-. - 3 L COMMENTARY NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA, A SUPPLEMENTARY VOLUME. DESIGNED FOR THE USE OF STUDENTS AT THE UNIVERSITIES. BY J. M. F. WRIGHT, A. B. . V LATE SCHOLAR OF TIUXITr COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE, AUTHOR OF SOLUTIONS OF THE CAMBRIDGE PROBLEMS, &c. &C. IN TWO VOLUMES. VOL. I. LONDON: PRINTED FOR T. T. & J. TEGG, 73, CHEAPSIDE; AND RICHARD GRIFFIN & CO., GLASGOW. MDCCCXXXIII. GLASGOW : GEORGE EROOK.MAN, PRINTER, VILLAPJKLD. TO THE TUTORS OF THE SEVERAL COLLEGES AT CAMBRIDGE, THESE PAGES, * WHICH WERE COMPOSED WITH THE VIEW OF PROMOTING THE STUDIES OVER WHICH THEY SO ABLY PRESIDE, ARE RESPECTFULLY INSCRIBED BY THEIR DEVOTED SERVANT, THE AUTHOR. PREFACE. THE flattering manner in which the Glasgow Edition of Newton's Prin- cipia has been received, a second impression being already on the verge of* publication, has induced the projectors and edito? of that work, to render, as they humbly conceive, their labours still more acceptable, by presenting these additional vofnnres to the public. From amongst the several testimonies of the esteem in which their former endeavours have been held, it may suffice, to avoid the charge of self-eulogy, to select the following, which, coming from the high authority of French mathematical criticism, must be considered at once as the more decisive and impartial. It nas been said by one of the first geometers of France, that " L'edilion de Glasgow fait honneur aux presses de cette ville irtckretricuse. On peut affirmer que jamais Tart typographique ne rendit un plus bel honrmage a la memoire de Newton. Le merite de I'impression, quoique tres-remar- quable, n'est pas ce que les editeurs ont recherche avec le plus de soin, pour tant le materiel de leur travail, \\s pouvaient s'en rapporter a Thabi- lite de leur artistes : mais le choix des meilleures editions, la revision la plus scrupuleuse du texte et des epreuves, la recherche attentive des fautes qui pourraient e"chapper meme au lecteur studieux, et passer inaper^ues ce travail consciencieux de 1'intelligence et du savoir, voila ce qui eleve cette edition au-dessus de toutes celles qui 1'ont prece'tle'e. " Les editeurs de Glasgow ne s'etaient charges que d'un travail de re- vision. S'iTs avaient con?u le projet cTameliorer et completer fceuvre des a 3 V! PREFACE. commentatcurs, Us auraient sans doute employe) comme eux t les tranaux des successeurs de Newton sur les questions traitees dans le livre des Principes. " Les descendans de Newton sont nombreux, et leur genealogie est prouvee par des litres incontestibles; ceux qui vivent aujourd'hui verraient sans doute avec satisfaction que Ton format un tableau de leur famille, en reunissant les productions les plus remarquables dont Fouvrage de Newton a fourni le germe: que ce livre immortel soil entoure de tout ce Fon peut regarder comme ses developpemens : voila son meilleur commentaire. U edition de Glasgow pourrait done etre continuee, et prodigieusement enricliie" The same philosopher takes occasion again to remark, that " Le plus beau monument que Fon puisse clever a la gloire de Newton, c'est une bonne edition de ses ouvrages : et il est etonnant que les Anglais en aient laisse ce soin aux nations etrangeres. Les presses de Glasgow viennent de reparer, en partie, le tort de la nation Anglaise : la nouvelle edition des Principes est effectivement la plus belle, la plus correcte et la plus com- mode qui ait parujusqu'ici. La collation des anciennes editions, la revi- sion des calculs, &c. ont ete confiees a un habile mathematicien et rien n'a ete neglige pour eviter toutes les erreurs et toutes les omissions. " II faut esperer que les editeurs continueront leur belle entreprise, et qtfils y seront assez encourages pour nous donner, non seulement tons les ouvrages de Newton, mats ceux des savans qui ont complete ses travaux." The encouragement here anticipated has not been withheld, nor has the idea of improving and completing the comments of " The Jesuits", contained in the Glasgow Newton, escaped us, inasmuch as long before these hints were promulgated, had the following work, which is composed principally as a succedaneum to the former, been planned, and partly writ- ten. It is at least, however, a pleasing confirmation of the justness of our own conceptions, to have encountered even at any time with these after- suggestions. The plan of the work is, nevertheless, in several respects, a deviation from that here so forcibly recommended. The object of the first volume is, to make the text of the Principia, by PREFACE. Vll supplying numerous steps in the very concise demonstrations of the pro- positions, and illustrating them by every conceivable device, as easy as can be desired by students even of but moderate capacities. It is univer- sally known, that Newton composed this wonderful work in a very hasty manner, merely selecting from a huge mass of papers such discoveries as would succeed each other as the connecting links of one vast chain, but without giving himself the trouble of explaining to the world the mode of fabricating those links. His comprehensive mind could, by the feeblest exertion of its powers, condense into one view many syllogisms of a pro- position even heretofore uncontemplated. What difficulties, then, to him would seem his own discoveries ? Surely none ; and the modesty for which he is proverbially remarkable, gave him in his own estimation so little the advantage of the rest of created beings,, that he deemed these difficulties as easy to others as to himself: the lamentable consequence of which humility has been, that he himself is scarcely comprehended at this day a century from the birth of the Principia. We have had, in the first place, the Lectures of Winston, who des- cants not even respectably in his lectures delivered at Cambridge, upon the discoveries of his master. Then there follow even lower and less competent interpreters of this great prophet of science for such Newton must have been held in those dark days of knowledge whom it would be time mis-spent to dwell upon. But the first, it would seem, who properly estimated the Principia, was Glairaut. After a lapse of nearly half a cen- tury, this distinguished geometer not only acknowledged the truths of the Principia, but even extended the domain of Newton and of Mathematical Science. But even Clairaut did not condescend to explain his views and perceptions to the rest of mankind, farther than by publishing his own discoveries. For these we owe a vast debt of gratitude, but should have been still more highly benefited, had he bestowed upon us a sort of run- ning Commentary on the Principia. It is generally supposed, indeed, that the greater portion of the Commentary called Madame Chastellet's, was due to Clairaut. The best things, however, of that work are alto- i Vlll PREFACE gether unworthy of so great a master ; at the most, showing the perform- ance was not one of his own seeking. At any rate, this work does not deserve tjie name of a Commentary on the Principia. The same may safely be affirmed of many other productions intended to facilitate New- ton. Pemberton's View, although a bulky tome, is little more than a eulogy. Maclaurin's speculations also do but little, elucidate the dark passages of the Principia, although written more immediately for that purpose. This is also a heavy unreadabje performance, and not worthy a place on the same shelf with the other works of that great geometer. Another great mathematician, scarcely inferior to Maclaurin, has also laboured unprofitably in the same field. Emerson's Comment? is a book as small in value as it is in bulk, affording no helps worth the perusal to the student. Thorpe's notes to the First Book of the Princi- pia, however, are of a higher character, and in many instances do really facilitate the reading of Newton. Jebb's notes upon certain sections deserve the same commendation ; and praise ought not to be withheld from several other commentators, who have more or less succeeded in making small portions of the Principia more accessible to the student such as the Rev. Mr. Newton's work, Mr. Carr's, Mr. Wilkinson's, Mr. Lardner's, &c, It must be confessed, however, that all these fall far short in value of the very learned labours, 'contained in the Glasgow Newton, of the Jesuits Le Seur and Jacquier, and their great coadjutor. Much remained, how- ever, to be added even to this erudite production, and subsequently to its first appearance much has been excogitated, principally by the mathema- ticians of Cambridge, that focus of science, and native land of the Princi- pia, of which, in the composition of the following pages, the author has liberally availed himself. The most valuable matter thus afforded are the Tutorial MSS. in circulation at Cambridge. Of these, which are used iti explaining Newton to the students by the Private Tutors there, the author confesses to have had abundance, and also to have used them so far as seem- ed auxiliary to his own resources. But at the same time it must be remark- ed, that little has been the assistance hence derived, or, indeed, from all PUEFACE. IX other known sources, which from the first have been constantly at com- mand. The plan of the work being to make those parts of Newton easy which are required to be read at Cambridge and Dublin, that portion of the Principia which is better read in the elementary works on Mechanics, viz. the preliminary Definitions, Laws of Motion, and their Corollaries, has been disregarded. For like reasons the fourth and fifth sections have been but little dwelt upon. The eleventh section and third book have not met with the attention their importance and intricacy would seem to demand, partly from the circumstance of an excellent Treatise on Physics, by Mr. Airey, having superseded the necessity of such labours; and partly because in the second volume the reader will find the same subjects treated after the easier and more comprehensive methods of Laplace. The first section of the first book has been explained at great length, and it is presumed that, for the first time, the true principles of what has been so long a subject of contention in the scientific world, have there been fully established. It is humbly thought (for in these intricate specu- lations it is folly to be proudly confident), that what has been considered in so many lights and so variously denominated Fluxions, Ultimate Ratios, Differential Calculus, Calculus of Derivations, &c. &c. is here laid down on a basis too firm to be shaken by future controversy. It is also hoped that the text of this section, hitherto held almost impenetrably obscure, is now laid open to the view of most students. The same merit it is with some confidence anticipated will be awarded to the illustrations of the 2nd, 3rd, 6th, 7th, 8th, and 9th sections, which, although not so recondite, require much explanation, and many of the steps to be supplied in the demon- stration of almost every proposition. Many of the things in the first volume are new to the author, but very probably not original in reality so vast and various are the results of science already accumulated. Suffice it to observe, that if they prove useful in unlocking the treasures of the Principia, the author will rest satisfied with the meed of approbation, which he will to that extent have earned from a discriminating and im- partial public. X PREFACE. The second volume is designed to form a sort of Appendix or Supple- ment to the Principia. It gives the principal discoveries of Laplace, and, indeed, will be found of great service, as an introduction to the entire perusal of the immortal work of that author the Mecanique Celeste. This volume is prefaced by much useful matter relative to the Integra- tion of Partial Differences and other difficult branches of Abstract Ma- thematics, those powerful auxiliaries in the higher departments of Physical Astronomy, and which appear in almost every page of the Mecanique Celeste. These and other preparations, designed to facilitate the com- prehension of the Newton of these days, will, it is presumed, be found fully acceptable to the more advanced readers, who may be prosecuting researches even in the remotest and most hidden receptacles of science ; and, indeed, the author trusts he is by no means unreasonably exorbitant in his expectations, when he predicates of himself that throughout the undertaking he has proved himself a labourer not unworthy of reward. THE AUTHOR. A COMMENTARY ON NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA, SECTION I. BOOK I. 1. THIS section is introductory to the succeeding part of the work. It comprehends the substance of the method of Exhaustions of the Ancients, and also of the Modern Theories, variously denominated Fluxions, Dif- ferential Calculus, Calculus of Derivations, Functions, &c. &c. Like them it treats of the relations which Indefinite quantities bear to one ano- ther, and conducts in general by a nearer route to precisely the same results. 2. In what precedes this section, Jinite quantities only are considered, such as the spaces described by bodies moving uniformly in Jinite times with Jinite velocities ; or at most, those described by bodies whose mo- tions are uniformly accelerated. But what follows relates to the motions of bodies accelerated according to various hypotheses, and requires the consideration of quantities indefinitely small or great, or of such whose Ratios, by their decrease or increase, continually approximate to certain Limiting Values, but which they cannot reach be the quantities ever so much diminished or augmented. These Limiting Ratios are called by Newton, " Prune and Ultimate Ratios," Prime Ratio meaning the Limit from which the Ratio of two quantities diverges, and Ultimate Ratio that towards which the Ratio converges. To prevent ambiguity, the term Li- miting Ratio will subsequently be used throughout this Commentary. A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. I. LEMMA I. 3. QUANTITIES AND THE RATIOS OF QUANTITIES.] Hereby Newton would infer the truth of the Lemma not only for quantities mensurable by Integers, but also for such as may be denoted by Vulgar Fractions. The necessity or use of the distinction is none ; there being just as much reason for specifying all other sorts of quantities. The truth of the LEMMA does not depend upon the species of quantities, but upon their confor- mity with the following conditions, viz. 4. That they tend continually to equality, and approach nearer to each other than by any given difference. They must tend continually to equa- lity, that is, every Ratio of their successive corresponding values must be nearer and nearer a Ratio of Equality, the number of these convergen- cies being without end. By given difference is merely meant any that can be assigned or proposed. 5. FINITE TIME.] Newton obviously introduces the idea of time in this enunciation, to show illustratively that he supposes the quantities to con- verge continually to equality, without ever actually reaching or passing that state ; and since to fix such an idea, he says, " before the end of that time," it was moreover necessary to consider the time Finite. Hence our author would avoid the charge of " Fallacia Suppositionis" or of " shifting the hypothesis" For it is contended that if you frame certain relations between actual quantities, and afterwards deduce conclusions from such relations on the supposition of the quantities having vanished, such conclusions are illogically deduced, and ought no more to subsist than the quantities themselves. In the Scholium at the end of this Section he is more explicit. He says, The ultimate Ratios, in 'which quantities vanish, are not in reality the Ratios of Ultimate quantities , but the Limits to which the Ratios of quan- tities continually decreasing always approach ; which they never can pass beyond or arrive at, unless the quantities are continually and indefinitely diminished. After all, however, neither our Author himself nor any of his Commentators, though much has been advanced upon the subject, has obviated this objection. Bishop Berkeley's ingenious criticisms in the Analyst remain to this day unanswered. He therein facetiously denomi- nates the results, obtained from the supposition that the quantities, before BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 3 considered finite and real, have vanished, the " Ghosts of Departed Quantities " and it must be admitted there is reason as well as wit in the appellation. The fact is, Newton himself, if we may judge from his own words in the above cited Scholium, where he says, " If two quantities, whose DIFFERENCE is GIVEN are augmented continually, their Ultimate Ratio will be a Ratio of Equality," had no knowledge of the true nature of his Method of Prime and Ultimate Ratios. If there be meaning in words, he plainly supposes in this passage, a mere Approximation to be the same with an Ultimate Ratio. He loses sight of the condition ex- pressed in Lemma I. namely, that the quantities tend to equality nearer than by any assignable difference, by supposing the difference of the quan- tities continually augmented to be given, or always the same. In this sense the whole Earth, compared with the whole Earth minus a grain of sand, would constitute an Ultimate Ratio of equality ; whereas so long as any, the minutest difference exists between two quantities, they cannot be said to be more than nearly equal. But it is now to be shown, that 6. If two quantities tend continually to equality, and approach to one another nearer than by any assignable difference, their Ratio is ULTIMATE- LY a Ratio of ABSOLUTE equality. This may be demonstrated as fol- lows, even without supposing the quantities ultimately evanescent. It is acknowledged by all writers on Algebra, and indeed self-evident, that if in any equation put = 0, there be quantities absolutely different in kind, the aggregate of each species is separately equal to 0. For example, if A + a + B V~2 + b V~2 + C V~^l = 0, since A + a is rational, (B + b) V*2 surd and C V 1 imaginary, they cannot in any way destroy one another by the opposition of signs, and therefore A + a = 0, B + b = 0, C = 0. In the same manner, if logarithms, exponentials, or any other quantities differing essentially from one another constitute an equation like the above, they must separately be equal to 0. This being premised, let L, I/ de- note the Limits, whatever they are, towards which the quantities L + 1, L' + 1' continually converge, and suppose then- difference, in any state of the convergence, to be D. Then L + 1_L' 1' = D, or L L' + 1 1' D = 0, and since L, L' are fixed and definite, and 1, 1', D always variable, the former are independent of the latter, and we have A2 4 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. I. L L L' = 0, or jy = 1, accurately. Q. e. d. This way of considering the question, it is presumed, will be deemed free from every objection. The principle upon which it rests depending upon the nature of the variable quantities, and not upon their evanescence, (as it is equally true even for constant quantities provided they be of dif- ferent natures), it is hoped we have at length hit upon the true and lo- gical method of expounding the doctrine of Prime and Ultimate Ratios, or of Fluxions, or of the Differential Calculus, &c. It may be here remarked, in passing, that the Method of Indeterminate Coefficients, which is at bottom the same as that of Prime and Ultimate Ratios, is treated illogically in most books of Algebra. Instead of " shifting the hypothesis," as is done in Wood, Bonnycastle and others, by making x = 0, in the equation a + bx + cx s +dx 3 + = 0, it is sufficient to know that each term x being indefinitely variable, is he- terogeneous compared with the rest, and consequently that each term must equal 0. 7. Having established the truth of LEMMA I. on incontestable princi- ples, we proceed to make such applications as may produce results useful to our subsequent comments. As these applications relate to the Limits of the Ratios of the Differences of Quantities, we shall term, after Leib- nitz, the Method of Prime and Ultimate Ratios, THE DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS. 8. According to the established notation, let a, b, c, &c , denote con- stant quantities, and z, y, x, &c., variable ones. Also let A z, A y, A x, &c., represent the difference between any two values of z, y, x, &c., re- spectively. 9. Required the Limiting or Ultimate Ratio of A (a x) and A x, i. e. the Limit of the Difference of a Rectangle having one side (a) constant, and the other (x) variable, and of the Difference of the variable side. Let L be the Limit sought, and L + 1 any value whatever of the va- rying Ratio. Then A (a x) a (x -j- A x) ax L+I= -^r,M,- -njf- - = " *> 7 L = a. BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 5 In this instance the Ratio is the same for all values of x. But if in the Limit we change the characteristic A into d, we have d(ax) d x ~~ a or d (a x) = a d x- d (a x), d x being called the Differentials of a x and x respectively. 10. Required the Limit of ^ K Let L be the Limit required, and L + 1 the value of the Ratio gene- rally. Then A (x 8 ) _ (x + A x) 2 x 2 L + 1 = AX = " Ax 2 X A X -f A X 2 /. L 2 x + 1 Ax=0 and since L 2 x and 1 A x are heterogeneous L 2 x = 0, or L = 2x. and .*. d (x a ) or d(x 2 ) = 2xdx (c) A (x n ) 1 1. Generally, required the Limit of A x . Let L and L + 1 be the Limit of the Ratio and the Ratio itself re- spectively. Then A (X n ) __ (X + A X) n X n ""AX" AX n. (n 1) = nx 11 - 1 + % . x n ~ 2 Ax + &c. and L nx n ~ 1 being essentially different from the other terms of the series and from 1, we have d(x n ) -JY~ = L = nx n -' ord(x n ) = nx"-dx (d) or in words, A s 6 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. I. The Differential of any power or root of a variable quantify is equal to the product of the Differential of the quantity itself, the same power or root MINUS one of the quantity, and the index of the power or root. We have here supposed the Binomial Theorem as fully established by Algebra. It may, however, easily be demonstrated by the general prin- ciple explained in (7). 12. From 9 and 11 we get d(ax n )=nax n - 1 dx ...... (e) A(a + bx n + cx m + exP + & c .) 13. Required the Limit of - A Let L be the Limit sought, and L + 1 the variable Ratio of the finite differences; then A(a + bx u + cx m + &c.) L + * - AX + &c. a bx a cx m &c. _ Ax = nbx 11 - 1 +mcx m - 1 +&c. + PAx + Q(Ax) 2 + &c. P, Q, &c. being the coefficients of A x, A x 2 + &c. And equating the homogeneous determinate quantities, we have d(a + bx n +cx A(a + bx n + cx m + &c.) 14. Required the Limit of - -j- By 1 1 we have d. (a + bx n + cx m + &c.) r and by 13 d(a+bx n + cx m + &c.) = (nbx 11 - 1 + mcx 1 " 1 - 1 + &c.) d x d(a + bx n + cx m + &c.) r - the Limiting Ratio of the Finite Differences A(a-fbx n +cx m + &c.), A x, that is the Ratio of the Differentials ofa + bx n -fcx ln + &c., and x. A+Bx u +Cx m + &c. 15. Required the Ratio of the Differentials ^ a o.bx' + Cx^ + &c and x, or the Limiting Ratio of their Finite Differences. Let L be the Limit required, and L + 1 the varying Ratio. Then A + B (x + A x ) p + C (x + A x) m + &c. A + B x + &c. L + l = a + b (x + A x)' + c (x + A x)^ + &c. ~ a + b x' + &c. BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 7 which being expanded by the Binomial Theorem, and properly reduced gives L X ( a + b x' + &c.) 2 + L X [P. AX + Q (A x) 2 +&c. + 1 X a+bx + &c. + P. A x + Q (A x) 2 + &c.] = (a+bx' + cx^ + &c.) X (nBx n - J + m C x m ~ 1 + &c.) (A + Bx n -fCx m + &c.) X (v b x - l + p c x A*- 1 + &c.) + F. A x + Q 7 (A x) 2 + &c. P, Q, F, Q' &c. being coefficients of A' x, (A x) * &c. and independent of them. Now equating those homogeneous terms which are independent of the powers of A x, we get L(a + b x + &c.) 2 = (a + b X- + &c.) (n Ex " 1 +mC x M - ' + &c.) (A + Bx" + Cx m + &c.) (nbx'- 1 + /ticx^- 1 + &c.) and putting u = a ~^Tb x ' + c x * -f- &cT we nave *"!*% d u d u j"^ = L, and therefore ^-^ = (a+bx'+&c.)(nBx+ u - 1 mCx m - 1 +&c.)-(A+Bx"+&c.)(>bx'- 1 +/Acx^- 1 +&c.) the Ratio required. 16. Hence and from 1 1 we have the Ratio of the Differentials of (A + Bx n +Cx m + &c.) P / i i_ v i _ i Qrf* \ Q ^nci x 9 Jinci in snort^ iront \vnst nss si ready been delivered it is easy to obtain the Ratio of the Differentials of any Algebraic Function whatever of one variable and of that variable. N. B. By Function of a variable is meant a quantity anyhow involving that variable. The term was first used to denote the Powers of a quan- tity, as x 2 , x 3 , &c. But it is now used in the general sense. The quantities next to Algebraical ones, in point of simplicity, are Ex- ponential Functions; and we therefore proceed to the investigation of their Differentials. 17. Required the Ratio of the Differentials of a* and x ; or the Limit- ing Ratio of their Differences. Let L be the required Limit and L + 1 the varying Ratio ; then A (a *) a x + Ai a* "*" ~ A X ~ AX a Ax 1 o X v ~ a X AX 8 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. 1. But since a y = (l+a i)y = 1 + y (a 1) + ^" 1) . (a I) 2 + 2.3 ~(a l) 3 + &c., it is easily seen that the coefficient of y in the expansion is (a- i) 2 . (^JO 3 a 1 g -f- o ixc. Hence a* (a I) 2 (a^ I) 3 L + l = A~! *(* 1 2 + ^-8 & c ) A x + P (Ax) 2 + &c.| and equating homogeneous quantities, we have d. (a 1 ) (a I) 2 (a I) 3 - = L = fa- 1 - L - + ( - -^--&c. a* = A a x ........ (h) or Me ^a^'o of the Differentials of any Exponential and its exponent is equal to the product of the Exponential and a constant Quantity. Hence and from the preceding articles, the Ratio of the Differentials of any Algebraic Function of Exponentials having the same variable index, may be found. The Student may find abundance of practice in the Col- lection of Examples of the Differential and Integral Calculus, by Messrs. Peacock, Herschel and Babbage. Before we proceed farther in Differentiation of quantities, let us inves- tigate the nature of the constant A which enters the equation (h). For that purpose, let (the two first terms have been already found) a x = l+Ax + Px 2 + Qx 3 + &c. Then, by 13, d (a x ) d x =A + 2Px + 3Qx 2 + 4Rx 3 + &c. But by equation (h) d (a x ) ~~ also = A a * and equating homogeneous quantities^ we get 2 P = A 2 , 3 Q = A P, 4 R = A Q, &c. = &c. BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. whence A 2 AP A 3 AQ A 4 P = T> Q = ~3~ = 273' R = ~ = 27374 &c ' Therefore, A a * = 1 + Ax + -g-x a + j-gX 3 + 2. 3.4 x 4 + &c. Again, put A x = 1, then i ill a = 1 + 1 + - + -3 + 3-3-4 + & c . = 2.718281828459 as is easily calculated = e by supposition. Hence lo. a (a I) 2 (a 1) 3 log, a /. a - -3- + -3- - &c. = log e = I- a for the system whose base is e, 1 being the characteristic of that system. This system being that which gives (e I) 2 (e I) 3 e 1 2 - + -- 3 -- & c * = 1 is called Natural from being the most simple. Hence the equation (h) becomes (1) 17 a. Required the Ratio of the Differentials of 1 (x) and x. Let 1 x = u. Then e u = x /. d x = d (e n ) = 1 e X e u d u = e u d u, by 16 d(lx) 1 1 * inr = ^ = x ....'...-. (>) Ix In any other system whose base is a, we have log. (x) = y^. d lo. x 1 1 = U x x We are now prepared to differentiate any Algebraic, or Exponential Functions of Logarithmic Functions, provided there be involved but one variable. Before we differentiate circular functions, viz. the sines, cosines, tan- gents, &c., of circular arcs, we shall proceed with our comments on the text as far as LEMMA VIII. 10 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. I. LEMMA II. 18. In No. 6, calling L and L' Limits of the circumscribed and inscribed rectilinear figures, and L + 1, L' + 1' an y other values of them, whose variable difference is D, the absolute equality of L and L 7 is clearly de- monstrated, without the supposition of the bases A B, B C, C D, D E, being infinitely diminished in number and augmented in magnitude. In the view there taken of the subject, it is necessary merely to suppose them variable. LEMMA III. 19. This LEMMA is also demonstrable by the same process in No. 6, as LEMMA II. Cor. 1. The rectilinear figures cannot possibly coincide with the curvi- linear figure, because the rectilinear boundaries albmcndoE, aKbLcMdDE cut the curve a b E in the points a, b, c, d, E in finite angles. The learned Jesuits, Jacquier and Le Seur, in endeavour- ing to remove this difficulty, suppose the four points a, 1, b, K to coincide, and thus to form a small element of the curve. But this is the language of Indivisibles, and quite inadmissible. It is plain that no straight line, or combination of straight lines, can form a curve line, so long as we un- derstand by a straight line " that which lies evenly between its extreme points," and by a curve line, " that which does not lie evenly between its extreme points ;" for otherwise it would be possible for a line to be straight and not straight at the same time. The truth is manifestly this. The Limiting Ratio of the inscribed and circumscribed figures is that of equality, because they continually tend to a fixed area, viz, that of the given intermediate curve. But although this intermediate curvilinear area, is the Limit towards which the rectilinear areas continually tend and approach nearer than by any difference ; yet it does not follow that the rectilinear boundaries also tend to the curvilinear one as a limit. The rectilinear boundaries are, in fact, entirely heterogeneous with the interme- diate one, and consequently cannot be equal to it, nor coincide therewith. We will now clear up the above, and at the same time introduce a strik- ing illustration of the necessity there exists, of taking into consideration the nature of quantities, rather than their evanescence or infinitesimality. BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 11 m Take the simplest example of LEMMA II., in the case of the right- angled triangle a E A, having its two legs A a, A E equal. The figure being constructed as in the text of LEMMA II, it fol- lows from that Lemma, that the Ultimate Ratio of the inscribed and cir- cumscribed figures is a ratio of equality ; and moreover it would also follow from Cor. 1. that either of these coincided ultimately with the triangle a a E A. Hence then the exterior boundary albmcndoE coincides exactly with a E ultimately, and they are consequently equal in the Limit. As we have only straight lines to deal with in this example, let us try to ascertain the exact ratio of a E to the exterior boundary. If n be the indefinite number of equal bases A B, B C, &c., it is evident, since A a = A E, that the whole length of albmcndoE = 2nxAB. Also since M. D K a b = b c 2. A B, we have a E = n V 2. A B. = &c. = V"al 2 + bl 2 = Consequently, albmcndoE:aE::2: V 2 : : V~2 : 1. Hence it is plain the exterior boundary cannot possibly coincide with a E. Other examples might be adduced, but it must now be sufficiently clear, that Newton confounded the ultimate equality of the inscribed and circumscribed figures, to the intermediate one, with their actual coinci- dence, merely from deducing their Ratios on principles of approximation or rather of Exhaustion, instead of those, as explained in No. 6 ; which relate to the homogeneity of the quantities. In the above example the boundaries being heterogeneous inasmuch as they are incommensurable^ cannot be compared as to magnitude, and unless lines are absolutely equal, it is not easy to believe in their coincidence. Profound as our veneration is, and ought to be, for the Great Father of Mathematical Science, we must occasionally perhaps find fault with his obscurities. But it shall be done with great caution, and only with the view of removing them, in order to render accessible to students in general, the comprehension of " This greatest monument of human ge- nius." 20. Cor. 2. 3. and 4. will be explained under LEMMA VII, which re- lates to the Limits of the Ratios of the chord, tangent and the arc. 12 A COMMENTARY ON LEMMA IV. [SECT. I. 21. Let the areas of the parallelograms inscribed in the two figures be denoted by P, Q, R, &c. p, q, r, &c. respectively ; and let them be such that P : p : : Q : q : : R : r, &c. : : m : n. Then by compounding these equal ratios, we get But P -f Q + R . . . . and p -f q + r + . . . . have with the curvili- near areas an ultimate ratio of equality. Consequently these curvilinear areas are in the given ratio of m : n. Hence may be found the areas of certain curves, by comparing their incremental rectangles with those of a known area. Ex. 1. Required the area of the common Apollonian parabola comprised between its vertex and a given ordinate. Let a c E be the parabola, whose vertex is E, axis E A and Lotus-Rectum = a. Then A A' being its circumscribing rectan- gle, let any number of rectan- gles vertically opposite to one another be inscribed in the areas I ^* 1 D' a E A, a E A', viz. A b, b A' ; B c, c B', &c. K A' B' C' And since A b = A K. A B A'b = A' LA' B' = from the equation to the parabola. A b a. A B *' A' b = A K. A' B' B D E B' Also or (A a) 2 Bb 2 = a X AE an d 1 its variable part, if we extract the root of both sides of the equation and compare homogeneous terms, we get, L = 1 or &c. &c. 26. Having thus demonstrated that the limiting Ratio of the chord, arc and tangent, is a ratio of equality, 'when the secant cuts the chord and tangent at FINITE angles, we must again digress from the main object of this work, to take up the subject of Article 17. By thus deriving the limits of the rati- os of the finite differences of functions and their variables, directly from the LEMMAS of this Section, and giving to such limits a convenient algorithm or notation, we shall not only clear up the doctrine of limits by nume- rous examples, but also prepare the way for understanding the abstruser parts of the Principia. This has been before observed. Required to Jind the Limit of the Finite Differences of the sine of a cir- cular arc and of the arc itself, *or the Ratio of their Differentials. Let x be the arc, and A x its finite variable increment. Then L being the limit required and L + 1 the variable ratio, we have T , __ A sin. x sin. (x + A x) sin. x JL -f- 1 AX AX sin, x. cos. (A x) -f- cos, x. sin. (A x) sin, x A X sin. (A x) sin.x. cos. AX sin. x = COS. X. -I A X AX A X Now by LEMMA VII, as demonstrated in the preceding Article, the li- . f sin. A x . nut or is A X , cos. (A x) sin. x , . ,, ., r ., 1, and s -, have no definite limits. A X A X BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 19 Consequently putting sin. (A x) cos. x. s = cos. x + 1', A X we have sin. x. cos. A x sin. x L + 1 = cos. x + I' + AX AX and equating homogeneous terms L = cos. x or adopting the differential symbols d. sin. x ~\ j = cos x I > (a) or I d sin. x = d x. cos. x ) 27. Hence and from the rules for the differentiation of algebraic, expo- nential, &c. functions, we can differentiate all other circular functions of one variable, viz. cosines, tangents, cotangents, secants, &c. Thus, dsin. (I-*) = COS. I _ X ) = Sill. X J f* \ 2 ' d -(i- x ) or d. cos. x j = sin. x or d. cos. x ~\ dx v . ^ ; v r. (b) or I d. cos. x = d x. sin. x J Again, since for radius 1, which is generally used as being the most simple, 1 + tan. 2 x = sec. z x = ; cos. 2 x , 1 2 cos. x. d. cos. x .'. 2 tan. x. d. tan. x = d. = r cos, x cos. x See 12 (d). Hence and from (b) immediately above, we have d x. sin. x tan. x. d. tan. x = , cos. 3 x .'. d. tan. x = d x. cos. * x Again, cot. x = tan. x B2 20 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. I. Therefore, 1 d. tan. x d. COt. X = d. _ x = -JJJTJ- (lid) tan. 2 x. cos. 2 x sin. 2 x Again, 1 (d) sec. x = cos. x ~ d * X .-. d. sec. x = d. -i = ~ u 7*' A (12. d) cos. x cos. 2 x d x. sin. x v COS. 2 X and lastly since cosec. x = sec. ( we have d. ( x ) sin. ( x j i , /w \ \2 / ^2 / d. cosec. x = d. sec. f xj = d x. cos. x (0 sin. x Any function of sines, cosines, &c. may hence be differentiated. 28. In articles 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 26 and 27, are to be found forms for the differentiation of any function of one variable, whether it be algebraic, exponential, logarithmic, or circular. In those Articles we have found in short, the limit of the ratio of the first difference of a function, and of the first difference of its variable. Now suppose in this first difference of the function, the variable x should be increased again by A x, then taking the difference between the first difference and what it becomes when x is thus increased, we have the dif- ference of the first difference of a function, or the second difference of a function, and so on through all the orders of differences, making A x al- ways the same, merely for the sake of simplicity. Thus, A (x 3 ) = (x + A x) 3 x 3 + AX 3 3x 2 Ax - 3XAX 2 - AX 3 3. 2xAX 5 3Ax 3 BOOK L] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 21 denoting by A 2 the second difference. Hence, (-P = 3. 2. x + 3 A x and if the limiting ratio of A 2 (x s ) and Ax 2 , or the ratio of the second differential of x 3 , and the square of the differential of its variable x, be required, we should have L + 1 = 3. 2. x + 3 A x and equating homogeneous terms d 2 f x 3 } VV = L = 3. 2. x d x 2 In a word, without considering the difference, we may obtain the se- cond, third, &c. differentials d 2 u, d 3 u, &c. of any function u of x im- mediately, if we observe that -, is always a function itself of x, and make d x constant. For example, let u = ax n + bx m + &c. Then, from Art. 13. we have -r^ = nax n - 1 + mbx m - 1 + &c. , /d u\ Vd x/ d(du) d 2 u., j - = r - = j (by notation) d x d x 8 d x 2 v J = n. (n l)ax n ~ 2 + m (m l)bx m ~ 2 + &c.- Similarly, j^p = n. (n 1). (n 2)ax n - 3 + &c. &c. = &c. Having thus explained the method of ascertaining the limits of the ra- tios of all orders of finite differences of a function, and the corresponding powers of the invariable first difference of the variable, or the ratios of the differentials of all orders of a function, and of the corresponding power of the first differential of its variable, we proceed to explain the use of these limiting ratios, or ratios of differentials, by the following B3 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. I. APPLICATIONS OF THE DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS. 29. Let it be required to draw a tangent to a given curve at any given point of it. Let P be the given point, and A M' being the axis of the curve, let P M = y, A M = x,be the ordinate and abscissa. Also let P' be any other point; draw P N meeting the ordi- nate P' M' in N, and join P P'. Now let T P R meeting M' P' and M A in R and T be the tangent required. Then since by similar triangles P 7 N : P N : : P M : M T' .-. M T = M T + T T' = y. " Now y being supposed, as it always is in curves, a function of x, we have seen that whether that function be algebraic, exponential, &c. in the limit, or -T - is always a definite function of x. Hence putting A x *7 dx dy 1 we have M T + T T = y (^ + 1) and equating homogeneous terms, dy (e) which being found from the equation to the curve, the point T will be known, and therefore the position of the tangent P T. M T is called the subtangent. Ex. 1. In the common parabola, y 2 = a x BOOK L] NEWTON'S PRJNCIPIA. 23 Therefore, d x 2 y d y ~ a and 2 y 2 MT = -^- = 2x or the subtangent M T is equal to twice the abscissa. Ex. 2. In the ellipse, b 2 ,r 2 / 2 v 2\ y ~ a 2 ^ x / and it will be found by differentiating, &c. that _ (a 2 _ x 2 ) MT = A Ex. 3. In the logarithmic curve, y = a x .-. ~ = 1. a X y (see 17.) which is therefore the same for all points. The above method of deducing the expression for the subtangent is strictly logical, and obviates at once the objections of Bishop Berkeley relative to the compensation of errors in the denominator. The fact is, these supposed errors being different in their very essence or nature from the other quantities with which they are connected, must in their aggre- gate be equal to nothing, as it x has been shown in Art. 6. This ingenious critic calls P' R = z ; then, says he, (see fig. above) y. d x M T ~ dy + z accurate ty J whereas it ought to have been MT = -^= Z A y + z Ay z AX "*" A X A y the finite differences being here considered. Now in the limit, - becomes a d y definite function of x represented by -p^* Consequently if 1 be put for A y the variable part ,of ~- t we have 24 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. I. _ i. , i | _ dx + l + A x . and it is evident from LEMMA VII and Art. 25, that z is indefinite com- z d y pared with A x. .. ^ is indefinite compared with M T, -j , and y ; and 1 is also so ; hence gives v. d x MT = Ty-> which proves generally for all curves, what Berkeley established in the case of the common parabola ; and at the same time demonstrates, as had been already done by using T T 7 instead of P' R, incontestably the ac- curacy of the equation for the subtangent. 30. If it were required to draw a tangent to any point of a curve, re- ferred to a center by a raditis-vector and the L. 6 which g describes by revolving round the fixed point, instead of the rectangular coordinates x, y ; then the mode of getting the subtangent will be somewhat different. Supposing x to originate in this center, it is plain that X = COS. d \ y = f sin. 6 j and substituting for x, y, d x, d y, hence derived hi the expression (29. e.) we have d f cos. 6 f d d sin. 6 r = sm ' 6 X d t sin. d + g d $ cos. t - (0 Ex. In the parabola 2 a = 1 _ C os. 6 > where a is the distance between the focus and vertex, or the value of g at the vertex. Then substituting we get, after proper reductions 1 + cos. d MT=2aX ,1^., and the distance from the focus to the extremity of the subtangent is / 1 + cos. 6 cos. \ M T _ g cos. 9 = 2 a tfHtSTi ~ 1 - cos. t) BOOK L] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 25 2a "1 cos. Q *~ ?' as is well known. 30. a. The expression (f) being too complicated in practice, the following one may be substituted for it. Let P T be a tangent to the R curve, referred to the center S, at the point P, meeting S T drawn at right angles to S P, in T ; and let P' be any other point. Join P P' and produce it to T'', and let T P be pro- duced to meet S P' produced in R, &c. Then drawing P N parallel to S T, we have STV C T^ I T^ T^ \s C Ty i oi-f-ii Civ x o IT But P N = i tan. A 0, S P' = f -f. A and Therefore, substituting and equating homogeneous terms, after having applied LEMMA VII to ascertain their limits, we get Ex. 1. In the spiral of Archimedes we have s = a ' ; ...ST = tf- : -.' \ '- Ex. 2. In the hyperbolic spiral .-. S T = a 31. It is sometimes useful to know the angle between the tangent and axis. PM dy See fig. to Art 29. 26 ^ A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. I. Again, in fig. Art. 30 a. SP dg Tan - T = ST = JT* ........ < k) 32. It is frequently of great use, in the theory of curves and in many other collateral subjects, to be able to expand or develope any given func- tion of a variable into an infinite series, proceeding according to the powers of that variable. We have already seen one use of such develop- ments in Art. 17. This may be effected in a general manner by aid of successive differentiations, as follows. If u = f (x) where f (x) means any function of x, or any expression involving x and constants ; then, as it has been seen, d u = u' d x (u' being a new function of x) Similarly d u' = u" d x d u" - u'" d x &c. = &c. But d 2 uXdx d 2 xxdu &c. = &c. denoting d. (d u), d. (d x) by d 2 u, d 2 x, and (d x) 2 by d x 2 , according to the received notation; Or, (to abridge these expressions) supposing dx constant, and .. d 2 x = 0, which give the various orders of fluxions required. Ex. 1. Let u = x n Then du ~i ~ n x a * d x ~ BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 27 ^ = n. (n 1). (n_2)x~ 3 &c. = &c. d n u j^ = n. (n 1). (n 2) 3. 2. 1. Ex. 2. Let u = A + B x + C x 2 + D x 3 + E x 4 + &c. Then, ~ = B + 2Cx + 3l)x 2 + 4Ex 3 + &c. Ci A d 2 u jY 2 = 2 C -f 2. 3 D x + 3. 4 E x 2 + &c. d 3 u 3-^-3 = 2. 3 D + 2. 3. 4 E x + &c. &c. = &c. Hence, if u be known, and the coefficients A, B, C, D, &c. be un- known, the latter may be found ; for if U, U', U", U'", &c. denote the du d 2 u d 3 u values of 11,3-,^,, g , , &c. when x = 0, then A = U, B = U', C = ~ U", D = ~ U'", E = -^~ U"", &c. = &c. and by substitution, u = U + U' x + U" Y + U"' ^3 + &c. . '.|. ',. . . (b) This method of discovering the coefficients is named (after its inventor), MACLAURIN'S THEOREM. The uses of this Theorem in the expansion of functions into series are many and obvious. For instance, let it be required to develope sin. x, or cos. x, or tan. x, or 1. (1 + x) into series according to the powers of x. Here u = sin. x, or = cos. x, or = tan. x, or = 1. (1 + x), du 11 ' g~i = :os. x, or := sin. x, or == ^ 2 or - j- + x d 2 u 2 sin. x 1 dx2 = sin. x, or = cos. x, or = ^73^' or = (1 + x) , 28 A COMMENTARY ON d 3 u 2 + 4 sin. 2 x j^s = cos. x, or = sin. x, or = CQS 4 x or = &c. = &c. .-. U =0, or = 1, or = 0, or = U' =1, or = 0, or = 1, or = 1 U" =0, or = 1, or = 0, or = I U'" = 1, or = 0, or = 2, or = 2 &c. = &c. Hence x 3 x 5 sin. x = x ir~3 + o Q A K &c. x 2 x cos. x = 1 ~ + &c> 2. 3. 4. 5 x 4 2.3.4 x 3 2 x 5 17 x 7 tan. x = x + -3 + 375- + 375^7 + & c - X 2 X 3 L(l +x) = x -3- +-3- &c. Hence may also be derived TAYLOR'S THEOREM. For let f(x) = A + Bx + Cx 2 + Dx 3 + Ex 4 + &c. Then f (x + h) = A + B. (x + h) + C. (x + h) 2 -f- D. (x + h) 3 + &c. = A + Bx + Cx 2 + Dx 3 + &c. + (B + 2 Cx + 3Dx*)h + (C + 3Dx + 6 Ex 2 ) h 2 + (D + 4 Ex + 10 Fx 2 ) h 3 &c. the theorem in question, which is also of use in the expansion of series. For the extension of these theorems to functions of two or more varia- bles, and for the still more effective theorems of Lagrange and Laplace, the reader is referred to the elaborate work of Lacroix. 4to. Having shown the method of rinding the differentials of any quanti- BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCTPIA. 29 ties, and moreover, entered in a small degree upon the practical applica- tion of such differentials, we shall continue for a short space to explain their farther utility. 33. Tojlnd the MAXIMA and MINIMA of quantities. If a quantity increase to a certain magnitude and then decrease, the state between its increase and decrease is its maximum. If it decrease to a certain limit, and then increase, the intermediate state is its mi- nimum. Now it is evident that in the change from increasing to decreas- ing, or vice versa, which the quantity undergoes, its differential must have changed signs from positive to negative, or vice versa, and therefore (since moreover this change is continued) have passed through zero. Hence When a quantity is a MAXIMUM or MINIMUM, its differential =r 0. . . (a) Since a quantity may have several different maxima and minima, (as for instance the ordinate of an undulating kind of curve) it is useful to have some means of distinguishing between them. 34. To distinguish between MAXIMA and MINIMA. LEMMA. To show that in Taylor's Theorem (32. c.) any one term can be rendered greater than the sum of the succeeding ones, supposing the coefficients of the powers of h to be finite. Let Q h n ' be any term of the theorem, and P the greatest coefficient of the succeeding terms. Then, supposing h less than unity, P h n (1 + h + h 2 + . . . . in infra.) = P h X ]_ R is greater than the sum ( S) of the succeeding terms. But supposing h to decrease in infin. 1 P h- " i n = P h n ultimately. Hence ultimately Ph n > S Now Qhn-l . p h n ; ; Q; ph, and since Q and P are finite, and h infinitely small ; therefore Q is > P h, Hence Qh n ~ 1 is> Ph n , and a fortiori > S. Having established this point, let i u = f (x) be the function whose maxima and minima are to be determined ; also when u = max. or min. let x = a. Then by Taylor's Theorem f/ d u . d 2 u h 2 d 3 u h 3 f (a - h) = f - d- a h + d^' ~ 37*0 + &c " 30 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. I. and and since by the LEMMA, the sign of each term is the sign of the sum of that and the subsequent terms, .-. f (a h) = f (a) i?. M . d a f(a + h) = Now since f (a) = max. or min. f (a) is > or < than both f (a h) and f (a + h), which cannot be unless Hence d'u f(a-h) =f(a) f (a + h) = f (a) and f (a) is max. or min. or neither, according as f (a) is >, < or = to both f (a h) and f (a + h), or according as d 2 u . -3 - is negative, positive, or zero If it be zero as well as -: , we have d a f(a + h) = f (a) + -r. N" and f (a) cannot = max. or min. unless d 3 u which being the case we have f (a h) = f a + 15, M" f(a + h) = fa + i and as before, BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 31 d 4 u . f (a) is max. or min. or neither, according as -= - is negative, positive, or zero, and so on continually. Hence the following criterion. If in u = f (x), -j - = 0, the resulting value of x shall give u = MAX. d 2 u . or MIN. or NEITHER, according as -= 2 zs negative, positive, or zm?. tl X //" -^ = 0, - = 0, and -: = 0. then the resulting value of u ' d x d x 2 dx 3 d 4 u shall be a MAX., MIN. or NEITHER according as -^ ^ is NEGATIVE, PO- SITIVE, or ZERO ; and so on continually. Ex. 1. To Jind the MAX. and MIN. of the ordinate of a common para- bola. y = V a x d y 1 V a " d x ~ " ' v~x winch cannot = 0, unless x = a . Hence the parabola has no maxima or minima ordinates. Ex. 2. To Jind the MAXIMA and MINIMA of y in the equation y 2 2 a x y + x 2 = b 2 . Here 2 a dy_ay xd 2 y dx d x ~" y ax'dx*~ y ax dy and putting -a-*- = 0, we get ^ab + b d : _ 1 a 2 )' V (1-^O J d x 2 ~ ITV~(1 a ~) which indicate and determine both a maximum and a minimum. Ex. 3. To divide a in such a manner that the product of the m tb power of the one part, and the w th power of the other shall be a maximum. Let x be one part, then a x = the other, and by the question u = x m . (a x) n = max. d u _ .*. -j = x m - l . (a x) n - x X (ma x. m + n) 32 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. I. and u dx 1 = x m -* (a x) n ~ 2 X (m + n 1. m + n. x 2 &c.) Put -5 = ; then d x m a x = 0, or x = a, or x = - , m -j- n the two former of which when m and n are even numbers give minima, and the last the required maximum. \_ Ex. 4. Let u = x x . Here d u 1 1. x j-^ = u. j 0, .'. 1. x = 1, and x = e the hyperbolic base = 2.71828, &c. Innumerable other examples occur in researches in the doctrine of curves, optics, astronomy, and in short, every branch of both abstract and applied mathematics. Enough has been said, however, fully to demon- strate the general principle, when applied to functions of one independent variable only. For the MAXIMA and MINIMA of functions of two or more variables, see Lacroix, 4to. 35. If in the expression (30 a. g) S T should be finite when g is infinite, then the corresponding tangent is called an Asymptote to the curve, and since g and this Asymptote are both infinite they are parallel. Hence To Jind the Asymptotes to a curve, dd In S T = z -J , make f = a , then eachjinite value of S T gives an Asymptote ; which may be drawn, by finding from the equation to the curve the values of 6 for = a, (which will determine the positions of g), then by drawing through S at right angles to , S T, S T', S T", &c. the several values of the subtangent of the asymptotes, and finally through T, T', T", &c. perpendiculars to S T, S T 7 , S T", &c. These perpen- diculars will be the asymptotes required. Ex. In the hyperbola _ _ __ ^ ~~ a ( 1 e cos. 0)' Here = a , gives 1 e cos. 6 = 0, .'. cos. 6 = .'. + 6 = t, whose cos. is -- e BOOK I.] Also S T = NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. b* 33 =r b ; whence it will be seen that a e sin. 6 a V e 2 1 the asymptotes are equally inclined (viz. by L. 6) to the axis, and pass through the center. The expression (29. e) will also lead to the discovery and construction of asymptotes. Since the tangent is the nearest straight line that can be drawn to the curve at the point of contact, it affords the means of ascertaining the in- clination of the curve to any line given in position ; also whether at any point the curve be inflected, or from concave become convex and vice ver- sa ; also whether at any point two or more branches of the curve meet, i. e. whether that point be double, triple, &c. 36. To Jind the inclination of a curve at any point of it to a given line . Jind that of the tangent at that given point, which will be the inclination required. Hence if the inclination of the tangent to the axis of a curve be zero, the ordinate will then be a maximum or minimum ; for then tan. T = i| = (31. h) 37. To Jind the points of Inflexion of a curve. A B A B Let y = f (x) be the equation to the curve a b ; then A. a, B b being any two ordinates, and ana tangent-at the point a, if we put A a == y, and A B = h, we get A a = f x d v . d 2 v h 2 + TIT. + & c ' ( 32 c ) dx 2 1.2 But dx n = y. 4- T*'. Consequently B b is < or > B n * dx j- o-y . . ... according as -r - t is negative or positive, i. e. the curve ts concave or coti- 34 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. I. d 2 v vex towards its axis according as -= - t is negative or positive. Hence also, since a quantity in passing from positive to negative, and vice versa, must become zero or infinity, at a point of inflexion d 2 y -r = or d x 2 Ex. In the Conchoid ofNicomedes x y = (a + y ) v (b 2 y ) which gives, by making d y constant, d 2 x _ 2 b *a b 2 y__ 3 b g ay * d y 2 = : (b~ y 3 ITy5)~v' (b~* _ y y and putting this = 0, and reducing, there results y 3 + Say 2 = 2 b 2 a which will give y and then x. These points of inflexion are those which the Theory of (34) indicates as belonging to neither maxima nor minima ; and pursuing this subject still farther, it will be found, in like manner, that in some curves d 4 v d 6 v -5 *t = or a , -r i = or a , &c. = &c. d x 4 d x 6 also determine Points of Inflexion. 38. Tojind DOUBLE, TRIPLE, fyc. points of a curve. If the branches of the curve cut one another, there will evidently be as many tangents as branches, and consequently either of the expressions, Tan. T = i (31. h) d x M T = ^^ (29. e) as derived from the equation of the curve, will have as many values as there are branches, and thus the nature and position of the point will be ascertained. If the branches of the curve touch, then the tangents coincide, and the method of discovering such multiple points becomes too intricate to be in- troduced in a brief sketch like the present. For the entire Theory of Curves the reader is referred to Cramer's express treatise on that subject, or to Lacroix's Different, and Integ. Calculus, 4to. edit. 39. We once more return to the text, and resume our comments. We pass by LEMMA VIII as containing no difficulty which has not been al- ready explained. As similar figures and their properties are required for the demonstra- BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRJNCIPIA. 35 tion of LEMMA IX, we shall now use LEMMA VII in establishing LEMMA V, and shall thence proceed to show what figures are similar and how to construct them. According to Newton's notion of similar curvilinear figures, we may define two curvilinear ^figures to be similar when any rectilinear polygon being inscribed in one of them, a rectilinear polygon similar to the former, may always be inscribed in the other. Hence, increasing the number of the sides of the polygons, and dimi- nishing their lengths indefinitely, the lengths and areas of the curvilinear figures will be the limits by LEMMAS VII and III, of those of the recti- linear polygons, and we shall, therefore, have by Euclid these lengths and areas in direct and duplicate proportions of the homologous sides respectively. 40. To construct curves similar to given ones. If y, x be the ordinate and abscissa, and x' the corresponding abscissa of the required curve, we have x : y : : x' : i X x' = y' (a) the ordinate of the required curve, which gives that point in it which corresponds to the point in the given curve whose coordinates are x, y ; and in the same manner may as many other points as M*e please be de- termined. In such curves, however, as admit a practical or mechanical construc- tion, it will frequently be sufficient to determine but one or two values of y 7 . Ex. 1. In the circle let x, measured along the diameter from its extre- mity, be r (the radius) ; then y = r, and we have y' = -2- X x' = x' x where x' may be of any magnitude whatever. Hence, all semicircles, and therefore circles, are similar Jigures. Ex. 2. In a circular arc (2 a) let x be measured along the chord (2 b), and suppose x = r sin. a ; then y = r . vers. a vers. a y = . X x sin. a which gives the greatest ordinate to any semichord as an abscissa, of the required arc, and thence since y' = r' V r' 2 x' * it will be easy to find the radius r' and centre, and to describe the arc required. t> A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. I. But since y' r' vers. a! vers. a' vers. a x' r 1 sin. a.' sin. a' sin. a therefore 1 cos. a 2 sin. 1 cos. a' 2 sin. '"5 sin. a a a 2 cos. -sin.- sin. a' ~ a/ 2 cos. - a' sin. or a a' tan. = tan. , and .-. a = a' which accords with Euclid, and shows that similar arcs of circles subtend equal angles. Ex. 3. Given an arc of a parabola, whose latus-rectum is p, to Jind a similar one, whose latus-rectum shall be p'. In the first place, since the arc is given, the coordinates at its extremi- ties are ; whence may be determined its axis and vertex ; and by the usual mode of describing the parabola it may be completed to the vertex. Now, since y 2 = p x x, x' being measured along the axis, and when --, y =^ 4 ' y 2 P P X =r v JE- .-. y' = -- . x' = -- . x' = 2 x' x y which shows that all semi-parabolas, and therefore parabolas, are similar figures. Hence, having described upon the axis of the given parabola, any other having the same vertex, the arc of this latter intercepted be- tween the points whose coordinates correspond to those of the extremi- ties of the given arc will be the arc required. Ex. 4. In the ellipse whose semi-diameters are a, b, if x be measured along the axis, when x = a, y = b. Hence and x' or the semi-axis major being assumed any whatever, this value of y' will give the semi~axis minor, whence the ellipse may be described. This being accomplished, let (a, /3) (a', p) be the coordinates at the BOOK L] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 37 extremities of any given arc of the given ellipse, then the similar one of the ellipse described will be that intercepted between the points whose coordinates, (x', y') (x", y") are given by y' = V (2 a' x' x' 2 ) : /3 : : x' : y' 1 ^ * a' a : /3' : : x'' : y' f f * b" ,. y' = V (2 a x ' x 2 ) In like manner it may be found, that All cycloids are similar. Epicycloids are so, "when the radii of their "wheels or radii of the spheres. Catenaries are similar when the bases a tensions, fyc. Sfc. 40. If it were required to describe the curve A c b (fig. to LEMMA VII) not only similar to A C B, but also such that its chord should be of the given length (c) ; then having found, as in the last example, the co- ordinates (x', y') (x", y") in terms of the assumed value of the abscissa^ (as of in Ex. 4), and (a, /3), (a', /3') the coordinates at the extremities of the given arc, we have C = V~(X' X") 2 + (y' y'^p = f (') a function of a' : whence a' may be found. Ex. In the case of a parabola whose equation is y 2 = a x, it will be found that (y' 2 = a' x' being the equation of the required parabola) whence (a') is known, or the latus-rectum of the required parabola is so determined, that the arc similar to the given one shall have a chord = c. 41. It is also assumed in the construction both to LEMMA VII and LEMMA IX, that, If in similar Jigures, originating in the same point, the chords or axes coincide, the tangents at that origin will coincide also. Since the chords A B, A b (fig. to LEMMA VII), the parallel secants B D, b d, and the tangents A D, A d are corresponding sides, each to each, to the similar figures, we have (by LEMMA V) A B : B D : : A b : b d and L. B = L. b. Consequently, by Euclid the /iBAD = bAd, or the tangents coincide. 38 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. I. Mb : Mb 7 : a b : : a 7 b 7 : BC : : B 7 C 7 : A a : Bb \ : A 7 a 7 : B'b 7 ) A a : B C 1 : A 7 a 7 : B 7 C 7 J : M a : A a "1 : : Ma 7 : A 7 a 7 / A 7 a 7 To make this still clearer. Let M B, M B 7 be two similar curves, and A B, A' B 7 similar parts of them. Let fall from A, B, A 7 , B 7 , the or- dinates A a, B b, A 7 a 7 , B 7 b 7 cut- ting off the corresponding abscissae M a, M b, M a 7 , M b 7 , and draw the chords A B, A 7 B 7 ; also draw A C, A 7 C 7 at right angles to B b, B 7 C 7 . Then, since (by LEMMA V) Ma : Ma 7 .-.Ma: Ma 7 .-.AC : A 7 CX But Ma : .-.AC: and the L. C = L. C 7 .-. the triangles A B C, A 7 B' C 7 are similar, and the L. B A C = z. B 7 A 7 C 7 , i. e. A B is parallel to A 7 B 7 . Hence if B, B 7 move up to A, the chords A B, A' B' shall ultimately be parallel, i. e. the tangents (see LEMMA III, Cor. 2 and 3, or LEMMA VI,) at A, A 7 are parallel. Hence, if the chords coincide, as in fig. to LEMMA VII, the tangents coincide also. The student is now prepared for the demonstration of the LEMMA. He will perceive that as B approaches A, new curves, or parts of curves, A c b similar to the parts A C B are supposed continually to be described, the point b also approaching d, which may not only be at zjinite distance from A, but absolutely fixed. It is also apparent, that as the ratio be- tween A B and A b decreases, the curve A c b approaches to the straight line A b as its limit 42. LEMMA XI. The construction will be better understood when thus effected. Take A e of any given magnitude and draw the ordinate e c meeting A C produced in c, and upon A c describe the curve Abe (see 39) Aa BC Ma 7 : A 7 C 7 BOOK L] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 39 A D similar to A B C. Take A d = A e X -r-^ and erect the ordinate d b A iii meeting A b c in b. Then, since A d, A e are the abscissae corre- sponding to A D, A E, the ordinates d b, e c also correspond to the ordinates D B, E C, and by LEMMA V we have d b : D B : : e c : E C : : A e : A E : : A d : A C (by construction) and the L- D = L d. Hence b is in the straight line A B produced, &c. &c. 43. This LEMMA may be proved, without the aid of similar curves, as follows : A B D = ^-5 . (D F + F B) . tan. a A D. B F = AD '- + nr and where a = L. D A F. A BD _ AD 2 , tan. + A D . B F ''ACE " A E 2 . tan. + A E . C G Now by LEMMA VII, since L- B A F is indefinite compared with F or B ; therefore B F, C G are indefinite compared with A D or A E. Hence if L be the limit of , and L + 1 its varying value, we have A v/ K-I AD 2 , tan, a + A D . B F = AE 2 .tan. a + A E. CG and multiplying by the denominator and equating homogeneous terms we get L . A E * . tan. a = A D 2 . tan. a ,ABD AD 2 __ __. 44. LEMMA X. " Continually increased or diminished." The word " continually" is here introduced for the same reason as '' continued curvature" in LEMMA VI. If the force, moreover, be not "finite" neither will its effects be ; or the velocity, space described, and time will not admit of comparison. 40 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. I. 45. Let the time A D be divided into several portions, such as D d, A b B being the locus of the extremities of the ordinates which D repre- sent, the velocities acquired D B, d b, &c. Then upon these lines D d, &c. as bases, there being inscribed rect- angles in the figure A D B, and when their number is increased and bases diminished indefinitely, their ultimate sum shall = the curvilinear area D d D' A A B D (LEMMA III.) But each of these rectangles represents the space described in the time denoted by its base ; for during an instant the ve- locity may be considered constant, and by mechanics we have for constant velocities S = T X V. Hence the area A B D represents the whole space described in the time A D. In the same manner, ACE (see fig. LEMMA X) represents the time A E. But by LEMMA IX these areas are " ipso motus initio," as A D 2 and A E 2 Hence, in the very beginning of the motion, the spaces de- scribed are also in the duplicate ratio of the times. 46. Hence may be derived the differential expressions for the space described^ velocity acquired, &c. Let the velocity B D acquired in the time t (AD) be denoted by v, and the space described, by s. Then, ultimately r , we have Dd= d t, B n = d v, and Dnbd = ds = Ddxdb = dtXv. Hence d s d s . x v = j- t , ds = v dt,dt = (a) Again, if D d = d D', the spaces described in these successive instants, are D b, D' m, and therefore ultimately the fluxion of the space repre- sented by the ultimate state of D' m is b n r m or 2 b m B'. Hence d (d s) = 2 X b m B' ultimately, and supposing B' to move up to A, since in the limit at A, B' coincides with A, and B' m with A D, and therefore b m B' or d (d s) represents the space described " in the very beginning of the motion." Hence by the LEMMA, d (ds) a 2d t 2 a d t 2 or with the same accelerating force d s s a dt 2 (b) BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 41 With different accelerating forces d 2 s must be proportionably increased or diminished, and .. (see Wood's Mechanics) d 2 s a Fdt 2 Hence we have, after properly adjusting the units of force, &c. - d 2 s = Fdt 2 , and .*. . d^s f ~ dt 2 * F Hence also and by means of (a) considering d t constant, F = ^1 vdv = Fds (d) all of which expressions will be of the utmost use in our subsequent comments. 47. LEMMA X. COR. I. To make this corollary intelligible it will be useful to prove the general principle, that If a body, moving in a curve, be acted upon by any new accelerating force, the distance between the points at which it would arrive WITHOUT and WITH the new force in the same time, or " error," is equal to the space that the new force, acting solely, would cause it to describe in that same time. Let a body move in the curve ABC, and when at B, let an additional force act upon it in the direction B b. Also let B D, D E, E C ; B F, F G, G b be spaces that would be described in equal times by the body moving in the curve, and when moved by the sole action of the new force. Then draw tangents at the points B, D, E meeting D d, E e, C c, each parallel to B b, in P, Q, R. Also draw F M, G R, b d parallel to B P; M S, R N, d e parallel to D Q; and S V, N T, e c parallel to ER. 42 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. I. Now since the body at B is acted upon by forces which separately would cause it to move through B D, B F, or, when the number of the spaces is increased and their magnitude diminished in inftnitum, through B P, B F in same time, therefore by LAW III, Cor. 1, when these forces act together, the body will move in that time through the diagonal up to M. In the same manner it may be shown to move from M to N, and from N to C in the succeeding times. Hence, if the num- ber of the times be increased and their duration indefinitely diminished, the body will have moved through an indefinite number of points M, N, &c. up to C, describing a curve B C. Also since b d, d e, e c are each parallel to the tangents at B, D, E, or ultimately to the curve B D E C ; .'. b d e c ultimately assimilates itself to a curve equal and parallel to B D E C ; moreover C c is parallel to B b. Hence C c is also equal to Bb. Hence, then, The Error caused by any disturbing force acting upon a body moving in a curve, is equal to the space that would be described by means of the sole action of that force, and moreover it is parallel to the direction of that force. Wherefore, if the disturbing force be constant, it is easily inferred from LEMMAS X and IX, and indeed is shown in all books on Mechanics, that the errors are as the squares of the times in which they are generated. Also, if the disturbing forces be nearly constant, then the errors areas the squares of the times quamproxime. But these conclusions, the same as those which Note 118 of the Jesuits, Le Seur and Jacquier, (see Glasgow edit. 1822.) leads to, do not prove the assertion of Newton in the corollary under consideration, inasmuch as they are general for all curves, and apply not to similar curves in particular. 48. Now let a curve similar to the above be constructed, and completing the figure, let the points corresponding to A, B, &c. be denoted by A', B 7 , &c. and let the times in which the similar parts of these curves, viz. B D, B' D' ; D E, D 7 E' ; E C, E' C' are described, be in the ratio t : t'. Then the times in which, by the same disturbing force, the spaces B F, B' F'; F G, F' G'; G b, G' b' are described, are in the ratio of t : t'. Hence, " in ipso motus initio" (by LEMMA X) we have B F : B'F' : : t 2 : t' 2 F G : F'G' : : t 2 : t'*- &c. &c. and therefore, B F + F G + &c. : B' F 7 + F G' + &c. : : t' : t' BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 43 But, (by 15,) B F + F G + &c. = the error C c, and B' F' + F G' + &c. = the error C' c', and the times in which B C, B 7 C' are described, are in the ratio t : t'. Hence then Cc : C' c' : : t 2 : t' 2 or The ERRORS arising from equal forces, applied at corresponding points, disturbing the motions of bodies in similar curves, "which describe similar parts of those curves in proportional times, are as the squares of the times in which they are generated EXACTLY, and not " quam proxime" Hence Newton appears to have neglected to investigate this corollary. The corollary indeed did not merit any great attention, being limited by several restrictions to very particular cases. It would seem from this and the last No. that Newton's meaning in the forces being " similarly applied," is merely that they are to be applied at corresponding points, and do not necessarily act in directions similarly situated with respect to the curves. For explanation with regard to the other corollaries, see 46. 49. LEMMA XI. " Finite Curvature" Before we can form any precise notion as to the curvature at any point of a curve's being Finite, Infinite or Infinitesimal, some method of measuring curvature in general must be de- vised. This measure evidently depends on the ultimate angle contained by the chord and tangent (A B, AD) or on the angle of contact. Now, although this angle can have no finite value when singly considered, yet when two such angles are compared, their ratio may be finite, and if any known curvature be assumed of a standard magnitude, we shall have, by the equality between the ratios of the angles of contact and the curvatures, the curvature at any point in any curve whatever. In practice, however, it is more commodious to compare the subtenses of the angles of contact (which may be considered circular arcs, see LEMMA VII, having radii in a ratio of equality, and therefore are accurate measures of them), than the angles themselves. 50. Ex. 1. Let the circumference of a circle be divided into any num- ber of equal parts and the points of division being joined, let there be ? tangent drawn at every such point meeting a perpendicular let fall from the next point ; then it may easily be shown that these perpendiculars or subtenses are all equal, and if the number of parts be increased, and their 44 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. I.- magnitude diminished, in infinitum, they will have a ratio of equality. Hence, the CIRCLE has the same curvature at every point, or it is a curve of uniform curvature. 51. Ex. 2. Let two circles touch one another in the point A, having the common tangent A D. Also let B D be perpendicular to A D and cut the circle A D in B'. Join A B, A B'. Then since A B, A B' are ultimately equal to A D (LEMMA VII) they are equal to one another, and consequently the limiting ratio of B D and B' D, is that of the curvatures of the respective circles A C, A D (by 17.) But, by the nature of the circle, AD 2 = 2 R x D B' D B' 2 = 2r x D B D B 2 R and r being the radii of the circles. Therefore T 1 PB 2 R D B' ~DB'~2r DB and equating homogeneous terms we have L = T' i. e. The curvatures of circles are inversely as their radii. 52. Hence, if the curvature of the circle whose radius is 1, (inch, foot, or any other measure,) be denoted by C, that of any other circle whose radius is r, is 53. Hence, if the radius r of a circle compared with 1, be Jinite, its curvature compared with C, isjinite ,- if r be infinite the curvature is infinitesimal ; if r be infinitesimal the curvature is injinite, and so on through all the higher orders of iiifinites and infinitesimals. By infinites and in- finitesimals are understood quantities indefinitely great or small. The above sufficiently explains why curvature, compared with a given standard (as C), can be said to bejinite or indejinite. We are yet to show the reason of the restriction to curves ofjinite curvature, in the enuncia- tion of the LEMMA. 54. The circles which pass through A, B, G; a, b, g, (fig. LEMMA XI) BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 45 have the same tangent A D with the curve and the same subtenses. Hence (49. and 52.) these circles ultimately have the same curvature as the curve, i. e. A I is the diameter of that circle which has the same curvature as the curve at A. Hence, according as A I is finite or indefinite, the curvature at A is so likewise, compared with that of circles of finite radius. Now A G ultimately, or AI- AB ' " BD whether A I be finite or not. If finite, B D a A B 2 , as we also learn from the text. A B 2 55. If the curvature be infinitesimal or A I infinite ; then since -^-rr- .tJ U is infinite, B D must be infinitely less than A B 2 , or, A B being always considered in its ultimate state an infinitesimal of the first order, B D is that of the third order, i. e. B D I ' -V I ' And generally, if the curvature be infinitesimal in the n th degree, A B 2 1 p ^ a , and BDot AB n + , and conversely. 1) 1 ' A. ij Again, if the curvature be infinite in the n th degree, A B 2 -5-r- ot A B n , and B D a A B 2 - n , and conversely. D Lf * , The parabolas of the different orders will afford examples to the above conclusions. 57. The above is sufficient to explain the first case of the LEMMA. Case 2. presents no difficulty ; for b d, B D being inclined at any equal angles to A D, they will be parallel and form, with the perpendiculars let fall from b, B upon A D, similar triangles, whose sides being propor- tional, the ratio between B D, b d will be the same as in Case 1. Case 3. If B D converge, i. e. pass through when produced to a given point, b d will also, and ultimately when d and D move up to A, the difference between the angles A d b, A D B will be less than any that can be assigned, i. e. B D and b d will be ultimately parallel ; which reduces this case to Case 2. (See Note 125. of PP. Le Seur and Jacquier.) Instead of passing through a given point, B D, b d may be supposed to touch perpetually any given curve, as a circle for instance, and B D will still a AD 2 ; for the angles D, d are ultimately equal, inasmuch as from the same point A there can evidently be but one line drawn touch- ing the circle or curve. Many other laws determining B D might be devised, but the above will be sufficient to illustrate Newton's expression, " or let B D be deter- mined by any other law whatever." It may, however, be farther observed that this law must be definite or such as vfilljix B D. For instance, the LEMMA would not be true if this law were that B D should cut instead of touch the given circle. 58. LEMMA XI. Con. II. It may be thus explained. Let P be the given point towards which the sagittae S G, s g, bisecting the chords A B, A b, converge. S G, s g shall ultimately be as the squares of A B, A b, &c. BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPLE 47 For join P B, P b and produce them, as also P G, P g, to meet the tangent in D, d, T, t. Then if B and b move up to A, the angles T P D, t P d, or the differences be- tween the angles ATP and A D P, and between A t P and A d P, may be diminished without limit; that is, (LEMMA I), the angles at T, D and at t, d are ultimately equal. Hence the triangles ATS, A D B are similar, as likewise are A t s, A d b. Consequently S T : D B : : A S : A B and st:db: :As:Ab and .-. S T : s t : Also by LEMMA VII, ST : st : and by LEMMA XI, Case 3, D B : d b .-. S G : s g : DB : db S G : sg AB 2 AB* Ab 8 Ab 2 t T d' D' d L) B Q. e. d. Moreover, it hence appears, that the sagitta 'which cut the chords, in ANY GIVEN RATIO WHATEVER, and tend to a given point, have ultimately the same ratio as the subtenses of the angles of contact, and are as the squares of the corresponding arcs, chords, or tangents. 59. LEMMA XI. COR. III. If the velocity of a body be constant or "given," the space described is proportional to the time t. Hence A B a t, and .-. S G R' = R' S' = &c. let ordinates be erected meeting the curve in Q, R, S, T, &c. Join P Q, Q R, R S, &c. and produce them to meet the ordinates produced in r, s, t, &c. Also draw r s', s t', 58 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. I. &c. parallel to R S, S T, &c. and draw s t", &c. parallel to s t', &c. ; and finally draw P m, Q n, R o, &c. perpendicular to the ordinates. Now supposing not only P P' but also Q Q', R R', &c. fixed or defi- nite; then Qm = QQ / PP / = APP / = Ay Rr =nr nR = Qm Rn = AQm = A(AP P') = A 2 PP = A 2 y s s' =Ss Ss / =Ss Rr =ARr = A'y t t" = t t' t' t" = t t 7 S S' = A S S' = A(A 3 y) =A 4 y and so on to any extent. But if the equal parts P' Q', Q' R', &c. be arbitrary or indefinite, then Q m, R r, s s', 1 1", &c. become so, and they represent the several Inde- finite Differences of y, viz. d y, d 2 y, d 3 y, d 4 y, &c. 69. The reader will henceforth know the distinction between Definite and Indefinite Differences. We now proceed to establish, of Indefinite Differences, the FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLE. It is evidently a truth perfectly axiomatic, that No aggregate of INDEFI- NITE quantities can be a definite quantity^ or aggregate of definite quanti- ties^ unless these aggregates are equal to zero. It may be said that (a x) + ( a + x ) 2 a, in which (x) is indefinite, and (a) constant or definite, is an instance to the contrary ; but then the reply is, a x and a + x are not indefinites in the sense of Art. 65. 70. Hence if in any equation A + B x + C x 2 + D x 3 + &c. = A, B, C, &c. be definite quantities and x an indefinite quantity ; then we have A = 0, B = 0, C = 0, &c. For B x + C x 2 + D x 8 + &c. cannot equal A unless A = 0. But by transposing A to the other side of the equation, it does = A. Therefore A = and consequently Bx + Cx 2 + Dx s + &c. = or x(B + Cx + Dx 2 + &c.) = BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 59 But x being indefinite cannot be equal to ; .. B + Cx + Dx 2 + &c. = Hence, as before, it may be shown that B = 0, and therefore x (C + Dx + &c.) = Hence C = 0, and so on throughout. 71. Again, if in the equation A, B, B', C, C', C", D, &c. be definite quantities, and x, y INDEFINITES ; then A = 0-\ B x + B' y = f-wfien y is a Junction o/*x. Cx 2 + C'xy + C"y 2 = oj &c. = For, let y = z x, then substituting A + x (B + B' z) + x 2 (C + C' z + C" z 2 ) + x 3 (D + D' z + D" z 2 + D"'z 3 ) + &c. = Hence by 70, A = 0, B + B' z = 0, C + C' z + C" z 2 = 0, &c. y and substituting *- for z and reducing we get A = 0, B x + B' y = 0, &c. In the same manner, if we have an equation involving three or more indefinites, it may be shown that the aggregates of the homogeneous terms must each equal zero. This general principle, which is that of Indeterminate Coefficients legitimately established and generalized, (the ordinary proofs divide B x + C x 2 + &c. = by x, which gives B + C x + D x "- + &c. = and not ; x is then put = 0, and thence truly results B = , which instead of being 0, may be any quantity whatever, as we know from alge- bra ; whereas in 70, by considering the nature of x, and the absurdity of making it = we avoid the paralogism) conducts us by a near route to the Indefinite Differences of functions of one or MORE variables. 72. Tojind the Indefinite Difference of any function ofx. Let u = f x denote the function. Then d u and d x being the indefinite differences of the function and of x itself, we have u + du = f(x + dx) Assume f (x + d x) = A + B d x + C d x * + &c. 60 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. I. A, B, &c. being independent of d x or definite quantities involving x and constants ; then u + d u = A + B d x + C d x 8 + &c. and by 71, we have u = A, d u = B . d x Hence then this general rule, The INDEFINITE DIFFERENCE of any function of x, f x, is the second term in the developement off (x + d x) according to the increasing powers qfd x. Ex. Let u = x n . Then it may easily be shown independently of the Binomial Theorem that (x + dx) n = x n +n.x n ~ 1 dx + Pdx 2 .-. d (x n ).= n .x "- 1 d x The student may deduce the results also of Art. 9, 1 0, &c. from this general rule. 73. To find the indefinite difference of the product of two variables. Let u = x y. Then u + du = (x + dx).(y+dy)=xy+x dy + y dx + dxdy .. d u = x dy+y dx + dx dy and by 71, or directly from the homogeneity of the quantities, we have du = xdy + ydx (a) Hence d (x y z) = * d (y z) + y z d x and so on for any number of variables. x Again, required d . . Let = u. Then y x = y u, and dx = u dy + y du , x d x u , .*. d =rdu= dy y y y _y dx x dy y 2 Hence, and from rules already delivered, may be found the Indefinite Differences of any functions whatever of two or more variables. We refer the student to Peacock's Examples of the Differential Calculus for practice. The result (a) may be deduced geometrically from the fig. in Art. 21. The sum of the indefinite rectangles A b, b A' makes the Indefinite Difference. BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 61 We might, in this place, investigate the second, third, Sic, Indefinite Differences, and give rules for the maxima and minima of functions of two or more variables, and extend the Theorems of Maclaurin and Taylor to such cases. Much might also be said upon various other applications, but the complete discussion of the science we reserve for an express Treatise on the subject. We shall hasten to deduce such results as we shall obviously want in the course of our subsequent remarks ; beginning with the research of a general expression for the radius of curvature of a given curve, or for the radius of that circle whose deflection from the tangent is the same as that of the curve at the point of contact. 74. Required the radius of curvature for any point of a given curve. Let A P Q R be the given curve, referred to the axis A O by the ordinate and abscissa P M, A M or y and x. P M being fixed let Q N, O R be any other ordinates taken at equal indefinite intervals M N, N O. Join P Q and produce it to meet O R in r ; and let P t be the tangent at P drawn by Art. 29, meeting Q N, O R in q and t respectively. Again draw a circle (as in construc- tion of LEMMA XI, or other- wise) passing through P and Q and touching the tangent P t, and there- fore touching the curve ; and let B D be its diameter parallel to A O. Now Qn = dy, Pn = dx, Pq = PQ (LEMMA VII) = V (d x * + d y 2 ) or d s, if s = arc A P. Moreover let PM' = y'; then it readily appears (see Art. 27) that d s = - R being the ra- dius of the circle. Again Pq* = Qq X (Qq+ 2 Q N') 62 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. I. or ;;;^;';: |Z ( d .) = Q q (Q q + 2 d y + 2 - n d ^-) But since R t : Q q : : P r 2 : P Q 2 : : 4 : 1 {LEMMA XI) and Q q : t r : : 1 : 2 .. R t = 2 t r, or R r = t r = 2 Q q ' Q q = T = ^ (by Art ' 68<) Consequently and equating Homogeneous Indefinites R dx d 2 y d s 2 = - 1 - - d s . - ds 3 __ (dx 8 ~dxd*y~ dxd 2 y (^a^) 1 CV ^ = - 3-= - ........ .. (d) d 2 y d~x~ 2 the general expression for the radius of curvature. Ex. 1. In the parabola y 2 = a x. d y a ' d~x ~~ 2~y and since when the curve is concave to the axis d 2 y is negative, d 2 y a d y a* ~~ d x 2 = ~ 2y~ 2 * d~x ~ "" 4Ty~ 3 ~ Hence at the vertex R = - , and at the extremity of the latus rectum, SB 3 2^ R = i a = a V 2. m BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 63 Ex. 2. If p be the parameter or the double ordinate passing through the focus and 2 a the axis-major of any conic section, its equation is Hence 2ydy = p d x + x d x ~ a and 2dy * + 2y d 2 y = + - d x * P (l + - V a . dy "dx ~ 2y and Dfi + 2LY-r-?_Pv 2 d*y _ P V ~ a>> + a y dx 2 " 4y 3 .* R - t which reduces to | p2+ ?_p T? < - . Ex. 3. In the cycloid it is easy to show that ll = / %r y dx *V y r being the radius of the generating circle, and x, y referred to the base or path of the circle. d g y _ j^ '"'dx 2= y 2 .-. R = 2 V 2 r y = 2 the normal. Hence it is an easy problem tojind the equation to the locus of the centres of curvature for the several points of a given curve. If y and x be the coordinates of the given curve, and Y and X those of the required locus, all referred to the same origin and axis, then the stu- dent will easily prove that 64 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. I. JL\ ^dxV and i + ll! Y-y + - dx ' * ~* J 1 J 2 .. dx 2 which will give the equation required, by substituting by means of the equation to the given curve. In the cycloid for instance X = x + ^ (2ry y 2 ) Y = -y whence it easily appears that the locus required is the same cycloid, only differing in position from the given one. 75. Required to express the radius of curvature in terms of the polar co- ordinates of a curve, viz. in terms of the radius vector % and traced- angle 6. x = g cos. and = g cos. o -\ = P sin. & ) .'. taking the indefinite differences, and substituting in equation (d) of Art. 74, we get lv ~ which by means of the equation to the curve will give the radius of curva- ture required. Ex. 1. In the logarithmic spiral e S = a ; -4 = la Xa - (Art. 17.) ..-^! = - . R . (g 2 + (la) e ') s * (IJhjl a)') - ' : BOOK L] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. Ex. 2. In the spiral of Archimedes S = a ^ and R - (g 2 + **) f > " Ex. 3. jfo ^e hyperbolic spiral . R ._ A *> Ex. 4. / Me Lituus . P - J_ (4a 4 + g 4 ) ~ 2a 2 ' 4 a 4 ? 4 Ex. 5. In the Epicycloid s = (r + r') - 2 r (r -f r') cos. 4 r and r 7 being the radius of the wheel and globe respectively. Here (r + rQ (3 r 2 2 r r 7 r' * + 2 g )* 2(3r 2 2r r' r 72 ) + 3 Having already given those results of the Calculus of Indefinite Differ- ences which are most useful, we proceed to the reverse of the calculus, which consists in the investigation of the Indefinites themselves from their indefinite differences. In the direct method we seek the Indefinite Differ- ence of a given function. In the inverse method we have given the Inde- finite Difference to find the function whose Indefinite Difference it is. This inverse method we call THE INTEGRAL CALCULUS OK INDEFINITE DIFFERENCES. 76. The integral of d x is evidently x + C, since the indefinite differ- ence of x + C is d x. 77. "Required the integral o/'a d x ? By Art. 9, we have d (a x) = a d x. Vol.. I. E G6 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. I. Hence reversely the integral of a d x is a x. This is only one of the in- numerable integrals which there are of a d x. We have not only d (a x) = a d x but also d (a x + C) = a d x in which C is any constant whatever. .-. ax + C =/adx = a/dx . . . (a) (see 76) generally, f being the characteristic of an integral. 78. Required the integral of a x P d x. By Art. 12 d(ax n -fC)=nax n - 1 dx . . a x n -f- C =fn a x *d x = n X/ax n ~ 1 dx (77) ax n C .-. /a x n - 1 d x = -- 1 -- . n n rj But since C is any constant whatever may be written C. ../ax- I dx = + C n Hence it is plain that Or To find the integral of the product of a constant the p 11 * power of the variable and the Indefinite Difference of that variable, let the index of the power be increased by 1, suppress the Indefinite Difference, multiply by the constant, divide by the increased index, and add an arbitrary constant. 79. Hence /(a xPdx + bx*dx + &c.) = p + 1 ' c7+T 80. Hence also ._ 81. Required the integral of a x m - ' d x (b + ex m )P. Let' u = b + e x m .. d u = mex m ~ l dx .. a x m - ' d x = - . d u m e .'./ax ra ~ l dx(b + ex m ) p =/* u? d u BOOK L] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 67 a m e . (p + 1) r. UP+ 1 + C (78) a ~ m e (p + 1) d x 82. Required the integral of . By 80 it would seem that and if when . (b X ex m )P+ 1 + C. But by Art. 17 a. we know that d x d. 1 x = x Therefore Here it may be convenient to make the arbitrary constant of the form 1 C Therefore /i^.= lx + 1C = ICx J x Hence the integral of a fraction whose numerator is the Indefinite Differ- ence of the denominator) is the hyperbolic logarithm of the denominator PLUS an arbitrary constant. 83. Hence ax m ~ I dx a f mx m ~ 1 dx /ax m ~ 1 dx_ a /" m x m -1 d: / x "^ TT .i.V A . T1~) + C m b m ' and so on for more complicated forms. 84. Required the integral of a* d x. By Art. 17 d.a x = la.a x dx E 2 68 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. I. 85. If y, x, t, s denote the sine, cosine, tangent, and secant of an angle 6 ; then we have, Art. 26, 27. dy dx dt ds " ~~ ~ c = cos --' x + c C = tan.-'t+C /* , ds . = 6 + C = sec.- 1 s + C y s V2s s 2 sin. ~ l y, cos."" 1 x, &c. being symbols for the arc whose sine is y, cosine is x, &c. respectively. 86. Hence, more generally, du _ _1_ / (a-bu').- Vb/ or = -JT X angle whose sine is u ^J to rad. 1 + C. Also f du 1 / b n , . /-7-j - j -sr = -7-7- . COS. U ^ . + C . . (b) ^ V (a bu 2 ) -/ b \ a Again du / V * d u _ / a a + bu 2 :: V"ab*/ 1 + i u and BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 69 Moreover, if u be the versed sine of an angte 0, then the sine = V (2u u 8 ) and d u = d (1 cos. 6) = dd . sin. 6 (Art. 27.) = d0. V(2u u 2 ) du Hence = vers. l u + C and generally , du du ' I a /" u - / r=w5 = / 87. Required the integrals of dx dx d x -' 1 u + c ' ' a + bx' a bx' a bx 8 * f dx _ J_ /d. (a + bx) 'a + bx b * -^ a + bx TT ' ' ' a X ' "*" ' and /d x _ _l^/d(a bx) a bx~ b^ *a bx " V * ' a ' see Art. 17 a. Hence, 1 1 V / 2 adx ~+Tx a bxj" -J ** b z x = -i-.].(a + bx)-l.l.(a-bx) + C J_ . a + bx c 70 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. I. Hence we easily get by analogy /. dx _ 1 j V a + V b. x -'a b x 2 ~~ V a b V a bx 2 2 V ab' " a Vb. x 88. Required the integral of d x a x 2 + b x -f- c" In the first place b V (b 2 4 a c) X b V (b z 4 a c) \ f / b 2 b 2 4 a c + 2T -- ^ -- } = a i( X +2-- Hence, putting we have d x = d u and d x d u / b 2 4ac ax 2 + bx + c a(u 2 -- 5 C ft which presents the following cases. Case 1. Let a be negative and c be positive ; then d x d u ax dx V~2 I 2a tan I u / V (seeArt86)= . , 2 _ -. tan.- i r x + ") / , o 2 a +C . . (i) a(b 2 +4ac) * \ ^2a/-\ ; b 2 + 4ac T Case 2. Ze^ c J^ negative and a positive , then d x /" d u / x /" a x z + b x c "~ / / , / a ( u b 2 + 4 a du b 2 + 4 a c ' u 2a /b'+4 1 V 2 a ac N 2a(b 2 +4ac)" /b_ 2 +4ac_ __b V ~^^ X 2a see Art 87. BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 71 Case 3. Let b 2 be > 4 a c 2a(b 2 4ac) b 2 4ac b_ V 2 a ~2~^ Case 4. ietf b 2 be < 4 a c and a, c fo both positive , 7Xi /dx __ 1 /" du ax 2 +bx+c~~a/ 4ac b 2 7 +U ~ 2a 2 a(4ac b 2 ) * Case 5. 7)fb 2 fe>4ac and a, c both negative ; Then d x 1 r d u + C ' ' _ = _L /" c a / b 2 ' ax 2 +bx c a / b 2 4ac Case 6. Ifb z be < 4 a c and a awrf c 60^ negative,- Then / dx _ 1 /" du V_ax 2 +bx c~"a/ 4ac b 2 / ^ u 2 2 a . / i ,V ~ V 2a(4ac b 2 ) ' 2a 4ac 1 2a 2a(4ac b 2 ) 4ac b 2 " 2a 2a 89. Required the integral of any rational function "whatever of one variable^ multiplied by. the indefinite difference of that variable. Every rational function of x is comprised under the general form Ax m + Bx m 7 1 + Cx m - 2 + &c. K x + L ax n + bx n - 1 + cx n - 2 + &c. k x +1 E4 72 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. I, in which A, B, C, &c. a, b, c, &c. and m, n are any constants whatever. If n = 0, then we have (Art. 77) m (T x m 1 . J 4- - r \- &c.) h constant. m 1 /a Again, if m be > n the above can always be reduced by actual division to the form A " X ~ ' + B "* > a x n + bx"- 1 4- &c. and if the whole be multiplied by d x its integral will consist of two parts, one of which is found to be (by 77) A' B' x ra ~ n - Xm-*+l+- -- 1_ &c> m n + 1 m n and the other A" x ~ * + B" x n ~ 2 4- &c. ,> J ax n + bx"- 1 + &c. Hence then it is necessary to consider only functions of the general form x~ l + Ax p ~ 2 + Bx n ~ 3 +&c. _ U x" + ax"" 1 + b x a ~ 2 + &c. "V in order to integrate an indefinite difference, whose definite part is any rational function whatever. Case 1. Let the denominator V consist qfn unequal real factors, x a, x 0, &c. according to the theory of algebraic equations. Assume and reducing to a common denominator we shall have U = P . x /3 . x y ... to (n 1) terms + Q.X .x y + R . x ~o . x j3 = (P + Q + R + SccOx"- 1 *P.(S ) + Q.(S 0) 1. S &c. where S, S &c. denote the sum of a, /S, y &c. the sum of the products of every two of them and so on. BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 73 But by the theory of equations S= a S= b 1.2 &c. = &c. .-. U = (P + Q + R + fcc^x"- 1 + { a (P + Q + R + &c.) + Pa+Q/3 + Ry+ &c.} X x m - * + Jb (P + Q + R + &c.) + a(Pa + Q|8+ &c.) + (Pa 2 + Q/3 2 + Ry 2 + &c.)j x n ~ 3 + &c. Hence equating like quantities (6) P + Q + R + &c. = 1 b + a (A a) + Pa 2 +Q/3 2 +Ry 2 + &c. = B &c. = &c. giving n independent equations to determine P, Q, R, &c. Ex. 1. Let = r-^ Here p + Q + R = 1-v 6 + P+2Q + 3R = 6 >whence 11 + P+4Q + 9R = 37 P = 1, Q = 5 and R = 3 Hence f U d x _ r d x / 5 dx f 3 dx = C 1. (x + 1) + 5 1. (x + 2) 31. (x + 3). P, Q, R, &c. may be more easily found as follows : Since x 11 - 1 + Ax n ~ 2 &c. = P (x |8). (x y). &c. + Q ( X _ ). ( X _ y). &C. + R (x ). (x |8). &c. + &c. let x = a, |8, y, &c. successively ; we shall then have Aa n ~ 2 + &C. = P.(a j8) . (a y)&c.' (A) (y a ) (7 &c. = &c. In the above example we have a = 1, ]8 = 2, y = 3 and n = 3 A = 6 and B = 3. ~ 2 + &C. = P. (a j8) . ( a _y)&c.-v -e + &c . _ Q.(/3 a). (j3 y)&C. V. . . ~ 2 + &c. = R. a . j8&cJ 74 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. I. . p 16+3 1. 2. 9 6.3 + 3 2ir^i~ as before. Hence then the factors of V being supposed all unequal, either of the above methods will give the coefficients P, Q, R, &c. and therefore enable us to analyze the general expression ^ into the partial fractions as expressed by V = x~=^ + ^T^8 + &C> and we then have _) + Ql. (x-/3) + 8cc. + C. Ex 2 /*' + bx ' e: f- d 4- + r dx - a + b f- /a 2 x x 3 ""-' x 2 /a x 2 ^ a dx + a -J- b , , x a + b , , x ^ = a 1 x 31 l ( a x) 7- - 1 . (a + x) + C = a 1 x (a + b) 1 V a 2 x 2 + C by the nature of logarithms. 3 x 5 /-d -,6x + 8 x 2 4 = |.l(x_4)_il.(x 2) + C. Ex. 4./-^_4A2L__ = / P ^L. + /QllL = P 1 (x + a ) / x 2 + 4ax b 2 'x + a^^x + /S + Ql.(x + j8) + C where a = 2 a + V(4a 2 + b 2 ), |3 = 2 a V (4 a 2 + b J ) and p ... _ 2a+ "a 13 = 2V O = ~ a 8 + b g ) 2 a /3 2 V (4 a 8 + b 2 ) Case 2. Z> all the factors of V be real and equal, or suppose a = (3 = 7 = &c. Then y - xl> ~'+ A x " ~ 2 + &c. V (x ap BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 75 and since a /3 = 0, a 7 = &c. the forms marked (A) will not give us P, Q, R, &c. In this case we must assume P Q R V - (x a) n (x a) n - ' (x a) -- to n 1 terms, and reducing to a common denominator, we get U = P + Q . (X a) + R (X a) 2 + &C. now let x = a, and we have a n-i_j_ A a n - 2 + &c. =P. Also 1-5 = Q + 2 R . (x a) + 3 S . (x a) 2 + &c. U -\. d * U = 2 R + 3 . 2 . S . (x a) + 4 . 3 . T (x a) 2 + &c. dx 2 1LH = 2 . 3 . S + 4 . 3 . 2 T (x a) + &c. dx 3 &c. = &c. and if in each of these x be put = a, we have by Maclaurin's theorem the values of Q, R, S, &c. v i T * U x' 3x+ 2 Ex. 1. Let ^ = -. - TV; . V (x 4) 3 Then U = x 8 3x + 2 dx d*U ' .'. P = 6 Q = 8 3 = 5 R = A. 2 = 1 5 d x d '' f x r x p x f x / ~V~ ~ / x 4 s + J x 4 2 + / T (x 4) s (x 4) Ex.2. 76 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. I. Here U = x s + x 3 dx" = 5x4 + 3x2 d d x ^" d x .-. P = 3 5 + 3 3 = 27 X 10 = 270 Q = 27 X 16 = 432 =120 5 9 X 60 + 6 2X3 T - - - 15 -2.3.4." 2.3.4.5 Hence - 270 f dx + 432 r dx I- 279 f dx ?0 6-t J5H 7 d x - 108 ' ( X _ 3) - 93< (x 3) 3 J ' (x 3) which admits of farther reduction. z + x U Here U = x 2 -j- = 2x dx and d*U dx 2 ~ 2 ' NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 77 '(x_l)4 (x I) 3 ! '(x I) 2 " 2(x I) 4 It appears from this example, and indeed is otherwise evident, that the number of partial fractions into which it is necessary to split the function exceeds the dimension of-s. in U, by unity. This is the first time, unless we mistake, that Maclaurin*s Theorem has been used to analyze rational fractions into partial rational fractions. It produces them with less labour than any other method that has fallen under our notice. Case 3. Let the factors of the denominator V be all imaginary and un- equal. We know then if in V, which is real, there is an imaginary factor of the form x + h-J-kv' 1, then there is also another of the form x + h k V 1. Hence V must be of an even number of dimensions, and must consist of quadratic real factors of the form arising from (x + h + kV l)(x + h k V 1) or of the form Hence, assuming V = (x +t)?+ f + (x + JQM.V + &c ' and reducing to a common denominator, we have U = (P + Qx) f (x + a') 2 + j3' 2 } [(x + a") 2 + /3" 2 J X &c. + (P'+ Q'x) [(x + a) 2 + /3 2 J J(x + ") 2 + jS" 2 } X Sic. + (P" + Q" x) {(x + ) 2 + /3 2 H( X + "') *+ P*} X ** + &c. Now for x substitute successively & + |3 ^ 1, a! + p V 1, a" + $" V 1, &0. then U will become for each partly real and partly imaginary, and we have as many equations containing respectively P, Q ; P x , Q' ; P", Q" &c. as there are pairs of these coefficients ; whence by equating homogeneous quantities, viz. real and imaginary ones, we shall obtain P, Q ; P', Q'. &c. 78 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. I. Ex. 1. Required the integral of x 3 d x x*+ 3x 2 + 2' Here the quadratic factors of V are x 2 + 1, x 2 + 2 .-. a = 0, of = 0, jS = 1, and |8' = V~2 . Consequently x 3 = (P + Qx)(x 2 + 2) + (P' + Q'x)(x' + l) _ Letx = V ]. Then V 1 = (P + Q V 1) . (_ i + 2) = P + Q V~=l _' P=0> Q = l Again, let x = V 2. V 1, and we have 3 __2* V 1 = (F + Q' V2. V 1)( 2+ I) = P Qf V~2 . V~=H[ .-. P 7 = 0, and Q' = 2 Hence /- x 3 d x / xdx y2 xd x Ex. 2. Required the integral of - dx l + X 2 To find the quadratic factors of 1 + x we assume x 2 n + 1 = 0, and tlien we have x sn = 1 =cos.(2p+ l)^r-f- V lsin.(2p+ 1)* T being 180 of the circle whose diameter is 1, and p any integer what- ever. Hence by Demoivre's Theorem 2p+l . 2p+l x = cos. fe-J ff 4. V 1 . sin. T 2 n 2 n But since imaginary roots of an equation enter it by pairs of the form A db V 1 . B, we have also BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPLE 79 and x . .- 2 n 2 n / 2p+ 1 , - - 2p ( x _cos. -_c + V - 1 sm.-| 2 n which is the general quadratic factor of x 2 n + 1. Hence putting p = 0, 1, 2 ...... n 1 successively, x 2n +1 = (x 2 2xcos. -+ 1 ) . (x 2 -2XCOS. ~ + 1 ) x (x 2 2xcos. ~ + 1 ) x ---- (x 2 2xcos. 2 ~* + l) . Hence to get the values of P and Q corresponding to the general factor, assume 1 P+Qx N i - l+x 2n ~ , 2p+ 1 , , M X 2 2XCOS. *1 ir+ I 2n Then But l+X 2n M = 2n and becomes of the form when for x we put cos. it + V 1 X sin. "t ; its value however may thus be found & n 2 p + 1 , . 2 p + 1 Let cos. ~ v + V 1 sin. *i * = r 2 n 2 n then 2 p + 1 . 2 p + 1 1 cos. ^ it V 1 . sin. if- 1 * = 2 n 2 n r and M = 1+ *' Again let x r = y ; then M = 1 + y gn +2ny 2nyl . 2 n-l + r 8iv 80 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. I. But r* B = cos. 2 p + 1 . * + V 1 sin. 2p + l.w = 1 y*"-'+2n y g - 2 .r + . . . . 2n r 2 "- 1 .-. M _ Hence when for x we put r, y = 0, and ., 2n r*"- 1 M = H and from the above equation we have 2 n r s n l ~ or Qr_i_i 2 p -f- 1 . 2 n 1 , . 2p4-1.2n 1 _ ^ 7 . 1V sin. *^ ff 2 n Q (since r 8n = 1) *w n .. equating homogeneous quantities we get . 2p-fl . 2p+1.2n sin. -: g=nP.sm. r . = 2 n 2 n and But 2p+1.2n 1 ^ P . cos. ^ * = Q. & n 2p+ 1 .2n 1 .ir _ 2n ~~ Hence the above equations become . 2p+ 1 2p + 1 .'. sin. ^- *, (x 8 + 1' x + r') ', &c. then the general assumption for obtaining the partial fractions must be ' _ _ V x ax a E F E' F' &C * + ' + &C ' ' (x e)P r (x e)P~ 1 ^ - (x e') q nr (x e A+Sx R' + S'x 10 ,_ G + Hx , G'+H'x i "I *" and the several coefficients may be found by applying the foregoing rules for each corresponding set. They may also be had at once by reducing to a common denominator both sides of the equation, and arranging the numerators according to the powers of x, and then equating homogeneous quantities. We have thus shown that every rational fraction, whose denominator can be decomposed into simple or quadratic factors, may be itself analyzed into as many partial fractions as there are factors, and hence it is clear that the integral of the general function Ax m + Bx m ~ 1 + &c. Kx-f L a x n + b x n - 1 + &c. k x + I may, under these restrictions, always be obtained. It is always reducible, in short, to one or other or a combination of the forms r / d x / d x Having disposed of rational forms we next consider irrational ones. Already (see Art. 86, &c.) r j:dx ^ d x r d x J V (a bx 2 )' ^xV(bx 2 a)' / V (ax bx 2 ) BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 85 have been found in terms of circular arcs. We now proceed to treat of Irrationals generally ; and the most natural and obvious way of so doing is to investigate such forms as admit of being rationalized. 90. Required the integral of dxXF^x, x% x n , xP, xS&c.? where F denotes any rational Junction of the quantities between the brackets. Let x _ u m n p q ^ &c> Then i x lu = u npqr .... i x n _ u mpqr 1 X p = U mnqr .... &C. = &C. and dx = mnpq.... X u ma P q -- 1 x du and substituting for these quantities in the above expression, it becomes rational, and consequently integrable by the preceding article. + cx Here x = u X 3 = U 1 and dx = 6u 59 du. Hence the expression is transformed to u^H- 2au 4 + 1 - r- - , 5 b + c u I5 whose integral may be found by Art 89, Case 3, Ex. 2. 91. Required the integral of dx X F Jx, (a + b x) , (a + bx) s , where F, as before, means any rational function. Put a + bx = u nmp ---- then substitute, and we get which is rational. 86 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. I. Examples to this general result are x 4 dx , x 2 dx(a + bx)f - 5 and - -x c x 5 + (a + b x) * x + c (a + b x) f which are easily resolved. 92. Required the integral of _, f /a + b x\ 2 /a + b x\ E \ d x F 1 x, (~ - ) u jf^- - ) q , &c. > Vf+gx)' ^f+gx/ Assume and then by substituting, the expression becomes rational and mtegrable. 93. Required the integral of A x F x, V (a + b x + c x 2 )J Case 1. When c is positive, let a + bx + cx 2 = c(x + u). Then a cu 2 ,, 2c(cu 2 b u + a) d u x = - - - and d x = --- v .- .7. y 2cu b (2cu b)* / , cu 2 bu+a . v(a + bx+cx 2 )= s - jr- . v c 2 cu b and substituting, the expression becomes rational. Case 2. When c is negative, if r, r 7 be the roots of the equation a _j_ bx cx 2 = Then assume V c(x r) (r 7 x) = (x r) c u and we have c r u s + r 7 , (r r 7 ) 2cu du : cu 2 + 1 ' (cu 2 + I) 2 V(a + bx cx 2 )= (r/ "7^ C / cy + 1 and by substitution, the expression becomes rational. 94. Required the integral of d x F Jx, (a + b x) *, (a' + b'x) Q - Make a + bx = (a 1 +b'x)u 2 j Then __a a^ 2 (&'b b r a)2u du ~b'u 2 b j (b'u 2 b) 2 .. , uV(ab' a'b) , , , ,, . ; / / BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 87 Hence, substituting, the above expression becomes of the form duF'Ju, V(b'u 2 b)} F' denoting a rational function different from that represented by F. But this form may be rationalized by 93 ; whence the expression becomes integrable. 95. Required the integral of x m-i d x ( a + b x n )?. This form may be rationalized when either , or -- }- is an. integer. n n q Case l.Leta+bx n = u; then(a+b x n )lf = UP, x a = U<1 ^" a , x m = ' nb Hence the expression becomes q/H --- 2 J n-l...2. or Xx X^ m + 1 ) dx __ __ _ __ (n l)(lx) n -^ > (n l).(n 2)....(n m)(lx)"- m according as n is or is not an integer, m being in the latter case the greatest integer in n. /._ __ __ , &c X '^ (Lx)" ~n 1 t(lx) n - J + (n 2)(lx) n - 2 ^ C ' (m + I)"- 1 ^x m dx (n 1) (n 2). .., \J Ix when m is an integer. 105. Required the integrals of d -iV.-v< B . (b) BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPLE 93 Again let tan. 6 = t ; then 1 + t 2 and ' t d t = C 1 . cos. 6 . ' ;- (c) since 1 1 + t 2 = sec. 2 = d 6 sec. 6 = cos. 2 6 ' Again d 6 d cos. 6 cos. 6 ~~ \ sin. 2 d (sin. 6) "1 sin. _ l d (sin. 6) d sin. d ~ ' 1 sin. 6 + * ' 1 + sin. .../d 6 sec. 6 = l.i = 1 . tan. (45 + ^-\ + C . . . (d) which is the same as / . J cos. a Again C~. - = fd d cosec. J sin. 6 J . =-l.tan.(45o + ^ - ^) + C ^ * J^ ^ = l.(tan. A) + C -, ; ;'..;. ^ V . . (e) Again /yMj =/d * cot. tf =/d 6. tan. ( - t) ^ I _ () = lcos. (*) + C(byc) = 1 . sin. + C (f) 106. Required the integral of sin. m 6 cos. n 6 . d 6. m and n fo/wg positive or negative integers. 94 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. I. Let sin. 6 = u ; then d 6 cos. 6 = d u and the above expression becomes u m du (1 u 2 )^ ..... ., m + 1 m + 1 n 1 m + n which is mtegrable when either ^ or ^ -- 1 -- ^ = ~ 3f X is an integer (see 95.) If n be odd, the radical disappears ; if n be even and m even also, then ^~ - = an integer ; if n be even and m odd, then it m + I . . _ T7 , ^ is an integer. Whence u m d u (1 u*)""2 is integrable by 95. OTHERWISE, Integrating by Parts, we have /d 6 sin. m 6 cos. n 6= Sin ' * cos." + l 6+ ^^-r/cos."* 2 6. sin. M ~ 2 6 X d6 n + 1 m+1 sin *^ *~ ^ $ m 1 = -- !_^ - cos< n + 1 i -- /d x sin. m - 2 d cos. n d m + n m + n* 7 and continuing the process m is diminished by 2 each time. In the same way we find cin m + 1 A fro n 1/J ri _ _1 m + n ' m + n^ and so on. 107. Required the integrals of d u = d 6 sin. (a 6 + b) cos. (a' 6 + b') d v = d 6 sin. (a 6 + b) sin. (of 6 + b') and d w = d 6 cos. (a 6 + b) cos. (a' d -f b') By the known' forms of Trigonometry we have d u = d 6 {sin. (a + a' . d+b + b') + sin. (a a'. 0+b b')} d v = d 6 {cos. (a+a'. B' B" A ~. O &c. = &c. p/, f(a+p/3) f(a+^./3)=:P/3 + -/S 2 ^- A, A 7 , &c. B, B', &c P, P', &c. being the values of V dX x ' dT> &c ' when for x we put a, a + ft a + 2 ft &c. Hence f(b) f(a) = (A + B + ....P)|8 + (A' + B' + . . . . F) 172 + (A" + B" + . . . . P") 1^-3 + &c. the integral required, the convergency of the series being of any degree that may be demanded. If /3 be taken very small, then f (b) f (a) = (A + B + P) 18 nearly. Ex. Required the approximate value of /X^-'dx X (1 x n )T m m p between the limits of x = and x = 1, when neither ~ n r ~ + ~ is an integer. Here X = x 1 "- 1 ^ x n )T and dX p i np __ / m i _ ^ 1 \ v m 2/1 vn\q J -, m 2 /I ^ n ^ j i in T~ n J j x 11 ^ A y ^ jt 1 1 ~- A j b a= 10= 1. Assume 1 = 10 X ft and we have for limits J. ^ '10' '10' * VOL. I. G 08 A COMMENTARY ON fSEcr. I. Hence m being > 1, A = B- -^- (l- " 10" 1 - 1 \ 10 &c. = &c. p _. ( 9 \ m - (TO) -TO Hence, between the limits x = 1 and x = /Xdx = - l - -x |(10 n l)f +(10 n 2 n ) m + n (10"_ 3 n ) + &c. + (10 n 9 n ) nearly. We shall meet with more particular instances in the course of our comments upon the text. Hitherto the use of the Integral Calculus of Indefinite Differences has not been very apparent. We have contented ourselves so far with making as rapid a sketch as possible of the leading principles on which the Inverse Method depends ; but we now come to its APPLICATIONS. 112. Required to Jind the area of any curve, comprised between two given values of its ordinate. Let E c C (fig. to LEMMA II of the text) be a given or definite area comprised between and C c, or and y. Then C c being fixed or De- finite, let B b be considered Indefinite, or let L b = d y. Hence the Indefinite Difference of the area E c C is the Indefinite area B Ccb. Hence if E C = x, and S denote the area E c C ; then dS = BCcb=CL + Lcb = ydx + Lcb. But L c b is heterogeneous (see Art. 60) compared with C L or y d x. .-. d S = v d x BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 99 Hence S=/ydx, the area required. Ex. 1. Required the area of the common parabola. Here y 2 = ax. 2 y dy .-. d x = * * a and and between the limits of y = r and y = r' becomes S = (r'-r") If m and m' be the corresponding values of x, we have S = -| (r m i- 7 m') Let r 7 = 0, then 2 = -=- of the circumscribing rectangle. 2 S =r r m (see Art. 21.) B Ex. 2. Take the general Parabola whose equation is y m = a x n . Here it will be found in like manner that m-f-n m = . a p m + n between the limits of n = y = 0, and x = a, y = (3. Hence all PARABOLAS may be squared, as it is termed ; or a square may be found 'whose area shall be equal to that of any Parabola. Ex. 3. Required the area of an HYPERBOLA comprised by its asymptote, and one infinite branch. If x, y be parallel to the asymptotes, and originate in the center x y = ab is the equation to the curve. Hence , a b d y O. X ~~ a y 8 G2 100 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. J. and Let at the vertex y = /S, and x = ; then the area is and C = a b . 1 0. Hence S = ab.l. . y 1 13. If the curve be referred to ajixed center by the radius-vector g and traced-angle 6; then For d S = the Indefinite Area contained by , and g + d=(f-fdg) ^^ - e 2 d d P d P d 6 = + s | - (Art. 26) and equating homogeneous quantities we A <& have . Ex. 1. In the Spiral of Archimedes S = a 6 Ex. 2. In the Trisectrix S = 2 cos. + 1 .-. dS = /(2cos. d I) 2 do which may easily be integrated. Hence then the area of every curve could be found, if all integrations were possible. By such as are possible, and the general method of ap- proximation (Art. Ill) the quadrature of a curve may be effected either exactly or to any required degree of accuracy. In Section VII and many other parts of the Principia our author integrates Functions by means of curves ; that is, he reduces them to areas, and takes it for granted that such areas can be investigated. 114. Tojind the length of any curve comprised within given values of the ordinate ; or To RECTIFY any curve. Let s be the length required. Then d s = its Indefinite Chord, by Art. 25 and LEMMA VII. .-. ds = V (dx 2 + dy 2 ) and s =/*/(dx* + dy s ) ..... (a) BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 101 Ex. 1. In the general parabola y m = ax". Hence dx 2 = m2 lp- 2 d 2 n 2 aT and (m 2 2m 1 + - g y~ n 2 a~iT which is integrable by Art. 95 when either 1 1 1 n ihat is, when either In 1m or 2*m n 2*m n is an integer ; that is when either m or n is even. The common parabola is Rectifiable, because then m = 2. In this case ds=dyV(lH i y 2 ) (r) Hence assuming according to Case 2 of Art. 95, 1 _i_ 2 = * u * a s y - y we get the Rational Form u 2 d u d s = Hence by Art. 89, Case 2, 1 + Vu s 2_ a 2 + V u _= +C. But u = V _ . Hence by substituting and making the ne- cessary reductions G3 102 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. I. s = , + a 1 . Let y = ; then s = and we get C = and .'. between the Limits of y = and y = |8 ' + In the Second Cubical Parabola and y 3 = a x 2 which gives at once (Art. 91) Ex. 2. In the circle (Art. 26) ds = + C. V") V (\ y 2 ) which admits of Integration in a series only. Expanding (1 y 2 )~ by the Binomial Theorem, we have Hence, and s = ay + + y 4d -y + &c - and between the limits of y = and y = - or for an arc of 30 we have ~ 1 4. s "*" + &c. 2 r 2. 3. 2 s T 2.4.5.2 s 1 1 3 5 2 + 3. 2 4 + 5. 2 8 + 7. 2 U + 9. 2 .5 .0208333333 .0023437500 .0003487720 L.0000593390^ 5.7 = .5235851943 nearly. BOOK L] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 103 Hence 180 of the circle whose radius is 1 or the whole circumference- Tt of the circle whose diameter is 1 is * = . 5235851943 ... X 6 nearly = 3.1415111658 which is true to the fourth decimal place : or the defect is less than 10000 y taking more terms a 3 obtained. Ex. 3. In the Ellipse By taking more terms any required approximation to the value of IT may be obtained. a 2 a 2 v S* i CL C -V s =/dx . "v a 2 x 2 where x is the abscissa referred to the center, a the semi-axis major and a e the eccentricity (see Solutions to Cambridge Problems, Vol. II. p. 144.) 115. If the curve be referred to polar coordinates, and 6; then s =fV (s 2 d d* +dg 2 ) . I'*'. '..'".. (b) For y = g sin. 6 x = m + g cos. d and if d x 2 , d y z be thence found and substituted in the expression (114. a) the result will be as above. Ex. 1. In the Spiral of Archimedes % = a* .*. d s = d *w il see the value for s in the common parabola, Art. 1 14. Ex. 2. In the logarithmic Spiral or 6 = \. g and we find s = V~2fd = g V 2 + C. 116. Required the Volume or solid Content of any solid formed by the revolution of a curve round its axis. Let V be the volume between the values and y of the ordinate of the generating curve. Then d V = a cylinder whose base is T y 2 and alti- tude d x + a quantity Indefinite or heterogeneous compared with either d V or the cylinder. 104 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. I. But the cylinder = T y 2 d x. Hence equating homogeneous terms, we have d V = *y 2 dx and V = */y 2 dx (c) Ex. 1. In the sphere (rad. = r) y 2 __ j.2 X 2 .-. V = whence (-5 ) may be found ; and we shall thus finally obtain Fv " y 4. r-i l v - dx 2 r dx' x "~x 2 ' y ~ x 8 T Here X "5T' ^T > A ,7z 3T 2> "X 2 I' BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. Ill Equat. (a) becomes d 2 z d z 1_ . . ;z cfx~ 2 + dx' x "~ x 2 whence wherein z = e /udx ; which becomes homogeneous when for u we put \~\ Next the -variables are separated by putting (see 120) x = v s and we have d v s 2 + s 1 V 'TjTn- i) ( and . v - _1 / s + 1 " s V s- r Hence x 2 + 1 , x 2 1 u = j 5 - r . , / u d x = 1 . - x (x 2 1) * x and 2 __ i * z = e / udx = X Again e /Xdx __ e lx _ x and /X" e^ Xdx z d x = /a d x = a x + C and x 2 1 *(& x + C) x d x ~T~J~ (x 2 i) 2 which being Rational may be farther integrated, and it is found that finally ax + C x 2 1 / x ~~ " Here we shall terminate our long digression. We have exposed both the Direct and Inverse Calculus sufficiently to make it easy for the reader to comprehend the uses we may hereafter make of them, which was the main object we had in view. Without the Integral Calculus, in some shape or other, it is impossible to prosecute researches in the higher branches of philosophy with any chance of success ; and we accordingly see Newton, partial as he seems to have been of Geometrical Synthesis, frequently have recourse to its assistance. His Commentators, especially 112 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. II. the Jesuits Le Seur and Jacquier, and Madame Chastellet (or rather Clairaut), have availed themselves on all occasions of its powers. The reader may anticipate, from the trouble we have given ourselves in establish- ing its rules and formulae, that we also shall not be Very scrupulous in that respect. Our design is, however, not perhaps exactly as he may suspect. As far as the Geometrical Methods will suffice for the comments we may have to offer, so far shall we use them. But if by the use of the Algo- rithmic Formulae any additional truths can be elicited, or any illustrations given to the text, we shall adopt them without hesitation. SECTION II. PROP. I. 124. This Proposition is a generalization of the Law discovered by Kepler from the observations of Tycho Brahe upon the motions of the planets and the satellites. " When the body has arrived at B," says Newton, " let a centripetal force act at once with a strong impulse, fyc"~\ But were the force acting incessantly the body will arrive in the next instant at the same point C. For supposing the centripetal force incessant, the path of the body will evidently be a curve such as A B C. Again, if the body move in the chord A B, and A B, B C be chords de- scribed in equal times, the deflection from A B, produced by an impulsive force acting only at B and communi- cating a velocity which wouldhave been generated by the incessant force in the time through A B, is C c. But if the force had been incessant instead of impulsive, the body would have been moving in the tangent B T at B, and in this case the deflection at the end of the time through B C would have been half the space describ- ed with the whole velocity generated through B C (Wood's Mech.) But CT = i Cc .'. the body would still be at C. BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 113 AN ANALYTICAL PROOF. Let F denote the central force tending constantly to S (see Newton figure), which take as the origin of the rectangular coordinates (x, y) which determine the place the body is in at the end of the time t. Also let be the distance of the body at that time from S, and 6 the angular distance of from the axis of x. Then F being resolved parallel to the axis of x, y, its components are F.- andF. Z- and (see Art. 46) we .-. have d ' x _ _ F - d2y dt 2 ' ' s ' dt 2 Hence - -F ' ' y d 2 x F x_y _ x_d^ dt 2 g dt 2 xd z y dt But yd 2 x xd 2 y = dydx + y d 2 x dxdy xd 2 y = d.(ydx xdy) .. integrating y d x x d v = , = constant = c. d t Again, x = f cos. 6, y = sin 0, x 2 + y 2 = g z .'. d x = g d & sin. 6 + d g cos. 6 d y = f d 6 cos. 6 + d sin. d; whence by substitution we get ydx xdy = f d0 . g" d * _ But (see Art. 1 13) - = d . (Area of the curve) = d . A c VOL. I. H 114 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. II. Now since the time and area commence together in the integration there is no constant to be added. .-. t = X A oc A. c Q. e. d. 125. COR. 1. PROP. II. By the comment upon LEMMA X, it appears that generally ds V = d-t and here, since the times of describing A B, B C, &c. are the same by hypothesis, d t is given. Consequently ' v a d s that is the velocities at the points A, B, C, &c. are as the elemental spaces described A B, B C, C D, &c. respectively. But since the area of a A generally = semi-base X perpendicular, we have, in symbols, d. A = p X d s d. A .. v oc d s oc ; P and since the A A B S, B C S, C D S, &c. are all equal, d A is constant, and we finally get 1 c v a or = - P P the constant being determinable, as will be shown presently, from the nature of the curve described and the absolute attracting force of S. 1 26. COR. 2. The parallelogram C A being constructed, C V is equal and parallel to A B. But A B = B c by construction and they are in the same line. Therefore C V is equal and parallel to B c. Hence B V is parallel to C c. But S B is also parallel to C c by construction, and B V, B S have one point in common, viz. B. They therefore coincide. That is B V, when produced passes through S. 127. COR. 3. The body when at B is acted on by two forces ; one in the direction B c, the momentum which is measured by the product of its mass and velocity, and the other the attracting single impulse in the di- rection B S. These acting for an instant produce by composition the momentum in the direction B C measurable by the actual velocity X mass. Now these component and compound momentums being each propor- tional to the product of the mass and the initial velocity of the body in the directions B c, B V, and B C respectively, will be also proportional to their initial velocities simply, and therefore by (125) to B V, B c, B C. BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 115 Hence B V measures the force which attracts the body towards S when the body is at B and so on for every other position of the body. 128. COR. 1. PROP. II. In the annexed figure B c = A B, C c is parallel to S B, and C' c is parallel to S' B. Now A S C B = S c B = S A B, and if the body by an impulse of S have deflected from its rectilinear course so as to be in C, by the proposition the direction in which the centripetal force acts is that of C c or S B. But if, the body having arrived at C', the A S B C' be > S A B (the times of description are equal by hypothesis) and .*. > S B C, the vertex C' falls without the A S B C, and the direction of the force along c C' or B S', has clearly declined from the course B S in consequentia. The other case is readily understood from this other diagram. 129. To prove that a body cannot de- scribe areas proportional tothe timesround two centers. If possible let AS'AB = AS'BC and S A B = S B C. Then AS 7 B C(= S' AB)= S'Bc and C c is parallel to S' B. But it is also parallel to S B by construction. Therefore S B and S' B coincide, which is contrary to hypothesis. 130. PROP. III. The demonstration of this proposition, although strictly rigorous, is rather puzzling to those who read it for the first time. At least so I have found it in instruction. It will perhaps be clearer when stated symbolically thus : Let the central body be called T and the revolving one L. Also lef the whole force on L be F, its centripetal force be f, and the force ac- H2 116 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. II. celerating T be f. Then supposing a force equal to f to be applied to L and T in a direction opposite to that of f , by COR. 6. of the Laws, the force f will cause the body L to revolve as before, and we have remaining f = F f ' or F = f + f . Q. e. cl. ILLUSTRATION. Suppose on the deck of a vessel in motion, you whirl a body round in a vertical or other plane by means of a string, it is evident the centrifugal force or tension of the string or the power of the hand which counteracts that centrifugal force i. e. the centripetal force will not be altered by the force which impels the vesseL Now the motion of the vessel gives an equal one to the hand and body and in the same direction ; therefore the force on the body = force on the hand + centripetal power of the hand. 131. PROP. IV. Since the motion of the body in a circle is uniform by supposition, the arcs described are proportional to the times. Hence ., , arc X radius t a arc described a ^ fit a area of the sector. Consequently by PROP. II. the force tends to the center of the circle. Again the motion being equable and the body always at the same dis- tance from the center of attraction, the centripetal force (F) will clearly be every where the same in the same circle (see COR. 3. PROP. I.) But the absolute value of the force is thus obtained. Let the arc A B (fig. in the Glasgow edit.) be described in the time T. Then by the centripetal force F, (which supposing A B indefinitely small, may be considered constant,) the sagitta D B (S) will be described in that time, and (Wood's Mechanics) comparing this force with gravity as the unit of force put = 1, we have S = | FT 2 g being = 32 feet. But by similar triangles A B D, A B G S = BD = ' chordAB) ' = "' rc V ) 'ult>. A G 2 R BOOK I.] (LEMMA VII.) If T be given If T = arc second NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. T? - _ 2S - ( arc A B ) 2 117 (arcAB)- 132. COR. 1. Since the motion is uniform, the velocity is _ arc : T V 2 V 2 *'* F = i~R a R ' 133. COR. 2. The Periodic Time is circumference __ 2 # R velocity v P = 4* 2 R gRP 2 gP 134. COR. 3, 4, 5, 6, 7. Generally let P = k X R n , k being a constant. Then ^ P 2 ' and v = F = a iff R 2 P = k R"- 1 " R"^ 4*'R 4 2 gk 2 R 2n " gk 2 R 2n - 1 oc Conversely. If F a Rgn _ l ; P will a R n . For (133) 'Pa / ?: oc V R zn R n . 135. COR. 8. A B, a b are similar arcs, and A B, a h contemporaneous- ly described and indefinitely small. M Now ultimately an:am::ah 2 :ab 2 and a m : A M : : a b : A B (LEMMA V) .-. an : AM : : ah 2 : ab. AB 118 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. II. or f : F or ah 2 . A B ! ab _ a s ' A B V 2 A~S ah a s ,T X7X (LEMMA V) v AS' And if the whole similar curves A D, a d be divided into an equal number of indefinitely small equal areas A B S, B C S, &c. ; a b s, b c s, &c. these will be similar, and, by composition of ratios, (P and p being the whole times) P : p : : time through A B A B ab AS time through a b a s Hence v V PCX A S V V 2 A S 2 V ' o I X W r^ 139. Cor.3. F = iA! x QV2 ^ pv (e) 120 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. Jl. Hence is got a differential expression for the force. Since PV = 2_PJLJ dp F- 8A 'x -T rrTZ VS g T 2 ' 2p'pdg dp ~gT* dg Another is the following in terms of the reciprocal of the Radius Vector and the traced-angle 6. Because ' 1 dg 2 + g 2 d 4 a 3 cos. 5 ^ ~ga 3 T 2 cos. 5 142. COR. 1. F sp2 x py- 3 - But in this case S P = P V. 1 _ x > c : gT 2 COR. 2. F: F:: RP 2 x PT 3 : SP 2 x PV 3 S R SP 3 x P V 3 :: SP x RP 2 :- p^f v :: SP x R P 2 : SG 3 , by similar triangles. This is true when the periodic times are the same. When they are different we have T F: F:: SP x RP 2 x SG 3 , S K A R where the notation explains itself. 143. PROP. VIII. CP 2 : PM 2 :: PR 2 : QT* and .-. CP 2 : PM 2 :: QR x 2PM:QT 2 QT 2 _ 2PM 3 *' QR ~ CP 2 124 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. II. and QT 8 X SP 2 _2PM 3 X SP g QR CP 2 CP 2 1 2PM 3 xSP* PM 3 Also by 137, _ g SP 2 x PM 3 ' But S P X velocity S P X V ~2~~ ~2~ V 2 CP 2 ' * ~~ ~ * T TV*-* g PM 3 OTHERWISE. By PROP. VII, F SP 2 x P V 3 But S P is infinite and P V = 2 P M. 1 .*. F PM 3 ' OTHERWISE. The equation to the circle from any point without it is c 2 r 2 g 8 P_ - >_ 2r where c is the distance of the point from the center, and r the radius, d r Moreover in this case g=c+PM=c+y c 2 r 2 c 2 2cy y* ' ' -~ r ... d P = c + y x f8 ' p 8 d g r c 3 y c s y 8 ' BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 125 Hence (139) 4_a-rj 1 _ V'r 2 1 X. ^ 5 A ~~T X\ ,; c g y g y SCHOLiyM. 144. Generally we have PR 2 : QT 2 : : PC 2 : P M 2 P P 2 O T 2 ,.-:T_::PC':PM' But P R z - P V QR " and PC:PM::2R(R = rad. of curvature) : P V QT 2 _ p v PM 2 _2RxPM ' QR : PC 2 : PC 2R x PM PC But . QT 2 = 2AC 2 x pM3 and 1 * P~W 3 ' From the expression (g. 139) we get 4a 2 d 2 u F = x -3 T X u 2 . or UP But p 2 d 6 d x a x t = -~2~ = a x -y- 4a 2 V 2 e 4 " d tf " d x 2 ' Also ,.d = _^ 126 and Hence A COMMENTARY ON d2u = _^ + ?4L 2 C S = ^J. (see 69) V 2 ? 4 d F = 7-^ X 2 gdx 2 V 2 1 \s r g dx* V 2 d'y " g < dx2 This is moreover to be obtained at once from (see 48) do * t For [SECT. II. (1). T, V 2 d 2 y K V r M. ... x\ , Q g dx 2 - 145. PROP. IX. Another demonstration is the following S T P Let Z.PSQ = /.pSq. Then from the nature of the spiral the angles at P, Q, p, q being all equal, the triangles S P Q, S p q are simi- lar. Also we have the triangles R P Q, r p q similar, as likewise Q P T, qpt. Hence QT 2 . qt 2 . . SP . Sl Q"R '^7- K and by LEMMA IX. q' r : q r : : p r' 2 : p r 2 : : q r t' 2 : q t* BOOK 1.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 127 Hence and q' t' _ 2 _ qt 2 q f r f q r * q' f 2 Q T 2 q 7 ! 7 *' ~QR QT 2 :: S P : S a S P ' QR QT 2 x S P 2 QR .-. F 1 SP 3 ' OTHERWISE. The equation to the logarithmic spiral is b m dp _b " d ~ a and by (f. 139) we have F = dp 4> a, s b a ; X o T ' X X i 5~~ g 4 a 2 , a 2 1 V la n . m g-b Using the polar equation, viz. b X log. a - V (a 2 b ! the force may also be found by the formula (g). 146. PROP. X. P v x vG : Q v 2 : : P C 2 : CD 2 Qv 2 : QT 2 : : P C 2 : P F 2 .-. Pv x v G : QT 2 : : P C 4 : CD 2 x P F 2 CD 2 x PF 2 .-. v G : Q T 2 ^ : : PC Pv PC But P V = Q R, and C D X P F = (by Conies) B C X C A also ult. v G = 2 P C. BC 2 X C A 2 ... 2PC : : . PC PC 1 128 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. II. - F_9JL_ PC pr QT 2 X CP 2 2 BC 2 x C A 2 Also by expression (c. 137) we get ., 8 A* PC r FFT; X gT 2 2BC 2 x C A 2 But A = r x B C X C A F - x P C " gT The additional figure represents an Hyberbola. The same reasoning shows that the force, being in the center and repulsive, also in this curve, a CP. ALITER. Take Tu - TV and u V : vG : : DC 2 : PC 2 Then since Qv 2 : Pv x vG : : D C 2 : P C 2 .-. u V : v G : : Q v 2 : P v x v G .-. Q v 2 = P v x u V .-. Q v 2 + u P x P v = Pvx (u V + uP) = P v x V P. But Qv 2 = QT 2 + T 2 = QT 2 + Tu 2 = PQ 2 _ PT 2 + Tu 2 = p Q* (P T~ T u 2 ) = P Q2_Pu x Pv (chord PQ) 2 = Pv x VP. Now suppose a circle touching P R in P and passing through Q to cut P G in some point V. Then if Q V be joined we have and in the AQ P v, Q V P the L. Q P V is common. They are there- fore similar, and we have P v : P Q : : P Q : P V .-. P Q 2 = P v x V / P = Pvx VP .-. V' P = V P or the circle in question passes through V ; .-. P V is the chord of curvature passing through C. BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 129 Again, since ' r> r 2 u V = v G x ^- 2 = C x v G or p y P u = C (P G P v) and P V, PG being homogeneous p 2DC 2 p p _ 2CD* PC 2 PC .-. (Cor. 3, PROP. VI.) F* p 2 a 2 b 2 and differentiating, and dividing by 2, there results dp g p 3 d g ~~ a 2 b 2 which gives 4A 2 t 4*r 2 F = ^ X -A-5 = nrTj X g' In like manner may the force be found from the polar equation to the ellipse, viz. b* - 1 _ e 2 cos.V by means of substituting in equat. (g. 139.) VOL. I. I 130 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. II. 147. COR. 1. For a geometrical proof of this converse, see the Jesuits' notes, or Thorpe's Commentary. An analytical one is the following. Let the body at the distance R from the center be projected with the velocity V in a direction whose distance from the center of attraction is P. Also let F = (*> g n being the force at the distance 1. Then (by f ) 4A 2 dp F = iTr x p-a- e = " f which gives by integration, and reduction 2 4 * 4 R and P being corresponding values of % and p. But in the ellipse referred to its center we have 2 2 2 p 2 ' a 2 b 2 a 2 b 2 which shows that the orbit is also an ellipse with the force tending to Us center, and equating homogeneous quantities, we get jg-f-b 2 _j"gT a s b 2 4A ! and 1 _^gT 2 a 2 b 2 ~ 4A 2 But A = IT a b T= which gives the value of the periodic time, and also shows it to be con- stant. (See Cor. 2 to this Proposition.) Having discovered that the orbit is an ellipse with the force tending to tne center, from the data, we can find the actual orbit by determining its semiaxes a and b. By 140, we have ^ 2 A 1 V v T P . a* + b _ R 2 J_ a 2 b 2 ^gXyzpzH'ps and a~* IT 5 = ** g X V^P~ S BOOK L] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 131 V 2 .-. a 2 + b 2 = R 2 + - ^g and 2VP 2 a b = V r V * 2 V -- + ! (* g r V and V* 2VP - a b= V(R f& T \^ AC* &' O To which, by addition and subtraction, give a and b. OTHERWISE By formula (g. 139,) we have 4. A* F = , /d 2 u \ u, u * ( - - + u ) = . P = \d 2 / u K P * * . u ^rW x = 4 A 2 u 3 rri g and multiplying by 2 d u, integrating and putting ^ . 2 - = M, we have rl 11 2 T\T To determine C, we have d u a *_ J^ dj 2 d 6* ~ g 4 * d d 2 and in all curves it is easily found that 1-* = J-V (p2_ ) d^ p V . (lu2 _ g 2 P 2 _ J_ J_ *' d tf 2 = g 2 p 2 = p 2 " ? 2 ' Hence, when g = R, and p = P, p^+MR 2 + C = . . ...... (3) which gives the constant C. Again from (2) we get u d u , = ( M Cu* u 4 ) which being integrated (see Hersch's Tables, p. 160. Englished edit, published by Baynes & Son, Paternoster Row) and the constants properly determined will finally give g in terms of 6; whence from the equation to the ellipse will be recognised the orbit and its dimensions. 12 132 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. II. 148. COR. 2. This Cor. has already been demonstrated see (1). Newton's Proof may thus be rendered a little easier. By Cor. 3 and 8 of Prop. IV, in similar ellipses T is constant. Again for Ellipses having the same axis-major', we have cab b But since the forces are the same at the principal vertexes, the sagittse are equal, and ultimately the arcs, which measure the velocities, are equal to the ordinates, and these are as the axes-minores. Hence, a (which vx SY> b. T oc -j- a. 1 or is constant. Again, generally if A and B be any two ellipses whatever, and C a third one similar to A, and having the same axis-major as B ; then, by what has just been shown, T in B = T in C and T in C = T in A .-. T in B = T in A. 149. SCHOL. See the Jesuits' Notes. Also take this proof of, " If one curve be related to another on the same axis bj having its ordinates in a given ratio, and inclined at a given angle, the forces by which bodies are made to describe these curves in the same time about the same center in the axis are, in corresponding points, as the distances from the center." S R The construction being intelligible from the figure, we have PN: QN: : p O : qO .-. PN: pO : : QN q O : : N T : O T ultimately. BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PIUNCIPIA. 133 .. Tangents meet in T, the triangles C P T, C Q T are in the ratio of P N : Q h or of parallelo- grams P N O p, Q N O q ultimately, i. e. in the given ratio, and C p P : C P T : : p P : P T ultimately. : : NO: NT : : qQ:QT : :CQq: CQT .. C p P : C q Q in a given ratio. .*. bodies describing equal areas in equal times, are in corresponding points at the same times. .'. P p, Q q are described in the same time, and m p and k q are as the forces. Draw C R, C S parallel to P T, Q T; then n O : 1 O po :qO : PN: QN: .-. nO : P : 1O : qO and n p : nO : lq : 1Q1 but > nO : n R : 1Q : 1 S j (since n O : OR TO: OC: .-. n p : n R 1 q : 1 S .MI p : p R 1 q : qS and n p i q : p R : q S m p : k q : pen qCf .\ mp : P C k q : f^ or Fatp : Fatq P C: qC. 1 O : O S) Q. e. d. SECTION III. 150. PROP. XI. This proposition we shall simplify by arranging the pro- portions one under another as follows But LxQR( = LxPv GvxPv Q v 2 Qx 2 : L xPv : : P E PC AC PC GvxPv. L G v :Qv 2 PC 2 CD :Qx 2 1 1 :QT 2 PE 2 PF 2 CA 2 PF E CD 2 C B 2 I 3 134 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. III. .-.Lx QR: QT 8 : : ACxLxPC 2 xCD 8 : PCxGvxCD 2 xCB 8 and QR ACx PC A C x PC AC Q~T* ~ G v x C B 2 ~ 2 PC x C B 2 ~ 2 C B 2 QR / AC x 1 K QT 2 x SP*v- 2 CB 8 x S P 2 ) SP 2 ' Q. e. d. Hence, by expression (c) Art. 137, we have 8JL* AC JT ^ m o u T 2 2 C B 2 x S P 2 8r 2 a 8 b 2 a o X gT 2 2b 2 x g 2 2 a s 1 - X - O S where the elements a and T are determinable by observation. OTHERWISE. A general expression for the force (g. 139) is T, 4 A 2 /d 2 u , \ F = T -g x u 2 (, 2 - -f- uj But the equation to the Ellipse gives 1 1 4- e cos. 6 u = - = ' g v- where a is the semi-axis major and a e the eccentricity, d u e sin. 6 and d 2 u e cos. & d 2 u 1 *d 13G A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. III. 8a 2 1 2 P 2 V 2 1 = g~L X S P 2 01 gL K ST* a being the area described by the radius-vector in a second, or P the per- pendicular upon the tangent and V the corresponding velocity. OTHERWISE. In the parabola we have 12 22 U =- = -= (1 + COS. d) = -rf + -= COS. 6 and J_ 4 1 o " "Y~~ ^ """ P 8 L g which give d 2 u ^ d 2 U ~ X dp 21 r V p 3 d f L g 8 and these giye, when substituted in >2 V 2 /d 2 u r * v z 2 /a - u x F = . u 2 ( T-JV -f u ) or \d ^ 2 / or P a V g dp g V d e the same result, viz. 2 p 2 V 2 1 _ Newton observes that the two latter propositions may easily be deduced from PROP. XL In that we have found (Art. 150) a x g T 2 B" P z V 2 9 g >V Now when the section becomes an Hyperbola the force must be repul- sive the trajectory being convex towards the force, and the expression re- mains the same. BOOK L] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 137 Again by the property of the ellipse K* _ v " A a ?s a : - 4 4 which gives a 2 I .b 2 " L ~~4 a and if c be the eccentricity b 2 = a 2 c 2 = (a + c) X (a c) _ ' (a + c) X (a c) " L~~ 4~a* Now when the ellipse becomes a parabola a and c are infinite, a c is Jinite, and a + c is of the same order of infinites as a. Consequently r-j +J isjinite, and equating like quantities, we have a. __2 b 2 ~ L' which being substituted above gives 2P Z V 2 1 the same as before. Again, let the Ellipse merge into a circle ; then b = a and P 2 V 8 a F = a V 2 1 X . g %' ; and adding the constant by referring to the point of contact of the two orbits, and putting we get M x - L j "p 2 " M "" P 2 M | m r J ff; p jT 2 =: "M Hh P~ 2 ~M in which equations the constants being the same, and those with which g and g' are also involved, the curves which are thence descriptible are identical. Q. e. d. These explanations are sufficient to clear up the converse proposition contained in this corollary. 156. It may be demonstrated generally and at once as follows : By the question 1 BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 141 then and and substituting in (d) we have 1 -- ^_ + - 1 + J- p 2 - r M 1 p 2 1 Mg - But the general equation to Conic Sections is _L 2 a I p 2 ~ b 2 g + b 2 * Whence the orbit is a Conic Section whose axes are determinable from - 2 g Ar2 b 2 ~ M = P 2 V 2 and _L i i *~b 2= ~ r M " F 2 p2 p 2 y 2" ' and the section is an Ellipse, Parabola or Hyperbola according as V 2 is >, or = or < 2 g A r. Before this subject is quitted it may not be amiss by these forms also to demonstrate the converse of PROP. X, or Cor. 1, PROP. X. Here f g r= P f r = r Whence 1 p 2 ~2M n "P 2 2M* But in the Conic Sections referred to the center, we Tiave I x p 2 a 2 b 2 r a 2 b 2 which shows the orbit to be an Ellipse or Hyperbola and its axes may be found as before. 142 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. III. In the case of the Ellipse take the following geometrical solution and construction D C, the center of force and distance C P are given. The body is projected at P with the given velocity V. Hence P V is given, (for V 2 = -j| F . P V.) Also the position of the tangent is given, .'. position of D C is given, and 2 C D 2 P V =r p _-. Hence C D is given in magnitude. Draw P F per- pendicular to C D. Produce and take P f = CD. Join C f and bisect in g. Join P g, and take g C, g f, g p, g q, all equal. Draw C p, C q. These are the positions of the major and minor axis. Also \ major axis = P q, minor axis = P p. For from g describe a circle through C, f, p, q, and since C F f is a right z_, it will pass through F. .-. Pp.Pq=PF.Pf=PF.CD Also PC 2 +Pf 2 = Pg 2 +gC 2 + Pg 2 -|-gf 2 , (since base of A bisected ing) or = Pq 2 -2Pg.gq+Pp 2 + 2Pg.gp = Pq a + Pp 3 /. Pp.Pq=PF.CD 1 But a and b are determined by the same Pp 2 + Pq 2 = PC 2 + CD 2 / equations. .'. Pq = a, P p = b. Also since p and F are right angles, the circle on x y will pass through p and F, and ^Ppx = Cpq= CFq = xFp, because ^xFC = pFq. .-. L. Pp x = z/m alternate segment. .-. P p is tangent. Pp z = PF.Px .-. PF.Px = b. But if in the Ellipse C x be the major axis, P F . P x = b 2 . BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINC1PIA. 143 .. C x is the major axis, and .-. C q is the minor axis. .*. the Ellipse is constructed. PROP. XIII, COR. 2. See Jesuits' note. The case of the body's descent in a straight line to the center is here omitted by Newton, be- cause it is possible in most laws of force, and is moreover reserved for a full discussion in Section VII. The value of the force is however easily obtained from 140. 157. PROP. XIV. L = 5LT! a 3J* y tt r a QT 2 X S P 8 by hypoth. OTHERWISE. By Art. 150, F _4_A_ 8 a 8 A 2 1 ~gT 2X b 2 2 " LgT 2 * p for the circle, ellipse, and hyperbola, and by 152. 2 x 2 ^g for the parabola. Now if /i be the value of F at distance 1, we have ^ u, Whence in the former case 8 A 2 2 P 2 X V 2 gLT 2 -^' -jir and in the latter 2P 2 X V 2 ;rr = * . (b) But SP 2 x QT 2 : I 2 : A 2 : T 2 4 Aj S P 2 x QT 2 P^x V^ 2 '* T 2 = 4 ~4~~ .-. SP 2 5 2 158. PROP. XIV. COR. I. By the form (a) we have A (= * a b) = J 1 ^ X V L x 1. T V L. A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. III. 159. PROP. XV. From the preceding Art. T : But in the ellipse T 8 *rab = ~' e VL * _ 2 b (e) 160. PROP. XVI. For explanations of the text see Jesuits' notes. OTHERWISE. By Art. 157 we get for the circle, ellipse, hyperbola, and parabola. But in the circle, L = 2 P. 1 1 ^f r being its radius. In the ellipse and hyperbola L = 2_b_' a .-. V = V~i^X JL X TJT (h) Va P 161. PROP. XVI, COR. I. By 157, L = X P 2 X V 2 . 162. COR. 2. V = / o ^ b * the Cor. is manifest 166. COR. 7. By Art. 160 we have 1 L 1 *T * v f * _ _ ' 2 ' P 2 ' r which by aid of the above equations to the curves proves the Cor. OTHERWISE. By Art. 140 generally for all curves P V v 2 = gFx O. But generally dp and in the circle P V = 2 g (rad. = s ) ...v:v':: E_ : d _P. S d g An analogy which will give the comparison between v and v' for any curve whose equation is given. 167. COR. 9. By Cor. 8, .and ex equo VOL. I. K 146 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. III. 168. PROP. XVII. The " absolute quantity of the force" must be known, viz. the value of /*, or else the actual value of V in the assumed orbit will not be determinable ; i. e. L: L': : P 2 V 2 : F 2 V' 2 will not give L'. It must be observed that it has already been shown (Cor. 1, Prop. X III) that the orbit is a conic section. See Jesuits' notes, and also Art. 153 of this Commentary. 169. PROP. XVII, COR. 3. The two motions being compounded, the position of the tangent to the new orbit will thence be given and therefore die perpendicular upon it from the center. Also the new velocity. Whence, as in Prop. XVII, the new orbit may be constructed. OTHERWISE. Let the velocity be augmented by the impulse m times. Now, if p be the force at the distance 1, and P and V the perpendicu- lar and velocity at distance (R) of projection, by 156 the general equation to the new orbit is such that its semi-axes are R R a = ^ ., or = 2 m 2 - m 2 2 and 1 2 _ _i" A m 2 P according as the orbit is an ellipse or hyperbola. Moreover it also thence appears that when m 2 = 2, the orbit is a parabola, and that the equations corresponding to these cases are X 2 m 2 or or BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 147 DEDUCTIONS AND ADDITIONS TO SECTIONS II AND III. 170. In the parabola the force acting in lines parallel to the axis, required F 4SP.QR:QT 2 ::Qv 2 :QT 2 ::YE 2 :YA 2 ::SE:SA::SP:SA Q R_ 1 ' QT S 4 S A , and S' P is constant, .'. F is constant. S' Let u be the velocity icsolved parallel to P M then since the force acts perpendicular to P M, u at any point must be same as at A. .*. if P Q be S' P O T the velocity in the curve, Q T = u = constant quantity, and a = ~- S'P.u 8a 2 .Q R 2u - gS'P 2 .QT 2 - g which avoids the consideration of S P being infinite ; and (see 157; .'. body must fall through to acquire the velocity at vertex, which agrees TD / /" S P with Mechanics. (At any point V = u / Q-T-.) 171. In the cycloid required the force when acting parallel to the axis. 148 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. III. RP 2 : QT 2 :: ZP 1 : ZT 8 :: V F 2 : E F 8 : : VB: BE and since the chord of curvature (C. c) = 4 P M, R P 2 = 4 P M. R Q, .-. 4 P M. R Q : Q T 2 : : V B : (B E =) P M * QT 1 ~ 4 2 ' PM (since S P constant) 8a 2 .QR u 8 .VB . = g.S P*.QT 2 = 2. P M 2> u = velocit ^ P arallel to QT* 2g, (At any point v = u . 172. In the cycloid the force is parallel to the base Z \JvR 'NX QK MU - ^i-i- R P 2 : QT 4 :: Z P 1 : ZT 8 :: V E 2 : V M 2 : : VB: VM and since C . c = 4 E M R P 2 = 4E M.R Q, .-. 4 EM. RQ: QT 2 :: VB: V M, QR VB 1 " 4 E M. V M a EM. V M ' 2 ' v ^v -) If V M = y, F = gy u = velocity parallel to V B. BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 8a 2 Q R 2u 2 .QR _Ji'jJLlL. \ = g. S P 8 Q T 2 = gTQ T~ = 2~^7EM~V~M') (At any point v = u . / 149 173. Find F in a parabola tending to the vertex. TAN T P : P N : : T A : A E or V 4 x z + y z : y : : x : 4x 2 + y = P, (A E), p ax ax 2 d p __ 4dx.ax 2 2axdx(4x p a 2 x 4 4x 2 + 2ax, 2 ax 4 d p _ 2 x + a p 3 ax 3 . d x, .dx. Also g = Vx y 2 , a d x _xdx-fydy_ x d x + 2 V x 2 -f- y v' x a x dp 2 x -f- a 2 Vx 2 +ax_2v / x 2 4-ax 'p s dp~ ax 3 2x-J-a ax 3 . F AP ' ^ . K3 150 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. III. 174. Geometrically. Let P Q O be the circle of curvature, but but \ P v (C. c through the vertex of the parabola) = -r- 1 ^ PQ 2 _ P_O . A _z ' QR : AP PQ 2 _ AJP 2 Q T 2 " A z " QJl AP 3 *' QT 8 =: PO.Az 3 8 a 2 .Q R 8 a 8 . A P = g.A P'.QT 2 " g.PO. A z 3 O PS Q V3 A -pS PO.Az 3 = 2 A S.~~,- 3 . Q p 3 = 2 A S.AN 3 ox O ir 4a. AP = g.A S.A N 3 ' 175. If the centripetal be changed into a repelling force, and the body revolve in the opposite hyperbola, F a p 2 BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 151 The body is projected in direction P R ; R Q is the deflection from the Tangent due to repelling force H P, find the force. L.Px : L . P v P x : P v : : PE : P C : : A C : P C L.P v : P v . v G L : 2 P C P.v.v G : Q v* PC 2 : CD 2 Qv 2 : Q x 2 1 : 1 Q x 2 : Q T s PE 2 : PF 2 : : AC 2 : PF 2 : : CD 2 : BC 3 .-. L . P x: QT 2 A C.L.PC 2 .CD 2 : 2 P C 2 .C D 2 .B C 2 2 B C 2 1 I . . 1 A C 1 . T QT 2 * -L 4 " Q R T * 8a 2 .Q R 8 a 2 1 g. H P 2 .Q T 2 ~ g.L.H P 20C HP 2 ' L, S P 2 176. In any Conic Section the chord of curvature = ^"v 2 " for Q JP * _ QT 2 .S P 2 L.SP 2 : "QTR " QR.S Y 2 S Y 2 L S P 177. Radius of curvature = - 3 >' for P W = PV.SP L.SP 3 S Y S Y 3 8 a 2 178. Hence in any curve F = cr^r* * S . b 1 . 8 a 1 4a 2 .SP g. S Y*.2B.SY" SP K4 see Art. 74. 152 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. Ill 179. Hence in Conic Sections 8a* 8 a* 8 a 2 1 = ~ T SY'.PV - g.SY'.L.SP 1 - J7E7S~F 2 S S Y 2 L . S P 2 180. If the chord of curvature be proved = ' v 2 - independently of Q T s he proof that -^ ^ = L, this general proof of the variation of force in y Jrt tonic sections might supersede Newton's ; otherwise not. 181. A body attached to a string, whose length = b, is whirled round so as to describe a circle "whose center is the fixed extremity of the string parallel to the horizon in T"; required the ratio of the tension to the weight. Gravity =!,.. v of the revolving body = V g F b, if b be the length of the string ; V 2 .-. F ( = centripetal force = tension) = r- (131) and ~, _ circumference 2 * b V b ~V~ = V g F b = ''Vp 1 F = g24b - g T 2 ^ .-. F : Gravity : : Tp g '. 1, or Tension : weight : : 4 * 2 b : g T*. If Tension = 3 weight ; required T. 4-r 2 b: gT z : : 3 : 1, T2 _ 4r*b 3g" If T be given, and the tension = 3 weight, required the length of the string. 1 "~~ 4 9 ' 4 V 2, the orbit is an hyperbola. 184. Suppose ^ of the quantity of matter qfto be taken away. How much would T of D be increased, and what the excentricity of her new orbit ? the D 's present orbit being considered circular. At any point A her direction is perpendicular to S A, .'. if the force be altered at any point A, her v in the new orbit will 154 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. III. = her v in the circle, since v = y , and S Y = S A, and a is the same at A. LetAS = c,PVatA = L, and F = jr^ p^y in this case, 2 b 2 .'. 3 : 4 : : 2 c ( = L in the circle) : - ( = L in the ellipse) _ 3 b 8 _ 3 (a e a^c 2 ) __ 3(2ac c 2 ) __ 3_c 2 t T* C i ~ ^ ~ v C- ' ---"-' - a a a a 3c 2 a =2C 3c 1 c ^ /3 c\ And T in the circle : T' in the ellipse : : ? T ' [-=- ) j /3_x : V 4 : \2/ V 3 1 3 : V 2 : 2 :: V 2 : 3. 3 c And the excentricity = a c = - c c= . 6 185. What quantity must be destroyed that T>'s T 7/zflj/ ie doubled, and what the excentricity of her new orbit ? Let F of :y*(new force) : : n : 1 .'. v = jj s. F . p v, and v is given, . 2b 2 a 2 a c 2ac c 2 .. n : 1 : : : 2 c : : : c : : - - : c : : 2 a c : a a a a .*. n a = 2 a c, c = 2~^V Also T in the circle : T in the ellipse : : 1 : 2 cl :: (2 n)* : n* .-. 1 : 4 : : (2 n) 3 : n .'. n = 4 (2 n) 3 , whence n. BOOK L] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. And the excentricity 155 = a c r= c (2c nc) _ c (n 1) 2 n~ 2 n 2 n 186. What quantity must be destroyed that 5 's orbit may become a parabola ? L = 4c, .-. F : / : : 4 c : 2 c : : 2 : 1, .*. $ the force must be destroyed. 187. F c =r-i' a body is projected at given D, v = v in the circle, L. with S B = 45, find axis major, excentricity, and T. Since v = v in the circle, .. the body is projected from B, and z. S B Y= 45 ; .-. z. S B C, or B S C = 45, S B .-. S C = S B. cos. 45 = But V 2' -T. axis major & J3 = JJ = ^ , .'. axis major and excentricity are found. And T may be found from Art. 159. Y P P , 188. Prove that the angular v round H : that round S : : S P : H.P. This is called Seth Ward's Hypothesis. In the ellipse. Let P m, p n, be perpendicular to S p, H P, .*. p in = Increment of S P = Decrement of H P = P n .*. triangles P m p, P n p, are equal, .*. P m = p n, and angular v ,. 189. Similarly in the hyperbola. Angular v of S P : angular vofSY::PV:2SP 2CD' AC C D 2 :2SP : AC SP HP : A C. 156 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. III. 190. Compare the times of falling to the center of the logarithmic spiral from different points. The times are as the areas. P c s d . area =- g , (6 = L. C S P), for d . area = 2 Also T^Ufi = ^ = tan. L. Y P T = tan. , (a being constant) = a d e g 2 d ___ a . g. d g *'"~2~ ~~2~ a. P* .-. area = T- oc g 2 5 (for when g = 0, area = 0, .*. Cor. = 0) .*. if P, p, be points given, T from P to center : t from p to center : : S P * : S p 2 . 191. Compare \ in a logarithmic spiral with that in a circle, e. d. .-. if F be given, V a .: v in spiral : v in the circle : : V P V in spiral : V 2 S P : : 1 : 1. 192. Compare T in a logarithmic spiral with that in a circle, e. d. m . whole area a P 2 a p z 1 in spiral = : r-rr = s ov = -. area in 1 4 . v . S Y 2 v . g . sin. a ~2~ rr,, . . , whole area ST g 2 2WP 2 2crp T x in circle = r^- = grw = = = area in I" v. S Y v . g v 2 ...T:T':: a g> . - :^- g : :^- : 2 : : a : 4 . sin. a. 2 v . g . sin. a v 2 sin. a : : tan. : 4 T . sin. a : : 1 : 4 w cos. a. BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 157 1-92. In the Ellipse compare the time from the mean distance to the Aphe- lion, with the time from the mean distance to the Perihelion. Also given the Excentricity, tojind the difference of the times, and conversely. Circle A D V is described on A V. 2i T of passing through Aphelion : t through Perihelion :: SB V: SB A :: SDV: SD A Let Q = quadrant C D V, . T- t- O 4- a " ae t..Q + -- DC - SC :CDV- DC ' SC a> ae 2 .-. (T+ t =) P: T t: : 2Q:a. ae P a. a e . T t J. A L 2Q whence T t, or, if T t be given, a e may be found. 193. If the perihelion distance of a comet in a parabola = 64, 's mean distance = 100, compare its velocity at the extremity of L with 's velocity at mean distance. Since moves in an ellipse, v at the mean distance = that in the circle e . d . and v in the parabola at the extremity of L : v in the circle rad. 2 S A : : V 2 : 1 v in the circle rad. 2 S A : v in the circle rad. AC:: VAC : V S A . v in the parabola at L : v in the ellipse at B : : V~2TA~C : V~S~A72 :: 10 V 2 : 8 V 2 : : 5 : 4 194. What is the difference between L of a parabola and ellipse, having the same < st distance = 1, and axis major of the ellipse = 300? Compare the \ at the extremity oflu and < st distances. In the parabola L = 4 A S = 4. 158 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. III. In the ellipse L' = 2B C A C = AC2 (2 AC. AS AS 2 ) = 150 600 1 150 .-. L L' = 4 J_ 150' V 300 : V 299. d L\ V* 150J \ in the parabola at A : v in the circle rad. S A : : V 2 : 1 v in the circle rad. S A : v in the ellipse e. d. : : VAC: VHP : : VTC : V 2AC SA .. v in the parabola at A : v in the ellipse e. d. ; Similarly compare v s . at the extremity of Lat. R. 1 95. Suppose a body to oscillate in a whole cycloidal arc, compare the tension of the string at the lowest point with the weight of the body. The tension of the string arises from two causes, the weight of the body, and the centrifugal force. At V we may consider the body revolving in the circular arc rad. D V, .. the centrifugal = centripetal force. Now the velocity at V = that down C V by the force of grav. = that with which the body revolves in the circle rad. 2C V. .*. grav. : centrifugal force ::!:!, .-. tension : grav. : : 2 : 1 196. Suppose the body to oscillate c ^ through the quadrant A B, compare the tension at B with the weight. AtBthestring will be in the direction of gravity; .*. the whole weight will stretch the string; .'. the tension will = centrifugal \ force + weight. Now the centrifugal force = centripetal force with which the body would revolve in the circle e. d. And v in the circle = V 2 g . F . BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 159 F v F ~^R- CB in this case, also v' at B from grav. = V 2 g . C B, grav. = 1. v'2 .'. grav. = 1 = 2g C B v , v , V : grav ' : : 2^CB : ^~C~B : 2: 1, since v ' v. /. tension : grav. : : 3 : 1. 197. A body vibrates in a circular arc from the center C ; through what arc must it vibrate so that at the lowest point the tension of the string = 2 X weight? v from grav. = v d . N V, (if P be the point required) v' of revo- A CV lution in the circle = v d . -= . .-. centrifugal force : grav. : : v : v f : ; J - : V N V .*. centrifugal force + grav. (= tension) rgrav. : : J -^ |- V V : VNV : : 2 : 1 by supposition. /CV = v~WT, .-. N V = C V 198. There is a hollow vessel inform of an inverted paraboloid down 'which a body descends, the pressure at lowest point = n . Weight, Jindfrom what point it must descend. At any point P, the body is in the same situation as if suspended from G, P G being normal, and revolving in the circle whose rad. G P. Now P G = V 4 A S . S P, .-. at A, P G = 160 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. Ill, v / 4AS 8 = 2AS. Also v 2 at A with which the body revolves = .. centrifugal force = ^ - r~ o 2 g A S v and grav. = - j-, if h '= height fallen from. But the whole pressure arises from grav. -f- centrifugal force, and = n . grav. .. centrifugal force -f grav. : grav. : : n : 1 or 1 1 1 AS H h : TT : 1 1 . _. __ n _ I 1 AS' h "" l ' J) .-. h = n 1 . A S. 199. Compare the time (T') in 'which a body de- scribes 90 of anomaly in a parabola with T in the circle rad. = S A. Time through A L : 1 : : area A S L : a in 1" . T = * A S> SL - 4 A S * a 3 a T in the circle rad. S A : 1 : : whole circle : a' in 1" *A S 2 A S 9 .-. T' : T : : 3 a ' a? and a -.a':: VL: V 2 AS:: V 4> A S : V 2 AS:: V 2: I 4 .-. T' : T : : : IT : : 2 V 2 : 3 it. 3 V 2 Compare the time of describing 90 in the parabola A L with that in the parabola A 1, (fig. same.) t : T in the circle rad. S A : : 4 : 3 V 2 . v T in the circle S A : T' in the circle rad. 3 , or x > a ; there will be A. A 1 a a point of contrary flexure in the orbit when z =. ^ , or x = a, and X. X afterwards when x < a, /^^ ybrce tuz'/Z 6e repulsive, and the curve change its direction. BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 163 205. The body revolving in an ellipse, at B the force becomes n times as great. Find the new orbit, and under what values ofn it "will be a parabola, ellipse, or hyperbola. S being one focus since the force ct -^ -- i, the other focus must lie distance * in B H produced both ways, since S B, H B, make equal angles with the tangent. V 2 = - F.PV = -- F. 2 A C in the original ellipse, or & = n F . P V in the new orbit .-.2ACzzn.PVzrn. 2 SB. h B g-g h - B .-. (S B + h B) A C = 2 n. S B. h B, .-. AC 2 +hB.AC = 2nAC.hB, . hB = AC If 2 n 1 = 0, or n = , the orbit is a parabola ; if n > , the orbit is an ellipse ; if n < , the orbit is an hyperbola. Let S C in the original ellipse be given = B C, .-. S B H = right angle, and S B or A C = B h . cot. B S h whence the direction of a a', the new major axis ; also , Sh VBh 2 SB* a a' = S B + B h, and S c = -^- = - - . A If the orbit in the parabola a a' be parallel to B h, and L . R = 2 S B, since S B h = right angle. 206. Suppose a Comet in its or- bit to impel the Earth from a cir- cular orbit in a direction making an acute angle with the Earth's distance from the Sun, the velo- city-after impact being to the velo- city before : : V~3 : V 2. Find the alteration in the length of the year. Since V 3 : V 2 < ratio than ^2:1, .*. the new orbit will be an ellipse. L2 164 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. III. Vj . _3 . J 3 ^ V 2 S P. H P H P v 2 : : 2 := 2 S P " A C. 2 S P " AHC _ 2 A C S P AC .-. 3AC = 4AC 2SP .-. 2 S P = A C Tin ellipse 2^ S P* 8 . * _ ^- _ _._, * T' in circle " p I ' ' 3 207. ^4 body revolves in an ellipse, at any given point the farce becomes diminished by ^ th part. Find the new orbit. B' .*. in this case P V , F P V in ellipse 1 n n 1 ' pvinneworbit " I n But 11 v z in conic section p v n 1 ' P V v 2 in circle e. d. = 2~S~P = ~2~S~P~ n HP n 1* A C if- i . H P = AC, the new orbit is a Circle = 2 A C, Parabola < 2 A C, Ellipse > 2 A C, Hyperbola. If - -y = 2, or n = 2, then when the orbit is a circle or an ellipse, P must be between a, B ; when the orbit is a parabola, P must be at B ; when the .orbit is an hyperbola, P must be between B, A. BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 165 208. If the curvature and inclination of the tangent to the radius be the same at two points in the curve, the forces at those points are inversely as the radii 2 . P - 8a 2 _ 8a 2 _ 8 a 2 1 "g.SY 2 . PVg.SY.S P.R~g.sin.0SP 2 .R C SI r2> This applies to the extremities of major axis in an ellipse (or circle) in the center of force in the axis. 209. Required the angular velocity of '. By 46, 6 being the traced-angle, d< = d t* But by Prop. I. or Art. 124, dt: T::dA: A 2 2 A or P X V (a) 210. Required the Centrifugal Force (p) in any orbit. When the revolving body is at any distance g from the center of force, the Centrifugal Force, which arises from its inertia or tendency to persevere in the direction of the tangent (most authors erroneously attribute this force to the angular motion, see Vince's Flux. p. 283) is clearly the same as it would be were the body with the same Centripetal Force revolving in a circle whose radius is . Moreover, since in a circle the body is always at the same distance from the center, the Centrifugal Force must always be equal to the Centripetal Force. But in the circle QT 2 = Q R x 2SP and .. by 137 we have F- 8A2 X _L_ -tA." v 1 "gT" 2 " 2SP 3 ~gT* * f 3 or P 2 V 2 1 X "5" g ? P and V belonging to the orbit. L 3 166 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. III. Hence then P 2 V 2 1 ? = ~ x a Hence also and by 209, And 139, t: f t., . . . ........ (c) P S 211. Required the angular velocity of the perpendicular upon the tangent. If two consecutive points in the curve be taken ; tangents, perpendiculars and the circle of curvature be described as in Art. 74, it will readily ap- pear that the incremental angle (d -vp) described by p =r that described by the radius of curvature. It will also be seen that But from similar triangles P V : 2 R : : p : g. .-. d 6 : d ^ : : P V : 2 s P V being the chord of curvature. . Hence d d * or or Ex. 1. In the circle P V = 2 f ; whence PxV - = = *" Ex. 2. In the other Conic Sections, we have j,l rl f "P~"\7 \ C V7; -x 2? (d] PV 2P X V (e) " S X P V P x v dp tf) TO ~~ ~ BOOK L] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 167 which gives by taking the logarithms 2 lp = lb 2 -f Ig l(2a + g) and (17 a.) 2 dp .!_ dj d g 2 a d g P S ^ a + g (2 a + g) whence aP X V tf ^r* . . * 212. Required the Paracentric Velocity in an orbit. It readily appears from the fig. that ds:dg::g: V g 2 p s . .*. If u denote the velocity towards the center, we have d gx d s V g 2 p 2 A _ \s f ( Q J\ _ a V~ dt/ " dt = Z_2<_y x v e* v* (125) or 2 A T X Also since 1 g ! d<) 2 -f.clg ! p 2 u = PV x -^f-, (k) g 2 d d 213. To find where in an orbit the Paracentric Velocity is a maximum. From the equation to the curve substitute in the expression (212. g) for p 2 , then put d u = 0, and the resulting value of g will give the posi- tion required. Thus in the ellipse and u 2 = P' V 2 X (?4 - = max. D 2 a 1 1 -p~^ L4 168 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. III. 2a_dj 2_dj_ bv f 3 and b 2 __ Latus- Rectum S =: T : 2 or the point required is the extremity of the Latus- Rectum. OTHERWISE. Generally, It neither increases nor decreases when F = But (125) PX V v = P and Pdf PxV~ P X V ^~^~ dv P 2 V 2 Vfp s ^p ? ) dp dt "~ e P 3 d . * x (g 2 -P 2 ) x d P * * ~ ~ 3 j or S = max. = m. Fx V( g '~p') J and d m = will give the point required. 170 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. IV. Thus in the ellipse 2ag 5 "TiT " "" .Tfi" which gives d m 4 IQ a b g g 4 6 b g g 5 whence the maxircfa and minima positions. In the case of the parabola, a is indefinitely great and the equation becomes 4 a 2 g a b 2 = .*. * ss. a- X T* * Latus-Rectum. b a ID Many other problems respecting velocities, &c. might be here added. But instead of dwelling longer upon such matters, which are rather curious than useful, and at best only calculated to exercise the student, I shall refer him to my Solutions of the Cambridge Problems, where -he will find a great number of them as well as of problems of great and essential importance. SECTION IV. 216. PROP. XVIII. If the two points P, p, be given, then circles whose centers are P, p, and radii AB+SP, AB+Sp, might be described intersecting in H. If the positions of two tangents T R, t r be given, then perpendiculars S T, S t must be let fall and doubled, and from V and v with radii each = A B, circles must be described intersecting in H. Having thus in either of the three cases determined the other focus H, the ellipse may be described mechanically, by taking a thread = A B in length, fixing its ends in S and H, and running the pen all round so as to stretch the string. BOOK T.I NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 171 This proposition may thus be demonstrated analytically. 1st. Let the focus S, the tangent T R, and the point P be given in position ; and the axis-major be given in length, viz. 2 a. Then the per- pendicular S T ( = p), and the radius-vector S P ( = g) are known. But the equation to Conic Sections is whence b is found. Also the distance (2 c) between the foci is got by making p = f , thence finding g and therefore c = a If . This gives the other focus ; and the two foci being known, and the axis- major, the curve is easily constructed. 217. 2d. Let two tangents T R, t r, and the focus S be given in position. Then making S the origin of coordinates, the equations to the trajectory are + e cos. - a being the inclination of the axis-major to that of the abscissae. Now calling the angles which the tangents make with the axis of the ab- scissae T and T', by 31 we have tan.T = iy. d x But x = cos. 6, y = sin. 6 whence , __ d g sin. 6 + g d 6 cos. 6 d cos. 6 g d sin. 6 -$4- tan. 6 + I g d d Also from equations (a) we easily get dp a e t tan. * \ / 1 \ f d = p- ssm - (1 b-. . (s) ae S sin. (5 a) = X V (2ag f 2 b 8 ) . . (3) d C P and (4) 172 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. IV. and putting R = V (2a z b 2 ) . . . . (5) we have R tan, 6 tan. a s- = tan. (d a) = - - . (6) b * a g 1 + tan. a . tan. which gives tan. 6 in terms of a, b, f, and tan. a. Hence by successive substitutions by means of these several expres- sions tan. T may be found in terms of a, b, p, tan. a, all of which are given except b and tan. a. Let, therefore, tan. T = f (a, p, b, tan. a). In like manner we also get tan. T' = f (a, p', b, tan. a) p' belonging to the tangent whose inclination to the axis is T. From these two equations b and tan. a may be found, which give c= V a 2 b 2 and a, or the distance between the foci and the position of the axis-major j which being known the Trajectory is easily con- structed. 218. 3d. Let the focus and two points in the curve be given in posi- tion, &c. Then the corresponding radii f, /, and traced angles 6, tf, in the equations a(l e 2 ) 1 + e cos. (6 a) a(l-e 2 ) 1 + e cos. (tf a) are given ; and by the formula cos. (6 a) = cos. 6 . cos. a + sin. 6 sin. a 2 a e and a or the distance between the foci and the position of the axis- major may hence be found. This is much less concise than Newton's geometrical method. But it may still be useful to students to know both of them. 219. PROP. XIX. To make this clearer we will state the three cases separately. Case 1. Let a point P and tangent T R be given. Then the figure in the text being taken, we double the perpendicular S T, describe the circle F G, and draw F I touching the circle in F and passing through V. But this last step is thus effected. Join V P, sup- pose it to cut the circle in M (not shown in the fig.), and take V F 2 = VM x (V P + PM). The rest is easy. BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 173 Case. 2. Let two tangents be given. Then V and v being determined the locus of them is the directrix. Whence the rest is plain. K Case 3. Let two points (P, p) be given. Describe from P and p the circles F G, f g intersecting in the focus S. Then draw F f a common tangent to them, &c. But this is done by describing from P with a radius = S P S p, a circle F' G', by drawing from p the tangent p F' as in the other case (or by describing a semicircle upon P p, so as to intersect F' G' in F') by producing P F' to F, and drawing F f parallel to F' p. See my Solutions of the Cambridge Problems, vol. I. Geometry, where tangencies are fully treated. 174 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. IV. These three cases may easily be deduced analytically from the general solution above ; or in the same way may more simply be done at once, from the equations a L L 1 4 *' f " 2 " 1 + cos. (6 a) * 220. PROP. XX. Case 1. Given in species'] means the same as " simi- lar" in the 5th LEMMA. Since the Trajectory is given in species t &c.] From p. 36 it seems that the ratio of the axes 2 a, 2 b is given in similar ellipses, and thence the same is easily shown of hyperbolas. Hence, since 2 c being the distance between the foci, if = m, a given quantity, we have __ = 5 T = V (1 + m 2 ) = e, a a which is also given. With the centers B, C, &c.] The common tangent L K is drawn as in 219. Cases 2. 3. See Jesuits' Notes. OTHERWISE. 221. Case 1. Let the two points B, C and the focus S be given. Then + a(l e 2 ) ^ ' 1 + e cos. (6 a)( ,jv , _ + a(l e 2 ) ( * : = 1 + e cos. (tf a.}) a being the inclination of the axis of abscissas to the axis major. But since the trajectory is given in species e = is known, a and in equations (1), g, 6 ; g', ^, are given. Hence, therefore, by the form cos . (Q a ) = cos. 6 . cos. a + sin. 6 sin. a, a and a, or the semi- axis-major and its position are found; also c = a e is known ; which gives the construction. BOOK IJ NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 175 Case 2. By proceeding as in 220, in which expressions (e) will be known, both a, a e, and a may be found. Case 3. In this case b* s a 2 x(l e 2 )g |-fc X. _ _ * _ M _ __ V^ '_ 9 ~ 2 a ~ will give a. Hence c = a e is known and + a(l--e 2 ) * 1 + e cos. (d a) gives a. Case 4. Since the trajectory to be described must be similar to a given one whose a' and c' are given, is known (217). Also and 6 belonging to the given point are known. Hence we have 1 + e cos. (6 a) And by means of the condition of touching the given line, another equation involving a, a may be found (see 217) which with the former will give a and a. 222. SCHOLIUM TO PROP. XXI. Given three points in the Trajectory and the focus to construct it. ANOTHER SOLUTION. Let the coordinates to the three points be f, 6 ; ^', (f ; f ", 6", and a the angle between the major axis and that of the abscissas. Then + a. (1 e 2 ) f- e cos. (d a) 4. fl i \ ~ 2^ Tail e ; p ~~" j f e cusi. ^o a,j j /i _ 2\ Y (A) 1 + e COS. (Q' a) ~ 1 + e cos. (if 1 a) - and eliminating + a ( 1 e 2 ) we get S =e.cos. (^ a) ecos. (d a)") , ' =e. cos. (0" a) e cos. (6 } ) 176 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. V. from which eliminating e, there results g' . COS. (^ a) g COS. (6 a) g" COS. (6" a) g COS. (& a) Hence by the formula cos. (P Q) = cos. P . cos. Q + sin. P . sin. Q (g g')g" cos. 0" (g g") g' cos. tan. a .1 ,, . ... ... ,. . which gives a. Hence by means of equations (B) e will be known ; and then by substi- tution in eq. (A), a is known. SECTION V. The preliminary LEMMAS of this section are rendered sufficiently intel- ligible by the Commentary of the Jesuits P.P. Le Seur, &c. Moreover we shall be brief in our comments upon it (as we have been upon the former section) for the reason that at Cambridge, the focus of mathematical learning, the students scarcely even touch upon these sub- jects, but pass at once from the third to the sixth section. 223. PROP. XXII. This proposition may be analytically resolved as follows : The general equation to a conic section is that of two dimensions (see Wood's Alg. Part IV.) viz. in which if A, B, C, D, E were given the curve could be constructed. Now since five points are given by the question, let their coordinates be a, |8; a, /3; a, /3; a, /3; a, /3. 11 22 33 44 These being substituted for x, y, in the above equation will give us five simple equations, involving the five unknown quantities A, B, C, D, E, which may therefore be easily determined ; and then the* trajectory is easily constructed by the ordinary rules (see Wood's Alg. Lacroix's Diff. Cal. &c.) 224. PROP. XXIII. The analytical determination of the trajectory from these conditions is also easy. Let a, /3 ; a, /3 ; a, ,3 ; a, 11 22 33 BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 177 be the coordinates of the given point. Also let the tangent given in posi- tion be determinable from the equation y 7 = m x' + n (a) in which m, n are given. Then first substituting the above given values of the coordinates in y 2 + Axy + Bx z + Cy+Dx+ E = . . . (b) we get four simple equations involving the five unknown quantities A, B, C, D, E ; and secondly since the inclination of the curve to the axis of abscissas is the same at the point of contact as that of the tangent, d y _dy' if the velocity at any point were to S (_ hyperbola ) the velocity in the circle, the same distance and force, in V 2 : 1.) (I) Let the Conic Section be an Ellipse A R P B. Describe a circle on Major Axis A B, draw C P D through the place of the body perpendi- cular to A B. The time of describing A P a area A S P a area A S D, whatever may be the excentricity of the ellipse. Let the Axis Minor of the ellipse be diminish- ed sine limite and the ellipse becomes a straight line ultimately, A B being constant, and since A S . S B = (Minor Axis) 2 = 0, and A S finite .-.SB = 0, or B ultimately comes to S, and time d . A C a area A D B. .. if A D B be taken proportional to time, C is found by the ordinate D C. (T . A C a area ADBaADO + ODBaarcAD + CD /. take 6 + sin. & proportional to time, and D and C are determined.) BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 187 (Hence the time down A O T.OB ^-4- 1 * cr - + 1 -5-1 TT-1 il + i 7 18 9 . . = ~ = ~2 near W A N. B. The time in this case is the time from the beginning of the fall, or the time from A. (II) Let the conic section be the hyperbola B F P. Describe a rectangular hyperbola on Major Axis A B. T a area S B F P or area SEED. Let the Minor Axis be diminished sine limite, and the hyperbola becomes a straight line, and T a area B D E. N. The time in this case is the time from the end of motion or time to S. Let the conic section be the parabola B F P. Describe any fixed parabola BED. T a area S B F P a area SEED. Let L . R. of B F P be diminished sine limite the parabola becomes a straight line, and T a area B D E. N. The time in this case is the time from the end of motion, or tune to S. Objection to Newton's method. If a straight line be considered as an evanescent conic section, when the body comes to peri- helion i. e. to the center it ought to return to aphelion i. e. to the original point, whereas it will go through the center to the distance below the center = the original point. 240. We shall find by Prop. XXXIX, that the distance from a center from which the body must fall, acted on by a ble force, to acquire the velocity such as to make it describe an ellipse = A B (finite distance), for the hyperbola = A B, for the parabola = a . 241. Case 1. vdv = g^dx, f= force distance 1, B if a be the original point a x V a dx . V ax x* 188 A COMMENTARY ON 2** ; [SECT. VII. \ Vax-x* A/ax x .-. t = + C, when t = 0, x = a, V a x x z + /circumference r vers. -'x") 1 rad - - ( ~ 2) V CT It V n r* if the circle be described on B A = a, = ^/_ a _. 4 ..( a 4 /CD.OB AD. OP r> "t" o .BAD. Case 2. v * = 2 g /ce. . - , if a be an original point, a x x d x 2 ' w . V a x + x for t in this case is the time to the center, not the time from the original point, , d x d x .*. d t = , or d t = v ' v Now if with the Major Axis A B = a, we describe the rectangular hyperbola, C D E we have BOOK 1J NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 189 d.BED = d.BEDC d.ABDC=ydx ~'^ y = ^^"^1? * it Ax, Min. be indefinitely small, L. R. will be indefinitely small with respect to the Ax. Min. The chord of curvature at the finite distance from A to B is ulti- mately finite, for P V = ' but at A or B, P V = L, = in- finitesimal of the second order. Hence S B is also ultimately of the second order, for at B, S B = L. - . l| 2~TS PROP. XXXIII. Force a \ in the circle distance S C V S A (distance) * = - JL5 in the ellipse and hyperbola. . / O A * * f 190 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. VII. /V VHP VAC ^ = .--..-. . = ;=== when the conic section becomes a straight line j ~2~ V 2~~ NEWTONS METHOD. A V* L SY 8 L SP 2 AO C.CB ~ 2SP ~ 2 ' SY* SP AO 2 2 A O CP 2 /Min. Ax.\ * 2/Min. Ax.\ * L ( 2 ) \ 2 ) AO L _ A O.C P 8 '*2 :: AC.C B V s _ AJXCP^.SP ' V* == AC.CB.SY 8 ' but CjO __ B O BO"" TO* CO C B comp. in the ellipse *" B~O ~" FT ' div. in the hyperbola, A C _ CT div. in the ellipse _ C P B O ~" B T ' ' comp. in the hyperbola B Q ' AC 2 _ CP 2 *' AO Z ~ BQ 2 ' BQ 2 .AC AQ.CP 1 AO AC V 2 BQ 2 .AC.SP '" v 1 ~ AO.B C.S Y 2 ' but ultimately BQ = SY, SP = BC, , V 2 in a straight line A C .*. ultimately s-. -r % \ = -T~?^ v z in the circle A O AC .-.-= / V V COR. 1. It appeared in the proof that AO' AC C T BOOK L] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 191 AC CT .-.ultimately^ = 3^. (This will be used to prove next Prop.) COR. 2. Let C come to O, then A C = A O and V = v, .. the velocity in the circle = the velocity acquired by falling externally through distance = rad. towards the center of the force a ?: , . distance 2 242. Find actual Velocity at C. V 2 atC _ AC v 2 in the circle distance B C B A* 2 _ 2 AC , _ 2 AC gft, Rr B A * B A * BC 2 ' if ft, = the force at distance 1, . v 2 9 a IL __ AJrL. g ^B A.B C' .-. V = V 2gt*. Va ~ x ,ifBA = a, B C = x. V a x TT V space described If a is given, V a r . V space to be described In descents from different points, __ V space described ; . V space to be described x initial height In descents from different points to different centers, V space described X absolute force V a , V space to be described X initial height 243. Otherwise, v d v = ~ d x , O | V .-.v 2 = 2 g p . , when a is positive, as in the ellipse o ^L v = 2 g fjt, . - , when a is negative as in the hyperbola *.! X. = 2 g & . , when a is a , as in parabola (when x = 0, v is infinite) V 2 in the circle radius x (in the ellipse and hyperbola) 2 a x . , 1V a in the ellipse, = 192 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. VII. ~ = a + x in the hyperbola, = (I) V * in the circle radius = (in the parabola) = ff /i X 2 = . = = in the parabola. 244. In the hyperbola not evanescent Velocity at the infinite distance S A velocity at A " S Y finite R., but when the hyperbola van- ishes, S Y ultimately = Min. Ax. for S Y S C -jjr- -p- p > and ultimately S C = AS A C, and b C = A C, .-. ultimately S Y = A b = C B, .. ultimately S Y infinitesimal of the first order S~A ~ - of the 2d order velocity at A velocity at oc distance 245. PROP. XXXIV. the parabola. Velocity at C - J_ f velocity in the circle, distance S C T ' 2 S P For the velocity in the parabola at P = velocity in the circle what- ever be L . R . of the parabola. 246. PROP. XXXV. Force ex J r -. (distance) 2 The same things being assumed, the area swept out by the indefinite T "R radius S D in fig. D E S = area of a circular sector (rad. = ^ IB of fig.) uniformly described about the center S in the same time. Whilst the falling body describes C c indefinitely small, let K k be the arc described by the body uniformly revolving in the circle. Case 1 . If D E S be an ellipse or rectangular hyperbola, '- = - , Cc Dd CJD S Y CT DT DT TS BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 193 Cc.CD CT AC ' Dd.SY = TS = AD ultimatelv - (Cor. Prop. XXXIII.) But velocity at C V A C v in the circle rad. S C \f A O v in the circle rad. S C _ , S K /A O vin the circle rad. SK ~~ V S~C ~" -V ~S~C / velocity at C N Cc _ /A~C _ A C ' \v in the circle rad. S K/ ~ K k ~ V' S C == CD .-. Cc. CD = Kk. AC Kk. A C _ AC '' D d . S Y " A~O ' .-. AO. Kk = Dd. S Y, .'. the area S K k = the area S D d, /. the nascent areas traced out by S D and S K are equal .'. the sums of these areas are equal. Case 2. If D E S be a parabola S K = ^t. fit As above Cc.CD _ C T ^ D d . S Y ~ T S = 1 also , . . , . , S C velocity m the circle - C c __ _ velocity at C __ _ _ 2_ Kk ~~ velocity in the circle L. R ~~ velocity in the circle L . R ~~ ~ V~S~6 " CD 2 2 .-. Cc.CD = 2.Kk.SK .-. K k . S K = D d . S Y. 247. PROP. XXXVI. Force oc ___!__- (distance) 2 To determine the times of descent of a body falling from the given (and .-.Jinite} altitude A S On A S describe a circle and an equal circle round the center S. From any point of descent C erect the ordinate C D, join S D. Make the sector O S K = the area A D S (O K = A D + D C) the body will fall from A to C in the time of describing O K about the center S VOL. I. N 194 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. VII. uniformly, the force -JT- ^. Also S K being given, the period in the circle may be found, (P = / - - . it. SK 2 ), and the time through o O K O K = P . -. . .-. the time through O K is known. .-. the time circumference through A C is known. 248. Find the time in which a Planet would Jail from any point in its orbit to the Sun. Time of fall = time of describing O K H, S O = J^.lV,^ *.. V..V, ^XV^V, V *^ *.* _ r ~"W~ *" ".V, V^^V, *CIV.. ^ V *_, ^ period in the ellipse ~ period in the circle rad. AC " " A C ^ .*. the time of fall = \ . P . be considered a circle and the time of fall 4 V 2 , P= period of the planet. If the orbit I j ~ V'S V 2 4 = P. -^- = P. -s- nearly. = nearly. BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 195 249. The time down A C a (arc = A D + C D), a C L, if the cy- cloid be described on A S. Hence, having given the place of a body at a given time, we can determine the place at another given time. .. time d. A C Draw the ordinate m 1 ; 1 c will deter- mine c the place of the body. 250. PROP. XXXVII. To determine the times of ascent and descent of a body projected upwards or downwards from a given point, F a .- ^. distance Let the body move off from the point G with a given velocity. Let r~. -, -j = -7-, (V and v known, .'. m known). v * m the circle e. d. 1 ' v To determine the point A, take GA S A GA m ' G A + G S GA m -\ must be des- >cribed on the ' G S ~ 2 m 2 .*. if m 8 = 2, G A is + andx , .'. the parabola if m z <2, G A is + and fin. .. the circle __ if m*> 2, G A is and fin. .'. the rectangular hyperbola ) axis S A. With the center S and rad. = - of the conic section, describe the circle k K H, and erecting the ordinates G I, C D, c d, from any places of the body, the body will describe G C, G c, in times of describing the areas S K k, S K k', which are respectively = S I D, S I d. 251. PROP. XXXVIII. Force distance. Let a body fall from A to any point C, by a force tending to S, and g . as the distance. Time a arc AD, and V acquir- ed a C D. Conceive a body to fall in an evanescent ellipse about S as the center. /. the time down A P or A C a ASP a ASD a AD. a A D for the same descent, i. e. when A is given. D 196 A COMMENTARY ON The velocity at any point P [SECT. VII. a V F. P V a / S P. ultimately. B a CD. COR. 1. T. from A to S = period in an evanescent ellipse. = period in the circle A D E. = T. through A E. COR. 2. T. from different altitudes to S a time of describing different quadrants about S as the center a 1. N. In the common cycloid A C S it is proved in Mechanics that ifSca=SCA and the circle be described on 2 . Sea, and if a c = AC, the space fallen through, then the time through A C a arc a d, and V acquired a c d, which is analogous to Newton's Prop. Newton's Prop, might be proved in the same way that the properties of the cycloid are proved. OTHERWISE. 252. vdv = g^x.dx, .*. v 2 = 2 g p (a 2 x 2 ), if a = the height fallen from .. v = V 2gp. V a 8 x * = V2gp. CD. d x 1 d x d t = = .'. t = + arc */2gp V a /cos. = x ("J x )+c,c = o, Vrad. r= a/ - .AD. a V2g/jt, .*. velocity a sine of the arc whose versed sine = space, and the arc a time, (rad. = original distance.) 253. The velocity is velocity from ajinite altitude. If the velocity had been that from infinity, it would have been infinite BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 197 d x x and constant. .*. d t = -- , and t = - ^ ._ + C, when t = 0, a. V g /^ =r V g p. a, a = a. x = a, .'. c is finite, .'. t = C = . . V g p Similarly if the velocity had been > velocity from infinity, it would have been infinite. 254. PROP. XXXIX. Force a (distance) n , or any function of distance. Assuming any oc n . of the centripetal force, and also that quadratures of all curves can be determined (i. e. that all fluents can be taken) ; Re- quired the velocity of a body, when ascending or descending perpendicu- larly, at different points, and the time in which a body will arrive at any point. (The proof of the Prop, is inverse. Newton assumes the area A B F D to ot V * and A D to space described, whence he shows that the force D F the ordinate. Conversely, he concludes, ifFDF, ABFD V 2 .) v 2 /vd voc/F. ds. Let D E be a small given increment of space, and I a corresponding increment of velocity. By hypothesis ABFD V* V 2 _ AB G E " v' 2 V 2 +2V.I + I 2 ABFD V 2 V DF-Q-E 2V.I + P 2T7I But ABFDocV 2 .-. DFGE2V.I .-. D E . D F ultimately, a 2 . V . I _-, 2V. I I.V a ~~~ ultimatel y- But in motions where the forces are constant if I be the velocity gene- rated in T, F -~, 5 (F -, -) and if S be the space described with uni- form velocity V in T, ^- = -_,- , (d t = ) . Also when the force is O 1 V / I. V a ble , the same holds for nascent spaces. .. F ' , and D E re- presents S. .'. D F represents F. N 3 J98 Let D L a D E A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. VII. __ V A B F D - , ... D L M E ultimately = D L . D E v a -^- a time through D E ultimately. .. Increment of the area A T V M E increment of the time down A D. .-. A T V M E T. (Since A B F D vanishes at A, .-. A T is an asymptote to the time curve. And since E M becomes indefinitely small when A B F D is in- finite, .'. A E is also an asymptote.) 255. COR. 1. Let a body fall from P, and be acted on by a constant force given. If the velocity at D = the velocity of a body falling by the action of a ble fote, then A, the point of fall, will be found by making ABFD = PQRD. For ABFD V , _ Tnr ^ 1 = by Prop. DFGE DJP DR I D R SE if i be the increment of the velocity generated through D E by a constant force. DRSE V 2 (V + i) 2 2i .. V 7 " - = T ultimatelv - PQ-RD ABFD _ ' PQRD 1 * 256. COR. 2. If a body be projected up or down in a straight line from the center of force with a given velocity, and the law of force given ; Find the velocity at any other point E'. Take E' g' for the force at E'. BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 199 velocity at E' = velocity at D. V/PQRDDF g /E \ + if pro- V P Q R D jected down, if projected up. For V P Q R P D F g 7 E' ' V PQRD 257. COR. 3. Find the time through D Take E' m inversely proportional to V PQRD + DFg'E' (or to the velocity at E'). T.PD \/"PD V~TV p PD T.PD _ 2 PD _ 2 PD. PL ''T.DE = DE DLME also T.D Eby fief orce ^ DLME T . D E' by do. = DTTnTE' but T . D E by a constant force = T . D E by a ble force since the velo- cities at D are equal (d t = ) T. PD _ 2PD.DL '* T.DE 7 = DLmE 7 d v 258. It is taken for granted in Prop. XXXIX, that F a ^- (46), d s d v and that v = -5 , whence it follows that if c . F = T , d v = c . F. d t, Cl L Cl L and vdv = cF.ds. .-. v 2 = 2c/Fds Newton represents/ F d s by the area A B F D, whose ordinate D I always = F. d s d s d t = = ,.t=/ v V2c./Fds d s N4 200 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. VII. "dl Newton represents f - - by the area A B T U M E. whose or- J dinate D L always = --^ _J ).. . A D T? T~\ J J\. JJ JT J_/' In COR. 1. If F' be a constant force V 2 = 2 g F' . P D, by Mechanics but V 2 = 2c./Fds And F'. P D or P Q R D is proved =/F d s or A B F D, .-. c = g and v* = 2g./Fds. T C 9 velocity at E' __ V/F d s when s = A E' " velocity at D " " V/F d s when s = A D V A B 7 E' V A B F D ' In COR. 3. t= time through D '=/.=/ ds =DLmE / , 2PD T = time through P D = xr -^ , = VatD V2g.PQ = 2 PD. DL T^_ 2 PD. D L '** T = D L m E' 259. The force a x n . .*. v d v = g ju, x n d x, /- = the force distance 1. = n + 1 (; if a be the original height. Let n be positive. V from a finite distance to the center is finite \ V from x to a finite distance is infinite. / Let n be negative but less than 1. V from a finite distance to the center is finite 1 V from x to a finite distance is infinite. J Let n = 1 the above Integral fails, because x disappears, which cannot be. BOOK!.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPI A. 201 dx v d v = e / - x .-.v = 2 g/ ,.l a X .*. V from a finite distance to the center is infinite 1 V from GO to a finite distance is infinite. / 1 x But the log. of an infinite quantity is cc ly less than the quantity itself when X, x is infinite = - A . Diff. and it becomes = = . x x Let n be negative and greater than 1. V from a finite distance to the center is infinite 1 V from GO to a finite distance is finite. / 260. If the force be constant, the velocity-curve is a straight line parallel to the line of fall, as Q R in Prop. XXXIX. DEDUCTIONS. 261. To find under what laws of -force the velocity from x to a finite distance will be infinite or finite, and from a finite distance to. the center will be finite or infinite. If (1) F a x 2 , V a V~&*~ ~x* (2) x V a 2 x 2 1 V a x I x 1 (4) A J x* "9 ax ] /o2 x 3 *V a* x 1 /a"- 1 ' In the former cases, or in all cases where F x some direct power of distance, the velocity acquired in falling from oo to a finite distance or to the center will be infinite, and from a finite distance to the center will be finite. 202 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. VII, In the 4th case, the velocity from oo to a finite, and from a finite dis- tance to the center will be infinite. In the following cases, when the force a as some inverse power of distance, the velocity from co to a finite distance will be finite, for .a"- 1 x"- 1 _ / L_ \l a -^ 11 - 1 = 'N/x n - ri when a is infinite. And the velocity from a finite distance to the center will be infinite, for _ ~ r / V when x = 0. 262. On the Velocity and Time-Curves. B (4) H (1) Let F a D, the area which represents V 2 becomes a A. For D F a D C. (2) Let Fa V D, .*. D F 2 a D C and V-curve is a parabola. (3) Let F a D 2 , /. D F a D C 2 , and V-curve is a parabola the axis parallel to A B. (4) Let F a -=^ , /. D F a ~-~ , .'. V-curve is an hyperbola referred to the asymptotes A C, C H. (5) If F a D, and be repulsive, V s a DC.DF a DC 2 , .-.V a D C, .'. the ordinate of the time curve a -y- a -~-~ , .-. T-curve is an hyperbola between asymptotes. (6) If a body fall from co distance, and F a ^-5 , V a -jj , .-. the ordinate of the time-curve D, .'. T-curve is a straight line. (7) If a body fall from co , and F cc =y^ , V a -= , .-. the ordinate of T-curve x> V D C, .'. T-curve is a parabola. (8) If a body fall from x, and F a V a jj- 2 2 , .-. the ordinate of T-curve a D C 2 , /. T-curve is a parabola as in case 3. BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 203 EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL FALLS. 263. Find the external fall in the ellipse, the force in the focus. Let x P be the space required to acquire the velocity in the curve at P. V*down Px __ Px V 2 in- the circle distance S P ~~ S x ~2 V z in the circle distance S P A a V z in the ellipse at P = 2. H P V 2 down P x Aa. Px '"' V s in the ellipse at P ~ Sx. H P . _? H? "' Sx " A a Pjc _ HP '* S P " S P .-. P x = H P .-. S x = SP + Px = Aa, and the locus of x is the circle on 2 A a, the center S. 264. Find the internal fall in the ellipse, the force in the focus. Px V * in the circle S x SP 2 V 8 in the circle S x _ S P f 1 V 2 in the circle SP ~ S~x ' e distance' 204 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. VII. V 2 in the circle S P _ Aa V 2 in the ellipse at P ~ 2 H P V 8 down P x Px. Aa . '* V 2 in the ellipse at P " Sx . H P Pjc _ HP '* S x = A a P_x HP ''SP~Aa + HP Describe a circle from H with the radius A a. Produce P H to the circumference in F. Join F S. Draw H x parallel to F S. 265. Generally. For external falls. V 2 down P x __ 2g.areaAB FD Newton's fig. V 2 in the circle distance S P ~ g F . S P F = force at distance S P V 2 in the circle S P 2 S P V 2 in the curve at P V 2 down P x P V 4. A BFD ,_,. , Find the area in general ) > ) ' V 2 in the curve ~ F . P V .-. 4. A BFD - F. P V f ordinate = F -{ , (^ abscissa = space In the general expression make the distance from the center = S P, and a the original height, S x will be found. 266. For internal falls. V g down P x 2 g . A B F D Newton's fig. 2gF. STT~F = force at P 2 S P V 2 in the circle S P V 2 in the circle S P V 2 in the curve at P V 2 down P x PV 4 A B FD ' V 2 in the curve at P " F . P V /. if the velocities are equal, 4ABFD = F.PV. BOOK L] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 267. Ex. For internal and external falls. 205 In the ellipse the force tending to the center. In this case, D F a D S. Take A B for the force at A. Join B S. /. D F is the force at D, and the area A B F D = ^-5 (A B + D F) = AS SD.AB+ DF. Let i* equal the absolute force at the dis- tance 1. Let S A = a, S D = x, .-. A B = a p D F = x/i .-. A B F D = a x. a -f x and cr or 4ABFD = F.PV, CD 2 a 2 x * = C P . --- in the ellipse, a 2 x 2 = C D . For the external fall, make x = C P, then a = Cx, and C x 2 C P 2 = C D 2 , or Cx 2 =CP 2 -r-CD 2 = AC 2 + BC 2 = AB 2 .-. C x = A B. For the internal fall, make a = C P, then x = C x', and CP 2 Cx /2 = CD 2 , or Cx /2 = C P 2 CD 2 , .-. C x x = V C P 2 CD 2 . 268. Similarly, in all cases where the velocity in the curve is quadrable, without the Integral Calculus we may find internal and external falls. But generally the process must be by that method. 206 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. VII. Thus in the above Ex. vclv = g^x.dx .-. v 2 = gp (a 2 x 2 ) 269. And in general, V " = Also , as above, &c. (a n + l x n + 1 ), if the force oc x ". ' "2 ^ dp * n + 1 v 'dp And to find the external fall, make x = g, and from the equation find a, the distance required. And to find the internal fall make a = r, and from the equation find x, the distance required. 270. Find the external fall in the hyperbola, the force ex ^-^from the focus. O V 1 down O P : V s in the circle rad. S P : : O P : _ 8 V s in the circle S P : V 2 in the hyperbola at P : : A C : H P BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PJRINCIPIA. 207 .-. V 2 down OP: V 2 in the hyperbola : : A C . O P : S H P .-. 2AC.OP = SO.HP .-. 2AC.SO 2AC.SP=:SO.HP __ 2 A r - _ HP SAC To find what this denotes, find the actual velocity in the hyperbola. Let the force = /3, at a distance = r, .*. the force at the distance Also V 2 in the circle S P _ j8. r 2 x ._ |3 x 2 2 g x 2 ' ~2 " ~2~x" V 2 in the hyperbola _ (2 a -f x) /3 r " 2 g a . 2 x - _ 4. _ x 2 a V * S r 2 V 2 But ^T when the body has been projected from o> = -- 1- ^ of <^g x ^ g y a fl r 2 y 2 projection from oo , .*. ^ of projection from oo = ^ = down 2 a, ^ g / a & g /S r 2 F being constant and = 7 5, or = V 2 from oo to O', when S O'=:2 A C. .*. V in the hyperbola is such as would be acquired by the body ascend- ing from the distance x to GD by the action of force considered as repul- sive, and then being projected from OD back to O', S O being = 2 A C. In the opposite hyperbola the velocity is found in the same way, the - 2HC. S P lorce repulsive, p externally = rj-^ . ^i A v^ Jrl L 271. Internal fall. V 2 down P O : V 2 in the circle rad. SO: : P O : ^-? 35 V 2 in the circle S O : V 2 in the circle S P : : S P : S O V 2 in the circle S P : V 2 in the hyperbola at P : : A C : H P .-. V* down P O : V 2 in the hyperbola : : A C . P O : SO ' HP m .: 2 A C. PO = S O. H P or 2AC(SP SO) = SO.HP a n 2 A c. SP ' bU = 2AC + HP' 208 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. VII. and PO = S P SO = S P. H P 2 AC + HP' Hence make HE = 2 A C, join S E, and draw H O parallel to S E. Hence the external and internal falls are found, by making V acquired down a certain space p with a ble force equal that down . P V by a constant force, P V being known from the curve. 272. Find how far the body must fall externally to the cir- cumference to acquire V in the circle, F distance towards the center of the circle. Let OC = p, OB = x, OA=a, C being the point re- quired from which a body falls. Let the force at A = 1, .'. the force at B = a vdv= g.F.dx, (for the velocity increases as x decreases) C T Br A Q- p . O .-.v 2 = s-.x 2 + C and when v = 0, x = p, .-.C= .P 2 .-. v* = -| (p 2 a vr - - and when x = a, v 2 at A = But v 2 at A = 2 a ' ~2~ the force at A being constant, and a PV 2 : 4 ... p 2 _ a 2 = a 2 , .-. p 2 = 2 a 2 , .-. p = V 2 . a. 273. Find hovofar the body must fall internally from the circumference to acquire V in the circle, F a distance towards the center of the circle. Let P be the point to which the body must fall, O A = a, O P = p, O Q = x, F at A = ], .-. the force at Q = . a BOOK 1.1 NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 209 x , /. v d v = g . . d x e a = -- .x 2 + C, a and when v = 0, x = a, .-. C = --.a 2 a .-.v 2 = (a 2 x 2 ) and when x == p, v z = (a 2 p ! )from a ble force a and v 2 = g . a, from the constant force 1 at A. .'.a 2 P 2 = a 2 , .'. p = 0, .. the body falls from the circumference to the center. 274. Similarly, when F a -p . distance O C, or p externally = a V e, (e = base of hyp. log.) and OP, or p internally ^ . ' V e 275. When F a -,. distance z ' p externally = 2 a 2 a p internally = - - . 3 276, When F a ^ distance s ' p externally = x . p internally = ~/~a v & 277. When F a -p- - == . distance " + ' ii p externally = a ^1 - - n / 9 p internally = a 2 + n If the force be repulsive, the velocity increases as the distance increases, .. v d v = gF.dx Vor, I. O 210 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. VII. 278. Find how far a body must fall externally to any point P in the parabola, to acquire v in the curve. F a :p-, , towards the focus. P V = 4 S P = c, S Q = p, S B = x, S P = a, force at P = 1, ^O a- ^ .-. vd v = g .dx when v = 0, x = p f^ _ o IT' v2 = 2 g a* (i- i) = 2 g a 2 (-1 - 1) at P, but v z = 2g.-^- = 2ga, L _L i. a p " " a ' * 279. Similarly, internally, p = -^ . 280. In the ellipse, F a 5 towards a focus p externally = P H + P S. (.'. describe a circle with the center S, rad. = 2 A C) PH. PS (Hence V at P = V in the circle e. d.) 281. In the hyperbola, F a -^ towards focus p externally = 2 A C (Hence V at P = V in the circle e. d.) P H P S p internally = o A r a. P H " (^ ence V at P = V in the circle e.d., p. 190) 282. In the ellipse F cc D from the center pexternally= V A C z + B C 2 , (= A B)} (Hence construction) or (= V CD* + CP 2 ) (Hence also V at P = V in the circle radius C P, when C D = C P) p internally = V C P 2 CD 8 . BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 211 (Hence if C P = C V, p = 0, and V at P = V in the circle e. d., as was deduced before) (If C P < C D, p impossible, .-. the body cannot fall from any distance to C and thus acquire the V in the curve) 283. In the ellipse, F a D from the center. External fall. The velocity-curve is a straight line, (since D F a C D, also since F = 0, when C P = 0, this straight line comes to C, as C d h, V a VCObaCO, O being the point fallen from, to acquire Vat P. .-. V from O to C : V from P to C : : O C : P C Also since vdv = gF.dx, and if the force at the distance 1 = 1, the force at x = x. .. v d v = g x d x, and integrating and correct- ing, v 2 = g (p * x 2 ), where p = the distance fallen from. .*. v a V p z x 2 , and if a circle be described, with center C, rad. C O a P N (the right sine of the arc whose versed P O is the space fallen through). .-. V from O to P : V from O to C : : P N : (C M =) O C and V from P to C : V in the circle rad. C P : : 1 (for if P v = i P C, v d = C d P) and V hi the circle C P : V in the ellipse : Compounding the 4 ratios, V down O P : V in the ellipse : : P N : C D .-. Take P N = C D, and V down O P = V in the ellipse, 1 C P : C D. .-. C O = CN= V C P 2 + CD'. 02 212 Internal fall. A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. II. V in the ellipse : V in the circle rad. C P : : C D : C P V in the circle : V down C P : : 1 : 1 V down C P : V down P O : : (C M =) C P : O N .-. V in the ellipse : V down P O : : C D : O N .-. Take O N = C D, and V in the curve = V down P O, and C O V C P 2 C D z . 284. Find the point in tlie ellipse, the force in the center, where V = tlte oelocily in the circle, e. d. D In this case C P = C D, whence4he construction. Join A B, describe - on it, bisect the circumference in D', join B D', A D'. From C with A D 7 cut the ellipse in P. .-. 2 CP 2 = C P 2 + CD' .-. C P 2 C D J . (C P will pass through E.) A simpler construction is to bisect A B in E, B M in F, then C P is the diameter to the ordinate A B, and from the triangles C E B, C F B, C F is parallel to A B, .'. C D' is a conjugate to C P and = C P. p externally (to which body must 285. In the hyperbola, force repulsive, oc D, from the center rise from P,)= V C D z + C P 2 p internally (to which body must rise from the center) = V C P-C D* (Hence if the hyperbola be rectangular p internally = 0, or the body must rise through C P.) BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 213 286. In any curve, F oc - n+ - i ,Jind p externally. where a = S P, c = P V. 287. If the curve be a logarithmic spiral, c = 2 a, / a \ I ' P = a D = a also F a ^ , ( .. p = a .-. n = 2 J 288. In any curve, F oc ^ . . ,find p internamy. \j ' / a \I/ 4a+ 1 N p = a / \ 2 . (p n = -: ) n c J v r 4 a + n c/ \ a + - / 4 / 289. If the curve be a logarithmic spiral, c = 2 a, n = 2, / a \ ! - . V 2 290. If the curve be a circle, F in the circumference, c = a, and n = 4, (o 1 - J 4 = x and p internally = a 291. In the ellipse, F a ^- z from focus. External fall. A S C \ 2 down O P : V 2 in the circle radius S P : : O P : -g- , Sect. VII. V e in the circle S P : V 2 in the ellipse at P : : A C : II P, O3 214 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. VII. SO. HP .-. V 2 down O P : V* in the ellipse : : A C . O P : .-. S O = ... s o = - .-. 2 A C.OP = SO. HP 2AC.OP 2 AC. SO 2 A C.SP H P Internal fall. 2 A C H P = 2 A C. E V 2 down P O : V 8 in the circle radius S O : : P O : - -? , SJ V 2 in the circle S O : V 2 in the circle S P : : S P : S O V * in the circle S P : V 2 in the ellipse at P : : A C : H P .-. V 2 down P O : V 2 in the ellipse : : P O . A C : .-. 2PO.AC = SO.HP .-. 2SP. A C 2SO.AC = SO.HP 2 AC.SP SO. HP .-. S O = F a 2 AC + HP Hence, make H E = 2 A C, join S E, and draw H O parallel to E S. 292. External fall in the parabola, T O =r-$ from focus. E V 2 d . O P : V z in the circle radius S P SO : : O P : , Sect. VII. V * in the circle S P : V 2 in the parabola atP:: 1 : 2, BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIP1A. 215 .-. V 2 down O P : V 2 in the parabola : : O P : S O .-. O P = S O, .-. S O = a Internal fall. V 2 down O P : V 2 in the circle S O : : O P : ? - A V 2 in the circle S O : V 2 in the circle S P : : S P : S O V 2 in the circle S P : V 2 in the parabola at P: : 1:2 .-, V 2 down OP: V 2 in the parabola : : O P : S O, .-. O P = S O, V = V down - = V down S P = V . down E P = V of a body describ- ing the parabola by a constant vertical force = force at P. 293. Find the external Jail so that the velocity* ac- quired = n' . velocity in the curve, F a x n . v d v =: g /, . x n . d x, (f' = force distance 1), ... v 8 = ~~r . (a n + 1 x a + l ) a = original height, TT9 . ,, P d P & ., 2 p d P V 2 in the curve = a IL . l ~. t = $-.. c. u c = ^ s dp 2 dp .'. n.i*. c = -. a "*_ x , orn.c = -^. a n + x Make x = S P = g, and from the equation we get a, which = S x. For the internal fall, make a = S P = g, and from the equation we get x, which = S x'. 294. Find the external fall in a LEMNISCATA. (x 2 + y 2 ) 2 = a 2 (x 2 y 2 ) is a rectangular equation whence we must get a polar one Let z. N S P = 6, .*. y = g. sin. 0, x = g. cos. 6, g 2 = (x 2 + y 2 ) .-. 4 = a z . (g * (cos. s 6 sin. 2 fl)) = a 2 g 2 .cos. 2 0, .. g 2 = a 2 . cos. 2 / s \ .'. 2 6 = A (cos. = 5-r), \ cl / .-. 2 d 6 = ^ 2 -^ = /it-t.' V a" O4 216 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. VII. - li! - a ' 4 g 4 ''d^ = g 2 but in general , _ ' _ dj_* h 8 = in this case *-j ; 1 a 4 V 2 ~T 6) 2dp 6^a^ " P 3 dg= T"" .. force to S a -TJ v d v = ftfif . d x, Also _ 2pdg ._ a 2 _2.g a* _ 8 g dp 3g 2 ' " f ' ' 3 6 ' g 6 Make x in the formula above = g, i ^ _L 'V "~a 6 =: g 6 ' .. f. = 0, .*. a is infinite. a 6 BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 217 295. Find the force and external fall in an EPICYCLOID CY 2 =CP 2 YP 2 =CP 2 CA 2 . YB CB Let CY = p, = g, CB = c, CA=b, _ n .-. c*p 2 = b 2 c b 2 p b* p* - c 2 (g 2 b 2 )' _ 2dp _ c 2 b 2 / 2dg.gx p 3 ~ " c 2 U_bW P< .-. force (f'-b 2 ) 2 p* (as in the Involute of the circle which is an Epicycloid, when the radius of the rota becomes infinite.) Having got n offeree, we can easily get the external (or internal) fall. 296. Find in what cases we can integrate for the Velocity and Time. Case 1. Let force a x n , .-. v d v = g p . x n d x, n + 1 d x v l ) t- /*~ dx - / n + 1 . . l~ / zr . * v *^i 20 /A dx V(a n + l x n +') Now in general we can integrate x m dx.(a -f bx" 1 ) , when m + 1 . , , m is whole or n n q . . in this case, we can integrate, when - Let whole. 1 = p any whole number .*. n = P- , (p being positive), (a) 218 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. VII. f Let 1 o = P> n + 1 2 1 . . 1 _ g P + 1 " n + 1 ~~ P h 2 ~ 2 n+1 = 2-Frr' i -t- z p .*. these formulae admit only and 1 for integer positive values of n, and no positive fractional values. .'. we can integrate when F a x, or Fa 1. 297. Case 2. Let force x ' d x .*. v d v = s p O ' v n x . y2 _ 2g/* /a^_-x-. - n 1' V a^'x"- 1 "-/ ._ i\ v 1 n _ lo*i^l ^!v ~v - . > /* ux y. u A * a / L / "" ~ 4 ' ff J v N g P J Va, n ~~ l x n ~' n 1 , j 2 2 ' " o in which case we can integrate, when - j = , or * , whole, ii * * i n ~ ~ - -- j i. e. if - -\ or v , be whole. 2 nr n 1, n 1 Let z = p, any whole positive No., Let-1 1 , 1 _ 2 p 1 *' n - T = 2 .. n 1 = - .. these formulae admit any values of n, in which the numerator ex- ceeds the denominator by 1, or in which the numerator and denominator are any two successive odd numbers, the numerator being the greater. 1111 integrate, when F ^ , , - , , &c. \ X X g- X j X f .*. we can BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 219 298. Case 3. The formulas (a') (/3'), in which p is positive, cannot be- come negative. But the formulae (a) and (/3) may. From which we can integrate, when F oc __ & c . x xf xf ' xf- or when F oc - - & c . x'x'xf'x 299. Wfien the force a x n , fold a n . of limes from different altitudes force. Find the same, force a s . s Fa x ", .. v d v = g /A x n d x, to the center of force. Find the same, force a s . t _ x n+1 i. dx dx i,-L-r n+ 1 ,. .*. d t = -- a which is of -- s dimensions, v n + 1 _ .*. t will be of -- dimensions. and when x = 0, t will a a n ---I ' T7 1 1 ?-+! ^-^..ta^^oca t a f ~ dx - or ~ dx y va^ 1 x^ 1 a ^ , 1 +&c.j . _ 2 n+ when t = 0, x = a, 5' J .-. when x = 0, t a r ^ pT cc y 220 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. VII. 1 5L+J when n is negative t oe r a a 2 . & a ~~ n ~ 1 2 COR. If n be positive and greater than 1, the greater the altitude, the less the time to the center. 300. A body is projected tip P A with the velocity V from the given po'nt A, force in S y^^Jind the height to which the body will rise. vdv = g /* x n d x, for the velocity decreases as x increases, A when v = V, x = a, . . a"* 1 V 2 v 2 .... n + 1 Let v = 0, a"* 1 ) = V 2 '*' X ~~ \ 2 gft L COR. Let n = 2, and V = the velocity down , force at A con- ff slant, = velocity in the circle distance S A. 2 gfjt, / 2 ff /t 2 *^ _. a - a a 2 ' a a BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 221 SECTION VIII. 301. PROP. XLI. Resolving the centripetal force I N. or D E (F) into the tangential one IT (F') and the perpendicular one T N, we have (46) I N : I T : : F : F : : : d t d t .-. d v : d v' : : d t x I N : d t' x I T. But since (46) dt = i- s ,dt' = ii' v v' and by hypothesis v = * .-. d t : d t' : : d s : d s' : : I N : I K .-. dv: dv' : : IN 2 : IK x IT : : 1 : 1 or d v = d v', &c. &c. OTHERWISE. 302. By 46, we have generally vdv = gFds s being the direction of the force F. Hence if s' be the straight line and s the trajectory, &c. we have vdv =.- gFds v' d v' = g F' d s' ... v 2 V a = 2g/Fd s v'*_ V' = 2g/F'd s' V and V being the given values of v and v' at given distances by which the integrals are corrected. Now since the central body is the same at the same distance the central force must be the same in both curve and line. Therefore, resolving F 222 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. VIII. when at the distance s into the tangential and perpendicular forces, we have TV 17 IT T. 'IN I?' F v F x C IN ' C IK n d S = F x ds' .-. F' d s' = F d s and v" V' 2 = 2g/Fds = v 2 V 2 which shows that if the velocities be the same at any two equal distances> they are equal at all equal distances i. e. if V = V then v = v'. 303. COR. 2. By Prop. XXXIX, v 2 A B GE. But in the curve y a F a A 11 - 1 .*. y d x a A n - ! d A Therefore (112) ABGE=/ydx--~ + C a P n A n Hence v 2 a P n A". OTHERWISE. 304. Generally (46) vdv = gFds and if F = ft s 11 - 1 then n But when v = 0, let s = P ; then and C = P n . BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 223 in which s is any quantity whatever and may therefore be the radius vector of the Trajectory A ; that is V 2 = - (pn _ A n\ or = r /J)n __ ) n v n v> in more convenient notation. N. B. From this formula may be found the spaces through which a body must fall externally to acquire the velocity in the curve (286, &c.) 305. PROP. XLI. Given the centripetal farce to construct the Trajec- tory r , and to jind the time of describing any portion of it. By Prop. XXXIX, v = V~2~jr. V A B F D = i? (46) = ~ But dt = ICK Area 2 Ara = -^p yr- (P being the perpendicular upon the i xx V tangent when the velocity is V. See 125, &c.) Moreover, if V be the velocity at V, by Prop. XXXIX, V = V~~2"jf . V A B L V. Whence PVABLV IK V ABFD = " x A ' KN /. putting Z = PVABLV/ _ Q _ PX V) V. A 4/inTA/ v ' A V A ' V 2 g A we liave ABFD : Z 8 : : IK 2 : KN .-. A BFD Z 2 c Z 2 : : I K 2 K N 2 : KN 2 and V A B F D Z* : Z = -- : : I N : K N Q x I N v X7 ' A X K N = Also since similar triangles are to one another in the duplicate ratio or their homologous sides YXxXC = AxKNx -' 24 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. V11I. Q x CX* x I N and putting A 8 V (ABFD Z ! ) = ]>b = y = 2 V (A BFD Z 8 ) Q X CX* 2 A 2 V (ABFD Z Area VCI=/ydx = VDba| . AreaVCX=/y / dx = VDcaJ Now (124) 2VCI 2VDba : P x V " P X V" or 2 VDba " V 2g. P X VABLV the time of describing V I. Also, if L. V C I = 6, we have vrv XVXCV_ v 2 P 2 X V BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIAs 225 Hence - PxVg ~ and P 3 xV ~ V ( S 2 v* P 2 V E ) VDba-^A ~~J *v* p*v) and P 3 V _ 2 f Vtf'v 2 P 2 V*} .. t - d - *v 2 P 2 V 2 ) But by Prop. XL. the integral being taken from v = 0, or from g =D, D being the same as P in 304. gFdg P 2 V 2 ) PxVdg . f ' ~^ - 307. Tojlnd t awff m ^rrns o/*g anc? p. Since (125) . f -y and /- A (io) But previous to using these forms we must find the equation to the tra- jectory, thus ( 139) P 2 V 2 do x -41- = F = f w g P & f denoting the law of force. 226 or A COMMENTARY ON p2 ys [SECT. VIII. P * = f f i 308. To these different methods the following are examples : 1st. Let F 2\ n 2 ' \ - ' * which also indicates an ellipse referred to its center, the equation being generally a 2 b 2 2 _ - Hence P 2 (D 2 P*) p d the same as before. With regard to 0, the axes of the ellipse being known from (5) we have the polar equation, viz. b 2 " 1 e 2 cos. 2 6 ' 309. Ex. 2. Let F = -^- . Then (304) 1 V = BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. and P and V belonging to an apse. " ~" J V 2 vH, V (De e 2 D P which, adding and subtracting -^ , transforms to t ' 4 D and making 5 = u u + -a- ' g/* (see 86). Let t = 0, when g = P. Then D D _ *-'. : i i _ _ v ~~ 22 <= Vfex } ^-f-i "" Also D / du But assuming the above becomes rationalized, and we readily find P3 230 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. VIII. -f )+ and making 6 = 0, when = P, or when u = P -- - , we get Hence, since moreover or D V- D ( e ---? " 2 ) ' 2 V 2 zz sin. + - -- 2 2 ' V 2 / = sin. ( 6 Jf. -5-! = cos. = a P.(D-P) x _ _1_ . . . . ( 2 ) 1 + (l jj) cos. But the equation to the ellipse referred to its focus is b 2 1 /* -. . a 1 + e cos - b'_ 2P(D P) ' a : D and r^ 2 Q 2 jrj 2 ^ -~ ' a ~" ~~~ s ~~ \ "~~ ri BOOK L] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 231 b4P 4P*4P > b^ 2 D -T X D (3) and f ' ' ' b = V P x (D P). To find the Periodic Time ; let 6 = *. Then ? = 2a P=D P, and equation (1) gives T see 159. OTHERWISE. 2 First find the Trajectory by formula (11. 307) ; then substitute for ~ 2 in 9 and 10, &c. 310. Required the Time and Trajectory when F= s By 304, v 2 = g^x (D- 2 ?~ 2 ) "D 8 ? 2 .. if V and P belong to an apse we have g tt D 2 P 2 D~ 2 ^ D V P* s P4, 232 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. VI 11. = -= X (C + V P*-- f) V gA 6 and taking t = at an apse or when ? = P, C = 0, t = -J2= X VT^Tp ...... (1) ^ g^ also But f d * - J- x ll y f v (P s s *) - + p x v- and = ^-^ x V(D'-P'). . i V (P 8 g g )+P , " ~~~ ' V (D 8 P 2 ) and making 6 = at the apse or where e P, = -l. = __ - V D 8 P s . Po ' -e V(D 2 P 2 ) which gives 2 p e V r - D2 - - ' 2Pfl 311. Required the Trajectwy and circumstances of motion = or < 1 we easily get "- 1 P 2 / m A. / - 1 ^ m - 1 P x m m= 1 m P = m 1 If r ~ n N Vr=m~~* . . m< 1 7b Jind 6 on this hypothesis. We have (307) which gives by substitution P X- n--3 2 m r f 233 (2) m= dd = +r I m - V 1 m X PX n--^ a a the positive or negative sign being used according as the body ascends or descends. Ex. If n = 2, we get VTY1 A - P X m I r X 234 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. VIII. P i P= - S m = 1 the equations to the ellipse, parabola and hyperbola respectively. Also we have correspondingly r 7-J5L_Pdg ,1,-+ Wm-1 ^m 1 s m 1' j . = +r P. m / m which are easily integrated. Ex. 2. Let n = 3. Then we get / ni T> f i P = J - r x P x - * - 3 . . m> 1 f ............. m = 1 p = -, X P X - - . . m < 1 - . Prx - - - p2 - g- . m> - 312. In the first of these values of i, m P ! may be > = or < r 2 . (1). Let m P 2 > r 2 . Then (see 86) and at an apse or when r = P 6 = + J -5U, X P X sec.- 1 X . . . (a) *i m 1 " BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 235 for / m 1 1 1 / __ : _ _-_ __ |i| _ , N m P' r 2 ~" P " r ' (2) Let m P 2 = r ! . Then we have V (m 1) , M p = - i - L - ........ (b) r rS a. 4- v / . - V m 1 */ 2 V (m 1) 2 /I 1 X ( ~ V m 1 V r ^- r . '. (c) - V m 1 g which indicates the Reciprocal or Hyperbolic Spiral. (3) LetmP 2 be + r p / m r _ ii V ml / / , r.-mP / e^0? 2 + m _i =+rP ** r 2 mP 3 , J._ _ -- -+C m v i r m-. -- , * 2 2 mP 2 *g Vm .(r 2 P) V (r 2 m P 2 ) at an apse r = P ; and then Thus the first of the values of has been split into three, and integrat- ing the other two we also get Pr P 2 ) *r m /" / / _ ^TTH 236 A COMMENTARY ON /r* mP 2 = +rP. =+rP, m m [SECT! VIII. 2 mP 1 m 2 mP" c m r -v^i 3 mP~I m.gV- V^r* mP) X 1. - _-mP' g V(m.r 2 *) -/ (r 8 mP 2 ) and if t is measured from an apse or r = P it reduces to m 313. Hence recapitulating we have these pairs of equations, viz. p (i,p = v ' " or m x sec - 1 ' 1 7b construct the Trajectory, put = 0, then ? = P= SA; let g = co, then m and and taking A S B, A S B' for these values of ^, and S B, S B x for those of p and drawing B Z, B' 7J at right angles we have two asymptotes ; S C being found by put- ting 6 = ir. Thus and by the rules in (35, 36, 37, 38.) the curve may be traced in all its ramifications. 2. p = and V (m 1) BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPLE. 23? This equation becomes more simple when we make d originate from g = cc ; for then it is ,- r' 1 ' 2 mP > .r 2 - ? 2 ) V (r 2 m P 2 ) 238 or A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. VIIT / _m j r V (g 2 r 8 ) m g when P = r. Whence this spiral. These several spirals are called Cotes' Spirals, because he was the first to construct them as Trajectories. 314. If n = 4. Then the Trajectory, &c. are had by the following equations, viz. ' m 315. If n = 5. Then p = P V'm d 6 r P V (m 1 .f 2 +r 4 ) m v m which as well as the former expression is not integrable by the usual methods. When m -r. r ""m 1 is a perfect square, or when m 1 m 2 P4 then we have m __ i - 4 (m 1) * = +r F "2(m Therefore (87) / m P m 2 (m - L-+C 2(m I) BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 5 \ / '(2.m~^T.g 2 m P 2 ) 2 (m 1) + P V m V(mP 2 2.m^l.g 2 ) and these being constructed will be as subjoined. Q * /ovxi a = r V 2 Xl , ! a d or = r V 21. 316. COR. 1. OTHERWISE. To find the apses of an orbit where F = -^ . Let Then P = f- m m n 1 n 3 m - -=0m>l 1 , m = 1 and I m . . . m < 1 239 . . . A which being resolved all the possible values of will be discovered in each case, and thence by substituting in $, we get the position as well as the number of apses. Ex. 1. Let n = 2. Then 2 r mP 2 ft * ,1- . _^r O - -,- ^__- - ^~* I 1 h m i if m 1 " L L 4 mP 2 r " 4 1 1 m 240 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. VIII. which give r , r 2 + 4 m P 2 . (m 1) ~ 2 (m 1) V ~ 4 (m I) 2 L : T and ^ r_ /r 2 4m P 2 .(l m) S ~~ 2 (1 m) ^ P, whence there is no apse. r 2 _ m pa which gives two apses, r 2 being > m P 2 because m is < 1 and P < r ; and their position is found from 0. 317. COR. 2. This is done also by the equation P p = g. sin. f, or sin.

being the L. required. Ex. When n = 3, and m = 1, we have (4. 313) P P = S r s P .-. sin. = ^ ..

. d * a a j &J A/X* .. 2/y d x = xV(x*-a)-abl. and Again =CP=CT=x subtangent = x dy x 2 a s a x x and substituting for x in (1) we have vcK = ir a ^ - N being a constant quantity. 322. Hence conversely and differentiating ( 17) we get d u 8 4 and again differentiating (d 8 being constant) d g u 4 _ dtf 2 = a 2 b 2 N 8 Hence (139) >< (1) 322. By the text it would appear that the body must proceed from V in a direction perpendicular to C V i. e. that V is an apse. From ( 1 ) 322, we easily get 2 BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 243 and since generally U E _ L. ( 2 n 2 ^ d0 2 ~ p 2 ' K 4 ' v n 2 v (a. 2 e 2 ^ o 2 n * a 4 b 2 N 2 ^ * ( a ) 8 .... (1) which is another equation to the trajectory involving the perpendicular upon the tangent. Now at an apse P = 8 and substituting in equation (1) we get easily 8 = a which shows V to be an apse. OTHERWISE. Put d f = 0, for f is then = max. or min. 324. With a proper velocity.'} The velocity with which the body must be projected from V is found from vdv = gFdf. 325. Descend to the center]. When g = 0, p = (1. 323) and ^ = oo (2. 321). 326. Secondly, let V R S be an ellipse, whose equation referred to the center C is Then and as above, integrating by parts, v A/ / a 2 v 2\ ft 2 fl v -T // 9\ xvid. x i a / u A. /dxv^(a 2 -x 2 ) =- -^- - +2-/V (a 2 -x 2 ) Q2 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. VIII. x V (a 2 x') . a a b f=x+NT=x+ .~y dx - x L a ' x ' __ j x " "x" and abN . rr sin. ~' - . a it 26 .'. sin. - * = 2 abN a . fir 2 6 \ 26 cos. - - "S --- U~Xf . - i ^TT p \2 abN/ abN and 2 6 e = a sec. , x . .......... (2) a b .N Conversely by the expression for F in 139, we have F p 327. To Jind when the body is at an apse> either proceed as in 323, or put dg = 0. TJ m\ A d x . sin. x By (27) d. sec. x = - s - cos. 2 x sin, d " cos. 2 6 or 6= that is the point V is an apse. 328. The proper velocity of projection is easily found as indicated in 324. 329. Will ascend perpetually and go off to infinity.'] From (2) 327, we learn that when 2 6 _ aTTN " 2 f is CD; also that g can never = 0. BOOK L] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 245 330. When the force is changed from centripetal to centrifugal, the sign of its expression (139) must be changed. 331. PROP. XLII. The preceding comments together with the Jesuits' notes will render this proposition easily intelligible. The expression (139) _ P*V* dp A ~~ /\ Q i g P 3 df or rather (307) pz ya in which P and V are given, will lead to a more direct and convenient resolution of the problem. It must, however, be remarked, that the difference between the first part of Prop. XLI. and this, is that the force itself is given in the former and only the law of force in the latter. That is, if for instance F = ^ g n ~ *, in the former /, is given, in the latter not. But since V is given in the latter, we have /A from 304. SECTION IX. 332. PROP. XLIII. To malce a body move in an orbit revolving about the center of force, in the same way as in the same orbit quiescent} that is, To adjust the angular velocity of the orbit, and centripetal force so that the body may be at any time at the same point in the revolving orbit as in the orbit at rest, and tend to the same center. That it may tend to the same center (see Prop. II), the area of the new orbit in a fixed plane (V C p) must a time a area in the given orbit ( V C P) ; and since these areas begin together their increments must also be proportional, that is (see fig. next Prop.) CPxKRocCpxkr But KR = CK x Z-KCP k r= Ck x z-kCp and CP= Cp, andCK = Ck .-. ZLKCPakCp and the angles V C P, V C p begin together .-. /iVCP a /iVCp. Q3 24-6 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. IX. Hence in order that the centripetal force in the new orbit may tend to C, it is necessary that L. V C p QC L. V C P. Again, taking always CP = Cp and VCp: VCP:: G: F G : F being an invariable ratio, the equation to the locus of p or the orbit in fixed space can be determined; and thence (by 137, 139, or by Cor. 1, 2, 3 of Prop. VI) may be found the centripetal force in that locus. 333. Tojind the orbit infixed space or the locus of p. Let the equation to the given orbit V C P be where g = C P, and 6 = V C P, and f means any function ; then that of the locus is which will give the orbit required. OTHERWISE. Let p' be the perpendicular upon the tangent in the given orbit, and p that in the locus ; then it is easily got by drawing the incremental figures and simifar triangles (see fig. Prop. XLIV) that K R : k r : : F : G kr :pr :: p : V ( z p 2 ) pr :PR:: 1 : 1 PR:KR:: V ( s * p' 2 ) : p' whence 1: 1 :: F.p V( s * p' 2 ) : Gp' V (? 2 p s ) and " FV + (G 2 F 2 ) p' 2 334. Ex. 1. Let the given Trajectory be the ellipse with the force in its focus ; then P /2 = ^-> ^d S = ?'_* I "" e '] 2 a * 1 + ecos. (f and therefore 2 _ b 2 G 2 (2a g)g 2 IT ^ t_ Q / /"^ o "t^ 2 \ l TJ* 2 / O 2 \ BOOK L] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 247 and a. (1 e 2 ) S ~~ / F \ ' 1 + e cos. ^ -p- n Hence since the force is (139) P 2 V 2 ,/dj_u , \ and here we have F a(l e *) u = 1 + e cos. -~- 2F a F' h aG 2 (l e 2 ) U ~ G' 2 and again differentiating, &c. we have F 2 , G 2 F 2 = G s a(l e 2 ) ' ~G^ But if 2 R = latus-rectum we have R=L = L! = a .'. the force in the new orbit is P* V 2 (F^ 2 R G* R F 2 > 2 " 3 gRG 2 335. Ex. 2. Generally let the equations to the given trajectory be and Then since G it 'Mr' d'u , F 2 d 2 u u F 2 /d'u , x F< ^> I ^.^ ^L 11 1 [_ n -_ - If ~ G 2 \d0 2 ^ / ~ G 2 and if the centripetal forces in the given trajectory and locus be named X, X', by 139 we have '&XL - iL! gX G 2 F 2 J_ Q4 248 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. IX. 1 x 3 / ' * v ' OS Also from (2. 333) we have J^ F_* J_ G 2 Fa J^ T* == G 2 X " ~ G* '" r L! > ~ .-. by 139 gX' ._F*gX G* p 2 y a p/ a y / a < the same as before. This second general example includes the first, as well as Prop. XLIV, &c. of the text. 336. Another determination of the force tending to C and which shall make the body describe the locus of p. First, as before, we must show that in order to make the force X tend to C, the ratio L. V C P : L. V C p must be constant or . = F : G. Next, since they begin together the corresponding angular velocities w, u f of C P, C p are in th*t same ratio ; i e. : / : : F : G. Now in order to exactly counteract the centrifugal force which arises from the angular motion of the orbit, we must add the same quantity to the centripetal force. Hence if f>, ' denote the centrifugal forces in the given orbit and the locus, we have X' = X + X -Y p X v-j - X 7 X -,- x g G 2 F 2 pays (^2 _ pa j X H x rg x -- . . . . . (1) BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPJA. 219 or P'V 2 / d 2 u G 2 x / 2 u , ( u -dT- + u or x J ' g 837. PROP. XLIV. Take u p, u k similar and equal to V P and V K ; also m r : k r : : L. V C p : V C P. Then since always C P = p c, we have p r = P R. Resolve the motions P K, p k into P R, R K and p r, r k. Then RK(=rk):rm::^VCP:^VCp and therefore when the centripetal forces PR, p r are equal, the body would be at m. But if P Cn:pCk::VCp:VCP and Cn = Ck the body will really be in n. Kence the difference of the forces is mkxms (mr kr).(mr+kr) m n = - = s - - s - : - - . m t m t But since the triangles p C k, p C n are given, K r a m r a -^ Cp 1 1 .. m n oe T^J . X - . C p* m t Again since P Ck:pCn::PCK:pCn::VCP:VCp : : k r : m r by construction : : p C k : p C m ultimately .'. p C n = p C m and m n ultimately passes through the center. Consequently m t = 2 C p ultimately and 1 m n P*V* G 2 F 2 J_ 339. Jb /race /fo variations of sign ofmn. If the orbit move in consequentia, that is in the same direction as C P, the new centrifugal force would throw the body farther from the center, that is Cmis>CnorCk . or m n is positive. Again, when the orbit is projected in antecedentia with a velocity < than twice that of C P, the velocity of C p is less than that of C P. Therefore C m is < C n or m n is negative. Again, when the orbit is projected in antecedentia with a velocity = twice that of C P, the angular velocity of the orbit just counteracts the velocity of C P, and m n = 0. And finally, when the orbit is projected in antecedentia with a velocity > 2 vel. of.C P, the velocity of C p is > vel. of C P or C m is > C n, or m n is positive. OTHERWISE. By 338, m n oc qf tp ' * w 2 But ' = a W W being the angular velocity of the orbit. .-. m n + 2 W W+ W 2 oc+ 2 u + W >f- or being used according as W is in consequentia or antecedentia. BOOK L] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 251 Hence m n is positive or negative according as W is positive, and nega- tive and > 2 w ; or negative and < 2 u. That is, &c. &c. Also when W is negative and = 2 w, m = 0. Therefore, &c. 340. COR. 1. Let D be the difference of the forces in the orbit and in the locus, and f the force in the circle K R, we have D: f : : m n : z r m k X m s . r k 2 m t ' 2kc (m r + r k) (m r r k) f r k 2 2 k c ' 2~kc : : m r 2 r k 2 : r k * :: G 2 F 2 : F 2 . 341. COR. 2. In the ellipse with the force in the focus, we have 2 R G 2 __ R F 2 A a __ f. 2 For (C V being put = T) v 2 v' 2 Force at V in Ellipse : Do. in circle : : -: - , y. TT : . _,/ chord P V P V 1 J_ : 2 R : 2 T :: T: R Also F in Circle : m n at V : : F 2 : G 2 F 2 m n at V : m n at p : : 7 ' i-, T 3 A 3 F2 RG 2 ~R F .*. F at V in ellipse : m n at p : Hence we have F 2 F in ellipse at V = ^ and RG 2 RF* and X' = X + m n a FJ RG 2 RF* see 834. 252 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. IX. OTHERWISE. 342. By 836, pz v 8 G z _ F 8 1 v/ _ V _i_ v _ _ v ~~ 2 X " But and P* V 8 L -JL =>|V:k *t> (157) . X' " . fF 2 . G 8 -F 8 1 - F' x i F " ~? J 343. COR. 3. In the ellipse with the force in the center. 2 A RG 8 RF 2 QC V For here X a A and the force generally a ^j-^ (140) f Force in ellipse at V : Force in circle at V : : T : R . J Fin circle : m n at V ::F 8 :G 2 F 2 (.m n at V : m n at p : : T^T, : -r- 3 L A F 2 RG 8 RF* F. ,,. , -i- JC rl -, IV \J JLI A in ellipse at V : m n at p : : 7^-3 . T : -r- F 2 A .*. assuming F in ellipse at P = f^j- > we have F in ellipse at V = ^ X T and RG 8 R F 8 .. m n = -T-J .-. X' a X + m n o , &c. OTHERWISE. . P 8 V 8 4 (Area of Ellipse) 344. X = p P, and -- = s - 7^5 . ,., g g (Period) 8 4 T* a 8 b 2 = /r > i\t g( Period) 2 BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 353 Therefore by 336 G 2 p 2 i X' = ^ + ^ab 2 x --pj-- X ^ "P + - 3 | RG g RF* ) / F 2 345. COR. 4. Generally let X be the force at P, V ~ at V, R radius of curvature in V, C V = T, &c. V R G 2 V R F 2 X' OC X -f A3 A For /- F in orbit at V : F' in circle at V : : T : R < F' :mnatV ::F 8 : G 2 F 2 (.m n at V : m n : : A 3 : T 3 VF 2 G 2 F* .-. F in orbit at V : m n : : -1^- : V R. .*. since by the assumption TT T7 1 2 F in orbit at V == VR(G 2 .-. m n = and OTHERWISE. This may better be done after 336, where it must be observed V is not the same as the indeterminate quantity V in this corollary. 346. COR. 5. The equation to the new orbit is (333) 2 _ _ = 2 2/2 + (G 2 F 2 )p p' belonging to the given orbit. Ex. 1. Let the given orbit be a common parabola. Then 2 G 2 rg 8 - F 2 g + (G 2 F s )f and the new force is obtained from 336. 254 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. IX. Ex. 2. Let the given orbit be any one of Cotes' Spirals, whose general equation is Then the equation of 333 becomes which being of the same form as the former shows the locus to be similar in each case to the given spiral. This is also evident from the law of force being in each case the same (see 336) viz. P*V 8 G*-F 2 .. 3 ~ 2 S G Ex. 3. If the given orbit be a circle, the new one is also. Ex. 4. Let the given trajectory be a straight line. Here p' is constant. Therefore G* p /2 X g* the equation to the elliptic spiral, &c. &c. Ex. 5. Let the given orbit be a circle with the force in its circumference. Here and we have from 333 2 Gy = 4r 2 F 2 + (G 2 F 2 )g 2 ' Ex. 6. Let the given orbit be an ellipse with force in the focus. Here P" = o^ 2 a g and this gives , G 2 b 2 g 8 P " F 1 g(2a ? )+ b s (G s - F 1 )' BOOK L] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 255 347. To find the points of contrary jlesure, in the locus put dp = 0; and this gives in the case of the ellipse b* F 2 G 2 OTHERWISE. In passing from convex to concave towards the center, the force in the locus must have changed signs. That is, at the point of contrary flexure, the force equals nothing or in this same case F* A + RG 2 RF 2 = V A = Jr 8 X(F 2 -G*) b* F 2 G 2 a ' F 2 And generally by (336) we have in the case of a contrary flexure X' = x p2 YZ x G2 ~ F ' x _L - o g F 8 ' S 3 = which will give all the points of that nature in the locus. 348. To fold the points where the locus and given Trajectory intersect one another. It is clear that at such points g = f, and d' = 2 W * 6 W being any integer whatever. But * _. G 4 _ m * r - f ' 2 W* This is independent of either the Trajectory or Locus. 349. To Jind the number of such intersections during an entire revolution ofCP. Since & cannot be > 2 9 W is < m + 1 and also < m 1 .-. 2 W is < 2 m. 2 G Or the number required is the greatest integer in 2 m or -p- This is also independent of either Trajectory or Locus. 25G A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. IX. 350. To fold the number and position of the double points of the Locus, i. e. of those points where it cuts or touches itself. Having obtained the equation to the Locus find its singular points whether double, triple, &c. by the usual methods ; or more simply, consider the double points which are owing to apses and pairs of equal values of C P, one on one side of C V and the other on the other, thus : The given Trajectory V W being V symmetrical on either side of V W, let W be the point in the locus correspond- ing to W. Join C W and produce it indefinitely both ways. Then it is clear that W is an apse,* also that the angle subtended by V v' x' W is /-i the greatest whole number in - G w being a'\ supposes the motion to be in consequentia). Hence it appears that where- ever the Locus cuts the line C W' there is a double point or an apse, and also that there are w + 1 such points. f~\ Ex. 1. Let -=;- = 2 ; i. e. let the orbit move in conse- K quentia with a velocity = the velocity of C P. Then L. V C y 7 = 0, y' coincides with V, and the double points are y' V, x' and W. 1 The course of the Locus is indicated by the order of the figures 1, 2, 3, 4. Ex. 2. Let ^ = 3- Then the Locus resembles this figure, I, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. showing the course of the curve in which V, x 7 , A, W are double points and also apses. Ex. 3. Let -p = 4. Then this figure sufficiently traces the Locus. Its five double points, viz. V, x', A, B, W are also apses. Higher integer values of -^ will give the Locus BOOK I.I NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 257 *~\ still more complicated. If -p, be not integer, the figure will be as in the first of this article, the double points lying out of the line C V. More- f-\ over if -^ be less than 1, or if the orbit move in c antecedentia this method must be somewhat varied, but not greatly. These and other curio- sities hence deducible, we leave to the student. 351. To investigate the motion of (p) when the ellipse, the force being in the focus, moves in ante- cedentia with a velocity = velocity of C P in consequentia. Since hi this case G = .-. (333) also p = or the Locus is the straight line C V. Also (342) p r F 2 R_F'v - - = A* X R Hence vdvoc X'dgoc ex R . , axis maior , , , , (where jj" = ^ an ^ Stops n 2g 1+e 2 A 2 = 0, or when g = 1 + e. Hence then the body moves in a straight line C V, the force increasing 3 to of the latus-rectum from the center, when it = max. Then it T) decreases until the distance = or R. Here the centrifugal force pre- if vails, but the velocity being then = max. the body goes forward till the VOL. I. R 258 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. IX. distance = the least distance when v = 0, and afterwards it is repelled and so on in inh'nitum. 352. To Jind when the velocity in the Locus = max. or min. Since in either case d.v 2 = 2vdv = and v d v = X' d ? .-. X' = .-. (336) pa y 2 Q2 F 2 1 x + ~~jT~ "F 2 " x f 3 = Ex. In the ellipse with the force in the focus, we have (342) r + RGt I7 R] El j R G 2 RF 2 '; e* " f 3 .-. f = R x : a F 2 *_G 2 b 2 L If G = 0, v = max. when e = ^- or when P is at the extre- a 2 mity of the latus-rectum. If F = 2 G, v = max. when $ = R . - -^f-r~ lat. rectum. 353. To find when the force X' in the Locus max. or min. Put d X' = 0, which gives (see 336) _ 3 P 2 V 2 G 2 F 2 1 ~g~ F 2 ' ?* Ex. In the ellipse and (157) 2F 2 dg 3RGdg 3RF 2 dg g3 ,4 which gives 3 R F 2 G 8 BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. Hence when G = Xi 3 R = max. when f = =-- . IE When = R, and G = 0. Then Y *L 2 R F ' = R 2 "^T" When F = 2 G, or the ellipse moves in consequentia with the velo- city of C p ; then X = max. when 3JI 4 G 2 G 2 j) 2 ' ~ 4G 2 : 8 354. COR. 6. Since the given trajectory is a straight line and the center of force C not in it, this force cannot act at all upon the body, or (336) X = 0. Hence in this case p* V 2 G 2 F 2 1 x - v v . -*- ^ /> 4 fif r 6 where P =r C V and V the given uniform velocity along V P. In this case the Locus is found as in 346. 355. If the given Trajectory is a circle, it is clear that the Locus of p is likewise a circle, the radius-vector being in both cases invariable. 356. PKOP. XLV. The orbits (round the same center of force) acquire the same form, if the centripetal forces by which they are described at equal altitudes be rendered proportional.] Let f and f be two forces, then if at all equal altitudes f a f the orbits are of the same form. For (46) f ? f a T-J a T-I a dt 2 * dt S P 2 x QT* 1 1 a QT 2 SP 2 x d 1 * d 6 2 ' J_ _L '* d 6 2 a d 6' " and d 6 a d (/. R 2 260 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. IX. But they begin together and therefore 6 a tf and S = (- Hence it is clear the orbits have the same form, and hence is also sug- gested the necessity for making the angles 6, tf proportional. /-< Hence then X 7 , and X being given, we can find -~- such as shall ren- der the Trajectory traced by p, very nearly a circle. This is done ap- proximately by considering the given fixed orbit nearly a circle, and equating as in 336. 357. Ex. 1. To Jind the angle between the apsides when X' is constant. In this case (342) Y , . g 3 F 2 e + RG 2 RF 2 X' a 1 a -4 a - - g 3 3 Now making g = T x, where x is indefinitely diminishable, and equating, we have (T x) 3 = F 2 T F 2 x + RG 2 RF 2 = T 3 3T 2 x + 3Tx 2 x 3 and equating homologous terms (6) T 3 =F 2 T+RG 2 RF 2 =F 2 x (T and F 2 = 3 T 2 G_ 2 T 3 T R ' F 2 ~ R F 2 R T 3 T R ~ 3 RT 2 R T T R _ 3 R 2T 3 R R 3 R = nearly since R is = T nearly. Hence when F = 180 = = G = - the angle between the apsides of the Locus in which the force is constant. 358. Ex. 2. Let X 7 a g n ~ a . Then as before (T x) n = F 2 (T x) + RG 2 RF 2 and expanding and equating homologous terms T n_ F 2 T + RG RF* BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 261 and But since T nearly = R T&-1 _. Q2 '* F 2 = ~n~ and when F = centri- petal force, then centrifugal is always > centripetal force and the body will continue to ascend in infmitum. Again if at an apse the centrifugal be < the centripetal force, the centri- fugal is aWays < centripetal force and the body will descend to the center. The same is true if X' a and in all these cases, if centrifugal = centripetal the body describes a circle. 361. COR. 2. First let us compare the force -j- z c A, belonging to A. the moon's orbit, with F_* R G 2 R F 2 A 2 + A 3 Since the moon's apse proceeds, (n m) is positive. BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIP1A. 263 1 A .*. c A does not correspond to n m and .. -- 2 does not correspond F 2 Now A c A 4 b A m c A .-. X' a A~T^ J a A 1 4c _ F ' i_2 = G 2 RG 2 RF 2 _ 1 4c 3cR A 3 A 3 A 3 F* 1 4c , 1 ..-, = -,- and not -p and 3c R Hence also * ~ C 7 = . &c. &c. &c. . 1 4 c. 362. To determine the angle between the apsides generally. Let f ( A) meaning any function whatever of A. Then for Trajectories which are nearly circular, put f(A) F 2 A + R.(G 2 F ) A 3 A s .-. f. A = F 2 A + R(G 2 F 2 ) or f.(T x) =; F 2 (T x) + R(G 2 F 2 ) But expanding f (T x) by Maclaurin's Theorem (32) u = f (T x) =U U x x + IT" & c - iS TL U' &c. being the values of u. -T . -, 5 &c. d x d x 2 when x = 0, and therefore independent of x. Hence comparing homologous terms (6) we have U = F 2 T -f R (G 2 F 2 ) U' = F 2 E4 264, A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. IX. Also since R = T nearly U = TG 2 G 2 U F 2 ~" T.U' Hence when F = T, the angle between the apsides is / U " *VT7TJ' or ,U * N' U' making T = 1. Ex. 1. Let f (A) = b A m + c A n = u Then -3 = mbA m - 1 + nc A 11 - 1 , d x Hence since A = T when x = U'= mbT" 1 - 1 + nc T 11 - 1 GJ _ bT m + cT n "'* F 2 *~ mbT ra +ncT n or and G_ 2 b+ c F 2 ~ m b -f n c / b+ c y = * / 1 V m b + n c as in 359. Ex. 2. Let f . (A) = b A m + c A n + e A r + and .-. U = bT m +cT"+eT r + &c. T X U 7 = m b T ra + n c T n + r e T r + &c. . G^ _ b T m + c T n + e T r + &c. **' F 2 ~mbT m +ncT n +reT r +&c. or c+e+f+&c. when T = 1. Also &c. 7 = b + c + e in b + n c -J- r e + (D (2) &c. BOOK I,] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 265 Ex.3. Let -^ = a A = u. Here (17) du d. x ^ Hence U = T 2 a T x (3 + Tla) T X U' = T 3 a T (3 + Tla) G 2 1 F 2 = T X (3 + T 1 a) and when T = 1 G 2 1 F 2 " 3 +la y - t I 1 V3 + la Hence if a = e the hyperbolic base, since 1 e = 1, we have Ex.4. Letf(A) = e A = u. Then d u - fk ^ dx- .-. U = e T and T.U' = Te T G_ 2 J_ ' p 2 =: T .'. y = v. Ex. 5. Let ^J- = sin. A. u = f (A) = A 3 sin. A .% U = T 3 sin. T and 3-? = 3 A 2 sin. A + A 3 cos. A d x .-. TU / z=3T 3 sin.T + T 4 cos.T . 1 _ sin. T ' F 2 "~ 3 sin. T + T cos. T sin. T Tcos.T* 266 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. IX. = . Then 4 7 = 363. To prove that bA m +cA n 1 mb + nc a i j b+c = b.(l x) m + c.(l x) n = b + c (m b + n c) x + &c. 1 / mb+nc Q \ = vr~i 1 ! i x + &c. ) b + c\ b + c / 1 mb+ n c = u-7 X(l X) b + c v m b +_n_c . A "b + c 364. To Jind the apsides when the excentricity is infinitely great. Make 2 q : V (n + 1) : : velocity in the curve : velocity in the circle of the same distance a. Then (306) it easily appears that when F n n + 3 ' and gives the equation to the apsides, viz. (a + i ? n + 1 )^ 2 q 2 a n + J (a 2 g 2 ) = whose roots are a (and a when n is odd) and a positive and negative quantity (and when n is odd another negative quantity). Now when q = ( a n + l_gn + l) 2 = two of whose roots are 0, 0, and the roots above-mentioned consequently arise from q, which will be very small when q is. Again since when q and g are both very small ?' BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 267 and = + a q. /. the lower apsidal distance is a q. A nearer approximation is Hence n + 3 - qa 2 f V(f 2 a*q 2 + e) X Q where /3 contains q 4 &c. &c., and this must be integrated from g = b to I = a (b = a q). But since in the variation of from b to c, Q may be considered con- stant, we get a c 6 = sec. - '. -*- + C = sec. - l . . aq a q and ir 3v 5* ,. 7 = --, -g- , , &c. ultimately the apsidal distances required. Next let Then again, make v : v in a circle of the same distance : : q V 2 : V (n 1) and we get (306) o V a n-l s 3-n and for the apsidal distances n-l _ which gives (n > 1 and < 3) 2 f = a q 3 n' Hence =/; ,3-.n_ q 2 a 3-.n + ) x Q l r a qd^ VQ V . v7? 3 ~ n o 2 a 3 - n _ q a 268 A COMMENTARY ON SECT. IX. and 3 n 2 c 2 v 3 7 = 7i sec. - ' 3^n 3_n-3_ n - 3 _ n > qa 2 Hence, the orbit being indefinitely excentric, when It F g . ... we have . . . . 7 = 1 for F any number 7 = FaJL . . . 7= * g 2 Fa _J ^^x^ g number between 1 and 2 y 2 * F a pt?3 7>*- But by the principles of this 9th Section when the excentricity is inde- finitely small, and F cc n 7 = (see 358), and when V (n + 3) 7 " -v/ (3 n) Wherefore when n is > 1 7 increases as the excentricity from to -^ . -v/ (3 + n) 2 When F oc g y =r Is the same for all excentricities. IB When F a g - "? y decreases as the excentricity increases from ir * V(3 n) to 2" which is also true for F . g BOOK i.j NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 269 When Fot__^_ 2 y decreases as the excentricity increases from K It to V(3 n) w S iT When F -\ When F a 7 increases with the excentricity from to V (3 n) 3 n* If the above concise view of the method of finding the apsides in this particular case, the opposite of the one in the text, should prove obscure ; the student is referred to the original paper from which it is drawn, viz. a very able one in the Cambridge Philosophical Transactions, Vol. I, Part I, p. 179, by Mr. Whewell. 365. We shall terminate our remarks upon this Section by a brief dis- cussion of the general apsidal equations, or rather a recapitulation of re- sults the details being developed in Leybourne's Mathematical Repository, by Mr. Dawson of Sedburgh. It will have been seen that the equation of the apsides is of the form x n Ax m B = (1) the equation of Limits to which is (see Wood's Algeb.) nx n-i mAx m - 1 = (2) and gives /m A \ n x = (IT A ) i m If n and m are even and A positive, <; has two values, and the number of real roots cannot exceed 4 in that case. Multiply (1) by n and (2) by x and then we have (m n)Ax m nB = which gives and this will give two other limits if A, B be positive and m even ; and if (1) have two real roots they must each = x. 270 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. X. If m, n be even and B, A positive, there will be two pairs of equal roots. Make them so and we get (m-n) A ./.). B .-. = n n - m \m/ which will give the number of real roots. (1). If n be even and B positive there are two real roots. (2). If n be even, m odd, and B negative and (M), the coefficient to A n , negative, there are two ; otherwise none. . (3). If n, m, be even, A, B, negative, there are no real roots. (4). If m, n be even, B negative, and A positive, and (M) positive there are four real roots ; otherwise none. (5). If m, n be odd, and (M) positive there will be three or one real. (6). If m be even, n odd, and A, B have the same sign, there will be but one. (7). If m be even, n odd, and A, B have different signs, and M's sign differs from B's, there will be three or only one. (8). If x n + An ra B = then n is positive, and it must be > B, and the whole must be positive. If x n Ax m + B = the result is negative. SECTION X. 366. PROP. XL VI. The shortest line that can be drawn to a plane from a given point is the perpendicular let fall upon it. For since Q C S = right , any line Q S which subtends it must be > than either of the others in the same triangle, or S C is dy R -j , and R -v* d s d s Hence the whole forces along x and y are (see 46) d s x _ Y i "R d y~ TTT ** T "> TT dt 2 L "ds Again, eliminating R, we get and But ..v'=2/(Xdx + Ydy) ...... (1) Hence it appears that The velocity is independent of the reaction of the curve. 372. If the force be constant and in parallel lines, such as gravity, and x be vertical ; then X = -g and Y = and we have v 2 = 2/ gdx = 2g(c x) = 2g(h-x) h being the value of x, when v = ; and the height from which it begins to fall. 373. To determine the motion in a common cycloid, when the force is gravity. The equation to the curve A P is f2r x x r being the radius of the generating circle. /2r .*. ds =r dx . / - -V x VOL. I. S A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. X. and r.V(h X) being the ceRtrifugal force. If the body be acted on by gravity only R = or or gdy . = j" + f ds If the body be moved by a constant force in the origin of x, y, we have = F g d 6. S3 278 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. X. for xdy y d x = f 2 d 378. cycloid. .-. R = h ds or or ds Fgdd v* d s r (4) the tension of the string in the oscillation of a common Here but dy , d s d y = d x J d s = d x 2 a x 2a d y 2 a x cTs ~ V 2l~ and x) 2a-x + g (h - x) 2 a V2 a V(2 a x) 2 a + h 2 x = g ' 2 2 ax) ' When x = h When x = When moreover h = 2 a, the pressure at A the lowest point is =: 2 g. 379. To find the tension when the body oscillates in a circular arc by gravity. R 2 a h V (2 a h) ~ g ' V (4. a 2 2 ah) " g V (2 a) P 2 a + h _ /, . h BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PR1NCIPIA. 279 Here (c x) d x H v zz J 7 " V(2cx x*) c d x d s V (2 ex x 2 ) d_y __ c x d x c r = c ^J5 = 2 g (h x) R - c ~ x + 2 g < h " *) c c c + 2 h 3 x = g. . When x = c + 2h JL v ~* c 3 g or h = c. If it fall through the whole semicircle from the highest point h = 2 c, and R = 5g or the tension at the lowest point is five times the weight. When this tension = 0, c + 2 h 3 x = 0, or x = C + Q 2 - . u A body moving along a curve whose plane is vertical will quit it when R = that is when c + 2h v and then proceed to describe a parabola. / 380. To Jlnd the motion of a body upon a surface of revolution^ when acted on by forces in a plane passing through the axis. Referring the surface to three rectangular axes x, y, z, one of which (z) is the axis of revolution, another is also situated in the plane of forces, and the third perpendicular to the other two. Let the forces which act in the plane be resolved into two, one parallel to the axis of revolution Z, and the other F, into the direction of the radius-vector, projected upon the plane perpendicular to this axis. Then, S4, 280 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. X. calling this projected radius f, and resolving the reaction R (which also takes place in the same plane as the forces) into the same directions, these components are supposing ds:V'(dz off' is ds d~I f 2 ) and the whole force in the direction cU ds and resolving this again parallel to x and y, we have \ F + R t 2 d 2 y - and d 2 z dz y R = -- Z +R dT Hence we get x d* y y d g x __ n __ A xd y y d x dt ! dt and dxd*x+dyd 2 y+dzd*z__ -p, xdx+ y dy dt ! . d s d s Which, since x d x + y d y e Again dz 2 _ d_z dt 2 " d (D (2) and from the nature of the section of the surface made by a plane passing through the axis and body, -r is known in terms off. Let therefore dz BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPI A. 281 and we have d_z_ 2 2 dg 2 d t 2 " P dt 2 ' Also let the angle corresponding to g be 6, then xdy ydx = 2 d and dx 2 + dy* = dg 2 + e 2 d0 2 , and substituting the equations (2) and (3) become d. 1^1 = d t d p 2 e z d 6 Z d Integrating the first we have g 2 d 6 = h d t h being the arbitrary constant. or (4) The second can be integrated when 2 F d 2 Z d z is integrable. Now if for F, Z, z we substitute their values in terms of & the expression will become a function of and its integral will be also a function of g. Let therefore fCFdg + Zdz) = Q and we get which gives, putting for d t its value ..UP P 2 )hdg -h 2 } Hence also dt = - If the force be always parallel to the axis, we have F = and if also Z be a constant force, or if we then have /u\ Z ~ g Z . ..... .. (Oj 282 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. X. Z being to be expressed in terms off. 381. Tojind under what circumstances a body will describe a circle on a surface of revolution. For this purpose it must always move in a plane perpendicular to the axis of revolution ; *, z will be constant; also (Prop. IV) g cos. 6 = x d 2 x g cos. 6 d d " dT 2 " : dt 2 Also gd 6 v - d t d 2 x v 2 cos. 6 *' dT 1 : ~ * Hence as in the last art. If the force be gravity acting vertically along z, we have Z = g v 2 d z f **C Hence may be found the time of revolution of a Conical Pendulum. (See also 367.) 382. To determine the motion of a body moving so as not to describe a circle, when acted on by gravity. Here Q = gz and C 2 Q = 2 g. (k z) k being an arbitrary quantity. Also g 2 = 2 r z z* z being measured from the surface. .. g d = (r z) d z and p 2 r* BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 283 Hence (380) (k z}. (2 rz z s ) In order that the denominator of the above must be put =: ; i. e. 2 g (k z) (2 r z z 2 ) h 2 = or h 2 z '_(k + 2 r) z 2 -f 2k rz ^ = 2 which has two possible roots ; because as the body moves, it will reach one highest and one lowest point, and therefore two places when i- z -o dt ' Hence the equation has also a third root. Suppose these roots to be a , ft 7 where a is the greatest value of z, and /3 the least, which occur during the body's motion. Hence , _ __ r d z _ _ : V (2g) V (-_ z ).(z_/3)( 7 -z)- To integrate which let Then d z _ dz Also z sin. l 9 = -; 24 a /3 /. z = /S + (a |3) sin. * 6 and y z = 7 {(3 + (a 0) sin. * i = ( 7 _ |3) U _3 2 sin. 2 ^, if 'a S 3 = f3 284 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. X. 2 rd 6 .*. a t = ===== V2g. (y -). V[l d 2 sin.*6] which is to be integrated from z = (8, to z = a ; that is from 6 = to d = ~ this expanded hi the same way as in 374 gives 2r t = V2g( 7 i which is the time of a whole oscillation from the least to the greatest distance. Also h d t h d t d 6 = = 2rz z 2 and 6 is hence known in terms of z. 383. A body acted on by gravity moves on a surface of revolution whose axis is vertical : when its path is nearly circular, it is required to find the angle between the apsides of the path projected in the plane qfx, y. In this case /Zdz = gz = Q and if at an apse e = a, z = k we have (C 2gk)a t h 2 = Hence (380) V(l + P 8 )hdg x h 2 (a 2 -~ z)f " + \ h d Let L = _L+ e a V (1 + p 2 ) hd BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 285 2g(k z) h(i(V) z 9 w dO 2 h 2 (l + p a ) It is requisite to express the right-hand side of this equation in terms of Now since at an apse we have = 0, z = k, and g = a we have generally dz d 2 zw 2 the values of the differential coefficients being taken for = (see 32) And d z = p d = p * d d 2 z = 2 p g d d g * d u COS. =r COS. K P h = - GN NG-+ BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. P cos. e' = cos. K P g = p-.j| HN V(PN 2 q Whence, since cos. 3 f + cos - a *' + cos - * s" = 1 cos. 2 ?" = V ( 1 cos. 2 ? cos. 2 ') _ _ 1 _ = V(l+p2 + q2)- Substituting these values ; multiplying by d x, d y, d z respectively, in the three equations ; and observing that dz pdx qdy = we have and integrating and if this can be integrated, we have the velocity. If we take the three original equations, and multiply them respectively by p, q, and 1, and then add, we obtain d g x d 2 y d^z_ ~ P dt 2 ~~ q *dt 2 + dt 2 ~ P X qY+ Z + R V(l + p 2 +q 2 ). But d z = p d x -f- q d y. Hence d 2 z d 2 x d 2 ydpdx + dqdy d7*- p dT 2 + q dT 2 ~ t ~~dT 2 ~~ Substituting this on the first side of the above equation, and taking the value of R, we find _ pX-f qY Z dpdx + dqdy - V(l+p 2 4 q 2 ) "*" dt 2 V(l+p 2 +q 2 ) If in the three original equations we eliminate R, we find two second differential equations, involving the known forces X,Y, Z T3 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. X. and p, q, which are also known when the surface is known, combining with these the equation to the surface, by which z is known in terms of x, y, we have equations from which we can find the relation between the time and the three coordinates. 391. To find the path which a body "will describe upon a given surface, \a-hen acted itpon by no force. In this case we must make X, Y, Z each = 0. Then, if we multiply the three equations of the last art. respectively by -(qdz + dy), pdz + dx, qdx pdy and add them, we find, (qdz + dy)d 2 x + (pdz+dx) d 2 y + (qdx pdy)d 2 z /- (q d z + d y) cos. t ~\ = Rdt 2 -|+ (pdz+dx) cos. t' | \.+ (qdx pdy) cos. t" J or putting for cos. , cos. ', cos. i" their values Hence, for the curve described in this case, we have (pdz+dx)d 2 y = (pdy qd x) d 2 z+(q d z + dy) d 2 x. This equation expresses a relation between x, y, z, without any regard to the time. Hence, we may suppose x the independent variable, and d 2 x := ; whence we have (p d z + d x) d 2 y = (p d y q d x) d 2 z. This equation, combined with dz = pdx + qdy, gives the curve described, where the body is left to itself, and moves along the surface. The curve thus described is the shortest line which can be drawn from one of its points to another, upon the surface. The velocity is constant as appears from the equation v 2 = 2/(Xdx + Ydy + Zdz). By methods somewhat similar we might determine the motion of a point upon a given curve of double curvature, or such as lies not in one plane when acted upon by given forces. 392. Tojlnd the curve of 'equal pressure ', or that on 'which a body descend- ing bij the force of gravity, presses equally at all points. BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. Let A M be the vertical abscissa = x, M P the hori- zontal ordinate = y ; the arc of the curve s, the time t, and the radius of curvature at P = r, r being positive when the curve is concave to the axis ; then R being the reaction at P, we have by what has preceded. R _g d y , ds * m TT + Tdfi But if H M be the height due to the velocity at P, A H = h, we have ds 2 dt = 2 g (h - x). Also, if we suppose d s constant, we have (74) d s d x and if the constant value of R be k, equation ( 1 ) becomes k ^gdy 2g(h-x)d 2 y d s d s d x A/ /h ^ 2 ~ ' x ' 295 H M Ji dx A/ /h ^ d 2 y d y d x " "g *2 V (h x)~ ' x; '"aT"~dl'2V"(h x) The right-hand side is obviously the differential of (h ds 1 hence, integrating k dy _ _k_ d s " g V (h x) If C = 0, the curve becomes a straight line inclined to the horizoi^, which obviously answers the condition. The sine of inclination is . o In other cases the curve is found by equation (2), putting V(dx 2 +dy 2 ) fords and integrating. If we differentiate equation (2), d s being constant, we have y_ Cdx ds 2 (h x) 2 dsdx_ 2(h x) And if C be positive, r is positive, and the curve is concave to the axis. 296 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. X. We have the curve parallel to the axis, as at C, when ^ = 0, that is, ds , when = g ; when -x) x = h When x increases beyond this, the curve approaches the axis, and -p^ is negative ; it can never become < 1 ; hence B the limit of x is found by making i._ c _ or C 2 g 2 If k be < g, as the curve descends towards Z, it approximates perpe- tually to the inclination, the sine of which is . o If k be > g there will be a point at which the curve becomes horizontal. C is known from (2), (3), if we knew the pressure or the radius of cur- vature at a given point. If C be negative, the curve is convex to the axis. In this case the part of the pressure arising from centrifugal force diminishes the part arising from gravity, and k must be less than g. 393. To find the curve which cuts a given assemblage of curves, so as to make them Synchronous, or descriptible ly the force of gravity in the same time. Let A P, A P', A P", &c. be curves of the same kind, referred to a common base A D, and differing only in their parameters, (or the constants in their equations, such as the radius of a circle, the axes of an ellipse, &c.) Let the vertical A M = x, M P (horizontal) = y ; y and x being connected by an equation E involving a. The time down A P is /- dx the integral being taken between x = and x = A M ; and this must be the same for all curves, whatever (a) may be. BOOK L] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 297 Hence, we may put /ds _ , ~ k being a constant quantity, and in differentiating, we must suppose (a) variable as well as x and s. Let d s = pd x p being a function of x, and a which will be of dimensions, because d x, and d s are quantities of the same dimensions. Hence P dx _u and differentiating Pf X x +qda = .......... (2) V(2gx) n Now, since p is of dimensions in x, and a, it is easily seen that f P dx J is a function whose dimensions in x and a are , because the dimensions of an expression are increased by 1 in integrating. Hence by a known property of homogeneous functions, \v e have P* .+qa=|k; V (2gx) n p V x 2a aV(2g) substituting this in equation (2) it becomes pdx kda pda V x __ ... V(2gx) H ' 2 a ~a V (2 g) " in which, if we put for (a) its value in x and y, we have an equation to the curve P P' F'. If the given time (k) be that of falling down a vertical height (h), we have and hence, equation (3) becomes p (a d x x d a) -f d a V (h x) = . . . . (4} Ex. Let the curves A P, A P', A P" be all cycloids of which the bases coincide Moith A D. Let C D be the axis of any one of these cycloids and = 2 a, a being the radius of the generating circle. If C N = x', we shall have as before ds = dx' /'?-? "V X r 298 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. X. and since x' = 2 a x 2a ds =r dx ^ I- 2a x* Hence 2a and equation (4) becomes V_(2a)(adx-xda) _ V 2 a x t ' ' Let = u a so that adx x d a = a 2 du x = au; and substituting a z du V 2 . du V 2 da V h V(2u-uV a f . V 2 x vers. - l u 2 J - = C (6) *l a When a is infinite, the portion A P of the cycloid becomes a vertical line, and x = h, .-. u = 0, .-. C = 0. Hence Xo |-> / 40 11 / i*-\ = vers. / (7) a % a From this equation (a) should be eliminated by the equation to the cycloid, which is y = a vers. ~ l V (2 a x x 2 ) . . . . (8) and we should have the equation to the curve required. Substituting in (8) from (7), we have y= V (2 ah) V(2ax x 2 ) , _da\^h xda + adx xdx ' ~V~(2a)~ V (2 ax x 2 ) and eliminating d a by (5) dj^ 2 a x . 2 a x dx~ V(2ax x 2 ) ~ ">i x BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 299 But differentiating (8) supposing (a) constant, we have in the cycloid x And hence (31) the curve P P' P" cuts the cycloids all at right angles, the subnormal of the former coinciding with the subtangent of the latter, each being 2a x y ' AOO The curve P P' P" will meet A D in the point B, such that the given time is that of describing the whole cycloid A B. It will meet the vertical line in E, so that the body falls through A E in the given time. 394. If instead of supposing all the cycloids to meet in the point A, we suppose them all to pass through any point C, their bases still being in the same line A D ; a curve P P' drawn so that the times down P C, P 7 C, &c. are all equal, will cut all the cycloids at right angles. This may easily be demonstrated. 395. Tojind Tautochronous curves or those down which to a given Jtxed point a body descending all distances shall move in the same time. (1) let the force be constant and act in parallel lines. Let A the lowest point be the fixed point, D that from which the body falls, A B vertical, B D, M P horizontal. A M = x, A P = s, A B = h, and the constant force = g. Then the velocity at P is v= x) and ds v '" V 2g V (h x) and the whole time of descent will be found by integrating this from x = h, to x = 0. Now, since the time is to be the same, from whatever point D the body falls, that is whatever be h, the integral just mentioned, taken between the limits, must be independent of h. That is, if we take the integral so as to vanish when x = and then put h for x, h will disappear altogether from the result. This must manifestly arise from its being possible to put the result in a form 300 ' A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. X. involving only -p- , as r-^ , &c. ; that is from its being of dimensions in x and h. Let ds = p dx where p depends only on the curve, and does not involve h. Then, we have ,._A P d *- _ Af P dx j_ ] Pxdx 1.3 px'dx + ~" + nncl from what has been said, it is evident, that each of the quantities /p d x /-pxdx /px n dx 1 > J 5~~ > 7 2n>l" -- h must be of the form C X 2 -2 n + 1 > h 2 that is 8n + I f p x n d x must = c x 2 ; hence 2 n + I iJLr. 1 p x n d x = jj ex a d x ; 23 _ 2n + 1 _c_ P o :* A x 2 or if 2n + 1 2 C ~ a and a d s = dx ./ x which is a property of the cycloid. Without expanding, the thing may thus be proved. If p be a function of m dimensions in x, , r- - : is of in A dimensions : and as the V (h x) dimensions of an expression are increased by 1 in integrating f P dx J v (h x) BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PKINCIPIA. 301 is of m + 1 dimensions in x, and when h is put for x, of m -f dimen- sions in h. But it ought to be independent of h or of dimensions Hence m+ \ = .-. p = a * x ~ * as before. 396. (2) Let the force tend to a center and vary as any function of the distance. Required the Tautochronous Curve. Let S be the center of force, A the point to which the body must descend ; D the point from which it descends. Let also SA = e, SD = f, S P = ?, AP = s P being any point whatever. Now we have v 2 = C : or if the velocity being when g f. Hence the time of describing D A is t = /_ d?_ taken from g = f, to g = e. And since the time must be the same what- ever is D, the integral so taken must be independent of f. Let pf f e = h d s = p d z p depending on the nature of the curve, and not involving f. Then ,, (h = f , ,, - r , from z = h to z = J V (h z) 5 from z = to z = h. ri - J V (h z) And this must be independent of f, and therefore of

z V p g p e' whence the curve is known. If & be the angle A S O, we have ds 2 = dg 2 + g 2 dd 2 and whence may be found a polar equation to the curve. 397. Ex. 1. Let the force vary as the distance, and be attractive. Then F = & , 9 g = A* s 2 5 z = pg pe = /i(f 2 e 2 ); dz = 4 c when P = e, -j is infinite or the curve is perpendicular to S A at A. d 8 If S Y, perpendicular upon the tangent P Y, be called p, we have g 2 ~ ds 2 -i_it! ds 2 = i_ii=-^ 4c/*g 2 t _ 4c,<* If e = 0, or the body descend to the center, this gives the logarithmic spiral. In other cases let - BOOK I.] and .. 4 c p = NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. a 2 e 2 303 the equation to the Hypocycloid (370) If 4 c (Jt, = 1, the curve becomes a straight line, to which S A is per- pendicular at A. If 4 c /* be > 1 the curve will be concave to the center and go off to infinity. 398. Ex. 2. Let the force vary inversely as the square of the distance. Then Uf Tr* ^ and as before we shall find 2 fjt, c e 399. A body being acted upon by a force in parallel lines, in its descent from one point to another, to find the Brachystochron, or the curve of quick- est descent between them. Let A, B be the given points, and A O P Q B the required cui've. Since the time down A O P Q B is less than down any other curve, if we take another as A O p Q B, which coincides with the former, except for the arc O P Q, we shall have Time down A O : T. O P Q + T. Q B, less than Time down A O+T. O p Q + T. Q B and if the times down Q B be the same on the two suppositions, we shall have T. O P Q less than the time down any other arc O p Q. The times down Q B will be the same in the two cases if the velocity at Q be the same. But we know that the velocity acquired at Q is the same, whether the body descend down A O P Q, or A O p Q. Hence it appears that if the time down A O P Q B be a minimum, the time down any portion O P Q is also a minimum. 304 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. X. Let a vertical line of abscissas be taken in the direction of the force; and perpendicular ordinates, O L, P M, Q N be drawn, it being sup- posed that L M = M N. Then, if L M, M N be taken indefinitely small, we may consider them as representing the differential of x : On this supposition, O P, P Q, will represent the differentials of the curve, and the velocity may be supposed constant in O P, and in P Q. Let AL = x, LO = y, OA = s, and let d x, d y, d s be the differentials of the abscissa, ordinate, and curve at Q, and v the velocity there ; and d x 7 , d y', d s', v' be the cor- responding quantities at P. Hence the time of describing O P Q will be (46) d_s d s' V + ~V which is a minimum ; and consequently its differential = 0. This dif- ferential is that which arises from supposing P to assume any position as p out of the curve O P Q; and as the differentials indicated by d arise from supposing P to vary its position along the curve O P Q, we shall use 3 to indicate the differentiation, on hypothesis of passing from one curve to another, or the variations of the quantities to which it is prefixed. We shall also suppose p to be in the line M P, so that d x is not sup- posed to vary. These considerations being introduced, we may pro- ceed thus, And v, v' are the same whether we take O P Q, or O p Q ; for the velocity at p = velocity at P. Hence a v = 0, 3 v' = and 3ds b d s' -p - -. 0. v v' Now d s 2 = d x 2 + d y 8 .*. ds3ds = dy3dy, (for 3 d x = 0). Similarly d s' o d s' = d y' a d y . BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 305 Substituting the value of 3 d s, a d s' which these equations give, we have dy3dy dy'3dy' ._ v d s v' d s' And since the points O, Q, remain fixed during the variation of P's position, we have d y + d y' = const. 3 d y' = 3 d y. Substituting, and omitting 3 d y, At =0 . v d s v' d s' Or, since the two terms belong to the successive points O, P, their difference will be the differential indicated by d ; hence, dy ' vd s ~~ .-. f- = const. . . . (2) v d s Which is the property of the curve ; and v being known in terms of x, we may determine its nature. Let the force be gravity ; then v= V(2gx); d y -i 7-7"^ s const. ds v' (2gx) dy 1 ds V x ~~ V a a being a constant. . iy - / 'ds ~ V a which is a property of the cycloid, of which the axis is parallel to x, and of which the base passes through the point from which the body falls. If the body fall from a given point to another given point, setting off with the velocity acquired down a given height; the curve of quickest descent is a cycloid, of which the base coincides with the horizontal line, from which the body acquires its velocity. 400. If a body be acted on by gravity, the curve of its quickest descent from a given point to a given curve, cuts the lattei' at right angles. Let A be the given point, and B M the given curve ; A B the curve of quickest descent cuts B M at right angles. VOL. I. U 306 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. X. It is manifest the curve A B must be a cycloid, for otherwise a cycloid might be drawn from A to B, in which the descent would be shorter. If possible, let A Q be the cycloid of quickest descent, the angle A Q B being acute. Draw another cycloid A P, and let P P' be the curve which cuts A P, A Q so as to make the arcs A P, A P' synchronous. Then (394) P P' is perpendicular to A Q, and therefore manifestly P' is between A and Q, and the time down A P is less than the time down A Q ; therefore, this latter is not the curve of quickest descent. Hence, if A Q be not perpendicular to B M, it is not the curve of quickest descent. The cycloid which is perpendicular to B M may be the cycloid of longest descent from A to B M. 401. If a body be acted on by gravity, and if A B be the curve of quickest descent from the curve A L to the point B ; A T, the tangent of A L at A, is parallel to B V, a perpen- dicular to the curve A B at B. If B V be not parallel to A T, draw B X parallel to A T, and falling between B V and A. In the curve A L take a point a near to A. Let a B be the cycloid of quick- est descent from the point a to the point B; and Bb being taken equal and parallel to a A, let A b be a cycloid equal and similar to a B. Since A B V is a right angle, the curve B P, which cuts off A P synchronous to A B, has B V for a tan- gent. Also, ultimately A a coincides with A T, and therefore B b with B X. Hence B is between A and P. Hence, the time down A b is less than the time down A P, and therefore, than that down A B. And hence the time down a B (which is the same as that down A b) is less than that down A B. Hence, if B V be not parallel to A T, A B is not the line of quickest descent from A L to B. 402. Supposing a body to be acted on by any forces whatever, to determine the Brachystochron. Making the same notations and suppositions as before, A L, L O. (see a preceding figure) being any rectangular coordinates ; since, as before, the time down O P Q is a minimum, we have BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 307 ads ads 7 dsSv ds'av' _ v v' v 2 V 2 Now as before we also have d yady ads = ^5 - *- ds supposing a d x = 0, and ad^-dy'-ad/- d/.ady ~dV~ ds' dv = for v is the velocity at O and does not vary by altering the curve. v' = v + d v dv' = av + adv = adv. Hence dyady _ d y' a d y d s / a d v _ v d s v' d s' -v' 2 Also __ _ v'~v+dv"~"v v 2 ' for d v \ &c. must be omitted. Substituting this in the second term of the above equation, we have dy. ady _ d y 7 a d y d y 7 d v a d y _ ds' d d v _ vds vds' v 2 ds / ~V~~ or /d/ d y\ 1_ dy r .dv _ ch/ a d v _ ~ \d~?~d~W' v + "oTs 7 7v T ~v 72 " ' ~ Now as before .__ . d s' d s ' d s * And in the other terms we may, since O, P, are indefinitely near, put d s, d y, v for d s', d y', v' : if we do this, and multiply by v, we have dy dy.dv ds adv d! ds.v v'ady- which will give the nature of the curve. If the forces which act on the body at O, be equivalent to X in the direction of x, and Y in the direction of y, we have (371) vdv=Xdx+Ydy Xdx+ Ydy .-. d v = - -- * v Yady .*. a d v = - * v U2 308 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. X. because 3 v = 0, # d x = ; also X and Y are functions of A L, and L O, and therefore not affected by d. Substituting these values in the equation to the curve, we have , dy dy Xdx+Ydy . ds Y . Q j j Q -f- . " dsds v a vv or dy dx Xdy Ydx_ A Q . "j ~~ ~j U d s d s v 2 which will give the nature of the curve. If r be the radius of curvature, and d s constant, we have (from 74) d s d x r r being positive when the curve is convex to A M ; and hence , d y d x d. -3-*- = d s r v_ 2 _ Xdy Ydx r d s V The quantity is the centrifugal force (210), and therefore that part ~, ,. , f v j of the pressure which arises from it. And Ydx. . , is the pressure which arises from resolving the forces perpendicular to the axis. Hence, it appears then in the Brachystochron for any given forces, the parts of the pressure which arise from the given forces and from the centrifugal force must be equal. 403. If we suppose the force to tend to a center S, which may be assumed to be in the line A M, and F to be the whole force ; also if SA=a, S P = g, SY = p; then we have Xdy Ydx ds = force in P S resolved parallel to and v 2 = C 2/gFd> -2g/Fdg = Fp r S also dp BOOK L] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 309 2dp_ 2Fdg p = C-2g/Fd f and integrating whence the relation of p and g is known. If the body begin to descend from A C 2g/Fdg = when g = a. 404. Ex. 1. Let the force vary directly as the distance. Here which agrees with the equation to the Hypocycloid (370). 405. Ex. 2. Let the force vary inversely as the square of the distance ; then 2 /a C x a P 2 a T\ * ^"" * f* * _ a f by supposition. e 3 + c 2 p c 2 a c V (a g).dg 'g ^ (S 3 + c 2 ^ c*a) When g = a, d d = ; when 3 + c? f c Ea = d ^ is infinite, and the curve is perpendicular to the radius as at B. This equation has only one real root. If we have c = , S B = ~ <& & B being an apse. U3 810 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. X. J.I C 5 ; < O Jt$ ^^ 5 ; < "; ; 1 n s + n n 2 + 1 406. When a body moves on a given surface^ to determine the Brachy- stochron. Let x, y, z be rectangular coordinates, x being vertical ; and as before let d s, d s' be two successive elements of the curve ; and let d x, d y, d z, dx', dy', dz' be the corresponding elements of x, y, z ; then since the minimum pro- perty will be true of the indefinitely small portion of the curve, we have as before, supposing v, v' the velocities, ds ds' H -- - =. mm. The variations indicated by 5 are those which arise, supposing d x, d x' to be equal and constant, and d y, d z, d y', d z' to vary Now d s 2 = dx 2 -f dy 2 + dz 2 .. d s a d s = d y a d y -\-dzddz. Similarly d s' a d s' = d y' 3 d y' + d z' d d z. Also, the extremities of the arc d s + d s' being fixed, we have d y + d y' = const. .-. ady + Sdy' = d z + d z' = const .-. o d z + S d z' = 0. Hence ..- (2) -adz d s' d s' And the surface is defined by an equation between x, y, z, which we may call L = 0. BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPLE 311 Let this differentiated give dz=pdx + qdy ....... (3) Hence, since d x, p, q are not affected by 8 3dz = q5dy ......... (4) For the sake of simplicity, we will suppose the body to be acted on only by a force in the direction of x, so that v, v' will depend on x alone, and will not be affected by the variation of d y, d z. Hence, we have by (1) 3ds ad s'_ +-^ which, by substituting from (2) becomes y' d y 1 * ,f dz/ d z 1 * i i / -- j \- a d y + -! -j / -- ;y P d z = o. v d s' vdsj \ v' d s' vdsj Therefore we shall have, as before .-- . ,- v d s v d s and by equation (4), this becomes d.4f- + qd.4^ = <) ...... (5) v d s v d s whence the equation to the curve is known. If we suppose the body not to be acted on by any force, v will be con- stant, and the path described will manifestly be the shortest line which can be drawn on the given surface, and will be determined by d.^+q.d.^=0 ... . (6) d s d s If we suppose d s to be constant, we have d 2 y + qd 2 z = which agrees with the equation there deduced for the path, when the body is acted on by no forces. Hence, it appears that when a body moves along a surface undisturbed, it will describe the shortest line which can be drawn on that surface, be- tween any points of its path. 407. Let P and Q be two bodies, of 'which the Jirst hangs from affixed point and the second from the Jirst by means of inextensible strings A P, P Q; it is required to determine the small oscillations. Let A M = x, M P = y, A N = x', N Q = y' A P = a, P Q = a' , mass of P = p, of Q = (jf tension of A P =p,of PQ = p'. ___ i _L ______ I v -t- V gdt 2 W P a ) y T pa' 3 "dT 2 = ~a 7 ~~"a 7 Multiply the second of these equations by X and add it to the first, and we have gdt 2 , ~ \p~af + ~p~a a 7 ") y " " W " ~~ AMI'/ y and manifestly this can be solved if the second member can be put in the form k . (y + X y') that is, if , p f p -\- p' x ~ p af pa, af BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 313 kx-- * --*- K A _ . . a' u, a or a /& a Eliminating X we have (a'k-l)a'k ' = (a'k-1) (* + *' + * & \ p a . V./* Hence a (i a. From this equation we obtain two values of k. Let these be de- noted by 'k, 2 k and let the corresponding values of X, be Then, we have these equations. and it is easily seen that the integrals of these equations are y + ^y' = 'C cos. t V ('kg) + L D sin. t V ( J k g) y + 2 X y' = 2 C cos. t V ( 2 k g) + 2 D sin. t V ( 2 k g) 'C, 1 D, 2 C, 2 D being arbitrary constants. But we may suppose 1 C = J E cos. J e 1 D = J E sin. ! e 2 C = 2 E cos. 2 e D 2 = 2 E sin. 2 e By introducing these values we find y + 'A y/ = E cos. {t V ('k g) + e} l (5) y + *X y' = 2 E cos. [t V ( 2 k g) + 2 e From these we easily find cos - 1 21? I * ' ' ("/ y'=ixrr^x COSt {t v ( lk g)+ le ^ +^zr^ cos - & v ( 2k g)+ 2e U The arbitrary quantities 1 E, J e, 8z:c. depend on the initial position and 314 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. X. velocity of the points. If the velocities of P, Q = 0, when t = 0, we shall have 'E, 2 e, each = as appears by taking the Differentials of y, y 7 . If either of the two % 2 E be = 0, we shall have (supposing the latter case and omitting *e) 2 x 'E y = 2 - j-cos. t V ('kg) Hence it appears that the oscillations in this case are symmetrical : that is, the bodies P, Q come to the vertical line at the same time, have similar and equal .motions on the two sides of it, and reach their greatest dis- tances from it at the same time. It is .easy to see that in this case, the motion has the same law of time and velocity as in a cycloidal pendulum ; and the time of an oscillation, in this case, extends from when t = to when t V ( : k g) = it. Also if /3, /3' be the greatest horizontal deviation of P, Q, we shall have y = j8. cos. t V (*kg) y 7 = /S'.cos. t V ('kg). In order to find the original relation of /3, /3', (the oscillations will be symmetrical if the forces which urge P, Q to the vertical be as P M, Q N, as is easily seen. Hence the conditions for symmetrical oscillation might be determined by finding the position of P, Q that this might originally be the relation of the forces) that the oscillations may be of this kind, the original velocities being 0, we must have by equation (5) since 2 E = 0. p + 2 x p = o. Similarly, if we had p + J x p = o we should have 'E = 0, and the oscillations would be symmetrical, and would employ a time V( 2 kg)' When neither of these relations obtains, the oscillations may be consi- dered as compounded of two in the following manner : Suppose that we put y = Hcos. t V ('kg) + Kcos. t V ( 2 kg) ... (7) omitting l e, 2 e, and altering the constants hi equation (6) ; and suppose that we take M p = H . cos. t V ( l k g) ; BOOK L] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 315 Then p will oscillate about M according to the law of a cycloidal pen- dulum (neglecting the vertical motion). Also p P will - K . cos. t V ( 2 k g). Hence, P oscillates about p according to a similar law, while p oscil- lates about M. And in the same way, we may have a point q so moved, that Q shall oscillate about q in a time V( 2 kg) while q oscillates about N in a time And hence, the motion of the pendulum A P Q is compounded of the motion A p q oscillating symmetrically about a vertical line, and of A P Q oscillating symmetrically about A p q, as if that were a fixed vertical line. When a pendulum oscillates in this manner it will never return exactly to its original position if V 'k, V 2 k are incommensurable. If V 'k, V 2 k are commensurable so that we have m V 'k = n V * k m and n being whole numbers, the pendulum will at certain intervals, re- turn to its original position. For let t V ( 'k g) = 2 n . . . . (1) d y n _ p n g f y n - d t ft a And as in the last, it will appear that p 1} p 2 , &c. may, for these small oscillations, be considered constant, and the same as in the state of rest. Hence if then pi = M, p 2 = M A*i5 PS = M /*, ^ &c. Also, dividing by g, and arranging, the above equations may be put in this form : 318 A COMMENTARY ON X. 3i P2 y2 P3 P3 33 d 2 y 2 _ pg yi / p 2 g d t 2 to 2 ^ ^to a 2 d2 y3 ._ Psya /p 3 PM L P*y* . ,1 . 2 .. "~ I "1" J J3 T "~ g Cl t /*3 3 3 x/Og 83 /AS a4/ ,^3 3.1 gdt' _ Pny n _: p n y n At a in n (1) The first and last of these equations become symmetrical with the rest if we observe that y = and Pn+l = 0. Now if we multiply these equations respectively by 1, X, X', X", &c. and add them, we have d'yi + X d 2 y g + X' d 2 y 3 4- &c. _ ~gd~t*~ P2 M ( PJL_ I to 3l to 2 a 2 /ct2 a P3 , P to a s to | *n-i a n ^ n a n and this will be integrable, if the right-hand side of the equation be redu- cible to this form k (y t + X y 2 + X' y s + &c.). That is, if V _ Pi .J. ?2 lY ~ a. 2 /J> 3 a + J?*-) + ^P* ^ a 4 / to a 4 /"n - 1 a n 4 n 3n (S) BOOK L] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 319 If we now eliminate X, X', X", &C. from these n equations, it is easily seen that we shall have an equation of n dimensions in k. Let l k, 2 k, 3 k n k be the n values of k ; then for each of these there is a value of \ f \" \ f " /. , A , A easily deducible from equations (3), which we may represent by 'X, 'X', 'X", &c. 2 X', 2 X", 2 X'", &C. Hence we have these equations by taking corresponding values X and k, &c .) o and so on, making n equations. Integrating each of these equations we get, as in the last problem yi + * y 2 + '*' y a + &c. = 'E cos. ft V ('k g) + ej | , 5) yi + 2 * y 2 + 2 *' ya + &c. = 2 E cos . ft v ( 2 k g ) + 2 e} / *E, 2 E, &c. 'e, 2 e, &c. being arbitrary constants. From these n simple equations, we can, without difficulty, obtain the n quantities yj, y 2 , &c. And it is manifest that the results will be of this form y^'Hj cos. ft V ( J kg) + 1 e}+ 2 H 1 cos.ftV( 2 kg) + 2 e} + &c.-j ygrz^cos-ft V ( l kg) + 'e] + 2 H 2 cos.ft V( 2 kg) + 2 e} + &c. V . . . (6) &c. = &c. ) where 1 H 1 , 1 H 2 , &c. must be deduced from /Sj, /3 2 , &c. the original values ofyu y 2 , &c. If the points have no initial velocities (i. e. when t = 0) we shall have 1 E = 0, 2 E = 0, &c. We may have symmetrical oscillations in the following manner. If, of the quantities J E, 2 E, 3 E, &c. all vanish except one, for instance n E ; we have yi + I Xy 2 + 1 X'y 3 + &c. = yi + ^y 2 + 2 ^y3 + &c. = o 3 ^ &c. = o .... (7) omitting n E. 320 A COMMENTARY ON .[SECT. X. From the n 1 of these equations, it appears that y 2 , y 3 , &c. are in a given ratio to y t ; and hence is a given multiple of y l and = m y t suppose. Hence, we have m y l = n E cos. V ( n k g) ; or, omitting the index n, which is now unnecessary, m yj = E cos. t V (k g). Also if y 2 = eg yi, m y a = E e 2 cos. t V (k g) and similarly for y 3 &c. Hence, it appears that in this case the oscillations are symmetrical. All the points come into the vertical line at the same time, and move similar- ly, and contemporaneously on the two sides of it. The 'relation among the original ordinates ft, /3 2 , /3 3 , &c. which must subsist in order that the oscillations may be of this kind, is given by the n 1 equations (7), &c. = &c. = &c. = &c. = &c. These give the proportion of & # 2 , &c ; the arbitrary constant n E, in the remaining equation, gives the actual quantity of the original displace- ment Also, we may take any one of the quantities J E, S E, 3 E, &c. for that which does not vanish ; and hence obtain, in a different way, such a sys- tem of n 1 equations as has just been described. Hence, there are n different relations among ft /3 2 , &c. or n different modes of arrangement, in which the points may be placed, so as to oscillate symmetrically. ( We might here also find these positions, which give symmetrical oscil- lations, by requiring the force in each of the ordinates P t MI, P 2 M 2 to be as the distance; in which case the points P 1? P 2 , &c. would all come to the vertical at the same time. If the quantities V : k, V 2 k have one common measure, there will be a time after which the pendulum will come into its original position. And it will describe similar successive cycles of vibrations. If these quantities be not commensurable, no portion of its motion will be similar to any preceding portion.) The time of oscillation in each of these arrangements is easily known ; the equation m yj = n E cos. t V ( n k g) BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 321 shows that an oscillation employs a time And hence, if all the roots *k, 2 k, 3 k, &c. be different, the tune is dif- ferent for each different arrangement. If the initial arrangement of the points be different from all those thus obtained, the oscillations of the pendulum may always be considered as compounded of n symmetrical oscillations. That is, if an imaginary pen- dulum oscillate symmetrically about the vertical line in % time and a second imaginary pendulum oscillate about the place of the first, considered as a fixed line, in the time and a third about the second, in the same manner, in the tune and so on; the n th pendulum may always be made to coincide per- petually with the real pendulum, by properly adjusting the amplitudes of the imaginary oscillations. This appears by considering the equations (6), viz. yx = 'Hi cos. t V ( l k g) + 2 Hi cos. t V ( 2 k g) + &c. &c. = &c. This principle of the coexistence of vibrations is applicable in all cases where the vibrations are indefinitely small. In all such cases each set of symmetrical vibrations takes place, and affects the system as if that were the only motion which it experienced. A familiar instance of this principle is seen in the manner in which the circular vibrations, produced by dropping stones into still water, spread from their respective centers, and cross without disfiguring each other. If the oscillations be not all made in one vertical plane, we may take a horizontal ordinate z perpendicular to y. The oscillations in the direc- tion of y will be the same as before, and there will be similar results ob- tained with respect to the oscillations in the direction of z. We have supposed that the motion in the direction of x, the vertical axis, may be neglected, which is true when the oscillations are very small. 410. Ex. Let there be three bodies all equal (each = ^), and also their distances & 19 a 2 , a 3 all equal (each = a). VOL. I. X 322 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. X. Here and equations (3) become ak = 5 2 X akx = 2 + 3 X X' a k X' = X + X'. Eliminating k, we have 5X 2X 2 = 2 + 3X X', 5 X' 2 X X' = X + X', or X' = 2X 2 2X 2, 4 X' 2 X X' = X ... X' = X or 2 X 4 .. (2X 2 2X 2)(2X 4) = X -X + 2 =0, 4 which may be solved by Trigonometrical Tables. We shall find three values of X. Hence, we have a value of X' corresponding to each value of X ; and then by equations (7) . 13 + 2 X& + 2 X' J 3 3 =OJ whence we find /3 2 , /3 3 in terms of &. We shall thus find & = 2. 295 & or 13. = 1.348/3, or 13,= .64,313, according as we take the different values of X. And the times of oscillation in each case will be found by taking tlie value of a k = 5 2 X; that value of X being taken which is not used in equation (7'). For the time of oscillation will be given by making t V (k g) = *. If the values of /3 1} J3 2 , /3 3 have not this initial relation, the oscillations BOOK I.I NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 323 will be compounded in a manner similar to that described in the example for two bodies only. 411. A flexible chain, of uniform thickness, hangs from a fixed point : to find its initial form, that its small oscillations may be symmetrical. Let A M, the vertical abscissa = x ; M P the hori- zontal ordinate = y; A P = s, and the whole length A C = a; .-. A P = a s. And as before, the tension at P, when the oscillations are small, will be the weight of P C, and may be represent- ed by a s. This tension will act in the direction of a tangent at P, and hence the part of it in the direction P M will be tension X i* d s or (a s) JJ. d s Now, if we take any portion P Q = h, we shall find the horizontal force at Q in the same manner. For the point Q, supposing d s constant dy , dy - becomes 3-* -f- -j - 2 . ds d s d s * 1 d 2 y h , d 3 y h 2 - + ^ = &c. s 3 1.2 (see 32). Also, the tension will be a s + h. Hence the horizontal force in the direction N Q, is Subtracting from this the force in P M, we have the force on P Q horizontally. and the mass of P Q being represented by h, the accelerating force (= -B\ is found. But since the different points of P Q move V. mass / with different velocities, this expression is only applicable when h is inde- finitely small. Hence, supposing Q to approach to and coincide with P, we have, when h vanishes accelerating force on P = (a s) ^. X 2 ds* 324 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. X. But since the oscillations are indefinitely small, x coincides with s and we have d 2 v d v accelerating force on P = (a x) -j ^ -r-^-. Now, in order that the oscillations may be symmetrical, this force must be in the direction P M, and proportional to P M, in which case all the points of A C, will come to the vertical A B at once. Hence, we must have (a x)^_ ^ = kdy . (1) 1 dx 2 d x k being some constant quantity to be determined. This equation cannot be integrated in finite terms. To obtain a series let y = A+ B.(a x)+ C(a x) 2 + &c. ..^-| = B 2C(a x) 3D(a x) 2 .-. ? = 1. 2. C + 2. 3 D (a x) + &c. Hence gives = 1. 2. C (a x) + 2. 3 D (a x) 2 + &c. + B + 2 C (a x) + 3 D (a x) 2 + &c. + kA + kB(a x) + kC(a x) 2 + &c. Equating coefficients ; we have B = k A, 2 2 C= kB 3 2 D = k C &c. = &c. .-. B = k A r k 2 A c = -5T- D = 2 k 3 A 2 2 .3 2 &c. = &c. and v = ..(2) BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PBINCIPIA. 325 Here A is B C, the value of y when x = a. When x = 0, y = ; lr S a 2 V 3 fl 3 .M-ka + ^| -L_l_ + &c. = ..... (3) From this equation (k) may be found. The equation has an infinite number of dimensions, and hence k will have an infinite number of values, which we may call i]f SI, a]f 1 ft, PL) ... A. . . J, and these give an infinite number of initial forms, for which the chain may perform symmetrical oscillations. The time of oscillation for each of these forms will be found thus. At the distance y, the force is k g y : hence by what has preceded, the time to the vertical is 2 V (k g) and the time of oscillation is ^ (k g) ' (The greatest value of k a is about 1.44 (Euler Com. Acad. Petrop. torn. viii. p. 43). And the tune of oscillation for this value is the same as g that of a simple pendulum, whose length is a nearly.) B The points where the curve cuts the axis will be found by putting y = 0. Hence taking the value n k of k, we have nlfZ/j, Y \ 2 n k 3 (a. v^ * = l_^k(a-x)+- ^ -+ 23* +&C ' which will manifestly be verified, if n k (a x) = 'k a or n k (a x) = 2 k a or *k(a x) = 3 ka &c. = &c. because l k a, 2 k a, &c. are roots of equation (3). That is if x = a (l 5J-) or = a (l ^ or = &c. Suppose l k, 2 k, 3 k, &c. to be the roots in the order of their magnitude x k being the least. Then if for n k, we take % all these values of x will be negative, and the curve will never cut the vertical axis below A. X3 326 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. X. If for n k, we take *k, all the values of x will be negative except the first ; therefore, the curve will cut A B In one point. If we take 3 k, all the values will be negative except the two first, and the curve cuts A B in two points ; and so on. Hence, the forms for which the oscillations will be symmetrical, are of the kind thus represented. And there are an infinite number of them, each cutting the axis in a different number of points. If we represent equation (2) in this manner y = A p (k, x) it is evident that y = 'A 9 (% x) y = *A f (% x) * &c. = &c. will each satisfy equation (1). Hence as before, if we put y = 'A f ( J k, x) + 2 A

Now when @ = 0, a = a ; which shows that A R the length of the string must equal a. Also making A the origin of abscissas, that is, aug- menting a by a, we have the equation to the semicubical parabola A S, A Q, which may be traced by the ordinary rules (35, &c.); and thereby the body be made to oscillate in the common parabola S Q R. Ex. 2. Let S R Q be an ellipse. Then, referring to its center, instead of the vertex, or a 2 y 2 + b 2 x 2 = a 2 b 2 T + b 2 x = d x and J d x dx 2 These give dj _ b 2 x dx a 2 y and dx 2 " a 2 y 3 ' Hence _ (a 2 b z )x 3 a 4 and (a*-b 2 )y 3 b 4 Hence substituting the values of y and x in a 2 y 2 + b s x 2 = a 2 b 2 we get b \f / a a \f , + T.* the equation to the Locus of the centers of curvature. 330 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. X. In the annexed figure let SC = b, CR = a C M = x, T M = y. Then P N = |S, C N = . And to construct A S' by points, first put (3 = whence by equation (a) = + a 2 b a the value of A C. Let a - then a 2 b b the value of S' C or C Q'. Hence to make a body oscillate in the semi-ellipse S R Q we must take a pendulum of the length A R, (part = A P S' flexible, and part = S S' rigid ; because S S' is horizontal, and no string however stretched can be horizontal see Whewell's Mechanics,) and suspend it at A. Then A P being in contact with the Locus AS', P T will also touch A S in P, &c. &c. Ex. 3. Let S R Q be the common cycloid , The equation to the cycloid is iy J 2 T y /f?_i_ r ~ W \ V tne sum of L M and P T will not s 2 , .. the form of the elliptic orbit P A B will be disturbed by this force, L M, M S neither tends from P to the center T, nor oc 1 , .'. from the force M S both the proportionality of areas to times, and the elliptic form of the orbit, will be disturbed, and the elliptic form on two accounts, because M S does not tend to C, and be- 1 cause it does not PT .*. the areas will be most proportional to the times, when the force M S is least, and the elliptic form will be most complete, when the forces M S, L M, but particularly L M, are least. Now let the force of S on T = N S, then this first part of the force M S being common to P and T will not affect their mutual motions, .*. the BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 3S7 disturbing forces will be least when L M, M N, are least, or L M remain- ing, when M N is least, i. e. when the forces of S on P and T are nearly equal, or S N nearly = S K. (2dly) Let S and P revolve round T in different planes. Then L M will act as before. But M N acting parallel to T S, when S is not in the line of the Nodes, (and M N does not pass through T), will cause a disturbance not only in the longitude as before, but also in the latitude, by deflecting P from the plane of its orbit. And this disturbance will be least, when M N is least, or S N nearly = S K. 431. COR. 1. If more bodies revolve round the greatest body T, the motion of the inmost body P will be least disturbed when T is attracted by the others equally, according to the distances, as they are attracted by each other. 432. COR. 2. In the system of T, if the attractions of any two on the third be as ^ > P w ^l describe areas round T with greater velocity near conjunction and opposition, than near the quadratures. 433. To prove this, the following investigation is necessary. Take 1 S to represent the attraction of S on P, nS T, Then the disturbing forces are 1 m (parallel to P T-) and m n. Now l ( for ce jj- 2 ), S SI = R* 2Rrcos. A + r 2 ' (R = ST,r = VOL. I. k ' ** V R 2 2 R r cos. A + r' SP~ (R 2 2 S.R R r cos. A + r 2 ) pjf, 2rcos. A + . r 2 \ / Y 2 r cos. ^ + r 8 1 ^ l R I R R* 338 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT XT. S / 2r '~ C S . 3/2r r*\ 3. 5 2rcos. A 2T4 R S/. 3r /3 3.5 * - cos ' A ~ ~ cos ' r 2 x * x IT) &C ') _S_ /. 3 r. cos. A ~R*{ 1 ' ~R where R is indefinitely great with respect to r. Also Qm Q S / 3 r cos. A\ S S.Srcos. Sn =E - 2 (l+ --^ - )- Rz = -jp ultimately and lm = Sl.^- =^(R 2 2Rr cos. A + r *) = TT-( RS 2Rrcos. A + r 2 )- 1 - SIT + s - 2rz &c - 3 4 > = -~- ultimately. 434. Call 1 m the addititious force and m n the ablatitious force and m n = 1 m 3 cos. A. Resolve m n into m q, q n. The part of the ablatitious force which acts in the direction m q = m n . cos. A 3 . S . r. cos. 2 A R = central ablatitious force. The tangential part = m n . sin. A = R 3 . sin. A . cos. A 3 S r o "^T s ^ n ' 2 A = tangential ablatitious force < IV. . , , ff . . ,. . T,^ , S.r 3.S.r.cos. 2 A *. the whole force in the direction PT = lm mq = ^- 3 . ^5-3 = ^| (13 cos. 2 A) and the o o whole force in the direction of the Tangent = q n = . ^ . sin. 2 A. 435. Hence COR. 2. is manifest, for of the four forces acting on P, the BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 339 three first, namely, attraction of T, addititious force, and central ablatiti- ous force, do not disturb the equable description of areas, but the fourth or tangential ablatitious force does, and this is + from A to B, from B to C, + from C to D, from D to A. /. the velocity is accelerated from A to B, and retarded from B to C, /. it is greatest at B. Similarly it is a maximum at D. And it is a minimum at A and C. This is Cor. 3. 436. To otherwise calculate the central and tangential ablititious forces. On account of the great distance of S, S M, P L may be considered parallel, and .-. P T = L M, and S P = S K = S T. .. the ablatitious force = 3 P T. sin. 6 = 3 P K. Take P m = 3 P K, and resolve it into P n, n m. P n = P m . sin. 6 = 3 P T. sin. 2 6 = central ablatitious force n m = P m . co& & = 3 P T. sin. 6 cos. 6 = -^ . P T. sin. 2 6 = tangential 3p ablatitious force. The same conclusions may be got in terms of 1 m from the fig. in Art 433, which would be better. 437. Find the disturbing force on P in the direction P T. This = (addititious + central ablatitious) force = 1 m + 3 1 m . sin. 2 d \ cos. 2 i i f = lm-31m( I 3 cos. 2 438. To Jlnd the mean disturbing force of S during a whole revolution in the direction P T. Let P T at the mean distance = m, then 1 m r Y2 13 cos. 2 340 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XI. 1m m r= = -5- since cos. 2 is destroyed during a whole revo- lution. 439. The disturbing forces on P are S r (1) addititious = -^- r = A. (2) ablatitious 8 . A . sin. 6 3 . A which is (1) tangential ablatitious force . cos. 2 6 and (2) central ablatitious force = 3 A . - 2 3 A 3 A .*. whole disturbing force in the direction P T = A 1 . cos. 2 & si iii A , 3 A = ^ H o~ cos - ^ 6. But in a whole revolution cos. 2 6 will destroy itself, .'. the whole dis- turbing force in the direction P T in a complete revolution is ablatitious and = addititious force. S r The whole force in the direction P T = ^-j- (I 3 sin. 2 6) (Art. 433) S r / 3 3 multiply this by d.0, and the integral = -^y {$ 6 + . sin. 2 i\ = sum of the disturbing forces ; and this when 6= v becomes ^-j- . ~ . 1 i. & This must be divided by T, and it gives the mean disturbing force act- ing on P in the direction of radius vector = -^*, . 440. The 2d COR. will appear from Art. 433 and 434. 3 For the tangential ablatitious force = . sin 2 6 . x addititious force, IB .'. this force will accelerate the description of the areas from the quadra* tures to the syzygies and retard it from the syzygies to the quadratures, since in the former case sin. 2 & is +, and in the latter 441. COR. 3 is contained in COR. 2. (Hence the Variation in as- tronomy.) BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 341 442. P V is equivalent to P T, T V, and accelerates the motion ; p V is equivalent to p T, T V, and retards the motion. 443. COR. 4. Cast, par., the curve is of greater curvature in the quadra- tures than in the syzygies. For since the velocity is greatest in the syzygies, (and the central abla- titious force being the greatest, the remaining force of P to T is the least) the body will be less deflected from a right line, and the orbit will be less curved. The contrary takes place in the quadratures. 444. The whole force from S in the direction P T= ^4 (1 3 sin. 2 6} T (see 433) and the force from T in the direction P T = . T S r /. the whole force in the direction P T = + -^- (1 3 sin. 2 6) T Jit T S r and at A this becomes 5- + ~-^ * * l< 3 at B at C atD R 2. S.r R 3 T.,^1 j.2 ' R 3 R 2 S.r R 3 (for though sin. 270 is , yet its syzygy is +). Thus it appears that on two accounts the orbit is more curved in the quadratures than in the syzygies, and assumes the form of an ellipse at the major axis A C. Y3 342 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XL .. the body is at a greater distance from the center in the quadratures than in the syzygies, which is Cor. 5. 44-5. COR. 5. Hence the body P, cast, par., will recede farther from T in the quadratures than in the syzygies ; for since the orbit is less curved in the syzygies than in the quadratures, it is evident that the body must be farther from the center in the quadratures than in the syzygies. 446. COR. 6. The addititious central force is greater than the ablati- tious from Q 7 to P, and from P' to Q, but less from P to P', and from Q to Q', .. on the whole, the central attraction is diminished. But it may be said, that the areas are accelerated towards B and D, and .*. the time through P P' may not exceed the time through P' Q, or the time through Q Q' exceed that through Q' P. But in all the corollories, since the errors are very small, when we are seeking the quantity of an error, and have ascertained it without taking into account some other error, there will be ^an error in our error, but this error in the error will be an error of the second order, and may .. be neglected. The attraction of P to T being diminished in the course of a revolution, the absolute force towards T is diminished, (being diminished by the S r r 2 mean disturbing force ^5-^ , 439,) .-. the period which , is increased, supposing r constant. But as T approaches S (which it will do from its higher apse to the lower) R is diminished, the disturbing force (which involves ^-) will be increased, and the gravity of P to T still more diminished, and .. r will be increased ; .'. on both accounts (the diminution of f and increase of r) the period will be increased. (Thus the period of the moon round the earth is shorter in summer than in winter. Hence the Annual equation in astronomy.) When T recedes from S, R is increased, and the disturbing force di- minished and r diminished. .'. the period will be diminished (not in com- parison with the period round T if there were no body S, but in compari- son with what the period was before, from the actual disturbance.) T 1 Q 447. COR. 6. The whole force of P to T in the quadratures = -f--^ . T 2 S r the syzygies = ft ^j . . on the whole the attraction of P to T is diminished in a revolution. For the ablatitious force in the syzygies equals twice the addititious force in the quadratures. BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 343 At a certain point the ablatitious force = the addititious ; when 1 = 3 sin. 2 t or sin. 6=^ and A = 55, &c. P (the whole force being then = ) Up to this point from the quadratures the addititious force is greater than the ablatitious force, and from this point to one equally distant from the syzygies on the other side, the ablatitious is greater than the addititious ; .. in a whole revolution P's gravity to T is diminished. Again since T alternately approaches to and recedes from S, the radius TL P T is increased when T approaches S, and the period oc ---- -^ V absolute force and since f is diminished, and .*. r increased, .s the periodic time is in- creased on both accounts, (for f is diminished by the increase of the dis- turbing forces which involve -r^.J If the distance of S be diminished, the absolute force of S on P will be increased, .\thedisturbingforces which a ^^1 from S are increased, and P's gravity to T diminished, and .. the periodic s. time is increased in a greater ratio than r 2 (because of the diminution of r f . fin the expression rr) and when the distance of S is increased, the dis- turbing force will be diminished, (but still the attraction of P to T will be diminished by the disturbance of S) and r will be decreased, .*. the 5 period will be diminished in a less ratio than r ? . 448. COR. 7. To find the effect of the disturbing force on the motion of the apsides of P's orbit during one whole revolution. Whole force in the direction P T = ^ 2 + ^ (1 3 cos. 2 A) T S Tr4-Tcr 4 = 1 3 + T.c.r, (if T.c = - 3 (l_3cos.'A)=^ t-Llf -, .*. the L. between the apsides =180 . "*" , c by the IXth Sect, which 1 + 4 c J is less than 180 when c is positive, i. e. from Q' to P and from P' to P, Y-l 344 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XI. (fig. (446,)) and greater than 180 when c is negative, i. e. from P to F and from Q to Q', .'. upon the whole the apsides are progressive, (regressive in the quadra- tures and progressive in the syzygies) ; T 3Sr force = j p-y- = force in conjunction R 3.Sr -7g W, = force in opposition Now R 3 T 3Sr 3 _R 3 T - and r 2 R r' 2 R J differ most from a and -.-= r 2 r /2 when r is least with respect to r f , which is the case when the Apsides are in the syzygies. But R 3 T+ Sr 3 R 3 T+ Sr 78 r 2 R 3 r / *R*~ differ least from 2 and when r is most nearly equal to r 7 , 449. COR. 7. Ex. Find the angle from the quadratures, when the apses are stationary. Draw P m parallel to T S, and = 3 P K, m n perpendicular to T P, resolve P m into P n, n m, whereof n m neither increases nor diminishes the accelerating force of P to T, but P n lessens that force, .-. when P n = P T, the accelerating force of P is neither increased nor diminished, and the apses are quiescent, by the triangles PT:PK::PM = 3PK:Pn = PT .*. in the required position 3 P K 2 = P T 1 or BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 345 or 6 = 35 26'. The addititious force P T P n is a maximum in quadratures. F or P T : P K : : 3 P K : P n = 3 P K 8 /. P T Pn = PT -- , which is a maximum when P K = 0, or the body is in syzygy. 450. COR. 8. Since the progression or regression of the Apsides de- pends on the decrement of the force in a greater or less ratio than D 2 , from the lower apse to the upper, and on a similar increment from the upper to the lower, (by the IXth Sect.), and is .'. greatest when the proportion of the force in the upper apse to that in the lower, recedes the most from the inverse square of D, it is manifest that the Apsides progress the fastest from the ablatitious force, when they are in the syzygies, (because the whole forces in conjunction and opposition, i. e. at the upper and lower apses being T 2 S r -g -- 5-3- , when the apsides are in the syzygies and when r is greatest T at the upper apse, being least, and the negative part of the expression 2 S r P 3 being greatest, the whole expression is .*. least, and when r is least, T at the lower apse, ^ being greatest, and the negative part least, .*. the whole expression is greatest, and .. the disproportion between the forces at the upper and lower apse is greatest), and that they regress the slowest T S r in that case from the addititious force, (for -. + ,-3-^ , which is the whole r Jtv force in the quadratures, both before and after conjunction, r being the semi minor axis in each case, differs least from the inverse square) ; there- fore, on the whole the progression in the course of a revolution is greatest when the apsides are in the syzygies, Similarly the regression is greatest when the apsides are in the quadra- tures, but still it is not equal to the progression in the course of the re- volution. 451. COR. 8. Let the apsides be in the syzygies, and let the force at the upper apse : that at the lower, : : D E : A B, DA' 346 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XL being the curve whose ordinate is inversely d' D a E as the distance * from C, .'. these forces being diminished, the force D E at the upper apse 2 r S by the greatest quantity -^ 3 , and the force A B at the lower apse by the least quantity 2r , s a ' Aa R 3 -; the curve a d which is the new force curve has its ordinates decreasing in a greater ratio than -r-g . Let the apsides be in the quadratures, then the force E D will be increased S r by the greatest quantity vj-y, and the force A B by the least quantity S r' 5-7- , .*. the curve of d' which is the new force curve will have its rt ordinates decreasing in a less ratio than =r- 2 45 1. COR. 9. Suppose the line of apsides to be in quadratures, then while the body moves from a higher to a lower apse, it is acted on by a force which does not increase so fast as -^- (for the force = r-rr-; , .'. the D 2 r i R 3 numerator decreases as the denominator increases), .*. the orbit will be exterior to the elliptic orbit and the excentricity will be decreased. Also as S r the descent is caused by the force -rr-j- (I 3 cos. 2 A), the less this T force is with respect to - 2 , the less will the excentricity be diminished. Now while the line of the apsides moves from the line of quadratures, the S r force p 3 (1 3 cos. 2 A) is diminished, and when it is inclined at L. 35 16' the disturbing force = 0, and .*. at those four points the excentricity is unaltered. After this, it may be shown in the same manner that the excentricity will be continually increased until the line of apsides coin- cides with the line of syzygies. Here it is a maximum, since the disturb- ing force is negative. Afterwards it will decrease as before it increased until the line of apsides again coincides with the quadrature, and then the excentricity = maximum. (Hence Evection in Astron.) BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 347 452. LEMMA. To calculate that part of the ablatitious force which is employed in drawing P from the plane of its orbit. Let A = angular distance from syzygy. Q = angular distance of nodes from syzygy. I = inclination of orbit to orbit of S and T. 3 S r Then the force required = R 3 . cos. A . sin. Q . sin. I. (not quite accurately.) When P is in quadratures, this force vanishes, since oos. A = 0. When nodes are in syzygy, since sin. Q = 0, quadratures, this force (cset. par.) = maxi- mum, since sin. Q = sin. 90 = rad. 453. COR. 12. The effects produced by the disturbing forces are all greater when P is in conjunction than when in opposition. For they involve ,,-g , .*. when R is least, they are greatest. 454. COR. 13. Let S be supposed so great that the system P and T re- volve round S fixed. Then the disturbing forces will be of the same kind as before, when we supposed S to revolve round T-at rest. The only difference will be in the magnitude of these forces, which will be increased in the same ratio as S is increased. 455. COR. 14. If we suppose the different systems in which S and S T oc, but P T and P and T remain the same, and the period (p) of P round T remains the same, all the errors - oc ' 3 , if A = density of S, and d its diameter, oc 5 3 , if A given, and d = apparent diam. also 1 S p- 2 ^- 3 if P = period of T round S, .. the errors oc p^ . These are the linear errors, and angular errors oc in the same ratio, since P T is given. 456. COR. 15. If S and T be varied in the same ratio, S T Accelerating force of S : that of T : : ^ : 2 the same ratio as before. .. the disturbances remain the same as before. (The same will hold if R and r be also varied proportionally.) .-. the linear errors described in P's orbit oc P T, (since they involve r), if P T oc, the rest remaining constant. 31-8 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XJ. c ~ m linear errors P T also the angular errors of P as seen from T oc - , >T -- oc __ oc 1, and are .*. the same in the two systems. The similar linear errors oc f . T 2 , .-. P T oc f . T 2 , and f P T P T Tp-j- , but f ex accelerating force of T on P oc ~ , (p = period of P round T,) ..Tp and .. oc P 3 COR. 14. In the systems S, T, P, Radii R, r Periods P, p S', T, P - R', r -- PVp. Linear errors dato t. in 1st. : do. in second : : p- 2 : p^ .*. angular errors in the period of P - : - : : p- : ^-^ . COR. 15. In the systems S, T, P, - R, r - P, p S', T, P - R', r' - F, p', S' T' R' r' so that -rr = rfr and -, , = - o 1 lv r . E. -EL * P' '- p' ' Linear errors in a revolution of P in 1 st. : do. in second : : r : r' angular errors : ::!:!. COR. 16. In the systems S, T, P, - R, r - P, p S,T',P, - R,!' - P,p'. Linear errors in a revolution of P in 1st. : do in second : : r p 2 : r* p' angular errors in a revolution of P : : : p * : p' *. To compare the systems (1) S, T, P - R, r - P, p (2) S', T', P' - R', r 7 - P', p'. Assume the system (3) S', T, P - R', r - P', p /. by (14) angular errors in P S revolution in (1) : in (3) : : ^- t : p^, by (16) angular errors in (3) : in (2) : : p 2 : p' 2 p 2 p /2 therefore errors in (1) : in (2) : : - 2 : 7-5. BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 349 Or assume the system (3) 2, T, P e, r II, p 2 T Q r - = .-. the errors in ( 1) : errors in (3) : : - 2 : (3) : (2) I 1 S 2 S T> 3 p 2 * -Q 2 ' ' : 1 : 1 SO/ "R 3 O it R 3 ' g 3 " 2 S T' *7 3 " R 3 lO i -LV C .. 3 C/ ^ * C!/ * nr* o 1 .p 2 . ' R' 3 * P' 2 457. COR. 16. In the different systems the mean angular errors of P a ~ whether we consider the motion of apses or of nodes (or errors in latitude and longitude.) For first, suppose every thing in the two different systems to be the same except P T, .*. p will vary. Divide the whole times p, p', into the same number of indefinitely small portions proportional to the wholes. Then if the position of P be given, the disturbing forces all oc each other cc P T ; and the space a f . T 2 , .. the linear errors generated in any two corre- sponding portions of time oc P T . p 2 . .. the angular errors generated in these portions, as seen from T, a p 2 . .*. Cornp . the periodic angular errors as seen from T x p 2 . Now by Cor. 14, if in two different systems P T and .. p be the same, every thing else varying, the angular errors generated in a given time, as in P*ptt .. neutris datis, in different systems the angular errors generated in the time p a ^ . Now D " . i" . . E! 2. P A p2 p2> .*. the angular errors generated in 1" (or the mean angular errors) or J^. Hence the mean motion of the nodes as seen from T ex mean motion of the apses, for each a ^ . 458. COR. 17. Mean addititious force : mean force of P on T : : p 2 : P 2 . For mean addititious force : force of S on T : : P T : S T, 350 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XL force of S on T : mean force of T on P: : S ST PT P. ,. rad.\ force oc -) P 2 ; .. mean addititious force : mean force of T on P: : p 2 : P 2 .. ablatitious force : mean force of T on P: : 3 cos. 6* p 2 : Similarly, the tangential and central ablatitious and all the forces may be found in terms of the mean force of T on P. 459. PROP. LXVII. Things being as in Prop. LXVI, S describes the areas more nearly proportional to the times, and the orbit more ellipti- cal round the center of gravity of P and T than round T. T For the forces on S are PS TS .'. the direction of the compound force lies between S P, S T ; and T attracts S more than P. .-. it lies nearer T than P, and .'. nearer C the center of gravity of T and P. .*. the areas round C are more proportional to the times, than when round T. Also as S P increases or decreases, S C increases or decreases, but S T remains the same ; .*. the compound force is more nearly proportional to the inverse square of S C than of S T; .*. also the orbit round C is more nearly elliptic (having C in the focus) than the orbit round T. A SECOND COMMENTARY ON SECTION XI. 460. To find the axis major of an ellipse, whose periodic time round S at rest would equal the periodic time of P round S in motion. Let A equal the axis major of an ellipse described round P at rest equal the axis major of P Q v. Let x equal the axis major required, P. T. of P round S in motion : p S at rest : : V S : V S + P 5 5 P. T. of p in the elliptic axis A : P. T. in the elliptic axis x : : A 2 : x * /. P. T. of P round S in motion : P.T.in the el.ax. x : : V A^S : Vx 3 (S+P). By hyp. the 1st term equals the 2d, .-. A 3 S = x 3 . S + P .-. A:x::(S+P)3: S*. 461. PROP. LXIII. Having given the velocity, places, and directions of two bodies attracted to their common center of gravity, the forces vary- ing inversely as the distance 2 , to determine the actual motions of bodies in fixed space. Since the initial motions of the bodies are given, the motions of the center of gravity are given. And the bodies describe the same moveable curve round the center of gravity as if the center were at rest, while the center moves uniformly in a right line. * Take therefore the motion of the center proportional to the time, i. e. proportional to the area described in moveable orbits. * Since a body describes some curve in fixed space, it describes areas in proportion to the times in this curve, and since the center moves uniformly forward, the spaco described by it is in pro- portion to the time, therefore, &c. 352 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XI. 462. Ex. 1. Let the body P describe a circle round C, while the center C moves uniformly forward. Take C G : C P : : v of C : v of P, and with the center C and rad. C G describe a circle G C N, and suppose it to move round along G H, then P will describe the trochoid P L T, and when P has described the semicircle P A B, P will be at the summit of the trochoid .. every point of the semicircumference G F N will have touched G H, .-. G H equals the semicircumference G F N, .-. v of P : v of C : : P A B semicircumference: C 11 = G F N semicircle * : : C P : C G Q. e. d. 463. Ex. 2. Let the moveable curve be a parabola, and let the center of gravity move in the direction of its primitive axis. When the body is at the vertex A', let S' be the position of the center of gravity, and while S' has described uniformly S' S, let A have described the arc of the parabola A P. Let A? N = x, N P = y, be the ab-A' 8' scissa and ordinate of the curve A P in fixed space. Let 4 p equal the parameter of the parabola A P. 4p 4p SN = AN A S = A N p = / p' 4 p .4 p AreaASP=ANP SNP=|ANx N P N S X NP ? X-l 1 y 8 4-p'y y 3 -f I2p 8 y ~ s '4p~~* 4~p~ 24 p By Prop. S' S GO A S P ; therefore they are in some given ratio. T . y 3 +J2p 2 y 4- p x y* Let A S P : S' S : : a : b : : - :! r J i : J i- 24 p 4 p If C P = C G the curve in fixed space becomes the common cycloid. If C P > C G the ollongated trochoid. BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINGIPIA. 353 .. y 3 + 12p s y = 4pax a y ! .-. y'+ ay 2 + 12 p 2 y 4 pa x = 0. Equation to the curve in fixed space. 464- Ex. 3. * Let B B' be the orbit of the earth round the sun, M A that of the moon round the earth, then the moon will, during a revolution, trace out a contracted or protracted epicycloid according as A L has a greater or less circumference than A M, and the orbit of the moon round the sun will consist of twelve epicycloids, and it will be always concave to the sun. For F of the earth to the sun : F of the mdbn to the earth : : P* 400 1 "(365) 2 ' (27) 2 in a greater ratio than 2 : 1. But the force of the earth to the sun is nearly equal to the force of the moon to the sun, .'. the force of the moon to the earth, .-. the deflection to the sun will always be within the tan- gential or the curve is always concave towards the sun. 465. PROP. LXVI. If three bodies attract each other with forces varying inversely as the square of the distance, but the two least revolve To determine the nature of the curve described by the moon with respect to the sun. VOL. I. z 354 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XL about the greatest, the innermost of the two will more nearly describe the areas proportional to the time, and a figure more nearly similar to an el- lipse, if the greatest body be attracted by the others, than if it were at rest, or than if it were attracted much more or much less than the other bodies. (L M : P T : : S L : S P, PT .-. L M a SP 3 ' PT x SL SK 3 x PT SP s* .-. SK 1 : SP' :: SL : S P). Let P and S revolve in the same plane about the greatest body T, and P describe the orbit P A B, and S, E S E. Take S K the mean distance of P from S, and let S K represent the attraction of P to S at that dis- tance. Take S L : S K : : S R 2 : S P 2 , and S L will represent the attraction of S on P at the distance S P. Resolve it into two S M, and L M parallel to P T, and P will be acted upon by three forces P T, L M, S M. The first force P T tends to T', and varies inversely as the dis- tance % .*. P ought by this force to describe an ellipse, whose focus is T. The second, L M, being parallel to P T may be made to coincide with it in this direction, and .*. the body P will still, being acted upon by a centri- petal force to T, describe areas proportional to the time. But since L M does not vary inversely as P T, it will make P describe a curve different from an ellipse, and .'. the longer L M is compared with P T, the more will the curves differ from an ellipse. The third force S M, being neither in the direction P T, nor varying in the inverse square of the distance, will make the body no longer describe areas in proportion to the times, and the curve differ more from the form of an ellipse. The body P will .*. describe areas most nearly proportional to the times, when this third force is a minimum, and P A B will approach nearest to the form of an ellipse, when both second and third forces are minima. Now let S N represent the attraction of S on T towards S, and if S N and S M were equal, P and T being equally attracted in parallel directions would have relatively the same situation, and if S N be greater or less then S M, their difference M "N is the disturbing force, and the body P will approach most nearly the equable description of areas, and P A B to the form of an ellipse, when M N is either nothing or a minimum. Case 2. If the bodies P and S revolve about T in different planes, L M being parallel to P S will have the same effect as before, and will not BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PKINCIPIA. 355 tend to move P from its plane. But N M acting in a different plane, will tend to draw P out of its plane, besides disturbing the equable des- cription of areas, &c. and as before this disturbing force is a minimum, when M N is a minimum, or when S N = nearly S K. 466. To estimate the magnitude of the disturbing forces on P, when P moves in a circular orbit, and in the same plane with S and T. Let the angle from the quadratures P C T = 6 t S T = d, P T = r, F at the distance (a) = M, FonP = ^l > .'. From P in the direction SP: P T : : S P : PT PT /. F in the direction P T = ^* 2 o P 2 But S P 2 = d 2 + r 2 2 d r sin. 6, .-. F hi the direction P T = SP' M a*r Ma 2 r 2 d r sin. 6} f , r * 2 d r sin. 6 = A nearly, since d being indefinitely great compared with r in the expansion, all the terms may be neglected except two. First 4- vanishes when compared with ~ , ... the addititious force in the direction T --= A. By proportion as before, force in the direction S T Ma 2 ST Ma 2 d d 3 (1 + fr'2dr sin. 4, SP 1 SP Ma 2 -} 3 r 8 2 d r sin. 6 Ma 2 d 1 3 Mar 3 M a r sin. 6 2d 4 ' + d 1 356 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XL r *u r * OT- Ma* 3 Ma 8 r .-. force in the direction S T = -^ J r, sin. nearly, since -i-r vanishes when compared with -. . and the force of S on T = A- , d 4 d 3 d * .. . . ,-, Ma ! 3 Ma r . Ma 8 .. ablatitious F = p 1 p sin. 6 j-j = 3 A . sin. 0. in If P T equal the addititious force, then the ablatitious force equals 3 P K, for P K : P T : : sin. 6 : (1 = r), .-. 3 P K = 3 P T. sin. d = 3 A . sin. 6. To resolve the ablatitious force. Take P m : P n : : P T : T K : : 1 : cos. 6, .*. P n = P m X cos. 6 = 3 A X sin. 6 cos. 6 = 3 A . sin. 2 6 m n = P m X PK = 3A. sin. *6 = 3 A . 1 ~ cos - 2 ^ ss .. the disturbing forces of S on P are 1. The addititious force = ^ = A. d 3 2. The ablatitious force which is resolved into the tangential part = ^- . sin. 2 6, and that in the direction T P = 3 A . ~ - , .*. whole disturbing force in the direction P T = A 3 A . - o A o A A. . o A. j . i i = A 5 | ^ . cos. 2 d = | . cos. 2 6, and in the whole revolution the positive cosine destroys the negative, therefore the whole disturbing force in a complete revolution is ablatitious, and equal to one half of the mean addititious force. 467. To compare N M and L M. L M : P T : : (S L = SK : S P, .-. L M = g p , x P T BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. SK 3 SP 3 357 X ST _SK 3 -(SK-KP) 3 3 S P SK 3 SK 3 + 3SR 2 x KP _ _ . = g-pi X S T nearly 3SK* x PK 3SK 3 = o-pl X S r nearly = o JL o x^ = - 2 a. 3 a Ma 1 2Ma 2 r .*. the whole F on P in the syz. = ^ r : d .". F is greater in the quadratures than in the syzygies ; and the velocity is greater in the syzygies than in the quadratures. 1 F But the curvature a p-^ a v 2 , .. is greatest in the quadratures and least in the syzygies. 472. COR. 5- Since the curvature of P's orbit is greatest in the quadra- ture and least in the syzygy, the circular orbit must assume the form of an ellipse whose major axis is C D and minor A B- /. P recedes farther from T in the quadrature than in the syzygy. 473. COR- 6. Mn 2 Ma 2 r 3Ma 2 r The whole F on P in the line P T= ^f- + fr 1 ^" ' sltt '*' . Ma 2 , M a*r = in quad. 3- + 3 BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 361 Ma 8 2 M a 2 r and in syz. = - -ri r 2 jJ3 let the ablatitious force on P equal the addititious, and Ma s r 3 M a 2 r sin. 2 6 .-. sin. d = =- sin. 35 . 1 6. V 3 Therefore up to this point from quadrature the ablatitious force is less than the addititious, and from this to one equally distant from the other point of quadrature, the ablatitious is greater than the addititious, therefore in a whole revolution the gravity of P to T is diminutive from what it R* would be if the orbit were circular or if S did not act, and P a . , . ^ V abl. F and since the action of S is alternately increased or diminished, therefore P ex from what it would be were P T constant, both on account of the variation, and of the absolute force. 474. COR. 7. * Let P revolve round T in an elliptic orbit, the force on ' Ma s Ma 2 r b ^ -- \- ^ + c r. . P in the quad. = 8 R B " G + 180 / and since the number is greater than the de- V b + 4 c nomination G is less than 180. .. the apsides are regressive if the same effect is produced as long as the addititious force is greater than the abla- titious, i. e. through 35. 16'. The force on P in the syz. = Mj 2 M a'r Since P oc R ^^ and in winter the sun is nearer the earth than in summer, \/ ablatitious force R is increased in winter, and A is diminished, therefore the lunar months are shorter in winter than in summer. 362 A COMMENTARY ON [Siscr. XI. .*. in the syz. the apsides are progressive, and since ./* will be ah improper fraction as long as the ablatitious force is greater than the addititious, and when the disturbing forces are equal, m c = n c, therefore G = 180, i. e. the line of apsides is at rest (or it lies in V C produced 9th.) .. since they are regressive through 141. 4' and progressive 2 18. 56' they are on the whole progressive. To find the effect produced by the tangential ablatitious force, on the velocity of P in its orbit. Assume u = velocity of a body at the mean distance 1, then = velocity at any other distance r nearly, the orbit being nearly circular. Let v be the true velocity of P at any distance (r), vdv = gFdx ( = 16 ^ . For the tangent ablatitious f = f . P T . 2 6 9 and x' = r t>') = 3 P T . m r . sin. 20.0', .-. v 2 = 3PTmr cos. 2 & + C, and u 2 r 2 ' u 2 . v 2 . frc . . V _ ^ 8 - - OCC. Hence it appears that the velocity is greatest in syzygy and least in quadrature, since in the former case, cos. 2 6 is greatest and negative, and in the latter, greatest and positive. To find the increment of the moon's velocity by the tangential force while she moves from quadrature to syzygy. v 2 = 3 PT.m.r. cos. 2 6 + C, but (v) the increment = 0, when 6 = 0, .-. C = 3 P T . m . r, .-. v 8 = 3PT.m.r(l cos. 2 6) = 6 P T. m. r. sin. 8 6 t and when 6 = 90, or the body is in syzygy v z = 6 P T m . r. 475. COR. 6. Since the gravity of P to T is twice as much diminished in syzygy as it is increased in quadrature, by the action of the disturbing force S, the gravity of P to T during a whole revolution is diminished. Now the disturbing forces depend on the proportion between P T and T S, and therefore they become less or greater as T S becomes greater BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 363 or less. If therefore T approach S, the gravity of P to T will be still more diminished, and therefore P T will be the increment. R ts Now P . T cc ; since, therefore, when S T is di- V absolute force minished, R is increased and the absolute force diminished (for the ab- solute force to T is diminished by the increase of the disturbing force) the P . T is increased. In the same way when S T is increased the P . T is diminished, therefore P. T is increased or diminished according as S T is diminished or increased. Hence per. t of the moon is shorter in winter than in summer. OTHERWISE. 476. COR. 7. To find the effect of the disturbing force on the motion of the apsides of P's orbit during a whole revolution. f Let f = gravity of P to T at the mean distance (1), then = gravity of P at any other distance r. f f Now in quadrature the whole force of P to T = + add. f = 2 + r f r 4- r 4 /f+1 ^ -- and with this force the distance of the apsides = 180 / which is less than 180, therefore the apsides are regressive when the f body is in quadrature. Now in syz. the whole force of P to T = f r _ 2 r 4 2 r = - 3 - , therefore the distance between the apsides = 180 _ 2 which is greater than 180, therefore the apsides are progressive when the body is in syzygy. But as the force (2 r) which causes the progression in syzygy is double the force (r) which causes the regression in quadrature, the progressive motion in syzygy is greater than the regressive motion in the quadrature. Hence, upon the whole, the motion of the apsides will be progressive during a whole revolution. At any other point, the motion of the apsides will be progressive or P T 3 P T retrograde, according as the whole central force -- ~ | -- ~ . cos. 2 d .- ' is negative or positive. 364 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XL 477. COR. 8. To calculate the disturbing force when P's orbit is ex- centric. P T 3 P T The whole central disturbing force = --- \- - cos. 2 6 = H s . cos. 2 & (m is the mean add. f). Now r = - 1 2 2 = by div. 1 e 2 + e . cos. u e 2 volving e 3 , &c. = 1 ( ; + e . cos. u -f ^ . cos. 2 u ; therefore the e cos. u cos. 2 u, &c. neglecting terms in- o 2 whole central disturbing force = m m e T "r A m cos. u m e * cos. 2 u . 3 3 m e * 3 j H -g- m cos. 2 6 . cos. 2 6 + m e . cos. u . cos. 2 & + | m e . cos. 2 u . cos. 2 6. 478. COR. 8. It has been shown that the apsides are progressive in syzygy in consequence of the ablatitious force, and that they are regres- sive in quadrature from the effect of the ablatitious force, and also, that they are upon the whole progressive. It follows, therefore, that the greater the excess of the ablatitious over the addititious force, the more will the apsides be progressive in the course of a revolution. Now in any position m M of the line of the apsides, the excess of the ablatitious in conjunction 2 A T in opposition = T B, therefore the whole excess = 2 A B. Again, the excess of the addititious above the ablatitious force in quadrature = C D. Therefore the apsides in a whole revolution will be retrograde if 2 A B be less than C D, and progressive if 2 A B be greater than C D. Also their progression will be greater, the greater the excess of 2 A B above C D ; but the excess is the greatest when M m is in syzygy, for then A B is greatest and C D the least. Also, when M m is in syzygy the apsides being progressive are moving in the same direc- tion with S, and therefore will remain for some length of time in syzygy. Again, when the apsides are in quadrature A B = P p, and C D = M m, BOOK L] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 365 but if the orbit be nearly circular, 2 A B is greater than C D ; therefore the apsides are still in a whole revolution progressive, though not so much as in the former case. F In orbits nearly circular it follows from G = = when F a A?- 3 , V r that if the force vary in a greater ratio than the inverse square, the apsides are progressive. If therefore in the inverse square they are sta- tionary, if in a less ratio they are regressive. Now from quadrature to 35 a force which oc the distance is added to one varying inversely as the square, therefore the compound varies in a less ratio than the inverse square, therefore the apsides are regressive up to this point. At this point F cc -r: ~ , therefore they are stationary. From this to 35 from distance another D a quantity varying as the distance is subtracted from one varying inversely as the square, therefore the resulting quantity varies in a greater ratio than the inverse square, therefore the apsides are progressive through 218. OTHERWISE. 479. COR. 8. It has been shown that the apsides are progressive in syzygyin consequence of the ablatitious force, and that they are regressive in the quadratures on account of the addititious force, and they are on the whole progressive, because the ablatitious force is on the whole greater than the addititious. .-. the greater the excess of the ablatitious force above the addititious the more will be the apsides progressive. In any position of the line A B in conjunction the excess of the ablati- tious force above the addititious is 2 FT, in opposition 2 p t. .'. the whole excess in the syzygies = 2 P p. In the quadratures at C the ablatitious force vanishes. .*. the excess of the addititious = additious = C T. .'. the whole addititious in the quadratures = C D. Now the apsides will, in the whole revolution, be progressive or regres- sive, according as 2 P p is greater or less than C D, and then the progres- sion will be greatest in that position of the line of the apses when 2 P p CD is the greatest, i. e. when A B is in the syzygy, for then 2 P p = 2 A B, the greatest line in the ellipse, and C D = R r = ordinate = least through the focus. .*. 2 P p CD is a maximum. Also when A B is in the syzygy, the line of apsides being progressive, will move the same way as S. .*. it will remain in the syzygy longer, and on this account the apsides will be more progressive. But when the apsides are in the quadratures S P = R r and C D = A B, and the orbit being nearly circular, R r nearly equals A B. .'. 2 P p C D is positive, and the 366 A COMMENTARY ON [.SECT. XI. apsides are progressive on the whole, though not so much as in the last case ; and the apsides being regressive in tfce quadratures move in the op- posite direction to S, .'. are sooner out of the quadratures, .*. the regres- sion in the quadrature is less than the progression in the syzygy. 480. COR. 9. LEMMA. If from a quantity which cc -^ any quantity be subtracted which a A the remainder will vary in a higher ratio than the inverse square of A, but if to a quantity varying, as ^-5 another be A added which a A, the sum will vary in a lower ratio than ^ . I I c A.* If be diminished C A = 7-5 . If A increases 1 c A s A 2 A 2 . decreases, and -r-^ increases. .*. the quantity decreases, 1 c A increases 1 and -T-r increases. .'. increases from both these accounts. .'. the whole A 1 quantity varies in a higher ratio than -^ . 1 4- c A 2 If C A be added -r-g , as A is increased the numerator increases, and -r-s decreases. .'. the quantity does not decrease so fast as - lr - . and A 2 A* if A be diminished 1 + c A * is diminished, and -^ increased. .. the quantity is not increased as fast as -j- t . .'. &c. Q. e. d. OTHERWISE. 481. COR. 9. To find the effect of the disturbing force on the excen- tricity of P's orbit. If P were acted on by a force oc -rj , the excentricity of its orbit would not be altered. But since P is acted on by a force vary- ing partly as r 8 and partly as the distance, the excentricity will continual- ly vary. Suppose the line of the apsides to coincide with the quadrature, then while the body moves from the higher to the lower apse, it is acted upon by a force which does not increase so fast as -p , for the force at the quad- f rature = + m r, and .*. the body will describe an orbit exterior to the elliptic which would be described by the force a - . Hence the body BOOK L] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 367 will be farther from the focus at the lower apse than it would have been had it moved in an elliptic orbit, or the excentricity is diminished. Also as the decrease in excentricity is caused by the force (m r), the less this f force is with respect to z , the less will be the diminution of excentricity. Now while the line of apsides moves from the line of quadratures, the force (m r) is diminished, and when it is inclined at an angle of 35 16' the disturbing force is nothing, and .. at those four points the excentricity remains unaltered. After this it may be shown in the same manner that the excentricity will be continually increased, until the line of apsides coincides with the syzygies. Hence it is a maximum, since the disturbing force in these is negative. Afterwards it will decrease as before it in- creased, until the line of apsides again coincides with the line of quadra- ture, and the excentricity is a minimum. COR. 14. Let P T = r, S T = d, f = force of T on P at the distance 1, g = force of S on T at the distance, then the ablatitious force 3 r sin. d ... . = 2 P ; if.', the position of P be given, and d varies, the ablati- tious force oc - . But when the position of P is given, the ablatitious addititious : : in a given ratio, .'. addititious force oc -^ , or the dis- turbing force oc ^-5 . Hence if the absolute force of S should oc the dis- turbing force oc A 3 ' . Let P = the periodical time of T about S, A = density, d = diameter of the sun, then the A * 3 1 absolute force oc A 3 , then the disturbing force a - _. 3 cc p-^ oc A (ap- parent diameter) 3 of the sun. Or since P T is constant, the linear as well as the angular errors a in the same ratio. 483. COR. 15. If the bodies S and T either remain unchanged, or their absolute forces are changed in any given ratio, and the magnitude of the orbits described by S and P be so changed that they remain similar to what they were before, and their inclination be unaltered, since the accel- c rr)rp i.-r co absolute force of T crating force of P to T : accelerating force of S : : p~T^ : absolute force of S , ., , , c .-, , q-rf^ > and the numerators and denominators or me last terms are changed in the same given ratio, the accelerating forces remain in the same ratio as before, and the linear or angular errors oc as before, 368 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XL i e- as the diameter of the orbits, and the times of those errors oc P T's of the bodies. COR. 16. Hence if the forms and inclinations of the orbits remain, and the magnitude of the forces and the distances of the bodies be changed ; to find the variation of the errors and the times of the errors. In Cor. 14. it was shown, how that when P T remained constant, the errors a -p- 2 . Now let P T also a , then since the addititious force in a given position of P a P T, and in a given position of P the addititious : ablatitious in a given ratio. COK. If a body in an ellipse be acted upon bv a force which varies in a ratio greater than the inverse square of the distance, it will in de- scending from the higher apse B to the lower apse A, be drawn nearer to the center. .*. as S is fixed, the excen- tricity is increased, and from A to B the excentricity will be increased also, because the force decreases the faster the distance 8 increases. 484. (Con. 10.) Let the plane of P's orbit be inclined to the plane of T's orbit remaining fixed. Then the addititious force being parallel to P T, is in the same plane with it, and .'. does not alter the inclination of the plane. But the ablatitious force acting from P to S may be resolved into two, one parallel, arid one perpendicular to the plane of P's orbit. The force perpendicular to P's orbit = 3 A X sin. 6 X sin. Q X sin. T when 6 = perpendicular distance of P from the quadratures, Q = angular distance of the line of the nodes from the syzygy, T = first inclination of the planes. Hence when the line of the nodes is-in the syzygy, 6 = 0, .-. sin. = .-. no force acts perpendicular to the plane, and the inclination is not changed. When the line of the nodes is in the quadratures, 6 = 90, .*. sin. is a maximum, .. force per- pendicular produces the greatest change in the inclination, and sin. d being posi- tive from C to D, the force to change the inclination continually acts from C to D pulling the plane down from D to C. Sin. & is negative, .'. force which before was posi- N H BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 369 tive pulling down to the plane of S's orbit (or to the plane of the paper) now is negative, and .. pulls up to the plane of the paper. But P's orbit is now below the plane of the paper, .. force still acts to change the inclina- tion. "Now since the force from C to D 'continually draws P towards the plane of S's orbit, P will arrive at that plane before it gets to D. If the nodes be in the octants past the quadrature, that is between C and A. Then from N to D, sin. 6 being positive, the inclination is di- minished, and from D to N' increased, .. inclination is diminished through 270, and increased through 90, .'. in this, as in the former case, it is more diminished than increased. When the nodes are in the octants be- fore the quadratures, i. e. in G H, inclination is decreased from H to C, diminished from C to N, (and at N the body having got to the highest point) increased from N to D, diminished from D' to N', and increased from 2 N' to H, .*. inclination is increased through 270, and diminished through 90, .*. it is increased upon the whole. Now the inclination of P's orbit is a maximum when the force perpendicular to it is a minimum, i. e. when (by expression) the line of the nodes is in the syzygies. When is the quadratures, and the body is in the syzygies, the least it is increased when the apsides move from the syzygies to the quadratures ; it is dimin- ished and again increased as they return to the syzygies. 485. (CoR. 11.) While P moves from the quadrature in C, the nodes being in the quadrature it is drawn towards S, and .*. comes to the plane of S's orbit at a point nearer S than N or D, i. e. cuts the plane before it arrives at the node. .'. in this case the line of the nodes is regressive. In the syzygies the nodes rest, and in the points between the syzygies and quadratures, they are sometimes progressive and sometimes regressive, but on the whole regressive; .*. they are either retrograde or stationary. 486. (Con. 12.) All the errors mentioned in the preceding corollaries are greater in the syzygies than in any other points, because the disturbing force is greater at the conjunction and opposition. 487. (CoR. 13.) And since in deducing the preceding corollaries, no re- gard was had to the magnitude of S, the principles are true if S be so great that P and T revolve about it, and since S is increased, the disturbing force is increased ; .. irregularities will be greater than they were before. 488. (CoR. 14.) L M = ^^ = N N M = 3 ^f' r sin. 6, .-. in a given position of P, if P T remain unaltered, the forces N M and L M Voi~ I. A a 370 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XI. cc p X absolute force oc rp ~r- 2 of T for (sect. 3 . P * ac whether the absolute force vary or be constant. Let D = diameter of S, a = density of S, and attractive force of S a magnitude or quantity of matter cc D 3 d, .-. forces L M and N M oc d But r- = apparent diameter of S, .-. forces (apparent diameter) 3 d another expression. 489. (Con. 15.) Let another body as P' revolve round T' in an orbit similar to the orbit of P round T, while T' is carried round S' in an orbit similar to that of T round S, and let the orbit of P' be equally inclined to that of T" with the orbit P to that of T. Let A, a, be the absolute forces of S, T, A', a', of S', T, A a accelerating force of P by S : that of P by T : : o~p"z : v> T r, , and the orbits being similar A' a accelerating force of P' by S' : that of P' by T' : : p, 2 : -pr^i , .. if A' : a' : : A : a, and the orbits being similar, S P : PT* : : S' P' : FT', accelerating force of P' by S' : that of P' by T' : : force on P by S : force on P' by T', and the errors due to the disturbing forces in the case of P are as A A' 0- X r, in the case of P' and S' are as , ,p /3 X R, .. linear errors in the first case : that in the second : : r : R. sin. errors Angular errors ., c rr> ^ n r force x ^p = per. time of T round S J linear errors angular errors x .-. lin. errors cc force T* /. angular errors oc -= -= * -= d* X r M a 2 Now the errors d t X p = whole angular errors cc . .. error d t oo -L thence the mean motion of the apsides cc mean motion oi the nodes, for each x -^ , for each error is formed by forces varying as proof of the preceding corollaries, both the disturbing forces, and .. the errors produced by them in a given time will cc P T. Let P describe an indefinite small angle about T (in a given position of P), then the linear errors generated in that time cc force T P time 2 , but the time of describ- ing = angles about T x whole periodic time (p), .'. linear errors cc P T p 2 , and as the same is true for every small portion, similar; the linear errors during a whole revolution x P T p 2 . Angular errors . cc - j - * .. oc p * .'. when S T, P T, and the absolute force vary, the r\ 2 ciUSOlUtC t) ^ T) ' angular errors oc p-j a -- ^ , 3 a ^ rp-, (when the absolute force is A a2 372 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XI. given.) Now the error in any given timex p varies the whole errors during a revolution a ^- z . .-. the errors in any given time a jf- g . Hence the mean motion of the apsides of P's orbit varies the mean motion of the nodes, and each will a ~^- 3 the excentricities and inclination being small and remaining the same. 491. (Con. 17.) To compare the disturbing forces with the force of PtoT. absolute F a F of S on T : F of P on T P * a S T s ' T P absolute F m A. S T . aT P axis major 3 S S 3 ' T P 5 . S JT . TP . d_ p 2 ' * : p z mean add. F : F of S on T : .-. mean add. F : F P on T : : p 2 : P . 492. To compare the densities of different planets. Let P and P' be the periodic times of A and B, r and r' their distances from the body round which they revolve. F of A to S : F of B to S : : ^- z : ~ quantity of matter in A do. in B D 3 of A X density ^ D 3 of Bx density distance 2 'distance 2 ' distance" distance* 3 2 where S and S 7 represent the apparent diameters of the two planets. 493. In what part of the moon's orbit is her gravity towards the earth unaffected by the action of the sun. r ,_Ma 2 , Ma'r 3 Ma'r tl~cos. 8 4 L 3 Ma'r . "T" """d*"" ~d~ 2 ' 2 d 3 M a 8 and when it is acted upon only by the force of gravity = - for die other forces then have no effect. BOOK I.] Ma 8 NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 373 1 - 1 Let x = shi. Q Ma 2 r 1 - cos. 2 6 , 3 M a + 2 " a 7 d 3 2 | - - cos. 2 6 I > 5 3 3 J < 3 2 + - cos. 2 6 + 2 sm. 26 = 3 3 1 sin. 2 C 3 . 2 2 ' 2 2 Sm< ~ ( sin. 6 = = + 1 I sin. * 6 + I X 2 sin. 6 x cos. 4 = 0) and 1 ^ + 3x V 1 x = 0. An equation from which x may be found. 494. LEMMA. If a body moving towards a plane given in position, be acted upon by a force perpendicular to its motion lending towards that plane, the inclination of the orbit to the plane will be increased. Again, if the body be moving from the plane, and the force acts from the plane, the inclina- tion is also increased. But if the body be moving towards the plane, and the force tends from the plane, or if the body be moving from the plane, and the force tends towards the plane, the inclination of the orbit to the plane is diminished. 495. To calculate that part of the ablatitious tangential force which is employed in drawing P from the plane of its orbit. Let the dotted line upon the ecliptic N A P N' be that part of P's orbit which lies above it. Let C D be the intersection of a plane drawn per- pendicular to the ecliptic ; P K perpendicular to this plane, and there- Aa3 374 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XI. fore parallel to the ecliptic. Take T F = 3 P K ; join P F and it will represent the disturbing force of the sun. Draw P i a tangent to, and F i perpendicular to the plane of the orbit. Complete the rectangle i m, and P F may be resolved into P m, P i, of which P m is the effective force to alter the inclination. Draw the plane F G i perpendicular to N N' ; then F G is perpendicular to N N'. Also F i G is a right angle. As- sume P T tabular rad. Then P T T F : : R : 3g-\ .-. P T : P m : : R 3 : 3 g. s. i T F F G : : R : s 5- PT.3g.s.i FG Pm:: R:i )' R 3 g = sin. 6 =r sin. L dist. from quad. s = sin.

498. To find the central and ablatitious tangential forces. C tn 7\rv\ Take Pm = 3PK = 3PT. sin. 6 = ablatitious force. Then P n = P m . sin. d = 3 P T . sin. * 6 = central force m n = P m . cos. 6 = 3 P T . sin. 6 . cos. 6 = | . P T sin. 2 6 = tangential ablatitious force. To find what is the disturbing force of S on P. A a-l S7t> A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XL The disturbing force = P T 3 P T . sin. 6 = ("" 1+ | COS>2 ^ x P T = ^ + -| P T. cos. 2 *. To find the mean disturbing force of S during a whole revolution. P T 3 Let P T at the mean distance = m, then -- - -- 1- . P T cos. 2 6 *-* TJ rp - since cos. 2 6 is destroyed during a whole revolution. 2 499. To find the disturbing force in syzygy. SAT AT = 2AT = disturbing force in syzygy; the force in quadrature is wholly effective and equal P T, .-. force in quadrature : fin syzygy : : P T : 2 P T : : 1 : 2. To find that point in P's orbit when the force of P to T is neither increased nor diminished by the force of S to T. In this point Pn= PTorSPT sin. * 6 = P T, .. sin. 6 = - V 3 and 6 = 35 16'. To find when the central ablatitious force is a maximum. P n = 3 P T . sin. z 6 = maximum, .'. d . (sin. * 6) or 2 sin. 6 . cos. & d 6 = 0, .*. sin. 6 . cos. 6 = 0, or sin. 6 . V 1 sin. * 6 = 0, and sin. 0=1, or the body is in opposition. Then (Prop. LVIII, LIX,) T 2 : t 2 : : S P : C P : : S + P : S and T 8 : t 2 :: A 3 : x s . A 3 : x' :: S+ P : S and A : x :: (S+ P)* : S*. 500. PROB. Hence to correct for the axis major of the moon's orbit- Let S be the earth, P the moon, and let per. t of a body moving in a secondary at the earth's surface be found, and also the periodic time of BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 377 the moon. Then we may find the axis major of the moon's orbit round the earth supposed at rest rz x, by supposition. Then the corrected axis or axis major round the earth in motion : x : : (S + P) * : S * (S+ .*. axis major round the earth in motion = x . ^ - - Hence to compare the quantity of matter in the earth and moon, y : x : : V S + P : V S ...y3_ x 3 . X 3 .. p . g< 501. To define the addititious and ablatitious forces. Let S T repre- sent the attractive force of T to S. Take S L : S T : : ^ : ^: : S T* : S P' o Jr o JL and S L will represent the attractive force of P to S. Resolve this into S M, and L M ; then L M, that part of the force in the direction P T is called the addititious force, and SM S T = NMis the ablatitious force. 502. To compare these forces. Since S L : S T : : S T 2 : S P 2 , .-. S L = |^ = attractive force of C rr> 3 Q< np 4 P to S in the direction S P, and S P : S T : : ^-p^ : -^-p- 3 = attractive force of P to S in the direction T S = S T 4 (S T P K)~ =ST + 3 P K = S M nearly, .-. 3PK = TM = PL = ablatitious force = 3 P T . sin. 6. o np 3 Q T 1 3 P T = attractive force of P to S in the direction L M = P T nearly. Hence the addititious force : ablatitious force : : P T : 3 P T . sin. & : 1 : 3 sin. 0. Q. e. d. BOOK III. 1. PROP. I. All secondaries are found to describe areas round the primary proportional to the time, and these periodic times to be to each other in the sesquiplicate ratio of their radii. Therefore the center of force is in the primary, and the force a =~r- t . 2. PROP. II. In the same way, it may be proved, that the sun is the center of force to the primaries, and that the forces oc -p ^ . Also the dist. 2 Aphelion points are nearly at rest, which would not be the case if the force varied in a greater or less ratio than the inverse square of the dis- tance, by principles of the 9th Section, Book 1st. 3. PROP. III. The foregoing applies to the moon. The motion of the moon's apogee is very slow about 3 3' in a revolution, whence the force will ip-rz sis It was proved in the 9th Section, that if the ablatitious force of the sun were to the centripetal force of the earth : : 1 : 357.45, that the motion of the moon's apogee would be the real motion. .*. the ablatitious force of the sun : centripetal force : : 2 : 357.45 : : 1 : 178 fg. This being very small may be neglected, the remainder oc ^~z 4. COR. The mean force of the earth on the moon : force of attraction 29 . 17 29 The centripetal force at the distance of the moon : centripetal force at the earth : : 1 : D 8 . 5. PROP. IV. By the best observations, the distance of the moon from the earth equals about 60 semidiameters of the earth in syzygies. If the moon or any heavy body at the same distance were deprived of motion in the space of one minute, it would fall through a space = 16 ,V feet. For the 380 A COMMENTARY ON [BOOK III. deflexion from the tangent in the same time = 1 6 ^ feet. Therefore the space fallen through at the surface of the earth in 1" s 16 ^ feet. For 60" : t : : D : 1, __ ?2L' _ i// : 60 : ' thence the moon is retained in its orbit by the force of the earth's gravity like heavy bodies on the earth's surface. 6. PROP. XIX. By the figure of the earth, the force of gravity at the pole : force of gravity at the equator : : 289 : 288. Suppose A B Q q a spheroid revolving, the lesser diameter P Q, and A C Q q c a a canal filled with water. Then the weight of the arm Q q c C : ditto of A a c C : : 288 : 289. The centrifugal force at the equator, therefore 1 suppose g^ of the weight. Again, supposing the ratio of the diameters to be 100 : 101. By com- putation, the attraction to the earth at Q : attraction to a sphere whose radius = Q C : : 126 : 125. And the attraction to a sphere whose ra- dius A C : attraction of a spheroid at A formed by the revolution of an ellipse about its major axis : : 126 : 125. The attraction to the earth at A is a mean proportional between the at- tractions to the sphere whose radius = A C, and the oblong spheroid, since the attraction varies as the quantity of matter, and the quantity of matter in the oblate spheroid is a mean to the quantities of matter in the oblong spheroid and the circumscribing sphere. Hence the attraction to the sphere whose radius = A C : attraction to the earth at A : : 126 : 125 . .'. attraction to the earth at the pole : attraction to the earth at the equa- tor : : 501 : 500. Now the weights in the canals a whole weights a magnitudes X gra- BOOK III.] NEWTON'S PRINClPIA. 381 vity, therefore the weight of the equatorial arm : weight of the polar : : 500 X 101 : 501 X 100 : : 505 : 501. 4 Therefore the centrifugal force at the equator supports VXP to make an oOo equilibrium. But the centrifugal force of the earth supports 1 = ^ e excess f tne equatorial over the polar radius. Hence the equatorial radius : polar : : 1 + : 1 : : 230 : 229. Again, since when the times of rotation and density are different the V* difference of the diameter , M .-. M : S : : 5 : 2} nearly. / Hence taking this as the mean proportion at the mean distances of the moon and sun (if the earth =1) the moon = . COR. 1. If the disturbing forces were equal there would be no high or low water at quadratures, but there would be an elevation above the in- scribed spheroid all round the circle, passing through the sun and moon = 1 M + S. BOOK III.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 391 COR. The gravitation of the sun produces an elevation of 24 inches, the gravitation of the moon produces an elevation of 58 inches. .. the spring tide = 82 inches, and the neap tide = 33| inches. 15. COR. 3. Though M : S : : 5 : 2, this ratio varies nearly from (6 : 2) to 4 : 2, for supposing the sun and moon's distance each =: 1000. In January, the distance of the sun = 983, perigee distance of the moon = 945. In July, the distance of the sun = 1017, apogee distance of the moon = 1055. Disturbing force oc .pr- 3 ; hence ,S M apogee 1.901 4.258 mean 2 5 perigee 2.105 5.925.* 5 c A 3 d 3 The general expression is M = To find the general expression above. Disturbing force of different bodies (See Newton, Sect, llth, p. 66, Cor. 14.) a jL, .-. disturbing force S : disturbing force at mean distance : : D 3 : A 3 disturbing force M : disturbing force at mean distance : : d 3 : 5 3 , , M 5 _d^ a 3 " S ; 2 '"' D 3 ' A~ 3 ' M J3 A_ "S" ~ 2 X D Cl c\ X TTV 3 X * 3 > TV/T 5 A 3 d 3 ' M = a" x S x D " x 3~ 3 (or supposing that the absolute force of the sun and moon are the same). 16. PROP. VIII. Let N Q S E be the earth, N S its axis, E Q its equa- tor, O its center ; let the moon be in the direction O M having the de- clination B Q. * The solar force may be neglected, but the variation of the moon's distance, and proportion- ally the variation of its action, produces am effect on the times, and a much greater on the heighta of the tides. Bb4 392 A COMMENTARY ON [BooK III. Let D be any point on the surface of the earth, D C L its parallel of latitude, N D S its meridian ; and let B' F b' f be the elliptical spheroid of the ocean, having its poles in O M, and its equator F O f. As the point D is carried along its parallel of latitude, it will pass through all the states of the tide, having high water at C and L, and low water when it comes to (d) the intersection of its parallel of latitude with the equator of the watery spheroid. Draw the meridian N d G cutting the terrestrial equator in G. Then the arc Q G (converted into lunar hours) will give the duration of the ebb of the superior tide, G E in the same way the flood of the inferior. N. B., the whole tide G Q C, consisting of the ebb Q G, and the flood G Q is more than four times G O greater than the inferior tide. COR. If the spheroid touch the sphere in F and f, C C' is the height at C, L L' the height at L, hence if L' q be a concentric circle C' q will be the difference of superior and inferior tides. CONCLUSIONS DRAWN FROM PROP. VIII. 1. If the moon has no declination, the duration of the inferior and su- perior tides is equal for one day over all the earth. 2. If the moon has declination, the duration of the superior will be longer or shorter than the duration of the inferior according as the moon's declination and the latitude of the place are of the same or differ- ent denominations. 3. When the moon's declination equals the colatitude or exceeds it, BOOK III.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 393 there will only be a superior or inferior tide in the same day, (the paral- lel of latitude passing through f or between N and f.) 4. The sin. of arc G O = tan. of latitude X tan. declination. For rad. : cot. d O G : : tan. d G : sin. G O, .-. sin. G O = cot. d O G X tan. G d = tan. declination X tan. latitude. 17. PROP. IX. With the center C and radius C Q (representing the P M whole elevation of the lunar tide) describe a circle which may represent the terrestrial meridian of any place, whose poles are P, p, and equator E Q. Bisect P C in O, and round O describe a circle P B C D ; let M be the place on the earth's surface which has the moon in its zenith, Z the place of the observer. Draw M C m, cutting the small circle in A, and Z C N cutting the small circle in B ; draw the diameter BOD and A I parallel to E Q, draw A F, G H, IK perpendicular to B D, and join ID, A B, AD, and through I draw C M' cutting the meridian in M'. Then after a diurnal revolution the moon will come into the situation M', and the angle M' C N ( = the nadir distance) = supplement the angle ICB = ^IDB. Also the .ADB = BCA = zenith distance of the moon. 394 A COMMENTARY ON [BooK III. Hence D F, D K oc cos. * of the zenith and nadir distances to rad. D B. a elevation of the superior and inferior tides. CONCLUSIONS FROM PROP. IX. 1. The greatest tides are when the moon is in the zenith or nadir of the observer. For in this case (when M approaches to Z) A and I move to- wards D, B, and F coincides with B ; but in this case, the medium tide which is represented by D H (an arithmetic mean to D K, D F) is di- minished. If Z approach to M, D and I separate ; and hence, the superior and inferior and the medium tides all increase. 2. If the moon be in the equator, the inferior and superior tides are equal, and equal M X (cos) * latitude. For since A and I coincide with C, and F and K with (i) D i = D B X (cos.) 8 B D C = M X (cos.) latitude. 3. If the observer be in the equator, the superior and inferior tides are equal every where, and = M X (cos.) 2 of the declination of the moon. For B coincides with C, and F and K with G ; P G = P C X cos. * of the moon's declination = M x (cos.) 2 of the moon's declination. 4. The superior tides are greater or less than the inferior, according as the moon and place of the observer are on the same or different sides of the equator. 5. If the colatitude of the place equal the moon's declination or is less than it, there will be no superior or inferior tide, according as the latitude and the declination have the same or different denominations. For when P Z=M Q, D coincides with I, and if it be less than M Q, D falls between I and C, so that Z will not pass through the equator of the watery spheroid. 6. At the pole there are no diurnal tides, but a rise and subsidence of the water twice in the month, owing to the moon's declining to both sides of the equator. 18. PROP. X. To find the value of the mean tide. A G = sin. 2 declination (to rad. = O C.) and O G = cos. 2 declination (to the same radius). M .-.OH = cos. 2 declination X cos. 2 lat. X ~g-, .-.DH= OD + OH 1 + cos. 2 lat. X cos. 2 declination = M X BOOK III.] NEWTON'S PIUNCIPIA. 395 Now as the moon's declination never exceeds 30, the cos. 2 declination is always -f- v 2 , and never greater than \ ; if the latitude be less than 45, the cos. 2 lat. is -J- v e, after which it becomes v e. Hence 1. The mean tide is equally affected by north and south declination of the moon. 2. If the latitude = 45, the mean tide M. 3. If the lat. be less than 45, the mean tide decreases as the declina- tion increases. 4. If the latitude be greater than 45, the mean tide decreases as the declination diminishes. . -rf , , . , *! + cos. 2 declination 5. If the latitude = 0, the mean tide = M X BOOK I. SECTION XII. 503. PROP. LXX. To find the attraction on a particle placed within a spherical surface, force a 8 , -jr , . distance 2 Let P be a particle, and through P draw H P K, I P L making a very small angle, and let them revolve and generate conical surfaces I P H, H L P K. Now since the angles at P are equal and the angles at H and L are also equal (for both are on the same segment of the circle), therefore the triangles H I P, P L K, are similar. .-. HI:KL::HP:PL Now since the surface of a cone GC (slant side) 2 , .. surface intercepted by revolution of I P H : that of L P K : and attractions of each particle in I P H : that of L P K : ' HP'KL* but the whole attraction of P oc the number of particles X attraction of each, HI* K L* 1 .-. the whole attraction on P from H I : from K L : : ^j T 't : v~-r't HI Jv JL :: J : 1; and the same may be proved of any other part of the spherical surface ; .'. P is at rest. 504. PROP. LXXL To find the attraction on a particle placed without a spherical surface, force oc g - -p ,. 398 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XII. Let A B, a b, be two equal spherical surfaces, and let P, p be two particles at any distances P S, p s from their centers; draw P H K, K P I L very near each other, and S F D, S E perpendicular upon them, and from (p) draw p h k, p i 1, so that h k, i 1 may equal H K, I L respective- ly, and s f d, s e, i r perpendiculars upon them may equal S F D, S E, I R respectively ; then ultimately PE = PF = pe = pf, and D F = d f. Draw I Q, i q perpendicular upon P S, p s. Now and PI:PF p f : p i : Again and PI:PS::IQ: SF PI pf:pi.PF::IR:ir::IH:ih _ .-. P I . p s : p i . P S : : I Q : i q ps:pi::sf:iq .-. P P. p f . p s : (p i) 2 . P F . P S : : I Q. I H : i q. i h : : circumfer. of circle rad. I Q X I H : circumfer. of circle rad i q X i h : : annulus described by revolution of 1 Q : that by revolution of i q. Now attraction on 1st annulus : attraction on 2d And 1st annulus a 2d annulus distance? * distance 2 PP.pf.ps (pi)'.PF. PS PI 1 (pi) 2 :: pf. ps :PF.PS. attraction on the annulus : attraction in the direction P S : : P I : P Q :: PS: PF P F .. attraction in direction PS = p f. p s. p-~ .-. whole att n . of P to S : whole att n . of (p) to s : : p f . p s . ,5-5 : P F . P S 2- Jr o ps 1 * P S s ' p s 1 BooKl.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 399 and the same may be proved of all the annul! of which the surfaces are composed, and therefore the attraction of P a - O r cc -r-. - ; from P S 2 distance* the center. COR. The attraction of the particles within the surface on P equals the attraction of the particles without the surface- For K L : I H :': P L : P I : : L N : I Q. .. annulus described by I H : annulus described by K L ::IQ.IH:KL.LN::PP:PL 2 .. attraction on the annulus I H : attraction on the annulus K L PI 2 PL PI* PL and so on for every other annulus, and one set of annuli equals the part within the surface, and the other set equals the part without. 506. PROP. LXXII. To find the attraction on a particle placed with- out a solid sphere, force oc g - -^ - ; . distance 2 Let the sphere be supposed to be made up of spherical surfaces, and the attraction of these surfaces upon P will and two similar spheres attract each other, then the spheres will attract with a force a 8 as -^ -, of their centers. distance 2 1 For the attraction of each, particle oc -^ ^ from the center of the attracting sphere (A), and therefore with respect to the attracted particle the attracting sphere is the same as if all its particles were concentrated in its center. Hence the attraction of each particle in (A) upon the whole of (B) will a -JT 1 of each particle in B from the center of P, and if all the particles in B were concentrated in the center, the attraction would be the same ; and hence the attractions of A and B upon each other will be the same as if each of them were concentrated in its center, and 1 therefore oc distance 2 ' 509. PROP. LXXVI. Let the spheres attract each other, and let them not be homogeneous, but let them be homogeneous at correspond- ing distances from the center, then they attract each other with forces 1 a*. distance * * G II Suppose any number of spheres C D and E F, I K and L M, &c. to be concentric with the spheres A B, G H, respectively; and let C D and I K, E F and L M be homogeneous respectively ; then each of these spheres will attract each other with forces at*, -r . Now suppase distance * the original spheres to be made up by the addition and subtraction of similar and homogeneous spheres, each of these spheres attracting each BOOK I.] other with a force a g . -rr distance 8 each other in the same ratio. 401 ; then the sum or differences will attract 510. PROP. LXXVII. Let the force cc distance, to find the attraction of a sphere on a particle placed without or within it. Let P be the particle, S the center, draw two planes E F, e f, equally distant from S ; let H be a particle in the plane E F, then the attraction of H on P a HP, and therefore the attraction in the direction S P ex P G, and the attraction of the sum of the particles in E F on P towards S oc circle E F . P G, and the attraction of the sum of the particles in (e f) on P towards S oc circle e f . P g, therefore the whole attraction of E F, e f, oc circle EF(PG+Pg) circle E F . 2 P S, therefore the whole attraction of the sphere a sphere X P S. When P is within the sphere, the attraction of the circle E F on P to- wards S sr SI.LD . AL.LB.SI _ C T T C O * MJt Q = SI.LS 2 2LD .'. area between the values of L A and L B LB SI.(LB LA) /LB.SI AL.SI LB LA SLAB. Cc3 406 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. xir. To construct this area. 1 a S Dd Take S I = S s, and describe a hyperbola passing through a, s, b, to which L 1, L B are asymptotes ; then as in the former case, the area A a n b B .-. the area ANBrrSI.LS /*-? SLAB. 'LA 518. PROP. LXXXII. Let I be a particle within the sphere, and P the same particle without the sphere, and take S P : S A : : S A : S I, then will the attracting power of the sphere on I : attracting power of the sphere on P : : V S I. V force on I : V S P. V force on P. D N force on the point P : D' N' force on the point I D E* P S DE g I S PE.V IE.V ;: PS.IE.V: IS. PE.V. Let V : V' :: P E n ; IE", NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. DN : D'N' :: PS.IE.IE n :IS.PE.EE, BOOK L] then but P S : S E : : S E : S I, and the angle at S is common, .. triangles P S E, I S E are similar, .-. P E : I E : : P S : S E : : S E : S I, .-. DN : D'N' :: PS.SE.IE" : PS.SI.PE", :: SE.IE n : SI.PE" 407 VST'.IE": ?: VSF : SI* VSI.PSf. 519. PROP. LXXXIII. To find the attraction of a segment of aspheie upon a corpuscle placed within its centre. Draw the circle F E G with the center P, let R B S be the segment of the sphere, and let the attraction of the spherical lamina E F G upon P be proportional to F N, then the area de- scribed by F N .-. if F N be taken proportional to Fn-1 p-^ , the area traced out by F N will be the whole attraction on P. 520. PROP. LXXXIV. To find the attraction when the body is placed in the axis of the segment, but not in the center of the sphere. Pel 408 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XIII. Describe a circle with the radius P E, and the segment cut off by the revolution of this circle E F K round P B, will have P in its center, and the attraction on P of this part may be found by the preceding Proposi- tion, and of the other part by PROP. LXXXI. and the sum of these at- tractions will be the whole attraction on P. SECTION XIII. 521. PROF. LXXXV. If the attraction of a body on a particle placed iu contact with it, be much greater than if the particle were removed at any the least distance from contact, the force of the attraction of the par- ticles a in a higher ratio than that of -p , . distance z For if the force a -r. g , and the particle be placed at any distance from the sphere, then the attraction oc -^ , from the center of the distance 2 sphere, and .. is not sensibly increased by being placed in contact with the sphere, and it is still less increased when the force a in a less ratio than that of -^ r, and it is indifferent whether the sphere be homo- distance * geneous or not ; if it be homogeneous at equal distances, or whether the body be placed within or without the sphere, the attraction still varying in the same ratio, or whether any parts of this orbit remote from the point of contact be taken away, and be supplied by other parts, whether attractive or not, .-. so far as attraction is concerned, the attracting power of this sphere, and of any other body will not sensibly differ ; .-.if the pheno- BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 409 mena stated in the Proposition be observed, the force must vary in a higher ratio than that of ~r. - . distance 2 522. PROP. LXXXVI. If the attraction of the particles cc in a higher ratio than T . - - , or oc -p - - , then the attraction of a body placed distance 3 distan ce 3 in contact with any body, is much greater than if they were separated even by an evanescent distance. For if the force of each particle of the sphere oc in a higher ratio than that of T - = , the attraction of the sphere on the particle is indefinitely distance 3 increased by their being placed in contact, and the same is the case for any meniscus of a sphere ; and by the addition and subtraction of attrac- tive particles to a sphere, the body may assume any given figure, and .*. the increase or decrease of the attraction of this body will not be sensi- bly different from the attraction of a sphere, if the body be placed in con- tact with it. 523. PROP. LXXXVII. Let two similar bodies, composed of particles equally attractive, be placed at proportional distances from two particles which are also proportional to the bodies themselves, then the accelerat- ing attractions of corpuscles to the attracting bodies will be proportional to the whole bodies of which they are a part, and in which they are simi- larly situated. For if the bodies be supposed to consist of particles which are propor- tional to the bodies themselves, then the attraction of each particle in one body : the attraction of each particle in the other body, : : the attraction of all the particles in the first body : the attraction of all the particles in the second body, which is the Proposition. COB. Let the attracting forces oc -^ - - , then the attraction of a particle in a body whose side is A : B A 3 : B 3 * distance n from A ' distance n from B A 3 B^ : : A n : B n __ A n ~ 3 B n ~ 3 ' if the distances cc as A and B. 410 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XIII. 524. PROP. LXXXVIII. If the particles of any body attract with a force a distance, then the whole body will be acted upon by a particle without it, in the same manner as if all the particles of which the body is composed, were concentrated in its center of gravity. Let R S T V be the body, Z the par- tide without it, let A and B be any two particles of the body, G their cen- ter of gravity, then A A G = B B G, and then the forces of Z of these parti- cles GC A A Z, B B Z, and these forces may be resolved into A A G + A G Z, B B G + B G Z, and A A G being = B B G and acting in opposite directions, they will destroy each other, and .'. force of Z upon A and B will be proportional to A Z G + B Z G, or to (A + B) Z G, .-. particles A and B will be equally acted upon by Z, whether they be at A and B, or collected in their center of gravity. And if there be three bodies A, B, C, the same may be proved of the center of gravity of A and B (G) and C, and .*. of A, B, and C, and so on for all the particles of which the body is composed, or for the body itself. 525. PROP. LXXXIX. The same applies to any number of bodies acting upon a particle, the force of each body being the same as if it were collected in its center of gravity, and the force of the whole system of bodies being the same as if the several centers of gravity were collected in the common center of the whole. 526. PROP. XC. Let a body be placed in a perpendicular to the plane of a given circle drawn from its center ; to find the attraction of the circu- lar area upon the body. With the center A, radius = A D, let a circle be supposed to be described, to whose plane A P is perpendicular. From any point E in this circle draw P E, in P A or it produced take P F = P E, and draw F K perpendicular to P F, and let F K oc attracting force at E on P. Let 1 K L be the curve described by the point K, and let I K L meet A D in L, take P H = P D, and draw H I perpendicular BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 411 to P H meeting this curve in I, then the attraction on P of the circle oc A P the area A H I L. For take E e an evanescent part of A D, and join P e, draw e C per- pendicular upon P E, .-. E e : E C : : P E : A E, .-. E e . A E = E C x P E cc annulus described by A E, and the attraction of that annulus in P A the direction P A oc E C . P E . ^-^ X force of each particle at E cc E C X f sLi P A X force of each particle at E, but E C = F f, .-. F K . F f cc E C x the force of each particle at E, .'. attraction of the annulus in the direction PA a P A . F f. F K, and .-. P A x sum of the areas F K . Ff or P A the area A H I L is proportional to the attraction of the whole part de- scribed by the revolution of A E. 527. COR. 1. Let the force of each particle cc -r- i> at P F =r x, let b = force at the distance a, ba 2 .. F K the force at the distance x = * x 2 b a 2 dx .-. attraction = PA.FK.Ff=PAy cc P A ^cc A ^ F , and between the values of P A and P H, the attraction apA A-pir a I "^H- 528. COR. 2. Let the force cc -p , then T K = V > distance a x n .'. attraction = P A /* d x cc r X r + Cor., -/x 11 n 1 x"' and between the values of P A and P H, attraction = 1 PA a PAn-^PH"- 1 ' 529. COR. 3. Let the diameter of a circle become infinite, or P H oc OD, then the attraction cc ~ j . Jr A " " 530. PROP. XCI. To find the attraction on a particle placed in the axis produced of a regular solid. 412 A COMMENTARY ON * R [SECT. XIII. Let P be a body situated in the axis A B of the curve D E C G, by the revolution of which the solid is generated. Let any circle It F S perpendicular to the axis, cut the solid, and in the semidiameter F S of the solid, take F K proportional to the attraction of the circle on P, then F K . F f a attraction of the solid whose base = circle R F S, and depth = F f, let I K L be the curve traced out by F K, .-. A L K F a at- traction of the solid. COR. 1. Let the solid be a cylinder, the force varying as r . . J J distance 2 Then the attraction of the circle R F S, or F K which is proportional P F to that attraction a 1 ^-J . i rl Let P F = x, F R = b, .-. area a x Vx 2 + b * . BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 413 Now if P A = x, attraction = 0, .-. Cor. = P D P A, .. whole attraction = P B = AB Let A B = oo = P E = P D, .'. atraction = A B. PE+PD PA P E + P D. 531. COR. 3. Let the body P be placed within a spheroid, let a spheroidical shell be included between the two similar spheroids DOG, K N I, and let the spheroid be described round S which will pass through P, and which is simi- lar to the original spheroid, draw D P E, F P G, very near each other. Now P D = BE, PF = CG, PH = BI, PK = CL. .-. F K = L G, and D H = I E, and the parts of the spheroidical shell which are intercepted between these lines, are of equal thickness, as also the conical frustums intercepted by the revolution of these lines, and .*. attraction on P by the part D K : . . . . G I number of particles in D K ... G* ~~ G E P G and the same may be proved of every other part of a spheroidical shell, and .'. body is not at all attracted by it; and the same may be proved of all the other spheroidical shells which are included between the spheroids, A O G, and C P M, and .'. P is not affected by the parts external to C P M, and ,-. (Prop. LXXII.), attraction on P : attraction on A : : PS: AS. 532. PROP. XCII1. To find the attraction of a body placed without an infinite solid, the force of each particle varying as -TT- - , where n is greater than 3. Let C be the body, and let G L, H M, K O, &c. be the attractions at the several infinite planes of which a solid is composed on the 414 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT XIII. body C; then the area G L O K equals the whole attraction of a solid on C. L M -N G H I K I in n o Now if the force a T . . distance" Then H M a CHn _, (Cor. 3. Prop. XC) .-./HM.dx ./^ a - * + Cor. C G"- 3 C H n ~ 3 and if H C = oo then the area G L O K a -^ 1 GO- 3 * Case 2. Let a body be placed within the solid. N C O I K o G Let C be the place of the body, and take C K = C G ; the part of the solid between G and K will have no effect on the body C, and there- fore it is attracted to remain as if it were placed without it at the distance CK. 1 1 .'. attraction cc GC C K n ~ 3 CG n ~ 3 * BOOK L] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 415 SECTION XIV. 534. PROP. XCIV. Let a body move through a similar medium, ter- minated by parallel plane surfaces, and let the body, in its passage through this medium, be attracted by a force varying according to any law of its distance from the plane of incidence. Then will the sine of inclination be to the sine of refraction in a given ratio. Let A a, B b be the planes which terminate the medium, and G H be the direction of the body's incidence, and I R that of its emergence. Case 1. Let the force to the plane A a be constant, then the body will describe a parabola, the force acting parallel to I R, which will be a diameter of the parabola described. H M will be a tangent to the parabola, and if K I be produced I L will also be a tangent to the parabola at I. Let K I produced meet G M in L v.ith the center L, and distance L I describe a circle cutting I R in N, and draw L O perpendicular to I R. Now by a property of the parabola M I =. I v, .-. M L = H L, .-. M O = O R, and .-. M N = I R. The angle L M I=the angle of incidence, and the angle M I L = sup- plement of M I K = supplemental angle of emergence. Now L. MI = MH 2 = 4 ML 2 416 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XIV. but MN.MI=MI.IR=MQ.MP=ML+LQ.ML LQ = ML 8 LQ* . M j = ML 2 -LQ* .-. L:IR::4ML 8 : ML 2 LQ but L and I R are given .-.4 ML 2 a ML 8 LQ* .-.ML 2 ocLQ 2 a LI 2 .*. M L a L I or sin. refraction : sin. inclination in a given ratio. Case 2. Let the force vary according to . any law of distance from A a. g~ Divide the medium by parallel planes A a, .. A b N K D rVrr - -^-g - - a A P . oc velocity. .'. it will represent the space. SECTION IV. 35. PROP. XV. LEMMA. The /. O P Q = a rectangle =r L O Q R and . S P Q = L. of the spiral = 4. S Q R .-. i- O P S = . O Q S. .*. the circle which passes through the points P, S, O, also passes circle through Q. Also when Q coincides with P, this - touches the spiral. 8 .-. c. P S O L. in a - - whose diameter = P O. MB BOOK II.] NEWTON'S PR1NCIPIA. 437 Also T Q : P Q : : P Q : 2 P S.. r. PQ 2 = 2PS x TO which also follows from the general property of every curve. PQ 2 rr P V X QR. 36. Hence the resistance ex density X square of the velocity. 37. Density a -^ > centripetal force a density 2 -rr- ; . distance distance 2 Then produce S Q to V so that S V = S P, and let P Q be an arc described in a small lime, P R described in twice that time, .. the decre ments of the arcs from what would be described in a non-resisting me- dium a T 2 . .*. decrement of the arc P Q = ^ decrement of the arc P R .-. decrement of the arc P Q = \ R r (if Q S r = area P S Q). For let P q, q v be arcs described (in the same time as P Q, Q R) in a non-resisting medium, P S q PSQ^rQSqzzqSv Q S r = r S v Q Sq .'. 2QSq = rSv .. if S T ultimately = S t be the perpendicular on the tangents ST X Qq = ^ S t X rv .-. 2 Q q = r v and R v = 4 Q q. .-. 2 Q q = R r. Hence Resistance : centripetal force : : | R r : T Q, Also T Q X S P 2 a time 2 , (Newt. Sect. II.) .-. P Q 2 X S P a time ' .'. time a P Q x .-.V a also V at Q oc 438 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. IV. P Q : Q R : : V~S~Q : V~S~P :: SQ: V SQ X SP P Q : Q r : : S Q : S P since the areas are equal, and the angles at P and Q are equal. .'. P Q : Rr::SQ:SP V S Q x S P : : S Q : V Q For SQ = S P VQ ..SQxSP = SP' VQx SP .-. V Q ultimately = S P V S P x S Q r> . , decrement of V R r Resistance : = a time 2 P Q 2 x S P i V O GC PQxSQxSP VQ: PQ: : OS: PO and O S S Q= SP oc O P x S P 2 OS .. density X square of the velocity oc resistance oc \y P 1 X o i OS ' dens ">' * OPXSP O S and in the logarithmic spiral -^^ is constant. .-. density oc - . Q. e. d. 38. Con. 1. V in spiral = V in the circle in a non -resisting medium at .he same distance. 39. COR. 3. Resistance : centripetal force : : R r : T Q j SQ SP ::*VQ:PQ : : I O S : O P. .*. the ratio of resistance to the centripetal force is known if the spiral be given, and vice versa. 40. COR- 4. If the resistance exceed * the centripetal force, the body cannot move in this spiral. For if the resistance equal the centripetal BOOK II.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 43!) force, O S = O P, .*. the body will descend to the center in a straight line P S. V of descent in a straight line : V in a non-resisting medium of de- scent in an evanescent parabola : : 1 : V 2 ; for V in the spiral = V in the circle at the same distance, V in the parabola = V in the circle at f distance. Hence since time a -^ , time of descent in the 1st case : that in 2d : : V 2 : 1. 41. COR. 5. V in the spiral P Q R = V in the line P S at the same distance. Also P Q R : P S in a given ratio : : P S : P T : : O P: O S .-. time of descending P Q R : that of P S : : O P : O S.* Length of the spiral = T P = sector of the L. T P S. a:b::b:c::c:d::d:e a + b + c + &c. : b + c + d + &c. : : a : b .-. a + b + c + &c. : a : : a : a b. 42. COR. 6. If with the center S and any two given radii, two circles be described, the number of revolutions which the body makes between the two circumferences in the different spirals a O S' pq:pt::Sp:Sy .'. d w = p d x ^ r 2 p X <1 X d w : : : x : p. r 2 p 2 2 Y/ r a p 2 r. c 4 440 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. IV. 43. Con. 7. Suppose a body to revolve as in the proposition, and to cut K the radius in the points A, B, C, D, the intersections by the nature of the spiral are in continued proportion. ,. r , . perimeters described 1 lines o! revolution oc - and velocity a 1_ V distance a A S^, B S*, CS'i 53 .-. the whole time : time of one revolution ::AS 2 -j-BS^ + &c. : A S ::AS*:AS* BS*. 44. PROP. XVI. Suppose the centripetal force x ^ p n + i> time a P Q x S P * and velocity oc S P 2 PQ : Q R :: S Q* : SP Qr : PQ :: SP : SQ Qr : QR : : SQ^- 1 : S .-. Qr : Rr : : SQ?- 1 : S SP2- For : : S Q : l~^~fn . V Q. S P = SQ+ VQ, BOOK II.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 441 - 1 + 1. VQ x SQ*~ 2 + &c. ... SQ*- 1 SP*- 1 = 1 " x VQ x SQ?- 2 . IB Then as before it may be proved, if the spiral be given, that the density g-p. Q. e. d. 45. Cou. 1. Resistance : centripetal force : : 1 n . O S : O P, for the resistance : centripetal force : : | II r : T Q - x VQx PQ PQ ! as Q ~"2lTp x VQ:PQ :: 1_| X OS: OP. 46. COR. 2. If n -f 1 = 3, 1 ~ = 0, a T~ a /"? ^f Li Li ^1 - L fc* t 59. PROP. XLVII. Let E, F, G be three physical points in the line B C, which are equally distant ; E e, F f, G g the spaces through which they move S -j-D during the time of one vibration. Let e, N 3 . Also, if M be the N. in the cube of water, M D the side of the cube and the N. in the cube oc M 3 . Put 1 : A : : N 3 : M 3 , .-. M = A * N, By Proposition .-. S = D x A i*-l, .'. S : D : : 1 l* I :1, .'. S + D : D : : i V.*: 1 : : 9 or 10: 1 if A = 1000). Now the space described by sound : space which the air occupies : : 9 : 11, 979 /. space to be added = -^- = 108 or the velocity of sound is 1088 feet per 1". Again, also the elasticity of air is increased by vapours. Hence since the velocity a i : if the density remain the same the velocitv J V density cc V elasticity. Hence if the air be supposed to consist of 11 feet, 10 of air, and I of vapour, the elasticity will be increased in the ratio of 11 : 10, therefore the velocity will be increased in the ratio of 11| : 10| or 21 : 20, therefore the velocity of sound will altogether be 1142 feet per 1", which is the same as found by experiment. In summer the air being more elastic than in winter, sound will be propagated with a greater velocity than in winter. The above calculation relates to the mean elasticity of the air which is in spring and autumn. Hence may be found the intervals of pulses of the air. By experiment, a tube whose length is five Paris feet, was observed to give the same sound as a chord which vibrated 100 times in 1", and in the same time sound moves through 1070 feet, therefore the interval of the pulses of air = 10.7 or about twice the length of the pipe. Ff 4 456 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT: VJ1T. 62. On the vibrations of a harmonic string. The force with which a string tends to the center of the curve : force which stretches the string : : length : radius of curvature. Let P p be a B GO small portion of the string, O the center of the curve ; join O P, O p, and draw P t, p t, tangents at P and p meeting in t, complete the parallelo- gram P t p r. Join t r, then P t, p t represent the stretching force of the string, which may be resolved into P x, t x and p x, t x of which P x, p x destroy each other, and 2 t x = force with which the string tends to the center O. Now the . t P r = | /L P O p, .*. . t P x = L. P O p, .*. t r : P t : : P p : O P, i. e. the force with which any particle moves towards the center of the curve : force which stretches it : : length : radius. 63. To find the times of vibration of a harmonic string. Let w = weight of the string. L = length. D d : L : : weight D d : w i.* TTA i D d X w .. weight of D d = T BOOK II.]. NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 457 Also j^ i -D d : - = rad. of curve : : the moving force of D d : P p a .-. the moving force of D d = p X Dd X ap' Li W .% accelerating force = P X D d X a p* X T ^ _ L s Dd X w P X ap* Lw. if D O = x, D C = a, O C = a x, p p 2 3 x - .'. the accelerating force at O = Lw g. Pp _ ... v d s = fe r X a d x x d x t i-. W .-. v =J g P* X V2ax x'. V L w .-. C and 1 = 0, d x / L w d x dx / .-. d t = - - = J v V g P p* V 2a x x L w . ii -p 3 X cir. arc rad. = 1 and x vers. sine == , a when x = a, t = 0. / L w / L w v P * *. 5 rX quadrant = / ^ 5- X -VgPp* VgPp* 2 / L w = ^ x X /-^p- 2 .*. time of a vibration = / =r- 1" _l. .-. number of vibrations in 1" = ./-#' . V L w COR. Time of vibration = time of the oscillation of a pendulum whose , L w len S th =-p^r- 458 For this time = ./ A COMMENTARY, &c. [SECT. IX. ~ . g P 64. PROP. LI. Let A F be a cylinder moving in a fluid round a fixed axis in S, and suppose the fluid divided into a great number of solid Q orbs of the same thickness. Then the disturbing force a translation of parts X surfaces. Now the disturbing forces are constant. .*. Transla- tion of parts, from the defect of lubricity a -p-^ . Now the differ- r . u . translation 1 ~ . .- , ence ol the angular motions a r . - a -3 5 . On A Q draw distance d stance 2 1 A a, B b, C c, &c. : : -- r - then the sum of the differences will distance 2 ' a hyperbolic area. .*. periodic time a i : oc |- r r . a distance. angular motion hyperbolic area In the same way, if they were globes or spheres, the periodic time would vary as the distance *. END OF THE FIRST VOLUME. COMMENTARY NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. A SUPPLEMENTARY VOLUME. DESIGNED FOR THE USE OF STUDENTS AT THE UNIVERSITIES. BY J. M. F. WRIGHT, A. B. LATE SCHOLAR OF TRINITY COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE, AUTHOR OF SOLUTIONS OF THE CAMBRIDGE PROBLEMS, &C. &C. IN TWO VOLUMES. VOL. II. LONDON: PRINTED FOR T. T. & J. TEGG, 73, CHEAPSIDE; AND RICHARD GRIFFIN & CO., GLASGOW. MDCCCXXXIII. GLASGOW: GEORGE BROOKM\X, PIUNTKIt, TILLAI ILLU. INTRODUCTION TO VOLUME II. AND TO THE ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY 1. To determine the position of a point in fixed space. Assume any point A in fixed space as known and immoveable, and let Z' z three fixed planes of indefinite extent, be taken at right angles to one another and passing through A. Then shall their intersections A X', A Y', A Z' pass through A and be at right angles to one another. u INTRODUCTION. This being premised, let P be any point in fixed space; from P draw P z parallel to A Z, and from z where it meets the plane X A Y, draw z x, z y parallel to A Y, AX respectively. Make A x = x, A y = y, P z = z. Then it is evident that if x, y, z are given, the point P can be found practically by taking A x = x, A y = y, drawing x z, y z parallel to AY, AX; lastly, from their intersection, making z P parallel to A Z and equal to z. Hence x, y, z determine the position of the point P. The lines x, y, z are called the rectangular coordinates of the point P ; the point A the origin of coordinates ; the lines AX, AY, A Z the axes of coordinates, A X being further designated the axis of x, AY the axis of y, and A Z the axis of z ; and the planes X A Y, Z A X, Z A Y co- ordinate planes. These coordinate planes are respectively denoted by plane (x, y), plane (x, z), plane (y, z) ; and in like manner, any point whose coordinates are x, y, z is denoted briefly by point (x, y, z). If the coordinates x, y, z when measured along AX, AY, A Z be always considered positive ; when measured in the opposite directions, viz. along A X' A Y', A Z', they must be taken negatively. Thus ac- cordingly as P is in the spaces ZAXY, ZAYX', ZAX'Y', ZAY'X; Z'AXY, Z'AYX', Z'AX'Y', Z'AY'X, the point P will be denoted by point (x, y, z), point ( x, y, z), point ( x, y, z), point (x, y, z); point (x, y, - z), point (- x, y, - z), point (- x, - y, - z), point (x, - y, - z) respectively. 2. Given the position of two points (a, /3, 7), (a', /3', "/} in Jixcd space, to find the distance between them. The distance P P' is evidently the diagonal of a rectangular parallele- piped whose three edges are parallel to A X, A Y, A Z and equal to as a', /3s/3', 7 s/. Hence P P' = V (a a')* + 08 0r+ (7 /)" .... (1) the distance required. Hence if P' coincides with A or ', /3', / equal zero, P A = V a* + P* + 7 * (2) ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY. iii 3. Calling the distance of any point P (x, y, z) from the origin A of coordinates the radiits-vector, and denoting it by g, suppose it inclined to the axes A X, A Y, A Z or to the planes (y, /), (x, z), (x, y), by the angles X, Y, Z. Then it is easily seen that x = g cos. X, y = g cos. Y, z = cos. Z ...... (3) Hence (see 2) : 22 < COS> Y = * 2 2 ' so that when the coordinates of a point are given, the angles which the ra- dius-vector makes 'with each of the axes may hence be found. Again, adding together the squares of equations (3), we have (x ' + y 2 + z 8 ) = 2 (cos. 2 X + cos. 2 Y + cos. ! Z). But ? 2 = x 2 + y + z 2 (see2), .-. cos. 2 X + cos. 2 Y + cos. Z = 1 ..... (5) which shows that when two of these angles are given the other may be found. 4. Given two points in space, viz. (, /S, 7), (a* /3', /) awe? owe o/* ^/;e coordinates of any other point (x, y, z) m Me straight line that passes through them, to determine this other point , that is, required the equations to a straight line given in space. The distances of the point (a, (3, y) from the points (a', /3', /), and (x, y, z) are respectively, (see 2) and PQ= V ( x) * + y) + (7 z) '. But from similar triangles, we get (7-z) 2 : (PQ) 2 :: (7 - /) 2 : (P P) 2 whence which gives "J( a r+(l5 j80 8 Hy z)= ( 7 /).{( x) 2 + (/3 y) 2 } But since a, a' are independent of /3, /3' and vice versa, the two first terms of the equation, ( a _a ) 2 . ( 7 -z) 2 - -(y-77 (-x) 2 ( 7 - 7 J (/3-y) ! + (/3-/3') 2 (/-z) = iv INTRODUCTION. are essentially different from the last. Consequently by (6 vol. 1.) (/3 /3') (y z) 2 = (y y'} z (13 y) 2 which give y / y = ^-4 (-*') (6) These results may be otherwise obtained; thus, pgp',is the projection of the given line on the plane (x, y) &c. as in fig. Z Hence Also p q p' z y:/ y::pq:pp' : : m n : m p' : : y : /3' z "y": / y::pq:pp'::pr:pm : : a x : a a'. Hence the general forms of the equations to a straight line given in space, not considering signs, are z = a x -f z = a' y + b' To find where the straight line meets the planes, (x, y), (x, z), (y, z), we make z = 0, y =t 0, x = 0, which give ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY. z = b' b' X = a z = b b b' y = a' which determine the points required. To find when the straight line is parallel to the planes, (x, y), (x, z), (y, z), we must make z, y, x, respectively constant, and the equations be- come of the form Z = C \ /gx a' y = a x + b b' / To find when the straight line is perpendicular to the planes, (x, y), (x, z) (y, z), or parallel to the axes of z, y, x, we must assume x, y; x, z; y, z; respectively constant, and z, y, x, will be any whatever. To find the equations to a straight line passing through the origin of coordinates ; we have, since x = 0, and y = 0, when z = 0, z = z = a'y. 5. To Jind the conditions that two straight lines in Jixed space may inter- Sect one another ; and also their point of intersection. Let their equations be z = ax -f A ) z = by + BJ z = a' x + A' \ z= b'y+ B'f from which eliminating x, y, z, we get the equation of condition a' A a A' b' B b B' a' a b' b Also when this condition is fulfilled, the point is found from A A'- B B' a' A A' /ln > x = , - , y = p r-, z = 7 . . . (10) a' a ' b b a' a 6. To Jind the angle I, at which these lines intersect. Take an isosceles triangle, whose equal sides measured along these lines equal 1, and let the side opposite the angle required be called i ; then it is evident that cos. I = 1 | i 2 a 3 ' > '/ vi INTRODUCTION. But if at the extremities of the line i, the points in the intersecting lines be (x', y', z'), (x", y", z"), then (see 2) .-. 2 cos. I = 2 J(x' x") 2 + (y 7 y") * + (z' z") *} But by the equations to the straight lines, we have (5) z' = a x' -f A ") z'=by' + B/ z" = a' x" + A' z"=b'y" + B' and by the construction, and Art. 2, if (x, y, z) be the point of intersec- tion, (X-XT + (y_y") 8 + (z-z") 2 = Also at the point of intersection, z = by + B = b'y + B'J From these several equations we easily get z z' = a (x a') , a ,. z z"= a'(x x") y y"=g/(x x x/ ) whence by substitution, . / v v /\ s i_ Q z /-v v / ^ * a. - fv v 7 ^ * 1 ^A A. y -j- a ^A A ; -f . ^A. A. j ( X _ x '/)t + a ' s (x - x") ! + pi (x-x") 2 = 1 which give X X' = =- X X" = Hence ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY. vii Also, since and z z' = a (x x') z z" = a' (x x") we have '" a ' ' 2 <' . _ _ , a * b/2 'i n , &7t ~ bb/ ' a 8 la- aa' Hence by adding these squares together we get ( 2 cos. 1=2-1 + 1 which gives cos. 1= _ _ ..... (J1) ( ^ t Tliis result may be obtained with less trouble by drawing straight lines from the origin of coordinates, parallel to the intersecting lines ; and then finding the cosine of the angle formed by these new lines. For the new angle is equal to the one sought, and the equations simplify into z' = ax x = b y', z" = a' x" = V y z=ax = by, z=a'x =b'y X' 2 + y'2 + z' 2 = 1 X" 2 + y'* + Z " 2 = 1 From the above general expression for the angle formed by two inter- secting lines, many particular consequences may be deduced. For instance, required the conditions requisite that two straight lines given in space may intersect at right angles. That they intersect at all, this equation must be fulfilled, (see 5) a' A a A' _ b 7 B b B'; of _ a b' b viii INTRODUCTION. and that being the case, in order for them to intersect at right angles, we have I = , cos. I =. and therefore a a' 7. In the preceding No. the angle between two intersecting lines is expressed in a function of the rectangular coordinates, which determine the positions of those lines. But since the lines themselves would be given in parallel position, if their inclinations to the planes, (x, y), (x, z), (y, z), were given, it may be required, from other data, to find the same angle. Hence denoting generally the complements of the inclinations of a straight line to the planes, (x, y), (x, z), (y, z), by Z, Y, X, the problem may be stated and resolved, as follows : Required the angle made by the two straight lines, whose angles of inclina- tion are Z, Y, X ; Z', Y/, X'. Let two lines be drawn, from the origin of the coordinates, parallel to given lines. These make the same angles with the coordinate planes, and with one another, as the given lines. Moreover, making an isosceles triangle, whose vertex is the origin, and equal sides equal unity, we have^ as in (6), cos. I = 1 Ji = l_L(x x') 8 + (y y') 2 + (z zT? ' the points in the straight lines equally distant from the origin being (x, y, z), (x', y', z'). But in this case, x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = 1 x' 2 + y' 2 + z' 2 = 1 and x = cos. X, y = cos. Y, z = cos. Z x' = cos. X', y' = cos. Y', z' = cos. 71 . cos. I = x x' + y y' -f z z' = cos. X. cos. X' + cos. Y. cos. Y' + cos. Z. cos. Z'. . (13) Hence when the lines pass through the origin of coordinates, the same expression for their mutual inclination holds good ; but at the same time X, Y, Z ; X', Y', Z', not only mean the complements of the inclinations to the planes as above described, but also the inclinations of the lines to the axes of coordinates of x, y, z, respectively. ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY. ix 8. Given the length (L) of a straight line and the complements of its in- clinations to the planes (x, y), (x, z), (y z), viz. Z, Y, X, tojind the lengths of its projections upon those planes. By the figure in (4) it is easily seen that L projected on the plane (x, y) = L. sin. Z-\ (x, z) = L. sin. Y V . . . (14) (y, z) = L. sin. Xj 9. Instead of determining the parallelism or direction of a straight line in space by the angles Z, Y, X, it is more concise to do it by means of Z (for instance) and the angle 6 which its projection on the plane (x, y) makes with the axis of x. For, drawing a line parallel to the given line from the origin of the co- ordinates, the projection of this line is parallel to that of the given line, and letting fall from any point (x, y, z) of the new line, perpendiculars upon the plane (x, y) and upon the axes of x and of y, it easily appears, that x = L cos. X = (L sin. Z) cos. 6 (see No. 8) y = L. cos. Y = (L. sin. Z) sin. 6 which give cos. X = sin. Z. cos. 6\ . . cos. Y = sin. Z . sin. 6 J Hence the expression (13) assumes this form, cos. I = sin. Z . sin. Z' (cos. 6 cos. ^ + sin. 6 sin. 6') + cos. Z cos. Z' = sin. Z. sin. Z'cos. (6 6') + cos. Z.cos. 71 . . . . (16) which may easily be adapted to logarithmic computation. The expression (5) is. merely verified by the substitution. 10. Given the angle of intersection (I) between two lines in space and their inclinations to the plane (x, y), to Jind the angle at which their pro- jections upon that plane intersect one another. If, as above, Z, Z' be the complements of the inclinations of the lines upon the plane, and 6, (f the inclinations of the projections to the axis of x, we have from (16) cos. I cos. Z . cos* Z' cos. (tf if) = : fj -. = (17) sin. Z . sin. Z' This result indicates that I, Z, Z' are sides of a spherical triangle (radius = 1), d ^ being the angle subtended by I. The form may at once indeed be obtained by taking the origin of coordinates as the center of the sphere, and radii to pass through the angles of the spherical tri- angle, measured along the axis of z, and along lines parallel to the given lines. x INTRODUCTION. Having considered at some length the mode of determining the posi- tion and properties of points and straight lines in fixed space, we proceed to treat, in like manner, of planes. It is evident that the position of a plane is fixed or determinate in posi- tion when three of its points are known.. Hence is suggested the follow- ing problem. 11. Having given the three points (a, /5, y), (a', 3', /), (a", /3", /') in space, tojind the equation to the plane passing through them ; that is, to Jind the relation between the coordinates of any other point in the plane. Suppose the plane to make with the planes (z, y), (z, x) the intersec- V tions or traces B D, B C respectively, and let P be any point whatever in the plane ; then through P draw P Q in that plane parallel to B D, &c. as above. Then z QN = PQ' = QQ' cot. D B Z = y cot. D B Z. But QN = AB NA. cot. C B A = A B + x cot. C B Z, .. z = A B + x cot. C B Z + y cot D B Z. Consequently if we put A B = g, and denote by (X, Z), (Y, Z) the inclinations to A Z of the traces in the planes of (x, z), (y, z) respectively, we have z = g + x cot. (X, Z) + y cot. (Y, Z) . . . . (18) Hence the form of the equation to the plane is generally z=Ax-fBy+C (19) ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY. xi Now to find these constants there are given the coordinates of three points of the plane; that is 7 = A +B/3 + C / = A a' + B 0' + C 7" = A a" + B /3" + C from which we get A - y/ y - B = |L0 t ^"-%> + "-!"" = C0t ' (Y, Z) ' (21) c = $" (7 ' / ) + g (/ " /Y> + ff (/' 7 ") ^ <(22) Hence when the trace coincides with the axis of x, we have C = 0, and A = cot. ~ = E " (7 <*' / ) + (/ a// /' a/ ) + ' (/' 7 a") = | \ ~ $"' a(B' a,' $ + a' $" a" {? + a." $ a /S" ^ 24 > and the equation to the plane becomes z = B y (25) When the plane is parallel to the plane (x, y), A = 0, B = 0, ' and. z = C < 26 ) from which, by means of A = 0, B = 0, any two of the quantities 7, 7', y" being eliminated, the value of C will be somewhat simplified. Hence also will easily be deduced a number of other particular results connected with the theory of the plane, the point, and the straight line, of which the following are some. To find the projections on the planes (x, y), (x, z), (y, z) of the intersec- tion of the planes, Eliminating z, we have (A A')x + (B B')y + C C' - .... (27) which is the equation to the projection on (x, y). xii INTRODUCTION. Eliminating x, we get (A 7 A)z + (AB / A'B)y + AC' A' C = .... (28) which is the equation to the projection on the plane (y, z). And in like manner, we obtain (B' B)z + (A'B AB')x + BC 7 B'C = .... (29) for the projection on the plane (x, z). To find the conditions requisite that a plane and straight line shall be parallel or coincide. Let the equations to the straight line and plane be x = a z -f A~ y = bz + BJ z = A' x + B' y + C'. Then by substitution in the latter, we get z(A / a + B'b 1) + A'A + B'B + C' = 0. Now if the straight line and plane have only one point common, we should thus at once have the coordinates to that point. Also if the straight line coincide with the plane in the above equation, z is indeterminate, and (Art. 6. vol. I,) A' a + B' b 1 = 0, A' A + B' B + C' = . . . (27) But finally if the straight line is merely to be parallel to the plane, the above conditions ought to be fulfilled even when the plane and line are moved parallelly up to the origin or when A, B, C' are zero. The only condition in this case is A' a + B' b = 1 (28) To Jtnd the conditions that a straight line be perpendicular to a plane Since the straight line is to be perpendicular to the given plane, the plane which projects it upon (x, y) is at right angles both to the plane (x, y) and to the given plane. The intersection, therefore, of the plane (x, y) and the given plane is perpendicular to the projecting plane. Hence the trace of the given plane upon (x, y) is perpendicular to the projec- tion on (x, y) of the given straight line. But the equations of the traces of the plane on (x, z), (y, z), are z= Ax+ C, z = By+ C-v or ' t9Q\ }_ c i cr ^^ and if those of the perpendicular be x = a z + A,l y = b z -f B, J ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY. xiii it is easily seen from (11) or at once, that the condition of these traces being at right angles to the projections, are A + a = 0, A + b = 0. To draw a straight line passing through a given point (, /3, 7) at right angles to a given plane. The equations to the straight line, are clearly x a + A (z 7) = 0, y /3 + B (z - 7) = 0. . . . (30) To find the distance of a given point (a, /3, y] from a given plane. The distance is (30) evidently, when (x, y, z) is the common point in the plane and perpendicular (z ?)* + (y 0)' + (x ) 2 = (z 7) V1 + A 2 + B*. But the equation to the plane then also subsists, viz. z = Ax + By+C from which, and the equations to the perpendicular, we have z y= C 7 + A a + B/3, therefore the distance required is C 7 + A + Bg A* + B' To Jind the angle I formed by two planes z = Ax + By+C, z = A' x + B' y + C'. If from the origin perpendiculars be let fall upon the planes, the angle which they make is equal to that of the planes themselves. Hence, if generally, the equations to a line passing through the origin be x = a z ) y = bz J the conditions that it shall be perpendicular to the first plane are A + a = 0, B + b = 0, and for the other plane A' + a = 0, B' + b = 0. Hence the equations to these perpendiculars are x + Az = 0\ y + Bz = Oj x + A r z = \ y + B' z = 0, J * v INTRODUCTION. which may also be deduced from the forms (30). Hence from (11) we get = V (1+ A 2 + B*) V(l + A" + #"5 ' ' ' (32 > Hence to find the inclination (E) of a plane with the plane (x, y). We make the second plane coincident with (x, y), which gives A' = 0, B' = 0, and therefore cos -*= V(I+A' + B-) ...... < 83 > In like manner may the inclinations (), (j) of a plane z = Ax + By + C to the planes (x, z), (y, z) be expressed by ""^Vd + A' + B-tf ...... (M> cos ' " = V(1 + A + B')) Hence cos. 2 s + cos. 2 ^ + cos. 2 q = 1 ...... (35) Hence also, if /, ', 93' be the inclinations of another plane to (x, y) s (x, z), (y, z). COS. I = COS. S COS. J 7 + COS. COS. ' + COS. n COS. rf . . . (36) Tojtnd the inclination vofa straight line x = a z + A', y = b z + B', The angle required is that which it makes with its projection upon the plane. If we let fall from any part of the straight line a perpendicular upon the plane, the angle of these two lines will be the complement of u. From the origin, draw any straight line whatever, viz. x = a' z, y = b 7 z. Then in order that it may be perpendicular to the plane, we must have a' = A, b 7 = B. The angle which this makes with the given line can be found from (11); consequently by that expression 1 A a B b /Qiy . : V (1 + a* + b 2 ) V (1 + A*+ B*) Hence we easily find that the angles made by this line and the coor- dinate planes (x, y), (x, z), (y, z), viz. Z, Y, X are found from 7- 1 = ' cos. Y = ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY. xv b cos. X = , . . , a , , . - . . . (38) v ( 1 -J- a -p o ) which agrees with what is done in (3). TRANSFORMATION OF COORDINATES. 12. To transfer the origin of coordinates to the point (a, j3, y) V&ktoit changing their direction. Let it be premised that instead of supposing the coordinate planes at right angles to one another, we shall here suppose them to make any angles whatever with each other. In this case the axes cease to be rec- tangular, but the coordinates x, y, z are still drawn parallel to the axes. This being understood, assume x = x' + , y = / + ft z = z' + y (39) and substitute in the expression involving x, y, z. The result will contain x', y', z' the coordinates referred to the origin (a, >, y). When the substitution is made, the signs of a, jS, y as explained in (1), must be attended to. 13. To change the direction of the axes from rectangular, without affecting the origin. Conceive three new axes A x', A y', A z', the first axes being supposed rectangular, and these having any given arbitrary direction whatever. Take any point ; draw the coordinates x', y', z' of this point, and project them upon the axis A X. The abscissa x will equal the sum, taken with their proper signs, of these three projections, (as is easily seen by drawing the figure) ; but if (x x'), (y, y'), (z, z') denote the angles between the axes A x, A x' ; A y, A y' ; A z, A z' respectively ; these projections are x' cos. (x' x), y' cos. (y' x), z' cos. (z' x). In like manner we proceed with the other axes, and therefore get x == x' cos. (x' x) + y' cos. (y' x) + z' cos. (2! x) -\ y = y' cos. (y y) + z' cos. (z' y) + x' cos. (x' y) > . . . (40) z = z' cos. (z' z) + y' cos. (y' z) + x' cos. (x' z)J XVI INTRODUCTION. Since (x'x), (x'y), (x'z) are the angles which the staight line A x', makes with the rectangular axes of x, y, z, we have (5) cos. * (x' x) -f. cos. * (x' y) -f- cos. cos. . * (x' x) -f. cos. * (x' y) -f- cos. * x' z = 1 ~\ . 2 (y'xj l+ cos. 8 (y'y) +cos. 2 (y / z)= 1 V ... (41; . * (z' x) + cos. 2 (z' y) 4. cos. * (z' x) = 1 ) s.(y / z)^ s.(z'z) >. (42) .z'z) ) We also have from (13) p. cos.(xy)=cos.(x'x)cos.(y / x)+cos.(x'y)cos.(y / y)+cos.(x / z)cos.(y / z) cos.(x'z') = cos.(x'x)cos.(z'x) + cos.(x'y)cos.(z'y) + cos.(x'z)cos. cos.(y'z') = cos.(y'x)cos.(z'x) + cos.)y'y)cos.(z'y)-f-cos.(y'z)cos.(z'z) The equations (40) and (41), contain the nine angles which the axes of x', y', z' make with the axes of x, y, z. Since the equations (41) determine three of these angles only, six of them remain arbitrary. Also when the new system is likewise rectangu- lar, or cos. (x'y') = cos. (x'z') cos. (y' z'} = 1, three others of the arbitraries are determined by equations (42). Hence in that case there remain but three arbitrary angles. 14. Required to transform the rectangular axe of coordinates to other rectangular axes, having the same origin t but too of which shall be situated in a given plane. Let the given plane be Y' A C, of which the trace in the plane (z, x) is A C. At the distance A C describe the arcs C Y', C x, x x' in the planes C A Y', (z, x), and X' A X. Then if one of the new axes of the coordi- nates be A X', its position and that of the other two, A Y', A Z', will be determined by C x 7 = p, C x = 4, and the spherical angle x C x' = 6 = inclination of the given plane to the plane (z, x). Hence to transform the axes, it only remains to express the angles (x'x), (y'x), &c. which enter the equations (40) in terms of $ -^ and p. ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY. xvii By spherics cos. (x'x) =: cos. 4 cos. -f. sin. 4 sin. cos. 6. In like manner forming other spherical triangles, we get cos. (/ x) = cos. (90 + 0) cos. 4/ -f- sin. 4 sin. (90 + 0) cos. 6 cos. (x' y) = cos. (90 + 4) cos. p + sin. (90 + 4) sin. p cos. 6 cos. (y'y) = cos. (90+4)c So that we obtain these four equations cos. (x' x) = cos. 4 cos. p + sin. 4 sin. p cos cos. (y' x) = sin. 4 sin. n. -y sin. p cos. ^ sin. 4 cos. f cos. t cos. 4* sin. p^-bs. &C s. 4- cos. cos. -J cos. (x' y) = sin. 4 cos. P + cos ' " : ~ - j ~- **" cos. (y' y) = sin. 4 sin- P + cos. 4 Again by spherics, (since A Z is perpendicular to A C, and the inclin- ation of the planes Z'A C, (x, y) is 90 6) we have cos (z' x) = sin. 4 sin. $ \ cos. (z 'y) = cos. 4 sin. 6 J " * And by considering that the angle between the planes Z A C, Z A X', = 90 + 0, by spherics/we also get cos. (x'z) = sin. p sin. 6 *\ cos. (y'z) = cos. p sin. 6 V (45) COS. (z'z) rr COS. 6 J which give the nine coefficients of equations (40). Equations (41), (42) will also hereby be satisfied when the systems are rectangular. 15. To find the section of a surface made by a plane. The last transformation of axes is of great use in determining the na- ture of the section of a surface, made by a plane, or of the section made by any two surfaces, plane or not, provided the section lies in one plane ; for having transformed the axes to others, A Z, A X', A Y, the two lat- ter lying in the plane of the section, by the equations (40), and the de- terminations of the last article, by putting z' = in the equation to the surface, we have that of the section at once. It is better, however, to make z ;= in the equations (40), and to seek directly the values of cos. (x'x), cos., (y'x), &c. The equations (40) thus become x = x y cos. 4" + y' sm - 4 cos - 6 ") y = x' sin. 4 y cos 4" cos. 6 v ..... (46) z = y' sin. 6 ) 16. To determine the nature and position of all surfaces of the second order ,- or to discuss the general equation of the second order, viz. ax * + by* + cz z + 2dxy + 2exz + 2fyz + gx + hy +iz = k . . (a) First simplify itby such a transformation of coordinates as shall destroy xviii INTRODUCTION. the terms in x y, x z, y z ; the axes from rectangular vrill become oblique, by substituting the values (40), and the nine angles which enter these, being subjected to the conditions (41), there will remain six of them arbitrary, which we may dispose of in an infinity of ways. Equate to zero the coefficients of the terms in x' y', x' z', y' z\ But if it be required that the new axes shall be also rectangular, as this condition will be expressed by putting each of the equations (42) equal zero, the six arbitrary angles will be reduced to three, which the three coefficients to be destroyed will make known, and the problem will thus be determined. This investigation will be rendered easier by the following process : Let x = a z, y =r /3 z be [the equations of the axis of x' ; then for brevity making : V (I + a* + /3*) we find that (3) cos. (x 7 x = a 1, cos. (x 7 y) = /3 1, Cos. x' z = 1. Reasoning thus also as to the equations x == a'z, y = /3' z of the axis of y 7 , and the same for the axis of z', we get cos. (y'x) = a'l', cos. (y'y) = /3'1', cos. (y'z) = 1' cos. (z' x) = a" 1", cos. (z' y) = j8" 1", cos. (z' z) = 1". Hence by substitution the equations (40) become x = 1 a x' + 1' a' y' + 1" a' y = l/3x' + I'Py z = 1 x' + 1' y' The nine angles of the problem are replaced by the six unknowns a, a', a", /3, /3', (3", provided the equations (41) are thereby also satisfied. Substitute therefore these values of x, y, z, in the general equation of the 2d degree, and equate to zero the coefficients of x' y', x' z', y' z', and we get ( aa + d/3 + e) a! + (d a -f b /3 + f) & + ea + f/3+c = (a a + d + e) a" + (d + b |3 + f) $" + e a + f /3 + c (a " + d/3" + e) a! + (da' 7 + b/3"+ f) & + e a" + f/3" + One of these equations may be found without the others, and by making the substitution only in part. Moreover from the symmetry of the pro- cess the other two equations may be found from this one. Eliminate a', 3' from the first of them, and the equations x = a! z, y = |S' z, of the axis of y'; the resulting equation (a a + d |3 + e) x + (d a + b B + f) y + (e a + f 8 + c) z = . . (b) is that of a plane (19). 1" a" zf i 1" /3" z' V 1" 2!. ) = oj = 0/ ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY. xix But the first equation is the condition which destroys the term x'y't since if we only consider it, , /?, ', /3', may be any whatever that will satisfy it ; it suffices therefore that the axis of y' be traced in the plane above alluded to, in order that the transformed equations may not contain any term in x' y. In the same manner eliminating a", /3", from the 2d equation by means of the equations of the axis of z', viz. x = a" z, y = /3" z, we shall have a plane such, that if we take for the axis of z' every straight line which it will there trace out, the transformed equation will not contain the term in x' z\ But, from the form of the two first equations, it is evident that this second plane is the same as the first : therefore, if we there trace the axes of y' and z' at pleasure, this plane will be that of y' and z', and the transformed equation will have no terms involving x' y or x z'. The direction of these axes in the plane being any whatever, we have an in- finity of systems which will serve this purpose ; the equation (b) will be that of a plane parallel to the plane which bisects all the parallels to x, and which is therefore called the Diametrical Plane. Again, if we wish to make the term in y' z disappear, the third equa- tion will give ', @, and there ai*e an infinity of oblique axes which will answer the three required conditions. But make x', y 1 , a', rectangular. The axis^of x' must be perpendicular to the plane (y z') whose equa- tion we have just found ; and that x = a z, y = /3 z, may be the equa- tions (see equations b) we must have aa + d/3 + e = (e + f/3 + c) a . . . . (c) d + b + f = (ea + f/3 + c)/3 . . . , (d) Substituting in (c) the value of a found from (d) we get { (a b)fe + (f 2 e 2 ) d }/3 3 + { (a b) (c b)e+ (2d 2 f 2 e')e + (2c a b)fd} /3 + { (c a) (c b) d+ (2e 2 f 2 d 2 ) d + (2b a c) f e } + (a c) fd + (f 2 d 2 ) e = 0. This equation of the 3d degree gives for /3 at least one real root ; hence the equation (d) gives one for a; so that the axis of x' is determined so as to be perpendicular to the plane (y', z',) and to be free from terms in x' z', and y' z'. It remains to make in this plane (y*, z',) the axes at right angles and such that the term x' y' may also disappear. But it is evident that we shall find at the same time a plane (x, z',) such that the axis of y' is perpendicular to it, and also that the terms in x' y, / y are not involved. But it happens that the conditions for making the axis of y' perpendicular to this plane are both (c) and (d) so that the same equation of the 3d de- 2 xx INTRODUCTION. gree must give also fi. The same holds good for the axis of z. Conse- quently the three roots of the equation /3 are all real, and are the values of /3, /?, {%'. Therefore a, a', a", are given by the equation (d). Hence, There is only one system of rectangular axes which eliminates x' y', x' z', x'y'; and thej-e exists me in all cases. These axes are called the Princi- iial axes of the Surface. Let us analyze the case which the cubic in /3 presents. 1. If we make (a b)fe + (f 2 _e 2 )d = the equation is deprived' of its first term. This shows that then one of the roots of /3 is infinite, as well as that a derived from equation (d) be- comes e a -f- f j8 = 0. The corresponding angles are right angles. One of the aKes, that of z' for instance, falls upon the plane (x, y), and we obtain its equation by eliminating a and ]8 from the equations x = a z, y = /3 z, which equation is ex + fy = The directions of y', z' are given by the equation in /3 reduced to a quadrature. Sndly. If besides this first coefficient the second is also = 0, by substi- tuting b, found from the above equation, in the factor of /3 2 , it reduces to the last term of the equation in /3, viz. (a c) fd + (f 2 d ! ) e = 0. These two equations express the condition required. But the coeffi- cient of 8 is deduced from that of /3 2 by changing b into c and d into e, and the same holds for the first and last term of the equation in 0. Therefore the cubic equation is >*lso thus satisfied. There exists therefore an infinity of rectangular systems, which destroy the terms in x' y', x' z', y' z'. Eliminating a and b from equations (c) and (d) by aid of the above two equations of condition, we find that they are the product of fa d and e|3 d by the common factor eda + fd/3 + fe. These factors are therefore nothing ; and eliminating a and /3, we find fx = dz, ey = dz, e d x + f d y + f e z = 0. The two first are the equations of one of the axes. The third that oi a plane which is perpendicular to it, and in which are traced the two other axes under arbitrary directions. This plane will cut the surface in a curve rherein all the rectangular axes are principal, which curve is therefore a circle, the only one of curves of the second order which has that property. The surface is one then of revolution round the axis whose equations we have just given. ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY. xxi The equation once freed from the three rectangles, becomes of the form kz* + my*-{-nx 2 + qx-t-q'y + q''z = h . . . . (e) The terms of the first dimension are evidently destroyed by removing the origin (39). It is clear this can be effected, except in the case where one of the squares x 2 , y 2 , z * is deficient. We shall examine these cases separately. First, let us discuss the equation kz* + my 2 + nx 8 = h ....... (f) Every straight line passing through the origin, cuts the surface in two points at equal distances on both sides, since the equation remains the same after having changed the signs of x, y, z. The origin being in the middle of all the chords drawn through this point is a center. The surface therefore has the property of possessing a center whenever the transformed equation has the squares of all the variables. We shall always take n positive : it remains to examine the cases where k and m are both positive, both negative, or of different signs. If in the equation (f) k, m, and n, are all positive, h is also positive ; and if h is nothing, we have x = 0, y 0, z =: 0, and the surface has but one point. But when h is positive by making x, y, or z, separately equal zero, we find the equations to an ellipse, curves which result from the section of the surface in question by the three coordinate planes. Every plane parallel to them gives also an ellipse, and it will be easy to show the same of all plane sections. Hence the surface is termed an Ellip- soid. The lengthy A, B, C, of the three principal axes are obtained by find- ing the sections of the surface through the axes of x, y, and z. Th,:e give kC 2 = h, mB z = h, nA c = h. from which eliminating k, m and n, and substituting in equation (f) we gel 2 --'- 1 ") A 2 ' f. (47) A'B'z 2 + A*C 2 y 2 + B* C 2 x 2 = A 2 B* C 2 J which is the equation to an Ellipsoid referred to its center and principal axes. We may conceive this surface to be generated by an ellipse, traced in the plane (x, y), moving parallel to itself, whilst its two axes vary, the curve sliding along another ellipse, traced in the plane (x, z) as a direct- 4 3 INTRODUCTION. rix. If two of the quantities A, B, C, are equal, we liave an ellipsoid of revolution. If all three are equal,, we have a sphere. Now suppose k negative, and in and h positive or k z 2 my 8 ax 2 = h. Making x or y equal zero, we perceive that the sections by the planes (y z) and (x z), are hyperbolas, whose axis of z is the second axis. All planes passing through the axis of z, give this same curve. Hence the surface is called an Jiyperboloid. Sections parallel to the plane (x y) are always real ellipses, A, B, C V 1 designating the lengths upon the axes from the origin, the equation is the same as the above equation ex- cepting the first term becoming negative. Lastly, when k and h are negative kz 2 + my 2 + nx 2 = h; all the planes which pass through the axis of z cut the surface in hyper- bolas, whose axis of z is the first axis. The plane (x y) does not meet the surface and its parallels passing through the opposite limits, give ellipses. This is a hyperboloid also, but -having two vertexes about the axis of z. The equation in A, B, C is still the same as above, excepting that the term in z* is the only positive one. When h = 0, we have, in these two cases, k 2J = my 2 + nx 2 (48) the equation to a cone, which cone is the same to these hyperboloids that an asymptote is to hyperbolas. It remains to consider the case of k and m being negative. But by a sim- ple inversion in the axes, this is referred to the two preceding ones. The hyperboloid in this case has one or two vertexes about the axis of x ac- cording as h is negative or positive. When the equation (e) is deprived of one of the squares, of x * for in- stance, by transferring the origin, we may disengage that equation from the constant term and from those in y and z ; thus it becomes kz 2 + my 2 = hx (49) The sections due to the planes (x z), (x y) are parabolas in the same or opposite directions according to the signs of k, m, h ; the planes par- allel to these give also parabolas. The planes parallel to that of (y z) give ellipses or parabolas according to the sign of m. Ine surface is an elliptic paraboloid in the one case, and a hyperbolic paraboloid in the other case. When k = m, it is a paraboloid of revohtticn. "When h = 0, the equation takes the form a J z 2 + b 2 y 2 = ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY. xxiii according to the signs of k and m. In the one case we have z = 0, y = whatever may be the value of x, and the surface reduces to the axis of x, In the other case. (a z + b y) (a z by) = shows that we make another factor equal zero ; thus we have the system of two planes which increase along the axis of x. When the equation (e) is deprived of two squares, for instance of x 2 , y *, by transferring the origin parallelly to z, we reduce the equation to kz 2 + py + qx = (50) The sections made by the planes drawn according to the axis of z, are parabolas. The plane (x y) and its parallels give straight lines par- allel to them. The surface is, therefore, a cylinder whose base is a para- bola, or a parabolic cylinder. If the three squares in (e) are wanting, it will be that of a plane. It is easy to recognise the case where the proposed equation is decom- posable into rational factors ; the case where it is formed of positive squares, which resolve into two equations representing the sector of two planes. PARTIAL DIFFERENCES. 17. If u = f (x, y, z, &c.) denote any function of the variable x, y, z, &c. d u be taken on the supposition that y, z, &c. are constant, then is the result termed the partial difference of u relative to x, and is thus written d u u\ T ) d x/ dx. *d x/ Similarly d u\ /d u denote the partial differences of u relatively to y, z, &c. respectively. Now since the total difference of u arises from the increase or decrease of its variables, it is evident that Z+& , ...(51) INTRODUCTION. But, by the general principle laid down in (6) Vol. I, this result may be demonstrated as follows ; Let u + du = A + Adx+Bdy +Cdz +&c. A'dx 2 + B'dy 2 + C'dz 2 + &c.| + M d x . d y + N d x . d z + &c. J + A" d x d + &c. Then equating quantities of the same nature, \ve have du = Adx-fBdy+Cdz + &c. Hence when d y, d z, &c. = 0, or when y, z, &c. are considered con- slant d u = A d x or according to the above notation A = In the same manner it is shown, that r - u &c. Hence du = - dx + E dy + d. + &c. ,s before. Ex. 1. u = xyz. &c. du\ /cl\ ar) = y z> (-ay) = XZi .: du = yzdx + xzdy + xydz du dx dy.dz or - = -- + i + - . u x y z Ex. 2. u = x y z, &c. Here as above ^ = l2E + i_y + li+ &c . u x y z And in like manner the total difference of any function of any number of variables may be found, viz. by first taking the partial differences, as in the rules laid down in the Comments upon the first section of the first book of the Principia. But this is not the only use of partial differences. They are frequently used to abbreviate expressions.* Thus, in p. 13, and 14, Vol. II. we ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY. xxv learn that the actions of M, p, &", &c. upon p resolved parallel to x, amount to > j'(x' x) jt"(x" x) d f - [(x'- MX _ [(x'"_ x)* + (y'" y)+ (z-' retaining the notation there adopted. But if we make JL Krr ' and generally '_ y)t + ( Z '_ Z) 2 = g 0, 1 and then assume i ' " X = + + &c (A) S S 0,1 0,2 + ^L + ZOL. + &c (B) S 2 1,3 +-^- + ftJL - + &c. . . . (C) f e 2, 2,4 &C. we get U, IL (x' X) It fJt," (X" X) = S + ^-3 + 0,1 , 0,2 ^ + , - , /dxx __./dAx v , /* ft (/ y) , f- 1*" (f y) VdyJ - \-dT) - ~p~ -p- 0, 1 0,2 _ it,p'(zfz) 11 1*" (z z) - ~^~ ^" ~ 0, 1 0, 2 We also get dx\ ^^( x> x ) f&B\ dxJ "?" VdxV 0,1 ^A(,"(x" X) A>>" K *') ~^~ ~~ 0,2 1, 2 x'" x) ^>"'(x'" x) ff(t'(x'" x") /d D 3 ~"~~ 3 h 0, 3 1, 3 2, 3 INTRODUCTION. Hence since (13) has one term less than (A); (C) one term less than (B) ; and so on ; it is evident that ) +*<=- <)-(!) - Or*) - and therefore that 2.( d ) = (!L) + (1^) + (1M + &c. = See p. 15, Vol. II. Hence then X is so assumed that the sum of its partial differences re* lative to x, x', x" &c. shall equal zero, and at the same time abbreviate the expression for the forces upon fi along x from the above complex formula into d (g + x) m J[_/d_X\ MX dt* /a \dx/ j 3 ' and the same may be said relatively to the forces resolved parallel to y, z, &c. &c. Another consequence of this assumption is X (Ty) + x ' (dy) + &C ' = y (^) + y/ (ff?) + & " d For d X x ttti'(x' x)y ^X'(x" x)y ft ^"(TS."' x) y & dirJ - ' ~p~ "7^" f 3 0, 1 0, 2 0, 3 puTtf x')y' ^VV xpy' ^' (x x) y -- ~ 1,2 1,3 v f d x ^ _^'V"(x >> '-x") y" . /aV"(x""-x") y" , g _ ^"(x"- 1 ~ "~ 3 3 2,3 2,4 0,2 1,2 &C. Hence it is evident that _ ^'(x x)(y y') /.^(x" x) (y y") & ~~ - 3 "" 3 T^ dx / 0, 1 0, 2 ^y (x" x) (y y") ^"(x'" x) (y y") -~ - 12 12 /i'y(x" x") (y y") ^V'Cx"" x") (y" y'") & T ~Ts T ' 3 T txl " 2, 3 2. 4 &C. ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY. xxvii In like manner it is found that . 3- 0,1 *, 2 >"(y" y') (xx") /jV"(y'" y ) (s x'") ? 3 f t 3 which is also perceptible from the substitution in the above equation of y for x, x for y; y' for X', x' for y' ; and so on. But , (/-y) (x x') = (x x) (y y') (y" y) (x x") = (x" x) (y y") &c. consequently See p. 16. For similar uses of partial differences, see also pp. 22, and 105. CHANGE OF THE INDEPENDENT VARIABLE. When an expression is given containing differential coefficients, such 06 iy ilz&c dx j dx 2& in which the first differential only of x and its powers are to be found, it shows that the differential had been taken on the supposition that dx is constant, or that d 2 x = 0, d s x = 0, and so on. But it may be re- quired to transform this expression to another in which d * x, d 3 x shall appear, and in which d y shall be constant, or from which d 2 y, &c. shall be excluded. This is performed as follows : For instance if we have the expression I dx 8 d_y d* y dx dx* . the differential coefficients dy (Py dx' dx" xxviii INTRODUCTION. may be eliminated by means of the equation of the curve to which we mean to apply that expression. For instance, from the equation to a parabola y = a x *, we derive the values of dy i d* y -j-^- and -j j { d x dx z which being substituted in the above formula, these differential coefficients will disappear. If we consider dy d^y if we substitute between x and t, the arbitrary relation, INTRODUCTION. this value being put in the equation y = * (x c) f will change it to (t 3 c 3 ) 8 y " a b*c 4 * an equation which, being combined with this, t 3 X = ; , C 8 ought to reproduce by elimination, the only condition which we ought to regard in the selection of the varia- ble t. We may therefore determine the independent variable t at pleasure. For example, we may take the chord, the arc, the abscissa or ordinate for this independent variable ; if t represent the arc of the curve, we have t = V (dx + dy 2 ); if t denote the chord and the origin be at the vertex of the curve, we have lastly, if t be the abscissa or ordinate of the curve, we shall have t = x, or t = y. The choice of one of the three hypotheses or of any other, becoming in- dispensible in order that the formula which contains the differentials, may be delivered from them, if we do not always adopt it, it is even then tacitly supposed that the independent variable has been determined. For ex- ample, in the usual case where a formula contains only the differentials d x, d y, d* y, d 3 y, &c. the hypothesis is that the independent variable t has been taken for the abscissa, for then it results that t - x ^ -- 1 * df = o, and we see that the formula does not contain the second, third, &c. dif- ferentials. ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY. xxxi To establish this formula, in all its generality, we must, as above, sup- pose x and y to be functions of a third variable t, and then we have d y _ d y d x dt := d~^'dT ; from which we get dy 4* =41 ........... (53) dx d_x d~t taking the second differential of y and operating upon the second membei as if a fraction, we shall get d x d 2 y d y d 8 x d*y _ d~t ' dl cfT* d t d x d x 2 dT* In this expression, d t has two uses ; the one is to indicate that it is the independent variable, and the other to enter as a sign of algebra. In the second relation only will it be considered, if we keep in view that t is the independent variable. Then supposing d t 2 the common factor, the above expression simplifies into d 8 y _ dxd 2 y dyd'x "dT : dx 2 ~ and dividing by d x, it will become d* y _ d x d* y d y d 2 x d^ ~ dx 3 Operating in the same way upon the equation (53), we see that in taking t as the independent variable, the second member of the equation ought to become identical with the first ; consequently we have only one change to make in the formula which contains the differential coefficients dyd 2 y . d z y, , 2 , viz. to replace - s by < 54) To apply these considerations to the radius of curvature which is given by the equation See p. 61. vol. I.) H IV = -r d z y xxxii INTRODUCTION. if we wish to have the value of R, in the case where t shall be the inde- pendent variable, we must change the equation to R = d x d* y d y d s x* dx 3 and observing that the numerator amounts to (dx* + dy V dx 3 we shall have R- - dxd*y dy*d*x This value of R supposes therefore that x and y are functions of a third independent variable. But if x be considered this variable, that is to say, if t = x, we shall have d 2 x =0, and the expression again reverts to the common one . (i + i^) 1 I fl "5 -I- (I V I * V fl V "/ Rl U -V I \J V J \. A. f 1 T - rs; ' . d x d 2 y d' y d x* But if, instead of x for the independent variable, we wish to have the ordinate y, this condition is expressed by y = t ; and differentiating this equation twice, we have The first of these equations merely indicates that y is the independent variable, which effects no change in the formula ; but the second shows us that d* y ought to be zero, and then the equation (55) becomes R= _* l ...... (56) d y d 2 x We next remark, that when x is the independent variable, and consequently d * x = 0, this equation indicates that d x is constant. Whence it follows, that generally the independent variable has always a constant differential. Lastly, if we take the arc for the independent variable, we shall have dt = V(dx ! + dy); Hence, we easily deduce d*' dy'__ .. dT' + dt' v ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY. xxxiii differentiating this equation, we shall regard d t as constant, since t is the independent variable ; we get 2dx d'x 2dy d g y ~dt^~ dt " which gives dxd 2 x = dy d 2 y Consequently, if we substitute the value of d s x, or that of d ~ y, in the equation (55), we shall have in the first case R( Cl X *T~ Q V 1 t \f ( d X "4 ^* V ) i / ^ *s\ = TA j t( i d X = i -5-5-= J ' d X . . (a7) (dx + dy 2 ) d*y d*y and in the second case, (d x 2 -f- d y *) 2 V (d x a -f- d y 2 ) , K = 7-5 , J ' . .. d y = j-5 *-* d y . (58) (d x + d y l ) d ^ x J d i x In what precedes, we have only considered the two differential coeffi- cients d y d 2 y cTx' HIT 2 ' but if the formula contain coefficients of a higher order, we must, by means analogous to those here used, determine the values of ^of^ &c df> wl i .3 CXI* x d d x^ which will belong to the case where x and y are functions of a third in- dependent variable. PROPERTIES OF HOMOGENEOUS FUNCTIONS. IfMdx -f Ndy-f Pdt-f- &* = d z, be a homogeneous function of any number of variables^ x, y, t, &c. in which the dimension of each term is n, then is MX + Ny -f Pt + &c. = nz. For let M d x + N d y be the differential of a homogeneous function z between two variables x and y ; if we represent by n the sum of the exponents of the variables, in one of the terms which compose this func- tion, we shall have therefore the equation Mdx + Ndy = dz. Making ^ = q, we shall find (vol. I.) F (q) X X n = z ; c INTRODUCTION. and replacing, in the above equation, y by its value q x, and colling M' N', what M and N then become, that equation transforms to M' d x + N' d. q x = d z ; and substituting the value of z, we shall have M' d x + 1ST d (q z) = d (x n F. q.) But d (q z) = q d x + x d q. Therefore (M' + N'q) dx + N'xdq = d (x n F. q). But, (M* + N' q) d x being the differential of x n F q relatively to x, we have (Art 6. vol. 1.) M' + N'q = nx"- 1 X F.q. If in this equation y be put for q x, it will become M + N- = nx'-'F.q, or Mx-fNy = nz. This theorem is applicable to homogeneous functions of any number of variables ; for if we have, for example, the equation Mdx+ Ndy+ Pdt = dz, in which the dimension is n in every term, it will suffice to make y t = q , = r x x to prove, by reasoning analogous to the above, that we get z r= x" F (q, r), and, consequently, that MX + Ny + Ft = nz (59) and so on for more variables. THEORY OF ARBITRARY CONSTANTS. An equation V = between x, y, and constants, may be considered as the complete integral of a certain differential equation, of which the order depends on the number of constants contained in V = 0. These constants are named arbitrary constants, because if one of them is represented by a, and V or one of its differentials is put under the form f (x, y) = a, we see that a will be nothing else than the arbitrary constant given by the integra- tion of d f (x, y). Hence, if the differential equation in question is of the order n, each integration introducing an arbitrary constant, we have V = 0, which is given by the last of three integrations, and contains, at ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY. xxxv least, n arbitrary constants more than the given differential equation. Lei therefore F (x,y) = 0, F (x,y, jj-2) = , F (x,y,j}|, ^) = & ' 00 be the primitive equation of a differential equation of the second order and its immediate differentials. Hence we may eliminate from the two first of these three equations, the constants a and b, and obtain If, without knowing F (x, y) = 0, we find these equations, it will be sufficient to -eliminate from them ** > to obtain F (x, y) = 0, which will be the complete integral, since it will contain the arbitrary constants a, b. If, on the contrary, we eliminate these two constants between the above three equations, we shall arrive at an equation which, containing the same differential coefficients, may be denoted by But each of the equations (b) will give the same. In fact, by eliminating the constant contained in one of these equations and its immediate differ- ential, we shall obtain separately two equations of the second order, which do not differ from equation (c) otherwise than the values of x and of y are not the same in both. Hence it follows, that a differential equa- tion of the second order may result from two equations of the first order which are necessarily different, since the arbitrary constant of the one is different from that of the other. The equations (b) are what we call the first integrals of the equation (c), which is independent, and the equation F (x, y) = is the second integral of it. Take, for example, the equation y = a x + b, which, because of its two constants, may be regarded as the primitive equation of an equation of the second order. Hence, by differentiation, and then by elimination of a, we get dy dy , - r ^- = a,y = x- r ^- + b. dx dx These two first integrals of the equation of the second order which we are seeking, being differentiated each in particular, conduct equally, by d 2 y the elimination of a, b, to the independent equation -. -, = 0. In the Cl A c3 xxxvi INTRODUCTION. case where the number of constants exceeds that of the required arbitrary constants, the surplus constants, being connected with the same equations, do not acquire any new relation. Required, for instance, the equation of the second order, whose primitive is y = Jax 8 + bx + c = 0; differentiating we get ^ = ax + b. dx The elimination of a, and then that of b, from these equations, give separately these two first integrals ^2 = ax + b, y = x^ ax 2 + c . . . (d) dx ' 3 dx Combining them each with their immediate differentials, we arrive, d 2 v by two different ways, at -, - 2 = a. If, on the contrary, we had elimi- Cl X nated the third constant a between the primitive equation and its imme- diate differential, that would not have produced a different result; for we should have arrived at the same result as that which would lead to the elimination of a from the equations (d), and we should then have jo _j fallen upon the equation x -r \ = -*- b, an equation which reduces d*y to - ^ = a by combining it with the first of the equations (d). Let us apply these considerations to a differential equation of the third order : differentiating three times successively the equation F (x, y) = 0, we shall have These equations admitting the same values for each of the arbitrary constants contained by F (x, y) = 0, we may generally eliminate these constants between this latter equation and the three preceding ones, and obtain a result which we shall denote by dy d 2 y d 3 y\ y'di>d/3r) = ...... <> This will be the differential equation of the third order of F (x, y) = 0, and whose three arbitrary constants are eliminated ; reciprocally, F (x, y) =r 0, will be the third integral of the equation (e). If we eliminate successively each of the arbitrary constants from the ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY. xxxvii equation F (x, y) = 0, and that which we have derived by differentiation, we shall obtain three equations of the first order, which will be the second integrals of the equation (e). Finally, if we eliminate two of the three arbitrary constants by means of the equation F (x, y) = 0, and the equations which we deduce by two successive differentiations, that is to say, if we eliminate these constants from the equations F (x >y ) = 0, F (*, y , fa = 0, F (*, y , & &) = . . (0 we shall get, successively, in the equation which arises from the elimina- tion, one of the three arbitrary constants ; consequently, we shall have as many equations as arbitrary constants. Let a, b, c, be these arbitrary constants. Then the equations in question, considered only with regard to the arbitrary constants which they contain, may be represented by

a = (g) Since the equations (f ) all aid in the elimination which gives us one of these last equations, it thence follows that the equations (g) will each be of the second order ; we call them the first integrals of the equation (e). Generally, a differential equation of an order n will have a number n of first integrals, which will contain therefore the differential coefficients d v d n ~ 1 v from -r^ to -, 5^ inclusively; that is to say, a number n-l of differential O X Cl X coefficients ; and we see that then, when these equations are all known, to obtain the primitive equation it will suffice to eliminate from these equa- tions the several differential coefficients. PARTICULAR SOLUTIONS OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS. It is easily seen that a particular integral may always be deduced from the complete integral, by giving a suitable value to the arbitrary con- stant. For example, if we have given the equation xdx + ydy = d y V x * + y 2 a*, whose complete integral is y + c = V (x 2 + y 2 a j ), whence (for convenience, by rationalizing,) we get (a-x).-j^+2xy^ + x = .... (1.) c2 xxxviii INTRODUCTION. and the complete integral becomes 2 cy + c 1 x 2 + a 1 = .... (i) Hence, in taking for c an arbitrary constant value c = 2 a, we shall obtain this particular integral 2 c y + 5 a 2 x 2 = 0, which will have the property of satisfying the proposed equation (h) as well also as the complete integral. In fact, we shall derive from this particular integral x' 5 a* d y x ~~2~c" ' cfx =: 7 ; these values reduce the proposed to an equation which becomes identical, by substituting in the second mem- ber, the value of c *, which gives the relation c = 2 a. Let Mdx + Ndy = 0, be a differential equation of the first order of a function of two variables x and y ; we may conceive this equation as derived by the elimination of a constant c from a certain equation of the same order, which we shall represent by mdx-f-ndy = 0, and the complete integral F (x, y, c) = 0, which we shall designate by u. But, since every thing is reduced to taking the constant c such, that the equation Mdx+Ndy = 0, may be the result of elimination, we perceive that is at the same time permitted to vary the constant c, provided the equation M d x + N d y = 0, holds good ; in this case, the complete integral F (x, y, c) = will take a greater generality, and will represent an infinity of curves of the same kind, differing from one another by a parameter, that is, by a constant. Suppose therefore that the complete integral being differentiated, by considering c as the variable, we have obtained ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY. xxxix an equation which, for brevity, we shall write dy = pdx + qdc (k) Hence it is clear, that if p remaining finite, q d c is nothing, the result of the elimination of c as a variable from F (x, y, c) = 0, and the equation (k), will be the same as that arising from c considered constant, from F (x, y, c) = 0, and the equation d y = p d x (this result is on the hypothesis Mdx+Ndy = 0), for the equation (k), since q d c = 0, does not differ from dy = p dx; but in order to have q d c = 0, one of the factors of this equation ss constant, that is to say, that we have d c = 0, or q = 0. In the first case, d c = 0, gives c = constant, since that takes place for particular integrals ; the second case, only therefore conducts to a par- ticular solution. But, q being the coefficient of d c of the equation (k), we see that q = 0, gives *y = . dx This equation will contain c or be independent of it. If it contain c, there will be two cases ; either the equation q = 0, will contain only c and constants, or this equation will contain c with variables. In the first case, the equation q = 0, will still give c = constant, and in the second case, it will give c = f (x, y) ; this value being substituted in the equation F (x, y, c) = 0, will change it into another function of x, y, which will satisfy the proposed, without being comprised in its complete integral, and consequently will be a singular solution ; but we shall have a parti- cular integral if the equation c =r f (x, y), by means of the complete in- tegral, is reduced to a constant. c 4 xj INTRODUCTION. When the factor q = from the equation q d c = not containing the arbitrary constant c, we shall perceive whether the equation q = gives rise to a particular solution, by combining this equation with the complete integral. For example, if from q = 0, we get x = M, and put this value in the complete integral F (x, y, c) = 0, we shall obtain c = constant = B or c = f y ; In the first case, q = 0, gives a particular integral ; for by changing c into B in the complete integral, we only give a particular value to the constant, which is the same as when we pass from the complete integral to a particular integral. In the second case, on the contrary, the value f y introduced instead of c in the complete integral, will establish between x and y a relation different from that which was found by merely re- placing c by an arbitrary constant. In this case, therefore, we shall have a particular solution. What has been said of y, applies equally to x. It happens sometimes that the value of c presents itself under the form : this indicates a factor common to the equations u and U which is ex- traneous to them, and which must be made to disappear. Let us apply this theory to the research of particular solutions, when the complete integral is given. Let the equation be y d x x'd y = aV'(dx 2 + dy l ) of which the complete integral is thus found. Dividing the equation by d x, and making dy ai = p we obtain y px = a V(l + p). Then differentiating relatively to x and to p, we get apdp - P dx--xd P = ' 2 ; observing that dy = pdx, this equation reduces to apdp * d P+ V(l + p') = and this is satisfied by making d p = 0. This hypothesis gives p = con- stant = c, a value which being put in the above equation gives ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY. xli y ex = aV(l + c*) ........ (1) This equation containing an arbitrary constant c, which is not to be found in the proposed equation, is the complete integral of it. This being accomplished, the part q d c of the equation d y = p d x -f- q d c will be obtained by differentiating the last equation relatively to c regarded as the only variable. Operating thus we shall have a c d c xdc+ = 0; consequently the coefficients of d c, equated to zero, will give us ac c') To find the value of c, we have (1 + c ! ) L x 2 = a ! c 2 , which gives x ' a and by means of this last equation, eliminating the radical of the equation (m) we shall thus obtain This value and that of V(l + c 2 ) being substituted in the equation (H will give us x 8 a 2 V(a z x 2 ) = : V(a 2 x') whence is derived y = V(a'-x 2 ), an equation which, being squared, will give us y 2 = a' x 2 ; and we see that this equation is a particular solution, for by differentiating it we obtain xd x dy = - ; this value and that of V(x 2 + y*), being substituted in the equation originally proposed, reduce it to a 2 = a e . In the application which we have just given, we have determined the xhi INTRODUCTION. value of c by equating to zero the differential coefficient (-p-) This process may sometimes prove insufficient. In fact, the equation dy = p dx + q dc being put under this form Adx + Bdy + Cdc = where A, B, C, are functions of x and y, we shall thence obtain dy = -gdx gdc ........ (o) dx = -dy -^-dc ........ (p) and we perceive that if all that has been said of y considered a function of x, is applied to x considered a function of y, the value of the coefficient of d c will not be the same, and that it will suffice merely that any factor of B destroys in C another factor than that which may destroy a factor of A, in order that the value of the coefficient of d c, on both hypotheses, may appear entirely different. Thus although very often the equations 1=0,1=0 give for c the same value, that will not always happen ; the reason of which is, that when we shall have determined c by means of the equation dx it will not be useless to see whether the hypothesis of -3 gives the same result. Clairaut was the first to remark a general class of equations susceptible of a particular solution ; these equations are contained in the form dy _, dy ' = &***& an equation which we shall represent by y = px + Fp ......... (r) By differentiating it, we shall find dy = pdx + xdp + (-jy) dp; this equation, since d y = pdx, becomes ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY. xliii and since d p is a common factor, it may be thus written : We satisfy this equation by making d p = 0, which gives p = const. = c; consequently, by substituting this value in the equation (r) we shall find y = ex + Fc. This equation is the complete integral of the equation proposed, since an arbitrary constant c has been introduced by integration. If we differ- entiate relatively to c we shall get dFc Consequently, by equating to zero the coefficients of d c, we have dFc ~d^~ which being substituted in the complete integral, will give the particular solution. THE INTEGRATION OF EQUATIONS OF PARTIAL DIFFERENCES. An equation which subsists between the differential coefficients, com- bined with variables and constants, is, in general, a partial differential equation, or an equation of partial differences. These equations are thus named, because the notation of the differential coefficients which they contain indicates that the differentiation can only be effected partially ; that is to say, by regarding certain variables as constant. This supposes, therefore, that the function proposed contains only one variable. The first equation which we shall integrate is this ; viz. i If contrary to the hypothesis, z instead of being a function of two vari- ables x, y, contains only x, we shall have an ordinary differential equation, which, being integrated, will give z = ax + c but, in the present case, z being a function of x and of y, the T/S con- tained in z have been made to disappear by differentiation, since differen- xhv INTRODUCTION. tinting relatively to x, we have considered y as constant. We ought, therefore, when integrating, to preserve the same hypothesis, and suppose that the arbitrary constant is in general a function of y ; consequently, we shall have for the integral of the proposed equation z = ax + py. Required to integrate the equation in which X ' ls any function of x. Multiplying by d x, and integrating, we get z =/Xdx + py. For example, if the function X were x 2 + a 2 , the integral would be x 3 z = + a 2 x + p y . In like manner, it is found that the integral of is z = x Y + p y . Similarly, we shall integrate every equation in which (-T ) is equal to a function of two variables x, y. If, for example, (d z\ x d x/ V ay + x 2 ' considering y as constant, we integrate by the ordinary rules, making the arbitrary constant a function of y. This gives z = (ay + x 2 ) + py. Finally, if we wish to integrate the equation f^\ - ! Vdx/ ' V(y 2 x 1 ) regarding y as constant, we get z = sin.-'y + py. Generally to integrate the equation we shall take the integral relatively to x, and adding to it an arbitrary function of y, as the constant, to complete it, we shall find z = /T(x, y) dx +

-&)+-'" and again making /d z\ (n) = P' and d it becomes p + M q + N = ............ (a) Tliis equation establishes a relation between the coefficients p and q ot the general formula = pdx + qdy; without which relation p and q would be perfectly arbitrary, for as it has been already observed, this formula has no other meaning than to indicate that z is a function of two variables x, y, and that function may be auy ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY. xlvii whatever ; so that we ought to regard p and q as indeterminate in this last equation. Eliminating p from it, we shall obtain dz + Ndx = q(dy Mdx) and q will remain always indeterminate. Hence the two members of this equation are heterogeneous (See Art. 6. vol. 1), and consequently dz + Ndx = 0, dy Mdx = ..... (b) If P, Q, R do not contain the variable z, it will be the same of M and N; so that the second of these equations will be an equation of two varia- bles x and y, and may become a complete differential by means of a factor ?.. This gives X (d y M d x) = 0. The integral of this equation will be a function of x and of y, to wlncn we must add an arbitrary constant s ; so that we shall have F(x, y) = s; whence we derive y = f (x, s). Such will be the value of y given us by the second of the above equa- tions; and to show that they subsist simultaneously we must substitute this value in the first of them. But although the variable y is not shown, it is contained in N. This substitution of the value of y just found, amounts to considering y in the first equation as a function of x and of the arbitrary constant s. Integrating therefore this first equation on that hypothesis we find z = f N d x +

V. Then the equation (d) will become dU = pV.dV which gives, by integrating, U = *'V. Take, for example, the equation (d z\ . /d z\ n) + x (dy) = y z; which being written thus, viz. d z\ x /d z\ z ~~~ = we compare it with the equation and obtain M = *, N = - y' x By means of these values the equations (b) becomes dz -.dx = 0, dy ~dx = 0; x y which reduce to xdz zdx = 0,ydy xdx = 0. The factors necessary to make these integrable are evidently s and 2. JL gr Substituting which and integrating, we find and y * X s for the in- jC tegrals. Putting, therefore, these values for U and V in the equation U = * V, we shall obtain, for the integral of the proposed equation, It must be remarked, that, if we had eliminated q instead of p, the equa- tions (b) would have been replaced by these Mdz + Ndy = 0,dy Mdx = 0. . . . (e) and since all that has been said of equations (b) applies equally to these, d / INTRODUCTION. it follows that, in the case where the first of equations (b) was not in- tegrable, we may replace those equations by the system of equations (e), which amounts to employing the first of the equations (e) instead of the first of the equations (b). For instance, if we had fd az this equation being divided by a z and compared with will give us o -Mf X XT X Y M = , N = J - and the equations (b) will become a z , a z a which reduce to azdz-f-xydx = 0,ady + xdx,=:0 . . . (f) The first of these equations, which, containing three variables, is not immediately integrable, we replace by the first of the equations (e), and we shall have, instead of the equations (f), these y =0,ady+xdx=0; . c * which reduce to 2ydy 2zdz = 0,2ady + 2xdx = 0; equations, whose integrals are y 2 z 8 , 2 a y + x *" These values being substituted for U and V, will give us y 2 z 2 = (2 a y + x 2 ). It may be remarked, that the first of equations (e) is nothing else than the result of the elimination of d x from the equations (b) . Generally we may eliminate every variable contained in the coefficients M, N, and in a word, combine these equations after any manner what- ever ; if after having performed these operations, and we obtain two in- tegrals, represented by U = a, V r= b, a and b being arbitrary constants, we can always conclude that the integral is U = V. In fact, since a and b are two arbitrary constants, having taken b at pleasure, we may compose a in terms of b in any way whatsoever; which is tantamount to saying that we may take for a an arbitrary function of b. This condition will be expressed by the equations a = f (b). Consequently, we shall ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY. li have the equations U = b, V = b, in which x, y, z represent the same coordinates. If we eliminate (b) from these equations, we shall obtain U = 9 V. This equation also shows us that in making V = b, we ought to have U = f b = constant ; that is to say, that U and V are at the same time constant; without which a and b would depend upon one another, where- as the function is arbitrary. But this is precisely the condition expressed by the equations U = a, V == b. To give an application of this theorem, let d z\ /d z\ Dividing by z x and comparing it with the general equation we have M = , N = ?; X ZX and the equations (b) give us d z -_ d x = 0, d y + - -d x = zx x or zxdz y * d x = 0, xdy-fydz= 0. The first of these equations containing three variables we shall not at- tempt its integration in that state; but if we substitute in it for y d x its value derived from the second equation, it will acquire a common factor x, which being suppressed, the equation becomes zdz + ydy = 0, and we perceive that by multiplying by 2 it becomes integrable. r i he other equation is already integrable, and by integrating we find z ! + y * = a, xy=b, whence we conclude that z 2 + V s = x y. We shall conclude what we have to say upon equations of partial differ- ences of the first order, by the solution of this problem. Given an equation 'which contains an arbitrary function of one or more variables, tojind the equation of partial differences which produced it. Suppose we have z= F(x' + y s ). Make x z + y 2 =u .......... (0 and the equation becomes z = Fu. it lii INTRODUCTION. The differential of F u must be of the form f u . d u. Conse- quently d z = d u. p u If we take the differential of z I'elatively to x only, that is to say, in regarding y as constant, we ought to take also d u on the same hypothesis. Consequently, dividing the preceding equation by d x, we get /d z\ /d u\ * > u. d z\ /d u\ ) = (cf)' u - Again, considering x as constant and y as variable, we shall similarly find d z\ /d u y But the values of these coefficients are found from the equation (f), which gives (d u\ TX) = Hence our equations become /d z\ / d z \ ( j - ) = 2 x f u , ( - ) = 2 y 9 u ; \dx/ \ dy / J ' and eliminating p u from these, we get the equation required ; viz. As another example, take this equation z 8 + 2 ax = F ( y). Making x y = u, It becomes z*-j-2ax = Fu aiid differ ntiating, we get d (z * 4- 2 a x) = d u

Vdx 2 dy^>) = K) &c ' in which P, Q, R, &c. are functions of x, y, which gives place to a series of integrations, introducing for each of them an arbitrary function. One of the next easiest equations to integrate is this : in which P and Q will always denote two functions of x and y. Make and the proposed will transform to To integrate this, we consider x constant, and then it contains only two variables y and u, and it will be of the same form as the equation dy + Py dx = Qdx whose integral (see Vol. 1. p. 109) is y = e-/ pd J/Qe/ pd *dx + C}. Hence our equation gives u se-'^M/Qe'Vdy + fxj. ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY. But Hence by integration we get z = /{ e-/*(/Qe'"*dy) + pxjdy + 4*. By the same method we may integrate VdlTdy) + P CdlD = Q ' dT^ + P (df) = Q ' in which P, Q represent functions of x, and because of the divisor d x d y, we perceive that the value of z will not contain arbitrary functions of the same variable. THE DETERMINATION OF THE ARBITRARY FUNCTIONS WHICH ENTER THE INTEGRALS OF EQUATIONS OF PARTIAL DIFFERENCES O.Y THE FIRST ORDER. The arbitrary functions which complete the integrals of equations of partial differences, ought to be given by the conditions arising from the nature of the problems from which originated these equations ; problems generally belonging to the physical branches of the Mathematics. But in order to keep in view the subject we are discussing, we shall limit ourselves to considerations purely analytical, and we shall first seek what are the conditions contained in the equation Since z is a function of x, y, this equation may be ^,,msidered as that of a surface. This surface, from the nature of its equation, has the following property, that (-T ) must always be constant. Hence it follows that every section of this surface made by a plane parallel to that of x, y is a straight line. In fact, whatever may be the nature of this section, if we divide it into an infinity of parts, these, to a small extent, may be con- sidered straight lines, and will represent the elements of the section, one of these elements making with a parallel to the axis of abscissae, an angle whose tangent is (-7-;) Since this angle is constant, it follows that all the angles formed in like manner by the elements of the curve, with pnr- OL i Ivi INTRODUCTION. allels to the axis of abscissae will be equal. Which proves that the sec- tion in question is a straight line. We might arrive at the same result by considering the integral of the equation . = a d x/ which we know to be z = ax + f y, since for all the points containing three variables will belong still to a curve surface. If we cut this surface by a plane parallel to that of x, z, we shall have a section in which y will be constant ; and since in all its points (T~) will be equal to a function of the variable x, this section must be a curve, as in the pre- ceding case. The equation C ^ =P being integrated, we shall have for that of the surface z =r/Pdx + py; if in this equation we give successively to y the increasing values y', y", y'", &c. and make P', P", P"', &c. what the function P becomes in these cases, we shall have the equations z =/P / dx + py', z =/P"dx + p y" Z = /P"'dx + py"', z = /P'"'dx + py"" &C, and we see that these equations will belong to curves of the same nature, but different in form, since the values of the constant y will not be the same. These curves are nothing else than the sections of the surface made by planes parallel to the plane (x, z) ; and in meeting the plane (y, .z) they will form a curve whose equation will be obtained by equating to zero, the value of x in that of the surface. Call the value of/Pdx, in this case, Y, and we shall have and we perceive that by reason of p y, the curve determined by this equa- tion must be arbitrary. Thus, having traced at pleasure a curve, Q R S, upon the plane (y, z), if we represent by R L the section whose equation 13 z =y P'd x -f py', we shall move this section, always keeping the ex- ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY. lix tremity R applied to the curve Q R S ; but so that this section as it moves, may assume the successive forms determined by the above group of equations, and we shall thus construct the surface to which will belong the equation as) = Finally let us consider the general equation whose integral is U =

~ amounts to making a surface pass through a curve traced arbitrarily. To show how this sort of problems may conduct to analytical condi- tions, let us examine what is the surface whose equation is d z\ /d We have seen that this equation being integrated gives Reciprocally we hence derive If we cut the surface by a plane parallel to the plane (x, y) the equation of the section will be ' 2 , * x 2 + y 8 = c, we shall have x* + y* = a 2 . This equation belongs to the circle. Consequently the surface will Ix INTRODUCTION. have this property, viz. that every section made by a plane parallel to the plane (x, y) will be a circle. This property is also indicated by the equation d for this equation gives dy ~ y dx* This equation shows us that the subnormal ought to be always equal to the abscissa which is the property of the circle. The equation z =

U, will change it to b and putting the value of U in this equation, we shall find that and we see that the function is determined. Substituting this value of (x * + y *) in the equation z

U, and whose second member is a compound expression in terms of U ; restoring the value of U in terms of the vari- bles, the arbitrary function will be determined. THE ARBITRARY FUNCTIONS WHICH ENTER THE INTEGRALS OF THE EQUATIONS OF PARTIAL DIFFERENCES OF THE SECOND ORDER. Equations of partial differences of the second order conduct to integrals which contain two arbitrary functions ; the determination of these func- tions amounts to making the surface pass through two curves which may be discontinuous or discontiguous. For example, take the equation d * ( z\ JV-0 = whose integral has been found to be Let A x, A y, A z, be the axis of coordinates ; if we draw a plane K L parallel to the plane (x, z), the section of the surface by this plane will be a straight line ; since, for all the points of this section, y being equal to A p, if we represent A p by a constant c, the quantities f y, ^ y will become p c, <4> c, and, consequently, may be replaced by two con- stants, a, b, so that the equation z = xpy -f 4y ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY. hciii will become z = a x -f- b, and this is the equation to the section made by the plane K L. To find the point where this section meets the plane (y, z) make x =r 0, and the equation above gives z = -vj/ y, which indicates a curve a m b, traced upon the plane (y, z). It will be easy to show that the section meets the curve a m b in a point m ; and since this section is a straight line, it is only requisite, to find the position of it, to find a second point. For that purpose, observe that when x = 0, the first equation reduces to whilst, when x = 1, the same equation reduces to z = 9 y + + y> Making, as above, y = Ap = c, these two values of z will become z = b, z = a + b, and determining two points m and r, taken upon the same section, in r we know to be in a straight line. To construct these points we thus pro- ceed : we shall arbitrarily trace upon the plane (y, z) the curve a m b, and through the point p, where the cutting plane K L meets the axis of y, raise the perpendicular pm = b, which will be an ordinate to the curve ; we shall then take at the intersection H L of the cutting plane, and the plane (x, y), the part p p' equal to unity, and through the point p', we shall draw a plane parallel to the plane (y, z), and in this plane construct the curve a' m' b', after the modulus of the curve a m b, and so as to be similarly disposed ; then the ordinate m' p' will be equal to m p ; and if we produce m' p' by m' r, which will represent a, we shall deter- mine the point r of the section. If, by a second process, we then produce all the ordinates of the curve a' m' b', we shall construct a new curve a' r 7 b', which will be such, that drawing through this curve and through a m b, a plane parallel to the plane (x, z), the two points where the curves meet, will belong to the same section of the surface. From what precedes, it follows that the surface may be constructed, by moving the straight line m r so as continually to touch the two curves, a m b, a 7 m' b'. This example suffices to show that the determination of the arbitrary functions which complete the integrals of equations of partial differences of the second order, is the same as making the surface pass through two curves, which, as well as the functions themselves, may be discontinuous, discontiguous, regular or irregular. kir INTRODUCTION CALCULUS OF VARIATIONS. If we have given a function Z F, (x, y, y 7 , y"), wherein y', y" mean /cl yx /d * yx \d~x> ^dx*> y itself being a function of x, it may be required to make L have certain properties, (such as that of being a maximum, for instance) whether by assigning to x, y numerical values, or by establishing relations between these variables, and connecting them by equations. When the equation y = p x is given, we may then deduce y, y', y" . . . in terms of x and sub- stituting, we have the form Z = f x. By the known rules of the differential calculus, we may assign the values of x, when we make of x a maximum or minimum. Thus we determine what are the points of a given curve, for which the proposed function Z, is greater or less than for every other point of the same curve. But if the equation y = x is not given, then taking successively for x different forms, the function Z = f x will, at the same time, assume different functions of x. It may be proposed to assign to f x such a form as shall make Z greater or less than every other form of p 'X.yfor the same numerical value of x "whatever it may be in other respects. This latter species of problem belongs to the calculus of variations. This theory relates not to maxima and minima only; but we shall confine our- selves to these considerations, because it will suffice to make known all the rules of the calculus. We must always bear in mind, that the varia- bles x, y are not independent, but that the equation y = px is unknown, and that we only suppose it given to facilitate the resolution of the prob lem. We must consider x as any quantity whatever which remains the same for all the differential forms of

Z, or T L t < Z : reasoning as in the ordinary maxima and minima, we perceive that the terms of the first order must equal zero, or that we have Since k is arbitrary for every value of x, and it is not necessary that its value or its form should remain the same, when x varies or is constant, k', k" . . is as well arbitrary as k. For we may suppose for any value x = X that k = a + b (x X) + c (x ) * + &c., X, a, b, c . . . being taken at pleasure ; and since this equation, and its differentials, ought to hold good, whatever is x, they ought also to subsist when x = X, which gives k a, k' = b, k" = c, &c. Hence the equation Z, = Z + . . . cannot be satisfied when a, b, c . . . are considered inde- pendent, unless (see 6, vol. I.) n being the highest order of y in Z. These different equations subsist simultaneously, whatever may be the value of x ; and if so, there ought to be a maximum or minimum ; and the relation which then subsists be- tween x, y will be the equation sought, viz. y = 9 x, which will have the property of making Z greater or less than every other relation between x and y can make it. We can distinguish the maximum from the mini- mum from the signs of the terms of the second order, as in vol. I. p. (31.) But if all these equations give different relations between x, y, the problem will be impossible in the state of generality which we have ascribed to it ; and if it happen that some only of these equations subsist mutually, then the function Z will have maxima and minima, relative to some of the quantities y, y', y" . .. without their being common to them all. The equations which thus subsist, will give the relative maxima and minima. And if we wish to make X a maximum or minimum only relatively ixvi INTRODUCTION. 1 lo one of the quantities y, y', y" . . . , since then we have only one equa- tion to satisfy, the problem will be always possible. From the preceding considerations it follows, that first, the quantities X, y depend upon one another, and that, nevertheless, we ought to make them vary, as if they were independent, for this is but an artifice to get the more readily at the result. Secondly, that these variations are not indefinitely small ; and if we em- ploy the differential calculus to obtain them, it is only an expeditious means of getting the second term of the developement, the only one which is here necessary. Let us apply these general notions to some examples. Ex. 1. Take, upon the axis of x of a curve, two abscissas m, n; and draw indefinite parallels to the axis of y. Let y = p x be the equation of this curve: if through any point whatever, we draw a tangent, it will cut the parallels in points whose ordinates are 1 = y + y' (m x), h = y -f y' (n x) . If the form of

z > 3 x, 3 y, 3 z . . . Mark with one and two accents the numerical values of these variables at the first and second limit. Then, since the integral is to be taken between these limits, we must mark the different terms of L which compose the equation C, first with one, and then with two accents ; take the first result from the second and equate the differ- ence to zero ; so that the equation L,, - L, = contains no variables, because x, d x . . . will have taken the values x,, 3 x, . . . x /y , 3 x x/ . . . assigned by the limits of the integration. We must remember that these accents merely belong to the limits of the integral. There are to be considered four separate cases. 1. If the limits are given andjixed, that is to say, if the extreme values of x, y, z are constant, since 3 x /} d 3 x, . . . d x /x , d 3 x //5 &c. are zero, all the terms of L, and L,, are zero, and the equation (C) is satisfied. Thus we determine the constants which integration introduces into the equations (D), by the conditions conferred by the limits. 2. Jf the limits are arbitrary and independent, then each of the coeffi- cients 3 x, , 3 x y/ . . . in the equation (C) is zero in particular. 3. If there exist equations of condition, (which signifies geometrically that the curve required is terminated at points which are not fixed, but which are situated upon two given curves or surfaces,) for the limits, that is to say, if the nature of the question connects together by equations, some of the quantities x,, y,, z,, x,,, y //5 z,, we use the differentials of these equations to obtain more variations 3 x /5 3 y,, 3 z x , d x //5 &c. in functions of the others ; substituting in L y/ L, = 0, these variations will be re- duced to the least number possible : the last being absolutely independent, the equation will split again into many others by equating separately their coefficients to zero. ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY. Ixxi Instead of this process, we may adopt the following one, which is more elegant. Let u ss 0, v = 0, &c. be the given equations of condition ; we shall multiply their variations 3 u, 3 v ... by the indeterminates X, X'. . . This will give X3u4.X'3v + ... a known function of 3 x /} 3 x,,, d y, . . . Adding this sum to L,, L,, we shall get L /y L, + X 3 u + X' d v + . . . = . . . . (E). Consider all the variations 3 x,, 8 x //} ... as independent, and equate their coefficients separately to zero. Then we shall eliminate the inde- terminates X, X'. . . from these equations. By this process, we shall arrive at the same result as by the former one ; for we have only made legiti- mate operations, and we shall obtain the same number of final equations. It must be observed, that we are not to conclude from u = 0, v r= 0, that at the limits we have d u = 0, dv = 0; these conditions are inde- pendent, and may easily not coexist. In the contrary case, we must consider d u = 0, d v = 0, as new conditions, and besides X 3 u, we must also take X' 3 d u . . . 4. Nothing need be said as to the case where one of the limits is fixed o and the other subject to certain conditions, or even altogether arbitrary, because it is included in the three preceding ones. It may happen also that the nature of the question subjects the varia- tions 3 x, 3 y, 3 z, to certain conditions, given by the equations t = 0, 6 = 0, and independently of limits ; thus, for example, when the required curve is to be traced upon a given curve surface. Then the equation (B) will not split into three equations, and the equations (D) will not subsist. We must first reduce, as follows, the variations to the smallest number possi- ble in the formula (B), by means of the equations of condition, and equate to zero the coefficients of the variations that remain ; or, which is tanta- mount, add to (B) the terms X3e + X'30 + ...; then split this equation into others by considering 3 x, 3 y, 3 z as independent ; and finally elimi- nate X, X' ... It must be observed, that, in particular cases, it is often preferable to make, upon the given function Z, all the operations which have produced the equations (B), (C) instead of comparing each particular case with the general formulae above given. Such are the general principles of the calculus of variations: let us illustrate it with examples. * 4 Ixxii INTRODUCTION. Ex. 1. Wliat is the curve C M K of which the length M K, comprised between the given radii-vectors A M, A K is the least possible. A D P We have, (vol. I, p. 000)> if r be the radius-vector, s =/(i; s 6, which ^renders Z a minimum the variation is dl 8 .3 r*d<>.ada--dr.od r V (r ! d a + d r ) Comparing with equation (A), where we suppose x = r, y = 6, we have m = rd -a ,n=^,M = 0,N = r -^- d s d s d s the equations (D) are rd 6 ds . /d r\ r 2 d 6 ~ = d (dl) -dT- = c ' Eliminating d d, and then d s, from these equations, and ds*= r'dtf 2 ; + d r *, we perceive that they subsist mutually or agree ; so that it is sufficient to integrate one of them. But the perpendicular A I let fall from the origin A upon any tangent whatever. T M is A J = A M + sin. A M T = r sin, /3, which is equivalent, as we easily find, to r tan. & which gives V (1 + tan. z ]8) r z d 6 r'd tf ds = c; V (r * d 6 * + d r ') and since this perpendicular is here constant, the required line is a straight line. The limits M and K being indeterminate, the equations (C) are unnecessary. Ex. 2. Tojind the shortest line between two given points, or two given curves. ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY. Ixxiii The length s of the line is /Z = /V(dx* + dy' + dz'). It is required to make this quantity a minimum ; we have as d s r d s ind comparing with the formula (A), we find the other coefficients P, p, it . . . are zero. The equations (D) become, therefore, in this case, whence, by integrating dx = ads,dy = b d s, d z = cds. Squaring and adding, we get a s + b 8 + c 2 = 1, a condition that the constants a, b, c must fulfil in order that these equa- tions may simultaneously subsist.- By division, we find d y __ b d z __ dx~~a'dx~~a* whence b x = a y + a', c x = a z + b'; the projections of the line required are therefore straight lines the line is therefore itself a straight line. To find the position of it, we must know the five constants a, b, c, a', b'. If it be required to find the shortest distance between two given fixed points (x,, y,, z,), (X A , y //5 z y/ ), it is evident that 5, x, d x //? d y, . . . are zero, and that the equation (C) then holds good. Subjecting our two equations to the condition of being satisfied when we substitute therein x /} x //5 y, . . . for x, y, z, we shall obtain four equations, which, with a 2 + b* + c 8 =l, determine the five necessary constants. Suppose that the second limit is a fixed point (x /7 , y //5 z ;/ ), in the plane (x, y), and the first a curve passing through the point (x /} y 7 Z 7 ), and also situated in this plane ; the equation b x = a y + a' then suffices. Let y, = f x, be the equation of the curve ; hence 3y x = A dx,; the equation (C) becomes , Jxxiv INTRODUCTION. and since the second limit is fixed it is sufficient to combine together the equations 3y, = A3x, d x, a x, + d y, 3 y, = 0. Eliminating d y, we get d x, + A d y, = 0. We might also have multiplied the equation of condition a y, A 8 x, = by the indeterminate X, and have added the result to L,, which would have given whence Eliminating X we get dx, + Ad y/ = 0. But then the point {x,, y,) is upon the straight line passing through the points (x,, y,, z,), (x /7 , y// , z,,), and we have also b d x y = ad y,, whence a = b A and ( il - - -1 - *J dx A a which shows the straight line is a normal to the curve of condition. The constant a' is determined by the consideration of the second limit which is given and fixed. It would be easy to apply the preceding reasoning to three dimensions, and we should arrive at similar conclusions ; we may, therefore, infer generally that the shortest distance between two curves is the straight line which is a normal to them. If the shortest line required were to be traced upon a curve surface whose equation is u == 0, then the equation (B) would not decompose into three others. We must add to it the term X 5 u ; then regarding 6 x, d y, & z as independent, we shall find the relations ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY, d (T*) + : \d S/ IXXT d + x ) = o. ^d s/ d z/ From these eliminating X, we have the two equations dux , /dxv /du\ , /d which are those of the curve required. Take for example, the least distance measured upon the surface of a sphere, whose center is at the origin of coordinates : hence u = x* + y * + z * r* = 0, (d u\ /d u\ /du\ a x) = 2 x ' (di) = 2 * Ob) = ? ' Our equations give, making d s constant, z^*x = xd*z, zd z y = yd*z, whence yd*x = xd*y. Integrating we have zdx xdz = ads, zdy ydz = b d s, y d x xdy =: cds. Multiplying the first of these equations by y, the second by x, the third by z, and adding them, we get ay = bx + cz the equation of a plane passing through the origin of coordinates. Hencf the curve required is a great circle "which passes through the points A' (7, or which is normal to the two curves A' B and C' D which are limits and are given upon the. spherical surface. When a body moves in a fluid it encounters a resistance which ceteris Ixxvi INTRODUCTION. paribus depends on its form (see vol. I.) : if the body be one of revolu- tion and moves in the direction of its axis, we can show by mechanics that the resistance is the least possible when the equation of the gener- ating curve fulfils the condition /y d d y 3 . . d x* + d y* " ' or 7 __ y y /3 d x Let us determine the generating curve of the solid of least resistance (see Principia, vol. II.). Taking the variation of the above expression, we get 2ydy 3 dx - 2yy' 3 m O_ n * * J J n &T 2 9 M ~~ "? (XC M - dy3 - y /3dx N - yy"(3 + y") & c - ~dx 8 + dy 8 ~l+y' 8 ' (l + y /) >* the second equation (D) is M dN = 0; and it follows from what we have done relatively to Z, that d because M = d N. Thus integrating, we have y"y . a (I +y")* = 2yy". Observe that the first of the equations (D) or m d n = 0, would have given the same result n = a ; so that these two equations conduct to the same result. We have substituting for y its value, this integral may easily be obtained ; it remains to eliminate y 7 from these values of x and y, and we shall obtain the equation of the required curve, containing two constants which we shall determine from the given conditions. ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY. Ixxvii Ex. 3. What is the curve A B M in "aJiich the area B O D M comprised Y between the arc B M the radii of curvature B O, D M and the arc O D of the evolute, is a minimum ? The element of the arc A M is the radius of curvature M D is and their product is the element of the proposed area, or _ (l+y")dx __ (dx +dy') y" dx dy It is required to find the equation y =r f x, which makes yZ, a mini- mum. Take the variation B N, and consider only the second of the equations (D), which is sufficient for our object, and we get M = 0, N d P = 4 a, XT dx 1 + dy 2 1 + y' N = , ,, J . 4 d y = ,/ 4 y', d x d 2 y y But y" * d x = N d y' + P d y" d x = 4 a d y + d P d y' + P d y" d x, putting 4 a -f- P for N. Moreover y" d x = d y', changes the last terms into (y" d P -f P d y") d x = d (P y"). d x = d:( (1 + j Ixxviii INTRODUCTION. Integrating, therefore, finally, On the other side we have y = /y' d x = y' x /x d y' or y = y' x c y' 1 ^~^ d y' this last term integrates by parts, and we have y = y' x c y' (by a) tan.- 1 }" -f f. Eliminating the tangent from these values of x and y, we get - , . ds '(by a * + g) finally, s = 2 V (b y a x + g) + h. This equation shows that the curve required is a cycloid, whose four constants will be determined from the same number of conditions. Ex. 4. What is the curve of a given length s, between two faetl points, for which fy d s is a maximum ? We easily find (y + v (In) = c ' whence d x = vny+ d J'-c'} ; and it will be found that the curve required is a catenary. is the vertical ordinate of the center of gravity of an nrc whose length is s, we see that the center of gravity of any arc whatever of the catenary is lower than that of any other curve terminated by the same points. Ex. 5. Reasoning in the same way for f y * d x = minimum, and J y d x r= const, we find y * -f- X y = c, or rather y = c. We have fv * d x here a straight line parallel to x. Since 7^ = is the vertical ordinate 2/y d x of the center of gravity of every plane area, that of a rectangle, whose side is horizontal, is the lowest possible ; so that every mass of water ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY. Ixxix whose upper surface is horizontal, has its center of gravity the lowest possible. FINITE DIFFERENCES. If we have given a series a, b, c, d, . . . take each term of it from that which immediately follows it, and we shall form thejirst differences, viz. a' = b a, b' = c b, c' = d c, &c. In the same manner we find that this series a', b', c', d 7 . . . gives the second differences a" = b' a', b" = c' b', c" = d' c', &c. which again give the third differences a'" = b" a'', b'" = c" b", c'" = d" c", &c. These differences are indicated by A, and an exponent being given to it will denote the order of differences. Thus A B is a ferm of the series of nth differences. Moreover we give to each difference the sign which belongs to it ; this is , when we take it from a decreasing series. For example, the function y = x' 9x -f 6 in making x successively equal to 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 . . . gives a series of numbers of which y is the general term, and from which we get the following differences, for x = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 ... series y = 6, 2, 4, 6, 34, 86, 168, 286... first diff. A y = 8, 2, 10, 28, 52, 82, 118 ... second diff. A * y = 6, 12, 18, 24, 30, 36 ... third diff. A 3 y = 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, ... We perceive that the third differences are here constant, and that the second difference is an arithmetic progression : we shall always arrive at constant differences, whenever y is a rational and integer function of x ; which we now demonstrate. In the monomial k x m make x = a, /3, 7, . . . 0, x, X (these numbers having h for a constant difference), and we get the series .k a m , k |8 m , . . . k 6 m , k x m , k X m . Since x = X h, by developing k x m = k (X h) m , and designating DV m, A', A" . . . the coefficients of the binomial, we find, that k (x m K w ) = k m h x m - 1 k A' h * X ra ~ 2 + k A" 3 h. . . Ixxx INTRODUCTION. Such is the first difference of any two terms whatever of the series k a m , k /3 m . . . k x m , &c. The difference which precedes it, or k (x m 6 m ) is deduced by changing X into x and x into tf and since x = X h, we must put A h for X in the second member: k m h(X-h) --k A' h * (X-h m - 8 ) ...=k m h X -i-| A'+m(m-l)}kh* X m - 8 ... Subtracting these differences, the two first terms will disappear, and vre get for the second difference of an arbitrary rank k m (m 1) h 2 X m - 2 + k B' h 3 X m -s + . . . In like manner, changing X into X h, in this last developement, and subtracting, the two first terms disappear, and we have for the third difference km (m 1) (m 2) h 3 X m - 3 -f kE'^'X 10 -*. . ., and so on continually. Each of these differences has one term at least, in its developement, like the one ^bove ; the first has m terms ; the second has m 1 terms ; third, m 2 terms ; and so on. From the form of the first term, which ends by remaining alone in the mth difference, we see this is reduced to the constant 1.2.3...mkh m . If in the functions M and N we take for x two numbers which give the results m, n ; then M + N becomes m + n. In the same manner, let m', n' be the results given by two other values of x ; the first difference, arising from M + N, is evidently (m m') -f (n n'). that is, the difference of the sum is the sum of the differences. The same may be shown of the 3d and 4th . . . differences. Therefore, if we make x = , /3, y . . . in k x m + p x m - 1 + . . . the mth difference will be the same as if these were only the first term k x m , for that of p x "a- 1 , q x m ~ 2 ... is nothing. Therefore the mth difference is constant, when for x we substitute numbers in arithmetic pro- gression t in a rational and integer Junction of -a. We perceive, therefore, that if it be required to substitute numbers in arithmetic progression, as is the case in the resolution of numerical equa- tions, according to Newton's Method of Divisors, it will suffice to find the (m + 1) first results, to form the first, second, &c. differences. The ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY. IxxxL roth difference will have but one term ; as we know it is constant and = 1 . 2 . 3 . . . m k h re , we can extend the series at pleasure. That of the (m l)th differences will then be extended to that of two known terms, since it is an arithmetic procession ; that of the (m 2)th differ- ences will, in its turn, be extended ; and so on of the rest. This is perceptible in the preceding example, and also in this ; viz. x = . 1 .2. 3 3d Diff. 6 . 6. 6 . 6 . 6. 6. 6 .. . Series 1 .-1 .1. 13 2nd . . 4 . 10. 16 . 22 .2J$. 34. 40 ... 1st ... 2 .2. 12 1st . 2 . 2. 12 . 28 . 50. 78. 112. .. 2nd . . 3. 10 Results 1 . 1 . 1 . 13 . 41 . 91 . 169 ... 3d ... 6 For x . 1 . 2 . 3 . 4. 5. 6 ... These series are deduced from that which is constant 6.6.6.6... and from the initial term already found for each of them : any term is derived by adding the two terms on tlie left which immediately precede it. They may also be continued in the contrary direction, in order to obtain the results of x = 1, 2, 3, &c. In resolving an equation it is not necessary to make the series of results extend farther than the term where we ought only to meet with numbers of the same sign, which is the case when all the terms of any column are positive on the right, and alternate in the opposite direction; for the additions and subtractions by which the series are extended as required, preserve constantly the same signs in the results. We learn, therefore, by this method, the limits of the roots of an equation, whether they be positive or negative. Let y x denote the function of x which is the general term, viz. the x + 1th, of a proposed series yo + 72 + yi + . . yx + y*+i+ which is formed by making x = 0, 1, 2, 3 ... For example, y 5 will designate that x has been made = 5, or, with re- gard to the place of the terms, that there are 5 before it (in the last ex- ample this is 91). Then yi yo = A yo , y 2 yi = A yi ys y = y A yl _ Ay = A 2 y , Ay 2 A^ = A^ , A y 3 A y 2 = A 2 y 2 . . . A 2 y, A 2 y = A3y , A 2 y 2 A 2 y t = A^ , A 2 y 3 A 2 y 2 = A 3 y 2 . . . &c. Ixxxii INTRODUCTION. and generally we have &c. f Now let us form the differences of any series a, b, c, d . . . in this manner. Make b = c + a' c = b + b' d = c + c' &c. b' = a' -f- a" c' = b' + b'' d' = c' + c" &c. b" = a" + a'" c" = b" + b'" d" = c" + d" &c. and so on continually. Then eliminating b, b', c, c', &c. from the first set of equations, we get b = a + a' c = a + 2 a' + a" d = a + 3 a' + 3 a" + a'" e = a + 4 a' + 6 a" + 4 a'" + a"" f = a + 5 a! + 10 a" + &c. &c. Also we have a' = b a a" = c 2 b + a a'" =d 3c + 3b a &c. But the letters a', a", a"', &c. are nothing else than A yp, A 2 y , A 3 y . . a, b, c . . . being yo, yi, y 2 . . . , consequently yi = y + A y y 2 = yo + 2 Ay + A'y y 3 = y -f 3 A y + 3 A 2 y -f A 3 y &c. .ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY. Ixxxiii And A y<> = yi yo A2 yo = ya 2 yi + y ^ 3 yo = y s 3 y 8 + 3 y, y A Vo = y* 4 ya +6 y* + 4 y t + y c &c. Hence, generally, we have y . ' - n 1 n 1 n 2 y . . . . n 1 rf n 2 n 3 These equations, which are of great importance, give the general term of any series, from knowing its first term and the first term of all the orders of differences ; and also the first term of the series of nth differ- ences, from knowing all the terms of the series y , y ls y^ . . . To apply the former to the example in p. (81), we have y.= i Ay = 2 A*y = 4 A'y = 6 *y, = o whence y x= l 2x+2x(x l) + x(x l)(x 2) = x s x 2 2x+l The equations (A), (B) will be better remembered by observing that y x = (I + Ay ), * n yo = (y D n , provided that in the developements of these powers, we mean by the exponents of A y , the orders of differences, and by those of y the place in the series. It has been shown that a, b, c, d . . . may be the values of y x , when those of x are the progressional numbers m, m + h, m + 2 h . . . m + i h that is a = y m , b = y m + h , c = &c. In the equation (A), we may, therefore, put y m+ih for y x , y m fory,,. A y m for A y , &c. and, finally, the coefficients of the i th power. Make i h = z, and write A, A ... for A y m , A*y m . . . and we shall get Z A zJz-h)A* . z(z-h)(z-2h)A'. y m + -g- + - 8h . 2h 3 Ixxxiv INTRODUCTION. Tliis equation will give y x when x = m + z > z being either integer or fractional. We get from the proposed series the differences of all orders, and the initial terms represented by A, A 2 , &c. But in order to apply this formula, so that it may be limited, we must arrive at constant differences ; or, at least, this must be the case if we would have A, A* ... decreasing in . value so as to form a converging series : the developement then gives an approximate value of a term cor- responding to x = m + z; it being understood that the factors of A do not increase so as to destroy this convergency, a circumstance which prevents z from surpassing a certain limit. For example, if the radius of a circle is 1000, the arc of 60 has a chord 1000,0 65 1074,6 '- _' A = 2,0 70 1 147,2 r 7 q 75 1217,5 ~ 2 ' 3 Since the difference is nearly constant from 60 to 75, to this extent of the arc we may employ the equation (C); making h = 5, we get for the quantity to be added to y = 1090, this m }. 74,6. z 3% z (z 5) = 15,12. z 0,04. z 8 So that, by taking z 1, 2, 3.. . then adding 1000, we shall obtain the chords of 61, 62, 63 ; in the same manner, making z the necessary fraction^ we shall get the chord of any arc whatever, that is intermediate to those, and to the limits 60 and 75. It will be better, however, when it is necessary thus to employ great numbers for z, to change these limits. Let us now take log. 3100 = y = 4913617 m A log. 3110 =4927604 - _ , r IQQAO n * ~~ log. 3120 = 4941546 , r 10007 log. 3130 = 4955443 We shall here consider the decimal part of the logarithm as being an integer. By making h = 10, we get, for the part to be added to log. 3100, this 1400,95 x z 0, 225 X z 2 . To get the logarithms of 3101, 3102, 3103, &c. we make z = 1, 2, 3....; and in like manner, if we wish for the log. 3107, 58, we must make ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY. Ixxxv z 7, 58, whence the quantity to be added to the logarithm of 3100 is 10606. Hence log. 310768 = 5,4924223. The preceding methods may be usefully employed to abridge the labour of calculating tables of logarithms, tables of sines, chords, &c. Another use which we shall now consider, is that of inserting the inter- mediate terms in a given series, of which two distant terms are given. This is called INTERPOLATION. It is completely resolved by the equation (C). When it happens that A 2 = 0, or is very small, the series reduces to z yA "h whence we learn that the results have a difference which increases propor- tionally to z. When A 2 is constant, which happens more frequently, by changing z into z + 1 in (C), and subtracting, we have the general value of the first difference of the new interpolated series ; viz. First difference A' = ^ + 2 Z ~ ] ' . + 1 A. li 2 h * 2 Second difference A" == ^. If we wish to insert u terms between those of a given series, we must make h = n + 1 ; then making z = 0, we get the initial term *of the differences A. 2 A'' = (n+ I) 8 A . we calculate first A", then A' ; the initial term A' will serve to compose the series of first differences of the interpolated series, (A" is the constant difference of it) ; and then finally the other terms are obtained by simple additions. If we wish in the preceding example to find the log. of 3101, /3 INTRODUCTION. 3102, 3103 ... we shall interpolate 9 numbers between those which are given : whence u = 9 A" = 0,45 A' = 1400,725. We first form the arithmetical progression whose first term is A', and 0,45 for the constant. The first differences are 1400,725; 1400,725; 1399,375; 1398,925, &c. Successive additions, beginning with log. 3100, will give the consecutive logarithms required. Suppose we have observed a physical phenomenon every twelve hours, and that the results ascertained by such observations have been For hours ... 78 12 ... 300 A = A 2 = 144 24 ... 666 36 ... 1176 510 H4. &c. If we are desirous of knowing the state corresponding to 4 h , 8 h , 12 h , &c., we must interpolate two terms ; whence u = /, A" = 16, A' = 58 composing the arithmetic progression whose first term is 58, and common difference 16, we shall have the first differences of the new series, and then what follow First differences 58, 74, 90, 106, 122, 138 ... Series 78, 136, 210, 300, 406, 528, 646 . . . A O h , 4 h , 8 h , 16" 20 h , 24 h . The supposition of the second differences being constant, applies almost to all cases, because we may choose intervals of time which shall favour such an hypothesis. This, method is of great use in astronomy; arid even when observation or calculation gives results whose second differ- ences are irregular, we impute the defect to errors which we correct by establishing a greater degree of regularity. Astronomical, and geodesical tables are formed on these principles. We calculate directly different terms, which we take so near that their first or second differences may be constant; then we interpolate to obtain the intermediate numbers. Thus, when a converging series gives the value of y by aid of that of a variable x ; instead of calculating y for each known value of x, when the formula is of frequent use, we determine the results y for the continually ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY. increasing values of x, in such a manner that y shall always be nearly of the same value : we then write in the form of a table every value by the side of that of x, which we call the argument of this table. For the numbers x which are intermediate to them, y is given by simple proposi- tions, and by inspection alone we then find the results lequired. When the series has two variables, or arguments x and z, the values of y are disposed in a table by a sort of double entry ; taking for coordi- nates x and z, the result is thus obtained. For example, having made z =r 1, we range upon the first line all the values of y corresponding to x = 1, V, 3 .. .; we then put upon the second line which z = z gives ; in a third line those which z = 3 gives, and so on. To obtain the result which corresponds to x = 3, z = 5 we stop at the case which, in the third column, occupies the fifth place. The intermediate values are found analogously to what has been already shown. So far we have supposed x to increase continually by the same differ- ence. If this is not the case and we know the results y = a, b, c, d . . . which are due to any suppositions x = a, ft 7, a ... we may either use the theory which makes a parabolic curve pass through a series of given points, or we may adopt the following: By means of the known corresponding values a, a; b |S; &c. we form the consecutive functions A = b ~" /3 a A = c ~ b A - d ~ c *~ o y &C. \ j X\ j - 1 \. B,= A, A b~ ,3 A, A &c. bcxxviii INTRODUCTION. /-i __ D _ C '~ C v a and so on. By elimination we easily get b = a + A (0 a) c = a -f A (7 ) + B (7 ) (7 /3) d = a + A (3 a) + B(3 a) (d /S) + C (3 a) (5 /3) (5 &c. and generally y x = a -f A(x~a) + B(x a)(x /S) + C (x a) (x /3) (x We must seek therefore the first differences amongst the results a, b, c . . . and divide by the differences of a, /3, 7 ... which will give ./\j A i) A-2) CvC. proceeding in the same manner with these numbers, we get B, Bj, 62, &c. which in like manner give Cr* r 1 AT,* , V/}, V/^, oLC. and, finally substituting, we get the general term required. By actually multiplying, the expression assumes the form of every rational and integer polynomial, which is the same as when we neglect the superior differences. The chord of 60 = rad. = 1000 62. 20' =1035 65. 10' = A=15 A, = 14,82 A 2 = 14,61 B -0,035 B! = 0,031 69. 0' =1133 We have = 0, /3 = 2i, 7 = Sff, a = 9. We may neglect the third differences and put y x = 100 + 15,082 x 0,035 x 2 . Considering every function of x, y x , as being the general term of the series which gives x = m, m + h, m + 2 h, &c. ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY. Ixxxix if we take the differences of these results, to obtain a new series, the general term will be what is called the first difference of the proposed function y x which is represented by A y x . Thus we obtain this difference by changing x into x + h in y x and taking y x from the result ; the re- mainder will give the series of first differences by making x = m, m + h, m -f- 2 h, &c. Thus if a + x (x + J x " a + x+ h a + x* It will remain to reduce this expression, or to develope it according to the increasing powers of h. Taylor's theorem gives generally (vol. I.) d y d 2 y h 8 A y * = d x + cfx 1 T2 + To obtain the second difference we must operate upon A y x as upon (he proposed y x , and so on for the third, fourth, &c. differences. INTEGRATION OF FINITE DIFFERENCES. Integration here means the method of finding the quantity whose dif- ference is the proposed quantity ; that is to say the general term y x of a from knowing that of the series of a difference of any known order. This operation is indicated by the symbol 2. For example 2 (3 x 2 + x 2) ought to indicate that here h = 1. A function y x generates a series by making x = 0, 1, 2, 3 ... the first differences which here ensue, form another series of which 3 x 2 + x 2 is the general term, and it is 2, 2, 12, 28 ... By integrating we here propose to find y x such, that putting x + 1 for x, and subtracting, the remainder shall be 3 x * + x 2. xc INTRODUCTION. It is easy to perceive that, first the symbols 2 and A destroy one another as do f and d; thus 2 A f x = f x. Secondly, that A (a y) = a A y gives 2 a y = a 2 y. Thirdly, that as A (A I Bu) = AAt BA U so is 2 (A t B u) = A 2 t B 2 u, t and u being the functions of x. The problem of determining y x by its first difference does not contain data sufficient completely to resolve it; for in order to recompose the series derived from y* in beginning with 2, 2, 12, 28, &c. ive must make the first term y<> = and by successive additions, we shall find . a, a 2, a + 2, a + 12, &c. in which a remains arbitrary. Kvery integral may be considered as comprised in the equation (A) p. 83 ; for by taking x = 0, 1, 2, 3 ... in the first difference given in 'terms of x, we shall form the series of first differences ; subtracting these successively, we shall have the second dif- ferences ; then in like manner, we shall get the third and fourth differ- ences. The initial term of these series will be Ay , A*y ... and these values substituted in y x will give y x . Thus, in the example above, which is only that of page (81) when a = 1, we have Ay = 2, Ay = 4, A 3 y = 6, A * y = 0, &c. ; which give y x = jo 2 x x 2 + x ' Generally, the first term y of the equation (A) is an arbitrary constant, which is to be added to the integral. If the given function is a second difference, we must by a first integration reascend to the first difference and thence by another step to y x ; thus we shall have two arbitrary con- stants ; and in fact, the equation (A) still gives y x by finding A s , A 3 , the ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY. xci only difference in the matter being that y and A y are arbitrary. And so on for the superior orders. Let us .now find 2 x m , the exponent m being integer and positive. Represent this developement by 2x m = px-fqx b + rx c + &c. a, b, c, &C. being decreasing exponents, which as well as the coefficients p, q, &c. must be determined. Take the first difference, by suppressing 5 in the first member, then changing x into x + h in the second member and subtracting. Limiting ourselves to the two first terms, we get x m = pahx 3 - 1 + pa(a I)h 2 x a ~ 2 + ...qbhx b - 1 +... But in order that the identity may be established the exponents ought to give a 1 = m a 2 = b 1 whence a = m + 1, b = m. Moreover the coefficients give 1 = p a h, p a (a 1 ) h = q b ; whence 1 = (in + 1) h ' q = As to the other terms, it is evident, that the exponents are all integer and positive ; and we may easily perceive that they fail in the alternate terms. Make therefore 2X m = px ra + 1 x m + ax" 1 " 1 + /3x m - 3 -f yx m ~ 5 + . .. and determine , $, y ... &c. Take, as before, the first difference by putting x + h for x, and sub- tracting : and first transferring p x m+i i xM> we find that the first member, by reason of ph (m + 1) = 1, reduces to '2^ 4 ' 2.5 6 ' 2.7 To abridge the operation, we omit here the alternate terms of the deve- lopement; and we designate by 1, m, A', A", &c. the coefficients of the binomial. Making the same calculations upon ax 1 "- 1 + /3x ra - 3 + &r. xcii INTRODUCTION. we shall have, with the same respective powers of x and of h, n 2 m 3 ' m 2 m 4 M - - 9 o ~ j + (m _3)/3+(m,-3).HL^...E^ /3 _ { _... *w O + (m 4) 7 +.. Comparing them term by term, we easily derive m A" ~ 2.3.4.5' A"" 7 ~ 6.6.7 &c. whence finally we get m v 2x m = r h -- g- + mahx" 1 - 1 + + A'^'ch^^-s+A 71 dh 7 x m - 7 +...(D) This developement has for its coefficients those of the binomial, taken from two to two, multiplied by certain numerical factors a, b, c . . ., which are called the numbers of Bernoulli, because James Bernoulli first deter- mined them. These factors are of great and frequent use in the theory of series ; we shall give an easy method of finding them presently. These are their values 1 b-- 120 ^ = 252 d = ~~240 1 = I32 f _ 691 1 12 32780 1 8160 . _ 43867 ~ 14364 &c. ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY. xciii which it will be worth the trouble fully to commit to memory. From the above we conclude that to obtain 2 x m , m being any number, integer and positive, we must besides the two first terms (m -f 1) h 2 also take the developement of (x + h) reject the odd terms, the first, third, fifth, &c. and multiply the retained terms respectively by a, b, c . . . Now x and h have even exponents only tvhen m is odd and reciprocally ; so that we must reject the last term h m when it falls in a useless situation ; the number of terms is | m -f- 2 when m is even, and it is (m + 3) when m is odd ; that is to say, it is the same for two consecutive values of m. Required the integral ofx 10 . Besides - i- x 19 11 h we must develope (x + h) W 9 retaining the second, fourth, sixth, &c. terms and we shall have 10x 9 ah + 120x 7 bh 3 + 252x s ch 5 + &c. Therefore x u 5 5 9 In the same manner we obtain x *- - _xj* j_ \L? 3 ~~ 5 h 4 + 3 xciv INTRODUCTION. x 9 x 8 2hx 7 7h 3 x 5 , 2h 5 x 3 h^x f v ' -L. -4- " ifh 2 3 15 9 30 x 10 xj 3 h x ' __ 7 h 3 x G h s x 4 _ 3 h 7 x " X ~ W""W ' 4 10 2 20 x u 2 x 10 = YV-: &c. as before, 11 h &c. We shall now give an easy method of determining the Number of Bernoulli a, b, c . . . In the equation (D) make x= h = 1; 2 x m is the general term of the series whose first difference is x m . We shall here consider 2. x = 1, and the corresponding series which is that of the natural numbers 0, 1, 2, 3 ... Take zero for the first member and transpose m -f- 1~~* which equals 2 (m + 1) "I m Then we get -p. = a m + b A" -f c A lv + d A vl + . . . + k m. * (m + ' ) By making m = 2, the second member is reduced to am, which gives Jl Making m = 4, we get 1 := 4 a + b A" m 1 in 2 , 2 = 4 a + 4 b = i + 4 b. Whence 120* Again, making m = 6, we get ^ = 6 a + b h" + c A 1 * = 6a+ 20 b +6c ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY. xcv which gives 252' and proceeding thus by making m = 2, 4, 6, 8, &c. we obtain at each step a new equation which has one term more than the preceding one, which last terms, viz. 2 a, 4 b, 6 c, . . . m k will hence successively be found, and consequently, a, b, c . . . k. Take the difference of the product y x = (x h)x(x + h)(x + 2h)...(x+ih), by x + h for x and subtracting ; it gives A y x = x (x + h) (x + 2 h) . . . (x + i h) X (i + 2) h; dividing by the last constant factor, integrating, and substituting for y, its value, we get 2 x (x + h) (x + 2 h) . . . (x + i h) ^(TT^yh Xx -( x + h Hx + 2h)...(x + ih) This equation gives the integral of a product of factors in arithmetic progression. Taking the difference of the second member, we verify the equation __ _ 1 _ _ _ j _ x (x + h) (x + 2 h) . . .(x + i h) ~ i h x (x + h) . . . {x + (i 1) h} which gives the integral of any inverse product Required the integral of a*. Let ,. - ., X j x _ a . Then Ay x = a *(a h 1) whence y x = 2 consequently a x a h 1 = a x ; a * 2 a x =r r + constant. a h 1 Required the integrals of sin. x, cos. x. Since cos. B cos- A = 2 sin. (A + B). sin. | (A B) A cos. x, = cos. (x + h) cos. x , t hx . h = 2 sin. (x + sr 1 sin. -g \ <* / A xcvi INTRODUCTION. Integrating and changing x + - into z, we have 2 sin. z = cos + constant. y " "2 In the same way we find f \ sm. (z -) 2 cos. z = - r -- \- constant. 2 sin.- When we wish to integrate the powers of sines and cosines, we trans- form them into sines and cosines of multiple arcs, and we get terms of the form A sin. q x, A cos. q x* Making q x = x the integration is performed as above. Required the integral of a product, viz. Assume 2(uz) = u2z + t u, z and t being all functions of x, t being the only unknown one. By changing x into x + h in u 2 z + t u becomes u + A U 5 z becomes z + A z, &c. and we have u2z+UZ + Au2(z + Az) + t+At; substituting from this the second member u 2 z + t, we obtain the difference, or u z ; whence results the equation = A u 2 (z + A z) + A t which gives t = 2 A u 2 (Z + A z)}. Therefore 2 (U Z) = U 2 Z 2 JA u . 2 (z + A z)} which is analogous to integrating by parts in differential funcvons. There are but few functions of which we can find the finite integral ; when we cannot integrate them exactly, we must have recourse to series, Taylor's theorem gives us dy, , d 2 y h* , A y x = T - h + i 2 ir + &c - JX dx ' dx 2 2 ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY. y" by supposition. Hence y x = h 2 y' + -^ 2 y" + &c. Considering y 7 as a given function of x, viz. z, we have y' = z y" = z' y'" = z" &c. and y x =/y d x =/zdx whence h 2 /z d x = h 2 z + 2 z' + &c. which gives 2 z = h~ l /z d x ~ 2 z' h 3 2 z" 8cc. A This equation gives 2 z, when we know z', 5 z'', &c. Take the dif- ferentials of the two numbers. That of the first 2 z will give, when di- vided by d x, 2 z'. Hence we get 2 z", then 2 z'", &c. ; and even without making the calculations, it is easy to see, that the result of the substitution of these values, will be of the form 2 z = h-'/z d x + A z + B h z' + C h 2 z" + &c. It remains to determine the factors A, B, C, &c. But if z = x m we get /z d x, z', z", &c. and substituting, we obtain a series which should be identical with the equation (D), and consequently defective of the powers m 2 t m 4, so that we shall have /^zdx z ahz' bh 3 z'" ch s z'"" dhV""" ,, ~h~ 2" 1 ~T~ TT ~2^4~ 2.. .6 a, b, c, &c. being the numbers of Bernoulli. For example, if z = 1 x yix.dx = x 1 x x z' = x- 1 z" = &c. xcviii INTRODUCTION consequently 2 1 x = C-fxlx x lx + ax- 1 + b x- 3 + ex-/ -f &c. The series a, b, c . . . k, 1, having for first differences a', b', c' . . . k' we have b = a + a' c = b + b d = c + c' &c. 1 = k + k' equations whose sum is 1 = a -f a' + b' + c! + . . . k'. If the numbers a', b', c', &'c. are known, we may consider them as being the first differences of another series a, b, c, &c. since it is easy to com- pose the latter by means of the first, and the first term a. By definition we know that any term whatever 1', taken in the given series a', b'', c', &c. is nothing else tjmn A 1, for 1' = m 1 ; integrating 1' = Al we have 21' - 1 or 2 1' = a' + b 7 + c' . . . + k', supposing the initial a is comprised in the constant due to the integra- tion. Consequently The integral of any term whatever of a series, we obtain the sum of all the terms that precede it, and have 2 yx = y + yi + 72 + y x - 1- In order to get the sum of a series, we must add y x to the integral ; or which is the same, in it must change x into x + 1 before we integrate. The arbitrary constant is determined by finding the value of the sum y when x = 1. We know therefore how to Jind the summing term of every series whose general term is known in a rational and integer function of*. Let y x = Ax m Bx n +C m :and n being positive and integer, and we have A 2x m B 2x + C 2x ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY. xcix for the sum of the terms as far as y x exclusively. This integral being once found by equation D, we shall change x into x + 1, and determine the constant agreeably. For example, let y,-== x(2x 1); changing x into 2+1, and integrating the result, we shall find 3 _1_ Q ? L T _ 4 X 3 + 3 X* X 2.3 x + 1 4x 1 X '~2~ ~3~ there being no constant, because when x = 0, the sum = 0. The series 1m O m Q m , G f 9 . . of the m th powers of the natural numbers is found by taking 2 x m (equn- tion D) ; but we must add afterwards the x th term which is x m ; that is to say, it is sufficient to change x m , the second term of the equation (D), into |- x m ; it then remains to determine the constant from the term we commence from. For example, to find we find 2 x 8 , changing the sign of the second term, and we have x x 2 x x + 1 2x + l S -"3 + ~2 + ~6- X '~3~~ 'T~' the constant is 0, because the sum is when x = 0. But if we wish to find the sum S' = (n + 1) 2 + (n + 2) 2 + . . . x J S' = 0, whence x = n 1, and the constant is n^ J 2n 1 """" n " 2 * 3 ' which of course must be added to the former ; thus giving S'= (n + 1)'+ (n + 2)'+...x 2 x + 1 2 x + 1 n 1 2 n 1 O O O O O *w AW O = I X {x.(x+l). (2x + 1) n.(n l)(2n 1) = lx 2(x 3 n 3 ) + 3(x 2 + n') + x n}. This theory applies to the summation ofjigttrate numbers, of the dif- ferent orders : * c ; INTRODUCTION. First order, 1.1.1.1.1. 1 . 1 , &c. Second order, 1.2.3.4.5. 6 . 7 , &c. Third order, 1.3. 6 .10.15. 21 . 28 , &c. Fourth order, 1 . 4 . 10 . 20 . 35 . 56 . 84 , &c. Fifth order, 1 . 5 . 15 . 35 . 70 . 126 . 210, &c. and so on. The law which every term follows being the sum of the one immediate y over it added to the preceding one. The general terms are First, 1 Second, x ^ru:,.^ x. (x + 1) J. 1111 11, v (* -i- Fniirfli ^ 1) (x + 2) + P 2 &C. n t* X.(X + l)(x+2)...x 1.2.8...P 1 To sum the Pyramidal numbers, we nave S = 1 + 4 + 10 + 20 + &c. Now the general or x th term in this is y x = -1 . x (x + 1) (x + 2). But we find for the (x 1)> term of numbers of the next order (x l)x(x + l)(x + 2); finally changing x into x + 1, we have for the required form S = Jj-x.(x + l)(x + 2)(x +3). Since S = 1, when x = 1, we have 1 = 1 + constant, consequently .. constant = 0. Hence it appears that the sum of x terms of the fourth order, is the x th term or general term of the fifth order, and vice versa ; and in like manner, it may be shown that the x th term of the (n -f- l) th order is the sum of x terms of the n th order. Inverse Jigurate numbers are fractions which have 1 for the numerator, and a figurate series for the denominator. Hence the x th term of the p th order is 1.2.3...(p Jj_ x(x + l)...x + p 2 ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY. oi and the integral of this is c 1.2.S...(p 1) Changing x into x + 1, then determining the constant by makin x = 0, which gives the sum = 0, we shall have -p_2' and the sum of the x first terms of this general series is P 1 1.2.3...'(p-l) p 2 (p 2) (x + 1) (x + 2) . . . (x + p 2)' In this formula make p = 3, 4, 5 ... and we shall get l+'L+l ij. ! - 2 .2 2 1 " 3 " 6 " h 10 "* *x(x+l) 1 x+1 1. , V- 1 . 1 1.2.3 3 3 i ' A i 4 r 10 T 20 T "x(x + l)(x + 2) ~ 2 (x+l)(x+ 1 1 1 J 1.2.3.4 4 2.4 TiT + + TFT + o?, 5 T 10 T 35 T " x (x+ 1) (x+2) (x + 3) ~~ 3 1.1.1 _!_ 1.2.3.4.5 5 2.3.5 ~~ K.R i * 1 "" 6 ^ 21" 1 " 56" 1 "x(x+l)...(x + 4) ~ 4 (x+1) . . . (x + 4) and so on. To obtain the whole sum of these series continued to infinity, we must make X = 00 which gives for the sum required the general value p 2 which in the above particular cases, becomes 245 l'~2' 3'4' &C * To sum the series sin. a + sin. (a + h) + sin. (a + 2 h) + . . . sin. (a + x 1 h) we have / h\ cos. ( a + h x p j 2 sin. (a + x h) = C r 2sin.- cfoanging x into x + 1, and determining Cby the condition that x = ) makes the sum = zero, we find for the summing-term. cos. (a ^ cos. (a + h x + 2 2 sin.i cii INTRODUCTION, or sin. / h x. h (x + 1) iin. f a + TT x ) sln< ^ * *6 J ~ F sin. -r- In a similar manner, if we wish to sum the series cos. a + cos. (a -f- h) -f- cos. (a -f 2 h) + . . . cos. (a + x 1 we easily find the summing-term to be sin. (a -} sin. (a 4- h x + ^ ) 2sin. T or .A^-;X X +D h A COMMENTARY ON N E W T O N'S P R I N C I P I A. SUPPLEMENT TO SECTION XL 460 PROP. LVII, depends upon Cor. 4 to the Laws of Motion, which is If any number of bodies mutually attract each other,, their center of gra- vity will either remain at rest or will move uniformly in a straight line. . First let us prove this for two bodies. Let them be referred to a fixed point by the rectangular coordinates ^ x, y ; x', y', and let their masses be (ly III. Also let their distance be f, and f (g) denote the law according to which they attract each other. Then will be their respective actions, and resolving these parallel to the axes of abscissas and ordinates, we have (46) d 2 x dj d VOL. II. A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XI. d'x' t Hence multiplying equations (1) by /. and those marked (2) by /' and adding, &c. we get A*d*x + /d'x' dt ! and dt 2 and integrating d x , d x' = 0, _ Now if the coordinates of the center of gravity be denoted by x, y, we have by Statics _ /* x + fj x / + I*' y = , pt- d x _ 1 ( d x , , d x' and di ~>4V v" dt dt; - ^rV* But d_x d y dt' dt represent the velocity of the center of gravity resolved parallel to the axes of coordinates, and these resolved parts have been shown to be constant Hence it easily appears by composition of motion, that the actual velocity of the center of gravity is uniform, and also that it moves in a straight line, viz. in that produced which is the diagonal of the rectangular par- allelogram whose two sides are d x, d y. If c = 0, c' = then the center of gravity remains quiescent BOOK l.J NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 3 461 The general proposition is similarly demonstrated, thus. Let the bodies whose masses //' n'f i,'l f &rr- ft, [A 9 fi, , &C. be referred to three rectangular axes, issuing from a fixed point by the coordinates *', y, z' x", y", 2." x"', y'", z'" &c. Also let f !, 2 be the distance of /*', p" 1,3 ........ ft> .// /// } ft &C. &C, and suppose the law of attraction to be denoted by f - (&,) f (fl,3)> f (fe.s) &C. Now resolving the attractions or forces &c. parallel to the axes, and collecting the parts we get 1, 2 PI, 3 d 2 x " = x / x // x // . d t 2 *" 2 Si 2 i d Z x /// / -./// x // _ &C. ?1, 3 3 &C. = &C. Hence multiplying the first of the above equations by [if, the second by ", and so on, and adding, we get A* / d g x / + ft"d* x" + ^t /// d 8 x /// + &c. _ ~dT^~ Again, since it is a matter of perfect indifference whether we collect the forces parallel to the other axes or this ; or since all the circumstances are similar with regard to these independent axes, the results arising from similar operations must be similar, and we therefore have also (if d 2 z' + ft" d 2 z" + u!" d 2 T!" + &c. _ dt 2 A2 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XI. Hence by integration d x' d x" d x"' . II A ., V.I A. ... 11 A d v' d '^r + ""iiT-dt l / l ~" I" n II t &c ' = c ' , y, z denoting the coordinates of the we have * ZTt -dT -d But x, y, z denoting the coordinates of the center of gravity, by statics - _t*'x? + I*" x" + yJ" x'" + &c. tf + 0," + n'" + & c . _ ijfy' + y." y" + ^"y"' + &c. ^ + tfi + yj" + & c . _ fify! + fi/'yf' + (*'"%'" + &c. ^ + X' + ^" + &c. and hence by taking the differentials, &c. we get dx c d t - nf + p a y " + f + &C. d t I*' + fj. // 1 It/ ft tf + &C. _ d t "/*'+**" + a" 7 + &c. that is, the velocity of the center of gravity resolved parallel to any three rectangular axes is constant. Hence by composition of motion the actual velocity of the center of gravity is constant and uniform, and it easily ap- pears also that its path is a straight line, scil. the diagonal of the rectan- gular parallelepiped whose sides are d x, d y, d z. 462. We will now give another demonstration of Prop. LXI. or that Of two bodies the motion of each about the center of gravity, is the same as if that center 'was the center of force, and the law of force the same as that of their mutual attractions. Supposing the coordinates of the two bodies referred to the center of gravity to be x /j y/ x // y// we have Hence since X = y = X + > y + : ;;} x' y' = y dx dl' dy dt BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. are constant as it has been shown, and therefore d 2 X d = 0, -rr = dt 2 ' dt 2 we have d'x dt 2 _ dt 2 ' But by the property of the center of gravity ft being the distance of (if from the center of gravity. We also have x x x Hence by substitution the equations become ill//- a dt 2 * Similarly we should find d z x y _ /f /^ + ^,\x/ dT 2 ~ ^ H ^' V 8 and <*'y,_. /^ + g' "" Hence if the force represented by were placed in the center of gravity, it would cause /// to move about it as a fixed point; and if were there residing, it would cause / to centripetate in h'ke manner. Moreover if A 3 6 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XI then these forces vary as 3', 3; so that the law of force &c. &c. ANOTHER PROOF OF PROP. LX1I. 463. Let /*, (i! denote the two bodies. Then since ^ has no motion round G (G being the center of gravity), it will descend in a straight line to G. In like manner y! will fall to G in a straight line. Also since the accelerating forces on n, p are inversely as /*, /' or directly as G /w, G p, the velocities will follow the same law and corre- sponding portions of G ^, G p! will be described in the same times ; that is, the whole will be described in the same time. Moreover after they meet at G, the bodies will go on together with the same constant velocity with which G moved before they met. Since here f w = p- u will move towards G as if a force or <*" 2* Hence by the usual methods it will be found that if a be the distance at which /* begins to fall, the time to G is ((* + /*') a 2 9 and if a 7 be the original distance of/*', the time is /* '2V2' But a : a' : : //,' : /* therefore these times are equal, which has just been otherwise shown. BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 7 ANOTHER PROOF OF PROP. LXIH. 464. We know from (461) that the center of gravity moves uniformly in a straight line; and that (Prop. LVII,) p and (i! will describe about G similar figures, /. moving as though actuated by the force 0* + /')'** and Q as if by ,<^ \ GST-tV) 8 '*"' Hence the curves described will be similar ellipses, with the center of force G in the focus. Also if we knew the original velocities of p and pf about G, the ellipse would easily be determined. The velocities of p and (*/ at any time are composed of two velocities, viz. the progressive one of the center of gravity and that of each round G. Hence having given the "whole original velocities required to find the separate parts of them, is a problem which we will now resolve. Let V, V be the original velocities of ^, /*.' , and suppose their directions to make with the straight line /- p' the angles a, of. Also let the velocity of the center of gravity be v and the direction of its motion to make with p {i! the angle . Moreover let v,V be the velocities of p, fjf around G and the common inclination of their directions to be 6. Now V resolved parallel to & y! is V cos. . But since it is composed of v and of v it will also be v cos. -f- v cos. & .'. V cos. a = v cos. a -f- v cos. 0. In like manner we get V sin. a = v sin. a -f v sin. 6. At 8 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XI. and also V cos. a! = v cos. a v' cos, 6 V sin. a! = v sin. a v' sin. 0. Hence multiplying by p, p', adding and putting fJt, V = fJ/ v' we get /j, V cos. a and /A V sin. a + ft,' V sin. a' = (p -f ^/) Squaring these and adding them, we get ^'V 2 + X 8 V' + 2/i/ VV'cos. (a a') = \ / which gives v COS. a + fj,' V' COS. a' = (fjt, -\- /*') v COS. a -\ sin. a + /A' V' sin. a' = (^ -j- ///) v sin. a J / + X By division we also have ^ V sin. a + fjf V sin. a' tan. a = ?T - ; rrf/ - / /* V cos. a -f- ^ V cos. a Again, from the first four equations by subtraction we also have V cos. a V cos. a' = (v + v') cos. 6 = v . r cos. ^ (b -f" /U>' V sin. a V' sin. a' = (v + v') sin. 6 =r v . ^ sin. 6 ^ and adding the squares of these V + V /a 2 VV'cos. (a aO= v whence V' 2 SVV'cos. (a ') V /2 SVV'cos. a a' A* + ^ and by division V sin. a V' sin. ' tan. 6 VT - --ff} - / V cos. a V cos. a! Whence are known the velocity and direction of projection of /* about G and (by Sect. III. or Com.) the conic section can therefore be found ; and combining the motion in this orbit with that of the center of gravity, which is given above, we have also that of/*. 465. Hence since the orbit of /* round /n/ is similar to the orbit of round G, if A be the semi-axis of the ellipse which /A describes round BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 9 G, and a that of the ellipse which it describes relatively to /*' which is also in motion; we shall have A : a : : &' : & + ^'. 466. Hence also since an ellipse whose serai-axis is A, is described by the force (A* + i*')* x a 2 we shall have (309) the periodic time, viz. T~ .TV V A If 1 : ri = 2 it ~ V (i* + iff) ' 467. Hence we easily get Prop. LIX. For if i* were to revolve round /*' at rest, its semi-axis would be a, and periodic time T , _ _ V n r .-. T : T' :: V tf : V(i*+n'). 468. PROP. LX is also hence deducible. For if p revolve round A/ a* rest, in an ellipse whose semi-axis is a', we have and equating this with T in order to give it the same time about ft' at rest as about /*' in motion, we have 7 1 f V p' ~ V (A* + pf) ' .-. a : a' : : (A& + &') * : n' $ . ANOTHER PROOF OF PROP. LXIV. 469. Required the motions of the bodies whose masses are & v', /", A*'", &c. and which mutually attract each other with forces varying directly as the distance. Let the distance of any two of them as /^, /,', be g ; then the force of ', &c. Then it is evident that x, y, z; x', y', z' &c. BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 13 will be the coordinates of M, ft', &c. referred to M. Call ft f, &c. the distances of ^, /a-', &c. from M; then we have j = V(x 2 + y 2 + z 2 ) ' = V (x' 2 + y' 2 -f- z' 2 ) ft ^, &c. being the diagonals of rectangular parallelepipeds, whose sides are x, y, z x', y', z' &c. Now the actions of /*, /', /A", &c. upon M are and these resolved parallel to the axis of x, are ft x /*' x' /*" x v TF > -TT > "7/T" &c - 5 5 Therefore to determine , we have s 3 the symbol 2 denoting the sum of such expressions. In like manner to determine n, y we have dt dt 2 ' * g 3 ' The action of M upon ft, resolved parallel to the axis of x, and in the contrary direction, is MX " 3 ' Also the actions of ft', ft", &c. upon ft resolved parallel to the axis of x are, in like manner, ft' (x' x) ft" (x" x) ft,'" (x'" x) 73 J 7s J 3 > <* C> 0,1 0,2 0,3 fn.ra generally denoting the distance between ft'" n and ft'" m But fo>2 = V (x"-x)* + (y'-y) 2 + (z" ) &c. = &c. H A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XI. Sl>z =V (x" x') * + (y" - y') * + (2" z') and so on. Hence if we assume ' " &c. flu 0,2 ft, 8 ft,S &C. and taking the Partial Difference upon the supposition that x is the only variable, we have ^ x'-x ."(x"-x) ' the parenthesis ( ) denoting the Partial Difference. Hence the sum of all the actions of (*', /*", &c. on /* is tf5/' Hence then the whole action upon p parallel to x is d. 2 ( + x) _ 1 /d X% MX d t 2 = V VcTx/ "T 3 " But dt 2 g 3 d2x J_ f d x > _Mj?_-s^L? m *'dT 2 " A* VdxJ e 3 e 3 ( j Similarly, we have dt 2 ' p, d^z _ J_ /d^-x _M^_ V ^z , 3] d t 2 " " /t* >d z/ ^ 3 " g 3 If we change successively in the equations (]), (2), (3) the quantities /A, x, y, z into (* t x > y 5 z (*)*) y ) A > &c. and reciprocally ; we shall have all the equations of motion of the bodies (U/, p", &c. round M. BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIP1A. 15 If we multiply the equations involving by M + 2. ^ ; that in x, by . : that in x', by /<*', and so on ; and add them together, we shall have But since /dXx _ H6 /// (x 7 x) \dx/ 3 and so on in pairs, it will easily appear that d 2 ( M + s -")-d whence by integrating we get and again integrating a arid b being arbitrary constants. Similarly, it is found that These three equations, therefore, give the absolute motion of M in space, when the relative motions around it of p, pf, ft", &c. are known. Again, if we multiply the equations in x and y by and 2. /(A X in like manner the equations in x x and y' by ' 16 A COMMENTARY ON [Sacr. XL and r* * ji* <= * ; M + 2 . j* ' and so on. And if we add all these results together, observing that from the nature of X, (which is easily shown) and that (as we already know) -9 x d g y y d* x 2. At x d 2 y "37*"" = M + 2^' 2 ^'dT 2 2. Aty ' d g x * ; ' |tt * "M + and integrating, since /(xd 2 y yd 2 x) =/xd 2 y /yd 2 x = x d y /d x d y (y d x /d x d y) = xdy ydx, we have xdy ydx 2./t*x dy 2 P - j + - = const - + - - dt v M + s.p" 'dt Hence , , , xdy ydx xdy ydx, dx c = M.2./t*. J J ^-2.^X2^. J , J H3.PjX2.P-f- Q t Q I Cl t dv c being an arbitrary constant. In the same mannei ;. e arrive at these two integrals, c"=M. ,.^. c' and c" being two other arbitrary constants. BOOK, I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 17 Again, if we multiply the equation in x by 2/ i dx-2/,^^ d - X - ; M + 2. ^ the equation in y by the equation in z by 2 . /a, d Z 2 At d z 2/4. M + 2. ^ if in like manner we multiply the equations in x', y 7 , z' by 2 "' dx '- 2 *'-irTO ~+~ 2 . ~P ' M + 2./^' respectively, and so on tor the rest ; and add the several results, observ- ing that we get dxd g x + dd g + dzd z z 22. dt 2 M + 2^" ' dt 2 2./^dy ^d 2 y 22. ^ d z >d g z h M + 2^* dt 2 h M + 2 ^ ' dt 2 2M. S.^Al + 2dX; and integrating, we have dx 2 + dy 2 +dz . (2. / adx) 2 + ( 2 " + 2 M 2 + 2 X, f which gives h-M ^ ^ dt 2 ' '!\ dt 2 / J2M 2. + 2>.j (M + 2^) .......... (7) h being an arbitrary constant. VOL. II. 18 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XI. These integrals being the only ones attainable by the present state of analysis, we are obliged to have recourse to Methods of Approximation, and for this object to take advantage of the facilities afforded us by the constitution of the system of the World. One of the principal of these is due to the fact, that the Solar System is composed of Partial Systems, formed by the Planets and their Satellites : which systems are such, that the distances of the Satellites from their Planet, are small in comparison with the distance of the Planet from the Sun : whence it results, that the action of the Sun being nearly the same upon the Planet as upon its Satel- lites, these latter move nearly the same as if they obeyed no other action than that of the Planet. Hence we have this remarkable property, namely, 472. The motion of the Center of Gravity of a Planet and its Satellites, is very nearly the same as if all the bodies formed one in that Center. Let the mutual distances of the bodies /., /*', /*", &c. be very small compared with that of their center of gravity from the body M. Let also x = x + x, ; y = f -f y /; z = z + z,. x' = x~ -f. x/; y' = y + y/; z' = "z" + z/; &c. x, y, z being the coordinates of the center of gravity of the system of bodies p, p', At", &c. ; the origin of these and of the coordinates x, y, z ; x', y 7 , z', &c. being at the center of M. It is evident that x /5 y /5 z, ; x/, y/, z/, &c. are the coordinates of /,, ,u/, &c. relatively to their center of gravity ; we will suppose these, compared with x, y, z, as small quanti- ties of the first order. This being done, we shall have, as we know by Mechanics, the force which sollicits the center of gravity of the system paral- lel to any straight line, by taking the sum of the forces which act upon the bodies parallel to the given straight line, multiplied respectively by their masses, and by dividing this sum by the sum of the masses. We also know (by Mech.) that the mutual action of the bodies upon one another, does not alter the motion of the center of gravity o the system ; nor does their mutual attraction. It is sufficient, therefore, in estimating the forces which animate the center of gravity of a system, merely to regard the action of the body M which forms no part of the system. The action of M upon /A, resolved parallel to the axis of x ie MX S 3 "' BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 19 the whole force which sollicits the center of gravity parallel to this straight line is, therefore, M.I.*? Substituting for x and g their values x = _ J^ + x, {(x + X/ ) 2 + (y + y,jf+- (z + z/ ) }* ' If we neglect small quantities of the second order, scil. the squares and products of x /> y/ z/ J x/, y/, z/ ; &c. and put 7 = V (x~ 2 + y* + z" 2 ) the distance of the center of gravity from M, we have ^ = J + 2*. 3x(x X/ + "y y/ + zz,) e s 3 I 3 s 3 for omitting x ! , y * &c., w have p = (x + x y ) X {(j) 2 + 2 (x x, + y y, + z z,)} 3 nearly = (x+x,) X {(7) ~ 3 3 (7) ~ 5 (x x, + y y, + z"zj nearly x + x, 3 x - - . , = sr 1 = . (x x. + y y, + z z, ) nearly. (f) 3 (f) 5 Again, marking successively the letters x /5 y /5 z /? with one, two, three, &c. dashes or accents, we shall have the values of -" ^cc But from the nature of the center of gravity we shall therefore have M - 2 -7? M" -- 1 = -= nearly. 3 Thus the center of gravity of the system is sollicited parallel to the axis of x, by the action of the body M, very nearly as if all the bodies of the system were collected into one at the center. The same result evi- dently takes place relatively to the axes of y and z ; so that the forces, by B2 20 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XL which the center of gravity of the system is animated parallel to these axes, by the action of M, are respectively 6)' When we consider the relative motion of the center of gravity of the system about M, the direction of the force which sollicits M must be changed. This force resulting from the action of /*, p, &c. upon M, and resolved parallel to x, in the contrary direction from the origin, is if we neglect small quantities of the second order, this function becomes, after what has *been shown, equal to 1* In like manner, the forces by which M is actuated arising from the system, parallel to the axes of y, and of z, in the contrary direction, are It is thus perceptible, that the action of the system upon the body M, is very nearly the same as if all the bodies were collected at their common center of gravity. Transferring to this center, and with a contrary sign, the three preceding forces; this point will be sollicited parallel to the axes of x, y and z, in its relative motion about M, by the three following forces, scil. These forces are the same as if all the bodies #, /', p M 9 &c. were col- lected at their common center of gravity ; "which, center, therefore, moves nearly (to small quantities of the second order} as if all the bodies were col- lected at that center. Hence it follows, that if there are many systems, whose centers of gra- vity are very distant from each other, relatively to the respective distances of the bodies of each system ; these centers will be moved very nearly, as if the bodies of each system were there collected ; for the action of the first system upon each body of the second system, is the same very nearly as if the bodies of the first system were collected at their common center of gravity ; the action of the first system upon the center of gravity of the second, will be therefore, by what has preceded, the same as on this hy- pothesis ; whence we may conclude generally that the reciprocal action of BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 21 different systems upon their respective centers of gravity t is the same as if all the bodies of each system were there collected, and also that these centers move as on that supposition. It is clear that this result subsists equally, whether the bodies of each system be free, or connected together in any way whatever ; for their mu- tual action has no influence upon the motion of their common center of gravity. The system of a planet acts, therefore, upon the other bodies of the Solar system, very nearly the same as if the Planet and its Satellites, were collected at their common center of gravity ; and this center itself is attracted by the different bodies of the Solar system, as it would be on that hypothesis. Having given the equations of motion of a system of bodies submitted to their mutual attraction, it remains to integrate them by successive approximations. In the solar system, the celestial bodies move nearly as if they obeyed only the principal force which actuates them, and the per- turbing forces are inconsiderable ; we may, therefore, in a first approxi- mation consider only the mutual action of two bodies, scil. that of a planet or of a comet and of the sun, in the theory of planets and comets ; and the mutual action of a satellite and of its planet, in the theory of satellites. We shall begin by giving a rigorous determination of the motion of two attracting bodies : this first approximation will conduct us to a second in which we shall include the first powers of small quantities or the perturb- ing forces ; next we shall consider the squares and products of these forces; and continuing the process, we shall determine the motions of the heavenly bodies with all the accuracy that observations will admit of. FIRST APPROXIMATION. 473. We know already that a body attracted towards a fixed point, by a force varying reciprocally as the square of the distance, de- scribes a conic section ; or in the relative motion of the body ,"-, round M, this latter body being considered as fixed, we must transfer in a di- rection contrary to that of p, the action of p upon M ; so that in this re- lative motion, i* is sollicited towards M, by a force equal to the sum ol the masses M, and /* divided by the square of their distance. All this has been ascertained already. But the importance of the subject in the Theory of the system of the world, will be a sufficient excuse for repre- senting it under another form, B3 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XI. First transform the variables x, y, z into others more 'commodious for astronomical purposes. being the distance of the centers of p and M, call (v) the angle which the projection of f upon the plane of x, y makes with the axis of x; and (6) the inclination of g to the same plane; we shall have x = cos. 6 cos. v ; *\ y = f cos. 6 sin. v; > ........ (1) z = g sin. 6. ) Next putting M + g _ /^(xx' + yy'+zzQ X Q -~ T 2 -- -71- -+ we have J' - - 1 /u A\ ~~\TZ)~ I /d_X\ M Atx # ^d x/ t 3 p 3 Similarly Q\ = J-f^_ M _2. P d_Qv 1 /d ^x M_ ftz dz) " fjt,\d z) ~ g 3 ' g 3 * Hence equations (1), (2), (3) of number 471, become d*x /dQ. dy /dQ, d'z _ /d " dt s Now multiplying the first of these equations by cos. 6. cos. v ; the second by cos. 6. sin. v ; the third by sin. 6, we get, by adding them In like manner, multiplying the first of the above equations by f cos .0 X sin. v; the second by ? cos. 6 cos, \ and adding them, &c. we have 1 /^ * dv dip 2 -j cos. b i d t And lastly multiplying the first by f sin. 6. cos. v ; the second by f sin. 6. cos. v and adding them to the third multiplied by cos. 6. we have . d*f-M ^q_/ _ 2. 3 ____ m d~q m ~ ~(q + R)" 1 * 1 ' m + 1 ff) "1 T _ T _ V _____ dq m 2.3...m~ (q { I + e cos. (v *)} m Hence it is easy to conclude that if we make [I + e COS. (V r)} 2 ~~ ^ [I + E<". cos. (v .) + E. cos. 2 (v tr) + &c.J we shall have generally whatever be the number (i) (1 + V 1 e 2 7~ the signs + being used according as i is even or odd ; supposing there- fore that u = a * V m, we have ndt = dv [1 + E^cos. (v ) + Ecos.2 (v w) + &c.? and integrating n t + = v + E (1 > sin. (v *) + J E sin. 2 (v w) + &c. e being an ai'bitrary constant. This expression for n t + s i fi ver y con- vergent when the orbits are of small excentricity, such as are those of the Planets and of the Satellites ; and by the Reversion of Series we can find v in terms of t : we shall proceed to this presently. 474. When the Planet comes again to the same point of its orbit, v is augmented by the circumference 2 v \ naming therefore T the time of the whole revolution, we have (see also 159) n V m This could be obtained immediately from the expression 2 area of Ellipse 2 i: a b "IT" "TT" But by 157 h= ma (1 e 2 ) 2*a^ BOOK L] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 27 If we neglect the masses of the planets relatively to that of the sun we have which will be the same for all the planets ; T is therefore proportional in 5. that hypothesis to a 2 , and consequently the squares of the Periods are as the cubes of the major axes of the orbits. We see also that the same law holds with regard to the motion of the satellites around their planet, provided their masses are also deemed inconsiderable compared with that of the planet. 475. The equations of motion of the two bodies M and i* may also be integrated in this manner. Resuming the equations (1), (2), (3), of 471, and putting M + A*-=m, we have for these two bodies d 2 x m x" dT 2 : + 7^ o-^y + u - dt 2 + = dt z m z 2" "t" nr (0) The integrals of these equations will give in functions of the time t, the three coordinates x, y, z of the body /, referred to the center of M ; we shall then have (471) the coordinates , n, 7 of the body M, referred to a fixed point by means of the equations /* x liT 5 = a + bt H = a' + b' t m m Lastly, we shall have the coordinates of p, referred to the same fixed point, by adding x to , y to n, and z to 7 : We shall also have the rela- tive motion of the bodies M and ,, and their absolute motion in space. 476. To integrate the equations (0) we shall observe that if amongst the (n) variables x (1 >, x (2) x (n ) and the variable t, whose difference is supposed constant, a number n of equations of tbjs following form c (s) d 1 -- 1 '^ = E H . x dt' dt 1 - 1 dt 1 - 2 in which we suppose s successively equal to 1, 2, 3 n ; A, B H oeing functions of the variables x (I) , x (2) , &c. and of t symmetrical 28 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XI. with regard to the variables x (1) , x , &c. that is to say, such that they remain the same, when we change any one of these variables to any other and reciprocally ; suppose x (1) _ a (1) x (n - i + 1) .j. b (1) x (x - i + 2) _|_ h (1 > X (n > , x (2) _ a (2) x (n-i + l) _j_ b (2) x (n-i+2) .J. ft (2) x D> a (1) , b (1) , h (l) ; a (2) , b (8 >, &c. being the arbitraries of which the number is i (n i). It is clear that these values satisfy the proposed system of equations : Moreover these equations are thereby reduced to i equations involving the i variables x ("-' + 1 ) x (n) . Their integrals will introduce i 2 new arbitraries, which together with the i (n i) pre- ceding ones will form i n arbitraries which ought to give the integration of the equations proposed. 477. To apply the above Theorem to equations (0) ; we have z = a x + b y a and b being two arbitrary constants, this equation being that of a plane passing through the origin of coordinates ; also the orbit of & is wholly in one plane. The equations (0) give >; (0' = d n d ( 3 \ + m d x + mdy + m d z ( e > d2 y^ = d 2 = x \ ' d t 2 J (c 3 \ s ' dtO 2 +y 2 + Also since and .. g d = xdx + ydy + zdz and differentiating twice more, we have g d 3 g + 3dgd 2 = xd 3 x + yd 3 y + zd 3 z and consequently dt d 3 x d t 2 i u dx dT d t : d Substituting in the second member of this equation for d 3 x, d 3 y, d : ' z BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 29 their values given by equations ((X), and for d 2 x, d 2 y, d 2 z their values given by equations (0) ; we shall find If we compare this equation with equations (0') 5 we shall have ia virtue of the preceding Theorem, by considering -5- , -^ , -p , 3-* , as so many particular variables x (1) , x , x (3) , x (4) , and g as a function of the time t ; X and 7 being constants ; and integrating h 2 2 being a constant. This equation combined with gives an equation of the second degree in terms of x, y, or in terms of x, z, or of y, z ; whence it follows that the three projections of the curve described by p about M, are lines of the second order, and therefore that the curve itself (lying in one plane) is a line of the second order or a conic section. It is easy to perceive from the nature of conic sections that, the radius-vector being expressed by a linear function of x, y, the origin of x, y ought to be in the focus. But the equation h 2 g = m +Xx + 7y gives by means of equations (0) m Multiplying this by d and integrating we get a' being an arbitrary constant Hence dt - // e* m J ( 2 e -r -- ) V \ a' m / which will give f in terms of t ; and since x, y, z are given above in terms of , we shall have the coordinates of ^ in functions of the times. 478. We can obtain these results by the following method, which has the advantage of giving the arbitrary constants in terms of the coordinates x, y, z and of their first differences ; which will presently be of great use to us. 30 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XI.' Let V = constant, be an integral of the first order of equations (0), V being a function of x, y, z, , - , -j-^ , r - . Call the three last quantities \' } y', z'. Then V = constant will give, by taking the differential, dVx dx /dVx dv ,dVx dz d xV d t " U y ; * d t " Vd z ' - a i d ' 1 * * dz/ f_\ " \d x'/ ' d t d y' ' d t " \d z But equations (0) give d x' m x d y' m y d z' m z dT : ~^ r9 ~d^t "' ~p ' dT = "T 5 " we have therefore the equation of Partial Differences , /d VN , /d V\ , /d V = x (JT) + ^ (a m /dV It is evident that every function of x, y, z, x', y'. z' which, when sub- stituted for V in this equation, satisfies it, becomes, by putting it equal to an arbitrary constant, an integral of the first order of the equations (0). Suppose V = U + U' + U" + &c. U being a function of x, y, z ; U' a function of x, y, z, x', y', z' but of the first order relatively to x', y', z 1 ; U" a function of x, y, z, x x , y 7 , z' and of the second order relatively to x', y', z', and so on. Substitute this value of V in the equation (I) and compare separately 1. the terms without x', y 7 , z' ; 2. those which contain their first powers ; 3. those involving their squares and products, and so on ; and we shall have d U\ /d U\ /d U m f = ^ 1 d U'\ /d U'\ , /d U' x ,/dU\, ,/dU'x^ ,/dU\ m x ( dT ) +y ( err) +z (TF) = dU &c. which four equations call (I 7 ). The integral of the first of them is U' = funct. Jx y' y x', x z' z x', y z' z y 7 , x, y, BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 31 The value of U' is linear with regard to x', y', z' ; suppose it of this form U' = A (x y' y x') + B (x z' z x') + C (y z' z y') ; A, B, C being arbitrary constants. Make U'", &c. = ; then the third of the equations (F) will become The preceding value of U' satisfies also this equation. Again, the fourth of the equations (I') becomes of which the integral is U" = funct. [K y' y x', x z' z x', y z' z y', x', y', z'} . This function ought to satisfy the second of equations (F), and the first member of this equation multiplied by d t is evidently equal to d U. The second member ought therefore to be an exact differential of a function of x, y, z ; and it is easy to perceive that we shall satisfy at once this condi- tion, the nature of the function U", and the supposition that this function ought to be of the second order, by making U" = (D y' E x') . (x y' y x') + (D z' F x') (x z' z x') + (E z' F y) (y Z ' _ z y'} + G (x' 2 + y 2 + z' 2 )^ __ D, E, F, G being arbitrary constants ; and then g being = Vx 8 +y 2 +z 8 , we have U = -(Dx + Ey+Fz-fSG); Thus we have the values of U, U', U" ; and the equation V = constant will become const.= -JDx+Ey+Fz+2G? + (A + Dy' Ex 7 ) (x y' y x') z' Fx') (xz zx') + (C+Ez' F /) (y z' z y) + G(x' 2 + y"+ z' 2 ). This equation satisfies equation (I) and consequently the equations (0) whatever may be the arbitrary Constants A, B, C, D, E, F, G. Sup- posing all these = 0, 1. except A, 2. except B, 3. except C, &c. and putting d x d y d z ,, ' 32 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XT. all have the integrals r r _ xd y > d * r /_xd z z d | x r //_y dz zd y dt o- f+x f m d y' + d dt z '1 , > * y d y . d x dt z d z . d x _ f , Cm dx2 + d J ' Z ^ 1 dt 2 xdx.dy z d z . d y y l f d t 2 J ' y ' -L xdx.dz dt 2 , y d y. d z - m 2 m d x 2 + d t T y 2 + d z 2 dt 2 c, c', c 7 ', f, r, f" and a being arbitrary constants. The equations (0) can have but six distinct integrals of the first order, by means of which, if we eliminate d x, d y, d z, we shall have the three variables x, y, z in functions of the time t ; we must therefore have at least one of the seven integrals {P) contained in the six others. We also per- ceive d priori, that two of these integrals ought to enter into the five others. In fact, since it is the element only of the time which enters these integrals, they cannot give the variables x, y, z in functions of the time, and therefore are insufficient to determine completely the motion of . about M. Let us examine how it is that these integrals make but five distinct integrals. z d v - v d z If we multiply the fourth of the equations (P) by -- A t -- > and x d / __ z ci x add the product to the fifth multiplied by - 5 - , we shall have f zdy ydz x d z z d x , x d y y d x / m ~dT~ ~dT~ "dt \ S xdy ydxf x d x . d z ydy.dz 1 dt ~t d! 2 ~ dt 2 J ' dt ,. xdy ydx xdz zdx ydz zdy ,. Substituting for - ^ t - - d~ t - - "Jt - their values given by the three first of the equations (P), we shall have Pc 7 fc" /m dx 2 + d y 2 ) , xdx.dz , ~ Z " " 1 ' fc" /m dx 2 + d y 2 ) , xdx.dz , y dy.d z C~t Z l7" "dl 1 j dt' dt 2 This equation enters into the sixth of the integrals P, by making f" = f/ c/ ~" f ^ or = f c" f c' + f" c. Also the sixth of these c integrals results from the five first, and the six arbitraries c, c 7 , c", f, f , f" are connected by the preceding equation. BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 33 If we take the squares off, f, f" given by the equations (P), then add them together, and make f 2 + P * + f" 2 = 1 2 , we shall have 18 m g- f ft dx 2 +dy 2 +dz 2 /gdgx 2 ) ^ fdx 2 +dy 2 +dz' 2ml but if we square the values of c, c', c", given by the same equations, and make c 2 + c' 2 -f- c" 2 = h 2 ; we get the equation above thus becomes dx 2 + dy z + dz 2 2jn m 2 I 2 . dt 2 g h 2 Comparing this equation with the last of equations (P), we shall have the equation of condition, m 2 I 2 jn h* a ' The last of equations (P) consequently enters the six first, which are themselves equivalent only to five distinct integrals, the seven arbitrary constants, c, c', c", f, P, f", and a being connected by the two preceding equations of condition. Whence it results that we shall have the most general expression of V, which will satisfy equation (I) by taking for this expression an arbitrary function of the values of c, c 7 , c", f, and P, given by the five first of the equations (P). 479. Although these integrals are insufficient for the determination of x, y, z hi functions of the time ; yet they determine the nature of the curve described by /* about M. In fact, if we multiply the first of the equations (P) by z, the second by y, and the third by x, and add the results, we shall have = c z c' y + c/' x, the equation to a plane whose position depends upon the constants c, c', c". If we multiply the fourth of the equations (P) by x, the fifth by y, and the sixth by z, we shall have > dx ! +dy ! +dz 2 , e 2 dg 2 2 r * T but by the preceding number , dx 2 + dy 8 + dz 8 g'dg 2 , , dt 2 dt 2 .-. = m g h 2 + f x + f y -f- f" z. This equation combined with = c" x c' y + c z VOL. II. C 34 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XI. and g* = x 2 + y* -f- z* gives the equation to conic sections, the origin of being at the focus. The planets and comets describe therefore round the sun very nearly conic sections, the sun being in one of the foci ; and these stars so move that their radius-vectors describe areas proportional to the times. In fact, it' d v denote the elemental angle included by , g + d f, we have dx*+ dy"- r .dz 2 = f 2 dv 2 + df t and the equation dt becomes S d v* = hd 4 hdt .-. d v = Hence we see that the elemental area g * d v, described by g y is propor- tional to the element of time d t ; and the area described in a finite time is therefore also proportional to that time. We see also that the angular motion of p about M, is at every point of the orbit, as , ; and since without sensible error we may take very short times for those indefinitely small, we shall have, by means of the above equation^ the horary motions of the planets a fid comets, in the different points of their orbits. The elements of the section described by .-. z = y cos. tan. p x sin. 6 tan. y v ma/ and having by the above m m * 1 ' ~a~ ~F^ J we shall get m e = 1. Thus we know all the elements which determine the nature of the conic section and its position in space. 480. The three finite equations found above between x, y, z and g give x, y, z in functions of g; and to get these coordinates in functions of the time it is sufficient to obtain g in a similar function ; which will require a new integration. For that purpose take the equation i* />S A 2 But we have above mo - = h = -- (m 2 I 2 ) = am (1 e s ); ...dt = whose integral (237) is a* t + T = (u - e sin. u) ....... (S) (1 & \ --- ], and T ail arbitrary constant. This equation gives u and therefore in terms of t; and since x, y, z are given in functions of ?, we shall have the values of the coordinates for any instants whatever. We have therefore completely integrated the equations (0) of 475, and thereby introduced the six arbitrary constants a, e, I, 6, p, and T. The two first depend upon the nature of the orbit ; the three next depend upon its position in space, and the last relates to the position of the body u. at any given epoch ; or which amounts to the same, depends upon the instant of its passing the perihelion. Referring the coordinates of the body p, to such as are more commodious for astronomical uses, and for that, naming v the angle which the radius- BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 37 vector makes with the major axis setting out from the perihelion, the equation to the ellipse is a (1 e 2 ) 1 + e cos. v ' The equation g =: a (1 e cos. u) indicates that u is at the perihelion, so that this point is the origin of two angles u and v ; and it is easy hence to conclude that the angle u is formed by the axis major, and by the radius drawn from its center to the point where the circumference described upon the axis major as a diameter, is met by the ordinate passing through the body /* at right angles to the axis major. Hence as in (237) we have v , 1 + e u tan - =- tan - We therefore have (making T = 0, &c.) n t = u e sin. u g = a (1 e cos. u) and (0 n t being the Mean Anomaly, n the Eccentric Anomaly, v the True Anomaly. The first of these equations gives u in terms of t, and the two others will give f and v when u shall be determined. The equation between u and t is transcendental, and can only be resolved by approximation. Happily the circumstances attending the motions of the heavenly bodies present us with rapid approximations. In fact the orbits of the stars are either nearly circular or nearly parabolical, and in both cases, we can de- termine u in terms of t by series very convergent, which we now proceed to develope. For this purpose we shall give some general Theorems upon the reduction of functions into series, which will be found very use- ful hereafter. 481. Let u be any function whatever of a, which we propose to deve- lope into a series proceeding by the powers of a. Representing this series by U = U + a.^+ a 2 . q 2 + a n . q n + a n + | . q n+ " + &c. C3 38 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XL K, qu q*j & c being quantities independent of a, it is evident that u is what u will become when we suppose a = ; and that whatever n may be the difference (-7 -) being taken on the supposition that every thing in u varies with a. Hence if we suppose after the differentiations, that a = 0, /d n u\ in the expression ( j -J we have d n u\ X 1.2 n' This is Maclaurin's Theorem (see 32) for one variable. Again, if u be a function of two quantities a, a', let it be put u = u -f a. qi >0 + a 2 . q 2 ; + &c. + a ' * qo,2 + &c. the general term being Then if generally / d n + n/ u x \d a n . d a! n ) denotes the (n + n x ) tb difference of u, the operation being performed (n) times, on the supposition that a is the only variable, and then n' times on that of a! being the only variable, we have 3 a . q 3) o ~T" 4 * q^ Q-f-5a .qso't" &c. Vq 4>1 + &c. a^q-? 9 + &C. = 2 q *- 9 + 3t 2aq3>0 + 4 " 3 a2 q*. + 5 - 4 3 q5,o + &c. + 2 q 2; , + 3. 2aaq 3>1 + 4.3a 8 1 + 8j;c. + 2 a e , 2 + 3.2aa z &c. + 2 a q 2>2 + &c. and continuing the process it will be found that BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 39 so that when , d both equal 0, we have / d + "' u _ \d a n . d a. rn> q "' n '~ 2. 3....n X 2. 3....n' ........ A nil generally, if u be a function of a, a, a", &c. and in developing it into a series, if the coefficient of a tt . a n/ . a" n ". &c. be denoted by q n , n ,, <-, &c . we shall have, in making a , <, a", &c. all equal 0, J n + n' + n" + &c. u &c _ _ ... _ qn.n<,n> = 2. 3 . . . . n X 2. 3 . . . . n' X 2. 3 . . . . n" X &c. ' This is Maclaurin's Theorem made general. 482. Again let u be any function of t + a, t' + a, t" + a", &c. and put U = V (t + a, t' + a, t" + a", &c.) then since t and a are similarly involved it is evident that (d n + n ' + n " + &c - . u \ / d n + n/ + n " + &c - . u \ d a", d t / ? t // ? &c> ) v d t n . d t /n> . d t //p<< &c / _ q n.n'.n-.&c. ~ 2 . 3 . . . . n X 2. 3 ---- n' X 2. 3 ---- n" X &c. ' * ' "' which gives Taylor's Theorem in all its generality (see 32). Hence when u = . (t + ) d-.p(t) ]n ~ 2.3 ____ n.dt n and we thence get , ( + .) = M t) + d -^ + -.*- + te ..... (i) 483. Generally, suppose that u is a function of , , a", &c. and of t, t', t", &c. Then, if by the nature of the function or by an equation of R. ftial Differences which represents it, we can obtain c - .u - .u \ a*. da n/ . &cJ in a function of u, and of its Differences taken with regard to t, t', &c. C4, 40 A COMMENTARY ON [SBCT. XI. calling it F when for u we put or make a t d, a", &c. = ; it is evident we have _ F __ qn.n'.n'.te. ~ g. 3 . . . H X 2. 3 . . . Il' X 2. 3 ... ll", X &C. and therefore the law of the series into which u is developed. For instance, let u, instead of being given immediately in terms of a, and t, be a function of x, x itself being deducible from the equation of Partial Differences d in which X is any function whatever of x. That is Given u = function (x) to dcvelope u into a series ascending by the powers of a. First, since (k) Hence /d'uv /d'/Xduv. VdaV"~ V da.dt )' But by equation (k), changing u into f X d u /d./Xduv _ /d./X*dux *' (d~oV = ( dT^ ) ' Again (d~o"~ 3 ) = ( da.dt 8 )' But by equation k, and changing u intoyX 8 d u V d~^ ~V dt _ dt Thus proceeding we easily conclude generally that Now, when a = 0, let x = function of t = T BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 41 and substitute this value of x in X and u ; and let these then become X and u respectively. Then we shall have d*->.X. d " /d n u\ ... _ d t \d n /~ d I - 1 and d t ' - 2.3 ____ ndt 11 - 1 which gives t v du , a* , , v u = + X. T - t + T .-- aT --+ - 1 .-- arti --+&c. ...(p) which is Lagrange's Theorem. To determine the value of x in terms of t and a, we must integrate In order to accomplish this object, we have and substituting we shall have .-. d x = dX which by integration, gives x = (t +,a X) ' . . (2)

(t + X), the value of u will be given by the formula (p), in a series of the powers of . By an extension of the process, the Theorem may be generalized to the case, when u = function (x, x', x", &c.) 43 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XL and X = (t + a X) X' = f (f + a' X') X" = i < n t} = ( 'V DtV " 1 ) ;t c being the hyperbolic base, and i any number whatever. Developing the second members of these equations, and then substituting cos. r n t + V I sin. r n t, and cos. r n t V 1 sin. r n t for c rnt *2 ,.{3sin. 3 n t ~~ 3 sin ' n l * sin< 4 n t 4. 2 s sin. 2 n t} a . 34. 2 3 * e s f 5 4 1 s 4 5 a 4 ' | 34sin - 5nt 5.3 4 sin.3nt+j^2sin.nt| &c. 44 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XL a formula which expresses the Excentric Anomaly in terms of the Mean Anomaly. This series is very convergent for the Planets. Having thus determin- ed u for any instant, we could thence obtain by means of (237), the cor- responding values of f and v. But these may be found directly as fol- lows, also in convergent series. 485. Required to express g in terms of the Mean Anomaly. By (237) we have g = a (1 e cos. u). Therefore if in formula (q) we put v}/ (u) = 1 e cos. u we have \J/ (n t) = e sin. n t, and consequently 1 e cos. u = 1 e cos. n t + e * sin. 8 n t + -^ . 4- + &c. <& nut Hence, by the above process, we shall find P e 8 e * -i = 1 -f- - e cos. n t cos. 2 n t e 3 p-p-, .{3 cos. 3 n t 3 cos. n t} e 4 3 .4 8 cos. 4 n t 4. 2 s . cos. 2 n t} i. O. <6 - ./5 3 cos. 5 n t 5. 3 3 cos. 3 n t + ^. cos.ntl , o. 4. \. * j s ]6 4 cos.6nt 6. 4 4 cos. 4n t+rr^. 2 4 cos.2nt| &c. 486. To express the True Anomaly in terms of the Mean. First we have (237) v . u : i ii _ Qin in - ~2 1 + e ' ' g 7" = V 1 e* ~u COS. COS. -jr- A & .. substituting the imaginary expressions c vv i -f. 1 = -v 'i e c u v i + 1* and making X= 1 + V(l-e') BOOK L] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 45 we shall have c vV-l - cV-l X 1-*C-V-1. ' . .C-UV- 1 ) log.( 1_X c V-i ) ~V^n~~ whence expanding the logarithms into series (see p. 28), and putting sines and cosines for their imaginary values, we have 2 X 2 2 X 3 v = u + 2 X sin. u -\ sin. 2 u -J -- ~ sin. 3 u + &c. A But by the foregoing process we have u, sin. u, sin. 2 u, &c. in series ordered by the powers of e, and developed into sines and cosines of n t and its multiples. There is nothing else then to be done, in order to express v in a similar series, but to expand X into a like series. The equation, (putting u = 1 + V 1 e s ) e 3 u = 2 - u will give by the formula (p) of No. (483) -- i-v -'. i(i + S)(i + 5) e 771 ol "i 2 14.2 "" Q *2'+ 4 2. 3 * oiAfi** 2 and since u = 1 + V 1 e 2 we have These operations being performed we shall find v = 1 5 1 e 3 + gg e 5 | sin. n 451 6 -. 1097 1)60 1223 . . Sm ' 5nt 6 . SU1 ' 6nt > the approximation being carried on to quantities of the order e 6 in- clusively. 46 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XI. 487. The angles v and n t are here reckoned from the Perihelion ; but if we wish to compute from the Aphelion, we have only to make e nega- tive. It would, therefore, be sufficient to augment the angle n t by r, in order to render negative the sines and cosines of the odd multiples of n t ; then to make the results of these two methods identical ; we have only in the expressions for g and v, to multiply the sines and cosines of odd multiples of n t by odd powers of e ; and the even multiples by the even powers. This is confirmed, in fact, by the process, a posteriori. 488. Suppose that instead of reckoning v from the perihelion, we fix its origin at any point whatever ; then it is evident that this angle will be augmented by a constant, which we shall call , and which will express the Longitude of the Perihelion. If instead of fixing the origin of t at the instant of the passage over the perihelion, we make it begin at any point, the angle n t will be augmented by a constant which we will call e v ; and then the foregoing expressions for and v, will become 1 3 11 = l-f--g-e s (e e 3 )cos.(nt-f-s ) ( - e 2 - e 4 )cos.2(nt+ 1 511 v = nt+ 1 + (2e e 3 )sin. (nt + w ) +( 7 e 2 ~T e 4 )sin. 2 (n t + e where v is the true longitude of the planet and n t + s its mean longi- tude, these being measured on the plane of the orbit. Let, however, the motion of the planet be referred to a fixed plane a little inclined to that of the orbit, and

X = tan. 2 ;* p, .......... (3) and v j8 = v x d+tan. * ? s i n ' ^ (v y ^) + tan. 4 - p. sin. 4 (v, . + I tan. 6 I p. sin. 6 (v y *) ..... (4) Thus we see that the two preceding series reciprocally interchange, l;y changing the sign of tan. 2 J p, and by changing v, 0, v /3 the one for the other. We shall have v, 6 in terms of the sine and cosine of n't and its multiples, by observing that we have, by what precedes v = n t + + e Q, Q being a function of the sine of the angle n t + i , and its multi- ples; and that the formula (i) of number (482) gives, whatever is i, sin. i (v j8) = sin. i (n t + /3 + e Q) 48 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XI. Lastly, s being the tangent of the latitude of the planet above the fixed plane, we have s = tan.

is an ellipse, a parabola, or hy- i 2 perbola, according as V is < = or > than U ./ - . It is remarkable that the direction of primitive motion has no influence upon the species of conic section. To find the excentricity of the orbit, we shall observe that if t repre- sents the angle made by the direction of the relative motion of //, with the radius-vector, we have f 2 1 1 Substituting for V 2 its value m -| 1 , we have 1 = m ( ) cos. ! e; d t* ^ f a / BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINC1PIA. But by 480 2 2 2 . = m a ( 1 e 2 ) : e = whence we know the excentricity a e of the orbit. To find v or the true anomaly, we have a(l e 2 ) 1 -f- e cos. v e ) g COS. V = This gives the position of the Perihelion. Equations (f ) of No. 480 will then give u and by its means the instant of the Planet's passing its peri- helion. To get the position of the orbit, referred to a fixed plane passing through the center of M, supposed immoveable s let be the inclination of the orbit to this plane, and 8 the angle which the radius makes with the Line of the Nodes. Let, Moreover, z be the primitive elevation of ^ above the fixed plane, supposed known. Then we shall have, CAD being the fixed plane, A D the line of the nodes, A B = g , &c. &c. z = B D . sin.

&c. by changing in the preceding expressions for a (j^V ( divided by the corresponding powers of the elements of time. If we neg- lect the masses of the planets and comets, that of the sun being the unit of mass ; if, moreover, we take the distance of the sun from the earth for the unit of distance ; the mean motion of the earth round the sun will be the measure of the time t. Let therefore X be the number of se- conds which the earth describes in a day, by reason of its mean sidereal motion ; the time t corresponding to the number of days will be X s ; we shall, therefore, have d (d \ _ 1 dV ~ T /d * a\ _ l/d 2 \ vTFv *~ x 1 \d~sV ' Observations give by the Logarithmic Tables, log. X = 4. 0394622 and also log. X 2 = log. X + log. ~ R being the radius of the circle reduced to seconds ; whence log.X 2 = 2.2750444; .. if we reduce to seconds, the values of IT) > and of [-, z j , we shall 1 1 o have the logarithms of (' ") , and of (T i) by taking from the logarithms of these values the logarithms of 4. 039422, and 2. 2750444. In like manner we get the logarithms of d ) , jf-j > after subtracting the same logarithms, from the logarithms of their values reduced to seconds. On the accuracy of the values of da\ /d 2 \ . /d /da\ / 2 \ . / (K , / < Mat)' (dT)' "' (art) mid (a t depends that of the following results ; and since their formation is very simple, we must select and multiply observations so as to obtain them with the greatest exactness possible. We shall determine presently, by means of these values, the elements of the orbit of a Comet, and to generalize these results, we shall BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. fi3 496. Investigate the motion of a system of bodies sollicited by any forces whatever. Let x, y, z be the rectangular coordinates of the first body ; x', y', z' those of the second body, and so on. Also let the first body be sollicited parallel to the axes of x, y, z by the forces X, Y, Z, which we shall sup- pose tend to diminish these variables. In like manner suppose the second body sollicited parallel to the same axes by the forces X', Y', Z', and so on. The motions of all the bodies will be given by differential equations of the second order = dt + x ' = JT+ Y ; = a^ + z ; d 2 x' d 2 v' (\ 2 -r' O __ _ fi i X' = 4- Y' - -I- 7' &c. = &c. If the number of the bodies is n, that of the equations will be 3 n ; and their finite integrals will contain 6 n arbitrary constants, which will be the elements of the orbits of the different bodies. To determine these elements by observations, we shall transform the coordinates of each body into others whose origin is at the place of the observer. Supposing, therefore, a plane to pass through the eye of the observer, and of which the situation is always parallel to itself, whilst the observer moves along a given curve, call r, r' r", &c. the distances of the observer from the different bodies, projected upon the plane ; a, of, a", &c. the apparent longitudes of the bodies, referred to the same plane, and d, ^, 0", &c. their apparent latitudes. The variables x, y, z will be given in terms of r, a, 6, and of the coordinates of the observer. In like mannei', x', y', z' will be given in functions of r 7 , a', 6', and of the coordinates of the observer, and so on. Moreover, if we suppose that the forces X, Y, Z ; X', Y', Z', &c. are due to the reciprocal action of the bodies of the system, and independent of attractions ; they will be given in functions of r, r', r", &c. ; a, a', a", &c. ; 6, d', &", &c. and of known quan- tities. The preceding differential equations will thus involve these new variables and their first and second differences. But observations make known, for a given instant, the values of d \ /d z \ . /d 0\ /d 2 0\ , /d '\ -i 1 , &c. There will hence of the unknown quantities only remain r, r 7 , r", &c. and their first and second differences. These unknowns are in number 3 n, and since we have 3 n differential equations, we can determine them. 64 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XI. At the same time we shall have the advantage of presenting the first and second differences of r, r', r", &c. under a linear form. The quantities , 0, r, a', ^, r', &c. and their first differences divided by d t, being known ; we shall have, for any given instant, the values of x, y, z, x', y', z', &c. and of their first differences divided by d t. If we substitute these values in the 3 n finite integrals of the preceding equa- tions, and in the first differences of these integrals; we shall have 6 n equations, by means of which we shall be able to determine the 6 n arbi- trary constants of the integrals, or the elements of the orbits of the dif- ferent bodies. 497. To apply this method to the motion of the Comets, We first observe that the principal force which actuates them is the attraction of the sun ; compared with which all other forces may be ne- glected. If, however, the Comet should approach one of the greater planets so as to experience a sensible perturbation, the preceding method will still make known its velocity and distance from the earth ; but this case happening but very seldom, in the following researches, we shall ab- stain from noticing any other than the action of the sun. If the sun's mass be the unit, and its mean distance from the earth the unit of distance; if, moreover, we fix the origin of the coordinates x, y, z of a Comet, whose radius-vector is g ; the equations (0) of No. 475 will become, neglecting the mass of the Comet, d*x x U ^^ j r T* ' d2 y y II j i ^j_ r - dt- " h ? 3 _ d 2 Z Z *-dt* + ? Let the plane of x, y be the plane of the ecliptic. Also let the axis of x be the line drawn from the center of the sun to the first point of aries, at a given epoch ; the axis of y the line drawn from the center of the sun to the first point of cancer, at the same epoch ; and finally the positive values of z be on the same side as the north pole of the ecliptic. Next call x', y 7 the coordinates of the earth and R its radius-vector. This be- ing supposed, transfer the coordinates x, y, z to others relative to the observer ; and to do this let a be the geocentric longitude, and r its dis- tance from the center of the earth projected upon the ecliptic ; then we shall have x = x' + r cos. a ; y = y -f r sin, a ; z = r tan. 6. BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 65 If we multiply the first of equations (k) by sin. , and take from the re- sult the second multiplied by cos. a, we shall have d 2 x d 2 y x sin. a y cos. a whence we derive, by substituting for x, y their values given above, d 2 x' d 2 y' x' sin. a y cos. a = Sin. a . TTT COS, a . -~i- -f d t 2 d t 2 3 dax /d 2 a The earth being retained in its orbit like a comet, by the attraction of the sun, we have d 8 x' x' d 2 y' y' : dt 2 H " R 3> l : TF " h ,fr ; which give d 2 x' d 2 y __ y' cos. a K' sin. We shall, therefore, have rda Let A be the longitude of the earth seen from the sun ; we shall have x' = R cos. A ; y' = R sin. A ; therefore y' cos. x' sin. a = R sin. (A a) ; and the preceding equation will give /dr x _Rsin.(A a) M 1) ' Vdt 2 / (dt)= /da, ' lR>-"7 '" /dx - Now let us seek a second expression for (-T-) For this purpose we will multiply the first of equations (k) by tan. 6 . cos. , the second by tan. 6 sin. a, and take the third equation from the sum of these two pro- ducts ; we shall thence obtain ./ d z x , d 2 y) = tan. 6 S cos. a -r -f sin. a ^ | r l dt 2 dt z ; x cos. a + y sin. a d 2 z z + tan. 6 . - ^-^ -- -y -- r . S 3 dt 2 f s This equation will become by substitution for x, y, z Vox.. II. 66 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XI. _ COS. 2 COS. 2 COS. 3 But Therefore, R sin. 6 cos. cos. (A a) f 1 f 1 11 IP""B" 3 J ..... ( If we take this value of ( p ) from the first and suppose /d\ /d*0\ /d^\ /d 2 \ . rt /da\ /d^\ 2 , /da\ 3 . Si) (arO- r t ) (a^) +2 (ai) (at) tan -'+(a-r) '- _ - . - - ,-\ sin. 6 cos. cos. (A ) + ( , . j sin. (A o) we shall have R The projected distance r of the comet from the earth, being always po- sitive, this equation shows that the distance g of the comet from the sun, is less or greater than the distance R of the sun from the earth, according as 11! is positive or negative; the two distances are equal if (if = 0. By inspection alone of a celestial globe, we can determine the sign of // ; and consequently whether the comet is nearer to or farther from the Earth. For that purpose imagine a great circle which passes through two Geocentric positions of the Comet infinitely near to one another. Let 7 be the inclination of this circle to the ecliptic, and X the longitude of its ascending node ; we shall have tan. 7 sin. ( x) = tan. 6 ; whence d 6 sin. (a X) = d a sin. 6 cos. 6 cos. (a X). BOOK L] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 67 Differentiating, we have, also 1 sin. d cos. 6; d 2 6 t being the value of d 2 6, which would take place, if the apparent mo- tion of the Comet continued in the great circle. The value of /*' thus be- comes, by substituting for d d its value d a sin. t cos. 6 cos. (a X) sin. (a X) sin. d cos. 6 sin. (A X) The function - . ' \ - f is constantly positive : the value of a, is there- sin. 6 cos. 6 fore positive or negative, according as- \ J-TS has the same or a different sign from that of sin. (A X). But A X is equal to two right angles plus the distance of the sun from the ascending node of the great circle. Whence it is easy to conclude that (if will be positive or negative, according as in a third geocentric position of the comet, inde- finitely near to the two first, the comet departs from the great circle on the same or the opposite side on which is the sun. Conceive, therefore, that we make a great circle of the sphere pass through the two geocentric positions of the comet ; then according as, in a third consecutive geocen- tric position, the comet departs from this great circle, on the same side as the sun or on the opposite one, it will be nearer to or farther from the sun than the Earth. If it continues to appear in this great circle, it will be equally distant from both ; so that the different deflections of its ap- parent path points out to us the variations of its distance from the sun. To eliminate g from equation (3), and to reduce this equation so as to contain no other than the unknown r, we observe that f 2 = x in substituting for x, y, z, their values in tei'ms of r, a, and 6; and we have r 2 2 = x' 2 + y' 2 + 2rx'cos. + /sin. "l + ^T^/ but we have x' = R cos. A, y' = R sin. A ; " s * = d^~* + 2Rr cos - (A ~ a) + RS; E 2 68 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XL But x' = R cos. A ; y' = R sin. A .-. f * = ^-T. + 2 R r cos. (A a) + R 2 . cos. * 6 If we square the two members of equation (3) put under this form f'fc'R'r + 1}= R 3 we shall get, by substituting for g *, (c^ + 2 R r C S * ( A - ) + R } V R2 r + 1J'= R6 - - (4) an equation in which the only unknown quantity is r, and which will rise to the seventh degree, because a term of the first member being equal to R 6 , the whole equation is divisible by r. Having thence determined r, we shall have (-,) by means of equations (1) and (2). Substituting, for example, in equation (1), for -^ -, its value -^- , given by equation (3) ; we shall have The equation (4) is often susceptible of many real and positive roots ; reducing it and dividing by r, its last term will be 2 R s cos. 6 6\ft' R 3 + 3 cos. (A a)}. Hence the equation in r being of the seventh degree or of an odd de- gree, it will have at least two real positive roots if /&' R 3 + 3 cos. (A a) is positive ; for it ought always, by the nature of the problem, to have one positive root, and it cannot then have an odd number of positive roots. Each real and positive value of r gives a different conic section, for the orbit of the comet ; we shall, therefore, have as many curves which satisfy three near observations, as r has real and positive values; and to determine the true orbit of the comet, we must have recourse to a new observation. 498. The value of r, derived from equation (4) would be rigorously exact, if do\ /d 2 \ /d 0\ /d 2 were exactly known ; but these quantities are only approximate. In fact, by the method above exposed, we can approximate more and more, mere- ly by making use of a great number of observations, which presents the advantage of considering intervals sufficiently great, and of making the errors arising from observations compensate one another. But this BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIP1A. 69 method has the analytical inconvenience of employing more than three observations, in a problem where three are sufficient. This may be obviated, and the solution rendered as approximate as can be wished by three observations only, after the following manner. Let and 0, representing the geocentric longitude and latitude of the intermediate; if we substitute in the equations (k) of the preceding No. instead of x, y, z their values x' + r cos. a ; y' + r sin. a ; and r tan. 6; they will give (-, 2 J , (j 1 2 ) an ^ ( j 2) m functions of r, , and 6, of their first differences and known quantities. If we differentiate these, we shall have ( j-r? ) j VTTi) an ^ (iTT 3 ) m terms ^ r "' ^ an< ^ ^ their first and second differences. Hence by equation (2) of 497 we may eli- minate the second difference of r by means of its value and its first differ- ence. Continuing to differentiate successively the values of (-r j ) > ("TTs) > and eliminating the differences of a, and of & superior to second differences, and all the differences of r, we shall have the values of /v / < (irr)' Carry j&c - intennsor d this being supposed, let a,, a, a', be the three geocentric observed longitudes of the Comet; /? 6, 6' its three corresponding geocentric latitudes ; let i be the number of days which separate the first from the second observation, and i' the interval between the second and third observation ; lastly let X be the arc which the earth describes in a day, by its mean sidereal motion; then by (481) we have 2 22 i 3 X 3 /d 3 a\ , - 3 + **' , ., ,/da\ , i /2 .X 2 /d 2 ax i /3 .X 8 /d s a\ = * + < - Hart) + ,; 2 ( R , ; /d Rx R' + E 2 1 ' Vdt/~ R' V (1 E 2 )* If we neglect the square of tlie excentricity of the earth's orbit, which is very small, we shall have dt the preceding values of (-, ) and f Will hence become /dx\ _ . A sin. A /d r\ /d\ (d t) = < R - J) COS ' A - -- IT + (fft) COS ' a - r (dt) Sin ' " ; /dy\ ._,. ,. . . cos. A , /d r\ . /da\ (ai) =( R - 1} sm - A +-R- + (d-t) sm * a +r (d t ) cos - a; R, R', and A being given immediately by the tables of the sun, the esti- mate of the six quantities x, y, Z J(^T-)J (nt ) J (HT) w ^ ^ e eas 7 when r and (-p-) shall be known, Hence we derive the elements of the orbit of the comet after this mode. The indefinitely small sector, which the projection of the radius-vector and the comet upon the plane of the ecliptic describes during 'the element of time d t, is -- ^ j-- -- ; and it is evident that this sector is posi- A tive or negative, according as the motion of the comet is direct or retro- grade. Thus in forming the quantity x ( ) 7 (rs ) it w iH indicate by its sign, the direction of the motion of the comet. E4, 72 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XI. To determine the position of the orbit, call

l tan - ' (dTV + "" tan ' tf sin ' < A ~ a) ^M j and { (drO + "' sin ' ( A ~ a ) } r sin. ( A-) -d^- R (R-l) dt) we shall have I and consequently ( This equation rising only to the sixth degree, is in that respect, more BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 75 simple than equation (4) of No. (497) ; but it belongs to the parabola alone, whereas the equation (4) equally regards every species of conic section. 501. We perceive by the foregoing investigation, that the determina- tion of the parabolic orbits of the comets, leads to more equations than unknown quantities; and that, therefore, in combining these equations in different ways, we can form as many different methods of calculating the orbits. Let us examine those which appear to give the most exact re- sults, or which seem least susceptible of the errors of observations. It is principally upon the values of the second differences f -r -^\ and /d 2 $\ ( -i g j, that these errors have a sensible influence. In fact, to determine them, we must take the finite differences of the geocentric longitudes and latitudes of the comet, observed during a short interval of time. But these differences being less than the first differences, the errors of obser- vations are a greater aliquot part of them ; besides this, the formulas of No. 495 which determine, by the comparison of observations, the values c , /da\ /d 6\ /d z a\ , /d 2 6\ . ., ' ' Vdl)' Vdl) 5 VcTF) \cTtV glve grater precision the four first of these quantities than the two last. It is, therefore, desirable to rest as little as possible upon the second differences of a and 6; and since we cannot reject both of them together, the method which employs the greater, ought to give the more accurate results. This being granted let us resume the equations found in Nos. 497, &c. r = cos. 2 6 + 2 R r cos. (A a) + R * /drx R sin. (A a) /J_ jl ~ "' " f tan - j V R sin. 6 cos. 6 cos. (A a) M 1 d ' " d~i 76 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XI. ' - 1) sin. (A - .) If we wish to reject f -j -5) , we consider only the first, second and fourtn of those equations. Eliminating (T ) from the last by means of the second, we shall form an equation which cleared of fractions, will contain a term multiplied by g 6 r 2 , and other terms affected with even and odd powers of r and f. If we put into one side of the equation all the terms affected with even powers of , and into the other all those which involve its odd powers, and square both sides, in order to have none but even powers of f, the term multiplied by g 6 r 2 will produce one multiplied by g 12 r 4 . Substituting, therefore, instead of 2 , its value given by the first of equations (L), we shall have a final equation of the sixteenth degree in r. But instead of forming this equation in order afterwards to resolve it, it will be more simple to satisfy by trial the three preceding ones. ((I 3.\ T 5J, we must consider the first, third and fourth of equations (L). These three equations conduct us also to a final equa- tion of the sixteenth degree in r ; and we can easily satisfy by trial. The two preceding methods appear to be the most exact, which we can employ in the determination of the parabolic orbits of the -comets. It is at the same time necessary to have recourse to them, if the motion of the comet in longitude or latitude is insensible, or too small for the errors of observations sensibly to alter its second difference. In this case, we must reject that of the equations (L), which contains this difference. But al- though in these methods, we employ only three equations, yet the fourth is useful to determine amongst all the real and positive values of r, which satisfy the system of three equations, that which ought to be selected. 502. The elements of the orbit of a comet, determined by the above process, would be exact, if the values of a, & and their first and second differences, were rigorous ; for we have regarded, after a very simple manner, the excentricity of the terrestrial orbit, by means of die radius- vector R' of the earth, corresponding to its true anomaly + a right an- gle ; we are therefore permitted only to neglect the square of this excen- BOOK L] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 77 tricity, as too small a fraction to produce by its omission a sensible influ- ence upon the results. But 6, a and their differences, are always suscep- tible of any degree of inaccuracy, both because of the errors of observa- tions, and because these differences are only obtained approximately. It is therefore necessary to correct the elements, by means of three distant observations, which can be done in many ways ; for if we know nearly, two quantities relative to the motion of a comet, such that the radius-vec- tor corresponding to two observations, or the position of the node, and the inclination of the orbit ; calculating the observations, first with these quantities and afterwards with others differing but little from them, the law of the differences between the results, will easily show the necessary corrections. But amongst the combinations taken two and two, of the quantities relative to the motion of comets, there is one which ought to produce greatest simplicity, and which for that reason should be selected. It is of importance, in fact, in a problem so intricate, and complicated, to spare the calculator all superfluous operations. The two elements which appear to present this advantage, are the perihelion distance, and the instant when the comet passes this point. They are not only easy to be derived from the values of r and (-5) ; but it is very easy to correct them by observations, without being obliged for every variation which they undergo, to determine the other corresponding elements of the orbit. Resuming the equation found in No. 492 a (1 e 2 ) is the semi-parameter of the conic section of which a is the semi axis-major, and a e the excentricity. In the parabola, where a is infinite, and e equal to unity, a (1 e 2 ) is double the perihelion dis- tance : let D be this distance : the preceding equation becomes relatively to this curve p d P id? 2 r 2 S - is equal to -^57 ; in substituting for e 2 its value s-;+2Rrx d t d t 2 cos. 2 cos. (A a) + R 2 , and for (-J-T) and (-, \ their values found in No. 499, we shall have d t cos. 2 76 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XI. //r ,\ N sm - (A + r j(R' 1) cos. (A ) -- ^ + r R l~ sin. (A o) + R (R' 1). Let P represent this quantity ; if it is negative, the radius-vector de- creases, and consequently, the comet tends towards its pei'ihelion. But it goes off into the distance, if P is negative. We have then D = f -ip; the angular distance v of the comet from its perihelion, will be determined from the polar equation to the parabola, t * D cor.*-v = T ; and finally we shall have the time employed to describe the angle v, by the table of the motion of the comets. This time added to or subtracted from that of the epoch, according as P is negative or positive, will give the instant when the comet passes its perihelion. 503. Recapitulating these different results, we shall have the following method to determine the parabolic orbits of the comets. General method of determining the orbits of the comets. This method will be divided into two parts ; in the first, we shall give the means of obtaining approximately, the perihelion distance of the comet and the instant of its passage over the perihelion ; in the second, we shall determine all the elements of the orbit on the supposition that the former are known. Approximate determination of the Perihelion distance of the comet , and the instant of its passage over the perihelion. We shall select three, four, five, &c. observations of the comet equally distant from one another as nearly as possible ; with four obser- vations we shall be able to consider an interval of 30 ; with five, an in- terval of 36, or 40 and so on for the rest ; but to diminish the in- fluence of their errors, the interval comprised between the observations must be greater, in proportion as their number is greater. This being supposed, Let j8, j6', /3", &c. be the successive geocentric longitudes of the comet, 7> /> /' the corresponding latitudes, these latitudes being supposed positive or negative according as they are north or south. We shall divide the dif- ference /3' ft, by the number of days between the first and second ob- servation ; we shall divide in like manner the difference 0" ^ by the BOOK L] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 79 number of days between the second and third observation ; and so on. Let 3 ft, a ft', 5 ft", &c. be these quotients. We next divide the difference 5 & d ft by the number of days be- tween the first observation and the third ; we divide, in like manner, the difference d B" d ft' by the number of days between the second and fourth observations ; similarly we divide the difference 8 ft'" 8 ft" by the number of days between the third and fifth observation, and so on. Let d z ft, a 2 ft', d z ft", &c. denote these quotients. Again, we divide the difference 5* ft' 3* ft by the number of days which separate the first observation from the fourth ; we divide in like manner 3 z ft" 8 2 ft f by the number of days between the second obser- vation and the fifth, and so on. Make 3 3 ft, d 3 ft', &c. these quotients. Thus proceeding, we shall arrive at 3 n l ft, n being the number of obser- vations employed. This being done, we proceed to take as near as may be a mean epoch between the instants of the two extreme observations, and calling i, i', i 77 , &c. the number of days, distant from each observation, i, i', i", &c. ought to be supposed negative for the 'observations made prior to this epoch; the longitude of the comet, after a small number z of days reckoned from the Epoch will be expressed by the following formula : i 3 ft + i i' 3 2 ft i i' i" d 3 ft + &c. . . (p) &c,} The coefficients of 3 ft, + 3 2 ft, 3 3 ft, &c. in the part independent of z are 1st the numbers i and i', secondly the sum of the products two and two of the three numbers i, i 7 , i" ; thirdly the sum of the products three and three, of the four numbers i, i', i", i'", &c. The coefficients of 5 3 ft, + d* ft, 8 5 ft, &c. in the part multiplied by z 2 , are first, the sum of the three numbers i, i', i" ; secondly of the products two and two of the four numbers i, i', i' 7 , i 777 ; thirdly the sum of the products three and three of the five numbers i, V, i", i"', i"", &c. Instead of forming these products, it is as simple to develope the func- tion ft + (z i) 3 ft + (z i) (z i') 3 2 ft + (z i) (z i 7 ) (z i 77 ) X 3 3 ft + &c. rejecting the powers of z superior to the square. This gives the preceding formula. If we operate in a similar manner upon the observed geocentric lati- tudes of the comet ; its geocentric latitude, after the number z of days from the epoch, will be expressed by the formula (p) in changing ft into y. Call (q) the equation (p) thus altered. This being done, 80 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XL a will be the part independent of z in the formula (p) ; and 6 that in the formula (q). Reducing into seconds the coefficient of z in the formula (p), and takin" from the tabular logarithm of this number of seconds, the logarithm 4,0394622, we shall have the logarithm of a number which we shall de- note by a. Reducing into seconds the coefficients of z 2 in the same formula, and tak- ing from the logarithm of this number of seconds, the logarithm 1.9740144, we shall have the logarithm of a number, which we shall denote by b. Reducing in like manner into seconds "the coefficients of z and z 2 in the formula (q) and taking away respectively from the logarithms of these numbers of seconds, the logarithms, 4,0394622 and 1,9740144, we shall have the logarithms of two numbers, which we shall name h and 1. Upon the accuracy of the values of a, b, h, 1, depends that of the method; and since their formation is very simple, we must select and multiply observations, so as to obtain them with all the exactness which the observations will admit of. It is perceptible that these values are only /da\ /d 2 a\ /d .\ /d 2 Q\ ... the quantities (-r-J , (TT^)' VH/' \TT 2 7' w ' ucn we nave ex P r ^ss- ed more simply by the above letters. If the number of observations is odd, we can fix the Epoch at the instant of the mean observation; which will dispense with calculating the parts independent of z in the two preceding formulas ; for it is evident, that then these parts are respectively equal to the longitude and latitude of the mean observation. Having thus determined the values of a, a, b, 0, h, and 1, we shall de- termine the longitude of the sun, at the instant we have selected for the epoch, R the corresponding distance of the Earth from the sun, and R' the distance which answers to E augmented by a right angle. We shall have the following equations (1) R sin. (E a) | 1^ Ll_^J5 (2) f . 1 a 2 sin. 6 . cos. 6 \ ^ R sin. 6 cos. 6 /17 . f 1 111 + gh coME-aJjjp-pj ) a z sin. d . cos. sin. (E a) BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 81 (R' 1) cos. (E a)} 2 a x {(R' 1) sin. (E a) + cos.(E-n . L .2 m R j + R 2 To derive from these equations the values of the unknown quantities x, y, , we must consider, signs being neglected, whether b is greater or less than 1. In the first case we shall make use of equation (1), (2), and (4). We shall form a first hypothesis for x, supposing it for instance equal to unity; and we then derive by means of equations (1), (2), the values of f and of y. Next we substitute these values in the equation (4) ; and if the result is 0, this will be a proof that iZ; value of x has been rightly chosen. But if it be negative we must augment the value of x, and diminish it if the contrary. We shall thus obtain, by means of a small number of trials the values of x, y and g. But since these unknown quantities may be susceptible of many real and positive values, we must seek that which satisfies exacdy or nearly so the equation (3). In the second case, that is to say, if 1 be greater than b, we shall use the equations (1), (3), (4), and then equation (2) will give the verifi- cation. Having thus the values of x, y, , we shall have the quantity p = + h x tan - R cos - E a ) + x {25ifc?5 -(R' 1) cos. (E a)} + R.(R' 1). The Perihelion distance D of the comet will be Rax rin D P - - P 2 - 2 the cosine of its anomaly v will be given by the equation , 1 D cos*-v = -; and hence we obtain, by the table of the motion of the comets, the time employed to describe the angle v. To obtain the instant when the comet passes the perihelion, we must add this time to, or subtract it from the epoch according as P is negative or positive. For in the first case the comet approaches, and in the second recedes from, the perihelion. Having thus nearly obtained the perihelion distance of the comet, and the instant of its passage over the perihelion ; we are enabled to correct them by the following method, which has the advantage of being inde- pendent of the approximate values of the other elements of the orbit VOL. II. F 82 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XI. An exact Determination of the elements of the orbit, when we know ap- proximate values of the perihelion distance of the comet ', and of the instant of its passage over the perihelion. We shall first select three distant observations of the comet; then taking the perihelion distance of the comet, and the instant of its crossing the perihelion, determined as above, we shall calculate the three anomalies of the comet and the corresponding radius-vectors corresponding to the instants of the three observations. Let v, v', v" be these anomalies, those which precede the passage over the perihelion being supposed negative. Also let f, g' g" be the corresponding radius-vectors of the comet; then v 7 v, v" v will be the angles comprised by g and g' and by f, t>". Let U be the first of these angles, U' the second. Again, call a, a' a!' the three observed geocentric longitudes of the comet, referred to a fixed equinox ; 6, tf, 6" its three geocentric latitudes, the south latitudes being negative. Let |3, /3', |S'' be the three corresponding heliocentric longi- tudes and v, &', zr", its three heliocentric latitudes. Lastly call E, E', E /; the three corresponding longitudes of the sun, and R, R', R" its three distances to the center of the earth, Conceive that the letter S indicates the center of the sun, T that of the earth, and C that of the comet, C' that of its projection upon the plane of the ecliptic. The angle S T C' is the difference of the geocentric lon- gitudes of the sun and of the comet. Adding the logarithm of the cosine of this angle, to the logarithm of the cosine of the geocentric latitude of the comet, we shall have the logarithm of the cosine of the angle S T C. We know, therefore, in the triangle S T C, the side S T or R, the side S C or f, and the angle S T C, to find the angle C S T. Next we shall have the heliocentric latitude 9 of the comet, by means of the equation sin. 6 sin. C S T SUl. -a =: : /-i T Q sin. CIS The angle T S C' is the side of a spherical right angled triangle, of which the hypothenuse is the angle T S C, and of which one of the sides is the angle . Whence we shall easily derive the angle T S C', and con- sequently the heliocentric longitude /3 of the comer. We shall have after the same manner */, 0'; *", |3" ; and the values of 0, /3', j9" will show whether the motion of the comet be direct or retro- grade. If we imagine the two arcs of latitude , ~', to meet at the pole of die ecliptic, they would make there an angle equal to & /3 ; and in the BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PHINCIPIA. 83 spherical triangle formed by this angle, and by the sides &, - -j 2 * being the semi-circumference, the side opposite to the angle /3' (3 will be the angle at the sun comprised between the radius-vectors e, and f'. We shall easily determine this by spherical Trigonometry, or by the formula sin. 2 I V = cos. 2 ^ (a- + ~') cos 2 \ (/3' /3) cos. * cos. ', i9 ' im in which V represents this angle ; so that if we call A the angle of which the sine squared is cos 2 - (/3' jS) cos. . cos. *', the inclination of the orbit. We shall have by comparison of the first and last observation, tan, v sin. )3 7 tan. tS sin. /? tan ' J - tan. cos. &' tan. " cos. '' BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 85 tan. *" tan.

,g' "> $"* & c< tne radius-vectors. Let also v' v = U, v" v = U', v'" v = U", &c. F4 88 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XI. Then we shall estimate, by the preceding method with the parabola already found, the values of U, U', V", &c., V, V, V", &c. Make m = U V, m' = U' V, m" = U" V", &c. Next, let the perihelion distance in this parabola vary by a very small quantity, and on this hypothesis suppose n = U V; n' = U' V; n" = U" V", &c. We will form a third hypothesis, in which the perihelion distance re- maining the same as in the first, we shall make the instant of the comet's passing its perihelion vary by a very small quantity ; in this case let p = U V; p' = U' V; p" = U" V''; &c. Lastly, we shall calculate the angle v and radius g t with the perihelion distance, and instant over the perihelion on the first hypothesis, supposing the orbit an ellipse, and the difference 1 e between its excentricity and unity a very small quantity, for instance yV- To get the angle v, in this hypothesis, it will suffice (489) to add to the anomaly v, calculated in the parabola of the first hypothesis, a small angle whose sine is 1 (l--e)tan. iv J4 Scos.'-i v 6cos. 4 ^ vj. Substituting afterwards in the equation D ( i _e , 1 - 1 1 -- 2~ tan - 1 cos. v for v, this anomaly, as calculated in the ellipse, we shall have the corre- sponding radius-vector g. After the same manner, we shall obtain v', g , v", g", &c. Whence we shall derive the values of U, U', U", &c. and (by 503) of V, V, V", &c. In this case let q = U V; q' = U' V; q" = U" V", &c. Finally, call u the number by which we ought to multiply the supposed variation in the perihelion distance, to make it the true one ; t the number by which we ought to multiply the supposed variation in the instant over the perihelion, to make it the true instant; and s that by which we should multiply the supposed value of 1 e, in order to get the true one; and we shall obtain these equations : (m n) u + (m p) t + (m q; s = m ; ( m ' _ n' ) u + (m' _ p' ) t + (m' q'} s = m ; ( m " __ n ") u + (m" p") t + (m" q") s = m"; (m'" _ n'") u + (m'" p'") t + (m"' q'") s = m'"; &c. BOOK 1.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 89 We shall determine, by means of these equations, the values of u, t, s ; whence will be derived the true perihelion distance, the true instant over the perihelion, and the true value of 1 e. Let D be the perihelion distance, and a the semi-axis major of the orbit; then we shall have a = = - ; the time of a sidereal revolution of the comet, will be expressed A - G 5. / D 5- by a number of sidereal years equal to a 2 or to (- -) * tne mean distance of the sun from the earth being unity. We shall then have (by 503) the inclination of the orbit and the position of the node. Whatever accuracy we may attribute to the observations, they will always leave us in uncertainty as to the periodic times of the comets. To determine this, the most exact method is that of comparing the observa- tions of a comet in two consecutive revolutions. But this is practicable, only when the lapse of time shall bring the comet back towards its peri- helion. Thus much for the motions of the planets and comets as caused by the action of the principal body of the system. We now come to 506. General methods of determining by successive approximations, the motions of the heavenly bodies. In the preceding researches we have merely dwelt upon the elliptic motion of the heavenly bodies, but in what follows we shall estimate them as deranged by perturbing forces. The action of these forces requires only to be added to the differential equations of elliptic motion, whose integrals in finite terms we have already given, certain small terms. We must deter- mine, however, by successive approximations, the integrals of these same equations when thus augmented. For this purpose here is a general me- thod, let the number and degree of the equations be what they may. Suppose that we have between the n variables y, y', y", &c. and the time t whose element d t is constant, the n differential equations 0= Ttr + &C. = &C. PJ Q? P' Q'J &c. being functions of t, y, y', &c. and of the differences to the order i 1 inclusively, and a being a very small constant coefficient, which, in the theory of celestial motions, is of the order of the perturb- ing forces. Then let us suppose we have the finite integrals of those 90 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XL equations when Q, Q', &c. are nothing. Differentiating each i 1 times successively, we shall form with their differentials i n equations by means of which we shall determine by elimination, the arbitrary constants c, c', c", &c. in functions of t, y, y', y", &c. and of their differences to the order i 1. Designating therefore by V, V, V", &c. these functions we shall have c = V; c' = V; c" = V"; &c. These equations are the z n integrals of the (i I) 01 order, which the equations ought to have, and which, by the elimination of the differences of the variables, give their finite integrals. But if we differentiate the preceding integrals of the order i 1, we shall have = dV; = d V; = d V"; &c. and it is clear that these last equations being differentials of the order i without arbitrary constants, they can only be the sums of the equations d ' v = + p = &c. each multiplied by proper factors, in order to make these sums exact dif- ferences. Calling, therefore, F d t, F' d t', &c. the factors which ought respectively to multiply them in order to make = d V ; also in like manner making H d t, H' d t', &c. the factors which would make = d V, and so on for the rest, we shall have d V'=Hdt + P + H'dt + P' +&c. &c. F, F', &c. H, H', &c. are functions of t, y, y', y", &c. and of their dif- ferences to the order i 1 . It is easy to determine them when V, V', &c. d' 1 v are known. For F is evidently the coefficient of vp in the differential of V ; F' is the coefficient of . f in the same differential, and so on. d * v d ' \' . i In like manner, H, H', &c. are the coefficients of -y j , -.-5 , &c. in the differential of V. Thus, since we may suppose V, V', &c. known, by dif- BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 91 d i - 1 y (1 1 - 1 y' ferentiating with regard to jjufr > ^ t i _ i > &c - we shall have the factors by which we ought to multiply the differential equations in order to make them exact differences. Now resume the differential equations =^f 4- P+ .Q; = i^-' + P' + .Q', &c. If we multiply the first by F d t, the second by F' d t, and so on, we shall have by adding the results = dV + adt{FQ+FQ / + &c.J, In the same manner, we shall have = d V' + a d t {H Q + H' Q' + Sec.} &c. whence by integration c a/d t F Q + F Q' + &c.} = V; c' _ a /d t {H Q + H' Q' + &c.} = V; &c. We shall thus have i n differential equations, which will be of the same form as in the case when Q, Q', &c. are nothing, with this only differ- ence, that the arbitrary constants c, c', c", &c. must be changed into c /dt iFQ + F'Q'+&c.}, c _ a /dtHQ + H'Q'+&c.}&c. But if. in the supposition of Q, Q', &c. being equal to zero, we eliminate from the i n integrals of the order i 1, the differences of the variables y, y', &c. we shall have n finite integrals of the proposed equations. We shall therefore have these same integi'als when Q, Q', &c. are not zero, by changing in the first integrals, c, c', &c. into c a/d t F Q + &c.}, c' a/d t {H Q + &c.}&c. 507. If the differentials dt{FQ + FQ' + &c.}, dtHQ + H'Q' + &c.}&c. are exact, we shall have, by the preceding method, finite integrals of the proposed differentials. But this is not so, except in some particular cases, of which the most extensive and interesting is that in which they are linear. Thus let P, P 7 , &c. be linear functions of y, y', &c. and of their differences up to the order i 1, without any term independent of these variables, and let us first consider the case in which Q, Q', &c. are no- thing. The differential equations being linear, their successive integrals 92 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XL are likewise linear, so that c = V, c' = V', &c. being the i n integrals of the order i 1, of die linear differential equations V, V', &c. may be supposed linear functions of y y', &c. and of their dif- ferences to the order i 1. To make this evident, suppose that in the expressions for y, y', &c. the arbitrary constant c is equal to a determinate quantity plus an indeterminate 5c; the arbitrary constant c' equal to a determinate quantity plus an indeterminate 8 c! &c. ; then reducing these expressions according to the powers and products of d c, d c', &c. we shall have by the formulas of No. 487 Sc* , + ITS + &c - * &c. Y, Y', f-j J , &c. being functions oft without arbitrary constants. Sub- stituting those values, in the proposed differential equations, it is evident that 8 c, d c', &c. being indeterminate, the coefficients of the first powers of such of them ought to be nothing in the several equations. But these equations being linear, we shall evidently have the terms affected with the first powers of 8 c, d c', &c. by substituting for y, y', &c. these quantities respectively These expressions of y, y', &c. satisfy therefore separately the proposed equations ; and since they contain the i n arbitraries d c, d c', &c. they are complete integrals. Thus we perceive, that the arbitraries are under a linear form in the expressions of y, y', &c. and consequently also in their differentials. Whence it is easy to conclude that the variables y, y', &c. and their differences, may be supposed to be linear in the successive inte- grals of the proposed differential equations. d ' v d ' y 7 Hence it follows, that F, F', &c. being the coefficients of -r -, -- , BOOK L] NEWTON'S PRINCIPI A. 93 &c. in the differential of V ; H 3 H', &c. being the coefficients of the same differences in the differential of V, &c. these quantities are functions ot variable t only. Therefore, if we suppose Q, Q', &c. functions of t alone, the differentials d t {F Q + F Q' + Sec.} ; d t H Q + H' Q' + &c.} ; &c. will be exact. Hence there results a simple means of obtaining the integrals of any number whatever n of linear differential equations of the order i, and which contain any terms a Q, a Q', &c. functions of one variable t, having known the integrals of the same equations in the case where Q, Q', &c. are supposed nothing. For then if we differentiate their n finite integrals i 1 times successively, we shall have i n equations which will give, by elimination, the values of the i n arbitrary constants c, c', &c. in functions of t, y, y', &c. and of their differences to the i 1 th order. We shall thus form the i n equations c = V, c' = V, &c. This being done, F, F', &c. will be the coefficients of ^4r > ^T^f &c ' in V ' H > H/ > &c - wil1 be the coefficients of the same differences in V 7 , and so on. We shall, therefore, have the finite integrals of the linear differential equations = f + P + Q; 0= + P' + aQ'; &c. by changing, in the finite integrals of these equations deprived of their last terms a Q, a Q', &c. the arbitrary constants c, c', &c. into c /dt FQ+FQ'+&c], c' a/dt Let us take, for example, the linear equation The finite integral of the equation is (found by multiplying by cos. a t, and then by parts getting / cos. a t . -T-2. = cos. a t -^- + a / sin. a t , ^ . d t = cos. a t . ^ + a sin. a t . y a 2 f cos. a t . y .'. c = a cos. a fc xf + a sm - a t ? & c ') c c' v = sin. a t + cos. a t, 'a a c, c' being arbitrary constants. 94 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XL This integral gives by differentiation -r-s = c cos. at c' sin. a t. a t If we combine this with the integral itself, we shall form two integrals of the first order dy c = a y sin. a t + -* cos. a t ; dy c' = a y cos. at ~ sin. a t ; and therefore shall have in this case F = cos. at; H = sin. a t, and the complete integral of the proposed equation will therefore be c . c' a sin. a t r ~ , y = - sin. a t + cos. at j Q d t cos. a t a a a , a. cos. a t rf> . , . . H jQ d t sin. a t. Hence it is easy to conclude that if Q is composed of terms of the form sin K . (m t 4- s) each of these terms will produce in the value of y the cos. v corresponding term a K sin. . (m t + s). m z a 2 cos. v If m be equal to a, the term K (m t + e) will produce in y, 1st. the COi3 term -. . (a t + t) which being comprised by the two terms 4, a 2 cos. v C C cc 1C t COS sin. a t-l cos. at, may be neglected: 2dly. the term + . . (at4-i), a a 2 a sm. v -}- or being used according as the term of Q is a sine or cosine. We thus perceive how the arc t produces itself in the values of y, y', &c. with- out sines and cosines, by successive integrations, although the differentials do not contain it in that form. It is evident this will take place when- ever the functions F Q, F', Q', &c. H Q, H' Q', &c. shall contain con- stant terms. 508. If the differences d t { Q + &c.J, d t [H Q + &c.J are not exact, the preceding analysis will not give their rigorous integrals. But it affords a simple process for obtaining them more and more nearly by approximation when a is very small, and when we have the values of BOOK I.j NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 95 y, y 7 , &c. on the supposition of a being zero. Differentiating these values, i 1 times successively, we shall form the differential equations of the order i 1, viz. c = V; c' = V, &c. The coefficients of ^-? , -r--* , &c. in the differentials of V, V, &c. being the values of F, F', &c. H, H', &c. we shall substitute them in the differential functions d t (F Q + F' Q' + &c.) ; d t (H Q + H' Q' + &c) ; &c. Then, we shall substitute in these functions, for y, y', &c. their first approximate values, which will make these differences functions of t and of the arbitrary constants c, c', &c. Let T d t, T d t, &c. be these functions. If we change in the first approximate values of y, y', &c. the arbitrary constants c, c', &c. re- spectively into c y T d t, c' a f T d t, &c. we shall have the second approximate values of those variables. Again substitute these second values in the differential functions d t . (F Q + &c.) ; d t (H Q + &c.) &c. But it is evident that these functions are then what T d t, T' d t, &c. become when we change the arbitrary constants c, c', &c. into c af T d t, c' /T d t, c. Let therefore T /5 T,', &c. denote what T, T, &c. become by these changes. We shall get the third approximate values of y, y', &c. by changing in the first c, c', &c. respectively into c yT, d t, c- /T; d t, &c. Calling T y/ , T,/, in like manner, what T, T', &c. become when we change c, c', &c. into c af T, d t, c' ./T/ d t, &c. we shall have the fourth approximate values of y, y', &c. by changing in the first approximate values of these variables into c o.J"T Jt d t, c afT,/ d t, &c. and so on. We shall see presently that the determination of the celestial motions, depends almost always upon differential equations of the form Q being a rational and integer function of y, of the sine and cosine of angles increasing proportionally with the time represented by t. The following is the easiest way of integrating this equation. First suppose nothing, and we shall have by the preceding No. a first value of y. Next substitute this value in Q, which will thus become a rational and 90 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XI. entire function of sines and cosines of angles proportional to the time. Then integrating the differential equation, we shall have a second value of y approximate up to quantities of the order a inclusively. Again substitute this value in Q, and, integrating the differential equa- tion, we shall have a third approximation of y, and so on. This way of integrating by approximation the differential equations of the celestial motions, although the most simple of all, possesses the dis- advantage of giving in the expressions of the variables y, y', &c. the arcs of a circle (symbols sine and cosine) in the very case where these arcs do not enter the rigorous values of these variables. We perceive, in fact, that if these values contain sines or cosines of angles of the order a t, these sines or cosines ought to present themselves in the form of series, in the approximate values found by the preceding method; for these last values are ordered according to the powers of a. This developement into series of the sine and cosine of angles of the order a t, ceases to be exact when, by lapse of time, the arc a t becomes considerable. The ap- proximate values of y, y', &c. cannot extend to the case of an unlimited interval of time. It being important to obtain values which include both past and future ages, the reversion of arcs of a circle contained by the approximate values, into functions which produce them by their develope- ment into series, is a delicate and interesting problem of analysis. Here follows a general and very simple method of solution. 509. Let us consider the differential equation of the order i, d y d i 1 y a being very small, and P and Q algebraic functions of y, -^ , . . . . , , _ x , and of shies and cosines of angles increasing proportionally with the time. Suppose we have the complete integral of this differential, in the case of o = 0, and that the value of y given by this integral, does not contain the arc t, without the symbols sine and cosine. Also suppose that in inte- grating this equation by the preceding method of approximation, when a is not nothing, we have y = X + t Y + t 2 Z + t 3 S + &c. X, Y, Z, &c. being periodic functions of t, which contain the i arbitraries c, c', c", &c. and the powers of t in this expression of y, going on to in- finity by the successive approximations. It is evident the coefficients of these powers will decrease with the greater rapidity, the Jess is . In the theory of the motions of the heavenly bodies, expresses the order of perturbing forces, relative to the principal forces which animate them. BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 97 d'y If we substitute the preceding value of y in the function TT^ + P+aQ, it will take the form k + k' t + k" t 2 + &c., k, k', k", &c. being perio- dic functions of t ; but by the supposition, the value of y satisfies the dif- ferential equation = we ought therefore to have identically = k + k' t + k" t 2 + &c. If k, k', k", &c. be not zero this equation will give by the reversion of series, the arc t in functions of sines and cosines of angles proportional to the time t. Supposing therefore a to be infinitely small, we shall have t equal to a finite function of sines and cosines of similar angles, which is impossible. Hence the functions k, k', &c. are identically nothing. Again, if the arc t is only raised to the first power under the symbols sine and cosine, since that takes place in the theory of celestial motions, the arc will not be produced by the successive differences of y. Substi- tuting, therefore, the preceding value of y, in the function j~i + P + a Q the function of k + k' t + &c. to which it transforms, will riot contain the arc t out of the symbols sine and cosine, inasmuch as it is already con- tained in y. Thus changing in the expression of y, the arc t, without the periodic symbols, into t 6, 6 being any constant whatever, the function k + k' t + &c. will become k + k' (t 6) + &c. and since this last function is identically nothing by reason of the identical equations k = k' = 0, it results that the expression y = x + (t tar) + -ITS taw + W- (drO + &c - X is a function of t, and of the constants, c, c', c", &c. and since these constants are functions of 6, X is a function of t and of 6, which we can represent by (t, 6). The expression of y is by Taylor's Theorem the developement of the function p (t, 6 + t 0), according to the powers of t 6. We have therefore y = p (t, t). Whence we shall have y by changing in X, 6 into t. The problem thus reduces itself to determine X in a function of t and 0, and consequently to determine c, c', c", &c. in functions of 6. To solve this problem, let us resume the equation y = X + (t 6) . Y + (t /) 2 . Z + &c. Since the constant 6 is supposed to disappear from this expression of y, we shall have the identical equation .. (a) Applying to this equation the reasoning which we employed upon = k + k 7 1 + k" t 2 + &c. we perceive that the coefficients of the successive powers of t 6 ought to be each zero. The functions X, Y, Z, &c. do not contain 0, inasmuch as it is contained in c, c', &c. so that to form the partial differences (TT) sufficient to make these functions, which gives d Xx /d Xx d c ,d Xx d c' /!Xx_d^ H " Vd cV"dT h \d c'V d ^ BOOK L] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 99 f d Y > fd Yx die /dY N d c' /d Yx d c" VdT/ " VdJdd + Vdc'/oTT " \dc'V dd H &C. rr &C. Again, it may happen that some of the arbitrary constants c, c', c", &c. multiply the arc t in the periodic functions X, Y, Z, &c. The differentia- tion of these functions relatively to 6, or, which is the same thing, relatively to these arbitrary constants, will develope this arc, and bring it from without the symbols of the periodic functions. The differences ( , j\ , (-j-j) 5 tnen &c. X', X", Y', Y", Z', Z", &c. being periodic functions of t, and containing moreover the arbitrary constants c, c', c", &c. and their first differences divided by d 6, differences which enter into these functions only under a linear form ; we shall have therefore z' + * z" + (t - = when differentiated will give d ' v d ' v' Substituting for ^ r^-j its value d t {P + a Q] ; for -j -^ its value d t [P' + aQ'} &c. we shall have d t [S P + S' F + &c.} _adt{SQ + S'Q' + &c.] . (t) In the supposition of = 0, the parameters c, c', c", &c. are constant. We have thus = 3p dt{SP+S / P / + &c.} If we substitute in this equation for c, c', c", &c. their values V, V', V", Sec. we shall have differential equations of the order i 1, without arbi- traries, which is impossible, at least if this equation is to be identically nothing. The function 3p dt{SP+S / F + &c.} becoming therefore identically nothing by reason of equations c = V, c' = V, &c. and since these equations hold still, when the parameters c, c', c", &c. are variable, it is evident, that in this case, the preceding BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPLE 103 function is still identically nothing. The equation (t) therefore will be- come d t [S Q + S' Q' + &c.} ....... (x) Thus we perceive that to differentiate the equation

4/, &c. we shall have d. S 1 - 1 ^ /d. S 5 - = )' dc dc Thus the equations -^ = 0, ^ = 0, &c. being supposed to be the n finite integrals of the differential equations d' - dt' &c. we shall have i n equations, by means of which we shall be able to de- termine the parameters c, c', c", &c. without which it would be necessary for that purpose to form the equations c = V, c' = V', &c. But when the integrals are under this last form, the determination will be more simple. 512. This method of making the parameters vary, is one of great utility G3 104 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XL in analysis and in its applications. To exhibit a new use of it, let us take the differential equation P being a function of t, y, of their differences to the order i ], and of the quantities q, q', &c. which are functions of t. Suppose we have the finite integral of this differential equation of the supposition of q, q', &c. being constant, and represent by p = 0, this integral, which shall contain i arbitrages c, c', &c. Designate by 3 p, 8 2 fdRx , / d R\ , /d R\ . = l 7r f- T + V +2/^R + x( aT )+y( H -~) + Z ( nT ); (R) We may conceive, however, the perturbing masses /*', ///', &c. multi- plied by a coefficient , and then the value of will be a function of the time t and of . If we develope this function according to the powers of a, and afterwards make a = 1, it will be ordered according to the powers and products of the perturbing masses. Designate by the characteristic d when placed before a quantity, this differential of it taken relatively to , and divided by d a. When we shall have determined d g in a series or- dered according to the powers of , we shall have the radius by multi- plying this series by d , then integrating it relatively to a, and adding to the integral a function of t independent of , a function which is evidently the value of in the case where the perturbing forces are nothing, and where the body p describes a conic section. The determination of g re- duces itself, therefore, to forming and integrating the differential equation which determines 3 g. For that purpose, resume the differential equation (R) and make for the greater simplicity d differentiating this relatively to a, we shall have Call d v the indefinitely small arc intercepted between the two radius- vectors g and f + d g ; the element of the curve described by p around M will be Vd^ + gMv 2 . We shall thus have dx 2 + dy 2 + dz 2 = dg 2 + 2 dv 2 , and the equation (Q) will become ' t ._., m dt 2 Eliminating from this equation by means of equation (R) we shall a have g 2 d v 2 _ g d z g m whence we derive, by differentiating i-elatively to a, 2g 2 d d V.d8v = gd 2 a^-a f d 2 g _3j^a i+g3R/ _ R/agt BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA 107 If we substitute in this equation for -j- - its value derived from equa- ^ tion (S), we shall have d v ' By means of the equations (S), (T), we can get as exactly as we wish the values of 5 g and of 3 v. But we must observe that d v being the angle intercepted between the radii g and g -f- d g, the integral v of these angles is not wholly in one plane. To obtain the value of the angle described round M, by the projection of the radius-vector g upon a fixed plane, de- note by v, , this last angle, and name s the tangent of the latitude of ft above this plane ; then g(l + s 2 ) ~ ^ will be the expression of the projected ra- dius-vector, and the square of the element of the curve described by p will be g 2 dv/ g g ds* 1 + s* H h (l + s s ) 2; But the square of this element is also g 2 dv 2 + d g 2 ; therefore we have, by equating these two expressions We shall thus determine d v, by means of d v, when s is known. If we take for the fixed plane, that of the orbit of (i at a given epoch, d s s and -, - will evidently be of the order of perturbing forces. Neglecting therefore the squares and the products of these forces, we shall have v = v, . In the Theory of the planets and of the comets, we may neglect these squares and products with the exception of some terms of that order, which particular circumstances render of sensible magnitude, and which it will be easy to determine by means of the equations (S) and (T). These last equations take a very simple form, when we take into account the first power only of the disturbing forces. In fact, we may then con- sider 3 g and a v as the parts of g and v due to these forces ; a R, a. g R' are what R and g R' become, when we substitute for the coordinates of the bodies their values relative to the elliptic motion : We may designate them by these last quantities when subjected to that condition. The equation (S) thus becomes, 108 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XL The fixed plane of x, y being supposed that of the orbit of p at a given epoch, z will be of the order of perturbing forces : and since we may neglect the square of these forces, we can also neglect the quantity z f-i ). Moreover, the radius g differs only from its projection by quan- tities of the order z 2 . The angle which this radius makes with the axis of x, differs only from its projection by quantities of the same order. This angle may therefore be supposed equal to v and to quantities nearly of the same order x = g cos. v ; y = g sin. v ; whence we get d R\ /dR /d and consequently g . R' = (, j . It is easy to perceive by differentia- tion, that if we neglect the square of the perturbing force, the preceding differential equation will become, by means of the two first equations (P) x/ydt{2/rfR + f ( <1 d ^)}-y/xdt{2/rfR+f(^)} POP _ * * * _ , /x d y y d x\ \ ~dl / In the second member of this equation the coordinates may belong to j (| y _ y (1 X elliptic motion ; this gives - 3 ^~ -- constant and equal to V m a(l e ! ). a e being the excentricity of the orbit of /. If we substitute in the ex- pression of d g for x and y, their values cos. v and g sin. v, and for y ~ y ( ^ thg q uan tity V i* a (I e 2 ) ; finally, if we observe that (1 L by No. (480) m = n 2 a 3 , we shall have C acos.v/ndt. f sin.v|2/cZ R + g (^jy) } ) ^- asin.v/ndt.gcos.v|a/dR + S ( d d ~)}) dg = " m V le z The equation (T) gives by integration and neglecting the square of perturbing forces, _ d - - a 2 n d t T m JJ m j s W g T ^ ~~~ BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 109 This expression, when the perturbations of the radius-vector are known, will easily give those of the motion of/* in longitude. It remains for us to determine the perturbations of the motion in lati- tude. For that purpose let us resume the third of the equations (P) : integrating this in the same manner as we have integrated the equation (S), and making z = g 8 s, we shall have r j ,. /d R\ /. j /d R\ a cos. \j n d t . sin. v f , ) a sin. vj n d t . g cos. v( -, ) v cl z / \a z / ,. d s r= - - ; (j) m v 1 e 2 5 s is the latitude of /* above the plane of its primitive orbit : if we wish to refer die motion of /* to a plane somewhat inclined to this orbit, by calling s its latitude, when it is supposed not to quit the plane of the orbit, s + 5 s will be very nearly the latitude of /* above the proposed plane. 514. The formulas (X), (Y), (Z) have the advantage of presenting the perturbations under a finite form. This is very useful in the Cometary Theory, in which these perturbations can only be determined by quad- ratures. But the excentricity and inclination of the respective orbits of the planets being small, permits a developement of their perturbations into converging series of the sines and cosines of angles increasing pro- portionally to the time, and thence to make tables of them to serve for any times whatever. Then, instead of the preceding expressions of 8 g, 8 s, it is more commodious to make use of differential equations which determine these variables. Ordering these equations according to the powers and products of the excentricities and inclinations of the orbits, we may always reduce the determination of the values of 5 & and of 5 s to the integration of equations of the form equations whose integrals we have already given in No. 509. But we can immediately reduce the preceding differential equations to this simple form, by the following method. Let us resume the equation (R) of the preceding No., and abridge it by making Q = 2fd R + It thus becomes 110 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XL In the case of elliptic motion, where Q = 0, g 2 is by No. (488) a func- tion of e cos. (n t + * *0 a e being the excentricity of the orbit, and n t + t -a the mean anomaly of the planet p. Let e cos. (n t + t -a] = u, and suppose f 2 =

(u), but u will no longer be equal to e cos. (n t + e -or}. It will be given by the preceding differential equation augmented by a term depending upon the perturbing forces. To determine this term, we shall observe that if we make u = 4/ (g z ) we shall have nu = 4/ ( 2 ) being the differential of $> (f 2 ) divided by d.g 2 and y (g 2 ) the d 2 . e 2 differential of -v]/ (f 2 ) divided by d.f 2 . The equation (R/) gives ' 2 equal to a function of plus a function depending upon the perturbing ibrce. If we multiply this equation by 2 d f , and then integrate it, we shall have - , | equal to a function of plus a function depending upon 122 2 ^1 2 the perturbing force. Substituting these values of , , and of , j- in d t 2 d t 2 d 2 u the preceding expression of - + n 2 u, the function of f, which is in- v i L dependent of the perturbing force will disappear of itself, because it is identically nothing when that force is nothing. We shall therefore have d 2 ti d 2 . e 2 p 2 de 2 the value of -. - + n 2 u by substituting for ' 2 , and =-j |- , the parts Cl L Cl L (1 L of their expressions which depend upon the perturbing force. But re- garding these parts only, the equation (R') and its integral give Wherefore If*'- = - 8/Q , d , C\ /\ < / / 9\ f\ I // / O\ /* ^X 1 jp- + n 2 u = 2 Q -4,' (g 2 ) 8 >|/ 7 (e S )/Q . g d f. Again, from the equation u = p (^ 2 ), we derive d u = 2 g d g 4' (? ! ) i this f * = 'p (u) gives 2 f, d g = d u. p' (u) and consequently BOOK I.I NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. Ill Differentiating this last equation and substituting ' (u) for ~ * , we shall have ' (u) is equal to ', . This being done : if we make d u u = e cos. (n t + e } + ^ u, the differential equation in u will become d t 2 p' (u) 3 0' (u) ' and if we neglect the square of the perturbing force, u may be supposed equal to e cos. (n t + s "*)> i n the terms depending upon Q. Q The value of - found in No. (485) gives, including quantities -of the a order e 3 whence we derive ^ = a 3 f l+2e 2 2u(l \ e 2 ) u 2 u 5 i = p(u). t ^ & ' ) If we substitute this value of

+ v/; v' and v/ being inconsiderable. Thus, reducing R into a series ordered according to the powers and products of u /t v /5 z, u/, v/, and z', this series will be very convergent. Let a l 2 cos. (n' t n t + i' j) fa * 2 a a' cos. (of t n t + *' e)+a' 2 } J = 5 1< + A ( cos. (n' t n t -f *' s) -f A cos. 2 (n r t n t +' ) Sv + A cos. 3 (n r t n t + e r ) + &c. ; We may give to this series the form | 2 A (i) cos. i (n' t n t + *' s )> the characteristic 2 of finite integrals, being relative to the number i, and extending itself to aH whole numbers from i = QD to i = oc ; the value i = 0, being comprised in this infinite number of values. But then we must observe that A (-i) = A [i) . This form has the advantage of serving to express after a very simple manner, not only the preceding series, but also the product of this series, by the sine or the cosine of any angle ft-\-zr', for it is perceptible that this product is equal to C|T| 2A {i(n't nt+ ' ) +f t + w}. C-Ob This property will furnish us with very commodious expressions for the perturbations of the planets. Let in like manner Ja * 2 a a cos. (n' t n t -f t' e) + a' *} ~ * = TJ 2 B ' cos. i (n t n t + s s) ; m B ( i} being equal to B (i} . This being done, we shall have by (483) VOL. II. H- Ill A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XL R = -- . 2 A o> cos. i (n' t n t : -f ' ) I + U 2 ' 003 ' [ n/ t n t + .' + "/^'(- 7 " 008 ' i (n' t n t + e' ,' ~2 ( V// v /) 2 * A (i) sin. i (n' t n t -f t' -- t) + . u,. 2.a 2 (ijA^)cos. i (n' t n t + ,' - .) ~ /" 2 a /2 ('^ 2 )cos. i (n' t n t + e' ) 4 \ d a * / /*' /d A w \ -g- (v/ v,) u, 2 . i a ( j - J sin. i (n' t n t + *' e) ~ ( v / ~ v ') u / 2 " * a/ sin ' i (n' t - n t + f ' - _ 1L ( v ; _ v/ ) 2 . 2 . i 2 A W cos. i (n 7 I n t + ' T 1 zz' 3/i' az /2 , . cos. (n' t n t + ' / 3 --- 2a /4 /(Z/ ~ Z) * 2 B W cos. i (n' t n t + ' + &c. If we substitute in this expression of R, instead of u /5 u/, v 7 , v/, z and z', their values relative to elliptic motion, values which are functions of sines and cosines of the angles n t + e, n' t + ' and of their multiples, R will be expressed by an infinite series of cosines of the form // k cos. (i n' t i n t + A), i and i' being whole numbers. It is evident that the action of /A", //", &c. upon p will produce in R terms analogous to those which result from the action of //, and we shall obtain them by changing in the preceding expression of R, all that relates to //, in the same quantities relative to /*"> (*'"* &c. Let us consider any term // k cos. (i' n' t i n t + A) of the expres- sion of R. If the orbits were circular, and in one plane we should have i' = i. Therefore i' cannot surpass i or be exceeded by it, except by means of the sines or cosines of the expression for u /} v /5 z, u/, v/, z' which combined with the sines and cosines of the angle n' t n t + ' e BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 115 and of its multiples, produce the sines and cosines of angles in which i' is different from i. If we regard the excentricities and inclinations of the orbits as very small quantities of the first order, it will result from the theorems of (481) that in the expressions of u,, v,, z or g s, s being the tangent of the latitude of ,u, the coefficient of the sine or of the cosine of an angle such as f. (n t + g), is expressed by a series whose first term Is of the order f ; second term of the order f + 2 ; third term of the order f + 4 and so on. The same takes place with regard to the coefficient of the sine or of the cosine of the angle f (n' t + s') in the expressions of u/, v/, z'. Hence it follows that i, and i' being supposed positive and i' greater than i, the coefficient k in the term m' k cos. (i 7 n 7 t i n t + A) is of the ordar i' i, and that in the series which expresses it, the first term is of the order V i the second of the order i' i + 2 and so on ; so that the series is very convergent. If i be greater than i', the terms of the series will be successively of the orders i i', i V + 2, &c. Call -a the longitude of the perihelion of the orbit of p and 6 that of its node, in like manner call ' the longitude of the perihelion of (j/, and & that of its node, these longitudes being reckoned upon a plane inclined to that of the orbits. It results from the Theorems of (481), that in the expressions of u /s v,, and z, the angle n t + s is always accompanied by or by 6 ; and that in the expressions of u/, v/, and z', the angle n' t -{ t' is always accompanied by */, or by ^ ; whence it follows that the term p' k cos. (i' n' t i n t + A) is of the form /u/kcos. (in't int + V t is g w g* CT ' g"^ g"' 0> g, g', g", g"' being whole positive or negative numbers, and such that we have = i' - i g g' g" g'". It results also from this that the value of R, and its different terms are independent of the position of the straight line from which the longitudes are measured. Moreover in the Theorems of (No. 481) the coefficient of the sine and cosine of the angle *?, has always for a factor the excentricity e of the orbit of ^ ; the coefficient of the sine and of the cosine of the angle 2 w, has for a factor the square e 2 of this excentricity, and so on. In like manner, the coefficient of the sine and cosine of the angle 6, has for its factor tan. ^ cos. + b cos. 2 j S 8 S + b (5 < cos. 3 b 0) = - L, - . - , - ^ - . . . (a) (I 5). $ ; We shall thus have b (2) , b (8) , &c. when b [0) and b r ' 5 are known. 8 8 If we change s into s + 1, in the preceding expression of (1 2 a cos. 6 -f a 2 ) , we shall have (12 a cos. 0+ 2 ) = | b +b (1) cos. 0+b (2 > cos.2 6+b cos.30-f &c. 8+1 S+l 8+1 8+1 Multiplying the two members of this equation, by 1 2 a cos. 6 + <*% and substituting for (1 2 a cos. 6 + a*) its value in series, we shall have + b^cos. 6 + b 12 ' cos. 20 + &c. = (1 2 a cos. 6+a z ){ b (0 > + b (1 > cos. -f b cos. 26 + &c.j S + l S+ 1 6+1 whence by comparing homogeneous terms, we derive b = (1 -f 2 )b ab- o Tk f 1 "/ N S + J ' + 1 1 he tormula (a) gives i(l + a)bW (i + s)ab (i - b P+i) = _ . . 8 + ' T ^- - L_L . s+l (l Sj.a The preceding expression of b (i) will thus become 8 2s.ab- 8(1 + a)b i+J . S H3 1 18 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XL Changing i into i -j- 1 in this equation we shall have gsab^ s(l + a*)bO+ b C' + !) = _ 1 _ _L+i i _ s + 1 and if we substitute for b (i + 1} its preceding value, we shall have 8 + 1 8(1 + s)a(l + a e )b< l -'> + s2(i s) a* i (l+a j ) 2 jb > 1J __ L+J _ (i s) (i s + l)a These two expressions of b and b (i + 1} give s s; b CO - - _ 5 _ I _ _ /M s + l~ (1 2 ) 2 substituting for b (i + !) its value derived from equation (u), we shall have an expression which may be derived from the preceding by changing i into i, and observing that b (i) = b (i) . We shall therefore have by means of this formula, the values of b (0) , b (1) , b (2) , &c. when those of 8+1 S+l 8+1 b<% b<, b, &c. are known. a * Let X, for brevity, denote the function 1 2 a cos. 6 + a 2 . If we differentiate relatively to a, the equation X - = b c> + b <> cos. 6 + b cos. 2 & + &c. S g 8 we shall have d b w > d b < d b ^ 2s (a cos. 6} X - s - 1 = A . ? -- 1 -- ^ cos. 6 + . cos. 2 d + &c. da da da But we have 1 a 2 X a + cos. d = - - - ; a We shall, therefore, have . dbW db< __ _ __ a a J d a d a whence generally we get d b > s b W d- . a a s+l a Substituting for b (i) its value given by the formula (b), we shall have d 8 + 1 + 2s)a g m ' BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 119 If we differentiate this equation, we shall have (l+a j_) *) 2 J? ' da 2 " a(l a 8 ) 'da d h (i + ') (i 1 a 2 da (Ia 2 ) 2 . Again differentiating, we shall get d 3 b (i) d 2 b (i) d b 0) . _i-f-(i+2.s)a 2 , f(i + s)(I + 2 ) jllL da a ' a (l_ a 2) 'da 2 ' \ (l!_a 8 ) 8 a 2 / da d ' , '" 3 (1 a 2 ) 3 "a 3 /, 1 a 2 da 2 8(j- S+ I) g ^ 4(1 S+l)(l + 3a 2 ) fl (1 a 2 ) 2 da (I a 2 ) 3 J Thus we perceive that in order to determine the values of b and 01 8 its successive d inferences, it is sufficient to know those of b (0) and of b (1) . 8 8 We shall determine these two as follows : If we call c the hyperbolic base, we can put the expression of X~ s un- der this form X- 8 = (1 a C 0v'-l)-s (! _ ac _0v-l)-s. Developing the second member of this equation relatively to the powers of c 8 V i, and c e ^ ] , it is evident the two exponentials c i e V 1 , c * e V 1 will have the same coefficient which we denote by k. The sum of the two terms k . c ' e \ l and k c i v/ 1 is 2 k cos. i 6. This will be the value of b (l) cos. i d. We have, therefore, b (i) = 2 k. Again the ex- 8 S pression of X~ s is equal to the product of the two series 2 C 2flV-i + & c . | Ik / 1 \ 2 o ' v o 7 -* b ( = a f l 1 - 1 g8 1 . 1 ' 1 - 8 tt 4 1.3 1.1.3.5 a6 1.3.5 1.1.3 ...71 8|&c> In the Theory of the planets and satellites, it will be sufficient to take the sum of eleven or a dozen first terms, in neglecting the following terms or more exactly in summing them as a geometric progression whose common ratio is 1 a 2 . When we shall have thus determined b (0) and -i b 0) , we shall have b (0) in making i = 0, and s = in the formula (b). ~a s and we shall find (1 + ) bW + 6 ab> If in the formula (c) we suppose i = 1 and s = we shall have 2ab + 3 (1 + a 2 )b> b) - ^i ^i . , (1 -")' By means of these values of b (0) and of b (1) we shall have by the pre- i I ceding forms the values of b (i) and of its partial differences whatever may 2 be the number i ; and thence we derive the values of b (l) and of its dif- I ferences. The values of b (0) and of b (1) may be determined very simply, BOOK L] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 121 by the following formulae b w> b W ' " Again to get the quantities A (0) , A (1) , &c. and their differences, we must observe that by the preceding No., the series A (0) + A W cos. 6 + A w cos. 2 d + &c. results from the developement of the function a_^L^ _ (a* _ 2 a a' cos. 6 + a' 2 ) "*, 1 into a series of cosines of the angle and of its multiples. Making 7 = a, 1 this same function becomes 2 . ~cos.2* See. 2 a i \a /2 a , / a' , ^ 2 which gives generally when i is zero, or greater than 1, abstraction being made of the sign. In the case of i = 1, we have A = A-.-lb"). a a 'i We have next db (i > d A W\ ! d A W\ _!_ /^x d a ) ~ ~ a r ' ~d a \<\ J ; But we have -* = : ; therefore da a! db d A to l __ V da >" "a' * d and in the case of i = 1, we have ^v J_f * 1 )- a' 2 I da J d Finally, we have, in the same case of i = 1 d 2 b ^ /d* AW _ __ da 2 / ~ " a' 3 ' d a s 122 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XI. d 3 b w /d 3 A"\ 1 __ i V da 3 )~ a' 4 * da 3 ; &c. To get the differences of A (i) relative to a', we shall observe that A w being a homogeneous function in a and a', of the dimension 1, we have by the nature of such functions, whence we get ,/dAWx /dAO\ a ( -3 r ) = A w a ( -a ) ; v d a' / V d a / d A W\ /d s A (i) , 3 3 A x . m _ Q /dA t'\ , /d 2 A W N 3 /d 3 A a -- = - 6A n - 18 a - 9a &c. We shall get B (i) and its differences, by observing that by the No. pre- ceding, the series -I B (0 > + B W cos. 6 + B cos. 2 6 + &c. is the developement of the function a'- 3 (1 2 COS. 6 -f- a 2 )~i" according to the cosine of the angle 6 and its multiples. But this function thus developed is equal to a'- 3 f ib<> + b cos. 4 + b cos. 2 + &c.) if i i J ; therefore we have generally B"> = -U< ; Whence we derive - /d B MX J_ _f_; /d'B^x J. V da ;~ a /4 * da V d a 2 / " a /5 ' __ d a 2 Moreover, B (i} being a homogeneous function of a and of a', of the dimension 3 we have BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 123 whence it is easy to get the partial differences of B w taken relatively to a' by means of those in a. In the theory of the Perturbations of p', by the action of /tt, the values of A (i) and of B (i) , are the same as above with the exception of A (n which in this theory becomes 2 -- , b (1) . Thus the estimate of the values of a a ] a A (i) , B (i) , and their differences will serve also for the theories of the two bodies /j> and p/. 517. After this digression upon the developement of R into series, let us resume the differential equations (X 7 ), (Y), (Z') of Nos. 513, 514; and find by means of them, the values of 3 , d v, and 8 s true to quantities of the order of the excentricities and inclinations of orbits. If in the elliptic orbits, we suppose g = a(l + u,); /=a'(l + u/): v = n t -f s + v, ; v' = ri t f' + v/ ; we shall have by No. (488) U, = e cos. (n t + s *) u/ = e' cos. (n' t + s' &'}, v, = 2 e sin. (n t + t tr) ; v/ = 2 e' sin. (n' t + e 7 *S) ; n t + , n' t + s' being the mean longitudes of ft, yf ; a, a! being the semi- axis-majors of their orbits ; e, e' the ratios of the excentricity to the semi- axis-major; , and lastly , ' being the longitudes of their perihelions. All these longitudes may be referred indifferently to the planes of the orbits, or to a plane which is but very little inclined to the orbits ; since we ne- glect quantities of the order of the squares and products of the excen- tricities and inclinations. Substituting the preceding values in the ex- pression of R in No. 515, we shall have R = 2 A cos. i (n' t n t + ' -{^{(TrV"*'}* e COS.U (n' t n t + t' t) + n t + **} e' cos.[i (n" t nt+t/ g) + nt + e */}; the symbol 2 of finite integrals, extending to all the whole positive and negative values of i, not omitting the value i = 0. Hence we obtain d 2 121- A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XI. d + n t + s ^; the integral sign 2 extending, as in what follows, to all integer positive and negative values of i, the value i = being alone excepted, because we have brought from without this symbol, the terms in which i = : /*' g is a constant added to the integral/" d R. Making therefore ,/y . ,/ . ,/x D = i a 2 a ( -j T-/ ) + a ( i - ) + a a 7 1 , , ) + 2 a A ^dadaV ^da/ \da/ ,. 2li (n n ) n} I V d a i (n n x ) n t ^ d a /H 2 A (-i)x /d A 0-1)*, D W = ia'a-( d , A . , )- (i - 1) W2~ - ) \ da da ' J Vda/ (i l)n f ,/dA( } - 5 \ 1 + nr - 7V - i a a ( - i/ ) 2 ( l 1 ) a A (1 - '' r ; i (n n') n I \ d a / r taking then for unity the sum of the masses M + ^ an ^ observing that (237) M ^ = n 2 , the equation (X') will become BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 125 + n z (jJ C e cos. (n t + =r) + n * p' D e' cos. (n t + t *') + n V' 5 C W e cos. i (n 7 t n t + e 7 i) + n t + wj + n V 2 D (i) e' cos.{i (n' t n t -f ' ) + n t + c J\\ and integrating > v \ u n / n IL j 'tit. i \ ~ n 2 2 . r^ 7vr . s - cos. i (n 7 t n t + e f ) 2 i" (n n 7 ) 8 n 2 fjf f, e cos. (n t + e w) + A/ f/ e 7 sin. (n t + *>'} C . n t . e sin. (n t + ) -^- D . n t. e 7 sin. (n t + ' |i (n )~i}VHir' T) 0) n 2 n t f y and f/ being two arbitraries. The expression of & g in terms 3 u, found in No. 514 will give >S a , f' -' _ / . 1 ; "-JL__}cos.i(n' t - i 2 (n n 7 ) 2 n * nt + .'- /t 7 f e cos. (n t + *r) yJ f 7 e 7 cos. (n t + CT/ ) + \ y! C n t e sin. (n t + s w) + 1 1*! D n t e 7 sin. (n t + s 2 n . r ; - t a A fl) r (i) if n * i da/ 1 2 ' < ^ i 2 (n n') 2 n 2 ]i (n n') n} 2 n X ecos. [i (n't n t+ 7 s) + nt + s . D (i) [jf . n 2 2 . ,. g e" cos. Ji(n 7 1 n t+ e 7 )+n t+s s/j, f and f 7 being arbitrary constants independent of f /5 f/. This value of 5 , substituted in the formula (Y) of No. 513 will give 3 v or the perturbations of the planet in longitude. But we must observe that n t expressing the mean motion of ^, the term proportional to the time, ought to disappear from the expression of 8 v. This condition determines the constant (g) and we find 1 3 126 A COMMENTARY ON- [SECT. XI. We might have dispensed with introducing into the value of 5 the arbitraries f y f/, for they may be considered as comprised in the elements e and * of elliptic motion. But then the expression of 8 v would include terms depending upon the mean anomaly, and which would not have been comprised in those which the elliptic motion gives : that is, it is more commodious to make these terms in the expression of the longitude dis- appear in order to introduce them into the expression of the radius-vector > we shall thus determine f, and f/ so as to fulfil this condition. Then if we /( jA Ci - 1) \. /d A G J) \ substitute for a( 55 jits value A^~ l) a( -j- -'), we shall V d a' / \ d a / have AC1 , - a ro = (I-l)-l)" aA(i - n i (n n') \ d a 2 d = f = ; Moreover let 3n nA ^ i ' aA [n + i (n n')} 3 n 2 i 2 (n n') 2 n 2 2n 2 E ( i_])(2i_l)naA^-^+(i-l)na 2 (44^ - PI a) 2 Jn i (n n')} 2 n 2 D w . n 2 Jn i (n n')] 25 BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 127 and we shall have *!_*' *(. L _ i (n _ nO C Si ' ^ ( n/ 1 n t + 6 7 t ) +n t+* } } + n / 2 ^ ^ (i) ^ ; In i (n n / ) 6/sin ^ i(n/t ~' nt + t/ ~ g) + nt + ~ g/ U the integral sign 2 extending in these expressions to all the whole positive and negative values of i, with the value i = alone excepted. Here we may observe, that even in the case where the series represent- ed by 2. A W cos. 5 (n r t n t + ^ e} 5 is but little convergent, these expressions of -- and of d v, become con- 3, vergent by the divisors which they acquire. This remark is the more important, because, did this not take place, it would have been impossible to express analytically the mutual perturbations of the planets, of which the ratios of their distances from the sun are nearly unity. These expressions may take the following form, which will be useful to us hereafter. Let h rr e sin. v\ h' = e' sin. / ; 1 = e cos. =r ; 1' = e' cos. a/ ; then we shall have 2 /dA (i >\ 2n *= a'(i^) +<, { a bir)+n^ aA " | co , i(n , t _ nt+ ,_, ) a 6 Vda/ n 2 \ i ( n n'J 2 n 1 ) h'P) cos.(n t + /'(! f -f V f) sin. (n t + f) 128 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XI. jntsin.(nt+i) ' {hC+h'D}ntcos. (nt + s) . ,., . _ . li(n n') 1 i(n n') U 2 . (n n') * n sin. i (n' t n t + t f H) {h C+h' D}. n t . sin. (n t +)+**' H - C+l x . D} n t . cos. (n t+ - 7 . " .(..' t-.t-K-O Connecting these expressions of 5 g and 3 v with the values of and v relative to elliptic motion, we shall have the entire values of the radius- vector of [*, and of its motion in longitude. 518. Now let us consider the motion of p in latitude. For that pur- pose let us resume the formula (Z') of No. 514. If we neglect the pro- duct of the inclinations by the excentricities of the orbits it will become d 2 3 u' 1 /d Rx -- nT - + n *3u'--- 2 ( dz -); the expression of R of No. 515 gives, in taking for the fixed plane that of the primitive orbit of /A, the value of i belonging to all whole positive and negative numbers in- cluding also i = 0. Let y be the tangent of the inclination of the orbit of ^', to the primitive orbit of ^ and n the longitude of the ascending node of the first of these orbits upon the second ; we shall have very nearly T! = a' y sin. (n' t + ' II) ; which gives X?) = ~i y. sin. (n' t+s' n) -^ . a' B (i > y sin.(n t+n) Q z / a /& ~ a' s B o-^y sin. {i (n' t n t + g 7 *) + n t + s n} < the value here, as in what follows, extending to all whole positive and negative numbers, i = being alone excepted. The differential equation BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 129 in 8 a' will become, therefore, when the value of (, \ is multiplied by n 2 a 3 , which is equal to unity } r !2S n / j = "_-"- + n 2 a u' ft' n 2 . ~ 7 sin. (n' t + ' n) at 2 a ' - + ?-- a &' B (i > 7 sin. (n t + e U) " 1 ' {i (n' t nt+s' + n t+s n)} ; whence by integrating and observing that by 514 8s = a 3 u', / 2 2 3 s = g z . -j- z 7 sin. (n' t + ' n) tjf a E a' '-g B (i > . n t . 7 cos. (n t + s n) ///n 2 a 2 a/ TJ (' J ) ,U> 11 . d. d, JJ To find the latitude of p above a fixed plane a little inclined to that of its primitive orbit, by naming the inclination of this orbit to the fixed plane, and 6 the longitude of its ascending node upon the same plane ; it will suffice to add to d s the quantity tan.

sin. (f p' ; tan. 9 cos. 6 = q ; tan. p' cos. ^ = q' ; we shall have 7 sin. n = p' p ; 7 cos. n = q' q and consequently if we denote by s the latitude of /. above the fixed plane, we shall very nearly have s = q sin. (nt + s) p cos. (nt + s) __ (p , _ p) B p, n t sin> (n t VOL II I 130 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XI. i- q) B n t cos. (n t + s) u! a 2 a' cos ' 519. Now let us recapitulate. Call (g) and (v) the parts of the radius- vector and longitude v upon the orbit, which depend upon the elliptic motion, we shall have s = ( f ) + 3g; v = (v) + 3v. The preceding value of s, will be the latitude of p above the fixed plane. But it will be more exact to employ, instead of its two first terms, which are independent of^j the value of the latitude, which takes place in the case where p quits not the plane of its primitive orbit. These expressions contain all the theory of the planets, when we neglect the squares and the products of the excentricities and inclinations of the orbits, which is in most cases allowable. They moreover possess the advantage of being under a very simple form, and which shows the law of their different terms. Sometimes we shall have occasion to recur to terms depending on the squares and products of the excentricities and inclinations, and even to the superior powers and products. We can find these terms by the pre- ceding analysis, the consideration which renders them necessary will al- ways facilitate their determination. The approximations in which we must notice them, would introduce new terms which would depend upon new arguments. They would reproduce again the arguments, which the preceding approximations afford, but with coefficients still smaller and .smaller, following that law which it is easy to perceive from the deve- lopement of R into a series, which was given in No. 515 ; an argument ivhich, in the successive approximations, is found for thejirst time among the quantities of any order 'whatever r, and is reproduced only by quantities oj the orders r+2, r+4, &c. Hence it follows that the coefficients of the terms of the form 01 i t . * . (n t + )j which enter into the expressions of , v, and s, are ap- proximated up to quantities of the third order, that is to say, that the approximation in which we should have regard to the squares and pro- BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 131 ducts of the excentricities and inclinations of the orbits would add nothing O to their values ; they have therefore ah 1 the exactness that can be desired. This it is the more essential to observe, because the secular variations of the orbits depend upon these same coefficients. The several terms of the perturbations off, v, s are comprised in the form sin k . [i (n' t n t + s' g) + r n t + r g?, cos. r being a whole positive number or zero, and k being a function of the excentricities and inclinations of the orbits of the order r, or of a superior order. Hence we may judge of what order is a term depending upon a given angle. It is evident that the motion of the bodies (jJ\ yJ"^ &c. make it neces- sary to add to the preceding values of f, v, and s, terms analogous to those which result from the action of fjf \ and that neglecting the square of the perturbing force, the sums of all these terms will give the whole va- lues of ^ v and s. This follows from the nature of the formulas (X'), (Y), (Z'), which are linear relatively to quantities depending on the dis- turbing force. Lastly, we shall have the perturbations of X produced by the action of fi by changing in the preceding formulas, a, n, h, 1, e, , p, q, and p! into a', n', h', Y, s', v, p', q', and p and reciprocally. THE SECULAR INEQUALITIES OF THE CELESTIAL MOTIONS. 520. The perturbing forces of elliptical motion introduce into the expres- sions of g, , - , and s of the preceding Nos. the tune t free from the sym- Cl. L bols sine and cosine, or under the form of arcs of a circle, which by in- creasing indefinitely, must at length render the expressions defective. It is therefore essential to make these arcs disappear, and to obtain the functions which produce them by their developement into series. We have already given, for this purpose, a general method, from which it re- sults that these arcs arise from the variations of elliptic motion, which are then functions of the time. These variations taking place very slowly have been denominated Secular Inequalities. Their theory is one of the most interesting subjects of the system of the world. We now proceed to expound it to the extent which its importance demands. 12 132 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XI. By what has preceded we have <-l h sin. (n t + s) 1 cos. (n t + &c.- 1 + !L [I . C + 1'. D] . n t . sin. (n t + s) [_ {h . C + h' . DJ . n t . cos. (n t + s) + p! S. J d v -T-- = n + 2 n h sin. (n t + ) + 2 n 1 cos. (n t + f) + &c. p {\ C + 1' D} n t sin. (n t + s) + ft! [h C + h' D| n 2 1 cos. (n t + i) + / T ; s = q sin. (n t + P cos. (n t + *) + &c. / a 2 a' (p' p) B U) . n t . sin. (n t + t) t !~ a 2 a! (q' q) B (1) . n t. cos. (n t + s) +/">'% 5 ~fr S, T, ^ being periodic functions of the time t. Consider first the expres- sion of -. , and compare it with the expression of y in 510. The arbi- trary n multiplying the arc t, under the periodic symbols, in the expres- d v sion of -, ; we ought then to make use of the following equations found in No. 510, = X' + 6. X" Y; = Y' + 6. Y" +X"~ 2 Z; Let us see what these X, X', X", Y, &c. become. By comparing the ex- d v pression of ^ with that of y cited above, we find X = n + 2 n h sin. (n t + e) + 2 n 1 cos. (n t + t) + (i! T Y = ft' n 2 {h C+h' D} cos. (n t+i) /n {1 C+l' D} sin. (n t+i). If we neglect the product of the partial differences of the constants by the perturbing masses, which is allowed, since these differences are of the order of the masses, we shall have by No. 510, X' = (~) [I + 2 h sin. (n t + i) + 2 1 cos. (n t + t}} /d *\ + 2 nf-r-^) [h cos. (n t + s) 1 sin. (n t + s)} \ Q O/ + 2 n (;n-) sm - (n t + i) + 2 n(-,-)cos. (n t + ) ; X" = 2 n(r) ft cos. (n t + ) 1 sin. (n t + BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 133 The equation = X' + 6 X" Y will thus become = (^JJ) {1 + 2 h sin. (n t + ) + 2 1 cos. (n t + i)} \C1 Q * + 2n(jj)sin. (n t + ) + 2 n(^)cos. (n t + g) /n 2 [h C+h'D] cos. (nt+0+^' ! U C+1'D} sin.(n t+). Equating separately to zero, the coefficients of like sines and cosines, we shall have = If we integrate these equations, and if in their integrals we change d into t, we shall have by No. 510, the values of the arbitrages in functions of t, and we shall be able to efface the circular .arcs from the expressions d v of -5 and of g. But instead of this change, we can immediately change U L 6 into t in these differential equations. The first of the equations shows us that n is constant, and since the arbitrary a of the expression for j de- pends upon it, by reason of n 2 = - 3 , a is likewise constant. The two tl other equations do not suffice to determine h, 1, s. We shall have a new equation in observing that the expression of -^ , gives, in integrating, y*n d t for the value of the mean longitude of /i. But we have supposed this longitude equal to n t + e ; we therefore have nt+* =yndt, which gives and as we have ^ = 0, we have in like manner -5 = 0. Thus the two d t d t arbitraries n and i are constants ; the arbitraries h, 1, will consequently be determined by means of the differential equations, = -UC + l'D !; (I) 13 134 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XI. The consideration of the expression of -t having enabled us to deter- ' '- I mine the values of n, a, h, 1, and s, we perceive a priori, that the differen- tial equations between the same quantities, which result from the expres- sion of f, ought to coincide with those preceding. This may easily be shown a posterior^ by applying to this expression the method of 510. Now let us consider the expression of s. Comparing it with that of y cited' above, we shall have X = q sin. (n t + p cos. (n t + + & % Y = ^ a 8 a' B> (p p') sin. (n t + ) ^P + ~^. a 8 a' B> (q q') cos. (n t + i), n and , by what precedes, being constants; we shall have by No. 510, X" = 0. The equation = X' + Q X" Y hence becomes COS * _ ^ a* a' B ) (p p') sin. (n t + ) T? ^ a 2 a' B > (q q') cos. (n t + e) ; 9 whence we derive, by comparing the coefficients of the like sines and co- sines, and changing 6 into t, in order to obtain directly p and q in functions of t, (q_q') ; (3) P p'); (4) When we shall have determined p and q by these equations, we shall substitute them in the preceding expression of s, effacing the terms which contain circular arcs, and we shall have s = q sin. (n t + e) p cos. (n t + e) + p! %. 521. The equation -? ? = 0, found above, is one of great importance in the theory of the system of the world, inasmuch as it shows that the mean motions of the celestial bodies and the major-axes of their orbits are unalterable. But this equation is approximate to quantities of the order BOOK L] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 135 /*' h inclusively. If quantities of the order (i! h % and following orders, d v produce in -5 , a term of the form 2 k t, k being a function of the ele- ments of the orbits of /* and (i!\ there will thence result in the expression of v, the term k t z , which by altering the longitude of /x, proportionally to the time, must at length become extremely sensible. We shall then no longer have 1? - 0- dt * 6ut instead of this equation we shall have by the preceding No. dn - 2k- dl ' It is therefore very important to know whether there are terms of the form k . t 2 in the expression of v. We now demonstrate, that if We retain only the j^rst power of the perturbing masses, however far may pro- ceed the approximation, relatively to the powers of the excentricities and inclinations of the orbits, the expression v will not contain such terms. For this object we will resume the formula (X) of No. 513, acos.v/hdt.f sin.v j 2/SR+f (-,-) f -asin.v/hdt^cos.v \ 2fdR+^(^~ ) ? dp= * , 1 m */ l_e 2 Let us consider that part of d which contains the terms multiplied by t 2 , or for the greater generality, the terms which being multiplied by the sine or cosine of an angle a t + (3, in which a is very small, have at the same time a 2 for a divisor. It is clear that in supposing a = 0, there will re- sult a term multiplied by t 2 , so that the second case shall include the first. The terms which have the divisor a 2 , can evidently only result from a double integration ; they can only therefore be produced by that part of d which contains the double integral signf. Examine first the term 2 a cos. vy"n d t (^ sin. \fd R) m V (1 e 2 ) If we fix the origin of the angle v at the perihelion, we have a(l e 2 ) p x L- 1 + e cos. v ' and consequently a (1 _e 2 ) P cos. v = S * ; eg whence we derive by differentiating, a(l e 8 ) j z d v . sin. v = * d ^ ; G 14 136 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XI. but we have, g d v = d t V m a (1 e 2 ) =a l . n d t V 1 c f ; we shall, therefore, have a n d t sin. v _ g d g V 1 e ~e~~ The term 2 a cos. v./n d t . {g sin. m V 1 e will therefore become R), or fc/rf R me me It is evident, this last function, no longer containing double integrals, there cannot result from it any term having the divisor a 2 . Now let us consider the term _ 2 a sin, vyn d t {g cos. vfd R} m V I e* of the expression of -3 g. Substituting for cos. v, its preceding value in g, this term becomes 2 a sin, v/n d t. { s a(l e 2 )j ./ in estimating therefore only that part of the perturbations, which has the divisor a 2 , the longitude v will become / d v \ 3 a ( v ) + ( 3-1 ) /"D d t fd R ; \n d t/ m J (v) andf ^J being the parts of v and -T- , relative to the elliptic mo- tion. Thus, in order to estimate that part of the perturbations in the ex- pression of the longitude of /4, we ought to follow the same rule which we have given with regard to the same in the expression of the radius-vector, that is to say, we must augment in the elliptic expression of the true 3 a longitude, the mean longitude n t + e by the quantity -/*n d ifd R. The constant part of the expression of ( j ) developed into a series of cosines of the angle n t + s and of its multiples, being reduced (see 488) to unity, there thence results, in the expression of the longi- 138 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XI. 3 a tude, the term -yndty^R. If d R contain a constant term k ,u' . n d t, this term will produce in the expression of the longitude v, the following one, -^- . k n * t 2 . To ascertain the existence of such /* 111 terms in this expression, we must therefore find whether d R contains a constant term. When the orbits are but little excentric and little inclined to one ano- ther, we have seen, No. 518, that R can always be developed into an in- finite series of sines and cosines of angles increasing proportionally to the time. We can represent them generally by the term k iif . cos. [i f nf t + i n t + A}, i and i' being whole positive or negative numbers or zero. The differen- tial of this term, taken solely relatively to the mean motion of ^, is i k . (if . n d t . sin. [V n' t + i n t + AJ; this cannot be constant unless we have = i' n' + i n, which supposes the mean motions of the bodies p and /*' to be parts of one another ; and since that does not take place in the solar system, we ought thence to con- clude that the value of d R does not contain constant terms, and that in considering only the first power of the perturbing masses, the mean mo- tions of the heavenly bodies, are uniform, or which comes to the same thing, - = 0. The value of a being connected to n by means of the equation n * = - T , it thence results that if we neglect the periodical quanthies, the major-axes of the orbits are constant. If the mean motions of the bodies (* and (if, without being exactly com- mensurable, approach, however, very nearly to that condition, there will exist in the theory of their motions, inequalities of a long period, and which, by reason of the smallness of the divisor a 2 , will become very sen- sible. We shall see hereafter this is the case with regard to Jupiter and Saturn. The preceding analysis will give, in a very simple manner, that part of the perturbations which depend upon this divisor. It hence re- sults that in this case it is sufficient to vary the mean longitude n t -f- i 3 a ory*n d t by the quantity fn d tfd R; or, which is the same, to aug- 3 a n ment n in the integral/n d t by the quantity fd R; but consider- BOOK L] NEWTON'S PRINCJPIA. 139 ing the orbit of /. as a variable ellipse, we have n = 3 ; the preceding variation of n introduces, therefore, in the semi-axis-major a of the orbit, 2 a*fd R the variation * . m d v If we carry the approximation of the value -r , to quantities of the Cl L order of the squares of the perturbing masses, we shall find terms propor- tional to the time ; but considering attentively the differential equations of the motion of the bodies /A, ft/, &c. we shall easily perceive that these terms are at the same time of the order of the squares and products of the ex- centricities and inclinations of the orbits. Since, however, every thing which affects the mean motion, may at length become very sensible, we shall now notice these terms, and perceive that they produce the secular equations observed in the motion of the moon. 522. Let us resume the equations (1) and (2) of No. 520, and suppose (0, 1) = they will become dh dl j : d t The expression of (0, 1) and of |0, 1] may be very simply determined in this way. Substituting, instead of C and D, their values determined in No. 517, we shall have AW, /d 2 (IT A( - a We have by No. 516, and we shall easily obtain, by the same No. * and ^ ?, in functions of b (0 > and b w ; and these quantities are given in linear functions of b (0 > 140 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XL and of b (1) ; this being done, we shall find ~~ 2 3a 2 b< ! > 2 /dA\ , l 3 /d 2 A>\ -J a 'hnr) + * ft (-air-) = 8 (i - V wherefore 3 X. n . a . b (1 ? 4 (1 a 2 ) 2 ' ' Let (a 2 2 a a' cos. 6 + a' 2 ) * = (a, a') + (a, a')' cos. * + (a, a')" cos. 2 ; (a, a')' = a', b <, &c. We shall, therefore, have _ Next we have, by 516, _ Sg'.na'a'. (a,a')' 4 (a' 2 a 2 ) 8 f ( ^ i e ^ 1 = a-( b^ a.-^ -- 1 a g . * * , V. (j da da 2 J T - -, a. a / \ d a 2 Substituting for b (1) and its differences, their values in b (0) and b (1) , we I -i ~\ shall find the preceding function equal to therefore 3 . (if n ( (1 + a 2 ) b W + I a . b () | 2(1 a 2 ) 2 or 3 /*'. a n|(a g + a' 2 ) (a, a')' + a a' (a, a')j 2 (a' 2 a 2 ) 2 We shall, therefore, thus obtain very simple expressions of (0, 1) and of JO, Ij, and it is easy to perceive from the values in the series of b (0) and ~ e of b (1) , given in the No. 516, that these expressions are positive, if n is ~ a positive, and negative if n is negative. Call (0, 2) and |0, 2|, what (0, 1) and |0, Ij become, when we change a' BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 141 and til into a" and /&". In like manner let (0, 3), and (0, 3) be what the same quantities become, when we change a' and fif into a!" and p'" ; and so on. Moreover let h", 1" ; h"', 1"', &c. denote the values of h and 1 relative to the bodies p", p'", &c. Then, in virtue of the united actions of the different bodies /,', /&", /&"', &c. upon p, we shall have + (0, 2) + (0, 3) + &C.J1 [QTl|.r |(V2|.l" &c. ; dl |0,_lj.h' + |0,2|.h"+&c. Ji = {(0, 1) + (0,2) + (0,3) , d h' d 1' d h" d 1" It is evident that -5 , , -- ; - T , -3 ; &c. will be determined by dt at dt dt expressions similar to those of-? and of -j ; and they are easily obtain- ed by changing successively what is relative to /& into that which relates to (jf 9 (jf' 9 &c. and reciprocally. Let therefore (1,0),|MJ1; (1,2), [H2J; &c. be what (0,1), JoTy; (0,2), joTf; & c . become, when we change that which is relative to , into what is relative to /' and reciprocally. Let moreover (2,0), gToj; (2,1), glj; &c. be what (0,2),JOT2|; (0,1),J5T|; &c. become, when we change what is relative to p into what is relative to it!' and reciprocally; and so on. The preceding differential equations re- ferred successively to the bodies /*, /-', ,'x", &c. will give for determining h, 1, h', 1', h'', 1", &c. the following system of equations, ~ = f(0, 1) + (0,2) + &C.J1 |0, 1|. 1' |0,2|.l" &c. d t - (0, 2) + &c.} h + f~ rl = -. h' + |0, 2| &c. dh' dl' = {(1, 0) + (1, 2) + &c.} V |1,0|. 1 [T72| 1" &c. ^ = {(1, 0) + (1, 2) + &c.]h' + 11,01. h + |l,2|.h" ^'=J(2,0) + (2, !) + &< - 20]. i - . r - &c. dl . = (2, 0) + (2, 1) + &c.J.h"+ |2,0|h+|2,l|h'+&c. (A) &c. 142 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XI. The quantities (0, 1) and (1, 0), |0, 1| and |I, 0| have remarkable rela- tions, which facilitate the operations, and will be useful hereafter. By what precedes we have (0 u - ._ 3A'.na.a'(a,a')' 4 ( a " a 2 ) 2 If in this expression of (0, 1) we change y! into /., n into n', a into a' and reciprocally, we shall have the expression of (1, 0), which will con- sequently be _ 8g.n'a".a (a/ a/ . 4 (a' 2 a 2 ) 2 but we have (a, a')' = (a', a)', since both these quantities result from th developement of the function (a e 2 a a' cos 6 + a' s ) * into a series or- dered according to the cosine of 6 and of its multiples. We shall, there- fore, have (0, 1). p. n' a' = (1, 0). /*'. n a. But, neglecting the masses /,, /&', Sec. in comparison t with M, we have M M , n 2 = ; n" = ^- 3 ; &c. Therefore (0, I)/* A/ a = (1,0)^' Va'; an equation from which we easily derive (1, 0) when (0, 1) is determined. In the same manner we shall find, JOTT| /* V a = |I70| tif V a'. These two equations will also subsist in the case where n and n' have different signs ; that is to say, if the two bodies /-, ft' circulated in different directions ; but then we must give the sign of n to the radical V a, and the sign of n' to the radical V a'. From the two preceding equations evidently result these (0, 2) ft V a = (2, 0) p" V a"; \(^2\ ft V a = pM)|. ft" V a"; &c. (I, 2) in V a'= (2, 1) it!' V a"; [I72| fif V a' = gjSJ. ft"- V a"; &c. 523. To integrate the equations (A) of the preceding No. } we shall make h = N. sin. (g t + /S) ; 1 = N . cos. (g t + |8) ; h' = N'. sin. (g t + /3) ; 1' = N' cos. (g t + /3) ; &c. Then substituting these values in the equations (A), we shall have N g = {(0, 1) + (0, 2) + &c.JN N'g =f(l, 0) + (1 N x/ g = f(2, 0) + (2, , 2) + &c.JN joTl|. N' [O^l N" &c.-\ , 2) + &c.}N' [g. N |]72J N" &c.V s (B) , 1) + &C.JN" 'go]. N |27l| N' &cj BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 143 If we suppose the number of the bodies /-&, /.', //', &c. equal to i ; these equations will be in number i, and eliminating from them the constants N, N', &c., we shall have a final equation in g, of the degree i, which we easily obtain as follows : Let

" V a" E[273| N'" + &c.$ + &c. The equations (B) are reducible from the relations given in the pre- ceding No. to these Considering therefore, N, N', N", &c. as so many variables,

for N 7 its value derived from the equation (, ^ J/ ) = : we shall have a homogeneous function of the second dimension in N", N w , &c. : let

of the second dimension, in N (i ~ ] ) and which will consequently be of the form (N (i ~ 1) ) 2 . k, k being a function of g and constants. If we equal to zero, the differential of p (i-1) taken relatively to N 11 - 1 ', we shall have k = 0; which will give an equation in g of the degree i, and whose different roots will give as many different systems for the indeterminates N, N', N", &c. : the inde- 144 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XL terminate N (i - J ) will be the arbitrary of each system; and we shall im- mediately obtain, the relation of the other indeterminates N, N', &c. of the same system, to this one, by means of the preceding equations taken in an inverse order, viz., d N- 2 V " ' d N^ Let g, gi, g2, &c. be the i roots of the equation in g : let N, N', N", &c. be the system of indeterminates, relative to the rootg: letN /5 N/, N/', &c. be the system of indeterminates relative to the root gi, and so on : by the known theory of linear differential equations, we shall have h = N sin. (g t + |3) + N! sin. ( gl t + ft) + N 2 (g 2 t + ft) + &c. ; h' = N' sin. (g t + /3) + N!' sin. ( gl t + ft) + N 2 ' (g 2 t + &) + &c. ; h"= N"sin. (g t + jS) + N/'sin. ( gl t + ft) + N 2 "(g 2 1 + &) + &c. ; &c. ft ft 5 /Sg, Sec. being arbitrary constants. Changing in these values of h, h', h", &c. the sines into cosines ; we shall have the values of 1, 1', 1", &c. These different values contain twice as many arbitraries as there are roots g> gu g-2) &c. ; for each system of indeterminates contains an arbitrary, and moreover, it has i arbitraries |3, ft, /3 2 , &c. ; these values are conse- quently the complete integrals of the equations (A) of the preceding No. It is necessary, however, to determine only the constants N, N 1} &c. ; N,' N/, &c. ; ft ft, &c. Observations will not give immediately the con- stants, but they make known at a given epoch, the excentricities e, e', &c. of the orbits, and the longitudes &, =/, &c. of their perihelions, and conse- quently, the values of h, h', &c., 1, 1', &c. : we shall thus derive the values of the preceding constants. For that purpose, we shall observe that if we multiply the first, third, fifth, &c. of the differential equations (A) of the preceding No., respectively by N. /-*. V a, N'. /*'. V a', &c. ; we shall have in virtue of equations (B), and the relations found in the pre- ceding No. between (0, 1) and (1, 0), (0, 2), and (2, 0), &c. N ' 7 ^ V a + N ' TF "' V a/ + N " TF "" V a " + &C> = g {N. 1 . p. V a + N'. 1'. iJJ. V a' + N". 1". p". V a." + &c.} If we substitute in this equation for h, h', &c. 1, 1', &c. their preceding values ; we shall have by comparing the coefficients of the same cosines = N . N! . ^ V a + N'. NI'. & V a + N". N/'. /,". V a" + &c. ; = N. N g . i* V a + N'. N 8 '. /' V a' + N". N 2 ". /*". V a" + &c. BOOK L] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 145 Again, if we multiply the preceding values of h, h', &c. respectively by N./z. V a, N'. tit. V a', &c. we shall have, in virtue of these last equations, N . I* h . V a + NV. h'. V a' + N". p," h". V a" + &c. = N 2 . p.Va + W. tit. V a' + N" 2 . /". V a" + &c.} sin (g t + |8) In like manner, we have N . (i, 1 . V a + N'. ^ 1'. V a! + N". //' 1". V a" + &c. = {N 2 . ^ . V a + N' 2 . pi. V a' + N //2 . ///'. V a" + &c.| cos. (g t -f |8). By fixing the origin of the time t at the epoch for which the values of h, 1, h', 1', &c. are supposed known ; the two preceding equations give B - N ' h ft V a + N/> h/ ^ V a ' + N " h " ^"' V a " + &C ' = N. 1 ft,. V a + N'. IV. V a' + N". 1" X'. V a" + &c. ' This expression of tan. /3 contains no indeterminate ; for although the constants N, N', N", &c. depend upon the indeterminate N (i ~ % yet, as their relations to this indeterminate are known by what precedes, it will disappear from the expression of tan. (3. Having thus determined 8, we shall have N (i ~ l \ by means of one of the two equations which give tan. (3 ; and we thence obtain the system of indeterminates, N, N', N", &c. rela- tive to the root g. Changing, in the preceding expressions, this root into gi> g-25 gaj &c. we shall have the values of the arbitraries relative to each of these roots. If we substitute these values in the expressions of h, 1, h', 1', &c. ; we hence derive the values of the excentricities e, e', &c. of the orbits, and the longitudes of their perihelions, by means of the equations e 2 = h 2 + l 2 ; e' 2 = h /2 + 1 /2 ; &c. tan. w = -p- 5 tan - '** Y > & c - we shall thus have e 2 = N 2 + Nj 2 + N 2 2 + &c. + 2 N N; cos. J( gl g) t + fa B\ + 2 N N 2 cos. {(g^g) t + &-) } + 2 NX N 2 cos. Kgr-gi) t + &-,} +&c. This quantity is always less than (N + NI + N 2 + &c.) 2 , when the roots g, g 1$ Sec. are all real and unequal, by taking positively the quanti- ties N, N l5 &c. In like manner, we shall have tan v _ N sin, (g t + B) + N t sin. ( gl t + ft) + N 2 sin. (g 2 1 + ft) + &c. " N cos. (g t + j8) + N! cos. ( gl t + ft) + N 2 cos. (g 2 1 + &) + &c. whence it is easy to get, n , ox N t sin, {- t + ft-^ + N 2 sin, * ^ VOL. II. 146 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XI. Whilst the sum NI + No + &c. of the coefficients of the cosines of the denominator, all taken positively, is less than N, tan. ( g t /3) can never become infinite ; the angle w g t /3 can never reach the quarter of the circumference ; so that in this case the true mean motion of the perihelion is equal to g t. 524. From what has been shown it follows, that the excentricities of the orbits and the positions of their axis-majors, are subject to considera- ble variations, which at length change the nature of the orbits, and whose periods depending on the roots g, gj, g 2 , &c., embrace with regard to the planets, a great number of ages. We may thus consider the excentrici- ties as variably elliptic, and the motions of the perihelions as not uniform. These variations are very sensible in the satellites of Jupiter, and we shall see hereafter, that they explain the singular inequalities, observed in the motion of the third satellite. But it is of importance to examine whether the variations of the excen- tricities have limits, and whether the orbits are constantly almost circular. We know that if the roots of the equation in g are all real and unequal, the excentricity e of the orbit of t* is always less than the sum N + NI + N 2 + &c. of the coefficients of the sines of the expression of h taken positively ; and since the coefficients are supposed very small, the value of e will always be inconsiderable. By taking notice, therefore, of the secular variations only, we see that the orbits of the bodies p, //, /*", &c. will only flatten more or less in departing a little from the circular form ; but the positions of their axis-majors will undergo considerable variations. These axes will be constantly of the same length, and the mean motions which depend upon them will always be uniform, as we have seen in No. 521. The preceding results, founded upon the smallness of the excentricity of the orbits, will subsist without ceasing, and will extend to all ages past and future ; so that we may affirm that at any time, the orbits of the planets and satellites have never been nor ever will be very excentric, at least whilst we only consider their mutual actions. But it would not be the same if any of the roots g, g l5 g 2 , &c. were equal or imaginary : the sines and cosines of the expressions of h, 1, h', 1', &c. corresponding to these roots, would then change into circular arcs or exponentials, and since these quantities increase indefinitely with the time, the orbits would at length become very excentric ; the stability of the planetary system would then be destroyed, and the results found above would cease to take place. It is therefore highly important to show that g, gu gg> &c. are all real and unequal. This we will now demonstrate in a very simple BOOK L] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 147 manner, for the case of nature, in which the bodies p, (if, p", &c. of the system, all circulate in the same direction. Let us resume the equations (A) of No. 528. If we multiply the first by At. . V a . h ; the second, by p . V a . 1 ; the third by /u/. V a', h' ; the fourth by p'. V a'. 1', &c. and afterwards add the results together ; the coefficients of h 1, h' V, h" 1", &c. will be nothing in this sum, the coeffi- cients of h' 1 h T will be jo7T|. v> . V a '\l^Q\. P f . V a', and this will be nothing in virtue of the equation |0, 1|. /x. V a = [1, 0{. //.'. V a' found in No. 522. The coefficients of h"fl- h 1", h" 1' h' I", &c. will be nothing for the same reason ; the sum of the equations (A) thus prepared will therefore be reduced to . d . and consequently to = e d e . fj, . V a + e' d e'. (i!. V a' + &c. Integrating this equation and observing that (No. 521) the semi-axis- majors are constant, we shall have e 2 . & V a + e' 2 . p!. V of + e" 2 . //'. V a" + &c. constant ; (a) The bodies /-, ", &c. relatively to M ; we may suppose these variations proportional to the time, during a great interval, which, for the planets, may extend to many ages before and after the given epoch. It is useful, for astronomical purposes, to obtain under this form, the secular variations of the excentricities and perihelions of the orbits : we may easily get them from the preceding formulae. In fact, the equation e 2 = h* + l 2 , gives ede = hdh+ 1 d 1 ; but in considering only the action of /<*', we have by No. 522, -[Mi 7 ; wherefore ede = 10, II. {h'l - h 1'J; dt but we have h' 1 hi' = e e' sin. (=/ ) ; we, therefore, have ~ = |QTi[. e' sin. (J w) ; thus, with regard to the reciprocal action of the different bodies ///, /^", &c. we shall have ~ = joTl). e' sin. (*/*) + [072|. e" sin. (^' ~) 4- &c. Cl L " ~ = II, 01 e sin. ( ~') + II, 21 e" sin. (=/' ./) + &c. d t i = J2TO| e sin. ( .") + \zJ\ e' sin. (t/ V 7 ) + &c. ci t &c. K3 150 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XL The equation tan. = y , gives by differentiating e 2 d = 1 d h h d 1. With respect only to the action of /*', by substituting for d h and d 1 their values, we shall have = (0, 1) (h + 1) - M- Hi ^ + 1 1'J; which gives Y= (0,1) _|(jg^ COS. (.>--.); we shall, therefore, have, through the reciprocal actions of the bodies At A*' A*" &c. = (0,l) + (0,2)+&c. (Ml. -cos.(*r' w)_ (o72].-cos.( w " .) & c . t - e - e d/' &c. If we multiply these values of-, , -5 - , &c. -y , ^~ , &c. by the time t ; we shall have the differential expressions of the secular variations of the excentricities and of the perihelions, and these expressions which are only rigorous whilst t is indefinitely small, will however serve for a long in- terval relatively to the planets. Their comparison with precise and distant observations, affords the most exact mode of determining the masses of the planets which have no satellites. For any time t we have the excentricity e, equal to djj t 2 d 2 e d e d 2 e > e, -T , -| 3 , &c. being relative to the origin of the time t or to the given Cl L U L d e epoch. The preceding value of -. - will give, by differentiating it, and d e e d 3 e observing that a, a', &c. are constant, the values of -T - z , ^3 , &c. ; we can, therefore, thus continue as far as we wish, the preceding series, and by the same process, the series also relative to -a : but relatively to the planets, it will be sufficient, in comparing the most ancient observations BOOK L] NEWTON'S PRINCIPLE. 151 which have come down to us, to take into account the square of the time, in the expressions of the series of e, e', &c. w, ', &c. 526. We will now consider the equations relative to the position of the orbits. For this purpose let us resume the equations (3) and (4) of No. 520, By No. 516, we have a 2 a'. B (1 > = a*. b n >; and by the same No., Sb'w We shall therefore have 3 11! . n . a. z b < 4 4(1 a 2 )* ' The second member of this equation is what we have denoted by (0, 1) in 522 ; we shall hence have jjJ? = (0, 1) (q' - q) ; Hence, it is easy to conclude that the values of q, p, q', p', &c. will be determined by the following system of differential equations : jj-9 = f(0, 1) + (0, 2) + &c.} . p - (0, 1) p' (0, 2) p" ~ &c. 1 n :.} . q + (0, 1) q' + (0, 2) q" + &c. = {(1, 0) + (1, 2) + &c.} . p'- (1, 0) p (1, 2) p"-&c. = - {(1, 0) + (1, 2) + &c.} . q' + (1, 0) q + (1, 2) q" + &c. = 1(2,0) + (2, 1) + &c.} . p" (2, 0) p (2, 1) p' &c. = {(. 0) + (2, 1J + &C.J .q" +(2, 0) q + (2, 1) q' + &c. K 4 153 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XI. This system of equations is similar to that of the equations (A) of No. 522: it would entirely coincide with it, if in the equations of (A) we were to change h, 1, h', 1', c. into q, p, q', p', &c. and if we were to suppose IM = (0,1); |1,0| = (1,0); &c. Hence, the process which we have used in No. 528 to integrate the equations (A) applies also to the equations (C). We shall therefore suppose q =N cos.(gt+/3) + N!Cos. (git+ftJ + Ns cos. (g 2 t+/3 2 )+&c. p =N sin. (gt+) + N! sin. ( gl t+ft) + N 8 sin. (g s t+&)+&c. q' = N' cos. (g t + /3) + N/ cos. ( gl t+ ft )+ N 2 ' cos. (g 2 t+ &) + &c. p'=N'sin. (g t+^+N/ sin. (g, t-f ft) + N 2 'sin. (g 8 t+&) + &c. &c. and by No. 523, we shall have an equation in g of the degree i, and whose different roots will be g, g 1} g 2 , &c. It is easy to perceive that one of these roots is nothing ; for it is clear we satisfy the equations (C) by sup- posing p, p', p", &c. equal and constant, as also q, q', q", &c. This requires one of the roots of the equation in g to be zero, and we can thence depress the equation to the degree i 1. The arbitraries N, NI, N', &c. /3, j8 l5 &c. will be determined by the method exposed in No. 523. Finally, we shall find by the process employed in No. 524. const. = (p 2 + q 2 ) p, V a + (p /2 + q' 2 ) p' V a' + &c. Whence we conclude, as in the No. cited, that the expressions of p, q, p', q', &c. contain neither circular arcs nor exponentials, when the bodies p, p', p", &c. circulate in the same direction : and that therefore the equa- tion in g has all its roots real and unequal. We may obtain two other integrals of the equations (C). In fact, if we multiply the first of these equations by p V a, the third by // V a', the fifth by //," V a", &c. we shall have, because of the relations found in No. 522, = ^Wa + ^V Va' + &c.; which by integration gives constant = q ^ V a + q' /*' V a! + &c. . . . % . (1) In the same manner we find constant = p p V a + p' fi/ V a' + &c (2) Call the inclinatior of the orbit of> to the fixed plane, and 6 the Ion- BOOK I.] NEWTON'S- PRINCIPIA. 153 gitude of the ascending node of this orbit upon the same plane ; the lati- tude of /* will be very nearly tan.

", &c. the values of tan. p, tan. 0, we shall have the inclinations of the orbits of // /*", &c. and the positions of their nodes by means of p', q', p", q", &c. The quantity V p z + q 2 is less than the sum N + NX + Ng + &c. of the coefficients of the sines in the expression of q ; thus, the coefficients being very small since the orbit is supposed but little inclined to the fixed plane, its inclination will always be inconsiderable ; whence it follows, that the 'system of orbits is also stable, relatively to their inclinations as also to their excentricities. We may therefore consider the inclinations of the orbits, as variable quantities comprised within determinate limits, and the motion of the nodes as not uniform. These variations are very sensible in the satellites of Jupiter, and we shall see hereafter, that they explain the singular phenomena observed in the inclination of the orbit of the fourth satellite. From the preceding expressions of p and q results this theorem : Let us imagine a circle whose inclination to a fixed plane is N, and of which the longitude of the ascending node is g t + J3 , also let us imagine upon this first circle, a second circle inclined by the angle N! , the longitude of whose intersection with the former circle is g! t + & ,- upon this second circle let there be a third inclined to it by the angle N 2 , the longitude of whose intersection with the second circle is g& t + /3 2 , and so on ,- the po- sition of the last circle will be that of the orbit of p. Applying the same construction to the expressions of h and 1 of No. 523, we see that the tangent of the inclination of the last circle upon the fixed plane, is equal to the excentricity of /i's orbit, and that the longitude of the intersection of this circle with the same plane, is equal to that of the perihelion of //s orbit. 527. It is useful for astronomical purposes, to have the differential va- riations of the nodes and inclinations of the orbits. For this purpose, let us resume the equations of the preceding No. 154 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XI tan. ? = V (p + q 2 ), tan. = - . Differentiating these, we shall have dp = dp sin. 6 -f- d q cos. ; d p cos. 6 d q sin. 6 d 6 = - 3 - . tan. 9 If we substitute for d p and d q, their values given by the equations (C) of the preceding No. we shall have =(0, 1) tan. sin. (6 ff) + (0, 2) tan " . sin. (6 0" cos. In like manner, we shall have d 7 jT=(l, 0) tan. sin. (tf d) + (l, 2) tan. p" sin. (/ the inclination, and 6/ the lon- gitude of the node of p' upon the orbit of p, we shall have, by what precedes, v tan. f / = V (p p) 2 + (q' q) 2 5 tan. 6f - P __ If we take for the fixed plane, that of p's orbit at a given epoch ; we BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 155 shall have at that epoch p = 0, q = ; but the differentials d p and d q will not be zero ; thus we shall have. d 156 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XL In like manner x'dy' y'dx' _ la' (I e' 2 ) . d t V 1 + tan. 2 ' ' &c. These values of x d y y d x, x' d y' y' d x', &c. may be used, abstraction being made of the inequalities of the motion of the planets, provided we consider the elements e, e', &c. f, p', &c. as variables, in virtue of the secular inequalities; the equation (4) of No. 471 will there- fore give in that case, , /a' " A/1 a(l e 2 ) , , /a' (1 e' 8 ) C := ^ +tan. Neglecting this last term, which always remains of the order ^ /x/, we shall have a. (1 e 2 ) , ' ' 2 = Thus, whatever may be the changes which the lapse of time produces hi the values of e, e', &c. ?>, >', &c. by reason of the secular variations, these values ought always to satisfy the preceding equation. If we neglect the small quantities of the order e 4 , or e 2 p 2 , this equa- tion will give c = (j, V a + (if V o! + &c. p V a {e 2 + tan. 2 + p'Va' . tan. 2 q . V a + ^' q' V a' + &c. const. = pt, p V a + ^ p r V a' + &c. equations already found in No. 526. Finally, the equation (7) of No. 471, will give, observing that by 478, m_ _ 2m dx* + dy 2 + dz 2 "a" S d t 1 and neglecting quantities of the order p //, Ui u/ u/ r const. = ^ + -, + p> + &c. These different equations subsist, when we regard inequalities due to very long periods, which affect the elements of the orbits of ^, /u/, &c. We have observed in No. 521, that the relation of the mean motions of these bodies may introduce into the expressions of the axis-majors of the 158 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XI. orbits considered variable, inequalities whose arguments proportional to the time increase very slowly, and which having for divisors the coeffi" cients of the time t, in these arguments, may become sensible. But it is evident that, retaining the terms only which have like divisors, and consi- dering the orbits as ellipses whose elements vary by reason of those terms, the integrals (4), (5), (6)> (7), of No. 471, will always give the relations between these elements already found; because the terms of the order (j, /jf which have been neglected in these integrals, to obtain the relations, have not for divisors the very small coefficients above mentioned, or at least they contain them only when multiplied by a power of the perturb- ing forces superior to that which we are considering. 529. We have observed already, that in the motion of a system of bodies, there exists an invariable plane, or such as always is of a parallel situation, which it is easy to find at all times by this condition, that the sum of the masses of the system, multiplied respectively by the pro- jections of the areas described by the radius-vectors in a given time is a maximum. It is principally in the theory of the solar system, that the re- search of this plane is important, when viewed with reference to the proper motions of the stars and of the ecliptic, which make it so difficult to astro- nomers to determine precisely the celestial motions. If we call 7 the inclination of this invariable plane to that of x, y, and n the longitude of its ascending node, it is easily found that c" c' tan. /sin. H=. ; tan. 7 cos. n = -- ; C C and consequently that _(j.Va(l e 2 ) sin.

cos.0'+&c. tan. 7 . cos. n= v ' ' (1 e a ) . cos. ' . cos. 6' . /*' V a' ( 1 e' 2 ) ; c" = sin.

d 2 z, relative to the invariable ellipse, the element d t of the time, being supposed constant. In like manner, to get V/, we must change in V 7 , the coordinates x, y, z, in those which are relative to the commencement of the second instant, and which are also the same in the two ellipses ; we must then augment d x, d y, d z respectively by the quantities d 2 x, d 2 y, d 2 z ; finally, we must change the parameters c, c', &c. into c + d c, c' + d c' ; &c. The values of d 2 x, d 2 y, d 2 z are not the same in the two ellipses ; they are augmented, in the case of the variable ellipse, by the quantities due to the perturbing forces. We see also that the two functions V" and V/ differing only in this that in the second the parameters c, c', &c. increase by d c, d c', &c. ; and the values of d 2 x, d 2 y, d 2 z relative to the invariable ellipse, are augmented by quantities due to the perturbing forces. We shall, therefore, form V/ V", by differentiating V in the supposition that x, y, z are constant, and that d x, d y, d z, c, c', &c. are variable, provided that in this differential we substitute for d 2 x, d 2 y, d 2 z, &c. the parts of their values due solely to the disturbing forces. If, however, in the function V" V' we substitute for d 2 x, d 2 y, d 2 z their values relative to elliptic motion, we shall have a function of x, y, z, d x d y d z -j , -r*- , -? , c, c , &c., which in the case ot the invariable ellipse, is ci t ci t d t nothing; this function is therefore also nothing in the case of the variable ellipse. We evidently have in this last case, V/ V =r 0, since this equation is the differential of the equation V = : taking it from the equation V/ V = 0, we have V/ V" = 0. Thus, we may, in this case, differentiate the equation V = 0, supposing d x, d y, d z, c, c', &c. alone to vary, provided that we substitute for d 2 x, d 2 y, d 2 z, the parts of their values relative to the disturbing forces. These results are exactly the same as those which we obtained in No. 512, by considerations purely analytical ; but as is due to their importance, we shall here again present them, deduced from the consideration of elliptic motion. BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 163 531. Let us resume the equations (P) of No. 513, d z x m x /d = TTT + -73- T = dt 2 " s 3 d 2 z m z dT 2 + 7^ If we suppose R = 0, we shall have the equations of elliptic motion, which we have integrated in (478)- We have there obtained the seven following integrals x d y y d x dt x d z z d x dt , ydz z d y c' = c" = z d z . d x -i = fm = f'+zi m - = m 2m + dt 2 d x 2 -f- d z 2 J \ 1 X dt 2 d x.d y dt 2 z d z. d y dt 2 d x 2 + d y* J T \ \ X dt 4 d x .d z j dt 2 y d y . d z i dt* d x 2 + d yH J T - d z 2 dt 2 dt 2 ' (P) a d t 2 These integrals give the arbitraries in functions of their first differences; they are under a very commodious form for determining the variations of these arbitraries. The three first integrals give, by differentiating them, and making vary by the preceding No. the parameters c, c/, c", and the first differences of the coordinates, x d 2 y y d 2 x Hp J J u ^ i dc' = dc"= x d - z z d 2 x dt z d 2 v dt Substituting for d * x, d 2 y, d 2 z, the parts of their values due to the perturbing forces, and which by the differential equations (P) are 164 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XL we shall have <.-.{,<")_,([)}, We know from 478, 479 that the parameters c, c', c" determine three elements of the elliptic orbit, viz., the inclination

-; and e being the ratio of the excentricity to the semi-axis-major, we have me = V(f* + f /2 + f" 2 ). This ratio may also be determined by dividing the semi-parameter a (1 e 2 ), by the semi-axis-major a : the quotient taken from unity will give the value of e 2 . The integrals (p) have given by elimination (479) the finite integral = m $ h 2 + f x + f ' y + f " z : this equation subsists in the case of the troubled ellipse, and it determines at each instant, the nature of the variable ellipse. We may differentiate it, considering f, P, i" as constant ; which gives = m d g + f d x + P d y + f' d z. The semi- axis-major a gives the mean motion of p, or more exactly, that which in the troubled orbit, corresponds to the mean motion in the invariable orbit ; for we have (479) n = a ~~ 2 V m ; moreover, if we de- note by the mean motion of /-, we have in the invariable elliptic orbit cos. 2 (v ~) + &c.}. Integrating this equation on the supposition of e and w being con- stant, we shall have /n d t + e =: V + E U> sin. (v w) -f ~- sin. 2. (v w) + &c. A t being an arbitrary. This integral is relative to the invariable ellipse : to extend it to the variable ellipse, in making every thing vary even to the arbitraries, t, e, -a which it contains, its differential must coincide with the preceding one ; which gives s. (v ~) + Ecos.2(v w) + &c.} v -a, being the true anomaly of /* measured upon the orbit, and * the longitude of the perihelion also measured upon the orbit. We have de- termined above, the longitude I of the projection of the perihelion upon a fixed plane. But by (488) we have, in changing v into w and v 7 into I in the expression of v (3 of this No. * 3 = I 6 + tan. * \ f sin. 2 (I 6) + &c. BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 167 Supposing next that v, v /? are zero in this same expression, we have |3 = 6 + tan. 2 sin. 2 6 + &c. wherefore, = I + tan. 2 p. {sin. 2 + sin. 2 (I 6) + &c.} which gives d* = dI.l + 2 tan. 2 p cos. 2 (I 6) + &c.} + 2 d 6 tan. 2 {cos. 20 cos. 2 (I '0) + ixc.} dptan.ip ^ n< 2 6 ^^ 2 j _ ^ &c cos. 2 1

being determined by the above, we shall have that of d -a ; whence we shall obtain the value of d e. It follows from thence that the expressions in series, of the radius-vec- tor, of its projection upon the fixed plane, of the longitude whether re- ferred to the fixed plane or to the orbit, and of the latitude which we have given in (No. 488) for the case of the invariable ellipse, subsist equal- ly in the case of the troubled ellipse, provided we change n t intoyn d t, and we determine the elements of the variable ellipse by the preceding formulas. For since the finite equations between g, v, s, x, y, z, and y n d t, are the same in the two cases, and because the series of No. 488 result from these equations, by analytical operations entirely independent of the constancy or variability of the elements, it is evident these expres- sions subsist in the case of variable elements. When the ellipses are very excentric, as is the case with the orbits of the comets, we must make a slight change in the preceding analysis. The inclination

produces in the mean motion of (il In fact, if we have regard only to the mutual action of three bodies M, (* and /u/; the formula (7) of (471) gives dx 2 + dy 2 + dz s . d x' 2 + d/ 2 + d z' 2 const. = - -JL - + jf m - H_J_ - (ft d x + y! d x') 2 + fc d y + / d y') + (g d z + A/ d zQ 2 . (M +^ + ^')*dt 8 2 M V x 2 +y +z 2 Vx' 2 +y' 2 +z' 2 V(x' x) 2 +(y' ?)*+(* z)*' The last of the integrals (p) of the preceding No. gives,* by substituting for the integral 2fd R, B dx + d y 2 + dz 2 2 (M + M) _ d t z 2 fd R If we then call R', what R becomes when we consider the action of /* upon ft,', we shall have R / _ ^(x^ + yy^ + zzQ _ t* * 2 * " V>'-x) 2 + (y"-y) 2 + (z'- Cl t 'v jw "T _y "T ** the differential characteristic d' only belonging to the coordinates of the dx a +dy 2 + dz 2 , dx /2 + dy' 2 -fdz' 2 body &'. Substituting for . J z and j-p the values in the equation (a), we shall have R' = const. 2 (M + p + tif) d t 2 , /' "T" . /"_. / o , _./ e i /2* It is evident that the second member of this equation contains no terms oi the order of squares and products of the /-, /*', which have the divisor i' n' in; relative, therefore, only to these terms, we shall have + v/fd'W = 0; BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 171 thus, by only considering the terms which have the divisor (i' n' in) 2 , we shall have _ / ct(M+^).a / n / Sffandt.dR i>! (M + iif) a n * ' M + y. Sffandt.dR _ Sffafn'dt.d' R' M + ft M + tf we therefore get pf (M + ^) a n ' + jE6 (M + ^) a' n' % = 0. Again, we have V (M. + A*) V(M + /O n = - 3 - ; n = - 5 - ~ ; a* a' 2 neglecting therefore ,., /', in comparison with M, we shall have I* V a . + v/ V a'. % = ; or V a. lit V a!' ' Thus the inequalities of , which have the divisor (i' n' in) 2 , give us those of ', which have the same divisor. These inequalities are, as we see, affected with the contrary sign, if n and n' have the same sign, or which amounts to the same, if the two bodies p and ft/ circulate in the same direction ; they are, moreover, in a constant ratio ; whence it follows that if they seem to accelerate the mean motion of p, they appear to re- tard that of p' according to the same law, and the apparent acceleration of jti, will be to the apparent retardation of /u-', as /A' V a' is to / V a. The acceleration of the mean motion of Jupiter and the retardation of that of Saturn, which the comparison of modern with ancient observations made known to Halley, being very nearly in this ratio ; it may be concluded from the preceding theorem, that they are due to the mutual action of the two planets; and, since it is constant, that this action cannot produce in the mean motions any alteration independent of the configuration of the planets, it is very probable that there exists in the theory of Jupiter and Saturn a great periodic inequality, of a very long period. Next, consider- ing that five times the mean motion of Saturn, minus twice that of Jupi ter is very nearly equal to nothing, it seems very probable that the phe- nomenon observed by Halley, was due to an inequality depending upon this argument The determination of this inequality will verify the con- jecture. The period of the argument i' n' t i n t being supposed very long, 172 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XI. the elements of the orbits of /*, and (*' undergo, in this interval sensible variations, which must be taken into account in the double integral ffa k n d t 2 sin. (V n' t i n t + A). For that purpose we shall give to the function k sin. (i' n' t i n t + A), the form Q sin. (i' n t i n t + i' t' i ) + Q' cos. (i' n' t i n t -j- i' i i ) Q and Q' being functions of the elements of the orbits : thus we shall have ffa k n d t 2 sin. (i' n' t i n t + A) = n'a sin. (i'n' t int+i't is) ( Q 2 d Q' 3d 2 Q 1 (i'n' in) 2 *\ W (i'n' in)dt (i'n' in) 2 dt a " i " C 'J n* a cos.(i'n't i n t+i' e i ) f o/ 2d Q 3d 2 Q' (i'n' in) 2 't w (iV-in)dt (i'n' in) 2 dt 2+ C * The terms of these two series decreasing very rapidly, with regard to the slowness of the secular variations of the elliptic elements, we may, in each series, stop at the two first terms. Then substituting for the ele- ments of the orbits their values ordered according to the powers of the time, and only retaining the first power, the double integral above may be transformed in one term to the form (F + E t) sin. (V n' t i n t + A + H t). Relatively to Jupiter and Saturn, this expression may serve for many ages before and after the instant from which we date the given epoch. The great inequalities above referred to, become sensible amongst the terms depending upon the second power of the perturbing forces. In fact, if in the formula | = ^f'//a k n 2 . d t 2 . sin. (i' % i + A), we substitute for , ' their values 3 i (*' a n 2 k . . . . . . n t -- TT-, : \i sm ' (i n' t i n t + A) ; m (I'n' in)* there will result among the terms of the order ^ 2 , the following 9iV 2 a 2 n 4 k 2 i ^ V a' + \' p, V a . 5 5Tv ; ^-^4- - r-5 - ' - sin. 2 (i' n't int + A). 8 m 2 (r n' i n) 4 p' V a The value of ' contains the corresponding term, which is to the one preceding in the ratio ^ V a : (*/ V a', viz. 8 9 m)' 8S^+1> * ! ^7 - 2 (i'n' t-i n t + A). 533. It may happen that the inequalities of the mean motion which are the BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 173 most sensible, are only to be found among terms of the order of the squares of the perturbing masses. If we consider three bodies, /., AO, //," circulating around M, the expression of d R relative to terms of this or- der, will contain inequalities of the form k sin. (i n t i' n' t + i" n" t + A) but if we suppose the mean motions n t, n' t, n" t such that in i' n' + i"n"is an extremely small fraction of n, there will result a very sensible inequality in the value of . This inequality may render rigorously equal to zero, the quantity in i' n' + i" n", and thus establish an equation of condition between the mean motions and the mean longitudes of the three bodies ^, /t*', /*". This very singular case exists in the system of Jupiter's satellites. We will give the analysis of it. If we take M for the mass-unit, and neglect /tt, At', V>" in comparison with it, we shall have 2 -, 1. >2 - JL "2 - _L n ~~ a 3 ' n ~~a' 3 ' n ~ a" 3 ' we have then d = n d t; d ' = n' d t; d " = n" d t ; wherefore d 2 g 3 1 da ~d~T ~~ ~2 n . T" d 2 ' 3 n /.V da' dt 2 a' 2 d 2 " 3 n"* d a" dt ~~ 2 a" 2 ' We have seen in No. 528, that if we neglect the squares of the excen- tricities and inclinations of the orbits, we have const. = /* V a + tf. V a' + /*" V a!' ; which gives da' , d a' d a" From these several equations, it is easy to get dt d'r dt dt 3 2' 3 2 ft . n '. n' i. 1 da a 2 n n" d a a 3 &'. n /tt.n" n' n"' a ^ n n' d 174 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XL Finally the equation m = 2fd R a of No. 531, gives a 2 We have therefore only to determine d R. By No. 513, neglecting the squares and products of the inclinations of the orbits, we have / _j R = T|- COS. (V 7 V) (*' (f 2 2 / COS. (v 7 v) + ' 2 ) /i" P - + ~ cos. (v" v) (* f (e 2 2 P ft" cos. (v" v) 4- /' ^). a p//2 \ / vs * s v xib/ If we develope this function in a series ordered according to the cosines of v' v, v" v and their multiples ; we shall have an expression of this form R = (g, ft W + ^ (ft ft (i) cos . (V _ V ) + /,' (?, f O P) cos. 2 (v' - v) + <"' (e e') (3) cos. 3 (v' v) + &c. \a' 9 * r o *>5 5 / i r^ ^5' 9 * * V ^ i * \* s s * * + ^"(ft f'O (3) cos. 3 (v" v) + &c. , whence we derive dH cos. 2 (v' v) + &c. _cos. 2 (v" v) + &c. f t*'(s> f') (1) sin. (v ; v) + 2 /*' (?, f') (2) sin. 2(\ f -^v) + &c. "i - + V 1 + A^(f, g") (1 ^sin.(v" v) + 2 ( a"(, /') Wsin.2(v 7/ v) + &c. J - Suppose, conformably to what observations indicate in the system of the three first satellites of Jupiter, that n 2 n' and n' 2 n" are very small fractions of n, and that their difference n 2 n 7 (n' 2 n' x ) or n 3 n' + 2 n" is incomparably smaller than each of them. <; It results from the expressions of - - s , and of d v of No. 517, that the action of// produces in the radius-vector and in the longitude oOs a very sensible inequality depending on the argument 2 (n' t n t + e' e). The terms relative to this inequality have the divisor 4 (n' n) 2 n 2 , BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 175 or (n 2 n') (3 n 2 n'), and this divisor is very small, because of the smallness of the factor n 2 n'. We also perceive, by the consideration of the same expressions, that the action of ft produces in the radius- vector, and in the longitude of /', an inequality depending on the argu- ment (n' t n t + s' E), and which having the divisor (n' n) 2 n' 2 , or n (n 2 n'), is very sensible. We see, in like manner, that the action of ft" upon ft' produces in the same quantities a considerable inequality depending upon the argument 2 (n" t n' t + s" i'). Finally, we perceive that the action of ft f produces in the radius-vector and in the longitude of ft" a considerable inequality depending upon the argument n" t n' t + *" - These inequalities were first recognised by obser- vations ; we shall develope them at length in the Theory of Jupiter's Sa- tellites. In the present question we may neglect them, relatively to other inequalities. We shall suppose, therefore, d g = (j! E' cos. 2 (n' I n t + f' g) ; a v = ft' F sin. 2 (n' t - n t + ' ; a g' = it" E" cos. 2 (n" t n' t + s" g') +(t G cos. (n t n t+ < t) 3 v' = p" F" sin. 2 (n" t n' t + e" s 7 ) +(t H sin. (n' t n t+ ' e) d t" = ^ G cos. (n" t n' t + *" g') d v" = it" H' sin. (n" t n' t + " s). We must, however, substitute in the preceding expression of d R for fj v > f' v/ > S"i v "> the values of a 3 g, n t + + d v, a' + ^ ', n t+ e' + <5 v', a" + ^ f"> n" t + e" + 8 v", and retain only the terms which depend upon the argument n t 3 n' t + 2 n" t + e 3 t' + 2 t". But it is easy to see that the substitution of the values of 8 g, 8 v, 3 ?", 3 v" cannot produce any such term. This is not the case with the substitution of the values of 8 and 5 v' : the term fif (P, fl W d v sin. (v 7 v) of the expression of d R, produces the following, sin. (n t 3 n' t + 2 n" t + g' 3 s' + 2 *"). This is the only expression of the kind which the expression of d R contains. The expressions of , and of 3 v of No. 5 17, applied to the A action of ft" upon ft', give, retaining only the terms which have the divisor n' 2 n", and observing that n" is very nearly equal to ^ n', _^ a ' (a ', a") '*> "' E " i 'i v da ' n' 2 n") (3 n' 2 n") 176 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XI- F'- 2E ". F -"7"' we therefore have /.V'ndt f2(a,a')) /d . (a, a') <*\ 1 ~~2~ ' \ a 7 " "^ dV J f Xsin. (n t 3 n' t + 2 n" t + s 3 s' + 2 ") = I ? da d 2 d 2 <' d 2 t" Substituting this value of - in the values of p - , -r- 2 - , p- , and making for brevity's sake we shall have, sin.ce n is very nearly equal to 2 n', and n' to 2 n", ^15 3. jI + 2. i^V = /Sn'sin. (n t Sn' t + 2n" t + i 8 f + 2 "); or more exactly so that if we suppose V = 3 + 2 T + . - 3 t + 2 a", we shall have The mean distances a, a', a", varying but little as also the quantity n, we may in this equation consider /3 n % as a constant quantity. Integrat- ing, we have V c 2 |8 n 2 cos. V c being an arbitrary constant. The different values of which this con- stant is susceptible, give rise to the three following cases. If c is positive and greater than + 2 & n 2 , the angle V will increase continually, and this ought to take place, if at the origin of the motion, (n 3 n' + 2 n") * is greater than + 2 /S n 2 (1 + cos. V), the upper or lower signs being taken according as /3 is positive or negative. It is easy to assure ourselves of this, and we shall see particularly in the theory of the satellites of Jupiter, that (3 is a positive quantity relatively to the three first satellites. Supposing therefore + w = T V, it being the semi cir- cumference, we shall have a* d t = - . V c + 2 n 2 cos. BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 177 In the interval from = to -a = , the radical V c + 2 /3 n 2 cos. is greater than V 2 ft n 2 , when c is equal or greater than 2 /3 n z ; we have therefore in this interval -a > n t V 2 |3. Thus, the time t which the i cr angle & employs in arriving from zero to a right angle is less than - ;,- . The value of /3 depends upon the masses, a, ///, p" ; the inequalities ob- served in the three first satellites of Jupiter, and of which we spoke above, give, between their masses and that of Jupiter, relations from whence it results that - - ^- . is under two years, as we shall see in the theory of these satellites ; thus the angle -a would employ less than two years to increase from zero to a right angle ; but the observations made upon Ju- piter's satellites, give since their discovery, -a constantly 'nothing or insen- sible; the case. which we are examining is not therefore that of the three first satellites of Jupiter. If the constant c is less than + 2 /3 n 2 , the angle V will not oscillate ; it will never reach two right angles, if (3 is negative, because then the radical V c 2 (3 n * cos. V, becomes imaginary ; it will never be no- thing if /3 is positive. In the first case its value will be alternately greater and less than zero ; in the second case it will be alternately greater and less than two right angles. All observations of the three first satellites of Jupiter, prove to us that this second case belongs to these stars ; thus the value of (3 ought to be positive relatively to them ; and since the theory of gravitation gives j3 positive, we may regard the phenomenon as a new confirmation of that theory. Let us resume the equation V c + 2/3n 2 cos. ~* The angle -a being always very small, according to the observations, we may suppose cos. -a = 1 -a 2 ; the preceding equation will give by integration TT = X sin. (n t V /3 + y) X and y being two arbitrary constants which observation alone can deter- mine. Hitherto, it has not been recognised, a circumstance which proves it to be very small. From the preceding analysis result the following consequences. Since the angle n t + 3 n' t -f 2 n" t + e 3 t' + It" oscillates being some- times less and sometimes greater than two right angles, its mean value is VOL. II. M 178 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XI. equal to two right angles ; we shall therefore have, regarding only mean quantities n 3 iv + 2 n" = that is to say, that che mean motion of the Jirst satellite, minus three times that of the second, plus twice that of the third, is exactly and constantly equal to zero. It is not necessary that this equality should subsist exactly at the origin, which would not in the least be probable ; it is sufficient that it did very nearly so, and that n 3 n' + 2 n" has been less, ab- straction being made of the sign, than X n V (3; and then that the mutual attraction has rendered the equality rigorous. We have next 3 s -f- 2 i" equal to two right angles ; thus the mean longitude of the Jirst satellite, minus three times that of the second, plus twice that of the third, is exactly and constantly equal to two right angles. From this theorem, the preceding values of 5 /, and of 3 v' are reduci- ble to the two following a / = (^ G ft," E") cos. (n t n t + ' i) 5 v' = (ft H ft" F") sin. (n' t n t + *' ) The two inequalities of the motion of fi' due to the actions of p and of /*'', merge consequently into one, and constantly remain so. It also results from this theorem, that the three first satellites can never be eclipsed at the same time. They cannot be seen together from Jupi- ter neither in opposition nor in conjunction with the sun ; for the preced- ing theorems subsist equally relative to the synodic mean motions, and to the synodic mean longitudes of the three satellites, as we may easily satisfy ourselves. These two theorems subsist, notwithstanding the alter- ations which the mean motions of the satellites undergo, whether they arise from a cause similar to that which alters the mean motion of the moon, or whether from the resistance of a very rare medium. It is evi- dent that these several causes only require that there should be added to the value of -| r , a quantity of the form of . "\ , and which shall only become sensible by integrations ; supposing therefore V = it -a, and -a very small, the differential equation in V will become The period of the angle n t V /3 being a very small number of years, 1 2 1 whilst the quantities contained in -: - are, either constant, or embrace Cl L many ages; by integrating the above equation we shall have BOOK L] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 179 ~ = X sin. (n t V ft + 7) fl *.'* t .. Thus the value of -a will always be very small, and the secular equa- tions of the mean motions of the three first satellites will always be order- ed by the mutual action of these stars, so, that the secular equation of the first, plus twice that of the third, may be equal to three times that of the second. The preceding theorems give between the six constants n, n', n", i, t' t i" two equations of condition which reduce these arbitraries to four ; but the two arbitraries X and 7 of the value of =r replace them. This value is distributed among the three satellites, so, that calling p, p', p" the coefficients of sin. (n t V /3 -f- /) in the expressions of v, v', v", these d 2 T d z T d 2 t" coefficients are as the preceding values of -T -j- , ^-~ , -rfg- > and more- over we have p 3 p' + 2 p" = X. Hence results, in the mean mo- tions of the three first satellites of Jupiter, an inequality which differs for each only by its coefficients, and which forms in these motions a sort of libration whose extent k arbitrary. Observations show it to be insen- sible. 534*. Let us now consider the variations of the excentricities and of the perihelions of the orbits. For this purpose, resume the expressions of d f, d f ', d i" found in 53 ? : calling g the radius- vector of ^ projected upon the plane of x, y ; v the angle which this projection makes with the axis of x ; and s the tangent of the latitude of u above the same plane, we shall have x = g cos. v ; y = f sin. v ; z = j s whence it is easy to obtain dx d R x /d R x /d Rx /d x ~ z = J 8 cos - v s cos - v d + s sin. v R\ /d R 8 sin - v / \ / (-37) - ' s sin - v (-5 dR S COS. V By 531, we also have xdy ydx = cdt; xdz zdxrrc'dt; ydz zdy = c dt; M2 ISO A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XI. the differential equations in f, f ' , f " will thus become df = - d + s sin. /d Rx \ in. v ( a ) ) d s /dRx) - scos - v (dv)/ d R\ sin. v/d R\ s. sin. v/dR\) c"dt/d i T/' /i 2\ /d R\ . . /d R = dx (1 + s 2 ) cos. v- S s cos. v + s sin. .. d y (l + s 2 ) sin. v(^~ s s. sin. v(^)- s d R\ sin. v/d R s. cos. v /d R\ 1 - -Y (ar)l . d t {sin. v (ii l ) + 2il ( d -5) - i^LI . (dB) i I \d/ \dv/ \ds/J The quantities c', c" depend, as we have seen in No. 531, upon the in- clination of the orbit of # to the fixed plane, in such a manner that they become zero when the inclination = ; moreover it is easy to see by the nature of R that [-5 \ is of the order of the inclinations of the orbits ; \d s/ neglecting therefore the squares and products of these inclinations, the preceding expressions of d f and of d f ', will become , f df= - , d f : = d x but we have d x = d (^ cos. v) ; d y = d (g sin. v); cdt=xdy ydx = g ! dv, we therefore get d f = Jd s sin. v + 2 g d v cos. v} ( ) f 2 d v sin. v d R\ / /d R\ sin. v /d R\ ) dv) + c d i l cos - v CT?) - ~r (ar) J ; d f' = [d g cos. v 2 f d v sin. v} (-3) + * d v cos. v (-j ) These equations are more exact, if we take for the fixed plane of x, y, BOOK L] NEWTON'S PR1NC1P1A. 181 that of the orbit of p, at a given epoch ; for then c', c" and s are of the order of the perturbing forces ; thus the quantities which we neglect, are of the order of the squares of the perturbing forces, multiplied by the square of the respective inclination of the two orbits of (J> and of p'. The values of e, d P, d v, (-3 j. [-3 \ remain clearly die same what- V d g J \d v/ ever is the position of the point from which we reckon the longitudes ; but in diminishing v by a right angle, sin. v becomes cos. v, and cos. v becomes sin. v ; the expression of d f changes consequently to that of d f 7 ; whence it follows that having developed, into a series of shies and cosines of angles increasing proportionally with the times, the value of d f, we shall have the value of d f ', by diminishing in the first the angles , ', , -a', 6 and ^ by a right angle. The quantities f and f ' determine the position of the perihelion, and the excentricity of the orbit ; in fact we learn from 531, that V tan. 1 = ; I being the longitude of the perihelion referred to the fixed plane. When this plane is that of the primitive orbit of p, we have up to quantities of the order of the squares of the perturbing forces multiplied by the square of the respective inclinations of the orbits, 1 = *r, -a being the longitude of the perihelion upon the orbit ; we shall therefore then have P tan. -a = -7.- ; which gives f _f sm. = ; cos. = .^_-_ ^ . By 531. we then set f/ c / f c " me = V f* + f' 2 + i" 2 ,f" = - C thus c' and c" being in the preceding supposition of the order of the perturbing forces, f " is of the same order, and neglecting the terms of the square of these forces, we have m e = V f 2 + f /2 . If we substitute for V f * + f *, its value m e, in the expressions of sin. , and of cos. *r, we shall have m e sin. * = f; m e cos. = f ; these two equations will determine the excentricity and the position of the perihelion, and we thence easily obtain m s . ede = f d f + f'df; m'e'dw = fdf f ' d f. MS 182 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XL Taking for the plane of x, y that of the orbit of /x ; we have for the cases of the invariable ellipses, a ( 1 e g ) , g * d v . e . sin, (v v) ~ I + e cos. (v w) ' s ~ a(l e*) g d v = a 2 n d t V 1 e 2 ; and by No. 530, these equations also subsist in the case of the variable ellipses ; the expressions of d f and of d f will thus become d f = -- ==|. [2 cos. v+f e cos. T*+\ e cos ' ( 2 v *}} a 1 n d t V } e 2 . sin. , \ d a n d t (n . , m \ d f = . [2 sin. v-f-| e sin. + e sin. (2 v *r) + a s ndtv / l e *. cos. wherefore a n d t . . , v , /d R< e d v = , sin. (v ) [2 + e cos. (v a z . n d t V 1 e* . . /d K\ + S - (v - -) (-37) andt , ./ \7/"^ d e = 8 . {2 cos. (v *) + e + e cos. (v )j (-j T-r - ; . x / \ V 1 e 2 . sin. (v *). (-T ). V- d o ) ra This expression of d e may be put into a more commodious form in some circumstances. For that purpose, we shall observe that A = d R " d v substituting for g and d g their preceding values, we shall have but we have _ g 2 d v = a 2 ndt V 1 e*; n d t{l + e cos. (v )}* d v = - - -- 5 - *-> (1 e) wherefore _ /d R a 2 n d t V 1 e 2 . sin. (v *). BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 183 the preceding expression of d e, will thus give a n d t V 1 e 2 /d Rx a (1 e ) , e d e = . f -j ) \ d R. m \d v/ m We can arrive very simply at this formula, in the following manner We have by No. 531, <*c_/dJU x fdRx_ (d dT ~ y Vdx; Vd v/ " " \~dv but by the same No. c = V m a (I e 2 ) which gives daVma(l dc = andtVl e 2 /d R\ 9 \da e d e = ( -3 ) -f a ( 1 e *) - v ; m \ d v/ x 2 a 2 and then we have by No. 53 1 ^ = - dU - We thus obtain for e d e the same expression as before. 535. We have seen in 532, that if we neglect the squares of the per- turbing forces, the variations of the principal axis and of the mean mo- tion contain only periodic quantities, depending on the configuration of the bodies p, p', p", &c. This is not the case with respect to the varia- tions of the excentricities aricl inclinations : their differential expressions contain terms independent of this configuration and which, if they were rigorously constant, would produce by integration, terms proportional to the time, which at length would render the orbits very excentric and greatly inclined to one another ; thus the preceding approximations, found- ed upon the smallness of the excentricity and inclination of the orbits, would become insufficient and even faulty. But the terms apparently constant, which enter the differential expressions of the excentricities and inclinations, are functions of the elements of the orbits ; so that they vary with an extreme slowness, because of the changes they there introduce. We conceive there ought to result in these elements, considerable inequa- lities independent of the mutual configuration of the bodies of the system, and whose periods depend upon the ratios of the masses /a, /u/, &c. to the mass M. These inequalities are those which we have named secular in- equalities, and which have been considered in (520). To determine them by this method we resume the value of d f of the preceding No. 1 , /d R\ d f = ===== [2 cos v 4- I e cos. 4- i e cos. (2v w)} {-j ) V 1 e 2 Vriv/ 184 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XL a* n d t V 1 e 2 .sin d We shall neglect in the developement of this equation the square and products of the excentricities and inclinations of the orbits ; and amongst the terms depending upon the excentricities and inclinations, we shall re- tain those only which are constant : we shall then suppose, as in No. 515. g = a(l + U/ ); f = a'(l + u/) ; v = n t + t + v, ; v' = n' t + s' + v/. Again, if we substitute for R, its value found in 515; if we next con- sider that by the same No. we have, di v i I V * "// V J / g * d a/ V d a and lastly if we substitute for u /5 u/, v,, v/ their values e cos. (n t+ < **) e' cos. (n' t + t' *'), 2 e sin. (n t -f t W), 2 e 7 sin. (n' t + *' ') given in No. 484, &c. by retaining only the constant terms of those which depend upon the first power of the excentricities of the orbits, and ne- glecting the squares of the excentricities and inclinations, we shall find that , .. a At' n d t f /d A (0) > d t = a AI' n d t. 2 1 i A + 1- a (rjj-.) } sin.{i(n' t n t + e 7 0+n t + t\; the integral sign belonging as in the value of R of 515, to all the whole positive and negative values of i, including also the value of i = 0. We shall have by the preceding No. the value of d f, by diminishing in that of d f the angles e, *', , iS by a right angle ; whence we get A (0 \ . /dA<>i + a y! n d t. 2 1 i A + J a (-^-*) 1 cos '^ ^ n ' t- ~ n t + t/ ~ + n Let X, for the greater brevity, denote that part of d f, which is con- tained under the sign 2, and Y the corresponding part of d f . Make also, as in No. 522, <" /n / = r | BOOK L] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 185 then observe that the coefficient of e' d t sin. v, in the expression of d f is reducible to [0, 1[ when we substitute for the partial differences in a', their values in partial differences relative to a; finally suppose, as in 517, that e sin. w =h; e' sin. -a = h' e cos. zr = 1 ; e' cos. -a = 1' which gives by the preceding No. f = m 1, f = m h or simply f = 1, f = hj by taking M for the mass-unit, and neglecting i* with regard to M ; we shall obtain = (0, l).l- t = - (0, 1). h + |OTT|. h' - a*' n. X. Hence, it is easy to conclude that if we name (Y) the sum of the terms analogous to a (if n Y, due to the motion of each of the bodies /a', /A", &c. upon ^ ; that if we name in like manner (X) the sum of the terms analo- gous to a (i! n X due to the same actions, and finally if we mark suc- cessively with one dash, two dashes, &c. what the quantities (X), (Y), h, and 1 become relatively to the bodies p, /u", &c. ; we shall have the fol- lowing differential equations, ~ = [(0, 1) + (0, 2) + Sec.} 1 _ gj 1' _ joT2| 1" - &c. + (Y); = {(0, 1) + (0, 2) + &c.| h + OH] h' + |0,J8 h" + &c+ (X); 3J- = i(l, 0) + (1, 2) + &c.J 1' - [M>| 1 - [53 1" - &c. + (Y') = - {(1, 0) + (1, 2) + &c.} h' + [TOI h + &c. To integrate these equations, we shall observe that each of the quanti- ties h, 1, h', T, &c. consists of two parts ; the one depending upon the mutual configuration of the bodies -, //, &c. ; the other independent of this configuration, and which contains the secular variations of these quan- tities. We shall obtain the first part by considering that if we regard hat alone, h, 1, h', 1', &c. are of the order of the perturbing masses, and consequently, (0, 1). h, (0, 1). 1, &c. are of the order of the squares of 186 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XI. these masses. By neglecting therefore quantities of this order, we shall nave wherefore, h =/(Y) d t; 1 =/(X) d t; h' =/(') d t; &c. If we take these integrals, not considering the variability of the ele- ments of the orbits and name Q what/ (Y) d t becomes ; by calling d Q the variation of Q due to that of the elements we shall have /(Y)dt = Q-/5Q; but Q being of the order of the perturbing masses, and the variations of the elements of the orbits being of the same order, 3 Q is of the order of the squares of the masses ; thus, neglecting quantities of this order, we shall have /(Y) d t = Q. We may, therefore, take the integrals/ (Y) d t, / (X) d t, / (Y') d t, &c. by supposing the elements of the orbits constant, and afterwards con- sider the elements variable in the integrals ; we shall after a very simple method, obtain the periodic portions of the expressions of h, 1, h', &c. To get those parts of the expressions which contain the secular inequa- lities, we observe that they are given by the integration of the preceding differential equations deprived of their last terms, (Y), (X), &c. ; for it is clear that the substitution of the periodic parts of h, 1, h', &c. will cause these terms to disappear. But in taking away from the equations their last terms, they will become the same as those of (A) of No. 522, which we have already considered at great length. 536. We have observed in No. 532, that if the mean motions n t and n' t of the two bodies p and /.', are very nearly in the ratio of i' to i so that i' n' in may be a very small quantity ; there may result in the mean motions of these bodies very sensible inequalities. This relation of the mean motions may also produce sensible variations in the excentrici- ties of the orbits, and in the positions of their perihelions. To determine them, we shall resume the equation found in 534, a n d t . vT e d e = 1 1 I* JLl* m \ d v / m It results from what has been asserted in 515, that if we take for the fixed plane, that of the orbit of ^, at a given epoch, which allows ns to BOOK L] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 187 neglect in R the inclination of the orbit of & to this plane; all the terms of the expression of R depending upon the angle i' n' t i n t, will be comprised in the following form, I*' k cos. (i' n' t i n t + i' f i e g * g */ g // tf\ i, i', g, g', g" being whole numbers and such that we have = i'-i-g-g'-g". The coefficient k has the factor e s . e /g/ (tan. )*" ; j i k' is therefore of an order superior to that of (-y- ) "by two units ; thus, in neglecting it in comparison to (-7) t we sna ^ ^ ave __^andt /dkx cos (i , n , t _ int+iv _ ig _ g . -- g' w '_g"0 m ' \d e/ for the term of e d *, which corresponds to the term /*' k cos. (i' n' t i n t + i' t' i g g 7 w' g // O> BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 189 of the expression of R. Hence it follows that the part of w, which cor- responds to the part of R expressed by Ak'Psin. (i'n't int+ i's' i e) + tf Fcos. (i' n't in t + V t' i ), is equal to L = r- . \ ( -, ^ cos. (i' n' t-int + i' i'-\ i]- (, ^ sin. (i' n't-int + i' e'-i t} f ; m(i'n'-in)e I \d e / \ d e / we shall therefore, thus, after a very simple manner, find the variations of the excentricity and of the perihelion, depending upon the angle i' n' t i n t + i' e' i e. They are connected with the variation of the corresponding mean motion, in such a way that the variation of the excentricity is Sin' de.dt j-.nd the variation of the longitude of the perihelion is i' n' in /d_|\ Sine \cTe/" The corresponding variation of the excentricity of the orbit of /*', due to the action of /*, will be __ Si'n'. e'' and the variation of the longitude of its perihelion, will be i' n' in /d 3 i' n' e' and since by No. 532, ' = . ; / . >'_*! , / / \ SB ^-TZ / / /$? cos. (i' n' t i n t + i' ' i j) (i' n' i n) 2 . m /*' v a 7 F sin. (i' n' t i n t + i' *' i t)}. In virtue of these augments, the value of d e will be augmented by the function 3/i'a 2 . in 8 , dt f . ,,,,-, / and the value of d w will be augmented by the function 3/a 2 . in 3 , dt . , f /d P N , , /d P\ ) 7 v , - . , .{ii*'Vaf+ r> Va}. 1 P. (^ -) + Ff-j ) \ . z Vai'n' in 2 , e I \d e / vde/J - v , - . , . 2m z Va(i'n' in) 2 , e In like manner we find that the value of d e 7 will be augmented by the function 3/*a 2 .Va.in 3 . dt c . . / /d P . / /d P\ . /d P\ 1 + X ' A* V 9} iP-fj-/- )-?(-]) (' \d e' / \de/J 5- e / /v / \2' ' 2 m 2 . a', (i' n x -i n) 2 and that the value of d e' will be augmented by the function These different terms are sensible in the theory of Jupiter and Saturn, and in that of Jupiter's satellites. The variations of e, e', &, v' relative to the angle i' n' t i n t may also introduce some constant terms of the order of the square of the perturbing masses in the differentials d e, d e', dw, and d*/, and depending on the variations of e, e', r, -a' relative to the same angle. This may easily be discussed by the preceding analysis. Finally it will be easy,, by our analysis, to determine the terms of the expressions of e, *, e', -s/ which depending upon the angle i' n' t i n t -f- i' ' is have not i' n' in for a divisor, and those which, depending on the same angle and the double of this angle, are of the order of the square of the perturbing forces. These different terms are sufficiently considerable in the theory of Jupiter and Saturn, for us to notice them : we shall deve- lope them to the extent they merit when we come to that theory. 537. Let us determine the variations of the nodes and inclinations of the orbits, and for that purpose resume the equations of 531, dc = d BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 191 f /d RN ,d R dc = If we only notice the action of A*', the value of R of No. 5 I 3, gives 1 1 } . x ( d U \ ' ' _ xz ") { l - 1 1 }; * (x' 2 + y' * + z' 2 ) s {(*.' - x) 2 + (y' - y) 2 + (z' - z) 2 } 8 j d R\ /d R i L l ' 2 4. y' 2 a. 2' 2 ) * f , 3 r * Let however, c^ a c^ __ c c the two variables p and q will determine, by No. 531, the tangent of the inclination

and the longitude 6 of its node by means of the equations tan.

_ x) . + ( ^ y) . + ( .-^ l i} ' In like manner we find 7TT = T" *(P' P) x x' + (q q') x y'} X 192 A COMMENTARY ON SECT. XI. / + y" +z") 8 ~ f( x '_x)*+(y'_ y)'+(z' z)*} If we substitute for x, y, x', y' their values cos. v, e sin. v, ^ cos. v', $' sin. v', we shall have (q q') y / + (P' P) x/ y = ^~^- s 2'- * cos - ( v '+ v ) cos. (\ / \}\ P' P / e + 2 * *' ^ Sm ' ^ V +V ^ ~~ Sm * ( v ~~ v ^ ; (p' p) x x' + (q q') x y 7 = ~- J ^- S s'- Jcos. (v'+v) + cos. (v' v)} + - 5"^ S S;- ^ sm - ( v/ + v ) + sin. (v' v)}. Neglecting the excentricities and inclinations of the orbits, v. e have I = a ; v = n t + t ; = a' ; v' = n 7 1 + ' ; which give 1 1 _ 1_ S / 3. a /3 1 fa 2 2 a of cos. (n' t n t + t' ) + a'*} * moreover by No. 516, - - - 1 = I 2. B fo. cos. i (n' t n t+t' e) Ja 8 2 a a' cos. (n' t n t-H' ) +a' 2 } the integral sign 2 belonging to all whole positive and negative values of i, including the value i = ; we shall thus have, neglecting terms of the order of the squares and products of the excentricities and inclinations of the orbits, p = qlpq^ ^_| 4 j cos> (n , t+ n t + v + ) _ cos . (n / t _n t + a'_0} t / C & + HlpE . ^. jsin. (n t + n t + t' + t) sin. (n t n t + t 7 t}} . ^ a a '. 2. B P> Jcos.[(i+ 1) (n t n t +')] - cos.[(i+l) (n t n t+a' i) + 2nt+2*]| . /'. a a'. 2. B W Jsin.[(i + l) (n' t n t+e' e)J sin.[(i+l) (n't n t+t' 0+ 2nt+2e]j. ' ?' ^ cos ' (n' t + n t +.* + ) + cos.(n' t-n t + / )l BOOK L] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 193 T * sin - (n r t + n t + / + ) + sin. (n' t nt+i' .)} < C & =E! . p*. a a '. 2. B W.fcos. [(i+ 1) (n' t n t+s' )] *i C + cos. [(i+1) (n't n t-H' ) + 2n t+20I . a a /. 2 . B W. $sin. [(i+ 1) (n' t n t+ ' s)] Tf C + sin. [(i+1) (n't n t+s' ) + 2 n t+2 0}- The value i = 1 gives in the expression of -. , the constant quan- tity ^ ~ 3 . p/ t a of B (- 1) . a n t ne other terms of the expression of T- 4 c d t are periodic : denoting their sum by P, and observing that B ( ~ 15 = B W by 516, we shall have .. . at 4 c By the same process we shall find, that if we denote by Q the sum of all the periodic terms of the expression of -j , we shall have U L ... . at 4 c If we neglect the squares of the excentricities and inclinations of the orbits, by 531, we have c = V m a, and then supposing m rr 1, we have ii 2 a 3 = 1 which gives c = ; the quantity - - thus be- comes - -^ - which by 526, is equal to (0, 1 ) ; hence we get j = (0, 1). (q'-q)+P; ^ = (0, 1). (p - p') + Q. Hence it follows that, if we denote by (P) and (Q) the sum of all the functions P and Q relative to the action of the different bodies p', p", &c. "upon (L ; if in like manner we denote by (P'), (Q'), (P") (Q")> &c. what (P) and (Q) become when we change successively the quantities relative to p into those w"hich are relative to /u/, /*", &c. and reciprocally ; we shall have for determining the variables p, q, p', q r , p", q", &c. the following system of differential equations, |P- = {(0, 1) + (0, 2) + c.} q + (0, 1). q' + (0, 2) q"+ &c.+ (P) ; VOL. II. N 194 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XI. IS. = J(0, 1) + (0, 2) + &c.J p (0, 1) p' (0, 2) p" &c. + (Q) ; ^ = {(1, 0) + (1, 2) + &c.} q' + (1, 0) q + (1, 2) q"+ &c. =1(1,0) + (1,2) + &c.}.p' (1,0) p (1, 2)p" &c. The analysis of 535, gives for the periodic parts of p, q, p', q', &c. p =/(P).dt; q =/(Q).dt; p'=/(F).dt; q'=/(Q').dt; &c. We shall then have the secular parts of the same quantities, by inte- grating the preceding differential equations deprived of their last terms (P), (Q), (P'), &c. ; and then we shall again hit upon the equations (C) of No. 526, which have been sufficiently treated of already to render it un- necessary again to discuss them. 538. Let us resume the equations of No. 531, Vc* +c" c" tan.

sin. 6 ; q = tan. p cos. d ; we shall have, instead of the preceding differential equations, the follow- ing ones, d t /d Rx d q = -- cos. v . ( -5 ) ; c \ d s / d t . /d R But we have also s = q sin. v p cos. v which gives /dRx _ 1 /dRx /djlx _ _ 1 /d_Rx Vds ) ~~ sin. v* \d q/' \ds/~ cos. v\dp/' wherefore dt/d Rx d q = (-1 ); c \d p/ d t/d Rx d p = (T 1. c Vd q / We have seen in 515 that the function R is independent of the po- sition of the fixed plane of x, y ; supposing, therefore, all the angles of that function referred to the orbit of p, it is evident that R will be a function of these angles and the respective inclination of two orbits, an N2 196 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XL inclination we denote by p/. Let OJ be the longitude of the node of the orbit of (jJ upon the orbit of p ; and supposing that ti! k (tan. p/) cos. (i f n' t i n t + A g */) is a term of R depending on the angle i' n' t i n t, we shall have, by 527, tan. / . sin. */ = p' . p ; tan. )U +iecos. (v ^)i (-r- m V 1 e 2 v a? The general expression of d t contains terms of the form (*' k . n d t . cos. (i' n' t i n t + A) and consequently the expression of s contains terms of the form -. ; - : sin. (i' n' t i n t + A) : i 7 n in but it is easy to be convinced that the coefficient k in these terms is of the order i' i, and that therefore these terms are of the same order as those of the mean longitude, which depend upon the same angle. These having the divisor (V n' in) *, we see that we may neglect the corre- sponding terms of s, when i' n' i n is a very small quantity. N3 193 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XI. If in the terms of the expression of d e, which are solely functions of the elements of the orbits, we substitute for these elements the secular parts of their values ; it is evident that there will result constant terms, and others affected with the sines and cosines of angles, upon which depend the secular variations of the excentricities and inclinations of the orbits. The constant terms will produce, in the expression of e, terms propor- tional to the time, and which will merge into the mean motion /*. As to the terms affected with sines and cosines, they will acquire by integration, iii the expression of t, very small divisors of the same order as the per- turbing forces ; so that these terms being at the same time multiplied and divided by the forces, may become sensible, although of the order of the squares and products of the excentricities and inclinations. We shall see in the theory of the planets, that these terms are there insensible; but in the theory of the moon and of the satellites of Jupiter, they are very sen- sible, and upon them depend the secular equations. We have seen in No. 532, that the mean motion of ^, is expressed by A//a n d t . d R, and that if we retain only the first power of the perturbing masses, d R will contain none but periodic quantities. But if we consider the squares arid products of the masses, this differential may contain terms which are functions only of the elements of the orbits. Substituting for the elements the secular parts of their values, there will thence result terms affected with sines and cosines of angles depending upon the secular variations of the orbits. These terms will acquire, by the double integration, in the ex- pression of the mean motion, small divisors, which will be of the order of the squares and products of the perturbing masses; so that being both multiplied and divided by the squares and products of the masses, they become sensible, although of the order of the squares and products of the excentricities and inclinations of the orbits. We shall see that these terms are insensible in the theory of the planets. 540. The elements of (t's orbit being determined by what precedes, by substituting them in the expressions of the radius-vector, of the longitude and latitude which we have given in 484, we shall get the values of these three variables, by means of which astronomers determine the position of the celestial bodies. Then reducing them into series of sines and cosines, we shall have a series of inequalities, whence tables being formed, we may easily calculate the position of p at any given instant. This method, founded on the variation of the parameters, is very useful BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PKINCIPIA. 199 in the research of inequalities, which, by the relations of the mean motions of the bodies of the system, will acquire great divisors, and thence become very sensible. This sort of inequality principally affects the elliptic ele- ments of the orbits ; determining, therefore, the variations which result in these elements, and substituting them in the expression of elliptic mo- tion, we shall obtain, in the simplest manner, all the inequalities made sensible by these divisors. The preceding method is moreover useful in the theory of the comet:. We perceive these stars in but a very small part of their courses, and ob- servations only give that part of the ellipse which coincides with the arc of the orbit described during their apparitions ; thus, in determining the nature of the orbit considered a variable ellipse, we shall see the changes undergone by this ellipse in the interval between two consecutive appari- tions of the same comet. We may therefore announce its return, and when it reappears, compare theory with observation. Having given the methods and formulas for determining, by successive approximations, the motions of the centers of gravity of the celestial bo- dies, we have yet to apply them to the different bodies of the solar system : but the ellipticity of these bodies having a sensible influence upon the motions of many of them, before we come to numerical applications, we must treat of the figure of the celestial bodies, the consideration of which is as interesting in itself as that of their motions. SUPPLEMENT TO SECTIONS XII. AND XIII. ON ATTRACTIONS AND THE FIGURE OF THE CELESTIAL BODIES. 541. The figure of the celestial bodies depends upon the law of gravi tation at their surface, and the gravitation itself being the result of the at- tractions of all their parts, depends upon their figure; the law of gravi- ty at the surface of the celestial bodies, and their figure have, therefore, a reciprocal connexion, which renders the knowledge of the one necessary to the determination of the other. The research is thus very intricate, Nl 200 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XII. & XIII. and seems to require a very particular sort of analysis. If the planets were entirely solid, they might have any figure whatever ; but if, like the earth, they are covered with a fluid, all the parts of this fluid ought to be dis- posed so as to be in equilibrium, and the figure of its exterior surface de- pends upon that of. the fluid which covers it, and the forces which act upon it. We shall suppose generally that the celestial bodies are covered with a fluid, and on that hypothesis, which subsists in the case of the earth, and which it seems natural to extend to the other bodies of the system of the world, we shall determine their figure and the law of gravity at their surface. The analysis which we propose to use is a singular application of the Calculus of Partial Differences, which by simple differentiation, will conduct us to very extensive results, and which with difficulty we should obtain by the method of integrations. THE ATTRACTIONS OF HOMOGENEOUS SPHEROIDS BOUNDED BY SURFACES OF THE SECOND ORDER. 542. The different bodies of the solar system may be considered as formed of shells very nearly spherical, of a density varying according to any law whatever ; and we shall show that the action of a spherical shell upon a body exterior to it, is the same as if its mass were collected at its center. For that purpose we shall establish upon the attractions of sphe- roids, some general propositions which will be of great use hereafter. Let x, y, z be the three coordinates of the point attracted which we call p ; let also d M be the element or molecule of the spheroid, and x', y', z' the coordinates of this element ; if we call g its density, f being a function of x', y 7 , z' independent of x, y, z, we shall have d M = g.dx'.dy'.dz'. The action of d M upon ^ decomposed parallel to the axis of x and directed towards their origin, will be g d x' . d y' . d z' (x x') j( X x') 2 + (y y') 2 + (z z'H l and consequently it will be equal to I ^(x-xr + (y-y') cnlling therefore V the integral / _ g d x' . d y' . d z' J Vx x' V(x x') 2 + (y - y') 8 + (z z') 2 extended to the entire mass of the spheroid, we shall have (-: J BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 201 for the total action of the spheroid upon the point /*, resolved parallel to the axis of x and directed towards its origin. V is the sum of the elements of the spheroid, divided by their respec- tive distances from the point attracted ; to get the attraction of the sphe- roid upon this point, parallel to any straight line, we must consider V as a function of three rectangular coordinates, one of which is parallel to this straight line, and differentiate this function relatively to this coordinate ; the coefficient of this differential taken with a contrary sign, will be the expression of the attraction of the spheroid, parallel to the given straight line, and directed towards the origin of the coordinate which is parallel to it. If we represent by |3, the function (x x') 2 +(y y'Y + (z zj}~* ; we shall have V = //3. f .dx'dy'dz'. The integration being only relative to the variables x', y', z', it is evi- dent that we shall have But we have /d'/3v xd'jSv - teJ + (dyO + in like manner we get d 2 V This remarkable equation will be of the greatest use in the theory of the fi- gure of the celestial bodies. We may present it under more commodious forms in different circumstances ; conceive, for example, from the origin of coordinates we draw to the point attracted a radius which we call ; let 6 be the angle which this radius makes with the axis of x, and the angle which the plane formed by f and this axis makes with the plane of x, y ; we shall have x = i cos. 6 ; y = g sin. 6 cos. -or ; z = g sin. 6 sin. & ; whence we derive : Vx'+yM-z* ; : 7 ; thus we can obtain the partial differences of g, 0, ^, relative to the varia- /d 2 V\ /d 2 V\ /d bles x, y, z, and thence get the values of 202 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XII. & XIII. in partial differences of V relative to the variables , 6, -a. Since we shall often use these transformations of partial differences, it is useful here to lay down the principle of it. Considering V as a function of the variables x, y, z, and then of the variables g, 0, 9, we have dV\ . /dVx /djx /cTV\ /djx ,dV " " To get the partial differences (j-)> (T~)> (H~~) we must x alone vary in the preceding expressions of j, cos. 6, tan. w ; differentiat- ing therefore these expressions, we shall have /d f\ /d 0. sin. /d tsr\ ( -> ) = cos. ; ( j ) = --- ; (,--)= ; Vdx/ \dx/ 5 \dx/ which gives d V\ sin. 6 d V = cos. Thus we therefore get the partial difference ( -r -^ , in partial differ- ences of the function V, taken relatively to the variables g, 6, **. Differ- entiating again this value of (--r J , we shall have the partial difference r\ 2 V (^ 2 Jin partial differences of V taken relatively to the variables g, 6, -a. By the same process the values of (-^ jrj and (-, ~\ may be found. In this way we shall transform equation (A) into the following one: And if we make cos. 6 = m, this last equation will become 543. Suppose, however, that the spheroid is a spherical shell whose origin of coordinates is at the center ; it is evident that V will only de- pend upon g, and contain neither m nor w, the equation (C) will therefore give whence by integration we get BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINC1PIA. 203 A and B being two arbitrary constants. We therefore have d Vx d V ~j expresses, by what precedes, the action of the spherical shell upon the point /&, decomposed along the radius and directed towards the center of the shell ; but it is evident that the total action of the shell ought to be directed along this radius; ( -. J expresses therefore the total action of the spherical shell upon the point /A. First suppose this point placed within the shell. If it were at the center itself, the action of the shell would be nothing ; we have therefore, -(^)=o.-F = ' densed at this center; calling, therefore Mthe mass of the shell, (-5- when = 0, which gives B = 0, and consequently (--. ) = 0, what- ever may be; whence it follows that a point placed in the interior of the shell, suffers no action, or \vhich comes to the same thing, it is equally at- tracted on all sides. If the point //. is situated without the spherical shell, it is evident, sup- posing it infinitely distant from the center, that the action of the shell upon the point will be the same, as if all the mass of the shell were con- - or will become in this case equal to - , which gives B = M; we have therefore generally relatively to exterior points, /d Vx JV1 Yd!/ :: g* that is to say, the shell attracts them as if all its mass were collected at its center. A sphere being a spherical shell, the radius of whose interior surface is nothing, we see that its attraction, upon a point placed at or above its surface, is the same as if its mass were collected at its center. This result obtains for globes formed of concentric shells, varying in density from the center to the circumference according to any law what- ever, for it is true for each of the shells : thus since the sun, the planets, and satellites may be considered nearly as globes of this nature, they at- tract exterior bodiejs very nearly as if their masses were collected into their centers of gravity. This is conformable with what has been found by 204 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XII. & XIII. observations. Indeed the figure of the celestial bodies departs a lit- tle from the sphere, but the difference is very little, and the error which results from the preceding supposition is of the same order as this sup- position relatively to points near the surface; and relatively to distant points, the error is of the same order as the product of this difference by the square of the ratio of the radii of the attracting bodies to their distances from the points attracted; for we know that the considera- tion alone of the distance of the points attracted, renders the error of the preceding supposition of the same order as tne square of this ratio. The celestial bodies, therefore, attract one another very nearly as if their masses were collected at their centers of gravity, not only because they are very distant from one another relatively to their respective dimensions, but also because their figures differ very little from the sphere. The property of spheres, by the law of Nature, of attracting as if their masses were condensed into their centers, is very remarkable, and we may be curious to learn whether it also obtains in other laws of attraction. For that purpose we shall observe, that if the law of gravity is such, that a homogeneous sphere attracts a point placed without it as if all its mass were collected at its center, the same result ought to obtain for a spherical shell of a constant thickness ; for if we take from a sphere a spherical shell of a constant thickness, we form a new sphere of a smaller radius with the remainder, but which, like the former, shall have the property of attracting as if all its mass were collected at its center ; but it is evident, that these two spheres can only have this common property, unless it also belongs to the spherical shell which forms their difference. The problem, therefore, is reduced to determine the laws of attraction according to which a spherical shell, of an infinitely small and constant thickness, attracts an exterior point as if all its mass were condensed into its center. Let i be the distance of the point attracted to the center of the spherical shell, u the radius of the shell, and d u its thickness. Let 6 be the angle which the radius u makes with the straight line f, v the angle which the plane passing through the straight lines f, u, makes with a fixed plane passing through f, the element of the spherical shell will be u 2 d u . d w . d 6 sin. 6. If we then call f the distance of this element from the point at- tracted, we shall have f 2 = s z 2 u cos - * + u 5 - Represent by p'(f) the law of attraction to the distance f; the action of the shell's element upon the point attracted, decomposed parallel to g and directed towards the center of the shell, will be BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 205 1 " J A S U COS ' * ,rt u s d u . d -a sin. d 7= (f) ; but we have g_ u cos. 6 _ /d f \ which gives to the preceding quantity this form u 2 d u . d w sin. 6 f-r - )

sin. 6 = - ; and consequently 11 t\ 11 9. (f )- The integral relative to 6 ought to be taken from 6 = to 6 = K, and at these two limits we have f = j u, and f =r g + u ; thus the integral relative to f must be taken from f = utof=g + u; let therefore /f d f. 9, (f) = -4, (f ), we shaU have rr j ,. , c . 2T.udu f , v .-, /f d ft, (f) = - - - ty (g+u) -vKf u)}. The coefficient of d g, in the differential of the second member of this equation, taken relatively to g, will give the attraction of the spherical shell upon the point attracted ; and it is easy thence to conclude that in nature where

(f) + g U, U being a function of u and constants, added to the integral 2 u/d p(g) If we represent -^ (j + u) -vf/ (g u) by R, we shall have, by differen tiating the preceding equation But we have, by the nature of the function R, d*R du wherefore or 2 p (g) d . p (g) 1 /d 2 U\ dg = auVdu*/' 9 3 Thus the first member of this equation being independent of u and the functions of g, each of its members must be equal to an arbitrary which we shall designate by 3 A ; we therefore have whence in integrating we derive B = A? + -,- B being a new arbitrary constant. All the laws of attraction in which a sphere acts upon an exterior point placed at the distance from its center, as if all the mass were condensed into its center, are therefore comprised in the general formula it is easy to see in fact that this value satisfies equation (D) whatever may be A and B. If we suppose A = 0, we shall have the law of nature, and we see that BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 207 in the infinity of laws which render attraction very small at great dis- tances, that of nature is the only one in which spheres have the property of acting as if their masses were condensed into their centers. This law is also the only one in which a body placed within a spherical shell, every where of an equal thickness, is equally attracted on all sides. It results from the preceding analysis that the attraction of the spherical shell, whose thickness is d u, upon a point placed in its interior, has the expression 2*ru e du To make this function nothing, we must have 4 (u + e) ^ (u s) = s u, U being a function of u independent of g, and it is easy to see that this T> obtains in the law of nature, where p (f ) = 5 . But to show that it takes place only in this law, we shall denote by ty (f ) the difference of 4- (f ) divided by d f, we shall also denote by y (f) the difference of -\}/ (f) divided by d f, and so on ; thus we shall get, by differentiating twice suc- cessively, the preceding equation relatively to f, V (" + ) -V' (u f) = 0. This equation obtaining whatever may be u and f, it thence results that -4/' (f ) ought to be equal to a constant whatever f may be, and that therefore 4-'" (f ) = 0. But, by what precedes, 4/(f)=f. f/ (f), whence we get 4/"(f) = 2f>(f) + f?(f); we therefore have o = 2p(f) +ff'(f); which gives by integration and consequently the law of nature. 554. Let us resume the equation (C) of No. 541. If this equation could generally be integrated, we should have an expression of V, which would contain two arbitrary functions, which we should determine by finding the attraction of a spheroid, upon a point situated so ^s to facili- tate this research, and by comparing this attraction with its general ex- pression. But the integration of the equation (C) is possible only in some particular cases, such as that where the attracting spheroid is a sphere, which reduces this equation to ordinary differences; it is also possible in 208 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XII. & XIII. the case where the attracting body is a cylinder whose base is an oval or curve returning into itself, and whose length is infinite. This particular case contains the theory of Saturn's ring. Fix the origin of g upon the same axis of the cylinder, which we shall suppose of an infinite length on each side of the origin. Naming g the distance of the point attracted from the axis; we shall have g ' = g V 1 m 2 . It is evident that V only depends on g' and *, since it is the same for all the points relatively to which these two variations are the same ; it contains therefore only m inasmuch as f' is a function of this variable. This gives [j> cos. -a + | V 1 sin. w} + ^[g cos. r (>' V 1 sin. J ; ; this reduces the in- tegral to - , ; which is the expression of (;r~7~) when ^ is very con- siderable. Comparing this with the preceding one we have H = 2 A, and we see that whatever is /, the action of the cylinder upon an exterior . 2 A point, is - . t If the attracted point is within a circular cylindrical shell, of a constant thickness, and infinite length, we shall have ( , } =r' 9 and since vug/ j the attraction is nothing when the point attracted is upon the axis of the shell, we have H = 0, and consequently, a point placed in the interior of the shell is equally attracted on all sides. 545. We have thus determined the attraction of a sphere and of a spherical shell : let us now consider the attraction of spheroids terminated by surfaces of the second order. Let x, y, z be the three rectangular coordinates of an element of the spheroid ; designating d M this element, and taking for unity the density of the spheroid which we shall suppose homogeneous, we shall have dM = dx.dy.dz. Let a, b, c be the rectangular coordinates of the point attracted by the spheroid, and denote by A, B, C the attractions of the spheroid upon this point resolved parallel to the axes of x, y, z and directed to the origin of the coordinates. It is easy to show that we have \ _ rrr _ (a - x) d x . d y . d z __ ^ {(a x) 2 + (b y; 2 + (c z) 2 } 1 ' B = ' ( b y) dx - d y- dz a-x) 2 + (b y) 2 + p)- In like manner we may suppose in this new differential, y = ' (z, p, q) ; z = p" (p, q, r). It only remains to derive from these equations the values of /3, /?, ft". For that purpose we shall observe that they give x, y, z, in functions of the variables p, q and r ; let us consider therefore the three first variables as functions of the three last. Since ft" is the coefficient of d r in the dif- ferential of z, taken by considering p and q constant, we have ft' is the coefficient of d q, in the differential of y taken on the supposi- tion that p and z are constant ; we shall therefore have ft', by differen- tiating y on the supposition that p is constant, and by eliminating d r by means of the differential of z taken on the supposition that p is constant, and equating it to zero. Thus we shall have the two equations which give Boox I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 211 wherefore _ d q/ \d r ~ ~ \dr di' Finally, /3 is the coefficient of d p, in the differential of x taken on the supposition that y and z are constant. This gives the three following equations /d z =(crj If we make - (l5 . ' \dp \dq \dr ~\dp \dr we shall have dx = ~d V /y(r + r / )dp dq. sin. 2 p cos. p ; C ff(r + r') d p d q . sin. 2 p sin. q ; the integrals relative to p and q ought to be taken from p and q equal to zero, to p and q equal to two right angles. In the second case, if we call r, the radius at its entering the spheroid, and r 7 the radius at its farther surface, we shall have A =ff(r' r) d p d q . sin. p cos. p ; B = Jf(? r) d p d q . sin. 2 p cos. q ; C =ff(r' r) d P d q . sin. 2 p sin. q. The limits of the integrals relative to p and to q, must be fixed at the points where r' r = 0, that is to say, where the radius r is a tangent to the surface of the spheroid. 546. Let us apply these results to spheroids bounded by surfaces of the BOOK L] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 213 second order. The general equation of these surfaces, referred to the three orthogonal coordinates x, y, z is 0= A+B.x + C.y+E. z+F. x 2 + H. x y+L. y 2 +M. x z+N. y z+O. z 2 . The change of the origin of coordinates introduces three arbitraries, since the position of this new origin relating to the first depends upon three arbitrary coordinates. The changing the position of the coordi- nates around their origin introduces three arbitrary angles ; supposing, therefore, the coordinates of the origin and position in the preceding equation to change at the same time, we shall have a new equation of the second degree whose coefficients will be functions of the preceding coeffi- cients and of the six arbitraries. If we then equate to zero the first powers of the coordinates, and their products two and two, we shall de- termine these arbitraries, and the general equation of the surfaces of the second order, will take this very simple form x 2 + m y 2 + n z 8 = k 2 ; it is under this form that we shall discuss it. In these researches we shall only consider solids terminated by finite surfaces, which supposes m and n positive. In this case, the solid is an ellipsoid whose three semi-axes are what the variables x, y, z become when we suppose two of them equal to zero ; we shall thus have k, - f , k , for the three semi-axes respectively parallel to x, to y and to z. The solid content of the ellipsoid will be 3 V m n If, however, in the preceding equation we substitute for x, y, z their values in p, q, r given by the preceding No., we shall have r z (cos. 2 p + m sin.*p cos. 2 q + n sin. z p sin. 2 q) 2 r (a cos. p + m b sin. p cos. q + n c sm - P sm q) =k 2 -a 2 -m b ? -n c ? ; so that if we suppose I = a cos. p + m b sin. p cos. q -}- n c sin. p sin. q ; L = cos. 2 p + m sin. 2 p cos. 2 q + n sin. 2 p sin. 2 q ; R = I 2 + (k 2 a 2 mb 2 nc 1 ). L we shall have I + V R TT whence we obtain r' by taking -f, and r by taking ; we shall theie- fore have 21 , 2 V R r + , = _ ; r'-r^. * 03 214 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XII, & XIII. Hence relatively to the interior points of the spheroid, we get . r r d p . d q . I . sin, p . cos, p *JJ Tf~ r r d p . d q . I . sin. 2 p . cos, q * JJ ~L~ r> o /'^.dp.dq.I. sin. 2 p . sin. q 2 ff ~L~ and relatively to the exterior points A o / / d p d q . sm - P cos< P ^ ^ JJ L d p . d q . sin. 2 p cos. q V R y J d p . d q . sin. 2 p sin, q V R J 3 the three last integrals being to be taken between the two limits which correspond to R = 0. 547. The expressions relative to the interior points being the most simple, we shall begin with them. First, we shall observe that the semi- axis k of the spheroid does not enter the values of I and L ; the values of A, B, C are consequently independent ; whence it follows that we may augment at pleasure, the shells of the spheroid which are above the point attracted, without changing the attraction of the spheroid upon this point, provided the values of m and n are constant. Thence results the follow- ing theorem. A point placed within an elliptic shell whose interior and exterior sur- faces are similar and similarly situated, is equally attracted on all sides. This theorem is an extension of that which we have demonstrated in 542, relative to a spherical shell. Let us resume the value of A. If we substitute for I and L their va- lues, it will become A / >dp.dq.sin.p.cos.p.(acos.p -f- mbsin.pcos.q + ncsin.psin.q) J J cos. 2 p + in sin. * p cos. 2 q -f n sin. 2 p sin. 2 q Since the integrals relative to p and q, must be taken from p and q equal to zero, to p and q equal to two right angles, it is clear we have generally J P d p . cos. p = 0, P being a rational function of sin. p and of cos. 2 p ; because the value of p being taken at equal distances greater and less than the right angle, the corresponding values of P . cos. p are equal and have contrary signs ; thus we have A = 2 a //* d p.dq.sin. p cos. * p ^ ' J J cos. 2 p + m sin. 2 p cos 2 q -\> n sin 7 p sin. 2 q * BOOK L] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 215 If we integrate relatively to q from q = to q = two right angles, we shall find * _ 2 a * r dp. sin. p cos. * p V mn / 1 m \ /, 1 n T' S ' P)- + -IT C S ' P) n COS ' an integral which must be taken from cos. p = 1 to cos. p = 1. Let cos. p = x, and call M the entire mass of the spheroid ; we shall have ,'..,,, 4 r . k 3 , 4*- 3M by 545, M = and consequently -= = -r-r- : we shall there- Vmn ^Vmn k 3 fore have 3 a M f x 2 d x A = which must be taken from x = 0, to x = 1. Integrating in the same manner the expressions of B, C we shall reduce them to simple integrals ; but it is easier to get these integrals from the preceding expression of A. For that purpose, we shall observe that this expression may be considered as a function of a and of the squares k 2 , k 2 k 2 , of the semi-axes of the spheroid, parallel to the coordinates a, b, c of the point attracted ; calling therefore k' 2 the square of the semi-axis parallel to b, and consequently k' 2 . m, and k' 2 n the squares of the two other semi-axes, B will be a similar function of b, k'*, k' 2 m, k' 2 ; thus to get B we must change in the expression of A, a into b, k into k' or k 1 . n , . , . , m into , and n into , which gives ' m m m 3 b M f m^. x 2 dx B = Let t ' V m + (1 m). t 2 ' we shall have 3bM Jt> = r-= m an integral relative to t which must be taken, like the integral relative to x o 4 216 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XII. & XIII. from t = to t = 1, because x = gives t = and x = 1, gives t = 1 Hence it follows that if we suppose 1 - m x ' dx m n V(l + X 2 x 2 ). (1 + X' 2 x*) we shall have _ 3_b M /d.x Fx k 3 V dx )' If we change in this expression, b into c, X into X' and reciprocally, we shall have the value of C. The attractions A, B, C of the spheroid, par- allel to its three axes are thus given by the following formulas _ 3aM _ 3bM d . X Fx 3 c M d . X F *" ~~ We may observe that these expressions obtaining for all the interior points, and consequently for those infinitely near to the surface, they also hold good for the points of the surface. The determination of the attractions of a spheroid thus depends only on the value of F ; but although this value is only a definite integral, it has, however, all the difficulty of indefinite integrals when X and X' are indeterminate, for if we represent this definite integral, taken from x = to x = 1, by f (X*, X' *), it is easy to see that the indefinite integral will be x 3

x * d x 1 c , = /l+x- = Dfr- To get the partial differences ( *. - j, ( ^ ; ), which enter the expressions of B, C, we shall observe that dx/d.xFx dx;/d.^Fx __ /d_x . \ d X )~ \ dx' / ; X >/ ; wherefore , x = ^.x d F+Fdx = Ld. x F. Substituting for F its value, we shall have BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. ' 217 we shall therefore have relatively to ellipsoids of revolution, whose semi- axis of revolution is k, 3 b . M 3 c . M = 548. Now let us consider the attraction of spheroids upon an exterior point. This research presents greater difficulties than the preceding be- cause of the radical V R which enters the differential expressions, and which under this form renders the integrations impossible. We may ren- der them possible by a suitable transformation of the variables of which they are functions ; but instead of that method, let us use the following one, founded solely upon the differentiation of functions. If we designate by V the sum of all the elements of the spheroid divided by their respective distances from the point attracted, and x, y, z the co- ordinates of the element d M of the spheroid, and a, b, c those of the point attracted, we shall have V = f dM J V (a x) 2 + (b y) 2 + (c z) 2 ' Then designating, as above, by A, B, C the attractions of the spheroid parallel to the axes of x, y, z, and directed towards their origin, we shall have / (a x). d M /d A = / * J(a x) 2 + (b y) * + ( c In like manner we get B = -( ),C = -(- V> whence it follows that if we know V, it will be easy thence to obtain by differentiation alone, the attraction of a spheroid parallel to any straight line whatever, by considering this straight line as one of the rectangular coordinates of the point attracted ; a remark we have already made in 541. The preceding value of V, reduced into a series, becomes 2 a x+ 2 b y+2cz x 2 y 2 z ! v =/ This series is ascending relatively to the dimensions of the spheroid 218 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XII. & XI11. and descending relatively to the coordinates of the point attracted. If we only retain the first term, which is sufficient when the attracted point is at a very great distance, we shall have y V & 2 + b 2 + c s> M being the entire mass of the spheroid. This expression will be still more exact, if we place the origin of coordinates at the center of gravity of the sphere ; for by the property of this center we have / x. d M = ; / y. d M = ; / z. d M = ; so that if we consider a very small quantity of the first order, the ratio of the dimensions of the spheroid to its distance from the point attracted, the equation y _ M V a 2 + b 2 + c 2 will be exact to quantities nearly of the third order. We shall now investigate a rigorous expression of V relatively to ellip- tic spheroids. 549. If we adopt the denominations of 544, we shall have V =/ =fffr d r d p d q sin. p = //(r" - r 2 ) d p dq. sin. p. Substituting for r and r 7 their values found in 544, we shall have v - o rr d p . d q sin, p. I . V R *JJ L 2 Let us resume the values of A B, C relative to the exterior points, and given in 546, A o / /* d P d , sm> P cos - p V R * ~~~~ o r r d P . d q sin. g p cos, q V R 5 - *JJ - ~TT c = 2 /ydp-dqsin.*psin. q v R . Since at the limits of the integrals, we have V R = 0, it h easy to see that by taking the first differences of V, A, B, C relatively to any of the six quantities a, b, c, k, m, n, we may dispense with regarding the varia- tions of the limits ; so that we have, for example, for the integral r d P sin, p I V R J ~17~~ BOOK L] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 219 z is towards these limits, very nearly proportional to R 2 , which renders equal to zero, its differential at these limits. Hence it is easy to see by differentiation that if for brevity we make aA + bB + cC = F; we shall have between the four quantities B, C, F, and V the following equation of partial differences, We may eliminate from this equation, the quantities B, C, F by means of their values dVx , /dVx ,/dV We shall thus get an equation of partial differences in V alone. Let therefore , T 4 v. k 3 ,, V zr - . y = M . v, 3 V m n M being by 545, the mass of the elliptic spheroid ; and for the variables m and n let us here introduce 6 and w which shall be such that we have m n 6 will be the difference of the square of the axis of the spheroid parallel to y and the square of the axis parallel to x ; -a will be the difference of the square of the axis of z and the square of the axis of x ; so that if we take for the axis of x, the smallest of the three axes of the spheroid, V d and *S -a will be its two excentricities. Thus we shall have TU/ k V d V> \ j V 1 31 HrTAdJ" 1 " 2lij : V being considered in the first members of those equations as a function of a, b, c, k, m, n ; and v being considered in their second members as a function of a, b, c, 6 t -a, k. 220 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XII. & XIII. If we make >ve shall have F = M Q, and we shall get the values of k (ars) ' (s~n~) by chan in g in the P recedin s valu e* of k -T -jt v into Q. Moreover V and F are homogeneous functions in a, b, c, k, */ 6, V v of the second dimension, for V being the sum of the elements of the spheroid, divided by their distances from the point at- tracted, and each element being of three dimensions, V is necessarily of two dimensions, as also F which has the same number of dimensions as V ; v and Q are therefore homogeneous functions of the same quantities and of the dimension 1; thus we shall have by the nature of homo- geneous functions, (d v\ , ,/d v\ . /d v\ , _ t /d v\ , y-J +b -(db) + c -te) +2 Hdr) +2 an equation which may be put under this form We shall have in like manner then, if in equation (1) we substitute for V, F and their partial differences; k 2 k 2 if moreover we substitute ,-s - . for m and ,- - for n, we shall have k 8 + ^ k 2 -f- -a 550. Conceive the function v expanded into a series ascending rela- tively to the dimensions k, V 6, V -a of the spheroid, and consequently descending relatively to the quantities a, b, c : this series will be of the following form : v = U (0 >+ U('' + tM 2 >+ UW+&C.; U (0) , U (1) , &c. being homogeneous functions of a, b, c, k, V 6, V *, and separately homogeneous relatively to the three first and to the three last BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 221 of these six quantities ; the dimensions relative to the three first always decreasing, and the dimensions relative to the three last increasing con- tinually. These functions being of the same dimension as v, are all of the dimension 1. If we substitute in equation (2) for v its preceding expanded value ; if we call s the dimension of U (i) in k, V 6, V &, and consequently s 1 its dimension in a, b, c; if in like manner we name s' the dimension of UC + i) in k, V 6, V &, and consequently s' 1 its dimension in a, b, c ; if we then consider that by the nature of homogeneous functions we have we shall have, by rejecting the terms of a dimension superior in k, V V v to that of the terms which we retain, . . . (3) s. This equation gives the value of U (i + 1 \ by means of U (i) and of its partial differences ; but we have since, retaining only the first term of the series, we have found in 548, that v = _ M _ .. Substituting therefore this value of U (0) in the preceding formula, we shall get that of U (1 > ; by means of that of U (1 > we shall have that of U (2 > and so on. But it is remarkable that none of these quantities contains k: for it is evident by the formula (3) that U (0) , not containing U (1) , does not contain it ; that U (1) not containing it, U ( " 2) will not contain it, and so on ; so that the entire series U (0) + U (lj + &c. is independent of k, or which is the same thing (-TT) = 0. The values of v, (T y (nT A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XII. & XIIL (T~) are therefore the same for all elliptic spheroids similarly si- tuated, and which have the same excentricities V 6, V -a ; but M f-r-^ *d a/ ^\d~b) ' ^(d /' ex P ress ty 548, the attractions of the spheroid parallel to its three axes; therefore the attractions of different elliptic spheroids which have the same center, the same position of the axes and the same excentricities, upon an exterior point, are to one another as their masses. It is easy to see by formula (3) that the dimensions of U^, U (1) , U (2) , &c. in Vdand V =?, increase two units at a time, so that s = 2i, s' = 2i + 2; moreover we have by the nature of homogeneous functions ,( d J^l\-i u ,f du "'y I "* V 2T^i J J \dw/ \ d 6 J this formula will therefore become By means of this equation, we shall have the value of v in a series very convergent, whenever the excentricities V 6, V -a are very small, or when the distance V a 2 + b 2 + c 2 of the point attracted from the center of the spheroid is very great relatively to the dimensions of the spheroid. , If the spheroid is a sphere, we shall have 6 = 0, and = 0, which give U (1 > = 0, U (2 > = 0, &c. ; wherefore v = U W = l : V a 2 + b 2 -f- c 2 and y- M V a 2 + b 2 + c 2 ' whence it follows that the value of V is the same as if all the mass of .the sphere were condensed into its center, and that thus, a sphere attracts any exterior point, as if all its whole mass were condensed into its center ; a result already obtained in 542. 551. The property of the function of v being independent of k, fur- nishes the means of reducing its value to the most simple form of which it is susceptible ; for since we can make k vary at pleasure without changing this value, provided the spheroid retain the same excentricities, V 6 and BooKl.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 223 V *, we may suppose k such that the spheroid shall be infinitely flatten- ed, or so contrived that its surface pass through the point attracted. In these two cases, the research of the attractions of the spheroid is rendered more simple; but since we have already determined the attractions of elliptic spheroids, upon points at the surface, we shall now suppose k such that the surface of the spheroid passes through the point of attraction. If we call k', m', n' relatively to this new spheroid what in 545, we named k, m, n relatively to the spheroid we there considered ; the condi- tion that the point attracted is at the surface, and that also a, b, c are the coordinates of a point of the surface, will give a* + m'b* + n'c 2 = k 2 ; and since we suppose the excentricities V d and V *r to remain the same, we shall have ] m ],/_*. 1 ~ n/ k' 2 - ~isr~'* ' ~^~- whence we obtain = F r +iJ ~k /2 + ~ ; we shall therefore have to determine k 7 , the equation \r' 2 V 2 n 2 J. _ h 2 J. r 2 k' 2 f ^ "i" V'2 i 4 u T C7Fj~Z ~~ * * ' V ' K. -p P Jti -J- It is easy hence to conclude that there is only one spheroid whose sur- face passes through the point attracted, d and -a remaining the same. For if we suppose, which we always may do, that 6 and are positive, it is clear that augmenting in the preceding equation, k' 2 by any quantity which we may consider an aliquot part of k /2 , each of the terms of the first member of this equation, will increase in a less ratio than k' 2 ; therefore if in the first state of k' 2 , there subsist an equality between the two mem- bers of this equation, this equality will no longer obtain in the second state ; whence it follows that k' 2 is only susceptible of one real and posi- tive value. Let M' be the mass of the new spheroid, and A', B', C' its attractions parallel to the axes of a, b, c ; if we make 1 __ m / 1 _ n' m n x 2 dx F =/ V(l + X 2 . x 2 ). (1 + X' 2 by 547, we shall have _ 3 a M' F , 3 b M' /d . X Fx c/ _ 22 1 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XII. & X11I. Changing in these values of A 7 , B', C', M' into M, we shall have \iy the preceding No., the values of A, B, C relatively to the first spheroid but the equations " - m' n' give X' = 4-; X"= ; k' * being given by equation (5) which we may put under this form we shall therefore have A _ 3 a M 3 b M /d . X F\ _ 3 c M ^d . X' F^ lr' 3 * ' ~ k' 3 \ H > / ' k' 3 V H >/ y A. 14. II A * K. x Cl A / These values obtain relatively to all points exterior to the spheroid, and to extend them to those of the surface, and even to the interior points we have only to change k' to k. If the spheroid is one of revolution, so that 6 = *r, the formula (5) will give 2 k /2 = a 2 +b 2 +c 2 6 + V(a 2 +b 2 +c 2 0) 2 +4 a 2 . 0; and by 547 we shall have 3aM .. A = f-.T- -, (X tan.- 1 X) I. r o \ S \ ' 3 b M / X x B =. YI 1 tan. ~- l X ) C - 3 c M Thus we have terminated the complete theory of the attractions of el- liptic spheroids ; for all that remains to be done is the integration of the differential expression of F, and this integration in the general sense is impossible, not only by known methods, but also in itself. The value of F cannot be expressed in finite terms by algebraic, logarithmic or circular quantities ; or which it tantamount, by any algebraic function of quantities whose exponents are constant, nothing or variable. Functions of this kind being the only ones which can be expressed independently of the symbol Jl all the integrals which cannot be reduced to such functions, are impos- sible in finite terms. If the elliptic spheroid is not homogeneous, and if it is composed of elliptic shells varying in position, excentricity and density according to any law whatever, we shall have the attraction of one of its shells, by de- BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 225 termining as above the difference of the attractions of two homogeneous elliptic spheroids, having the same density as the shell, one of which shall have for its surface the exterior surface of the shell, and the other the in- terior surface of the shell. Then summing this differential attraction, we shall have the attraction of the whole spheroid. THE DEVELOPEMENT INTO SERIES, OF THE ATTRACTIONS OF ANY SPHEROIDS WHATEVER. 552. Let us consider generally the attractions of any spheroids what- ever. We have seen in No. 547, that the expression V of the sum of the elements of the spheroid, divided by their distances from the attracted points, possesses the advantage of giving by its differentiation, the attrac- tion of this spheroid parallel to any straight line whatever. We shall see moreover, when treating of the figure of the planets, that the attraction of their elements presents itself under this form in the equation of their equi- librium ; thus we proceed particularly to investigate V. Let us resume the equation of No. 548, V= /_ dM J v (a x) 2 + (b y) 2 + (c z) *' a, b, c being the coordinates of the point attracted ; x, y, z those of the element d M of the spheroid ; the origin of coordinates being in the in- terior of the spheroid. This integral must be taken relatively to the va- riables x, y, z, and its limits are independent of a, b, c; hence we shall find by differentiation, an equation already obtained in 541, Let us transform the coordinates to others more commodious. For that purpose, let r be the distance of the point attracted from the origin of coordinates ; & the angle which the radius r makes with the axis of a ; a the angle which the plane formed by the radius and this axis, makes with the plane of the axis of a, and of b ; we shall have a = r cos. 6 ; b = r sin. 6 cos. d ; c = r sin. 6 sin. -a. If in like manner we name R, ^, / what r, 6, -a become relatively to the element d M of the spheroid ; we shall have x = R cos. ff ; y = R sin. (f cos. -a' ; z = R sin. ^. sin. -a'. Moreover, the element d M of the spheroid is equal to a rectangular parallelepiped whose dimensions are d R, R d 5', R d */ sin. tf, and con- VOL. II. P 226 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XII. & XIII. sequently it is equal to . R-. d U. d if. d '. sin. V = - - + - + -3- + &c. r r 2 T 3 Substituting this value of V in equation (3) of the preceding No., the comparison of the same powers of r will give, whatever i may be It is evident from the integral expression alone of V that U U) is a ra- tional and entire function of m, V \ m 2 . sin. ^ and V 1 m 2 . cos. *r, depending upon the nature of the spheroid. "When i = 0, this function becomes a constant ; and in the case of i = 1, it assumes the form Hm + H'Vl m 2 . sin. * + H" V 1 m 2 . cos. H, H', H" being constants. To determine generally U (i) call T the radical 1 Vr 2 2 R r Jcos.dcos.tf'+sin. BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIP1A. we shall have This equation will still subsist if we change 6 into ^, into w', and re- ciprocally ; because T is a similar function of S ', ' and of 0, *. If we expand T, in a series descending relatively to r, we shall have O (0) P T? 2 T = Q (i) being, whatever i maybe, subject to the condition that and moreover it is evident, that Q (i) is a rational and entire function of m, and V 1 m 2 . cos. (or w) : Q (i) being known, we shall have U (i) by means of the equation U W =fg R (i + 2) . d R. d '. d ff . sin. &' . Q >. Now suppose the point attracted in the interior of the spheroid : we must then develope the integral expression of V, in a series ascending re- latively to r, which gives for V a series of the form V = v <> + r . v (1 > + r 2 . v ^ + r 3 . v + &c. v (l) being a rational and whole function of m, V 1 m 2 . sin. v and VI m z cos. , which satisfies the same equation of partial differences that U (i) does ; so that we have 0= . dm / 1 m To determine v (i) , we shall expand the radical T into a series ascending according to r, and we shall have O W) r r 2 the quantities Q (0) , Q (1) , Q (2) , &c. behig the same as above; we shall therefore get r e. d R. d~'. d*. sin. (f . QW v( ' )= / 1 -R^~ But since the preceding expression of T is only convergent so long as R is equal to or greater than r, the preceding value of V only relates to the shells of the spheroid, which envelope the point attracted. This point being exterior, relatively to the other shells, we shall determine that part of V which is relative to them by the first series of V. P2 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XII. & XIII. 554. First let us consider those spheroids which differ but very little from the sphere, and determine the functions U ( % U (1) , U (2) , &c. v , v (1 >, v W, & c . relatively to these spheroids. There exists a differential equation in V, which holds good at their surface, and which is remarkable because it gives the means of determining those functions without any in- tegration. Let us suppose generally, that gravity is proportional to a power n of the distance ; let d M be an element of the spheroid, and f its distance from the point attracted; call V the integral ff n + l d M, which shall ex- tend to the entire mass of the spheroid. In nature we have 11 = 2, it becomes JT. > and we have expressed it in like manner by V in the preceding Nos. The function V possesses the advantage of giving, by its differentiation, the attraction of the spheroid, parallel to any straight line whatever ; lor considering f as a function of the three coordinates of the point attracted perpendicular to one another, and one of which is parallel to this straight line. Call r this coordinate, the attraction of the spheroid 1 /* along r and directed towards its origin, will bey\ f n . (~v -) d M. Con- sequently it will be equal to . (-= J , which, in the case of nature, becomes ( , ) , conformably with what has been already shown. , Suppose, however, that the spheroid differs very little from a sphere of the radius a, whose center is upon the radius r perpendicular to the sur- face of the spheroid, the origin of the radius being supposed to be arbi- trary, but very near to the center of gravity of the spheroid ; suppose, moreover, that the sphere touches the spheroid, and that the point at- tracted is at the point of contact of the two surfaces. The spheroid is equal to the sphere plus the excess of the spheroid above the sphere ; but we may conceive this excess as being formed of an infinite number of molecules spread over the surface of the sphere, these molecules being supposed negative wherever the sphere exceeds the spheroid; we shall therefore have the value of V by determining this value, 1st, relatively to the sphere ; 2dly, relatively to the different molecules. Relatively to the sphere, V is a function of a, which we denote by A ; if we name d m one of the molecules of the excess of the spheroid above the sphere, and f its distance from the point attracted ; the value of V rela- BOOK L] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 229 tive to this excess will bey*. f n + 1 . d m; we shall therefore have, for the entire value of V, relative to the spheroid, V = A+y-.f^ + ^dm. Conceive that the point attracted is elevated by an infinitely small quantity d r, above the surface of the spheroid arid the sphere upon r or a produced ; the value of V, relative to this new position of the attracted point, will become A will increase by a quantity proportional to d r, and which we shall re- present by A' . d r. Moreover, if we name 7 the angle formed by the two radii drawn from the center of the sphere to the point attracted, and to the molecule d m, the distance f of this element or molecule from the point attracted, will be in the first position of the point, equal to V 2 a 2 (1 cos. 7); in the second position it will be V (a -f- d r) 2 - 2 a (a + d r) cos. 7 + a 2 , or the integraiy. f n + 1 dm, will thus become d - ~ , , . ._ /.fn .dm; we shall therefore have /d V\ , A/ , n+ldr,.,, ( aT ).dr==A'.dr+ -g--. /.f '.dm; substituting for/, f n + 1 . d m, its value V A, we shall have In the case of nature, the equation (1) becomes fl (** A \ - _ a A' i A 4- i V d I -, I rt \. a ^1 -ir o T . \dr J The value of V relative to the sphere of radius a, is, by 550, equal to 4ira s 4fi-a 3 4 . 2LHD 8U(*> ~^ 4 Let us represent by a (1 + a y) the radius drawn from the origin of r to the surface of the spheroid, a being a very small constant coefficient, whose square and higher powers we shall neglect, and y being a function of m and depending on the nature of the spheroid. We shall have to 4 T a 3 quantities nearly of the order a, V = -^ - ; whence it follows that in the o r preceding expression of V, 1st, the quantity U (0 ' is equal to - plus a very 8 small quantity of the order a, and which we shall denote by U' (0) ; 2dly, that the quantities U (1) , U (2) , &c. are small quantities of the order a. Substituting a (1 + a-y) for r in the preceding expressions of V and of (-1-7) > and neglecting quantities of the order a 2 , we shall have rela- tively to an attracted point placed at the surface U U) U (2) ^- ! + i7 i + &c. ; 2 If we substitute these values in equation (2) of the preceding No. we shall have U'<> , 3.U> , 5U^ 2 ' 7U, a 4a*a 2 .y = - -+ - + -TT- + -- +&c - BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 231 It thence follows that the function y is of this form y _ Y co) + yw + Y< 2 ) + &c. the quantities Y^, Y>, Y, &c. as well as U ( % U, &c. being subject to the equation of partial differences = l-m- this expression of y is not therefore arbitrary, but it is derived from the developement of the attractions of spheroids. We shall see in the follow- ing No. that y cannot be thus developed except in one manner only ; we shall therefore have generally, by comparing similar functions, uw = 271TT ai+3 - Y(i); whence, whatever r may be, we derive _ Y U), Y 8r r I- Tr ^5r To get V, therefore, it remains only to reduce y to the form above de- scribed ; for which object we shall give, in what follows, a very simple method. If we had y = Y (i) , the part of V relative to the excess of the spheroid above the sphere whose radius is a, or which is the same thing, relative to a spherical shell whose radius is a, and thickness a a y, would be 4cra i + 3 .Y .. -. . .. j-qry- ; this value would consequently be proportional to y, and it is evident that it is only in this case that the proportionality can subsist. 556. We may simplify the expression Y<> + Y C1 > + Y + &c. of y, and cause to disappear the two first terms, by taking for a, the radius of a sphere equal in solidity to the spheroid, and by fixing the arbitrary origin of r at the center of gravity of the spheroid. To show this, we shall ob- serve that the mass M of the spheroid supposed homogeneous, and of a density represented by unity, is by 552, equal to^/R 2 d R d m d w, or to ^f R /3 d m d w, R' being the radius R produced to the surface of the spheroid. Substituting for R' its value a (1 -f a y) we shall have M = ^ a + a a 3 /y d m d ~. O All that remains to be done, therefore, is to substitute for y its value Y W) + Y (1) + & c and then to make the integrations. For this purpose here is a general theorem, highly useful also in this analysis. P4 232 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XII. & XIII. " If Y w and Z (;; be rational and entire functions of m, V 1 m * . sin. -a " and V 1 m 2 . cos. , which satisfy the following equations : /i n / dY J i \ dm y 1 m 2 " we shall have generally "/Y (i) . Z.dmd=r = 0, " whilst i and i' are whole positive numbers differing from one another . " the integrals being taken from m = 1 to m = 1, and from w = " to tr = 2 T." To demonstrate this theorem, we shall observe that in virtue of the first of the two preceding equations of partial differences, we have 1 m 2 But integrating by parts relatively to m we have , dm * a d m . d _. dm y f \ ami ' dm 'dm; and it is clear that if we take the integral from m = 1 to m = 1, the second member of this equation will be reduced to its last term. In like manner, integrating by parts relatively to , we get and this second member also reduces to its last term, when the integral BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 233 i ^7 ''* is taken from *r = to = 2 ir y because the values of Y (i) , ( . \ d -a i rj (jf\ Z (l/) , (- -\ are the same at these two limits; thus we shall have ii w / . dm / h 1 m whence we derive, in virtue of the second of the two preceding equations of partial differences, / Y 0). Z . d m . d >='. ||'+ 1} ./ Y w. Z W. d m . d . , we therefore have =/Y. Z dm.d, when i is different from i'. Hence it is easy to conclude that y can be developed into a series of the form Y (0 > + Y^ + Y C2 > + &c. in one way only; for we have generally fy . Z d m d w =/Y W. Z W d m . d ~; If>we could develope y into another series of the same form, Y, (0) + Y/i) + Y/ 2 > + &c. we should have /y.Z =//. Zdm.d; wherefore /Y, >. Z ). d m d . =/Y . Z ) d m . d ~. But it is easy to perceive that if we take for Z w the most general function of its kind, the preceding equation can only subsist in the case wherein Y, (i) = Y w ; the function y can therefore be developed thus in only one manner. If in the integraiyy d m . d w, we substitute for y its value Y (0) + Y (1) + Y (2) + & c -j we shall have generally =. J Y (i) d m . d *>, i being equal to or greater than unity ; for the unity which multiplies d m . d * is comprised in the form Z (0) , which extends to every constant and quan- tity independent of m and ^. The integraiyy d m. d w reduces there- fore to/Y (0) d m. d , and consequently to 4 cr Y (0) ; we have there- fore M = |ca 3 + 4ffa 3 . YW; thus, by taking for a, the radius of the sphere equal in solidity to the sphe- roid, we shall have Y (0} = 0, and the term Y (0) will disappear from the expression of y. 834 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XII. & XIII. The distance of the element d M, or R 2 .dRdm.dw, from the plane of the meridian from whence we measure the angle r, is equal to R V 1 m 2 . sin. w; the distance of the center of gravity of the sphe- roid from this plane, will be therefore,/ R 3 d R d m . d VI m 2 . sin. r, and integrating relatively to R, it will be \f R' 4 d m . d VI m 2 sin. -a-, R' being the radius R produced to the surface of the spheroid. In like manner the distance of the element d M from the plane of the meridian perpendicular to the preceding, being R V 1 m 2 . cos. w, the distance of the center of gravity of the spheroid from this plane will be ^ f R' 4 dm.dw. V I m 2 . cos. -a. Finally, the distance of the element d M from the plane of the equator being m, the distance of the center of gra- vity of the spheroid from this plane will be \J R' 4 m . d m . d . These functions m, V 1 m 2 . sin. *, V 1 m 2 . cos. w, are of the form Z (1) , Z (l) being subiect to the equation of partial differences = dm / \ m 2 If we conceive R' * developed into the series N (0) -f N (1) -f N (2) + &c. N U) being a rational and entire function of m, VI m 2 . sin. *, cos. *r, subject to the equation of partial differences. - . dm / 1 m 2 the distances of the center of gravity of the spheroid, from the three preceding planes, will be, in virtue of the general theorem above demon- strated, < l > . d m . d w . VT^nT 2 . sin. 4/N (1) . d m. d . VI m 2 . cos. N (1) is, by No. 553, of the form A m + B V 1 m 2 . sin. * + C -y/ i nT 2 . cos. w, A, B, C being constants ; the preceding distances will thus become - . B, -J- . C, -J- . A. The position of the center of o o rf gravity of the spheroid, thus depends only on the function N (1) . This gives a very simple way of determining it. If the origin of the radius R' is at the center; this origin being upon the three preceding planes, the distances of the center of gravity from these planes will be nothing. This gives A = 0, B = 0, C = 0; therefore N = 0. BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA 235 These results obtain whatever may be the spheroid : when it is very little different from a sphere, we have R' = a (I + y), and R' 4 = a 4 (1 + 4 a y) ; thus, y being equal to Y (0 > + Y (1 > + Y + &c., we have N C1) = 4 a * Y (1) , the function Y (1 - disappears, therefore, from the expression of y, when we fix the origin of R' at the center of gravity of the spheroid. 557. Now let the point attracted be in the interior of the spheroid, we shall have by 553 V = v () + r . v "> + r 2 . v (2 > + r 3 v (3 > -f &c. /d R. d*/. d ft . sin. tf . Q*> v W ; / - _ - _r J K 1 -' Suppose that this value of V is relative to a shell whose interior surface is spherical and of the radius a, and the radius of whose exterior surface is a (1 y) ; the thickness of the shell is a a y. If we denote by y' what y becomes when we change 0, & into = 2-r (a 2 r 2 ). This value of v (0) is that part of* V which is relative to the spherical shell whose thickness is a r. The part of V which is relative to the sphere whose radius is r is equal to the mass of this sphere, divided by the distance of the attracted point from 4 CT 1* its center : it is consequently equal to - . Collecting the different D parts of V,we shall have its whole value ; . (4) o a 5 a x Suppose the point attracted, placed within a shell very nearly spherical, whose interior radius is a + a JYW + Y^ + Y + &c.J and whose exterior radius is a' + a a? {' + Y x + Y' + &c.J The quantities a a Y (0) and a af Y' (0) may be comprised in the quanti- ties a, a'. Moreover, by fixing the origin of coordinates at the center of gravity of the spheroid whose radius is a+ a a JYW -f Y) + &c.i, we may cause Y (I - to disappear from the expression of this radius ; and then the interior radius of the shell will be of this form, a + a a {Y + Y< 3 > + &c.}, and the exterior radius will be of the form, a' + a a' JY'W + Y'< 2 > + &c.J. We shall have the value of V relative to this shell, by taking the differ- ence of the values of V relative to two spheroids, the smaller of which shall have for the radius of its surface the first quantity, and the greater BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 237 the second quantity for the radius of its surface; calling therefore A. V, what V becomes relatively to this shell, we shall have {r a? r z r 3 /Y'( s ) V(3) 1 ^Y'w+^Y'n_ Y ^ + ^ (~r~) +&c.} If we wish that the point placed in the interior of the shell, should be equally attracted on all sides, A . V must be reduced to a constant inde- pendent of r, 0, r ; for we have seen that the partial differences of A . V, taken relatively to these variables, express the partial attractions of the shell upon the point attracted ; we therefore, in this case have Y' (1) = 0, and generally Y' P) = (JLy-2. Y (i >- ^ a / so that the radius of the interior surface being given, that of the exterior surface will be found. When the interior surface is elliptic, we have Y (3) = 0, Y w = 0, &c. and consequently Y 7 = 0, Y' (4) = ; the radii of the two surfaces, in- terior and exterior, are therefore a[l + aY}; a' 1 + a Y}; thus we see that these two surfaces are similar and similarly situated, which agrees with what we found in 547. 558. The formulas (3), (4) of Nos. 555, and 557, comprehend all the theory of the attractions of homogeneous spheroids, differing but little from the sphere; whence it is easy to obtain that of heterogeneous spheroids, whatever may be the law of the variation of the figure and density of their shells. For that purpose let a (1 + a y) be the radius of one of the shells of a heterogeneous spheroid, and suppose y to be of this form the coefficients which enter the quantities Y ( % Y (1) , &c. being functions of a, and consequently variable from one shell to another. If we differ- entiate relatively to a, the value of V given by the form (3) of No. 555 ; and call e the density of the shell whose radius is a (1 + a y) being a function of a only ; the value of V corresponding to this shell will be, for an exterior attracted point, 1? g d a + 4 " T ' g d |a Y + . Y< + f^. Y + &c.l ; 3 r s r 3 r 5 r* this value will be, therefore, relatively to the whole spheroid, . . (5) the integrals being taken from a = to that value of a which subsists at the surface of the spheroid, and which we denote by a. 238 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XII. & Xlil. To get the part of V relative to an attracted point in the interior of the spheroid, we shall determine first the part of this value relative to all the shells to which this point is exterior. This first part is given by formula (5) by taking the integral from a = to a = a, a being relative to the shell in which is the point attracted. We shall find the second part of V relative to all the shells in the interior of which is placed the point attract- ed, by differentiating the formula (4) of the preceding No. relatively to a; then multiplying this differential by P, and taking the integral from a = a, to a = a, the sum of the two parts of V will be its entire value relative to an interior point, which sum will be a 2 +4 a */g d . {a 2 Y W+~ Y "> + ~ Y <+ &c.} . (6) the two first integrals being taken from a = to a = a, and the two last being taken from a = a to a = a ; after the integrations, moreover, we I __ fa -y must substitute a for r in the terms multiplied by a, and - J - for fl 1 .i. ^ v , - in the term jr / P d . a 3 . r 3 r- 7 559. Now let us consider any spheroids whatever. The research of their attraction is reduced, by 553, to forming the quantities U (i) and v (i) , by that No. we have U =/R i + 2 .d Rdm'dV. QW; in which the integrals must be taken from R = to its value at the sur- face, from m' = 1 to m' = 1, and from */ = to -a' = 2 x. To determine this integral, Q W must be known. This quantity may be developed into a finite function of cosines of the angle -a &', and of its multiples. Let /3 cos. n (* -a'} be the term of Q (i > depending on cos. n (a '), /3 being a function m, m'. If we substitute for Q (i) its value in the equation of partial differences in Q (l) of No. 553, we shall have, by comparing the terms multiplied by cos. n (& '), this equation of ordinary differences, _ _ dm 1 m 2 R (i > Q (i ' being the coefficient of - . + t , in the developement of the radical 1 V r 2 2RrImm'+VT m' 2 . V 1 m*. cos.(w BOOK L] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 339 The term depending on cos. n (* '), in the developement of this radical, can only result from the powers of cos. ( */), equal to n, n + 2, n + 4, &c. ; thus cos. (a /) having the factor V 1 m 2 , /3 must have the factor (1 m 2 ) ^. It is easy to see, by the consideration of the de- velopement of the radical, that jS is of this form m. . m If we substitute this value in the differential equation in /3, the compari- son of like powers of m will give A- (i~n-2s+2).(i-n-2s+ 1) 2 s (2 i 2 s + 1) whence we derive, by successively putting s = 1, s = 2, &c. the values of A (1) , A (2) , and consequently, ( m i-n (i-")(i-"-D m i-n- 2 . (i-n)(i-n-l)(i-n-2)(i-n-3) . aW ^2U=T) ra 2. M 2i-l)(2i_3) r i j . 1 (i-n)(i-n-l)(i-n-2)(i-n-3)(i-n-4)(i-n-5) f * 2.4.6(2i l)(2i 3) (2 i 5) A is a function of m' independent of m ; but m and m' entering alike into the preceding radical, they ought to enter similarly into the expression of (3; we have therefore 7 being a coefficient independent of m and m' ; therefore |8= 7 (1 m' r~ m*- '^' m ' i ~"~ 2 + &c - (1 m 2 )^ X i-n _ (i n) (i n 1) ,__ 2(2i 1) Thus we see that jS is split into three factors, the first independent of m and m' ; the second a function of m' alone ; and the third a like function of m. We have only now to determine 7. For that purpose, we shall observe, that if i n be even ; we have, supposing m = 0, and m' = 0, , Jl j nl 2 a y. jl. ^ i n{ ' {2. 4. ... (i n). (2 i 1). (2 i 3). . . . (i + n 7. U- 3. 5....(i n 1). 1.3.5. ...(i + n Ijj* [1.3. 5.... (2i I)} 2 240 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XII. & XIII. Ifi n is odd, we shall have, in retaining only the first power of m, and m', o _ _ y.m.nV fl. 2.. . . (i n)| 2 _ " [2. 4.... (i n 1) (2i l)(2i 3) . . . (i + n + 2)J y.m. m' [I. 3. 5.... (i n) . 1.8. 5.... (i + n)} z [I. 3. 5 ---- (2i ])}* The preceding radical becomes, neglecting the squares of m, m', {r*-2 R r cos.(*r-*r')+ R 2 }~* + R r. m m' {i*-2r R cos. (-') + R 2 }~* 5 (0 If we substitute for cos. (v w'), its value in imaginary exponentials, and if we call c the number whose hyperbolic logarithm is unity, the part independent of m m', becomes IT R . c (O V p . {r R . c -( O^f. The coefficient of R 1 c n (* ')v i + c n (') v-i Ri 77+7-- 3 -,orof iTT1 .cos.n( *') in the developement of this function is 2. 1. 3. 5 ---- (i + n 1). 1. 3. 5 ____ (i n 1) 2. 4. 6 ---- (i + n) 2. 4. 6 ____ (i n) This is the value of ]8 when i n is even. Comparing it with that which in the same case we have already found, we shall have _ /I. 3. 5.... (2 i IV i(i-I)....(i-n+ 1) \ 1.2.3 ____ i / ^(i+l)(i + 2) ---- (i + n) When n = 0, we must take only half this coefficient, and then we have _ /I. 3. 5 ____ 2i 1\ 2 7 == \ 1.2.3 ---- i / ' R 1 In like manner, the coefficient of . , , m . m' cos. n (-a ') in the r i + i function (f) is 2. 1. 3. 5 ____ (i + n) . 1. 3. 5 ____ (i n) 2. 4. 6. (i + n 1) . 2. 4. 6 ..... (i n 1) ' this is the coefficient of m m 7 in the value of /3, when we neglect the squares of m, m', and when i n is odd. Comparing this with the va- lue already found, we shall have , /I. 3. 5. ...(2i IK' i(i 1) ..... (i n + 1. '\ 1.2.3 ---- i ; ' (i+1) (i + 2) ---- (i + n)' an expression which is the same as in the case of i n being even. If n = 0, we also have /I. 3. 5. ... (2 i l)x 7 ~ \ 1. 2. 3. . 71 / BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 241 560. From what precedes, we may obtain the general form of functions Y > of m, V 1 m z . sin. , and V 1 m 2 . cos. w, which satisfy the equation of partial differences Designating by /3, the coefficient of sin. n -a, or of cos. n ^ y in the function Y (i) , we shall have d {(!_,.)(")} l v Ml m/ ) n * p - - - - 3 is equal to (I m z ) ^ multiplied by a rational and entire function of m, and in this case, by the preceding No., we have ^"^ + &c. j, ' A (n) being an arbitrary constant ; thus the part of Y (i > depending on the angle n -a, is + B (n > cos. n *\ ; A (n) and B (n) being two arbitrages. If we make successively in this func- tion, n = 0, n = 1, n =r 2 . . . n = i ; the sum of all the functions which thence result, will be the general expression of Y (i) , and this expression will contain 2 i + 1 arbitraries B <>, A (1 >, B , A , B , &c. Let us now consider a rational and entire function S of the order s, of the three rectangular coordinates x, y, z. If we represent by R the distance of the point determined by these coordinates from their origin ; by 6 the angle formed by R and the axis of x ; and by -a the angle which the plane of x, y forms with the plane passing through R and the axis of x ; we shall have x = Rm;y = R. VI m 2 . cos. ; z = RV 1 in 2 , sin. &. Substituting these values in S, and developing this function into sines and cosines of the angle -a and its multiples, if S is the most general func- tion of the order s, then sin. n w 9 and cos. n -sr t will be multiplied by func- tions of the form n (1 m 2 ) T fA .m s - n + B.m 8 - 11 - 1 + C.m s ~ n - 2 + &c.} ; thus the part of S, depending on the angle n &, will contain 2 (s n -f- 1 ) indeterminate constants. The part of S depending on the angle -a and its .multiples will contain therefore s (s -f- 1) in determinates ; the part inde- VOL. II. Q A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XII. & XIII. pendent of r will contain s + 1, and S will therefore contain (s + 1) * indeterminate constants. The function Y (0 > + Y (1 > + &c. Y (s > contains in like manner (s + 1) 2 indeterminate constants, since the function Y (i) contains 2 i + 1 ; we may therefore put S into a function of this form, and this may be effected as follows : From what precedes we shall learn the most general expression of Y (s) , we shall take it from S and determine the arbitrages of Y (s) so that the powers and products of m and V 1 m 2 of the order s shall disappear from the difference S Y w ; this difference will thus become a function of the order s 1 which we shall denote by S'. We shall take the most general expression of Y (s ~ !) ; we shall subtract it from S', and determine the arbitraries of Y (i 1) so that the powers and products of m and V 1 m 2 of the order s 1 may disappear from the difference S' Y (s 1) . Thus proceeding we shall determine the functions Y (s) , Y*- , <-*>, &c. of which the sum is S. 561. Resume now, the equation of No. 559, U =/.R i + 2 dR.dm'. d*r'. Q . Suppose R a function of m', -a' and of a parameter a, constant for all shells of the same density, and variable from one shell to another. The difference d R being taken on the supposition that m', *' are constant we shall have therefore U <" = -St d a . d m'. d ,'. Q Let R l + 3 be developed into a series of the form Z'W + Z'W + Z'< + &c,, Z' (i) being whatever i may be, a rational and entire function of m', ^ \ _ m ^2. s i n . .', and V 1 m 7 2 . cos. a-', which satisfies the equation of partial differences "din 7 " / 1 m' 2 The difference of 7J (i) taken relatively to a, satisfies also this equation, and consequently it is of the same form ; by the general theorem of 556, we ought therefore only to consider the term Z /(i) in the developement of R ' + 3 , and then we have BOOK L] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 243 When the spheroid is homogeneous and differing but little from a sphere, we may suppose g = 1, and R = a (1 + a y') ; then we have, by integrating relatively to a U m = j-1^ / Z' W. d m' . d ->. Q . Moreover, if we suppose y' developed into a series of the form Y e) satisfying the same equation of partial difference as Z' (i) ; we shall have, neglecting quantities of the order a 2 , Z' (1) = (i + 3). a. a' + 3 Y /(i) ; we shall therefore have U W = a . a 1 + 3 ./Y' W. d m'. d w'. Q < ! >. If we denote by Y (i) what Y' (i) becomes when we change m' and -a' into m and -a ; we shall have by No. 554, 2i + 1 we therefore have this remarkable result, .dm\d^Q=f- ...... (1) This equation subsisting whatever may be Y' w we may conclude ge- nerally that the double integration of the function fTJ w dm', d *r'. Q W taken from m' = 1 to m' = 1, and from / = to ' = 2 *, only transforms Z' (i) into ^ =-; Z w being what Z' (i) becomes when we /w 1 "J~ X change m' and -a' into m and -a ; we therefore have TT m 4 * /- /d Z (i) \ i = (i + s)(8i+i)M-cnr)- da; and the triple integration upon which U w depends, reduces to one in- tegration only taken relatively to a, from a = to its value at the surface of the spheroid. The equation (1) presents a very simply method of integrating the func- tion f Y (i) . Z w . dm. d -sf, from m = 1 to m = 1, and from * = to * = 2 v. In fact, the part of Y (i) depending on the angle n w, is by what precedes, of the form X {A (n) sin. n -a + B (n) cos. n }, X being equal to &c. } ; we shall have therefore Y' W = x' A {n > sin. n J + B W cos. n ^} ; X' bemg what X becomes when m is changed into m'. The part of Q (l) depending on the angle n ~, is by the preceding No., 7 X X' cos. n ( Q2 244, A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XII. & XIII. or y X'. X.^cos. n . cos. n w' + sin. n v. sin. n w'| ; thus that part of the integral/ Y (i) . d m. d w'. Q which depends on the angle n -, will be 7 A. sin. n ./X' 2 . d m'. d *'. sin. n */ [A < n > sin. n */ + B W cos. n i*/} 7 X. cos. n vf X' 2 . d m'. d &'. cos. n -a' [A (n) sin. n &' + B (n) cos. n '}. Executing the integrations relative to ', that part becomes 7 X w {A tn} sin. n + B (n ^ cos. n wj./x' 2 . d m' ; but in virtue of equation (1), the same part is equal to ^: . *. jA (n > sin. n v + B w cos. ri ? 2 i + 1 we therefore have /X". d m' = /CT . f .. . (2i + 1} 7 Now represent by X {A /(n) sin. n + B /(n) cos. n w| that part of Z (i) which depends on the angle n -a. This part ought to be combined with the corresponding part of Y (i) ; because the terms depending on the sines and cosines of the angle and its multiples, disappear by integration, in the function/ Y (i) Z (i) d m . d , integrated from w = Otow = 2T;we shall thus obtain, in regarding only that part of Y w which depends on the angle n w, /Y . Z W d m d . = /X 2 . d m . d *{ A (n) sin. n + B ^ cos. n H A' (n) sin. n * + B' (n > cos. n J = J A w. A' ^ + B w. B' wj ./x ! d m = . 4 ff . . {A w. A' w + B ^).B' w j . Supposing therefore successively in the last member n = 0, n = 1, n = 2 . . . n = i ; the sum of all the terms, will be the value of the in- tegral/ Y W Z d m . d v . If the spheroid is one of revolution, so that the axis with which the ra- dius R forms the angle w, may be the axis of revolution ; the angle w will disappear from the expression of Z (i >, which then takes the following form : A W being a function of a. Call X W the coefficient of A w , in this func- tion : the product 1.8.5...(2i-lK| Mi-l). i &c V -- 1.2.3. ..i - )'\ l - 2 .(2i-l) 4 C '/ 5 R' is by the preceding No., the coefficient of 7 r^ r - l in the developement of the radical 2Rr{mm'+V 1 m 2 . V 1 m /2 cos. (* BOOK I.] NEWTON'S FRINCIPIA. 245 when we therein suppose m and m' equal to unity. This coefficient is then equal to 1 ; we have therefore 1.3 5...(2i-l) i(j-l) 1.8.3. ..i \ 2(2i that is to say, X W reduces to unity, when m = 1. We have then 4 cr X G) r /a A = ( i + 3).(2i + i)- /g ("ai Relatively to the axis of revolution, m = 1, and consequently, TT m 4 * d A (i = - therefore if we suppose that relatively to a point placed upon this axis produced, we have B (0 > B (1 > B <*> V = + ^ v - + r+ &c.; I > % y. 5 we shall have the value of V relative to another point placed at the mean distance from the origin of coordinates, but upon a radius which makes with the axis of revolution, an angle whose cosine is m ; by multiplying the terms of this value respectively by X c % X (1 >, X , &c. In the case when the spheroid is not of revolution, this method will give the part of V independent of the angle : we shall determine the other part in this manner. Suppose for the sake of simplicity, the sphe- roid such that it is divided into two equal and similar parts by the equa- tor, whether by the meridian where we fix the origin of the angle &, or by the meridian which is perpendicular to the former. Then V will be a function of m 2 , sin. z , and cos. 2 &, or which comes to the same, it will be a function of m 2 , and of the cosine of the angle 2 and its multiples ; U (i) will therefore be nothing, when i is odd, and in the case when it is even, the term which depends on the angle 2 n -a, will be of the form Relatively to an attracted point placed in the plane of the equator, where m = 0, that part of V which depends on this term becomes -r T +^* 2 (i + 2 n + 1) (i + 2 n + 2) . . . (2 i - 1) * S ' 2 whence it follows that having developed V into a series ordered according to the cosines of the angle 2 -a and its multiples, when the point attracted is situated in the plane of the equator : to extend this value to any attract- ed point whatever, it will be sufficient to multiply the terms which depend cos. 2 n rr on ^ j by the function Q3 246 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XII. & XIII. - 1. 3. 5 . . . (i 2 n 1 ) * ^ 2 (2 i 1) m i-2n-2 + &C.J; we shall hence obtain, therefore, the entire value of V, when this value shall be determined in a series, for the two cases where the part attracted is situated upon the polar axis produced, and where it is situated in the plane of the equator ; this greatly simplifies the research of this value. The spheroid which we are considering comprehends the ellipsoid. Relatively to an attracted point situated upon the polar axis, which we shall suppose to be the axis of x, by 546, we have b = 0, c = 0, and then the expression of V of No. 549, is integrable relatively to p. Rela- tively to a point situated in the plane of the equator, we have a = 0, and the same expression of V still becomes, by known methods, integrable re- latively to q, by making tan. q = t. In the two cases, the integral being taken relatively to one of these variables in its limits, it then becomes possible relatively to the other, and we find that M being the mass of y the spheroid, the value of ^ is independent of the semi-axis k of the spheroid perpendicular to the equator, and depends only on the ex- centricities of the ellipsoid. Multiplying therefore the different terms V of the values of j-* relative to these two cases, and reduced into se- ries proceeding according to the powers of - , by the factors above men- tioned, to get the value of -^ relative to any attracted point whatever; the function which thence results will be independent of k, and only depend on the excentricities ; this furnishes a new demonstration of the theorem already proved in 550. If the point attracted is placed in the interior of the spheroid, the at- traction which it undergoes, depends, as we have seen in No. 553, on the function v (i; , and by the No. cited, we have /. p d R d m' d -m. Q w = an equation which we can put under this form v " = szn -ft (T^) d a . d m'. d '. Q Suppose R 2 - 1 developed into a series of the form z z ' U) + 2! + &c. BOOK L] NEWTON'S PR1NCIPIA. 247 z' W satisfying the equation of partial differences, if moreover we call z (i) what z (i > becomes when we change m' into m, and or' into w, we shall have by what precedes, 4 T /d z s thus therefore we shall get the expression of V relative to all the shells of the spheroid which envelope the point attracted. The value of V relative to shells to which it is interior, we have already shown how to deter- mine. ON THE FIGURE OF A FLUID HOMOGENEOUS MASS IN EQUILIBRIUM, AND ENDOWED WITH A ROTATORY MOTION. 562. Having exposed in the preceding Nos. the theory of the attrac- tions of spheroids, we now proceed to consider the figure which they must assume in virtue of the mutual action of their parts, and the other forces which act upon them. We shall first seek the figure which satis- fies the equilibrium of a fluid homogeneous mass endowed with a rotatory motion, and of that problem we shall give a rigorous solution. Let a, b, c be the rectangular coordinates of any point of the surface of the mass, and P, Q, R the forces which solicit it parallel to the coordi- nates, the forces being supposed as tending to diminish them. We know that when the mass is in equilibrium, we have = P. d a + Q. d b + R. d c; provided that in estimating the forces P, Q, R, we reckon the centrifugal force due to the motion of rotation. To estimate these forces, we shall suppose that the figure of the fluid mass, is that of the ellipsoid of revolution, whose axis of rotation, is the axis itself of revolution. If the forces P, Q, R which result from this hypothe- sis, substituted in the preceding equation of equilibrium give the differen- tial equation of the surface of the ellipsoid ; the preceding hypothesis is legitimate, and the elliptic figure satisfies the equilibrium of the fluid mass. Suppose that the axis of a is that also of revolution ; the equation of the surface of the ellipsoid will be of this form a s + m (b 2 + c 2 ) =k 2 ; Q4, 248 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XII. & XIII. the origin of the coordinates a, b, c being at the center of the ellipsoid, k will be the semi-axis of revolution, and if we call M the mass of the el- lipsoid, by 546, we shall have AT 4*?k 3 M = 3 m 1 --m m f being the density of the fluid. If we make as in 547, - = X s ,-we shall have m = . 8 , and consequently 1 -f- A an equation which will give the semi-axis k, when X is known. Let B' = ^| 5(1+^) tan. -'X X)}; we shall have by 547, regarding only the attraction of the fluid mass P = A' a; Q = B'b; R = B' c. If we call g, the centrifugal force at the distance 1, from the axis of rotation ; this force at the distance V b 2 + c 2 from the same axis, will be g V b 2 -f- c ! : resolving this parallel to the coordinates b, c there will result in Q the term g b, and in R the term g c; thus we shall have, reckoning all the forces which animate the molecules of the surface, P = A'a; Q = (B'-g)b; R = (B'-g).c; the preceding equation of equilibrium, will therefore become TV _ = a d a H -- jy-Q (b d b + c d c). A The differential equation of the surface of the ellipsoid is by substitut- ing for m its value = 5 I + >. . b d b + c d c 5 = ada+~- i-f^T- ; by comparing this with the preceding one, we shall have (1 + >- 2 )(B'-g) = A'; ........ (1) if we substitute for A', B' their values, and if we make J^ q; we shall -s* have BOOK I.J NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 249 determining therefore X by this equation which is independent of the co- ordinates a, b, c, the equation of equilibrium will coincide with the equa- tion of the surface of the ellipsoid ; whence it follows, that the elliptic fi- gure satisfies the equilibrium, at least, when the motion of rotation is such that the value of X 2 is not imaginary, or when being negative, it is neither equal to nor greater than unity. The case where X 2 is imaginary would give an imaginary solid; that where X 2 = 1, would give a paraboloid, and that where X 2 is negative and greater than unity, would give a hy- perboloid. 563. If we call p the gravity at the surface of the ellipsoid, we shall have p = V P 2 + Q a + R 2 . In the interior of the ellipsoid, the forces P, Q, R, are proportional to the coordinates a, b, c ; for we have seen in No. 547, that the attractions of the ellipsoid, parallel to these coordinates, are respectively proportional to them, which equally takes place for the centrifugal force resolved pa- rallel to the same coordinates. Hence it follows, that the gravities at dif- ferent points of a radius drawn from the center of the ellipsoid to its sur- face, have parallel directions, and are proportional to the distances from the center ; so that if we know the gravity at its surface, we shall have the gravity in the interior of the spheroid. If in the expression of p, we substitute for P, Q, R, their values given in the preceding No., we shall have p = V A /2 a 2 -f- (B' g) . (b 8 + c); whence we derive, in virtue of equation (1) of the preceding No. p = b 2 + c 2 but the equation of the surface of the ellipsoid gives -j , X8 = k 2 a 2 ; we shall therefore have 1 + x 2 a is equal to k at the pole, and it is nothing at the equator ; whence it fol- lows, that flie gravity at the pole is to the gravity at the equator, as V 1 4- X 2 is to unity, and consequently, as the diameter of the equator is to the polar axis. Call t the perpendicular at the surface of the ellipsoid, produced to meet the axis of revolution, we shall have t = V (I + X 2 ) (k 2 + X-a 2 ) ; 250 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XII. & XIII. wherefore A't P = 1 + X s ' thus gravity is proportional to t. Let \j/ be the complement of the angle which t makes with the axis of revolution ; -\}/ will be the latitude of the point of the surface, which we are considering, and by the nature of the ellipse, we shall have V 1 + X 2 cos. 2 4' we therefore shall have - A'k V I + X 2 . cos. 2 V and substituting for A' its value, we shall get - *- " -*xl ' or to p (l ^ X 2 + &c.V or finally to 0.998697. p, p being the gravi- ty upon the parallel of 50. Hence it is easy to obtain the attractive force of a sphere of any radius and density whatever, upon a point placed with- in or without it. 564. If the equation (2) of No. 562, were susceptible of many real roots, many figures of equilibrium might result from the same motion of rotation ; let us examine therefore whether this equation has several real 252 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XII. & XIII. Q X 1 2 O X J roots. For that purpose, call p the function ' -- tan.- l X, y -j- o A which being equated to zero, produces the equation (2). It is easy to see, that by making X increase from zero to infinity, the expression of

.*)*. k'dt Vg we shall therefore have lll(l +AT.fc s /g = E. BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PR1NCIPIA. 257 Then calling M, the fluid mass, we shall have the quantity *-* -r which we have called q, in No. 562, thus becomes ? 25 E 2 (^ cr P) * q' (1 + X ) 3 , denoting by q' the function ivnT" ^ ne e( l ua ~ tion of the same No. becomes _, 9X + 8q'X3(l+XV 9 + 3X 2 This equation will determine X ; we shall then have k by means of the preceding expression of M. Call

this difference, will necessarily be a function of II and of }/) + r 2 }' If we reduce this function into a series descending relatively to powers of s, and if we thus represent the series, - JPW + - P + si s s we shall have generally by 561 and 562, P n? _ 1.3.5.. (21-1) | a i i(i-D ^ . i(i-D(i-2)(l-3) -1.2.3 ..... i I 2(2i l) d h 2.4(2i l)(2i 3) d &c.| ; ) 262 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XII. & XIII. i being equal to cos. v cos. 6 -f- sin. v sin. 6 . cos. (^ -4/) ; it is evident that by 553, we have = I ' " '" ' ) I 4. 1_ '4- i (i + 1) r W ; V dm / ]_m 2 so that the terms of the preceding have this property, common with those of V. This being shown, we have S S S rr j(x' cos. v + y' sin. v cos. -^ + z sin. v sin. -^) S r * T r r - = - 1 P (2) -f- P (3) + P (4) 4- &c s 3 t s s 2 If there were other bodies S', S", &c.; denoting by s', v', -4/, P' (i >; s'', v", -4/", P" W, &c. what we have called s, v, -vf/, P (i \ relatively to the body S, we shall have the parts of the integral /(F d f + F' d P + &c.) due to their action, by marking with one, two, &c. dashes, the letters s, v, -^, and P in the preceding expression of that part of this integral, which is due to the action of S. If we collect all the parts of this integral, and make J-=aZ; _ P (*> +p(3) +&c.- m--= & c . = s * &c. a being a very small coefficient, because the condition that the spheroid is very little different from a sphere, requires that the forces which produce this difference should themselves be very small; we shall have /(Fdf + F'df -f &c.) = V + ar * [Z^+ Z {8 >+ rZ+ r Z^ + &c.j Z w satisfying, whatever i maybe, in the equation of partial differences . dZW 1 /d 2 Z (i m * -,- > \ (-1 dm > V d = m > | ~ + i (i + J) Z<. \ dm / 1 m 2 The general equation of equilibrium will therefore be /-i?JL = V + a r s [Z + Z + r Z r 2 Z^ + &c.} . (1) J s If the extraneous bodies are very distant from the spheroid, we may ne- glect the quantities r 3 Z (3) , r 4 Z (4 ), &c., because the different terms of these quantities being divided respectively by s 4 , s 3 , &c. s'*, s", &c. these terms become very small when s, s', &c. are very great compared with r. 'I his BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINC1PIA. 263 case subsists for the planets and satellites with the exception of S.iturn, whose ring is too near his surface for us to neglect the preceding terms. In the theory of the figure of that planet, we must therefore prolong the second member of equation (1), which possesses the ad vantage of forming a series always convergent; and since then the number of corpuscles ex- terior to the spheroid is infinite, the values of Z (0) , Z (2) , &c.' are given in definite integrals, depending on the figure and interior constitution of the ring of Saturn. 568. The spheroid may be entirely fluid ; it may be formed of a solid nucleus covered by a fluid. In both cases the equation (1) of the preced- ing No. will determine the figure of the shells of the fluid part, by con- sidering, that since n must be a function of f, the second member of this equation must be constant for the exterior surface, and for that of the shells in equilibrium, and can only vary from one shell to another. The two preceding cases reduce to one when the spheroid is homoge- neous ; for it is indifferent as to the equilibrium whether it is entirely fluid, or contains an interior solid nucleus. It is sufficient by No. 556, that at the exterior surface we have constant = V + a r 2 {Z<>+ Z< 9 >+ r Z+ &c.}. If we substitute in this equation for V its value given by formula (3) of No. 555, and if we observe that by No. 556,Y (0) disappears by taking for a the radius of a sphere of the same volume as the spheroid, and that Y (c; is nothing when we fix the origin of coordinates at the center of the spheroid ; we shall have 4 cr a 3 4 + ^J (4 ' + &c.j + a r z {Z <> + Z + r Z + r e Z W 4. & c .} Substituting in the equation of the surface of the spheroid for r its value at the surface 1 + K y, or a + a a {< + Y< 3 > + Y' 1 ' + &c.J which gives const. =-^a* ^P 1 ! 5 Y +-f Y(3) +4 YW) + &c '} + a a* {Z< -f Z^ + a Z + a 8 Z + c.} We shall determine the arbitrary constant of the first member of this equation, by means of this equation, const. =~^a 2 + aa* Z>; O we shall then have by comparing like functions, that is to say, such as are subject to the same equation of partial differences, R4 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XII. & XIII. i being greater than unity. The preceding equation may be put under the form the integral being taken from r = to r = a. The radius a (1 ay) of the surface of the spheroid will hence become 1 + |_?_jz<*> + aZ + a 2 + y> = *< V; + TFVdr{Z> + We may put this equation under a finite form, by considering that we have by the preceding No. ., _ S S' J_ - =^^==== == _ _ &C r r s Vs 2 2srS + r 2 s r r 2 so that the integraiyd r [Z'^ + r Z ;3) + &c.J is easily found by known methods. 569. The equation (1) of 567 not only has the advantage of showing the figure of the spheroid, but also that of giving by differentiation the law of gravity at its surface ; for it is evident that the second member of this equation being the integral of the sum of all the forces with which each molecule is animated, multiplied by the. elements of their respective direc- tions, we shall have that part of the resultant which acts along the radius r, by differentiating the second member relatively to r; thus calling p the force by which a molecule of the surface is sollicited towards the center of gravity of the spheroid, we shall have p = (^) ~ d {r Z<> + r 2 Z + r 3 Z + r 4 Z<*> + &:.}. If we substitute in this equation for (-? V its value at the surface 2 V * a + , given by equation (2) of No. 554, and for V, its value given O / it by equation (1) of No. 567; we shall have p = *-* a \ a a [Z + a Z a 2 Z <*> + &c.J o -L . d . {r Z<> + r 2 Z' 2 > -f r 3 Z> + r 4 Z<*> + &c,} (3) BOOK L] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 263 r must be changed into a after the differentiations in the second mem- ber of this equation, which by the preceding No. may always be reduced to a finite function. p does not represent exactly gravity, but only that part of it which is directed towards the center of gravity of the spheroid, by supposing it re- solved into two forces, one of which is perpendicular to the radius r, and the other p is directed along this radius. The first of these two forces is evidently a small quantity of the order a ; denoting it therefore by a 7, gravity will be equal to Vp* + 2 7 a ? a quantity which, neglecting the terms of the order a , reduces to p. We may thus consider p as express- ing gravity at the surface of the spheroid, so that the equations (2) and (3) of the preceding No. and of this, determine both the figure of ho- mogeneous spheroids in equilibrium, and the law of gravity at their surfaces ; they contain the complete theory of the equilibrium of these spheroids, on the supposition that they differ very little from the sphere. If the extraneous bodies S, S', &c. are nothing, and therefore the spheroid is only sollicited by the attraction of its molecules, and the cen- trifugal force of its rotatory motion, which is the case of the Earth and primary planets with the exception of Saturn, when we only regard the permanent state of thetf figures ; then designating by a

force to the equatorial gravity, a ratio which is very nearly equal to r~ ; the radius of the spheroid will therefore be whence it follows that the spheroid is an ellipsoid of revolution, which is conformable to what precedes. BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPLE 269 Thus we have determined directly and independently of series, the figure of a homogeneous spheroid of revolution, which turns round its axis, and we have shown that it can only be that of an ellipsoid which becomes a sphere when

* ne different radii drawn from this center to the sur- face of this last spheroid are therefore unequal to one another, if v is not nothing ; there can only therefore be a sphere in the case of v = ; thus we learn for a certainty, that a homogeneous spheroid, sollicited by any small forces whatever, can only be in equilibrium in one manner. 571. We have supposed that N is independent of the figure oi the spheroid; which is what very nearly takes place when the forces, extraneous to the action of the fluid molecules,* are due to the centri- fugal force of rotatory motion, and to the attraction of bodies exterior to the spheroid. But if we conceive at the center of the spheroid a finite force depending on the distance r, its action upon the molecules placed at the surface of the fluid, will depend on the nature of this surface, and consequently N will depend upon y. This is the case of a homogeneous fluid mass which covers a sphere of a density different from that of the fluid ; for we may consider this sphere as of the same density as the fluid, and may place at its center a force reciprocal to the square of the dis- tances; so that, if we call c the radius of the sphere, andf its density, that of the fluid being taken for unity, this force at the distance r will be equal C 3 f p l\ to f cr . - 2__ . Multiplying by the element d r of its direction the integral of the product will be it. - -, a quantity which we must add to a* N; and since at the surface we have r = a (1 + a y), in the equation of equilibrium of the preceding No., we must add to N, 3, .p=jfiT-i ; which supposes o equal to or less than unity ; thus, whenever a, c, and g are not such as to satisfy this equation, i being a positive whole number, the fluid can be in equilibrium only in one manner. Then we shall have so that - - m .-..--- m i-4 fcc .. -2(2i-l)' ] + 2.4.(2i 1) (2i-3) ni there are, therefore, generally two figures of equilibrium, since a v is sus- ceptible of two values, one of which is given by the supposition of a = 0, and the other is given by the supposition of v being equal to the preced- ing function of m. If the spheroid has no rotatory motion, and is not sollicited by any ex- traneous force, the first of these two figures is a sphere, and the second has for its meridian a curve of the order i. These two curves coincide in the case of i = 1, because the radius a (1 + am) is that of a sphere in which the origin of the radii is at the distance from its center; but then O it is easy to see that = 1, that is, the spheroid is homogeneous, a result agreeing with that of the preceding No. 272 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XII. & X11I. 572. When we have figures of revolution which satisfy the equilibrium, it is easy to obtain those which are not of revolution by the following method. Instead of fixing the origin of the angle 6 at the extremity of the axis of revolution, suppose it at the distance y from this extremity, and call $ the distance from this same extremity of the point of the surface whose distance from the new origin of the angle & is d. Call, moreover, v & the angle comprised between the two arcs 6 and y ; we shall have cos. ^ = cos. y cos. 6 + sin. y sin. 6 . cos, (v j3) ; designating therefore by r. (cos. tf] the function COS ' ' ' - the radius of the immoveable spheroid in equilibrium, which we have seen is equal to a [I + a r. (cos. ^)}, will be a + a a r. [cos. y . cos. 6 + sin. y . sin. 6 cos. (*r j3}] ; and although it is a function of the angle *r t it belongs to a solid of revo- lution, in which the angle 6 is not at the extremity of the axis of revo- lution. Since this radius satisfies the equation of equilibrium, whatever may be a, /3, and y, it will also satisfy in changing these quantities into ', /3', y', "> "> y", &c. whence it follows that this equation being linear, the radius a + a r . cos. y cos. 6 + sin. y sin. 6 cos. (*r /3 )} + a' a r . cos. / cos. 6 + sin. / sin. 6 cos. (& /3')} + &c. will likewise satisfy it. The spheroid to which this radius belongs is no longer one of revolution ; it is formed of a. sphere of the radius a, and ot any number of shells similar to the excess of the spheroid of revolution whose radius is a -f a r . (m) above the sphere whose radius is a, these shells being placed arbitrarily one over another. If we compare the expression of r. (cos. 6'} with that of P (i) of No. 567, we shall see that these two functions are similar, and that they differ only by the quantities y and /3, which in P (i > are v and -^, and by a factor in* dependent of m and r ; we have, therefore, It is easy hence to conclude, that if we represent by a Y (i) the function a . r . [cos. y cos. 6 -f- sin. y sin. 6 . cos. (& /3 )} -}- a' . r . [cos. y' cos. 6 + sin. y' sin. . cos. (t* /3')} BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIP1A. 273 Y [i) will be a rational and entire function of m, VI rn~* cos. &, VI m 2 sin. , which will satisfy the equation of partial differences, d, choosing for Y W, therefore, the most general function of that nature, the function a ( 1 + Y (i) ) will be the most general expression of the equili- brium of an immoveable spheroid. We may arrive at the same result by means of the series for V in 555 ; for the equation of equilibrium being, by the preceding No., const. = V + a 2 N ; if we suppose that all the forces extraneous to the reciprocal action of the fluid tp _ 1) c 3 molecules, are reducible to a single attractive force equal to f it. - p , placed at the center of the spheroid, by multiplying this force by the ele- ment d r of its direction, and then integrating, we shall have and since at the surface r = a(l + y) the preceding equation of equi- librium will become c 3 const. = V + | r . (1 f) jr. cl Substituting in this equation for V its value given by formula (3) of No. 555, in which we shall put for r its value a (1 + ay), and by sub- stituting for y its value YW + YW + Y + &c.; we shall have o= the constant a being supposed such, that const. = it a 8 . This equation gives Y W = 0, Y (I > = 0, Y = 0, &c. unless the coefficient of one of these quantities, of Y (i) for example, is nothing, which gives c 3 _ 2i 2 ~ S ' a 3 ~ 2 i + 1 ' i being a positive whole number, and in this case all these quantities ex- cept Y (i) are nothing ; we shall therefore have y = Y (i) , which agrees with what is found above. Thus we see, that the results obtained by the expansion of V into a se- VOL. II. S 274 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XII. & XIII. ries, have all possible generality, and that no figure of equilibrium has escaped the analysis founded upon this expansion ; which confirms what we have seen a priori, by the analysis of 555, in which we have proved that the form which we have given to the radius of spheroids, is not arbi- trary but depends upon the nature itself of their attractions. 573. Let us now resume equation (]) of No. 567. If we therein sub- stitute for V its value given by formula (6) of No. 558, we shall have rela- tively to the different fluid shells {a* Y^+y or w + r 2 {Z<> + Z + r Z + r 8 Z< 4 > + &c.J ;....(!) the differentials and integrals being relative to the variable a ; the two first integrals of the second member of this equation must be taken from a = a to a = 1, a being the value of a, relative to the leveled fluid shell, which we are considering, and this value at the surface being taken for unity : the two last integrals ought to be taken from a = to a = a : finally, the radius r ought to be changed into a ( 1 + a y) after all the differentiations and in- tegrations. In the terms multiplied by a it will suffice to change r into a ; but in the term -_ ~fg d . a 3 we must substitute a (1 + y) for r ; o r which changes it into this and consequently, into the following {I _ a Y ( ) Y> a Y (3 > &c.}./g d a 3 . o a Hence if in equation (1) we compare like functions, we shall have / d n = 2 cr/g d a 2 + 4 a / d (a 2 Y>) +4^/f da 3 a the two first integrals of the second member of this equation being taken from a = a to a = 1, the three other integrals must be taken from a = to a = a. This equation determining neither a nor Y (0) , but only a relation between them, we see that the value of Y (0) is arbitrary, and may be determined at pleasure. We shall have then, i being equal to, or greater than unity, BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 275 i fed fY^x _4^ , l J S a> Va'-V 3a * J f the first integral being taken from a = a, to a = ], and the two others being taken from a = to a = a. This equation will give the value of Y (i) relative to each fluid shell, when the law of the densities g shall be known. To reduce these different integrals within the same limits, let 4*-,,/Y\ 4 * '< d = + z (1} = z * the integral being taken from a = to a = 1 ; Z' (i) will be a quantity in- dependent of a, and the equation (2) will become 3/g d (a ! + 3 Y )) 3 a 2 '*+ l 7J ; all the integrals being taken from a = to a = a. We may make the signs of integration disappear by differentiating re- latively to a, and we shall have the differential equation of the second order, /d 2 Y (i \ _ fi ( i + 1) _ 6 g a ) y (i) _ 6 g a g /d Y (i >\ V da 2 / : I a^~ ~/f da 3 ) ~~f^d.a 3 \da)' The integral of this equation will give the value of Y w with two arbi- trary constants ; these constants are rational and entire functions of the order i, of m, VI m 2 . sin. &, and VI m - . cos. ^-, such, that re- presenting them by U (i) , they satisfy the equation of partial differences, ( d ; u 2 (i) ) V (J. v J o = i x um ' > ) + ^ gr + i (i + i) . u . \ dm / 1 m 2 One of these functions will be determined by means of the function Z' (i) which disappears by differentiation, and it is evident that it will be a multiple of this function. As to the other function, if we suppose that the fluid covers a solid nucleus, it will be determined by means of the equation of the surface of the nucleus, by observing that the value of Y ^ relative to the fluid shell contiguous to this surface, is the same as that of the surface. Thus the figure of the spheroid depends upon the figure of the internal nucleus, and upon the forces which sollicit the fluid. 574. If the mass is entirely fluid, nothing then determining one of the arbitrary constants, it would seem that there ought to be an infinity of S2 276 A COMMENTARY ON SECT. XII. & XIII. figures of equilibrium. Let us examine this case particularly, which is the more interesting inasmuch as it appears to have subsisted primi- tively for the celestial bodies. First, we shall observe that the shells of the spheroid ought to decrease in density from the center to the surface ; for it is clear that if a denser shell were placed above a shell of less density, its molecules would pene- trate into the other in the same manner that a ponderous body sinks into a fluid of less density ; the spheroid will not therefore be in equilibrium. But whatever may be its density at the center, it can only be finite ; re- ducing therefore the expression of into a series ascending relatively to the powers of a, this series will be of the form & 7 . a n &c. /3, y and n being positive ; we shall thus have ,* + 3)/3 and the differential equation in Y w will become . 6 n 7 . _ &c H C ' _ (n+3)|8 '' \ da To integrate this equation, suppose that Y (y is developed into a series ascending according to the powers of a, of this form YW = a. U< + a*'. U' + &c.; the preceding differential equation will give s / i + 2)a s '- 2 U' (i > + &c. '-&c.J . (e) Comparing like powers of a, we have (s + i + 3) (s i + 2) = 0, which gives s = i 2, and s = i 3. To each of these values of s, belongs a particular series, which, being multiplied by an arbitrary, will be an integral of the differential equation in Y fl) ; the sum of these two in- tegrals will be its complete integral. In the present case, the series which answers to s = i 3 must be rejected ; for there thence results for a Y (i) , an infinite value, when a shall be infinitely small, which would render infinite the radii of the shells which are infinitely near to the center. Thus of the two particular integrals of the expression of Y (i) , that which answers to s = i 2 ought alone to be admitted. This expression then, contains no more than one arbitrary which will be determined by the function Z (i) . Z (1) being nothing by No. 567, Y (1) is likewise nothing, so that the center of gravity of each shell, is at the center of gravity of the entire BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 277 spheroid. In fact the differential equation in Y W of the preceding No. gives 6ga^ 6ga ,dY('\ f s d. a 3 ' /g d. a 3 ' V~d~a~V * We satisfy this equation by making Y ^ = - , U (I) being indepen- dent of a. This value of Y (1J is that which answers to the equation s = i 2 ; it is, consequently, the only one which we ought to admit. Substituting it in the equation (2) of the preceding No., and supposing Z (1) = 0, the function U (1) disappears, and consequently remains arbitrary; but the condition that the origin of the radius r is at the center of gravity of the terrestrial spheroid, renders it nothing; for we shall see in the follow- ing No. that then Y (1) is nothing at the surface of every spheroid covered over with a shell of fluid in equilibrium ; we shall have, therefore, in the present ease U w = ; thus, Y (1) is nothing relatively to all the fluid shells which form the spheroid. Now consider the general equation, Y = a s . U + a s '.U' + &c.; s being, as we have seen, equal to i 2, s is nothing or positive, when i is equal to or greater than 2; moreover, the functions U' (i) , U" w , &c. are given in U w , by the equation (e) of this No. ; so that we have = h. U; h being a function of a, and U (i) being independent of it. If we substi- tute this value of Y w in the differential equation in Y (l) , we shall have ^h__ c a 2 " V ' da 2 "V ' /gd.a 3 /* a 2 "/gd.a 3 'da' The product i (i + 1) is greater than -^4 r , when i is equal to or e a s greater than 2, for the fraction -j-^\ 3 l * ^ ess ^ an ^^S * n ^ act lis denominator / g d . a 3 is equal to ga 3 /a 3 d g, and the quantity /a 3 d g is positive, since g decreases from the center to the surface. Hence it follows that h and T are constantly positive, from the center to the surface. To show this, suppose that both these quantities are positive in going from the center; d h ought to become negative before h, and it is clear that in order to do this it must pass through zero ; but from the instant it is nothing, d 2 h becomes positive in virtue of the pre- ceding equation, and consequently d h begins to increase ; it can never therefore become negative. Whence it follows that h and d h always pre- S3 278 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XII. & XIII. serve the same sign from the center to the surface. Now both of these quantities are positive in going from the center ; for we have in virtue of equation (e), s' 2 = s + n 2, which gives s' = i + n 2 ; hence we have (S ' + i + 3) . m d m . d ; =/N . d m . d . V 1 m 2 . sin. and =/N Q -'. dm. d. V 1 m 2 .cos. w. The three preceding equations given by the nature of the center of gravity, will become =/N (1 >mdm.dw; =/N< 1 >dm.dw. V 1 m 2 .sin.*; =/N to d m . d * . V I m 2 . cos. -a. N to is of the form H m + H'. V 1 m 2 . sin. -a + H". V 1 m 2 . cos. *,. Substituting this value, in these three equations, we shall have H = 0; H' = 0; H" = 0; where N (1) = ; this is the condition necessary that the origin of R is at the center of gravity of the spheroid. Now let us see, what N (1) becomes relatively to the spheroids differing little from the sphere, and covered over with a fluid in equilibrium. In this case we have R = a (1 + a y), and the integral f% . R 3 . d R, be- comes \ J l d.a*(l + 4a y)}, the differential and integral being rela- tive to the variable a, of which is a function. Substituting for y its va- lue Y + Y + Y + &c., we shall have N<" = /d (a 4 Y>). The equation (2) of No. 573 gives, at the surface where a = 1, and observing that Z (1) is nothing the value of Y (1) in the second member of this equation, being relative to the surface ; thus, N (1) being nothing, when the origin of R is at the cen- ter of gravity of the spheroid, we have in like manner Y (1) = 0. 576. The permanent state of equilibrium of the celestial bodies, makes known also some properties of their radii. If the planets did not turn ex- actly, or at least if they turned not nearly, round one of their three principal axes of rotation, there would result in the position of their axes of rota- tion, changes which for the earth above all would be sensible; and since the most exact observations have not led to the discovery of any, we may conclude that long since, all the parts of the celestial bodies, and princi- 282 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XII. & XIII. pally the fluid parts of their surfaces, are so disposed as to render stable their state of equilibrium, and consequently their axes of rotation. It is in fact very natural to suppose that after a great number of oscillations, they must settle in this state, in virtue of the resistances which they suffer. Let us see, however, the conditions which thence result in the expression of the radii of the celestial bodies. If we name x, y, z the rectangular coordinates of a molecule d M of the spheroid, referred to three principal axes, the axis of x being the axis of rotation of the spheroid ; by the properties of these axes as shown in dynamics, we have 0=/xy.dMj 0=/xz.dM; 0=/yz.dM; the integrals ought to be extended to the entire mass of the spheroid, R being the radius drawn from the origin of coordinates to the molecule d M ; 6 being the angle formed by R and by the axis of rotation ; and a being the angle which the plane formed by this axis and by R, makes with the plane formed by this axis and by that of the principal axes, which is the axis of y ; we shall have x = Rm; y = R V 1 m *. cos. ; z = R V 1 m 2 . sin. -a ; dM = gR J dRdm.d*r. The three equations given by the nature of the principal axes of rota- tion, will thus become = f g .R 4 . dR.dm.dw.m VI m 2 . cos. = y^ . R 4 . d R . d m . d w . m VI m 2 . sin. -a ; = /.R 4 . d R.dm.dw.(l m 2 ) sin. 2 *. Conceive the integral fg R 4 d R taken relatively to R, from R = 0, to the value of R at the surface of the spheroid, and developed into a series of the form U W + U (1 > + U (2) + &c. ; U (i > being, whatever i may be, subject to the equation of partial differences, d m We shall have by the theorem of No. 556, where i is different from 2, a^l by observing that the functions m V 1 m 2 . cos. w> m V I m 2 . sin. w, and (1 m 8 ) sin. 2 *, are comprised in the form U (2) 5 = / U 0) . d m . d . m . VI m z . cos. ; 0=/U^. dm.dw.m. V I m 2 . sin. ; =/U W. dm.d*r.(l m s )sin. 2 . BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 283 The three equations relative to the nature of the axes of rotation, will thus become =/U . dm.dw.m.Vl m 2 . cos. ; = /U (2) . dm.d . m. V I m 2 . sin. ; =/U. dm.dw. (1 m 2 ) sin. 2 . These equations therefore depend only on the value of U : this value is of the form H (m 2 |) + H' m V 1 m 2 . sin. *r + H" m V 1 m 2 . cos. * + H"' (1 m 2 ) sin. 2 * + H"" (1 m 2 ) cos. 2 : substituting it in the three preceding equations, we shall have H' = 0; H" = 0; H'" = 0. It is to these three conditions that the conditions necessary to make the three axes of x, y, z the true axes of rotation are reduced, and then U (2) will be of the form H (m 2 i) + H"" (1 m 2 ) cos. 2 ~. When the spheroid is a solid differing but little from the sphere, and covered with a fluid in equilibrium, we have R = a ( 1 + a y), and con- sequently /fR'.dR =ifed.{a s .(l+5ay)}. If we substitute for y, its value Y (0 > + Y (1) + Y (2 > + &c. ; we shall - have U = afg d(a 5 Y). The equation (2) of No. 573, gives for the surface of the spheroid, Y (2) and Z (2) in the second member of this equation being relative to the surface j we have therefore, = ja The value of Z & is of the form -- O ( m 2 - J) + g' m ^ 1 - m 2 ' SU1 ' * + g" m ^ 1 - m 2 ' COS< B + g w (l_m 2 )sin. 2 W + g w/ (l m 2 ) cos. 2^; and that of Y is of the form h (m 2 |) + h' m V 1 m 2 . sin. * + h" m V 1 m 2 . cos. + h w . (1 m 2 ) sin. 2 * + h w/ (1 m ) cos. 2 . Substituting in the preceding equation, these values, and H (m 2 + H x/// (1 m 2 ) cos 2 , for U (2 > ; we shall have h' o h" ^ . },"/ & ~4, Y<, & c . If the forces extraneous to the attraction of the molecules of the sphe- roid are reduced to the centrifugal force due to its rotatory motion ; we shall have g' = 0, g" = 0, g"' = ; wherefore h' = 0, h" = 0, h"' = 0, and the expression of Y (8) , will be of the form h (m 2 J) + h"" (1 m 2 ) cos. 2 *. 577. Let us consider the expression of "gravity at the surface of the spheroid. Call p this force ; it is easy to see by No. 569, that we shall have its value by differentiating the second member of the equation (1) of 573 relatively to r, and by dividing its differential by d r ; which gives at the surface r [2Z + 2Z< 2 > +3r.Z+ 4r*. Z<*> + &c.J ; these integrals being taken from a = 0, to a = 1. The radius r at the surface is equal to 1 + a y, or equal to 1 + a jytfl) + Y < + Y + &c.] ; we shall hence obtain ~-Y + See.} {2 Z ( ) + 2 Z t2 > + 3 Z + 4 Z + &c.j. The integrals of this expression may be made to disappear by means of equation (2) of No. 573, which becomes at the surface, supposing therefore P = !*r/ d - a3 B we shall have p = P + a R JY< 2 ) + J5 Z +7Z + 9Z<*> + .. . + (2i+l)Z+&c.J. By observations of the lengths of the seconds' pendulum, has been re- cognised the variation of gravity at the surface of the earth. By dy- namics it appears that these lengths are proportional to gravity; let BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 285 therefore 1, L be the lengths of the pendulum corresponding to the gravi- ties p, P ; the preceding equation will give Relatively to the earth a Z< 2 > reduces by 567, to -| (m 2 ), or, JO which comes to the same, to ^-?. P. (m 2 ^), a

+ 3 Y< 4 > + . . . + (i 1) Y| + f ap.L.(m 8 i). The radius of curvature of the meridian of a spheroid which has for its radius 1 + a > is + n dm / designating therefore by c, the magnitude of the degree of a circle whose radius is what we have taken for unity ; the expression of the degree of the spheroid's meridian, will be C / / c -! i ft f d ' m y\ j ( I 1 + I i 1 T a \ j (^ \ d m / dm y is equal to Y^ 4. Y< ! > 4. Y ( *> + &c. We may cause Y<> to disap- pear, by comprising it in the arbitrary constant which we have taken for the unit j and Y (1) by fixing the origin of the radius at the center of gravity of the entire spheroid. This radius thus becomes, 1 + a [Y(V + Y< 3 ) + Y< 4 > + &c.J. If we then observe that dm the expression of the degree of the meridian will become a c . -- = - 1 m 286 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XII. & XIII. If we compare these expressions of the terrestrial radius with the length of the pendulum, and the magnitude of the degree of the meridian, we see that the term a Y (i - of the expression of the radius is multiplied by i 1, in the expression of the length of the pendulum, and by i 2 -fi 1 in that of the degree ; whence it follows, that whilst i 1 is considerable, this term will be more sensible in the observations of the length of the pendulum than in that of the horizontal parallax of the moon which is proportional to the terrestrial radius ; it will be still more sensible in the measures of degrees than in the lengths of the pendulum. The reason of it is, that the terms of the expression of the terrestrial radius undergo two variations in the expression of the degree of the meridian ; and each dif- ferentiation multiplies these terms by the corresponding exponent of m, and this renders them the more considerable. In the expression of the variation of two consecutive degrees of the meridian, the terms of the ter- restrial radius undergo three consecutive differentiations; those which disturb the figure of the earth from that of an ellipsoid, may thence be- come very sensible, and the ellipticity obtained by this variation may be very different from that which the observed lengths of the pendulum give. These three expressions have the advantage of being independent of the interior constitution of the earth, that is to say, of the figure and density of its shells ; so that if we are going to determine the functions Y (2) , Y (3) , &c. by measures of degrees of meridians and parallaxes, we shall have immediately the length of the pendulum; we may therefore thus ascertain whether the law of universal gravity accords with the figure of the earth, and with the observed variations of gravity at its surface. These remark- able relations between the expressions of the degrees of the meridian and of the lengths of the pendulum may also serve to verify the hypotheses proper to represent the measures of degrees of this meridian : this will be perceptible from the application we now proceed to make to the hypothe- sis proposed by Bouguer, to represent the degrees measured northward in France and at the equator. Suppose that the expression of the terrestrial radius is 1 + a Y (2) + a Y (4) , and that we have <*> = A(m 2 ); Y> = B (m 4 f m 2 + A) ; it is easy to see that these functions of m satisfy the equations of partial differences which Y (2) and Y (4) ought to satisfy. The variation of the de- grees of the meridian will be, by what precedes, J3 A ^B a C BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 287 Bouguer supposes this variation proportional to the fourth power of the sine of the latitude, or, which nearly comes to the same, to m 4 ; the term multiplied by m 2 , therefore, being made to disappear from the preceding function, we shall have thus in this case the radius drawn from the center of gravity of the earth at its surface, will be in taking that of the equator for unity, The expression of the length 1 of the pendulum, will become, denoting by L, its value at the equator, L+ fap.Lm 2 ^^(16 m z + 21m 4 ). o4 Finally, the expression of the degree of the meridian, will be, calling c its length at the equator, 105 c + -p-.A.c.m 4 . We shall observe here, that agreeably to what we have just said, the term multiplied by m 4 is three times more sensible in the expression of the length of the pendulum than in that of the terrestrial radius, and five times more sensible in the expression of the length of a degree, than in that of the length of the pendulum ; finally, upon the mean parallel it would be four times more sensible in the expression of the variation of consecutive degrees, than in that of the same degree. According to Bou- 959 guer, the difference of the degrees at the pole and equator is r ; it is OO I Oo the ratio which, on his hypothesis, the measures of degrees at Pello, Paris 105 and the equator, require. This ratio is equal to -^j- . a A ; we have o4 therefore a A = 0. 0054717. Taking for unity the length of the pendulum at the equator, the va- riation of this length, in any place whatever, will be _0. 0054717 . ilflm . + 81m1 + |. y ... O A* By No. 563, we have p = 0. 00345113, which gives f ap = 0. 0086278, and the preceding formula becomes 0. 0060529. m 2 0. 0033796. m \ 288 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XII. & XIII. At Pello, where m = sin. 74. 22', this formula gives 0. 0027016 for the variation of the length of the pendulum. According to the observa- tions, this variation is 0. 0044625, and consequently much greater ; thus, since the hypothesis of Bouguer cannot be reconciled with the observations made on the length of the pendulum, it is inadmissible. 578. Let us apply the general results which we have just found, to the case where the spheroid is not sollicited by any extraneous forces, and where it is composed of elliptic shells, whose center is at the center of gravity of the spheroid. We have seen that this case is that of the earth supposed to be originally fluid : it is also that of the earth in the hypo- thesis where the figures of the shells are similar. In fact, the equation (2) of No. 573 becomes at the surface where a = 1, The shells being supposed similar, the value of Y (i) is, for each of them, the same as at the surface ; it is consequently independent of a, and we have When i is equal to or greater than 3, Z (l) is nothing relatively to the i 4- 3 earth; besides the factor 1 . . a ' is always positive ; therefore Y ' *4 1 *J~ J. is then nothing. Y (1) is also nothing by No. 575, when we fix the origin of the radii at the center of gravity of the spheroid. Finally, by No. 577, we have Z (2) equal to 4)4*A.a 2 da; Y > = -. (/*' i)/g a d a ; we have therefore Y w = _ -- _ _ fg a*da(l a 2 ) Thus the earth is then an ellipsoid of revolution. Let us consider there- fore generally the case where the figure of the earth is elliptic and of re- volution. In this case, by fixing the origin of terrestrial radii at the center of gravity of the earth, we have yd) = 0; Y<*> = 0; Y< 4 > = ; &c. ROOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. h being a function of a ; moreover we have Z> = 0; Z = 0; Z<*> = ; &c. the equation (2) of No. 573 will therefore give at the surface = 6./ f d(a 5 h) + 5. (?>-2h)/,d.a 8 . . . (1) This equation contains the law which ought to exist to sustain the equilibrium between the densities of the shells of the spheroid and their ellipticities ; for the radius of a shell being a { I +a Y (0) a h (/A 2 ^)] 5 if we suppose, as we may, that Y w = ^ h, this radius becomes a (1 h . ,a 2 ), and a h is the elh'pticity of the shell. At the surface, the radius is 1 a h . /a, * ; whence we see that the de- crements of the radii, from the equator to the poles, are proportional to p 2 , and consequently to the square of the sines of the latitude. The increment of the degrees of the meridian from the equator to the poles is, by the preceding No., equal to 3 a h c . t* *, c being the degree of the equator ; it is therefore also proportional to the square of the sine of the latitude. The equation (1) shows us that the densities being supposed to decrease from the center to the surface, the ellipticity of the spheroid is less than in the case of homogeneity, at least whilst the ellipticities do not increase from the surface to the center in a greater ratio than the inverse ratio of the square of the distances to this center. In fact, if we suppose h = z , we shall have If the ellipticities increase in a less ratio than =-, u increases from the a 8 center to the surface, and consequently d u is positive ; besides, d g is ne- gative by the supposition that the densities decrease from the center to the surface; thus J( /( d ufa 3 d g) is a negative quantity, and making at the surface / f d(a 5 h) = (h_f)/gd.a 3 , f will be a positive quantity. Hence equation (1) will give a h will therefore be less than - ~ , and consequently it will be less than T? Vot. II. T 290 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XII. & XIIl. in the case of homogeneity, where d being equal to nothing f is also equal to zero. Hence It follows, that in the most probable hypotheses, the flattening of the spheroid is less than - ; for it is natural to suppose that the shells T* of the spheroid are denser towards the center, and that the ellipticities increase from the surface to the center in a less ratio than , this ratio cl giving an infinite radius for shells infinitely near to the center, which is absurd. These suppositions are the more probable, inasmuch as they become necessary in the case where the fluid is originally fluid ; then the denser shells are, as we have seen, the nearer to the center, and the ellip- ticities so far from increasing from the surface to the center, on the con- trary, decrease. If we suppose that the spheroid is an ellipsoid of revolution, covered with a homogeneous fluid mass of any depth whatever, by calling a' the semi-minor axis of the solid ellipsoid, and a h' its ellipticity, we shall have at the surface of the fluid, /fd(a 5 h) = h a' s h'+/fd(aMi); the integral of the second member of this equation being taken relatively to the interior ellipsoid, from its center to its surface, and the density of the fluid which covers it being taken for unity. The equation (1) will give for the expression of the ellipticity h, of the terrestrial spheroid, 5aap; a remarkable equation between the ellipticity of the earth and the varia- tion of the length of the pendulum from the equator to the poles. In the case of homogeneity ah = a p ; hence in this case = h ; but if the spheroid is heterogeneous, as much as a h is above or below f a f n + 1 taken relatively to f, is , and the sum of these integrals ex- V tended to the entire spheroid is ^ ; supposing, as in 554, that V = If the spheroid be fluid, homogeneous, and endowed with rotatory mo- tion, and not sollicited by any extraneous force, we shall have at the sur- face, in the case of equilibrium, by No. 567, const. = + i g r 2 (1 m ), r being the radius drawn from the center of gravity of the spheroid at its surface, and g the centrifugal force at the distance 1 from the axis of ro- tation. The gravity p at the surface of the spheroid is equal to the differential of the second member of this equation taken relatively to r, and divided by d r, which gives i (dVx r(l __ m2> Let us now resume equation (1) of 554, which is relative to the sur- face, /d Vx A , (n + 1) A (n + 1)V. VH7J = ~2~a~~ 2 a this equation, combined with the preceding ones, gives p = const. + { ( "+ a 1)r -- l} g r (1 - m*). At the surface, r is very nearly equal to a ; by making them entirely so, for the sake of simplicity, we shall have p = const. + -. g (1 m 2 ) Let P be the gravity at the equator of the spheroid, and JBooK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 293 the ratio of the centrifugal force to gravity at the equator; we shall have whence it follows that, from the equator to the poles, gravity varies as the square of the sine of the latitude. In the case of nature, where n = 2, we have p = P [I + p.m 2 }; which agrees with what we have before found. But it is remarkable that if n = 3, we have p = P, that is to say, that if the attraction varies as the cube of the distance, the gravity at the sur- face of homogeneous spheroids is every where the same, whatever may be the motion of rotation. 581. We have only retained, in the research of the figure of the celestial bodies, quantities of the order a ; but it is easy, by the preceding analysis, to extend the approximations to quantities of the order a 2 , and to superior orders. For thai purpose, consider the figure of a homogeneous fluid mass in equilibrium, covering a spheroid differing but little from a sphere, and endowed with a rotatory motion ; which is the case of the earth and planets. The condition of equilibrium at the surface gives, by No. 557, the equation const. = V -f- r s (m 8 i). m The value of V is composed, 1st, of the attraction of the spheroid co- vered by the fluid upon the molecule of the surface, determined by the coordinates r, 6, and ; 2dly, of the attraction of the fluid mass upon this molecule. But the sum of these two attractions is the same as the sum of the attractions, 1st, of a spheroid supposing the density of each of its shells diminished by the density of the fluid; 2dly,of a spheroid of the same density as the fluid, and whose exterior surface is the same as that of the fluid. Let V be the first of these attractions and V" the second, so that V = V+V" ; we shall have, supposing g of the order a and equal to g', const. = V' + V" -f . r * . (m 2 - ). 9 W T e have seen in 553 that V may be developed into a series of the form V + -^ + TT- + &C. U (i) being subject to the equation of partial differences, / d {(1 m- % /d UWx 1 X /d 2 U> = \ ^ m T3 291 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XII. & XIII. and by the analysis of 561, we may determine U (i) , with all the accuracy that may be wished for, when the figure of the spheroid is known. In like manner V" may be developed into a series of the form U (0) U < f > U ( 2 > < + i^. + ^ + & c . r r* r 3 U, (i) being subject to the same equation of partial differences as U (i >. If we take for the unit of density that of the fluid, we have, by 561, U fli - 4 * z ). - (i + 3) (2 i + 1 ' r ! + 3 being supposed developed into the series Z + ZW + Z< 2 > +&c. in which Z is subject to the same equation of partial differences, as U w . The equation of equilibrium will therefore become i being equal to greater than unity. If the distance r from the molecule attracted to the center of the sphe- roid were infinite, V would be equal to the sum of the masses of the sphe- roid and fluid divided by r ; calling, therefore, m this mass, we have U<) + U/ 0) = m. Carrying the approximation only to quantities of the order a 2 , we may suppose r = 1 + y + 2 y'; which gives Suppose y = Y (1 > + Y (2 > + Y + &c. Y' &c. y"= Y fl, Y 7 {i) , and M W being subject to the same equation of partial differ- ences as U (i) ; we shall have Z = (i + 3) a Y (> + (i + ^ ( ^ + 8) s M + (i + 3) Y'. Then observe that U (i) is a quantity of the order a, since it would be nothing if the spheroid were a sphere ; thus carrying the approximation only to terms of the order a 2 , U will be of this form U' + 2 U /y . Substituting therefore these values in the preceding equation of equili- brium, and there changing r into 1 + a y + 2 /, we shall have to quan- tities of the order a 3 , BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 295 const. = (Jt, [1 y + 2 y 2 2 y'} 'a. U' W + 2 U" ) (i + 1) a* y U' + 2 T a g Y (i) ag. h 2i + I 1 2i+l y f 2i + l 3 !' *(i + 2) M(i) Equating separately to zero the terms of the order , and those of the order a 2 , we shall have the two equations, Y c " = 2 u/ "' - C' being an arbitrary constant. The first of these equations detects Y (i > and consequently the value of y. Substituting in the second member of the second equation, we shall develope by the method of No. 560. in a series of the form N (i) being subject to the same equation of partial differences as U (i \ and we shall determine the constant C' in such a manner that N w is nothing; thus we shall have y ffl= NO 2i + 1 and consequently _ The expression of the radius r of the surface of the fluid will thus be determined to quantities of the order 3 , and we may, by the same process, carry the approximation as far as we wish. We shall not dwell any longer upon this object, which has no other difficulty than the length of calcula- tions; but we shall derive from, the preceding analysis this important con- clusion, namely, that we may affirm that the equilibrium is rigorously pos- sible, although we cannot assign the rigorous figure which satisfies it ; for we may find a series of figures, which, being substituted in the equation of equilibrium, leave remainders successively smaller and smaller, and which become less than any given quantity. T4 296 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XII. & XIII. COMPARISON OF THE PRECEDING THEORY WITH OBSERVATIONS. 582. To compare with observations the theory we have above laid down, we must know the curve of the terrestrial meridians, and those which we trace by a series of geodesic operations. If through the axis of rotation of the earth, and through the zenith of a plane at its surface we imagine a plane to pass produced to the heavens ; this plane will trace a great cir- cle which will be the meridian of the plane : all points of the surface of the earth which have their zenith upon this circumference, will lie under the same celestial meridian, and they will form, upon this surface, a curve which will be the corresponding terrestrial meridian. To determine this curve, represent by u = the equation of the surface of the earth j u being a function of three rectangular coordinates x, y, z. Let x', y', z', be the three coordinates of the vertical which passes through the place on the earth's surface determined by the coordinates x, y, z ; we shall have by the theory of curved surfaces, the two following equations, d Adding the first multiplied by the indeterminate X to the second, we get d z' =jll _ . dx'_ X d/. This equation is that of any plane parallel to the said vertical : this ver- tical produced to infinity coinciding with the celestial meridian, whilst its foot is only distant by a finite quantity from the plane of this meridian, may be deemed parallel to that plane. The differential equation of this plane may therefore be made to coincide with the preceding one by suita- bly determining the indeterminate X. Let d z' = a d x' + b d y', be the equation of the plane of the celestial meridian ; comparing it with the preceding one, we shall get /d u\ /d u\ . /du\ , v IT) al-j ) b (y ) = 0; (a) \d z/ Vd x/ \d y/ To get the constants a, b, we shall suppose known the coordinates of BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 297 the foot of the vertical parallel to the axes of rotation of the earth and that of a given place on its surface. Substituting successively these coordi- nates in the preceding equation, we shall have two equations, by means of which we shall determine a and b. The preceding equation combined with that of the surface u = 0, will give the curve of the terrestrial meri- dian which passes through the given plane. If the earth were any ellipsoid whatever, n would be a rational and entire function of the second degree in x, y, zj the equation (a) would therefore then be that of a plane whose intersection with the surface of the earth, would form the terrestrial meridian : in the general case, this me- ridian is a curve of double curvature. In this case the line determined by geodesic measures, is not that of the terrestrial meridian. To trace this line, we form a first horizontal triangle of which one of the angles has its summit at the origin of this curve, and whose two other summits are any visible objects. We de- termine the direction of the first side of the curve, relatively to two sides of the triangle, and to its length from the point where it meets the side which joins the two objects. We then form a second horizontal triangle with these objects, and a third one still farther from the origin of the curve. This second triangle is not in the plane of the first; it has nothing in common with the former, but the side formed by the two first objects ; thus the first side of the curve being produced, lies above the plane of this second triangle ; but we bend it down upon the plane so as always to form the same angles with the side common to the two triangles, and it is easy to see that for this purpose it must be bent along a vertical to this plane. Such is therefore the characteristic property of the curve traced by geodesic operations. Its first side, of which the direction may be supposed any whatever, touches the earth's surface; its second side is this tangent produced and bent vertically ; its third is the tangent of the se- cond side bent vertically, and so on. If through the point where the two sides meet, we draw in the tangent plane at the surface of the spheroid, a line perpendicular to one of the sides, it is clear that it will be perpendicular to the other ; whence it follows* that the sum of the sides is the shortest line which can be drawn upon the surface between their extreme points. Thus the lines traced by geodesic operations, have the property of being the shortest we can draw upon the surface of the spheroid between any two of their points; and p. 2 94, Vol. I. they would be described by a body moving uniformly in this surface. 298 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XII. & XIII. Let x, y, z be the rectangular coordinates of any part whatever of the curve ; x + cl x, y + d y, z -J- d z will be those of points infinitely near to it. Call d s the element of the curve, and suppose this element produced by a quantity equal to d s ; x + 2 d x, y + 2 d y, z + 2 d z will be the coordinates of extremity of the curve thus produced. By bending it ver- tically, the coordinates of this extremity will become x4-2dx + d*x, y + 2 d y + d 2 y, z + 2 d z -f- d 2 z; thus d 2 x, d 2 y, d 2 z will be the coordinates of the vertical, taken from its foot ; we shall there- fore have by the nature of the vertical, and by supposing that u = is the equation of the earth's surface, d_u equations which are different from those of the terrestrial meridian. In these equations d s must be constant ; for it is clear that the production of d s meets the foot of the vertical at an infinitely small quantity of the fourth order nearly. Let us see what light is thrown upon the subject of the figure of the earth by geodesic measures, whether made in the directions of the meridians, or in directions perpendicular to the meridians. W"e may always conceive an ellip- soid touching the terrestrial surface at every point of it, and upon which, the geodesic measures of the longitudes and latitudes from the point of contact, for a small extent, would be the same as at the surface itself. If the entire surface were that of an ellipsoid, the tangent ellipsoid would every where be the same ; but if, as it is reasonable to suppose, the figure of the meri- dians is not elliptic, then the tangent ellipsoid varies from one country to another, and can only be determined by geodesic measures, made in diffe- rent directions. It would be very interesting to know the osculating ellip- soids at a great number of places on the earth's surface. Let u = x 2 + y s + z 2 1 2 a u', be the equation to the surface of the spheroid, which we shall suppose very little different from a sphere whose radius is unity, so that a is a very small quantity whose square may be neglected. We may always consider u' as a function of two variables x, y ; for by supposing it a function of x, y, z, we may eliminate z by means of the equation z = V 1 x 2 - y *. Hence, the three equa- tions found above, relatively to the shortest line upon the earth's surface, become BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 299 xd 2 z zd 2 x = a - -- d 2 z ; u (O) This line we shall call the Geodesic line. Call r the radius drawn from the center of the earth to its surface, 6 the angle which this radius makes with the axis of rotation, which we shall suppose to be that of z, and p the angle which the plane formed by this axis and by r makes with the plane of x, y ; we shall have x = r sin. 6. cos. 9 ; y = r sin. 6 sin. p ; z = r cos. 6 ; whence we derive r 2 sin. * 6. dp = xdy ydx; r 2 d = (xdz zdx) cos. p + (y d z zdy) sin. p d s 2 = dx 2 -fdy 2 +dz 2 =dr*+r 2 d0 2 +r 2 dp 2 sin. 2 0. Considering then u', as a function of x, y, and designating by 4 the lati- tude ; we may suppose in this function r= 1, and 4= 100 0, which gives x = cos. 4 cos. p ; y = cos. 4 sin. p ; thus we shall have rdu' but we have x 2 + y 2 = cos. 2 -vj/ ; - = tan.

we have therefore d(xdz zdx) = ads *(- 7) sin. >{/; * Cl A. * in like manner we have d(ydz zdy) = ads 2 ( , 7) sin. 4/; we shall therefore have r 2 d^ = c'ds sin. f> + c" d s cos.

; we shall thus get -ty ( - cos. = -, However, if we call V the angle which the plane of the celestial meri- dian makes with that of x, y, whence we compute the origin of the angle p; we shall have d x' = tan. V = d y'; x', y', 2! being the coordinates of that meridian whose differential equation, as we have seen in the pre- ceding No., is d z' = a d x' + b d y'. Comparing it with the preceding one, we see that a, b are infinite and such that -- r- = tan. V, the equation (a) of the preceding No. thus gives _ /d u\ ,, /d u\ = t-j ). tan. V (-. ), \d x/ \d y/ whence we derive We may suppose V = Uan,

which gives cos. 2 4 ' The first side of the Geodesic line, being supposed parallel to the plane of the celestial meridian, the differentials of the angle V, and of the dis- tance ( V) cos. 4 from the origin of the curve to the plane of the celestial meridian ought to be nothing at this origin ; we have therefore at this point d u and consequently, the equation (p) gives u. and 4-, being referred to the origin of the arc s. At the extremity of the measured arc, the side of the curve makes with the plane of the corresponding celestial meridian an angle very nearly equal to the differential of (p V) cos. 4j divided by d 4> V being sup- posed constant in the differentiation ; by denoting therefore this angle by a, we shall have d d 4' greater exactness, to the middle of the measured arc. The angle -a must be BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 303 supposed positive, when it quits the meridian, in the direction of the in- crements off. To obtain the difference in longitude of the two meridians correspond- ing to the extremities of the arc, we shall observe, that u/, V,, >}/,, and 9,t being the values of u', V, %J/, and p, at the first extremity, we have _ --- _ V ' '~ cos.'-v},/ : cos. 2 ^ but we have very nearly, neglecting the square of t, c i /d u / u\ = a 1 -j - 1 \d < / cos. v we shall have, therefore, v v <** f /d u/ - tan. \ , , / "u ) tan. 4>. + { j j-V - cos. -/, \fy whence results this very simple equation, (V V,) sin. ^ = ,; thus we may, by observation alone, and independently of the knowledge of the figure, determine the difference in longitude of the meridians cor- responding to the extremities of the measured arc ; and if the value of the angle -a is such that we cannot attribute it to errors of observations, we shall be certain that the earth is not a spheroid of revolution. Let us now consider the case where the first side of the Geodesic line is perpendicular to the corresponding plane of the celestial meridian. If we take this plane for that of x, y, the cosine of the angle formed by this y 7 d x g - 1- d z g side upon the plane, will be - r^- - ; thus this cosine being no- thing at the origin, we have d x = 0, d z = 0, which gives d . r sin. 6 cos. = ; d . r cos. 6 = ; and consequently r d 6 = r d

| \d s/ f p, is not the difference in longitude of the two extremities of the arc s ; this difference is equal to V V, ; but we have, by what precedes, du which gives / d 2 u a s ( j - 3- I S v / v\ - Vd f d 9 - -(^--v,)~- 2 wherefore For greater exactness, we must add to this value of V V, the term depending on s 3 , and independent of , which we obtain in the hypothesis tan. 2 -\J/ of the earth being a sphere. This term is equal to i s 3 . - ^-' ; thus we have It remains to determine the azimuthal angle at the extremity of the arc s. For that purpose, call x', and y', the coordinates x, y, referred to VOL. II. U 306 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XII. & XIII. the meridian of the last extremity of the arc s ; it is easy to see that the V d x' 2 + d z 2 cosine ot the azunuthal angle is equal to - -, - . If we refer the coordinates x, y, to the plane of the meridian corresponding to the first extremity of the arc ; its first side being supposed perpendicular to the plane of this meridian, we shall have d s d s d s wherefore, retaining only the first power of s, d x d 2 x, d z d * z, d~s~ : ' Ts^'' dl = s> d7 ; but we have x' = x cos. (V V,) + y sin. (V V,) ; thus V V, being, by what precedes, of the order a, we shall have ._.. d s ds 2 ' ds Again, we have x = r sin. 6 cos. p ; z = r cos. d ; we therefore shall obtain, rejecting quantities of the order a \ and observ- ing that p,, T ^rj and , ' are quantities of the order a, d 2 X/ d 2 u/ . d 2 ^ " d p, {. = a . j \ sin. 6 + r. . T I cos. 0. r. sin. 0, . -.- ' ds 2 ds 2 y ds 2 ds Thence we have du/_ moreover, d s = r, sin. d, . d ^ ; we shall, therefore, have by substituting for r /? 6 f9 -j ^ , and -, 2 -, their preceding values, d 2 x. sin. 8 4>. /d u/\ A . , ' = (1 c6 u/) . - P + [ T-^f ) tan. s 4, sin. ^ cl s s cos. -4^ \d -v}/ / 1 / 1 / rd <> , 1 1 r V* au. + a( -r~ ) tan. ^ f H cos. 4 1 / ' Vd 4- / cos. Neglecting the superior powers of s, we have, as we have seen, -V / = ~ /du\ cos. ^ 1 1 _ u / + (^) tan, - and -t- 1 - 1 = 1 5 vv 'e therefore have cl s BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 307 d x, ., /x sin. 2 -4/. ^+ in like manner we shall find the cosine of the azimuthal angle, at the extremity of the arc s, will thus be s tan. -4> ,d UN \ d This cosine being very small, it may be taken for the complement of the azimuthal angle, which consequently is equal to 100 C f K f d2 "/\) s tan. 4# ., , , /d u/x . V d p V >. T/ ) 1 a u/+o ( ^r-f ) tan. -4/ y i, f \. \d vj/ / cos. 2 -vj/, J For the greater exactness, we must add to this angle that part depend- ing on s 3 , and independent of , which we obtain in the hypothesis of the earth's sphericity. This part is equal to s 3 (| -f- tan. 2 -4/J tan. ^ Thus the azimuthal angle at the extremity of the arc s is equal to f .-4vJ 1 100-stan. , . ... -* s 2 (Jtan. The radius of curvature of the Geodesic line, forming any angle what- ever with the plane of the meridian, is equal to ds a V (d 2 x) 2 + (d 2 y) 2 + (d 2 z) 2 ' d s being supposed constant; let R be this radius. The equation x 8 + y st -{-z 2 = 1 + 2au' gives xd 2 x + yd s y + zd 2 z = ds 2 +d ! u / ; if we add the square of this equation to the squares of equations (O), we shall have, rejecting terms of the order a 2 , ( x * +y * + z2 ) (d 2 x) 2 + (d 2 y) 2 + (d 2 z) 2 J=ds 4 2ads'tl s u' whence we derive T 2 / R= 1 + u' + a -J^T- In the direction of the meridian, we have d 2 u' wherefore R= I +au' U2 308 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XII. & XIII. In the direction perpendicular to the meridian, we have by what pre- cedes, ton ' d s 2 cos. 2 *, wherefore fd 2 u R = 1 + a u/ a cos. 2 4v If in the preceding expression of V V /} we make -4- = s', it takes Jtv this very simple form relative to a sphere of the radius R, v v, = -. (i 4- s ' 2 - tan - 2 4 I cos. 4"/ A 3 ' J The expression of the azimuthal angle becomes 100 s' tan. ^ {1 _ i s ' 2 (^ + tan. 2 vf/,)}. Call X, the angle which the first side of the Geodesic line forms with the plane corresponding to the celestial meridian, we shall have d'u' /du\ d* /du\ d 2 ^ /d 2 u\dp 2 /d 2 u / N d^>d^ , /du s ds + But supposing the earth a sphere, we have d p, sin. X d 2 /du/ d s 2 cos. */ I ^ a p / \df>d*/ J ?.'T t z '. cin 2 -i rd 2 u ' the radius of curvature R, in the direction of this Geodesic line, is there- fore To abridge this, let fd 2 U/ K = 1 + /-* tan. ^ + ' . BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 309 A= a cos. we shall have R = K + A sin. 2 X + B cos. 2 X. The observations of azimuthal angles, and of the difference of the lati- tudes at the extremities of the two geodesic lines, one measured in the direction of the meridian, and the other in the direction perpendicular to the meridian, will give, by what precedes, the values of A, B and K ; for the observations give the radii of curvature in these two directions. Let R, and R' be these radii ; we shall have R' + R" B = 2 R' R" 2 and the value of A will be determined, either by the azimuth of the ex- tremity of the arc measured in the direction of the meridian, or by the difference in latitude of the two extremities of the arc measured in a di- rection perpendicular to the meridian. We shall thus get the radius of curvature of the geodesic line, whose first side forms any angle whatever with the meridian. If we call 2 E, an angle whose tangent is-n-, we shall have R = K + VA* + B 2 . cos. (2 X 2 E) ; the greatest radius of curvature corresponds with X = E ; the correspond- ing geodesic line forms therefore the angle E, with the plane of the me- ridian. The least radius of curvature corresponds with X = 100+ E; let r be the least radius, and r' the greatest, we shall have R = r + (r r) cos. 2 (X E), X E being the angle which the geodesic line corresponding to R, forms with that which corresponds with r. We have already observed, that at each point of the earth's surface, we may conceive an osculatory ellipsoid upon which the degrees, in all directions, are sensibly the same to a small extent around the point of os- culation. Express the radius of this ellipsoid by the function 1 sin. 2 -^ \1 + h cos. 2 ( + jS)}, riie longitudes

}/}. - If the measured arc is considerable, and if we have observed, as in France, the latitudes of some points intermediate between the extremity; we shall have by these measures, both the length of the radius taken for unity, and the value of a. [I + h cos. 2 (p -f- &)} We then have, by what precedes, tan. 8 -4, (1 + cos. 2 4) w = 2.b. t . ^7^ r- sln - 2 to + $5 the observation of the azimuthal angles at the two extremities of the arc will give a h sin. 2 (

sin. (

z pWy = x> a (2)_Z p^'y = X< 2 ) (A) a W z p (n) y = x (n > n being the number of measured degrees. We shall eliminate from these equations the unknown quantities z and y, and we shall have n 2 equations of condition, between the n errors x (1) , x (2) , x (n l We must, however, determine that system of errors, in which the greatest, abstraction being made of the signs, is less than in every other system. First suppose that we have only one equation of condition, which may be represented by a = m x W -f- n x (2 > + p x '^ + &c. a being positive. We shall have the system of the values of x (l) , x , &c. which gives, not regarding signs, the least value to the greatest of them ; supposing them all nearly equal, and to the quotient of a divided by the sum of the coefficients, m, n, p, &c. taken positively. As to the sign which each quantity ought to have, it must be the same as that of its co- efficient in the proposed equation. If we have two equations of condition between the errors, the system which will give the smallest value possible to the greatest of them will be such that, signs being abstracted, all the errors will be equal to one ano- ther, with the exception of one only which will be smaller than the rest, or at least not greater. Supposing therefore that x (1) is this error, we shall determine it in function x (2) , x (3) , &c. by means of one of the proposed equations of condition ; then substituting this value of x (1) in the other equation of condition, we shall form one between x (2) , x (3) , &c. ; which re- present by the following a = mxW + nx + &c. a being positive ; we shall have, as above, the values of x (2 \ x , &c. by dividing a by the sum of the coefficients m, n, &c. taken positively, and by giving successively to the quotient the signs of m, n, &c. These values sub- stituted in the expression of x (1) in terms of x (2 \ x (3) , &c. will give the value of x a) ; and if this value, abstracting signs, is not greater than that of x (2 >, this system of values will be that which we must adopt; but if greater, then the supposition that x M is the least error, is not legitimate, and we must successively make the same supposition as to x (2 >, x (3) , &c. until we arrive at an error which is in this respect satisfactory. If we have three equations of condition between the errors ; the system which will give the smallest value possible to the greatest of them, will be U4 312 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XII. & XIII. such, that, abstracting signs, all the errors will be equal, with exception of two, which will be less than the others. Supposing therefore that x (1 >, x ^ are these two errors, we shall elimi- nate them from the third of the equations of condition by means of the other two, and we shall have an equation between the errors x (3) , x (1) , &c. : represent it by a = m x + n x (4) + &c. a being positive. We shall have the values of x (3) , x ( % &c. by dividing a by the sum of the coefficients m, n, &c. taken positively, and by giving successively to the quotient, the signs of m, n, &c. These values substi- tuted in the expressions of x (1) , and of x in terms of x (3 ), x W, &c. will give the values of x (1) , and of x ( -\ and if these last values, abstracting signs, do not surpass x (3) , we shall have the system of errors, which we ought to adopt ; but if one of these values exceed x (3) , the supposition that x (1 >, and x & are the smallest errors is not legitimate, and we must use the same supposition upon another combination of errors x (1) , x (2) , &c. taken two and two, until we arrive at a combination in which this suppo- sition is legitimate. It is easy to extend this method to the case where we should have four or more equations of condition, between the errors x (1) , x (2) , &c. These errors being thus known, it will be easy to obtain the values of z and y. The method just exposed, applies to all questions of the same nature ; thus, having the number n of observations upon a comet, we may by this means determine that parabolic orbit, in which the greatest error is, ab- stracting signs, less than in any other parabolic orbit, and thence recog- nise whether the parabolic hypothesis can represent these observations. But when the number of observations is considerable, this method be- comes too tedious, and we may in the present problem, easily arrive at the required system of errors, by the following method. Conceive that x (i) , abstracting signs, is the greatest of the errors x (1) , x (2) , &c. ; we shall first observe, that therein must exist another error x (i<) , equal, and having a contrary sign to x (i) ; otherwise we might, by making z to vary properly in the equation a W z p (i) . y = x , dimmish the error x w , retaining to it the property of being the extreme error, which is against the hypothesis. Next we shall observe that x w and x (i/) being the two extreme errors, one positive, and the others nega- tive, and equal to one another, there ought to exist a third error x (i % equal, abstracting signs, to x (i) . In fact, if we take the equation corre- BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 313 spending to x W, from the equation corresponding to x W, we shall have a ao _ a w { p o __ p }. y x uo __ x . The second member of this equation is, abstracting signs, the sum of the extreme errors, and it is clear, that in varying y suitably, we may di- minish it, preserving to it the property of being the greatest of the sums which we can obtain by adding or subtracting the errors x (1) , x (2 >, &c. taken two and two ; provided there is no third error x (i *> equal, abstract- ing signs, to x W ; but the sum of the extreme errors being diminished, and these errors being made equal, by means of the value of z, each of these errors will be diminished, which is contrary to the hypothesis. There exists therefore three errors x ( % x (i \ x (i//) equal to one another, abstracting signs, arid of different signs the one from the other two. Suppose that this one is x ^ ; then the number V will fall between the two numbers i and i". To show this, let us imagine that it is not the case, and that i' is below or above both the numbers i, i". Taking the equation corresponding to i', successively from the two equations corre- sponding to i and to i", we shall have a W _ a ao _ ( p ro _ p OO) y = x > x^j a ") _ a a 1 ) _ ( p d'O _ p (0) y = x (i "> x M. The second members are equal and have the same sign ; these are also, abstracting signs, the sum of the extreme errors ; but it is evident, that varying y suitably, we may diminish each of these sums, since the coeffi- cient of y, has the same sign in the two first members : moreover, we may, by varying z properly, preserve to x (i/) the same value; x w and x (i ") will therefore then be, abstracting signs, less than x (i/) which will become the greatest of the errors without having an equal; and in this case, we may, as we have seen, diminish the extreme error; which is contrary to the hy- pothesis. Thus the number i' ought to fall between i and i". Let us now determine which of the errors x (1) , x (2) , &c. are the extreme errors. For that purpose, take the first of the equations (A) successively from the following ones, and we shall have this series of equations, a w __ a > (p p >) y = x x >, a (3) _ a U) _ ( p (3) _ pU)) y - x (3) __ x (1) . . . . . (B) &c. Suppose y infinite ; the first members of these equations will be nega- tive, and then the value of x (1> will be greater than x (2) , x (3) , &c. : dimin- ishing y continually, we shall at length arrive at a value that will render positive one of the first members, which, before arriving at this state, will 314 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XII. & XIII. be nothing. To know which of these members first becomes equal to zero, we shall form the quantities, a (g) aU) . a(3) a(l) . a(4 ' aU) . & r p U) p (1) p (3) p (1) ' p (4) p (1) a W a C1) Call |3 (1) the greatest of these quantities, and suppose it to be ^ ^ : if there are many values equal to /3 (1) , we shall consider that which cor- responds to the number r the greatest, substituting /3 (1) for y, in the (r l) th of the equations (B), x (r) will be equal to x (1) , and diminishing y, it will be equal to x (1) , the first member of this equation then becoming positive. By the successive diminutions of y, this member will increase more rapidly than the first members of the equations which precede it ; thus, since it becomes nothing when the preceding ones are still nega- tive, it is clear that, in the successive diminutions of y, it will always be the greatest which proves that x (r) will be constantly greater than x (1) , x (2) , . . . x^" 1 ), when y is less than /3 (1) . The first members of the equations (B) which follow the (r l) th will be at first negative, and whilst that is the case, x (r + 1} , x (r + 2 \ &c. will be less than x (1) , and consequently less than x (r) , which becomes the greatest of all the errors x a) , x (2) , . . . x (n >, when y begins to be less than /3 (1 >. But continuing to diminish y, we shall get a value of it, such that some of the errors x (r + 1J , x (r + 2) , &c. begin to exceed x (r) . To determine this value of y, we shall take the r th of equations (A) suc- cessively from the following ones, and we shall have a (r + 1) _ a W _ p (r + 1) __ p (r)| y _ x (r + 1) __ x (r) . a (r + 2)__ a (r)_ J p Cr + S)_ p (r)Jy _ x (r + 2) _ x W< Then we shall form the quantities a (r+l) a (r) o(r + 2) a (-' tl C* ' 1 1 ^^ C* p(r)' &C. Call /3, the greatest of these quantities, and suppose that it is a . . a ' ; if many of these quantities are equal to /3 , we shall suppose p (O p (t) that r 7 is the greatest of the numbers to which they correspond. Then x W will be the greatest of the errors x <", x t2) , &c. . . . x (n > so long as y is com- prised between /3 (n , and /3 (2 > ; but when by diminishing y, we shall arrive at 8 (2) ; then x (l/) will begin to exceed x (r) , and to become the greatest of the errors. To determine within what limits we shall form the quantities a (r/ > ptr'+l) p(r'J ptf + 2) pirV Let /3 be the greatest of these quantities, and suppose that it is BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 315 & (f+l^ a (rO (t , j' - (pj : if several of the quantities are equal to ft ( % we shall sup- pose that r"is the greatest of the numbers to which they correspond, x^ will be the greatest of all the errors from y = /3(% to y = /3( 3 >. When y = jSW, then x^ begins to be this greatest error. Thus preceding, we shall form the two series, X 0); X Wj X (r0. X (");... X (n) oo; j3CD; j8; j8< ; . . . |30 ;-, x (t/ >, &c. which become succes- sively the greatest : the second series formed of decreasing quantities, in- dicates the limits of y, between which these errors are the greatest ; thus, x (1) is the greatest error from y = oo, to y = W; x^ is the greatest er- ror from y = (3^, to y = j8< 2 >; X (O is the greatest error from y = j3 (2 \ to y = j8 ( 3 >, and so on. Resume now the equations (B) and suppose y negative and infinite. The first members of these equations will be positive, x (1) will therefore then be the least of the errors x (1 \ x (2) , &c. : augmenting y continually, some of these members will become negative, and then x (1) will cease to be the least of the errors. If we apply here the reasoning just used in the case of the greatest errors, we shall see that if we call X (1) the least of the quantities a (2) a (l) a (3)_ a (l) a (4) p (2) &c. a (s) a (1) and if we suppose that it is , ^ , s being the greatest of the num- pV;-vP ' bers to which X^ corresponds, if several of these quantities are equal to X fl) , x (I) will be the least of the errors from y = oo, to y = X (1 \ In like manner if we call X ( 2 > the least of the quantities " 7^ i T\ 7^\ 9 ~ TT/Vi. i*\ 7^\ Otv/ a (s') a (s) and suppose it to be r^ , s' being the greatest of the numbers to which X (2) corresponds, if several of these quantities are equal to X W ; x <"' will be the smallest of the errors from y = X 1 ^, to y = X w ; and so forth. In this manner we shall form the two series ...X^>; oo ; (D) The first indicates the errors x (1) , x (s) , x ( s<) , &c. which are successively the least as we augment y : the second series formed of increasing terms, indicates the limits of the values of y between which each of these errors 316 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XII. & XIII. is the least; thus x fl > is the least of the errors fromy = o>, to y = X^ x w is the least of the errors, from y = X^, to y = X (2) , and thus of the rest. Hence the value of y which, to the required ellipse, will be one of the quantities 0W, 0, 0(3). &c. X^, x<*>, &c. ; it will be in the first series, if the two extreme errors of the same sign are positive. In fact, these two errors being then the greatest, they are in the series x (1) , x (r) , x (r/ >, &c. ; and since one and the same value of y renders them equal they ought to be consecutive, and the value of y which suits them, can only be one of the quantities j8 (1) , ( % &c.; because two of these errors cannot at the same tune be made equal and the greatest, except by one only of these quantities. Here, however, is a method of determining that of the quantities (l) , W , &c. which ought to be taken for y. Conceive, for example, that /3( 3 > is this value; then there ought to be found by what precedes between x^, and x^"- 1 , an error which will be the minimum of all the errors, since x^, and x (l "<> will be the maxima of these errors; thus in the series x^, x< 8 >, x^, &c. some one of the numbers s, s', &c. will be comprised between r and r'. Suppose it to be s. That x (s) may be the last of the value of y, it ought to be comprised between X ll) and X (2 > ; therefore if C3) is comprised by these limits, it will be the value sought of y, and it will be useless to seek others. In fact, suppose we take that of the equations (A), which answers to x (s) successively from the two equations which respond to x Cr/) and to x (r ' ;) ; we shall have a(0 a W [p W p J y = x (r/ > x (s > ; a M_ a (s)_ p (r)_p(^ y = X ^ X. All the members of these equations being positive, by supposing y = 0, it is clear, that if we augment y, the quantity x (r/ > - x will increase ; the sum of the extreme errors, taken positively, will be there- fore augmented. If we diminish y, the quantity x tr "> x will be aug- mented, and consequently also the sum of their extremes ; is therefore the value of y, which gives the least of these sums; whence it follows that it is the only one which satisfies the problem. We shall try in this way the values of j3 (1 >, ( % (5, &c., which is easily done by inspection ; and if we arrive at a value which fulfils the preced- ing conditions, we shall be assured of the value required of y. If any of these values of does not fulfil these conditions, then this value of y will be some one of the terms of the series X W, X <, &c. Con- ceive, for example, that it is X, the two extreme errors x (B > and x (s/) will then be negative, and it will have, by what precedes, an intermediate error. BOOK L] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 317 which will be a maximum, and which will fall consequently in the series x to, x W, x M, &c. Suppose that this is x W, r being then necessarily comprised between s and s'; X^ ought, therefore, to be comprised be- tween ft > and ft M. If that is the case, this will be a proof that X < 2 > is the value required of y. We shall try thus all the terms of the series X \ X , X W, & c . U p to that which fulfils the preceding conditions. When we shall have thus determined the value of y, we shall easily ob- tain that of z. For this, suppose that J3 is the value of y, and that the three extreme errors are x to, x (0, x W . we shall have x (s > = x to, an d consequently a to _ z _ p W. y = x w . whence we get a to _{. a (s) p w _j_ p ( S ) _ . 2 2 '' then we shall have the greatest error x (r) , by means of the equation a W _ a (s) p (s) _ p (r) xto=-_^- - + p 2 P y. 584. The ellipse determined in the preceding No. serves to recognise whether the hypothesis of an elliptic figure is in the limits of the errors of observations ; but it is not that which the measured degrees indicate witli the greatest probability. This last ellipse, it seems, should fulfil the following conditions, viz. 1st, that the sum of the errors committed in the measures of the entire measured arcs be nothing : 2dly, that the sum of these errors, all taken positively, may be a minimum. Thus considering the entire ones instead of the degrees which have thence been deduced, we give to each of the degrees by so much the more influence upon the ellipticity which thence results for the earth, as the corresponding arc is considerable, as it ought to be. The following is a very simple method of determining the ellipse which satisfies these two conditions. Resume the equations (A) of 589, and multiply them respectively by the numbers which express how many degrees the measured arcs contain, and which we will denote by i (1 >, i (2 >, i , &c. Let A be the sum of the quantities i (1) . a (1) , i (2) . a (2) , &c. divided by the sum of the numbers i toj i , &c. ; let, in like manner, P denote the sum of the quantities i (1 \ p to, i < 2 ). p , &c. divided by the sum of the numbers i to, i (S, & c . ; the condition that the sum of the errors i (1 >. x (1) , i (2) . x (2) , &c. is nothing, gives = A z P.y. 318 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XII. & XIII. If we take this equation from each of the equations A of the preceding No., we shall have equations of the following form : q (i)^ y _ x ( a (2) v = x o _ q q y = X <^ () &c. Form the series of quotients ^ , ^y, &c. and dispose them according to their order of magnitude, beginning with the greatest ; then multiply the equations O, to which they respond, by the corresponding numbers i (1) , i (2) , &c. ; finally, dispose these thus multiplied in the same order as the quotients. The first members of the equations disposed in this way, will form a series of terms of the form in which we shall suppose h (1) , h (2 > positive, by changing the sign of the terms when y has a negative coefficient. These terms are the errors of the measured arcs, taken positively or negatively. Then it is evident, that in making y infinite, each term of this series becomes infinite ; but they decrease as we diminish y, and end by being negative at first, the first, then the second, and so on. Diminishing y continually, the terms once become negative continue to be so, and de- crease without ceasing. To get the value y, which renders the sum- of these terms all taken positively a minimum, we shall add the quantities h (1) , h (2) , &c. as far as when their sum begins to surpass the semi-sum of all these quantities ; thus calling F this sum, we shall determine r such that + h + h< + .... + h>| F; + h(*> + h< 3 > + . . + hf-'J-O F. C We shall then have y = T , so that the error will be nothing rela- tively to the same degree which corresponds to that of the equations (O), of which the first member equated to zero, gives this value of y. To show this, suppose that we augment y by the quantity d y, so that c (r ~ l > c fr) 3 y may be comprised between (r _ l} and i . The (r 1) first c terms of the series (P) will be negative, as in the case of y = TT(7]> ^ ut in taking them with the sign +, their sum will decrease by the quantity h( r -J ay. BOOK I.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 319 c (r) The first term of this series, which is nothing when y = -r- , will be- come positive and equal to h^ 8 y ; the sum of this term and the follow- ing, which are positive, will increase by the quantity {h+ h( r + J > + &c.} 3y; but by supposition we have hd) + hW ---- M r - ) < h + h (' + i> + & c . ; the entire sum of the terms of the series (P), all taken positively, will therefore be augmented, and as it is equal to the sum of the errors i(i). xW -j- K 2 ). x(% 8cc. of the entire measured arcs, all taken with the c( r ) sign +, this last sum will be augmented by the supposition of y=r-/7)-f dy. It is easy to prove, in the same way, that by augmenting y, so as to be . ,. c^- 1 ) , c ( r -' z) c ( r - 2 > , c< r ~ 3 > comprised between j^rn and h ^- a; or between j^^ and ^3} , &c. the sum of the errors taken with the sign + will be greater than when C = HW' c (r) Now diminish y by the quantity 5 y so that j j 8 y may be comprised c (r) C (r + l) between r-^ and , . ^ , the sum of the negative terms of the series (P) will increase, in changing their sign, by the quantity and the sum of the positive terms of the same series will decrease by the quantity Jh^ 1 ) + h< r + 2 > + &c.J dy; and since we have h) + h + ---- h > h^ r + J ) + h( r + 2 ) + &c., it is clear that the entire sum of the errors, taken with the sign +, will be augmented. In the same manner we shall see that, by diminishing y, so c (r+l) C (r + 2) C fr + 2) C( r -f 3 ) that it should be between j-^ and ^-^ , or between ^^ and j^^^, &c. the sum of the errors taken with the sign + is greater than when c (r) y = i ; this value of y is therefore that which renders this sum a a w minimum. 320 A COMMENTARY ON [SECT. XII. & XIII. The value of y gives that of z by means of the equation z = A-P.y. The preceding analysis being founded on the variation of the degrees from the equator to the poles, being proportional to the square of the sine of the latitude, and this law of variation subsisting equally for gravity, it is clear that it applies also to observations upon the length of the seconds' pendulum. The practical application of the preceding theory will fully establish its soundness and utility. For this purpose, ample scope is afforded by the actual admeasurements of arcs on the earth's surface, which have been made at different times and in different countries. Tabulated below you have such results as are most to be depended on for care in the observa- tions, and for accuracy in the calculations. Latitudes. Lengths of Degrees. \ Where made. By whom made. o.oooo 37 .0093 43 .5556 47 .7963 51 .3327 53 .0926 73 .7037 25538 R .85 25666.65 25599 .60 25640.55 25658 .28 25683 .30 25832 .25 Peru. Cape of Good Hope Pennsylvania. Italy. France. Austria. Laponia. Bouguer. La Caille. Mason & Dixon. Boscovich & le Maire. Delambre & Mechain. Liesganig. Clairaut, &c. SUPPLEMENT TO BOOK III. FIGURE OF THE EARTH. 585. IF a fluid body had no motion about its axis, and all its pai'ts were at rest, it would put on the form of a sphere ; for the pressures on all the columns of fluid upon the central particle would not be equal unless they were of the same length. If the earth be supposed to be a fluid body, and to revolve round its axis, each particle, besides its gravity, will be urged by a centrifugal force, by which it will have a tendency to recede from the axis. On this account, Sir Isaac Newton concluded that the earth must put on a spheroidical form, the polar diameter being the - shortest. Let P E Q represent a section of the earth, P p the axis, E Q the equator, (b m) the centrifugal force of a part revolving at (b). This force is resolved into (b n), (n m), of which (b n) draws fluid from (b) to Q, and therefore tends to diminish P O, and increases E Q. It must first be considered what will be the form of the curve P E p, and then the ratio of P O : G O may be obtained. VOL. II. X 322 A COMMENTARY ON [BOOK III. 586. LEMMA, Let E A Q, e a q, be similar and concentric ellipses, of which the interior is touched at the extremity of the minor axis by P a L ; draw a f, a g, making any equal angle with a C ; draw P F and P G re- spectively parallel to a f, a g ; then will PF+PG = af+ag. For draw P K, F k perpendicular to E Q, and F H, k r perpendicular to PK, .-. FE = EK, .-. HD = Brand P D = D K, .-. PH=,Kr; also F H = K r, .-. if K k be joined, K k = P F ; draw the diameter M C z bisecting K k, G P, a g, in (m), (s), (z). Then Km: Kn:: Ps: Pn::az:aC::ag:ab. .-. K m + Ps:Kn + Pn::ag:ab but K n + n P=K P=2 P D = 2 a C=ab .-. Km+Ps=a g. .-. 2 Km+ 2Ps = 2ag, or P F+P G = a g + a f. COR. P H + P I = 2 a i. For PF:PH::PG:PI::ag:ai. .-. PF + PG:PH+ PI::ag:ai::2ag:2ai. but = 2ag, .-. PH+PI = 2ai. BOOK III.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 323 587. The attraction of a particle A towards any pyramid, the area of whose base is indefinitely small, oc length, the angle A being given, and the attraction to each particle varying as j r - 1 . For let a = area (v x z w) m = (A z) x = (A a) Then section a b = section v x z w . (A a) ' " .'. p'. attraction = .*. attraction = (A z) " m a x 2 x' ax' m z x z m x a x m~** .'. attractions of particles at vertices of similar pyramids oc lengths. 588. If two particles be similarly situated in respect to two similar solids, the attraction to the solids cc lengths of solids. For if the two solids be divided into similar pyramids, having the par- ticles in the vertices, the attractions to all the corresponding pyramids their lengths o: lengths of solids, since the pyramids being similarly situated in the two similar solids, their lengths must be as the lengths of the solids : .*. whole attractions a lengths of the solids, or as any two lines similarly situated in them. COR. 1. Attraction of (a) to the spheroid a qf: attraction of A to A Q F : : a C : A C. COR. 2. The gravitation of two particles P and p in one diameter P C are proportional to their distances from the center. For the gravitation of (p) is the same as if all the matter between the surfaces A Q E, a q e, were taken away (Sect. XIII. Prop. XCI. Cor. 3.) .'. P and p are similarly si- tuated in similar solids, .-. attractions on P and p are proportional to P C and p C, lines similarly situated in similar solids. 589. All particles equally distant from E Q gravitate towards E Q with equal forces. X2 324 A COMMENTARY ON [Book III. For P G and P F may be considered as the axes of two very slender pyramids, contained between the plane of the figure and another plane, making a very small angle with it In the same manner we may conceive of (a f ) and (a g). Now the gravity of P to these pyramids is as P F + P G ; and in the direction P d is as P H + P I. Again, the gravity of (a) to the pyramids (a f ), (a g) is as (a f + a g), or in the di- rection (a i) as 2 a i ; but PH+PI = 2ai:.*. gravity of P in the di- rection P d = gravity of (a) in the same direction. It is evident, by carrying the ordinate (f g) along the diameter from (b) to (a) ; the lines (a f ), (a g) will diverge from (a b), and the pyramids of which these lines are the axes, will compose the whole surface of the in- terior ellipse. The pyramids, of which P F, P G are the axes, will, in like manner, compose the surface of the exterior ellipse, and this is true for every section of the spheroid passing through P m. Hence the at- traction of P to the spheroid P A Q in the direction P d equals the at- traction of (a) to the spheroid (p a q) in the same direction, 590. Attraction of P in the direction P D : attraction of A in the same direction : : P D : A C. For the attraction of (a) in the direction P D : attraction of A in the same direction : : P D : A C, and the attraction of (a) = attraction of P. .-. attraction of P : attraction of A : : P D : A C. Similarly, the attraction of P in the direction E C : attraction of A in the direction E C : : P a : E C. 591. Draw M G perpendicular to the ellipse at M, and with the radius O P describe the arc P n. Then Q G : Q M : : Q M : Q T BOOK III.] And NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 325 but c r Q > c : i P :: OP ! C >P: T V- ' ^ OT O Q M z C >P* QM 2 .OT v/ . * Q rr\ c >T ' QT T : Q:: P 2 Q O 2 T : T Q:: O P 2 p_OQ 2 i : O P 2 n Q 2 ' : : P z : P Q.Qp:: OE 2 : o T C )E 2 :OP QM 'TQ - QM 2 ' /.QG: QO:: OE 2 : O P 2 . nr OE 2 .-. Q G = Q-J^ . Q O. 592. A fluid body will preserve its figure if the direction of its gravity, at every point, be perpendicular to its surface ; for then gravity cannot put its surface in motion. 593. If the particles of a homogeneous fluid attract each other with forces varying as ^ , and it revolve round an axis, it will put on the form of a spheroid. For if P E p P be a fluid, P p the axis round which it revolves, then may the spheroid revolve in such a time that the centrifugal force of any particle M combined with its gravity, may make this whole force act per- pendicularly to the surface. For let E = attraction at the equator, P = attraction at the pole, F = centrifugal force at the equator. X3 326 A COMMENTARY ON [BOOK III Then (590), attraction of M in the direction M R : P : : Q O : P O .'. attraction of M in the direction M R = . Q Q . Similarly, the attraction of M in the direction M Q = E ' Q R . O E But the centrifugal force of bodies revolving in equal times a radii. V* c 2 F QC X r r. P GC P* (and P being given) a r F. O R .*. centrifugal force of M = .-. whole force of M in the direction M O = OE (E_: __. O Jti Take Mr = -p%- , M g = (E ~J^ R , complete the paral- lelogram, and M q will be the compound force; O E and O P .*. must have such a ratio to each other that M q may be always perpendicular to the curve. Suppose M q perpendicular to the curve, then, by similar triangles, qgorMr:Mg::QG:QM. . P.QO.(E-F)OR..OE 2 00 . OR ~P~(T" OE -oT" 2 '^ 1 . P.QO.OR OR OE 2 PO >>-U~E'OP"' Q .-. P : E F : : O E : O P, in which no lines are concerned except the two axes ; .*. lo a spheroid having two axes in such a ratio, the whole force will, at every point, be perpendicular to the surface, and .*. the fluid will be at rest. P.MR 594. The attraction of any point M in the direction M R = ' ^ - ; .*. if P be represented by P O, M R will represent the attraction of M in the direction M R, and M v will represent the whole attraction acting perpendicularly to the surface. BOOK III.] Draw (v c) perpendicular to M O. Then MO:Ma::M v.Mc: '.attraction in the direction Mv : MO. M v. M a OP 2 1 .'. attraction in the direction M O = it/To = 'M O tt M O " By similar triangles T O y, M v R, (the angle T O y being equal to the angle v M R.) T O : O y : : v M : M R 595. Required the attraction of an oblong spheroid on a particle placed at the extremity of the major axis, the excentricity being very small. Let axis major : axis minor : : 1 : 1 n. Attraction of the circle N n (Prop XC.) _EL . x E N c ~ Vn 2 + (1 n) 2 (2 n n 2 ) a 1 x {2x n. (4x fcn'jj i a 1 x J(2x)~* + l(2x)~*n. (4 n 2n*)} a 1-^5 5=-. (4 V^_2x*) V 2 4 V 2 ^ .-.A' a x' 4 V 2 V 2 /.A a x -r . x n 4 V 2 N 3 X4 328 A COMMENTARY ON [BOOK III. Let x = 2 E O = 2, A a 2 - n /16 V~2 16 V~ " 3 ""4 V"T V 3 ~5 2 8 n 4 n CC - rr 1 3 15 5 ' .'. attraction of the oblong spheroid on E : attraction of a circum- scribed sphere on E : : (since in the sphere n = 0.) 596. Required the attraction of an oblate spheroid on a particle placed at the extremity of the minor axis. Let axis minor : axis major : : 1 : 1 + n. .-. A' a x' { , + rip. (2x x } V 2 x -f- 4nx 2 nx 2 / (2x)~^4nx 2nx 2 )} a x' , n x * x n x ax .-.A ax V 2 V 2 2 V 2 V~2. x* . V~2. n x* n x 3 3 .*. whole attraction 4 4n 4n 2,8n 4n a 2 4- a 4- a 1 4- 3 3 5 3 15 5 .'. attraction of the oblate sphere on P : attraction of the sphere in- scribed on P : : 1 -f - - : I. o Since these spheroids, by hypothesis, approximate to spheres, they may, without sensible error, be assumed for spheres, and their attractions will be nearly proportional to their quantities of matter. But oblong sphere : oblate : : oblate : circumscribed sphere. .*. A of oblong sphere on E : A' of oblate on E : : A' : A" of circumscribed sphere on E. .-.A': A":: As A':: VA: v'A / 4. n O r> "::^/! ^:1::1 ^-: BOOK IILJ NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 329 Also A. r\ att n . of oblate sph. on P : att B . of insc d . sph. on P : : 1 + : 1 o att n . of insc d . sph. on P : att n .of circumsc d . sph. on E : : 1 : 1 -f n att a . of circumsc d . sph. onE : attr n . of oblate sph. on E : : 1 : 1 O .. attraction of the oblate sphere on P : attraction of the oblate sphere on E : : 1 H : 1 + n . 1 :: 1 + : 1 + _ :: 1 + - : 1 nearly. '.IT n^ n_ 3n g 5 25 _3_n 2 25 .-. P : E : : 1 + ^- : 1 T but (593), P:E F::OE:OP ::l+n:l::P + F:E nearly ... 1 + n .E F nF = P /. F+IT.E nF= P+ F and since (n) is very small, as also F compared with E, .-. r+ir E = P + F .-. 1 + n : 1 : : P + F : E 5F ' n = 4E .-. 4 E : 5 F : : 1 : n 380 A COMMENTARY ON [Boon III. or " four times the primitive gravity at the equator : five times the centri- fugal force at the equator : : one half polar axis : excentricity." 597. The centrifugal force opposed to gravity oc cos. 2 latitude. m n Q o E Let (m n) = centrifugal force at (m), F = centrifugal force at E. .*. (n r) is that part of the centrifugal force at (m) which is opposed to gravity. Now F:mn:: O E: Km and m n : n r : : Om: K m .'. m r a cos. 2 lat. 598. From the equator to the pole, the increase of the length of a de- gree of the meridian a sin. * lat. .).-. F: n r: : Om 8 : Km 2 f : : r z : cos. ! lat. nr:Ms::nG:MG::CP:CR::l n : 1. .. n r = 1 n . M S = 1 n. p' sin. 6 = 1 n . cos. m r = s t = (E F = i ft Then since the sphere and spheroid have the same solid content, 4 g . (A E) 3 _ 4*-.EM.(FE) t 3 3 BOOK III.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 337 .-.1 = 1 + a _2/3 2a/3 + j8 2 + /3 2 1 -f- a 2/3 nearly, (a) and (/3) being very small, .. a = 2 /3 or greatest elevation = 2 X greatest depression. 614. To find the greatest height of the tide at any place, as (n) . Let E P = 4 z. P E M = a + /3 = = EM EF = M, 75 : 4~9 by actual division (all the terms of two or more dimen- (1 + a) 8 sions being neglected) = 1 2 . (a + /3) = 1 2M, .-. PN 2 = g 2 .sin. 2 = (1 2 M). Jl + 2 a g 2 . cos. 2 0j (since2a = * i =-|-M) = (1 2M) {1 + ^ g 2 . cos. 2 ^. / 4< (1 2M)cos. 2 ^ = (1 2 M). (l +- 2M 2M r~ i s~ sin. 2 tf -f cos. * d 2 M . cos. 2 6 1 2 M . cos. 2 tf, M = 1 + M . cos. 2 tf ^ , o M .-. g 1 = M . cos. * 6 -- Q -= EP En = Pn= elevation re- o , quired. M 615. Similarly if the angle M E p = f, .-. E p = 1 + M cos. 2 ff -- --, M ..I E p = p n' = depression = -^ -- M . cos. 2 6 3 = M M.cos. 2 ^ ^ = Msin. 2 ^ ^. o J 616. B M= a = i~, .-. BM-Pn =+M.sin. 2 ^- = M . sin. 2 ^ oc sin. 9, VOL. II. Y 338 A COMMENTARY ON [BOOK III. .*. greatest elevation oc sin. 2 horizontal angle from the time of high tide. 617- At (O) P n = 0, .-. M . cos. " 6 = 0, 9 .-. M . cos. * 6 = , o 1 .'. cos. 6 = ^=. V3 .-. 6 = 54 , 44'. Hitherto we have considered the moon only as acting on the spheroid. Now let the sun also act, and let the elevation be considered as that pro- duced by the joint action of the sun and moon in their different positions. Let us suppose a spheroid to be formed by the action of the sun, whose semi-axis major = (1 + a), axis minor = (1 b). 618. Let (a + b) = S, (' ~ = depression due to the sun, 3 (tp') being the angular distance of the place of low water from the point to which the sun is vertical, .. M . cos. 2 6 + S . cos. 2

and tf = r= 0, but (6' -f- + sin. 2 6 : sin. 2

1) = M cos. 2 6 + S cos. 2 . 623. Hence Robison's construction. A Let A B D S be a great circle, S and M the places to which the sun and moon are vertical ; on S C, as diameter, describe a circle, bisect S C in (d); and take S d : d a : : M : S. Take the angle S C M = (p+0), and let C M cut the inner circle in (m), join (m a) and draw (h d) par- allel to it; through (h) draw C h H meeting the outer circle hi H; then will H be the place of high water. For draw (d p) perpendicular to (m a) and join (m d). Let the angle S C H = 6) /. H is the place of high water 621. Also (m a) equals the height of the whole tide. For (a p) = a d. cos. pad = S. cos. S d h = S. cos. 2 and (p m) = m d. cos. p m d = M. cos. m d h = M. cos. 2 6 BodK III.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 341 .*. a m = a p + p m = M. cos. 2 6 -f- S. cos. 2 p = height of the title. At new moon, =

.-. tide = M + S = spring tide. At full moon, d = 0,

M + S _ = maximum; then since in quadratures ( + 6) = 90, .-. = 90 6, .: M. cos. 2 6 + S. sin. 8 d J'M + S = maximum, .'. 2 M. cos. 6. sin. 6. S = 2 S. sin. 6. cos. 6. 0', .-. M S . 2 . sin. *. cos. 6 = M S . sin. 20=0, /. sin. 26 = .'. 6 = 0, that is, the moon is on the meridian. Y3 34-2 A COMMENTARY ON [BOOK III. 626. From the new moon to the quadratures, the place of tide follows the moon, i.e. is westward of it; since the moon moves from west to east, from the quadratures to the full moon, the place of high tide is before the moon. There is therefore some place at which its distance from the moon (0) equals a maximum. Now (621) M : S : : sin. 2 p : sin. 2 Q .-. M. sin. 2 6 = S. sin. 2 p .. M. 2 6 f . cos. 2 6 = S. 2 p'. cos. 2 p = < .-. cos. 2 p = 0, .. p = 45. 627. By (621) M. sin. 2 6 = S. sin. 2 p but .-. 6f. M . cos. 2 6 = p'. S . cos. 2 p = e p + = e, .-. p' + ' eateSt a + leaSt = M. {sin. 2 1 sin. d + cos. * 1 cos. 2 d} 15 2 sin. 2 1 = 1 cos. 2 1 2 sin. 2 d = 1 cos. 2 d .-. 4. sin. 2 1 sin. 2 d = 1 {cos. 2 1 + cos. 2 d} + cos. 2 1 cos. 2 d 2. cos. 2 1 = cos. 21 + 1 2. cos. 2 d = cos. 2 d + 1 .-. 4. cos. 2 1 cos. 2 d = 1 + (cos. 2 1 + cos. 2 d) + cos. 2 1 cos. 2 d .-. 4. {sin. 2 1 sin. 2 d + cos. 2 1 cos. 2 d} = 2 + 2. cos. 2 1 cos. 2 d .-. mean tide = M. sin. 2 1 sin. 2 d + cos. 2 1 cos. 2 d M 1 + cos. 2 1 cos. 2 d ~~2~ It is low water at that place from whose meridian the moon is distant 90, .*. cos. 4 z= 0, .'. for low water sin. 1 sin. d , cos. t = ? -T = tan. 1 tan. d. cos. 1 cos. cl When (1 + d) = 90, .'. tan. 1 tan. d = tan. 1 tan. (90 1) tan. 1 = tan. 1 cot. 1 = ; = 1 tan. 1 . cos. t = 1, /. t = 180, .'. time from the moon's passing the meri- dian in this case equals twelve hours, .-. under these circumstances there is but one tide in twenty-four hours. When 1 = d, .-. cos. t = tan. 2 1 and the greatest elevation = M {cos. t cos. 1 cos. d -f sin. 1 sin. d} a (since cos. t = 1) = M. {cos. 1 1 + sin. 8 1} = M. When d = 0, .-. greatest elevation = M cos. 2 1. When 1 = 0, .-. greatest elevation = M cos. 2 d. At high water t = 0, .'. greatest elevation when the moon is in the meridian above the horizon, or, the superior tide = M {cos. 1 cos. d + sin. 1 sin. d} 8 = M cos. * (1 _ d) = T. For the inferior tide t = 180, ,', cos. t = 1, Y4 344 A COMMENTARY ON [BOOK III. .-. inferior tide = M [sin. 1 sin. d cos. 1 cos. dj 2 = M { I (cos. 1 cos. d sin. 1 sin. d)} * = M cos. 2 (1 + d) = T. Hence Robison's construction. With C P = M, as a radius, describe a circle P Q p E representing P M N a terrestrial meridian ; P, p, the poles of the earth ; E Q the equator ; (Z) the zenith; (N) the nadir of a place on this meridian; M the place of the moon. Then Z Q latitude of the place = 1 \ ,, , , . TIT ^ j i- , f .'. Z M the zenith distance = 1 d. M Q declination = d ) Join C M, cutting the inner circle in A ; draw A T parallel to E Q. Join C T and produce it to M' ; then M' is the place of the moon after half a revolution, .*. M' N = nadir distance = ME+EN=MQ + ZQ = l-f-d. Join C Z cutting the inner circle in B; join B with the center O and produce it to D ; join A D, B T, A B, D T; and draw T K, A F perpendiculars on B D. L. ADB = z.BC A=ZQ M Q=l d DA B T Z are right angles BD:DA::DA:DF= BD~ BD = M cos.* (1 d) = height of the sup r . tide. BOOK III.] NEWTON'S PRINCIPIA. 345 Again r>T..nT nir DT * B D'.cos. BDT _ P1 ^ _ r -^- 5 rJJl : : 1) 1 : U K = < p = 5~Ti = 151) cos. 1 + d D U JJ U = M cos. 1 + d = point of the inferior tide. If the moon be in the zenith, the superior tide equals the maximum. For then 1 d = 0, .*. cos. 1 d = maximum, and B D = D F. If the moon be in the equator, d = 0, .'. D F = D K. The superior tide = M cos. z (I d) = T The inferior tide = M cos. 8 (1 + d) = T. Now T > T 7 , if (d) be positive, i. e. if the moon and place be both on the same side of the equator. T < T' if (d) be negative, i. e. if the moon and place be on different sides of the equator. If (d) = 90 1, .-. D K = Mcos. 2 (1 + 90 1) = M cos. 8 90 = 0. If (d) = 90 + 1, and in this case (d) be positive, and (1) negative, .. D F = cos. 2 (d 1). M = Mcos. 2 (90 + 1 1) = M cos. ! 90 = 0. FOR VOLUME III. PROB. I. The altitude P R of the pole is equal to the latitude of the place. For Z E measures the latitude. = P R by taking Z P from E P and Z R. g PROB. 2. One half the sum of the greatest and least altitudes of a cir- cumpolar star is equal to the altitude of the pole. The greatest and least altitudes are at x, y on the meridian. Also xR + y R = xy + 2y R = 2 (Py-f Ry) = 2. altitude of the pole. PROB. 3. One half the difference of the sun's greatest and least meridian altitudes is equal to the inclination of the ecliptic to the equator. The sun's declination is greatest at L, at which time it describes the parallel L r. .*. L H is the greatest altitude, The sun's declination is least at C, when it describes the parallel s C. .*. s H is the least altitude, and 4 . (L H s H) = L s = L E. PROB. 4>. One half the sum of the sun's greatest and least meridian al- titudes is equal to the colatitude of the place. = i (2 H E) = H E. 348 PROBLEMS PROS. 5. The angle which the equator makes with the horizon is equal to the colatitude = E H. PROS. 6. When the sun describes b a in twelve hours, he will describe c a in six ; if on the meridian at a it be noon, at c it will be six o'clock. Also at d he will be due east. He travels 15 in one hour. The angle a P x, mea- sured by the number of degrees con- tained in a x (supposing x equals the sun's place), converted into the time at the rate of 15 for one hour, gives the time from apparent noon, or from the sun's arrival at a. PROB. 7. Given the sun's declination, and latitude of the place ; Jind the time of rising, and azimuth at that time. Given Z E, .'. Z P = colat. given. Given be, .. P b = codec, given. Given b Z = 90 9 . Required the angle Z P b, measuring a b, which measures the time from sun rise to noon. Take the angles adjacent to the side 90, and complements of the other three parts, for the circular parts. .-. r . cos. Z P b = cot. Z P cot P b or r . cos. hour .=tan. lat. tan. dec. .. log. tan. lat. + log. tan. dec. 10 = log. cos. hour L. required. Also the angle P Z b measures b R, the azimuth referred to the north* and r . cos. P b = cos. P Z . cos. Z .*. cos. Z = r . cos, p sin. L PROS. 7. (a) r. cos. hour L = tan. latitude tan. declination,/or sun rise. 2 . tan. lat. tan. dec. Hence the length of the day = 2 . cos. hour . = FOR VOLUME III. 349 h may be found thus, from A Z P b cos. h = = (since Zb= 90,) cos. Z b Z cos. P. cos.P b or snce ' sin. Z P . sin. P b >90, cos. L sin. p cos. h = tan. L . cot. p, or cos. h =r tan. L . cot. p. and the angle P Z b may be similarly found, n cos. P b cos. Z P . cos. Z b r. COS. L = - : - jy-^ - : - ^-p - sm. Z P . sin. Z b cos. p cos. L * PROB. 8. Find the sun's altitude at six o'clock in terms of the latitude and declination. The sun is at d at six o'clock. The angle Z P d = right angle. Z p = colat. P d = codec. Required Z d (= coalt.) r . cos. Z d = cos. Z P . cos. d P or r. sin. altitude = sin. latitude X sin. declination. PROS. 9. Find the time 'when the sun comes to the prime vertical (that vertical whose plane is perpendicular to the meridian as 'well as to the. hori- zon J, and his altitude at that time, in terms of the latitude and declination. Z P = colatitude. Pg = codeclination. The angle P Zg= right angle. Required the angle Z P g. .-. r . cos. Z P g = tan. Z P . cot. P g. = cot. latitude tan. declination. Also required Z g equal to the coaltitude, r . cos. P g = cos. P Z . cos. Z g. r . sin. declination . , . , .*. - ; , ; T - = sin. altitude. sin. latitude PROS. 10. Given the latitude, declina- tion^ and altitude of the sun ; Jlnd the hour and azimuth. Let s be the place. Given Z P, Z s, P s. Find the angle ZPs. Let Z P, Z s, P s = a, b, c, be given, to find B. 2r E sin. B = sm. a . sin. c X V s . (s a) . (s b) . (s a + b + c where s = ^ c) 350 Also find C . V PROBLEMS -. (Or by Nap. 1st and 2d AnaL) sin. C = 2r sin. a . sin. b * 2r Similarly, sin. A = sin. L. of position = . : : " sin. b . sin. c PROB. 11. Given the error in the altitude- Find the error in the time in terms of latitude and azimuth. Let ra n be parallel to H, and n x be the error in the altitude. .*. L. m P x = error in the time = y z. y z : m x : rad. : cos. m y mx : x n : rad. : sin. n m x .*. y z : x n : r 2 : cos. my. sin. n m x or M 7. r 2 . n x cos. m y . sin. n m x n x but cos. m y . sin. Z x P ' sin. Z x P sin. Z P Q sin. x Z P " .-. sin. Z x P = l ~ sin. P x sin. P Z . sin, x Z P cos. m y r 2 . n x cos. L. sin. azimuth * COR. Sin. of the azimuth is greatest when a z = 90, or when the sun is on the prime vertical, .*. y z is then least. Also, the perpendicular ascent of a body is quickest on the prime vertical, for if y z and the latitude be given, n x cc azimuth, which is the greatest. PROB. 12. Given the latitude and declination. Find the time when twilight begins. (Twilight begins when the sun is 18 below the horizon.) h k is parallel to H R and 18 below HR. .*. Twilight begins when the sun is in hk. .-. Z s = 90 +18, Ps = D, Z Prrcolat. Find the angle Z P s. FOR VOLUME III. 351 E PROS. 13. Find the time when the apparent diurnal motion of a Jtxed star is perpendicular to the horizon in terms of the latitude and declination. Let a b be the parallel described by the star. Draw a vertical circle touching it at s. .-. s is the place where the motion ap- pears perpendicular to H R. .-. Z P, P s, and A Z S P=90 is given. Find Z P s. PROB. 14. Find the time of the shortest twilight, in terms of the latitude and declination- ab is parallel to H R 18 below H R. The parallels of declination c d, h k, are indefinitely near each other. The angles v P w, s P t, measure the durations of twilight for c d, h k. Since twilight is shortest, the incre- ment of duration is nothing. .'. V P W = S P t .. v r = w z and r s = t z and the angle v r s = right angle = w z t. .-. L r v s = z w t, and L. Z w c = 90 z w t = 90 Z w P. .-. A z w t = Z w P. Similarly, /Lrvs = ZvP .-. Z w P = Z a P. Take v e = 90. Join P e. Draw P y perpendicular to Z c. In the triangles Z P w, P v e, Z w = e v, P w = P v, and the angles contained are equal, < .'. Z P = P e. .-. In the triangles ZPy, Pey, Z P = P e, Py com ; and the angles at y are right angles. .*. Z e is bisected in y. r . cos. P v = cos. P y . cos. v y r . cos. P e = cos. P y . cos. y e. 852 PROBLEMS /. cos. P v : cos. P e : : cos. v y : cos. y e (but v y is greater than 90, .*. therefore cos. v y is negative.) : : cos. ( compl. y e) : cos. y e : : sin. y e : cos. y e : : tan. ye: r- . T 18 sin. L- tan. y e sin ' L ' ten> "g" sin. L. tan. 9 .*. COS. p = Z =r _ = r r r P Z is never greater than 90, Z y is equal to 9, .*. P y is never greater than 90, .*. cos. Py is always positive; v y is always greater than 90, .. cos. v y is always negative, .. cos. P v is negative, .'. the sun's decli- nation is south. Also, if instead of R b = 18, we take it equal to 2 s equal the sun's ,. . x . _. sin. L. tan. s . diameter, we get from the expression sin. D = the time when the sun is the shortest time in bringing his body over the horizon. PROB. 15. Find the duration of the shortest twilight' ^ w P Z = v P e, .-. z. Z P e = v P w. .'. 2 Z P e is equal to the duration of the shortest twilight. r . sin. Z y = sin- Z P . sin. Z P y or . _ sin. 90 . r sin. Z P y = f , cos. L. which doubled is equal to the duration required. PROB. (A). Given the sun's azimuth at six, and also the time when due east. Find the latitude. From the triangle Z P c, r . cos. L = tan. P c . cot P Z c. From the triangle Z P d, r . cos. h = cot. L . cot. P d. cos. L .-. tan. P c = cot. P d = .-. tan. P d = cos. L ' cbt7 Z " .-. sin. L = cot. Z cos. h cot. L cot. L cos. h ' FOR VOLUME III. 353 PROB. 16. Find the declination when it is just twilight all night. Dec. bQ=QR bR = colat 18 = 90 L 18 = 72 L PROB. 17. Given the declination, find the latitude, the sun being due east, when one half the time has elapsed be- tween his rising and noon. Given JL Z PC, and Z P d = Z PC. Given also P d = p, and A P Z d right angle. v by Nap. r . cos. h = tan. Z P . cot- p T r . cos. h v cot L = . cot. p If the angle Z P c be not given. From the triangle Z P d, . cos. Z P d = tan. Z P . cot. p. From the triangle Z P c, r cos- Z P c = cot. Z P cot- p, or cos. h = cot X. cot- pj cos- 2 h = tan. X. cot. p j = 2 cos. 2 h 1 = 2 cot 2 X. cot 2 p 1 = ' E 1 tan. * X tan- 3 x + 2 cot p = 0, .. tan- 3 X. cot. p = 2 cot- 2 p tan- 2 X tan- - X cot. p from the solution of which cubic equation, tan- X is found. PROB. 1 8. Given the angle between two and three o'clock in the horizontal dial equal to a. Find the longitude. From the triangle P R n, r . sin. P R=tan. R n . cot- 30 = tan. Rn. VS. From the triangle P R p, r . sin. P R = tan. R p . cot- 45 = tan R p. VOL. II. 7 354 PROBLEMS .'. tan. n p = tan. a = tan. 11 p 11 n tan. R p tan. R n 1 + tan. R p . tan. R n sin. X ( I 1 + sin. sin.X. (V 3 I) V 3 + sin. ~ x V3 PROB. 19. In what longitude is the angle between the hour lines of twelve and one on the horizontal dial equal to twice the angle between the same hour lines of the vertical sun dial ? From the triangle P R n, sin. X = cot. 15 . tan. R n From the triangle p N m, sin. p M = cot. 15 . tan- N m R n =r cos. X = cot- 15 tun. sin. X 2 tan. R n cos. X tan. R n ~2 Rn , tan. -- f- = tan. X Rn 1 tan. Rn . Rn ' 1 tan. 8 tan. Rn 2 PROB. 20. Given the altitude, latitude, and declination of the sun, Jind the time. cos. h = - cos . Z S cos. Z P . cos. P S .'. 1 cos sin. Z P . sin. P S sin. A sin. L . cos, p cos. L . sin. p cos. L. sin. p + sin. A sin. L. cos. p . n is ^ = . cos. -L . sin. p sin. (p L)+sin. A cos. L . sin. p or 2 cos. * = A + p L L p> cos. L sin. p .*. COS t h /cos. ( ). sin. ( ' 2 - V ' FOR VOLUME III. 355 )the form adapted to the Lo- garithmic computation, or, see Prob. ( 1 8). PROB. 21. Given a star's right ascen- sion and declination. Find the latitude and longitude of the star. Given y b, b S, L. S b y right angle .*. find L. S y b and S y. .-. ^ S y a = S y b Obi. .*. S y is known, L* S y a is known and S a y is a right angle, .*. find S a = latitude y a = longitude. Given the sun's right ascension and declination. Find the obliquity of the ecliptic. P S being known P y = 90, L. S P y = R A, .-. in the ASPy, . S y P is known. .-. obliquity = 90 S y P is known. PROB. 22. In what latitude does the twilight last all night ? Declination given. (Twilight begins when the sun is 18 below the horizon in his ascent, and ends when he is there in his descent, lasting in each case as long as he is in travelling 18.) R Q = H E = colat. = b Q + b R = D + 18. ... 90 18 D = L = 72 1 D. (See Prob. 16.) n Z 2 356 PROBLEMS Find the general equation for the hour at which the twilight begins. Z Let the sides P Z, P S, Z S, be a b c. Then sin. 2 ~ = if /a + b + c \ . /a -4- b -4* c sin. ( ^ a ^ a) sin. (-^-^ sin. sin. a. sin. b colat. + p + 108 sin, cotan. + p + 108 or sin. 1 = T : 2 cos. L . sin. p PROB. 24. Given the difference be- tween the times of rising of the stars, and their declinations : required the lati- tude of the place. Given P m, P n, and the A m P n included. From Napier's first and second ana- logies, the L. P m n is known, .'. P m C = complement of P m n is known, .-. P C = 90, P m is given, and the Z. P m C is found, .-. P R = latitude is known. * PROB. 25. Given the sun in the equa- tor, also latitude and altitude: find the time. Given Z P, Z S, P S = 90 find the ^ Z P S. colat \ FOR VOLUME III. 357 PROS. 26. The sun's declination = 8 south, required the latitude, when he rises in the south-east point of the horizon, and also the time of rising. P S = 90 + 8, Z S = 90, L S Z P = 45 + 90. Find Z P, and the A Z P S. PROB. 27. Determine a point in E Q, that the sum of the arcs drawn from it to two given places on the earth's sur- face shall be minimum. Let A, B, be the spectator's situations, whereof the latitude and longitude are known. Let E Q be the equator, p the point required ; a b = difference of the lon- gitudes is known. Let a p = x. .-. p b = a x. Let L, L' be the la- titudes. In A A a p, r . cos. A p = cos. L'. cos. x. In A B b p, r. cos. B p = cos. L'. cos. a x, .*. cos. L . cos. x + cos. L'. cos. (a x) = max. .*. cos. L . ( sin. x) . d x -f- cos. L'. x sin. (a x). ( d x) = 0, ... cos. L . sin. x = cos. L'. sin. a. cos. x cos. L'. cos. a. sin. x. Let sin. x = y .-. cos. L . y = cos. L'. sin. a. V I y 2 cos. L'. cos. a. y .. transposing and squaring cos. * L. y 8 2. cos. L. cos. L'. cos. 2 y 2 + cos. * L'. cos. * a. y 2 = cos. * L'. sin. 8 a cos. 2 L'. sin. * a y 2 , /. y * = &c. = n. and y = V n. PROB. 28. To a spectator situated within the tropics, the sun's azi- muth will admit of a maximum twice every day, from the time of his leav- ing the solstice till his declination equal the latitude of the place. Re- quired proof. a b the parallel of declination passing through Capricorn. Z3 358 PROBLEMS From Z a circle may be drawn touch- ing the parallel of the declination till this parallel coincides with Z. .. every day till that time the sun will have a maximum azimuth twice a day, and at that time he will have it only once at Z. (Also the sun will have the same azi- muth twice a day, i. e. he will be twice at f.) PROD. 29. The true zenith distance of the polar star when it first passes the meridian is equal to m, and at the se- cond passage is equal to n. Required the latitude. Given b Z = m, a Z = n, Z P = colat. = . m + n. PROB. 30. If the sun's declination E e, is greater than E Z, draw the cir- cle Z m touching the parallel of the de- clination, .'. R m is the greatest azimuth that day If Z v be a straight line drawn per- pendicular to the horizon, the shadow of this line being always opposite the sun, will, in the morning as the sun rises from f, recede from the south point H, till the sun reaches his greatest azi- muth, and then will approach H; also twice in the day the shadow will be upon every particular point, because the sun has the same azimuth twice a day, in this situation. .. shadow will go back- wards upon the horizon. But if we consider P p a straight line or the earth's axis produced, the sun will revolve about it, .*. the shadow will not go backwards. r. cot. Z P q = tan. P q. cot. P Z, or cot. (time of the greatest azimuth) = tan. p. tan. L. All the bodies in our system are elevated by refraction 33', and depress- ed by parallax. FOR VOLUME III. 359 .'. at their rise they will be distant from Z, 90 1 + 33' horizontal pa- rallax. A fix d star has no parallax, .*. distance from Z = 90 1 -f 33'. PKOB. 31. Given two altitudes and the time between them, and the decli- nation. Find the latitude of the place. Given Z c, Z d, P c, P d, L. c P d. From A c P d, find c d, and A P d c. From A Z c d, find L. Z d c, .-. Zdp = cdP cdZ, .-. From A Z P d, find Z P = colat. PROB. 32. To find the time in which the sun passes the meridian or the hori- zontal wire of a telescope. Let m n equal the diameter of the sun equal d" in space. V v : m n : : r : cosine declination, m n .-. V v = radius 1, cosine declination = d". second declination in se- conds of space, .. 15" in space : I" in time d" second dec. : : d" second dec. : 15" = time in seconds of passing the merid Hence the sun's diameter in R A = V v = d". second declination. (n x = d" = sun's diameter) V v : m n : : r : sin. P n m n : n x : : r : sin. x n P ~V Y : n x : : r 2 : sin. P n . sin. Z n P, /. V v = n x n x sin. P n . sin. Z n P r 8 . d" cos. X. sin. azimuth sin. Z P . sin. P Z n r s . d" .*. time of describing V v = = 77 r~ -= = IT 15. cos. X. sin. azimuth which also gives the time of the sun's rising above the horizon. 24 360 PROBLEMS. PROB. 33. Flamstcad's method of determining the right ascension of a star. LEMMA. The right ascension of stars passing the meridian at different times, differs as the difference of the times of their passing. For the angle a P b measures the dif- / " X \ ference of the times of passing, which is measured byab = ay by. Hence, as the interval of the times of the succeeding passages of any fixed star : 360 (the difference of its right ascensions between those times) : : the interval between the passages of any two fixed stars : to the difference of their right ascensions. Let A G c be the equator, ABC the ecliptic, S the place of a star, S m a secondary to the equator. Let the sun be near the equinox at P, when on the meridian. Take C T = P A, .-. the sun's de- clination at T = that at P. Draw P L, T Z, perpendicular to A G c. .-. Z L parallel to A C. Observe the meridian altitude of the sun at P, and the time of the passage of his center over the meridian. Observe what time the star passes over the meridian, thence find the apparent difference of their right ascensions. When the sun approaches T, observe his meridian altitude on one day, when he is close to T, and the next day when he has passed through T, so that at t it may be greater, and at e less than the meridian altitude at P. Draw t b, and e s, perpendiculars. Observe on the two days before mentioned, the differences b m, s m, of the sun's right ascension, and that of the star. Draw s v parallel to A C. Considering the variation of the right ascension and declination to be uni- form for a short time, v b (change of the meridian altitudes in one day) : o b difference of the declinations) ::sb (=sm bm):Zb. Whence Z b. Add or substract Z b to or from T m. Whence Z m. Add, or take the FOR VOLUME III. 361 difference of, (according to circumstances), Z m, L ra, whence Z L, I on 2 L .-. gives A L, the sun's right ascension at the time of the first Q observation. .-. A L + L m = the star's right ascension. Whence the right ascen- sion of all the stars. PROB. 34. Given the altitudes of two known stars. Find X. Right ascensions being known, .. a b =s the difference of right ascensions, is known, .-. L a P b is known. .-. From A s P &C.) = ft 1 (x d y y d x) /*' l (x' d y' y' d x') &c. 4- ft, fjf (y d x' x d y' + y' d x x' d y) + fi.fi!' (ydx" xdy" + y"d x x"d y)+& c. + (S it," (y 7 d x" x' d y" 4- y" d x' x" d y') + /*' /"'" (y' d x'" x' d y'" + y'" d x' x'" d y') -f &c. + &C. 2 A VOL. ii. 370 NOTES. * Hence by adding together these results the aggregate is PI*' (x d y y d x + x' d y' y' d x' + y d x' x d y' + y f d x x' d y) + p p." (x d y y d x + &c.) + &c. pf ft," (x d y' y' d x' + x" d y" y" d x'' + y' d x" x' d y" + y" d x' x" d y') + &c. &c. But x d y y d x + x' d y' y' d x' + y d x' x d y' + y' d x x' d y = dy (x x') + d x (y y) + d f (x' x) + d x' (y y') = (x' - x) d y' - d y) - (/ y) (d x' d x) ; and in like manner the coefficients of p p'', ,<* (if" /*' /z", (i! //", &c. are found to be respectively (x' 7 x) (d y" d y) (y" y) (d x" d x), (x'" x) (d y"' d y) (y'" y) (d x'" d x), (x" _ x) d y" d y') (y" y') (d x" d x'), (x'" x') (d y'" d y') (y'" y') (d x'" d x') &C, Hence then the sura of all the terms in PIL', pp" i>! ^'', /*' p." //' jU/", (j! [,"" is briefly expressed by 2 .tkuf J(x' x) (d y' d y) (y' y) (d x' d x)} and the suppressed coefficient -, being restored, the only difficulty of p. 1 6 will be fully explained. That 2 . ( j-'\ = 0, &c. has been shown. \d x/ 2. To show that /( 2 s . /" d x X 2 . /* d * x) = (2 . ,<* d x) * page 17. 2.ict d'x = ^d 2 x + ^d* x' + &c. = d . At d x -f d . pf d x' + &c. = d (p d x + p' d x' + &c.) = d . 2 . p d x. Hence /(2s ./*dx X 2 ./-id'x) =/2.2^dx X d%2./* = (2 . A* d x; * being of the form y 2 n d u = u *. NOTES. 37 1 3. To show that (page 17). 2 mf t x 2 .p (dx* + dy a -f dz 2 ) _ {(2. ( *dx) 2 + (2. My) 8 + (s.^dz)'} = 2.p/ K dx ' dx ) 2 + ( d y' d y) 8 + (dz' dz) J. Since the quantities are similarly involved, for brevity, let us find the value of 2 . p X 2 . A& d x * (2 . p d x) *. It = (M. + ft' + P" 4- ..) (/ d x* + it! d x' ! -f p." dx" 2 + ....) (it, d x + (tf dx? + ^ dx" + . . . .) z ; Consequently when the expression is developed, the terms ^ 8 dx z , (i f * d x' 2 , /*" z d x'' 2 , &c. will be destroyed, and the remaining ones will be It, fjf (d x 2 + d x' * ,2 d x d x') = ft iif (d x' u x) f/ft"(d x ! -f dx"' 2 d x dx") = /*^"(dx" dx) 2 /*V (d x' 2 + d x" z 2 d x' d x") = p* p" (d x" d x') a fifftf" (d x' 2 + d x'" 2 2 d x' d x 7 ") = /' /6 W (d x"> d x x ) s ^ X" (d x" * + d x'" * 2 d x'' d x"') = v." tif" (d x /;/ d x") * &c. Hence, of the partial expression 2 . /A X 2 . p, d x * (2 . (i d x) * = 2 . p- /*' (d x' d x) . In like manner 2.^ x 2,/tdy 2 (2./tdy) t = 2.At/t* / (dy / dy)* 2./ X 2. /idz 8 (2 . /A d z) 8 = 2 . /" /^ (d z' d z) 2 and the aggregate of these three, whose first members amount to the pro- posed form, is 2 . fkfif {(d x' d x) + (d y' d y) * + (d z' d z) S J 4. To show that (p. 19.) nearly. It is shown already in page 19 that 3 \ 2 372 N Q T E S. X X o X . . . . . -1 = fry, 777. (*' x, + y y, + z^ z,). b \ / \s / But since x, = x x\ y, = y y\ z, = z z\ by substitution and multiplying both members by ,, we get ^ x .. x 3 x v , v . . . 3 x v T~ = P""(?r l x y ^ y " tt z) + ~(>p" " tt nearly. Similarly /*' x' ^' x' 3 x x . , , , , v i 7-, - = (jy> - ^y* ( x < a x + y tt > nearly. 8cc. Hence /iX2.-x3x N . N . . T 1 " : IFF "VST** 2 " a x y ^ y + 2 ' But by the property of the center of gravity, 2 . fj, x = 0, 2 . ,u y = 0, 2 . p z = 0. Hence //. x 3 x x 5. To show that (p. 22.) X V Z - d 2 x + J - d 2 y + d 2 z = x /d Qv y /d Q\ z /d H ~ H and that First, we have xd 2 x + yd*y + zd 2 z = d (x d x + y d y + z d z) (d x 2 + d y 2 + d z). But x 2 + y* + z 2 = r, xdx + ydy + zdz = fdj and because X = o COS. i) X COS. V y = g cos. 6 X sin. v z = sin. <>. NOTES. 373 .. d x 1 + dy * = [d (g cos. 6} . cos. v g cos. d X d v sin. \\ * + J(g cos. d) sin. v + g cos. d v cos. v} 2 = (d . g cos. 6) 2 + g * d v * cos. * 0, .-. dx z + dy' + dz 2 = (d.gsin. 0) 2 + (d.gcos. 0) 2 + e 2 d v* cos,'* = d| 2 + g 2 d0 8 + g j d v 2 cos. 2 0. Hence, since also d . g d g = d g 2 ^- g d * g, *d'x + ydy + zd 2 z = d , d v cos . * 4 __ g d d\ t Secondly, since g is evidently independent of the angles 6 and v, the three equations (1), give us /d x\ x ( - r - ] = cos. 6 cos. v = , Vdg/ g d y\ . y j-f-l = cos. sin. v = - --, d^/ g d z\ . z 1 = sin. d = g/ s Hence /d QN /dxx /d Qs /d yx /d Qv /d ' " ' ' / N /xx / s / y vary va g^ ' \"dy; Uv ' ' But since Q is a function of g (observe the equations 1), and g is a func- tion of x, y, z, viz. Vx 2 + y 2 + z *, = d (I?) (S But x/ \ x / ' \ g / x and like transformations may be effected in the other two terms. Conse- quently we have d , Hence and from what was before proved, we get , A , /d x\ /d Q\ , /d y\ /d Q\ , /d z d Q = d *' (a) (arr) + d l (r ) ( -3) + d Qr 271 NOTE S. 6. To show that x d* y y d* x = d (0 2 d v cos.* 6), and that ' see P- 22 - First, since xd s y = d.xdy dxdy yd 2 x = d.ydx dxdy, .. x d 2 y y d 2 x = d . (x d y y d x). But from equations (1), p. 22, d y = sin. v . d (* cos. 6) -f. o cos. 6 . cos. v d v d x = sin. v . d (3 cos. 6) cos. d sin. v d v, /. x d y r= sin. v cos. v . * - + ? 2 cos. " 6 cos. 2 v d v z d (f~ cos. 2 &) v d x. = sin. v cos. v . : f 2 cos. 2 6 sin. * v d v J z the difference of which is g 2 cos. 2 d X d v. Consequently xd 2 y yd*x = d.(o 2 d v cos. s 6}. Secondly by equations (1) p. 22, we have /d y\ ( -r-*- ) = P cos. y cos. v = x ^d v/ (d x\ . . -1 - 1 = s cos. s sin. v = y, d v/ w But since dividing the two first of the equations (1) p. 22, we have "- r= tan. v, v is a function of x, y only. Consequently, as in the note pre- ceding this it may be shown that NOTES. 375 . . ( d y\ ( d 9\ 4. ( + 2 d d cos. 2 tf + f cos. S ^d 2 t) pd^ 2 sin. d cos. 0j, and the two other terms gives when added, by means of the equations ( 1 ) p. 22, ff\c. A * * f*f^o A * * ' / '\ ' J^ /i Cvo 9 COS. tr S76 NOTE S. But d(ydy + xdx) = |d.(d.x*H- y 2 ) = d* (** cos.' 4) = d [f cos. d d (g cos. 6)} = (d . * cos. 6) * + g cos. 6 d * (f cos. 4) and dx* + dy s = (d.g cos. ) * + j ! cos. * d . d v *. Hence sin. 6 . . -- -, y d 2 y + xd e x) cos. 6 w = -- ^-j [p cos. d d 2 (e cos. 0) P 2 cos. 2 ^ d v *l cos. ^ = g sin. ^ Jd 2 (o cos. 0) cos. 6 d v Z J = sin. ^ d 2 cos. ^ 2 d d d sin. d d * 6 sin. d 6 Z + d v 2 gcos. I}. Adding this value to the preceding one of the first term, we have (ITT) = dV x LP c]2 * + 2 d * d d + s d y2 sin> tf cos * 'i , d*^ ,dv* . , 2 ? d ? dO = -dT + ar^ sin * ' cos * 6 + ' d t * the value required. 8. To develope = - A in terms of the cosines of 6 and of itsmul- 1 + e cos. 6 tiples, see p. 25. If c be the member whose hyperbolic logarithm is unity, we know that cos. = which value of cos. 6 being substituted in the proposed expression, we have 1 2 c '- 1 + e cos. 6 ec* 8 *- 1 + 2c a *- 1 + 2 c B ~^~ l 1 c*'V-i + - c But since _ c o v-i 6 NOTES. 377 gives c .v-i - l + I l ~ "71-- Vi- e V e* VT+~ ~ and since, if we make 1 -(1 VI e^ = X which also = , , . . ., e v 1 + VI e 2 ' we also have the expression proposed becomes 1 2 c v e COS - ^ e e (1 + Xc*-)(l + 2* / 1 2 (1 A 2 ) Vl 4- Xc V ~ J -/ i* * * But X e and e 2 1 1 / 1 Xc- ev "" 1 + e cos. d V(l e 2 ) \l + Xc fl yr - 1 1 + X c ~ ' which when & = v w is the same expression as that in page 25. Again by division 1 1 + Xc v- ftiid X c 9 V 1 , - = -- XC-0V- 1 _ X*c 2 0v"-li& r ' ' Taking the latter from the former, we get VI e 2 J -j- e cos. 6 e 2 _ T _ x fl /-i = 1 2 X cos. 6 -f 2 X* cos. 2 d 2 X 3 cos. 3 6 + &c. STS NOTE S. and substituting for 6 the value v w, we get the expression in page 25. 9. To demonstrate the Theorem of page 28. , Let us take the case of three variables x, y, z. Than our system ol differential equations is in which F, G, H, are symmetrical functions of x, y, z ; that is such as would not be altered by substituting x for y, and y for x ; and so on for the other variables taken in pairs; for instance, functions of this kind Vx + y*+ z* + I*, (xy 4 xz+ xt + yz+ y t + z t)^-, (x y z + x z t + y z t), log. (x y z t) and so on. Multiply the first of the equations by the arbitrary , the second by /3, and the third by y and add them together; the result is ' 0=(x+/3y+yz) + N6w since a, |S, 7, are arbitrary, -we may assume ax+/3y + 7Z=0, which gives d x . d y d z a dr + /3 dt + Mt = " d x d * y d / ' and substituting for x, ^ , - y , their values hence derived in the first Cl L (.It f>f the proposed equations, we have NOTES. 379 S. x 7 - X = 0. a, a In the same it will appear that verifies each of the other two equations. It is therefore the integral of each of them, and may be put under the form z = a x + b >' in valuing only two arbitraries a and b, which are sufficient, two arbitra- ries only being required to complete the integral of an equation of the second order. In the equations (0) p. 27. = H, G = and F = 1 and g 3 being = (x 2 + y * + z 2 ) 3 is symmetrical with regard to x, y, z. Hence the theorem here applies and gives for the integral of any of the equations z = a x -{- b y, see page 28. Again, let us now take four variables x, y, z, u ; then the theorem pro- poses the integration of r\ v f 1 ^ V d t d t d z d 2 z Multiplying these by the arbitraries , ft 7, 8 and adding them we get, as before = H (x-j-/3y-f. 7 z-f5u) ~, / d x _ d y d z . d u\ + G ( + G^L. + F %- + .... A^r + lji_ we shall find by multiplying i of them (for instance the i wherein first s = 1, 2 . . . . i) by the arbitraries a C>, a.(\ ..... a Wj adding these results together and their aggregate to the sum of the other equations ; and as- suming the coefficient of H = 0, that a (i) X W 4. x () -f .... a CO x W -f. X i + 1 + x4 2 + ..... X n = v ill satisfy each of the proposed differential equations subsisting simulta- neously ; and since it has an arbitrary for every integration, it must be the complete integi'al of any one of them. This result is the same in substance as that enunciated in the theorem of p. 28, t inasmuch as it is obtained by adding together the equations whose first members are x W, x W t &c. and making such arrangements as are permitted by a change of the arbitraries. In short if we had multi- plied the i last equations instead of the i first by the arbitraries, and added the results to the n i first equations, our assumption would have been x (i) _|_ x W + ..... x ( - J) + a ^ x< ~ ! + J) -f a W x (n ~ i+2) + .... a f X n = 0.... (a) which is derived at once by adding together the n i equations in pnge 28. NOTES. 381 If we wish to obtain these n i equations from the equatk n (a), it may be effected by making assumptions of the required form, provided by so doing we do not destroy the arbitrary nature a W, a^\ a (i) . The \iecessary assumptions do, however, evidently still leave them arbitrary.. Those assumptions are therefore legitimate, and will give the forms of Laplace. END OF S'OLUME SECOND. University of California SOUTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY 405 Hilgard Avenue, Los Angeles, CA 90024-1388 Return this material to the library from which it was borrowed. APR 1 2 LTE 3 1205 00479 1263