Utlilii I?" I tmhlw "»..,. 274 116. Exercises on exclamation and interrogation 276 116. Parenthesis. — Analepsis.— Apposition 278 117. Exercises on the figures in the preceding lesson 280 118. Hyperbaton. — Anacoluthon.— ^Aposiopesis *........ 281 119. Kepetition and redundancy 282 120. The alliteration 283 121. Correction of faulty metaphorical language »...».... 285 122. Exercises on metaphorical language 287 123. Elementary exercise in original composition 290 124. Various kinds of exercise in original composition 291 125. Change of poetry into prose 292 126. Improving the style of old authors — and abridging modern authors 295 127. Translations and paraphrase 296 128. Sources of illustration 298 129. Additional sources of illustration 298 130. Additional sources of illustration 300 131. Descriptive writing 301 132. Questions suggestive of ideas for description 303 133. Narrative composition 305 134. Personal subjects 809 135. Biography 311 136. Historical composition ; travels ; novels 812 137. Letter-writing. — Rules for it 814 138. Additional rules for letter- writing. — Specimens 315 139. Essays, dissertations, etc 824 140. *' Topics" suggestive of ideas 826 141. *' Topics" suggestive of ideas 827 142. " Topics" suggestive of ideas. . . . . 829 143. *' Topics' ' suggestive of ideas 330 144. *• Topics' * suggestive of ideas ^ 831 1« 10 CONTENTS. Lessow Pack 145. ** Topics" suggestive of ideas 833 146. '* Topics' ' suggestive of ideas 334 147. ** Topics' ' suggestive of ideas 336 148. The oration or discourse 338 149. Aids in argumentative writing 341 150. Aids in argumentative writing 344 151. Aids in argumentative writing 346 152. Aids in argumentative writing 349 153. Reasoning from examples 350 154. Reasoning from analogy, comparison, and contrast 352 155. Reasoning by fables and proverbs 353 156. Descriptive and interrogative reasoning 355 157. Laws of argumentative writing. ... 357 158. Sermon-writing 358 169. The writing of poetry 360 160. Versification 361 161 . Poetical pauses 368 162 Rules for the principal or cassural pause 369 163. Rules for final pauses 371 164. Accents in verse 373 165. Imperfect rhymes 375 166. Blank verse 378 167. Preliminaries to versification 379 168. Preliminaries to versification , 380 169. Versification continued 382 170. Etymological and syntactical figures 385 171 . Poetic language and construction 386 172. Narrative poetry 390 173. Lyric poetry 392 174. Descriptive poetry 393 Subjects for Composition , 395 ELEMENTS OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION. LESSON I. Copy page after page from books, observing the capital tetters, the points used, the marks of quotation, and the spelling of the words, so as to make an accurate copy. Copy passages of poetry, as well as of prose, until the task can be performed easily and with accuracy. Examples. He who cannot bear a joke, should not give one. AVhat is done cannot be undone. In most quarrels there is a fault on both sides. A quarrel may be compared to a spark, which cannot be produced without a flint, as well as a steel; either of them may hammer on wood for- ever, and no fire will follow. Reading furnishes the mind only with materials of knowledge; it is thinking that makes what we read ours. Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed, and some few to be chewed and digested : that is, some books are to be read only in part ; others to be read, but not curiously ; and some few to be read wholly, and with diligence and attention. Nathan said unto David, " Thou art the man." Cherish thy Mother ; brief perchance the time May be, that she will claim the care she gave : Past are her hopes of youth, her harvest prime Of joy on earth ; her friends are in the grave : 12 WRITING FBOM DIOTATIOIT. But for her children, she could lay her head Gladly to rest among her precious dead. O mother mine 1 God grant I ne'er forget, Whatever be my grief, or what my joy, The unmeasured, unextinguishable debt I owe thy love ; but make my sweet employ, Ever, through my remaining days, to be To thee as faithful as thou wert to me. Bethunx. LESSOK II. Write, from dictation^ the previous selections, or others made by the Teacher, until accuracy and readiness shall be acquired. A few additional examples, for this purpose, are subjoined. Examples. Five Minutes. — A number of years ago, it was a custom of the Orthodox churches in Boston (at the request of the chaplain of the State Prison), to furnish about a dozen teachers, who would vol- untarily go to the Prison on Sabbath forenoon to instruct classes of the convicts in a Sabbath-school in the chapel. Hon. Samuel Hubbard was one of those who went. Near the close of the time devoted to instruction, the chaplain said : " We have five minutes to spare. Mr. Hubbard, will you please to make a few remarks ?" He arose in a calm, dignified manner, and looking at the pris- oners said : " I am told that we have five minutes to spare. Much may be done in five minutes. In five minutes Judas betrayed his Master, and went to his own place. In five minutes the thief on the cross repented, and went with the Saviour to Paradise. No doubt many of those before me did that act in five minutes, which brought them to this place. In five minutes you may repent, and go to Paradise ; or will you imitate Judas, and go to the place where lie ts? My five minutes have expired." — Recorder, WRITING FROM DICTATION. 13 The following is a calculation of the number of books, verses, vvords, letters, etc., contained in the Old and New Testaments. It is worth reading and preserving : Old Testament. — Number of books, 39 ; chapters, 929 ; verses, 83,214; words, 592,439 ; letters, 2,728,100. The middle book is Proverbs. The middle chapter is Job xxix. The middle verse would be 2 Chronicles xx. 17, if there were a verse less ; and verse 18, if there were a verse more. The word and occurs 35,543 times. The word Jehovah occurs 6,855 times. The shortest verse is 1 Chronicles i. 25. The 21st verse of the 7th chapter of Ezra contains all the letters of the alphabet. The 19th of 2 Kings and the 37th chapter of Isaiah are alike. New Testament. — Number of books, 27; chapters, 260 ; verses, 7,050; words, 181,258; letters, 828,580. The middle book is 2 Thessalonians. The middle chapter is Romans xiii., if there were a chapter less; and xiv., if there were a chapter more. The middle and least verse is John xi. 35. Old and New Testament. — Number of books, 66 ; chapters, 1189; verses, 40,264 ; words, 773,697; letters, 3,556,680. The middle chapter, and least in the Bible, is the 117th Psalm. The middle verse is Psalm cxviii. 8. Exercise. The pupil may here with advantage study, and should write/Vom dictation^ those columns and sentences from the Spelling-Book which contain words that being similar in pronunciation^ but different in spelling and in meaning^ are likely to be confounded: also those sentences which con- tain words which it is difficult to write orthographically. See Parker and Watson's Speller, and Northend's " Dicta- tion Exercises." Exercises of this kind should be contin- ued, at least occasionally, until the power shall be acquired of writing from dictation with perfect accuracy. 14 uaiD OF cAPnwLS. Examples. He adds insult to injury. Sharpen the adze. What can ail him? This is good ale. Ere you go. If e''er it happen. Bring me an awl. The ascent is steep. I give my assent. If aught pre- vented, you ought to have told me. The arc of a circle. Noah's arh. The bough of a tree. Make a low. Near the heach stands a heeck'tvQQ. Roll the hall. Do not hawl so loud. The ceiling of a room. He is sealing a letter. The complement of an angle. A complimental notice. Boston is the capital. The Capitol at Washington. Faint with hunger. A feint to deceive. A Jir- tree. A garment lined with fur. A ring of gold. To wring the hands. The seam does not seem water-tight. Have you ever seen a seine filled with fish ? LESSON III. USE OF CAPITAL LETTERS. The capital, or larger form of Letters, is to be used 1. At the commencement of every book, chapter, para- graph, and independent sentence ; as, The house is large. Great cause there is for regret. 2. At the beginning of every line in poetry ; as, The path may be stony, The hill may be steep, The hedge thick and thorny, The stream strong and deep. 3. The pronoun Z, and the exclamation 0, or Oh, 4. A direct or formal quotation commences with a cap- ital letter; as, He prayed "Our Father," and pronounced aloud, "Thine is the kingdom and the power, and thine the glory." Jesus said unto him, "Thou shalt love the Lord thy God with all thy heart." And the second is like unto it, "Thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself." TJSE OF CAPITALS. 15 All indirect quotation does not require the use of a capi- tal letter ; as, Dr. Young has well said, that " procrastina- tion is the thief of time." 5. The first word after a Period ( . ), or after an Exclama- tion Point { ! ), or after an Interrogation Point ( ? ) requires a capital letter. 6. Also, names and pronouns relating to the Supreme Being ; as, God, Christ, Holy Spirit, Most High, Almighty, Omniscient, Creator, Saviour. 7. Names of Persons, and honorary and official titles ; as, Daniel Webster, President Buchanan, STscretary Cass, Queen Victoria, Emperor Napoleon, Elder Brewster, Dea- con Jones, Rev. Mr. Parker. 8. Names of certain individual objects, of Days of the Week, and Months of the Year : also Common Nouns personified ; as. Doth not Wisdom cry ? Thou hast all seasons for thine own, O Death ! The Sea saw it, and fled. 9. The principal words in the titles and divisions ol books ; as, Sampson's " Brief Remarker," Macaulay's "His- tory of England," Chapter Fifth, Volume Third. 10. Titles, heads of chapters or sections, inscriptions, signs, &c., are printed usually all in Capitals. In writing for the press, when it is desired to have any word or words printed in small capitals two lines are to be drawn under; if in LARGE CAPITALS, three lines. If it is desired to print a word in Italics^ a single line is to be drawn under it. These modes of printing are used to indicate emphatic words, phrases, or sentences ; or to de- note contrasted words and phrases. 11. Adjectives derived from proper names; as, Japanese, Chinese, Calvinists, Roman. 12. Nouns that are designed to be mado emphatic. 16 EXERCISES OF CAPITALS. Exercise I. In the following selections, change small letters into Cap- itals, in conformity to the above Rules. " in the drama of life it is not to be considered who among act- ors is prince or who is beggar, but who acts prince or beggar best." so tanght epictetus, a celebrated philosopher of ancient greece : and pope has versified him in the following couplet, " honor and shame from no condition rise: act well your part ; 'tis there true honor lies." all this is well said, that the point of honor lies, not so much in having a grand or a conspicuous part to act, but rather in acting well the part that providence allots us, is a position which admits of no dispute. it has been told that cyrus conquered the Ionian greeks, his son cambyses, and after him, darius, king of persia, kept the greek col- onies as tributaries. knowledge and wisdom, far from being one have ofttimes no connection, knowledge dwells in heads replete with thoughts of other men, wisdom in minds attentive to their own. they shall call thee, the city of the lord, the zion of the hoiy one of Israel, and thou shalt know that i the lord am thy saviour, and thy redeemer, the mighty one of Jacob. who hath woe ? who hath sorrow ? who hath contentions ? they that tarry long at the wine, i am reading prescott's life of philip second, chapter fourth, woe unto thee, chorazin ! woe unto thee, bethsaida I the first epistle of paul, the apostle, to the Corinthians, are they hebrews ? so am i. are they israelites ? so am i. the americans and the british, the french and the ger- mans, take rank as the most enlightened nations of the earth. the english papers announce the death of John pringle nichol, U.d., professor of astronomy in the university of glasgow, whose visit to the u. s. a few years since will be remembered. His va- rious works, ^' the architecture of the heavens," ^' the solar system," " the planetary system," " the planet neptune," were all written with great power. EXERCISES ON CAPITALS. 17 Exercise II. In the following extracts, capitals are used sometimes incorrectly. Make the necessary corrections. When Charles v read Upon the Tomb of a Spanish Kobleman, " here lies one who never knew fear," he Wittily replied, " then he never snuffed a candle with his fingers." most Kinds of roots and Barks are Now used as Medicines, Except the cube Root and the bark of a dog. a Little child, being asked how many gods there are, replied, " One." " how do you know That ?" he was asked. " Because there is No room for any more, For he fills everywhere." A french writer Has said that ^^To dream gloriously. You must act gloriously when you are awake, And to bring angels down To converse with you in sleep, you Must labor In the cause of Virtue daily." Quoth torn, " Though fair Her features be, it is her figure Pleases me." *' what may her Figure be ?" I cried. *' One hundred Thousand .-"' He replied. the Great Enchanter of the Nineteenth Century is noah Web- ster, whose Spells will Never cease to affect our Literature. *' where Shall I Put this paper so as to be sure of seeing it to- morrow?" Inquired Mary jane of Her brother charles. " On the looking-Glass," was the Reply. Two Men, strangers to each other. Got into A dispute. When one of Them exclaimed, Threateningly, "I will Let You know, sir. That I am mr. hodge !" " Oh, well, I am Equal to Several of you," Said the other : " I am Mr. Hodges." Exercise III. Copy correctly, from dictation (supplying the points and capitals, as they are needed), an exceedingly interesting account of the late Washington Irving, in the latter part of this volume, under the head of" Biography." 18 THE NOUN. LESSON IV. PARTS OF SPEECH. — THE NOUN. The things, persons, or places about which we think, or speak, or write, are expressed by words which are called nouns^ or names. Some of these things are outward ob- jects that impress the senses ; as, hooh.^ house^ tree. Nouns such as these may be called Real Nouns. Others are things only conceived or felt in the mind ; as, virtue^ hope^ joy^ lengthy breadth^ eternity^ goodness^ truth. Such nouns may be called Ideal Nouns. Words that are used as the names of particular persons or places, are called Proper Nouns. Thus, London.^ James Madison. Those which are used as the names of a class of persons or things, are called Common Nouns. That is, names com- mon.^ or belonging to, all objects of the same class. Thus, tree is a name for any and every tree. Bird is a name ap- plied to any bird. Words which are used as names of qualitivs of the objects to which they belong, are called Abstract Nouns. The quality may be considered abstractly, by itself, without reference to the person or thing to which it belongs ; as, whiteness^ tallness^ purity^ meeh ness. A word is sometimes used to denote more than one person or thing : as army^ congregation^ school. These words are called Collective Nouns, being names for a collection of persons or thirgs. This collection may be regarded either as a whole, or as several individuals combined. Hence we may say, " The congre- gation is assembled," when viewed as a body or as a whole ; and we may say, " The congregation were assembled," when we have reference to the individuals, as such, composing it. EXERCISES ON NOTJNS. 19 Exercises. Write out the following passages, supplying the nouns of various kinds that are wanting to complete the sense. 1. Supply Proper Nouns, Edinburgh is the capital of , and London of . The most distinguished of our American historians are , , , and . The most common Arithmetics are those of , , , and . The principal towns of the county in which we live are , , , and . 2. Supply Common Nouns, The Hudson is a beautiful . The Niagara is one of the wonders of the world. Who is not pleased with , , 3. Supply Abstract Nouns. He is a man of , , and : and she is a of rare and . Do you observe the , and , and of that fine ? The principal duties we owe to our fellow- creatures are those of , , , , ^ ^ and 4. Supply Collective Nouns, The British is equal to any in the world. The is composed of two houses or departments. A large of cattle. A of birds. A of fish. The could not agree in their verdict. What a of people I The — — are dispersing. The is now in session. LESSON V. NOUNS. — THEIR NUMBER, GEISDER, CASE, Number. — A noun denotes either one object, or more than one. In the former instance, it is said to be of the Singular Number ; in the latter, of the Plural. 20 FORMATION OF PLURAL NOUNS. The General Rule for changing the Singular into the Plural form of a Noun, or Name, is to add the letter " s," or " es ;" as, tree^ trees ; box^ boxes. Observe the following Special Rules : 1. Nouns ending in y, after a consonant^ change the y into tea ; as, outcry into outcries ; fly into flies. Other nouns ending in y add an s. Proper nouns in y do not change it into ies^ but only add an s. 2. Nouns in for fe change these endings into 'ces to form the plural ; as, calf^ cakes, Nouns ending in jf add an s in the plural ; as, puff, puffs. 3. The plural of nouns ending in «, sJi, soft ch., 2, a;, or for-7iou7i. Its convenience and utility are apparent in the following sen- tences : " Then Judah came near unto him and said, O my lord, let thy servant, I pray thee, speak a word in my lord's ears, and let not thine anger turn against thy serv^ant. Thou saidst unto thy servants. Except your younger brother come down with you, ye shall see my face no more." Without the pronoun, these sen- tences must read thus : " Then Judah came near unto Joseph, and said, O lord of Judah, let Judah the servant of Joseph, Judah prays Josei)h, speak a word in the ears of Judah's lord, and let not the anger of Joseph turn against the servant of Joseph. Jo- seph said unto the servants of Joseph, Except the younger brother of Judah, Reuben, Simeon, Levi," &c. 2. A Personal Pronoun is a substitute for the names of persons, or of things personified, i. e., of things spoken of or to as persons. Of these pronouns there arc live, /, tJiou^ he^ she^ it; and their plurals, we^ ye or you^ they. These are used as the subjects of a verb. When these pronouns indicate the possessor or source of any thing, they undergo a change of form; thus, my ot mine; thy or thine; his^ hers^ its ; our or ours ; your or yours; their or theirs. Personal Pronouns, when they stand for names that are the oVects of an action or relation (standing after a verh, or a prepo- sition), take the following forms: me, thee or you., him^ her^ it^ lis. them. EXERCISES ON PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 27 Exercises. 1. Write a phrase or sentence containing Personal pro- nouns of the first person, singular and plural, in the posses- sive case. 2. Containing pronouns of the second person, singular and plural, possessive case. 3. Containing pronouns of the third person, singular and plural, possessive case. 4. Containing pronouns, singular and plural, in the objec- tive case — of the first person, second person, third person. 5. Correct the personal pronouns that stand in the wrong case. Even good authors, quoted below, make frequent mistakes in this particular ; as, " She suffers hourly more than mey It should be, "than /," that is, than I do^ the word than being, in this sen- tence, only a conjunction. Than before whom is a preposition, and requires the objective case ; as, '' Than whom there is no bet* ter man." " All slept save she^ It should be her^ being the ob ject of the preposition save. Write the following sentences correctly : There was no one in the house save we two. All, save I, were at rest. Nor hope to make others such as me. It is him who did this. It is not fit for such as us to sit with the rulers of the land. Let he that looks after them, look on his hand. I will be her whose foot the waves wet not. She exclaimed on Hastings, you, and I. Ask the murderer, he who has steeped his hands, &c. Sorrow not as them who have no hope. Holland and thee did each in other live. We are alone, here's none but thee and I. Him shall never come again to we ; but we shall surely one day go to he. She is sold like thou. He was much older than her. They were more terrified than us. It was thee who went hence. Unless you are the masters, and not me. They must have been as glad as us to escape. Stimulated by the approbation of better judges than them, she turned to their literature, &c. I know not whom else are expected. The village lawyer, whose Burns was him of the justice and law ecclesiastical. 28 EXERCISES ON PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 6. As pronouns supply the place of nouns, it is essential to perspicuity that they should distinctly point to the nouns which they stand for. The following passage from Goldsmith's History of Greece, is very faulty in this respect : — " He wrote to that distinguished phi- osopher, begging of Mm to come and undertake Ms education, and to bestow on Mm those lessons of virtue which every great man ought to possess, and which his numerous avocations render- ed impossible to Mm^ Confusion follows from the different offices which the pronoun lie is here made to perform : first, it stands for Philip, then for Aristotle, next for Alexander, again for Alexan- der, then twice for Philip. To clear the sentence of ambiguity, instead of ^^Ms education^'''' it should have been " Ais son's educa- tion;'''' and instead of ''''Ms numerous awcations^'' it should have been " A^5 own numerous allocations.'''' Y. In the following sentence there is also an ambiguous use of the personal pronoun : " Jesus came from Nazareth, and was baptized of John in Jor- dan ; and straightway coming up out of the water tie saw the heavens opened, and the Spirit, like a dove, descending upon Am." Does he refer to Jesus or to John, and on which did the Spirit de- scend ? The passage itself does not clearly determine the ques- tion. It would seem to teach that Jesus saw the Spirit descending on John ; but the meaning intended is that John saw the Spirit descending on Jesus." 8. Correct the ambiguity in the following passages : "In his days Pharaoh-Nechoh, king of Egypt, went up against the King of Assyria, to the river Euphrates, and King Josiah went against him, and he slew him at Megiddo, when he had seen him." — 2 Kings xxiii. 29. " The Son of Man sRall be delivered up to the chief-priests, and to the scribes, and they shall condemn him to death, and deliver liim to the Gentiles, and they shall mock him," &c. In the first of the above passages, is it taught that Pharaoh killed Josiah, or that Josiah killed Pharaoh ? The context must be con- sulted, to make the requisite correction. In the second passage, it is undecided whether the Gentiles alone, or the chief-priests and scribes also,. mocked the Saviour. COMPOUND AND RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 29 LESSON IX. PRONOUNS. — COMPOUND PERSONAL, RELATIVE, ETC. 1. The word self is often added to the personal pronouns, iny^ thy^ him^ her^ it^ our^ your^ them^ making an emphatic compound: thus, myself articiple of the intransitive verb is properly used in the following example : " He lies upon the straw now, he lay on the straw last night, he is said to have lien^ or lain^ upon straw last night." '' Thou hast been lien withy The transitive verb, to lay (which acts upon an object), appears in the following : " Or lay the spoils of conquest at her feet." " I Imf the book down." "The book was laid down." "Oh, that my calamity were laid in the balances!" It should be noticed that lay is the past tense of the intransitive verb to lie^ and the present tense of the transitive verb to lay, 4. Intransitive verbs are used as transitive when they bear a causative sense ; that is, when they denote the caus- ing of the act expressed ; as, " They run a daily coach." " Walk the horse." " The horse was walked over the ground," that is, was made to walk, &c. 5. Intransitive verbs should not be used in the passive, except when rendered transitive by the addition of another word. Thus, the verb laugh becomes transitive by adding at, " He is laughed at by all." " He laughed at her." The transitive verb set is improperly used, sometimes, for the intransitive, sit. So the verbs fly and fl^e^ flown and flowed^ are con founded. Exercises. Correct the errors in the following sentences : Be repented him of his design. The farmer grows wheat. Why do you lay so long this morning? He laid down a whole hour. Let that bo ik lay. He was laughed by the assembly. He retired ERRONEOUS USE OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 53 himself early. The instructor learns his pupils. The ship .aid at anchor. He succeeded my undertaking. Please to set down. The eagle flees through the air. The man flies from his house. The birds had flowed. The land was overflown with water. LESSON XVII. IRREGULAR VERBS ERRONEOUS USE OF THEM. 1. These are verbs which do not form their past tense and past participle with the termination oi ed. 2. A very common and glaring error in the use of some of these verbs is thus exposed by Mr. Harrison : " The past tenses of these verbs, and the passive participles, are so perpetually confounded and mutilated, that they exhibit a perfect grammatical slaughter-house. Shakspeare, Addi- son, Swift, Pope, Milton, Gibbon, Byron, and a host of others, up to the present day, violate a principle which is ob- vious to the merest school-boy, in writing any other lan- guage than his own. The man of vegetables says, ' Pota- toes is rose^ or riz^ and turnips is fell? The language serves his purpose, and more is not expected ; but men of high literary character should take care not to mislead by corrupt example. There is not one iota of diflference be- tween ' I had drank^ and 'I had hnew^^ 'I had rode^^ and ' I had hlew^ ' I had gave^ ' a web was v^ove^^ and ' a stone was threw? In prose composition there can be no excuse. It is, perhaps, to the poets that we owe these solecisms ; for the perfect tense of the verb, in the place of the participle, frequently oifers a convenient rhyme, which the participle would not supply. As Pope : ' Doom'd from the hour his luckless life legun^ To dogs, and vultures, and to Peleus* son.* — Mad, 54 EXERCISES ON IRREGULAR VERBS. "]^ot satisfied with using the participle in the place of the verb, Pope also uses the verb in the place of the participle : * And now the years, a numerous train, have ran, The blooming boy is ripen' d into man.' — Odyssey, ^^ Exercises. In writing the following sentences, correct the irregular verb in each : He set down. Some one has took my chair. He sleeped well. She has sang all the evening. He had sank before we could reach him. I have often swam the river. He didn't ought to have his salary rose. The cherries had fell off. He begun well, but did not continue as he had began. Having arose, he started out. John was chose to go. Peter come next to me. After the messenger had came, I departed. The ball was throwed away.^Hehad mis- took the road. The water is froze. I seen you run. He give me sixpence. He had just went away. The axis of the world was broke. The camp was broke up. I was conscious that I had neither ate nor drank any thing. The book was took away. The sun had rose. The lawyer had spoke. The walls have fell. He drunk a pint. The liquor was all drank up. The cork was drawed out. I done it well. I had did the thing. The race was ran. Who has took my cane? He sown barley to-day. The man then lain down. The man had fell, and then laid in the dust. He knowed better. The hymn was sang. After laying a while, he raised up. The hat was gave to her. A bee stinged her. The door is shet. I laid down to sleep. I wished to have went home. The two armies fit bravely. Jane then give her the knife. The tree growed high. You rid too long. John come home yesterday. I beseeched him to leave me. The men dinged to the tree. I done it. The price of corn raised yesterday. The moon sat early to-night. Tlie cloth shrinked. He sat his load down. The lawyer writ ex- tremely well. Have you writ your letter yet ? The boy swimmed bravely. He teached me faithfully. He seed me fall. She set a long time. PBOPER USE 015 THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 55 LESSON XVIII. VERBS. THE PROPER USE OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. This subject has been so well presented by Rev. M. Har- I'ison, in his work on the English Language, that the re- marks and illustrations will be drawn from it. 1. We are told that the subjunctive mood is required when a con- tingency is implied. Now, contingency has respect to that which is past, that which is j^resent, or that which is to come. But with respect to that which mpast, and that which \sp7'esent, there can be no contin- gency (uncertainty) of fad. In both cases, a thing either has been or has not been; either is or is not. The contingency exists nowhere but in the mind of the speaker. But when we come to the consideration of a thing that, as yet, exists not at all, but which is future, we then have a contingency of fact added to the uncertainty of the speaker's mind. In the very nature of things, then, tve speak declaratively and indicatively of that which is past or present, but hypothetically of that which is contingent (may or may not happen) as a fact. For example : "Is Thomas able to repeat his grammar this morning?" " No, he is not ; because he wa^ ill last night." *' If he was ill, that is enough." " Has Thomas come to repeat his grammar ?" " No, he has not ; because his head aches.'" " 7)^ his head aches, that is enough." In neither of these cases is there any contingency of fact, and therefore we say, If he was ill at that time, and If his head aches at this time. But, if we pass on to a future time, we then put the case hypothetically ; as, " Will Thomas come up to repeat his grammar to-morrow ?" "Yes, if his head do not ache ;" if he be better ; that is, should it so happen ; should he be better. " Did you take a walk yesterday?" "No, I did not ; because it was wet." "If it was wet (not if it were), you were better at home." "Will you walk now .?" " Yes, if it does not rain." *' If it rains nowj will you take a walk an hour hence?" " Yes, if in the mean time it clear up ;" that is, shoidd clear up, not clears, which has reference only to a. present, and now existing state. "Do you think that the roads will be dirty this morning ?" " Yes, if there has been much rain in the night." "Will you ride your horse to town next week ?" " Yes, if he have (not has) recovered of his lameness before that time." " Though he studied (past) the work for twelve months, yet he did not make 56 PEOPEE irSE OF THE SUBJUI^CTIVE MOOD. himself master of it." ** Though he studies (present) twelve hours a day. yet he makes little progress." *' Though he study (future) twelve hours, he will not be sufficiently prepared." *' Were I Alexander, I would do it." " And were I Parmenio, I would do it." That is, were the state of things so altered, that I, as Alexan- der, should become Parmenio, then I would do it. But if, in these cases, we substitute was in place of were, the meaning of both sentences ;vould be changed. 2. The Subjunctive Mood, then, in English, is not used with pro- priety, when we speak of that which is past, or of that which is pres- ent, but when the fact itself has not yet taken place, and is necessarily future. In many cases, shall and should may be prefixed to that which has a subjunctive form, when it relates to that which is future, but never when it relates to that which is past or present ; as, " If I 6fi well next week, I shall call upon him ;" that is, If I shall he well, I, &c. "If they he unprepared, they will fail in the attempt ;" that is. If they shall be unprepared, &c. "Our eyes wait upon the Lord our God, until he have mercy upon us ;" that is, until, at some future pe- riod, he shall have mercy upon us. " No fear lest dinner cool f that is, Lest dinner should cool. " If thy brother trespass against thee," &c. ; that is, If thy brother shall or should trespass, &c. "Lest sin surprise thee ^" tliat is, Lest sin should surprise thee." 3. It must have been observed, that verbs in the subjunctive mood are generally preceded by some word denoting a condition, an uncer- tainty, or a supposition ; as, although, except, if, unless, &c. Sometimes the word expressing condition, &c., is omitted ; as, " Had he written, he would," &c ; that is, If he had written, he would, &c. ^'Were I provided with money, you should share it ;" that is, If I were, &c. Thus the past tense of the subjunctive often indicates present time, and is then called the Hypothetical Present. 4. We also learn from the above, that the Future Subjunctiv^e often omits the auxiliary shall, or will ; as, " If he he industrious, he will suc- ceed ;" that is, If he shall he industrious. &c. " Though he slay me (that is, though he shall slay me), yet will I trust in him." In the com- mon English version of the Scriptures, this elliptical form of the sub- junctive future is the one generally adopted. Dr. Webster remarks, that this subjunctive form of the verb, if he he, if he have, if he say, ij thou write^ though he fall, &c., which was generally used by writers oi the sixteenth century, was in a great measure discarded before the time of Addison. Locke, Watts, Pope, and otht*i authors of the first distinction, who adorned the close of the seventeenth and beginnin<,f of the eighteenth century, generally used the indicative mode to ex- EXERCISES ON THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 57 press condition, uncertainty, and hypothesis in the present and past tenses. Thus Locke writes: "If principles are innate." "If one considers well these men's way of speaking," &c. So Addison : " If exercise clears the vessels," &c. 5. The subjunctive mood is used in expressing a icish. " Oh, that 1 were prepared to die." " Oh, that you were wise." This past tense of the subjunctive is used also to express a supposi- tion, or a wish, when you would deny the thing supposed or wished. Thus Christ says, " If my kingdom wei-e of this world, then would my servants fight." Thus saying that his kingdom was not of this world. ** Oh, that he were here," implying that he is not here. ^^ If I had the book I would lend it," implying that I have it not. "While the subjunctive present is now generally used as an elliptical form of the future {shall or should being omitted), yet it is sometimes " used when the time is manifestly joreseni, and in such a way that nei- ther shall nor should, nor any similar term, can be supplied without changing the sense, and where the present usage would require the present indicative, thus 'Though the Lord be high,' &c., ' Whether he be a sinner or not, I know not.' " — {Bullions.) Exercises. Write the following sentences, correcting such as may require correction, according to the above observations. Though he slays me, yet will I trust in him. With whom, if he comes shortly, I will see you. If thou returnest in peace^ the Lord hath not spoken by me. If ever he has child, abortive be it. If thou seekest hira, he will be found of thee. Beware lest sin surprise thee. What man, if he loses one sheep, does not, &c. If thou canst do any thing, have compassion on us. If a man was to compare the effect of a single stroke, he would be overwhelmed. "If the leg does not come off, take the turkey to yourself." " Madame," replied the man in black, ''I don't care a farthing whether the leg or the wing comes off." If nobody within either moves or speaks, it If likely that they may carry the place by storm ; but if a panic should seize them, it will be proper to defer the enterprise. If the hair has lost its powder, a lady has a puff; if a coat is spotted, a lady has a brush. If similitude of manners is a motive to kind- ness, the idler may flatter himself with universal patronage. Had he come, we could have finished it. If he practises economy, he will support himself. If thou goest, she may accompany tliee. 3* 58 CERTAIN TENSES AND MOODS. Was it necessary, I will explain. If I be rightly informed. If there exists a country which contains the means of protection. If the effects of climate are casual. If thou be the Son of God, come down from the cross. Now if Christ be preached that he rose from the dead, &c. But if there be no resurrection of the dead, then, &o. And if Christ be not risen, then, &c. He must rei^ii till he hath put all enemies under his feet. If thou bring thy gilt to the altar, and there rememberest, &c. Nay, Father Abraham, but if one went unto them from the dead, they will repent. If any member absents himself, he shall forfeit a penny. Saxony was left defenceless, and if it was conquered, might be plundered, &c. Oh, that I was at my journey's end. If I should now have money enougli, your request will be granted. Was I in your place, I would not hesitate. I had rather go than stay. LESSON XIX. VERBS. — PROPER AND IMPROPER USE OF CERTAIN TENSES AND MOODS. 1. Sometimes the past tense is improperly used for the present : as, ''Two young men have made a discovery that there was a God." It should be, that there is a God. 2. The present tense properly expresses a general principle^ and that which is universally and always true; as. Honesty is the best policy. Man is immortal. If man is immortal, then he ought, &c. 3. The perfect is sometimes improperly used instead of the past : as, "The Lord hath given^ and the Lord hath taken away." It should be the Lord gave. 4. The present tense is properly and advantageously employed in relating past events as though they were just now occurring. Vivacity and interest are thus imparted to a narrative. Thus. Moses leads his people to the Red Sea, and opens a way for them through the waters. 5. The present tense may he used of a person not living^ hut iohose injiuence or works still exist. Thus we may say of Clay, CERTAIN TENSES AND MOOBS. 59 " He i^ one of the first orators that ever adorned the xinierican Senate." 6. Sometimes the present is used for the future^ in familiar wri- ting or discourse, as, "He goes to-morrow." So the perfect is sometimes used for the future^ as, " He will go after he has recited his lesson," instead, after he shall hate recited^ &c. 7. The past should not be used for the pluperfect, as, He arrived before I came. It should be, " He had arrived^ 8. The perfect is sometimes incorrectly used instead of the pres- ent: as, "The children now living have been greatly indebted to their excellent parents" — more correctly, " are indebted." 9. In respect to a peculiar use of the past tense. Dr. Webster states the following case : " A servant calls on me for a book. If I am uncertain whether I have it or not, I answer, ' If the book be in my library, or if I have the book, your master is welcome to it ;' but if I am certain that I have not the book, I say, ' If the book we7'e in my library, or if I had the book, it should be at your mas- ter's service.' Here it is obvious that when we use the present tense, it implies uncertainty of the fact, and when we use the pret- erit (the past) it imphes a negation of its existence. Thus also, a person at night would say to his friend, ' If it rain you shall not go,' being uncertain at the time whether it did or did not rain ; but if, on looking out, he perceived it did not rain, he would then say, ' If it rained you should not g >,' intimating that it did not rain." 10. Care must be taken that in connected tenses there shall be a proper correspondence; as, "Ye will not come to me that ye might have life." In such instances, where the principal verb is in the future or the present, the dependent verb cannot be in the past tense. " That ye may have life" is the proper tense. If the first verb is in the past, then the other verb should also be in the past ; as, " Ye would not come to me ;^' or, " Ye did not come to rae, that ye might have life." When the first verb, however, is in the perfect tense, the second may be either in the present or the past; as, " Ye have not come to me that ye might (or may) have life." 11 . Sometimes an essential part of a complex tense is improperly omitted^ a part of the verb occurring in a previous portion of the sentence, which, however, cannot supply the defect ; as, " I shall do all I can to persuade others to tahe the same measures for their 60 CERTAIN TENSES AND MOODS cure which I Tiatey As it will not answer to say, '* I have take^"- so it becomes necessary to add to the above sentence the partici- ple taken. Hence, in auxiliary tenses, the structure of each clause must be completed; as, "This case never haR leen^ or loill be, met." It would be faulty to say, " never has or will le^ met." 12. Verbs are sometimes coupled as having a common regimen, when, in fact, they do not admit of it ; as, " It requires few talents to which most men are not horn^ or, at least, may not acquire.''^ The second clause does not properly follow to which: "to which most men may not acquire." To make good sense, it is necessary to change the clause thus : " or which^ at least, they may not acquire." 13. " IFere" is sometimes used instead of " would Z>^," and '"''had''^ for '^ would have]''^ as, "It were (that is, zcould he)^ a shame to do it." "If thou hadst been here, my brother had not {would not have) died." 14. The past teiise of the Infinitive is very often incorrectly used for the present, after verbs in the pa'fet tense; thus, " He intended to have gone home to-day," which should be written " He intended to go home to-day." Thus it Avill be seen that the present tense of the infinitive must be used to " express what is contemporary with, or subsequent to, the time of the principal verb in the sen- tence;" but the perfect tense of the infinitive properly expresses what happens before the time of the principal verb; as, "He seemed to have been drinking." 15. The pluperfect auxiliary is sometimes used improperly for that of the imperfect subjective ; as, " I had rather go than stay," for " I would rather go than stay ;" " We had better go^'' for " We would better go ;" or, " It would be better to go." Exercises, 1. Correct the verbs according to the above observa- tions. The Court of Chancery frequently mitigates, and breaks the teeth of the common law. They presently grow into good hu' mor and good language towards the crown. Whose people do as they are a mind to. He said that a tyrant was always a coward. He said that Callioun was highly argumentative. Was it neces sary, 1 would explain. If he practises economy, he will do well. PROPER USE OF NUMBER AND PERSON. 61 If thou goest, she may go also. We have and will be your friends. The orator believed that all men were entitled to freedom. I am a mind not to give you the book. Did you say that Everett was the most polished writer now in America ? The preacher con- tended that the Bible was a source of the highest benefits. He said that Oowper was profitable reading. Since he has done it, I can. He was anxious to have done it. I expected to have met you to-morrow. This is the only bargain that had, or could be, made. I prayed for her life, which I would have been wilHng al- most to have purchased with ray own. I intended to have writ- ten yesterday. We had better stay. We had better walk. 2. Use the tense that will give increased vivacity to the following paragraphs. All was tumult and confusion ; no one knew how to act. At length Eustace de Saint Pierre boldly stepped forward, and offered himself a voluntary victim for the safety of his friends and com- panions. Five other citizens followed this noble example. They were led before Edward in the prescribed fashion, who, after reproaching them for the obstinacy of their defence, ordered them to be put to death. The bravest English nobles and war- riors interceded in vain for their lives. Napoleon's amusements all took the same direction. His little garden was turned into a fortified camp, wJiich no one was per- mitted to invade. In winter, with tlie aid of his school-fellows, acting under his orders, he constructed new forts, with a skill and knowledge which gained great credit for the youthful engineer. LESSON XX. VERBS. — THE PROPER USE OF NUMBER AND PERSON. 1. Verbs must be in the same person and number as their subject-nominatives ; that is, as the noun or pronoun pre- ceding them ; as, The boy runs ; The boys run. It shines; They shine. 62 THE PROPER USE OF NUMBER AND PERSON. 2. Plural subjects admit of predicates in the singular ; as, Je are the salt of the earth. Christians are the light of the world. 3. A subject in the singular admits of a predicate in the plural. " He is head and shoulders above the other." " A !N'e\¥ York shilling is twelve and a half cents.'' 4. Two or more subjects, connected by and^ require a verb in the plural form ; as, Three men and two horses are crossing the river. The same rule applies, when the sub- jects are sentences, or parts of sentences; as, "That the man is a knave, and that he was present, are well-known facts." When these subjects are of similar import, good usage allows of a singular verb ; as, " The worship and service of heaven is repre- sented to us as the worship and service of gratitude and love." Here worship and service present but one complex subject of the verb. When the subjects connected by and are not taken together, the verb is singular. " He, and not she, attends." 5. When two or more nouns, connected by and^ whether expressed or understood, are preceded by each^ every^ or either^ the verb following such nouns must have the singu- lar form ; as, " Either sex, and every age was engaged in labor." 6. When two nouns of different numbers or persons are connected by than or as^ or by as well as^ as soon as^ the verb takes the same number as the former noun, and is un- derstood after the latter ; as, "Such looTcs as ^^is are worth purchasing." "More industri- ous men than John Wilson are seldom seen." " His goods^ as well as his vessel^ were lost." " You, as soon as he, have discovered your mistake." 7. When two subjects, in different numbers (one of which has the word no or not as a modifier), are connected by and or but^ the verb takes the number of the subject \/ THE PROPER USE OF NUMBER AND PERSON. 63 not thus modified, and is understood in reference to the other ; as, "^ amount of property, hut moderate desires insure a con- tented mind." *' A genuine Christian character, and not ostenta- tious professions of it, decides our future happiness." 8. When two nouns, connected by and^ describe but one subject, they are followed by a singular verb ; as, " That great preacher and philanthropist deserves universal re- spect." 9. When a verb is placed between its subjects, it agrees in number with the subject that precedes it, and is to be understood after the other subjects; as, "Sarah dies^ and Rebecca, and Gertrude." 10. A collective noun takes a singular verb when it ex- presses many as- a unit, a whole ; but a plural verb when it expresses many, as separate individuals. The latter con- struction is now more commonly employed ; as, " The Sen- ate icere divided in their views." " The fleet were scat- tered." 11. When subjects of the same verb are not of the same person, the verb takes the plural form, and must be made of the first person, rather than the second, and of the second, rather than the third ; as, " My brother and I are much attached." " You and he are very happy." 12. Two or more nominatives, in the singular, connected by or or nor^ require the verb in the singular ; as, " Neither John nor James is here." When these nominatives are of different persons or numbers, the verb must be of the same number and person with the nomi- native next to it; as, "I or thou art wrong." "Neither poverty nor riches are hurtful to him." In such sentences, however, it is better to vary the construction, and give to each subject a verb in the proper person and number; as, "I am wrong, or thou arW^ "Neither poverty is hurtful to him, nor are riches." 13. When two or more subjects, connected by and^ ex 64 THE PROPER USE OF NUMBER AND PERSON. pressed or understood, are modified by each^ every ^ or no^ they are taken separately, and require a verb in the singu- lar. "1*^0 book, and no paper is on hand." "Every pen and pencil is here." Many «, before a nominative, requires a singular verb; as, "Full many a flower is born," &c. 14. Words adjoined to a nominative (or subject), should not regulate the number of the verb ; as, "The number of scholars is increasing," not are^ &c. "Peter, with John, is in tbe house." '' The ship, with the crew, was lost." The practice of good writers varies, in cases like the last ; some employing the singular, others, the plural verb. The former method is to be preferred. Instead of using the preposition in such cases, the connective and is better. Thus, " Peter and James a/re in the house." ''The ship and the crew were lost." 15. The phrase, as appears^ being equivalent to as it ap- pears^ is always thus written. The phrase, as follows^ must be used after one nominative in the singular ; but, as follow^ after more than one, or a plural nominative. Thus, " His reasoning is as folloics?'* " His arguments were as follow:' As a general thing, in prose composition, contractions should not be used; as, " I Jia'tmH done it." " He shan't come," &c. Exercises. 'l^- Write the following sentences, correcting the verbs : All the world is spectators. The peasantry goes barefoot ; the middle class makes use of wooden shoes. The audience was de- lighted. Each day and hour are to be usefully emjdoyed. Every eye and every heart are joyful. No oppressor, no tyrant prosper there. Much does human pride and folly require correction. William or Sarah have the paper. Either inclination or ability ] were wanting. A part of the exports consist of silk. The gen- eral, with several soldiers, were taken. Either John or I is con- cerned. The author, or his works, is in fault. Many a man have EXERCISES ON NUMBER AND PERSON. 65 lost character by snch conduct. The society are flourishing. Either thou or I art mistaken. Neither Taylor nor his cousins was tliere. Generation after generation pass away. Many a ono have been ruined by him. The corporation consist of a Mayor and Council. The public is solicited to be present. The desire of pleasing one's friends, and thus gaining their love, make one agree- able. You was there. Was you there? Is the days becoming shorter? It is his evil companions that has led him away. Does you live here? Circumstances alters cases. Molasses are sweet. There's two or three more. He need not do it. Time and tide waits for no man. He and I was there. His patience and indus- try was remarkable. There was more apples than pears. The number that have been chosen are fifty. The rich oppresses the. poor A variety of pleasing objects charm the eye. A number of persons were there. They that goes to school should be studi- ous. Sixty pounds of wheat yields forty pounds of flour. Forty head of cattle was sold. His remarks were as follows. The jury was unanimous. The court fails to agree. To have the esteem of the wise and good, are desirable. That the ship, with all her crew, are lost, have been reported. Congress have adjourned. Has the minority reported ? Has the arithmetic class recited ? In manufacturing towns the lower class is considered the producers. They, as well as I, am influenced by what he said. The Conven- tion were addressed by distinguished speakers. A flock of sheep were lost. Virtue, and not riches, constitute happiness. The mind, and not the body, sin. He or I is wrong. Jane, Eliza, or Rachel have marked the desk. Either Jacob or I does not reason fairly. Either the conductor, or his agents, has perjured them- selves. He or they are to be invited. Whether you or I are to study German, is not decided. You or your father have wronged me. Neither his style nor his thoughts is remarkable. Her beauty, and not her talents, command admiration. Not the act, but the motives, is to be considered. They, as well as he, is in fault. The audience, as well as the performer, was anxious for a repetition of the concert. Such opinions as that is leading our youth to ruin. The derivation of these words are uncertain. It is not such men as he that is likely to benefit our community, You can't succeed. You mayn't enter. Don't attempt it. 66 THE INFINITIVE MOOJ>» LESSON XXI. VEEBS. — ^THE INFINITIVE MOOD. 1. The verb, in this mood, is used — After Nouns ; as, He has an anxiety to become rich. After Adjectives ; as, He is anxious to become rich. After Pronouns ; as, It is not for me to say it. After Verbs ; as, He came to see me. After Adverbs ; as. Tell me how to study. After Prepositions (very rarely) ; as, He stood up for to read. After Conjunctions ; as. So high as to be inaccessible. The active form of the infiniti ^e is sometimes used in the pas' sive ; as, He has a house to sell. 2. Verbs in the infinitive are used without the prepo- sition or sign " i(o," after such verbs as Md^ feel^ dare^ do^ have^ hear^ let^ make^ need^ behold^ see^ may^ can^ will^ shall^ must ; as, Bid him go. He dares do it. I feel the pain increase^ &c. 3. The infinitive of the verb to he has the same case after it, as before it ; as, They believed him to be me. Whotn did you pronounce him to be ? 4. A noun or pronoun, after the infinitive of a passive or intransitive verb, is in the nominative, except when the in- finitive has a subject in the objective case ; as. It is sup- posed to be she. Ask him. to repeat it. Him, is the sub- ject of ^o repeat^ and is in the objective case. 5. l^ouns in the simple form, and Personal pronouns in the objective form, are followed by intransitive verbs in the infinitive mood, as an abbreviated form of expression. "I believe Mm to be an excellent teacher;" '^I believe t\\Qman to be an excellent teaclier." The same assertions more fully ex pressed, would be, "I beUeve that he" (or, ''the man") ''is an excellent teacher." EXERCISES ON THE INFINITIVE MOOD. 67 0. The " to" should not be separated from the other part of the infinitive ; as, " Teach them to supremely love God," should be written " to love God supremely," or " supreme- ly to love God." The "to" should not be used as a substitute for the entire in- finitive ; as, " I did not say it, and I do not mean toy " Say it" should be added. 7. The infinitive is sometimes omitted ; as, " I knew him [to be] honest ;" " He heard the book [to be] read." 8. The perfect infinitive is sometimes erroneously used in place of the present infinitive ; as, "Last week I expected to have met you." It should be ''''to meet you." At the time referred to, the act of meeting was not a past but a future event. Whereas the perfect infinitive ex- presses a past event. Exercises. > 1. Write three sentences, each containing a verb in the infinitive depending on a noun — as many depending on an adjective — on a pronoun — on a verb — an adverb— a prepo- sition — a conjunction. 2. Change the following abbreviated forms into the more full form of expression : . We know him to be a learned man. We have ever supposed them to be brave and honest. He judged him to be an impostor. I now see him to be what he ever professed to be. I wish him to learn music. 3. Correct the errors in the following passages : I heard the bell to ring. They urged him to then become their king. Tell him to immediately come. I did not play, nor did I intend to. He went, and I wish to. Neglect not to diligently use your time. I did not suppose it to be he. It must be her. I» thought it to be she. Who did you imagine him to be? Whom do they say he is? Whom do you think she is? They obliged him do it. You ought not walk. He bid me to study. I saw 68 PARTICIPLES. them to pass the river. He was heard say it. The hordes were let to go. Dare be firm. Live as the Bible requires you to. I understood it to be he. I thought it was him, but it was not him. -^ LESSON XXII. PARTICIPLES. 1. The Present or Imperfect Participle, ending in i7ig^ ex]jresses an action, state, or being, as continuing or pro- gressing ; as, He was observing ; the Perfect Participle expresses action, state, or being, as finished or completed ; as, observed^ having observed^ having been observed. The last two forms are denominated compound, 2. The Imperfect or Present Participle may describe a present, past, or future action ; as, " I am observing," " I was observing," "I will be observing." It describes an action as present at the time specified by the auxiliary verb prefixed to it. So the Perfect Participle always expresses the action as completed at the time referred to by the principal verb ; as, " The book is printed," " it was print- ed," " it will be printed." Hence the imperfect and the perfect participles do not express time abstractly,, but by means of auxiliaries. Some grammarians designate the Participle as tlie Participial Mood — a mood which does not assert but merely assumes the attribute as existing. 3. It is called Participle, because it partakes of the na- ture of a verb in marking time, and of an adjective in ex- pressing an attribute of an object. It has the same form in application to nouns, whatever gender, number, case, or person they may be of. To avoid ambiguity, it must usually be placed near the noun of which it expresses the attribute. The following sentence is? am- PARTICIPLES. 69 bigtious: "All the people followed liini trenMingy It was the ]t?ec»p?e that trembled : hence the participle should have followed people. 4. The participle is often used as an adjective., to express quality or kind : thus, a learned man ; a loving friend ; an acknoicledged fact. The participle in ing is also often used as a noun.^ either hi the nominative or objective case. Z^i -z It is generally, though not always, preceded by the article, and followed by the preposition of with an object ; as, '' A rising of the people is certain." "Study is essential to the gaining of learning." ''''Rising early conduces to health." ''^Stopping at this place is abaiidoning all you have done." ^^^ 5. Wheyi the imperfect participle has the force of a verh^ that is, has an object depending on it, it should not be pre- ceded by an article nor followed by a preposition ; as, " By keeping God's commandments, you will prove your love to Him." It should not be written either " By the keeping God's," &c., nor " By keeping of God's, &c. 6. When the participle has no verbal force — no object depending on it — if an article or adjective go before it, a preposition should follow, but if not, not ; as, "Previous to the closing of the bargain." '''• K final closing of the bargain took place." It must be noticed then, that the arti- cle and the of may be both omitted, or neither of them may with- out the other. ^^ 7. To avoid ambiguity in certain sentences, an impor- tant rule shoidd be observed: that where the participial noun expresses an act of which the following noun is the agent, it should have the article and the preposition ; but where the following noun is the object of the act expressed by the participial, both the article and the preposition should be omitted. As an example of the first: "He mentioned the first in the ^earing o/ the philosopher ;" of the second : " In hearing the phi- 70 THE IMPERFECT PARTICIPLE. haopTier^ he learned the fact. The sense is often quite different, with these different modes of expression. " In the hearing of the philosopher," means quite a different thing from — " In hearing tho philosopher." 8. [ Care must he taJcen^ in the use of Irregular Verbs^ not to e'inploy the past tense for past participle. See the Lesson on Irregular Verbs, for illustrationl 9. Participles changed into or used as nouns may be modified by adjectives but not by adverbs : Thus, we may say, "For the easy grasping of a suhject;" but not, ''For the easily grasping of 2, subject." The correct form of the latter clause is, "For grasping a subject easily." Here the participle has the force of a verb, while it is also the object of a preposition. When a participle (used as a noun) has a possessive noun or pro noun before it, the preposition o/ should follow it; as, tlieir wor- shipping (?/" idols, or the Jews' worshipping q/* idols was sinful. 10. A great dispute has within a iQ\N years past existed, and is not yet settled, on the question, whether the imper- fect participle should ever be used in a passive sense^ and whether instead of this, the passive participle with the im- perfect active participle preceding it, should not be used. For instance, the question is whether we should say, " The house is building^'''' or " The house is being built?'' Present use is inclining to the latter form of expression, though plau- sible reasons are urged against it. Thus, Mr. Harrison : If we use the phrase, " The house is huilding^^'' we speak of it as a thing from its very nature not acting itself, and we use the term building as expressive of a passive progressive condition of the house. If we say, " The men are building,'^'' we then have active mstruments, and the term building is an active participle requir- ing to be followed by a noun. No mistake can therefore arise from the use of such phrases as, " The house is building." " Prep- arations are making." We use the participle ed both actively and passively : as, " I have loved,''^ " I am loved.'''' If the passive form ed can thus be used both actively and passively, the active THE IMPERFECT PARTICIPLE. 7l form, on the same grounds, may be used passively and actively. Besides, 'built^ or huilded^ implies a thing effected, an act accom- plished ; whereas deing implies something continuously present, — a continuous condition. Where a verb denotes continuous action, dcing may properly be applied to it, as consentaneous with the fiction of the verb ; as, being feared^ expressive of a continuous condition ; but a house is either duilt or not built. Being huilt includes incompatible terms, progression and accomplishment. It combines perfect and imperfect action. Becoming built — the house is becoming duilt, that is, approximating to accomplishment, would come nearer to the intended meaning. Mr. Pichburn says, " Whenever the imperfect participle is joined, by. an auxiliary verb, to a nominative capable of the action, it is taken actively • but, when joined to one incapable of action, it becomes passive.''^ 11. Mr. Grant (in his English Grammar) also says : " The imperfect participle is to be substituted when progression is to be denoted; as, The letter is writing., was writing ., has been writing.^ will he writing * the house is building., was building., has been building., will be building. Written or built., would, on the contrary, denote perfection or com- pletion." If we object to participles in ing., as having an imperfect pas- sive signification, on what principle do we justify such expressions as, "the verses read well," when an external agency is applied to the verses, and they in fact are read? Clearly, in such a case, read is an imperfect passive verb: that is, a verb denoting pro- gression., or imperfect accomplishment. The same may be said oi such phrases as, " the ingredients mix well," '^ the fields plough well," "the corn thrashes well," "this is good to eat.,''"' "a house to Z«^," "an estate to sell.'''' The agency in these cases is external, and the object does not act, but is acted upon. 12. According to most grammarians, therefore, and the usage of the best writers, the imperfect participle active oi some \erbs has a passive as well as an active sense, and is used with the auxiliary substantive verb to express the present tense of tlie passive progressively — a continuous 72 TPTK IMPERFECT PARTICIPLE. act. This is true of verbs which in the present passive ex- |)ress the completion of an act, or an act finished. Thus, '-The house is built.'' The process of building is ex- pressed by the imperfect active participle and an auxiliary. "The house is building." When, however, in such verbs, this participle has not a passive sense, or wliere the use of it in a passive sense Would create ambiguity, some other form of expression should bo used. For example : This sentence, '' The pirate is now punish- ing for his iniquity" would not be admissible ; hence the expres- sion must be varied. "The pirate is now receiving (or sufiering) the punishment of his crime." Care and judgment are required to decide what those imperfect participles are which may be used in a passive sense, consistently with the idiom of the language and the usage of good writers. 13. Notwithstanding the plausibility of the foregoing reasoning, there are, perhaps, equally strong reasons to be urged in favor of the more modern usage, which seems likely in a few years to set aside the other, having been adopted by some of the best writers, English and Ameri- can, and very generally by the newspaper press. The admitted circumstance that the imperfect participles of only a few transitive verbs can be properly used in a passive sense, while the other form of expression can be universally applied, 8 an important reason for adopting the latter; and those who are opposed to the latter may, perhaps, become reconciled to it when it is suggested that it may be easily and naturally regarded as a convenient and abbreviated method of expressing the process ot any work ; thus, " The house is leing huilt^'''' is a brief way of saying, "The house is in process of construction — "is (in process of) being built." "The book was being prepared"'' — "The book was (in process of) being prepared." AVhile, therefore, good usage admits the use of the imperfect participles of a few transitive verbs in a passive sense, it must now be acknowledged that perhaps equally respectable and far more general usage is in favor of employing the perfect participle preceded by the imperfect partici[)le to denote the process or pro- gression of any work. EXERCISES ON PARTICIPLES. 73 14. The Participle is often used in an absolute manner^ not depending on other words ; for instance, ^''Returning home, I found my father sick." 15. A noun before an imperfect or perfect participle, used as a noun, must be in the possessive case ; as, " Much will depend on the doctor's coming frequently." " His com ing may restore the patient," ^ LESSON XXIII. EXERCISES ON PARTICIPLES. Write the following sentences in accordance with the observations in the last lesson. I charge him with a forsaking his duty. Noah prepared an ark for the saving his house. By the obtaining wisdom you will secure esteem. In avoiding of one error, guard against its oppo- site. By obtaining of money, you will have the means of travel- ling. This was said in hearing of many persons. By the omit- ting to attend to my commission, he caused me great loss. On hearing of his mistake, he offered an apology. The book is read- ing by a friend. I could have saw them. Father come home an hour ago. Have the books came? The moon has rose. The lad- der has fell. My faith was not shook by that event. The boat was drove ashore. The question is now discussing. A great scene is now enacting at Harper's Ferry. An effort is making to eject him. The bridge was building. Many elegant churches are now erecting in New York. While the ceremony was performing, many withdrew. Gold is found in California. Goods are now selling at very low prices. Tlie court was then holding. A re- port of the speech is now printing. Garments are now preparing. A brilliant victory was winning. In the hearing of the will read, much time was occupied. He was remarkable in the patient suf- fering calamities, or in patient suffering of ills. This was no bet- ter than rejecting of the proposal. The learning any trade well is 74 THE ADVERB. the right course. Meekness appears in suffering of wrong — ^in the suffering wrong — in the suffering of wrong, patiently. Because of indulging his sons, the Lord chastised old Eli. This was the same as the rejecting the proposal. LESSON XXIV. THE ADVERB. 1. The adverb is a word used to modify or limit the meaning of a verb, or participle, of an adjective, or of an- other adverb. It also, sometimes, modifies a noun, a prep- osition, the clause of a sentence, and even a whole sentence. It is a convenient and most important class of words, express- ing in a single word what would otherwise require several words, and thus rendering language more concise and impressive. Thus, solemnly expresses the same idea as the phrase, in a solemn man- ner. 2. Adverbs are either primitive, or derivative ; the former being used only as adverbs (e. g., not^ now^ theriy &c.) ; tlie latter being derived from nouns or adjectives ; as, nightZy, hour/?/ ; soft///, pio\is/?/, meek/y. Classes of Adverbs. (1.) Adverhs of Place, which answer to the questions, where? whither? whence? and indicate either the place in which^ to which^ ox from which. Among these are, Aere, where^ there^ yon- der^ nowhere^ up^ down^ anywhere^ somewhere^ elsewhere^ within^ without^ whither^ thither^ hither^ whence^ &c. (2.) Adverbs of Time, answering to the questions, when? how often ? referring to time past ; as, yesterday.^ lately^ recently .^ al- ■)eady^ &c. : to time present; as, now^ to-day^ instantly^ &c. : to time future; as, hereafter^ to-morrow^ ly-and-ly^ &c. : to time absolute ; as, never^ always^ ever., &c. : to time relative ; as, then.^ ichen^ l)efore.^ after .^wMle.^ &c. : to time repeated ; as, often., again^ occasionally., &c. : to order of time ; rs., first., secondly., &c. CLASSES OF ADVERBS. 75 (8.) Adverbs of Number, answering to the question, how many ? as, once^ twice^ &;g.^ firstly^ secondly^ &c. (4.) Adverbs of DEaREE, answering to the question, how much? as, little, much, greatly, very, far, full, fully, enough, infinitely^ scarcely, but, partly, merely, almost, how, however, &c. (5.) Adverbs of Ma:nnek, answering to the question, how? These are subdivided (1) into adverbs of quality; as, well, ill^ wisely, fain, &c. (2) Of doubt ; as, possibly. (3) Of affirma- tion; as, truly, doubtless, yea, yes, indeed, &c. (4) Of negation ; as, no, not, nay, by no means, not at all, &c. (5) Of interroga- tion ; as, how, why, wherefore, &c. (6) Of comparison; as, more, most, better, best, worse, worst, less, least, very, almost, little^ aliJce, &c. (6.) Adverbs of place (here, there, and where) compounded with a preposition ; as, hereof, thereof, whereof; hereto, thereto, where- to ; hereby, &c. ; herewith, &c. ; herein, &c. ; therefore (therefor), &c. ; hereupon, &c. (7.) Adverbs compounded of a noun with a prefix a, used in- stead of at or on ; as, aside, ahead, &c. (8.) Conjoining Adverbs or Adverbial Conjunctions ; as, when, where, whence, wherever, &c., which often conjoin sentences, be- Bides expressing the attributes of time and place. 3. Comparative and Superlative Degrees of an adverb are expressed, in some cases, by adding er and est to the simple adverb ; in other cases by prefixing mnore and most ; as, soon^ sooner^ soonest ; truly, more truly, most truly. Other adverbs are irregular ; as, badly ^ worse^ worst / niuch^ m,ore^ most ; well^ better, best. LESSON XXV. POSITION OF ADVERBS IN A SENTENCE, AND THEIR MIS- APPLICATION. 1. The adverbs only and merely are very liable to be wrongly placed ; thus, in the sentence : " We find that the words were not only uttered by a mortal man like onrf^elves, but by one who wn.^ 70 MISAPPLICATION OF ADVERBS. more tlian most others exposed," &c. This position oi only leads ns to expect that some other act than utterance was performed, whereas it should have been so placed as to present the antithesis between a mortal man, simply, and other men peculiarly exposed, &c. Hence not only should be placed after uttered. The arrange- ii.ent would be still better thus : '' These words were uttered by a man not only mortal like ourselves, but by one," &c. 2. The meaning of a sentence may he altogether changed iy different locations of this adverb. Thus : " I only am left to tell thee," means, " I, and no one besides." " I am left only to tell tliee," means, " I am left for no other purpose than to tell thee." "I am left to tell thee only^^'' means, "to tell no other person^ The following sentence requires correction : " He had suffered the woodward only to use his discretion in the distant woods. In the groves about his house, he allowed no marking hammer but his own." This means that he had suffered no other person than the woodward to use, &c. ; but the next sentence shows that a different meaning was intended, and which is conveyed by placing only after woods. The best arrangement is the following : "It was in the distant woods only that he suffered the wood- ward," &c. 3. The adverbs chiefly^ at lea^t^ firs% require similar care in their location. 4. Ever and never should not be confounded and misapplied, as in the following instances: ''The Lord is king, be the people never so impatient." " If I make myself never so clean." " Charm he never so wisely." " Let the offence be of never so high a na- ture." The word never is an adverb of time, and not of degree, whereas, in such sentences, an adverb of degree is wanted, and ecer^ being an adverb of degree as well as of time, is proper to be used instead of never. So in the following example : " If I take eser so much of this, it will not hurt me." 5. A double negative is not consistent with modern polite usage, if a negation be intended. ''''Nor did he not observe them," means, '' He did observe them." " His manners are not inele- gant," means, "His manners are (somewhat) elegant." Such a phrase as, " He did not pay nothing^'''' must not therefore be used to express the idea, " He did not pay any thing." POSITION OF ADVERBS. 77 6. Exceedingly is usually applied in a good sense; excesshely ill a bad sense; as, ^^exceedingly good;" '''•excessively bad." 7. Only must not be confounded with alone; as, "The alone God." It should be, " The only God ;" i. e., there is no other be- sides him. ''The alone God" would mean, "God unattended by another." Exercises. Write correctly, as to arrangement and use of adverbs, the following sentences : I am resolved to have that pleasure, whether I am there or no. Whether love be natural or no. Not only we found her busy, but pleased and happy even. We always should prefer happiness to ])leasure. He was excessively generous. The other was ex- ceedingly mean. Never so little medicine is injurious. ^ Gentle- men are not requested to enter the ladies' cabin. I never did repent of doing good, nor shall not now. Never no imitator grew up to his author. Never so little labor wearies her. I cannot by no means allow you to do this. Nor let no physician be sent for. Ariosto, Tasso, Galileo, no more than Raphael, were not born in republics. LESSON XXVI. POSITION OF ADVERBS IN A SENTENCE. Great care must be taken, in locating the adverb, to indicate clearly what word or clause it is designed to limit or modify. Neglect here often destroys the perspicuity of a sentence, or perverts its meaning. The general rule requires adverbs, for the most part, to be placed before adjectives, after verbs active or neuter, and frequently between the auxiliary and the principal verb ; as, *'He pronounced a very excellent discourse." " lie pronounced his discourse excellently^ and was attentively heard ?^ 78 POSITION OF ADVERBS. 1. The adverb is placed before the participles and the adverbs which it modifies ; as, " He is much helovedy " He is very much beloved." 2. The adverb commonly follows a verb wlien single; as, *^He fought Iravely ;^'' but when, without obscuring the sense, it will sound better to place the adverb before the verb, it may thus be placed; as, ''He often came to the house." 3. The adverb usually follows the object of a transitive verb; as, *'She recited her lesson admirably y 4. In a sentence containing one auxiliary verb and a participle, the adverb is usually placed between them, or after the participle; as, "He was politely treated;" or, "He was treated politely ^ 5. If the sentence contain two auxiliaries, the adverb generally follows the second ; as, " He has been politely treated ;" yet it may in this case also follow the participle; as, "He has been treated politely.^'' Not unfrequently, for emphasis, the adverb precedes the auxiliaries ; as, " And assuredly you were not igno- rant of the fact." 6. Emphatic adverbs may commence a sentence; as, '''' Neter was there a falser statement." Emphatic adverbs may be placed apart from the word they modify; as, "How wonderfully this man triumphed over every difficulty !" Interrogatory and ex- clamatory phrases and sentences require this position of the ad- verb. 7. The adverb should not be used as an adjective, being not designed to express quality, but manner; as, "The then Con- gress." " Thine often infirmities." " It appeared strangely!''' "How beautifully she appeared!" In such cases an adjective should be used in place of the adverb. On the other hand, the adjective should not be used in place of the adverb ; as, " exces- sive stupid," for "excessively stupid." 8. The adverb not follows, while the adverb ne'oer precedes, the principal verb (or its auxiliary), to which they refer ; as, " He did not come, as he promised." No should not be used in the sense of not in such connections; as in the sentence, " He did not say whether he would go or no ;" that is, no (go). It should be not. " She never comes to see us " " She comes not to see us." 9. Hence^ thence^ and ichence should never b^ preceded hy from as being implied. EXERCISES UPON ADVERBS. 79 10. ITever use how before the conjunction that^ nor instead ot tiat ; as, ''He declared how that he woidd go;" "He declared how he would be there." It .should be : '' He declared that^''^ &c. 11. The word enough M\ov7^ the adjective and the noun; as, "Bread enough^ and to s[K'ire." "The place was large enoughy In the first of these instances, the word is used adjectively, and, ai3 an adjective, should never be placed before the uoun. 12. Do not place an adverb immediately after to of the infini- tive ; as, " Be careful to never violate the Sabbath." It should bo written, " never to violate." Exercises. Write correctly, as to arrangement and proper use of adverbs, the following sentences : The bridge will be never completed. It is unpleasant continu- ally to be at work. This construction sounds rather harshly. He impertinently spoke to me. The adjective is put absolutely. Such proceedings are of seldom occurrence. Velvet feels smoothly. Seldom or ever do we see those forsaken who trust in God. From thence he came to Rome. From hence you must discover your error. His place is enough large. You see how that not many wise men are called. I have near finished this lesson. I was aware how that they had heard it. He proceeded to wisely dis- course upon the event. See whether this be thy son's coat or no. I have enough cake. Ascertain whether it is so or no. Nothing never can justify your act. Fj-om whence art thou ? I did not like neither him nor his mother. Be sure to correctly locate the adverbs in a sentence. Nobody never invented nothing so com- plete as this machine. He was scarce sensible of it. Never take no shape nor appearance of hypocrisy. I have dissertations on the prophecies which have remarkably been fulfilled. He told me how that he would go to New York. Instead of looking con- temptuously down on the crooked in mind or in body, we should look up thankfully to God, who has made us to differ. If you are blessed naturally with a good memory, continually exercise it. / 80 PBEPOSITIONS. LESSON XXVII. PREPOSITIONS. 1. These are words placed before nouns, or an equiva- lent, for the purpose of expressing the relation which they sustain to some word or words which the phrase is thus made to qualify. Such word or words may be called the antecedent, or subjective term of relation ; the word or words introduced by the preposition, and dependent on it, form the consequent, or objective term of relation. The antecedent term is ascertained by using the interrogative what before the preposition ; the consequent by using what after the preposition. Thus : " Out of every grove the voice of pleasure warbles;" we ask, what is out of &c. ? and the answer gives us the antecedent relative, i. e., "the voice of pleasure warbles." We ask again, out of what f The answer is, '' every grove," and this is the objec- tive or consequent relative. 2. Prepositions require the noun or pronoun following them to be in the objective case ; as, " he came to me and to them?'* Sentences and clauses are sometimes the objects of prepositions ; in other words, the consequent term of relation ; as, " Besides selling his hooJcs^ he gave up his situation." '' From what has leen said^ " Without seeking any more justifiable reasons^ '' In comparing the proofs^'' &c. The object of a preposition is sometimes omitted ; as, " He is a man I became acquainted m^A," that is, ''''whom I became ac- quainted withy The antecedent term of relation is sometimes omitted ; as, " [To speak] in a word, he is ruined." PROPER SELECTION OF PRKPOSITIONS. 81 Selection of Prepositions. 3. Care is required to select suitable prepositions. As a general rule, Latin, Greek, and French derivatives are fol- lowed by a preposition corresponding with that used in the compound word ; thus, " to eccpel from y" " to sympathize with ;^'> "to a(^apt ^o." This rule, however, is often de- parted from ; as, " aversion i5o" (not from) ; " to submit to^^ (not under) ; " we prefer ^o" (not before) ; &c. (1.) The preposition of used improperly for on. **He is resolved o/ going," &c. ''He was dependent of the Papal crown." " He called ^that person, and waited o/him." Of IS improperly supplied after some words; as, '' It decides of the fortunes of men ;" '' rain has been falling of a. long time." Q/" is improperly used for in; as, " He found difficulty of writ' ing." Of instead o^ for ; as, "It might have given me a taste of its antiquities." \ taste of o. thing implies actual enjoyment of it; a taste /or a thing implies only a capacity of enjoyment. (2.) Kespecting the prepositions to and /or. After ^ improperly used instead of to ; as, "He had a great re- gard after his futlier's commands." To^ improperly used instead of ^pon; as, " You have bestowed your favors to the most deserving." Instead of of; as, " His abhorrence to that superstitious figure." "It was no diminution to his greatness." Instead of for ; as, " A good change to the better." Instead of against; as, "Your prejudice to my cause." Instead of from ; as, " The English were a different people then to what they are at present." " He regarded it as a derogation of his sufficiency." Instead of with; as, "In compliance to the declaration," &c. For^ used improperly instead of of; as, " There is no need for it." " It is more than they thought/or." " More than he knows /or." Here the/or is suj)erflu()us. (3.) Errors in relation to with and upon. With improperly used instead of to ; as, " Reconciling himself 4* 82 PROPER SELKCTIOK OF PREPOSITIONS. with the king." " Those things which have resemblance with each other," &c. '' Consonant with one common nature." " Agree- able with the sacred text." With ])roperly denotes concomitancy or assistance ; hy^ the proximate cause or instrument; as, "The soldiers entered the breach m^A loaded muskets; their leader fell mortally wounded hy a musket-ball." We may say, " with prayers and tears he sup- ];licated pardon," because prayers and tears are not instruments but accompaniments of the act. On and upon ought to be distinguished, as the signification of in differs from that of into; as, "The bird flew upon {up on) the house, and when there, sat on the roof." In the first case motion to is implied ; in the second, simply a state of rest. Again up on (upon) would properly signify elevation^ and a state of rest. Upon^ however, does not always imply motion up^ or even elevation; for we say, " He threw himself upon the ground." Thus, on and upon are usually confounded. With^ instead oifrom ; as, " I dissent with the examiner." Upon^ or on^ improperly used instead of of; as, " It is a use that I should not have tliought (97^." " He was made much on at Argos." Upoji and on^ used wrongly instead of in ; as, " A greater quan- tity may be taken from the heap, without making any sensible al- teration upon it." " Intrusted to persons on whom the parliament 30uld confide." Upon^ instead of over ; as, 'Mf policy can prevail upon force." (4.) Errors respecting m, from., &c. In^ used wrongly instead of about or concerning ; as, "They 5?hould be informed in some parts of his character." Into., instead of under; as, "Upon such occasions as fell into their cognizance," &c. Into., instead of in ; as, " That variety of factions into which we are still engaged." As the preposition in implies rest.^ and into.^ motion to., it is plain that, when two verbs differ in meaning, one implying motion and the other where., they cannot properly be followed by one and the same preposition; as, ''^rushed and expired in the flames," that is, " rushed into and expired in the flames." From^ instead of ly ; as, " Could he have profited /rom repeated experiences." EXERCISES ON PREPOSlTIONSv 83 Fi'om superfluous oit^v forbear ; as, '' He could not forbear from appointing the pope," &c. After wrongly used instead of of; as, "A strict observance after times and fashions." Out of instead of from; as, "Neither of them shall make me swerve out of the path." Among^ because it implies a number of things, cannot properly be connected with every ^ which relates to one thing; as, "Which is found among every species of liberty." " The opinion seemed to gain ground among everybody." (5.) 2'o is used before nouns of place after verbs of motion ; as, " I went to town." At is used generally after the verb to he; as, " I have been at New York ;" " I was at the place you speak of;" "He arrived at Boston." Before countries, cities, and large towns, in is used, while before villages, single houses, and cities in distant countries, at is used ; as, " He lives in South America," " at Valparaiso." " He lives at Irvington." It is very seldom that good usage allows of an ellipsis of the preposition. It is in some cases allowed after worthy and Ian- ished. Sometimes either of two prepositions may be used with pro- priety ; as, "Expert at a thing," or "Expert in a thing." When prepositions are subjoined to nouns, they are generally the same as the corresponding verbs require; as, "a compliance m^A," "to comply with;'''' "a disposition to tyranny," "a dis- position to tyrannize." Between properly relates only to two objects or classes of objects. Among or amidst relates to more than two, or to surrounding objects. Exercise. Write out correctly all the above examples, and those which follow : He feels a difficulty of fixing his mind. He was accused for betraying his master. To this he has no better defence than that. He confides on you. You have no occasion of his aid. We searched the man whom he suspected for stealing his purse. He entertained a prejudice to her. He relied in the report made 84 COLLOCATION OF PREPOSITIONS. to him. The two men differ widely with each other. Aside of all regard to honor, keep clear of it. They are gone in the fields. Divide an apple between the three. The news has passed among every one of them. They quarrelled among each other. Amidst every danger he remained firm. I was at Philadelphia last year. We were detained to the house and tlius disappointed in our walk. This originated from the mistake of the servant. It has no comnmuication to tlie other building. 1 am disappointed of^ the performance as inferior to what Was promised. Be worthy me, as I am unworthy you. On this side the river. The two sat opposite each otlier. Ovid was banished Rome. It is worthy your care. There was a contest between a lion, an ass, and a fox. His conduct is agreeable with his promise. Take hold on it. The master witli his servant were lost. I was thinking on that. De- pending of his relations to do it for him. More than we thought for. Without you see miracles. They quarrel among one another. Among a nation so civilized. Made much on it. No need for that. Free of blame. Different to what is said. It was divided between fifty. We value ourselves by drawing. He restored himself into the good graces of the critics. They congratulated to themselves. Between you and I, he is not to be relied on. Do you know who you are speaking to? Who does he speak to so impertinently? They lived some time at France. He lives at New York. He cast it in the water. Come in this yard. We are sometimes disappointed of things, which before possession prornised great enjoyment. LESSON XXVill. PREPOSITIONS. — THEIR COLLOCATION AND REPETITION. 1. Prepositions, like Adverbs, should generally be placed as near as possible to the antecedent and consequent term^ of relation. The name implies that the Preposition precedes the word do KEPETITION OF PREPOSITIONS. 85 pending on it in grammatical construction, but poets frequently reverse this order ; as, " the woods among, '''^ 2. It is an idiom of the English language, more, however, in familiar than in solemn discourse, that the prepositions of^ to^ i7i, for^ &c., are often placed at the end of a sen- tence, considerably removed from the noun or pronoun that depends upon them ; as, " Tliese are matters wTiich he is entirely ignorant o/;" '' wJiat he is an entire stranger to ; ^'"wMcTi he is engaged m;" '•'the sum which he sold it/6>r;",that is, "matters of wMch^'' '' to what^"^ &c. 3. The preposition is sometimes, though inelegantly, separated from its noun, because another preposition is connected also with it; as, "To suppose the zodiac and planets to be efficient o/*, and antecedent to^ themselves." In forms of law, where great exactness is required, this mode of expression may be tolerated, but in all other com- positions it may, and should, generally be avoided. 4. The preposition may in some cases be repeated with good effect : Thus Gibbon: "Exhausted ly the abuse of her strength, ly superstition, her pride might," (fee. ; " the favorites of fortune united every refinement of conveniences, of elegance, and oj splendor." So Paul : /n journeyings often, in ])erils of waters, in perils of robbers, &c. See 2 Cor. xi. 26. The repetition of the preposition causes the mind to dwell on each object of interest. In the Litany of the Church of England the preposition from is found sixteen times in four short clauses, and in the two following clauses great earnestness is expressed by the repetition ly before each member of the prayer: '-^ By X\\q mystery of thy holy incarnation; Sy thy holy nativity and cir- cumcision ; hy thy baptism, fasting, and temptation, Good Lord, deliver us!" ^'' By thine agony and bloody sweat; hy thy cross and passion ; hy thy precious death and burial ; hy thy," &c. 5. Avoid a needless use of the preposition; as, "His ser- vants ye are to whom ye obey." 86 EXERCISES ON PREPOSITIONS. Exercises. 1. Write the following sentences so as to conform to Observation 3. He came to, but was driven from, the city of Boston. He was hired to take care of, and to give feed to, some horses. We saw an opossum, which the native discovered in a tree and climbed up for. He boasted of, and contended for, the privilege. 2. Place the preposition and its object, in the following sentences, in a position which will render the sense more obvious and the sentence more agreeable. Errors are sometimes chargeable to the most celebrated wri- ters, with respect to the use of shall and will. He introduced as great a variety as possible of cadences. Establish to yourselves au interest in him who, in his hand, holds the reins of the whole creation. A ready-made fortune seldom fits the man who comes into possession, like ready-made clothing. He offered several exhortations to them suitable to their condition. Precision is to be studied above all things in laying down a method. There are some defects which must be acknowledged in the Odyssey. Beau- ties, however, there are, in the concluding books, of the tragic kind. On a tombstone in a certain churchyard is to be seen the following touching epitaph: "Erected to the memory of John Phillips, accidentally shot, as a mark of affection by his brother." Many who would not utter a falsehood for the world, are yet eternally scheming to produce false impressions respecting facts, characters, and opinions on the minds of others. 3. In writing the following sentences, omit the superflu- ous prepositions ; The house came together to consider of the matter. A gang of banditti sought to be plundering of Eome. Notwithstanding of his learning, he could not retain his position. God divided be- tween the light and between the darkness. This verb cannot admit of an objective case after it. God is now punishing of that nation. CONJUNCTIONS. 87 4. Some prepositions with their objects, may be repeated Mdth good effect in the following : In perils by the heathen, in the city, the wilderness, the sea, among false brethren ; in weariness and painfulness, watchings often, hunger and thirst, cold and nakedness. LESSON XXIX. CONJUNCTIONS OR CONNECTIVES. 1. This class of words is used to connect words, phrases, clauses, and sentences. The conjunction that often introduces a sentence or clause which is the subject or object of a verb ; as, " That Webster was a pow- erful reasoner, is universally admitted." "That Washington Irving is one of the most elegant of American writers, no one questions." 2. There are certain conjunctions whose correlatives ought to be carefully attended to. (Thus arranged by Harrison.) I am the same to-day . .. .as yesterday. It was exactly such,-. ,.. ,as this. The same man that (Relat. Pron.), not 2^q^ 'primitwes ; formed words, derivatives. Primitives are self-significant words. Derivatives are formed of one self-significant word, and some addition which modifies its meaning. The root-words of any language are few and easily acquired; the derivatives are very numerous, but as they all have meanings alcin to that or those of their primitives, they are easily under- stood, even when not remembered or formerly known. The words which are formed by the combination of two or more self-significant words are, for the most part, derived from the Anglo-Saxon, and form the groundwork of our common speech. Almost any two of these may be united to form a name expressive of any thing which combines in itself the ideas impfied in the primaries ; e. g.^ moon-light, corn-field, ear-ache, hail-storm, Anglo-Saxon primitives are^ for the most part,, words of one syllable,, and denote — 1st. Oljects of sense ^ or sensible qualities ; e. g., boy, cold, dale, darkness, earth, fire, frost, hail, hill, land, light, moon, rain, sea, sky, sleet, snow, fitar, stream, sun, thunder, wood, water, &c. 2d. The several relations of life; e. g., brother, child, daughter, fathei, friend, husband, kin, mother, sister, son, wife, &c. 3d. Home oljects ; e. g., board, home, house, hearth, roof, fireside, seat, &c. 4th. Common business matters; e. g., bake, brew, beg, buy, craft, cheap- en, hack, mow, moil, reap, shear, shop, sow, thresh, toil, touch, traflic, trick, truck, weave, wed, work. • 5th. Nam,es of common tilings ; e. g., l^read, brick, cloth, nflass, jsrold, iro?>, ANGLO-SAXON PKIMITIVES. 95 lead, leather, stone, slate, silver, wood; barn, barley, corn, field, farm, flock, grass, hay, hook, meadow, oats, plough, rye, rake, sail, spade, ship, straw, scythe, wheat ; bud, bark, branch, fruit, leaf, root, seed, stem, stalk, thorn ; ash, beech, birch, box, elm, fir, holm, lime, oak, plane ; bat, bull, oow, cat, deer, dog, fox, hare, hen, hog, kite, mouse, mole, pig, rat, toad, weasel, &c. 6th. Times and seasons; e. ^., summer, spring, harvest, winter; da^, week, month, year, yore, night, morn, noon, evening. 7th. Gammon feelings and their manifestations ; e. g.^ blush, fear, glad- ness, glee, groan, laugh, love, sigh, smile, sob, tear, weep, &c. 8th. Common crimes and faults; e. g., lie, murder, rob, steal, thieve, &c. 9th. The parts of the body ; e.g., arm, brow, back, chin, eye, ear, finger, foot, hand, leg, lip, mouth, nose, teeth, &c. 10th. Particular colors., sounds, and common actions ; e. g., black, blue, brown, gray, green, pink, red, white, yellow; bark, buzz, chirp, creak, clash, clang, growl, grunt, howl, hiss, hum, low, mew, rattle, roar, ^ustle, squeak, squeal, whine ; bite, clap, creep, crawl, dart, frisk, grii., gape, grasp, gripe, grab, jink, jerk, jump, kick, leap, nip, quirk, rise, run, rush, sit, spring, sprawl, scamper, skip, skim, scowl, squint, squirt, squeeze, stagger, slip, slink, slap, slide, spurn, swim, wink, wriggle, yawn. 11th. Satirical or humorous expressions; e.g., bandy, churl, dnib, fiend, gaby, gawky, gaunt, grim, grubworm, haggler, jabber, knave, lanky, lean, lazy, leer, mawkish, nobby, paltry, sly, sleek, slink, slobber, scofi", scrank, scraggy, sulky, scum, shabby, twit, trash, termagant, ugly, waspish (N. B.) Out of the above words 2000 compounds may be formed. The words of the Anglo-Saxon portion of the English language are the simplest, strongest, and most liomely ; hence their pre- dominance in any style secures popularity and ready Cv>mprehen- sion among the common people, whose vernacular tongue it yet, in a manner, continues.* * "The style of Bunyan is delightful to every reader, and invaluable a*s a study to every person who wishes to obtain a wide command over the English language. The vocabulary is the vovtibulary of the common peo- ple. There is not an expression — if we except a few technical terms of theology — which would puzzle the rudest peasant. We have observed Beveral pages which do not contain a single word of more than two sylla- bles. Yet no writer has said more exactly what he meant to say. Foi magnificence, for pathos, for vehement exhortation, for subtle disquisition for every purpose of the poet, the orator, and the divine, this homely dia- lect — the dialect of plain working-men — was sufificient. There is no book in our literature on which we would so readily stake the fame of the old unpolluted English language, no book which shows so well how rich that language is in its own proper wealth, and how little it has been improved by mi tluit it has borrowed." — Macavlitifs Emiy^* 96/ ROOT-FORMS FROM THE LATIN. 7'Tie words which are composed of a self -significant root and a modifying addition are^for the mostpart^ derived from the Latin or Greek languages. The following I'ules will be serviceable in enabling students to trace the words they intend to employ to their Latin root-forms ; viz. : 1st. The Latin terminal syllables, alis., ctus, ctum^ gnus^ gnum^ idus^ ssus^ xus^ &c., lose their last two letters on being adopted into English : as, oriental-^'^, effect-'ws, edict-'wm, benign-t^, sign- um^ turbid-ws, remiss-'W5, prolix-i^s, &c. 2d. The Latin terminal \s, a otistom, -al, ity, ize. Moveo, 1 :jhange p ace, -able, ment, less. Y Multus, many, -iple, iply, ipotent. Munus, a gift, -ificent. Com — icate. Muto, I change, -able, ation, iny.^ Natus, born, -ive, ion, al, ity, 'so, ure, al, ist, ism. Navis, a ship, -y, al, igate. Necto, nexum.. Con-, an- Nego, I deny, -ative, ation. .Z?d— ade. Noceo, I hurt, -ent, uous. /;i— ent. Noraen, nomims, a name, -ative, al, ation. Ag-, cog-, prce- ^ox, noGtis, night, -urnal. Equi — ial. JVbsco, notum, 1 know, -orious, ably, ion. Cog — e, -ible. JVota, a mark, -ry, ble, tion. Novns, new, -el, ist, t;^, ice. JVuUns, not one, -ify, ity. An- Numerus, a number, -atioD uble, al. Nuncio, I tell. An-, e-, de- -ate. Nutrio, I suckle, -ment, tii^n, tive. Octo, eight, -ober, avo, ave, agon. Oculus, the eye, -ist, ar. iSin—9V. Omnis, all, -fie, genous, potent, scient, present. Opera, a work, -ation, ose, atic. Opto, I wish, -ion, ative. Ad- Ordo, arrangement, -er, ain, inal, inance. Orno, 1 deck, -ate, ly, ament, ally. Oro, I beseech, -acle, ison, ator. Far, equal. Com — e, fi?is— age. Far'io, I beget, -ent, al, age, turient Faro, I get ready, -ade. Fre — e, Ap — el. ^ars, partis, a share, -y, ial, ly. De "Passiis, a step, -age, able, en^er. Fate/; patr'is, -nal, nity ; -on, imony, iot. Fatior, passus, I suffer, -ence, ent ; ive, ion, ible. Pax, pac'is, peace, -ify, ication. Fel\o, pulsus, I drive, Im-, com-, re- ; im — e, (w—Q. FendQo, 1 hang, -ant, ent, ulum.. Ap-, de- sus- Fendo, I pay. Ex-, com-, dis- Feniieo, 1 am grieved, -ent, ly, ial. Tes, pedis, -al, estal, estrian. Feto, I ask, -ition. Com — ence. Fictus, painted, -s, ure, esque, oriaU Flaceo,! please, -id, ly, ness, ity. Planus, level, -e, ary. Ex — ation. Flaudo, plausum, I make an approv- ing noise, -it; -ible, ive, ly. Ap^ 100 ROOT- FORMS FROM THE LATIN. Plenw^^ full, -ty, teous, tiful, arj, itude. Pleo^ pletwm, I fill. Com-, im — ment, com-, de-, re — ion. PUco, I fold. Ap — able, com — ate. Pondus, joom^ms, -able, ous, osity. Pc^nc , posni, positmn, I put or place. De-, com-, ex — ent ; ap-, com-, de-, op — ite. De — e, com-, ex- Populus, the people, -ous, ar, ate, ace. Porto, I carry, -er, ly, able, al, age. Com-, de-, im-, re-, sup- Posse, to be able, -ession, ible. Precox, I pray, -atory. Be-, im — ate. Prehendo, I seize. Ap-, com-, re- Presswm., squeezed. Gom-, de-, im-, , re- -Primws, first, -er, eval, al, ary, ative. Pi'ivus, one's own, -ate, ily, ity, acy. Probo, I try, -able, e, ity, ative. Prope, near, -er, ty, ly, riety, rietor. Proximw^, nearest, -ate, ly, ity, o. Pvgnsi, a tight, -acious. Ee — ant. Pnlvis, pulver'i^, dust, -ate, ize, ous. Purgo, I cleanse, -e, ative, atory, ation. Purn&, clean, -e, ly, ify, itan, ity. Puto, I lop, think. Com-, de-, im — ation. Quisitum, sought. Dis-, in-, re — ion. Quies^ guietis, -cence, cent ; -ly, ism, ist, ude. Rapio, I snatch, -d, dly, dity, ne, er. /^ai! us, judging, -ional, ly, ize, ist, ity. Hego, rectwm., I rule, -al, ity, alia, ency ; -or, ory, itude, angular. Rideo, riswm, I laugh, -icule, iculous; -ible, ibility. Rhus, a stream, -er, ulet, al, ry. Rogo, I ask. Ab-, ar-, de-, inter — ate. Ruptum, broken, -ure, ion. Ab-, cor-, dis-, inter- Yus, rur'is, the country, -tic, ity ; al. Jacer, holy, -ed, ifice, ilege, ist, an. Sagax, wise, -city, cious, ly, ness. Salio, I leap, -ly, mon, lent, tant. Salus, health, -tary, te, tation. Sanctus, pure, -ify, imocious, ly. Sanguis, blood, -ne, nary, neous. y a conjunc tion^ are not separated ly a comma ; as, " Truth is fair and artless, simple and sincere, uniform and consistent." " We must be wise or foolish." Words used in pairs should he separated in pairs^ as in the last example but one. This Rule (4th) may be applied to two or more adverhs in im- mediate succession^ without or with a connective ; as, He con- ducted himself bravely and decorously. Exercises. Apply the rules given above to the following sentences requiring commas, by writing and punctuating them : It is folly presumption wickedness to attempt to supplement God's means of saving souls by man's. — Man the greatest of men Whitefield Wesley yea Peter Paul and John are but instruments and as instruments must do the Master's work in the Master's way. — Howard's was mercy to the body Whitefield's to the soul. — This is very definite and very explicit and since there is no limitation caution or reserve it seems intended to Apply to all times places and persons and to be set forth as God's method to be used by man fo** saving souls down to the end of time. 5>UN0TITATI0N. 131 LESSON XLVIII. PUNCTUATION. — THE COMMA. Rule Y. — Tv^o or 7nore verbs or participles in succession^ re* lated to the same subject^ are separated by the comma ; as, *' In a letter, we may advise, exhort, comfort, request, and discuss." •' Virtue supports in adversity, moderates in prosperity." When the verbs are immediately connected by a conjunction^ they a/re not separated by the comma ; as, *' The study of natural history expands and elevates the mind." ** Whether we eat or drink, labor or sleep, we should be moderate." Here the pairs of verbs are separated as pairs by the co7nma. So with the participle ; as, "A man, fearing, serving, and loving his Creator." "By being ad- mired and flattered, we are often corrupted." When participles are followed by modifying words^ they are generally separated by a comma from other parts of the sen- tence ; as, "The king, appromng the plan^ put it in execution." "All mankind compose one family, assembled under the eye of one common Father." Rule VI. — Grammatical ellipsis^ particularly of the verb or connective^ often requires to be indicated by a comma ; as, " Industry, steadily, prudently, and vigorously pursued, leads to wealth." " Love, joy, peace, and blessedness are reserved for the good." " From law arises security ; from security, curiosity ; from curiosity, knowledge." Rule YII. — In a complex sentence, the dependent clause is separated by a comma from the principal clause ; as, " When our vices leave us, we flatter ourselves that we leave them." **The temperate man's pleasures are durable, because they are regular." Rule VIII. — An absolute (or independent) phrase, whether participial or infinitive, and other clauses and phrases involved m sentences, must be separated by a comma from other parts of a sentence ; as, 132 PUNCTUATION. '* To confess tl/e truth, I was in fault." " The messenger has returned, his business being accomplished." " The messenger, his business being accomplished, 'has returned." " It is, in many cases, apparent." EuLE IX. — Se'ceral infinitive phrases succeeding each other, either as subjects or objects of a verb, are separated by a com- ma ; as, "To relieve the indigent, to comfort the afflicted, to protect the mno- cent, to reward the deserving, are humane and noble employments." Exercises. Supply commas in the following sentences, according to the rules already given : Of all our faculties that of speech is perhaps least cultivated yet is moal susceptible of cultivation and pays best the piuns bestowed upon it. — Love sincere earnest practical supreme continuous everlasting is due to our Cre- ator. — The teacher arriving at this moment put a stop to our folly. — We should regard pity succor defend the poor. — By being flattered praised and exalted he ceased to be humble. — When we go to the city we part with the pleasures of the country. — The clock striking three we hastened home. — Six hours sleep for a man ; seven for a woman ; eight for a child ; and nine for a pig. — John assisted Thomas Thomas William William Henry and thus they all made their way in the world. — The babe becomes a boy the boy a youth the youth a man of full growth. — David Evans Morgan Williams along with their wives and children are to join us this evening: in our festivities. LESSON XLIX. PUNCTUATION. — THE COMMA. Rule X. — A single noun in apposition with another, ie nxtt separated from other words hy a comma ; hid when it is modified 'by several tcords^ then the phrase requires- a comma to separate it from the rest of the sentence: as, '* The apostle Peter." " Peter, the apostle, preached to the Jews." "Peter, the apostle of the circumcision, preached to the Jews." Rule XI. — The two members of a comparative sentence, if they are long, are distinguished lyy a comma ; but if short, not: thus, " As the hart panteth after the water-brook, 80 doth my soul pant after PUNCTUATION. 133 thee." " Better is a dinner of herbs with love, than a stalled ox and hatred therewith." " Mankind act oftemr from caprice than reason." Rule XII. — The comma is used to indicate contrast^ opposition^ or remarhable points in a sentence^ and sometimes separates words closely connected in construction. *' Though deep, yet clear ; though gentle, yet not dull ; Strong, without rage ; without o'erf.owing, full." *' A good man will love himself too well to lose^ and his neighbor too well to uin^ »i. estate by gaming." " Not only in union with^ but in oppo- sition to^ the vii»ws and conduct of one another." KuLE XIIJ. — Adverbs^ adverbial^ and prepositional phrases^ un- less closely connected with some particular word in the sentence^ are separated by a comma from the rest of the sentence ; as, Finally, once more, however, in short, above all, besides, in my opinion, tirst, secondly, &c. " It is, however, the task of criticism to establish principles." So conjunctions^ when several words intervene between them and the clause to which they belong^ are followed by a comma ; as, "Yet, though I hastened, I could not overtake him." A comma sometimes follows an Interjection ; as, " Behold, thy time is at hand." Rule XIY. — Where a finite verb is omitted, its place is supplied by a comma; as, John reads Homer; Peter, Virgil. ^ Exercises. Write, and punctuate with the comma, the following sentences : He travelled to Boston ; she to Portland. — He who wants to catch fish however must not mind a wetting. — He who threatens to strike and does not is afraid. — Hush woman I knew all that before. — Better straw than nothing. — Better There he goes than There he hangs. — Better the child cry than the mother sigh.— He who builds a house or marries is left with a lank purse. — Though profound he is not clear. — Though rich he is not liberal. — As there is a hollow worldly happiness so there is a foolish worldly wisdom. — Though poetry is an art that addresses the imagination it is not the only one. — He will come no doubt if you send for him. — Above a'll remember your promises. — Men like trees lose their sap with age. 134 PUNCTUATION. LESSON L. PUNCTUATION. — COLON, SEMIOOLON. The larger portions of a compound or complex sentence are separated either by a Colon ( : ), or Semicolon ( ; ). 1. The first of these is used when a portion of the sentence makes complete sense, and might le closed with a period^ tut something is added for the purpose of illustration ; as, "A brute arrives at a point of perfection that he can never pass: in a few years he has all the endowments he is capable of." 2. The clauses separated hy a Colon are without connecti'Oes^ as they are not related in construction. The connectives may be understood, but are not expressed. 3. When the connectives are expressed, and thus a closer connec- tion exists^ the Semicolon is to he employed. Like the Colon, it separates the portions of a sentence making complete sense. Examples. — A happy change has come over society since that day ; and Voltaire has sunk into merited contempt. 4. The Semicolon is placed before a dependent clause which explains what has deen said in the preceding division of the sen- tence, or assigns a reason^ or draws an inference, or presents a contrast. Examples. — "It is more easy to take away superfluities thtui to supply defects ; and therefore he that is culpable, because he has passed the mid- dle point of virtue, is always accounted a fairer object of hope, than he who fails by falling short." " Economy is no disgrace ; for it is bettar to live on a little, than to out- live a good deal." *' A friend cannot be known in prosperity ; an enemy cannot be hid in adversity." 5. Short sentences which have hut a slight dependence on each other as to sense.^ are separated hy the semicolon; as, " My friend rose at six o'clock ; he breakfasted ; sat down to write ; ooDtimied writing till twelve ; and walked to his brother's." PUNCTUATION. 135 6. A general term^ followed hy several particulars in apposition^ is separated from them hy a colon or semicolon^ while the particu- lars are separated from each other hy a comma ; as, *' Astronomy may be considered under three heads : descriptive, physi- cal, and practical." 7. After several successive clauses followed hy a semicolon^ where a longer pause seems necessary hefore coming to the period^ a colon is used ; as, " A divine legislator, uttering his voice from heaven ; an almighty gov- ernor, stretching forth his arm to punish or reward ; informing us of per- petual rest prepared hereafter for the righteous, and of indignation and wrath awaiting the wicked : these are the considerations which overawe the world, which support integrity, and check guilt." The Golon^ hy some writers^ and the Semicolon hy others^ is em- ployed to introduce a quotation^ an example^ or a speech ; as, Jesus said: " My kingdom is not of this world." Sometimes the colon and dash are used ; as, And God said : — " Let there be light." Exercises. Supply the comma, the colon, or semicolon, as they may be needed in the following sentences : Speak well of your friend of your enemy neither well nor ill. — There' are three bad neighbors great rivers great lords and great roads. — Three things kill a man a scorching sun suppers and cares. — All right say nothing. — Let us start ahead business first and play afterward. — If I be wicked woe unto me and if I be righteous yet will I not lift up my head. — I am full of con- fusion therefore see thou mine affliction. — Great men are not always wise neither do the aged understand judgment. — He whom you speak of is eminently a happy man happy for he has had and has used the best oppor- tunities to improve his mind happy for his friends are few and faithful happy for his wife is affectionate happy for his children are good happy for his worldly affairs are prosperous happy for his religious hopes are bright and ardent. LESSON LI. PUNCTUATION. PERIOD; INTERROGATION AND EXCLAMA- TION POINTS ; DASH. Written or printed language requires certain points or marks to aid in determining the sense and the pronuncia- 136 PUNCTUATION. tion. Their office is to separate sentences, and the different parts of sentences. The Period ( . ), the Interrogation point ( ? ), and the Ex- clamation ( ! ), and sometimes the Dasli ( — ), are used to indicate the close of a sentence. 1. The Period is used at the end of complete and independent Declarative Sentences ; the Interrogation Point at the end of In- terrogative, and the Exclamation Point at the end of Exclamatory sentences, phrases, or words. 2. The Dash is generally used to indicate that a sentence is un- finished ; or to denote an abrupt and unexpected transition ; or a pause in delivery. Examples. — If thou art he — but oh I how fallen ! This world was made for Caesar — but for Titus, too. Nathan said unto David — Thou art the man. Give me liberty, or give me — death I 3. The Dash is placed between the remarks of successive speak- ers in a dialogue. 4. The Dash is sometimes used instead of a parenthesis. §. It is improperly used after a complete sentence. 6. The Period is used after abbreviations ; as, B. D., A. M., Ex. It is also used after a signature, a date, and at the end of a book, chapter, section, &c. 7. Where a question is not ashed., hut it is only said that a ques- tion had heen ashed., the Interrogation point is not to he employ- ed ; as, "Pilate asked whether Christ was a king." In such cases the period is proper. But if the sentence were, " Pilate asked, Art thou a king?" then the Interrogation point is necessary. Exercises. Supply the points that are requisite : Therefore they say unto God Depart from us for we desire not the knowledge of thy ways— What is the Almighty that we should serve him— How excellent is thy loving kindness God— Men will wrangle for religion write for It fight for it die for it any thing but live for it — Three hours said t?lic and not send for me— I was only in the village — Did nc one tell you— Yes but you know it is not my way to make >a fuss an^l to put people oul—IIow could I tell— Mighty fine PUNCTUATION. REMAINING MARKS. 137 LESSON HI. PUNCTUATION. — REMAINING MARKS. Tlie Parenthesis ( ), includes a clause or remark not essential to the sentence in construction, but explanatory, and introducing some important idea. It may be altogether omitted, without impairing the grammatical structure of the sentence. By modern writers, tlie comma or the dash is used instead of thi- parenthesis. *' Know then this truth (enough lor man to know), Virtue, alone, is happiness below." Pope. '* To gain a posthumous reputation, is to save four or five letters (for what is a name besides?) from oblivion." If the parenthetical or incidental clause is shorty or perfectly coincides with tlie rest of the sentence^ the comma is to he preferred to the parenthetical marlcs. Thus : " Speak you, who saw, his wonders in the deep ;" not, " Speak you (who saw) his wonders in the deep." " He found them asleep again, for their eyes were heavy, neither knew they what to answer him ;" not (for their eyes were heavy). When the words in the parenthesis are interrogative or exclam- atory, the marks of parenthesis should be used, rather than the comma or dash. *' It was represented by an analogy (Oh, how inadequate !) which *vap borrowed from Paganism." Maries of Quotation are used at the beginning and end of a phrase, clause, or sentence containing the exact words of an author or speaker. They consist of two inverted and of two direct com- mas ; e. ^., Jesus said, '^I am the Resurrection and the Life." Sometimes a quoted passage contains a quotation^ in which case the latter is distinguished by a single inverted and direct comma. 138 DIVISION INTO PARAGRAPHS. The ApostropTie ( ' ) is used to shorten a word ; as, tho' for though ; 'tis, for it is ; e'en for even. The same character ex- presses the possessive case of nouns. The man's horse. The Hyphen ( - ) connects the parts of compound words ; as, steam-whistle. It is also used at the end of a line to connect the preceding syllable with the first on the following line, where a word is divided. The Caret (a) indicates that the word or words placed over it have been omitted, and mu<5t be understood as filling the place from city which it occupies ; as, He went to city. A Brackets [ ] inclose some explanatory remark or phrase, som« word or sentence to supply a deficiency or to guard against mis- take. The Ellipsis ( ), or ( . . . . ), (* * * )^ shows that some let- ters of a name, or the name itself, or portion of a sentence, is omitted, or is wanting. The Brace (f) is used to connect certain lines of poetry, or cer- tain words as falling under a common term. The Asterisk (*), and the characters ( t | || ), refer to notes in the margin. Sometimes figures or small letters are used for the same purpose. Division into Paragraphs. It adds much to the pleasure of reading what is written, when, by a proper arrangement of sentences into groups, or paragraphs, the transition to a new branch of ihe subject is made clearly to appear by commencing on a new line. In letter- writing, a proper division into paragraphs is a great beauty and utility. Diff^erent subjects require different divisions of the page, or par- agraphs, unless they occupy but a very small space, and follow each other in rapid succession. When a single subject occupies much space, the larger divisions of it should form separate paragraphs, each of these closing with sentiments of peculiar importance. In argumentative writing, the several premises and conclusions of a subject will properly form separate paragraphs. If the state- ment of these, however, should extend over much ground, it may be convenient to subdivide them into more numerous paragraphs. EXERCISES IN PUNCTUATION. 139 Exercises. The wliole race of man except Noah and his family is recorded to have perished by the great flood. — The whole race of man Noah and his family being recorded exceptions perished in one great flood which changed the state of the globe that we inhabit. — The whole race of man we all know that Noah and his fam- ily were saved perished in one great flood which changed the state of the globe that we inhabit. — Henry the Second of Eng- land except in his celebrated quarrel with Thomas k Becket was a pmdent and prosperous king. — Henry the Second exclud- ing perhaps his quarrel with Thomas k Becket was a prudent and prosperous king. — Henry the Second before I complete my assertion I must perhaps exclude his quarrel with Thomas k Becket was a prudent and prosperous king. — My friend had not a book except the Bible in any part of .his house. — My friend had not a book I do not mean to say he was without a Bible in any part of his house. — Five years of scarcity with the exception of one average season were followed by ten of plenty. — Five years of scarcity I know that one of them might be called an average season were followed by ten of plenty. — The world says Shakspeare is still deceived with ornament. — Shakspeare warns us that the world is still deceived with ornament. — He said that they had quite forgotten the truth. — The words he used were these They have quite forgotten the truth. — Bacon tells us that knowledge is power. — Knowledge is power says the great Lord*Bacon. — Take care of the pence says some noted economist and the pounds will take care of themselves. — Some noted economist advises people to take care of the pence for says he the pounds will take care of themselves.— Oh save my country were the dying words of William Pitt. — See said Addison on his death bed to a profligate young nobleman see in what peace a Christian can die. — Socrates on being asked what man approached the nearest to perfect happiness answered That man who has the fewest wfints. — When Socrates was asked this question What man approaches the nearest to perfect happiness 4 he pronounced in favor of him who has the fewest wants. 140 SENTENCE-BUILDING. LESSON LIII. SENTENCE-BUILDING. Starting with the two words, Themistocles persuaded^ a long sentence may be built upon them by various enlarge- ments. Themistocles— ^^c? an a2)positional phrase: Themistocles the Athenian — Modify Athenian: Themistocles, the distinguished Athenian — Themis- tocles the distinguished Athenian general — Add a participial clause : per- ceiving no hope — perceiving that there was no hope— perceiving that there was no longer any hope — Add a prepositional phrase : of preserving Attica — Prefix a prepositional phrase : after the arrival of the Grecian fleet — Add a prepositional phrase : at Salamis — Enlarge the predicate hy adding an ob- ject: persuaded the Athenians — Add an infinitive clause: to betake them- selves — Add prepositional phrases : for refuge — to their ships — according to the interpretation he had formerly given — of the oracle — of Apollo — Add a relative clause : which promised them safety — Add a prepositional phrase ; behind their wooden walls. The sentence thus constructed becomes the following : After the arrival of the Grecian fleet at Salamis, Themistocles, the dis- tinguished Athenian general, perceiving that there was no longer any hope of preserving Attica, persuaded the Athenians to betake themselves for refuge to their ships, according to the interpretation he had formerly given of the oracle of Apollo, which promised them safety behind their wooden walls. Another example : Veneration gave influence. Modify the subject by an adjective and an article : The high veneration — Modify the subject by a prepositional clause : in which the Delphic oraclo was held — Modify the predicate by an indirect object : gave its directors — Modify the direct object by an adjective and article : a large share — Modify the object further by prepositional phrases : of influence — in public affairs — Modify it further by an appositional clause: — an influence which they sometimes exerted in a most commendable manner — Modfy this appositional clause by a j^repositional clause : in sanctioning and furthering the schemes of the statesmen, legislators, and warriors — Modify further by a ?'elative clause : who undertook to improve the politi Cil systems, reform laws and manners, or defend the liberties of Greece, SENTENCES VARIED IN STRUCTURE. 141 The sentence completed stands thus: The high veneration in which the Delphic oracle was held, gave its di- rectors a large share of influence in public affairs ; an influence which thoy sometimes exerted in a most commendable manner in sanctioning and furtliering the schemes of the statesmen, legislators, and warriors who un- dertook to improve the political systems, reform laws and manners, or de- fend the liberties of Greece. Exercises. Write out, in a similar manner, an analysis or process of construction of the following sentences. 1. It might indeed be shown, in a great variety of instances, some of an indifferent, and others of a moral nature, that being accustomed to a thing, induces, for the most part, such a settled habit as is aptly denominated a second nature. 2. An account of these disturbances reached England early in 1774, but it only incensed the government so much the more against the colonies, and made them so much more resolute in the determination to punish them for their insolence. LESSON LIV. SENTENCES VARIED IN STRUCTURE. This may be effected in several methods. 1. By changing a verb into a participle ; as, When the mail arrived, I received a letter. The mail having arrived^ I received a letter. Sentences containing two or more assertions which are con- nected by the conjunction and^ may thus be advantageously varied; as, The boys ma7/ study for an hour, and then take a recess. The boys Jiav- ing studied an hour, may then take ^ recess. 2. By using a noun in place of an infinitive ; as. He sought to he learned. He sought learning. 3. By using the infinitive mood in place of a conjunctive clause, or a conjunctive clause in place of an infinitive mood ; as. It is important that one he prepared fm^ all events. It is important to he prepared for all events. 142 SENTENCES VARIED IN STRUCTURE. 4. By changing a verb into a verb and an adjective, or parti ci pie ; as, He nms. — He is running. He fears death. He is afraid to die. 5. Adverbs may be changed for adverbial clauses, and the re- verse ; as, He recited his lesson correctly. He recited his lesson in a correct manner. Exercises. Vary the construction in the following sentences accord- ing to the methods just stated : He aimed to be wise. — There are two modes of establishing our reputa- tion ; to be praised by honest men, and to be abused by rogues. — When the procession reached me I was highly gratified. — The ship advances to- wards port. — The girls may learn their lessons and then take a long walk and enjoy the society of their friends. — He expects that he will be sick, — Gladly and heartily did he receive my gift. LESSON LV. SENTENCES VARIED IN STRUCTURE, Other methods of varying the structure are these . 1. Change adjectives or 'participles into relative claicses^ and the reverse ; as, The vme man prepares for future events. The man who is wise, pre- pares, &c. 2. Change adjectives into prepositional phrases, and the reverse : The pious man loves to pray. The man of piety loves to pray. 3. Change transitive sentences into the passive form, with a prep- ositional phrase ; as, Milton wrote Paradise Lost. Paradise Lost was written by Miltoii. The reverse, also, of this process may be practised. 4. Change adjective or participial clauses into adverhial ^ as, The man, blind to his true interest^ disregarded my counsel. The man, ABRIDGMENT AND OMISSION OF CLAUSES. 143 since (or because) he was blind to Ms true interest^ disregarded my counsel. The sun rising^ the clouds disperse. When the sun rises^ the clouds dis- perse. Exercises. Make these changes in the sentences that follow : The good and upright man detests fraud. — The patriotic man scorns a biibo, and is faithful to the interests of his country. — Campbell wrote tho *• Pleasures of Hope." — The artist, intent on securing a high reputation, shrunk not from the severest toil. — Clay was rivalled by Webster.^— A man of genuine wit is not often found. LESSON LVI. SENTENCES VARIED BY ABRIDGMENT AND OMISSION OF CLAUSES. Abridge the following sentences by omitting such clauses as are least important, and by abridging the form of others, according to the following methods ; 1. Change the adverhial or conjunctive clause to an absolute or independent clause ; as, When the teacher arrived^ the class engaged in study. The teacher arriv- ing^ the class, &c. 2. When the subjects of a sentence are the same^ omit all but one^ in changing the adverbial clauses into participial ; as, When I came to the place, and saw the desolation, I was pained. Com- ing to the place, and seeing the desolation, I was pained. 3. Clauses may be abridged somewhat, by using the verbal noun, or the infinitive, instead of the conjunctive clause; as, He afS.rmed that he was sick, and that this was the cause of his absence. He affirmed his being sick as the cause of his absence. He expressed a wish that he might have a vacation. He expressed a wish to have a vacation. 4. Relative clauses may be abridged by changing the verb into the participle ; as. The man, who approached the house, excited terror. The man, approach' ing the house, excited terror. 144 EQUIVALENT MODES OF EXPRESSION. 5. In objective clauses, commencing with which^ wTiat^ whoni^ wJiere^ wliei\ how^ and the like, the verbs may be changed to the infinitive form; as, He knows when he should go to church. He knows when to go to church. Do you understand what yon should do? Do you understand what to do ? Exercises. When I came to the shore I was greatly disappointed to find that the boats were all gone. — When the Veientines found that the fates were about to be fulfilled, they sent messengers to ask for peace. — He put his hand in his side pocket, and drew out a quantity of papers, neatly arranged, tied, and indorsed. — To punish those islands which had sided with Xerxes, was a natural and justifiable act.— He decided that he would study Greek.— The boy ^ ho entered the cars brought me the lost package. — He was in great perplexity what he should do. LESSON LVII. EQUIVALENT MODES OF EXPEESSION. These may be made by two processes ; by expanding, or by contracting, the words, phrases, or clauses in question. By frequent exercises of this kind, a command of language may be attained, that is eminently desirable in a writer. Example— m the way of expanding.— Godliness, with contentment, is great gain. To be godly, and to be contented, is great gain. To possess a godly temper, in connection with a contented disposition, affords great advantages and blessings. The possessor of godliness and contentment, in these very traits of character, has sources of the most inexhaustible hap- piness. Example — in the way of contracting. — That one should betray his coun- try, is a violation of most sacred obligations. The betrayal of one's coun- try, violates most sacred obligations. To betray one's country, is a most culpable act. Treachery towards country is a high crime. A traitor is a great criminal. ^ Exercises. 1. Expand the following sentences, without altering the sense materially. Humility is the road to perfection and happiness. — Procrastination ifi TRANSPOSrnON OF CLAUSES. 145 the thief of time. — Guard well thy thought : our thoughts are h«ard in heaven. — A perpetuity of bliss is bliss. 2. Contract the following sentences without materially altering the sense : There was no one of the household who took so deep an interest in the progress of the campaign then going on in Picardy, as Charles, himself. He listened to the dispatches with great attention, inquiring whether there was nothing further, and frequently causing them to be read to him more than once. — Indeed, Philip, however attentive he may have been to the wishes and wants of his father in other respects, cannot be acquitted oi' a degree of negligence amounting almost to ingratitude, in not furnishing him with the information which he so much coveted in respect to the course of public events. 3. Sentences may be expanded by giving a reason for what is asserted. Proceed in this way with the following: 1. A time of war should be a time of mourning. 2. Even a victory is suited to shock the mind. 8. Men should be hospitable to one another. 4. The Sabbath is not a proper day for amusementa. 5. Be a close observer. 6. Let time be greatly valued. 7. Be careful what associations you form. 8. Men esteemed good are not always good. 9. Knowledge should be desired for its own sake. 10. It is wrong to spend time on worthless reading. LESSON LVIII. SENTENCES VARIED BY TRANSPOSITION OF WORDS ANl, CLAUSES. Model, History proposes much more than she can accomplish, when she undertakes to trace the progress of mankind throughout every age, without interruption or omission. Period dividing at accomplish into verb and adverb. When history undertakes, (fee, she proposes, &o. Period dividing into adverb and verb 146 TRANSPOSITION OF CLAUSES. History, when she undertakes, &c., proposes, &c. Period dividing into nominative and verb. The progress of mankind, without interruption or omission, throughout every age, when liistory undertakes to trace it, is a ])urpose which embraces mucli more than history can possibly nccomplisli. Another, and less ehgible arrangement, of the period dividing Into nom- native and verb. The progress of mankind, without interruption or omission, when history undertakes to trace it, she proposes, &o. Another arrangement of the period dividing into adverb and verb. [The term adverb is here, and in some subsequent lessons, taken in an unusually large sense. As in every complete construction the verb is the absorbing part of speech, so every other part of speech in immediate con- nection with the mrl^ is, in a large application of the term, an adverb, Thia enlarged application of the term is not designed, however, to set aside the nsual grammatical distinctions.] Exercises. Transpose the following sentences, according to the above Model : Though there may appear, to the narrow or biased view of human reason, an original inequality in the good and evil distributed to men, we may be sure, relying on Divine justice, that such inequality is apparent only, and not real. If we did not mingle the gall of envy, or the turbid waters of strife, or the poison of concupiscence, or other evil matter, in the current of our daily thought ; life, though perhaps not uniformly sweet, would not seem so miserable an endowment as, by too many, it is felt to be. While we are complaining of the injustice, the unkindness, the treachery, the ingratitude of others, we seldom look at our own conduct, or weigh our own actions and expressions, in order to discover how far the same charges may not fairly be brought against ourselves. Bringing to every subject of inquiry or examination, a mind naturally cl'iur ; and applying his faculties with a perseverance that no difficulty conld tire, and no disappointment turn aside; the immortal Newton ad- vanced to heights of scientific discovery, which no previous philosopher had attained, and perhaps none would have reached since, if be had not led the way and made it plain. SENTENCES CONSTRUCTED. 147 LESSON LIX. SENTENCES CONSTEUCTED FROM GIVEN WORDS. Select four or five words, and construct sentences, eacli of which shall contain all the words, and make good and complete sense ; as in the following examples, from the words Life^ Vtrtue, Reward^ Honor, 1. A life oi virtue will seldom fail in giving its true reward— honor. 2. The man who devotes his life to the service of virtue will often find honor his only reward in this life. 8. He who gives due honxyr to virtue in this life will assuredly receive his reward, 4. To live a life of virtue is the only means of obtaining r^ijoard or honor. 5. A Ufe of virtue is accompanied by the reward of a good conscience and the hmor of all men. Exercises. 1. Character. — Morals.— Soul. — Man. 2. Resolution.— Sense. — Persons.— Interests. 3. Duty.— Conscience. — Sacred. — Them. 4. Life. — Superfluity. — Complain. — Short. 5. Children. — Think. — Themselves. — Exert. 6. Persons. — Care. — Above.— Below. 7. Shame. — Cheeks. — Vices.— Sense. 8. Secret. — Happily. — True. — Living. 9. To-day.— Put off.— Do.— Till. LESSON LX. SENTENCES PERIODIC AND NON-PERIODIC. A non-periodic, or loose sentence, is composed of two or more sentences loosely put together, and is adapted to the colloquial style. A periodic sentence is composed of parts mutually dependent in construction ; that is to say, of parts grammatically requiring other parts either before or aftci' 148 SKNTENCES PERIODIC AND NON-PERIODIC. to correspond with them. This latter kind of sentence abounds in elevated and elegant discourse or writing. The capacity to frame either kind of sentence at will, is indis- pensable to a full command of language ; and such capacity should be diligently sought to be acquired. An exclusive attention to the one or the other is inexpedient. The French critics distinguish the style of writing referred to above, into style periodique and style coupe. In the former, the sentences are composed of several members linked together, and so hanging upon one another that the sense of the whole is not understood till the close. This style of writing is showy, digni- fied, musical, and oratorical, as in the following sentence of Sir William Temple : " If you look about you, and consider the lives of others as well as your own ; if you think how few are born with honor, and how many die with- out name or children ; how little beauty we see, and how few friends we hear of; how many diseases, and how much poverty there is in the world ; you will fall down upon your knees, and, instead of repining at one afflic- tion, will admire so many blessings which you have received from the liand of God." The style coupe^ consists of short, independent propositions, each complete within itself, and making full sense: thus Mr. Pope writes in the following passage — *' I confess it was want of consideration that made me an author. I wrote because it amused me. I corrected, because it was as pleasant to me to correct as to write. I published, because I was told I might plea&e such as it was a credit to please." The style periodique gives an air of dignity and gravity to com position ; the style coupe is more lively and striking, and is suited to gay and easf subjects. In almost every kind of composition an intermixture of both styles is preferable to the predominance of either. Perhaps a more just division of style is into three varieties, the Colloquial^ the Middle^ and the High Style., all of which, how- ever, may occur in the same essay, letter, or discourse. An ex- ample of each of these will now be given : Cdhquial Style . " Let us compare man with other animals ; is he not a won lerful piece of work? His powers of reason, chiefly, make him so, PROTASIS AND AP0D0SI8. 149 for *inde»id they aie infinite ; they shine through his form, and speak in all his movements. Surely, he is more than a mere animal; we may almost nay he is an angel, or a god." Middle Style: " Man, noble in reason, infinite in faculties, in form and jiioving express and admirable, in action like an angel, in apprehensicn like a god, is a wonderful piece of work." High Style: *' What a piece of work is man ! how noble in reason ! how infinite in faculties ! in form and movmg, how express and admirable ! in action, how like an angel ! in apprehension, how like a god ! — Shahspeare* A Period means a circle, and it is therefore applied to that kind of sentence of which the parts are grammatically dependent tliroughoiit. The former part of a period^ corresponding to the semicircle which begins the circle, is called the Protasis; the lat- ter^ corresponding to tlie semicircle which completes it, is called the Apodosis. In the logical period, the Protasis is a nominative of the third person (or the subject), and the Apodosis is the verb agreeing with it (or the Predicate); e. g. "Thy seed — shall be as the stars." Every other form of period may be considered a rhetorical form ; e. g. " As the stars, so shall thy seed be." In the short sentence. ''Light appeared," "light" is the Prota- sis, and "appeared" is the Apodosis. A period, even without taking a figurative character, does not always have for its prota- sis and a[)odosis a logical nominative and its corresponding verb. One of those parts must indeed always be an incomplete verb, but the other which completes it, may have the character of an adverb, or an adjective, or a noun-objective, or a verb infinitive; as in the following brief models : " Suddenly appeared — ligliV^ " Grateful was — the — ligMy " It — dissipated the — darkness^ "It — helped to— enliven — a//," LESSON LXI. NON-PERIODIC AND PEKIODIO SE>iTENCEfcj. The following materials are quoted, to be formed mto a Period, which may take any of the forms presented in the J 50 PKKIODIC SENTENCES. last lesson, beginning with the form in which the Protasis and Apodosis are a nominative and its verb. The materi- als furnished are, as will be observed, in the Colloquial style, being distributed into several sentences : Some people think it a merit to be gloomy. Another part of their charaf'iter, is intolerance of all opinion and practice dilfering from their own,. Moreover, they refuse to join with others in pleasure, while, in their solitary enjoyments, they transgress the bounds of temperance without scruple. They have charity in their professions ; but they rail habitually against their neighbors, and eagerly spread tales to their prejudice. We are surely justitied in saying that such people cannot rightly arrogate for themselves alone the epithet religious. They may not be shut out from the favor and the mercy of heaven ; but if not, neither will the same ben- efits be denied to those who refuse to join their sect or party. 1. Period whose protasis and apodosis are logical nominative and logical verb. PeopU who think it a merit to be gloomy ; who are intolerant of all opinion and practice differing from their own ; who refuse to join with others in pleasure, while they transgress, without scruple, the bounds of temperance in their solitary enjoyments ; who, with charity in their profes- sion, habitually rail against their neighbors, and eagerly spread tales to their prejudice, are surely not entitled to arrogate for themselves alone the epithet religious^ or to believe that they who join them not^ are excluded from the favor and the mercy of heaven. 2. Period whose protasis and apodosis are logical adverh and logical verb. When people think it a merit to be gloomy ; when they are intolerant of all opinion and practice differing from their own ; when they refuse to join with others in pleasure, while they transgress, without scruple, the bounds of temperance in their solitary enjoyments ; ivhen, with charity in their professions, they habitually rail against their neighbors, and eagerly spread tales to their prejudice: they are surely not entitled to arrogate fot themselves alone the epithet religious .^ or to believe that they who join them noty are excluded from the favor and the mercy of heaven. 3. Period whose protasis and apodosis are logical adjective and logical verb. Gloomy of mind, and making merit of their gloom ; intolerant of all opin- ion and practice differing from their own ; refusing to join with others in pleasure, while they transgress, without scruple, the bounds of temper- ance in their solitary enjoyments ; professing charity, yet habitually rail ing against their neighbors, and eagerly spreading tales to their prejudice PERIODIC SENTENCES. 151 these are people whc^ surely without any just title, arrogate for tliemselvos alone the epithet religious ; and believe that they who join them not, are excluded from the favor and the mercy of heaven. 4. Period whose protasis and apodosis are logical verb and logi- cal adjective. People too often manifest, as the fruits of their religion, while they un- warrantably claim for themselves alone the epithet religious, and believe that all are excluded from heaven's favor and mercy who join them not, a wilful and. as they think, a rneriiorious gloom ; an intolerance of all opinion and practice differing from their own ; a repugnance to join with others in pleasure, ichile they transgress^ without scruple^ the hounds of temperance in their solitary enjoyments ; and a hahit, notwithstanding their professed char- ity, of railing against their neighbors^ and of eagerly spreading tales to tJteir prejudice. 5. Period whose protasis and apodosis are logical rerh and logi- cal infinitive. It does not prove that people have an exclusive claim to the epithet reli- gious, and are, warranted in believing that all are shut out from heaven's favor and mercy who join them not, to enfold themselves in gloom., and thinh the gloom meritorious ; to he intolerant of all opinion and practice differing from their oivn; to refuse all union with others in pleasure, while they trans- gress, without scruple., the hounds of temperance in their solitary enjoyments ; and, with charity in their professions, to rail hahituaUy against their neigh- bors, and eagerly spread tales to their prejudice. LESSON LXII. FORMATION OF PERIODIC SENTENCES. Form the materials of each of the folio whig paragraphs into a Periodic Sentence, the protasis and apodosis taking the grammatical character which the materials most readi- ly suggest : or the exercise, though more difficult, will be more improving, if each paragraph be thrown into the five (liiFerent forms of the Periodic Sentence exhibited in the preceding lesson. The examples here given are not faulty, if regarded as specimens of the Colloquial or plain Style. 152 PEKIODIC SENTENCES. Model There are four virtues, justice, prudence, temperance, and forti- tade. These are called the cardinal virtues. The same^ changed into different forms of the Period, 1. Justice, prudence, temperance, and fortitude, are called the four car- dinal mrtues. 2. As there are four virtues eminent above others, namely, &c., they are called^ &c. 8. Eminent above other virtues, y^^s^^V^, prudence^ temperance^ and forti- tude^ are called the cardinal mrtues. 4. We all admit, as the cardinal virtues, justice^ prudence, temperanee, and fortitude. 5. We all admit justice, prudence, temperance, and fortitude, to he tJie cardinal virtues. Modesty sometimes keeps a person from making his way at first. In the end, however, it is almost sure to advance him. He was grateful for the favors lie had received. Accordingly, he did hid utmoi'it to serve his bcnefiictors in return. He forfeited the reputation he had gained through a life of honorable toil ; and this, by one false step. There is a purpose which every one should keep in view. The purpose J mean, is, to gain the approbation of others, with the approval of his own lieart. The sun rolls over our heads. Foo\l is received by us, and rest is en- joyed. These daily admonish us of a superior and Buperintending power. No one can fully enjoy prosperity, who never experienced adversity. Hence it follows that adversity is not to be always deemed an evil. The too complaisant man is averse either to contradict or to blame. Od this account, he goes along with the manners tiiat prevail. My friend secured at last the full rewards of liis honorable perseverance. These were the complete restitution of his good name ; the friendship of all worthy men; a competent fortune for himself; and a fair opening in life for each of his children. There are sure means of becoming peaceful and happy ; and I think I do not err in stating them to be these : to be of a pure and humble mind, to exercise benevolence towards others, and to cultivate piety towards God. The three kingdoms of nature are animals, vegetables, and minerals. It is the business of zoology and physiology, of botany, of geology, and min- eralogy, to explore these. But they are all subject to the further examin- ation of chemistry. THE FORM OF SENTENCES. 153 For this science is cognizant of the changes always taking place in the constitution of bodies, whether animal, vegetable, or mineral, and by whatever natural agents effected. LESSON LXIII. CHOICE BETWEEN NON-PERIODIC SENTENCES AND A PEK-U ODIC SENTENCE. From the throe preceding lessons it has been seen, that a period properly constructed, raises expectation to a cer- tain point, and then fulfils it by giving a meaning to what precedes, this meaning coming round with the close of the sentence. The period, when completed, is one expression, with one meaning. But the meanings of detached parts do not always readily suggest the one meaning which is necessary to the perfection of a period ; and, therefore, we have always to consider, before we form parts into a period, whether they are fit to enter into such a structure, or whether they had not better remain so many separate sen- tences, or at least only so far united as to form what is called a loose or non-periodic sentence. Take the following example : *' Afterwards we came to anchor, and they put me on shore, when I was welcomed by all my friends, who received me with the greatest kindness." This is a loose sentence, having in it four subjects, we^ they^ /, and who (the last referring to friends)^ and four correspondent verbs. A little consideration will show that the whole may, with advan- tage, be moulded into one period, whose two parts shall have the same grammatical character as the two parts of the following min- iature model, ''I stayed there f"^ namely, verb and adverb, only that in the sustained period, the verb and adverb will be a logical or constructed verb, and a logical or constructed adverb; as, *' Having come to an anchor, 1 was put on shore, when I vmi welcomed ly nil my friends^ and received with tJie greatist Hiidriess.^^ 154 EXERCISES 01^ SENTENCES. On the other hand, the following, though a period in consimc- tiori, is made up of parts that do not yield an apodosis answerable to the protasis, and cannot do so without great change in the or- der of circumstances by which the period comes to its close. " The march of the Greeks was through an uncultivated country, wko^e savage inhabitants fared hardly^ having no other riches than a breed of lean sheep, whosp flesh was rank and unsavory, by reason of their continual feeding npon sea-fish." Instead of endeavc^ring to re-marshal the apodosis of this exam pie, the readiest correction will be to reduce the whole to two pe- riods ; thus, " The march of the Greeks was through an uncultivated country, ^055e«A ed by savage inhabitants^ whose only riches was a breed of lean sheep. Nothing indeed could be harder than the fare of these people, the sheep being not only lean, but their flesh unsavory, by reason of their continual feeding on eea-fieh." Exercises. Improve the style of the following paragraphs ; either by giving the compactness of a period to parts that will ad- vantageously receive it, or by reducing to looser gram- matical union parts that are improperly blended. Having come to himself, they put him on board of a ship, which convey- ed him first to Corinth, and thence to the island of Egina. Desires of pleasure usher in temptation, and the growth of disorderly, pass^ions is forwarded. By eagerness of temper, and precipitancy of indulgence, men forfeit all the advantages which patience would have procured; and, by this means, the opposite evils are incurred to their full extent. This prostitution of praise affects not only the gross of mankind, who take their notion of characters from the learned ; but also the better part must, by this means, lose some part of their desire of fame, when they find it promiscuously bestowed on the meritorious and on the undeserving. The motive of a deed is that which Heaven regards ; it does not regard its outward character. It is not by being present in scenes of dissipation, by giving up the senses to what the world calls pleasure, that people are rendered happy, but they are rendered so by moderate desires, and a virtuous life. Sir Walter Raleigh, after a life devoted to the service of his country ; a life distinguished by valor, learning, and enterprise, was beheaded on Tower-hill, and was the first man in this country that smoked tobacco. GRAMMATICAL PtRITY. 155 In this uneasy state, both of his public and private life, Cicero was op- pressed by a new and deep affliction, the death of his beloved daugliter Tullia; which happened soon after his divorce from Dolabella ; whose manners were entirely disagreeable to her. LESSON IXIV. GRAMMATICAL PURITY OF DICTION, Style is the mode of expression which we adopt in giving utterance to our thoughts. It varies with the subject, with the writer, and the occasion ; with those for whom we write, and the object or design of writing. As the basis of a good style, grammatical proprieties are ever to be ob- served. Style is affected by the extent and variety of our knowU edge ; by the soundness of our judgment, the delicacy and correctness of our taste, the degree of our mental culture and discrimination. A careful study of the English lan- guage, and an extensive knowledge of the meaning and uses of its words, are essential to tlie acquiring of a good English style. Style relates to Diction^ and to Structure, — The qualities of Diction may be considered under four heads : 1. Purity of Diction; by which is meant the employment of such words and phrases, and construction, exclusively, as belong to the English language. 2. Simplicity of Diction^ consisting in the use of such words and phrases as are most frequently and commonly employed by good writers ; such as are easily comprehended by persons of or- dinary intelligence and education. 3. Propriety of Diction^ is the use of words with the precise signification which " the best usage^' has attached to each of them, observing the more delicate shades of meaning belonging to them in particular collocations. 4. Precision of Diction clothes each thought not only with those 156 FURITY OF DICTION. words which most perfectly represent it, but with no more words than are necessary for this purpose ; also employing the same words in the same sense, in the same connection. 1. Purity of Diction. This implies (1) That the words used be English words. (2) That their construction into sentences be such as suits the pecuUarities of the English language. "We must in general use only English words. The opposite fault is denominated a barbarism. Hence (1), we must in general avoid the choice of words that have gone entirely out of use — obsolete words. They are, indeed, occasionally allowable in poetry, as a facility in versification ; also in treating some portions of the history of former ages ; in bur- lesque writing, also, old and almost obsolete words subserve one's purpose ; and further, in some grave compositions, such words help to give an ancient and venerable air to the style. But, in general, such words are not to be used ; and when used, used very sparingly. Such words are the following : behooved^ heseeched^ hewray^ enoio^ erst^ quot%^ opinionate^ unctuatiun^ pecunious^ corrugose^ acception^ greatening^ helikely^ unon^ behest, whilom^ self-same^ cruciate^ parvitude^ &c. Correct and elegant writing does not admit of certain abbrevia- tions ; such as extra for extraordinary ; incog. ^ for incognito ; hyp.^ for hypochondriac; pro and con, for both sides; i. «., for " that is ;" e. g.^ " for the sake of example ;" and viz.^ for " namely." (2.) For the same reason, entirely new^ strange., and unauthor- ized, words and phrases are not to be used, or but very seldom, and not without special reason ; such words, while they tend to render a language copious, tend also to unsettle it, to banish good terms in established use, and to impair the literature of the past. The best reason for coining and introducing new words, is the introduction of new ideas, new arts, or sciences, for expressing or describing wh^-^h the language at present furnishes no suitable terms. When new words are formed according to the genius and .structure of the language, are agreeable to the ear when })ro- PURITY OF DICTION. 157 nounced, and tend to enrich the language, they are not to be con- demned or rejected. High-sounding and learned-UJce words and epithets should, for the most part, be avoided. '' There is," says Harrison, " an in- flated or stilted style of composition, embodying terms altogether disproportionate to the subject, and which is often so unfortunate as to combine in one sentence, or one paragraph, the pompous, the offensive, and the ridiculous." " The night, now far advanced, was brilliantly bright with the radiancy ol lunar and astral effulgence — a most lovely night ; a death-like stillness prevailed over nature, sound asleep, and the fair moon, taking her noc- turnal promenade along the cloudless azure and stellar canopy of heaven, walked in all the resplendency of her highest and brightest glory ; — the very night, according to fiction's tales and romance, of imagination's fan- tastic records, as (that) would have suited a melancholic pensiveness, a sentimental solitude, a chivalrous spirit, bent on some Quixotic deed of bold adventure." — G. Clayton. The inflated and pedantic style of phraseology condemned in this lesson is not always out of place. When there is an intent tional disproportion between the subject and the diction, as in *' The Battle of the Frogs and Mice," or in the case of a puff^ the hyperbolical may be made productive of considerable humor. In late years there has been displayed by some flashy writers a propensity to use incongruous terms^ and to coin compound words of unwonted length., and of many joints or limds. Thus the authoress of "Evelina," in her ''Memoirs of Dr. Bur- ney," writes : "Six heartless, nearly desolate years of lonely conjugal chaem had suc- ceeded to double their number of unparalleled conjugal enjoyment; and the void was still /allow and hopeless when the yet ve/y-handsome-though' ■no-long ei'-in-her-hloom Mrs. Stephen Allen of Lynn, now become a widow, decided for the promoting (of) the education of her eldest daughter, to make London her winter residence." Again : " Scarcely had this harrowing filial separation taken place, ere an as sault was made upon liis conjugal feelings, by the sudden-at-the-moment though from-lingering-illness-often-p7-eviously-expected death of Mr. Burney'fe t.ocond wife." Among the strange and unauthorized words that some authors Lave used, the following are noted down : 158 PURITY OF DICTION. Exf^'oitive, introitive, retroitive, un-let-up-able, wide-awake-it^ ^ go-ity go-awanf-ness^ pocketually, hetweenity^ fashiondom^ connexity^ absquatulate^ elang-whanger^ plumptitude^ adorement^ judgmatical^ miscellanarian^ gaseity. injluenci've^ productivity^ effectuate^ boss. Exercises. Improve the style of the following sentences, by substi- tuting, where it is necessary, other words and phrases in better taste. The sentences should be written. It irks me to see so perverse a disposition. I wot not who hath done this thing. He was long indisposed, and at lengtlidied of the hyp. It repenteth me that I have walked so long in the paths of folly. Sobermindedness suits the present state of man. Methinks I am not mistaken in an opinion I have so well considered. The question was strenuously debated pro and con. I had as lief do it myself as persuade another to do it. He is not a whit better than those whom he so liberally condemns. Of the justice of his measures, he convinced others by the dint of argu- ment. He stands upon security, and will not liberate him till it be obtained. The meaning of the phrase, as I take it, is very different from the com- mon acceptation. The favorable moment should be embraced, for he does not hold long of one mind. The assistance was welcome and timelily afforded. The scene was new, and he was seized with wonderment at all he saw. For want of employment he streamed idly about the fields. I came through a crowd of people, and have been almost scrouged to dbttth. LESSON LXV. PURITY OF DICTION. In continuation of the observations made in the last les- son, it may be remarked : 1. There are certain expressions which are vulgar^ and should not be used in the writings of well-educated persons. An Eng- lisli author, among others, quotes the following: PURITY OF DICTION. 159 Jiother, lamboozle^ hang wp^ hlow up^ flare up^ helter-skelter^ harum-scarum^ pell-mell^ slap-dash^ topsy-turvy^ higgledy-piggledy^ hurly-burly^ humdrum, hoc/us-pocus, humbug y quiz, whit, mort, dint, pop out, swell out, long-winded, as lief, mu^t needs, &c. The following expressions are also vulgar : Lingo, for language ; palaver, for loquacity ; berth, for place or situation : jaunt, for excursion ; bedizen, for adorn or ornament ; shift, for provide for, or to take care of ; quandary, for difficulty ; rigmarole, for succession of long and tedious stories ; mulligrubs, for pain in the stomach ; a world of money, for much money ; b7'ass, for shamelessness ; sucking one^s brains, for borrowing one's ideas ; with half an eye, for easily ; gammon, for decep- tion ; the whole hog, for the whole thing. Yet the above are not to be excluded from burlesque or comic composi- tions. 2. The unnecessaiy use oi foreign words^ is a violation of purity of diction. The following instances from the French language are quoted : Affaire du cotur, for " an intrigue, or a love affair ;" a-propos, for " to tho point or purpose;" agremens, for "ornaments;" d-la-mode, for "to the fashion ;" amende honorable, for " satisfaction ;" antique, for " ancient ;" au fond^ for "to the bottom, or merits of a subject;" au fait, for to the point ; au naturel, to the life ; bagatelle, for a trifle ; beau ideal, for perfec- tion ; beau monde, for the gay and fashionable world ; beaux arts, for liberal arts; billet-doux, for a love-letter; bizarre, for singular, eccentric; bonne bouche, for a nice morsel ; bon mot, for a witticism ; bon ton, for the height of fashion; badinage, for half-earnest jesting; brusque, iorhlxxTit', canaille, for the rabble ; carte-blanche, for unlimited powers, one's own terms ; chateau, for a country seat ; chef-d'oeuvre, for a master-piece ; ci-devant, for formerly ; con amore, for devotion, zeal, alacrity, &c. So also, conge d''elire, for leave to elect ; corps diplomatique, for the diplo- matic body ; coup d'' eclat, for a stroke of policy or a remarkable action ; coup d^esmi, for a trial or an attempt ; coup d'^etat, for a piece of state pol- icy ; coup de grace, for a finisliing stroke ; coup de main, for a sudden or bold enterprise ; coup doeil, for a quick glance of the eye ; coup de theatre, for a clap-trap ; debut, for first appearance, or beginning; dernier ressort, for a last and only resource ; double entendre, for double meaning; douceur^ for a present or bribe ; eclair cissement, for an elucidation ; eclat, for noto- riety, splendor; eleve, for pupil ; en bon point, for jolly, or in good condi- tion ; empressement, for earnestness ; encore, for again ; en badinage, in fun, en avant, for onwards, or in advance ; en masse, for in a body or mass ; en passant, for by the way, or passing; ennui, for lassitude, blue devils, or weariness ; faux pas, for misconduct ; fete, for feast or entertainment ; ^/*€s*^, for cunning or dexterity; hauteur, for haughtiness; haut gotU, for 160 PURITY OF DICTION. high flavor; haul ton^ for high life ; jeu de mots^ for a phiy of words; jeu d? esprit^ for a display of wit, a witticism. There may be added to the above, mal-d-propos^ for unfit or unseasona- ble ; mawvaise honte^ for unbecoming bashfulness ; outre^ for eccentric ; on dit^ for report, or it is said; opinidtre^ for positive; par Jiasard^ for by chance, accidental ; penchant, for inclination ; pis aller^ for last effort ; jpetit maitre, for a fop ; politesse^ for politeness ; protege^ for a person patronized or protected ; on the qui vive, for on the alert ; ruse de gverre^ for a strata- gem of war ; savoir falre, for knowledge of business ; savoir vivre^ for good manners, or knowledge of the world ; sans froid,^ for indifference, coolness, or apathy ; savant^ for a learned man ; soi-disant^ for self-called, pretended ; table d'hote, for an ordinary ; tapis^ for a subject of discussion , trait^ for a feature ; tete-a-tete, for a private conversation ; unique^ for sin- gular; vis-d-vis, for opposite; with a long list of words of the like de- scription with which not only conceited and shallow-minded writers and speakers embellish, as they ignorantly suppose, their writings and dis- course, but which disfigure the productions of many of the best and most admired English authors ; being blemishes highly injurious to the beauty and purity of the English language, which is sufficiently copious and ex- pressive, and possesses sufficient capabilities not to require the aid of for eign and adventitious ornament or addition. The English language does not require the aid of such foreign terms as the above, to express the ideas which they represent; yet a few of thera have, by long use, become so common and so naturalized, that a sparing use may be allowed, as expressing more exactly or more concisely certain ideas, than corresponding English expressions are able to do ; such as, antique, attache, bil- let-doux, cortege, boudoir, espionage, chaperon, eclat, encore, ci- devant, soi-disant, debut, en -dishabille, en profile, douceur, nial-^- propos, protege, parvenu, rencontre, t6te-k-t6te. Foreign words, when they obviate a tedious and feeble circuni locution are not to be rejected ; provided that they are under- stood by those for whom we write. So, also, those which denote articles of manufacture or commerce for which we have no equiv- alent, may properly be adopted ; as, guillotine, bayonet, scimitar, suttee, gong, gutta-i)erclia. Such terms (says Mr. Harrison) are already made to our hands, and off'er themselves for their adoption. In this there is nothing worthy of blame ; it is the practice of all countries. But this is very different from that silly ^ pedantic affectation of interlarding our language with foreign terms^ where there is no occasion for it; very different from that heterogeneous mixture which no pro- FOREIGN PHRASES AND IDIOMS. 161 cess, nowever laborious, can ever triturate into a state of amalga- mation. We wish not the manly form of our language to be tricked out in a coat of many colors. Foreign Phrases (copied from Lady Morgan^ New Monthly): " I was cliez moi, inhaling the odeur musquee of my scented boudoir, when the Prince de L. entered. He found me in my demi-toilette, blasee- surtout, and pensively engaged in soUtary conjugation of the verb s'en- nuyer ; and, though he had never been one of my habitues, or by any means des notres, I was not disinclined, at this moment of delassement, to ghde with him into, the crocchio restretto of familiar chat." Foreign idioms ought as strenuously to he avoided as foreign terms and phrases. They derange, and interfere with, the natural order of the language. This corruption is well exemplified in Hannah More's '^ Satirical Letter from a Lady to her Friend :" " Dear Madam: — I no sooner found myself here than I visited my new apartments ; the small room which gives upon the garden, is practised through the great one, and there is no other issue. As I was exceeded with fatigue, I no sooner made my toilette than I let myself full upon a bed of repose, where sleep came to surprise me. All that England has of illustrious, all that youth has of amiable, or beauty of ravishing, sees it- self in this quarter. Render yourself here then, my friend, and you shall find assembled all that is of best, whether for letters, &c., &c." Here the words are English, but the idiom altogether French. It is intelligible; but, as English, ridiculous. 3. The use of Latinized words^ carried too far, violates the purity of English diction. Such a violation is particularly charge- able against Dr. Samuel Johnson. While, indeed, he has thus improved the harmony of our language and diversified its struc- ture and rhythm, he has nevertheless weakened its energy. With a view to encourage the use of the Saxon words of our language particularly, and to show the expediency of a sparing use of words of Latin origin, the author would refer to a chapter of " Harrison on the English Lan- guage," showing its singularly monosyllahic character ^ it will be read Avith equal pleasure and profit. Says Southey : •"' The English is a noble language — a beautiful language. I can tolerate a Germanism for family sake, but he who uses a Latin or French phrase where a pure old English word 162 EXPRESSIVE POWER OF WORDS. does as well, ought to be hung, drawn, and quartered, for high treason against his mother tongue." On the other side, it has been very properly observed, that " by the adoption of the words and idioms of the classic languages of Greece and Rome, as also those of the modern French and Ital ian, the English language has not only been enriched and har- monized, but it has been rendered more flexible, graceful, and expressive; and words and constructions of phrases have been introduced into it, necessary for the expression of compound and abstract ideas, of which its Saxon origin renders it unsusceptible, it being a language adapted only to a simple state of society; but as the ideas of men became improved and extended, a consequent improvement was necessary to be made in language (the symbol and vehicle of thought), and that improvement could be made only by a new coinage, or by the adoption of words borrowed from other languages, moulded into the form and genius of our speech. The English language is a compound of many languages, and its force and beauty depend on their happy and tasteful amal- gamation." Exercise. It will be found a useful form of exercise on the expres- sive power of words (as Prof. Wm. Russell, in his excellent "Exercises on Words," has suggested), (1), to translate a given passage in which terms of Latin origin prevail, into words purely Saxon; (2), to translate an idiomatic and vernacular passage from Anglo-Saxon into Latinized phra- seology; (3), to compose sentences with purely vernacular words predominating ; (4), to compose Latinized diction; (5), to compose sentences and paragraphs in which the phraseology intermingles both these forms of our language. LESSON LXVI. SIMPLICITY OF DICTION. 1. This requires that com'plex and abstruse words^ unless ahso- lutely necessary^ sJiould not he used ; as, verbalism^ for word ; SIMPLICITY OF DICTION. 163 deleterious^ for hurtful or injurious; configuration^ for figure; oognition^ for knowledge ; velocity^ for speed, &c. 2. Technical terms (those drawn from some particular art, science, or profession, and not well understood generally), ought to he used very sparingly, when other terms can be found to express the idea intended to be conveyed; as, infinitesimal^ for very small ; specific gravity^ for comparative weight ; caloric^ for heat ; density^ for thickness; rare^ for thin; copy^ for manuscript; tihipped a sea^ for a heavy wave broke over the vessel ; ''we tacked to the larboard," for " we sailed to the left," &c. 3. It is a good rule, also, when a deep impression is sought to be made, to employ specific rather than general terms^ and the words commonly used for expressing any particular idea, rather than other words which convey the same idea more indirectly. This rule will be illustrated in a future lesson. Illustration. What is here meant by Simplicity of Diction cannot, perhaps, be more satisfactorily illustrated, than by presenting in contrast the Twenty-third Psalm in our own beautiful English version, and the gorgeous and pompous Paraphrase which a distinguished English Divine once inflicted upon it. The Lord is my Shepherd; I shall not want. He maketh me to lie down in green pastures : he leadeth me beside the still waters. He re- Btoreth my soul : he leadeth me in the paths of righteousness for his name's sake. Yea, though I walk through the valley of the shadow of death, I will fear no evil : for thou art with me ; thy rod and thy staff they com- fort me. Thou preparest a table before me in the presence of mine enemies : thou anointest my head with oil ; my cup runneth over. Snrely goodness and mercy shall follow me all the days of my life ; and I will dwell iu the house of the Lord forever. *' Deity is my Pastor. I shall not be indigent. He maketh me to re- cumb on the verdant lawns, He leadeth me beside the unrippled liquidities; He reinstalleth my spirits, and ronducteth me in the avenues of rectitude, for the celebrity of his appellations, Unquestionably, though I perambu- late the gleu of the umbrages of the sepulchral dormitories, I will not be perturbed by appalling catastrophes ; for Thou art present, Thy wand and thy crook insinuate delectation. 164 SIMPLICITY OF DICTION. " Thou spreadest a refection before me, in the midst of inimical flcrutar tions ; Thou perfumest my locks with odoriferous unguents, my chalice exuberates. '* Indubitably benignity and commiseration shall continue all the diu- ternity of ray vitality ; and I will eternalize my habitance in the Metropolis of Nature!!!" Easy^ idiomatic diction (says an excellent author), is not neces- sarily destitute of elegance ; and if the occasion calls for the collo- quial style, any other than the colloquial would be in bad taste. In- stead of saying, " I am very tired," wlien an occasion for saying so occurs, how pedantic it woukl be to lay down the fact in a logical proposition like this: ''The condition ol body which I at this moment experience, is that of being very tired." It is recorded of Dr. Johnson that, having said of a literary work, "It has not wit enough to keep it sweet," he felt dissatisfied with his mode of expression, and corrected it to his own taste by expressing tuo same sentiment thus: "It has not vitality sufiBcient to preserve it from putrefaction." The learner's taste may possibly agree with Dr. Johnson's ; if so, he must be put on his guard against acquir- ing a pompous style, without that substance of thought to sup- port it, which must be conceded as the merit of Dr. Johnson's productions in general. At all events, let him express common thoughts in common idiomatic language^ with all the smoothne.?3 and ease he can introduce. While this is good advice, it must on the other hand be cou ceded, that the judicious intermixture of Anglo-Saxon and clas- sical terms constitutes the style of our best authors. It gives a legitimate variety of composition, formed upon peculiar tastes and education. In this respect. Swift and Johnson may be considered as placed at opposite extremes: the style of the former being peculiarly English; that of the latter being formed upon the classical models, and imitating not only the phraseology, but the polish and rotundity of their periods. To court classical terms too much, or to avoid them too much, would generally lead to a mode of expression bordering on affectation. In words com- pounded with prepositions, we have borrowed largely, and neces- sarily so, from the Latin ; and from these borrowed terms, primary and secondary meanings are obtained with a happy discrimination. Take, for instance, the verb sisto^ " I stand." We then ha\ e, in tlie first place, SIMPLICITY OF DICTION. 165 Sisto^ I stand. Compounded with Ad, Adsisto, I stand to, or near, Assist. " " Con, Consisto, I stand with, agree with, Consist. " " De, Desisto, I stand off, Desist. " *' Ex, Existo, I stand forth. Exist. u u jj-^ insisto ■! ^ ^^^^^ over, upon, take my stand on, ' ' I Insist. *' " Per, Persisto, I stand through. Persist. " " Ee, Resisto, I stand back. Resist. " " Sub, Subsisto, I stand under. Subsist. So from traho^ I draw, is derived tractus^ drawing, from which we have Attract, to draw to; Contract, to draw together; Detract, to draw from; Distract, to draw asunder ; Extract, to draw out of ; Protract, to draw for- ward; Retract, to draw back ; Subtract, to draw from under. Exercise. As the fault of negligence is to be considered on the one hand, so a heavy ^ ^^^fft and pedantic style of expression is to be avoided on the other. Therefore, change the form of ex- pression used in the following sentences, so as to impart to them greater ease, smoothness, and simplicity of diction. The feeling I experience at the present moment is that of being, through- out my body, in a state of fun. To vex your sister is a thing which you seem to know, while there are things that you ought to know better. The presumption which I have shown, and which I readily admit to be what I call it, is that for which I now put in a plea for your paraon. My command is, that thou, a witch, shall go out of my sight, and never come into it again. Expensive commodities procured from distant parts, are acceptable to the feminine portion of our species. That we should not precipitate any undertaking in a greater degree than its proper as well as speedy performance demands, is a maxim for the people to observe. From what port are you come, and to which are you going? The extent of the authority of the governor is dependent on the dura- tion of the decree of the king. The philosophical virtues stand distinct from, though not opposed to, those which Christianity teaches. Death is that from which all fly, that to which all must come, that for which few are prepared. (Note. — That which is a phrase whose meaning may be briefly implied by the single term what.) That you should feel yourself welcome, is my first request; that you should give me your hand, i.« my second. 166 PROPRIETY OF EXPRESSION. This is the house of the partner of thu brother of my wife. He was so far from making head against, that he was glad to ran awaj from, the enemies that he had wilfully raised. I am afraid that all the evil which his folly has caused, will fail to make him a jot wiser. Health and happiness is what we cordially wish for you. He was flattered by, but sunk under, the duty with which he waf charged. LESSON LXVII. PROPRIETY OF EXPRESSION. Words may be purely English, and yet improper, as not adapted to the subject, nor fully conveying the sense ; or they may be equivocal, and convey a sense different from that which is intended. Propriety of expression demands such words and phrases as approved writers have appropri- ated to the expression of those ide^s which we employ them to convey. Therefore Rule I. — Guard against the use of equivocal or ambiguous ex- pressions. For instance : " He aimed at nothing less than the crown." This niay mean, either that nothing less than the crown was aimed at by him, or that he less aimed at the crown than at other things. "His memory shall be lost on the earth." This may mean, either that he should cease to remember, or that he should cease to be remembered. *' The whites and blues gained the prize." This sentence leaves it un- determined whether the same persons were both whites and blues, or "whether the whites and the blues were different classes of persons. " As for such animals as are mortal or noxious, we have a right to destroy them. "I long since learned to like nothing but what you do.'''* '•'' Iwill have mercy ^ and not sacrifice." "The rising tomb a lofty column bore." Rule II. — Avoid inconsistent and unintelligible terms., or phrases : For example : " These words do not convey even an opaque idea of the author's meaning." "Some pains have been thrown away in attempting to retrieve (regain) the names of those to whom he alludes." "I have observed," says Steele, "that the superiority among thesf PROPRIETY OF EXPRESSION. 167 coffee-house politicians proceeds from an opinion of gallantry and fa?l ion." Here the question may arise, what opinion, good or bad? and whose opinion ? " This temper of mind" (referring to humility) " keeps our understand ing tight about us :" quit-e unintelligible, surely. Sometimes a specious flow of words, a series of synonyms, and identical propositions, well-turned periods, and high-sounding words, give us sound instead of sense — words being used so indefi- nitely that no meaning, or various meanings, may be attached to tliem; thus, " From harmony, from heavenly harmony, This universal frame began ; , From harmony to harmony Through all the compass of the notes it ran, The diapason closing full in man." Rule III. — Guard against selecting improper expressions from their resemhlance in sound to the one proper to he used. Thus men improperly speak of the religious observation of a festival, in- stead of ohservaTice. Thus endurance (which means patience) is confounded with duration. Discrimination must now be made between terms which only a century ago were held as synonymous ; such as, state and estate^ property and propriety, import and importance, conscience and consciousness, arrant and errant. Human (that which belongs to man) is not to be confounded with liu- manc (kind and compassionate) ; nor humanly with humanely, as in those lines of Pope : " Though learn'd, well-bred ; and though well-bred, sincere ; Modestly bold, and humanly severe.'* Humanity bears both senses. Ceremonious (attentive to the forms of civility) must not be used instead of ceremonial (pertaining to a religious rite). Construe (referring to the disposition of words in a sentence) must not be used for construct (which may be applied to a building). To " demean one's self" does not mean the same as to "debase one's self ;" the former meaning to behave^ the latter to behave meanly. E''er is a contraction of the adverb ever, and should not be taken for ere (before) ; nor should its, the possessive case of it, be confounded with "^tis or iVs, a contraction of it is. Genii is properly applied to demons or separate spirits ; but geniuses tc men of talents. Brothers properly signifies male children of the same parent or parents ; brethren denotes persons of the same profession, nation, religion, or nature. I 168 PROPRIETY OF EXPRESSION. Rule IV. — Guard agaiiist improprieties arising from a like^ ness in sense possessed by many words. " The invention of truth," should be "the discovery of truth." Epithet is properly some attribute expressed by an adjective ; improp- erly used for tiile or appellation. liisihle (meaning " capable of laughing") has been improperly used for ridiculous., "fit to be laughed at." Thus it is proper to say, "Man is a risible animal ;" " A fop is a ridiculous character." Together is improperly used for successively ; as when it is said, " I never fipoke three sentences together in my whole life." Everlasting is improperly applied to denote time without beginning, the only proper sense of it being time without end ; as in the words, " From everlasting to everlasting, Thou art God." The proper form would be, " From eternity to eternity, Thou art God." Apparent is not properly used for certain., or manifest. It properly means seeming., as opposed to real ; or visible., as opposed to concealed. The phrase to mahe appear should not be used instead of to prove., to show ; for a talented man may be able to make a thing appear what it is not., and this is very different from showing what it is. LESSON IXVIII. PROPRIETY OF EXPRESSION. Rule V. — Do not employ an English word in a promnciaX sense., in a sense which it bears only in low and partial use. Examples. — Impracticable iov " impassable," applied to roads. Arrive at., for "happen," in the sentence, "I cannot help feeling any sor- row that may arrive a^ man." To hold should not be employed for "to use;" nor to give into., for "adopt." That he should have said., is not to be used for " that he said ;" as, " The general report is that he should have said.,'''' — meaning, that he said. A person does not always say what he should have said. The follov^iiig are instances in which sound and sense may both concur in leading to an improper use of words. Examples. — Falseness is properly used in a moral sense for want of ve- racity, and applied only to persons ; falsity dindi falsehood are applied only to things. Falsity means that quality in the abstract which is contrary to truth. Falsehood is an untrue assertion. VULGARISMS TO BE AVOIDED. 169 Negligence is properly applied to wjiat is habitual ; neglect^ only to an act. Chnscience denotes the moral faculty ; consciousness^ a notice of what is passing in our mind. Sophism properly denotes a fallacious argument ; sopMstry^ failaciouiji reasoning. Eeinember is sometimes improperly used for remind. We are reminded by others ; we remember for ourselves. Doctrine is sometimes improperly interciianged with precept : the former denotes the truths we are to believe ; precept, the things we are to do. Rule YI. — Awid 'Gulgarisms ; these sometimes result from the affectation of an easy, careless, and familiar manner of writing. It should be considered that ease is often the result of great care and labor : "But ease in writing flows from art, not chance, As those move easiest who have learned to dance." The desire to avoid the beaten track of expression on the one hand, and the fondness for variety on the other, leads writers into improprieties of expression. Examples of Vulgarisms to he avoided. — " Currying favor" — " cutting a figure" — "dancing attendance" — "swallowing contradictions" — " dexter- ous in smelling out views and designs" — "to stand on an apology" — "to fall into conversation" — "to make up the matter" — "to shift for one's self" — "done to a wish" — "to succeed to a wish" — "to suck another's brains" — "to make up one's mind" — " to turn a matter in one's mind" — "to do away with"— " an ungracious affair"— " dint of argument"— " all of a piece" — "for good and all" — " a good deal" — "got rid of" — "in for it"— "a whit better"— "a jot better"— " fell to work"— " to come to words"—" to set by the ears"—" to see with half an eye"—" pitched up- on" — " chalked out" — " in a mind for it" — " to lay one's account in being opposed" — "to follow an idea" — "to stand on security" — "on the spur of the occasion" — " to extinguish a bond, or a debt" — " a thorough-paced knave." The use of low and familiar expressions when writing on sacred subjects., is peculiarly improper. The pulpit is too often cliargeable with this fault. For instance, Archbishop Tillotson speaks "of squeezing a parable," "sharking shifts," "driving a bargain with God," and " the world cracking about our ears at ♦he day of judgment." a 170 EXERCISES ON PROPRIETY. Exercise. 1. Correct the improper expressions used in the follow- ing sentences : 1. I believe the precepts and endeavor to obey the doctrines of the Bible. 2. Please to remember me of my debt to you. 3. He has been accused of sophism. 4. I have a conscience of guilt. 5. Negligence of duty is reproachful to any man. 6. The roads are impracticable. 7. He gave into my opinion. 8. Whatever calamity arrives at man, he is not undeserving of it. 9. I heard that John should have said that he vras sick. 10. There is a false- ness in that statement. 11. He is chargeable with falsity. 2. Construct sentences embodying the "vulgarisms to be avoided," in the present lesson, and as many sentences in which the same thoughts shall be properly expressf^d. LESSON LXIX. PROPRIETY OF EXPRESSION. Rule VII. — Certain expletive phrases and hy-words^ that violate propriety of expression^ should he avoided ; such as,' *' My goodness" — "gracious me" — " unpossible" — " prodigious" — " yes, indeed" — "indeed" — "in the name of fortune" — "is it possible" — "you do not say so" — " pretty much" — " confounded bad or ugly" — " wretched small" — " miserable little" — " shameful" — " scandalous" — " tremendous" — "immense" — "in the name of wonder" — "curious" — "odd" — "shock- ing" — "mighty" — "most outrageous" — "I know" — "you know" — "you understand" — " I am sure" — " says he" — " says I" — " thinks I" — " I won- der" — "I should think" — "in my mind" — " as I may dare to say." Certain abbrematioTis are 'Dulgar and ungraceful ; as, "la'n't"— "a'n'tl"— "youa'n't"— a'n't you"— "it isn't"— "isn't it" — "Til"— "they'U"-" you'll," &c. So, wasn't, weren't, can't, shan't, doesn't, don't, didn't, haven't, mustn't, shouldn't, won't, wouldn't, mayn't, mightn't, ouffhtn'U you would send the paper free gratis. 5. She writes very well for a new beginner. 6. I saw him down in the basement room. 7. You did not tell me where to stop at. 8. At the sound of the last final trump the dead shall rise. 9. Have you got a hammer? 10. Hence, consequently, he must be in ^rror. 11. He made the case very plain and obvious. 12. He was universa/.y lamented by all. 13. Learn from hence to he 180 REDUNDANT WORDS. more carelnl. 14. The child fell into a kettle of boiling hot water. 15. Min* gle together vinegar and molasses. 16. 1 doubt not but that he will come. 17. I thought to myself that I must die. 18. As soon as the clock struck six I rose up. 19. He came for to see me. 20. He would not accept ol ^.he office. LESSON LXXIII. PRECISION OF EXPRESSION. SYNONYMS. A want of precision in the use of the preposition (which may be omitted), is exemplified in the following phrases : To enter into ; — to ascend up ; — to descend down ; — to lift up ; — to raise up ; — to return back ; — to restore back ; — to return again ; — to retreat back : — to plunge down ; — to follow after; — to cover up ; — to cover over; — to gather together ; — to combine together ; — to converse together ; — to scrutinize into ; — to kill off; — I am a-going; — I am a-coming; — She is a- singing ; — We are a-writing ; — He is a-fishing; — they are a-talking ; — worth a sixpence ; — dignity of a baronet. Add to these tautological examples, the following: But however; — and further; — yet nevertheless ; — the old original house; — the best extra superfine ; — a real capital good one ; — mutually friendly disposition to each other ; — can possibly set apart ; — &c. Thus, it appears, that in a literary as well as moral sense, the saying of the wise man is true : '' In the multitude of words there wanteth not sin." Rule IV. — Avoid the use of words as synonymous^ that approach to one another in meaning^ as expressing the same principal idea / hut which^ from their derivation^ have a different meaning in their more exact avid particu- lar signification. Such words arp the following : Abhor and detest ; — abandon, forsake, relinquish, give up ; — desert, quit, and leave ; — adjacent and contiguous ; — alleviate and lessen ; — aver, asserl:, and declare ; — avow, acknowledge, and confess ; — austerity, severity, and ligor ; — authentic and genuine ; — capacity and ability ; — custom and habit ; dr\8isl, renounce, quit, and leave off; — difficulty and obstacle ; — distingui.'^h SYNONYMS. 181 and separate ; — enough and sufficient ; — entire and complete ; — equivocal and ambiguous ; — haughtiness and disdain ; — invent and discover ; — only and alone ; — pride and vanity ; — reformation and reform ; — remark and observe ; — surprised, astonished, amazed, and confounded ; — tranquillity, peace, and calm ; — wisdom and prudence ; — sole and only ; — over and besides, &c. Such vrords as the above are employed by careless writers, either as if they were of precisely the same signification, or for the sake of filling up a sentence, or to display copiousness of diction. Certain cases arise in which two or more of these synonyms may be com- bined with propriety and advantage. Like different shades of the same color, they may be employed, occasionally, to heighten and finish the picture we are producing. This is allowable, chiefly, when writing under the inspiration of passion. Thus, in the severe invective of Bolingbroke on his own times, " But all is little, and low, and mean among us," the amplification, from the use of these nearly synonymous words, produces a stronger expression of indignation than would have been conveyed by any one of the three epithets employed. Before proceeding to explain and illustrate the synonyms referred to above, or others, attention is here called to some excellent re- marks of Dr. Trench, of London, upon the advantages to he derived from the habit of distinguishing synonyms : How great a part of true wisdom it is to distinguish between things that differ,— things seemingly, but not really alike! This is remarkably attested by our words " discernment" aud " discretion," which are now used as equivalent, the first to " insight," the second to " prudence ;" while yet in their earlier usage, and according to their etymology, being both from " discerno," they signify the power of so seeing things, that in the seeing we distinguish.and separate them one from another. Such were originally " discernment" and '' discretion," aud such, in a great measure, they are still. What a help moreover will it prove to the writing of a good English style, if instead of having many words before us, and choosing almost at random from among them, we at once know which, and which only, we ought in the case before us to employ, which will be the exact vesture of our thoughts ! It is the first characteristic of a well-dressed man that his clothes fit him ; and it is precisely such a prime characteristic of a good style that the words fit close to the thoughts. You do not feel in one place that the writer means more than he has succeeded in saying ; in another, that he has said more than he means ; or in a third, something besides what his 182 EXERCISES ON SYNONYMS. Int 3ntion was ; and all this from a lack of dexterity in employing the instru • ment of language, of precision in knowing what words would be the ex- actest correspondents and fittest exponents of his thought. This power of saying exactly what we mean, and neither more nor less than we mean, is not merely an elegant mental accomplishment, it has a moral meaning as well. It is nearly allied to morality, inasmuch as it is r.carly connected with truthfulness. Every man who has himself in any degree cared for the truth, and occupied himself in seeking it, is more or less aware how much of the falsehood in the world passes current under the concealment of words, how many strifes and controversies find all or nearly all their fuel in words carelessly or dishonestly employed. Ask, then, words what they mean, that you may deliver yourselves and others from the tyranny of words and from the strife of " word- warriors." Learn to distinguish between them, for you have the authority of Hooker, that *'the mixture of those things by speech, which by nature are divided, is the mother of all error." Exercises. 1. Collect^ from memory^ all the synonyms of a given vjord that may be assigned ; then hunt in a dictionary for all the additional synonyms that properly belong to the given word. 2. As suggested by Prof. W. Russell, exemplify the proper use of the synonyms thus collected, " by introdu- cing each in a phrase or sentence in which the context is ol such a character that no other member of the same family of synonyms can be substituted for it, without injury to the form of expression, in the whole clause in which it occurs." LESSON LXXIV. PRECISION OF EXPRESSION. — SYNONYMS EXPLAINED AND ILLUSTRATED. (1.) To hate^ to abhor ^ to detest^ to dislike^ to he averse to^ to have a repugnance to. To be averse to, denotes to have the mind turned away from a thing afi disagreeable ; ant'i/pathi/. means a feeling entertained against some object ; ic SYNONYMS EXPLAINED. 183 dislike^ means not to like or to be attached to ; repugnance, means the lesist* ance of the feelings to an object ; to hate, is to have one's temper excited against a person ; to detest, is to witness against, to condemn with indigna- tion ; to abhor, is to start from with an emotion of horror. One hates, but does not detest, the person who has done an injury to one's self; and one detests rather than hates the person who has done injury to others. To abhor, implies strong dislike ; to detest, expresses strong disap- probation. We abhor being in debt ; we detest treachery. We abhor what is inhuman and cruel ; we detest crimes and injustice. (2.) Abandon^ leave^ forsake^ relinquish^ surrender or give up^ desert^ quit. We leave what may be resumed, as any particular employment; we abandon those who are entirely dependent for protection and support ; so we abandon what is finally given up, as a sinking ship, a burning house, or any form of vice ; we desert those with whom we have entered into coalition, or we desert what ought to be adhered to ; we forsake those with whom we have been intimate. We reliriquish an object of value, or pur- suit— a claim — the hope of reward. A parent abandons his child ; a man forsakes his friend, or place of usual resort ; a soldier deserts his comrades ; a partisan, his party ; a man relinquishes pretensions to an office in favor of another, surrenders or gives up a place of trust, leaves his parents in afflic- tion, and quits his country. (3.) Adjacent^ adjoining^ co?itiguous. Adjacent means lying near, without touching ; adjoining and contiguous, not only near, but joined to, touching in some part. We may speak of adjacent villages or lands, adjoining fields, contiguous buildings. Adjacent places, may have something intervening. (4.) Amazed^ astonished^ surprised^ perplexed^ confound- ed, confused. We are amazed at what is marvellous, frightful, or incomprehensible ; astonished at what is grand and striking; perplexed, confounded, or con- fused at what is embarrassing and intricate ; surprised at what is unex- pected. (5.) Assent^ consent^ allow ^ concede., acknowledge. We assent to the truth of a proposition or statement ; we consent to a proposal or scheme ; we acknowledge the beauty of an object ; we acknowl- tdge a fault, a mistake, a favor ; we concede what is claimed or demanded ; we allow what is asked. (6.) Avow^ confess. We avow (declare openly) our principles, our attachment, or opposition; 184 SYNONYMS EXPLAINED. "we confess a wrong, a sin, a crime, while we acknowledge a small degree oi delinquency. (7.) Aver^ assert^ affirm^ declare. We declare (make known) a fact or opinion ; we affi/rm a fact ; assert a truth, a right, a claim, that may have been denied ; we maintain a truth, or any position taken, when it is opposed ; we affirm^ with confidence ; we aver^ when we declare in a positive determined manner our opinions. (8.) Austerity^ sternness^ strictness^ severity^ rigor. Strictness or rigor ^ is applied to exactness in the observance of rules and administration of discipline ; severity^ implies a readiness to inflict punish- ment ; sternness and austerity^ relate to harsh manners, and a self-denying forbidding mode of living. An austere judge is one who punishes slight offences ; a severe ^wdgQ punishes to the utmost ; a rlgoroiis ^ndigQ punishes without respect to persons punished, or to applications for pardon. (9.) Avoids shun^ escape^ elude^ eschew^ evade. To avoid, is to keep away from ; to shun, is to turn from. We avoid, from prudence ; we shun, from dislike, or abhorrence, or fear ; we escape (flee) from danger; we elude (avoid by skill or artifice) pursuit and pun- ishment ; we escheto (keep out of the way of) evil ; we shu^n vice ; we avoid the drinking-saloon. (10.) Absolve^ acquit, exonerate. To absolve, is to let loose from something that binds— from guilt, or its consequence, punishment; to acquit, is to release from a legal charge, upon trial and judicial decision; to exonerate, is to relieve from a bond, as of debt, or some unfavorable imputation. (11.) Accuse, arraign, blame, censure, impeach. We hlame or censure a man for what is wrong in conduct ; accuse him ot crime ; charge him with an ofi'ence ; arraign him for trial ; impeach him for crime against civil government. (12.) Attain, obtain, acquire. To obtain^ is to get possession of a thing ; to attain, is to reach after, or arrive at, the possession of what is sought ; to acquire, is to gain posses- sion in a progressive and gradual method. We speak of the acquirement of knowledge, or of a language ; of the acquisition of property or wealth ; and of the attainment of salvation. (13.) Ability, capacity, talent. Caj:acity, is the mind's susceptibility of receiving impressions ; abiliiy, iH Ihe power of making active and successful exertions. The former i;? the EXERCISES ON SYNONYMS. 186 gift of God ; the latter is the result of education and of effort. The for- mer enables us to devise, the latter to execute, a great enterprise. (14.) Add^ annex^ increase^ join to^ subjoin. We add quantities or numbers ; we join house to house ; we annex ter- ritory ; we increase property ; we subjoin (add to the end) an after-thought^ another particular. (15.) Admits allow ^ grants permit. We admit (receive) a thing as right or true ; we admit the force of rea- soning ; we admit a member into some society or council ; we receive a friend into our house ; we concede or grant what is demanded or claimed ; we grant what we consider reasonable ; we allow what we suffer to take place ; we allow a person to perform a given act when we do not hinder him, or when we say he may do it ; we permit an act, when we consent to its performance. Exercises. 1. Write sentences that shall embrace each of the lore- going synonymous words in their appropriate and peculiar senses, as explained and illustrated. 2. Supply the blanks in the following passages with the words that are appropriate. The bracketed figures refer to the classes of synonyms explained : (2.) — 1. Few animals except man will their young until they are en^ abled to provide for themselves. 2. When by our dearest relations, by our friends, and by the world, we have always a resource in our Creator. 3. He drove his acquaintance from his table, and wondered why he was 4. me not thus, Adam ! {Milton.) 5. A captain may his vessel when he has no means of saving it ; but an upright statesman will never his post when his country is in danger, nor a true soldier his colors. 6. Birds will their nests when they dis- cover them to have been visited. 7. Men often (3.) — 1. They have been beating up for recruits at York and the towns ; but nobody will enlist. 2. As he has no estate equal to his own, his oppressions are borne without resistance. 3. We arrived at a wood which lay to a plain. (1.) — 1. The chaste Lucretia the pollution to which she had been exposed. 2. Brutus the oppression and the oppressor. 3. The lie that flatters I the most. iGowpei-.) 4. A man does not dread harm from an insect or a worm, but his turns him pale when tliey approach him. 5. One punishment that attends the liar is the of all those 186 EXERCISES ON SY]$JONYMS. whom he has deceived. 6. In this dilemma Aristophanes conquered his and determined to present himself on the stage. (7.) Among ladies he positively that nonsense was the most pre- vailing part of eloquence. (8.) — 1. It is not by discipline and nnrelaxing that the aged can maintain an ascendency over youthful minds. 2. is the proper an- tidote to indulgence ; the diseases of the mind as well as body are cured by contraries. 8. If you are liard in your judgments, in your cen- sures, then, &c. (9.) — 1. Prudence enables us to many of the evils to which we are daily exposed. 2. A fixed principle of religion is needed to enable a man to the temptations to evil which lie in his path. 8. Fear will lead us to a madman. 4. A want of principle leads a man to his cred- itors, whom he wishes to defraud. 5. The best means of quarrels, is to giving offence. 6. The surest preservative of innocence is to ■ bad company, and the surest preservative of health is to every in- temperate practice. 7. Those who have no evil design in view will have no occasion to the vigilance of the law. 8. The wary Trojan, bending from the blow, the death, and disappoints his foe. {Pope.) (12.) — 1. A genius is never to be by art, but is the gift of nature. 2. Kules for happiness are not so necessary as the arts of consola- tion. 8. People may expect to make but slender without a consider- able share of industry ; and in such case they will be no to the com- munity. 4. To learn a language is an ; to win a province, an . 5. The of literature far exceed the of fortune. 6. We always go ©n , but we stop when we have . (18.) — 1. Sir Francis Bacon's grasped all that was revealed in books oefore. 2. The object is too big for our . 8. Though a man has not the to distinguish himself in the most shining parts of a great character ; he has certainly the of being jnst, faithful, modest, and temperate. (5, 6.) Candor leads to our ; repentance produces a ; generosity or pride occasions an . (11.) — 1. Aristogiton, with revengeful cunning, several courtiers of the tyrant. 2. Oh I the horror that will seize a poor sinner, when he stands at the bar of divine justice ! 3. Our Saviour was before Pilate, and creatures in the madness of presumption their Creator. 4. It is extremely wrong to another without sufficient grounds, but still worse to him without the most substantial grounds. 5. We — — a person of murder; we him with dishonesty. 6. Mr. Locke those of great negligence who discourse of moral things obscurely. SYNONYMS EXPLAINED. i 187 LESSON LXXV. PRECISION CF EXPRESSION. — USE OF SYNONYMS. (1.) Absorbed^ engrossed. We are absorbed in grief; we are engrossed in business. (2.) Bestow^ grants present^ offer ^ &g, "We grant permission, bestow charity, present compliments, oj'er an apol- ogy, afford protection, confer a favor, concede a right, and accord considera- tion. (3.) Consent^ comply., &g. We consent to a proposal, comply with a desire, accede to a request, and acquiesce in a decision. (4.) Abstain., forbear., &c. ♦ We abstain from an indulgence, forbear to enforce a right, refrain from committing an injury, and withstand a temptation. (5.) Behavior., conduct., &c. Behavior refers to actions that fall under the notice of others ; conduct regards our moral proceedings generally, whether observed or not. Gar- riage^ deportment, and demeanor, are different species of behavior. (6.) Clear, distinct. We see an object clearly when we are able to form a correct idea of its general figure or appearance ; we see it disti/nctly when we can fairly dis- tinguish its parts. (7.) Custom., habit. Custom refers to the action ; habit, to the agent. Custom expresses tne frequent repetition of the same act ; habit expresses the effect which such repetition produces on the mind or body of the agent. A Steamboat Notice. — " Gentlemen are not requested to enter the Ladies' Cabin without permission." Advertisement. — " Wanted immediately, a man to take care of a pair of horses of temperate and industrious habits." Caption to a poem. — " The following lines were written by one who, for more than ten years, has been confined in the Penitentiary for his own di- version." Report of a School Committee. — " The committee would further suggest some cliange in the internal arrangement of the building, as a large num- ber of seats have long been occupied by the scholars that have no backs." " The Senate of Rome ordered that no part of it (Carthage) should be rebuilt ; it was demolished to the ground, so that travellers are unable to say where Carthage stood at this day." "Thus ended the war with Antiochus, twelve years after the second Pu- nic war, and two years after it had begun." " Upon the death of Claudius, the young Emperor Nero pronounced his funeral oration, and he was canonized among the gods, who scarcely de- served the name of a man." " Galerius abated much of his severities against the Christians on his death-bed, and revoked those edicts which he had formerly published, tending to their persecution a little before his death." " Wanted. — A young man to take charge of a pair of horses of a religious turn of mind." A man writes : " We have two school -rooms sufficiently large to accom- modate four hundred pupils three stories high." LESSON LXXXII. CLEARNESS IN THE STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES. Rule III. — Let not sentences be made too long / nor in terrupted by long parentheses ; nor obscured by intricate phraseology^ or unnecessary iiiversions and involutions of the component clauses; nor darkened by an injudicious use of technical words and phrases. There is a kind of sentence which, however long, may b© clear, — that which has its principal members similar in struc- ture, and which would form so many distinct sentences were they not united by their reference to some common clause at the be- 206 CLEARNESS. ginning or end. Bat, in other cases, sentences of great le?)gth are not easily comprehended, and should not, therefore, be em- ployed. Instead of using a long parenthesis, the thought it conveys should take the form of a separate sentence. But this particular will be naturally considered in a subsequent lesson, under the head of Unity. An example will now be given of a long sentence which may be greatly improved, in clearness and beauty, by subdivision into two or three separate sentences. The original form is this: " Though in yesterday's paper we showed how every thing that is great, new, or beautiful, is apt to affect the imagination with pleasure, we must own that it is impossible for us to assign the necessary cause of this pleasure, because we know neither the nature of an idea nor the substance of a human soul ; and therefore, for want of such a light, all that we can do, in speculations of this kind, is to reflect on those operations of the Roul that are most agreeable ; and to range, under their proper heads, what is pleasing or displeasing to the mind, without bemg able to trace out the several necessary and eflfi.cient causes from whence the pleasure or displeasure arises." Amended, it will stand thus : " In yesterday's paper we showed that every thing which is great, new, or beautiful, is apt to affect the imagination with pleasure. We must ow:«i iihat it is impossible to assign the efficient cause of this pleasure, because we know not the nature, either of an idea or of the human soul. All that we can do, therefore, in speculations of this kind, is to reflect on the operations of the soul which are most agreeable, and to range, under proper heads, what is pleasing or displeasing to the mind." Rule IY. — Let no words he omitted that are necessary to a clear discovery of the intended meaning. Ellipsis frequently is used without creating obscurity ; but when obscurity would arise from the omission of some word or words, such should always be supplied. Example: "He is inspired with a true sense of that function^ when thosen from a regard to the interests of piety and virtue." Sense here means an impression made on the mind, and which a function is not suited to produce. The ellipsis may thus be supplied, and the sentence rendered clear; " He is inspired with a true sense of the dignity or of the iinportance of that function, when," &c. EXERCISES ON CLEARNESS. 207 Exercises. Make clear the following sentences, by supplying those words, the omission of which causes obscurity : You ought to contemn all the wit in the world against you. He talks all the way up stairs to a visit. Arbitrary power I look upon as a greater evil than anarchy itself, as mucli OB a savage is a happier state of life than a slave at the oar. This courage among the adversaries of the court was inspired into them by various incidents, for every one of which I think the ministers, or, if that were the case, the minister alone, is to answer. I beg of you never let the glory of our nation, who made France tremble, and yet has the gentleness to be unable to bear opposition from the mean- est of his own countrymen, be calumniated, d hyfire^ how much more will he clothe you ? Examples of tJie use of different parts of speech in giving signif- icance and vivacity^ by the use of those which are specific in their meaning : Shakspeare might have described Antony as saying, over the dead body of (ysesar, " Those honorable men who killed Caesar,'' but how much more forcible are the words which he employed: " Those honorable men whose daggers have stabbed Csesar!" Paul, in addressing the Ephesians, might have said: "Yea, ye your- selves know that I have labored for the supply of my own wants ;" but more impressively he says : " Yea, ye yourselves know that these hands have ministered to my necessities." The word execution^ or hanging, is a more vivid expression than " the infliction of the sentence of death on a criminal." So M^ton's comparison of Satan to "a cornwranV gives a more vivid idea than if he had said " a bird of prey. ^"^ Again, in describing the atti- tude of Satan when in the act of infusing bad thoughts into the mind of Eve, he uses the best, because most specific word, perhaps, in the language for this purpose — " Him there they found, Sqimt like a toad, close at the ear of Eve." The next example shows that an adverh which is very particu- lar in its significatioD, contributes to vivacity : *' Some say, he bid his angels turn askance The poles of earth, twice ten degrees and more, From the sun's axle." If instead of asTcance the poet had used the word aside^ the ex- pression would have been less appropriate and forcible. The lat- ter would have been equally proper if the inclination of the plane of the ecliptic had been made even perpendicular to that of the equator ; whereas the word asTcance in that case could not have been employed, denoting a much smaller obliquity. Remark also the appropriateness and specialty of the expres- sion used by Thomson — " Lo ! now apparent all, Aslant the dew-bright earth and color' d air, He looks in boundless majesty abroad." It enlivens the imagery and adds force to our expressions, when we not only particularize, but even individuate the object pre- sented to the mind. For this peculiarity the poems of 0.s«ian are 220 VIVACITY OF EXPRESSION. remnrkable. His comparisons bring to our view " the mist on the Hill of Or omler^'''' *'the storm on the Sea of Malmor^^'' and "tlie reeds of the LaJce of LezoP So the sacred writers : " Swift as a roe or as a fawn upon Mount Befher^"* ** white as the snow in Salmon^'''' "fragrant as the smell of LehanonJ*^ Again, whatever tends to subject the things spoken of to the cognizance of our senses, especially of our eyes, greatly enlivens the expression; as in a passage already quoted : " Ye yourselves know that these hands hav ministered to my necessities." The words yon and yonder are more emphatical, because riiore demon strative, than that and there^ as the former imply that the object referred to i? one of sight ; as, " For proof, look up, And read thy fate in yon celestial sign." Milton, The expression is more vivid than would have been ^''that celestial sign." *' Sit ye here, while I go and pray yonder^'''' is more vivid than " pray ihere,^^ In compositions of the descriptive kind, it is best, for giving a vivid conception, to advance from general expressions to special, and thence again to those more particular; as in the Song of Solomon (ii., 10- 13) : " My beloved spake and said to me : Arise, my love, my fair, and come away ; for, lo ! the winter is past, the rain is over and gone, the flowers appear on the earth, the time of the singing of birds is come, and the voice of the turtle is heard in our land ; the fig-tree putteth forth her green figs, and the vines with the tender grape perfume the air." In this passage the most general expression is first used : " The vrinter is past;" the next is more special, "the rain" (one of the disagreeable attendants on winter), "is over and gone." Then are mentioned the particular effects of the coming of spring — ^first in the use of the more general iQvmQ^ flowers and hirds^ then of the particular terms, turtle^ fig-tree^ and mne. LESSON LXXXIX. IHE HARMONY, OR MELODIOUS STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES. This quality depends, of course, upon the proper choice and arrangement of words, rendering the sentence easy or HARMONY OF SENTENCES. 221 pronunciation, and agreeable to the ear when pronounced. The term harmony sometimes denotes an accordance be- tween the sense and the sound of the words, so that these, in some cases, require to be difficult of pronunciation, harsh, and disagreeable in sound. Whether the sound be agree- able or otherwise, the sense should, as far as possible, be represented by the sound of the words selected. True har- many does not consist in adopting the most m,usical words and phrases^ hut in the choice and fitting arrangement of such a succession of sounds as shall most clearly indicate the feelings originated hy the thoughts expressed. Hence harsh words are, for certain purposes, more consistent with rhetorical harmony than words of agreeable sound. The following extracts afford illustration of the truth of these remarks : First, in relation to melodious sounds : " And at night so cloudless and so still ! Not a voice of living thing— not a whisper of leaf or waving bough — not a breath of wind — not a sonrd upon the earth, or in the air I And overhead bends the blue sky, dewy and soft, and radiant with innumerable stars, like the inverted bell of some blue flower, sprinkled with golden dust, and breathing fragrance." — H^ perion. Secondly, in relation to harsh sounds: "Now swells the intermingling din. The jar, Frequent and frightful, of the bursting bomb; The falling beam, the shriek, the groan, the shout, The ceaseless clangor, and the rush of men Inebriate with rage ! Loud and more loud The discord grows, till pale Death shuts the scene, And o'er the conqueror and the conquerM draws His cold and bloody shroud." Shelley's " Queen Mab.^* " But then his style ! In very truth, it is the strangest of stylos, though one of the richest — a style full of originality, picturesque- ness, sunny vigor ; but all cased and slated over, threefold, in meta- ])hor and trope; distracted into tortuosities, dislocations; start- ing out into crotchets, cramp terms, quaintnesses, and hidden satire." — Carlyle^ '''•On Miradeau.'''' 222 RHETORICAL HARMONY. Rules for Rhetorical Harmony. Rule I. — Unless where necessary for expressiveness, avoid, in the choice of words, those which are harsh, grating, unmelodious ; these, for example : (1.) In which there is a concurrence of the same vowel ; as, re-estimated, co-ordinal^ &c. (2.) Those which contain two or more rongh-sounding consonants ; as chroniclers^ perturbed^ grudged^ &c. (S.) Those in which the same letters or similar syllables frequently re- car ; as, pre-reactlonary^ holily^ sillily^ farriery^ &c. (4.) Long compound words, when more fluent and equally expressive synonyms can be found ; such as shamefacedness^ distressfully^ unsuccess- fulness^ ng things of diffei-ent kinds, where at first we expect no re- semblance to exist. On this account we are delighted with Mil- ton^s comparison of Satan, after his fall, to the sun when eclipsed; but we derive little pleasure from his comparison of Eve to a wood-nymph, or of her bower to that of Pomona. For a similar reason, comparisons which the poets have rendered too trite and familiar, afford only moderate gratificatioru 2. While comparisons should not be founded on likenesses too familiar and obvious, they should^ on the other hand^ not he found- ed on those which are too faint and remote; for these fail to illus- trate the subject. 3. Comparisons should Tiot le drawn from objects that are un- known to the reader, or from those of which few people can form a clear idea. 4. In writings of a dignified or serious character, comparisons should be drawn from objects which are beautiful, dignified, or im- portant ; for the primary object of comparisons is to embellish and to dignify. In humorous or burlesque writings, where the aim is to vilify, or render ridiculous, an object, comparisons are properly drawn from low and trivial objects. 5. Comparisons, unless 'oery brief, are Twt naturally or effec- tively introduced in the midst of impassioned language. Examples of Compasison : " Charity, lihe the sun, brightens every ob- ject on which it ehines." Ossian's comparison of the effect of music on the mind to the recollection of departed joys, is beautiful: "The music of Caryl was, lihe the memory of joys that are past, pleasant, and mourn- ful to the soul." The same author thus beautifully illustrates the fatal effects of sorrow on the mind : " They fall away, like the flower on which the sun looJcs in Ms strength^ after the mildew has passed over it, and its head is heavy with the- drops of the nigfd.''^ Shakspeare thus illustrates the destructive effects of concealed lo78 : " She never told her love, Bwt let concealment, like a worm V the budy 242 EXAMPLES OF THE SIMILE. Feed on lier damask cheek. She pined in thougJit, And with a green and yellow melancholy, She sat, like Patience on a monument^ Smiling at grief." Examples from more recent writers : " The world was cold, And he went down, like a lone ship at sea^ A, SmWL " Soon was he quieted to slumb'rous rest, * * * * and as a willow keeps A patient watch over the stream that creeps Windingly by it, so the quiet maid Held her in peace." Keats. " Thy sweet words drop upon the ear, as soft As rose-leaves on a welV Bailey'' s ^''Festits.''^ " My bosom, like the grave, holds all quench'd passions." Ibid. The sacred Scriptures abound in comparisons, most beautiful and pathetic ; as, " Man Cometh forth as a jlower, and is cut down ; he fleeth also as a shadow, and continueth not." Comparisons, as already stated, sometimes are suited to degradt the primary object. Thus Milton disparages the courage and re- sistance of the fallen angels ; '' Gabriel , as a herd Of goats, or tim'rous flock, together throng'd. Drove them before him, thunder-struck, pursued With terrors and with furi' ^ to the bounds And crystal wall of heaven." 6. Comparisons^ to he effective^ should not he incumbered with auf extraneous circumstances. Milton, therefore, made a mistake when, in his comparison of the shield of Satan to the orb of the moon, he introduces the discovery of the telescope, and all the wonders resulting from that discovery. The occasion did not re- q lire or justify the introduction of these extraneous images. In drav^ing analogies from things which appear to have nothing in common, no writers surpass Lord Bacon, Oowley, and the aU' lb or of Hudibras THE METAPHOR. 243 LESSON XGVIII. THE METAPHOR. The metaphor is an abridged comparison ; a comparison not formally stated, in which we predicate of the figurative object effects that are produced by the real object denoted by the phrase in its literal sense. In other words, the met- aphor indicates the resemblance of two objects, by apply- ing the name, attribute, or act of one directly to the other; as, *' He shall be a tree planted by the rivers of water." When I say of any man, "He is to the state like a pillar which supports an edifice," I use a simile ; when I say, " He is the pillar of the state," I employ a metaphor. In plain language I may say, " Thy word enlightens and guides me;" in the use of metaphor, " Thy word is a lamp to ray feet." Ossian, in addressing a hero, uses a beautiful metaphor: "In peace, th< a art the gale of spring; in v/ar, the mountain-storm." Rules for the Metaphor. 1. It should be adapted to the nature of the subject^ and the character of the style which it is intended to illustrate^ or to em- hellish : neither too serious, nor too gay ; neither too elevated, nor too low. 2. Unless the design is to degrade or malce ridiculous^ it should not he drawn from such objects as raise in the mind low or disa- greeable ideas. 3. The resemblance should be evident and natural; the meta- phor should not be far fetched^ nor difficult to understand. Hence, all technical phrases, and allusions to the more abstruse branches of art and science, which are not generally familiar, should not be used. The metaphor, which is designed to illustrate, should not render the thought obscure or perplexed. Harsh, unnatural, oi obscure metaphors, arc soTnetim^s qualified by the ungainly addi 244 - RULES FOR THE METAPHOR. turn of the phrase, as it were. When metaphors reqaire such an apology, it would be better to omit them. To say of gaming, that it has been the gulf of many a man's fortune, is clear and significant, because every one knows that things may be swal- lowed up and lost in it ; but to say that gaming has been the Gharyhdis or the Scylla of many a man's fortune, would not be understood by rnulti- tudes. * 4. Metaphorical and plain language sTiould not he intermixed in the same period or description.^ thus distracting the mind by the association of incongruous ideas, or by multiplied images. Examples : " Now from my fond embrace by tempests torn, Our other column of the State is borne, — Nor took a kind adieu, nor sought consent." Here acts are attributed to a column, of which it is incapable. Flame is a figurative expression for the passion of love, but to say of a lover that he whispered his flame into the ear of his mis- tress, would be faulty language, for it is not the property oi flame to be blown into the ear., nor of a whisper to convey flame. Ossian, at first, says, with accuracy and beauty : " Trotheel went forth with the stream of his people, but they met a rock ; for Fingal stood unmoved ; broken, they rolled back from his eide." But he then unhappily mixes literal language with the metaphorical, and confuses the- picture; "Nor did they roll in safety ; the spear of the hing pursued their flights At first they are presented as the waves of a stream rolling onward, and in the next instant as men that may be pursued and wounded with a spear. 5. Two different metaphors should not meet on one object; this is called a mixed metaphor. All metaphorical combinations that do not coalesce or group well together, make a ridiculous image before the mind; as in the phrases and sentences, "To take arms against a sea of troubles ;" " To extinguish the seeds of pride ;" " Women were not formed to set an edge on the minds of men, and blow up in them those passions which are apt to rise (if their own accord." "I bridle in my struggling muse with pain, Tha longs to launch into a bolder strain." THE METAPHOR. 245 Here tlie muse is presented tinder the incongruous images f>f a horse and of a ship. Errors of this kind may easily be avoided by imagining the metaphor represented in a painting. This would make plain all incongruities. 6. Avoid multiplying metaphors on the same subject^ or in the same description^ producing confusion similar to that arising from the mixed metaphor. Dean Swift says : *' Those whose minds are dull and heavy, dc not easily penetrate into the folds and intricacies of an affair, and therefore can only scum off what they find at the top." Here is confusion indeed. The affair is presented under the image of a bale of cloth, and also under that of a boiling and impure Uquid. It cannot be both. It might I ave been presented under the one or the other, without objection. A metaphor should not be spun out, extended, or continued too long. It thus becomes tiresome, and requires too much effort to trace the resemblance. Cowley, Shaftesbury, and Young err greatly in this particular. Thus Dr. Young, speaking of old age, says it should " Walk thoughtful on the silent shore Of that vast ocean it must sail so soon, And put good works on board, and wait the wind That shortly blows us into worlds unknown." Another instance of the same kind is taken from the writings of Eev. James Hervey : " The religious seem to lie in the bosom of the earth, as a wary pilot in some well-sheltered bark. Here they enjoy safe anchorage, are in no danger of foundering among the seas of prevailing iniquity, or of being shipwrecked on the rocks of temptation. But ere long we shall be- hold them shifting their flag of hope," &c. 7. The ahuse of metaphor, or a metaphor carried to excess, in expressing extravagance of emotion, is called Catachresis ; e. g,^ '* This moment I could scatter Kingdoms like half-pence; I am drunk with joy. #i This is a royal hour— the top of life. A. Smith, Another example of the abuse of metaphor, is when the young of beasts are called " their sons and daughters ;" or when the in- stinctive economy of bees is called their "government;" when tiie goat is called " the husband of the flock ;" when wine is called "the 1 lool of the grape.'' 246 THE ALLEGLRY. 8. Similar to metaphor is allusion^ which produces a pleasing effect when understood — from the associations and reminiscences which it awakens. The allusion may be derived from the Scriptures, from the an- cient and modern classics, from the sciences, and from the arts. LESSON XCIX. THE ALLEGORY. In the Allegory we rehearse a story or description under which a meaning is veiled different from that which ap- pears on the surface. The analogy is designed to be so obvious, that the application can easily be made, and practical conclusions correctly drawn. It is employed when it is desired to convey information, but not in direct and plain terms ; or when there is an aim to interest the imagination; or to get unwelcome truth before the un- derstanding and conscience of those who are prejudiced against it. Horace, in his 14th Ode, Book I., addresses the Roman Com- monwealth as a ship ; represents the civil wars as a storm at sea; and the return of tranquillity, by a safe harbor. Sometimes whole poems or prose treatises are allegorical ; as Spenser's ^' Faery Queen," Swift's " Tale of a Tub," ^'Gulliver's Travels," Butler's " Hudibras," and Bunyan's " Pilgrim's Prog- ress ;" the figures, personages, and scenes represented in them be- ing, entirely imaginary, though the moral and the satire contained in them apply to real life. The nature of allegory will be best understood by introducing jome examples. Take first that beautiful allegorical representa- tion of the Jewish people which you will find in tfhe 80th Psalm : " Thou hast brought a vine out of Egypt ; .thou hast cast out the heathen /Mtl planted it. Thou preparedst room before it, and didst cause it to take aep root, and it filled the land. The hills were covered witli the shadow THE ALLEGORY. 247 of It, and the boughs thereof were like the goodly cedars. She sent out her boughs unto the sea, and her branches unto the river. Why hast thou then broken down her hedges, so that all they which pass by the way do pluck her? The boar out of the wood doth waste it, and the wild beast of the field doth devour it. Return, we beseech thee, O God of hosts ; look down from heaven, and beliold and visit this vine, and the vineyard which tliy right hand hath planted, and the branch that thou madest strong for thyself." From this instance, it will be noticed that no resemblance is expressly stated to exist between this vine and the Jewish people, and yet there is an obvions resemblance. It is not said that the Jewish people is a vine, nor that it is like a vine thus planted, and defended, and assailed. We are left to discover for ourselves the application, the analogy. It is also to be observed that a minute resemblance in every circumstance or particular is not to be expected or looked for. If tlie general purpose of the Allegory is discerned, that is suffi- cient. It is also apparent that the Allegory is neither a Metaphor nor a Comparison, but a story complete in itself, yet furnishing a figurative representation of certain persons, facts, or events. Take, as another beautiful instance of Allegory, that which Nathan, the Hebrew prophet, delivered to King David : " There were two men in one city : the one rich, the other poor. The rich man had exceeding many flocks and herds ; but the poor man had nothing save one little ewe-lamb, which he had bought and nourished up, and it grew up togetlier with him and with his children; it did eat of his own meat, and drank of his own cup, and lay in his bosom, and was unto him as a daughter. And there came a traveller unto the rich man, and he spared to take of his own flock and of his own herd, to dress for the way- faring man that was come unto him ; but took the poor man's lamb, and dressed it for the man that was come to him." The purpose and the application of this inimitable allegory, as conveyed by the prophet, may be read in the twelfth chapter of Second Samuel. In Prior's " Henry and Emma," we have an allegorical descrip- tion, admirably sustained and distinct, of Emma's constancy in the voyage of life : " Did I but purpose to embark with thee On the smooth surface of a summer's sea, While gentle zephyrs play in prosperous gales, And Fortune's favor fills the swelling sa^ls ; 248 THE ALLEGORY. But would forsake the ship and make the shore, When the winds whistle, and the tempests roar? No, Henry, no 1" Allegories have been divided iato tliree Mnds: those designed for ornament ; for instruction ; and for both of these purposes. Of the first sort is Akenside's allegory, in which he beautifully conveys the fact that cultivation is necessary to develop and ma^ tare the powers of the human mind, and render them beneficial to society. The allegory, it will be observed, contains no adventi- tious or foreign circumstance to impair its unity, or obscure its beauty. " In vain Without fair Culture's kind parental aid, Without enlivening suns and genial showers, And shelter from the blast, — in vain we hope The tender plant should raise its blooming head, Or yield the harvest promised in its spring. Nor yet will every soil with equal stores Repay the tiller's labor, or attend His will obsequious, whether to produce The olive or the laurel." ^ For excellent examples of the moral species of allegory, de- signed principally for instruction, the student is referred to the Allegory of Prodicus^ in Xenophon's "Memorabilia," and to the Picture of Human Life, exhibited in the Tablature of Cebes. The power of the Allegory is finely shown in the address of Menenius Agrippa, reported by Livy (Book ii., 32 ), in which he thus adroitly seeks to reconcile the commons to the patricians, between whom, at that time, a dangerous contest seemed to be imminent : "At a time when the members of the human body did not, as at present, all unite in one plan, but each member had its own scheme, and its own language ; the other parts were provoked at seeing the fruits of all their care, of all their toil and service, applied to the use of the stomach ; And that the stomach meanwhile remained at its ease, and did nothing but enjoy the pleasures provided for it: on this they conspired together, that the hand should not bring food to the mouth, nor the mouth re- ceive it if offered, nor the teeth chew it. While they wished, by thesQ hugry measures, to subdue the stomach through hunger, the members, und the whole body, were, together with it, reduced to the las stage oi Jcoay : from thence it appeared that the ofiice of the stomach tself wai- THE HYPERBOLF 249 not confined to a slothful indolence, that it not only received nourishment, but supplied it to the others, conveying to every part of the body, that blood on which depends our life and vigor, by distributing it equally through the veins, after having brought it to perfection by digestion of the food." For additional examples of admirably sustained allegories, refer to Addison's " Vision of Mirza," Goldsmith's "Asem, an Eastern Tale," and Dr. Johnson's " Voyage of Life," Rambler, No. 102, vol. iii. The principal Rule for the Allegory is, to avoid min gling the literal mid figurative significations. The attri bates of the primary and of the secondary subject musf not be interchanged. The difficulty of sustaining a long allegory suggests to writers of moderate ability to stud^ brevity. LESSON G. HYPERBOLE. This figure is the product of imagination and passion, under the influence of which we are prone to magnify the good qualities of objects we love, and to diminish or de- grade the qualities of objects which we dislike or envy. Fear of an enemy tends to augment our conceptions of his size and prowess. The scout in Ossian thus portrays a hostile chief: *' I saw their chief, tall as a rock of ice; his spear, the blasted fir; his shield, the rising moon ; he sat on the shore, like a cloud of mist on the hill." The Hyperbole (exaggeration), therefore, consists in represent- ing objects either greater or smaller, better or worse, than they really are; and this is done by applying to them exaggerated epithets. Thus the Apostle John says of the deeds of our Saviour, *' If they ehould be writton^ every one of them, I suppose that even the world itself 11* 250 THE HYPERBOLE. could not contain the l/ooks that should be written." So the promise of an increase of the Hebrew population is in these hyperbolic or exaggerated terms: " I will make thy seed as the dust of the earth; so that if a man can number the dust of the earth, then shall thy seed also be numbered.' Homer's allegorical description of Discord, " Her head she raised to heaven, and trod on earth;" and Milton's description, " So frown'd the mighty combatants, that Hell Grew darker at their frown ;" and Shakspeare's, -" tongue In every wound of Csesar, that should move the Stones of Rome to rise and mutiny ;" are fine examples of hyperbole. Rules for Hyperbole. — I. They should not he over- strained and labored. Dryden unduly compliments Charles II. at the expense of the sun himself: " That star that at your birth shone out so bright. It stain'd the duller sun's meridian light." Prior supposes the fire of a lady's eyes to outshine the flames of Rome, when lighted up by Kero : ^ *' To burning Rome when frantic Nero play'd, / Viewing thy face, no more he had survey' d The raging flames, but, struck with strange surprise, Confess' d them less than those in Anna's eyes." Guarini (in Pastor Fido) represents a shepherd as addressing his beloved thus : '^ If I had as many tongues, and as many vrords as there are stars in the heavens, and grains of sand on the shore, my tongues would be tired, and my words would be exhausted, betbre I could do justice to your immense merit," Rule II. — They should seldom he used except under the influence of emotion^ and when the mind of the reader has been excited and thus prepared to relish them. Rule III. — They should be expressed in few words. PERSONIFICATION. 251 LESSON CI. PERSONIFICATION. This is a figure which imparts to a compofeition great animation and beauty, by giving more distinct conceptions of an object to the mind. It personifies (regards, and speaks of, as persons) inanimate or irrational objects, and abstract qualities. It endows them with life, speech, feel- ing, and activity : " The sea saw thoe and fled,'- &c. ; *' What aileth thee, thou sea, that thou fleddest," &c. This figure is profusely employed in Thomson's Seasons and in Virgil's Georgics ; so that it has been said, that if you divest them of this sprightly ornament, you reduce two of the most beautiful didactic poems the world ever saw into dry and uninteresting details of natural history. All the various passions of the soul prompt to the use of this lively figure. Eve, just before she was compelled to leave Paradise, feelingly exclaims : " Oh, unexpected stroke, worse than death : Must I thus leave thee, Paradise ? thus leave Thee, native soil, these happ> walks and shades I ******* * * * O Flowers I That never will in other climate grow, My early visitation, and my last At even, which I bred up with tender nand, Prom your first opening buds, and gave you names I'* So on the occasion of Eve's eating the forbidden fruit, external Nature is represented as moved to grief and consternation : " Nature from her seat. Sighing through all her works, gave signs of woo That all was lost." " Sky lower'd, and muttering thunder, some sad drops Wept, at completing of the mortal sin." 252 PERSONIFICATION. At the preTious period of the happy nuptials of the innocent pair, " All heaven, And happy constellations, on that hour Shed their selectest influence ; the earth Gave signs of gratulation." Satan, in " Paradise Lost," thus addresses the sun : " Sun ! to tell thee how I hate thy beamSj That bring to my remembrance from what state I fell !" Adam, impatient to knovr his origin, personifies and thus ad- dresses the prominent natural objects around him : " Thou Sun, said I, fair light 1 And thou, enlightcn'd Earth, so fresh and gay I Ye hills and dales, ye rivers, woods, and plains, And ye that live and move, fair creatures, tell, Tell, if you saw, how came I thus, how here ?" King Lear, in extreme distress, personifies the elements, and charges them with aiding his daughters to effect his ruin: " I tax not you, ye elements, with unkindness ; I never gave you kingdoms, call'd you children ; You owe me no subscription ; then let fall Your horrible displeasure. Here I stand your slave ; A poor, infirm, weak, \nd despised old man I But yet I call you servile ministers. That have, with two pernicious daughters, join'd Your high engender'd battles 'gainst a head So old and white as this." The personifications of Night (in the Complaint of Young Book L lS-25); of the Nature and Offices of Law (in Hooker's Ecclesiastical Polity) ; of Natural Religion (in Bishop Sherlock's comparison of our Saviour with Mohammed), arfi deserving ol admiration. The most animated personification of abstract ideas is found in Collins' ode on the Passions. Milton's '^ coy submission," "proud humility," " astonished thought ;" Ossian's ''joy of grief;" the per- sonifying style of Johnson, "indolence reposes," instead of "the indolent man reposes;" "criticism pronounces," instead of "the critics pronounce," are clear instances of personification. APOSTROPHE. 253 Errors to he avoided: (1.) Avoid the introduction of fantastic and trifling circumstances, (2.) Personifications are not to he employed when the subject is destitute of dignity. An address to the seyeral parts of one's body as if they were animated, is not suita- ble to the dignity of passion. Hence the following lines are exceptionable, in Pope's beautiful poem of " Eloise to Abelard:" " Dear, fatal name ! rest ever unreveal'd, * * -Sf * * Hide it my heart, * * •* Oh ! write it not, my hand ! — his name appears Already written :— blot it out, my tears ! " In prose compositions, the figure requires to be used with greater moderation and delicacy than in poetry. LESSON CII. APOSTKOPHE. This is a figure in which we address the alsent or dead, as if present or alive, and the inanimate as if living; or in which we turn from the logical order of thought, or regular course of our subject, to address the person or thing spoken of. " O gentle sleep, Nature's soft nurse, how liave I frighted thee, That thou no more wilt weigh my eyelids down, And steep my senses in forgetfulness ? " Shakspeare, Of the apostrophe there are two classes — the protracted and picturesque, the product of imagination ; and the more brief and suggestive, which originates in the violence of passion. Ossian's address to the Moon is regarded as one of the most 8T)lendid apostrophes in any language : 254 APOSTROPHE. ^' Daughter of heaven, fair art thou I The silence of tliy face is pleasant Thou comest forth in loveliness. The stars attend thy blue steps in the east. The clouds rejoice in thy presence, O Moon 1 and brighten theii dark-brown sides. Who is like thee in heaven, daughter of the night 1 The stars are ashamed in thy presence, and turn aside their sparkling eyes. Whither dost thou retire from thy course, when the darkness of thy coun- tenance grows ? Hast thou thy hall, like Ossian? Dwellest thou in the shadow of grief ? Have thy sisters fallen from heaven? and are they whrt rejoiced with thee at night no more? Yes, they have fallen, fair light! and often dost thou retire to mourn. But thou thyself shalt one night fail, and leave thy blue path in heaven. The stars will then lift their heads ; they who in thy presence were astonished will rejoice." In the tragedy of Douglass, Lady Randolph thus bewails the loss of her son : " My murder' d child ! had thy fond mother fear'd The loss of thee, she had loud fame defied, Despised her ftither's rage, her father's grief, And wander' d with thee through the scorning world." Quinctilian also thus laments the untimely death of a favorite son: " Hast thou left me, ray son, a childless father, reserved to drag on a wretched life ? Thou, who wast so lately, by consular adoption, entitled to succeed to all thy father's honors ? Thou, whom a prastor, thy uncle, had marked out for his son-in-law ? Thou, who wouldst also have restored eloquence to all her native glories ? Thou art gone, while I am reserved to suffer grief and affliction." The passionate apostrophe of the bereaved and eloquent He- brew monarch, over the corpse of his beloved yet unnatural son Absalom, is familiar to all. The Scriptures abound in beautiful apostrophes ; as in the fourteenth chapter of Isaiah, where the fall of the Babylonish king is described ; or where the prophet Jere- miah exclaimtf, "O thou sword of the Lord? how long will it be ere thou be quiet? put thyself up into the scabbard, rest and be still;" or in the pathetic lamentation of David over Saul and Jonathan : ** Ye mountains of Gilboa, no dew, neither rain be upon you, nor fields of oft'erings ! How are the mighty fallen in the midst of the battle ! Jonathan, thou wast slain in thine high places I I am distressed for thee, my brother Jonathan ; very pleasant hast thou been unto me ; thy love to nae waa wonderful, passing the love of women !" Adam's Morning Hymn in Paradise "is a chain of the njost APOSTROPHE. 255 beautiful apostrophes;" so his soliloquy on the miserable con- dition to which sin had reduced him embodies the same figuie: " O woods, fountains, With other echoes late I taught your shades To answer and resound for other song." Rules for the apostrophe. — First, avoid the profuse and affected use of ornaments^ for these are the product of fancy, not of passion. Secondly, let not the apostrophe be carried to an undue length. The language of passion is concise and abrupt ; it passes suddenly from one object to another. Thirdly, never employ it unless under the influr- ence of sU -mg emotion. Oratory, m some of its forms, is a fine field for the use of apos- trophe. Dc'mosthenes and Cicero abound in it. So have modern orators, bovh British and American, of which it would be easy to produce mx ay brilliant and admirable specimens. Exercise. It womld be useful to the pupil or reader, to examine tsome book of selections in prose and verse, for the purpose ot discerning and pointing out the various rhetorical figures lu^ttted upt)n in this, in former, and in succeeding lessons. LESSON CIII. THE VISION, OR HYPOTYPOSIS. This is a figure suitable only in animated compositions, \^ here, in relating transactions past, or future, or in writing of things distant or unseen, we use the present tense of the verb, and describe them as if they were before our eyes at the time of writing. 256 VISION OR HTPOTYPOSTS. Thus Quinctinan, speaking of & town that had been sacked, represents the fact in the following picturesque manner : *' We behold houses and temples wrapt in flames ; we hear the crash of I oofs falling in, and one general uproar proceeding from a thousand differ- ent voices ; we see some flying they know not whither, others hanging over the last embraces of their wives and friends ; we see the mother tear- ing from the ruffian's grasp her helpless babe, and the victors cutting each , other's throats wherever the phinder is most inviting." A The Ingoldsby Legends^ describing humorously the heroic ad- ventures of the fashionable Lord Tomnoddy and his tiger Tom, and their perilous journey to the Old Bailey, '' to do what was fit for a nobleman to do" — get drunk in company with his aristo- cratic friends, " Captain McFuse, Lieutenant Freegoose, And Corny Jenks of the Blues," while they were witnessing a criminal dangling in his shoes from the gallows at the end of a halter, furnish a touching specimen of the figure we are illustrating : " And hark I a sound comes big with fate, The clock from St. Sepulchre's towers strikes eight I List to that funereal bell. It is tolling, alas ! a living man's knell I And see I from forth that opening door They come— he steps that threshold o'er Who never shall tread upon threshold more. God ! 'tis a fearsome thing to see That pale, wan man's mute agony ; The glare of that wild, despairing eye, Now bent on the crowd, now turn'd to the sky, As though 'twere scanning, in doubt and in fear, The path of the spirit's unknown career ; Those pinion'd arms, those hands that ne'er Shall be lifted again, — not e'en prayer ; That heaving chest ! — Enough — 'tis done I The bolt has fallen ! The spirit has sjono — For weal or for woe is known but to )no ' Oh I 'twas a fearsome sight I — Ah me I A deed to shudder at, — not to see." THE METONYMY. 257 LESSON CIV. THE METONYMY. Metonymy (change of name) substitutes the name of one object for that of another, which is related to it, either by some degree of mutual dependence, or is otherwise so con- nected with it as to be capable of suggesting it: thus, it uses the cause for the effect, or the effect for the cause ; the attribute for the subject, or the subject for the attri- bute ; the antecedent for the consequent, or the consequent for the antecedent, &c, 1. The cause for the effect. Examples. — " I know his hand,^'' for hand-writing; " streaming grief ^"^ for tears ; " the light shines," instead of " the sun shines ;" *' he was over- taken by night ^"^ instead of " by darhness ;" " he loves his hottle^'*'' instead of " he is a drunJcard f " they read the poets^'* i. e., " their worhs ;" " it is to be found in Horace^ Virgil," &c., that is, " in the writings of Horace ^^"^ &c. The names of heathen deities are substituted for what they preside ov^r ; thus, Mars^ by a metonymy, is used for war; Neptune^ for the sea ; Bacchus, for wine ; Venus, for love ; Pallas, for wisdom. 2. The effect is put for the cause ; or, the 'properties of the effect are attributed to the cause. Thus, *' He lives by the sweat of his brow ;" that is, by his lahor, of which sweat is the effect ; victory is said to be insolent ; death, to be pale ; youth, to be gay ; passion, blind; anger, hasty ; cuHosity, impertinent; win^^ jo- vial; drink, giddy ; night, drowsy, &c. " There is death in the pot," is put for " there is some deadly thing, some death- causing thing, in the pot ;" '"''cold Death;" that is. Death that makes cold. " And the merry bells (bells that make merry) ring round." D Allegro. 3. The suhjectfor the attribute or adjunct. Youth and beauty are put for those who are tJie subjects of yout? and beauty; that is, for the young and the beautiful. 4. The attribute, or adjunct, for the subject. Thus, in the exj ressions, " \hQ insolence of the agt •" i. e., of the men of 258 THE METONYMY. the age : "on this side modesty is engaged, on that impudence,^* &q. ; i. e., modest men, &c. : " Ye devour XhQ families of widows ;" i. e., their means of subsistence. By the same figure we say of a book, "it is the production ol an eminent ^«7i ;" that the word "mitre" is used for priesthood; " sword" for the military profession, or military violence ; " the gown" for theology, law, or physic ; '' chair" for the professor ; "the purple" for imperial authority; "the throne," or "crown," for the kingly office ; " the papal chair" for papal authority. Thus, also, horses are termed lays^ g'^ciys^ chestnuts^ &c. ; — the names of Burgundy, Champagne, Madeira, &c., are applied to the wines of those countries ; — " the turf," or "the course" is put for the race-ground; — "heat" for a match; — "the glow-worm's lamp," for light ; — " boots" for one who cleans boots ; — " a toast" for one who is the subject of it ; — " he is an excellent whip," that is, a skilful driver. "The skirts of a wood," " the brow of a hill," "the arm of a tree," or " of the sea," "the wing of an army," "the hand of time," " the frog of a horse's foot," " the finger-post," " an elbow-chair," are expressions be- longing to the figure of metonymy; so are Milton's epithets, "religious light," " wearied wing," " adventurous song ;" and Shakspeare's " coward Bwords," " fearful hollows ;" and Gray's "moping melancholy," "pining atrophy," and " moonstruck madness." 5. The antecedent for the consequent. As, "they lived," instead of, they are now dead ; "he once was," in- stead of, he is no more. 6. The consequent for the antecedent. As, " he is buried," for he is dead ; " he is hastening to the grave," for "to death." 7. The inventor is taken for the thing indented ; thus, " Blanket," from Blanket; "phaeton," from Phaeton, of mythologic no- toriety. 8. The container is substituted for the contents^ or thing con- tained; as, Grove^ for the " birds contaimd in it,^^ in the phrase, " vocal grove ;" mountains, for the sheep feeding on them, as, " the Ueatiiig mountains ;" the kettU, for the water contained in it, as, "the kettle boils ;" the cup^ for the wine therein, as, " drink of this cup." THE SYNECDOCHE. 259 9. The sustainerfor the thing sustained. Altar is put for the sacrifice laid on it ; field^ for the battle upon it, as, well-fought ^e^; "the mace (magistrate) comes." 10. Materials for the things made out of them ; as, Hemp for rope ; cold steel for suord; lead for bullet, 11. TTie thing signified for the sign ; as, When pointing to a portrait, we say, " That is Webster ^^ or " Glay^'' &a LESSON CV. THE SYNECDOCHE (oR COMPREHENSION). This is a form of speech, wherein something more or something less is substituted for the precise object meant ; as when the whole is put for a part, or a part for the whole ; a genus for a species, or a species for a genus ; the singular for the plural, or the plural for the singular, &c. 1 . The whole for a fart, " The world considers him a man of talent," i. e , that part of mankind who knew him ; " It is written in the prophets^'''' i. e., in the book of some one of the prophets ; *' There lies Washington^'''' i. e., the body of Washing- ton ; " They have taken away my Lord^'' i. e., his body. 2. A part for the whole. " Give us this day our daily bread^ i. e., various kinds of food necessary for the support of life ; " mortals," or " souls," are put for men ; " sail," for the entire ship ; " head," for person ; " waves," for the sea ; " a good sow?," "a merry *ot^?," for a good and a merry person ; " the keys of the fort were given up," i. e., ih^ fort was given up ; "the Lord Chancellor resigned the #€aZ*," i. e., every thing connected with the office of Chan- cellor. 3. The genus for a species. As when we call a dull man a stupid animal. 4. A species for the genus. We thus speak of a "garrison put to the sword,^^ i. e., killed by all the various species of weapons employed ; or we say a man may get his bread 260 ANTO^OMASTA. by industry, that is, get the necessaries of life, bread being only one spec m of this genus. 5. The singular number used for the plural; or, the plural for the singular. " Man that is born of woman," i. e., men that are bo.-n of women ; " The thieves that were crucified with him upbraided him," i. e., f>neofthears in the oration of Cicero in favor of Flaccus, in wliich, for the purpose of invalidat- ing the testimony of the Greeks, who were witnesses against liis clients, he alloAVs them every quality but that which was neces- sary to make them credited. 5. Communication (Anacoenosis), or Expostulation, is a figure by which a speaker argues a case with his hearer or with his opponent ; or by which an injured person, in order to convince the oflfender of his injustice or ingrati- tude, pleads with him from all the topics of reason and pro- priety, that he may make him ashamed. Thus: "Were it your case, what would you answer? Tell me; I ap- peal to your inmost thoughts;" " Had the case been your's, what would you, or what could you have done?" Another good example may be found in the speech of the Lord Chief Justice in '* Henry IV.," second part, last scene : " Question your royal thoughts," &c. 6. DuBiTATioN (Aporia) ; of which the following is an mstance : " Shall I speak or be silent ? Shall I put a seal forever on the deed I have discovered, or make it known to the whole world ?" LESSON CXII. ENUMERATION. — ACCUMULATION. — ASYNDETON. — POLYSYN- DETON, ETC. 1. Enumeration {oy Aparithmesis)^ is a detail of things in corresponding words, each word or phrase having the 271 same grammatical character ; the simplest example is counting, " one, two, three," &c. Other examples are the following : "His disinterestedness, his candor, his kindness, and forbearance, are remarkable." *' By a series of miscon- duct, he lost his fortune, ruined his health, alienated his friends, and abridged the term of his natural life." A statement of UJce or of opposite particulars cannot he clearly and forcibly made^ unless the forms of expression also indicate re- semblance or contrast. Correspondence in purpose should produce correspondence of construction. The following instance of enumeration is faulty : " His being irregular, 'ns passions, his extravagant spending, his losing of his friends, and the increase of his enemies, quickly brought him to ruin." Corrected, it will stand thus : *' His irregularity, his passions, his extravagance, the loss of his friends, and the increase of his enemies, quickly brought him to ruin." Nothing is more common, in an enumeration, than an opposi- tion of part to part, and the opposition should always be kept clear by similarity in the parts not opposed. Hence the following example fails : " In the same way that John hindered Thomas, William was found to be obstructed by Edward." It should be, " In the same way that John hindered Thomas, Edward hindered William." A fev/ more examples may be added, in order to compare sim- ple Enumeration with Antithesis. " He is sensible, learned, and religious." Here we have a mere enumeration of qualities, and the woi;4s denoting them are properly joined in one construction; but in the following, where a contrast is to be enforced^ the same words are distributed into two constructions, '^He is not only sen- sible and learned, but he is religious, too." A like difference ac- complished by like means, is shown in the following : " The year, day, and hour, are known." " Not only the year, but the day and the hour are known." *'He spoke of the power and wisdom of God." " He spoke of Christ, the power of God, and the wisdom of God. * 2. If the particulars are hurried together, so as to have the effect of being gathered into a heap, the figure is called Accumulation {Syjiathrcesmus) \ as, 272 A8TNDET0K, ETC. "He -was every tMng: painter, poet, musician, soldier, ma^tratei iiunter, fisher — what, indeed, was he not ?" Again, in Cicero's oration against Catiline: *' You do nothing, you attempt nothing, you plan nothing, which I not only hear but even see and clearly comprehend.^' Again, in Paul's Epistle to the Komans : *' For I am persuaded that neither death, nor life, nor angels, nor princi- f alities, nor powers, nor things present, nor things to come, nor height, nor depth, nor any other creature, shall be able to separate us from tho love of God, which is in Christ Jesus our Lord/' 3. If, in the enumeration of particulars, the conjunctions are left out, we then call the figure Asyndeton ; if, on the contrary, in order to prolong time for the attention to dwell on each particular, more conjunctions are used, than the construction requires, we call the figure, Polysyndeton, Emmples of thes^.—Oi the first, Caesar's letter to the Roman Senate, " I came, saw, conquered ;" of the second, " When Socrates fell, truth, and virtue, and religion fell with him." ' 4. If, in the enumeration, each particular rises in force or weight above the preceding, we then call the figure Iti- crease (Incrementum) ; and, under certain circumstances. Climax^ Gradation (or Anabasis). The figures opposite to these are called Decrease (Decrementum), Anti-climax (Katabasis, — Bathos), or Descent, Increase is the narae properly given to such a manner of speak- ing as this: "If credit, if interest, if happiness, are of no estima- tion in your eyes, think on the consequences; think on the precepts of religion ; think on the hopes of immortality." Supposing the ascent to be more palpable, we shall then properly use the term Climax, or Anabasis ; as, " There is no enjoyment of property without a government, no govern* ment without a magistrate, no magistrate without obedience, ani no obe- iilence when every one acts as he pleases.'' Again : " Not the solemn demand of my person, not the vengeance of the Am- j hictyonio council which my enemies denounced against me, not the ter- EXERCISES ON ENUMERATION, ETC. 273 ror of their threateiiings, not the flattery of their promises, — no, not tho fury of those accursed wretches whom they roused like wild beasts against me, could tear my affection for my country from my heart." The following brief example of climax is added: '^John pre- pared for the good work, which Thomas began, Edward forward- ed, and William at last completed." Reverse the order of these particulars, and though the sense will remain, the force of expres sion will be lost. LESSON CXIII. PRACTICAL EXERCISES ON ENUMERATION AND OTHER FIGURES OP THE PRECEDING LESSON. Write the following sentences with such alterations as the preceding lesson requires : Spring, and summer, and autumn, and winter, correspond respectively to youth, maturity, old age, death. — The villain is gone, has fled, run away, and darted off. — The enemy said, I will pursue, and I will overtake, and I will divide the spoil.— Destitute of principle, he regarded neither his family, nor his friends, nor his reputation. — Neither threat, entreaty, riches on the one hand, nor poverty on the other, could sway his mind from the resolu- tion he had formed. — In all stations and conditions, the important relations take place, of masters and servants, and husbands and wives, and parents and children, and brothers, and friends, and citizens, and subjects. — While the earth remaineth, seed-time and harvest, cold, heat, summer, winter, day, and night, shall not cease. — He determined to give up affairs and to collect his debts, and to sell his estate, and to take leave of all con- nected with him, and to go abroad forever. — At one and the same time, to listen to one person, and to read the letter of another, and write to a third, and dictate to a fourth, is an achievement to which probably no man, ex- cept Julius Cfesar, was ever found competent. — Horses, and dogs, and men, and women, and beggars, and gentlefolk, all were mingled in that wild rout. — The long procession included heralds, musicians, flag-bearers, priests, magistrates, burgesses, horse-soldiers, foot-soldiers, and peasants in their holiday attire. Innocence is there, kindly peace, simple quiet, meads with lowing herds, tune of birds, lapse of streams, saunter with a book, and warbling muse in praise of hawthorns. — Rank may confer, but it will not of necessity insure respect. Rank may confer influence ; but will not necessarily produce virtue. — He might have been, and he is, in the estimation of some people, tlie happiest man in the world. — He might have been lappy, and is now 12» 274 THE INTERROGATION. fully convinced of it.— It is your duty and your interest to be studious and obliging.— It is not only your duty, but interest, to be studious and obliging. To-day we are here ; to-morrow we are gone. — The old may inform the young ; and the young may animate those who are advanced in life. — Ven- erable shade ! I then gave thee a tear ; accept now of one cordial drop that falls to thy memory. — The account is generally balanced ; for what we lose on the one hand, we are gainers by on the other. — This author is more remarkable for strength of sentiment, than harmonious language. — Tho' laughers will be for those who have most wit ; the serious part of mankind for those who have most reason on their side. He can bribe, but he is not able to seduce ; he can buy, but he has not the power of gaining ; he can lie, but no one is deceived by him. — He embraced the cause of liberty faintly, and pursued it without resolution ; he grew tired of it, when he had much to hope ; and gave it up when there was no ground for appre- luension. — The great friend of truth is time ; that which is most unfriendly to her is prejudice ; and that which is constantly in the act of accompany- ing her, is humility. — He thus became the principal man in his native place : — by the friends he made, he obtained rank and honors ; by honesty and generous dealing, he made friends ; and by early industry, he raised himself to wealth. — There are three modes of bearing the ills of life ; by re- ligion, which is the best ; by indifference, which is the most common ; by philosophy, which is the most ostentatious. — It is pleasant to be virtuous and good, because that is to excel many others ; it is pleasant to grow bet- ter, because that is to excel ourselves ; it is pleasant to command our ap- petites and passions, and keep them in due order within the bounds of reason and religion, because this is empire ; nay, it is pleasant even to mortify and subdue our lusts, because that is victory. LESSON CXIV. THE INTERROGATION. — THE EXCLAMATION. Interrogation (or Erotesis) is a figure, or form of sen- tence, which requests, or apparently requests an answer without the logical formality of affirming the request; as " Art thou angry ?" " Where are your fathers ?" These expressed with logical formality, would be expanded in some such manner as the following: "Whether or not thou art angry, is what I request thee to tell me." " Where your fathers ure, is a fact which you are called upon to declare." THE INTERROGATION* 275 All sentences interrogative in form are rhetorical, even the most familiar. A distinction has been made between such as really, and such as apparently require an answer, the former being deemed plain, and only the latter figurative* The distinction is unsound. It is framed on a supposition that rhetoric begins late in helping to form the structure of speech. We are rhetoricians in infancy, and by slow degrees become grammarians and logi- cians. The design of the Interrogation is to awaken particular attention to the subject of discourse, and it is admirably adapted to produce a powerful impression of the truth of a subject, as it seems to challenge the impossibility of con- tradiction. The Scripture furnishes many beautiful examples of the use oi this figure: "He that planted the ear, shall He not hear? He that formed the eye, shall He not see?" '' Canst thou by search- ing find out God ? Canst thou find out the Almighty to perfec- tion ?" "To what purpose is the multitude of your sacrifices unto me?" Satan's address to Eve is wonderfully heightened by the inter- rogations with which it is interspersed : *' Queen of this Universe ! do not believe Those rigid threats of death ; ye shall not die ; How should you ? By the fruit ? It gives you life To knowledge. By the threat'ner ? Look on me, Me who have touch'd and tasted, yet both live, And life more perfect have attain'd than Fate Meant me, by venturing higher than my lot." The following passage in that noblest of des jriptive poems, " The Seasons," contains a series of the most beautiful interrogatories: "Falsely luxurious, will not man awake, And springing from his bed of sloth, enjoy The cool, the fragrant, and the silent hour, To meditation due and sacred song? For is there aught in sleep can charm the wise I To lie in dead oblivion, losing half " The fleeting moments of too short life , Total extinction of the enlighten'd soul 1 Or else to feverish vanity alive, 276 e:^clamation. Wilder'd and tossing through distemper'd dreams? Who would in such a gloomy state remain Longer than Nature craves ; when ev'ry muse And every blooming pleasure waits without, To bless the wildly devious morning walk ?" Exclamation (or Ecphonesis), is a natural cry carried out into a sentence ; the expression of emotion without the logical formality of affirming the emotion ; as " How sur- prising !" " What a piece of work is man !" These, expressed with logical formality, would be expanded in some such manner as the following : " That which is before me, is very surprising;" ''man is a most wonderful piece of work." The Exclamation expresses strong passion or emotion in vehe- ment language: as, ''O Death, where is thy sting? O Grave, where is thy victory." — St. Paul. " Oh I unexpected stroke— worse than death I" MiUon. LESSON CXV. EXERCISES ON EXCLAMATION AND INTERROGATION. When, for rhetorical effect, it is desirable to use one or other of these figures, instead of plainer forms of the sen- tence, and whicli of these figures is preferable to the other in particular cases, must be left to the student's judgment. At present nothing more is proposed than examples for exercises ; previously to which, let the following sentences be compared : " He who only believes that after a short turn on the stage of the world, he is to sink into oblivion, and lose his consciousness forever, cannot exal*- his thoughts to any thing great or noble." The thought is here laid down, without the least indication of feeling, in the shape of a plain logical proposition, a shape which on some occasions may be the most eligible. " He cannot exalt his thoughts to any thing great or uoble, because he EXERCISES ON EXCLAMATION, ETC. 277 Oiiiy belie ves that after a short turn on the stage of this world, he is to sink into oblivion, and to lose his consciousness forever." This change of construction effects a change in the logical char- acter of the sentence — it is no longer the enunciation of the thought as a general proposition, but as a particular one included in it, accompanied by the reason or argument based on that un- derstood general proposition. ^''He cannot exalt his thoughts to any thing great or noble, who only be- lieves that after a short turn on the stage of this world, he is to sink into oblivion, and lose his consciousness forevar." This is a rhetorical deviation from the pure logical form of the lirst example, vs^ith no other effect than the indication of some degree of feeUng accompanying conviction. The tw^o grammati- cal parts are now, as in the second example, not nominative and verb, but verb, and another verb which we may deem the adverb of the former. " Can he exalt his thoughts to any thing great or noble, who only be- lieves that after a short turn on the stage of this world, he is to sink into oblivion, and to lose his consciousness forever?" " How impossible that any one should exalt his thoughts to any thing great or noble, who only believes that after a short turn on the stage of this world, he is to sink into oblivion, and to lose his consciousness forever !" These deviations are still more decidedly rhetorical, indicating, m both instances, a greater degree of feeling in the speaker. And such forms of sentence, with a preference sometimes for one, sometimes the other, are adopted by every speaker, as often as the occasion, and his degree of feeling, call for them. Exercise. Cast the following sentences into the form of Interroga- tion or Exclamation, choosing the one or the other as the sense may seem to render desirable. 1. There is no reason, if we have all that nature craves, that we should not be content. (Why.) 2. The best resolutions avail nothing, if we do not put them in practice. (What.) 3. To breathe the fresh air of the country after being long confined in the dose and murky city, is very delightful. (How.) 278 EXERCISES ON EXCLAMATION, ETC. 4. To come on shore, and feed on fresh provisions after a lon^ voyajye, is a hixiiry. (What.) 5. After so long a time, I am happy to see you. (How.) 6. There is nothing in all the pomp of the world, the enjoyment of luxu- ry, the gratification of passion, comparable to the tranquil delight of a good conscience. 7. We wait till to-morrow to be happier; there is no reason for not being BO to-day. We shall not be younger. We are not sure we shall be health- ier. Our passions will not become feebler, and our love of the world less. 8. No shadow can be more vain than the life of a great part of mankind. Of all that eager and bustling crowd which we behold on earth, very few discover the path of true happiness. Very few can we find whose activity tias not been misemployed, and whose course terminates not in confessionR of disappointment. 9. We cannot expect that mankind will take advice, when they will not BO much as take warning. 10. None are so seldom found alone, and so soon tired of their own company, as those coxcombs that are on the best terms with themselves. 11. If men are born with two eyes, and with only one tongue, it is that they should see twice as much as they say. 12. It is very foolish to be quick in arraigning physical difficulties which we cannot account for. It is absurd to be wiser than nature, in other words, to be wiser than God. 13. He is much to be pitied that can please nobody. But much more is he to be pitied that nobody can please. 14. A clear and flowing style seems very easy of imitation. To him who first makes the attempt, it is very difficult. 15. Very great are the facilities to travelling, which have been opened in our days, by the application of the powers of «team. 16. There is a very great difference between the race of mankind, And any, the highest race among brutes. And, among men, a difference, almost or quite as great, is often seen between one man and another. 17. It frequently happens, that they who are loudest in their exclama- tions against the partiality, the envy, and the ingratitude of mankind, are themselves remarkable instances, in their own conduct, of the vices they are so forward to denounce. LESSON CXVI. PARENTHESIS. — ANALEPSIS. — APPOSITION. Parenthesis is the insertion of a sentence within a sen- tence ; as, " Almost every man (with shame he it spoken) looks more to his temporal than to his eternal interests." Analepsis (or Recovery) is a method of enforcing the ANALEPSIS. 279 connection between the protasis and apodosis of a Period, by bringing up the whole meaning of the former to a single word, and placing this word, with grammatical re- dundancy, at the head of the latter ; thus : *' The guardian of my youth, and the friend of my maturer years ; my physician in sickness, my prudent adviser in health ; he surely will not be long absent from me in this emergency." Antanaclasis (or Reciprocation) consists in calling up, after intervening clauses, the words which preceded, so as to bring them to that part of the period with which they are to make construction ; and the words so brought up may, or may not, be accompanied by a slight variation or addition ; thus : " The man in whom I had placed full confidence, who owed all to my kindness, who had the custody of what I most valued, and who had vowed to be faithful to me ; this very man^ I say^ was the first to betray me." — "Every sentence contained in it (if the interpretation of words is to be settled, not according to fancy, but by the common rules of language), every sentence, I say, contained in this little book, is to be found in the brightest pages of English literature, and the most sacred volumes of English law." The grammatical figure Apposition is often used ^vith something of the same eifect as those two which are more strictly rhetorical figures. The repetition of a word for the same end is, under certain circumstances, called Anaphora^ and sometimes Echo. Of the Apposition, the following are examples : " Music and poetry, arts which address the imagination and feelings through the sense of hearing, originally existed as one and the same thing." — "William of Normandy, a man whom the Saxons feared as well as hated, vainly endeavored to change the language and institutions of the country." — " He was in his seventieth year; an age when one ought to be well prepared for eternity." — "Man, said he, is born to trouble; a truth often expressed, because often experienced." — " He gave his mind up to low pleasures ; pleasures which destroy the health loth of soul and body." It is this last way of recovering the sense of a clause or sentence, which, by some, has been called Echo ; it is, also, in instances like this, called Anadiplosis. 280 EXERCISES ON PARENTHESIS, ETC. LESSON CXVII. EXERCISES ON THE FIGURES IN THE PRECEDING LESSON. Improve the following sentences : By the use, or by avoiding the use of Parenthesis, or of Analepsis, or Antanaclasis ; Or, by the insertion, when advantageously practicable, of a noun to bring up the sense, with the same effect as in using the other forms of Analepsis. 1. If we never experienced the bitter of life, we should be incapable oi a relish for its sweets ; and every one, at times, must experience it. 2. In lying down to rest, it is sweet to be able to say, " Since I left this couch, my walk has been with my Maker ;" if, indeed, a child of dust can ever truly say. 3. He who, when he rises in the morning, has no settled duty, no fixed good purpose before him, will be almost inevitably and unconsciously led, during the day, to sins of omission or commission, that must call for bitter repentance at night ; and how many there are who rise with their minds thus vacant for evil ! 4. Never delay till to-morrow (for to-morrow is not yours ; and though you should live to enjoy it, you must not overload it with a burden not its own) what reason and conscience tell you ought to be performed to-day. 5. We must not imagine that there is, in true religion, any thing which overcasts the mind with sullen gloom and melancholy austerity (for false ideas may be entertained of religion, as false and imperfect conceptions of virtue have often prevailed in the world), or which derogates from that esteem which men are generally disposed to yield exemplary virtues. 6. He that aspires to be the head of a party, he will find it more difficult to please his friends, than to perplex his foes. 7. That man who pursues noble ends by noble means, whether he pros- per, and take, in consequence, his lot among princes, or whether he fail,* and sink to the lowest depths of calamity, — is great indeed. 8. The generosity which robs Peter that it may give lavishly to JPaul, which neglects the claims of honest creditors that it may retain wherewithal to squander on gamblers, which is niggardly to the poor, and bounteous • only to those who already have, — if, in compliance with a faulty custom, we must call it generosity, is not a virtue, but a widely hurtful vice. The event in life which we have most desired, which we have tried to bring about by unceasing contrivances, which we have prayed to reach HYPERBATON, ETC. 281 on each appearing mom, and sighed to have missed on each returniiig night ;-*when at length attained, often proves the great calamity in life's career ; the epoch from which are to be dated only reverses and woe. LESSON CXVIII. HTPERBATON. — ANACOLUTHON. AP0SI0PESI8. Hyperhaton^ or Transposition^ is an arrangement of words for rhetorical effect, different from that which gram- mar or logic would prescribe ; as, " Silver and gold have I none ;" " Great is the Lord !" Sometimes there is gram- matical redundancy joined with this figure; " Your fathers^ where are they f And the prophets^ do they live forever ?" It is then both hyperbaton and pleonasm. A transposition is called Hysteron when that which should be last comes first ; as, ^''Bred and born," for horn and 'bred : and it is called Anastrophe when a governing word, that usually comes first, is placed last ; as, " the woods among.'''' Hyperbaton, as a general term, includes all three figures. Anacoluthon^ or Inconsequence^ is an interruption of the grammatical construction, the protasis not having its prop- er apodosis. If, however, the interruption occurs less as an effect of emotion, than of a sudden purpose in the speaker to hold back what he was about to say, it is called Aposiopesis^ or Silence. Anacolwthon, though a grammatical defect, is a rhetorical beauty, if naturally produced or imitated ; as, "If thou art he — but, oh ! how fallen !" " He who hath seen life in all its shapes, and fully knows its good and evil — No ! there is nothing on earth which can make a wise man desire a greater length of days than heaven appoints." These are instances, in which the break-down is the effect of emotion. The following is an example of Aposiopesis : " I declare to yon that— but we must not now lose time in words." The design of the Aposiopesis is, when, from emotion or 282 REPETITION AND REDUNDANCY. violent affection, the speaker breaks off his speech before the sense is completed, in order to aggravate the purpose of his address. Thus, "Let me close the scene — Humanity cannot sustain it." Thus, also, the compassionate Saviour of the world seems to have been BO full of grief when he uttered the exclamation, "If thou hadst known, even thou, at least in this thy day, the things that belong unto thy peace," that he could not give utterance to that inevitable and intolerable misery which was coming on the rebellious city of Jerusalem ; and, therefore, having made a silent pause and let his tears speak what his tongue could not utter, he left the sentence imperfect, and then most awfully added, " but now they are hidden from thine eyes." Adam's declaration to Eve is a beautiful exemplification of this figure, declarative of the loftiest aspirations to display the utmost courage and daring in the presence of loveliness and innocence. " While shame— thou looking on," &c. LESSON CXIX. REPETITION AND REDUNDANCY. Repetition gracefully and emphatically repeats either tne same words, or the same sense in different words. The second oration of Cicero against Antony contains a beau- tiful example : " As trees and plants necessarily arise from seed^ so are you, Antony, the seed of this most calamitous war. You mourn, O Eomans, that three of your armies have been slaughtered by Antony! you lament the loss of your most illustrious citizens ! They were torn from you by Antony ; the authority of this order is deeply wounded by Antony ; in short, all the calamities that we have ever beheld (and what calamities have we not be- held?) if we reason rightly, have been entirely owing to Antony. As Helen was of Troy, so the bane, the misery, the destruction of this State, is Antony.'''' The figures of Repetition and Redundancy, are sub- divided into the following : 1. Anaphora^ which continues a sentence by emphatically re- peating the same word or words at the beginning of clauses ; as " Peace crowns our life ; peace breeds plenty.'' ^ THE ALLITERATION. 283 2. Epipfiora^ or Epistrophei which repeats the same word or words at the end of clauses ; as, " We are born in sorrow ; we pass life in sorrow ; and we die in sorrow^ 3. EpanapTiora^ or Symploce^ which unites the practice of both the preceding figures ; as, " Yice^ for a moment, brings pleasure ; vice^ forever after, destroys pleasure.-'' 4. Anadiplosis ends a clause and begins the next with the same - word ; as, "Prize wisdom ; wisdom is a jewel." 5. Epanalepsis begins a clause with a word that is made to end the next clause; as, '"'-Sins stain the soul; forsake thy sins.'''' 6. Epanodos repeats words in inverted order ; as, " Woe unto them that call good, evil ; and evil, good; who put darhness for light, and light for darJcness?^ 7. Epizeuxis repeats words or phrases in the paroxysm of passion; as, "0 my son Absalom! m}^ son, my son Absalom! Would I had died for thee, O Absalom, my son, my son!" 8. 8yno7iymy uses different words of the same meaning; as, " Kogue, villain, scoundrel ! no name is too bad for thee." 9. Exergasia uses different phrases or short speeches with the same meaning; as, "What was thy sword doing? against whose breast didst thou raise its point? how were thy weapons em- ployed ?" 10. Pleonasm is a general name for redundancy of words, in order to dwell upon a meaning with energy or passion ; as, " He is the very same person ;" " False traitor ;" " The most Highest." LESSON CXX. THE ALLITERATION. Alliteration is the placing of words together, or near to- gether, that begin with the same letter or sound; as " Ruiii seize thee, ruthlesi} king." Ilomoioteleiiton \^ a similar placing of words togethei -* U'hich have the same ending, or rhyme ; as, " To the fail- ings of his friends he was kind^ but not hlindP 284 THE ALLITERATION. Onomatopoeia is a coinage of words from some natural sound ; as in saying, " He hemmed and hawed before he spoke." Among the best specimens, perhaps, of Alliteration, are Burns' " Seest thou thy lover lowly," — Akenside's "ghostly gloom of groves," — Gray's '* nor cast one longing, lingering look behind," — Thomson's " broad, brown, below, extensive harvests hang their heavy head," — Milton's " Be- liemoth, biggest born of earth," — " their bare broad backs upheave,"— " faithful found among the faithless, faithful only he ;" — and " the foolish- ness of fools is folly," — *' the treacherous dealer hath dealt treacherously," — " all her ways are ways of pleasantness, and all her paths are paths of peace," of Scripture composition. But beautiful as alliterative metre is v^hen tastefully and judi- ciously employed, it is necessary not to be profuse in its use, as by its quaint and studied adoption language may be deformed in- stead of being ornamented. The improper use of this figure is admirably ridiculed and exemplified by Churchill in his following well-known and remarkable verse : " And apt alliteration's artful aid." Shakspeare has also given some admirable specimens of mock alliterative metre. Thus, the following on Cardinal Wolsey : " Begot by butchers, and by butchers bred, How high his highness holds his haughty head." Again in his burlesque tragedy of Pyramus and Thisbe: " With blade, with bloody, blameful blade, He bravely broached his boiling bloody breast." Also in his "Ercles' Vein," as he phrases it: " The raging rocks. With shivering shocks, Shall break the locks Of prison-gates ; And Phibbus' car Shall shine from far. And make and mar The foolish fates." And in his touching allusion to the melancholy lot of those who, while diifusing the rays of science and literature throaghout the world, have been struck with blindness : ¥ THE ALLITERATION. 285 " Light seeking light, Hath light of light beguiled,'* lie aftbrds a good s[)ecimen of this figure and of his play of words. We add the following specimen of an amusing and alliterative Title to a Book of Extracts from several authors : Astonishing Anthology from Attractive Authors. Broken Bits from Big Men's Brains. Choice Chips from Chaucer to Canning. Dainty Devices from Diverse Directions. Eggs of Eloquence from Eminent Essayists. Fragrant Flowers from Fields of Fancy. Gems of Genius Gloriously Garnished. Handy Helps from Head and Heart. Illustrious Intellects Impertinently Interpreted. Jewels of Judgment and Jests of Jocularity. Kindling to Keep from the King to the Kitchen. Loosened Leaves from Literary Laurels. Magnificent Morsels from Mighty Minds. l>ilumerous Nuggets from Notable Noodles. Oracular Opinions OflSciously Offered. Prodigious Points from Powerful Pens. Quirks and Quibbles from Queer Quarters. Bare Kemarks Eidiculously Kepeated. Suggestive Squirts from Several Sources. Tremendous Thoughts on Thundering Topics. Utterances of the Uppermost Use and Unction., Valuable Views in Various Voices. Wisps of Wit in a Wilderness of Words. Xcellent Xtracts Xactly Xpressed. Yawnings and Yearnings for Youthful Yachtsmen. Zeal and Zest from Zoroaster to Zimmerman. LESSON CXXI. CORRECTION OF FAULTY METAPHORICAL LANGUAGE. In an excited state of mind, as far as we can command metaphorical language, we unavoidably use it whenever we try to communicate our emotions to others ; such lan- guage suggesting itself as the natural interpreter between 286 FAULTY METAPHORICAL LANGUAGE. soul and soul. On the other hand, the labored use of such language in an opposite state of the mind, is an evidence of bad taste ; and it would contribute to the growth of such taste, were the pupil set to exercise his fancy in deco- rating plain sentences with metaphors, similes, and the other related tropes. There will be no tendency of this kind, if, instead of constructing metaphorical expressions before occasions arise for them, he prepare his judgment and taste for using them properly when occasions do arise, by correcting instances of faulty metaphorical language ; which instances will be of three kinds ; namely, such as err by vulgar or by conceited tropes when the occasion requires a plain style ; such as err by dropping into plain expressions, when the figure once begun should have been maintained ; and such as err by mingling figures that are inconsistent with each other. The following are instances of each kind. " The enterprise was knocked at head by the rashness of the agents." The figure, Tcnoclced at Jiead^ is rather vulgar; so that, if the style is meant to be, in any degree, raised above the merely collo- quial, it will be better to say, hr ought to nothing^ or ruined^ or put to an end. *' Let the bark of my humble request float into the harbor of your heart, and find anchorage in the gentle sea of your kindness." Any thing of this kind, in the modern intercourse of life, is far too oriental, or too affected, for the end in view, which will be better attained by more simple language ; for example, " Admit my bumble request, and entertain it with kindness." " He was all on fire with passion, but he soon became collected." The metaphor with which this sentence begins is natural enough in itself, but the speaker or writer does not use it naturally, other- wise he would not, in the second member, have employed the plain word collected, which has nothing to do with being on fire^ but would have been forced to say cool, or something to the same purpose. FAULTY METAPHORICAL LANGUAGE. 287 We have said that he does not use the metaphor naturally; that is to say, in using the word fire he does not imagine the thing, but has before his mind only the plain fact, namely, a man excited ; nor will any defect be perceived by the hearer, if he uii derstands the former part of the sentence in the same prosaic way. Words cease, in this manner, to be figurative, which ori- ginally are so ; we use them with the same efiect as the plain words whose place they take. Probably few persons will perceive a defect in one of the ex- amples which follow for exercise : "He chatters senselessly, like an ass, as he is ;" because we are so much in the habit of hearing the word ass used for fool^ that the figure which went with that application at first, is, with most people, now lost. Revive the figure in the mind, and its inconsistency with the former member of the sentence will at once be evident ; for an ass does not chat- ter, though a magpie may. If magpie does not suit the purpose, let the sentence be plain throughout by using /(? PARAPHRASE. 297 jeots. It consists in expanding the thought or thoughts^ presented, expressing them in clearer terms, and holding them up in various lights, and occasionally, in illustrating them by a reference to experience or to history. The Bible furnishes an inexhaustible supply of the best passages for such a form of composition. The following example shows how the exercise is, in general, to be conducted : " Answer not a fool according to his folly, lest thou also be like unto him ; answer a fool according to his folly, lest he be wise in his own conceit." This paradox has been well explained, thus : " The/oo? is one who does not make a proper use of his reason. When he speaks In the folly of passion^ answer him not with folly, but give a * soft answer, which turneth away wrath.' " Answer not the folly of mere talJcati'veness with similar folly. Per- petual prating about nothing may often be put down by a dead silence. Answer not the folly of imreasonableness, false argument^ or prejudice^ by like folly ; but ' prove all things, and hold fast that which is good.' *' Answer not the folly of pro/aneness by folly like his own, but by marked silence, or well-timed reproof. "Answer not the folly of Tnalignity^ with like folly. * There is that which speaketh like the piercings of a sword ; but the tongue of the wise is as a healing medicine. In the mouth of the foolish there is a rod of pride ; but the lips of the wise shall preserve them.' '' Answer not the folly of peevishness according to its folly, but pity, for- bear, and forgive ; and 'The tear that is wiped with a little address, May be follow'd, perhaps, witii a smile.* '* Answer not the folly of captiousness with similar folly. Be not dis- pleased when you are contradicted ; above all, do not wait for an oppor- tunity of contradicting in your turn, to pay off the supposed affront. " Answer not the folly oi flattery according to itself, but turn to it o deaf ear, a disgusted heart ; for he that flattereth his neighbor, spreadeth a net for his feet. Flattery cherishes pride, self-love, and self-ignorance. " But ' answer a fool according to his folly, lest he be wise in his own conceit;' that is, answer him so as to refute him on his own false prin- ciples, lest his being left without an answer, should lead him to suppose that his folly is unanswerable, and so confirm him in his mistake. Answei him, if he fancies himself right when he is clearly in the wrong, if possible to prevent him deluding others. 18* 298 SOURCES OF ILLUSTRATIOK. LESSON CXXVIII. SOURCES OF ILLUSTRATION. The following sources of illustration may be resorted to ; (1.) Simile and Metaphor, — These may be sought in the Bible and other books. (2.) Proverbs and Wise sayings. — Not only Solomon's Book of Proverbs, but the '^ Proverbial Philosophy" of Tupper, Trench's *' Lessons in Proverbs," Bohn's " Handbook of Proverbs," and the biographies of vrise and good men will furnish material. (3.) The events of Daily Life. — A battle, a shipwreck, a rail- way accident, a noble action, a base deed — any occurrence may be employed to illustrate some truth. (4.) History and Biography. — The historical and biographical portions of sacred Scripture alone are peculiarly rich in material for the illustration of every moral and religious subject : but to these other histories and biographies will contribute a large addi- tion. Here it occurs to the author, to recommend to the young to begin at once the practice of inserting in a Common-place Book, under appropriate heads, such historical and biographical inci- dents as may be met with in the course of daily reading ; or at least to enter references to the book and page in which such topics are illustrated. (5.) Manners and Customs afford endless illustrations. LESSON GXXIX. ADDITIONAL SOURCES OF ILLUSTRATION. 1. The Physical Sciences are a copious source of illus- tration, on every subject. In writing, therefore, it will be well to reflect what illustrations of any given topic we may derive from Zoology, from Botany, Physiology, Astrono- my, Natural Philosophy, Physical Geography, and Chemis- SOTTROES OF ILLITSTRATION. 290 try. From Mr. Groser's little work oh " Illustrative Teach- ing," the following appropriate illustrations are drawn : The duty of a firm, immovable adherence to the truth is thus illustrated from Zoology : " Let us take a walk on the sea-shore. Do you see that round, pointed pyramid of shell, resting on yonder rock ? That is the house of the lim- pet ; the animal is inside. Try to lift up the shell. In vain — you cannot move it. Use all your force ; it is of no avail. So closely does the limpet cling to the rock, that although you may break the shell, you cannot re- move it from its place. Learn a lesson from this little creature. Cling closely to the rock of right ; let every attempt to withdraw you from it only make your grasp more firm and resolute, and suffer any thing, yea, death itself, rather than loose your hold." Astronomy may thus be employed : " You say that there are difficulties in the Bible which you cannot ex- plain. True ; but how many difficulties are there in God's other book— the book of creation? You cannot explain how yonder silver-shining moon is kept in its appointed path, never turning aside, but circling con- tinually around our earth. Yet you know that it really does this. And so the Bible has its mysteries ; if it had not, it would not be like the other works of God." The " Importance of those e very-day occurrences, which are often termed trifles," is thus illustrated from Chemistry : It is too often forgotten how great an influence the little occurrences of each day have over our thoughts and dispositions. They are ever acting upon us, either for good or for evil. Chemists tell us that a single grain of the substance called iodine will impart color to 7000 times i*;s weight of watex'. It is so in the higher affairs of life. One companion, one book, one habit, may affect the whole life and character. We should be ever watchful lest our hearts, when we least suspect it, become tinged with evil, 2. The Useful and the Fine Arts furnish numerous illustrations of moral and other subjects. The Daguerreotype process, for instance : " However painful the troubles and afflictions of this life may be, ve know that they are sent for our good ; and it is quite certain that, if rightly improved, they will render us holier, and therefore happier, although, as the Bible says, they at first 'seem grievous.' You have often seen a da- 2uerreotype portrait, and, I dare say, have admired its wonderful accuracy. How faithful is the copy ! every feature, every line of the original, has been portrayed on the surface of the polished metal. Much of that strange 300 SOTTRCES OF ILLUSTRATION. process was carried on in the dark. The portrait was dra .vn in a darkened box ; then carried into a darkened room, and hidden from the daylight, until each part of the imaore grew clear and perfect. So if God places iw in the dark chamber of affliction, it is that we may become more like Ilini — that He may impress His own image more plainly on our hearts ond lives." 3. Fiction^ such as Allegories, Parables, Fables, Tales, and Le- gends, are useful for purposes of illustration. Thus, " The folly of useless boasting," may be shown by such a Fable as the follow- ing: *' A gourd wound itself round a lofty palm, and in a few weeks climbed to its very top." "How old mayest thou be?" asked the new-comer. ** About a hundred years !" " About a hundred years, and no taller ! Only look, I have grown as tall as you, in fewer days than you count years." *' I know that well," replied the palm ; " every summer of my life a gourd has climbed up around me, as proud as thou art, and as short-lived as thou wilt be." 4. Poetic Quotation often furnishes a happy and beautiful illus- tration of subjects upon which we may be writing. LESSON CXXX. ADDITIONAL SOURCES OF ILLUSTRATION. 1. Obsevoation^ conversation^ and daily reading^ will supply much illustrative matter to be used in our writing. We must keep our eyes open to observe all that passes before them in the fields of nature — our eyes and ears open to notice all that may be seen and learned of human nature in our intercourse with our fellow-men. The sayings of men — a casual remark — an anecdote reported to us — a phrase used — newspaper items — many of these may be turned to a good account, and for this purpose should be stored up in the memory, or recorded in a common- place book, with an appropriate heading, to indicate the subject which it may illustrate. Dr. Aikin has written a fine dialogue, entitled *^ Eyes and No Eyes," or " The Art of Seeing," that may be read with great profi/ by the young, in this connection. STOfilES IN THE DRAMATIC FORM. 301 2. For purposes of illustration and greater impression, incidents or stories should occasionally te presented in the dramatic form^ instead of being narrated in the ordinary method. The writings of Mr. Jacob Abbott, owe much of their interest and value to this method of instruction. Thus, in showing how to proceed wisely in correcting the errors of our friend, he advises us to understand fully the position of that friend, to see with his eyes, remembering that lerror appears reasonable to all who embrace it. " If,'' adds he, " instead of this we keep at a distance, and fulminate expres- sions of reprobation at a man's errors, we may gratify our own censoriousness, but can do him no good." He then proceeds thus to illustrate his meaning : " Father," says a little child, sitting on his cricket by the fireside, on a winter evening: "Father, I see a light, a strong light, out the window, over across the road." *' Nonsense, you silly child, there is no house across the road, and thero can be no light there this time of night." "But I certainly see one, father — a large, bright light." " No such thing," insists the father ; " it cannot be so. There is nothing over there that can burn. I can see out of the window myself, and it ia all a white field of snow." This is one way of combating error. The boy is silenced, not con- vinced ; and were he not awed by parental authority, he would not even be silenced. *' Where ?" says another father, in a similar case. And though from his own chair he can see the field across the road, he goes to the child, and putting his eyes close to his son's, says, " Where ? let me see." " Ah I I see it : well, now, walk slowly with me up to the window." Thus he leads the boy up, and shows him the grounds of his illusion, in a refleq^ion of i/he fire from a pane of glass. lESSON CXXXI. DESCRIPTIVE WRITING. A description is a statement of the particular circum- stances by which persons, places, and objects, are distin- fijuished from other persons, places, and objects. 302 DESCRIPTIVE WRITING. The description of a person sometimes refers only to the figure and countenance. " Leah was tender-eyed, but Eachel was beautiful and well-favored.*' " Joseph was a goodly person, and well-favored." " In all Israel there was none to be so much praised as Absalom for his beauty, from the sole of his foot even to the crown of his head, there was no blemish in him." *' The stature of William the Conqueror was tall^ and the composition of his bones and muscles uncommonly strong." " The exterior of Henry V., BS well as his deportment, was engaging ; his stature was somewhat abv>ve the middle size ; his countenance beautiful ; his limbs genteel and slender, but full of vigor." Descriptions of a person sometimes refer only to appearance^ manners.^ or habits. " And he said unto them, What manner of man was he which came up to meet you, and told you these words ? And they answered him, He was an liairy man, and girt with a girdle of leather about his loins. And he said, It is Elijah the Tishbite."— 2 Kings i. 7, 8. Sometimes the description of a person refers to his mental facul- ties or attainments. " Behold, I have seen a son of Jesse, the Beth-lehemite, that is cunning in playing, and a mighty valiant man, and a man of war, and prudent in matters, and a comely person, and the Lord is with him." — 1 Sam. xvi. 18. "John Wbsley at Oxford. — At college he continued his studies with all diligence, and was noticed there for his attainments, and especially for his skill in logic, by which he frequently put to silence those who con- tended with him in after life. No man, indeed, was ever more dexterous in the art of reasoning. A charge was once brought against him that he delighted to perplex his opponents by his expertness in sophistry. He re- pelled it with indignation. ' It has been my first care,' says he, * to see that my cause was good, and never, either in jest or earnest, to defend the wrong side of a question ; and shame on me if I cannot defend the right after so much practice, and after having beea so early accustomed to sepa- rate truth from falsehood, how artfully soever they are twisted together.' " — Soidh€y''8 '•'' Lifeof Wesley.'''* Sometimes the description is not of a person^ tut of a character. See the description of a good wife in the last chapter of Proverbs. This description consists in an enumeration of particulars. A description of a Place may include its situation^ climate^ pro- ductions., hoth of nature and art^ and its peculiar beauties, curiosi- ties^ advantages^ and inconveniences. But such full descriptions QUESTIONS FOR DESCRIPTION. 303 occur chiefly in books of history and geography. A description intended to be used in reasoning, embraces only the chief point in which that country, city, town, village, &c., differs from others of the game class. See a description of Tyre, in the 27th chapter of the Prophet Ezekiel. See, also, a description of the Land of Canaan, DeMt. viii. 7-9. Descriptiom of Objects are of two kinds, — one relating to living forms, and the other to such as are inanimate. *' Hast thou given the horse strength ? Hast thou clothed his neck with thunder? Canst thou make him afraid as a grasshopper? The glory of his nostrils is terrible. He paweth in the valley, and rejoiceth in his strength ; he goeth on to meet the armed men. He mocketh at fear, and is not affrighted ; neither turneth he back from the sword. The quiver rattleth against him, the glittering spear and the shield. He swal- loweth the ground with fierceness and rage ; neither believeth he that it is the sound of the trumpet. He saith among the trumpets, Ha, ha ; and ho smelleth the battle afar off, the thunder of the captains, and the shout, mg." — Job xxxix. 19-25. See, also, Proverbs xxiv. 30-32. LESSON CXXXII. QUESTIONS SUGGESTIVE OF IDEAS FOR DESCRIPTION. Questions to Suggest Ideas in Preparing a Description. 1. Oi Persons: What is the personal appearance, stature, form, complexion, color of eyes, the arms, the hands? &c. What is the expression of countenance — the character indicated ? Which are his prominent features ? What are the age, personal habits, accomplishments, attainments, and occupation ? What is the intellectual, moral, social character, and position of the person ? For what particular virtues, or vices, or manners, is he distinguished ? &c. 2. Of sensible aiid inanimate Objects : Where is it ?— What is it made of ?— Who was the maker ?— When wa!5 304 EXERCISES IN DESCRIPTION. it made? — Under what eh cu instances?— What is it like? — What is its in- tended use ? — Is it well adapted to such use ? — How does it compare with other objects of a similar kind or purpose ? — What are the benefits it con- fers, the disadvantages it overcomes ? — What are its constituent parts, and properties, and dimensions, and relations to each other ? — What is its color, strength, durability ? — Of what things does it remind one ?— What does it illustrate ? — What impressions does it convey ? &c. Descriptive compositions should be so arranged, and so written, as to communicate, in as great a degree as possible, the pleasure and the information which might have been derived from the actual presence of the thing described. It is necessary to this end that the writer strongly imagine the presence of the object de- scribed, so as to select judiciously the prominent or more striking features, specify them picturesquely^ and describe impressively. Exercises. Describe, 1. Your native place, and surroundings. 2. Any river or smaller stream. 3. A favorite walk, or ride, and the scenery passed through. 4. A party for pic-nic, hunting, or fishing, &c. 5. The manner of spending some holiday season — thanksgiving — Christmas — Fourth of July, &c. 6. Your habits of study — pursuit of particular studies. 7. Habits of your instructor as to modes of teaching. 8. Some public occasion — consecration of a church edifice, open- ing of a public hall, reception of some great man, &c. Whoever aspires to be a good descriptive writer must adopt rigorously the plan pursued hy Sir Walter Scott, who, perhaps, has no superiors in this kind of writing, either for style of language, or for faithfulness and accuracy in his word-pictures. Mr. Merrit (in Lockhart's " Life of Scott") thus speaks of the labor which Sir Walter performed to secure accuracy and originality in his de-^ scriptions of nature: " On his visiting Rokeby, he said to me, ' You have often given me materials for a romance ; now I want a good robbers cave, and an old church of the right sort." We rode out, and he found what he wanted in the old slate quarries of Brignal, and the ruined Abbey of Egglestone. ] observed him noting down even the peculiar little wild-Jiowers ani herbs that accidentally grew around^ and on the side of a bold crag, near his in- tended cave of G-uy Dcnzil ; and could not help saying, that as he was not NARRATIVE COMPOSITION. 305 to be upon oath in his work, daisies^ violets^ and primroses would he as poet- ical as any of the humbler plants he was examining. I laughed, in short, at his scrupulousness ; but I understood him when he replied, ' that in ^ature herself no two scenes are exactly alike ; and that ivhoever copied wuly what was before his eyes^ would possess the same variety in his descrip- tions^ and exhibit apparently an imagination as boundless as the range of 7iature in the scene he recorded ; whereas, whoever trusted to imagination, would soon find his own mind circumscribed and contracted to a few fa- vorite images, and the repetition of these would, sooner or later, produce that very monotony and barrenness which had always haunted descriptive poetry in the hands of any but patient worshippers of truth. Besides which,' he said, * local names and peculiarities make a fictitious story look so much better in the face.' In fact, from his boyish habits, he wf^« ^rX half satisfied with the most beautiful scenery when he could not connect with it some local legend ; and when I was forced sometimes to confess, with the knife-grinder, * Story I God bless you ! I have none to tell, sir,' — he would laugh, and say, * Then let us make one, — nothing so easy as to make a tradition.' " LESSON CXXXIII. NARRATIVE COMPOSITION. This consists of a statement of events that have happened or that are imagined, and of persons engaged in bringing them about, or in some way related to them. These events are generally stated in the order of time in which they occurred. This form of writing embraces tales, fables, novels, travels, biography, history. Mr. Jacob Abbott, one of the most prolific, agreeable, and suc- cessful writers of narratives, real and fictitious, may here be quoted with great advantage. He says: Every object in the room is the subject for a story of half an hour. A pin, a wafer, a key, a stick of wood — there is nothing which is not full of inter- est to children, if you will only be minute enough. Take a stick of wood. Tell how the tree it came from sprung from the ground, years ago ; how it grew every summer by the sap ; how this stick was first a little bud, next year a shoot, and by-and-by a strong branch ; how a bird perhaps biiiU 306 NARRATIVE COMPOSITION. her nest on it ; how squirrels ran up and down, and ants crept over it, how the woodman cut down the tree, &c., &c., expanding all the particu- lars into the most minute narrative. Besides this class of subjects^ i. e., descriptions of common things, there is not a half -hour in a day whose history would not furnish a highly interest- ing narrative to a child. Take, for instance, your first half-hour in the morning ; how the room looked when you awoke — what you first thought of— how you proceeded in dressing— the little difficulties you met with, and their remedies — what you first saw when you came down stairs, and what you did, &c. A walk in a milage^ any imaginary history of a man's bringing a load of wood to market, or an laccount of a boy's making a collection of playthings for a cabinet, — what he had, and how he arranged them ; or the common every-day adventures of a cat about the house, now sleeping in the corner, now watching at a mouse's hole in the dark cellar, and now ascending to the house-top and walking along on the edge of the roof, looking down to the boys in the yard below. These are mentioned, not to propose them, particularly, but to show how wide is the field, and how endless the num- oer and the variety of the topics which are open before you. As to the method of writing a story ^ every thing should be pre- sented in such a way as to convey vivid pictures to the mind. This is the key to one of the great secrets of interesting the young. Approach their minds through the senses. Descrile every thing as it presents itself to the eye and to the ear. A different course is, indeed, often wise ; as, for example, when you wish to exer- cise and develop the power of generalization and abstraction ; but, generally, when your wish is merely to interest, or to convey knowledge, i. e., where you wish to gain the readiest and most complete access to the heart, these are the doors. Another direction : Be exceedingly minute in the details of what you describe. In writing even for the mature, the success of the composition depends much upon the degree of fidelity with which those most minute circumstances which give to any scene its ex- pression, are described to the mind. Every event, every incident, every fact, every phenomenon, however common, and every ob- ject of sight or hearing is connected with a thousand associations and trains of thought, which may be expanded. Another direction : Let the style te abrupt and striking., and give the reins entirely to the imagination. For a more full illus- tration of these topics, refer to Abbott's "Way to Do Good," chap, ix., whence the preceding observations and illustrations have been taken. PERSONAL NARRATIVE. 307 Personal Narrative. The following directions for this may be observed : Im- agine the ordinary events of your daily experience. Dwell on the subject till you feel an interest in it. Ask yourself the questions^ what did I do first, what did I see, whom did I meet, what was said or done by me, or by the person met, and other questions of the sort. The answers to such questions presented in a connected order will furnish the desired narrative. An example is subjoined from " Smart's Manual." 1. My History of To-day. I rose at six o'clock. It was a fine summer's morning, and as my hour of study was not till seven, I went to take a walk. The air was fresh ; the sun shone ; and the larks were singing above my head. I passed through /iorn-lields, meadows, and pastures; returning by the road that winds with the river. Reaching home at the appointed hour, I sat down to my <;ask, and prepared for construing, parsing, and scanning twenty lines of Virgil, beginning at the second Book. Then we breakfasted, and played for an hour. At nine I went up with my class, and got successfully through the lesson I had prepared. From ten till twelve we were em- ployed in writing and ciphering ; and then came our lessons in history and geography; after which we dined. When dinner was over, we had another hour's play. Our lesson in English followed, and the drawing- master came at four. At five I had a lesson in music, which occupied me till our evening meal. Afterwards came the dancing-master, and he tired us out ; so that, having furnished you, at your request, with this history, I am glad to say good night, and go to bed. It is plain that all this might be a little more particularized. The twenty lines of Yirgil are stated, but the other lessons are spoken of in general terms. The morning's walk might have been more minutely described, and the fields specified. But it is only fair to leave to the narrator a choice of circumstances for descrip- tion ; it is in the selection that he shows his taste ; and his taste will improve, if he observes how far he fails, and how far he suc- ceeds, in every attempt to frame a description of the kind here exemplified. 2. The narration of a story unconnected with yourself will also be a useful occasion of trying your powers. 308 NARRATION OF A STORY. Doubtless this occasion has often happened. What yon have been told by one person you have reported to others ; and you may have related in a worse, or in a better man- ner, the tale which you heard. Your aim must be to re- late, in the best manner you can, whatever narrative iai proposed : all that your teacher ought to do, is, to put you in possession of the subject and the facts ; and when your exercise is brought to him, to point out to you, as a guide for future attempts, how it might have been better. Suppose you are required to tell, from early Koman history, the story or legend of Camillus, and the schoolmaster of the Falisci? Starting on this suggestive title, and presuming you to know the rest, or to be told of it, or have it read to you, you can have no difficulty in reporting the facts to another person, — • namely, " that the schoolmaster having under his care the sons ot all the principal families of the place, led them out of the town un^ der pretence of a walk for pleasure and exercise, and then went and gave them up to the commander of the besieging army ; but- Camillus, disdaining such baseness, refused to take advantage of it, and ordered the boys to flog the schoolmaster back into the city." When you have thus briefly repeated the facts, you may be re- quired to write them down, and improve the effect of the whole by certain additions, which will not fail to suggest themselves to your fancy, promded you think 'oery earnestly on what you have to communicate^ and try^ as you go on^ to make the strongest impres- sion you can on your reader. You should, in the first place, con- sider what qualities of heart or mind the chief actors in the story exhibit ; and you may state these qualities by way of title, as the moral purpose or intention of your story. Baseness and Generosity Contrasted. When Camillus, in the early times of Kome, was besieging Falerii, a city which belonged to the people called Falisci, he was one day surprised to see a man approach him from the town, who brought with him a number of boys that seemed to be under his care. " Camillus," said the man, as soon as he was in the general's presence, " I deliver into your hands these youths, and in delivering them, I deliver to you the city you are besieging. am a schoolmaster ; and there is not one person of any rank in the towt HOW TO COMPOSE A STORY. 309 vrhose son is not here among the number of my scholars. With these in your power, you may require, for ransom, the immediate surrender of the city, and almost any further advantage you please. Such is the great ser- vice which, in hopes of a correspondent recompense, I am happy to render to you." Camillus, instead of accepting the offer, contemplated the man with all the indignation of a noble soul. Without condescending to answer him, he ordered his hands to be tied, and his cloak removed ; then putting rods into the hands of the boys, he desired them to flog him back into the town, and make their fathers acquainted with all that had taken place. This act of magnanimity affected the citizens greatly, and led the way to a pacification which satisfied both parties, while it brought more honor to Camillus than could have been procured by the most successful operations of war. LESSON CXXXIV. In the act of composing, much advantage will be gained by not thinking it a task. Get rid of your repugnance to it by contending with it. Find, or frame, some occasion for teUing a story that has pleased you. Endeavor to recol- lect your expressions while you were animated with your subject; write them down, and correct them yourself, or get another to correct them. Thus will be acquired a style, easy, yet not slovenly ; such a style as is fitted for the ordinary business of life. You may not please yourself in your first attempts ; and it is better that you should not. You ought to keep before your mind an exalted standard of excellence, through the influence of which your attempts may be always rising higher and higher, though the degree of excellence which your imagined standard of excellence holds forth be unattained, and perhaps unat-- tainable. SUBJECTS FOR EXERCISE. PERSONAL SUBJECTS. 1. My History of Yesterday. 2. My Name, Country, Parentage, Dato of Birth, Present Age, and such other Ci^-cumstances as might he stated nt 310 EXERCISES FOR NARRATION". the beginning of an Autobiogmphy. 8. The Earliest Things 1 can re- member. 4. The Events of a Kemarkable Day about weeks, months, or years ago. (Several Exercises may be framed with this title, if several remarkable days can be called to mind). 5. Narrative of my Journey to — — (several exercises). 6. Account of a Conversation I held with (several exercises). 7. Statement of the Studies I am pursuing, which 1 find difficult or easy, and which I take the most delight in. Naerative or Statement of Facts from English History. In developing these and the similar subjects which follow, books of reference must be entirely dispensed with during the time of writing. Preparation for writing, if not already made by the learner's previous studies, may be made before the time of writing ; but there should be some interval between the preparation and the exercise ; and no notes, except of dates, should be taken. 1. The Early People of England; the Facts of the Eoman Invasion ; the Story of the Romans and the State of the Britons when the Romans left them. 2. How England came into possession of the Saxons. 3. Chief Facts in the History of King Alfred. 4. Story of Canute rebuking the Sea. 5. The Battle of Hastings and its immediate Consequences. 6. The Three Sons of William the Conqueror — their Conduct to each other, and their Several Destinies. 7. The Quarrel between Henry II. and Thomas a Becket, with the Issue. 8. The Crusades — What they were, and how far the fortunes of Kichard II. were connected with them. 9. Facts show- ing the bad Character of King John. 10. Chief Facts in the History of the Maid of Orleans. 11. Arrest and Last Days of Cardinal Wolsey. From Roman History. 1. The Legend of Eomulus and Eemus. 2. The Founding of Eome, and the Death of Eemus. 3. Legend of Horatii and Curiatii. 4. The Strata- gem by which Servius TuUius, the Sixth King of Eome, succeeded his father-in-law, Tarquinius Priscus. 5. Story of the Conspiracy which ended in the condemnation of the sons of Brutus by their own father. 6. Story of Mutius Scsevola. 7. Story of Coriolanus. From Grecian History. 1. The Stratagem of the Wooden Horse, by which, after a Ten Years* Siege, the Greeks obtained possession of Troy. 2. Patriotism of Codrus, the last king of Athens. 3. Dionysius of Syracuse and Damocles ; Story of the Pendent Sword. 4. Story of Damon and Pythias. BIOGRAPHY. 311 Feom Amerioan Histoey. 1. The arrival of the Mayflower at Plvjiouth. 2. The destruction of Tea at Boston. 3. The Battle of Bunker's Hill. 4. The Capture of Major Andre, and the treachery of Arnold. 5. Smith and Pocahontas. LESSON CXXXV. BIOGRAPHY. The purpose of biography is to place before the reader the characteristics of some particular person, as displayed in the actions and events of his life. It is a successive ac- count of the events which have affected or distinguished him. The Topics to be treated are such as these: 1. N^ame; 2. Fam- ily or descent; 3. Education; 4. Circumstances and influences affecting character; 5. Doings; 6. Surroundings, such as mar- riage, friends, business, &c. ; 7. Effects produced in himself and on society; 8. Character; 9. Sickness and death; 10. Results, permanent or otherwise. A very brief illustration of these topics may be thus presented, in their order which might be written out, as an exercise, in full : 1. William Shakspeare. 2, John Shakspeare and Mary Arden, daugh- ter and heiress of Arden of Wellingcote. 3. Stratford Grammar-School. 4. His father, a wool-dealer and general hosier ; beautiful natural scenery, historic reminiscences prevalent, and great mental activity of the age. 5. Love and pleasure pursued, intellect awakened, and plays. 6. Anna Hathaway — three daughters and a son. 7. Theatrical connections, profits, retirement, &c., popularity, and everlasting honor. 8. Saving, genial in company, watchful over property, heedless of fame, conscious of great- ness, &c. 9. Stratford, 23d April, aged 52. 10. Commentators, editions and quotations, biography, historic value of writings ; notes of life, phi- losophy and morals, important estimates of his works, monuments, and affection entertainec" for his memory. The following rules apply to Biographical Composition : 1st. Confine the incidents selected for narrative to those closely connected with the individual. 312 HISTOKICAL COMPOSITION. 2d. Give just statements of facts, and fair, i. e., neither partial nor adversative, expositions of character. 3d. Let the style be easy, clear, elegant, but natural. Exercises. 1. Sketch of Lady Jane Grey. 2. Sketch of Regains. 3. Sketch of Pocahontas. 4. Sketch of Henry Kirke White. 5. Sketch of Washington in his boyhood. 6. Sketch of Benjamin Franklin. For other biographical subjects, consult the general list of sub- jects at the end of the volume. LESSON CXXXVI. HISTORICAL COMPOSITION ; TRAVELS ; NOVELS. L History. History contains a record of national events, for our in- formation as regards the past, and our guidance in the future. The following particulars demand attention in historical writing : 1. The geographical situation and physical characteristics of the country. 2. Events and their chronology, or time of occurrence; in the country described and in neighboring countries. 3. Means employed to increase happiness, and their effects. 4. Obstacles to public welfare, whence they arose, and how they were overcome. 5. Form of government; institutions, civil and religious, their changes and effects. 6. Education and freedom — their influence on public happiness. 7. The men and women on whom progress depended. 8. Home and foreign policy. 9. Condition of the people. 10. Wars, sciences, arts; their origin, progress, and results. In the attempt to treat of any historic period, no exercise can be better than the thorough study of the period in the best TRAVELS. NC5 V ELS. 313 authors; nurturing thought on the period by reflections; then, taking some standard work on chronology, and noting the most important events given therein, work them up in the order given above. Historical narration demands — 1. Skill in the selection and arrangement of events. 2. Fidelity, 3. Diversity of style; simplicity, gravity, chasteness, and clearness being " chief over all." For examples : Refer to Bancroft's History of the United States, Prescott's Histories, Irving's Columbus and Wash- ington, Motley's Dutch Republic, Abbott's Histories, Hume, Robertson, Gibbon, Alison. n. Books of Travel. These should be interesting, novel, simple, chronologi- cal ; and free from egotism, satire, or caiicature. It would be gratifying to quote largely from the numerous and highly interesting Travels of distinguished writers of the present century, who have favored the world with their observation/^ and criticisms ; but this volume already transcends the limits originally proposed, and reference must be made to the class of works re- ferred to, for the requisite illustrations. HI. Novels. (1.) In general, the incidents^ though usually connected as cause and effect, and leading to some determined result, should not be too obvious and direct^ that the uncertainty may stimulate curiosity and sustain interest. (2.) Besides this, probability^ unity ^ and variety of char- acter and incident must be observed. The characters should be distinct, well chosen, sustained, uniform, and consistent; the incidents clearly traced, well arranged, skilfully varied, and so intricate as 1 3 be interesting, 14 314 RULES FOR LETTER-WRITING. LESSON CXXXVII. LETTER-WRITING. — RULES FOR IT. This is one of the necessities, one of the amenities, and may become one of the high accomplishments of life. Great skill and excellence in the performance of it should therefore be earnestly sought, and, if possible, attained. It should be made as much like conversation as possible. It should communicate on paper what you would communicate orally to your correspondents, could they present themselves be- fore you. The best preparation for it, therefore, is to consider what you would say were the time for conversation very limited, admitting of no more to be said than your letter-sheet can in- clude. This thought will give conciseness, terseness, importance, and comprehensiveness to every sentence. Rules for Letter- Writing. 1. The style should he simple and natural, as that which should be observed in conversation. Sprightliness and wit, however, if spontaneous and easy, may be happily and advantageously intro- duced. 2. 7^e style should not he too highly polished, as it will then appear elaborate. It ought to be neat and correct, but no more. The best letters, commonly, are those which are written with rapidity, under the dictation of a warm heart or a glowing im- agination. 3. What has heen said does not imply that the style or manner of writing may he careless or slovenly. In writing even to a most familiar friend, a certain degree of attention and care to please, id due to him and to yourself. 4. In letter-writing, as in conversation, it is necessary to attend to all the decorums which our own character, and that of others^ demanis. We should never be rude or disrespectful. 5. Another good rule in letter-writing is, that we must never say what is not true^ and should seldom tell what is not worth RULES FOR LETTER-WRITING. 315 Mowing. Truthfulness and importance in our statements should be studied. 6. In writing to a man of business^ on affairs of business, as brevity is the soul of wit, so is it the soul of the business letter. Three counsels here are appropriate : first, use as few compli- ments as common courtesy will allow ; secondly, never say any thing that has nothing to do with the subject; and, thirdly, write all that the subject really requires, and say that in the most per- spicuous manner, that your correspondent shall not be able to misunderstand what you have written. Let not brevity lead you to omit any important particular. 7. The dignity of the style must be adapted to the age and at- tainments of our correspondent. It would be ridiculous to write to a child in the same strain as to a person of mature mind; to an uneducated person, as to a man of learning and varied acquire- ments. Here good sense must guide us, as it would in conver- sation. " That epistolary style," says a judicious writer, " is clearly the best, whether easy or elaborate, simple or adorned, which is best adapted to the subject, to time, to place, and to person ; which, upon grave and mo- mentous topics, is solemn and dignified ; on common themes, terse, easy, and only not careless ; on little and trifling matters, gay, airy, lively, and facetious ; on jocular subjects, sparkling and humorous ; in formal and complimentary addresses, embellished with rhetorical figures, and finished with polished periods ; in persuasion, bland, insinuating, and ardent ; in exhortation, serious and sententious ; on prosperous affairs, open and joy- ous ; on adverse, pensive and tender. A different style is often necessary on the same topics: to old people, and to young ; to men, and to women ; to rich, and to poor; to the great, and to the little ; to scholars, and to the illiterate; to strangers, and to familiar companions." LESSON GXXXVIII. ADDITIONAL RULES FOR LETTER-WRITING. — SPECIMENS. 8. The careful perusal of such well-written letters as are met with in good authors, sometimes in newspapers ; but, above all, a regular and frequent correspondence with persons who write well, 316 RULES FOK LETTER-WRITINO. should be practised, as among the best means of excelling in this most useful, ornamental, and delightful art. 9. In letters of friendship and affection, heware of extravagant professions^ and of affected sentimentalism. Never express more than you feel. Expressions of unalterable attachment sometimes outlive what you express, and may expose you to reproach. Let- ters of condolence should be written in the most prudent and un- affected manner, and be limited to the occasion referred to. In letters of introduction, a sedulous regard to truth should be paid. It is usual to leave them unsealed, and to place on the back the name of the person therein introduced. 10. Do not regard as too formidable a task the writing of a letter. It is not to be regarded as a trial of skill, or a display of fine words, empty compliments, and pompous expressions; but as the communication to some friend, as if present, of what we really think, and feel, and desire. It is, to "say, in few and simple words, the things most important to be said ; then things of mi- nor importance, which yet may be interesting. If time and paper allow, put them all in ; if not, leave out the most trifling. If, on the other hand, all is said, make a close, and do not, for the sake of filling your sheet, drawl on when you have nothing to say." 11. Not only write in a legible and good hand^ but studioTisly avoid all errors in spelling^ in the use of capitals^ in punctuation^ grammar^ and rhetoric. When the length of your letter and the variety of topics justify the act, divide it into paragraphs of suit- able length, so that the main topics may each be considered by itself. 12. As to the proper form and the several parts of a letter, the method of arranging the matter., the commencement and the close., — these things may be learned from the numerous specimens ap- pended, some of which have been copied, with some slight alter- ations, from a recent London work, entitled "The Ladies' and Gentlemen's Letter- Writer." It requires some judgment and good sense, in certain cases, to decide whether we should commence a letter with " Sir," *' Dear Sir," " My doar Sir;" or with " Madam," " Dear Madam," " My dear Madam ;" or " Miss ," " Dear Miss ," "My dear Miss ." Which of these should be adopted, depends on the relative position and familiarity of the par- ties. Relatives are of course addressed by the titles of relation which they LETTER-WEITINO. 817 bear ; those of about the same age, or intimate friends, may be addressed by their Christian names : " My dear Fanny," '* My dear Edward," &c. The name of the person referred to in the address, if inserted at all, may be placed on the first line, at the left, on the first page ; or on the lowest line, at the left, on the last page. 13. Be careful what you write, since "what is written is writ- ten," and may be produced long after the occasion which prompted tlie letter. What you write may cost unavailing regret to your- self, or unhappiness and injury to others; therefore, '^ thinh he/ore you write, and thinh while you are writing.^"* 14. It is a matter of expediency to answer every letter, requiring an answer, as soon as practicable. This will save you and others, perhaps, from inconvenience or disappointment. In matters of business, delay may be attended with injury to parties concerned. From a Young Lady at school to her Mother, My dearest Mamma — Although I was almost heart-broken at partmg from you, for the first time in my life, I felt that you would never have let me quit home but for my own good ; and I hope I am not ungrateful enough to prefer mere selfish gratification to future welfare. 1 find school much less disagreeable than I had expected. There are, ci course, many varieties of disposition — for a school is like a little world , but, for the most part, the girls make themselves very pleasant to me. Mrs. is kindness itself, and sets an example of mutual good-will tc all of us. My studies are, I think, progressing satisfactorily, although I am, oi course, in the background as yet, especially in my French. The music- master is rather passionate, especially if we play out of time, which yon know, dear Mamma, used to be an unfortunate fault of your Julia's. Bat he takes great pains, and you will have less to complain of in my playing when I return. How 1 long to kiss and embrace you again ! God bless you, dear Mamma, and believe me, Your ever aifectionate child, To Mrs. . . Announcing the Vacation, Mt dear Parents— It is with mingled feelings of regret and pleasure, that I announce that the termination of this half year's work is fixed foi the — th instant. I sincerely hope that I shall not only find you in excel- lent health, but that you will be satisfied with my improvement since 1 last left home. No pains have been spared by any of my teachers to ren- 318 LETTEK-WEITING. der me worthy of your good opinion ; and I must ever feel grateful both to them, and to yourselves, for the pains bestowed upon my education. Mrs. {or Miss) desires me to present her best compliments ; and, with my best love to my sisters and brothers, believe me to remain, My dear parents, Your ever dutiful and affectionate daughter, Addressing a Firm^ for a GlerhsTiip. Gentlemen — Perceiving by your advertisement in the of , that you are in want of a clerk, I beg to inclose testimonials, and venture to hope that from my previous experience in the line of business you pursue, I should be of some use in your establishment. My habits of life are such as to insure regularity in the discharge of my duties, and I can only assure you that, should you honor me with your confidence, I shall spare no pains to acquit myself to your satisfaction. I remain. Gentlemen, Your obedient servant, To Messrs. . . Requesting the loan of some BooTcs during Sichness. Bear 1 am far from well ; indeed, I have been confined to my sofa for some days past, and have enjoyed no amusement but such as my few books afforded me. I write to beg the loan of some of the " Waverley'' novels, of which I know you possess a complete set. They shall be taken every possible care of, and returned as regularly as read. Pray look in for an hour now and then, and speak a few words of comfort to Yours ever sincerely, To Miss . . The Answer. Dear How grieved I am to hear of your illness ! I send you half a dozen volumes, which I hope will lighten the tediousness of your sofa- confinement, and will come and see you to-morrow morning. I should have done so ere now, but have been so variously engaged that I have Bcarcely had a minute to myself. Wishing sincerely to find you better, I am, dear , Yours ever affectionately. To Miss . : On returning a Borrowed Boole. Dbab Sir — I return you the book which you were kind enough to lend me, and, with it, accept my best thanks for your kindness. The work is both interesting and instructive, and I have been much gratified by its LETTER-WRITING. 319 perusal. If I can in any thing return the favor, it will give me much pleasure to do so. I am sir, Yours, much obliged, To , Esq. . A Note requesting the Payment of a small Debt, Dear Sir — I must remind you that I still hold your due-bill for the sum of Fifty Dollars, and hope you will give it early attention, as I am just now much troubled for ready money. Yours, very truly. To , Esq. . In answer to the above. Dear Sir — I am happy in being able to inclose you the sum for which I have been already too long your debtor. Assuring you that unforeseen dis- appointments have been the sole cause of want of punctuality. Believe me. Dear Sir, Your obliged and faithful servant, Delaying the Payment of a Debt. Sir — I really must beg of you to defer the settlement of your account till after the middle of next month, when I shall be in a condition to meet your demand. Regretting that circumstances prevent my being more prompt in attention to your wishes, I remain. Sir, Your obedient servant, To Mr. . . Answer to a Letter soliciting a Loan, ^ My Dear Sir, — I have just received your letter soliciting the loan of Twenty Dollars, and it gives me much pleasure that I have it in my power to be able to accommodate so old and valued a friend. I therefore lose no time in forwarding you a check upon Messrs. for the above sum, in reimbursing which I beg you will suit your convenience, and thereby c blige Your old and Very sincere friend, To Esq. . An Invitation to a Private Dinner. Dbab : My old friend is coming to take dinner with mo on , the — th, and I hope you will come and join us, at six o'clock. I 820 KOTES, CARDS, ETC. know you are not partial to large parties, and trust you will think xis two sufficient company. Yours, ever truly, An Inmtation to a Pic-nic Party. My Bear Sir — We are endeavoring to get up a small excursion to visit , on the — th of this month. Will you do us the favor of mak.ng one of our number? Mrs. , and my family, send their compliments, and request me to mention that they have taken upon themselves the task of providing the " creature comforts" for that occasion, and trust that their exertions will meet with unanimous approval. Should you have no previ- ous engagement for that day, and feel disposed to join our party, a carriage will be at your door by — o'clock on morning ; and believe me to be, My dear Sir, Yours, most sincerely, To , Esq. . F. 8. — The favor of an early answer will oblige. Notes, Cards, i mind. To recollect the past, and compare it with the present, is all I \ *ive need of to fill me with gratitude ; and to be grateful is to be happy. Not that I think myself sufficiently thankful, or that I shall ever be st in this life. The warmest heart, perhaps, only feels by fits, and is ofteij as insensible as the coldest. This at least is frequently the case with mine, and oftener than it should be. But the mercy that can forgive iniquity will never be severe to mark our frailties ; to that mercy, my dear cousin, I commend you, with earnest wishes for your wel- fare, and remain your affectionate W. C. Dr. Samuel Johnson to Miss Susanna Thrale. Dearest Miss Susy — When you favored me with your letter, you seemea to be in want of materials to fill it, having met with no great adventures either of peril or delight, nor done nor suffered any thing out of the com- mon course of life. When you have lived longer, and considered more, you will find the common course of life very fertile of observation and reflection. Upon the common course of life must our thoughts and our conversation be gen- erally employed. Our general course of life must denominate us wise or foolish, happy or miserable. If it is well regulated, we pass on prosper- ously and smoothly ; as it is neglected, we live in embarrassment, perplex- ity, and uneasiness. Your time, my love, passes, I suppose, in devotion, reading, work, and company. Of your devotions, in which I earnestly advise you to be very punctual, you may not perhaps think it proper to give me an account ; and of work, unless I understood it better, it will be of no great use to say much ; but books and company will always supply you with materials for your letters to me, as I shall always be pleased to know what you are reading, and with what you are pleased ; and shall take great delight in knowing what impressions new modes and new characters make upon you, FORMS IN CLOSING A LETTER. 323 and to observe with what attention you distinguish the tempe -s, disposi- tions, and abilities of your companions. A letter may be always made out of the books of the morning, or talk of the evening, and any letters from you, my dearest, will be welcome to Your, &c., S. J. T\iQ formula at the dose of a letter deserves considerar Lie attention. The following forms, taken from the letters of distinguished writers, may prove useful and instructive : Fi'om Lady RusseU: "In all circumstances I remain, Sir, your constantly obliged friend and servant." From Mr. John Locke: " I shall be very glad if, in this, or any other occasion, I may be able to do you any service ; for with great sincerity and respect I am. Sir, your most humble servant." From Lord Shaftesbury : " So farewell. I am your good friend to servo you." - — From the same: " And so God prosper you." From the sa7ne : "Continue to inform me of your reading and of new books ; and God be with you." From Dr. Doddridge: "Not merely in form, but with the utmost sincer- ity and tenderness of heart, I am, dear Sir, your most faithful and affec- tionate friend, and humble servant." From Nathaniel Neal : "I am, my dear and worthy friend, most faith fully and entirely yours." From Wm, Ootoper: " Yours, my dear friend," ** Yours ever." "Believe me, my dekr friend. Affectionately yours," W. C. w. c. w. c. " 1 love you and yours ; I thank you for your continuec remembrance of me, and shall not cease to be their and your Affectionate friend and servant," " Yours, faithfully," fhm WiUiam Wirt: " In haste, Yours affectionately," W. C. w. c. w. w. w.^ 324 ESSAYS, ETC. " I am yours, as always," ** Very sincerely, Your friend and obedient servant," " Yours," " Our love to you all," '* God bless you for ever and ever," ** I am — why need I tell you what !" "Love to all, Again, yours," " Your ever affectionate friend," " Our love attend you all. Your friend, as ever, till death," /Vom Thomas Jefferson : "Accept the assurance of my constant friendship and respect," Th. J. w. w. w. w. w. w. w. w. w. w. w. w. w. w. w. w. LESSON GXXXIX. ESSAYS, DISSERTATIONS, ETC. Under this term are included writings different in char- acter and design, and of all degrees of merit, ranging from the early productions of the school-room, to the most refined performances of the skilful writer. The term sig- nifies an attempt or experiment in the elucidation of some subject, and is generally applied to short and unpretending pieces, illustrative of some phases of life, manners, or morals — or some sketches and criticisms of literary matters, such as appear in the papers of the Spectator^ and in the more modern Review and Magazine, in the editorials and some other articles of the newspaper. An elaborate and systematic essay bears the name of Treatue^ '■»r, where it is brief, of Tract OORRECTION AND REVISION. 31^5 A Thesis or Dissertation is an argumentative discussion of some question or proposition in literature, science, or theology. The term Disquisition is applied to an argumentative discussion that is more limited in its range of topics than the Thesis, or Dis- sertation. The term Disputation is applied to oral reasonings conducted on opposite sides of some question of philosophy, law, politics, or religion. Suggestions to the Teacher in Coreeoting Compositions. 1. The teacher, in the amount of correction bestowed, should have respect to the age and progress of the pupil in composition. With beginners, the less change that is made in correcting the composition, consistent with perspicuity and correctness, the bet- ter ; for too great a change might discourage eflfort. We must allow the writer to express his own ideas, and only make such slight alterations in the form of expression as the rules of good composition render imperative. Witli more advanced writers, whatever changes are needed, not only for correctness, but for elegance, may properly be suggested. 2. It will be found advantageous to read before the class what- ever important blemishes have been found in each composition, withholding, however, the name of the writer ; and the class should be requested to propose corrections in spelling, construc-^ tion, ideas, or any thing else needing correction. 3. After such corrections have been made, the composition should be copied correctly in a book provided for that purpose, and preserved for future comparison with subsequent productions. The labor, and care, and time thus employed will be well rewarded by the beneficial effect in securing greater accuracy and excellence in future essays. DiREOTIONS FOR THE REVISION OF A. COMPOSITION. 1. For the convenience of the writer, it is best to write upon letter-sheets of the ordinary size, leaving a considerable margin oi the left and right hand of the page for corrections, should they be found necessary. 2. Among the things requiring attention in revising, are these — 326 SUGGESTIVE QUESTIONS the spelling, the punctuation, the use of capital letters, quotation marks, apostrophe of the possessive case, observance of grammat- ical rules, and rules for Purity, Propriety, Precision, Unity, and Harmony ; also, correctness in the use of the figures of speech. It must be ascertained, also, whether some of the sentences are not too long, or faulty in construction, and whether they are properly arranged into paragraphs. It is important to make a proper divi- sion of a word, according to its syllables, when room cannot bo found for the whole of it at the end of a line. After the syllable or syllables at the end of a line, must be placed a hyphen (-) ; it must not be placed in the midst of the letters of a syllable. After the writer has carefully revised the composition, and made it clear of all ambiguity, obscurities, and other blemishes, as far as he is able, a correct and handsome copy of it should be made, to be submitted to the teacher, leaving two inches of mar- gin on one or both sides of each page, as space for the corrections which the teacher may find it necessary to supply. LESSON GXL. "topics" SUGGESTIVE OF IDEAS. [These topics are derived from Sturtevant's " Preacher's Manual," and presented in a condensed form.] 1. There are certain questions^ which, on entering upon the consideration of a subject, should be proposed to one's self, as means of eliciting or directing thought. These are — (1.) Who t referring to the agent— the person who has done or spoken such a thing. (2.) What? What has he done or said ? (3.) Where f Where did the action take place, or where were the words spoken ? (4.) By what means ? By what means was the action done, or by whose authority was the thing said ? (5.) For whom t For whom, or for what, was the act done, or the utLtr SUGGESTIVE "TOPICS." 327 ance made ? Was it done for his own personal benefit, or for the honor and advantage of another ? (6.) How ? How was thft act done ? how were the words spoken — openly or privately '\ Was it done partially or thoroughly % In what temper and frame of mind ? (7.) When? When was the thing done or said ? (8.) Why f From what motives, and with what results in view ? Some of these questions are involved in the Topics now to be considered, but they are given here together as a matter of convenience in thinking upon ordinary subjects. 2. JRise from, Species to Genus. — For example, we read in Ps. 1. 14, oi the particular offering of thanksgiving ; this may lead us to reflect on the nature and design of sacrifices in general^ and to treat the subject thus : 1. Consider the general history of sacrifice^ — From Abel's time to Moses, including the age of Job. From Moses to Christ. 2. Their real design and instructive lessons. 8. Their adaptation to such design. 4. Their utility to us. 3. Descend from Genus to Species — from the more gen- eral to the more particular : Dr. Blair, on Phil. iv. 5. Moderation is the genus. He says, exercise moderation: 1. In your wishes; 2. In your pursuits ; 3. In your expecta- tions ; 4. In jour pleasures ; 5. In the indulgence of your passions. 4. The various particulars belonging to the thing de- scribed. — These may be presented in a descriptive, a pliilo- Bophical, or an historical manner. LESSON GXLI. "topics" SUGGESTIVE OF IDEAS. 6. Observe the Melati07i of one subject to others. Thus the idea of God as a Father^ suggests our obligations and duties to him as Children ; the idea of Him as a Sovereign^ 328 SUGGESTIVE "TOPICS." suggests our duty of respect and obedience as Subjects ; if he is held up to us as our Master^ this suggests our duty as Ser- vants. Doctrine is related to oth^v doctrine ; doctrine to precept ; privi- lege to obligation ; promises to threatenings ; hope suggests fear , I joy, sorrow, &c. ^ Types, in Scripture, suggest their antitypes ; this includes typi- . cal persons, typical institutions, and typical event'?. 6, Observe whether some things be not supposed which are not expressed. Thus, an arrival at a certain place supposes a place of setting out; a covenant supposes contracting parties; a reconciliation supposes previous contest or ill-feeling; a victory supposes ene- mies, arms, combat, loss of territory, &c. A sermon is often properly treated under the two heads, of (1) what is implied ; (2) what is expressed. Example from Eph. vi. 10: "Be strong in the Lord." I. What is im- plied in the words — (1) That Christians have need of strength; (2) That they have no strength in themselves ; (3) That there is enough in Christ Jesus the Lord. II, What is expressed, " Be strong," &c. There are two things to which these words exhort us — (1) To rely on Christ for strength ; (2) To do this with assured confidence. On the other hand, it is useful sometimes to consider what is not implied in any given declaration, or text of Scripture ; or to point out in what senses it is not true^ as John xvii. 16 ; what sins are not included in some general expression, as Heb. x. 29, &c. 7. Reflect on the person speaking or acting. Thus : Whether they be wise or unwise ; learned or ignorant ; righteous or wicked ; angels or men ; chief or subordinate ; venerable or otherwise ; old or young; whether they have proper authority to say or do what ia referred to ; whether their example be salutary or the reverse ; what rea-' sons existed to show the propriety or impropriety of words uttered or actions performed by them. In our estimate of character, we must discriminate between such acts as are done after mature consideration, and such as are done hastily. We can best judge of character when restraints are re- moved — when a change of situation takes place, and when per- sons suppose themselves to be unobserved. It is also discovered. SUGGESTIVE "TOPICS." 329 under afflictions and uniisnal trials. In drawing a portraiture of character, the influence of bad associates or instructions should be noticed. LESSON GXLII. "topics" suggestive of ideas. 8. The State of the Persons speaking or acting. When Paul addressed Felix, with the chain upon his a/rm^ and the tyrant's sword over his head, his speech had infinitely greatei power and authority than if he had addressed a letter to Felix from a place of safety. So when Paul, writing to the Philippians in a prison at Rome, says, " I have learned, in whatsoever state I am, therewith to be content" (Phil. iv. 11), the declaration challenges our immediate belief. The use of this topic is, principally, to suggest observations adapted either to give force to any precept, admonition, or re- proof, or to illustrate some part of the subject. 9. JRemarJc the Time of a word or action, A consideration of the time when an action was performed, a duty enjoined, a caution or a promise given, &c., frequently throws strong light upon the action or expression, enables us to see it under a new aspect, to perceive its propriety, and more deeply to feel its force. The choice of Moses (Heb. xi. 24, 25) receives great illustration from a notice of the time when it was made : not in his minority, but when he was mature and capable of judging calmly ; also, when he was surrounded by the luxuries of an Egyptian court, and was heir Apparent to the Egyp- tian sceptre ; and further, when his people were oppressed and enslaved, and he must calculate on sharing their afflictions. 10. Observe Place, 11. Persons addressed^ and the State of Persons ad- dressed. Take Kom. xii. 17, as an example : '* Recompense to no man evil for evil." This was addressed to Romans, whose maxim it wa** to revenge 330 poverely all public injuries, and the same course probably was pursued in regard to private ones. Again, the Koman Christians were at that time greatly persecuted, and that by the Jews, against whom it would have been easy to excite the heathen Eomans as being the objects of their dislike and hatred. Hence the precept means, " hurt not the most violent enemies of Christ, his gos- pel, and yourselves." The distinct characteristics of persons addressed should be kept in view ; also, the state of persons as to worldly circumstances — wealth, informar tion, &c. The considerations presented must be suited to these varieties, in order to make a suitable impression. 12. Consider the principles of a loord or action. In other words, consider the source or origin v/henoe they pro- ceeded — that, in consequence of which the word was spoken or the action done. So the Scriptures proceed on the principle that man is a degraded, ignorant, and guilty being. This is assumed in all its dootrines, precepts, promises, &c. LESSON CXLIII. "topics" suggestive of ideas. 13. Consider consequences and inferences. This is the converse of the preceding topic, and leads us to point out the effects, the good or evil consequences, immediate or remote, which follow a word or an act. The inferences that may be drawn from any doctrine or precept, are to be considered. You must so write as to leave no just grounds for the objections of an opponent; and if he charges your opinions with bad eonsequences, you must not only disprove the allegation, but prove on the other hand that good consequences will flow from them. 14. Reflect on the purpose or design of a word or action. Says Pope: "In every work consult the author's end." To be acquainted with the scope of his writing, or the end he had in view, is to possess a key to all that he says. SUGGESTIVE "TOPICS." 331 The scope or intention of a book or passage, may be col- lected : (1) From the author's express mention of it somewhere ; (2) from some declaration which exhibits the reason or occasion of a book or passage be- ing written ; (3) from considerations growing out of the state of the per- sons to whom the writing was originally addressed. Thus you will dis- cover the scope of Paul in his letter to the Hebrews, by attending to the distressed condition of the people addressed ; (4) from the known errorf: of the times ; (5) from some conclusions drawn from any argument ; (6) from the general drift or tenor of a book. The " end proposed?'* will suggest the best method of treating many subjects. Dr. Blair, on Eccl. vii. 2-4 : " It is better to go to the house of mourn- ing," &c. ; that is, viewing the end proposed, it is so. That end is the improvement of the heart ; to this end the whole discourse inclines. (1) Tlie house of mourning gives some check to levity ; (2) It awakens senti- ments of piety ; (3) It arouses our sensibilities and sympathies toward sut- ferers ; (4) It gives seasonable admonitions to prepare for what may soon be our own state ; (5) Excessive fondness for life will thereby be mod- erated. LESSON CXLIV. "topics" suggestive of ideas. 15. Consider whether there he any thing remarkable in the manner of a speech or action. This may be illustrated in passages from Scripture. John iii. 16 : ** God 80 loved," &c. By the word «o, greater emphasis is given to the ex- Dression of God's love and God's great gift, than could be given by any more definite expression. — Mai. iii. 16: ''''Then those that feared the Lord," &c. Then is emphatic, for it was a time of great degeneracy. Besides single words^ noticed in the above examples, this Topic Includes the notice of phrases and sentences in which the style or manner of expression may be in any degree remarkable. 16. Compare words and actions with similar words and actions. Suppose the character of Martha, the sister of Lazarus, were the flubiect 332 of a composition or discourse ; you would naturally compare her conduct with that of Mary, and show the superiority of the latter. If the Philippian jailer were the subject, he might be compared, in his conversion, with the publican Zaccheus, in this respect, that each had his prominent sin subdued — cruelty, in the former ; avarice and injustice in the latter. Passages of Scripture may also be compared with others, in which some synonymous expressions are employed, whether with a view to elucidate the meaning, or for the purpose of furnishing materials for comment or illustration. Passages of Scripture that treat upon the threatenings of God may be compared with those which record their fulfilment, or which show that the threatenings have been suspended or re- versed. So, also, passages containing divine commands may be compared with others which promise the grace that is needful to obedience. Comparison may also he made with nature. As Dr. Jortin observes : " Every creature conveys some useful doctrine. We may learn constancy from the sun, moon, and stars, which keep their appointed course. We may learn honesty and gratitude from the earth, which faithfully preserves what is committed to her care, and repays oui labor with interest. We may learn industry from the animals which pro vide against hunger, change of seasons, and the assaults of enemies. We may learn obedience and obligation from the domestic animals, which love their master and serve him in their respective characters." 1 7. HemarJc the differences of words and actions on dif ferent occasions. Seeming differences in Scripture are reconciled by showing that on dif ferent occasions it was proper to say and unsay, to allow and disallow, Ui establish an economy and to dissolve it. God commanded certain da'l/ sacrifices to be offered under the law ; yet, by his prophets, he declaree nk. abhorrence of them, because abused and perverted from their proper «iiid. The brazen serpent was to be preserved as a memorial in the ho^y piuce; and yet, for good reasons, Hezekiah, in God's behalf, broke it m pieces. In the Patriarchal state one code of laws was necessary ; under tLt Mosaic dispensation, another ; and afterwards, under the Gospel, a third-, differin/yr circumstantially from both the former. Different occasions demanded dif ferent modes of address ; hence, we meet with these. SUGGESTIVE '^ TOPICS/' 333 LESSON CXLV. "topics" suggestive of ideas. 18, Contrast words and actions. Divine revelation is illustrated by contrasting it with any sys- tem of false religion, or with Judaism. So, the character of true ministers may be contrasted with that of pretenders ; the wisdom of Providence with the folly of those who complain of it, &c. The volumes of nature and of providence abound in materials* for contrast, in expressing spiritual ideas; day and night, light and darkness, winter and summer, &c. ; barren and fruitful soils, lofty mountains and deep valleys ; animals, fierce and tame, large and minute ; vegetables, bitter and sweet, &c. An example of contrast is furnished in a sermon of Mr. Jay, on Eom. v. 6 : *' Hope maketh not ashamed." Here the words not ashamed suggested the antithesis, for if the Christian's hope be distinguished as one which maketh not ashamed, it is implied that all other hopes make ashamed. Ho says : I. Certain kinds of hope do make ashamed. (1) The hope of the worldling, by the insufficiency of its objects. (2) That of the Pharisee, by the weakness of its foundation. (3) That of the Antinomian, by the falseness of its warrant. II. The believer's, on the contrary, " maketh not ashamed." (1) It is accompanied by divine love. (2) This love characterizes its possessors. (8) It qualifies for that future glory upon which its interests are fixed. 19. Mcamine the grounds of an action or expression^ and show the truth or equity of it. In treating of the Resurrection or Ascension of Christ, show the credibility of the testimony in support of them. In treating of predictions, bring forward history to prove their fulfilment, or show, by argument, the divine wisdom in such utterances. It is especially necessary to use this topic when any thing un common, surprising, or hard to credit, is in question ; or when any difficult or disagreeable duty is urged. This topic comprehends all the points of consideration on which 334 SUGGESTIVE any doctrine or practice is founded — the proofs or arguments by which any truth is supported, or any practice enforced. This topic may also be turned against error, false grounds, and vain pretences. 20. Remarh the good and the had in exjf/ressions and ao This topic is of great use in explaining the histories of the Bible, wherein you will sometimes find a record of mixed, words and ac- tions, proceeding from good principles, yet displaying much weak- ness and infirmity. For example, in Matt. xvi. 22 : " Then Peter took him, and began to re- buke him, saying, Be it far from thee. Lord," &c., you may observe what there is good, and what is bad in this language. 1. You see his love to his Master. 2. Not a cold and lukewarm regard, but a most lively affection. 8. An honest freedom. 4. A strong faith in his Master's power. But, on the other hand, you see 1. Gross ignorance of the plan of redemption. 2. Low views of the true glory of Christ, as secured, not by preservation of the temporal life, but by achieving man's salvation. 3. A troublesome and criminal boldness, implying that he was wiser than his Master. 4. Pe- ter seems to have imagined that his Saviour was laboring under timid ap- prehensions of danger, and he labors to cheer him up, as we do those whose fears exceed the bounds of reason. The excellencies and deformities of human character, the mix ture of truth and error in human sentiments, open a wide field of profitable observation and comment. Only one character of un- mixed excellence is presented in the character of Jesus. LESSON CXLVI. "topics" suggestive op ideas. 21, Suppose things. To disprove, for instance, the merit of good works, you may say : Suppose that Christ and his Apostles held and taught the doctrine, would Jesus then have said, " When you have done all these things, say. We are unprofitable servants?" or would he have said that the miserable publican went down to his house SUGGESTIVE " TOPICS." 335 justified, rather than the Pharisee who gloried in his works ? or would the Apostle have said, "If it be by grace, it is no more q\ works," "You are saved by grace, through faith," "Not of works lest any man should boast ?" In matters of controversy, suppositions are raised to throw an opponent into a dilemma, and to show that his conclusions are irreconcilable with things which he cannot but admit, or that they are contrary to common-sense. 22. Guard against objections. The objections referred to must be natural and popular, not tar- fetched, nor too philosophical ; in a word, they must be such as it is absolutely necessary to notice and refute. It is never ad- visable to state objections, and defer the answers to them to another opportunity. Answer them directly, forcibly, and fully. Oare must be taken not to violate the rules of candor, and to re- fute objections by clear and sober arguments, such as the people can understand. 2 3 . Consider characters of m ajesty^ meanness^ infirmity^ necessity^ utility^ evidence^ &g. Thus, John xiv. 1 : " Let not your heart be troubled ; you believe in God, believe also in me." These words are characterized by a majesty which exalts Jesus Christ above all ordinary pastors and above all the prophets ; also by especial tenderness and love to his disciples. In Acts i. 6 : " Wilt thou at this time restore the kingdom to Israel V* may be observed characters of meanness and infirmity. Even after th<^ resurrection of Jesus they retained their low and carnal idea of a temporal Messiah. You also see a rash curiosity in prying into the future which God had seen fit not to reveal. In regard to necessity., utility., and evidence, these may be ex- hibited in relation to certain doctrines, precepts, facts, promises, &c., of the Bible. 24, JRemark degrees. There are in a passage degrees of majesty, meanness, necessity &c. 25. Observe different interests. Thus, iu explaining the miracle wrought by Christ on the Sabbath day 336 SUGGESTIVE "TOPICS." when he healed the withered hand in the presence of the Herodians and Pharisees, this topic leads us to notice the different kinds of interest with which these various classes would regard the event, in consequence of their several peculiarities of education and opinion. LESSON CXLVII. "topics" suggestive of ideas. 26. Distinguish^ Define^ Divide. 1. We distinguish., when we consider a thing in differ- ent views. Thus, Christian faith may be considered with a view to justiji- cation., or with a view to sanctification. In the former view it is opposed to works, and in the latter it is the principle and cause of good works. So a man may be considered with reference to civil society^ or with reference to cJiurcli fellowship. Pleaders at the bar often make use of this topic : " Gentlemen of the jury, what my learned brother has told you is, no doubt, perfectly correct, according to the cases which he has cited; but these cases turned upon a different point, and have no relation to the point you are called upon to decide. The circumstances also of the one and the other are quite different, and require a very different decision." So with regard to disputed doctrines of philosophy or religion. The confounding of one subject with another has given rise to most of the errors which are to be found in the Christian Church, as where penance is confounded with repentance, and the absolu- tion of the priest with the pardon of heaven. Whenever we perceive a subject to possess several qualities dif- fering much from one another, we must, in the first place, dis- tinguish them. Where one subject possesses properties which bear some general resemblance to those of other subjects, this topic is also required. 2. Define, To impart our ideas to others with clearness and force, we must not only distinguish them from other ideas with which they may have been confounded, but we must proceed to define what is thus distinguished. DEFINITION AND DIVISION. 337 The neglect J this has given rise to much misapprehension and angry debate. Men have thus failed to understand each other's meaning. A leading cause of this is a careless use of language. Dr, Watts' JSules for a just Dejinitioru, are: (1.) It must he universal or adequate. (2.) It must be proper and peculiar to the thing defined, and agree to that alone. (3.) It must be clear and plain. (4.) It must be short, and have no superfluous words. (5.) Neither the thing defined, nor a mere synonymous term, should make any part of the definition. A beautiful example of definition !« given in 1 Cor, xiii.; aaiother in th« first chapter of the Epistle of James. In order to form a definition^ we raust — (1.) Compare the thing to be defined with other things that are most like itself, and see wherein its essence or nature agrees with them. This is the gen- eral nature, or genus^ in a definition. Thus, wine agrees essentially with cider, perry, &c., in being a sort of juice. (2.) Oonsider the most remarkable and primary attribate, property, or idea, where- in this thing differs from those other things that are most like it, and that is its essential or specific difference. So wine differs from cider, &c., and all other juices, in that it is pressed from the grape. (3.) Join the general and special nature together, that is, the genus and the difference, and then make up the definition, 8o the juice of the grape, is the definition of wine. Not all things can be defined in so formal a manner In most cases, a correct description of what we mean is all that is re- quired. Thus we may define Covetousness to be an excessive love of money, or other possessions. Killing, is the taking away of the life of an animal. Murder is the unlawful killing of a man. 3. Divide, In all divisions, we should first consider the larger and more immediate parts of the subject, and not divide it at once into the more remote parts. One part of a division should not contain another. Every subject should he divided according to the special design in view. A printer, in considering the several parts of a book, would properly divide it into sheets, the sheets into pages, the pa^s into lines, and the lines into letters. A grammarian would id 338 THE ORATION. divide it into periods, sentences, words; or into phHs of speect, as noun, &c. A logician would divide it into chapters, sections, paragraphs, arguments, propositions, ideas. He would divide the propositions into subject, object, property, cause, effect, &c LESSON CXLVIII THE OKATION OR DISCOURSE. The rules now to be given apply in general to a popular oration or address, a discourse at the bar, or in the pulpit. Tlie parts that compose a regular discourse are six : I. The introduction, designed to prepare the hearers for the discourse. 2. The statement of the subject. 3. The explanation of the facts connected with it. 4. The use oi arguments to support our opinions, and to disprove those of an opposite character. 5. Address to the passions, if the subject admit of it. 6. Conclusion. 1. The hitroduction (1.) Should be easy and natural, and should therefore not be planned until the substance of the discourse has been studied. (2.) Correctness in expression is iniportant, as the hearers are at first more disposed to criticise. (3.) The introduc- tion should be modest, and not promise too much ; and dignified, as springing from a conviction of the importance of what^ after- wards we have to say. (4.) Generally, it should be cdm; but there are occasions when an abrupt and vehement exordium is perfectly natural and proper. (5.) It should not anticipate any material part of the subject. (6.) It should be proportioned in length and kind to the body of the discourse. In a discourse at the bar, care should be taken not to employ an introduction which the opposite counsel may lay hold of and turn to his advantage. II. The enunciation of the sulked should be as clear and distinct as possible, and expressed in few and plain words. With this is connected the division of the subject^ or the outlines of remark. This method of the discourse may be THE ORATION OR DISCOURSE. 339 either formal and fully expressed, or when this is not ad- visable, it may be a concealed method. Order is essential to every good discourse ; every thing said should be so ar- ranged as to prepare the way naturally and easily for what is to follow. Rules for the Division. (1.) The several parts must be really distinct from one another; no one part should include any other part. It would be absurd to propose to treat first of the advantages of virtue, and secondly of the advantages of temperance and justice. The first of these divisions includes the other. (2.) Begin with the simplest points — those which are necessary to be first discussed, and proceed to those which are built upon the former. (3.) The several divisions should exhaust the subject. (4.) The terms in which the method is stated, should be as clear and concise as possible. (5.) Let not the divisions or heads be too numerous. (6.) A happy division is of prime consequence^ and should bft earnestly sought. III. The Explication or N^arratio7i. To be clear and distinct, to be probable, and to be concise, are essential characteristics in setting forth the facts upon which the subsequent parts of the discourse are grounded. Attention must be given to names, dates, places, and every material circumstance of the facts announced. The characters and motives of the per- sons referred to are to be described so as to give probability and force to the narrative. All superfluous circumstances must be omitted. In sermons, where there is seldom occasion for narration, the explanation of the subject to he discoursed on takes the place of narration, and is to be conducted according to the rules just stated. To give a full and perspicuous account of the doctrine or duty of the text, requires profound meditation. Aid will be de- rived (1), by considering what light other passages of Scripture throw upon it ; (2), by referring to some other subject nearly re- lated to it, from which it is necessary to distinguish it; (3), by 340 THE ORATION OR DISCOURSE. com paring it with or setting it in contrast with some other sub- ject or thing; (4), by inquiring into causes, or tracing effects; (5), by pointing out examples, or appealing to the feelings ol 1 .earers. XV. The Argumentative Part. A^rguments are (l), to be invented ; (2), to be properly arranged ; (3), to be expressed in such style and manner as to give them their full force. As to their arrangement (1), avoid blending arguments con- fusedly together, that are of a separate nature ; (2), it is best, gen- erally, to arrange the arguments in the order of their strength, putting the strongest last ; (3), when the arguments are satisfac- tory, it is best to treat them apart and distinctly, but when they are weak it is better to run them into one another, to group them together, that by union they may give strength to the argument ; (4), arguments should not be carried too far or multiplied too much, for a cause is thus suspected of weakness. V. The Pathetic, Arguments or narration must prepare the way for it. "We must ourselves feel, in order to state that which will make others feel. The objects adapted to awaken the intended feeling must be vividly set before the mind, in a proper array of circumstances adapted to arouse feeling. Avoid interweaving any thing of a foreign nature with this part of the discourse, and let it not be too much prolonged. Unaffected and simple language is here es- sential, for true feeling uses such. VI. The Conclusion, This must vary with the strain of the discourse. Sometimes the pathetic part should form the conclusion. If the discourse has been chiefly argumentative, a summing up of the arguments, and presenting them in one clear view, makes a good conclusion. In sermons, inferences or reflections from what has been said, may form the close. But care should be taken, not only that they rise naturally, but that they should so much agree with the strain of the previous discourse, as not to break its unity. Inferences, however legitimately drawn from the doctrine of the text, have a INVENTION. 841 "bad effect, if at the conclusion of the discourse they introduce some subject altogether new, and turn off our attention from the main object of the discourse. A discourse should not end abruptly, nor should it be continued after we have encouraged an expectation of its coming at once to a close. It should not be ended with a languishing or drawling Fentence, but with dignity and force, so as to leave a favorable and strong impression. LESSON CXLIX. AIDS IN ARGUMENTATIVE WRITING. A large amount of aid may be derived from the use oi the topics presented in previous lessons ; but still further aid is furnished in this, and in subsequent lessons. Invention is the faculty or the art oi finding considera- tions or arguments fitted to inform, convince, persuade, or delight. To succeed in this pursuit, we must (1.) Consider the character, the capacity, the present knowledge, and the ordinary motives, of the person or persons addressed. (2.) We must consider from what sources these arguments may be had, by which to affect the person or persons in such manner as we propose. From the considerations first named, the argument will assume one of the forms now to be explained : 1. Argumentum ad judicium (address to the judgment), is an address which is suited to operate on minds not deficient in under- standing and common knowledge; not warped by prejudice or principle of some pecuHar kind ; and not so far under the govern- ment of the passions as to be incapable of being moved except by an appeal to them. It is an argument taken from the nnture or existence of things, and addressed to the reason of mankind. 2. Argumentum ad liominem (an address to the individua man), is that which one uses to a person who is biassed by some peculiar principle or motive. 342 FORMS OF ARGUMENT. Thus, for instance, to a person whose sole motive is sensual enjoyment, it would be impossible immediately to recommend temperance on ordi- nary grounds ; but an argument might be addressed to that very motive m its favor, namely, that by temperance the senses are preserved in a healthy state, and consequently in a better condition for receiving the pleasures peculiar to them. When an argument is built upon the professed principles or opinions of the person with whom we argue^ whether the opinions be true or false, it is an argumentum ad hominem^ an address to his professed principles. St. Paul often uses this argument, when he reasons with the Jews, and when he says, *'I speak as a man." 3. Argumentum ad doctrinam (an address to learning, or to people of learning), is an address which presumes the audience to be instructed in some branch or branches of learning in which mankind at large do not participate. Thus, for instance, a physician, a lawyer, or a divine, discoursing to an audience of his professional brethren, would make frequent use of the argumentum ad doctrinam^ a mode of address which he would not be justi- fied in using if discoursing on the very same subjects to an ordinary auai- ence. He would then, in order to succeed, be compelled to employ popular arguments, or such as are adapted to ordinary knowledge ; and not till be had instructed his auditors could he, with effect, employ any other. 4. Argumentum ad verecundiam (an address to the sentiment of reverence or respect), is that which a speaker uses when, in support of his argument, he relies on that sentiment in his au- dience towards the source whence it springs — the man of science, of wisdom, or moral worth, who advocated the truth we seek to establish. The sentiment may be special or universal. In ancient times, a disciple of Pythagoras was able to silence any opposition among his fellow-disci- ples by averring, in support of a proposition, that the master himself said so {.ipse dixit). In modern times, a speaker may procure admission for a scientific truth which he is unable to demonstrate, by affirming it to be an ascertained principle of some established science, or the discovery of some accredited philosopher. In this case, instead of the appropriate physical proof, he uses the argumentum ad Derecundiam. 5. Argumentum adfidem (an address to religious faith), is tlia which a speaker uses when he grounds his argument solely on the religious tenets of his hearers. With regard to an argument thus grounded, it must be evident, FORMS OF ARGUMENT. 343 tenets vary in different bodies of individuals as well as in individuals themselves, that though it may hold good in one place, or on one occasion, it will not hold good everywhere, and on all occasions. 6. Argumentum ad ignorantiam (an address to ignorance or ignorant persons), is an address w^hich avoids the truth as it is, and advances something instead of it, as a nearer way of gaining over the ignorant hearer to the purpose in view. Thus, a nurse deters an infant child from something he is incline 1 to do, not by showing the true ground of its impropriety or evil, which the child may be unable to comprehend, but by the terrors of a bugbear which has existence only through the ignorance of the little hearer. Thus, again, we deter thieves from trespassing on our grounds, not by showing the un- lawfulness of the act, which would be an argument thrown away upon them, but by stating that a police force is ever ready near the premises, which statement, if not a fact, is an argument to their ignorance and their fears ; and if a fact, and known to be so, is still an argument to their fears. 7. Argumentum ad passiones (an address to the passions), is such an address as at once rouses passions ready to be inflamed, when the speaker chooses this means to gain his end, instead of an appeal to judgment, or the argumentum ad judicium. Thus, if a public magistrate stands in the way of a speaker's private interest, and the latter is a person of no principle, but of great popularity, he may at once gain his own ends by exciting auditors ready to go along with him against one whom they already hate, because he restrains them from illegal acts into which they are eager to plunge. The topics of the speaker may be, that the man is corrupt in his magisterial duties, an op- pressor of the poor, an instrument of tyranny in the hands of the rich, without one proof of such allegations, which cool, instructed judgment would admit. An address to the passions is not in itself morally wrong, when the motives of the speaker are disinterested, and he has recourse to it only when, to the best of his judgment, he has won his an-* dience to the side of truth by proofs offered to their cool, instructed understanding. In this case, however, it is more than probable that he will have tc excite, not their most inflammable passions, but the passions of their bett<* nature, dormant and inactive while the former are raging, or are ready . rage. Moreover, if under the word passions we include, as we are entitled to do, our imaginative sensibility, from which spring all those emotions that so often delight us, without urging us on to any particular course of action, then every address intended to awaken such emotions, including all th ''ctions of poetry, will be an address to the passions. »^44 SOURCES OF ARGUMENT. LESSON CI. AIDS IN ARGUMENTATIVE WRITINGi The Topics of our Arguments, that is, the places or sources whence they may be taken, are either eiiternal to the subject treated of, or inchided in it. Of the former are : I. Experiment and Testimony are tlie sources of proof when- ever an audience cannot be convinced by directing their attention to the subject as it exists in their own minds. Thus if we have to prove the proposition that the air we breathe is a combination of two fluids, oxygen and nitrogen, our proof must either be experiment addressed to the senses, or the argumenium ad vereeundiam derived from the testimony of scientific men. Thus, again, if we desire to make out against a man the charge of theft, we must either detect him in the act before the eyes of those who are to judge of it, or we must bring credible witnesses of his guilt, to support our charge. II. Of the internal sources of argument — those which the sub- ject itself supplies, when attentively, considered, are (1) Defini- tion ; (2), Etymology ; (3), Enumeration; (4), Genus; (5), Spe- cies. Thus, for instance, if a writer, for some reserved end, should think lit to enlarge on the subject of Generosity^ he might, in the first place, urge the nobleness of this sentiment, by an argument derived from the nature or definition of generosity ; which argu- ment would likewise be an argument from Enumeration^ if it con- tained a detail of particulars constituting the thing. He might say, for instance, that generosity is a readiness to share with others advantages which the possessor has the power to keep to himself; a disposition to give and to forgive ; candor, forbearance, and the absence of all envy ; that these are the characteristics of a noble nature, and prove the nobleness of the virtue which includes them. From this argument from Definition and Enumeration, another might be added from Etymology, It might be said, generous originally meant well-horn^ and the transfer of the word from its first to its present meaning, is an evidence that as it formerly meant nobility of blood, it must now mean nobility of soul. ARGUMENTATIVE WRITING. 345 It is a rule that the Genus can always he asserted of each specien. Thus we can say, an oak is a tree, and an elm is a tree, and a vine is a tree. This shows that tree is a genus, and that oak, elm, and vine are species under that particular genus. Genus and species have reference to moral ideas as well as physical. Thus vi^e may say, industry is a virtue, frugality is a virtue, temperance is a virtue. This shows that virtue is a genus, and that industry, frugality, and temperance are its species. While a genus may be divided into spe- cies, each species may be subdivided into individuals. The mode of reasoning from genus and species is merely to show that a certain species is properly classed under a certain genus, and then to affirm or deny of the species what you may affirm or deny of the genus. Thus you may say : All fruit is useful to health ; the apple is a kind of fruit; therefore the apple is useful to health. This principle of reasoning, from genus to species, is the only kind of reasoning in which you gain any thing by placing it (as above) in the form of what is called a Syllogism. And even here the argument gains nothing in point of strength, but some- times it gains a little in point of clearness, or at least it gives a clearei Rtatement of the meaning of the reasoner. The following are the examples given in the Logic of Dr. Watts : *' Every wicked man is truly miserable ; All tyrants are wicked men ; Therefore all tyrants are truly miserable. He that's always in fear is not happy ; Covetous men are always in fear ; Therefore covetous men are not happy. Whatsoever furthers our salvation is good for u» ; Some afflictions further our salvation ; Therefore some afflictions are good for us. Nothing that must be repented of is truly desirable ; Some pleasures must be repented of; Therefore there are some pleasures which are not truly desirable.'* In the first syllogism, the genus is, '-'• Every wicked man," and the species, "all tyrants." In the second syllogism, "He that's always in fear," is the genns, " and covetous man" is the species under that genus. 15* 346 ARGUMENTATIVE WRITING. In the third syllogism, " Whatever furthers our salvation," is the genus, and *' some afflictions" is the species. In the fourth syllogism, ^' Nothing that must be repented of," is the genus, and " some pleasures" is the species. In natural logic, we do not use these syllogisms. We should, in the above cases, express our reasons in the following manner : -All tyrants, are truly miserable, because they are wicked men. Covetous men are not happy, because they are always in fear. Some afflictions are good for us, because they further our salvation. Some pleasures are not desirable, because they must be repented of. LESSON CLI. AIDS IN ARGUMENTATIVE WRITING. Cause^ Effect^ Antecedents^ Consequents^ Adjuncts^ are other topics whence internal arguments are derived. Let it be imagined that a speaker has to recommend to his audi- tors the particular act of generosity already supposed, namely, a grant of relief to one who has been unfriendly to them and their interests, — he might reason from the act itself as a cause of certain effects that must follow: we may expect a 'priori^ or inde- pendently of experience, he would say, that we shall be rewarded by the respect and esteem of men, and the favor of heaven. The opportunity of yielding relief under such circumstances, he might afflrm to be the work of heaven in order to try their generosity ; an argument which is taken from the final cause, or that which affirms o. purpose as the cause of what is stated to exist. This also is an a priori argument. The orator then calling the attention of his auditors to the man's distressful state, might argue from that as an effect for which a cause was to be found ; which cause he might say, is not merely to try their generosity, but to punish the man for his former un- friendly conduct to them. But this a posteriori conclusion becomes, when stated, an ante- cedent^ that is to say, a statement connected with probable conse- quents. Among these consequents, the orator might assume this AliatTMENTATlVE WttmNO* 347 to be included ; that if Providence punishes, he does not call on man to punish also. But sliall we not interfere with the punish* ment of heaven if we relieve this man ? No : there is the clear command, *' Do good to them that hate you," which forbids such a consequent to be derived from the antecedent. Further, in order to combat an inclination not to relieve the man, the orator might argue from the topic consequents^ thus: this man^s prosperity may revive without your help, and he may be again a powerful enemy; heaven may punish the neglect of your present opportunity, by visiting you in your turn with dia tress. And these arguments from consequents might be enforced by some from the topic adjuncts : from the adjuncts of the man, — namely, his talents, his power to conciliate friends, to injure enemies; from the adjuncts of the auditors, — namely, the dangers that in some quarters threaten their interests; the persons opposed to those interests, who already abound. In regard to physical and moral causes^ there are four methods of reasoning : Firsts from the existence of the cause, we may infer the exist* ence of the effect. The Second mode of reasoning, is from the existence of the effect to infer the existence of the cause. All theories or systems are founded on this mode of reasoning. The Third mode of reasoning, is from the non-existence of the cause to infer the non-existence of the effect. The Fourth mode of reasoning, is from the non-existence of the effect to infer the non-existence of the cause. In reasoning upon moral causes^ we are exposed to much diffi^ culty^from the circumstance that one effect is of ten produced ly a variety of causes^ and the greatest sophistry arises from imputing to one particular cause an effect which results fj^om the joint opera" tion of many causes. We shall also fall into error^ if we deny the existence of any one cause^ hecause other causes contributed to produce the effect. We should also fall into error .^ were we to infer that of two events one is the cause of the other ^ merely because it occurred jtrni in the order of time. 348 ARGUMENTATIVE WRITING. This fallacy is often ridiculed by a reference to the building of Tenter- den steeple being the cause of the Goodwin Sands. The story is told by old Bishop Latimer. There was a time when the Goodwin Sands, which lie in the neighborhood of Dover, were not there. Some time after they had collected, commissioners were appointed to ascertain the cause. They proceeded to the spot and examined witnesses. Among others, an old man assured them that the cause of the Goodwin Sands being there, was the Tenterden steeple. They asked him '' how this could be?" He stated that, he '* could not tell how, but he knew it was so ; for he recollected that when there was no steeple, there wore no sands, but soon after the building of the steeple, in came the sands. He therefore inferred that the building of the steeple was the cause of the sands." In order to prove that two events sustain the relation to each other of cause anct effect^ it is necessary to show^Jirst^ that the two events did actually occur ; secondly^ that the event which we call the cause, occurred in the order of time before the effect; and thirdly^ that there was an adaptation in the cause to produce the effect. We sometimes attempt to refute a doctrine by tracing the a5- 8urd or injurious consequences that must result from it. This mode of argument is called reductio ad absurdum. Akin to this is an exposure of the fallacy oi proving too much. This fallacy in an argument, which, if admitted to prove the point in dispute, would, if carried out to all its legitimate consequences, also prove other points which neither of the disputants admits to be true. Arguments founded on the advantages or disadvantages that may result from any measure under consideration, come under the bead of reasonings from the relation of cause. and effect. Final Causes. The actions of intelligent beings are the effects of motives oi feelings. Hence, the motive or design of an action is called its final cause. Moral causes refer to habits, events, and institutions. Final causes refer generally to individual acts. Examples. — *' The gentleman travels for pleasure.''^ *' The lady rides for exercise.''^ "The soldier fights /or glory y The doctrine of Final Causes enters largely into the scieiice of Natural Theology. ARGUMENTATIVE WRITING. 349 From the adaptation of certain arrangements to answer certain purposes, v/e infer that these arrangements were designed to answer these purposes. Thus, the eye is adapted for seeing ; we infer that it was made for that purpose. See Paley's " Natural Theology." From the manifold proofs of design in the world, we infer the existence of a Designer. These effects denote intelligence, and hence we infer the existence of an Intelligent Cause. Again, from the manifestation of certain attributes or qualities in the works of creation and providence, we infer the existence of these attributes and qualities in the Intelligent Cause. Hence, we demonstrate the power, wisdom, goodness, and other attributes of God. We prove the goodness of God by facts, showing that the works of nature are so constructed as to produce pleasure as well as utility to his intelligent creatures. See Acts xiv. 17. In the same way we reason on the nature and character of the human mind., and on the circumstances by which we are sur- rounded. Man has a capacity for being happy ; we infer that he was designed to bo happy. Man has a capacity for acquiring knowledge ; we infer that he was designed to acquire knowledge. Man has faculties adapted to an immortal state of existence ; we infer that he is destined to immortality. In the same way, from the attributes, qualities, and capacities of the animal creation., we infer the design or final cause of their creation. Final causes form an important part of the investigation in cases of circumstantial evidence. If we dhow that the prisoner had a strong motive for committing the of- fence, such as avarice, revenge, &c., or had stated beforehand a determin- ation to commit it, this, with other circumstances, will be considered as tending to prove that he did commit it. LESSON cm. AIDS IN ARGUMENTATIVE WRITING. Similitude^ Parity of case, Co7itraries, Proportion, A fortiori, are names of other topics whence internal argu- ments are derived. Suppose, for instance, that the wi-iter were desirous to enforce 350 EEASONING FROM COMPARISON, ETC. his former arguments on generosity, and, by enforcing tliem to move the passions, he might compare generosity to the sun, which shines alike on fruitful and unfruitful soils. Again, in order to enforce his former argument, that the case of the man needing relief was designed in Providence to try their generosity or their faith, he might insist that their own case with respect to God is a parallel or analogous case to that which is brought before themselves ; deal with this man, the writer might say, as God deals with you : " We do pray for mercy, And that same prayer doth teach us all, to render The deeds of mercy." — Shahspeare, From Contraries the writer might argue that the proposed act of generosity will bring the esteem of men as a reward. He might say : " As selfishness brings contempt and execration, generos ity brings honor and applause ; as selfishness shuts out the sympathies of mankind, generosity opens those sympathies, and directs them all to the generous man." From Proportion he may argue thus : It is impossible for man to equal the bounty of his heavenly Creator, but he may approach it in a certain humble degree, and the greater the degree, the more nearly will he resemble the Creator who formed him. Lastly, in order to enforce the argument drawn from a pruden- tial regard to consequences^ the writer might say, that if, without regard to such consequences, it behooves his readers to yield the relief desired, then a fortiori^ with those impending consequences ia view, they cannot but resolve to yield it. LESSON CLIII. REASOmNG FROM EXAMPLBa. In reasoning from examples, we adduce examples in proof of the propositions we seek to establish. Thus our Saviour spoke, Mark^ ii. 23-28. Another instance is the following from Rev. Sidney Smith : RKASONING FROM EXAMPLES. 351 " It would go very far to destroy the absurd and pernicious association of genius and idleness, by showing them that the greatest poets, orators, statesmen, and historians, — men of the most brilliant and imposing talents, have actually labored as hard as the makers of dictionaries and the ar- rangers of indexes ; and that the most obvious reason why they have been superior to other men is, that they have taken more pains than other men. Gibbon was in his study every morning, winter and summer, at six o'clock ; Mr. Burke was the most laborious and indefatigable of human beings ; Leibnitz was never out of his library ; Peel killed himself by study ;' Cicero narrowly escaped death by the same cause ; Milton was at his books with as much regularity as a merchant or an attorney ,-^he had mastered all the knowledge of his time ; so had Homer. There are in- stances to the contrary ; but, generally speaking, the life of all truly great men has been a life of intense and incessant labor. ''^ When from one or more examples you infer a general principle, that is called Induction, or Reasoning from Examples ; when from the general principle you infer an individual case, that is called Deduction, or reasoning from genus to species. Induction is r ea- rning from particulars to generals; Deduction is reasoning from generals to particulars. Be it observed, however, that generals cannot be inferred frem particulars, unless you have reason to believe that all the partic- ulars are alike. Our reasoning here must depend on the uniform- ity of nature. When a constant uniformity does not exist, I can- not reason so conclusively, and my reasonings will be weaker in proportion to this want of uniformity, and hence we shall have to descend from certain reasonings to probable or doubtful. We use the inductive method in the physical sciences. We see several instances in which fire melts lead ; we infer it will always do so, and when we are satisfied that this is the case, we call it a law of nature. Thus also are the laws of Astronomy and other natural sciences discovered. This kind of reasoning abounds in the sacred writings. See Neh. xiii. 15-18, the Book of Psalms, the Prophets ; and in the New Testament consult the eleventh chapter of Hebrews and first verse of chapter twelfth, which contains the inference ; also James v. 10, 11, 16- 18 ; 2 Tim. iii. 8, 9 ; 1 John iii. 11, 12 ; 1 Cor. x. 6-11. Principles are often confirmed or illustrated hy Examples ; as, in Luke iv. 24-27, where they are adduced to show that a prophet has no honor in his own country. J352 REASONING FROM EXAMPLES. The example of David, a man of decided piety, is adduced to shew that in a case of necessity a positive law might be violated to satisfy hun- ger. Mat. xii. 1-4; Mat. xii. 39, 40; John iii. 14. Moral injunctions are often enforced ly Scriptural examples. Reasoning hy example is in great use among lawyers^ by what is called a case in pointy that is, an example in point. When a case is in dispute, the plan is to show that a case similar to the present has already been decided. Rut the example or case adduced will not, of course, be the same in all its circumstances as the case under trial. K so, there would have been no ground for the lawsuit, as the point would then have been already decided. But it is the object of the advo- cate to show that the case adduced establishes a principle, and that this principle thus established will apply to the case under consideration. Sometimes an individual case is adduced for the purpose not of establishing but of overthrowing a general principle; as in Mat. XV. 1-6. As examples can often be adduced on both sides of a qaestion, we shall have to balance one set of examples against anoth^., in order to judge of the probability of the case under consideration. All anecdotes are arguments. They all prove something, or may be so applied as to prove something, and they should, when re- lated, be associated with the principle which they are adapted to prove. The rule that when you have advanced arguments enough to prove your point you should advance no more, may be enforced by the following '-''Eighteen Reasons for Absence:'''' The Prince of Conde passing through Beune, the public authorit'es went to meet him at the gates of the town. After many high-Hown com- pliments the mayor added : *' To display our joy, we wished to receive you with the reports of a numerous artillery, but we have not been able to fire the cannons for eighteen reasons. In the first place, we have none ; secondly — " " My good friend," said the prince, "the first reason is sn good I will excuse the other seventeen." LESSON CLIV. REASONING FROM ANALOGY, COMPARISON, AND CONTRAST. By reasoning from Analogy^ we mean, reasoning about one thing from its resemblance to another thing. ANALOGICAL REASONING. 353 For an instance, see Mat. xii. 11, 12. Another we adduce from Palcy : " The practice of passing bad money is sometimes defended by the vulgar excuse, tliat we have taken the money for good, and must therefore get rid of it ; which excuse is much the same as if one who had been robbed on the highway should imagine he had a right to reimburse himself out of the pocket of the first traveller he met." Analogical reasoning is employed in several of the sciences^ in moral reasonings^ in legal arguments, in political economy, and theology. It is often used with great effect in refuting objections that have been advanced against Divine revelation. Read But- ler's Analogy; also, Malachi 1. 6; Luke xiii. 14-16. Analogy is the foundation of nearly all our figurative lan- guage. We must be cautious, however, in adopting Metaphors as arguments. We make comparisons between different persons, quali- ties, and actions ; as, " Knowledge is better than riches ; virtue is better than knowledge ; therefore virtue is better than riches." This is an argument founded on comparison. Our descriptions of persons, places, and things, consist chiefly of points of comparison with other persons, places, and things. Thus, speaking of Holt, it is said, " He was not a statesman like Claren- don ; he was not a philosopher like Bacon ; he was not an orator like Mansfield, yet, &C," LESSON CLV. REASONING BY FABLES AND PROVERBS. The fable is a fictitious composition, designed to illustrate a proposition^ which is called the moral of the fable (so called because the fable is commonly employed to illustrate moral truths). It is not necessary that the machinery of the fable should bear any resemblance to any moral process to which the proposition may be applied (herein it differs from the parable) ; it is required only that the result shall illustrate a proposition. 354 REASONING BY FABLES AND PROVERBS. In the fable found in Luke xviii. 1-5, the proposition to be illustrated ib the advantage of perseverance in prayer. But there is no correspondence between the machinery of the fable and the parties to whom reference is made. In fact, the fable derives no small portion of its force from this want of resemblance. It amounts to an a fortiori argument. The following is an example of the use of Fables : That eminence in one kind of merit is often associated with deficiency m another, is thus illustrated : " The Nightingale and the Haiohy — A mellifluous nightingale was one day pounced upon by a hawk. "As you sing so charmingly," he ex- claimed, " how deliciously must you taste !" The design of fables is to teach us general maxims and propo- sitions, which we are to apply, as we may have occasion, to prac- tical purpose, in our progress through life. In most of the " Fables of ^sop," actions are attributed to animals, be- cause certain animals are supposed to represent certain characters or dis- positions. Thus the lion is the representative of courage and magna- nimity ; the fox, of cunning ; the peacock, of beauty ; but there are fables in which no animals are introduced. Proverbs are often the morals of fables. They are not usually capable of being proved by reasoning. They are proved by observation and experience; but referring chiefly to morals and manners, they possess only a moral universality, and hence it is often easy to point out cases in which they are not realized. Thus, " The diligent hand maketh rich," " Train up a child in the way he should go, and when he is old he will not depart from it," are sound maxims, but cases occur in which they do not apply. This is no valid ob- jection to them as rules for our guidance. In human affairs we must be contented with a high degree of probability. It is the part of true wisdom to submit our conduct to the guidance of this high degree of probability. The mode of reasoning from proverbs is by the application of a general principle to an individual case, and falls under the class of genus and species. A fine illustration may be seen in Dr. Franklin's " Poor Richard's Almanac." DESCRIPTIVE REASONING. 355 LESSON CLVI. DESCRIPTIVE AND INTERROGATIVE REASONING. 1. Descriptive Reasoning is used when we describe ai] object with a view to reason about it. For example : Were a lecturer on anatomy to describe the eye, with the view of showing its construction to his pupils, that would be a description, and nothing more. Were a theologian to describe the eye, in order to show that it must have had an intelligent author, then the description would become a specimen of descriptive reasoning. See Paley's " Natural Theology." In all our reasonings great use is made of description. When a legislator proposes a new law, he begins with describing the present state of the law, shows what improvement is necessary, and then proposes his remedy. A lawyer opens his address to the jury, by a statement of the case ; this statement is descriptive. Descriptions of past events, and of good and bad characters, form a large portion of the addresses from the pulpit. Practical applications of Descriptive Reasoning : In tracing the effects of any measure that we desire to have al- tered or abandoned, the effects are sometimes advantageously described with great minuteness. In describing acts of injustice or oppression, it is seldom necessary to nave recourse to any forms of reasoning. The description itself will usually produce all the impression that could be obtained by the most profound argumentation. So, also, in regard to abuses, to show that they ought to be corrected, it is enough to describe them. 2. Interrogative Reasoniiig. — This is a form of reason- ing by asking questions. Of this, there are several kinds. (1.) The 8ocratiea\ which is managed by questions and answers, in the form of a common conversation. It is a pleasing method, because the teacher takes the attitude of an inquirer, and the learner seems to convey the information sought. The reasoning always arises out of something asserted or known in the 356 INTERROGATITE R^ASOITING. previous answer, and so proceeding to inquire after something unknown in the following question, which again makes way for the next answer. For an illustration, see " Watts on the Improvement of the Mind." (2.) The conversational form. See Mrs. Marcet's " Conversa- tions." It is such a form of reasoning as prevails in common Hfe, and occurs in conversation. It is not by a full syllogism, but by a defective one, called Enthymeme ; as, ^' Diamonds are jewels ; there* fore they are valuable :" " The human soul is immaterial ; conse* quently it is immortal." . The occurrence of for ^ because^ therefore^ or any similar word, either in conversation or in reading, usually denotes an enthymeme ; in other words, denotes a reason or argument expressed naturally, without the formality of scholastic logic. (3.) Sometimes we aslc questions in order to answer them^ with the mew of removing from the discussion the topics to which they refer. Thus, a writer on agricultural distress commences with questions in the form of inquiries, to which he replies : " There is no denial, and there can be no doubt, that the whole agricul- ture of England is menaced with ruin. But what is the cause? Has Heaven stricken the land with barrenness? — the late harvest has been remarkably productive. Has the land been trampled by insurrection ? — it has exhibited a contrast to all Europe in its tranquillity. Has commercial failure driven away its credit? — the panic of 1847 has virtually invigorated, by purifying, speculation. Again we ask, what is the cause ? The cause is simply this," &c. (4). Sometimes we place in the form of questions those objections which our opponents might advance against us, St. Paul often reasons in this way. See the third, fourth, sixth, seventh, eighth, ninth, and eleventh chapters of the Romans. (5.) The relation of cause and effect is often intimated hy inter- rogations. When a wrong cause, as we think, has been assigned fur an effect, and we desire to intimate the true cause, we can do this by asking questions. '' One man pines under a broken constitution. But let us ask him whether he can, fairly and honestly, assign no cause for this, but the un- known decree of Heaven ? Has he duly valued the blessing of health, and always observed the rules of virtue and sobriety? Has he been moderate in his life, and temperate ?" LAWS OF ARGUMENTATIVE WRITING. 357 LESSON CLVII. LAWS OF ARGUMENTATIVE WRITING. Some of the laws which ought in general to be observed in the presentation of truths to the mind in argumentative discourses, are thus stated by Mr. Neil : 1. Never propose to prove a self-evident proposition. Proof is impossible. The attempt is irksome, as well as displeasing to the parties addressed: irksome, because they already acknowledge the proposition ; and displeasing, because it insinuates a want of capacity in them. 2. Begin with a clear statement of your subject, or with an in- troduction which will naturally lead to that. If an introduction is used, it should be striking, appropriate, and proportionate. 3. Observe a regular sequence in your arguments, that each one may naturally lead to the other. 4. Let your chief arguments be few and cogent; and make them bear as directly on the point to be proven as possible. Superfluous arguments efface stronger ones, exhaust patience, and en- courage the idea that where weak arguments are used, the point is weak. If the few are strong, they will be effectual. 5. Express your arguments in as few words as possible, consist- ent with perspicuity. 6. Illustrations should be so intermingled with arguments, as to relieve and please the mind, and thus produce variety without confusion. 7. Arguments should be arranged in the inverse order of their importance ; the least important first, the strongest leading up the rear. They should form a climax. 8. Opposing arguments should be considered in the introduction or exordium ; suasive ones in the conclusion. 358 SERMON-WRITING. LESSON GLVIII. SERMON-WKITING. Many of the preceding lessons abound in suggestiona highly appropriate to this species of writing. N'othing will here be attempted but to present a general view of the various methods of treating a text of Scripture. 1. In the management of a text^ the first thing to be considered is, whether there be any thing which requires explanation, and if so to furnish it. 2. The text should always be taken in the precise sense which it bears in connection with the context, and be treated in that view. 3. The context often supplies the most suitable introduction. 4. There are two methods of division — the textual and the topical. Textual Methods of Division. I. The N'atural Division — following the order in which tho words of the text stand ; as on Ephes. i. 3, Claude's divisions are: 1. A grateful acknowledgment—'' Blessed be God." 2. The title under which Paul blesses God — " The Father of our Lord Jesus Christ." 8. The reason why he blesses God — "He hath blessed us." 4. The plenitude of this blessing — *' With all blessings." 5. The nature or kind of them — '* Spiritual blessings." 6. The place where, &c. — "In heavenly places." 7. In tohom he has blessed us — *' In Christ Jesus." II. The Observational Division. 1. When texts are clear in themselves, there is no need of ex- plication, and observations only should be made on what they teach. 2. Most historical texts must be discussed by observation- Henry's Commentary famishes admirable examples. SERMON-WRITING. 359 6. Some texts require both explication and observation. 4. Observations, for the most part, should be theological. Oc- casionally and sparingly, observations historical, philosophical, and critical may be used. 5. Observational preaching ought to be a faithful delineation of persons, characters, and occurrences ; the divine conduct ; the consequences of a vicious course ; the influence of divine agency on the affairs of men ; the experience of God's people, their trials, their encouragements, their hopes, their fears, &c. III. Propositional Discourses. While a single discourse may embrace many observations, a single proposition may form the basis of a whole discourse, or of more. In explication we treat of the text, divide and discuss it; in proposition we adhere to the general doctrine or subject to be discussed, as stated in the preacher's own words; but if such statement contain any term of doubtful import, such term should at the beginning be explained, but briefly. The doctrine^ theme^ oy proposition may be divided into two or three other propositions, expressed in perspicuous language, and in as few words as possible. The arguments should be solid, the proofs clear, the citations conclusive, the examples striking. The conclusion should be animated and powerful ; and worthy of the arguments advanced. Topical Methods of Division. These have been already considered, under the head of "Topics suggestive of Ideas," and of "The Oration or Discourse." In preparing a sermon, no more important rule^ perhaps, can be given than this (in the words of Dr. H. F. Burder) : " Endeavor to ascertain and to exhibit the leading sentiment intended to be con- veyed by the text^ and let that leading sentiment dictate the spirit and plan of the discoursed It is thus (he adds) that the preacher will best secure unity of design in every discourse, and a suitable variety in his plans of ar- rangement. That variety will naturally grow out of the habit of 360 THE WRITING OF POETRY. yielding his mind to the impression which the prominent idea of a text is calculated to produce ; a diversity of method, without any direct effort to attain it, will then almost follow, of course, from a variety in the texts and subjects themselves. LESSON CLIX. THE WRITING OF POETRY. An excellent writer, the late Prof. Henry Reed, recom- mends the writing of verse as an important help in attain- ing a good prose style. He says, The study of English poetry being in close affinity with the prose, ad- mits of an important use in the formation of a good prose style. A mind as earnestly practical as Dr. Franklin's observed this; and he recom- mended the study of poetry and the writing of verse for this very purpose ; it was one of the sources of liis own excellent English. It is a species of early training for prose writing which he recommended, having recognized It in his own case as having given a genuine copiousness and command of language. This certainly is worth reflection, too, that all the great Eng- lish poets, Chaucer, Spenser, Shakspeare, Milton, Dryden, Cowper, Byron, Southey, and Wordsworth, have displayed high powers as prose writers.' Poetic compositions must depend greatly on a native endowment for it ; yet a taste and capacity for writing well in verse^ may in part be acquired by a careful and frequent perusal, in early life, of the productions of those who excel in this species of composition, and also by com- m^itting large portions to memory — a practice that i? worthy of adoption by all. As daily communion with the wise, the intelligent, the well-informed, Assists in attaining their traits of character ; as we form our tastes, style of conversation, and manners, by those with whom we bring ourselves into frequent contact ; so an early and studious familiarity with the poets can- not fail to imbue the mind with a love for poetic creations, and to aid in giving to our thoughts and sentiments and observations the poetic form. Dr. Johnson, in his " Lives of the Poets," informs us that Cow- ley, Milton, and Pope are distinguished among the English poets VERSIFICATION. 361 fey th© early exertion rf their powers ; but the works of Cowley were published in his childhood, and therefore of him only can it be certain that his puerile performanees received no improvement from his raaturer studies. Pope, at th'C age of fourteen, wrote m smooth and harmonious verse ; at sixteen he wrote his "Pastorals," whieh have been much admired. At twenty or twenty-one, he composed his celebrated poetical " Essay on Criticism," a work which, in Dr. Johnson's opinion, displays such extent of comprehension, such nicety of distinction, such acquaintance with man- kind, and such knowledge both of ancient and modern learning, as are not often attained by the maturest age and longest experience. Goldsmith, Henry Kirke White, Ohatterton, and many others, have also distinguished themselves in writing verse while yet in childhood or early youth — a fact which is here cited for the pur- pose of encouraging the young to attempt to pursue them in the same walk of literature. While the study and reading of the poets with great attention and interest, together with close and admiring observations of nature, and notice of the workings of one's own mind, are valuable means of cultivating the poetic spirit and of preparing to write in verse, it saves much labor to make one's self acquainted with the laws and forms and diction of versification, so as to be able tlie more readily to conform to them. LESSON GLX. VERSIFICATION. This is the art of making verses, being a measured arrangement of words, containing a regular succession ot accented and unaccented syllables. By the former is meant the syllables upon which stress of voice is laid in pronunciation, A verse is a line of poetry, and consists of a certain number of accented (or strong) and unaccented (weak) syllables, following each other in regular order. 1« 362 VERSIFICATION. Each succession or group of such syllables is called a mecisure^ or foot. These measures were called feet^ because among the Greeks their time (in pronunciation) was regulated by the foot of the Corypheus, or director of the choirs. Verse is of two kinds, Rhyme and Blanlc verse. Khyme re- quires the last syllables of different lines to sound alike, such lines being arranged in some regular order. Verses in which there is no such correspondence of sound, con- Btitute Blank Verse. Verses are also distinguished by pauses., which, in reading, occur at regular or measured distances. The final pause occurs at the end of each line. The ccesural pauses (so called because they cut or divide the line into two members), occur in other parts of the line or verse. A Stanza consists of a certain number of verses, or lines. A Couplet (or Distich) is a stanza of two verses ; a Triplet., of three. A Hemistich., is half a verse. But this division is not always equal ; one of the half- verses does not always contain the same number of syllables as the other. Scansion or scanning., is the act of dividing a verse into the measures or feet that compose it. A complete verse (or line) is called acatalectic ; if not complete, it is called catalectic ; if it has a redundant syllable, the verse is called hypermeter or hyper catalectic. Versification is perfect^ so far as concerns measure (says Mr. Mulligan), when the arrangement of the words in a verse is such that, regarded as mere prose, the relative force which the syllables demand for correct pronuncia- tion corresponds with the demands of the measure of the verse ; in other words, when the good pronunciation of a passage naturally produces metri- cal melody. To this we may add, that the perfection of verse, as regards pauses, consists in so arranging the words that the metrical pauses demanded by the laws of the verse shall occur at places where a pause is allowable without injury to the sense. When in both these respects the demands of the particular measure and form of verse are complied with, without greater departure from the ordinary grammatical arrangement of language than is allowable and becoming in poetical compositions, the versification is good, so far as regards all but rhyme (if rhyme is present). All the feet used in poetry consist either of two or of three syllables, and are reducible to eight kinds ; namely, four of two syllables, and four of three, as follows ; POETIC FEET. 363 DlSdYLLABLE. TbISYLLABLS. A Trochee — w A Dactyle — -^ ^ An Iambus -^ — An Amphibrach n^ — >-/ A Spondee An Anapaest v^ >w — A Pyrrhic w >>-' A Tribrach ^^ >^ -^ A Tiocnee has the first syllable accented, and the last unao cented; as, "Hateful, pettish." An Iambus has the first syllable unaccented, and the last ao cented; as, "Betray, consist." A Spondee has both the words or syllables accented ; as, " The pale mOon." A Pyrrhic has both the words or syllables unaccented; as, "On the tall tree." A Dactyle has the first syllable accented, and the two latter unaccented ; as, " Laborer, possible." An Amphibrach has the first and last syllables unaccented, and the middle one accented ; as, " Delightful, domestic." An Anapaest has the first two syllables unaccented, and the last accented ; as, " Contravene, acquiesce." A Tribrach has all its syllables unaccented ; as, " Nomerable, conquerable." Some of these feet may be denominated principal feet, as pieces of poetry may be "wholly or chiefly formed of any of them. Such are the Iambus, Trochee, Dactyle, and Anapaest. The others may be termed secondary feet ; because their chief use is to diversify the numbers, and to improve the verse. Iambic verses may be divided into several species, according to the number of feet or syllables of which they are composed. Ex. 1. — The shortest form of the English Iambic consists of an Iambus, with an additional short or unacc^ted syllable ; as. Disdaining, Complaining, Consenting, Repenting. We have no poem of this measure, but it may be met with in stanzttb The Iambus, with this addition, coincides with the Amphibrach Ex. 2. — The second form of Iambic is also too short to be contAnnemposed Q^Jive tro3hees. All that walk 6n foot fir ride Tn chfiriStft, All that dwell in palaces and erarrets. VERSIFICATION, 867 Ex. 6. — The sixlh Trochaic fomi consists of six trochees ; as, On 5 mountain, stretched bSneath SL hoary wlllBw, Lay a shepherd swain, and view'd the rolling billow. This seems to be the longest Trocliaic line that our language admits. In all these Trocliaic measures, the accent is to be placed on the odd syllables. The Dactylic verse being very uncommoD, we shall give only one example of one species of it : From the IBw plSasures of this ftll6n natliro, Rise we to higher, &c. AnapcRstic verses are divided into several species. Ex 1. — The shortest anapaestic verse must be a single anapaest ; as, But in vain, They complain. This measure is, however, ambiguous ; for, by laying the stress of tJie voice on tho first and third syllables, we might make it a trochaic. And therefore the first and simplest form of our genuine Anapaestic verse is made up of two Anapaests ; as, BQt his courage 'gSn fail, For no arts could avail. This fomi admits of an additional short syllable : Then hTs courage 'gan fail hTm, For no arts could avail him. Ex. 2. — The second species consists of three Anapaests yS wfiods, sprgad your branchSs apace; To your deepest recesses I fly ; 1 would hide with the beasts of the chase ; I would vanish from every eye. This is a very pleasing measure, and much used, both in solemn and cheerful subjects. Ex. 3. — The third kind of the English Anapaestic consists of four Ana- paests. May I govSrn my pSssTons with fibsSlQte 8w5y; And grow wiser and better as life wears away. This measure will admit of a short syllable at the end ; as, 6n thS warm chegk 5f yduth, smiles 3tnd rosgs are blinding. Poetry is varied and improved, by the admission of aecondary feet into its composition ; for example : Mfirmuring, and with him fled the shades of night The first foot here is a Dactyle; the rest are Iambics. 368 * POETICAL PAUSES, O'er m&nj S frfeen, m&uf a fTerj AljK This line contains three Amphibrachs mixed with Iambics. InnumSrablg before th' Almighty's throne. Here, in the second foot, we find a Tribach. See thg b&ld youth strain iip the thr^at'nteg stgep. In this line, the first foot is a Trochee ; the second, a genuine Spondee by quantity ; the third, a Spondee by accent. 5. In the following line, the first foot is a Pyrrhic, the second a Spondae ThSt 5b weak wings from far pursues yoiir flight. LESSON GLXI. POETICAL PAUSES. There should be a pause at the close of every hne, even where no pause is required by the sense. The pause for sense, or ccesnral pause, is at, or not far from, the middle of the verse, and is naturally made by the voice in a correct reading of the verse. If it always occurred in the same place, monotony would be the result. It is a distinguishing advantage of English verse, that it allows the panse to be varied through four different syllables in the line. The pause may fall after the 4th, the 5th, the 6th, or the 7th syllables ; and according as the pause is placed after one or other of these syllables the melody of the verse is much changed, its air and cadence are diversi- fied. By this means, uncommon richness and variety are added to verse. When the pause falls earliest, that is, after the fourth syllable, the briskest melody is thereby formed, and the most spirited air given to the line. Example. — In the following lines of the Rape of the Lock, Mr. Pope nas, with exquifcite propriety, suited the construction of the verso to the sub- ject: On her white breast \ a sparkling cross she wore Which Jews might kiss \ and infidels adore • Her lively looks f a sprightly mind disclose, Quick as her eyes | and as unfix' d as those ; POETICAL PAUSES. 369 Favors to none, J to all she smiles extends, vjft she rejects, fl but never once offends. When the pause falls after the fifth syllable, dividing the line into two equal portions, the melody is sensibly altered. The verse loses that brisk and sprightly air, which it had with the former pause, and becomes more smooth, gentle, and flowing. Example. — Eternal sunshine | of the spotless mind, Each prayer accepted, |j and each wish resign' d. When the pause proceeds to follow the sixth syllable, the tenor of the music becomes solemn and grave. The verse marches now with a more slow and measured pace, than in either of the two former cases. Example. — The wrath of Peleus' son, J the direful spring Of all the Grecian woes, j O goddess, sing I But the grave solemn cadence becomes still more sensible, when the pause falls after the seventh syllable, which is the nearest place to the end of the line that it can occupy. Example. — And in the smooth description | murmur still. Long-loved, adored ideas 1 | all adieu. Besides the ccesural^ there are sometimes lesser or half-pauses^ as in the lines : Warms' in the sun,'' refreshes' in the breeze, Glows' in the stars," and blossoms' in the trees ; Lives' through all life," extends' through all extent, Spreads' undivided," operates' unspent. LESSON CLXII. BULES FOR THE PRINCIPAL OR C^SURAL PAUSE. 1 There should be only one principal or full pause in a line. 2. This pause may occur after the fourth, the fifth, the sixtli, or the seventh syllable. This distribution of the pause lays a foundation for dividing English heroic verse into four kinds. Each kind, as above shown, has its own peculiar melody. 370 C^SURAL PAtTSE. 8. A full pause should never divide a word ; thus, A noble super { fluity it craves. Abhor, a perpe | tuity should stand. The same rule does not apply to a half-pause^ which, being short and comparatively slight, is not disagreeable though it di- vide a word ; as, Relent | less walls \ whose darksome round | contains. For her | white virgins | hyme | neals sing. In these | deep solitudes \ and aw | ful cells. Yet even here the melody suffers in some degree. It is desira- ble that a word should he pronounced without any pause between its component syllables, 4. The best place for the full pause is where there is a pause in the sense ; but there may be a pause in the melody where the sense requires none, but it may not come after any word indiffer- ently. Some words, like syllables of the same words, are so inti- mately connected as not to bear a separation even by a pause ; hence, 5. A substantive must not be separated, by a pause, from its article ; as. If Delia smile, the | flowers begin to spring. It should be pronounced — If Delia smile, | the flowers begin to spring. 6. The full pause must not come between an adjective and the noun following it, and qualified by it: thus. Of thousand bright \ inhabitants of air The sprites of fiery | termagants inflame. The rest, his many-color'd 1 robe conceal'd, &c. But when the noun precedes its adjective, a full pause may be interposed, for a conception of a noun may be formed though un- accompanied by an adjective. 7. When an adverb precedes the verb, it should not be sep- arated from it by a full pause ; when it follows the verb, a pause may ])e interposed. Hence these lines are unmelodious: And which it much J becomes you to forget. *Tis one thing madly | to disperse my store. MKAL PATJSES. 371 At the close of a line, where a pause always occurs, it may come between tne verb and the adverb which commences the following line; as While yet he spoke, the Prince advancing drew Nigh to the lodge, &c. 8. A full pause may occur between a subject (or nominative; and the verb, and whether active or passive, if the verb follow it, hut not otherwise. 9. A full pause may come between a transitive verb and its object, even when the object precedes the verb, thus: The peer now spreads \ the glittering forceps wide. As ever sullied | the fair face of light. No happier task | these faded eyes pursue. 10. Words connected with coiy unctions and prepositions admit a full pause between them, as : Assume what sexes \ and what shape they please. The light militia | of the lower sky. 11. Conjunctions, prepositions, and articles, being dependent for meaning and utility upon the words that follow them, must not be separated from those by a full pause, as : Taltliybius and | Emybates the good. LESSON OLXIII. RULES FOR FINAL PAUSES. 1. In the first line of a couplet, the concluding pause differs little, if at all, from the caesural pause that divides the line, and hence the preceding rules apply to it. 2. The concluding pause of the couplet (that of the second line) is not graceful unless there be also a pause in the sense. Hence it follows that a couplet ought always to be concluded with some close in the sense, at least to the amount of a comma. This rule is seldom transgressed ; but the following deviations are found in Pope: Nothing is foreign : ^,arts relate to whole ; One all-extending, all-preserving soul CJonnects each being— 372 POETIC PAUSES. ^ Another: To draw fresh colors from the vernal Howers, To steal from rainbows ere they drop in showers A brighter wash — A general rule is, that the sense mnst never be impaired or obscured by the position of any pause, as it is the following lines: Ulysses, first | in public cj.res, she found. And: Who rising, high \ the imperial sceptre raised. With respect to inversiari, many words which cannot bear h separation (by a pause) in their natural order, admit a pause when inverted. And it may be added, that when two words, or two members of a sentence, in their natural order, can be separated by a pause, such separation is always allowable in an inverted order. An inverted period, which deviates from the natural train of ideas, requires to be marked in some measure, even by pauses in the sense, that the parts may be distinctly known. Take the fol- lowing examples : As with cold lips 1 1 kiss'd the sacred veil. With other beauties | charm my partial eyes. Full in my view \ set all the bright abode. With words like these | the troops Ulysses ruled. Back to the assembly roll | the thronging train. . Nor for their grief \ the Grecian host I blame. The same when the separation is made at the close of the first line of the couplet : For spirits, freed from mortal laws, with ease, Assume what sexes and what shapes they please. The pause is tolerable even at the close of the couplet, for the reason just now suggested, that inverted members require some slight pause in the sense : 'Twas where the plane-tree spreads its shades around The altars heaved ; and from the crumbling ground A mighty dragon shot. Variety in verse is due to the place of the pause, — A number of successive lines having the pause in the same place is fatiguing, and ought not to occur, except where there is a uniformity in the members of a thought, as in tlie following examples: POETIC PAUSES. 373 By foreign hands | thy dying eyes were closed, By foreign hands | thy decent limbs composed. By foreign hands j thy humble grave adorned. Again : Bright as the sun, | her eyes the gazers strike, And, like the sun, J they shine on all alike. It has been laid down as a general rule^ that heroic verse admits b. csBsural pause only in one of four parts of a line — after the fourth, the fifth, the sixth, or seventh syllable. But this rule may he varied where the sense or expression requires a variation, and that, so far, the melody may be sacrificed. Hence, in Milton, we not unfrequently find the cassural pause after the first, the second, or the third syllable — a license that sometimes adds vigor to the expression, as in the following examples : - Thus with the year Seasons return, but not to me returns Day, I or the sweet approach of even or mom. Celestial voices, to the midnight air, Sole I or responsive each to other's note. And over them triumphant Death his dart Shook, I but delay' d to strike. And wild uproar Stood ruled, \ stood vast infinitude confined, And hardening in his strength, Glories, | for never since created man Met such embodied force. From his slack hand the garland wreathed for Eve Down dropp'd, | and all the faded roses shed. LESSON CLXIV. ACCENTS IN VERSE. Supposing every long syllable to be accented, there is in every line one accent more prominent than the rest, being that which precedes the csesural pause. It is distinguished into two kinds — • one that is immediately before the pause, and one that is divided 374 ACCENTS IN VERSE. from the pause by a short syllable. The former belongs to lines of the first and third order ; the latter to those of the second and fourth. Examples of the first kind : Smooth flow the waves | the zephyrs gently play, Belinda smiled ] and all the world was gay. He raised his azure wand \ and thus began. Examples of the other kind : There lay three garters | half a pair of gloves, And all the trophies g of his former loves. Our humble province I is to tend the fair, Not a less pleasing | though less glorious care. And hew triumphal arches f to the ground. It is a great defect in the composition of'verse to put a low word incapable of an accent^ in the place where this accent should be; and no single circumstance contributes more to the energy of verse than to put an important word where the accent should be — a word that merits a peculiar emphasis. The following are faulty linos : Of leaving what [ is natural and fit. Not yet purged off, I of spleen and sour disdain. No pardon vile f obscurity should find. When love was all \ an easy monarch's care. When this fault is at the end of a line that closes a couplet, it destroys the melody altogether: But of this frame the bearings, and the ties, The strong connections, nice dependencies. For a fuller exhibition of the subject, consult the Author's edi- tion of *'Kames' Elements," whence the observations on Pauses and Accents have been drawn, pp. 309-342. EULES FOR RHYMING SYLLABLES. 1. The syllables must be accented syllables. 2. The vowel sounds must be the same. 8. If these syllables end with consonants, the consonantal sounds must be the same. ii The consonants preceding the vowel must be different from RHYMING SYLLABLES, 375 each other in form and sound ; that is, no syllable must be put in rhyme with itself. 5. It is to be noticed that not the letters^ hut the sounds of the letters^ constitute rhyme; hence such words as plough and enough^ though ending in similar letters are not words that rhyme to- gether, being different in sound when pronounced. The words huff and rough though unlike in form, yet being of the sanr^e sound, rhyme together. 6. Lines ending in trochees require the last two syllables to rhyme; those ending with a dactyle, require the last three to rhyme. 7. The more numerous the consonants that enter into the rhymr- ing syllables^ the stronger and hetter is the rhyme. Examples of strong and perfect rhymes : It is not that I may not have incurr'd For my ancestral faults, or mine the wound I bleed withal, and, had it been conferr'd With a just weapon, it had flow'd unbound; To thee I do devote it — thou shalt take The vengeance, which shall yet be sought and found, Which if /have not taken for the sake — But let that pass — I sleep, but thou shalt yet awake. Ghilde Harold. The rhymes in the first and third lines above, abounding in tonsonants after the vowel are particularly rich and strong. The consonants he/ore the vowel in all the rhymes, it will be observed, are unlike ; in the first nc, in the third nf; in the second w^ in the fourth, w5, &o. The above rules are exemplified in the next quo- taticn: Three days before my Mary's death, We walk'd by Grassmere shore ; " Sweet lake I" she said with faltering breath, ** I ne'er shall see thee more !" John Wilson. LESSON CLXV. IMPERFECT RHYMES. Imperfect rhymea* end in syllables whose vowel sounds and whose consonants are not exactly the same, but more or less 376 IMPERFECT RHYMES. nearly approach to sameness, and hence are less or more imperfect in their rhymes. 1. There are rhymes addressed to the eye which are not rhymes when addressed to the ear^ and hence are not admissible : head. and head; breath and beneath; increase and ease. 2. Rhymes when they sound aliJce are admissible^ though they • differ to the eye in form; thus, soul and stole; eye and sky ; smile , and isle. S. As h is not an articulate sound it is not to be counted in the beginning of a word; hence air and hair^ I and high^ are not legitimate, because parts before the vowels a and i are not dif- ferent. Exa/mples of imperfect rhymes : And without utterance, save the shrug or sigh Deal round to happy fools its speechless obloquy. Byron* That we become a part of what has been And grow upon the spot, all-seeing but unseen. lb. Of an enamor'd goddess, and the cell Haunted by holy love — the earliest oracle. lb. Double, Triple, and Middle Rhymes. The following examples are taken from Fowler's English Grammar : Double Rhymes^ where an unaccented follows an accented syllable : The sportive Autumn claim' d by rights An archer for her lover ; And even in winter's dark, cold nightB, A charm he could dl&cover. Her routs and balls and fireside joy, For this time were his reasons ; In short. Young Love's a gallant boy That likes all times and seasons. CampbeU, Treble Rhyme., shows an accented syllable followed by two an accented syllables : ye immortal gods ! what is XhQogony f Oh thou, too, immortal man ! what is ^^^cAanthropy f O world that was and is I what is aosmogony t Some people have accused me of rm&antkro^. Byron, RHYMES. 377 Middle Ehyrae is that which exists between the last accented syllables of the two sections of a line. You, hustling and Jostling^ Forget each care and pain ; I, Ustless yet restless^ Find every prospect vain. Burns* And now there came both mist and snow, And it grew wondrous cold ; And ice, mast-Ai^A came floating by As green as emerald. The ice was here^ the ice was there, The ice was all around ; It crack'd and growVd, and roar'd and howled Like noises in a swound. Coleridge. "The cheering and enlivening power of Rhyme," says Lord Karnes, " is remarkable in poems of short lines, where the rhymes return upon the ear in quick succession ; for which reason, rhyme is perfectly well adapted to gay, light, and airy subjects." Oh, the pleasing, pleasing anguish, When we love and when we languish I Wishes rising, Thoughts surprising, Pleasure courting, Charms transporting, Fancy viewing Joys ensuing. Oh, the pleasing, pleasing anguish I For that reason, such frequent rhymes are very improper for any severe or serious passion ; the dissonance between the sub- ject and the melody is very sensibly felt. Witness the following Now under hanging mountains, Beside the fall of fountains, Or where Hebrus wanders, Rolling in meanders All alone. Unheard, unknown. He makes his moan, And calls her ghost, For ever, ever, ever lost; ^ Now with furies surrounded, Despairing, confounded. He trembles, he glows. Amidst Rodo[>e's snowf . 378 BLANK VERSE. LESSON GLXVI. BLANK VERSE. Blank verse is a more free and noble species of versification than rhyme. The principal defect in rhyme, is the full close which it forces upon the ear at the end of every couplet. Blank verse is freed Yrom this, and allows the lines to run into each other with as great liberty as the Latin hexameter permits, perhaps with greater. Hence it is particularly suited to subjects of dignity and force, which demand more free and manly numbers than rhyme. The constraint and strict regularity of rhyme, are unfavorable to the sublime, or to the highly pathetic strain. An epic poem, or a tragedy, would be fettered and degraded by it. It is best adapted to compositions of a temperate strain, where no particular vehemence is required in the sentiments, nor great sublimity in the style; such as pastorals, elegies, epistles, satires, &c. To these it communicates that degree of elevation which is proper for them ; and without any other assistance, sufficiently distinguishes the style from prose. He who should write such poems in blank verse, would render his work harsh and unpleasing. In order to support a poetical style, he would be obliged to aiiect a pomp of language unsuitable to the subject. The present form of English heroic rhyme in couplets, is a modern spe- cies of versification. The measure generally used in the days of Queen Elizabeth, King James, and King Charles I., was the stanza of eight lines, such as Spenser employs, borrowed from the Italian ; a measure very con- strained and artificial. Waller was the first who brought couplets into vogue ; and Dry den af- terwards established the usage. Waller first smoothed our verse ; Dryden perfected it. Pope's versification has a peculiar character. It is flowing and smooth in the highest degree ; far more labored and correct than that of any who went before him. He introduced one considerable change into heroic verse, by totally throwing aside the triplets, or three lines rhyming together, in which Dryden abounded. Dryden's versification, however, Las very great merit ; and, like all his productions, has much spirit, mixed with carelessness. It is not so smooth and correct as Pope's ; it is, how- ever, more varied and easy. He subjects himself less to the rule of closing the sense with a couplet ; and frequently takes the liberty of making his ocuplets run into one another, with somewhat of the freedom of blank /erse. PRELIMINARIES TO VERSIFICATION. 379 In blank verse it is an important general rule that each lin6% shall close with an important word^ e. g. : What though the field be lost, All is not lost ; the unconquerable will And study of revenge, immortal hate, And courage never to submit or yield, And what is also not to be overcome ; That glory never sh^ll his wrath or might Extort from me. Paradise Loitm LESSON CLXVII. PRELIMINARIES TO VERSIFICATION. 1. The easiest preliminary is to scan various kinds of verse, and to render the measures of each familiar to the mind. It will be best to confine the attention at first to one kind, the Iambic measures, as being those in most common use. The Heroic is adapted to every kind of subject, and is fitted equally for rhyme or blank verse. 2. Another preliminary, is that of arranging words in proper order to meet the conditions of. certain kinds of verse, without regard to the sense of the passage. These are called nonsense verses. Example : Heroic verse. Their robes obsequious at their wholesome fare. O'er hill supply their beds and cheerful cups. 3. Another useful preliminary, is the providing of epi" thets suitable to any words that may be assigned, as they constitute so important a feature in every good description. An epithet (descriptive of the qualities or properties of any ob- ject) consists either of single words, as gloomy cavern, extended plain ; or of compound' words, such as half-filled vase, white- washed room, laughter-loving nymph, meelc-eyed moon, head- strong ])assion, (fee. 380 PRELIMINARIES TO VERSIFICATION. If passion were the word, such epithets as the following might be so- lected as applicable : strong, impetuous, boiling, ardent, vehement, ungoverii' able, irregular, boisterous, horrid, gloomy, sad, morose, implacable, dreadful^ severe, secret, blind, flaming, unbridled, wnruly, cruel, untc'.nable, head- strong, &c., &c. Much of the 'beauty of descriptive poetry depends on a right choice of epithets^ and hence good care should be observed in the use of them. They should not he mere expletiveSy to fill out a line, or to make the rhyme correspond. Every epithet should either add a new idea to the vrord it qualifies, or at least serve to elevate its known signification. General epithets, that leave the signification of the word undetermined, and are become trite and hackneyed in poetical language, are not to be used. They may indeed raise the style above that of prose, but they fail to illustrate and make prominent and impressive the object described. On the other hand, it is in the power of a man of genius, by one well-chosen epithet to execute a description, and by means of a single word to paint an entire scene to the imagination. The best descriptions are simple and concise; they give us ideas which a painter or statuary could work after; *ind this is the best test of merit in any description. LESSON CLXVIII, PRELIMINARIES TO VERSIFICATION. 4. Another preliminary is the finding of rhymes to cor- respond with words prescribed, of which, for this purpose, the teacher may give out a list — an exercise to be often re- peated, until considerable facility shall be acquired. To those who intend to make versification a pursuit and a practice, such a work as " Walker's Rhyming Dictionary" would prove a great saving of time and labor. (1.) Thus if the word assigned were blame, the following are among those which rhyme with it : came, dame, same, game, name, tame, frame, shame, inflame, became, overcame, defame, misname, &c. Perfect rhymes are, aim, claim, maim, acclaim, declaim, exclaim, pro- claim, reclaim. Admissible rhymes are, dam, ham, clam, sham, dram, &c. ; hem, them, phlegm, &c. ; theme, scheme, ream, dream, gleam, &c. PRELIMINARIES TO VERSIFICATION. 381 (2.) Find rhpmes^ perfect andimperfect, for the following words: Lakes, lands, voice, rapture, soar, hour, sing, cloud, knew, bathe, lays, oend, fear, adore, forgiven, born, complain, day, reign, led, rage, horn, heap, rcturr, lyre, poor, lust, care. &c., &c. 5. Change the words in italics and substitute others that will form rhymes and give the same sense. Now I gain the mountain's summit^ What a landscape lies below ! No clouds, no vapors intervene, But the gay, the open 'view Does the face of nature show, In all the hues of heaven's arch / And, swelling to embrace the light, Spreads around beneath the prospect. Old castles on the cliffs arise. Proudly towering in the heavens ! Rushing from the woods, the epirea Seem from hence ascending j^aw^s / Half his beams K^oMo pours On the yellow mountain heads I Gilds the fleeces of the sheep And glitters on the broken rocks I Below me trees unnumber'd rise. Beautiful in various colors : The gloomy pine, the poplar blue, The yellow beach, the sable yew. The slender fir that taper grows, The sturdy oak with broad-spread branches} And beyond the purple /or^^^. Haunt of Phillis, queen of love ! Gaudy as the opening morning^ Lies a long and level lawn. On which a dark hill, steep and elevated. Holds and charms the wondering eye 1 I hate that drum's discordant noise^ Parading round and round and round : To thoughtless youth it pleasure gives^ And lures from cities and from fields, To sell their liberty for charms Of tawdry lace and glittering weapons ; And when Ambition's voice enjoins, To march, and fight, and fall in foreign lands. I hate that drum's discordant din, Parading round and round and round ; 382 PRELIMINARIES TO VERSIFICATION. To me it talks of ravaged plains, And burning towns, and ruined rtcstics, And mangled limbs and dying groans, And widows' tears, and orphans' sobs, And all that misery's hand confers To fill the catalogue of human woes. Tlie multiplication of exercises of this kind would greatly assist in preparing one to write original verses in rhyme. Teachers will find no difficulty in preparing the exercise as above indicated. LESSON GLXIX. VERSIFICATION — (CONTINUED). 6. Another preliminary to Versification, is the adjust- ment of lines to the demands of verse^ the words of which have been disarranged. The words must be restored to such order as the measure, or the rhyme also, may require. (1.) Replace the words in the following lines so as to conform to the rhymes peculiar to the Sonnet : When I roved last these green winding wood-walks, Shady sweet pathways and green winding walks, Anna would oft-times seek the silent scene, In the lone retreat her beauties shrouding. I hear no more in the shade her footsteps ; Only her image in these pleasant ways Me self-wandering meets, where in happier days With the fair-haired maid I free converse held. The little cottage which she loved I passM, The cottage which did once my all contain ; Of days it spake which come again must ne'er — To my heart spake, and my heart was moved much. " Gentle maid, now fair befall thee," said I, And turned me from the cottage with a sigh. To prepare the way for performing the exercise just given, it may be necessary to anticipate what was intended for another chapter, and describe the Sonnet, of which an example is fur- nished above. PRELIMINARIES TO VERSIFICATION. 383 It is a composition of fourteen lines of the same length. These lines are Iambic, of eleven syllables each, and divided into two divisions, the first embracing the first eight lines, which contain but two rhymes ; the second division is subdivided into two parts, of three lines each, containing two more rhymes. The rhymes in these parts, however, are not uuifoimly governed by the same rules. The best arrangement is where the first line rhymes with the fourth, the fifth, and the eighth : and the second rhyme§ with the third, sixth, and seventh. Another approved arrangement is this : rhymes are formed in respect to the first, fourth, fifth, and eighth ; the second and third ; the sixth and seventh ; the ninth, eleventh, and thirteenth ; and the tenth, twelfth, and fourteenth. In the above example, the rhymes do not exactly conform to either of the arrangements just described. (2.) Put the words of the following verses in their proper places, so as to conform to the principles of the lamhio^ Tetrameter : Night closed the conqueror's way around. And lightnings show'd the distant hill Where those that dreadful day who lost Stood, faint and few, but still fearless ! The patriot's zeal, the soldier's hope, Dimm'd forever, and forever cross' d — Oh I who what heroes feel shall say. When all's lost but life and honor ! Of freedom's dream the sad last hour. And slowly by moved valor's task. While they watch'd mute till morning's beam And give them light to die should rise !— There is a world where souls are free, Where tyrants nature's bliss taint not ; If death be that world's bright opening, Oh I who in this would live a slave ? (3.) Place in right order the words of the following S^?enserian Stanza : All earth are still and heaven — though not in sleep, But as when feeling most breathless we grow ; And as we stand silent too deep in thoughts :— Still we are all earth and heaven : from the high nost To the luU'd lake of stars and mountain coast, All concentred is in a life intense, 384 PRELIMINARIES TO VERSIFICATION. Where not a beam, nor leaf is lost nor air, But of being hath a part and a sense Of that which of all is Creator and defence. (4.) Place in proper order the words of the following passage in Blank Verse. Oh, friendly to the best pursuits of man, Friendly to peace, to thought, to virtue, Domestic life pass'd in rural pleasure ! Few thy value know, and thy sweets few taste ; Thy favors though many boast, and affect To choose and understand thee fr r their own But foolish man his proper blise foregoes, As his first progenitor even, and quits In Paradise though placed (for Earth still hae Of her youthful beauty some traces left), For transient joy substantial happiness. Scenes for contemplation form'd, and to nurse Of wisdom the growing seeds ; that suggest. By ev'ry pleasing image they present, Such reflections as meliorate the heart. Exalt the mind, and compose the passions ; Such scenes as these, 'tis his supreme delight To defile with blood, and fill with riot. (5.) It is recommended to the teacher to dictate fre- quently to the class, passages of various forms of poetry, with words displaced as above, to be properly arranged by the student, in order to cultivate a taste for the melody of verse, and to acquire the art of arranging words so as to meet the demands of melody in every kind of verse. (6.) The writer of verse must be acquainted, not only with the Figures of Rhetoric already illustrated, but with the Figures of Etymology and Syntax — and also with cer- tain grammatical irregularities and other peculiarities in which poets are allowed to indulge, in view of the diffi- culties encountered in meeting the demands of verse. ETYMOLOGICAL FIGURES. SB5 LESSON GLXX. ETYMOLOGICAL AND SYNTACTICAL FIGURES. Th(3 former relate to certain modifications of the fonn of words : 1. AphcBresis, is the omission of one or more of the first letters of a word ; as, ''gan^ ''scape^ ''mid^ ^bove^ ''neath^ ''gainst^ ^havior, Pll remember, for began, escape, amid, above, beneath, against, behavior, I will remember. 2. Apocope^ omits one or more of the last letters of a word — tlid*^ th\ t\ o'clock, for though, the, to, of clock. 3. Syncope^ cuts out one or more letters from the middle of a word ; as, e^en^ se^ennight^ wafry^ heav^n^ o'er^ plum'd^ raised, &c., for even, sevennight, watery, &c. 4. Prosthesis, prefixes a letter or syllable to a word ; as, adown, swrceased, J^paint, «going, beloved, ewchain, &c., for down, ceased, &c. 6. Paragoge annexes a letter or syllable to a word ; as, with- out^Ti, awaken, holde/i, kindZy, for without, awake, hold, hind, 6. Diuresis separates a diphthong into two separate sounds and syllables ; as, atrial, reiterate, coordinate, 7. Synceresis contracts two syllables into one ; as, learned, dost^ lov*d, instead df learn-ed, do-est, lov-ed, 8. Tmesis, is the insertion of a word between the elements of a compound word ; as, which side soever, how long soever, to us ward. Syntactical Figueks. These involve changes in words, in position, in meaning, use, or omission : 1. Pleonasm, which introduces words not necessary to the Btrncturo or complete meaning of a sentence ; as, Up, up, dull swain. I sit me down, &c. The moon herself ia lost in heaven, 17 386 SYNTACTICAL FIGURES. 2. Ellipsis^ is the omission of a word or words in the constrnc- tion of a phrase or sentence ; as, St. PeterU (Cathedral). "7b he^ or not to he — that's the question," for, '' Am I to be, or not to be — that's the question ;" *' Ah, me I" for " Ah, pity me !" * Dost ask ?" for " Dost thou ask ?" 3. Parenthesis introduces a circumstance within the limits of a sentence; as, The planets cry, "Forbear!" They chase our double darkness: Nature's gloom. And (kinder still /) our intellectual night. 4. Syllepsis involves the personification of a word, and the use of it, not according to strict grammatical rules, but according to tlie sense obviously intended by the writer ; as, " A dauntless soul^ erect, who smiles on death." " The whole city came out to meet Jesus, and when they saw him, they besouglit him to depart," i«port, dis\,2^x\. ; evanish, emove, hedXva : or prefixes are omitted ; as, lure for allure, wail for bewail, ream for bereave, &c. (24.) Kelative pronouns and other connectives and adverbs are removed from their regular position : " Not half so dreadful rises to the sight Orion's dog, the year wlien autumn weighs." ** Erect the standard there of ancient night." (25.) The antecedent is often placed after the relative ; as, " WJio dares think one thing and another tell, My soul detests him as the gates of hell." (26.) The adverb there^ belonging to the first part of a clause, is omitted; as, " Wa8 naught around but images of rest." (27.) Adjectives are used for adverbs : " Qradual sinks the breeze." LESSON CLXXII. VARIETIES OF POETIC COMPOSITION. — NARRATIVE POETRY. 1. The Epic Poem, In this the poet tells the story, and as he lays claim to inspira- tion by the Muses, his language adapted to this, his supposed character, must be elevated and as elegant as possible. In dramatic writings the poet never appears,, but various characters are intro- duced who say all that is said. An Epic Poem is the recital in verse of some illustrious enter- prise. The most regular compositions of this sort are " The Iliad" of Homer, ''The ^neid'' of Virgil, the "Jerusalem Delivered" of Tasso, and the " Parad)«^e Lost." Other forms of the £pic^ as described by Dr. Beattie, are (1.) The mixed^ such as the *'Faery Queen" of Spenser, and the " Orlando VARIETIES OF POETIO COMPOSITION. 391 Furioso" of Ariosto ; in which are less probability, less unity, and great extravagance of invention. (2.) The Historical poem, in which the events are generally true, and arranged in chronological order, such as the '* Pliarsalia" of Lucan, and Addison's " Cam- paign." (3.) The Heroic Tale^ which is wholly or nearly fabulous : has more unity and regularity than the former, and turns for the most part upon some one event. Such are some of the tales in Ovid's "Metamorphoses," and some of the serious pieces in Chau cer's "Canterbury Tales." (5.) The Didactic Epic, in which there is more philosophy than narrative ; such as Milton's " Para- dise Regained." (6.) Serious Romance; such as Fenelon's " Te- lemachus," a sort of prose poem. (7.) Comic Epic poetry ; such as "Don Quixote," and " Hudibras." 2. DramatiG Poetry, (1.) The modern regular Tragedy of five acts. It is the office of tragedy to exhibit the characters and behavior of men as they appear in some of the more trying and critical situations of real life. It does not, like the Epic, exhibit characters by the narra- tion and description of the poet, but the personages themselves are set before us, acting and speaking what is suitable to their particular characters. It is a kind of writing which requires an extensive knowledge of the world, and a deep insight into the workings of the human heart. The style and versification of tragedy ought to be free, easy, and varied. Blank verse is best adapted to it. (2.) The modern regular Comedy of five acts. The best ex- ample is Shakspeare's "Merry Wives of Windsor." The particu- lar aim of Comedy is to hold up to ridicule- the foibles, follies, improprieties, awkwardnesses, and vices of mankind ; while Tra- gedy deals in the great sufferings and passions of men. (3.) The historical tragi-comedy : such as Shakspeare's Julius Oaasar, Henry IV., Richard III., &;c. (4.) Poetical tragi-comedy : such as the Othello, Hamlet, Mac- beth, and Lear of tha same author. This kind is generally founded In fiction or ac^ obscure tradition ; the former is a detail of the historical events and delineation of real characters, with some occasional deviations from historical truth. (5.) The Ballad Opera: a sort of comedy or farce, with «K)iiga or ballads included. 392 LYRIC POETRY. (6.) The Pastoral: such as the Pastorals of Pope and Phillips, and the Eclogues of Spenser, being presented in the dialogue form or soliloquy. Milton's "Lycidas," and Mason's "Monody on the death of Pope," come into this class. (7.) The Dramatic Pastoral : a sort of comedy, or tragi-comedy in verse, with songs or odes interspersed, and in which the per- sons are supposed to be shepherds, or persons living in the coun- try. The ** Pastor Fido" of Guarini, and the " Aminto" of Tasso, are of this sort. (8.) The Maslc : a sort of tragic poem, more wild in invention and more ornamented in language than a regular tragedy should be. Milton's " Comus" is the best specimen. LESSON CLXXIII. LYRIC POETRY. 1. Tlie Pindaric Ode^ which admits bolder figures, and requires more varied harmony than any other form of composition. Ex- amples : Dryden's " Alexander's Feast," Gray's Odes on Poetry and the Death of the Welsh Bards. Pindar's Odes are employed in the praise of heroes and in the celebration of their martial achievements. 2. The Horatian Ode^ which has more simplicity than the Pin- daric, and less wildness of invention, and less variety of har- mony. Gray's Odes on Spring, on Adversity, and on Eton Col- lege, Dryden's Ode on St. Cecilia, and many of the Odes of Aken- side, belong to this class. 3. The Descriptive Ode^ which paints the beauties of nature. The two most remarkable poems of this sort, are the Allegro and the Penseroso of Milton, which are exquisitely beautiful and har- monious. 4. The Song : a short composition, adapted to music, and in- tended not so much to tell a story or present poetical images, as to express some human passion, as joy, sorrow, love, &c. The Sacred Song is composed on some religious subject, or bears the form of an address to the Deity. 5. The PaMoral Ballad, nearly alh'ed to the song, but referring DESCRIPTIVE POETRY. 393 more particularly to the events and passions of rural life ; such as Shenstone^s ballad in four parts. 6. The Epic Ballad^ which is narrative, and describes actions or events, either warlike or domestic, as " Chevy Chase," &c. 7. Elegy: divided into, (1.) The plaintive elegy, expressive of sorrow, as Pope's '' Elegy on an Unfortunate Lady." (2.) The moral elegy, expressive of moral sentiments, with an air of dig- nity and melancholy. Gray's " Elegy in a Churchyard," is the best poem extant of this species. (3.) The epistolary elegy, era- bracing various subjects in the form of a letter in verse, with a mixture of complaint and tenderness. Pope's " Eloisa to Abelard" is the best in our language. (4.) The love elegy, designed for pleasure and amusement. (5.) Young's "Complaint" belongs to the elegiac class, and must be considered as a species by itself. It has much sublimity and pathos, much elegant description, and devout and moral sentiment, delivered with uncommon energy of expression. LESSON CLXXIV. DESCRIPTIVE POETRY. Descriptive poetry is employed to describe the appearances and objects of external nature, and is to be found more or less in every good poem. Thomson's poem on " The Seasons" is uniformly descriptive, or nearly 80, for which it has been censured, on the ground that description, though highly ornamental, ought not to form the essence of it. However this is a delightful work, and deserves to he studied, especially by the young ; as it draws their attention to the beauties of nature, and abounds in pious and benevolent sentiments, His '* Castle of Indolence" is more faultless in its versification ; and is indeed one of the most pleasing poems in the language. Parnell's "Tale of the Hermit" is a beautiful descriptive narra- tion, but no descriptive poem surpasses in style Milton's Allegro and Penseroso. The Epigram^ strictly so called, is a short copy of verses, writ- ten on some occasion not very important, and ending with an unexpected turn of wit. 1T» 394. DIDACTIC POETRY. In the selection of circumstances lies the great art of picturesque lescription. (1.) They should not be common ones, but new and original and such \s will draw attention. (2.) They should particularize the object and mark it definitely and strongly. (3.) All the circumstances selected should correspond in the effect ; that is, in describing a great object, they should tend to aggrandize it; and in describing a gay and pleasant one, should tend to beautify. (4.) The circumstances should be described with simplicity and conciseness. Brevity contributes to vivacity. So Blair, Lecture XI. Didactic Poetry. This is designed to give instruction in philosophy, natural or moral, deriving its name from a Greek vrord which signifies " to teach." Of this class is, (1.) The Philosophical Poem : such as Armstrong on "Health," Akenside's " Pleasures of Imagination," Pope's " Essay on Man," " Cider" by Phillips, and " The Fleece" by Dyer. (2.) The Comic Satire^ exhibiting the follies of mankind in such a light as to make them ridiculous. Dryden, Pope, and Young have produced this species of poem. (3.) The Serious Satire^ which inveighs against the vices and crimes of mankind. Its style is more vehement and solemn than the preceding species. Dryden and Pope excel in it, the former in his " Absalom and Ahithophel." (4.) The Moral Epistle^ which presents themes in philosophy, criticism, and the affairs of common life. Horace is the great master of this species of verse. Pope also has succeeded well. (5.) The Moral Apologue or Fable^ is designed to illustrate some one moral truth by a short allegorical tale. Gay is eminent among English poets as a writer of Fable. The great art of rendering a didactic poem interesting, is to relieve and amuse the reader, by connecting some agreeable Epi- sodes with the principal subject. Ludicrous Poems. Of many sorts of poems the end is to excite laughter : such are mock-heroic poems, moch-tragedies^ mocTc-pastorals^ and ridiculous epitaphs. Any serious writing may be turned into burlesque, or made BTTBJECTS FOR COMPOSITION. 395 ludicrous, by preserving the manner, or the phraseology, and changing the matter, from important and solemn, to frivolous and vulgar. Of moch-heroic poems, the best are the " Battle of the Frogs and Mice,'' erroneously ascribed to Homer ; '' The Dunciad" and " Rape of the Lock" by Pope, and " The Dispensary" by Garth. Fielding's *' Tom Thumb" is a mock-tragedy ; Gay's Pastorals are a burlesque on the Eclogues of Virgil ; Prior's " Alma" is ludicrous, didactic, and full of exquisite humor. SUBJECTS FOR COMPOSITIOIT. 1. The morning. 28. Benefits of studying the natural 2. The evening. sciences. 3. Day. 29. Benefits of studying the modern i. Night. languages. 5. Spring 30. Benefits of studying English 6. Summer. grammar and rhetoric. 7. Autumn. 81. Benefits of studying English S. Winter. literature. 9. The city. 32. Benefits and proper methodM of >0. The country. reading. 11. Childhood. 33. Benefits and disadvantages of 12. Youth. reading novels and other light 13. Old age. literature. 14. A morning walk. 34. Benefits of reading history. 15. An evening walk. 85. " ** biography. 16. A storm on land. 36. " " poetry. 17, A storm at sea. 37. ** " newspapers. 18. A moonlight scene. 38. " *' reviews. 19. Advantages of solitude. 39. Benefits of literary correspond- 20. Advantages of society. ence. 21. Advantages of order. 40. Benefits of travelling. 22. True politeness. 41. Benefits of hunting and fishing. 23. The art of making one's self 42. Disadvantages and inconveni- happy. ences of travelling. 24. The value of a good character. 48. Importance of the habit of med- 25. The causes and evils of family itation. quarrels. 44. Importance of forming habits of 26. The advantage of classical learn- close observation. ing. 45. Habits of neatness. 27. Benefits of the study of mathe- 46. Habits of industry. roaitioB. 47. Habits of economy. 396 SUBJECTS FOR COMPOSITION. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. .54. 55. 56. '>7. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. 64. 65. 66. 67. 68. 69. 70. 71. 72. 73. 74. 75. 76. 77. 78. 79. 80. 81. 82. 83. 84. 85. 86. 37. Habits of circumspection and caution. Habits of courtesy. Habits of meekness. Habits of religious devotion. Eespect for conscience. Respect to superiors. Atfability to inferiors. Kindness to brutes. Our obligations to the horse. Our obligations to the cow and the ox. Our obligations to the birds. The ever- varying beauty of the clouds. The beauty of the deer. Beauty and advantages of rain. Beauty and advantages of snow. Beauty and advantages of flow- ers. Description of some stream. Description of a mountain. Description of a valley. Description of a village. A country church. Eural customs. Rural sports. Rural discomforts. City discomforts and perils. City advantages. Scenes in a railcar. Scenes at a railway station. The telegraph. The post-office. Opening of the mail. The power of newspapers. The demagogue. The ballot-box. The common-school. The college. Female seminaries. Necessity of popular education. The habit of attention. How pride displays itself. Remarks on what the Bible says of pride. 89. Remarks on what it says of hn« mility. 90. The orphan asylum. 91. House of refuge for juvenile offenders. 92. The alms-house. 93. Asylums for the deaf and dumb 94. Asylums for the blind. 95. Asylums for the insane. 96. Influence of Christianity iu founding benevolent institu- tions. 97. Its influence in elevating the female sex. 98. Also in improving the condition of the poor. 99. Also in promoting science and the arts. 100. Also in advancing domestic hap- piness. 101. Its influence on the human in- tellect. 102. The progress of Christianity. 103. Duty of promoting its progress. 104. Methods of promoting its prog- ress. 105. The social culture imparted by Christianity. 106. The moral culture which it con- fers. 107. The light it throws on a future state. 108. On the resurrection of the body. 109. Various forms of idolatry. 110. Various superstitions. 111. National customs. 112. National jealousies. 113. Evils of war. 114. Evils of polygamy 115. Dramatic entertainments. 116. Thoughts at the beginning of the year. 117. Thoughts at the close of the year, i 118. Thoughts at the beginumg o^ :. [ term of study^ SUBJECTS FOB COMPOSITION. 397 119. Thoughts at the close of a term 150. of study. 120. Duties to schoolmates. 151. 121. A journey to some place. 122. Importance of punctuality in 152. school-duties. 123. Pleasures of school. 153. 124. *' of home. 125. " of vacation. 154. 126. The occupations of the farmer. 155. 127. The occupations of the mer- 156. chant. 157. 128. The occupations of the sailor. 158. 129. The occupations of the carpen- ter. 130. The occupations of the mason. 159. 131. The occupations of the printer. 132. The occupations of the cabinet- 160. maker. 183. The occupations of the tanner. 161. 134. The occupations of the black- smith. 162. 135. The occupations of the engi- neer. 136. The occupations of the editor. 163. 137. The occupations of the author. 164. 138. Importance of perseverance. 139. A j-ourney through the State of 165. New York. 140. A journey through the State of 166. Pennsylvania. 167. 141. A journey through the State of Virginia. 142. A journey through the State of 168. Connecticut. 169. 143. A journey through the State of 170. Massachusetts. 171. 144. Is the game of backgammon to be encouraged ? 172. 145. The state and prospects of Chili. 146. The state and prospects of Peru. 173. 147. The state and prospects of Mex- ico. 148. Is suicide a proof of courage, or 174. of the want of it ? \ 175. 14y. A journey through Canada East. 1 176. A journey through Canada West. A journey from Portland to Montreal. A journey from Albany to Mon- treal. A journey from St. Louis to New Orleans. A sail up the Hudson river. A sail up the Potomac river. A sail up the Connecticut river. A sail up the Ohio river. Is it best to encourage the cele- bration of the birthdays of great men? The necessity of attention tp health, in a life of study. A good heart necessary to enjoy the beauties of nature. On reading merely with a view to amusement. Which was the greater reform- er, Peter the Great of Russia, or Henry VIII. of England? Venture nothing, gain nothing. On true patience as distinguish- ed from insensibility. A siiil from St. Louis to St. Paul's. A ride through Michigan. Which is the most enlightened and civilized country at the present time ? Never too old to learn. Power of music. Power of eloquence. Does climate affect tno /if.f«*c- ter of a people? On the beauty and hapjj'diw&A oi an ingenuous dispose ^ivLi. Ought the sale of ardcj*. bf irita, for use as a drink, be pn. hibited by law ? Keep oat of debt. A journey through Wales. A journey hroagh Scotlaad 898 SUBJECTS FOR COMPOSITION. 177. A journey through Ireland. 178. A journey through England. 179. Who is the hero of Paradise Lost? 180. A journey from New York to San Francisco. 181. The Sandwich Islands. 182. Is card-playing a justifiable amusement? 183. Present state and prospects of New Holland. 184. The West India Islands. 185. Mohammedanism — has it pro- duced more evil than good ? 186. The state and prospects of Bra- zil. 187. Evils of intemperance. 188. " ignorance. 189. " snuff and tobacco. 190. " opium. 191. " fashion. 192. ** games of chance. 193. " idleness. 194. " being overworked. 195. " the press. 196. " the slave-trade. 197. '* an ill-temper. 198. " extravagance in expen- diture. 199. Evils of penuriousness. 200. " large cities. 201. Innocent amusements. 202. Questionable amusements. 203. Ruinous amusements. 204. Taste for simple pleasures. 205. The beauty of nature enhanced by associating it with the Cre- ator. 206. Good and bad effects of ridi- cule. 207. Things, as well as books, to be studied. 208. Moral influence of painting and sculpture. 209. The wonders of th«» human frame 210. 211. 212. 213. 214. 215. 216. 217. 218. 219. 220. 221. 222. 223. 224. 225. 226. 227. 228. 229. 230. 231. 232. 234. 235. 236. 237. 238. 239. 24:0. i241. 1242. '243, ;244. 245. 246. 247. 248. 249. 260. The existence of God. The wonders of the eye. " " hand. ♦* " mind. The lessons taught by health. " " sickness. " *' prosperity *' *' adversity. Dangers of chi duood. Pleasures of childhood. Dangers of youth. Pleasures of youth. Proper restraints in childhood and youth. The game at ball. The game at battledore and shuttlecock. Description of other games. The Spanish bull-baiting. Gladiatorial shows. Tournaments. The duel — its absurdity and wickedness. Decision of character. The necessity of being able to say No. Envy, its bad effects on the sub- ject as well as object. Flattery. Slander. Talkativeness. Taciturnity. Dramatic entertainments. Jealousy. Self-control. Trust in God. Fortitude. Affectation. A mother's influence. Obligations to a mother. " '* father. " " brother. " '* sister. Obligations to kind neighbors* '' to the Sabbath. ** " pulpit. SUBJECTS FOE COMPOSITION. 899 251. Obligations tc the press. 293. 252. (i " library. 253. The faithful friend. 294. 254. u husband. 255. (( C wife. 295. 256. (C ( son. 296. 257. (( 4 daughter. 297. 258. (( ( pastor. 298. 259. (C ( teacher. 299. 260. u I magistrate. 300. 261. (( I statesman. 301. 262. i( I servant. 302. 263. (( I master. 303. 264. (( I steward. 304. 265. (( I student. 305. 266. (( I dog. 806. 267. Habits c ft] tie dog. 307. 268. (( (( cat. 808. 269. (( U mouse and rat. 270. t( a hen and cock. 309. 271. (i (i ox and cow. 272. u (( horse. 310. 273. u (( elephant. 311. 274. (( (( crocodile. 312. 275. (( {( whale. 313. 276. u f the ancient Egyptians. The domestic life of the He- brews. Chaucer and his age. Dryden and his age. The education of the senses. The Reformation under Lutber» The English Reformation. The character of Byron. " " Thomson. *' '* Cowper. American aristocracy. Moral sublimity. Home. Alexander the Great. The Crusades. The influence of the line arts upon true religion. The use of a diversity of lan- guages. Religious intolerance. The Union. The art of pleasing. Emulation. Procrastination is the thief of time. Opening of the ports of Japan. Ballooning. Skating. American aborigines. The effect of sectarianism upon the general spread and influ- ence of Christianity. Woman's rights. Druidism and the Druids. The sentiment — "Whatever is, is right," considered. Should the main end of punish- ment be the reformation of the criminal or the prevention of crime ? Does disinterested benevolence exist among men ? , The trials of the teacher. , The trials of the student. 400 SFBJECTS FOR COMPOSITION. 327. The comparative service ren- dered to mankind by Colum- bus and Sir Isaac Newton. 328. Cast not pearls before swine. 329. Christians — the light of the world. 330. A new broom sweeps clean. 831. The Bible as an ordinary read- ing-book in schools. 832. Make hay while the sun shines. 333. "Begone dull care." 334. Are parochial schools to be en- couraged ? 335. The Cooly-trade. 336. Over-anxiety. 337. Which gives most pleasure, fact or fiction ? 338. Christians— the salt of the earth. 839. The "fast" man. 840. The mineral kingdom as a sub- ject of investigation. 341. The vegetable kingdom also. 342. The animal kingdom also. 843. "The battle is not to the strong." 344. The river Ganges and its towns. 845. " Danube " " 846. " Tliames " " 847. May we expect the English lan- guage to become universal. 848. Ought secret societies to be al- lowed in colleges ? 849. The localities of the English universities. 850. The localities of the Scottish uciversities. 361. Is it ever advisable to act from policy rather than from prin- ciple ? 352. The universities of Germany. 853. State of editcation in Spain. 854. Comparative advantages of city and country life. S55. State of education in South America. 3-56, The great West. 357. Is pride to be commended? 358. The fop. 359. The gamester. 360. Character as affected by physi- cal and moral cf uses. 361. Rome was not b.iilt in a day. 362. Labor overcomes all things. 363. Civilization in Africa. 864. Progress of Christianity in Af- rica. 365. Is labor a blessing, or a curse I 366. State of education in Turkey. 367. *' " China. 368. " " Japan. 369. Is tea or coffee, as a tirink, in- jurious? 370. Emulation in schools. 371. Uses of biography. 372. " history. 373. Man, accountable for his opin- ions. 874. Is it expedient to wear mourn- ing apparel? 375. Make haste gently. 376. Resist the beginnings of evil. 377. Is a lie ever justifiable? 878. Should the truth always be spoken ? 379. Avoid extremes. 380. Roman conquest in Britain. 381. The wisdom of aiming at per- fection. 382. A cultivated mind necessary to make retirement agreeable. 383. The want of personal beauty a frequent cause of virtue and happiness. 384. The means of rendering old age honorable and comfortable. 385. The disadvantage of publicly adopting a new translation oi the Bible. 386. On the multiplication of books. 887. The value of an honest man. I 388. Music, as an amusement. 1 889. Th© influence of fashion. SUBJECTS FOR COMPOSITION. 401 890. The ffear of growing old. 391. Is reading, or observation, the better source of knowledge. S92. Comparison of Alexander, Han- nibal, and Napoleon I., as generals. 893. Does morality advance with civilization ? . 394. Comparative selfishness of the miser and the profligate. 895. ]6 there reason to suppose that other planets are inhabited ? 396. Is childhood the happiest peri- od of life ? 397. Not all is gold that glitters. 398. Influence of Cromwell. 399. *' *' Peter the Great. 400. " '* Charles II. 401. The advantage and disadvan- tage of critical reviews, to sci- ence and literature. 402. Ought a lawyer to defend what he knows to be the wrong side of a cause ? 403. Are women equal to men in mental powers ? 404. Comparative evil of loss of sight, and of hearing. 405. Was it right to execute Major Andre ? 406. Example better than precept. 407. The Crusades — their effects. 408. Do real or imaginary evils cause, on the whole, the most suff'er- ing? 409. The comparative benefits of fire and water. 410. Is it true that " Every man is the architect of his own for- tune «" 411. Is it expedient that women should vote at the ballot- box? 412. By which is man most strongly influenced — by hope, or fear? il3. Ad'^^antages of adversity. 414. The tendency of Sir Waltei Scott's writings. 415. The tendency of Lord Byron's writings. 416. The tendency of Dickens' writ- ings. 417. Does poverty or riches develop character best. 418. Early rising. 419. The love of money, the root of all evil. 420. Is language of human or of di- vine origin? 421. Is a public to be preferred to a private education? 422. Experience an invaluable teach- er. 423. Evil communications corrupt good manners. 424. Should the course of study in academies and colleges, for all pupils be the same ? 425. Inexpediency of devoting too much time to accomplishments. 426. No one should live for himself alone. 427. Ought males and females to be educated at the same school ? 428. Is the pulpit or the bar more favorable to eloquence ? 429. The tendency of the study of mythology. 430. Street beggary. 431. Does temptation lessen the blameworthiness of ofime ? 432. The assaults of Infidelity upon Christianity. 433. The death of Julius Caesar. 434. Are women more given to re- venge than men ? 435. Was the fate of Sir Walter Ka- leigh deserved ? 436. Infidel tendency of Pope's "Es- say on Man." 437. He who gives to the poor will 1 not find himself the poorer. 402 SUBJECTS FOR COMPOSITION. 438. Bible ivligion knows nothing of monks and hermits. 439. Praise is a test which proves either a man's pride or piety. 440. A sympathizing friend refreshes the spirit. 441. Frequent change of business ad- verse to success. 442. Overpraising a man, makes him an object of envy. 443. We must not give that praise to our friend which belongs to God only. 444. He who listens to lies will be surrounded by liars. 445. Discipline is the order of God's government. 446. It is wisdom to keep every one in his proper station. 447. Anger opens the flood-gates to many evils. 448. The fear of man makes a man mean ; the fear of God makes him great. 449. Good men love their worst ene- mies. 450. Time-servers. 451. Self-knowledge will make us humble. 452. Lessons taught by the ants, the conies, the locusts, and the spider. — Frov. xxx. 25-28. 453. Agur's excellent prayer. — Prov. xxx. 8, 9, 454. The lady'slooking-glass.— Prou. xxxi. 10-31. 455. The dying remark of the learned Grotius — " I have sp.^nt my life in laboriously doing noth- ing." 456. Eiches "make to themselves wings, and fly away." 457. Getting and hoarding. 458. Use and abuse of God's gifts. 459. Contentment with our lot. 460. Kiches do not make men happy. 461. 462. 463. 464. 465. 466. 467. 468. 469. 470. 471. 472. 473, 474, 475. 476. 477. 478, 479. 480. It is good to c&lculate how a thing will end. We are not to expect perfection from our fellow-men. The most powerful nonarch cannot defeat death. All men are guided by a Divine Providence. The happy art of learning not to speak too much, and when we do speak, of speaking to some good purpose. Let us avoid speaking evil, a» well as doing evil. No gayety will put off death. The fear of God is the greatest safeguard. Nothing so effectually hides what we are as silence. Do not visit your neighbor so often that he shall say, " It is enough?" He is truly rich who desires nothing. He who considers consequences with too much attention is or- dinarily a man of no courage. Do good to him who does you evil. Commit not the fault for which you reprove others. Count that a lost day in which you have neither done some good action, nor acquired some useful knowledge. Do nothing without design. Never trust to appearances. It is a double present when given with a cheerful counte- nance. If you wish your enemy never to know your secret, never di- vulge it to your friend. The best-expended riches aro those which are given for God's sake. SUBJECTS FOR COMPOSmON. 403