, words derived from, 533-548. Lay, principal parts of, 76. causative of "lie," 76. Layamon, texts compared, 555. Present Participle rare in, 588, Note. Less than, "thy less-than wo- man's hand," 491. Lest, derivation of, 482. followed by " should " in- stead of "might," 166. Let, " let me see," 88. " a house to let" 109. Lie, principal parts of, 76. connected with "lay," 76. Like, "I like a rascal to be punished," 97. Little, " by little and little," 191, Note, 356. -II, modified before affixes, 275. Lose, "this will lose you your friends," 117. Make, " they made him king," 148. Many, " many a," 218. May, double meaning of, 170, 175-6. Methinks, 328. MigM, after " that ; " " should," after "lest," 166. "he might have helped me," 172. " a king, who might keep us in order," 185, Note, different meanings of, 175-6. Milton, his dictum on poetry, 501, Note, anomalies in, 568. "than whom," 346. use of Ablative Absolute, 408. Mine, 197, 569. Moods, see Indicative, &c, 70. More, used as a Noun. 1 ' he more than hesitated," 491. "some more pudding," 219. " asking for more," 221. My, old form of, 554, 569. N. -n final, dropped in Pas- sive Participles, 554, 558. £5T The references are in all cases to the Paragraphs, and not to the pages. INDEX. 335 -»t, dropped in min, and thin, 554, 569. dropped in Infinitives, 544. Nam, for " am not," 381. Nathless, 230. Naught, 417. National, the " National" Period of the English Language, 535. -ne, the old -ne retained for emphasis in " none," "mine,"&c, 197. Near, derivation of, 197. Needs, " I must needs come," 341. Negative, before "but," 381. Neither — nor, followed by Plural Verb for Sin- gular, 33, 228. Never, ' \ though you were never so ill," 473. "he never sees me that hedoesnot laugh," 455. No, Adverbial, 230. " you are no soldier," 230. "whether he comes or no," 417. "he slept no more," 220. and " none," difference of use," 229—30. Nominative Plurals, changes in, 554. See also Subject, and Glossary. None, for "no," 197, 229. Singular, 227. used as Plural, 227. Adverbial, 229. Nor, "nor yew nor cypress spread," for " spreads," 334, also 33, 228. Norman-French terms, 535, 544. Northern Dialect, 533—583. Not, a contraction for "naught," 417. 11 not but what," 451. "not hut," 452. Notwithstanding, 477. Nouns, Uses and Inflections of, 30—37. Plural Inflections of, 34 — 36. of the Synthetical Period, 569. Noun-object, 81. Noun-phrases, containing In- finitive, 98. Noun-subject, 81. Now, "now ^that) we've come," 444. Now-a-days, 196, 341. Numeral (Adjectives), why Irregular, 193—212. Number, ' ' agreeing in num- ber," 78. 0. Object, 12—20. meaning of, 13. different forms of, 15. "governing an Object," 84. with Verb omitted before "and," 333. (Indirect), see Indirect. Cognate, 125. Adverbial, 127—131. used Absolutely by Mil- ton and Wyckliffe, 408. (Clauses), 448—454. before Verb in Poetry, 514. Of, 365-372. « The references are in all cases to the Paragraphs, and not to the pages. 336 INDEX. Of, after Participial Verbals, 561, 590. "alio/ us," 199. " he is a jewel of a man," 438. " he tells us nothing 1 of how he travelled," 454. " that ugly face of his," 432. "the city of London;" " the cry of ' breakers,' " 437. "of a. child," 365. " of course," 367. " light of foot," 369. "to eat of the crumbs," 372. "blowing of his nails," 592. Of, emphatic form of "of," 348. Old, "ten years old," 129. "at three years old," 342. Olden, 43. On, 373, 375. " on my honour;" "on purpose," 374. abbreviated to "a," 375. Once, derivation of, 196. " at once," 196. One, various uses of, 226. "their young ones," 226. One, "one . . . another," 385. Only, anomalous use of, 45. Or, "either A or B was," not "were" 228. -or, -our, spelling of, 284. Other, " no oilier than," 495. " somehow or other," 416. " they hated each other" 223, 385, 530. , ' ' vou ought not (to) walk," 561, 93. Our, old form of, 569. Ours, 435. Ourselves, derivation of, 569. Over, " over and. over," 420. P. Paint, " I painted my house white," 149. Parsing, scheme of, 316 — 325. Participles, 63—69. have no tenses, 261. imply (1) Adverbial, (2) Adjectival Phrases, 261. Participle Active, table of changes in, 585, 586. followed by "of," 590. modern results of old confusions, 595. confused with Gerundial Infinitive, 554. in inge, 587, 556, 558. rare in Layamon, 588. " in consequence o* ^e king saying this," 40*. Participle Passive,65, 404, 412. in -en, -e, 558. used as Gerundive, 405. with implied Noun, 411 — 412. with Adverbial Subject, 135. with Conjunctions, 406 — 407. used Absolutely with Sub- ject, 408. as Preposition, 409. 404, 412. Passive (Form), 59—62. (Voice), an imposture, 584. Verbs, followed by Ob- jects and "Supple- ments," 147—149. The references are in all oases to the Paragraphs, and not to the pages. INDEX. 337 Periods, of the English lan- guage, 533 — 595. Person, explanation of term, 79. agreement " in Person," 78. Personal endings in Past Tense of Strong Verbs, 581. Personal Pronouns, 38, 569. see him, her, &c. Phrase, defined, 239. Noun Phrases," 240. Adjective Phrases, 241. Adverbial Phrases, 242. Relative, 255. Pity, " it pitied me," 328. Play, " he played me a trick," 119. F J Please, ''please help me," 386. "if you please," 328. Pleasure, "I have the plea- sure to inform you," 395. Plural, Inflections of Nouns, 34—36. (Verbs) with Singular Nouns, 86, 336, 338, 339. Poetry and Prose, difference between, 500. archaic, irregular, terse, 500. Pope, ungrammatical, 530, 338, Note. "than 'em all," 346. Position (of words) irregular in poetry, 513—516. Possessive Inflection, 37. rarely admits Apposi- tion ; "William the' Con- queror's character," 142. Possessive (Adjective) irre- gularly used, 432—435 "that ugly face of his," 433. implies Antecedent of Re- lative, 497. Predicate, 263. Prefixes, see a- above. alter spelling, 275. Prepositions, 50 — 51, 349 — 383. original meanings of, . 347. derived meanings of, 348. omitted, 127—131. in Adjective Phrases, ambiguous, 436. with Adverbs as Objects, 382—383. Objects omitted, 384. parts of Compound Verbs, 384. followed by "that," be- come Conjunctions, 444. Present, used for Future, 189. used indifferently with Future by Pope, 191. Presently, change in meaning of the word, 441, Note. Price, expressed by Adverbial Object, 343. Pronouns, uses and Inflections of, 38. See Personal, Reflexive, Relative, &c. of the Synthetical Period, 569—572. Prose and Poetry, difference between, 501. Punctuation, hints on, 292— 315. Purpose, conjunctions of, 478 —482. gST The references are in all cases to the Paragraphs, and not to the pages. 338 INDEX. R. R^cer, " I had rather," 386. Reduplication, of Inflections, 196—197. Reflexive (Pronoun), 569. omitted in Poetry, 508. Rejoice, "I rejoiced to see him," 392. Relative Pronoun, old form of, 570. changes in, 572. how to parse, 21 — 24. omitted, 26. Antecedent omitted, 25. Antecedent implied, 497. once Interrogative, 27. before Prepositions, 51. omitted, as Subject, in poetry, 520. implied beforePrepositions in Adjective phrases, 436. supplanted by Interroga- tive, 559, 567. "the oldest man that I know," 497. " there goes a pair that only spoil one another," 338. difference between "who" and "that," 567, Note. Phrases, 255. Retained (object), 123. Result, conjunctions of, 478 — 482. Rivers, "the " inserted before, 424. omitted before, 523. Royal, " blood royal," 431. Rung for " rang," 76, 568. S. •s in "unawares," " nowa- days," 196. in " yours," 197, 434. Sang and " sung," 76, 568. Save," save only he," 471, Note. Say, " say I fail at first," 462. " he is said to be coming," 98. "whom say ye that I am?" 346. -se, -ce, "license," "licence," 290. Scotch, use of " will " for " shall," 170, Note, "it is some late," 222. See, "I saw him shot dozen," 68. " I saw him come," 96. Seeing, irregular use of, 458. Self, Selves, 569. omitted in poetry, 508. Semi-colon, 310, 311. Sentence, defined, 239. Simple, 245. Co-ordinate, 246. Compound, 247. Principal, 248. Subordinate, 249. Complex, 250. Contracted, 252. see Clause. Shakespeare, anomalies in, 561, 562. Sliall and will, distinction be- tween, 87. introduced as Auxiliaries, 551. originally meant "I owe," "I am bound," 177. " John says he slcall help us," 177. "if he shall come," 236, 237. B&" The references are in all cases to the Paragraphs, and not to the pages. INDEX. 339 She, origin of, 569-571. Slwidd, confused use of, 465. after ' ' lest ; " " might " after "that," 167. used in Antecedent, " would" in consequent, 237. different meanings of, 177, 178. " John said he should help me," 178. <£ It is a shame that I should be insulted," 188. " slwuld 1 see him," 233, Note. " he ordered that no frog should croak," 187,Note. "if you should have taken vengeance," 236, Note. Shout, "they shouted ap- plause," 125. Side, "on this side the Tweed," 345. " he stood this side of me," 131. Sideivays, explanation of, 341. Since, derivation of, 457. Singular (Nouns) with Plural Verbs (see Agreement), 86, 337, 338. Smell, "it smells of musk," 367. So, why changed into 'as,' 484. "m as" = " provided that," 461. " he is so," 203. " so as to," 397—204. "the prince (for so he was)," 414. " a minute or so," 415. Some, "some more pudding," 219. " some twenty men," 222. " it is some late," 222. Something, " svmihing good," 430. Sometimes, explanation of, 341. Songster, 197, Note. Sorry, " I was sorry to see it," 393. Sort, "what sort of a man," 438. Spelling, hints on, 266—291. influenced by pronuncia- tion, 267, 271, 273. influenced by earlier or later introduction of words, 36, 283, 284. _ -ster, old Feminine termina- tion, 37, Note, 197. Stops, 292, 293. Strong Verbs, assimilated to Weak Verbs, 581. Subject, 1—11. omitted, 6. position of, 8 — 10. different forms of, 11. with Verb, omitted before "and," 333. Adverbially used with Participle, 135. used with the Infinitive, 400. repeated, 513. placed after Verb, 514. in Parenthesis, 335. Subjunctive (Mood), 163—190. defined, 70. used Indefinitely, 188. quasi - Interrogatively, 472. Tenses of, 189. Anomalies of, explained, 231—238. cf "be," 579. of Purpose, after " pray," "beseech," 167. B&- The references are in all cases to the Paragraphs, and not to the pages. 340 INDEX. Subjunctive (Mood) in Poetry, to express a wish, 504. old form of, 505. in Poetry, after " ere," till, 506. " Do what I may," 472. " Come who may,'' 473. Subordinate Clauses (see Sen- tence), 444-500. Such, "such a," 218. "let such teach others who themselves excel," 486. Suffixes, see -ster, -ible, -en, &c. Sung and sang, 76, 568. Superlatives, how formed, 43. "the oldest man that I know," 497. Supplement, follows " be," "seem," "appear," "appoint," "make," &c, 147—148. sometimes Adjective, 149. Sure, "to be sure," 110, 401. Sword, " stcord in hand," 136. Synthesis, meaning of, 253. T. Talking, " talking of books, here is a book," 410. Teach, Object after, 117. Tell, " to tell you the truth," 110, 401. Tenses (see Present), 71 — 75. Than, explained, 252, 493. " who else than," 496. 14 he more than hesi- tated," 491. " no other titan," 495. " thy less than woman's hand," 491. Than, "than me "for " than I," "than whom," 346. " There is no counsel better than John has given," 493. That (Kel. Pron.), supplanted by " who," 55y, 567. Early English use of, 499. for " as," 206. for "so that," 521. omitted as Subject, 201. omitted after "than, "494. — "on account of which," 499. "the oldest man that I know, 497. "not that I recollect," 449. That (Conj.) for "so that," 478. omitted after "in case," &c, 459. "so that" = provided that, 460. omitted,meaning"when," 444. " on the day that thou eatest thereof," 444. " He never sees me that he does not mock me," 455. "the axiom that," &c, 448. "lam sorry that," 449. " That it should come to this ! " 447. "What were you doing that you were late? 457. "I cannot be persuaded but t/tat," &c , 450. 1 ' But that he has a fa- mily," 468. old form of, 570. The references are in all cases to the Paragraphs, and uotto the pages. INDEX. 341 That (Conj . ) omitted in Poetry, 523. The, 421-429. "the sooner the better," 344, 490, 571. " the leaving it," 593. " during the first and se- cond centuries," 426. "the earth," " the astro- nomer Adams," 421. "the classical Addison," 423. "the Kupert of debate," 424. " the Thames, Chil terns, Levant, Rigi," 424. Thee, "it is thee I fear," 346. Their, old form of, 569. Them, old form of, 569, 570. origin of, 571. spelt 'em, 569, Note 4. Then, "the then world," 419. There, preparatory, "there was once a boy," 151. They, old form of, 569, 570. origin of,571. Thi, a Case of "the" in " the sooner the better," 571. Think, " we thought her fool- ish," 149. ' "where it thinJcshest,"32. Thine, 569. This, "this day three months," 340. Thou, old form of, 569. followed by Verbal In- flection in -e, 581. replaced by "you," 569, Note 5. Though, "though conguered," 407. " as though," 211. Thy, 569. Till, once used of space, 376 Time, Adverbial Phrases of, 340. To, 377—379. used before Infinitives, 554, 556. used irregularly, 561. omitted or inserted, 93 — 96, 386—389. after Intr. Verbs of feel- ings, 392. after Verbs of the senses, 388. after Verbs of asking,105. after " than," 389. " pleasant to see," 108. "he was ordered to come," 107. "water to drink," 110. "willing to help," 104, Note. " to think that he should say so," 111. " to tell yoii the truth ; " " to be sure," 110, 401. " I know not how to, whe- ther to," &c, 398. "I have no object for which to strive," 399. "he was the first to come," 393. "give me your promise to obey," 394. ' ' be kind enough to ex- cuse me," 397. " Where to begin ! " 398. "I call God to witness," 377. "I have the pleasure to inform you," 395. "to all appearance," 378. " he is said to be coming," 98. " nothing to do," 109. The references are in all cases to the Paragraphs, and not to the pages. 342 INDEX. To-day, 379. Transitive (Verbs), 55, 58. U. — urn, Early Dative Inflection, 126, 128. Unawares, 196. Understand, " I was given to understand, 390. — ung, ior-ang in Milton and Pope, e. a. "sung," 76, 568. Unless, derivation of, 466. Upon, 373 — j. " upon my word," 374. Upwards, " uptcards of ten years," '665. Use, " we ttsed to walk," 104, Note. Utopia, More's spelling in, 267. V. Verbs, see Transitive, Strong, Weak, &c. old, conjugated, 573, 583. modern, conjugated, 584. agreement of, see Agree- ment. Negative and Interroga- tive form of, 77, 381. emphatic form of, 77. of seeing, feeling, hearing, &c, 68. of Motion, used Passively, 62. of asking, commanding, &c. , followed by " to," 105. made from Nouns, 532. Plural for Singular, 22 88, 334—339. Verbs, omitted after " if," " though," &c, 445. omitted in poetry, 518, 519. Verbal Noun, 54. confused with Participle, 585—94. counterfeits a Passive Participle, 594. preceded by " a " 591. preceded by "the," 593. used after "went," "fell," &c, but not after " is," "was," ex c opt in Passive sig- nification, 588, 589. Very, " your very looks betray you," 430. Void, "void of," 366. Vowels, assimilated, 553. changed in Plurals of Nouns, 36—553. changed in Strong Verbs. See Glossary, "Strong." W. HVait, he " waited an hour," 131. Was, " If I was you," 168,Note. Wast, 581. Way, " he came the shortest way," 131. Weak Verbs, see Glossary, and 581. Week, month, he, "this day week" 340. Well, as Conjunctional Ad- verb, 418. Were, Subjunctive, 168, note, "if he were to," 189. Were, for " wast," 581. Wert, anomalous, but now correct, 582. SST The references are in all cases to the Paragraphs, and not to the pages. INDEX. 343 What, how used Eelatively, 27-8. used in dependent ques- tions, 28. " what with — what with," 442. "not but tffkat he meant mischief," 451. "wlwt&" 218. When, " when walking," 406. Whence, supplanted by " where from," 383. Where, "from where V 454. " I know not xvhere to begin," 398. Where-to, for whither, 382. Whether, once Interrogative, 463. used as Co-ord. Conjunc- tion, 443. Which, for modern " as " in Shakespeare, 206. "I have no money with which to buy food," 398. " which a," 218. While, " while walking," 406. ( /hither, supplanted by " where-to," 384. Who, how used Relatively, 27. used in dependent ques- tions, 28. three centuries later than " whose " as a Rela- tive, 572. for "he that," 509. Whom, "w/wm say ye that I am? "346. Why, as Conjunctional Ad- verb, 418. derivation of, 463, Note. Will and shall, distinction between, 87. "IrnKVI shall will- ingly," 173. Willing, "willing to wound and yet afraid to strike," 104, note. Wis, " I wis,'" 561. Wit, "to wit" 401. With and with, 420. Without, for " unless," 470. Worth, followed by Object, 129. Would, different meanings of, 177-8. used in Consequent " should " in Antece- dent, 237. ="used to," 179. ' ' O that he would," 185, Note, after " prayed," " be- sought," &c, 167, 185, Note. " I wish he would come," 465. " He thought he would take a walk," 173. Scotch use of for " should," 170, Note. Wyclliffe, 408, 558. Y. — y, changed in passing from Sing, to Plur., 267. Ye, old form of, 569. once only used as Sub- ject, 38. You, substituted for thou, 569, note 5. substituted for ye, 38. Your, old form of, 569. old use for " yours," 435. " this of yours," 434. Yourn, origin of, 435. Yourselves, derivation of, 569. &r xne references are in all cases to the Paragraphs, and not to the pages. WORKS BY THE SAME AUTHOR. Seventeenth Thousand. Small 8vo. 2s. HOW TO TELL THE PARTS OF SPEECH, AN INTRODUCTION TO ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Fourteenth Thousand. Crown 8vo. 4s. 6d. ENGLISH LESSONS FOR ENGLISH PEOPLE. By the Rev. E. A. Abbott, D.D., and Prof. Seeley, M.A. Twenty-Ninth Thousand. Small 8vo. 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