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UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA.
GIFT OF
DANIEL C . OILMAN.
TEUTONIC ETYMOLOGY.
THE
FORMATION
OP
TEUTONIC WORDS
ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
JOSIAH W. GIBBS,
PROF. SAC
PECK, WHITE, & PECK, PUBLISHERS.
NEW YORK: JOHN WILEY.
BOSTON: J. E. TILTON & CO.
1860.
Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1860,
BY JOSIAH WlLLARD GlBBS,
in the Clerk's office, of the District Court of Connecticut.
PRINTED BY E.HAYES,
NEW HAVEN, CONN.
PREFACE.
IT is often remarked, especially by foreign writers, that the English
language needs a more scientific treatment than it has ever yet re-
ceived. It is generally acknowledged, even by our own writers, that
the Teutonic side of our language has been greatly neglected. Yet the
Teutonic is the basis, or substantial portion of our language, and cannot
be neglected without great detriment.
A thorough scientific treatment of the English language would require
a great change in the helps now employed for the study of English, and
would not readily find admission into our seats of learning.
In the mean time, the discussions concerning our dictionaries, the
private reading of Bopp's Comparative Grammar, translated by East-
wick, 1845-1850, Donaldson's New Cratylu* and Varronianus, which
have just come to new editions, Trench's various works, 1853-1859,
Rev. B. W. Dwight's Modern Philology, 1859, G. P. Marsh's Lectures on
English Philology, 1860, and similar works, are preparing the way for
a more enlightened view of the structure of the English language.
The same object may also be promoted by judicious monographs, on
special topics of grammar, adapted to the recitation room, which should
introduce some of the results of modern philology, and at the same time
silently correct the careless statements of our common grammars.
Of this nature is the present work. The author has taken a section
of English grammar, which is almost entirely neglected in the recitation
room, has expanded it, and endeavored to spread it out in the light
IV PREFACE.
of modem science, and thus gradually introduce the student into a new
field.
It remains to state briefly the peculiar features of the work.
This treatise has respect only to the Teutonic portion of our language.
Of course, it is based on a fundamental distinction between the Teutonic
portion of our language on the one hand, and the Latin and Greek on
the other. This distinction, which affects almost every department of
the grammar, is lost sight of in our most popular helps, and very inade-
quately exhibted in our best dictionaries.
This treatise distinguishes between pronominal elements, which are
mere indigitations, and verbal roots, which have a logical significancy.
The neglect of this distinction has produced disastrous effects in
etymology.
It investigates the nature of roots and stem-words, and the formation
of words by internal inflection, or mere transformation of vowel-sound.
In this, the author has followed the most distinguished writers on Ger-
man, a language very kindred to our own.
It has an essay on Reduplicate forms, to say the least, a curious topic.
It treats also of the Teutonic prefixes, which are going fast into
desuetude, and exhibits them before the eye in their evanescent state.
This is interesting to the observer of linguistic phenomena.
This treatise treats of the Teutonic suffixes in English which are so
imperfectly understood.
The composition of words in English, although much less prominent
than in German or Greek, presents some interesting results.
In the Appendix is a full table of English correlatives, and a sum-
mary statement of the place which the English holds among the Indo-
European languages, and also of the relation which the Indo-European
have to the other languages of the globe.
The author of this little volume is willing to believe, that a teacher
moderately versed in English etymology, may, by distributing the main
portion of the work into suitable lessons, and himself reading the corres-
PREFACE. V
ponding portions of the Appendix, render his instructions both inter-
esting and useful to his pupil.
The specimen of a Vocabulary is a mere temporary experiment in the
way of an Etymologicon Anglicanum.
But the preliminary remarks to the Vocabulary contain, it is thought
matter very important to the young student, for example, an exhibition
of the twelve classes or conjugations of strongly inflected verbs,
Grimm's law of consonant changes, and the precession of vowel-sound in
the development of the Indo-European languages. These topics,
although discussed abundantly in more learned works, have not as yet
been introduced into the school-room.
With many apologies for the imperfection of his work, the author will
wait with patience for the judgment of the community on the subject.
CONTENTS.
Page.
1 . Preliminary Remarks, 1
2. Distinction of Pronominal Elements and Verbal Roots, .... 2
3. Pronominal Elements, 2
4. Verbal Roots, 4
5. List of Teutonic Verbal Roots in English, 6
I. Verbal Roots with Strong Inflection, 6
II. Verbal Roots not strongly Inflected, 8
6. The Formation of Words generally, 8
7. Transformation of Vowel-sound, 9
8. Stem Adjectives, 10
9. Stem Substantives, 11
10. Other Stem- Words, 14
I. Stem-nouns with Strengthened Final Consonant, 14
II. Stem Adverbs with Loss of Suffix, 14
III Derivative Stem-verbs, 15
IV. Reduplicate Forms, 16
11. Teutonic Primary Derivatives, 16
12. Primary Derivative Verbs, 17
13. Primary Derivative Adjectives, 18
14. Primary Derivative Adverbs, 22
15. Primary Derivative Concrete Substantives, 23
16. Primary Derivative Abstract Substantives, 27
Interchange of the Forms of Abstract Nouns, 80
17. Teutonic Secondary Derivatives, 31
18. Teutonic Tertiary Derivatives, 38
I. Substantive Tertiary Derivatives, 33
II. Adverbial Tertiary Derivatives, 33
19. Formation of Teutonic Words in English by Prefixes, 34
Teutonic Words in English formed by Prefixes, 35
20. Teutonic Words with both Prefixes and Suffixes, 38
21. The Formation of Compound Words, 88
22. Teutonic Compound Words in English, 41
I. Imperfect Composition, 41
II. Perfect Composition, 41
III. Inverted Composition, 43
Vlll CONTENTS.
Page.
23. Compounds and Derivatives from Compounds, 44
24. Derivatives from Pronominal Elements, 44
25. Compounds from Pronominal Elements 45
26. Words of Uncertain Origin, 46
27. Teutonic Double Forms in English, 46
28. Disguised Teutonic Derivatives and Compounds, 47
APPENDIX.
A. Relation of the Teutonic Portion of the English Language to
other Languages, 49
B. Adverbs with Loss of Suffix, 55
G. Reduplicate Forms in English, 57
D. The English Adjective Suffix en, 62
E. The English Adjective Suffix some, 63
F. On the Adverbial Genitives In s and st, 65
G. The English Suffix er, 72
H. The Nominal Suffix ster, 74
I. The Nominal Suffix ard, 76
J. The Nominal Suffix kin, ; 77
K. The Nominal Suffix ling, 78
L. The English Form in ing, 80
M. Additional Remarks on Abstract Substantives in ness, 81
N. Abstract Substantives in dom, 82
0. Abstract Substantives in hood or head, 83
P. Abstract Substantives in ship or scape, 84
Q. Abstract Substantives in th or t from Verbs, 85
R. Abstract Substantives in th or t from Adjectives, 86
S. The Prefix be or by, 87
T. The Prefix/or, 89
U. The English Prefix a, 90
V. The Prefix mis, 94
W. Pronominal Elements, 96
X. Table of English Correlatives, 96
Y. Analysis of English Interrogative^, 100
Z. Etymological Analysis of the Lord's Prayer in English,. ..... 105
SPECIMEN OF A VOCABULARY OF TEUTONIC ROOTS AND STEM-WORDS
IN THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
Preliminary Remarks,. 110
Teutonic Roots and Stem-Words, 121
FORMATION OF TEUTONIC WORDS IN ENGLISH.
1. PRELIMINARY REMARKS.
Language, or continuous discourse, consists of propositions,
and propositions, as enunciated or written, consist of words.
Words, therefore, are the constituent parts of language.
Words which are spoken by a simultaneous motion of the
organs of speech, or by a single impulse of the voice, are called
monosyllables, or words of one syllable. Other words are dis-
syllables, trisyllables, polysyllables.
Besides syllables which have the full tone or accent, as pri-
vateer', those which have a half accent, as jwi'vateer, and those
which have the ordinary tone, as a in privateer ; there are some
syllables, made up of liquids, which are slurred over, or only
half pronounced, as il in evil, om in besom, en in even, and er
in meager. The noticing of such syllables is important in ety-
mology.
A word is a sign or symbol either of a definite conception,
as of an activity or substance, or of some relation of such con-
ception. The former is called a notional word, the latter a
form-word. See Philol. Stud. Art. XIII.
Interjections, or exclamations, are no proper words. They
are merely instinctive cries, expressive of the feelings. No-
tional words, however, may be formed from them ; as, to pish,
from pish; to ache, from ah; the noun woe, from interjection
woe.
Imitations of natural sounds, whether of animals or of in-
animate objects, as mew, peep, quack, crash, are merely a child-
ish sport. They have no connection with language, as a ra-
tional or intellectual process. But some of these sounds have
been formed into verbs ; as, to mew, to peep, to crash. Others
into nouns ; as, a quack, a cuckoo. But these words are quite
limited in their use, and do not affect the substance of the
language.
1
2 FORMATION OF ENGLISH WORDS.
Rational or intellectual language begins with the production
of the proper word.
2. DISTINCTION OF PRONOMINAL ELEMENTS AND VERBAL ROOTS.
The words of a language are not insulated from each other ;
but exist in groups or families, the members of which are con-
nected or related. Thus that, the, thence, there, thither, then,
thus, though, they, are united by the common element th ; and
to bind, band, bond, binder, binding, bundle, bondman, hat-band,
are associated by the common idea to bind.
As there are two kinds of words, notional ivords and form-
words, so there are two kinds of origin or sources for them, viz.
verbal roots, expressing full ideas, from which verbs, adjectives,
and nouns, are derived, and pronominal elements, expressing
relations of place, from which form-words are derived.
But some form-words are derived from notional words ; as,
while, conj. from while, noun, time ; both, conj. from the nu-
meral adjective both; same, pron. from same, adj. like; not,
compounded of ne and aught ; comp. prepositions of a later
formation, Philol. Stud. p. 80, also conjunctions of a later
formation, Philol. Stud. p. 154.
So also some notional words are derived from form-words ;
as, to thou a person, from the pronoun thou ; egotism from the
Latin pronoun ego, I.
We proceed to consider the pronominal elements first, as
their number is comparatively small.
3. PRONOMINAL ELEMENTS.
If we take a general etymological survey of pronouns and
pronominal words, they will be found to arrange themselves,
not under verbal roots, like other parts of speech, but under
certain elementary sounds or syllables.
1. Ic, the element of the first person singular subject, appears
now only in the mutilated form /. Compare Anglo Saxon ic,
Old English ic.
2. M, the element of the first person singular object, appears
in me, my, mine.
3. U, the element of the first person plural, appears in we,
our, ours, us.
4. Th, the element of the second person singular, interme-
diate between Latin t and German d, appears in thou, thy,
FORMATION OF ENGLISH WORDS. 3
thine, thee. Perhaps radically connected with th, the demon-
strative element mentioned below.
5. Y, the element of the second person plural, appears in
ye. your, yours, you.
6. H, the element of the third person and of the nearer de-
monstrative, appears in he, his, him, her (genitive and accusa-
tive,) it (Anglo-Saxon hit,) its, hence, here, hither.
7. Th, the element of the more remote demonstrative, ap-
pears in that, those, this, these, the, thilk, thence, there, thither,
then, thus, though, they, their, theirs, them. But this and these
have been transferred to the nearer demonstratives, and they,
their, theirs, and them, are used as pronouns of the third person.
8. S, another form of the remoter demonstrative element,
appears in she, so, some, also, as. such.
9. Wh, the interrogative element, appears in who, what,
whose, ivhom, which, whether, whence, where, whither, when, how,
why. All these words, excepting whether, are also employed
as relatives.
10. N, the element of negation, not exactly a pronominal
element, but a sort of adverb of modality, (see Philol. Stud. p.
84, 177,) appears in nay, naught, none, no, neither, not, never,
nor.
The derivatives and compounds of these elements are very
numerous.
REMARKS.
1. There are sometimes different elements to the same person,
to distinguish the plural from the singular, and the object from
the subject. Hence there are six elements for the three per-
sonal pronouns.
2. The originators of language seem to have felt the broad
distinction between the plural and the singular in the two first
persons, and between the object and the subject in the first per-
son, and to have treated these inflectionary processes as the
formation of new words.
3. The possessive pronouns are radically connected with the
personal pronouns, and are to be referred to the same elements.
4. The element h is a demonstrative element, as well as the
element of the third person.
5. The demonstrative, interrogative, and negative elements,
form together a beautiful table of correlatives, as will be exhib-
ited hereafter.
4 FORMATION OF ENGLISH WORDS.
4. VERBAL ROOTS.
1. Verbal roots are essentially different from the pronominal
elements which we have been just considering. They are also
vastly more important, as they pervade the whole language,
and give to it its character.
2. With the exception of pronouns and pronominal words,
words in English, as well as in most other languages, are, as
linguistical signs of ideas, composed of two parts, viz., the root
and the modifying element, which is attached to the root and
gives it its form.
3. It is obviously important for every one who would master
the whole vocabulary of any language, or would possess a full
and thorough knowledge of the words which he employs, to
have a clear perception of the root whence a word is derived,
and of the force of the various modifications by which it has
been affected. What is intended by calling one animal a sloth,
another a hare, another a ivolf, another a crab, is first fully un-
derstood and appreciated when we are able to trace back these
words to their several roots, viz., English slow ; Sanskrit o coc, to
spring; Gothic vilvan, to seize; Anglo-Sax, creopan, to creep.
Without such knowledge language is merely a collection of
proper names, or an assemblage of technical expressions, the
application of which is to be learned by dint of memory, or
like foreign words, whose meaning we may understand, but not
see into.
4. Although instinct, without direct instruction, by leading us
to consider words in group.*, may avail much in the acquire-
ment of this kind of knowledge, yet it would be strange if
wisely-directed study could not aid the mind and increase its
powers and capabilities.
5. A root, taken in its strictest sense, is a significant element,
from which words, as forms of thought and parts of speech,
are derived. It is not itself a word, but that which lies at the
foundation of a whole family of words. The root has signifi-
cation, but not a definite signification, in the system of our
ideas or in the system of language. It does not express an
idea which can form a component part of language, but only
the intuition or appearance which is common to the noun or
idea and the verb or judgment, and wants the modification
which makes it a noun or verb. It is no part of ordinary
speech.
FORMATION OF ENGLISH WORDS. 5
6. The root, as described above, is something below the sur-
face, but in common parlance the name is extended to words
derived immediately from the root, which are, as it were, the
first sections of the trunk or stem which appear above the
ground. It is convenient to give the root such a vowel or
enunciation as it assumes in its first birth or coming into exist-
ence. Thus bind (or perhaps band) may be considered the
root of band, bind, bond, bundle, e.
26. Grave, from to ^rrave. Comp. Anglo-Sax, grceffrom
grafan.
27. Groove, from to ^rave.
28. Hinge, from to Aan
as, midst, whilst.
Adverbial genitives are found in the older Teutonic dialects.
The form of the genitive is sometimes disguised in the spel-
ling ; as, once, hence.
For a full account of this interesting ancient genitive form,
see Appendix.
15. PRIMARY DERIVATIVE CONCRETE SUBSTANTIVES.
Derivative concrete substantives end in er, ster, ard, en, ie or
y, kin, ling, and ock.
Of these suffixes, er and ster are suffixes of the personal
agent; ard is an ampliative; and en, ie or y, kin, ling, and ock,
are diminutives.
Note 1. The extinct suffix end \\\ friend, fiend, and more dis-
guised husband, is the termination of the Anglo-Saxon present
participle, used substantively. Cora p. Anglo- Sax. freond from
freon, to love ; feond from feon, to hate ; and Germ, bauend
from bauen, to cultivate. See Philol. Stud. p. 89.
Note 2. The suffix en, in, or ine, as denoting the female,
(com p. hen, vixen, bruin, carlin, landgravine, margravine,) be-
longs to what the grammarians call motion, and does not be-
long here.
Note 3. T. Hewitt Key, Esq. (see Trans. (Lond.) Philol.
Soc. for 1856,) regards the termination ow, as a significant
suffix, and as having a diminutive force. But in my view ow
is only the remains or echo of a palatal ft in the original stem ;
as, barrow, a hog, Anglo-Sax, bearg barrow, a mound, Anglo-
24 FORMATION OF ENGLISH WORDS.
Sax. beorg ; bellows, Anglo-Sax. 60?^; follow, Anglo- Sax. fol-
gian ; gallows, Anglo-Sax, galga ; marrow, Anglo-Sax, mearg ;
morrow, Anglo-Sax, more/en ; sorrow, Anglo-Sax, sorg ; swal-
low, (verb,) Anglo-Sax, swelgan; or of a labial b or w in the
original stem; as, fallow, Anglo- Sax. fealwe, Germ.falb, Lat.
flavus ; harrow, Anglo-Sax, hyrwe ; mallow, Anglo-Sax, mal-
we, Germ, malve, Lat. malva ; shadow, Anglo-Sax, sceadu,
Moeso-Goth. skadu-s ; sparrow, Anglo-Sax, spear wa, Moeso-
Goth. sparwa ; swallow, (a bird,) Germ, schwalbe ; wallow,
Anglo-Sax, wealwian, Lat. volvo.
I. Derivative Concrete Substantives in er.
The Teutonic nominal suffix er, (Moeso-Goth. arm, Old
Germ, ari, are, aere, Germ, er, Anglo-Sax, ere,) denotes the
active subject generally, but has various subordinate uses ; as,
1. Denoting the male person or animal, when added to the
name of the female ; as, widower from widow ; gander from
goose; (comp. Germ, wittwer, a widower, from wittwe, a widow ;
ganser, a gander, from gans, a goose ; enterich, a drake, from
ente, a duck ; tauber, a male pigeon, from taube ; kater, a male
cat, from katze;) or when it corresponds to ess in the name of
the female ; as hucksterer, murderer.
2. Denoting the personal subject in innumerable verbs ; as,
lover, hater, baker, brewer, etc.
3. Denoting animals; as, hunter, setter, sitter, skimmer,
spinner.
4. Denoting the instrumental subject ; as, borer, clapper,
cleaver \ climber, creeper, cutter, dipper, feeler, girder, graver,
grinder, holder, roaster, rubber, scraper, shutter, skimmer, slip-
per, strainer, streamer, snuffers, wrapper.
5. Denoting the personal subject connected with the stem
noun ; as, gunner, hatter, jobber, potter, tinner.
6. In gentle nouns and some kindred words ; as, New
Yorker, burgher.
Note 1. In the first acceptation, which was without doubt
the original one, the syllable er belongs to what the gramma-
rians call motion, rather than either inflection or formation.
Note 2. In the second acceptation, this suffix may be at-
tached to almost any verb in the language, except a few aux-
iliary verbs, and some Latin verbs which have or.
Note 3. The syllable er is thought to exist in a disguised
form in the words, boor, neighbor.
FORMATION OF ENGLISH WORDS. 25
For the very various uses of the English termination er, see
Appendix,
II. Derivative Concrete Substantives in ster.
The English suffix ster, (Anglo-Sax, estre, istre,) is joined to
a few English words of Teutonic origin, and denotes
1. Primarily the feminine of the corresponding masculine
form in er ; as, sew-ster, (from ew-er.) a female who sews ;
spiia-ster, (from spin-ner,) a female who spins.
2, More commonly the subject without reference to sex ; as,
dabster, deemster, drugster, gamester, huckster, hamster, lewd-
ster, lobster, etc.
For more on this suffix, see Appendix.
III. Derivative Concrete Substantives in ard.
The English suffix ard, (Anglo-Sax, heard, Germ, hard and
hart,) is probably connected with English hard, (Anglo-Sax.
heard, Germ, hart, Goth, hardus.)
This suffix is attached
1. To proper names of persons, originally denoting some
prominent or characteristic trait ; as, Bernard, Everard, Gerard,
Giffard, Goddard, Kenard, Leonard, Richard, Wischard. Also
Renard, the proper name of the fox in poetry and fable.
2. To ampliatives derived from adjectives or participles, de-
noting some personal quality in excess ; as, drunkard, dullard,
haggard, laggard, lobbard, niggard, sluggard, wizard.
3. To ampliatives derived from verbs, denoting some quality
in excess ; as, dotard, pollard. Usually some personal quality ;
as, blinkard, braggart, (whence braggardism,) dastard, disard,
dizzard, dotard, stinkard.
For more on this suffix, see Appendix.
IV. Derivative Concrete Substantives in en.
The suffix en forms diminutives from concrete substantives;
as, chicR-en, the young of fowls, from cock ; kitten, from cat.
These are accompanied with a- change of vowel.
Note. If the form chicken involves the suffix ken, as some
suppose, then kitten will remain as a single and doubtful exam-
ple of this suffix as a diminutive.
3
26 FORMATION OF ENGLISH WORDS.
V. Derivative Concrete Substantives in ie or y.
The suffix ie or y forms diminutives from concrete nouns;
as, f ill-y, from foal ; ladd-ie, from lad ; lass-ie, from lass.
This suffix is derived from the Lowland Scotch, in which
language it is very common.
VI. Derivative Concrete Substantives in kin.
The suffix kin forms diminutives from concrete substantives.
Example. Lamb-kin, a little lamb.
So bumkin or bumpkin, buskin or bootikin, ciderkin, firkin,
pipkin, etc.
For more on this suffix, see Appendix.
VII. Derivative Concrete Substantives in ling.
The suffix ling forms diminutives from concrete substantives.
Example. Cod-ling.
So chickling, duckling, gosling, kidling, kingling, killing, etc.
For more on this suffix which has various other significations,
see Appendix.
VIII. Derivative Concrete Substantives in ock.
The suffix ock forms diminutives from concrete substantives.
Examples. Hiil-ock, a small hill.
So bullock, a young bull.
The form of this suffix in Anglo-Saxon seems to have been
uc, comp. bulluca, mattuc, pearroc or pearruc, a park.
REMARKS.
1. Bullock and hillock are the only clear instances, in Eng-
lish, of the diminutive force of this suffix.
2. In the Lowland Scotch there are instances in abundance ;
as, bittock, a little bit ; devilock, a little devil ; hattock, a little
hat; humplock, a little heap; knublock, a little knob; laddock,
a little lad ; lassock, a little lass, etc.
3. Other derivatives in ock in English are buttock, haddock,
hammock, mattock, mullock.
4. T. Hewitt Key, Esq. makes the English termination ow
in some words merely a softening of ock, and gives it a dimin-
utive force ; but see supra, p. 23.
FORMATION OF ENGLISH WORDS. 27
16. PRIMARY DERIVATIVE ABSTRACT SUBSTANTIVES.
Abstract substantives include,
(1.) Names of actions, i. e. activities without continuance;
whether single, as a call, a run ; or repeated, as play, howling.
The infinitive mode may be included here.
(2.) Names of states or conditions, i. e. activities, which after
their nature are conceived of with more or less permanency ;
^joy, sorrow, war, fear, sleep, rest, life, death, friendship.
(3). Names of properties or qualities, i. e. immanent activities
adhering to things ; as, wealth, strength, weakness. These are
developed generally in antitheses.
Derivative abstract substantives end in ing, ness, dom, ery,
hood or head, ship or scape, ric, and th or t.
Two of these suffixes, ing and ness, are living efficient suf-
fixes, pervading the whole language. The others are merely
heirlooms, the remains of ancient speech.
Abstract substantives, by a figure of speech, or by a transi-
tion of meaning, often become concrete nouns. Thus
(1.) The suffix hood sometimes denotes the means; as, live-
lihood, the means of living.
(2.) The suffix ship sometimes denotes the effect; as, hard-
ship, injury ; workmanship, something made.
(3.) The suffixes dom and ship sometimes denote the appur-
tenances or possessions ; as, kingdom, the territory of a king ;
lordship, the territory of a lord.
(4.) The suffixes ing and ery sometimes denote the collective
material, or the assemblage of things; as, shirting, firing;
rookery, shrubbery, nunnery.
(5.) The suffixes dom and hood sometimes denote the collec-
tive concrete ; as, peer dom, neighborhood, sisterhood.
(6.) The suffix ery sometimes denotes the place where a
thing is found or an action performed ; as, nunnery, bakery.
I. Abstract Substantives in ing.
This is the appropriate form to denote abstractly the action
expressed by the verb ; as, an offering, a writing, a singing.
Every verb, the auxiliary verb excepted, is supposed to de-
note action ; and from every verb, whether simple or derivative,
whether of Teutonic or classic origin, is formed a noun of ac-
tion by means of this one suffix ing.
28 FORMATION OF ENGLISH WORDS.
The suffix ing, (Goth, eins, Iceland, ing, ung, Germ, ung,
Dutch ing,) has in English taken the place also of the present
participle, which in the earlier cognate dialects had a different
form.
On this substantive participial in ing, see Philol. Stud. p. 98.
II. Abstract Substantives in ness.
1. This suffix is found in upwards of thirteen hundred words,
and is worthy of attention, on account of the extent of its use.
2. The corresponding forms in the cognate dialects are, Mce-
so-Goth. inassus, Old Germ, nissa, nissi, Old Sax. nessi, Anglo-
Sax, nes, nis, nys, Germ, niss, Dutch nis. It is not found in
the Scandinavian dialects.
3. The modern English orthography of this suffix is constant
and uniform. The vowel is always e. But in the more an-
cient dialects, the vowel before ss vacillated between a, i, and u,
without any obvious difference of meaning.
4. The n of this suffix has evidently arisen from agglutina-
tion. Compare the Mceso-Gothic blot-in-assus, " worship," from
the verb blot-in on. Nothing further than this has been dis-
covered as to its origin.
5. The suffix ness, in English, is a living suffix, that is, it has
a meaning present to the mental conception of those who use
it, and is capable of being affixed to new words.
6. The suffix ness, in English, forms abstract nouns from ad-
jectives. These abstract nouns denote
(1.) The quality, in a substantive form, of the adjective from
which they are derived ; as goodness, hardness.
(2.) Occasionally, by a metonymy of the abstract for the
concrete, something possessing the quality ; a fastness, a like-
ness.
The suffix niss, in German, is attached also to verbs. It de-
notes (1.) the action; as, verderbniss, "corruption;" (2.) by a
metonymy, the subject of the action ; as hinderness, " some-
thing that hinders ;" and (3.) by a metonymy, the object of the
action ; as, erzeugniss, '* something produced."
For more on this suffix, see Appendix.
III. Abstract Substantives in dom.
The suffix dom, (Anglo-Sax, dom, Mceso-Goth. dom, Germ.
thum, Lat. tium, Sansk. twan,) is of uncertain origin, and forms
abstract substantives.
FORMATION OF ENGLISH WORDS. 29
Example. Wi-dom, the quality of being wise.
This suffix is joined for the most part to adjectives and at-
tributive substantives, and denotes (1.) the quality ; as, wisdom ;
(2.) the state; as, freedom, thraldom; (3.) the condition; as,
birthdom, earldom ; (4.) an act; as, whoredom ; (5.) by a me-
tonymy, appurtenances or possessions ; as, kingdom ; and (6.)
by a metonymy again, the collective concrete ; as, peerdom.
For more oil this suffix, see Appendix.
IV. Abstract Substantives in ery.
The suffix ery forms abstract nouns, but has various derived
significations. Thus it denotes
(1.) The business or employment ; as Joinery, knavery, rogue-
ry, thievery.
(2.) The state or condition ; as, slavery.
(3.) By a metonymy, the place where a thing is found, or
an action is performed ; as, nunnery, rookery, shrubbery ; bak-
ery, brewery.
(4.) By a metonymy again, the assemblage of things them-
selves ; as, rookery, shrubbery, bakery.
V. Abstract Substantives in hood or head.
This suffix hood or head, (Anglo-Sax, had, hade, Germ, heit,
keit,) is derived from the Anglo-Sax, had, state, habit, condi-
tion, and this from Anglo-Sax, hadian, to ordain, as if to set
or place. It forms abstract substantives.
Examples. Boy-hood, god-bead.
This suffix is joined to adjectives and attributive substantives,
and denotes (1.) the nature or essence ; as, godhead ; (2.) the
quality; as, hardihood, lustihood ; (3.) the state ; as, boyhood,
childhood; (4.) the condition ; as, knighthood, priesthood ; (5.)
by a metonymy of the abstract for the concrete, something pos-
sessing the quality ; as, falsehood ; (6.) by a metonymy again,
the collective concrete; as, neighborhood, sisterhood ; (7.) by a
metonymy again, the cause or means ; as, livelihood.
For more on this suffix, see Appendix.
VI. Abstract Substantives in ric.
The suffix forms abstract nouns in a few examples ; as,
bishopric, bishopric.
3*
30 FORMATION OF ENGLISH WORDS.
VII. Abstract Substantives in ship or scape.
The suffix ship or scape, (Anglo -Sax. sceaft, scype, stipe,
Germ, schaft,) is derived from Moeso-Goth. slcapan, Eng. to
shape, and denotes the make or shape. It forms abstract sub-
stantives.
Examples. Ward-ship, land-scape.
This suffix is joined for the most part to attributive substan-
tives, and denotes (1.) the state or condition; as, friendship,
kingship, wardship ; (2.) an act; as, courtship ; (3.) by a me-
tonymy, appurtenances or possessions ; as, lordship ; and (4.)
by a metonymy again, the effect or resultant state; as, hard-
ship, workmanship.
For more on this suffix, see Appendix.
VIII. Abstract Substantives in th or t.
The suffix Ih or t is joined to verbs, and denotes the action
of the verb, taken abstractly, or is joined to adjectives, and de-
notes the quality.
1. Joined to verbs ; as, bight, birth, berth, bloioth, broth, death,
draught, draft, earth, flight, growth, might, ruth, sight, spilth,
stealth, tilth, weight.
2. Joined to adjectives ; as, breadth, dearth, depth, drought,
filth, health* height, length, sleight, sloth, strength, truth or troth^
warmth, width, youth.
This suffix is uniformly th, except when preceded by an orig-
inal palatal g (not the nasal ng,) which has now lost its sound.
In this case the suffix is written t ; as, weight, height.
In the kindred dialects comp. Anglo-Sax, broth, strength ;
Moeso-Goth. maht-s, might ; diupitha, depth ; Germ, macht,
might.
For more on this suffix, see Appendix.
Interchange of the Forms of Abstract Nouns in the different
Teutonic Dialects.
There is great freedom in the use of the several forms of ab-
stract nouns, especially in the different Teutonic dialects, as
will be seen by the following Table.
Eng. goodness, Eng. good.
Eng. goodness, Germ, gutheit.
Eng. foulness, Eng. filth.
Eng. Christendom, Germ. christenheiL
FORMATION OF ENGLISH WORDS. 31
Eng. brotherhood. Germ, bruderschaft.
Eng. bishopric, Anglo-Sax, bishopdom.
Eng. abbotship, Anglo-Sax, abbotdom.
Eng. knowledge, Germ, kenntniss.
17. TEUTONIC SECONDARY DERIVATIVES.
Secondary derivatives are derivatives from other derivatives ;
as, fearfulness and fearfully from fearful ; fearlessness and fear-
lessly from fearless.
These secondary derivatives, with two suffixes only, end in
edness, fulness, ishness, lessness, liness, someness, wardness,
iness ; edly, fully, ishly, lessly, somely, tidy, wardly, ily.
I. Derivative Substantives in ness from Adjectives in ed.
Example. Tir-ed-ness, the state of being tired.
So blessedness, cursedness ; crazedness, numbedness ; cragged-
ness, raggedness, scabbedness ; nakedness, wretchedness.
II. Derivative Substantives in ness from Adjectives in ful.
Example. tta.te-ful-ness, the quality of being hateful.
So awfulness, blissfulness, dreadful ness, fearfulness, glad-
fulness, heedf ulness, hopefulness, lustfulness, needfulness, skil-
fulness, thought fulness, wrongfulness.
III. Derivative Substantives in ness from Adjectives in isli.
Example. Child-ish-ness, the quality of being childish.
So boyishness, roguishness, thievishness, slavishness, fool-
ishness, cloionishness, boorishness, whitishness.
IV. Derivative Substantives in ness from Adjectives in less.
Example. Blame-less-ness, the quality of being blameless.
So boundlessness, endlessness, harmlessness, heedlessness^
helplessness , fearlessness, needlessness, shamelessness, sinless-
ness, thoughtlessness.
V. Derivative Substantives in ness from Adjectives in ly.
Example, liord-li-ness, the quality of being lordly.
So friendliness, godliness, manliness ; earthliness, fleshli-
ness, homeliness; goodliness, cleanliness, liveliness, loneliness ;
comeliness., silliness, ugliness.
32 FORMATION OF ENGLISH WORDS.
VI. Derivative Substantives in ness from Adjectives in some.
Example. Play-some-ness, the quality of being play some.
So gamesomeness, toilsomeness, toothsomeness ; darksome-
ness, fulsomeness, gladsomeness ; handsomeness, irksomeness,
tiresomeness.
VII. Derivative Substantives in nessfrom Adjectives in ward.
Example. To-ward-ness, the quality of being toward.
So frowardness ; forwardness, backwardness ; wayward-
ness.
VIII. Derivative Substantives in ness from Adjectives in y.
Example. Mud-di-ness, the quality of being muddy.
So fogginess, mistiness ; grassiness, hairiness, airiness ;
easiness, gloominess, sleepiness ; craftiness, thriftiness ; hoar-
iness, wariness, weariness.
IX. Derivative Adverbs' in ly from Adjectives in ed.
Example. BIe-ed-ly, in a blessed manner.
So cursedly, learnedly; crookedly, forkedJy, rootedly ;
doggedly, crabbedly ; nakedly, wretchedly, wickedly.
X. Derivative Adverbs in ly from Adjectives in ful.
Example. H ur t-ful-ly, in a hurtful manner.
So awfully, fearfully, hopefully, hatefully ; skilfully, spite-
fully, sinfully ; thoughtfully, healthfully, slothfully ; bliss-
fully, dreadfully, heedfully, lustfully, needfully, shamefully,
wrongfully.
XL Derivative Adverbs in ly from Adjectives in ish.
Example. Child-ish-ly, in a childish manner.
So foolishly, foppishly, boorishly, knavishly ; freakishly ,
lumpishly, skittishly.
XII. Derivative Adverbs in ly from Adjectives in less.
Example. Fear-less-ly, in a fearless manner.
So endlessly, groundlessly, guiltlessly, harmlessly, heed-
lessly, helplessly, needlessly, shamelessly, blamelessly, fear"
lessly, shamelessly, thoughtlessly, heartlessly.
FORMATION OF ENGLISH WORDS. 33
XIII. Derivative Adverbs in \yfrom Adjectives in some.
Example. Ful-some-ly, in a fulsome manner.
So gladsomely, handsomely, irksomely, wholesomely.
XIV. Derivative Adverbs in ly from Ordinal Adjectives in
th.
Example. Four-th-ly, in the fourth place.
So fifthly, sixthly, seventhly ; thirdly.
XV. Derivative Adverbs in ly from Adjectives in ward.
Example. For-ward-ly, in a forward manner.
So lackwardly ; towardly,frowardly; inwardly, outward*
ly ; eastwardly, weslwardly.
XVI. Derivative Adverbs in }yfrom Adjectives in y.
Example. Speed-My, in a speedy manner.
So shabbily, saucily, steadily, happily, muddily, dirtily, filth-
ily, healthily, wealthily, weightily, hungrily, needily.
18. TEUTONIC TERTIARY DERIVATIVES.
Tertiary derivatives are formed from their stems by a triple
suffix ; as, wear-i-some-ness, from the stem wear, to last, tire.
They have the following terminations: th-i-ness, ard-li-ness,
en-li-ness, ward-li-ness, i-some-ness, le-some-ness, th-ful-ness ;
th-en-ina ; ship-ful-ly, th-i-ly, en-ing-ly, er-ing-ly, i-some-ly, le-
some-ly.
I. Substantive Tertiary Derivatives*
The following are examples : leiBg-th-i-ness, frostiness, might-
iness, thriftiness; Iieav-en-li-ness, maidenliness, slovenliness;
co"%v-ard-li-ness, dastardliricss, niggardliness; to-ward-li-ness ;
wear-i-some-ness; inett-le-some-ness ; Io-th-ful ness, health-
fulness ; leng-th-en-ing.
II. Adverbial Tertiary Derivatives.
The following are examples : wor~ship-ful-ly ; leiig-th-i-ly ;
mightily, thriftily; threat-en-injr-ly ; falt-er-ing-ly, flatter-
ingly, glitteringly, lingeringly, loweringly, mutteringly, scatter-
ingly, pilferingly ; wear-i-some-ly ; mett-le-some-ly.
Note. Derivatives, with more than three suffixes, are not
found in the Teutonic portion, of our language.
34 FORMATION OF ENGLISH WORDS.
19. FORMATION OF TEUTONIC WORDS IN ENGLISH BY
PREFIXES.
Derivation of words, or the formation of words by internal
change of vowel and by suffixes, gives us different forms of
ideas ; as, drink (noun), drinker, drinking (participle), drink-
ing (noun), drench, all forms or modifications of the radical
idea to drink.
Composition, or the combination of two words, each express-
ing a distinct idea, so as to form one word expressing one idea,
is a development of the species from the genus, and gives us
different species of ideas; as, bake-house, brew-house, toiun-
house, all species under the general term house. This process
is especially adapted to form substantives.
The formation of words by prefixes, that is, by particles de-
noting not distinct ideas, but merely relations, is also a devel-
opment of the species from the genus, and gives us different
species of ideas; as, forego, outgo, overgo, undergo, all species
under the general term to go ; and in words derived from the
Latin, attend, contend, intend, pretend, subtend, all species under
the general term to tend. But this process is especially adapted
to form verbs and verbal derivatives.
The prefix is usually a particle denoting motion, or, rather,
the direction of motion. The verb also expresses motion, or is
so conceived by the mind. Hence the prefix renders the mean-
ing of the verb more specific by giving the direction of the
motion.
The formation of words by prefixes is an ancient process in
language. It was extensively employed in Gothic and Anglo-
Saxon, the ancient languages whence the Teutonic portion of
our own tongue is derived. In the English language it has
ceased to be an active living principle. Compound verbs of
Teutonic origin, in the ordinary cases where the prefix retains
its primary local signification, have been disused, and the pre-
fix employed separately after the verb. Thus we now have to
give in, to give over, to give out, to give up, as species under the
general term to give.
The few cases in which such compound words have been re-
tained in English are the following :
1. Where the force of the prefix is entirely lost; as, arise,
aivake.
2. Where the meaning of the prefix is not obvious ; as, an-
swer, begin, forsake, withstand, upbraid.
FORMATION OF ENGLISH WORDS. 35
3. Where the prefix has lost its local meaning, and acquired
a metaphorical one; as, outbid, uphold, overdo, underbid, fore-
go, bemoan, begird, becharm, forgive, forswear.
4. Where the prefix denotes time; as, outlive, overlive, fore-
see.
5. Where the prefix has an unusual physical meaning ; as,
overtake, overturn, withstand.
6. Where the retraction of the accent in certain verbal de-
rivatives has preserved the word from being lost ; as, offset, in-
come, outcast, upstart, downfall, overfall, undershot, for enamed,
by-gone.
7. A few other verbs, mostly obsolescent ; as, inbreed, infold,
outbud, outbar, gainstand, gainsay.
The difference between these compounds and the use of a
separate particle may be illustrated by comparing inhold with
hold in, outrun with run out, uphold with hold up, overthrow
with throw over, understand with stand under, forego with go
before, backslide with slide back, withhold with hold ivith.
TEUTONIC WORDS IN ENGLISH FORMED BY PREFIXES.
The Teutonic prefixes here concerned are particles of place,
and had originally that significancy, as is shown by the more
ancient languages. They may be arranged for the most part
in pairs or antitheses. This constitutes a natural order.
To, implying direction, as Anglo-Sax, tocuman, to come to.
This prefix can not be used in English before verbs, as it would
be confounded with to, the sign of the infinitive. It remains
only in toward, (adj. or adv.) with accent retracted.
At, another form of the particle to, as Goth, atrinnan, to run
to. There is no compound word in English with this prefix.
It must not be confounded with at in verbs of Latin origin ;
as, attain, attempt, attend ; or in words of French origin; as,
attach, attack.
Of, the opposite of to, and denoting from, as Anglo-Sax.
ofbeatan, to beat off. The only compounds remaining in Eng-
lish are verbal derivatives with the accent drawn back, (which
retraction of the accent has preserved the word from being
lost) ; as, offset, offshoot, offspring, off scouring. With offset,
compare set off.
From, a more modern form than of, but with the same force;
as Anglo Sax. fromcuman, to be rejected. No example re-
36 FORMATION OF ENGLISH WORDS.
mains in English except adj. froward, (for fromivard,) with
the accent drawn back.
In, as Anglo-Sax, incuman, to come in. In English only in
doubtful or obsolescent forms ; as, inbreathe, inbreed, inhold,
infold; and in verbals with accent drawn back; as, income,
inborn, inbred. For the difference of meaning, compare inhold
with hold in.
On, probably another form of the particle in, as Anglo-
Sax, onbrican, to break in. In English only in verbals with
accent drawn back ; as, onset, onslaught.
A, a corruption or mutilation of on, as agoing, i. e. going on ;
awriting, i. e. writing on.
Out, the opposite of in, as Anglo-Sax, utdragan, to drag
out. In English only where the particle has a metaphorical
or unusual sense; as, outbid, outblush, outbreathe, outbuild,
outburn, outdo, outrun; also outbar, outbud; and in some ver-
bals with accent drawn back; as, outbound, outborn, outcast.
For the difference of meaning, compare outgo with go out;
outstand, to stand beyond the proper time, with to stand out,
to project.
Up, as Anglo-Sax, upcuman, to come up. In English in
some obsolescent verbs ; as, upbear, upblow, updraw, upheave ;
also, when the prefix has a metaphorical sense ; as upbraid, up-
hold ; and in verbals with accent drawn back; as, upstart, up-
rising, upright. For the difference of meaning, compare uphold
with hold up.
Down, in some verbs ; as, down-bear, and more verbals ; as,
downcast, downfall, downlooked, downtrod.
Over ; as, Anglo-Sax, ofercliman, to climb over. In English
only where the particle has a metaphorical or unusual sense ;
as, overawe, overbear, overbend, overbid, overgo, overflow, overdo,
oversee, overtake. Compare overturn with turn over, overthrow
with throw over.
Under, the opposite of over, as Anglo-Sax, undercuman, to
come under. In English where the particle has a metaphorical
or unusual meaning; as, underbear, underbid, underdo, un-
dergo, undersell, undertake. Compare understand with stand
under.
Fore, as Anglo-Sax, forecuman, to come before. In English
only where the particle refers to time, or has some unusual sig-
nification ; as, forearm, forebode, forecast, foreknow, foresee,
forethink, foretell, forego, forenamed.
FORMATION OF ENGLISH WORDS. 87
After, as Anglo-Sax, cefterridan, to ride after. In English
only in verbals with accent drawn back ; as, after-cost, after-
vrop, after-piece.
Back, a later form for after or behind; as, Anglo-Sax, bcec-
beran, to take on the back. In English only in backbite, back-
slide, backwound.
By and be, as Goth, birinnan, to run by ; Anglo-Sax, be-
cwcedhan, to bequeath. In English only where the import of the
prefix is not obvious ; as, behead, become ; or where the accent
is drawn back ; as, by-gone, by-past.
For a more full account of the prefix be, see Appendix.
For, in the sense of forth or away, as, Anglo- Sax. forsendan,
to send forth or away. In English in forbid, forgive, forswear.
For a more full account of the prefix for, see Appendix.
Grain, in the sense of against ; as, Anglo-Sax, geonbceran, to
oppose. In English in gainsay ; also, gaingive, gainstand,
gainstrive.
With, in the sense of away or against, as, Anglo-Sax, widh-
Iwdan, to lead away ; widhgan, to go against. In English only
in withdraw, withhold, withstand.
An or and, a Teutonic prefix signifying against, as, Anglo-
Sax, andsacian, to deny. Only in English answer.
A or ge, a Teutonic prefix, originally equivalent to Lat. co
or con, with, then attached to the past participle, but finally
used before verbs nearly without significancy. So in English
without significancy before participles and adjectives ; as, adrift,
along , aloud j and also before verbs; as, to abide, to arise, to
awake.
For a full account of the prefix a, see Appendix.
There are two other Teutonic particles, mis and un, which
differ somewhat from the preceding, especially in not referring
to place or direction.
Mis, in the sense of wrong, amiss, (connected with Eng. to
miss, to fail ;) as, to misshape, to mistake, to misdo ; also aa
equivalent to the prefix un; as, to mislike, to misrule, to mis-
trust.
For more on the prefix mis, see Appendix.
Un, a negative particle, denying the predicate or attribute;
as, unwise, to undo ; and sometimes passing into the opposite^
idea ; as, unfair, unhappy, untrue, to unhook, to uncover*.
38 FORMATION OF ENGLISH WORDS.
20. TEUTONIC WORDS WITH BOTH PREFIXES AND SUFFIXES.
Many Teutonic words have both prefixes and suffixes. These
present a considerable variety.
Fore-ruii-ner, backslider, bequeather, bystander.
Be-lov-ed, mistaken, becoming.
For-give-ness, unripeness.
Un-love-ly, unfairly.
Under-lak-er, overseer.
For-get-ful-ness, unwillingness, unworthiness.
Un-will-ing-ly, unskilfully, mistrustfully, unluckily, un-
boundedly.
Over-weei>ing-ly, unbecomingly.
Note. These words are to be analyzed on the principle of
binary composition ; see Philol. Stud. p. 11, 12. Thus unbe-
comingly is derived from unbecoming ; unbecoming is made up
of un and becoming ; becoming is derived from become; and
become is made up of be and come.
21. THE FORMATION OF COMPOUND WORDS.
1. Composition, or the formation of compound words, is a
special mode of forming new words and developing new ideas.
2. Composition, considered externally, is the combination of
two words expressing distinct ideas, so as to form one word ex-
pressing one idea. The word thus formed is called a compound.
This definition is sufficient for the merely practical grammarian.
3. Composition, considered in its internal nature, is, like
many other linguistical processes, a development of the species
from the genus ; that is, the name of the genus, as boat, by
prefixing the specific difference, as steam, ( i. e. moved by
steam,) now denotes the species, as steam-boat. This is the
more philosophical definition.
4. In reference to the mental process in composition just
described, the compound consists of two parts, viz. the general,
or that which denotes the genus ; and the special, or that which
denotes the specific difference. The latter, which is the leading
member of the composition, usually precedes, and has the tone
or accent.
5. The unity of the word consists in the tone or accent,
which binds together the two parts of the composition. The
mere orthography is an uncertain criterion, being sometimes
entirely arbitrary.
FORMATION OF ENGLISH WORDS. 39
6. The unity of the idea consists in its referring to something
specific, well known as having a permanent existence.
7. Every composition is binary, or every compound consists
properly of only two members, although these may themselves
be compounded. Compare household- staff, bird 1 seye-maple,
townhouse-doorkey, which must be analyzed conformably to
this principle. The most plausible exception is Latin suovl-
taurus, (whence suovitaurilia,) "a swine, sheep, and bull."
8. Composition is an original process in language, distinct,
on the one hand, from derivation, that is, the formation of
words by internal change of vowel and by suffixes, and on the
other, from the mere syntactical combination of ideas.
9. Composition differs essentially from the formation of
words by internal change of vowel and by suffixes, in this, that
derivation gives us different forms of ideas ; as, drink, (noun,)
drinker, drinking, (noun,) to drench, all forms or modifications
of the radical idea to drink ; to set, to settle, sitter, setter, seat,
sitting, (noun,) all from the radical idea to di ; while compo-
sition gives us species of ideas ; as, bake-house, brew-house, town-
house, all species under the general term house ; door-key, box-
key, watch-key, species of keys.
10. As a mode of forming words, composition is later in its
origin than derivation, and has arisen from the inadequacy of
derivation to express the definite ideas which become necessary
in language. Thus, mere derivation would be insufficient to
express the different kinds of keys ; as, door -key, box-key, watch-
key ; or the different kinds of glasses ; as, beer-glass, wine-
glass, etc.
11. Notwithstanding which, there is some common ground
for derivation and composition, and the two forms may alter-
nate. In such a case the derivative is the more forcible, and
the compound is the more precise in its import. Thus we have
in English, (neglecting accidental differences of usage,) hunter
and huntsman, speaker and spokesman, plower and plowman,
hatter and hat-maker, steamer and steam-boat, bakery and bake-
house, brewery and brew-house, deemster and domesman ; so
also where the words are radically distinct; as, fowler and
bird-catcher, Hollander and Dutchman, journal and day-book,
marine and seaman, navigating and sea-faring, vintage and
grape- gather ing, vintner and wine-seller. These coincidences
take place only when the second part of the compound is a
very general or indefinite term, or has become so by use. In
40 FORMATION OF ENGLISH WORDS.
this way words originally compound acquire much of the char-
acter of derivatives. ,
12. Composition differs, also, from the mere syntactical com-
bination of ideas. Composition is a development of words for
constant, not merely for occasional use. It is not an arbitrary
process in language, or a process to be adopted at pleasure. A
proper compound must express a specific idea formed for per-
manent use in the language. Wherever it takes place, there
should be an adequate cause or occasion. Not every combina-
tion of two ideas into one is properly expressed by a compound.
Ideas combined at the moment of speaking or writing, for the
first time, do not form compound words. It is owing to this
principle that we have death-wound, not life-wound ; father-
land, not son-land ; fox-hunter, not sheep-hunter; earthquake,
not sea-quake ; sea-sick, not fear-sick, because the latter terms
of these coupjets are not called for.
13. The difference between the compound word and the
mere syntactical construction may be seen,
(1.) By comparing black-bird, a species of bird, with a black
bird ; so red-bird, black-berry, mad-house.
(2.) By comparing fox-tail, a plant so named from resem-
blance, with the tail of a fox; so beards-ear ' f goafs-beard, lady's-
finger.
(3.) By comparing rafs-bane, a substance so called from its
nature, with the bane of a rat; so catch-fly, king's-evil, liver-
wort.
14. The unity of the compound is further evident by con-
sidering,
(1.) That in many words the members of the composition
do not appear at first view, nor are they generally understood ;
as, daisy, fortnight, sennight.
(2.) That in many words the meaning has so altered that
the reason of the composition is not obvious ; as, holiday, land-
lord, mildew, quicksand, quicksilver, Sunday.
(3.) That compounds may often be expressed by simple
words, either in the same or another language ; as, brimstone,
sulphur ; wine-glass, a tumbler : sheep-fold, Lat. ovile ; foot-
man, Lat. pedes ; oak-grove, Lat. quercetum ; dove-house, Lat.
columbarium.
FORMATION" OF ENGLISH WORDS.
22. TEUTONIC COMPOUND WORDS IN ENGLISH.
Compound words in English, as distinguished from deriva-
tives, have received comparatively but little attention ; yet,
from the great variety of the component parts, and the differ-
ent relations in which they stand to each other, it is evident
that these words deserve a more minute investigation.
Composition is the union of two independent words in order
to form one. This union may be more or less complete.
I. Imperfect Composition.
When two words denote distinct attributes of one and the
same object, and their syntactical connection may be expressed
by the simple conjunction and, the composition is then incom-
plete or imperfect. Of this nature are,
1. The union of two common names; as, God-man, God
and man ; (comp. Gr. &e&vd()umoz ; Germ, furst-bischof, prince
and bishop ; butter-brot, bread and butter ; mann-weib, man
and woman).
2. The union of two adjectives; as, deaf-mute, deaf and
mute, (comp. Germ, taub-stumm, Fr. sourd-muet) ; first-last,
first and last, (used by Young) ; bitter-sweet, bitter and sweet,
the name of a plant.
3. The union of two numerals ; as, fourteen, four and ten ;
(comp. Lat. quatuordecim).
4. The union of two synonymous or nearly synonymous
words ; as, hap hazard, hap and hazard ; (comp. Germ, ehr-
furcht, honor and fear).
Words of Teutonic origin, of this class, divide the accent or
tone between the two parts of the compound ; as, God-man ;
those of Latin origin follow the analogy of English words; as,
hermaphrodite.
That the two words are united in one, is evident from the
fact that the latter part only of the compound is capable of
change by inflection or derivation ; as, gen. God-man's, plur.
deaf-mutes, derivative ordinal fourteenth, etc.
II. Perfect Composition.
When the two words form one complex idea, then the com-
position is complete or perfect. Of this there are two kinds :
4*
42 FORMATION OF ENGLISH WORDS.
1. Where the two parts of the compound are in apposition
or concord with each other. Here may be included,
(1.) The union of two common names ; as, foe-man.
(2.) The union of the species and genus; as, oak-tree.
(3.) The union of a proper name and the genus; as, Flint
River.
(4.) The union of two proper names ; as, Charles Richards.
2. Where one part of the compound stands in rection, or
government, in reference to the other, the latter part of the
composition expressing the principal or generic idea, and the
former part some modification thereof; as, snow-white, steam-
boat.
The modifications to be expressed by the former part of the
composition are very numerous, and may conveniently be ar-
ranged as cases are in our most scientific grammars :
(1.) Where the first term exprssses the nominative case, or
the relation of the subject ; as, cock-crowing, the time at which
the cocks crow ; slave-born, (comp. Anglo -Sax. theow-boren,)
born a slave.
(2.) Where the first term expresses the dative case, or the
case of participation ; as, head-band, a band for the head, tea-
cup, a cup for tea; fire-brick, a brick that will endure the
fire.
(3.) Where the first term expresses the accusative case, or
the relation of the object ; as, shoe-maker, one that makes shoes ;
wine-bibber, one that drinks much wine ; time-keeper, a machine
that keeps time.
(4.) Where the first term expresses the adverbial relation of
place or locality ; as, land-breeze, a breeze from the land ; home-
spun, spun at home ; ground-bait, bait for fish which sinks to
the bottom ; home- speaking, forcible and efficacious speaking.
(5.) Where the first term expresses the adverbial relation of
time ; as, night-dew, dew that falls by night.
(6.) Where the first term expresses the adverbial relation of
cause, in some of its varieties ; as, moth-eaten, eaten by moths ;
steam-boat, a boat moving by steam ; wind-mill, a mill turned
by the wind ; straw-bed, a bed made of straw ; careful, full of
care ; blood-guilty, guilty from blood or bloodshed.
(7.) Where the first term expresses the adverbial relation of
intensity or degree; as, stone-blind, blind as a stone ; snow-white,
white as snow ; snow-ivhiteness, whiteness like snow ; brand-
new, new like a brand.
FORMATION OF ENGLISH WORDS. 43
The- same compound may sometimes belong to two classes;
as, horse-boat, a boat for conveying horses, see No. (2.) ; also, a
boat moved by horses, see No. (6.).
The first word has the form of the genitive case
(1.) In some names of plants ; as, beards-ear, beards-foot,
beards-wort, cafs-foot, cafs-head, goafs-beard, goafs-rue, goafs-
thorn, hound 1 s-tongue, lady^s-bower, lady^s-comb, lady ^s-cushion,
ladtfs-finger, ladtf s-mantle, ladtfs-seal, ladtfs-slipper, ladtfs-
braces, Turtts-cap, Turk's-head, Turk 1 s-turban, etc.
(2.) In some names of minerals ; as, cafs-eye, rafs-bane.
(3.) In some nautical terms ; as, oafs-paw.
(4.) In some miscellaneous examples; as, day's-man, king's-
evil, kinsfolk, kinsman, kinswoman, spokesman, statesman, states-
woman.
Sometimes these compounds contain the remains of ancient
cases ; e. g. the locative ; as, nightingale, from Teutonic nachti-
gall, a bird that sings in the night.
As the first part of the compound modifies the second, it is
easy to distinguish between beanpole, a pole for beans, and
pole-bean, a bean that grows around poles; work-house, a house
for work, and house-work, work done in a house ; freight-ship,
a ship for freight, and ship-freight, the freight carried by a
ship ; flower- gar den, a garden for flowers, and garden-flower, a
flower growing in a garden ; book-shop, a shop for books, and
shop-book, an account book; mankind, the kind or race of man,
and kinsman, a man of the same race or family ; chestnut-horse,
a horse of the color of a chestnut, and horse-chestnut, a large
nut; comp. Anglo-Sax, theow-weorc, slave-work, and weorc-
theow, work-slave.
Sometimes, when the two terms are in apposition, the parts
of the compound may be inverted without an essential change
in the meaning; as, servant-woman and woman-servant ; Eng-
lish hornpipe and Welsh pibcorn ; Anglo-Sax, beot-word and
word-beot ; German raub-mord and mord-raub ; sturm-wind
and wind-sturm.
III. Inverted Composition.
There is a class of compound words deserving some atten-
tion, in which the order of the terms is inverted ; as, breakfast,
(comp. Anglo-Sax, fcestenbryce, fast-breach, with the parts of
the compound in the natural order) ; break-promise, (an obso-
lete word, for which we now use promise-breaker) ; break-stone,
44 FORMATION OF ENGLISH WORDS.
(obsolete, now stone-break, compare Latin saxifragum) ; pick-
tooth, (or, more commonly, tooth-pick or tooth-picker). This
class includes,
(1.) Trivial names in botany and zoology; as, break-stone,
(obsolete,) catch-fly, cut-water, turn-stone, wagtail.
(2.) Marine terms; as, break-water, cut-water.
S3.) Terms used by printers; as, catch-word.
4.) Words of reproach ; as, break-promise, (obsolete,) break-
vow, (obsolete,) catc.h-poll, cut-purse, cut-throat, hang-dog, (ob-
solete,) kill-buck, (obsolete,) kill-cow, (obsolete,) pick-lock, pick-
fault, (obsolete,) pickpocket, pickpurse, pick-quarrel, (obsolete,)
pickthank, scape-gallows, scape-thrift, (obsolete,) scare-crow,
smell/east, spendthrift, telltale, turn-coat, turnspit, toss-pot, want-
wit.
(5.) Miscellaneous words ; as, breakfast, (probably used at
first to denote a trivial meal,) catch-penny, pick-tooth.
It is easily seen that there is one character pervading this
sort of words.
Note. Words of this kind derived from the French are more
dignified ; as, pastime, port-folio, portmanteau, wardrobe.
23. COMPOUNDS AND DERIVATIVES FROM COMPOUNDS.
Horse-railroad, mail- steamboat, railroad-depot; man-of-war 's-
man.
Barefacedness, faintheartedness, hardheartedness, lefthand-
sdness, lightheadedness, openheartedness, shamefacedness, short-
sightedness ; barefacedly, hardheartedly, lightheartedly, open-
heartedly, shamefacedly.
24. DERIVATIVES FROM PRONOMINAL ELEMENTS.
We now return to the subject of pronominal elements, of
which we spoke in 3.
Besides the forms which arise from inflection ; as, me, my,
mine; he, his, him, her, it (for hit;) who, what, whose, whom ;
etc. there are other forms which arise from derivation or com-
position.
The forms which arise from derivation may be classified as
follows :
I. Adjectives of preference, which combine the pronominal
idea with that of number. They are indicated in English by
the form of comparatives ; as, other, whether, either, neither.
FORMATION OF ENGLISH WORDS. 45
IT. Adjectives of quality ; as, such, which.
III. Adverbs of the place where ; as, here, there, where.
IV. Adverbs of the place whither; as, hither, thither, whither.
V. Adverbs of the place whence ; as, hence, thence, ivhence.
VI. Adverbs of time ; as, then, when.
VII. Adverbs of manner ; as, so, thus, how.
VIII. Adverbs of the cause or reason ; as, why.
25. COMPOUNDS FROM PRONOMINAL ELEMENTS.
Of these there are several kinds.
I. The adverbial forms, here, there, where, take to themselves
prepositions ; as, hereat, hereby, herein, hereof, hereon, hereout,
hereto, herewith ; thereat, thereby, therefor, therefore, therefrom,
therein, thereof, thereon, thereout, thereto, therewith; whereat,
whereby, wherefore, wherein, whereof, whereon, whereto, where-
with.
Also compound or dissyllabic prepositions ; as, hereabout,
hereafter, hereinto, hereunto, hereupon; thereabout, thereafter,
thereinto, thereunder, thereunto, thereupon; whereabout, where-
into, whereunto, whereupon.
Note. Compositions of this sort with dissyllabic prepositions
are now mostly obsolete. See Campbell's Philosophy of Rhet-
oric, p. 483.
II. The interrogative or relative forms, ivho, what, ivhich,
where, whither, whence, when, how, take to themselves the par-
ticles 50 or ever, or both combined soever, in order to form ex-
tended relatives or universal indefinites; as, whoso, whoever,
whosoever, whatever, whatsoever, whichever, wherever, whereso-
ever, whithersoever, whencesoever, whenever, whensoever, however,
howsoever.
III. Adverbial forms, as where, how, sometimes take to them-
selves prefix particles; (1.) some, to express the particular indefi-
nite; as, somewhere, somewhither, somehow; (2.) any, to ex-
press the general indefinite; as, anyivhere, anywhither. any-
how; and (3.) no, to express the negative ; as, nowhere, no-
whither, nohow. But these compounds vacillate, being some-
times written in one word, and sometimes in two.
Note. These may be seen to better advantage in the Table
of English Correlatives. See Appendix.
IV. There are some other miscellaneous examples which re-
main still to be classified; as, heretofore, hitherto, hitherward,
henceforth, henceforward, thitherward, thenceforth, thencefor-
ward, whereas.
46 FORMATION OF ENGLISH WORDS.
26. WORDS OF UNCERTAIN ORIGIN.
There remain some form-words, such as the prepositional
adverbs, in, out, up, down, fore, back, off, on, by, with, etc. con-
cerning which, in the present state of our knowledge, it is un-
certain whether they are derived from pronominal elements or
from verbal roots. But the latter is most probable, see Philol.
Stud. p. 79. There are also many compounds of these words;
as, into, unto, upon ; within, without ; before, but; about, above.
27. TEUTONIC DOUBLE FORMS IN ENGLISH.
Besides the ordinary modes of forming words, namely, by
gemination or reduplication, as sing-song; by internal change
of vowel, as song ; by a prefix, as besing, (in German) ; by a
suffix, as singer ; by composition, as singing -master ; and by
inflection, as singest ; there is another process in forming words
deserving of more attention than has usually been paid to it.
The process alluded to is the development of double forms.
The same identical word, that is, the same root with the same
prefix or suffix, or other modification, sometimes acquires two
forms, to which in the course of time different meanings are
attached.
This bipartition of the form of a word, or development of a
new or second form, is sometimes of long standing, and some-
times of comparatively recent origin. Thus
Eng. Beam and boom are both ultimately derived from Goth.
bagm-s, a tree ; the former through Anglo-Sax, beam, and the
latter, as a marine term, through Dutch boom.
Eng. shell, Anglo-Sax, scell ; Eng. scale, Anglo-Sax, sceale,
and Eng. scull ; all accord in Germ, schale, which has the
three meanings.
Eng. skiff and ship, are both from Goth. skip.
Eng. to swallow, (see supra, p. 6.) and to swill, both accord
in Anglo-Sax, with swelgan, which has both meanings.
Eng. tenth and tithe, are both derivatives from Anglo-Sax.
tyn, ten.
Eng. great and gross, are the same Teutonic word, the former
more allied to the Saxon and the latter to the German branch
of the Teutonic family.
Eng. pipe and fife, are the same Teutonic word, the former
more allied to the^Saxon, and the latter to the German branch
of the Teutonic family.
FORMATION OF ENGLISH WORDS. 4f
Eng. let and lease are the same Teutonic word, the former
more allied to the Saxon, and the latter to the German branch
of the Teutonic family.
Eng. off and of are the same Teutonic word, but the former
retains more of its original local sense, the latter has more met-
aphorical meanings.
Eng. too and to are the same Teutonic word, but the former
has a more full emphatic sense.
Eng. fore and for are the same Teutonic word, but the
former is more limited to a local and temporal sense, and the
latter is more general.
28. DISGUISED TEUTONIC DERIVATIVES AND COMPOUNDS.
Although derivatives and compounds in English, as in other
languages, are usually formed on regular principles, and are
easily perceived, some few of them, however, especially those
coming into extensive use, are so corrupted or disguised as
greatly to obscure their origin.
Examples.
1. Atone, literally to be, or cause to be, at one, compounded
of at and one. Comp. Lat. aduno, to unite.
This origin of the word atone is obscured only in the pro-
nunciation. The numeral has the same sound as in the deriv-
atives only and alone.
2. Daisy, (Anglo-Sax, dceges ege, day's eye, compounded of
cedges, day's, and ege, eye,) the name of a spring flower, as if
the eye of the day.
The origin of the word is obscured by the accent.
3. Not, a particle expressing negation, denial, or refusal ;
the same word as naught or nought, compounded of ne, not,
and aught, any thing. (Comp. Old Germ, niowiht, compounded
of ne and iowiht ; Anglo-Sax, nawiht, compounded of ne and
awiht.)
4. Fortnight, a contraction of fourteen night, the space of
fourteen days.
5. Sennight, a contraction of seven night, the space of seven
days.
6. To doff and to don, to do off and to do on, expressions
now obsolete.
7. Hob or nob, have or have not, a phrase which has been
continued in use on account of the paronomasia.
APPENDIX
IN this Appendix I propose to give a more full discussion of
several points which have been touched upon in the preceding
treatise. These discussions have been written at different times,
and have occasionally taken so wide a range, that they could
not be inserted in their natural place, without producing a de-
gree of complication and confusion. It is hoped that they will
be found useful as detached articles.
A. RELATION OF THE TEUTONIC PORTION OF THE ENGLISH
LANGUAGE TO OTHER LANGUAGES.
In discussing the English language, we have frequent occa-
sion to refer to other languages or dialects. It seems desirable
then that the reader should have a clear apprehension of the
different tongues thus referred to. For this purpose we have
prepared a summary genealogy of the English language.
I. Human Languages generally.
Those who hold to the unity of the human race hold of
course to an original language. Those who hold to an original
language naturally wish to show how and in what order the
different families of languages have separated themselves from
the main stock.
Chevalier Bunsen and Max Miiller have been laboring on
this subject with great assiduity, and think to have arrived at
important results.
The interesting problem before them is this, to place the va-
rious families of languages in the line of successive development.
The earliest type of language is supposed to have been mon-
osyllabic. Many substantial reasons might be given, in favor
of this supposition.
50 FORMATION OF ENGLISH WORDS.
The Chinese and other monosyllabic languages of Asia went
off from the main stock, while it was yet in a rude or inorganic
state. These languages hare been called family languages.
Some cause, to us unknown, seems to have stereotyped these
languages in this early stage of their existence, and to have
prevented their further development.
At a subsequent period, when the main stock had assumed
somewhat of an organic character, the Tartar or Turanian lan-
guages detached themselves on one side, and the Hamitic, or
language of Egypt, on the other; the former with a slight
tincture of Iranianism, or tendency to the Indo-European char-
acter, and the latter with a tincture of Shemitism. These lan-
guages are called nomad languages, as having advanced far-
ther than the family languages.
At a still later period the Shemitish and Iranian or Indo-
European languages developed themselves in opposite directions.
These are called political or state languages, as exhibiting the
highest degree of refinement. But although thus contrasted,
they exhibit, when viewed from a more distant stand-point,
many undoubted resemblances.
To complete this view, the languages of America and Ocean-
ica are thought to be connected with the Turanian ; and the
African are united conjecturally for the present with the Ham-
itic or Coptic, and perhaps far southward with the Turanian.
II. The Indo-European Class of Languages.
The term Indo-European Languages is beginning to be used
with scientific exactness. The general reader should be ac-
quainted with this fact.
1. The Indo-European languages are inflected languages,
that is, the exponent of the idea (the root) and the exponent of
the relation (the inflection) are closely compacted into one
word. Compare, for example, Lat. regi, to the king ; amabo, I
shall love. This makes a marked distinction between these and
the monosyllabic languages, which have no inflection. In the
latter languages, for example, in Chinese, the relations of the
words or ideas are denoted solely by their location.
2. The Indo-European languages, as inflected languages, are
again to be distinguished from the agglutinated languages,
where the relations are denoted by separate words which have
not yet acquired the nature of inflections.
APPENDIX. 51
3. The Shemitish languages are also inflected languages.
But the roots and inflections of the Indo-European languages
have a remarkable coincidence with each other, which they
have not with those of the Shemitish languages.
4. Many Indo-European languages, however, in their mo-
dern or disintegrated form, have lost the inflections which they
originally possessed.
5. The Indo-European class or stock of languages consists of
eight groups or families, viz.
(1.) The Sanskrit or Indian family. The most ancient type
of this family is found in the Sanskrit of the hymns of the Vedas.
(2.) The Iranian or Persian family. We have two ancient
representatives of this family, the Avestan or language of the
Zend Avesta, and the Old Persian, or language of the Achse-
menian cuneiform inscriptions.
(3.) The Greek family, including the ancient and modern
Greek.
(4.) The Latin family, including Latin and the derived lan-
guages.
(5.) The Slavic family, in the eastern part of Europe. The
oldest type of this family is the Old Slavic or Church Slavic
of the eleventh century.
(6.) The Lithuanian family, embracing the proper Lithuan-
ian, the Old Prussian, and the Lettish.
(7.) The Teutonic or Gothic family. Its most ancient type
is the Moeso-Gothic of Ulphilas' Version of the Bible.
(8.) The Celtic family, in its two branches, the Cymric and
the Gaelic.
III. The Teutonic Family of Languages.
The Teutonic or Gothic family of languages is interesting to
us, as embracing the English, our vernacular tongue, and as
consisting of languages which have been the object of thorough
examination.
1. The distinguishing characteristics of the Teutonic lan-
guages are the following :
(1.) The ablaut or change of radical vowel in the conjuga-
tion of the so-called strong verbs ; as in English, pres. swim,
past swam, past participle swum. Comp. as somewhat anal-
ogous in Greek, pres. TQBHCO, 2 aor. erganov, 2 perf. -ihgoTta; and
in Latin, pres. ago, perf. egi.
52 FORMATION OP ENGLISH WORDS.
(2.) In the rotation of mute consonant-sounds of the same
organ, according to Grimm's famous law, we find the Teutonic
languages to have advanced, part of them one, and part of
them two steps, from the other Indo'-European families, as the
Sanskrit, Greek, and Latin. Thus Lat. tu, Goth, thu, Germ, du,
thou. This change affects the most ancient portion of the Teu-
tonic languages, or that part which they have in common with
the other Indo-European families.
(3.) The weak conjugation of verbs, which forms the past
tense by means of a suffix, abridged from an auxiliary verb
signifying "to do;" as in English, pres. love, past loved, past
participle loved.
(4.) The weak declension of nouns, by means of a pronomi-
nal suffix. Thus Anglo-Sax, nom. hana, gen. hanan, dat. hanan,
accus. hanan, a cock. The weak declension has disappeared
in English.
2. Besides cultivated national languages, as German, English,
etc., the Teutonic family includes ancient dialects, preserved
only in ancient monuments, as Mceso-Gothic, Anglo-Saxon, etc.,
and provincial dialects, as Suabian, Norwegian, etc.
There are three branches of the Teutonic family clearly dis-
tinguished from each other, namely, the Saxon or Low German,
the High German, and the Scandinavian branch.
( 1 .) The Saxon or Low German branch differs from the High
German branch in having shifted only one step, in the rotatory
scale of mute consonant-sounds from the older Indo-European
languages ; and it differs from the Scandinavian branch in hav-
ing neither a suffix article, nor a special form for the passive
voice.
(2.) The High German branch has preserved the ancient in-
strumental case which is lost even in the Mceso-Gothic; has
shifted two steps, in the rotatory scale of mute consonant-sounds
from the older Indo-European languages; and has neither a
suffix article, nor a special form for the passive voice. It is
distinguished also by what the Germans call umlaut, an attenu-
ation of vowel-sound, and brechung, a breaking up of the regu-
lar diphthongs. Here belongs the High-German, in the three
forms of Old High-German, from the 7th to the llth century,
Middle High-German, from the 12th century to Luther, and
New High-German, since Luther, the literary language of Ger-
many.
APPENDIX. 00
(3.) The Scandinavian branch is distinguished by a suffix
article, and a special form for the passive voice. Here belong
the Icelandic or Old Norse, the Danish, Swedish, etc.
IV. Languages of the Saxon or Low-German Branch of the
Teutonic Family.
This branch, to which our own language belongs, includes
(1.) The Mceso- Gothic, preserved in the fragments of Ulphi-
las' Bible version, made in the fourth century. This is the
oldest type or form of the Teutonic family of languages, and
preserves the old inflections in full vigor. It has first given
consistency to the history and development of the Teutonic
languages.
(2.) The Ancient and Modern Dutch or Netherlandish. The
oldest specimen of Dutch is from about the year 800.
(3.) The Old Saxon, preserved in literary monuments from
the ninth century downward. The oldest specimen is Heliand,
a poem, to which we are principally indebted for our knowledge
of this dialect.
(4.) The Ancient and Modern Friesic, preserved in monu-
ments from about the year 1200. The Old Friesic approached
very near to the Anglo-Saxon. It is now on the eve of extinc-
tion. The Altfriesisches Worterbuch, published by Dr. Karl von
Richthofen, (Gotting. 1840. 4to.) is an inexhaustible source
for illustrating the Anglo-Saxon and Old English. It has only
begun, however, to be used for this purpose by our gramma-
rians and lexicographers.
(5.) The Anglo-Saxon, with important literary remains from
the sixth century down. The oldest specimen is supposed to
be the Laws of Ethelbert, King of Kent.
The English language, so far as the Teutonic portion of it
is concerned, is derived immediately from the Anglo-Saxon, and
has that language for its basis. It retains less of the inflection
of the ancient language than any other Teutonic dialect.
(6.) Various Low-German provincial dialects on the south-
ern shore of the Baltic, too numerous to mention.
V. Anglo-Saxon, English, and Connected Dialects.
The relation of the present English language to the Anglo-
Saxon, is that of a modern language to an ancient one.
5*
54 FORMATION OF ENGLISH WORDS.
The different stages of the English language, taken in its
widest extent, are constituted thus by the latest writers on the
subject :
Anglo-Saxon, from the Conquest of England, by the Saxons
and Angles, to the year 1150.
Semi- Saxon, from the year 1150 to 1250.
Old English, from the year 1250 to 1350.
Middle English, from the year 1350 to 1550.
Modern English, from the year 1550 to the present time.
There has been an uniform tendency, from the first, to di-
minish the number of grammatical inflections.
The Provincial dialects have existed collaterally with the
Anglo-Saxon and English, and have been derived from a differ-
ent fusion of the Teutonic races with the Norman French. The
principal of these dialects are the Lowland Scotch, of which
John Jamieson (Edin. 1808-1825.) has given us an excellent
dictionary; the Cumberland, Yorkshire, Suffolk, Kent, Sussex,
and Devonshire. Specimens of these dialects may be found in
Fowler's Eng. Gram. Ed. II.
The Cockney dialect is not a proper dialect. It is merely a
rude attempt of the uncultivated class to catch the words, as
well as they could, derived from the more refined languages,
as Norman French, Latin, and Greek. See Fowler's Eng. Gram.
Ed. II. p. 116.
The Americanisms, so called, do not constitute a dialect.
They are merely a convenient assemblage of special usages in
different portions of a widely extended country, which are no
where adopted en masse. See Fowler's Eng. Gram. Ed. II. p.
120. Worcester's Quarto Diet. Introd. p. LII.
The diction of King James" 1 Bible has many peculiarities
which are worthy of the attention of a literary man. See New-
Englander, May, 1859. But it has no claim to be regarded as
a distinct dialect.
Following out these investigations, we come to the conclusion
adopted on page 5, supra, that the Anglo-Saxon is to be re-
garded as an older form of English ; the Moeso-Gothic, as an
older form of Anglo-Saxon ; and what is common to Sanskrit,
Greek, and Latin, as exhibiting the still older language.
APPENDIX.
^
Of
B. ADVERBS WITH Loss OF SUFFIX^-
(Comp. 10. II.)
In Anglo-Saxon, (which for our present purpose may be re-
garded as ancient English, or the language of our ancestors,)
the adverb was usually formed from the adjective by the addi-
tion of e ; as, georn and geornlic, earnest ; georne and geornlice,
earnestly; sweotol, manifest; sweotole and sweotolice, mani-
festly ; swidh and swidhlic, great ; swidhe and swidhlice, greatly.
It is exactly by dropping this adverbial termination e, espe-
cially where the connection in meaning of the adverb and of
the adjective is not immediately obvious, that in English many
adverbs are found agreeing in form with the adjectives from
which they are derived ; as,
1. Anglo-Sax, clcen, adj. and clane, adv. Whence Eng.
clean, adj. and adv. The use of the adverb clean, signifying
* entirely,' is found Josh. 3 : 17. Ps. 77 : 8. etc. Its connec-
tion with the adjective clean, signifying ' pure,' is not obvious
at first view. This use of the adverb clean is now deemed in-
elegant. The form cleanly is used for the adverb in the more
obvious senses.
2. Anglo-Sax, clanlic, adj. and clcenlice, adv. Whence Eng.
cleanly, adj. and adv. The form cleanlily is objectionable on
euphonic grounds, and is not now used.
3. Anglo-Sax, fcest and fcestlic, adj. and fceste and fcestlice,
adv. Germ.fest, adj. and fast, adv. Whence Eng. fast, adj. and
adv. The formfastly is used in the more obvious sense.
4. Anglo-Sax, aelic, adj. and gelice, adv. Whence Eng. alike,
adj. and adv. The form alikely is not used.
5. Anglo-Sax, heag and healic, adj. and heage and healice, adv.
Whence Eng. high, adj. and adv. The form high as an adverb
is now nearly superseded by the form highly.
6. Anglo-Sax, heard and heardlic, adj. and hearde and heard-
lice, adv. Whence Eng. hard, adj. and adv. The forms hard
and hardly are both used as adverbs, but with discrimination.
7. Anglo-Sax, hlud, adj. and hlydde, adv. Whence Eng.
loud, adj. and adv. The form loud as an adverb is found Neh.
12 : 42. The form loudly is also used.
8. Anglo-Sax, lang or long, adj. and lange or longe and long-
lice, adv. Whence Eng. long, adj. and adv. The form longly
has been used by Shakspeare in a peculiar sense.
5*6 FORMATION OF ENGLISH WORDS.
9. Anglo-Sax. Icet or lat, adj. and Icete or late and Icetlice,
adv. Whence Eng. late, adj. and adv. The form lately is also
used, having the sense of recently.
10. Anglo-Sax, riht and rihtlic, adj. and rihte and rihtlice,
adv. Whence Eng. right, adj. and adv. The forms right and
rightly are both used as adverbs, but with discrimination.
11. Anglo-Sax, sar and sarlic, adj. and sare and sarlice, adv.
Whence Eng. sore, adj. and adv. The forms sore and sorely are
now both used as adverbs.
12. Anglo-Sax, seft or sq/2 and seftlic, adj. and se/fo or so/te,
adv. Whence Eng. soft, adj. and adv. The form soft as an
adverb is found in poetry, which often employs antiquated
forms ; as, " And soft unto himself he sayed." Chaucer. u Soft
sighed the flute." Thomson. But this form in prose is super-
seded by softly.
13. Anglo-Sax, thic, adj. and thicce and thiclice, adv. Whence
Eng. thick, adj. and adv. The forms thick and thickly are now
both used as adverbs.
14. Anglo-Sax, wid, adj. and wide, adv. Whence Eng. wide,
adj. and adv. The forms wide and widely are now both used
as adverbs.
15. Anglo-Sax, yfel and yfellic, adj. and yfele, adv. Whence
Eng. evil or ill, adj. and adv. The form evilly or illy, which
was used in one stage of the English language, is now obsolete.
16. Anglo-Sax, hrced and hrcedlic, adj. hrcedhe and hrcedlice,
adv. Whence Eng. rath, adj. and adv. Both these uses of
rath are now obsolete ; but rather, the comparative form of the
adverb, is still in full use.
That this mode of forming adverbs has extended itself to a
few adjectives of French or Latin origin, is not surprising ; as,
Eng. clear ) adj. and adv. (comp. Fr. clair, Lat. clarus and dare) ;
just, adj. and adv. (comp. Fr. juste, Lat. Justus andjiiste).
These comparisons, if rightly made, lead to the following
conclusions, which throw light on some points still mooted by
writers on English grammar :
1. In examples like the following, certain forms, which some
have claimed to be adjectives, are really adverbs, for they once
had the termination peculiar to this class of words :
" To stick fast in mire ;" comp. Anglo-Sax, sticodefceste, stuck
fast, with the adverbial termination.
" Correct thy heart, and all will go right ;" comp. Anglo-
Sax, rihte, with the adverbial termination.
APPENDIX. 6
"Favors came thick upon him;" comp. Anglo-Sax. feollon
thicce, fell thick, with the adverbial termination.
" Open thine hand wide ;" comp. Anglo-Sax, wide, with the
adverbial termination.
2. This use of certain adjectives without change of form, as
adverbs, has descended to us fairly from our ancestors, and is
not to be reprobated as an innovation in language, arising from
the careless omission of the suffix ly.
3. The apparent poetic use of adjectives for adverbs may be
explained on the principle that the poets delight in antique
forms. This use is often found in poetry, where it is obsolete
in prose ; as,
" Drink deep or taste not the Pierian spring." POPE.
" Soft sighed the flute." THOMSON.
" Slow tolls the village clock." BEATTIE.
" Full many a gem of purest ray serene." GRAY.
This article was published in Prof. Fowler's English Gram-
mar, Ed. II. (1855.) p. 362, but has now been revised and cor-
rected.
This revision, made by the aid of the new editions of Web-
ster's and Worcester's Dictionaries, will enable the reader to
correct what is said supra, 10. II. p. 14, 15, that fast and
long have never adopted the suffix ly.
C. REDUPLICATE FORMS IN ENGLISH.
(Comp. 10. IV).
The following words, on account of the important philological
principles which may be deduced from them, deserve more at-
tention than they have usually received :
1. JBibble-babble, idle talk, senseless prattle ; from babble,
idem, (comp. Fr. babbiller, Dutch babbelen, to talk idly.)
I wel may and will cutte of all his bibble babbel. Sir T.
MORE.
Malvolio, Malvolio ! thy wittes the heavens restore, endeavor
thy selfe to sleepe, and leave thy vaine bibble-babble. SHAKSP.
2. Chit-chat, idle or familiar talk ; from chat, idem.
I am a member of a female society, who call ourselves the
chit-chat club. SPECT. No. 560.
Look'd just as coxcombs look on earth ;
Then raised his chin, then cock'd his hat,
TO grace this common-place chit-chat.
MALLET, " Cupid and Hymen,"
58 FORMATION OF ENGLISH WORDS.
3. Ding-dong, the repetition of a stroke ; the sound of a bell ;
from ding, to knock or beat with violence.
In this regioun is ane carnell of stanis Hand togiddir in maner
of ane crown, and ryngis (quhen thay ar doung) as ane bell.
BELLENDEN, Desc. Alb.
They went to fighting ding-dong. Sir J. STODDART.
Let us all ring Fancy's knell,
Ding, Dong, bell ! ' SHAKSP.
4. Dingle-dangle, a swinging or oscillating motion ; from
dangle, to hang loose.
He'd rather on a gibbet dangle. BUTLER, Hudibras.
I shall see thee go off, just at twelve o'clock, dingle-dangle.
A Modern Comedy.
5. Fiddle-faddle, trifling; from fiddle, to trifle.
Those degenerate arts and shifts deserve no better name than
fiddling. BACON, on Learning.
With abundance of fiddle-faddle of the same nature. SPECT.
No. 229.
She was a troublesome, fiddle-faddle, old woman. ARBUTH-
NOT.
6. Flim-flam, a freak; a trick; from flam, idem.
This is a pretty flim-flam. BEAUM. and FLETCHER.
7. Gew-gaw, a bauble; (comp. ^T.JOUJOU, a play-thing.)
A heavy gew-gaw called a crown. DRYDEN.
8. Gibble-gabble, noisy conversation; from gabble, idem.
BONIF. Fr. Diet,
9. Giffe-gaffe, (comp. Anglo-Sax, gifan, to give.)
Somewhat was geven to them before, and they must neades
geve somewhat againe ; for giffe- gaffe was a good felow. Bp.
LATIMER, 1562.
10. Knick-knack, a toy ; from knack, idem.
But if ye use these knick-knacks. BEAUM. and FLETCHER.
11. Mish-mash, a medley, a heap of things thrown togeth-
er ; from mash, idem. Sir T. HERBERT.
12. Pit-a-pat or apitpat, in a flutter; from pat, to beat or
tap.
And the ratling pitpat noyse. B. JONSON.
The pit-a-pat of two young hearts. DRYDEN.
13. Prittle-prattle, idle talk; from prattle, idem.
There arose a new stir in Rome immediately, and every
man's mouth was full of prittle-prattle and seditious words.
NORTH'S Plutarch,
APPENDIX. 59
14. Riff-raff, sweepings, refuse; from raff, idem.
The riff-raff of their age. Lord CROMWELL.
15. See-saw, a vibratory motion; from to saw.
His wit all see-saw between this and that. POPE.
16. Shilly-shally, irresolution ; probably from shall I?
Bob did not shilly-shally go,
Nor said one word of friend or foe.
KING : " The Eagle and the Robin."
17. Sing-song, bad singing ; monotony; from song.
18. Skimble-skamble, wandering, disorderly; from scamble,
to stir quick.
A couching lion and a ramping cat,
And such a deal of skimble-skamble stuff,
As puts me from my faith. SHAKSP.
19. Slip-slop, bad liquor; from slop, idem.
20. Snip-snap, tart dialogue with quick replies ; from snap,
to answer quickly.
Dennis and dissonance, and captious art,
And snip-snap short, and interruption smart. POPE.
21. Tick-tack, the noise of a .blacksmith's shop ; also a game
at tables; from tick, to beat, to pat. MILTON.*
22. Tittle-tattle, empty babble ; from tattle, idem.
Of every idle tittle-tattle that went about, Jack was suspect-
ed for the author. ARBUTHNOT.
23. Twittte-twattle, idle talk ; from twattle, idem.
All that ever he did was not worth so much as the twittle-
twattle that he maketh. HOLLAND.
24. Whim-wham, a freak, fancy ; from whim, idem.
25. Zig-zag, with short turns or angles ; (comp. Germ, zacken,
. jagg, a point.)
A few others might be added ; as click-clack, a plaything
with which a clacking is made ; crincum-crancum, winding
round, as a crooked path; crick-crack, the noise of a thing
cracking; dilly-dally, to trifle away time; mingle-mangle, a
medley ; pintle-pantle or pintledy-pantledy, in a flutter ; shim-
sham, foolery.
Remarks on the preceding Words.
1. These words are proper reduplicate forms. They are not
compounded of two distinct words, but they are formed by
60 FORMATION OF ENGLISH WORDS.
iterating or repeating the same word. It is an error to sup-
pose that each part of the. composition has a distinct signifi-
cancy. Yet S. Skinner would connect fiddle-faddle with Fr.
fade or Lat.fatuus, foolish, as if the compound meant fiddle-
foolish; C. Richardson would connect chit-chat with chit, a
child, as if the compound meant childish-chat; and another
distinguished philologist would connect see-saw with sea, as if
the compound meant the sawing of the sea.
2. The change of vowel evidently depends on a regular
euphonic law. The short vowel in the first part is a prepara-
tion for the fuller sound in the second. This renders the whole
word melodious and expressive. Tt is improper to call this
change of vowel a corruption, or to seek in it for any peculiar
significancy. Yet Dr. Johnson calls chit-chat a corruption of
chat-chat ; J. Thomson' calls chit a diminutive of chat ; and
Stoddart makes pit a diminutive of pat.
3. These words illustrate an important formative principle
in language. They are not formed by internal inflection, that
is, by a change of vowel within the root itself; as band or bond
from bind ; nor by derivation ; as bondage from bond ; nor by
composition of two words ; as bondman from bond and man ;
but by a peculiar process. This principle in the formation of
language has its natural place after internal inflection, and be-
fore derivation.
4. This mode of forming words, consisting in a mechanical
repetition of the same sound, is naturally adapted to express
(1.) the continuous flow of conversation ; as bibble-babble, chit-
chat, gibble-gabble, prittle-prattle, snip-snap, tittle-tattle, twittle-
twattle ; (2.) other constant and repeated sounds; as, click-
clack, crick-crack, ding-dong, sing-song, tick-tack ; (3.) certain
oscillatory motions ; as crincum-crancum, dingle-dangle, pintle-
pantle, pit-a-pat, see-saiv, zig-zag; (4.) certain mental fluctua-
tions or oscillations; as dilly-dally, fiddle-faddle, flim-flam,
gew-gaw, yiffe-gaffe, knick-knack, shilly-shally, shim-sham, whim-
wham ; and (5.) some miscellaneous things involving the idea
of repetition ; as mish-mash, mingle-mangle, riff-raff, skimble-
skamble, slip-slop.
5. These are favorite formations with most of the Teutonic
nations, particularly with the common people. Thus we have :
Germ, fickfacken, to play tricks ; klingklang, a jingle ; misch-
masch ; singsang ; schnickschnack, idle talk ; tick-tack, in a flut-
ter ; wirrwarr, confusion ; wischivasch, idle talk ; zickzack.
APPENDIX. 61
Low Sax. fakfacken ; hinkhanken, to hobble about; mish-
mash ; ticktacken, to touch gently and often ; tiesketauske ;
titeltateln ; wibbelwabbeln ; wirrwarr, confusion ; zieskezaaske.
Dan. miskmask ; sniksnak ; trictrac, a game at tables.
Swed. miskmask ; sicksack ; wilier iv alia, confusion.
Scott, click-clack, uninterrupted loquacity, (comp. Eng. clack,
to let the tongue run ;) dish- clash, idle talk, from clash, idem ;
clitter- clatter, idle talk, from clatter, idem ; fiery-fary, bustle,
confusion, fromjiery ov/ary, idem -,fike-facks, humors, whims,
from fike, to be inconstant ; fix-fax, hurry, perhaps from the
same ; tig-lag, a confused noise of tongues, perhaps a softening
of click- clack ; mixtie-maxtie, or mixie-maxie, in a state of
confusion ; niff-naffs, trifles ; nignayes or nignyes, whims, tri-
fles ; whiltie-whaltie, in a state of palpitation.
Also Fr. criccrac, noise of a thing cracking ; micmac, in-
trigues ; trictrac, a game at tables ; zig-zag.
6. Besides these examples which have a play of vowels, pro-
ducing an alliteration, we have another class which have a play
of consonants, producing a sort of rhyme ; as handy -dandy, a
play in which children change hands and places; harum-scarum
or harum-starum, flighty ; higgledy-piggledy, confusedly ; hod-
dy-doddy, a foolish fellow; hoity-toity, an interjection of sur-
prise; hugger-mugger, secretly; hum-drum, & stupid fellow;
hurly-burly, confusion ; hurdy-gurdy, a kind of stringed in-
strument ; hurry-skurry, confusedly ; namby-pamby, having lit-
tle affected prettinesses ; pell-mell, confusedly ; pick-nick, a club
in which each one contributes to the entertainment; slang-
whanger, a noisy talker of slang, according to Dr. Pickering a
recent Americanism; topsy-turvy, with the bottom upward.
It is remarkable how large a proportion of these words begin
with h.
7. So great has been the attachment to these two formations,
that they have been sometimes adopted much to the disfigure-
ment of the original word ; as criss-cross, for Christ' } s cross ;
helter-skelter, for the Latin phrase hilariter et celeriter ; hocus-
pocus, for the Latin sentence hoc est corpus meum ; hodge-
podge, or hotch-potch, for the French compound hoche-pot ;
tag-rag for tag and rag ; whipper-snapper for whip-snapper.
8. Words of these formations are often stigmatized as cant
terms, or as being familiar, trivial, low, base, vulgar. The facts
of the case appear to be these. The mode of formation by re-
duplication is unobjectionable in itself. It is one which lies at
6
62 FORMATION OF ENGLISH WORDS.
the foundation of languages, classic as well as others. As con-
nected with a play of vowels or of consonants, it is used exten-
sively, as we have seen, among the Teutonic nations. Some of
the words certainly are not inelegant. As a class they are
forcible and impressive, and orators occasionally use them with
great effect. But as these words are a part of our Anglo-Saxon
inheritance, as they express some of the ruder passions of the
soul, and as they rest more or less on the adventitious aid of
alliteration and rhyme, our rhetoricians, and those who lay
claim to a refined taste, have generally been disposed to reject
them from the higher kinds of writing.
Nov. 1842.
D. THE ENGLISH ADJECTIVE SUFFIX en.
(Comp. 13. II.)
The English suffix en, (Goth, ein, Old Germ, in, Germ.
Dutch, Swed. Dan. and Anglo-Sax, en; compare Lat. inus,) is
attached to words of Teutonic origin, and forms hylonymic ad-
jectives, or adjectives expressing the material of which a thing
is made. Thus it is joined
1 . To names of metals and minerals ; as, brazen (from
brass ;) earthen ; golden ; leaden.
2. To names of trees and plants ; as, ashen ; beechen ; birch-
en ; boxen ; flaxen ; hempen ; linen, (from Anglo-Sax, lin, flax ;)
oaken ; wooden ; yewen.
3. To names of grain ; as, oaten, wheaten.
4. To miscellaneous names of the material ; as, milken ;
silken; threaden; waxen; woollen; also leathern.
Compare Anglo-Sax. (I.) gylden, golden; stanen, made of
stone; sylfren, made of silver; (2.) becen, beechen ; fleaxen,
flaxen ; linen ; treowen, wooden ; (3.) hwcetene, wheaten ; (4.)
lethern.
Also Germ. (1.) golden; irden, earthen; kupfern, made of
copper ; silbern, made of silver ; zinnen, made of tin ; (2.) lirken,
birchen ; flachsen, flaxen ; hanfen, hempen ; leinen, linen ; (4.)
seiden, silken; wollen, woollen.
The Eng. suffix ine, (Lat. inus, Ital. Span, and Portug. ino,
Fr. in,) is attached to words of Latin origin; as, (1.) adaman-
tine; crystalline; metalline; saline; sapphirine; (2.) can-
nabine ; (3.) coralline.
Sept. 6. 1843.
APPENDIX.
63
E. THE ENGLISH ADJECTIVE SUFFIX some.
(Comp. 13. X.)
This is a perplexing suffix. It is difficult to trace its origin
with certainty, or to define its meaning with exactness.
In Scottish the suffix sum sometimes denotes together, (comp.
Sansk. sam ; Pers. hem ; Gr. a/w, opov ; Lat. simul ; Fr. en-
semble ; Goth, samana ; Germ, sammt ; Dutch samen ; Anglo-
Sax, sam used as a prefix) ; as, twasum, two together ; thresum,
three together ;fyvesum, five together. But this accords neither
with the other uses of the suffix in Scottish, nor with its use in
the other Teutonic dialects ; as, for example, Scott, winsome ,
Germ, einsam, Eng. lonesome.
Most grammarians regard this suffix as the adjective some
used in the sense of somewhat, and this circumstance may have
affected its meaning and use with those who have been thus
taught. But I cannot find anything analogous in the English
language to support this explanation ; for (1.) some in the other
compounds, somewhat, somehow, etc. is a prefix and not a suf-
fix ; (2.) in laborless, which may seem to many analogous to
Idborsome, the suffix less is not the comparative degree of little,
but equivalent to our word loose, free ; and (3.) combinations,
like hindmost, midmost, are limited to words denoting place.
The suffix some, (Old Germ, sam, Old Norse samr, Old Sax.
sam, Germ. 5am, Dutch zaam, Anglo-Sax, sum, Scott, sum, some,)
is most probably connected with Gr. 6^6g, Lat. similis, Goth.
sama, the same, Old Germ, samalik, like, Eng. same ; and, like
the suffix lick, Eng. ly, denotes in general sameness, similarity,
X>r close connection.
It is found united with substantives, adjectives and verbs.
, Joined to verbs and abstract nouns, it denotes a tendency or
inclination to the given action or state. Joined to a concrete
noun or to an adjective, it denotes likeness or approximation^
I. This suffix is properly attached to words of Teutonic
origin.
1. To substantives ; as,
Burdensome, (like a burden,) burdenous, onerous.
Galsome, (inclined to gall or anger,) rancorous, malicious.
Obsolete.
Gamesome, (inclined to game or sport,) playful, sportive.
Mettlesome, (inclined to mettle or high spirits,) high-spirited
Play some, (inclined to play,) playful, sportive.
FORMATION OF ENGLISH WORDS.
Toilsome, (tending to toil,) painful, laborious.
Toothsome, (adapted to the tooth or palate,) palatable.
Winsome, (inclined to pleasure,) pleasurable. Obsolete.
From Anglo-Sax, wyn, pleasure.
Compare Old Germ, ancsam, anxious ; gammensam, game-
some ; wunisam, winsome ; Old Sax. wunsam, winsome ; Old
Norse gamansamr, gamesome; Anglo-Sax, angsum, anxious;
sibsum, peaceable ; weorcsum, irksome ;. wynsum, winsome ;
Germ, bedachtsam, considerate ; friedsam, peaceable ; Scott.
winsome.
(2.) To adjectives; as,
Blithesome, (blithe-like,) gay.
Darksome, (dark-like,) gloomy.
Frolicsome, (frolic-like,) merry.
Fulsome, (foul-like,) nauseous, offensive.
Gladsome, (glad-like,) joyous.
Lightsome, (light-like,) joyous.
Lithesome, (lithe-like,) pliant. Obsolete.
Loathsome, (loath-like,) hateful.
Lonesome, (lone-like,) lonely.
Longsome, (long-like,) tedious. Obsolete.
Mirksome, (mirk -like,) darksome, mirky.
Wearisome, (weary-like,) tedious.
Compare Old Germ, irresam, inconstant ; kimeinsam, com-
mon ; lihtsam, lightsome ; Old Norse langsamr, longsome ;
Anglo-Sax, langsum, longsome; Germ, einsam, lonesome; ge-
meinsam, common; langsam, longsome; Scott, fowsum, ful-
some ; langsum, longsome.
(3.) To verbs; as,
Boughsome, now buxom, (apt to bow or bend,) flexible, obe-
dient.
Handsome, (apt to hand or take hold of,) handy, dextrous.
From the root of hand and hound ; comp. hend in comprehend.
Comp. also Anglo-Sax, hablenlic, handsome.
Irksome, (apt to irk or tire,) tiresome.
Meddlesome, (apt to meddle,) officious.
Tiresome, (apt to tire,) irksome.
Wholesome, (apt to heal or cure,) salutary, salubrious.
Worrisome, (apt to worry,) fretful. Colloquial.
Compare Anglo-Sax, bocsum, boughsome ; hyrsum, obedient,
from hyran, to obey; Germ, biegsam, boughsome; duldsam,
patient.
APPENDIX. 65
II. This suffix is also joined, like other Teutonic suffixes, to
words derived from the Latin or French. Such combinations
are a later formation, having originated since the meeting of
the two great streams which constitute the English language.
Of course they are peculiar to the English language as such.
They are for the most part equivalent to the more legitimate
forms in ous.
(1.) Joined to substantives ; as,
Adventuresome, (inclined to adventure,) adventurous.
Delightsome, (tending to delight,) delightful, delicious. The
word delight is evidently derived to us from the Latin through
the French, although it has in a very strange manner acquired
a Teutonic orthography, as if compounded of de and light.
Dolesome, (tending to dole or grief,) doleful, dolorous.
Humor some, (inclined or tending to wit,) humorous; also
(inclined to ill-humor,) peevish.
Laborsome, (requiring labor,) laborious. Obsolete.
Quarrelsome, (inclined to quarrel,) quarrelous.
Venturesome, (inclined to venture,) venturous.
(2.) Joined to verbs ; as,
Cumbersome, (apt to cumber,) cumbrous. This word is de-
rived to us from the French, although it is of Teutonic origin.
Noisome, (apt to noy,) noyous.
Tendsome, (requiring attention,) fretful. Colloquial.
Troublesome, (apt to trouble,) vexatious; different from
troublous, which has a passive signification. The word trouble
is derived to us from the French, although it is probably of
Teutonic origin.
Note. Of these derivatives only burdensome, delightsome,
loathsome, noisome, troublesome, wearisome, and wholesome,
are found in the common English version of the Bible.
Oct. 12. 1843.
F. ON THE ADVERBIAL GENITIVES IN s AND si.
(Comp. p. 23.)
The genitive case in English is usually regarded as alto-
gether adnominal, i. e. as used only in connection with a noun.
Hence the only rule in our common grammars concerning this
case is, that it is governed by a substantive, either expressed,
or implied by the context, "in the other Teutonic dialects,
however, this case is also used adverbially, i. e. in connection
6*
66 FORMATION OF ENGLISH WORDS.
with a verb, and that to indicate various relations. This ad-
verbial use of the genitive, although generally overlooked, and
often misunderstood, may be shown to exist also in English in
several classes of words.
I. This genitive is found in a few substantives, and that with-
out any preposition preceding.
1. Needs, (Old Eug.nedes, needes,) of or from necessity. Thus,
Soche thinges muste nedes be. TYNDALE, 1534, Mark 13 : 7.
I must needes goe forth and see it. Rhemish Version, Luke
14: 18.
He will needs be a judge. Gen. 19:9.
Needs here is the genitive of need. Comp. Anglo-Sax.
nedes or nydes, of necessity, composed of ned or nyd, neces-
sity, and es, the termination of the genitive singular masculine.
2. Ways, in noways, straightways, otherways, longways,
sideways.
Ways here is the genitive of way. Comp. Germ, keines
weges, noways, genitive of keiner iveg ; gerades weges, straight-
ways, genitive of gerader weg.
Note. Ways in always is probably plural. Comp. Anglo-Sax, ealle
wcega, in all ways, the adjective ealle and the substantive wcega being
both in the accusative plural.
3. Gates, in Old English athergates, in another manner.
Thus,
If Sir Toby had not been in drink, he would have tickled
you othergates than he did. SHAKSP.
Gates here is the genitive of gate, \. q. gait, way, manner.
Comp. Scott, thus gatis, after this manner, both words being
in the genitive singular.
Note. Gates in algates is probably plural. Comp. Anglo-Sax, algeats;
also Scott, mony gatis,. in various ways ; also always supra.
4. Times in sometimes, at one time.
Here times is the genitive of time.
Note. Times in sometimes, at some times or intervals, is plural.
II. This genitive is found in some substantives with a prepo-
sition preceding.
1. Adays, (Old Eng. adayes, adaies.,) in or on day, i.e. by
day. Thus,
Aday when hyt is lygt. SYR LAUNFAL.
So in the phrase now adays
Days here is the genitive of day. Comp. Anglo-Sax, dages,
by day, genitive of dag, day; Germ, dags, by day, genitive of
dag, day.
APPENDIX. 67
j^b^, -The idea that days is plural, seems sometimes to have affected
its use. Thus,
What men of spirit now adays
Come to give sober judgment of new plays ? GAERICK.
2. Anights, in or on night, i. e. at night. Thus,
I bid him take that for coming anights. SHAKSP.
Such as sleepe anights. SHAKSP.
Nights here is the genitive of night. Comp. Anglo-Sax.
nihtes, Germ, nachts, where s, or es, is the termination of the
genitive singular masculine.
3. Besides, (Old Eng. bisidis,) by the side, over and above.
Thus,
In that dai Jhesus ghede out of the hous, and sate bisidis
the see. WICLIF, Mat. 13:1.
Sides here is the genitive of side. Comp. Germ, beiseits,
aside, where s is the termination of the genitive singular mas-
culine.
4. Ships, in midships, amidships, thwartships, athwart-
ships, is the genitive of ship.
III. This genitive is found in a few adjectives, either with or
without a preposition preceding.
1. Askance, obliquely. Comp. Dutch schuins, obliquely,
where s is the genitive termination.
2. Soons, in Old English eftsones or eftsoons, soon afterwards,
compounded of Anglo-Sax, eft, afterwards, and sones, soon.
Moyses eftsones resorting to Damascus. GOWER.
Crying eftsoons alowd. HOLLAND.
Eftsoons the father of the silver flood. THOMSON.
Soons here is the genitive of soon. Comp. Anglo-Sax.
9ones, with the termination of the genitive.
3. Unawares, or at unawares, (Old Eng. unwares ;) unex-
pectedly. Thus,
That daye come on you unwares. TYNDALE, Luke 21 : 34.
Jacob stole away unawares to Laban. Gen. 31 : 20.
Let destruction corne upon him at unawares. Ps. 35 : 8.
Unawares here is the genitive of unaware. Comp. Anglo-
Sax, unawares, which is in the genitive.
4. Wards, in inwards, outwards, towards, fromwards, on-
wards, upwards, downwards, forwards, backwards, after-
wards, sidewards, hitherwards, homewards.
Wards here is the genitive of ward, Lat. versus. Comp.
Goth, andvairthis, jaindvairths, vithravairths. Old Germ.
inwertes, uzwertes, anawertes, heimwartes.. Germ, einwdrts,
68 FORMATION OF ENGLISH WORDS.
auswartS) abwarts, aufwarts, unterwarts, niederwarts, vor-
warts, ruckwarts, seitwarts, herwarts, thalwdrts. Anglo-Sax.
uleweardes, towardes or toweardes, upweardes^ fromweardes,
hameiveardes.
The termination s in these examples from the kindred dia-
lects is evidently the sign of the genitive case.
IY. This genitive is found in some numerals.
1. Once, (Old Eng. onys, oonys, onis ;) one time, formerly.
Thus,
For and thy wyfe may onys aspye. Poem in the time of
Henry II.
He was deed oonys. WICLIF, Rom. 6:10.
Once here is the genitive of one. Comp. Dutch eens, once,
genitive of een, one ; Old Germ, eines, genitive of em, one ;
Germ, einst, (for eines,) formerly.
2. Twice, (Old Eng. tioies, twyes,) two times. Thus,
As presente twies. WICLIF, 2 Cor. 13 : 2.
Twyes is somer in that londe. KYNG ALISAUNDER.
Twice here is the genitive of two.
3. Thrice, (Old Eng. thries, thryse,) three times. Thus,
Thries I was betun. WICLIF, 2 Cor. 11 : 25.
Thou shalte denye me thryse. BIBLE, 1551.
Thrice here is the genitive of three.
Y. This genitive is found in some pronouns.
1. Else, (Old Eng. elles, ellys, ellis, els ; Scott, ellis ;) other-
wise.
Elles wyder. R. GLOUCESTER.
Let honge me ellys. PIERS PLOUHMAN.
Ellis ye schuln have no mede at youre fadir that is in hev-
enes. WICLIF, Mat. 6:1.
Or els ye get no rewarde of youre father which is in heven.
- TYNDALE, Mat. 6:1.
All that els I saw. SPENSER.
Else here is the genitive of the root of Gr. e&Ao, Lat. alius,
Goth. alis. Comp. Anglo-Sax, elles, Old Germ, alies, elies,
alles, alias, ellies, Dan. ellers ; in all which forms s is the ter-
mination of the genitive.
2. Hence, (Old Eng. hennes, hennis, hens; also /tan, henne ;)
from this place.
Holynesse and love han ben longe hennis. PIERS PLOUHMAN.
Passe thou hennes. WICLIF, Mat. 17 : 20.
Y eschulen not seme fro hennesforthe. WICLIF, Mat. 23 : 39.
APPENDIX. 69
Hens over a mile. CHAUCER.
Hence here probably has the termination of the genitive.
Comp. Anglo-Sax, heonun, (Lat. hinc, Provenc,. hereance,) Germ.
hinnen.
3. Thence, (Old Eng. thennes, thennis, thens ;) from that
place.
And he ghede out fro thennes. WICLIF, Mark 6:1.
They thennes went. CHAUCER.
From thensforih. CHAUCER.
Thence here probably has the termination of the genitive.
Comp. Anglo-Sax, thanon ; Germ, dannen ; Provenc, . thereance.
4. Whence, (Old Eng. whennes, whethence ;) from what place.
Of whennes to this, alle these thingis. WICLIF, Mark 6 : 2.
From whens hath he these thinges ? TYNDALE, Mark 6 : 2.
Whens that she came. GOWER.
Whence here probably has the termination of the genitive.
Comp. Anglo-Sax, hwanan, hwanon, Old Germ, hwanan, Germ.
wannen.
5. Since, (Old Eng. sens, sence, sithence, sithens,) from the
time.
How longe is it a goo, sens this hath happened him ? TYN-
DALE, Mark 9:21.
For sence the fathers dyed, all thinges continue. TYNDALE,
2 Pet. 3 : 4.
And therefore sithence the bishop of Rome will now adaies
be so called. JEWELL.
For sithens shootinge was neglected. ASCHAM.
Sithence the verie apostles owne times. HOOKER.
Before or sithence. HOOKER.
Since here probably has the termination of the genitive.
Comp. Anglo-Sax, sithen, siththan, syththan, Dutch sinds,
Germ. seit.
6. Thus, (Old Eng. this,) in this manner.
He hath lain this long at great costes and charges and canne
not have hys matter come to the hearynge. LATIMER, 1562.
u Thus much" for " this much." WEBSTER.
Thus here is the genitive of the or that. Comp. Anglo-Sax.
thus, thces, Dutch dus. The Anglo-Sax, thces, this, is the gen-
itive singular masculine and neuter of se, theo, that.
VI. This genitive is found in some words, in which s the
sign of the genitive is now hardened into st.
1. Against, (Old Eng. agens, ageins,) in opposition to.
70 FORMATION OF ENGLISH WORDS.
He that is not with me : is agens me. WICLIF, Mat. 12 : 30.
Ageins nature. CHAUCER.
Against here is probably the genitive case of an old noun,
whose meaning cannot be exactly defined. Comp. Anglo-Sax.
to-geanes, to-genes, to-gagnes, to-gegnes, Dutch tegens. These
Anglo-Saxon and Dutch forms commence with a different pre-
fix, but have the genitive termination.
Note. The convenient distinction made in English between again and
against does not exist in the other dialects.
2. Alongst, (obsolete, see Dr. Webster ; Old Eng. alongest,
Scott, langls ;) by the length.
To sayle alongest by the lande. NICOLLS, Thucyd. 1550.
Alongst the sea-coast. KNOLLES.
Langis the ryvere of Anien. DOUGLAS, Virgil.
Alongst here is the genitive case of long. Comp. Germ.
langs, along; Old Germ, langes, and Germ, langst, a long
time; Dutch onlangs, recently, langs, along; Swed. l&ngs,
along.
3. Amidst, in the midst or middle. See Midst.
4. Amongst, (Old Eng. amanges^ amonges, amongest ; Scott.
amangis, amangys ;) in the crowd.
To halden amanges yen ine hord. Old English Letter of the
year 1258.
Amonges other of his honest thinges. CHAUCER.
I stonde as one amongest all. GOWER.
Amangys thame. SCOTT. ACTS, 1567.
Amongst here is probably the genitive case of an old noun,
denoting a crowd or multitude.
5. Atwixt, (obsolete, see Dr. Webster,) between. See Be-
twixt.
Great love was atwixt hem two. CHAUCER.
With dreadful thunder and lightning atwixt. SPENSER.
6. Awhilst, (not in Webster, nor in Richardson.) See
Whilst.
7. Betwixt, (Old Eng. lituex, lytwixe, betwix, litwixen, by-
twyx, lytwyt, betwyx ; Scott, betweesh ;) between.
Bituex them. R. BRUNNE.
Bytwixe us and you. WICLIF, Luke 16 : 26.
Betwix all maner folk. CHAUCER.
This was the forward pleinly t' endite,
Bitwixen Theseus and him Arcite. CHAUCER.
APPENDIX. 71
Betwixt here is the genitive case of an old noun signifying
two. Compare Anglo-Sax, betweohs, betweox, betwux, betwuxt,
betwixt.
8. Midst, in the phrases amidst, about the midst, from the
midst, in the midst, into the midst, of the midst, out of the
midst, through the midst, etc. (Old Eng. myddes, myddest,
myds, middes, middest, mids ; Scott, myddis;) the middle.
In the myddes of the world. R. GLOUCESTER.
Yet was he caught amiddes all his pride. CHAUCER.
And the vayle of the temple dyd rent even thorow the
myddes. TYNDALE, Luke 23 : 45.
Which is in the myddes of the paradice of God. TYNDALE,
Rev. 2 : 7.
The shippe was now in the middes of the see. TYNDALE,
Mat. 14 : 24.
For lykewise as God is in the myds of the good counsayle,
so in the myddest of an evyl counsayl, is ther undoutedly the
dyvel. Sir T. MOORE.
When Calidora
Him overtook in middest of his race. SPENSER, Faerie Queene.
Among the middest crowd. SPENSER.
And the vaile of the temple was rent in the mids. Original
Edition of King James's Bible, Luke 23 : 45.
Which is in the middest of the paradise of God. Original
Edition of King James's Bible, Rev. 2:7.
In myddis of the land. WYNTOWN.
Midst is rarely used as a nominative, or as an accusative
without a preposition.
Midst here is the genitive case of mid, the middle. Cornp.
Anglo-Sax, to-middes, where middes is the genitive of Anglo-
Sax, midd, the middle ; Germ, mittelst, by means of, for mittels,
the genitive* of Germ, mittel, the middle or means.
Note. Dr. Webster supposes st in midst to be the sign of the super-
lative degree. So Sir John Stoddart, art. Grammar, in Encyc. Metrop.
p. 129.
9. Whilst, awhilst ; (Old Eng. whiles, whitest ; Scott, quhiles,
whiles;) while.
Wat sholde we women, worche the whiles. PIERS PLOUH-
MAN.
Whitest good men wanted it. BEAUMONT and FLETCHER.
Whiles he tasted the wine. Some Editions of King James's
Bible, Daniel 5 : 2.
72 FORMATION OF ENGLISH WORDS.
Quhiles wandering, quhiles dandring. BUREL'S Pilg.
Whilst here is the genitive case of while, time.
Note. On the st generally, comp. Germ, nebst, (from neben, nebens,)
anders and anderst ; selbst, (Old Germ, selbs, Dutch zelfs.)
June, 1843.
1 The foregoing was published in the American Journal of
Science for June, 1843. But our lexicographers have been
slow in admitting the principle contended for.
It does not appear that Dr. Webster was at all aware of the
genitive case inherent in these words. Dr. Chs. Richardson
recognizes the genitive in once, twice, thrice, hence, thence,
whence. Dr. Worcester only in the word once.
The misapprehension of this subject has led to erroneous
statements like the following; that needs is equivalent to need
is ; that besides is a corruption of beside ; that else is the im-
perative of Anglo-Sax, alysan, to dismiss ; and that adays and
anights contain plural nouns.
G. THE ENGLISH SUFFIX er.
(Comp. p. 24.)
The suffix er, which occurs so often in English, has different
origins and uses, which need to be carefully distinguished. I
propose to attempt a scientific classification.
I. The Teutonic suffix er, (Goth, r, Old Germ, ar, Germ, er,
Anglo Sax. r, or, er,) in some words is merely formative, with-
out farther significancy of itself.
1. In substantives,
(1.) Denoting the active subject ; as, finger, (Goth, figgrs,
Germ, and Anglo-Sax, finger ;) fodder, (Germ, fatter, Anglo-
Sax, foddor, fodder ;) ladder, (Old Germ, hleitar, Germ, lei-
ter, Anglo-Sax, hladder ;) hammer, (Germ, hammer, Anglo-Sax.
hamor, hamer ;) rudder, (Germ, ruder, Anglo-Sax, rother ;)
weather, (Germ, wetter, Anglo-Sax, weder.)
(2.) Denoting the passive object ; as, bladder, (Germ, blat-
ter, Anglo-Sax, blcedr ;) madder, ( Anglo-Sax, mceddere ;)
shoulder, (Germ, schulter, Anglo-Sax, sculder ;) water, (Old
Germ, tvazzar, Germ, wasser, Anglo-Sax, water.)
(3.) Denoting the abstract state or action ; as, hunger, (Goth.
huhrus, Old Germ, hungar, Germ, and Anglo-Sax, hunger,')
murther or murder, (Goth, maurthr, Old Germ, mordar, An-
glo-Sax, morther.)
APPENDIX. 73
2, In adjectives; as, bitter, (Goth, bailrs, Germ. Miter, An-
glo-Sax, biter ;) meager, (Old Germ, magar, Germ, mager,
Anglo-Sax, mceger.)
II. The Teutonic nominal suffix, (Goth, areis, Old Germ.
ari, are, aere, Germ, er, Anglo-Sax, ere,) denoting the active
subject.
(1.) Denoting the male person or animal, when added to the
name of the female; as, widower from widow; gander from
goose; (comp. Germ, wittwer, a widower, from ivittwe, a
widow ; ganser, a gander, from gans, a goose ; enterich, a
drake, from ente, a duck ; tauber, a male pigeon, from taube ;
kater, a male cat, from kalze ;) or when it corresponds to ess
in the name of the female ; as, adulterer, hucksterer, murderer,
sorcerer ; in which the termination is evidently Teutonic, al-
though some of the words may be of Latin or French origin.
(2.) Denoting the personal subject in innumerable verbs ; as,
lover, hater, baker, brewer, etc.
(3.) Denoting animals; as, ambler, galloper, hunter, pacer,
pointer, setter, sitter, skimmer, spinner.
(4.) Denoting the instrumental subject ; as, boiler, borer,
bracer, clapper, cleaver, climber, creeper, cutter, dipper,
feeler, forerunner, galloper, girder, graver, grinder, holder,
lighter, muffler, penner, pointer, retainer, roaster, rubber,
scraper, shutter, skimmer, slipper, strainer, streamer, strength-
ener, snuffers, sweetener, toaster, voider^ wrapper.
(5.) Denoting the personal subject connected with the radi-
cal noun ; as, armorer, gunner, halter, jailer, jobber, potter ,
spicer, tinner, warrener.
(6.) In gentile nouns and some kindred words:
1. In gentile nouns; as, Edinburgher, Hamburger, Hol-
lander, New~Englander, New-Havener, New-Yorker, New-
Zealander.
2. In kindred words; as, burgher, foreigner, highlander, for-
ester, freeholder, inlander, villager.
III. The Teutonic verbal suffix, forming frequentatives from
other verbs; as, to chatter from to chat; to clamber or climber,
from to climb; to clapper, from to clap; to flitter, from to flit;
to gibber, from to gab ; to glimmer, from to gleam ; to wander,
from to wend.
IV. The Latin suffix er merely formative, without farther
significancy.
74 FORMATION OF ENGLISH WORDS.
1 . In nouns ; as, cancer, canker, center, chamber, cucumber,
member, meter, number, sober, tiger, ulcer.
2. In verbs ; as, consider, ponder.
V. The suffix er, (Lat. arius, Ital. iere, Span, ero, Portug.
eiro, Fr. ier,) denoting the subject in words derived from the
Latin and French ; as, almoner, (Fr. aumonier ;) archer, (Lat.
arcuarius, Ital. arciero, Fr. archer;) banker, (Fr. banquier ;)
cordwainer, (Fr. cordouainier ;) cutler, (Fr. coutelier ;) falconer,
(Fr. fauconnier ;) forester, (Fr. forestier ;) justicer, (Fr. ^'ws-
ticier;) mercer, (Fr. mercier;) prisoner, (Fr. prisonnier;) renter,
(Fr. rentier ;) usurer, (Fr. usurier.)
Also butcher, garner, quarter, slander, stranger.
Also in the double suffixes ft'oner and sioner, (Fr. tionnaire
and sionnaire ;) as, commissioner. (Fr. commissionaire ;) ccw-
fectioner ; executioner; extortioner; missioner, (Fr. mission-
naire ;) pensioner, (Fr. pensionnaire ;) petitioner, (Fr. petition-
naire ; practitioner ; probationer ; stationer ; (Fr. stationnaire.)
VI. The French infinitive termination er or re, retained in
some words of French origin, and of course without any pecu-
liar significancy ; as,
To /a^er, (Fr. Caller, Dan. flattere.)
To mucker, (Ital. ammuchiare, to amass, Scott, mochre, to
hoard.)
To reconnoiter, (Fr. reconnoitre, Lat. recognoscere.)
To render, (Fr. rendre, Portug. render, Span, rendir, Ital.
rendere, Lat. reddere.)
To scamper, (Fr. escamper, Span, escampar, Ital. scampare.)
Feb. 5. 1842.
H. THE NOMINAL SUFFIX sler.
(Comp. p. 25.)
The English suffix ster, (Anglo Sax. es^re, w^rf, Dutch, 5^er,)
is found in a few English words of Teutonic origin, and denotes
1. Primarily the feminine of the corresponding masculine
form in er, (Anglo-Sax, ere, Dutch er;) as, Anglo-Sax, bceccstre,
a female baker, from bcecere ; fithelstre, a female fiddler, from
fithelere ; rcedestre, a female reader, from rcedere ; seamestre, a
seamstress, from seamere ; sangistre, a songstress, from sangere ;
webbestre, a female weaver, from webba ; witegestre, a proph-
etess, from witega ; coennestre, a mother ; forspennestre, a bawd ;
Icerestre, an instructress ; millistre, a harlot ; wcepenwifestre,
an hermaphrodite ; Dutch bafcster, a female baker, from bakker ;
APPENDIX. 5
koopster, a female buyer, from Jcooper ; tovenaaster, an en-
chantress, from tovenaar ; vleyster, a female flatterer, from
vleyer, a flatterer ; waschter, a female washer.
Sewster, (from sewer,) a female who sews.
Spinster, (from spinner,) a female who spins.
2. More commonly the subject, without reference to sex,
concerned with the idea expressed by the radical verb or noun ;
as Anglo-Sax, bcecestre, a baker.
Bakester, (from baker,) now only as a proper name, Baxter.
Brewster, (from brewer^) now only as a proper name.
Dabster, (from to dab,) one skilled in his business.
Deemster, (from to deem,) a judge in Jersey and the Isle of
Man.
Drugster, (from drugger,) a druggist.
Gamester, (from to game,) a gambler.
Huckster, (from to huck,) a retailer of small articles.
Hamster, (from Germ. V ham, to hide,) a species of rat.
Lewdster, (from lewd,) a lecher.
Lobster, (from to foop,) a crustaceous fish.
Maltster, (from to ma//,) one who makes malt.
Punster, (from punner,) a maker of puns.
Rhymster, (from rhymer,) a poor poet.
Seamster, (from to seam,) one that sews.
Shepster, (from sheep,) a shepherd.
Songster, (from Anglo-Sax, sangere,) a singer.
Tapster, (from to /op,) one whose business is to draw liquor.
Teamster, (from team,) one who drives a team.
Throwster, (from thrower,) one who twists or winds silk.
Webster, (from Anglo-Sax, webba, a weaver,) now only as a
proper name.
Whipster, (from to wA?>,) a nimble fellow.
Youngster, (from goung,) a lad.
JVbte 1. A. F. Pott derives the suffix ster, from Sansk. sn,
a woman. Dr. Webster derives it from Anglo-Sax, steora, a
director. But neither explanation is sufficiently confirmed.
Note 2. The Teutonic suffix ster, having lost its force to
express the feminine, the synonymous Latin suffix ess has been
superadded in some cases ; as huckstered, seamstress or semp-
stress, songstress. These words are hybrid malformations pe-
culiar to the English language ; yet they have been well re-
ceived.
May 29. 1841.
6 FORMATION OF ENGLISH WORM,
I. THE NOMINAL SUFFIX ard.
(Comp. p. 25.)
The suffix ard is of frequent occurrence in English, as well
as in some other languages. Its import is seldom alluded to in
our elementary books, and is very unsatisfactorily explained in
our best helps. If any thing can be effected by classification
and arrangement to elucidate its meaning, it ought to be wel-
comed by the friends of science.
The English suffix ard, (Anglo-Sax, heard, Dutch aard, Old
Dutch aert, Germ, hard and hart, Old Germ, hart ; also French
ard, arde, Span, and Ital. ardo, arda. Provenc. art,) is probably
connected with Eng. hard, (Anglo-Sax, heard, Dutch hard,
Germ, hart, Goth, hardus.)
I. This suffix, being of Teutonic origin, is properly attached
to Teutonic words.
1. To proper names of persons, originally denoting some
prominent or characteristic trait; as Bernard, Everard, Gerard,
Oiffard, Goddard, Kenard. Leonard, Richard, Wischard. Also
Renard, the proper name of the fox in poetry and fable.
2. To ampliatives derived from adjectives or participles, de-
noting some personal quality in excess; as drunkard, dullard,
haggard, laggard, lobbard, niggard, sluggard, wizard.
3. To ampliatives derived from verbs, denoting some quality
in excess ; as dotard, pollard. Usually some personal quality ;
as blinkard, braggart, (whence braggardismj) dastard, disard,
dizzard, dotard, stinkard.
II. This suffix, although of Teutonic origin, was adopted also
into the Romance or modern Latin languages. Hence it is
found in some words of French origin.
1. In some national denominations, perhaps with the impli-
cation of foreign ; as Savoyard, Spaniard.
2. In ampliatives, denoting some personal quality in excess;
as bastard, coward, galliard, Hard.
3. In names of animals, in which the ampliative meaning is
less obvious ; as bayard, buzzard, jumart.
4. In names of things, in which the ampliative meaning is
less obvious ; as billiard, bombard, hazard, mazard, mustard,
poniard, standard, tabard, tankard.
June 22. 1842,
APPENDIX.
J, THE NOMINAL SUFFIX kin.
(Comp. p. 26.)
Diminutives are words whose form has been altered to express
diminution or smallness. In use, however, they often acquire
the secondary import of tenderness and endearment, or that of
contempt; and sometimes lose their diminutive force altogether.
Diminutives differ from other derivatives in this that they
continue of the same part of speech with their primitives ; as
lambkin, a young lamb, from lamb. But baker, a substantive,
from the verb to bake. Their formation is a kind of motion,
distinct both from derivation and from inflection.
The power of forming diminutives is now nearly dormant in
English.
I propose to consider English diminutives in kin. The fol-
lowing list embraces most of the English words which have this
diminutive suffix.
1 . Bodkin, perhaps for bodikin, from body.
2. Bumkin or bumpkin, a short boom ; also a clown, as if
a blockhead ; from boom or beam, originally a tree.
3. Raskin or bootikin, a kind of half-boot, from boot. Comp.
Fr. bottine, a buskin, from botte, a boot.
4. Chicken or chick, the young of fowls, from cock. Comp.
Anglo-Sax, cicen, from cocc. There is here an attenuation or pre-
cession of the vowel, which is common in the kindred dialects.
5. Ciderkin, an inferior cider, from cider.
6. Dodkin or doitkin, a little doit, from doit, a small piece of
money. Comp. Germ, dutchen, from deut.
7. Firkin, a fourth part of a barrel, from four, as if a little
four.
8. Gherkin, a small pickled cucumber, from Germ, gurke, a
cucumber.
9. Griskin, obsolete, the spine of a hog, from grise, obsolete,
a swine.
10. Jerkin, a jacket, from Dutch jurk, a frock.
11. Jerkin, a kind of hawk, from Germ, geier, a hawk.
Comp. Eng. gyrfalcon (geier falcon), a species of hawk.
12. Kilderkin, from an uncertain root.
13. Kitten, a young cat, from cat. Comp. Germ, kdtzchen,
a young cat, from katze, a cat, and Eng. catkin, a species of
calyx resembling a cat's tail. There is here an attenuation or
precession of the vowel ; comp. chicken. [Comp. Note on p. 25.]
7*
78 FORMATION OF ENGLISH WORDS.
14. Lakin for ladikin, the little lady, in the phrase by V lakin,
by our little lady, meaning the virgin Mary, a form of oath in
Shakspeare. The diminutive here is the diminutive of en-
dearment.
15. Lambkin, a little lamb, from lamb. Comp. Germ, lamin-
then, from la mm.
16. Maiden, from maid. Comp. Germ, mddchen from magd.
There is now no difference of signification in maid and maiden.
17. Malkin or maukin, a kind of mop; also, a dirty wench.
From an uncertain root.
18. Minikin, diminutive, small, from obsolete min, the root
of minish, minor, etc.
19. Manikin, a little man, from man. Comp. Fr. manequin,
a wooden figure used by painters, the same word, derived from
the Teutonic.
20. Napkin, a towel, from Fr. nappe, a cloth. Here an
Anglo-Saxon suffix is attached to a Norman French word.
21. Pipkin, a small earthen boiler, from pipe.
22. Pumpkin, the name of a fruit, from Germ. pompe, a gourd.
23. Siskin, the name of a bird ; comp. Gerrn. susschen, from
suss, sweet.
24. Slamkin or slammerkin, obsolete, a slut, perhaps from
Germ. schlam?n, mud, mire.
This suffix is often found in proper names of persons ; as
Dawkin, a little David, from David ; Dicken or Dickon, from
Dick, for Richard ; Hawkin, from Hal for Henry ; Hopkin,
from Hob; Hodgkin, from Hodge; Huggin, from Hugh ; Lar-
Icin, from Larry for Lawrence; Jenkin, from Jean; Lukin, from
Louis, or perhaps from Luke ; Malkin (whence grimalkin, an
old cat ; also, the name of a spirit,) from Mai for Mary; Peter-
kin or Perkin, from Peter; Popkin, from Pop for Robert;
Sawkin, from Sal for Sarah; Simpkin, from Simeon; Tim-
kin, from Timothy; Tomkinfrom Thomas; Watkin, from Wat
for Walter ; Wilkin from William.
June 16. 1845.
K. THE NOMINAL SUFFIX ling.
(Comp. p. 26.)
I am not aware that any grammarian has attempted a clas-
sification and genealogical arrangement of the different uses of
the suffix ling in the English language. Yet, on account of its
APPENDIX. 79
frequent occurrence and various applications, it is important to
every one to understand its history, who would judge correctly
of its import.
1. The suffix ling, annexed to verbs, denotes a single per-
sonal subject, for the most part passive, sometimes merely
neuter ; as, fondling, one who is fonded or fondled ; foster-
ling ; hireling ; nursling ; suckling, one that sucks ; tanling ;
weanling.
Comp. Anglo Sax. fosterling from fostrian, to foster; hyr-
ling, a hireling; Germ, abkommling, a descendant; lehrling, a
pupil; miethling, a hireling; pflegling, a ward; sdugling, a
suckling ; strafling, a culprit ; taufling, a baptized person :
zogling, a pupil.
^8. The suffix ling, annexed to adjectives or participles, de-
notes an individual person, possessing the essential quality de-
noted by such adjective or participle ; as, darling or dearling,
one very dear ; faintling ; foundling; tenderling; weakling.
Comp. Anglo-Sax, deorling, a darling, from deor, dear ; geong-
ling, a youth ; Germ.fremdling, a stranger ; jungling, a youth ;
liebling, a favorite ; neuling, a novice ; schwdchling, a weakly
person; sonderling , a singular person; weichling, a tenderling;
Swed. vekling, a weakling.
3. The suffix ling-, annexed to substantives, denotes an indi-
vidual person, originating from or dependent on the thing de-
noted by the substantive ; as, earthling, one originating from
the earth ; stripling, worldling. To these may be added cham-
berlain, which is derived to us from the Teutonic through the
French, (comp. Germ, kdmmerling, Ital. camerlingo, Fr. cham-
bellan.)
Comp. Anglo-Sax, hceftling, a prisoner, from hceft, bonds ;
yrthling, a farmer ; Germ. fluchtling, a fugitive ; gunstling, a
favorite ; hdusling, a cottager ; zuchtling, a correctioner.
4. The three preceding varieties of meaning are transferred
to animals; as, (\.) fledgeling; gruntling; suckling; weanling;
yeanling ; (2.) failing ; firstling ; twinling ; youngling ; (3.)
groundling; nestling; yearling.
Comp. Germ, hdnfling, a linnet, from hanf, flax ; jdhrling, a
yearling ; nestling.
5. The three first varieties of meaning are transferred to inani-
mate things; as, (1.) castling; (3.) sapling; seedling; silverling.
Comp. Anglo-Sax, feorthling, a farthing ; Germ, fingerling,
a finger-stall; schooling, a shoot ; settling, a slip; silberling,
a silverling.
80 FORMATION OF ENGLISH WORDS.
6. The three first varieties of meaning are employed to ex-
press contempt; as, (1.) changeling, a child changed; shave-
ling; scatterling; (2.) dapperling; fopling; lordling; (3.) bant-
ling; courtling; groundling; witling.
Com p. Anglo-Sax. nydling, a slave ; rcepling, one bound with
a rope; Germ, dichterling, a poetaster; finsterling, a block-
head; frommling, a hypocrite; hbjling, a courtling; rbmling,
a papist ; sonderling, a singular person ; witzling, a witling.
7. This suffix forms diminutives from names of men and ani-
mals ; as, chickling, a chicken ; codling, a young cod ; duckling,
a young duck ; gosling, a young goose ; kidling, a young kid ;
kitting, a young kitten ; porkling, a pig. So lin in the proper
name Tomlinson, (as if son of little Thomas.)
Comp. Anglo-Sax, cncepling, a boy ; Germ, kindlein, a snrall
child ; kndblein, a boy; kuchlein, a chicken ; lammlein, a lamb-
kin ; mdgdelein, a girl; mdnnlein, a little man ; Swed. kyckling,
a chicken ; kidling, a young kid ; Dan. kylling, a chicken ;
Icelandic yrmlingr, a little worm.
Note. It is not certain that signification No. 7. is connected
with the preceding. The form of the suffix in German seems
to point to a distinct origin ; while the fact that the form ling
is found in this signification in Icelandic, Anglo-Saxon, Swed-
ish, Danish, and English, favors its sameness.
July 26. 1843.
L. THE ENGLISH FORM IN ing.
(Comp. pp. 27, 28.)
As the use of the termination ing in English is very com-
plicated, it seems necessary to distinguish clearly the different
purposes for which it is employed.
The English form in ing is used to denote three different
kinds of words, or parts of speech, viz. the adjective participial,
the substantive participial, and the abstract verbal noun.
I. The adjective participial in ing, or what is commonly
called the present active participle. The consideration of this
participle comes under the inflection and not the formation of
words. For a full account of the specific uses of this participle,
see Philol. Stud. p. 87.
II. The substantive participial in ing. This differs entirely
from the preceding in that it denotes the abstract, and not the
concrete. While it has, like the adjective participial, the rec-
tion of the verb, it is supposed not to admit an article, an
APPENDIX. 81
attributive, or a genitive, before it. The consideration of it
conies also under the inflection and not the formation of words.
Its original use seems to have been that of a supine, (i. e. of an
oblique case of the infinitive,) but there is a strong disposition
in language to extend its use almost indefinitely. See Philol.
Stud. p. 101.
III. The abstract verbal noun. This differs entirely from the
two preceding, and is in no sense a participial. It is used
freely as the subject, predicate, or object, in a sentence. Like
any other verbal noun, it may receive an article, attributive, or
genitive.
Examples of the Abstract Verbal Noun.
The worshipping of idols is forbidden.
Covetousness is a worshipping of idols.
We regard the worshipping of idols as sin.
The sailing of ships in winter is dangerous.
This is useful for the clear understanding of God's word.
There was something very excellent in Christ's preaching.
This was said in the philosopher's hearing.
M. ADDITIONAL REMARKS ON ABSTRACT SUBSTANTIVES IN ness.
(Comp. p. 28.)
1. The suffix ness is primarily and properly annexed to radi-
cal adjectives of Teutonic origin ; as, lameness, sweetness, wide-
ness, softness, thus forming primary or regular derivatives.
2. The suffix ness is annexed to derivative Teutonic adjectives
in ed,fal, ish, less, ly, some, ward, and y, thus forming second-
ary or abnormal derivatives. Thus wickedness^ cheerfulness, etc.
3. Secondary derivatives thus formed accord nearly in signi-
fication with the nouns from which the adjectives are derived.
The meaning only is more specific and definite. Thus careful-
ness and care, fearfulness and fear, frightfulness and fright,
neediness and need.
4. The suffix ness is annexed also to adjectives of Latin ori-
gin, both primitive and derivative ; as, crudeness, copiousness.
It thus forms a large number of words which are peculiar to
the English language.
5. It forms synonyms in this way ; as, crudeness and crudity,
su$)erfluousness and superfluity, pureness and purity, etc. The
former noun in each of these couplets inclines more to retain
its abstract signification.
82 FORMATION OF ENGLISH WORDS.
6. Many nouns formed from adjectives in this way accord
nearly with the Latin substantives from which the adjectives are
derived, thus exhibiting a singular phenomenon in language.
Compare morbidness with Lat. mcrbus, copiousness with Lat.
copia, judiciousness with Lat. judicium. The meaning, how-
ever, is somewhat more abstract.
7. Abstract nouns in ness never receive an additional suffix.
The genitive or possessive case, where it is wanted, is expressed
by a simple apostrophe ; as, " for righteousness' sake." The
plural occurs in the Bible in some unfortunate imitations of the
Hebrew ; as, forgivenesses, Dan. ix. 9 ; righteousnesses, Isa.
Ixiv. 6 ; Ezek. xxxiii. 13 ; Dan. ix. 18.
8. This suffix interchanges (1.) with the suffix hood; as,
goodness, Germ, gutheit ; highness, Germ, hoheit ; (2.) with
the suffix th ; as, foulness and filth, highness and height ; (3.)
with the rare suffix ledge; as, knowledge, Germ, kenntniss ;
and (4.) with the radical noun ; as, goodness and good, hot-
ness and heat ; hardness, Germ, hdrte ; mildness, Germ, milde.
9. These three words require a more special notice.
(1.) Seedness, an obsolete word denoting u seed-time,'* is
probably a corruption of Anglo-Sax, scednadh, and therefore
does not belong here.
(2.) Wilderness, (Dutch wildernis, Germ, wildniss,) "a des-
ert," has been supposed by some to be derived from Anglo-Sax.
wi/d-deor, u wild animal ;" but is probably i. q. wildness, with
epenthetic syllable er.
(3.) Witness, (Anglo-Sax, witnes,) is probably from the ob-
solete verb to wit. In use it denotes " testimony," " the person
giving testimony," and is also used as a verb.
Febr. 1847.
N. ABSTRACT SUBSTANTIVES IN dom.
(Comp. p. 28.)
Corresponding forms. Sansk. tvan; Lat. tium ; Old Germ.
duam, duom, tuam, tuom, toam; Old Norse domr; Anglo-Sax.
dom; Germ, thum; Swed. dom, doeme; Dan. dom; Dutch
dom.
Origin. This suffix is derived, according to some, from An-
glo-Sax, dom, law, judgment; and this from Goth, domjan,
Eng. doom, to judge, rule. But the corresponding Sanskrit and
Latin forms, and its various uses, render this derivation improb-
APPENDIX. 83
able. Oswald's derivation from Latin domus, a house, is alto-
gether unfounded.
Signification. This suffix is employed to form abstract nouns
from adjectives and attributives, and denotes (1.) the quality;
as, wisdom; (2.) an act; as, martyrdom, cuckoldom ; (3.) the
state ; as, freedom, thraldom; (4.) the condition ; as, birthdom ;
(5.) appurtenances or possessions; as, princedom, dukedom;
(6.) by a metonymy of the abstract, also the collective con-
crete ; as, Christendom, peerdom.
Examples. Birthdom, Christendom, cuckoldom, dukedom,
earldom, freedom, kingdom, martyrdom, peerdom, popedom,
princedom, sheriffdom, thraldom, whoredom, wisdom.
Remark. This suffix interchanges (1.) with suffix hood ; as,
Eng. wisdom, Germ, weisheit ; (2^) with suffix ric ; as, Anglo-
Sax. Ushopdom, Eng. bishopric; (3.) with suffix ship; as, Anglo-
Sax, abbotdom, Eng. abbotship.
Nov. 18. 1837.
O. ABSTRACT SUBSTANTIVES IN hood OR head.
(Comp. p. 29.)
1 forms. Old Germ, heit, Jceit ; Old Sax. hed ;
Corresponding f
Anglo-Sax, had;
Germ, heit, keit ; Swed. het ; Dan. hed ;
Dutch heid.
Origin. Meidinger compares Old Germ, heit, a person, and
illustrates its use b}^ Germ, schonheit, a beauty, i. e. a beautiful
person. But this is altogether unsatisfactory. Dr. Webster
derives it from Anglo-Sax, had, state, habit, condition, and this
from Anglo-Sax, hadian, to ordain, as if to set or place. In this
he is more successful.
Signification. This suffix is employed to form abstract nouns
from adjectives and attributives, in order to denote (1.) the
nature or essence; as, godhead; (2.) the quality ; as, hardi-
hood, lustihood ; (3.) the state ; as, boyhood, childhood; (4.)
the condition ; as, knighthood, priesthood ; (5.) by a metonymy
of the abstract for the concrete, something possessing the qual-
ity; as, falsehood; (6.) by a metonymy of the abstract, also
the collective concrete; as, neighborhood, sisterhood ; (7.) by a
metonymy of the effect for the cause, the means ; as, livelihood.
Examples of suffix hood : boyhood, brotherhood, childhood,
falsehood, hardihood, knighthood, likelihood, livelihood, lusti-
hood, maidenhood, manhood, neighborhood, priesthood, sister-
84 FORMATION OF ENGLISH WORDS.
hood, widowhood, zeomanhood. Examples of suffix head : god-
head, hardihead, maidenhead ; also, Old Eng. brotherhede, bisy-
hed, boldehed,fairehed, wighthede, yunghead.
Remark. This suffix interchanges (1.) with suffix dom ; as,
Germ. Christenheit, Eng. Christendom; Germ, weisheit, Eng.
wisdom ; Germ, freiheit, Eng. freedom ; (2.) with suffix ness;
as, Germ, gutheit, Eng. goodness; (3.) with suffix ship; as,
Eng. brotherhood, Germ, bruderschaft.
Nov. 18. 1837.
P. ABSTRACT SUBSTANTIVES IN ship OR scape.
(Comp. p. 30.)
Corresponding forms. Old Germ, scaf; Old Sax. scepi; An-
glo-Sax, sceaft, scype, scipe; Old Norse sJcapr ; Germ, schaft ;
Swed. sJcap ; Dan. skab ; Dutch sea}), schap.
Origin. This suffix is derived from Goth. sJcapan; Old
Germ, scaffan; Anglo-Sax, sceapan, scyppan; Old Norse skapa,
skipa ; Germ, schaffen ; Swed. skapa; Dan. skabe ; Dutch
scheppen; Eng. to shape; and denotes the make or shape.
Signification. This suffix denotes (1.) the state; as, friend-
ship; (2.) an act; as, courtship; (3.) the condition; as, ward-
ship; (4.) appurtenances or possessions; as, lordship; (5.) by
a metonymy of the cause, the effect , as, workmanship,
Examples of suffix ship : Apprenticeship, bachelorship, canon-
ship^ captainship, censorship, chancellorship, chaplainship, clerk-
ship, comptroller ship, copartnership, counsellor ship, courtship,
controller ship, deaconship, dictatorship, executorship, guardian-
ship, fellowshij), friendship, hardship, horsemanship, kingship,
ladyship, lordship, lieutenants!^, partnership, prenticeship, pro-
fessorship, rectorship, rivalship, scholarship, sergeantship, sol-
diership, sonship, stewardship, seer etari ship, surveyor ship, sure-
tiship, survivorship, township, vicarskip, worship, wardship,
sherijfship, rivalship, workmanship. Example of suffix scape :
landscape.
Remark. This suffix interchanges (1.) with suffix hood ; as,
Germ, bruderschaft, Eng. brotherhood ; (2.) with suffix dom;
as, Eng. abbotship, Anglo-Sax, abbotdom.
Nov. 18. 1837.
APPENDIX. 85
Q. ABSTRACT SUBSTANTIVES IN th OR I FROM VERBS.
(Comp. p. 30.)
1. Bight, literally a bending, from to bow, (Anglo-Sax, bu-
gan,) to bend ; hence, a bay.
2. Birth, a bearing or being born, from to bear.
3. Berth, strictly another form of birth ; hence the station
of a ship at anchor or by the wharf.
4. Blowth, a blossoming, from to blow, to blossom.
5. Broth, literally a boiling and mixing, from to brew, to
boil and mix ; hence liquor in which flesh is boiled and mac-
erated.
6. Death, a dying, from to die.
7. Draught, a drawing, from to drag or draw.
8. Draft, strictly another form of draught, but used with
discrimination.
9. Earth, literally a plowing, from to ear, to plow : hence
what is plowed, or the ground.
10. Flight, a flying or a fleeing, from to fly, or to flee, (An-
glo-Sax, fleogan, to fly, to flee.)
11. Growth, a growing, from to grow.
12. Might, a being able, from may, to be able, (Anglo-Sax.
magan.)
13. Ruth, a rueing, from to rue.
14. Sight, a seeing, from to see, (Anglo-Sax, seon, to see,
past participle seogen, seen.
15. Spilth, literally a spilling, from to spill; hence any
thing spilt. Now obsolete.
16. Stealth, a stealing, from to steal.
17. Tilth, a tilling, from to till.
18. Weight, literally a weighing, from to weigh; hence
what any thing weighs.
On this beautifully symmetrical formation I observe
1. That the suffix is uniformly th, except when preceded by
an original palatal g, which has now lost its sound. In this
case the suffix is written ht ; as, bight, draught, flight, might,
sight, weight.
2. That this formation accords with the other Teutonic
dialects.
Compare Dutch bogt, geboorte, dood, dragt, aarde, vlugt,
magt, zigt, wigt.
8
86 FORMATION OF ENGLISH WORDS.
Also Anglo-Sax, byht, a corner ; beorth, broth, death, eorth,
fliht, miht, gesiht, wiht.
Also Germ, bucht, geburt, bluthe, tod, erde, flucht, macht,
gesicht, gewicht.
3. That the original vowel is attenuated or shortened ; as,
birth, berth, death, earth, stealth. Except when an original con-
sonant vocalizes, and uniting with the preceding vowel sound,
preserves it long ; as, bight, draught, flight, might, sight, weight.
4. That this suffix primarily denotes the action of the verb,
taken abstractly, from which the other senses are derived by
metonymy.
5. That the attempt of Home Tooke, Dr. Chas. Richardson,
and others to identify this suffix with the termination of the
third person singular in verbs, as if birth means that which
beareth ; broth, that which one breweth ; death, that which
deadeth ; earth, that which one eareth, etc. is ridiculously
absurd.
May 15, 1844.
R. ABSTRACT SUBSTANTIVES IN th or I FROM ADJECTIVES.
(Comp. p. 30.)
1. Breadth from broad.
2. Dearth from dear.
3. Depth from deep.
4. Drought from dry.
5. Filth from foul.
6. Health from hale or hail.
7. Height from high.
8. Length from long.
9. Sleight from sly.
10. Sloth from slow.
11. Strength from strong.
12. Truth or troth from true.
13. Warmth from warm.
14. Width from wide.
15. youth from young.
On this beautifully symmetrical formation, I observe
1. That the suffix is uniformly th, except when preceded by
an original palatal g, (not the nasal ng,) which has now lost
its sound. In this case, the suffix is written ht ; as, drought,
height, sleight.
APPENDIX.
87
2. That this formation accords better, whatever may be the
cause, with the Dutch, than with any other Teutonic language ;
compare Dutch breedte, dierte, dieple, drogte, etc. This
suffix, however, is found in all the Teutonic dialects, and is
radically connected with the suffix ty or ity, in words derived
from the Latin ; as, chastity, crudity, density, etc.
3. That the original vowel is attenuated or shortened ; as,
dear, dearth ; wide, width. Except when an original conso-
nant vocalizes, and uniting with the preceding vowel sound,
preserves it long ; as drought, height.
4. That this suffix primarily denotes the abstract quality,
taken grammatically as a substantive, from which the other
senses are derived by a regular analogy.
5. That the attempt of Home Tooke, Dr. Charles Eichard-
son, and others, to identify this suffix with the termination of
the third person singular in verbs, as if dearth means * that
which deareth ;' drought, ' that which drieth ;' truth, ' that
which troiveth ;' etc. is ridiculously absurd.
Ap. 1. 1843.
S. THE PREFIX be or by.
(Corap. p. 37.)
The English prefix le, (Goth. U, Old Germ, li, pi, Old Sax.
li, Anglo-Sax, be, Germ, le, Swed. le, Dan. le, Dutch be,) is
in its origin the same as the particle of place by, and was pri-
marily combined with verbs, in order to particularize the action
contained in them, by specifying the place or direction. Its
import has since been variously modified. Its present uses
may be classified as follows :
I. Prefixed to verbs intransitive, it renders them transitive ;
as, bechance, to chance by or near any one, i. e. to happen to
him ; become, to come by or near any thing, i. e. to be changed
into it, also to befit it ; bedabble, befall, beget, belie, bemoan,
beseem, besort, bespawl, bethink, bewail, beweep.
Note 1. Some of these verbs are used transitively without
the prefix ; as, dabble, get, seem. Especially in poetry ; as,
moan, wail. But this does not affect the correctness of our
explanation.
II. Prefixed to transitive verbs, it changes the direction of
the transitive relation; as, ledrop, begird, to bind with a
girdle, behave, behold, bequeath, bereave, beseech, beset, le-
spalter, bespeak, bespit, bespread, besprinkle, bestow, bestrew,
betake, betray.
88 FORMATION OF ENGLISH WORDS.
Note 2. Some of these verbs are used in both senses with-
out the prefix ; as, gird, spatter, spread, sprinkle, strew. But
this does not affect the correctness of our explanation.
III. Prefixed to some transitive verbs, it does not affect their
general import, but only gives them more emphasis ; which
emphasis seems to lie in spreading the action of the verb over
the whole object ; as, becharm, bedazzle, bedaub, bedeck, be-
drench, behead, bepraise, besiege, besmear, bespangle, be-
speckle, bespice, bespot.
Note 3. Sometimes the simple verb is not in use ; as in
begin, behoove, believe, betray.
IV. Prefixed to nouns, it forms transitive verbs somewhat
analogous to the preceding.
1. Prefixed to common nouns; as, becloud, to cover with
clouds, bedew, beguile, behoney, beleaguer, lesnuff, betroth. .
2. Prefixed to attributives ; as, becalm, to make calm, bedim,
befriend, to put by or with friends, bemad, besot, bewitch.
Note 4. These formations, which were anciently very nu-
merous, remain to the present day, particularly (1.) in partici-
ples; as, beblubbered, bedight, beholden, beloved, bestead, be-
tumbled; (2.) in reflexive verbs; as, to behave one's self; to
bemoan one's self; to bestir one's self; to bethink one's self;
and (3.) to express derision or contempt ; as, becurl, bemuffle,
bepraise.
Note 5. In all the preceding uses, the particle be has lost
to the mental conception its original force, as denoting place ;
and has also lost its tone, and become a mere prefix.
Note 6. When the preposition retains its original signifi-
cancy of place, it is then written by, and retains the tone ; as,
by -gone, by -past, by -slander. The origin of by in by-way,
by-word, etc. is not clear.
V. The prefix be is used in certain contractions, which are
not proper compositions.
1. Before certain particles or adjectives of place ; as, beneath,
(Anglo-Sax, benydan,) below, before, (Anglo-Sax, beforan,)
behind, (Anglo-Sax, behindan,) beyond, (Anglo-Sax, begeon-
dan ;) also, but, (Anglo-Sax, butan,) about, (Anglo-Sax, alu-
tan,) above, (Anglo-Sax, abufan).
2. Before nouns of place and other nouns ; as, because, by
the cause or reason ; bechance, by chance ; beside, by the side ;
betimes, by times ; between and betwixt, by the two.
May 30. 1845.
APPENDIX. 89
T. THE PREFIX for.
(Comp. p. 37.)
The inseparable preposition for primarily denotes forth or
away, and is probably connected with the verb fare, (Anglo-
Sax, faran, past for, part, faren,) to go on, forth, or away.
It is employed,
1. In the simple sense of removal; as, Germ, versenden,
Anglo-Sax, forsenden, to send forth or away ; Germ, vertrei-
ben, Anglo-Sax, fordrifan, Old Eng. fordrive, to drive forth
or away ; Germ, verdammen, Anglo-Sax, fordeman, to deem
or doom away, to condemn ; Germ, verbieten, Anglo-Sax, for-
beodan, Eng. forbid, to bid forth or away, to prohibit; Anglo-
Sax, forberan, Eng. forbear, to bear forth, hold from, abstain;
Anglo-Sax, forsacan, Eng. forsake, to seek away, to desert ;
Old Eng. forhail, to hale or drag away.
2. With the accessory idea of disappearing; as, Germ, ver-
rauchen, to reek away, to evaporate ; Germ, versinken, to sink
away, to disappear ; Germ, verspielen, to play away, to lose
by playing; Germ, vergleichen, to level away ; Germ, verge-
ben, Anglo-Sax, forgifan, Eng. forgive, to give away, or out
of sight, (comp. Lat. remitto, Fr. pardonner ;) Germ, verges-
sen, Anglo-Snx.forgit.an, Eng. forget, to get, i. e. let go away,
to lose from the mind ; Germ, verthun, Anglo-Sax, for don,
Old Eng. fordo, to do away, to undo.
3. With the accessory idea of going wrong (i=. astray ;) as,
Germ, verleiten, Anglo-Sax, forlcedan, to lead astray ; Eng.
forjudge, to judge wrongfully; Anglo-Sax, forswerian, Eng.
forswear, to swear falsely.
4. With the accessory idea of entireness (=r off, out, utterly;)
as, Old Eng. forbuy, to buy off; Old Eng. forbreak, to break
off; Old Eng. forcarve, to carve off; Old Eng. forcut, to cut
off; Old Eng. forwear, to wear out; Old Eng. forweary, to
weary out; Old Eng. fordrunken, utterly drunken; Old Eng.
fordry, utterly dry; Old Eng. forbalJied, utterly bathed; Old
Eng. forlore and forlorn, utterly lost.
Besides these uses, the prefix for has sometimes the signifi-
cation of the preposition for; as, forsooth; and sometimes
the import of fore ; as, forlie, forward ; Old English, for-
gherd, the fore yard.
March 21. 1840.
8*
90 FORMATION OF ENGLISH WORDS.
U. THE ENGLISH PREFIX a.
(Comp. p. 37.)
The prefix a, which occurs so often in English, has different
origins and uses, which need to be carefully distinguished. We
propose to attempt a scientific classification.
I. The Anglo-Saxon prefix a or ge, (z=Goth. ga, Old Sax.
gi, Fries, ie, Old Germ. ka, ki, Germ, ge,) originally equivalent
to Lat. co or con, and signifying with, together with.
This prefix is of very extensive use in the Teutonic dialects,
and sometimes of difficult explanation. It is found attached
(1.) to substantives ; as, Germ, gespiele, a playfellow, from spie-
len, to play ; (2.) to verbs, where it sometimes has its natural
force ; as, Goth, gabairan, to bring together, to compare, from
lairan, to bear ; Germ, gefrieren, to congeal, from /Keren,
to be cold ; but often is a mere intensive, without special sig-
nificancy ; as, Germ, gedenken and denken, to think; and (3.)
to passive participles, in German and Dutch, as a mere inflec-
tionary process ; as, Germ, geliebt, loved.
1. As attached to substantives, we have no appropriate ex-
ample in English.
2. As attached to verbs in English, it seems everywhere to
have lost its significancy.
To abare, obsolete, to make bare, comp. Anglo-Sax, abarian.
To abide, comp. Anglo-Sax, gebidan, abidan, bidan, also
anbidan.
To abrook, obsolete, comp. Anglo-Sax, gebrucan, brucan.
To affright for to af right, comp. Anglo-Sax, gefrihtan,
aforhtian, frihtan, for/itian.
To agaze, obsolete, (whence past participle ogast or aghast,)
comp. Anglo-Sax, egesian, to affright.
To alegge, obsolete, to diminish, comp. Anglo-Sax, alecgan.
To arise, comp. Anglo-Sax, arisan, Goth, urreisan for us-
re is an, Dutch opryzen.
To arouse, connected with to arise.
To ashame, obsolete, comp. Anglo- Sax. gescamian, asca-
mian, scamian.
To aslake, obsolete, comp. Anglo-Sax, asclacian, slacian.
To awake, comp. Angio-Sax. awcecan, wacan, also, omccec-
nian, Germ, erwachen.
Note. Grimm early made the suggestion that Anglo-Sax.
a. and of course Eng. a, when it is analogous, corresponds to
APPENDIX. 91
Goth, us, out, or Germ. er. See Deutsche Gram. II. (1826.)
p. 819, 821, 827. He is followed by Rask, Anglo-Sax. Gram.
(1830.) p. 99, Von Richthofen, Altfries. Worterb. p. 586. Hens-
leigh Wedgwood, Esq. Diet. Eng. Etym. I. 1. (1859). But I
find no clear example in English, and besides the change would
be rather a mutilation, than a natural development.
3. Prefixed, or rather retained before certain past participles
of Teutonic origin, to avoid cacophony; as, adread, (Anglo-
Sax, adred, from the verb andradan, ondrcedan, adrcedan;)
adrift, (Anglo-Sax, gedrifen, adrifen, adrefed, drifen;) adry,
(Anglo-Sax, adruged ;) afloat, (Anglo-Sax, floten ;) agast or
aghast, see to agaze, supra; ago and agone, (Anglo-Sax, agan,
gan ;) along of, owing to, (Anglo-Sax, gelang or gelenge,
owing to ;) aloof; aloud, (Anglo-Sax, hlud ;) amiss, (comp.
Anglo-Sax, missian ;) askew, (Dan. skievt, awry;) aslant,
(comp. Swed. slinta, to slip ;) aslope, (comp. Anglo-Sax, ash-
pan, to slip away;) aslug ; aswoon, (comp. Anglo-Sax, aswu-
nan, to swoon ;) astray, (comp. Anglo-Sax, astregd, to strew ;)
athwart, (Swed. tvdrt ;) aware, (Germ, gewahr, Dutch gewaar,
Anglo-Sax, gewar ;) awry, (Anglo-Sax, gewrilhen, atorithen,
writhen,) enough for anough, (Germ, genug, Anglo-Sax, genog,
Fries, anoch, enoch, Old Eng. ynow, inouh, ynough, ynowgh,
enow.
4. Prefixed to adjectives of various origin ; as, Across,
(comp. Fr. en croix,) aflat, afresh, afoul, ahungry, (Anglo-Sax.
hungrig,) akin, alate, anew, (comp. Fr. a neuf, Lat. de novo,)
aweary, (Anglo-Sax, werig).
II. The Anglo-Sax, preposition an or on, on, in :
1. Attached to its complement or noun, and forming ad-
verbs ; as,
Aback, comp. Anglo Sax. on lac.
Abed, on or in bed.
Aboard, comp. Swed. om lord, Fr. abord.
About, comp. Anglo-Sax, onbutan, abutan, also embutan,
ymbul.an, Fries, abuta.
Above, comp. Anglo.Sax. abufan, bufan, Fries, abuppa.
Abreast, on the breast.
Abroad, comp. Anglo-Sax, on brcede, in breadth, Chaucer
on brede and a brede.
Adays, (see supra p. 66.) comp. Anglo-Sax, on dag, by day.
Afield, in the field.
Afire, on fire, comp. Germ, im brande, Fr. en feu.
Afoot, on foot.
92 FORMATION OF ENGLISH WORDS.
Afore, before, comp. Fries, afar a.
Again and against, (see supra, p. 69, 70.) comp. Anglo-Sax.
angean, ongean, agean, agen, gean ; Fries, aien, agen, aiun ;
also Germ, gegen.
Aground, on the ground.
A head, in advance.
A/ieight and ahigh, on high.
Aland, on the land.
Alive, comp. Anglo-Sax, on life, R. Brunne o life, Gower
o/i live, Richardson alife.
Aloft, on high, comp. Svved. a loft, R. Brunne o loft, Gower
upon loft.
Along and alongst, (see supra, p. 70.) on the length, comp.
Anglo-Sax, on lenge, andlang, andlong, Fries, aling, alinga,
Dutch onlangs, Old Eng. endlong, Chaucer on length, Fr. au
long. This word is entirely different from along of, owing to,
supra.
Amid and amidst, (see supra, p. 71.) comp. Anglo-Sax, on
middan, Chaucer amiddes.
Among and amongst, (see supra, p. 70.) comp. Anglo-Sax.
onmang, amang, also gemang, gemong, past participle ge-
menged.
Anights, (see supra, p. 67.) comp. Anglo-Sax, on nihte,
Gower on night.
Apeak, in a posture to pierce.
Apiece s, in pieces.
Aright, comp. Anglo- Sax. on rihte.
Around, in a circle.
Arow, in a row.
Ashore, on shore.
Aside, comp. Hall on side.
Askant, askance, and asquint, (see supra, p. 67.) comp.
Dutch schuins.
Asleep, comp. Old Eng. on slepe, on sleep.
Astern, on the stern.
Astrut, on the strut.
Athirst, comp. Anglo-Sax, on thurste.
Atwixt, (see supra, p. 70.) between, coinp. Fries, antwiska,
ontwiska, entwiska, atwiska.
Atwo, in two, cornp. Anglo-Sax, on twct ; Fries, on twa,
ontwa, entwa, atwa, in two.
Away, coinp. Anglo-Sax, anweg, onweg, aweg.
APPENDIX.
93
Note. Some of these adverbs pass into prepositions ; as,
aboard, about, afore, amid and amidst, around, aside, etc. The
adverbial sense should be placed first. The dictionaries call
alive an adjective.
2. Used as an adverb, and prefixed to the present participle ;
as, Adoing, agoing, asaying, awriting, etc., i. e., doing on, going
on, saying on, writing on, etc. Not in the act of doing, etc.
as usually explained.
III. The indefinite article a or an, which in writing has
become attached to its noun; as apiece, (comp. a dozen;)
awhile, (comp. some while, one while.)
IV. The French preposition a, or Lat. ad, to :
1. In words derived from the* French ; as, to abase, (comp.
Fr. abaisser, as if mettre a has ;) to abash, a later form of to
abase; to abate, (comp. Fr. abattre ;) adieu, (comp. Fr. adieu,
as if a Dieu ;) to ameliorate, (comp. Fr. ameliorer ;) to abandon,
(comp. Fr. abandonner, as if a ban donner ;) to achieve, (comp.
Fr. achever, from a chef ;) alarm, (comp. Fr. alarme from a
Varme;) to amass (comp. Fr. amasser;) apart, (comp. Fr. apart.
2. In words derived from the Latin, but only before the conso-
nants sc; as, to ascend, (Lat. ascendo;) to ascribe, (Lat. ascribo.)
Note. The Latin preposition ad, used as a prefix, is usually
written ad, or else with an assimilation of the d to the follow-
ing letter ; as, adapt, abbreviate, accelerate, adduce, adequate,
afflict, aggravate, adhere, adjure, allude, admonish, annotation,
adorn, appear, acquire, arrogant, assent, attract, adustion, advert.
V. The Latin preposition a or ab, from, away, but only before
m and v ; as, to amove, amotion, amoval ; to avert, aversion ;
avulsion.
Note. The Latin preposition, a or ab, as a prefix, is usually
written ab; as, abdicate; aberration; abhor; abject; ablative;
abnegation; abominate; abrupt; absolve; sometimes abs ; as,
abscond ; abstain.
VI. The Latin preposition e or ex, out of, in some words
derived from the Latin through the French ; as, to amend, (Fr.
amender, Lat. emendo ;) to affray, whence afraid, (Fr. effrayer,
Lat. effrico.)
VII. The Gr. d privative, in words derived from the Greek,
but only before consonants ; as, asylum, asymmetry, asymptote,
asyndeton ; ataraxy, ataxy, atom, atony \ atrophy ; atheist.
Note. The Greek privative is written an before vowels ;
as, anarchy; anecdote; anomaly; anonymous.
94 FORMATION OF ENGLISH WORDS.
VIII. The Gr.
1
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r- .
They are expressed in English by introducing the adverb ever.
The VI. column consists of particular indefinites. Comp.
Lat. aliquis, Gr. Jig. They have no peculiar form in English,
but are expressed by means of the pronominal adjective some.
They are introduced into the table, in order to conform to the
tables of Latin and Greek correlatives.
The VII. column consists of general indefinites. Comp. Lat.
quisquam, Gr. i!g. They are expressed for the most part in
English by means of the pronominal adjective any. Only the
third and tenth series have peculiar forms ; as either, (=. any
one of two;) ever, (-=.at any time).
The VIII. column consists of negatives, the direct converse of
the preceding column. Comp. Lat. nemo, Gr. oftng and ^r^rt-g.
They involve for the most part in English the negative adjective
of quantity no. The second, third, and tenth series take the
simple negative elements; as naught, (=.ne aught ;) neither,
(==L7ie cither ;) never, (ne ever). It is to be observed, how-
ever, that the negation properly belongs to the predication of
APPENDIX. 99
the sentence, and that these words are of the same nature as
those of the preceding class.
The first row or series consists of the pure pronoun of the
person. Comp. Lat. hie, Gr. OVTO;. They are indicated in
English sometimes by the termination, as this, that, who; and
sometimes by a distinct word, as one or body.
The second series consists of the pure pronoun of the thing.
Comp. Lat. hoc, Gr. roDro. They are indicated in English
sometimes by the termination, as this, that, what ; and some-
times by a distinct word, as thing.
The third series consists of adjectives of preference, which
combine the pronominal idea with that of number. Ccrnp. Lat.
alter, Gr. eregog. They are indicated in English sometimes by
the form of comparatives, as other, ivhether, cither, neither ; and
sometimes by a more full explanation, as which (of the two ;)
some one (of the two).
The fourth series consists of adjectives of quantity. Comp.
Lat. tantus, Gr. rocrog. They have no peculiar form in English,
but are expressed by the adjective great, variously modified.
They are introduced into the table, in order to conform to the
tables of Latin and Greek correlatives.
The fifth series consists of adjectives of quality. Comp. Lat.
tails, Gr. Trfilxoz. They have sometimes a peculiar form in
English, as in columns I. and II. such; but usually are ex-
pressed in a more circuitous way.
The sixth series consists of adverbs of the place where. Comp.
Lat. hie, Gr. roth. They are all of one formation in English.
The seventh series consists of adverbs of the place whither.
Comp. Lat. hue. They are all of one formation in English.
The eighth series consists of adverbs of the place whence.
Comp. Lat. hinc, Gr. r6&ev. They are for the most part of one
formation in English.
The ninth series consists of adverbs of the place by or through
which. Comp. Lat. hac, Greek ir ( . They have no peculiar
form in English, but are expressed in a more circuitous way.
They are introduced into the table, in order to conform to the
table of Latin and Greek correlatives.
The tenth series consists of adverbs of time. Comp. Lat.
*nunc, Gr. vvv. They are expressed in English (I.) by a peculiar
termination, as then, when; (2.) by special forms, as now, ever ;
(3.) more circuitously, as some time.
100 FORMATION OF ENGLISH WORDS.
The eleventh series consists of adverbs of repetition. Comp.
Lat. toties, Gr. ioo&xig They have no peculiar form in Eng-
lish, but are expressed by means of the adverb often or the
substantive times. They are introduced into the table in order
to conform to the tables of Latin and Greek correlatives.
The twelfth series consists of adverbs of manner. Comp.
Lat. ita and sic, Gr. ouiwj. They have all a peculiar formation
in English.
The thirteenth series consists of adverbs of the cause or reason.
Comp. Lat. cur and quare, Gr. rl. They are expressed in Eng-
lish for the most part by means of the noun cause. Only in
ccl imns III. and IV. have they a peculiar form, as why.
The fourteenth series consists of adverbs of intensity or degree.
Comp. Lat. tarn, Gr. xcfc. They are expressed in English (1.)
like the adverbs of manner, as so, how, as; (2.) more cir-
cuitously, as in any degree, in no degree.
This table of English correlatives was first published in the
Connecticut Common School Journal, for Dec. 1 858.
For a full table of Greek correlatives, see American Journal
of Science, Vol. xxxiv. No. 2. (1838.) also Prof. A. Crosby's
Grammar of the Greek Language, Bost. 1846.
For a full table of Latin correlatives, see Religious Intelli-
gencer, Oct. 29. 1836.
Y. ANALYSIS OF ENGLISH INTERROGATIVES.
(Comp. p. 44.)
We are enabled, in the present state of philological science,
to present a more exact analysis of this class of words than has
usually been given ; an analysis, which seriously affects the
statements concerning interrogatives in our most approved
grammars.
The interrogative words in English are who* what, whose,
whom, which, whether, where, whence, whither, when, why. how.
These words consist of two parts ; the initial part or inter-
rogative element, which is common to them all, and the subse-
quent part or modifying element, which is peculiar to each.
The common interrogative element is hu or hw; which,
however, exhibits itself under three different aspects.
(1.) in what, wMch, whether, where, whence, whither, when,
why, the interrogative element hw, by a caprice peculiar to
English orthography, has its letters transposed.
APPENDIX. 101
(2.) In how, (Anglo-Sax, hu,) there is no transposition, and
the sound of u or w is lost in that of the diphthong ow. Com-
pare cow, (Anglo-Sax, cu;) now, (Anglo-Sax, nu ;) brown, (An-
glo-Sax, brim, ;) town (Anglo-Sax, tun).
(3.) In who, (Anglo-Sax, hwd,) whose, whom, the transposition
takes place, and the diphthong uo or wo has the sound of oo in
moon. Compare two, (Anglo-Sax, twd).
We now proceed to examine the modifying element which is
peculiar to each of these words.
1. Who, (Moeso-Goth. hivas, Anglo-Sax, hwd,) the pure:
pronoun of the masculine and feminine gender, and of both"
numbers. The original termination of the pure pronoun was
a, to which was added s, the original sign of the nominative
singular masculine, or of the personal subject, in the Indo-
European languages ; as, Moeso-Goth. hwas. The termination
as was abridged to a ; as, Anglo-Sax, hwa. Hence Eng. who ;
compare Anglo-Sax, ban, Eng. bone ; Anglo-Sax, ham, Eng,
home ; Anglo-Sax, twd, Eng. two; in which words the Anglo-
Sax, a becomes o in English.
Note. Who is used only substantively.
2. What, (Moeso-Goth. hwa for hwata, Swed. and Dan. hvad,
Anglo-Sax, hwcet,) the neuter gender of the pure pronoun. It
is composed of the pure pronoun, and d, t, or some phonological
equivalent, the original termination of the nominative and ac-
cusative singular neuter in the Indo-European languages. Com-
pare Lat. quod, quid, id, istud, illud, aliad, and Eng. it, that ;
in which the termination d or t subserves the same purpose.
Note 1. What is also used as an adjective, and that of all
genders; the neuter gender being considered as the most ge-
neric or comprehensive. Compare English that, originally neu-
ter, but now used as an adjective of all genders.
Note 2. What is sometimes used elliptically, and thus puts
on the appearance of an adverb or interjection; as, What if I
undertake this business myself? i. e. What will be, if I under-
take this business myself? What though etc. i. e. What will
be, though etc. What ! could ye not watch with me one
hour ? i. e. What is this ? could ye not watch with me one
hour ? What ho ? i. e. What is there ? ho !
3. Whose, (Moeso-Goth. hwis, Anglo-Sax, hwces,) the geni-
tive case of the pure pronoun. It may be regarded as equiva-
lent to who's, and is composed of the pure pronoun and the
9*
102 FORMATION OF ENGLISH WORDS.
termination s, the common sign of the genitive in the Indo-
European languages.
Note. Whose was originally of all genders ; but in the
neuter, it has given place to the compound form whereof, and
whereof \s now giving place to the phrase of what.
4. Whom, (Slceso-Goth. hwana, Swed. and Dan. hvem* An-
glo-Sax, hwcene, hwone,) the accusative masculine and feminine
of the pure prononn. It is composed of the pure pronoun,
and the termination m or n, the common sign of the accusative
singular masculine and feminine in the Indo-European langua-
ges. Compare Eng. him and them, in which the termination
m subserves the same purpose.
Note. For the accusative neuter, ivhat is used. See What
above.
5. Which, (Moeso-Goth. hweleiJcs or hwileiks, Old Germ.
huelih, Germ, wtlcher, Iceland, hvilikr, Anglo-Sax, hulic, hwylc,
hwilc, hwelc,) the partitive adjective. It is composed of hwe
or hwiu, the ancient modal case of the pure pronoun, and the
ancient form of Eng. like. Compare Eng. each, (Old Germ.
eogalihher, Germ, jeglicher, Anglo-Sax, celc,) and such, (Moeso-
Goth. swaltiks, Old Germ, solih, Anglo-Sax, swilc,) in which
the termination ch subserves the same purpose.
Note. Which is properly an adjective of quality, of what
kind or sort? but in use is a partitive adjective. It is of all
genders.
6. Whether, (Mceso-Goth. hwathar, Old Germ, huedar, An-
glo-Sax, hwcether,) the adjective of preference, a sort of com-
parative degree. It is formed from the pure pronoun, by an-
nexing thar, iher, or dar, the termination of the comparative.
Compare Lat. uter, neuter, alter, ceterus ; and Eng. either,
neither, other; in which words the termination ter or ther has
the same force.
Note Whether is nearly supplanted in usage by which,
except as an adverb in indirect inquiry.
7. Where, (Mceso-Goth. hwar, Old Germ, hwar. Germ, wo,
wor, war, Dutch waar, Iceland, and Swed. hvar, Dan. hvor,
Anglo-Sax, hwcer, hwar,) an adverb of the place in which. It
is composed of the pure pronoun, and a termination common
to all the Teutonic dialects.
Note Where is found in the compounds whereabout, where-
at, whereby, wherefore, wherein, whereon, wherewith, wherewithal;
which primarily refer to place, but in usage are extended to
denote other relations also.
APPENDIX. 103
8. Whence, (Old Germ, hwanan, Germ, wannen, Iceland.
hvathan, Svved. hvadan, Dan. hveden, Anglo-Sax, hwonan,
hwanon,) an adverb of the place from which. It is composed
of the pure pronoun, and a termination in n common to all
the Teutonic dialects. The final sibilant sound is peculiar to
the English language, and is perhaps an adverbial genitive
sign. Compare Eng. hence, thence, since, which have a similar
termination.
9. Whither, (Mceso-Goth. hwadre, Old Germ, hwarot, Old
Sax. huarod, Iceland, hvert, Swed. hvart, Old Dan. hvort, hvorth,
Anglo-Sax, hwider^ hivyder,) an adverb of the place to which.
It is composed of the pure pronoun, and a termination common
with some variation to most of the Teutonic dialects.
10. When, (Mceso-Goth. hwan, Old Germ, hwanne, hwenne,
Old Sax. huan, Germ, wann, wenn, Anglo-Sax, hwonne, hwenne,
hwcenne,) an adverb of the time in which., is the ancient ac-
cusative singular masculine of the pure pronoun. Compare
Lat. quum, turn, dam, num, and Eng. then, all of which have
a similar termination.
11. Why. (Moeso-Goth. hwe, Old Germ, hw'm, Iceland. Swed.
and Dan. hvi, Anglo-Sax, hwi, hwy, hwig,) an adverb of cause,
is the ancient modal case of the pure pronoun, arid was for-
merly preceded by the preposition /or ; as, Anglo-Sax, forhwi,
(corn p. Anglo-Sax, forthi, Old Eng. for thy, therefore.)
12. How, (Moeso-Goth. hwaiwa, Old Germ, hwieo, hwio,
Germ, wie, Anglo-Sax, hwu, M,) an adverb of manner and
intensity. It is composed of the ancient modal case, (Moeso-
Goth. hwe^ Old Germ, hwiu,) and a suffix, (Mceso-Goth. aiwa,
Old Germ, io or eo, Germ, je, ever).
Most of these words are used also indefinitely or relatively,
but such use does not come within the plan of this essay.
General Remarks.
1. These words form a distinct and well defined class. They
have a common character. There is one idea which pervades
them all, namely, that denoted by the interrogative element.
They do not name or describe any person, thing, quality,
place, time, cause or manner, but merely point out or hint at
it, by way of interrogation, which is the nature of the pronoun,
llence they may all^rank with pronouns and pronominal words,
which together constitute one part of speech.
104 FORMATION OF ENGLISH WORDS.
Our grammars are unfortunate in not giving more distinctness
to this class of words. They usually distribute them with the
different parts of speecn, and thus destroy the importance which
they justly claim as a class or whole.
2. The interrogatives are an original or underived class of
words, and should be made prominent as such.
The older grammarians gave to the interrogative pronouns
their proper place before the relative. J. Greenwood, who
wrote in 1729, speaks of who and whom, which he calls inter-
rogative pronouns, as being used also to signify relation. But
our most popular grammarians now regard the interrogative
pronouns as a modification of the relative, and derive the inter-
rogative use of these words from the relative. Rev. A. Crombie.
(Treatise on the Etymology and Syntax of the English language,
London, 1809. p. 81,) discusses this very point, and comes to
this erroneous conclusion.
His chief arguments are (1.) The analogy existing between
the interrogative and relative. The relative, it is said, refers to a
term or subject antecedent and known ; the interrogative, to a
term or subject subsequent and unknown. But this analogy,
which may be admitted to exist, proves nothing as to priority of
origin. (2.) That the interrogative sentence may be resolved by
an ellipsis into a sentence with the relative ; thus, Who did it?
is equivalent to, I want to know who did it. But this logical
equivalence does not prove in the least, that the phraseology
without the ellipsis was ever in use as an historical fact.
On the contrary in favor of the priority of the interrogative,
it may be urged, (1.) That the interrogative is found in a sim-
ple sentence, proposed to another to fill up, and is instinctive,
as it were, in our nature; while the relative is found only in a
compound sentence, and is very difficult of conception and ex-
planation, and seems to indicate a later and more refined state
of human language. (2.) That the interrogative in the indirect
inquiry, and the indefinite, make the natural transition from
the interrogative to the relative; not so from the relative to
the interrogative. (3.) That the relative is, in many languages,
a mutilated form of the interrogative. Thus, Ion. Gr. xoff,
who? off, who; Lat. quis, who? qai, who; Eng. who, with the
tone or accent, an interrogative, who, without the tone or ac-
cent, a relative. Such mutilation shows the effect of time.
3. These words, being well defined as to their nature, and
underived as to their origin, have an interrogative element, as
APPENDIX.
105
shown above, common to them all. They thus stan 1 aside
from the usual laws of etymology and derivation, which re-
spect nouns and verbs only. Hence to derive what from wight,
and to connect it with Lat. vivo, vixi, victum, as Dr. Webster
has done, or to derive how and who from Anglo-Sax, hiwan, to
hew, and ivhat from hewed, the participle of \ew, as Dr. Rich-
ardson has done, is, to say the least, highly unreasonable.
This Analysis of English Interrogatives was first published
in the American Quarterly Register, for Nov. 1842.
The analysis of the personal pronouns and of the demonstra-
tives might be exhibited in a similar manner.
Z. ETYMOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF THE LORD'S PRAYER IN
ENGLISH.
In the English Pater nosier, there are several words of Latin
origin. These we shall specially notice. The pronominal
elements are of course Teutonic.
Our. The possessive pronoun derived from u, the pro-
nominal element of the first person plural ; see supra, p. 2.
The u is involved in the diphthong ou. For the termination,
com p. her, your, their.
Father. This word, with slight variations, pervades the
different Indo-European families ; as, Anglo-Sax, fader, Moeso-
Goth. fadar, Lat. pater, Gr. nuity, Sansk. pitr. But whether
the first part of this word is onomatopoetic, and the termin-
ation merely formative without special significancy, or whether
the first part is a proper root, and the latter part, ter, the suffix
for the noun of the subject, it is difficult to determine.
Who. The interrogative pronoun used for the relative. It
is derived from the pronominal element wh ; see supra, p. 3.
For a full account of the termination, see supra, p. 101.
Art. Sec. pers. sing, indie, from the defective verb am*
For the termination t, comp. wert, shalt, wilt.
In. A Teutonic preposition, found also in most of the Indo-
European families.
Heaven. Anglo-Sax, heofon, as if the passive participle from
hebban, to heave.
Be hallowed. Third pers. sing. pass, potential, used for the
imperative, from to hallow, Anglo-Sax, holgian.
Thy. A contraction of thine, the possessive pronoun derived
from th, the pronominal element of the second person. For
the termination and contraction, comp. my from mine*
106 FORMATION OF ENGLISH WORDS.
Name. This word, with slight variations, pervades the dif-
ferent Indo-European families; as, Anglo-Sax, nama, Moeso-
Goth. namOj Lat. nomen, Gr. ovoua, Sansk. naman ; from Eng.
*/know, Anglo-Sax. *J kna, Lat. V ' gno, G-r. V'/*' ? ^"ith for-
mative m.
Thy. As before.
Kingdom. An abstract noun ; formed from the concrete by
means of the suffix dom, see supra, p. 28. The ground-form
king, Anglo-Sax, cyning, from Anglo-Sax. \/ 'cen, to beget.
Come. Third pers. sing, potential, used for the imperative,
from Eng. come, past came, part. come.
Thy. As before.
Will. A stern-noun, comp. Anglo-Sax, will, Moeso-Goth.
vilja, from *J will, Anglo.Sax. \/will, Mceso-Goth. *J vilj, Lat.
*Jvel, Gr. Eng. gall ; Germ. ^alle.
(3.) The Latin g becomes k or c in English and German.
1. Lat. ^elidus ; Eng. cold ; Germ. &alt.
2. Lat. #ena ; Eng. cAin, (comp. Anglo-Sax, cyw,) Germ. ^inn.
3. Lat. #enu ; Eng. Arnee ; Germ. A-nie.
4. Lat. ^enus ; Eng. Arind ; Old High Germ. &unni.
5. Lat. ater; Eng. /ather; Germ, vater.
2. Lat. pauci ; Eng. /ew ; Old High Germ. /ahe.
3. Lat. pellis ; Eng. /ell ; Germ. /ell.
4. Lat. pes, (genit. pedis;) Eng. /oot ; Germ. /uss.
5. Lat. ^?iscis ; Eng. /ish ; Germ. /isch.
6. Lat. />lenus ; Eng. full ; Germ. voll.
7. Lat. ^ro and ^>rae ; Eng. /ore and /or ; Germ./iir and vor.
8. Lat. julex; Eng. /lea; Germ./loh.
9. Gr. ne(Qw; Eng. /are; Germ. /ah r en.
10. Gr. ntvTe ; Eng. /ive ; Germ. /iinf.
11. Gr. nvg; Eng. /ire ; Germ. /euer.
(8.) The Latin / becomes b in English and German,
1. Lat. /agus; Eng. Seech; Germ. 6uche.
2. Lat. /ero ; Eng. 6ear ; Germ, ge^aren.
3. Lat. /lo; Eng. 61ow; Germ, ilahen.
4. Lat. /los; Eng. &loorn ; Germ, ilume.
5. Lat/olium; Eng. frlade; Germ. 61att.
6. Lat. /oro; Eng. 6ore; Germ, fohren.
7. Lat. /rango; Eng. freak; Germ, frechen.
8. Lat. /rater ; Eng. fr other ; Germ. 5ruder.
9. Lat. /ruor, (whence fruges ;) Eng. 5rook; Germ. 6rauchen.
10. Lat. /ulgeo and/lagro; Eng. 61ink; Germ. Slicken.
11. Lat. /uo; Eng. 6e; Germ. 6in.
12. Gr. dqD^i;^ / Eng. 6row ; Germ, fraue.
(9.) The Latin b becomes p in English, and / in German.
1. Lat. canna&is; Eng, heinp; Germ. han/.
All these examples, excepting the very last one, have respect
to the initial sound of the word, where these principles exert
their power freely ; but in the middle or end of a word, these
principles are often affected by euphonic laws, arising from the
accumulation of consonants.
Sometimes two of these changes are illustrated in the same
word ; as,
118 VOCABULARY.
1. Lat. rlaudus; Eng. halt. See Nos. (1.) and (6.)
2. Lat. cor, (genit. corgis ;) Eng. heart. See Nos. (1.) and (6.)
3. Lat. caput; Anglo-Sax. heafod. See Nos. (1.) and (7.)
4. Lat. canna&is ; Eng. hemp. See Nos. (1.) and (9.)
5. Lat. ^aedus ; Eng. c/oat. See Nos. (2.) and (6.)
6. Lat. Zan^o ; Eng. think. See Nos. (4.) and (3.)
7. Eng. third; Germ. dritte. See Nos. (4.) and (5.)
8. Lat. tmdo] Eng. thrust. See Nos. (4.) and (6.)
9. Lat. isfud; Eng. that; Germ. das. See Nos. (4.) and (6.)
10. Eng. dee/?; Germ. tief. See Nos. (5.) and (9.)
11. Lat. dens, (genit. dentis',) Eng. toQth. See Nos. (6.)
and (4.)
12. Eng. tide; Germ. ze\t. See Nos. (6.) and (5.)
13. Lat. pater; Eng. father. See Nos. (7.) and (4.)
14. Lat. pes, (genit. pedis ;) Eng. foot. See Nos. (7.) and (6.)
15. Lat. joiscis; Eng./isA. See Nos. (7.) and (1.)
16. Lat. /ran^o; Eng. brea.k. See Nos. (8.) and (3.)
17. Lat. /ruor, (whence /ru^es;) Eng. brook. See Nos. (8.)
and (3.)
18. Lat. /ul/, off.
Sansk. kanksh, Moeso-Goth. huggrjan, Anglo-Sax, hunger,
Eng. hunger.
(3.) Examples of both kinds of precession in the same word.
Sansk. saptamas, Gr. Spdopos, Lat. septimus.
Sansk. agni, fire; Lat. ignis, id. Moeso-Goth. auhns, an
oven, Anglo-Sax, ofen, Eng. ovew.
This rule is to be considered as showing a general proclivity
of language to move in this direction.
10. The reader should bear in mind, that an is the infinitive
termination in Anglo-Saxon and Moeso-Gothic ; that s is the
nominative termination in Moeso-Gothic nouns; and that a
vowel, whether final, or before a final s, in some Teutonic words,
is merely formative, preparing the way for the declension.
11. It sometimes happens that an English dissyllable has
been evolved from an original monosyllable ; as, swallow from
Anglo-Sax, ^swelg ; wallow from Lat. \fvolv; follow from
Germ. ^folg.
12. It sometimes happens that an English monosyllable has
been contracted or abbreviated from an original dissyllable ; as,
ear (of corn) from Anglo-Sax, eahher ; ere (sooner) from Germ.
eher ; frail from Lat. fragilis.
13. The letter g in the Teutonic dialects often vocalizes, and
in English is sometimes entirely lost; as, enough, Anglo- Sax.
genog ; hail, Anglo-Sax, hagel; to dry, Anglo-Sax, drigan.
14. The final consonant in English roots is often peculiar and
anomalous. In that case we restore the original or predomi-
nant letter ; as, gaf for gav, (comp. gift;)frus forfruz, (eomp.
frost).
15. Words, commencing with hi, hn or hr in Anglo-Saxon,
often omit the initial h in English. In that case we restore the
original h ; as \/iilacl, \/iiliip, x/* 1 11 **
16. English verbs sometimes have an epenthetic n. We
omit such n in the root ; as, \Ahak .
17. We have printed the roots in the full-faced character,
but have contented ourselves to print the stem-words, and the
corresponding words in the kindred dialects, merely in Italics.
18. This attempt at a Vocabulary of English Roots is to be
regarded merely as an experiment. The problem is, how to
elicit the true form of the root, and how to present it to the
eye to the best advantage.
The author of this Vocabulary confines himself to the Teu-
120 VOCABtJLARt.
tonic portion of our language ; because the other portions, as
the Latin and the Greek, have been labored abundantly.
The author of this Vocabulary confines himself to the roots
and stem-words, in order that he may enter directly into the
heart of the language, and thus deduce its essential principles.
The longer forms of the language lie more remote.
The roots in English have been subjected to great changes.
The changes in the consonants may be reduced to a system;
but the changes in the vowels have been only partially ex-
plained.
The prosecution of such a work is attended with great em-
barrassment. A decision must often be made, where the data
are insufficient, or where the facts seem to contradict each other.
19. The different classes of words which fall into this Vocab-
ulary, such as it is, need to be differently treated.
We have given most attention to the strongly inflected verbs,
which form as it were the basis of the Teutonic dialects. The
roots given are derived from a combined consideration of the
English, Anglo-Saxon, and Mceso-Gothic dialects, and belong to
these dialects as a whole. In the order of these dialects, we
pursue the principle laid down on p. 111. Prelim. Rem. 3.
In stem-nouns, whose verbal root is not ascertained with cer-
tainty, we have only to proceed historically, going back step by
step from one form of the word to another.
Numerals and quantitatives, which make a part of speech
by themselves, are treated like the stem-nouns.
Prepositions are also treated like the stem-nouns, although
their etymology is still a matter of uncertainty.
Derivatives from pronominal elements do not properly belong
to this Vocabulary, yet a few will be found inserted.
20. In reference to Sanskrit analogues, in the present state
of philological knowledge, it might be expedient to insert them
with the initial of the person's name on whose authority the
comparison or coincidence rests.
In reference to Old High German analogues, a similar course
might be pursued.
Hebrew, Celtic, and Finnish analogues should be omitted, till
the nature of the related words in those languages is better un-
derstood.
21. We are happy to find that Pliny E. Chase has just pub-
lished a work entitled Sanscrit and English Analogues. His
work deserves attention, and should be an appurtenance of all
our Higher School rooms, as a book of reference.
121
TEUTONIC ROOTS AND STEM-WORDS.
Acre, a stem-substantive with merely formative liquid, (see
supra, p. 14.) Anglo- Sax. cecer, Moeso-Goth. akrs, Lat. ager, Gr.
Note. The agreement of the Greek, Latin, and Teutonic, in
respect to the formative liquid r, is worthy of notice.
\/Ag, (to possess,) uncertain strong conj., whence Eng. owe,
past owed, pass, partic. owing or owed ; Anglo-Sax, agan, aht,
agen; Moeso-Goth. aigan, aihta, aigans. Com p. Gr. #w. Hence
ought, a preteritive and auxiliary verb, also own.
Note 1. The vocalization of g, in the transition from Anglo-
Saxon to English, (see Prelim. Rem. 13.) seems to have disturbed
the English orthography.
Note 2. The Gr. e'/w is said to stand for e/w, (comp. fut. t'w).
It is remarkable that in Old Friesic the form haga is used as
well as aga.
All, a quantitative, Anglo-Sax, call, Moeso-Goth. alls. Hence
also, almighty.
Note. The Anglo Saxon often writes ea for a, when followed
by h, I, or r. But the English seems to restore the original
vowel.
And, a primary conjunction, Anglo-Sax, and, Old Fries. and t
end.
Arm, n. Anglo-Sax, earm, (see note on All,) Moeso-Goth.
arms, Lat. armus, the shoulder, Gr. &g^$, id. Hence armlet.
Arrow, a stem-substantive, originally of one syllable, (see
supra, p. 5, 6.) Anglo-Sax, arewa, Moeso-Goth. arwazna.
At, prep, (kindred with to,) Anglo-Sax, cet, Mceso-Goth. at,
Lat. ad.
Note. An original a before most of the mutes, passes in
Anglo Saxon into ce ; but the original a often returns in Eng-
lish.
\/At, strong conj. III. Schm. whence Eng. eat, past ate or
eat, pass, partic. eaten or eat; Anglo-Sax, etan, cet, eten ; Mceso-
Goth. itan, at, itans. Comp. Lat. */ed, Gr. \fid.
Note. This root illustrates Grimm's law of mute consonant
changes ; as, Lat. edo, Eng. cat, Germ, essen.
11
122 VOCABULARY.
Awe, n. Anglo-Sax, oga, Moeso-Goth. agis, fear, from Moeso-
Goth. \/ a f? to fear. Hence to aive, awful.
Note. As no one letter here exhibits, its proper sound, Dr.
Duponceau selected this word to illustrate the nature of a lexi-
cal sign in Chinese. But the orthography of Eng. awe is not
so entirely arbitrary, as Dr. Duponceau appears to think. The
word was originally of two syllables, a-we, (comp. Dan. a-ve).
In passing into a monosyllable, the w lost its consonantal pow-
er, and in the character of a vowel helped to form the diph-
thong aw or au. This diphthong, which properly should be
pronounced like on in found, has, by a very general law of the
English language, acquired the kindred sound of a in au. The
mute e is retained to show that the vowel a is long. The irreg-
ularity of the pronunciation in English is no proof that the
word, or combination of letters, awe, is ideographic in our
language.
Axe, n. Anglo-Sax cex, (see note on At,) Moeso-Goth. agizi,
Lat. ascia, Gr. a*ii>y.
\/Bad, (to ask,) strong conj. III. Schm. whence Eng. bid,
past bade or bid, pass, partic. bidden or bid ; Anglo-Sax, biddan,
bced, beden; Mceso-Goth. bidan, bad, bidans.
Note. The Mceso-Gothic past tense gives the radical vowel.
/V/Bak, strong, conj. IV. Schm. whence Eng. bake, past
baked, pass, partic. baken or baked; Anglo- Sax. bacan, boc, bacen.
Comp. Lat. \/coc, to cook ; Gr. \Snen, id. Hence batch, bakery.
Bale, n. (obsolete,) evil, Anglo-Sax, balew, Mceso-Goth. balvs.
Hence baleful.
/V/Bancl, strong conj. II. Schm. whence Eng. bind, past
bound, pass, partic. bound ; Anglo-Sax, bindan, band, bunden ;
Mceso-Goth. bindan, band, butidans. Hence band, n. bond, n.
bundle, bandage, bondage.
Bane, n. Angle-Sax, bana, Mceso-Goth. banja. Hence baneful.
\/JBar ? strong conj. I. Schm. whence Eng. bear, past bore,
pass, partic. borne and born ; Anglo-Sax, beran, bcvr, boren ;
Mceso-Goth. bairan, bar, baurans. Comp. Lat. \/fer, Gr. \Sysg.
Hence bier, berth, birth, burthen.
/y/JBarst, strong conj. II. Schm. whence Eng. burst, past
burst, pass, partic. burst ; Anglo-Sax, berstan, bcerst, borsten.
Note. We infer the root barst from the Anglo-Sax, past
tense bcerst. Comp, \/At
Beam, n. Anglo Sax. beam, a tree, beam ; Moeso-Goth. bagms,
a tree.
TEUTONIC ROOTS AND STEM-WORDS. 123
Bear, n. Anglo-Sax, bera, Moeso-Goth. biari, a wild beast,
Lat. /era, id. Gr. qorjo, id.
Bed, n. Anglo-Sax, bed, Moeso-Goth. badi. Hence bedstead.
Beech, n. Anglo- Sax. bece, boc, Lat. fagus, Gr. g^/og.
Note. This stem-substantive illustrates Grimm's law of mute
consonant changes ; as, Lat. fagus, Eng. beech, Old High Germ.
puohha.
Belly, n. Anglo-Sax, bcelg, a bag, belly, Moeso-Goth. balgs, a
bag.
\ABid, (to remain,) strong conj. V. Schm. whence Eng.
bide, past bode, pass, parti c. bode; Anglo-Sax, bidan, bad, biden;
Moeso-Goth. beidan, baid, bidans. Hence abide.
/V/Bit, strong conj. V. Schm. whence Eng. bite, past bit, pass,
partic. bitten or bit ; Anglo Sax. bitan, bat, biten ; Moeso-Goth.
beitan, bait, bitans. Hence bit, n. bite, n.
\/Blaw, strong conj. VII. Schm. whence Eng. blow, past
blew, pass, partic. blown; Anglo-Sax, blawan, bleow, blawen.
Com p. Lat. \//?y/Cam, strong conj. I. Schm. whence Eng. come, past
came, pass, partic. come; Anglo-Sax, cuman, com, cumen; Mceso-
Goth. qiman, gam, qumans.
\/Can, strong conj. III. Schm. whence Eng. Teen, past kenned,
pass, partic. kenned; Mceso-Goth. kunnan, kuntha, kunths; and
also the preteritive auxiliary English verb, can, could,
Note. It is now generally admitted that the spelling of
could is an unhappy imitation of would and should.
^V/Catcli, mixed conj. whence Eng. catch, past caught or
catched, pass, partic. caught or catched.
\/Chaw or chew, uncertain strong conj. whence Eng. chaw
or chew, past chawed or chewed, pass, partic. chawed or chewed;
Anglo-Sax, ceowan, ceaw, gecoiven.
\/Cliid ? strong conj. V. Schm. whence Eng. chide, past chid,
pass, partic. chidden or chid; Anglo-Sax, cidan, cad, ciden.
TEUTONIC ROOTS AND STEM-WORDS. 125
, strong conj. VI. Schm. whence Eng. choose, past
chose, pass, partic. chosen; Anglo Sax. ceosan, ceas, coren ; Mce-
so-Goth. kiusan, kcrus, kusans. Hence choice.
Note. The vowel of the root is deduced from the Moeso-
Gothic.
\/Claf, (to adhere,) strong conj. IV. Schrn. whence Eng.
cleave, past cleaved, pass, partic. clea ved; Anglo- Sax. clifigan.
\/Ia,iiiI>, strong conj. II. Schm. whence Eng. climb, past
climbed, pass, partic. climbed ; Anglo-Sax, climban, clamb,
clumben.
\/t.1sing, strong conj. II. Schm. whence Eng. cling, past
clung, pass, partic. clung; Anglo-Sax, clingan. Hence clang, n.
Clock, Anglo-Sax, clucga, a bell, clock. The term is ono-
matopoetic, and of course kindred to other onomatopoetic
words ; as, to clack, to cluck.
\/Iuf, (to divide,) strong conj. VI. Schm. whence Eng.
cleave, past cleft, pass, partic. cleft or cleaved; Anglo-Sax, clufan,
deaf, clofen. Hence cleaver, cleft, cleavage.
Corn, n. Anglo-Sax, corn, Mceso-Goth. kaum, Lat. oranum.
Hence kernel.
\/raw, strong conj. VII. Schrn. whence Eng. wow, past
crowed, pass, partic. crowed; Anglo-Sax, crawan, creow, crawen.
Hence crow, n.
X/Oa^f, strong conj. II. Sehm. whence Eng. dig, past dug or
digged, pass, partic. dug or digged; Anglo-Sax, dician. Hence
dike, ditch.
/V/Oalf, strong conj. II. Schm. whence Eng\ delve, past
delved, pass, partie. delved; Anglo-Sax, del fen, dealf, dolfen.
\/i>ar, uncertain strong conj. whence Eng. dare, past durst;
Anglo-Sax, dearran, dorste ; Mceso-Goth. daursun, daurste.
Com p. Gr. \/^o^ or ^a^cc.
Note. Observe Grimm's law ; Gr. /\/t>oa, Eng. dare, Old
High Germ, \ftar.
Dark, adj. Anglo-Sax, deorc.
Deer, n. Anglo-Sax, deor, Moeso-Go-th. dius, Gr. &fy>.
Note. Observe Grimm's law ; Gr. ^rjo, Eng. deer, Old High
Germ. tior.
\/Oif, uncertain strong conj. whence Eng. dive, past dived,
(O. E. dove,) pass. partic. dived; Anglo-Sax, dufian, dyfde,doven*
\/I>o, uncertain strong conj. whence Eng. do, past did r (with
reduplication,) pass, partic. done; Anglo-Sax, don, dyde, gedon;
(Moeso-Goth. deds, n. a deed). Comp. Gr. \/^ 8 7 Saask, dha*.
126 VOCABULARY.
Note. Observe Grimm's law, Gr. \/^ e > Eng. do, Old High
Germ. tuon.
Door, n. Anglo-Sax, duru, dyr, Mceso-Goth. daur, Gr. &vga.
Note. Observe Grimm's law ; Gr. &vga, Eng. door, Old High
Germ, tor, turi.
\/I>ra^, strong conj. IV. Sclim. whence Eng. draw, past
drew, pass, partic. drawn; Anglo-Sax, dragan, droll, dragen;
Mceso-Goth. dragan, drog, dragans. Comp. Lat. \/trah. Hence
Eng. draught, draft, also to drag, with weak conjugation.
Note. Observe Grimm's law in the final letters of the root;
Lat. \ftrah, Eng. drag, Old High Germ, \ftrak.
\AOi*ank, strong conj. II. Schm. whence Eng. drink, past
drank, pass, partic. drunk; Anglo-Sax, drincan, dranc, druncen;
Moeso-Goth. drigkan, dragk, drugkans. Hence drunken, adj.
\/J>rif ? strong conj. V. Schm. whence Eng. drive, past
drove, pass, partic. driven; Moeso-Goth. dreiban, draif, dribans.
Hence drove, n. drift.
\/I>iicli, past ducked, pass, partic. ducked, weak conj.
Comp. Lat. tingo, Gr. r^yw.
\/Ear 9 (to plow,) obs. past eared, pass, partic. eared, weak
conj. ; Anglo-Sax, erian, Moeso-Goth. arjan. Comp. Lat. aro,
Gr. agou). Hence earth, earable.
Ear, (of corn,) n. Anglo-Sax, cehher, ear, (see Prelim. Rem.
12.) Moeso-Goth. ahs, (gen. ahsis,) from a root corresponding
with the root of Lat. acer, Gr. axgo*.
Ear, (organ of hearing,) n. Anglo-Sax, eare, Moeso-Goth.
auso, Lat. auris, Gr. olg.
Egg, n. (0. E. ey<) Anglo-Sax, ceg, Lat. ovum, Gr. woV.
Eight, a cardinal numeral, Anglo-Sax, eahta, Mceso Goth.
ahtau, Lat. octo, Gr. xrw. Hence eighth, eighty.
Etl, n. Anglo-Sax, elne, Moeso-Goth. aleina, Lat. ulna, Gr.
(btaV?/. Hence elbow.
End,i\. Anglo-Sax, ende, Mceso-Goth. andeis. Hence endless.
Ever, (0. E. aye?) n. (often used as an adverb,) Anglo-Sax.
a, awa, afer; Mceso-Goth. aivs, Lat. aevum, Gr. fat. Hence
everlasting.
Ewe, n. Anglo-Sax, eowu, Mceso Goth, am, Lat. ovis, Gr. oig.
Eye, n. Anglo-Sax, eage, Mceso-Goth. augo, Lat. oculus, Gr.
oxo?.
/V/Faht ? strong conj. II. Schm. whence Eng. fight, past
fought, pass, partic. fought; Anglo-Sax, feohtan^ feaht,feohten.
Hence fight, n.
TEUTONIC ROOTS AND STEM-WORDS. 12?
\/Fall, strong conj. VIII. Schm. whence Eng. fall, past
fell, pass, partic. fallen ; Anglo-Sax, feallan, feoll, gefeollen.
Com p. Lat,/a//o, to stumble, deceive, Gr. \XtfqDdUw, id. Hence
fall, n. windfall.
\/Fand 5 strong conj. II. Schm. whence Eng. find, past
found, pass, partic. found; Anglo-Sax. findan, fand, funden;
Moeso-Goth. finthan, fanth, funthans. Hence foundling.
\/Far ? strong, conj. IV. Schm. whence Eng. fare, past/am,
pass, partic. fared ; Anglo-Sax, faran, for, faren. Comp. Lat.
per go, Gr. nelQu. Hence fare, n. welfare, farewell.
Fell, (skin,) n. Anglo S&x.fell, Moeso-Goth. fill, Lat. pellis.
\/Fetcli 9 mixed conj. whence Eng. fetch, past fetched, pass.
parti c. fetched; Anglo-Sax, feccan or fetian. fette, gefetod.
Few, adj. of quantity, Anglo-Sax, feawa, Lat. paucus.
Fire, n. Anglo-Sax, fyr, Gr. nvy.
Fish, n. Anglo-Sax, fisc, Mceso-Goth fisfcs, Lat. piscis.
Five, an ordinal numeral, Anglo-Sax, fif, Mceso-Goth. fimf,
Lat. qainque, Gr. ntune. Hence fifth.
X/Flang 1 , strong conj. II. Schm. whence Eng. fling, past
flung, pass, partic. flung.
\fFlu, strong conj. VI. Schm. whence Eng. flow, past flowed,
pass, partic. flowed; Anglo- Sax. flowan,fleow. Comp. Lat.fluo,
Gr. cpkuw.
\/FIug 9 strong conj. VI. Schm. whence Eng. fly, past flew,
pass, partic. flown ; Anglo-Sax, fleogan, fleah, flogen. Hence
fly, \\.flight.
Foal, n. Anglo-Sax, fole, Mceso-Goth. fula, Lat. pullus, Gr.
n&kog.
Foot, n. Anglo-Sax./o/, Moeso-Goth. fotus, Lat. pes, (genit.
perils,) Gr. noug, (genit. nodog).
For, a Teutonic preposition, found also in the other Indo-
European languages; as, Eng. for, Anglo-Sax, for, Mceso-Goth.
faura. Comp. Lat. prae and pro, Gr. 7Ty6.
/V/Fralit, strong conj. IV. Schm. whence Eng. freight, past
freighted, pass, partic. fraught or freighted. Hence freight, n.
freightage.
/V/Frus, strong conj. VI. Schm. whence Eng. freeze, past
froze, pass, pai tic. frozen ; Anglo-Sax, frusan, freas, froren.
(part of irregular verb go, went, gone,) uncertain
strong conj. whence Eng. go, pass, partic. gone ; Anglo-Sax.
ga,n, gangan, pass, partic. gan, gangen; Mceso-Goth. gaggan,
128 VOCABULARY.
pass, partic. gangans ; both of which languages also borrow
their past tenses from another root. Hence gang* gangue.
\/raf, strong conj. III. Schm. whence Eng. give, past gave,
pass, partic. given; Anglo-Sax, gifan, geaf, gifen; Mceso-Goth.
giban, gof, gibans. Hence gift.
Gall, n. Anglo-Sax, gealla, (see note on All,) Gr. #0X7).
\/Gann, strong conj. II. Schm. whence Eng. begin, past
began, pass, partic. begun; Anglo-Sax, beginnan, began, begunnen;
Mceso-Goth. ginnan, gann, gunnans. Hence beginning.
\/Oat, strong conj. III. Schm. whence Eng. get, past got,
pass, partic. gotten or got; Anglo- Sax. ongitan, ongeat, ongiten;
Mceso-Goth. gitan, gat, gitans.
Goat, n. Anglo-Sax, gat, Mceso-Goth. gaitei, Lat. haedus.
Note. This stem- substantive accords with Grimm's law,
both in its anlaut and its auslaut, \. e. both in its initial and
in its final consonant ; as, Lat. haedus, Eng. goat, Old High
Germ. keiz.
Gold, n. Anglo-Sax, gold, Mceso-Goth. gulths. Hence gild,
golden.
Goom, (in bridegroom for bridegoom,) n. Anglo-Sax, guma^
Lat. homo.
Goose, n. Anglo-Sax, gos, Gr. %^v.
\/Oraf, strong conj. IV. Schm. whence Eng. grave, past
graved, pass, partic. graven or graved; Anglo-Sax, grofan, grof,
grafen; Mceso-Goth. graban, grof, grabans. Comp. Gr. /v/j^qp.
Hence grave, n. groove.
/V/Grand, strong conj. II. Schro. whence Eng. grind, past
ground, pass, partic. ground; Anglo-Sax, grindan, grand f
grunden.
\/Orat, strong conj. X. Schm. whence Eng. greet, past
greeted, pass, partic. greeted; Anglo-Sax, gretan, grette, gretten;
Mceso-Goth. gretan, gaigrot, gretanz.
N t e \ f Mceso-Goth. gretan, to lament, and Anglo-Sax, gre-
tan, to salute, refer us to the original meaning ' to cry out.'
Note 2. -The verb to greet is the best example that we have
of this conjugation in English.
Great, adj. Anglo-Sax, great.
Gross, adj. the High German form of great
\/Oru, strong conj. VI. Schm. w hence Eng. grow, past grew,
pass, partic. grown; Anglo-Sax, growan, greow, growen. Hence
growth.
Guest, n. Anglo Sax. gcust, Mceso-Goth. gasts, Lat. hostis.
TEUTONIC ROOTS AKD STEM-WORDS. 129
\/IIaf 9 strong conj. IV. Schm. whence Eng. heave, past hove
or heaved, pass, partic. Aoi^ra or heaved; Anglo Sax. hebban, libf,
hafen; Moeso-Goth. hafjan, hof, kafans. Hence heft.
Hair, n. Anglo-Sax, hoer, Lat. rrmis. Hence hairy, hairless.
/S/Hald, strong conj. VIII. Schm. whence Eng. hold, past
held, pass, partic. Ae/6^ ; Anglo-Sax, healdan, heold, healden;
Moeso-Goth. haldan, haihald, haldans.
\/Ha,Ip, strong conj. II. Schm. whence Eng. help, past
helped, pass, partic. helped; Anglo-Sax, helpan, healp, holpen ;
Moeso-Goth. hilpan, halp, hulpa.ns.
Halt, adj. Anglo-Sax, healt, Moeso-Goth. halts, Lat. claudus.
Note. This stem-adjective accords with Grimm's law, as it
respects the auslaut or final consonant ; as, Lat. claudus, Eng.
halt, Germ. halz.
artic. trodden or trod; Anglo-Sax, tredan, treed,
treden ; Moeso-Goth. trudan. Hence tread, n.
\XTng, strong conj. VI. Schm. whence Eng. tug, past tugged,
pass, partic. tugged ; Anglo-Sax, teon, tea.li, togen ; Moeso-Goth.
tiuhan, tauh, tauhans. Comp. Lat. duco.
Two, an ordinal numeral, Anglo-Sax, twa, Moeso-Goth. tvai,
Lat. duo, Gr. dvo. Hence twain, between.
Note. The uh sound in two, belongs to the w, and not to
the o.
\/Uk, (to add,) strong conj. XII. Schm. whence Eng. eke,
past eked, pass, partic. eked; Anglo-Sax, ecan, ecte, geeced ;
Moeso-Goth. aukan, aiak, aukans. Comp. Lat. augeo, Gr. ati&*>.
\/Waf, strong conj. I. Schm. whence Eng. weave, past
wove, pass, partic. woven ; Anglo-Sax, we/an, gewefen. Hence
woof.
\/Wak, strong conj. IV. Schm. whence Eng. wake, woke or
waked, waked; Anglo-Sax, wacan, woe, wacen ; Mceso-Goth,
vakan, vok, vakans. Hence awake.
V'Waml, strong conj. II. Schm. whence Eng. wind, past
wound, pass, partic. wound; Anglo-Sax, wind an, wand, wunden;
Moeso-Goth. vindan, vand, vundans.
V^Waim, strong conj. II. Schm. whence Eng. win, past won,
pass, partic. won ; Anglo-Sax, winnan, wan, wunnen.
\/War, strong conj. I. Schm. whence Eng. wear, past wore,
pass, partic. worn ; Anglo-Sax, weran.
\/Wark, mixed conj. whence Eng. work, past wrought or
worked, pass, partic. wrought or worked ; Anglo-Sax, wyrcan,
worhte, geworht ; Moeso-Goth. vaurkjan, vaurhta, vaurhts.
Comp. Gr. \/ gy. Hence wright.
Warm, adj. Anglo-Sax, wearm, (see note on All,} Mceso-
Goth. warms. Hence warmth.
138 VOCABULARY.
\/WaIi, strong conj. IV. Schm. whence Eng. wash, past
washed, pass, partic. washed ; Anglo-Sax, wacsan, woes, wcescen.
\/Wax, strong conj. IV. Schm. whence Eng. wax, past
waxed, pass, partic. waxen or waxed Anglo-Sax, weaxan, weox,
weaxen ; Moeso-Goth. vahsjan, vohs, vahsans.
Weak, adj. Anglo-Sax, wac. Hence weakness.
White, adj. Anglo-Sax, hwit, Moeso-Goth. hweits.
Note. This transposition of h and w seems peculiar to the
English.
Wide, adj. Anglo-Sax, wid. Hence width.