. . 7 "-- - ; CT r ", UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA Received Accession No. m MODERN ART EDUCATION: ITS PEACTICAL AND ESTHETIC CHAEACTEE EDUCATIONALLY CONSIDEEED. BY PROFESSOR JOSEPH LANGL, OF VIENNA. BEING PART OF THE AUSTRIAN OFFICIAL REPORT ON THE VIENNA WORLD'S FAIR OF 1873. TBANSLATED WITH NOTE BY s. R. KOE'HLER. WITH AN INTRODUCTION BY CHARLES B. STETSON. BOSTON: L. PRANG AND COMPANY. 1875. 3 AMERICAN PREFACE. AT last on this side of the Atlantic an earnest, wide-spread activity in behalf of popular art-education is beginning to mani- fest itself, not only among educators, but among business men, distinguished for the interest they take in the development of American industry. As to the character of this activity, different opinions prevail. Some believe it is a mere educational spasm which will soon pass away; others that it is only the begin- ning of what we are to see, of a new era in education. That the latter are right, that this new-born activity is justified by enduring considerations of educational and industrial policy, a survey of the more conspicuous facts will make evident enough. This survey must embrace not only the field at home, but the foreign as well. AN AGE OP INDUSTRIAL CONFLICT. While no one can say that the time approaches when Europe will cease to u tremble under the drums and tramplings " of mar- tial hosts, yet it is very clear that she is now to behold a long age of industrial conflicts among the leading nations, with issues quite as momentous as any that were decided at Waterloo or Sedan. This age has fairly set in, as a glance at the past, by way of comparison, will show. At the beginning of the present century, it was the well-drilled soldier upon whom the different nations of Europe- relied for defence: the well- trained workman counted for little. To be sure, Napoleon, when first consul, recognizing the vital importance of industrial education, took vigorous measures to promote it in iii iv AMERICAN PREFACE. France. But education is a plant whose fruit does not mature in a year, nor all at once : a half century was required fully to con- vince Europe, by results, that the workman should be specially educated for his work. Meantime America was developing the public school as a means of popular culture. To-day Europe is successfully combining the two lessons, industrial instruction, and general culture, of the whole -people. The different govern- ments realize that henceforth national supremacy must depend more and more upon industrial supremacy ; and so for this peaceful warfare, not the less real because bloodless, each is arming itself with the best weapons that art and science can furnish. In the camp soldiers are drilled no less than of old ; but, in the schools, children and youth are trained with a direct view to labor as they never "were trained before. Of all things, the pencil is recog- nized as the most efficient all}' of the needle-gun. While the latter wins victories on the field of carnage, the former wins them in great industrial tournaments that bring together the rival products of the whole working world. In the one case it is a battle of bullets, in the other a battle of forms ; and Europe has learned that provision should be made no less against defeat in the bat- tle of forms than in the battle of bullets. While America, as yet, has done almost nothing for the direct education of labor, how munificent the expenditures made for this purpose by European governments ! how broad their view, and how thoughtful the adaptation of means to secure the end desired ! They rely upon no one thing ; but, beginning the work in elemen- tar} T schools where all can be reached, they carry it on through evening schools, through Sunday schools, through schools for special industries, even in towns of one or two thousand inhabit- ants, through schools of arts and trades at frequent intervals ; they advance it by popular lectures, by local museums, and by oft-occurring exhibitions ; they complete it in great central tech- nical universities and art museums, with their numerous and comprehensive courses. Thus they provide for all ranks in life, for all the exigencies of art and of industry. To-day, in the workshops and manufacturing establishments of Europe, there are millions of men and women who have been trained more or less efficiently, during the last twenty years, in art and science AMERICAN PREFACE. V applied to industry. Is not this a noteworthy change of public policy on the part of European governments ? Let us briefly consider, yet with something of detail, what the leading European nations have done and are doing for the advancement of the art-industrial education of their people. ART-INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN ENGLAND. For this new conflict England is, with the utmost deliberation, thoroughly arming herself. At first she began with half meas- ures, which need not here be further described than by saying that she undertook to educate her workmen only after they became workmen, and gave little thought to artistic qualities, relying upon cheap production, good material, and honest workmanship, to find a profitable market for her manufactures. She was the first to challenge the world to a comparison of industrial products, and in 1851 held the first Universal Exhibition at London. The result every one knows. As to products involving taste, that which adds so much to market value, she found herself far below her European rivals, and above the United States alone. Profiting by her unexpected and humiliating defeat, she at once abandoned her old educational policy, which was based mainly upon the let- alone principle, and went vigorous!}' at work in the faith that instruction in art, as applied to industry, could be reduced to rational methods, could be treated according to recognized educa- tional principles, and so need not longer be left to the fancy of each individual, nor to the blind caprice of the hour. There was formed in the Privy Council a new section, under the name of " Science and Art Department," which has, for its special object, the popular dissemination of a knowledge of science and art as applied to industry. Thus far the department has more espe- cially devoted itself to the advancement of drawing and the arts of design. In 1852 the South Kensington Museum, which receives an annual grant from the government of about five hun- dred thousand dollars, was founded in London at an original cost of some six millions of dollars. Besides giving general instruc- tion in fine and industrial art,' and sending out numerous travel- ling collections of art objects for local service, this school pro- vides special training, free of cost, to those whom the government vi AMERICAN PREFACE. selects as the most promising candidates for art-masters, and who, upon finishing the course, are expected to take charge of art- schools in different parts of the kingdom. Thus the South Ken- sington Museum is the great centre of art-instruction for the whole kingdom ; but it is only the centre. The educational influ- ence of the government is felt ever} T where ; and, in all important industrial towns, art-schools for instruction in drawing, model- ling, and design have also been established. These schools, under the supervision of the Science and Art Department, are sustained in part by the government, in part b}' the local authori- ties, in part by fees ; it being the principal object to improve the local manufactures by making them more artistic, and to pro- mote machine and building construction. They continue to in- crease from year to year. According to the official report for 1872, they numbered 122, 1 and were attended by 22,845 students ; to whom add the 765 students who attended the National Art Training School at South Kensington. Thus for every 210,000 of the population, there was one well-appointed art-school, wholly devoted to art-instruction, with an average -of 190 students. There was also a large number of science schools in which draw- ing was taught, 69 submitting papers for payments and prizes. Of night classes for giving instruction in drawing to artisans, and to youth more than twelve years old, there were 538, with an attendance amounting to 17,256. Then it is not to be overlooked, that drawing forms an important part of the instruction given in elementary schools, both public and private. Thus, in the " schools for the- poor" alone, 194,549 children were instructed in drawing, the same year, 1872. And so a more or less efficient knowledge of art, as applied to industry, is rapidly spreading among all the industrial classes of Great Britain. The advocates of popular instruction in science as applied to industry, seeing the great success which has attended the efforts in favor of art, are strenuously urging the government to treat science in the same S3^stematic and liberal manner. The vast things they contemplate are minutely described by E. Twining, in his book on " Technical Training," and by J. Scott Russell, in his book entitled " Systematic Technical Education for the Eng- 1 See note, p. 125. AMERICAN PREFACE. vii lish People." That the advocates of popular scientific education will, at an earl}' clay, obtain what they desire, cannot well be doubted. 1 Then, with a full development of the public school system established in 1870, the educational equipment of England will be complete and exceedingly efficient. ART-INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN FRANCE. First fruits of systematic English art-education soon began to manifest themselves. At the Universal Exhibition, held at Lon- don in 1862, the advancement in English art-manufactures, since 1851, was clearly shown; and the French, ever sensitively alive to their industrial interests, took alarm. Such great results so soon achieved, what might not be expected in the future ! France saw, indeed, that it was not safe to rely upon prestige, however distinguished : she saw that to stand still was to go to the rear ; she saw that to maintain her position, so long indisputably held, at the head in art-manufactures, she must advance. The next year the Emperor appointed a large and able commission, which was divided into sections, to investigate the subject of technical education in general, and of art-industrial education in particular. In 1865 this commission ^submitted an elaborate report, showing what the situation was at home and in all parts of Europe. They declared that " drawing, with all its applications to the different industrial arts, should be considered as the principal means to be employed in technical instruction." They made sundry recom- mendations for the advancement of art-education, of drawing in particular, which they believed should be made more scientific, more uniform, and more general, if France was to retain her industrial supremacy. They would have less of individual caprice, and more teaching in harmony with sound and fixed educational principles. The government proceeded at once to act upon the advice of the commission ; and the art-instruction of France, which had so long been the best in Europe for industrial purposes, was in various points reconstructed and made better still. Steps were taken to provide better teachers, better appointed school- 1 In 1873 the total number of "science classes," under the supervision of the Science and Art Department, was 3,810, in 1,238 schools. Number of stu- dents, 44,012. But the work is not systematically done yet. Vlll AMERICAN PREFACE. rooms, better models and drawing-copies. The co-operation of publishers was secured ; for the}- soon saw that they must furnish better drawing-copies, otherwise their publications would be ex- cluded from the schools. To impart a degree of uniformity to instruction everywhere, especially in the matter of style, the gov- ernment used its influence to. introduce into all the leading art- schools of the country a set of large drawing-plates, two hundred in all, costing eight francs each. But so various are the schools in France some public, some private, some half-and-half, some general, some special for the education of the people, that the government is obliged to resort to various means, direct and indirect, to bring about any general educational reform. One of the main objects of the Universal Exhibition held at Paris, in 1867 was to stimulate and unify the art-industrial education of France. Since the disastrous war with Prussia, educational prob- lems general, industrial, and military have received more solicitous consideration than ever before at the hands of the French authorities, both national and local. Indeed, with French education of all kinds, the present is a reconstructive period, a fact that appears to be overlooked by those who so vehemently urge us to imitate the art-instruction which has hitherto prevailed in France. However well this art-instruction may have served its purpose in the past, France herself, hy attempting many decided changes, acknowledges that it is unequal to the present demands, that, in competing with thorough instruction based upon Art- science, her traditional methods cannot stand. ART-INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN GERMANY. German}'' shows that she, too, feels the impulse in favor of art- industrial education ; her activity, however, would have doubtless been more marked but for the military exigencies of the last fifteen years. With German unity secured tinder the leadership of Prussia, it is probable that the development of industry by educational means will henceforth receive much greater attention. But, in the past, art-industrial education has not been by any means neglected. Not only in all the larger towns of the differ- ent states, as in Nuremberg, Munich, Berlin, have there long been liberal provisions for the special training of art- workmen, AMERICAN PREFACE. ix but there have been similar provisions, oftentimes quite ample, in many of the smaller towns, even in towns of one or two thou- sand inhabitants. Now comes a fresh impulse, and things old are taking on a new face. The late war taught France a valuable lesson ; and from France, defeated and prostrate, yet promptly paying her forfeited milliards, Prussia also learned a lesson, and means to profit by it, the lesson that art-industrial education contributes to the prosperity and grandeur of nations. " Imme- diately after the war with France," as Prof. Langl says, kt the authorities of the various industrial towns of Prussia were called upon, in a circular issued by the Ministrj- of Commerce and Indus- try, to follow the example of France in the organization of Drawing and Industrial Schools; and their attention was directed to the industrial importance of these schools, and to the fact that they form the true basis of the wealth of France. Regulations in regard to teachers of freehand drawing and modelling in the industrial schools were prepared at the same time." ,As Germany is divided into different States, with different educational au- thorities more or less independent, the reform in art-education will not make the same uniform progress everywhere ; neverthe- less, one may rest assured that the reform from the primary school to the university, both in its practical and in its culture aspects, will be speedily effected, and with the habitual German thoroughness. ART-INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN AUSTRIA. The movement in favor of art-industrial education has not only extended to Austria, but is more marked than anywhere else. Indeed, Austria is the most thorough educational reformer in Europe to-day. Since her defeat by the Prussian at Sadowa, in 1866, she has devoted herself to the education of her people, fully resolved to win back, by the achievements of her educated indus- try, all she lost on the field of battle. Her schools for the educa- tion of the great body of the people, which were pronounced by Horace Mann to be among the very poorest in Europe thirty years ago, are to-day pronounced by excellent educational authority (John D. Philbrick) to be the best, best in their organization, best in their course of study, and best in the character of their X AMERICAN PREFACE. instruction. Nothing has been done at hazard ; but the whole of this remarkable educational reform is based upon the soundest educational philosophy, and so must yield good results for genera- tions to come. The art-industrial features are very conspicuous, as will be seen upon reading the report which follows. It may justly be said that the chief object of the Universal Exhibition, held at Vienna in 1873, was to stimulate the Austri- ans, educationally, by showing them what is done elsewhere for industrial education, and the result as illustrated by industrial products. At this exhibition the educational display was the largest and best ever seen, and so was of special service to edu- cators. Already the good influence of the exhibition on the public taste has begun to manifest itself, as the Austrian minister at Washington most emphatically testifies in a recent address. 1 1 At the meeting of school superintendents, recently held in Washington, the Austrian Minister, Baron von Scharz-Senborn, was present, and spoke of the educational advantages and influences of expositions: "You remember, gentlemen, there -was an old European general by the name of Montecuculi, who said, that if you are preparing for war, and wish to become victors, you must have three necessary things: first, money; sec- ondly, more money; thirdly, much more money. Now, I think every teacher is a general; that is, he is a combatant of ignorance and of superficiality. Now, I think that the want of knowledge is the root of all evils that exist in the world, and that they can only be successfully combated by three things. These three things are, first, education; secondly, more education; thirdly, much more education. I think, too, that the education of a people must begin in the family circle, and that then every man, every woman, every village, municipality, and corporation, and every State government, and the general government itself, must aid and contribute to the accomplishment of this vitally important object. . . . "A great German savant, Prof. Virchow, made a very interesting and a very accurate remark, which could apply here. He said that ' nothing which comes through your eyes into your head ever goes out.' And so say I. The impressions which we obtain by the sense of sight affect the brain, and change our views, in the most favorable manner. That was the meaning ; and the man who has seen many things, who has travelled a great deal, will have his intellectual faculties greatly improved. We observed in Austria, as well as in other parts of Europe, another striking effect of these exhibitions. They improve, in a remarkable way, the public taste. The taste in former times in Austria was also a bad one. The people had not seen examples of tasteful and beautiful productions: they had, therefore, no artistic judgment. They had no museums and schools for applying fine arts to industry, for improving and correcting their taste, and for thus giving them the right ideas of the beautiful. The consequence was, that in their buildings, furniture, and other AMERICAN PREFACE. xi ART-INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION ELSEWHERE. But the movement in favor of art-industrial education is by no means limited to England, France, Germany, and Austria ; it pervades all Europe, the small states as well as the large. Even Russia forms no exception ; within the last eleven years she has established various art-schools modelled after the English, and it is said that the}^ have " greatly stimulated and improved the national taste." 1 There is, indeed, but one opinion through- out Europe as to the importance of art-industrial education, and as to the wisdom of making it universal. In this connection it is well to note that the methods adopted by England for promoting this education are generally imitated. Even France, so long the leader of the world in matters of art, has of late been taking les- sons of her neighbor across the channel. GREAT RELATIVE INCREASE OF THE MANUFACTURING POPULATION. This decided change in the aspect of affairs is not due to caprice, but to universal and abiding influences which fully justify things of common life, no taste was shown. But now, within a few years, and especially since the Universal Exposition, and the establishment of muse- ums and schools, there has been a remarkable improvement. "Allow me to say, gentlemen, that a sincere friend should speak the truth; and that as a sincere friend of America, who has the greatest sympathy for its people, in whose country I have learned, since my short stay of six months, a great deal, and where I hope to learn much more, it is my duty to say to them, in all truth and candor, that their public taste is in the same awful condition as was the public taste in England before their great exhibi- tion of 1851." i In 1872, Prof. T. C. Archer, of the Edinburgh Museum of Science and Art, attended the Polytechnic Exhibition held at Moscow; and, from his report to the English Science and Art Department of the Committee of Council on Education, the following paragraph is taken: " Group No. 10 may be represented as a manufactory of ornamental plate in silver and silver gilt. Besides a splendid display in what may be termed the show-room, there are two very roomy and well fitted up workshops, in which the artisans may be seen working in the richly wrought and characteris- tic Slavonic designs, which are so notable in the plate produced in Moscow by, the great firms of gold and silver smiths. The schools of art established about eight years ago, on the model of those at South Kensington, have, under the- direction of Mr. Bowtoffski, greatly stimulated and improved the national taste, and have especially led it to accept the pure Slavonic models, of which the imperial treasury in the Kremlin contains such an abundance of the best examples." Xli AMERICAN PREFACE. I all that European governments are doing for the education of artisans. Science and machinery, to take an illustration, have already greatly diminished, and will continue to diminish, the comparative number of persons required to supply those things, in way of food, raiment, and shelter, which we must have in order to exist at all. 1 What follows? The comparative number of persons employed in the production of objects calculated to make existence more tolerable, and to embellish life, not only has greatly increased within the last fifty years, but must continue to increase. Therefore it is that everywhere we find the town and city, or artisan and commercial, population gaining upon the coun- try population. Whether we like it or not,- such is the fact ; and there is nothing to reverse this tendency of modern civilization ex- cept to prohibit the employment of science and labor-saving ma- chinery in the cultivation of the soil. Make it tenfold more difficult to produce the staple articles of food, and you will at once empty the cities, putting an end to manufactures, to trade and trans- portation. But the change is all in the opposite direction, except so far as ignorant tillage impoverishes the soil ; hence manufac- tures, especially artistic manufactures, together with trade and 1 "What is yet to be accomplished in the way of increasing the proportion of product to manual labor, time alone can show; but there is no evidence at present to indicate that we are approaching any limitation to further progress in this direction. A writer in "The London Economist," in 1873, evidently most conversant with his subject, claimed that the industry of the population of Great Britain at that time, taking man for man, was nearly twice as pro- ductive as it was in 1850; and I do not think any one can review the industrial experience of the United States, as a whole, since 18GO, and not feel satisfied that our average gain to the power of production during that time, and in spite of the war, has not been less than from fifteen to twenty per cent. And, if this statement should seem to any to be exaggerated, it is well to call to mind that it is mainly within the last fifteen years that the very great improvements in machinery adapted to agriculture have come into general use ; that whereas, a few years ago, men on the great plains of the "West cut grain with the cradle and sickle, toiling from early morn to dewy eve, in the hottest period of the year, the same work may be done now almost as a matter of recreation, the director of a mechanical reaper entering the field behind a pair of horses, with gloves on his hands and an timbrella over his head, and in this style finishing the work in one-tenth of the time which twenty men would formerly have required, and in a manner innch more satisfactory." From an address by David A. Wells, before the American Social Science Association, at Detroit, May 11, 1875. AMERICAN PREFACE. Xlii commerce so largely dependent upon these, are daily assuming greater relative importance in the economy of the world. Surely, then, each country should strive to secure the largest possible share of those industries which are growing most rapidly in rela- tive importance, since her aggregate population and. wealth will be thereby increased, and consequently her political influence in the councils of the world. Said Adam Smith long ago, " The most opulent nations generally excel all their neighbors in agri- culture as well as in manufactures ; but they are eminently more distinguished by their superiority in the latter than in flie former." Thrifty manufactures give thrifty agriculture, at all times and everywhere. MANUFACTURES OF MOST WORTH. This point settled, the great relative increase of the manu- facturing population, let us next consider the class of manufac- tures which are the most desirable ; that is, the class which will give, 1 , the largest returns for the time and labo.r bestowed upon them, and, 2, the best population. To designate them in a bod}', they are the manufactures which call for the most skill and taste on the par{ of the workman, and also are usually the ones whose value is the least dependent on the cost of the raw material. This is true the world over. Especially is it well, in the present connec- tion, to remember that there is hardly any limit to the market value taste can confer upon an object through beaut} 1 " of form or of dec- oration, however inexpensive the material of which the object is made. Hence art-manufactures are in the highest degree desirable. Manufactures involving skill and taste are more desirable than rude ones, because, in the first place, they command a higher price in the market, if we regard only the time and labor bestowed upon them. Brawn against brain in any field of labor never did success- fully sustain itself. What can be done by a machine, or by an animal, that is, by mere brute strength, we never esteem as we do work that can be done only by the mind. While, therefore, the rude laborer earns his dollar, the dexterous laborer earns two, and the skilled laborer three. Yet it costs just as much to support in health and comfort the rude laborer as it does the one who is skil- ful and artistic. XIV AMERICAN PREFACE. In the second place, rude manufactures not only have the pref- erence of the consumer against them, but transportation also puts them at a disadvantage. Every one must pay for getting whatever he produces to market ; and the real market in which he sells is the place whence come the products he receives, directly or indi- rectly, in exchange for his own. Hence the rude laborer who exchanges his products for the less bulky products of the skilled, artistic laborer must contribute the most towards effecting the exchange. By way of illustration, take a Geneva watch that has cost the producer two hundred and fifty dollars by reason of its skilful workmanship ; suppose five dollars to be the expense of getting it to market ; then transportation adds two per cent to the original cost of the watch. But transportation would add twenty per cent in the case of a twenty-five dollar watch. Again : take a Turkish rug that has cost the producer five hundred dollars by reason of its beauty, and another rug of the same weight, that has cost the producer only ten dollars ; call the expense of trans- portation five dollars for each ; one per cent is added to the origi- nal cost of the rug in the first instance, and fifty per cent in the second. Bolder contrasts might be named, but these are enough to illustrate the fact that transportation even for great distances can but slightly affect those manufactures which are the most desirable. In a word, it costs but little to transport skill and taste, but much, comparatively, to transport ignorance and raw material. In 1873, according to the statement of the American Consul at Basle, the watches sent from Switzerland to the United States were valued at $2,520,104 at the point of shipment. To pay for them it would have taken in Illinois, sa}', 5,000,000 bushels of corn. Now, as each party must pay, by deducting from the home price, for getting his own products to market, at what a disadvantage transportation, in the supposed case, would have placed the Illinois farmer ! The Swiss, making no allowance for distance, would have paid no more for corn coming from Illinois than for other corn coming only from France. Little wonder, then, that the Illinois farmer converts his corn into pork and lard, so far as possible, before sending it across the Atlantic, that he may put into his own pocket the difference in transportation. Again : in 1873 the United AMERfCAN PREFACE. XV States imported embroidered goods from Switzerland to the value of $2,095,234, a call for 4,000,000 bushels more of Illinois corn. Again : the same year and from the same country we im- ported silk and silk goods to the value of $5,224,116, a call for 10,000,000 bushels more of Illinois corn : making, in round num- bers, 19,000,000 bushels of corn which would have been neces- sary, had the payment been made in corn, as supposed, to pay for three kinds of skilled, artistic manufactures obtained from little Switzerland alone in one year. Though without a port, yet has Switzerland by means of her skilled, artistic manufac- tures secured for herself a commerce larger, when compared with her population, than that of any of her continental neighbors. This astonishing feat she could not have accomplished with rude manufactures. Cost of transportation alone would have prevented. In the third place, skilled, artistic manufactures are more desirable than rude manufactures, since they give a better popula- tion. The population is better, because it is more intelligent, intelligence being the prime condition of such manufactures. It is better because it is more prosperous, has more mone}* to spend in the procurement of all that is essential to the comfort and embellishment of life. Churches, schools, farmers, gardeners all share in the prosperity of the educated, thrifty artisan. Compare the city of Worcester, Mass., full as it is of skilled workmen of man}' kinds, with a city whose manufactures are rude, and the difference between the two will arrest the attention of the most casual observer. COMPETITION WIDENED AND INTENSIFIED. Again : the fact must not be ignored, that the market of to-day is quite a different thing from the market of fifty years ago. Competition has been both widened and intensified b}' steam- carriage and telegraphic communication. Formerly the price of most products was determined by the home market, by local competition : now the price of most products is determined by the market of the world, and one's competitors are not his neighbors alone, but they are often found be}*ond seas and even on the opposite side of the planet. Distance counts for less and less in the transportation of all things. Indeed, it counts for next to XVi AMERICAN PREFACE. nothing in the case of those manufactures which embocty a large degree of skill and taste, since the cost of transporting them is a mere trifle compared with their value. The question then arises, How can foreign competition in products embodying a large degree of skill or taste be best met in the home market ? B} r tariffs ? certainly not. By cheapening labor? certainly not; but by properly educating labor. Espe- cially is this true in the case of art-manufactures whose market value is wholly or largely dependent on their beauty. A tariff may, indeed, compel one to refrain from purchasing the beautiful foreign product, but it will not necessarily make him purchase the ugly object of home manufacture. The latter does not meet the demands of the aesthetic sensibilities, and so is not wanted at any price. Can a man who is thirsty be satisfied with bread, however good it may be ? Can the ear that longs for melody be made content with the sound of a quartz-mill, however abundant the gold it stamps out? Assuredly not. Neither can the desire for beautiful things be satisfied with homely objects, though made of the costliest materials and in the most durable manner. There is, indeed, but one effectual way for any country to meet foreign competition in its home market ; and that is, to put as much taste and skill into its own manufactures as the foreigner puts into his. What is true of the home market is true, with a little more emphasis, of the great market of the world. A LESSON FOR AMERICANS. Now, to mention nothing more, can it be doubted that the three things named, 1, the great relative increase of the manufactur- ing interests and of the artisan classes ; 2, the greater desirability of manufactures which involve skill and taste ; 3, the greatly widened and intensified competition of the market, can it be doubted that these three things alone fully justify the efforts made by European governments in behalf of general art and industrial education ? And can it be doubted that this country ought to take seriously to heart the example of its great industrial rivals ? While we guard the traditional " Monroe Doctrine " so vigilantly, warm- ing up to a white heat, as we are so apt to do, whenever a foreign power shows an inclination to appropriate to itself a. foot of soil, AMERICAN PREFACE. xvii or otherwise to extend its direct political influence, this side of the Atlantic, shall we take no note of that vast army of workmen which Europe is specially training for the industrial conflict, and which we must meet not only when we venture abroad, but even when we remain at home behind tariff barricades ? Surely no one upon whom devolves, in any degree, the shaping of public education in this country, should disregard the fact that it is more the market of the world than the local market that deter- mines the price of nearly all products whatsoever, and that every American laborer must therefore face a double competition, individually, that of his neighbors ; with his neighbors, that of the' world at large. For both he should be duly prepared, to wit, as well prepared as his competitors. Nothing should be left to chance ; nothing to the hope that divine interposition will save him from the penalty of ignorance. He should be taught not to ignore his distant competitor because he cannot see him, but to- remember, that in these days of telegraphs, steam-carriage, and' restless commercial enterprise, the laws of traffic pay little heed to mountain barriers and ocean wastes.. The earth has virtually- lost her ancient commercial dimensions,; and there is nothing for it but to give the workman a broad and thorough industrial educa- tion, based on science and art. So it is well, indeed absolutely essential, for Americans carefully to study what European governments have done and are doing for the better education of labor. 1 While many of the political and social maxims a monarchy might desire to inculcate through its schools are not adapted to a commonwealth, yet in the matter of industrial education the thing that is good for the foreigner is good for the American ; since both have to work with the same materials and implements, according to the same natural, mathematical, and 1 Charles Francis Adams, jim., chairman of the Massachusetts Commis- sioners to the Vienna Exposition, says in his report : " Take, for instance, the great branch of technical and artistic education which has already been referred to. It has of late years undergone a surprising development in Europe, the results of which supply its most interesting and instructive fea- ture to the recent Exposition. It is now exciting the greatest interest among all thoughtful men in America, and promises infinite results in our immediate future. -The Massachusetts commission might well have been organized with a single view to dealing thoroughly with this department." 2 xviii AMERICAN PREFACE. artistic conditions, and are subject to the same universal laws of trade. Hence the elaborate official Austrian report on drawing and art-education, here reprinted in full, becomes an exceedingly valuable document for the consideration of all who take an interest in American public education. The objection is, indeed, some- times heard, that the educational experience of Europe cannot apply in America because the situation political, social, and industrial is so widely different from the European. But it is far .from being wholly different. First, for reasons just stated, industrial education needs to be much the same everywhere ; and, second, our manufactures, which are rapidly growing, have already reached ^respectable proportions. If we are to make the most of ourselves, we must become a vastly greater manufacturing people than we are to-day ; and to this end we must sustain our manu- factures, not by cheapening labor, nor by paying a premium on ignorance, but by properly educating the laborer. THE NUMBERS ENGAGED IN DIFFERENT OCCUPATIONS. In this connection it will be well to consider the significance of the following figures from the census report of the United States for 1870. They show the numbers engaged in the different occu- pations taken by groups. Total population , , . . <,i, ..,*,;* . . 38,558,371 '.Ten years of age and over . . . ,1 .^ >Tr ..' l> .... 28,228,945 Engaged in all occupations . . . ''".'* ~\ " . '. 12,505,923 Engaged in agriculture .... V- ; ' :; i n -v ' ;V 5,922,471 Engaged in professional and personal services . . . 2,684,793 Engaged in trade and transportation 1,191,238 Engaged in manufacturing, mechanical, and mining industries 2,707,421 Observe that agriculture absorbs somewhat less than one-half of all who are engaged in the different occupations. Once the agricultural population was relatively much greater than now. But not only has it decreased ; it is in the nature of things that it should continue to decrease when compared with the whole popu- lation. Nor will this change be confined to any particular part of the country. Just the reverse is true of those engaged in manufactures. Already the advance which manufactures have made upon agriculture in some States is very decided ; and AMERICAN PREFACE. XIX by and by it will be very decided in every State, unless we choose to rely upon the foreigner, to an altogether unreasonable extent, for our manufactures, paying for them with breadstuff's and raw materials that ought to be consumed by artisans of our own. But the country will choose to do no such thing ; we may, therefore, count upon a steady relative as well as absolute increase of the artisan population, and of those who dwell in cities. Yet further, if we consider the relations which agriculture and manufactures bear to other occupations, we find that the number to whom manufactures give indirect employment, as merchants, household help, coachmen, barbers, mail-carriers, telegraph-oper- ators, is much greater than the number receiving indirect employ- ment from agriculture. This is to be remembered in striking a balance between the two, in determining the proper scope and character of the public education. Let us now compare some of the leading States as to the num- bers engaged in different occupations. To begin with Massachu- setts, the census of 1870 gives the following figures : 4 Total population .... -^wfrfuw* l.iuitf;.i . 1,457,351 Engaged in all occupations . . . . . . . 579,844 Engaged in agriculture 72,810 Engaged in professional and personal services . . . 131,291 Engaged in trade 'and transportation 83,078 Engaged in manufacturing, mechanical, and mining industries 292,665 These figures show that only one-eighth of the employed popu- lation of Massachusetts is engaged in agriculture, while over four- eighths are engaged in manufactures, mechanical, and mining industries. Trade and transportation employ one-seventh. All know, at least in outline, the economical history of Massa- chusetts. Once the larger part of her population was engaged in agriculture, though neither the absolute numbers so engaged, nor the profits of their labor, were ever, perhaps, greater than to- day. Next in order of importance, came trade and transporta- tion. Within, however, the last thirty or forty years, manufac- tures have outgrown every thing else, their total value in 1870 amounting to $553,912,568. But what of the economical future of Massachusetts? There will be no decadence ; she will hold XX AMERICAN PREFACE. her own with the country at large. Her manufactures will con- tinue rapidly to increase, and with them her population and wealth. In general character her manufactures will undergo a decided change : they will embody more and more of skill and taste, and so will find a wider and wider market. Already, even in point of taste, some of the manufactures of Massachusetts are sufficiently good to compete successfully with similar foreign products in foreign markets. The recent steps taken by the Com- monwealth to promote popular art-education will, beyond doubt, prove exceedingly wise in an economical view. It only remains to push vigorously ahead in the same direction. 1 If we turn to the State of New York, we find the same tendency in the distribution of the population among different employments as in Massachusetts. This appears by the following figures from the census of 1870 : Total population 4,382,759 Engaged in all occupations 1,491,018 Engaged in agriculture 374,323 Engaged in professional and personal services . . * . 405,339 Engaged in trade and transportation 234,581 Engaged in manufacturing, mechanical, and mining industries 476,775 It will be seen that agriculture takes onlj* one-quarter of the employed population, while one-third is engaged in manufacturing, mechanical, and mining industries. Add to the latter those engaged in trade and transportation, also in professional and personal service, and you have five-sevenths of the employed pop- ulation, the larger part of whom find employment, directly or indirectly, through manufactures. Here is a broad field for indus.- trial education. In accordance with the necessities of the case, 1 "It must be remembered, that, if we want quick and valuable results, our outlay and exertions must be in proportion to our desires. To give a luke- warm support to the movement, and then, ten years hence, grumble because we have not effected as great changes as other countries in a like period of time have done, would be but a sorry way to bring about a beneficial result; though it is what is likely to happen, unless a very strong interest is aroused in the public mind in behalf of the idea." From Special Report on " Museums of Art and Industry," by Louis J. Hinton, one of the Massachusetts Commissioners to the Vienna Exposition. AMERICAN PREFACE. xxi the legislature has just enacted a law requiring industrial drawing to be taught in all the principal public schools of the State. 1 Again : the situation is much the same in Pennsylvania, as shown by the following figures from the census for 1870 : Total population ,. - v , ;t ,> ,; f .. },|.,,{ *,-.,- , , . -' 3,521,951 Engaged in all occupations . . .. ; . . . . . 1,020,544 Engaged in agriculture . . 200,051 . Engaged in professional and personal services . . " 283,000 Engaged in trade and transportation .... ;.<- 121,253 Engaged in manuf acturmg, mechanical, and mining industries 350,240 Thus agriculture absorbs but one-quarter of the emplo3*ed population, while a little more than one-third are engaged in manufacturing, mechanical, and mining industries. Even without anticipating a further relative increase of her artisan classes, Penn- S3*lvania has already reason enough for making liberal provision for the industrial education of her people. Let us, lastly, consider the following figures from the census of 1870, which exhibit the general situation in Illinois : Total population ^ ^ r> ._.,., -, o ;.> ., (< , . ^.J yi;. 2,539,891 Engaged in all occupations . . . ,..' 742,015 Engaged in agriculture ' J ,. r .' . : . . , . 370,441 Engaged in professional and personal services . . 151,931 Engaged in trade and transportation .-/>',! >;V . ''. '*:. 80,422 Engaged in manufacturing, mechanical, and mining industries 133,221 i The following, introduced by Hon. Warner Miller of Herkimer County, has become a law of New York: AN ACT RELATING TO FREE INSTRUCTION IN DRAWING. The People of the State of New York, represented in Senate and Assembly, do enact as follows: SECTION 1. In each of the State normal schools the course of study shall embrace instruction in industrial or freehand drawing. SECT. 2. The board of education of each city in this State shall cause free instruction to be given in industrial or freehand drawing in at least one department of the schools under their charge. SECT. 3. The board of education of each union free school district, and in each school district incorporated by special act of the legislature, shall cause free instruction to be given in industrial or freehand drawing in the schools under their charge, unless excused therefrom by the superintendent of public instruction. SECT. 4. This act shall take effect October first, eighteen hundred and seventy-five. t xxii AMERICAN PREFACE. Observe that in this, the greatest of the agricultural States, a trifle more than one-half of the employed population is engaged in agriculture, while a trifle less than one-third is engaged in trade and transportation, and in manufacturing, mechanical, and mining industries. To-day agriculture holds the same commanding position in Illinois that it once held in Pennsylvania and New York. But this will not alwaj's be ; manufactures will gradually come to the front in Illinois as elsewhere. Why, indeed, should not the larger part of the surplus food produced by Illinois farmers be consumed in Illinois, as it might.be if she had a large manufacturing popula- tion? Were the manufactures of Illinois as well developed, in proportion to her agriculture, as the}' are in Massachusetts, her population would be to-day 10,000,000. Would that be the worse for the farmers? Or, take a European comparison which has already been used-. Switzerland, with 15,223 square miles of territory, much of it waste, had, in 1870, a population of 2,669,- 147, or somewhat more than that of Illinois with 55,405 square miles of territory. Though she is without a port, the commerce of Switzerland, as previously stated, has long been, in proportion to her population, larger than that of any of her continental neigh- bors, mainly because of the great skill and taste of her workmen industrially educated. If Switzerland, in the heart of Europe and with enemies all about her, can make such a record, what may not Illinois, in the heart of America and surrounded only by friends, accomplish, if she will? Skill and taste are the product of education in the main : they are cosmopolitan, can make themselves as much at home in one place as in another ; the}' certainly do not prefer a sterile to a fertile soil, Switzerland to Illinois. Among all the kinds of manufac- tures which involve skill and taste, and do not require water-power for their cheap production, there undoubtedly are many kinds well adapted to the climate and other local conditions of Illinois. Whether they are ever successfully prosecuted in Illinois, will depend largely on whether the State does what has proved so efficient in Switzerland and in so many other parts of the world, whether the State gives her people a suitable education for the development of their skill and taste. AMERICAN PREFACE. XXlll EXTENT AND GENERAL CHARACTER OP AMERICAN MANUFACTURES. The following figures show the extent of American manufactures during the year which closed May 30, 1870, and their general character, as disclosed lyy a comparison of the value of the man- ufactures with the value of the raw materials consumed : Value of raw materials consumed . . . ,.: . -.-. $2,488,427,242 Value of products t \ . ,, . r . '-/' . ,,/.. 4,232,325,442 Value added by manufacture ' I '' V '' .' ;-''; )(J 1,743,898,200 Wages paid . ui<-;. xji Jt;( i <* :i ., ;. . 775,584,343 Hands employed . . : * ,)} f : .' T I : )J;*.-KJ .jo^o 2,053,996 The value of our manufactures in 1810 was $198,613,471. As the population at that time was 7,239,881, the manufactures amounted to $27 for each person. In 1870 the amount was $109, or four times greater than in 1810. Some allowance must be made for the depreciation of currency ; but allowance must also be made for the cheapening of production, which has resulted from a better control of the forces of nature, and from the use of labor-saving machinery. So it is quite safe to assume that the quantity of manufactures has been increased fourfold for each person within the last sixty j*ears. According to the census of 1870, to make another comparison, the value of all our farm products, including betterments and additions to stock, was $2,447,538,658, only forty per cent more than the value added to raw material by the processes of manufacture. Thus it will be seen that American manufactures, though as yet in their infancy, have nevertheless attained to very respectable proportions. It is, however, to be specially noted and remembered that the value added by the processes of manufacture is not so great by $744,529,042 as the value of the raw materials consumed. This indicates that the manufactures, as a whole, are exceedingly rude, that they embody very little of the skill and taste which by increas- ing the quality of products add to their market value. Here let us briefly consider the nature of skill and taste. Skill may be exercised for two purposes : 1 , to accelerate production ; 2, to improve the quality of objects. Whatever enhances the quality of objects tends to enhance their market value ; whatever xxiv AMERICAN PREFACE. accelerates production tends to lower prices. The skill which devises labor-saving machinery, and then tends it, must of necessity diminish the value added to raw material by manufacture ; and, the greater the expenditure of skill in this direction, the less it will manifest itself in the price of products. It is not enough, however, to exercise skill to cheapen production ; it should also be exercised to improve the quality of things made, and thus to advance prices. But it is taste especially which can contribute to the value of innumerable manufactures ; which alwa} r s tends to enhance, never to diminish, prices. True, it does not necessarily require more labor to make an object beautiful than to make it homely ; but the beautiful object always commands the higher price, and so, while the consumer is better pleased, the producer is better paid. That is the way of it. Now, Americans have especially distinguished themselves in devising labor-saving machinery, and have been abundantly rewarded for thus cheapening production. Hence it does not follow that but little skill has been expended on American manufactures, because the value added by manufacture is so much less than the value of raw material consumed. There has been little lack of skill that increases quantity. But what is said of Swiss, English, French manufactures, as a whole, should also be said of American manufactures, namely, that their price is advancing 1 in spite of cheapened production ; and this will be said of them when we give as much thought to improving their quality as we have given to % augmenting their quantity. Though there is ample room for further cheapening production, yet we shall find it quite as much to our advantage to improve the quality of our products. OUR EXPORTS AND IMPORTS COMPARED. If we now turn to our foreign trade, and compare our exports with our imports, we find that, to speak in general terms, we export breadstuffs and raw materials, and import skill and taste. 1 It is estimated that in England alone the force obtained from coal, and applied to mechanical purposes, does the work of one hundred millions of men, without any off-setting demand for food and clothing. And yet the prices of English products, as a whole, are said to advance, because they are so greatly improved in quality. AMERICAN PREFACE. XXV The National Bureau of Statistics gives the following figures for the year ending June 30, 1874 : TOTALS. Domestic Exports (currency value) 1 1 .... $693,039,054 F6reign Imports (gold value) . . . .'"' . A 'V* 595,861,248 , BREADSTUFFS. Exports ,\, tl ^1. ' (.\ ^.-'.A V'^V * * $161,307,864 Imports ; '". - 1 ' i ; ) ^*. i?K?Jr. i ''-'." >P V : ; ; - . . 13,042,771 In the case of breadstuffs, that is, of wheat, corn, barley, and the like, skill can do little more than cheapen production and lower prices. There is no opportunity for the exercise of taste. PROVISIONS. Exports fTUiO 0.* '*:,:uur, i,^i^i *M.? r tfh> tfki. 4 904 824 To these exports, pork contributed $5,808,712 ; lard, $19,308,- 019 ; bacon and hams, 33,384,108. These three articles, having a value of $58,600,839, represented so much condensed corn. With- out this reduction of bulk, the corn would not have found so profit- able a market ; perhaps it would have found no market at all. TALLOW. Exports /jiw! -Jwo <& J.<:A. .->;i.i li'ii't U : ''' $8,135,320 Imports . . . ( j' / j * h ; ( .r (> *ol'^r "' * * none. RAW COTTON. Exports I,5iiu/!!iv?5 IO^Y/ >o ' f >i5(ii7 ; * l*-W. ' * $211,223,580 Imports . . ' . ' . ' . . . . . . . 704,784 Skill can cheapen the production of raw cotton, and bring down its price, but it can do little or nothing towards improving its quality. There is no room for the exercise of taste. COTTON MANUFACTURES. Exports f!)iiJ Ja.U ..n Jritujxn ','fa j^. lj/fefio-5 u^ * 28 183 878 In other words, with the amplest supply of raw material at home, we not only fail to supply foreign markets with our manu- factures, but we do not even supply our home market. Manu- factures of cotton present an opportunity by the application of skill and taste to enhance prices. But how little of skill and XX Vi AMERICAN PREFACE. taste we sent abroad ! On the other hand, England exported cot- ton goods in 1872 to the value of $384,787,944. Her total cot- ton manufactures amounted in 1870 to $447,096,000, while the value of the raw material consumed was but $202,296,000 ; and so the sum of $244,800,000 was added by the process of manufacture. For the same year the total value of cotton manufactures in the United States was $177,489,739, while the value of materials con- sumed was $111,736,936,' of which about $100,000,000 can be set; down to raw cotton. Note, that, while the value added by manufacture in England is considerably more than the value of the raw cotton consumed, it is in the United States considerably less ; and this, too, though raw cotton costs more in England than it does here, and though the same quality of labor is cheaper than with us. How, then, does England manage to carry the price of her cotton goods above the price of ours ? By putting more skill and taste into them. WOOL MANUFACTURES. Exports > Uv*fi*fc:!.vj ff.- $ 124,099 Imports jQf rj/jfjl i<*'f M '"f'<* w rf.-fc 46,731,745 Here is a better opportunity than in the case of cotton manufac- tures for improving the quality of the goods by skill and taste, and thus advancing their price. And so our imports increase accordingly, with a diminution of the exports. Total value of wool manufactures in the United States, according to the census of 1870, was $155,405,358 ; value of wool consumed about $80,- 000,000. SILK MANUFACTURES. Exports .; ... <,>,, /,i . V;^*-" '!;; f \, ' none. Imports , v . j ^ /o ^V. r ,* , ,,. ^ '.,, , .' f ' $24,349,037 These manufactures afford an opportunity for a large display of skill and taste ; and so we export none. But little Switzerland, according to our consul at Basle, sent to the United States in 1874 silk and silk goods to the value of $4,842,384. The value of silk fabrics produced by France in 1870 was $200,000,000. The census for 1870 puts the total value of all textile manufac- tures in the United States at $380,913,815, not quite double the silk manufactures of France. AMERICAN PREFACE. xxvii FANCY GOODS. Exports . . . $ 302.497 Imports VWH-WH fkrhfy Q$|Ji 4,518,987 MANUFACTURES OF FLAX. Exports none. Imports $17,473,7(53 The quality, and hence the market value, of these manufactures depends largely on the skill and taste exercised in their production ; and so we export none. But the value of linen manufactures exported by England in 1872 amounted to $52,592,448. LEATHER. Exports J)3.e.gH:} fc&*& 0*0 - )*-H >I > SJT ** $3,940,426 Imports . . , ,{~ mA( , V} ,>vA i wifu'fft oMf rtto 6,138,528 GLASS AND GLASS WARE. Exports $ 631,801 Imports 6,257,978 EARTHEN, STONE, AND CHINA WARE. Exports ... . . ,.".."*. . $ 59,304 imports '*' . *? '-"'V ;f . ; 7 j * ri i- iyti ,.*s^i i>(? 4^82,579 IRON AND IRON MANUFACTURES. Exports $13,181,411 Imports p!|i%'W'W 33,703,455 Of the imports more than $27,000,000 consisted of iron manu- factures, according to the Bureau of Statistics. AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS. Exports .;';>,:;;<.:';. . . . * s^l J'.'.JJ.r $3,090,135 Imports none. ILLUMINATING MINERAL OIL. Exports '..... $37,561,513 Imports :'* 1,327 MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. Exports $550,327 Imports 870,348 PAINTINGS, ENGRAVINGS, STATUARY, PHOTOGRAPHS, CHROMO-LITHOGRAPHS. Exports $ 161,503 Imports . . . . . . . " - f "' 1 . t 'l* f! t r r 1,437,287 GOLD AND SILVER. Exports $59,699,632 Imports 28,456,906 XXviii AMERICAN PREFACE. Thus it is clear from the figures given that we exchange rude products for those which embody skill and taste. This is doubly to our disadvantage. Compared with our rivals, we lose, first, in production, because skilled, artistic labor is always best paid ; then we lose in transportation, because our products are so bulky. The nearer the market, the better at all times : especially is this true in the case of rude products, natural or manufactured, the cost of transporting which is great when compared with their value. Hence it is that manufactures, by providing a convenient market, always contribute so much towards the prosperity of the farmers in the immediate neighborhood. The better the manufactures, the better for the farmers : 1 , Because those engaged in them earn more, and so are able to purchase more of the farmers ; 2, Because, the more valuable the commodities into which the farmers can con- vert their own, the less it will cost them in the way of transporta- tion, indirectly, to secure from a distance such commodities as are not produced at home. And so the great industrial problem to be solved by the American statesman and educator is this: HoV can we make the most of our natural resources, which, though varied and vast, are but the basis of wealth? How can we manage to consume in home industries the larger part of our raw material, adding to its value by the magic touch of taste and skill ? Instead of exporting raw material in the main, how shall we become an exporter in the main of commodities the greater part of whose value has been added by the processes of manufacture? Until such is the case we shall not attain to the highest and most endur- ing prosperity; we shall not occupy our true place among the nations of the earth. The problem cannot be solved by protection, of which we hear so much, certainly not by protection alone ; nor yet by free trade, whose special function is to distribute natural advantages, not acquired ones like skill and taste : it can only be solved by education undertaken for definite industrial purposes, and directed by reason and experience. And this education, in its elements, must aim to develop the skill and taste of the whole people, 1 not merely of selected classes. Even if it were in the 1 In his report on education, John W. Hoyt, of Wisconsin, U. S. Commis- sioner to the Paris Exhibition, 1807, says, after quite a full review of the whole AMERICAN PREFACE. xxix least desirable, which it is not, to give to the early training of each one a specific direction, it could not be accomplished in any rational, satisfactory manner ; for no man has sufficient prescience to forecast the future of any child, to tell just how his natural powers will develop, just what will be the great controlling cir- cumstances and requirements of his manhood. All early public education should aim, 1, at the greatest good of the greatest num- ber ; and, 2, at the discovery, though not at the special train- ing, of special capacities. To such popular training of skill and taste as indicated two objections will be made : 1 , that it will give more educated labor than is required ; 2, that it will produce a distaste for manual labor. As to the validity of the first objec- tion we can best judge after we have once fairly made the trial. For the present it is perfectl}- safe to assume that there is enough stupidity inherent in human nature, which cannot possibly be overcome by any amount of education, to supply all the ignorant labor which may be required in rude employments. As to the validity of the second objection, the truth of the matter is, that such an education will cause the workman who has natural capacity enough to acquire it, to take greater pride and delight in his work. 1 This thing alone is quite sufficient to justify much effort to secure it ; so think foreign governments. 2 European field, "Both (economical and resthetic reasons) demand, with a voice that should he heard and heeded, the prompt adoption of measures for providing instruction in the elementary principles of drawing and modelling in all our public schools, and in the industrial applications of art in all our schools of applied science." 1 Louis J. Hinton, who attended the Vienna Exhibition, 1873, says, in his special report to the State of Massachusetts on "Museums of Art and Indus- try," " One fact is proven, standing firm as a rock, by the united testimony of all the European savants who claim to speak with authority on this sub- ject, that is, that, if any improvement is to take place in the art-industry of the country, it must come from the better education of the people in art, and this must commence with popular instruction in freehand drawing. It is also shown that such knowledge as is imbibed at the drawing school, the technical educational class, art-gallery, and the art-industry museum, educates men to feel more interest in their work ; that new inethods of doing old-time work suggest themselves to the man who has been taught in the principles upou which the success of his work depends." 2 The following extract from a circular dated June 7, 1870, and addressed to her Majesty's diplomatic and consular agents iu all parts of the world, AMERICAN PREFACE. THE GREAT WEALTH OF FRANCE. It is just here, in the application of skill and taste to in- dustry, that we find one of the main causes of that vast wealth of France, which is indeed a marvel when we consider that she has been engaged in so many costly wars, that her national debt is unequalled, and that her people are not excessively over- worked, but, on the other hand, are the gayest in the world. Her manufactures have long been renowned for the skill and taste which they embody ; and it is these manufactures, not, as with us, bread- stuffs and raw materials, that compose the great bulk of her exports. 1 Her textile manufactures alone amount to some $700,- 000,000 annually, nearly double the textile manufactures of the United States. Her exports of all kinds of manufactured pro- ducts in 1874 amounted to $434,513,800. As was to be expected, agriculture flourishes no less than manufactures. In 1869 France, with a domain smaller than that of Texas, produced 297,000,000 bushels of wheat, that being 67,000,000 bushels more than the product of the United States as given in the census of 1870. She also produced 275,000,000 bushels of potatoes, that being 155,- 000,000 in excess of the American yield. The value of the natural alimentary products which she exported in 1874 was' $298,335,000, about the same as the value of similar exports from the United States. Wine and brand}', cheaply transported, made up $60,000,000 of the whole amount. These figures are enough to shows that the British Government realize the importance of having workmen take pride and delight in their work : "What is the quality of the work executed by workmen? Are they gen- erally competent in their several departments ? Do the artisans take a pride in their work, and put their character into it? "Would they make a stand against doing bad work as they would against receiving bad wages? Is there any class of artisans whose work can be depended upon as good from the sense of honor they have in executing it? What influence has the skill and trustworthiness of the workmen in any department of industry exercised upon the rate of wages ?" i According to " L'Econoniiste Frausais," the total value of French exports for 1874 was $775,550,600, grouped as follows: manufactures, $434,513,800; natural alimentary products, $298,335,000; other merchandise, $42,701,800. The following are some of the items: silk tissues, $95,433,200; woollen tissues and yarn, $78,218,400; cotton tissues and yarn, $15,859,400; linen goods, $12,941,000; wines, $47,316,f>00; floss silk, $24,0(55,800; cereals, $28,291,400. AMERICAN PREFACE. XXXI show that in France agriculture is exceedingly prosperous ; and this great manufacturing and agricultural prosperity is due to what ? To various things, of course ; but probably to no one thing more than to the art- industrial education of the people. Such is the view of the Austrian report here printed, and such is the view of numerous other authorities. 1 Looking at the experience of France, one may safely affirm that the farmer who contributes to the sup- port of popular art-education, is most effectually promoting, though indirectly, the advancement of his own fortune. GOOD FOR THE WHOLE, GOOD FOR THE PARTS. Whatever promotes the prosperity of a nation as a whole, must, of course, promote the prosperity of its parts. Skill and taste do the former*; they must, therefore, promote the prosperity of a city, town, or village. Then how to secure this skill and taste, is the question. To repeat what has already been said, there is but one positively certain way, and that is to educate. Skill and taste are the peculiar products of no land, nor can they ever be had for the mere wishing. In protective tariffs there is too much premium on 1 A recent number of "The New York Tribune" contained a highly eulogistic letter from Hugh McCulloch on " The Finances of France." Mr. McCulloch was formerly Secretary of the United States Treasury; he is now a banker in London. It is thus he speaks of the French artisans to whose skill and taste he attributes a large part of French prosperity: " They are emi- nently skilful and tasteful. The raw materials, which are the basis of articles of taste and elegance, acquire in the hands of French artisans greater value than in the hands of the artisans of any other nation. The manufactures of France are varied and extensive, and, being uninterrupted by 'strikes,' her capacity to produce seems to be almost unlimited. French goods are found among all nations, and there is a constantly increasing demand for them at remunerative prices. In every thing appertaining to personal adornment, France leads the world. The palm maybe yielded reluctantly, but all nations do admit the superiority of French taste and of French manufactures in all matters of dress. ' I should like to see,' says ' H. H.' in her charming ' Bits of Travel,' ' I should like to see the woman who could go through Paris without buying a new gown.' It would be difficult to find a tasteful woman anywhere who does not approve of the latest style from Paris. The tribute which other nations pay to the ingenuity of French artisans and artists in the manufacture of dress goods, and the making up of dresses, is exceedingly large. Even in England, so different in the character of her people, not only has French cook- ery superseded the English, but French taste in every thing appertaining to wearing apparel is the standard of fashion." XXxii AMERICAN PREFACE. ignorance for the lasting good of even those they are intended specially to protect ; and the free trade which exposes rude labor to the sharp competition of skilled, artistic labor, puts the former at great disadvantage as well in the home as in the foreign market. Against foreign competition nothing but skill and taste can give our labor effectual and permanent protection, while leaving us- all the advantage of a natural system of exchange. At home, since trade is unrestricted, there is, of course, nothing left any town or State but to protect itself by properly educating its labor, and thus re-enforcing whatever superior natural advantages it may possess. This it owes to itself as a State or town, and then to each child reared within i^ts limits. GENERAL CHARACTER OF PUBLIC EDUCATION. The general character of this education should not be determined b} T merely local circumstances ; for with perpetual migration, and in the absence of caste, there is no assurance that any American child will do what his father did before him, or will die where he first saw the light. Though born in the most secluded farmhouse, he should be treated as the child of the whole country, and so educated that he may have a fair chance with his fellows wherever he may make his home. By this it is not meant that he should be trained to a special knowledge of all kinds, or any kind, of labor, but that he should be made acquainted, through the study of lan- guage, mathematics, science, and art, with the general principles which underlie them all, and with those practical applications which, without retarding the acquisition of principles, can be learned at the same time. General culture and a fair start in any pursuit demand so much for all. Again : in determining what should be the general character of the education given American youth to-da} T , we must regard the present and prospective condition of things, and not educate on the basis of what was required fifty or twenty- five years ago. We must also look abroad, recognizing the fact that American life and industry feel the influence of the remotest parts of the civilized globe. It is only by thus shaping the general form of American popular education that it can be made adequate to the requirements of the age. AMERICAN PREFACE. XXXlll RECAPITULATION. Here let us recapitulate the points which have been considered in this discussion : 1. A long age of industrial conflicts has begun. The govern- ments of Europe, realizing that henceforth national supremacy will be determined more and more by industrial supremacy, are arming their workmen of all kinds and grades with the best weap- ons that art and science can furnish. 2. All that they are doing for industrial education is justified by the fact, that the artisan class are rapidly gaining upon the whole population, and that manufactures are rapidly increasing in com- parative importance. 3. It is justified by the fact that the competition which the workman must meet is growing wider and more intense every day. 4. It is also justified by the fact that manufactures embodying skill and taste are more advantageous to a country than rude man- ufactures. 5. It is well that we should study what Europe is doing for industrial education, because in her artisans we find our great rivals ; because industrial education, however it may be with polit- ical education, needs to be much the same the world over, and so what is good for a European is good for an American. 6. In the matter of numbers, our artisan classes, compared with the rest of our population, are advancing to the front ; and our manufactures, already of respectable proportions, are steadily gaining in relative as well as absolute importance. It is only by carrying our manufactures to the highest pitch of excellence that our agriculture can be made the most prosperous. 7. To-day our manufactures are distinguished rather for quan- tity than quality. Much skill has been expended for the purpose of accelerating production and lowering prices. Compared with, this the expenditure of skill and taste for the purpose of increas- ing quality, and thereby advancing prices, has been but slight. 8. Hence the value added by the process of manufacture is much less than the value of the raw material consumed. Hence - we export food and raw materials, and import manufactures em-- bodying skill and taste. All this should be decidedly modified by XXXI V AMERICAN PREFACE. improving the quality of our manufactures, and by consuming a larger proportion of our raw materials at home. 9. Price can be increased only by increasing the quality of manufactures ; and the quality can be increased only by an in- creased expenditure of skill and taste, especially of taste as dis- played in the form of the object or of its decoration. 10. Skill and taste are mainly the product of education. It is only upon workmen who have been suitably educated in science and art, especially in art, that we can securely count to carry our manufactures to any high pitch of excellence. Back of the skilled, artistic workman, needs to be a public taste to create a demand for his products, and to stimulate him to greater efforts. ART-INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION THE PRIME NECESSITY. According to the condition of things which has been described, the future growth and prosperity of the United States must come largely from the growth and prosperity of her artisan classes. The growth and prosperity of these classes will depend on the success with which they can meet the competition of the world ; and this success will depend largely on the school education they ;have received, and especially on the art element of that education. Europe is putting into her industries millions of men and women trained in art and science, but especially in art ; and she is making vast and sj'stematic efforts to elevate as well the public taste as that of the artisans. We can do no less ; we can meet such com- petition only in kind*; our people must be educated in art. Now, the basis upon which all instruction in art- must rest is drawing, the representation of form. Man} r , taking some one feature of drawing to be all there is of it, greatly misapprehend its true scope. For example, drawing may be thought to consist simply in the representation of objects which already exist ; whereas for industrial purposes drawing must be mainly employed for the rep- resentation of objects which do not exist, but which are to be made. -An account of the different kinds of drawing, with their manifold applications, would be interesting, but it is not necessary 'to give it here. As to the general manner, however, of conducting instruction .in drawing and art, a few words may not be out of place. It AMERICAN PREFACE. XXXV should be thoroughly rational, should accord with those rec- ognized educational principles which can never be safely violated, whatever the subject taught. If drawing and art have no ele- ments which can be treated in a rational manner, as all other studies have, then they cannot be taught at all. What is acquired simply by imitation, or as a matter of mere vague feeling, is never learned in any true sense, is never understood. This Austrian report treats instruction in drawing and art as a matter which can be subjected to reason, and treated according to true pedagogical principles. Hence it is believed, that, while it will tend to give a juster view of the scope and importance of art- industrial education, it will also afford knowledge that will prove of special service to the teacher. There are points in the report which will be condemned by some who are good authorities on art- education, points which future experience and investigation may show to be incorrect. But the fact remains, that the report is per- vaded by a rational educational spirit, and so must command respect for the principles which it lays down for the guidance of art instruction. Some of these principles are here enumerated : 1. All instruction in drawing should have for its basis, geometry. ^is' 1 - 2. Conventional forms, which are regular, should be drawn before natural forms, which are irregular. 3. Ornament should be based upon a studj r of nature, especial- ly of plant forms. This does not mean that the drawing of the latter should precede the drawing of the former. 4. When a design for an object is made, the form should be adapted to the use, and the ornament should be subordinate to the object. The decoration should not count for every thing. 5. Much attention should be given to the drawing of historical forms illustrative of different styles. The drawing-copies should have a pronounced character. 6. When natural forms are drawn, they should be first referred to the general geometrical forms upon which they are based. Then the historical treatment of similar forms should be carefully studied. 7. Knowledge should precede execution. Nothing is more deadening to the intellect of the pupil than to copy a drawing XXXVI AMERICAN PREFACE. which he does not understand. He should not only learn to do a thing, but the reason for doing it. 8. In the order of instruction, the rendering of pure form should take, decided precedence of light and shade. 9. Instruction in drawing should not be limited to any one kind of drawing. 10. In order to develop the taste of the learner, the drawing- copies and models should be as beautiful as it is possible to make them. This is a matter of the utmost importance. 11. The pupil should be constantly exercised in making original designs, original applications of all the principles he acquires. 12. The study of the human figure should not be made the foundation of art-industrial education. It should not form the beginning of art-instruction for any purpose. 13. Those teachers succeed best who recognize instruction in drawing as an integral part of general culture, and treat it ac- cording to systematic pedagogical principles and methods. 14. The instruction, in order to reach all, as demanded both by general culture and by industry, should be made universal, and should begin in the primary school. Special applications should be reserved for special schools. TWO OBJECTIONS. Without doubt, two objections will be made to the general drift of this discussion. The one will come from those who hold that the public schools should aim at general culture, at mental disci- pline, giving little heed to the amount of information imparted, and no heed whatever to direct business or industrial results. To form, not to inform, to make men, not workmen, is, in their judgment, the only thing worthy the consideration of a public educator. But there is another, and, it is believed, a more sensi- ble view, which holds that to make a good workman is to make a man ; that the acquisition of useful knowledge does not stand in the way of mental discipline ; that the public schools should aim 1, to teach the things of direct use to the largest number, and, 2, to teach these things in such a way as to afford the utmost amount of mental discipline. A knowledge of the practical applications of drawing and art is of direct use to vast numbers. AMERICAN PREFACE. XXXVii To show this has been the main object of the discussion thus far. It might also be easily shown that this knowledge, and the disci- pline which comes with the effort to acquire it, form an essential element of general culture, an element obtainable from no other study, an element which, if one lacks, he cannot be said to have been symmetrically trained. Indeed, until this element is added, our public education must continue, as it is, emphatically lop- sided, not only from the industrial, but from the culture point of view. But this is a matter, which, important as it is, need not be considered at the present time. The second objection will come from those who look upon art as something peculiarly divine. The} 7 are shocked when one talks of making art contribute to the daily wages of the artisan, to the volume of trade, to national prosperity, and the sinews of war. They believe that the decided industrial tendency which art-edu- cation is taking in this country will prove destructive to all the higher manifestations of art ; that a people once taught to make beautiful calico prints, shoes, table-ware, furniture, will be con- tent to do nothing more. They also believe that instruction in neither industrial nor fine art can be reduced to fixed principles and methods, and so believe that art cannot be taught in schools as other things are taught. Consequently they take delight in telling how impossible it is to do what the great masters have done, instead of attempting to show how the great masters actuall}* went to work to secure their wonderful results. 1 It will be proper to answer these objectors, to show that there is no antagonism, but the reverse, between industrial art and fine art, and that each rests upon a mass of definite, teachable facts and principles, many of which they have in common. i " The lectures to the public are given from a different standpoint than that adopted by many of our lecturers on art and its technics. In Vienna the lecturer aims to show the young aspirant how to make a beginning, and how to progress upward in the study of the fine arts; while here lecturers who attempt to discoiirse upon art and artists generally strive to show how impos- sible it is for any one to reach the height attained by the masters of old, thus chilling the wakening enthusiasm of their hearers, among whom, perhaps, may be some who would have liked to make an effort to acquire art skill and knowledge for themselves." From the special report made by Louis J. Hinton, who attended the Vienna Exposition, to the State of Massachusetts, on "Museums of Art and Industry." XXXVJii AMERICAN PREFACE. NO HISTORIC ANTAGONISM BETWEEN FINE ART AND INDUSTRIAL ART. No broad and clear-cut distinction can be made between fine art, and art as applied to industry, such as will enable one to say, all upon this side belongs to fine art, all upon that to industrial art. It is true that in certain particulars they differ decidedly ; but in others they as decidedly agree. It is with them as with poetry and prose, with speaking and singing, with pure geometry and geometry as .applied to mechanics. It is no degradation of art, as the same thing is no degradation of geometry, to make it subserve the cause of industry ; that is only making art perform a portion of its legitimate work. History shows that the periods which have been especially distinguished for achievements in fine art have also been especially distinguished for applications of art to industry. Recent times furnish an illustration of this fact in the case of France. Of her art it may be most emphatically said, that it rests upon an industrial basis ; yet where has fine art flour- ished better during the last hundred years ? Again, many of those familiar with the individual lives of the great masters know that many of them began their studies and their work with art applied to manufactures. From this industrial basis they ad- vanced to painting and statuary, to the representation of intelli- gence, of spirit, of beauty in its highest form. Nor did the great artists of former ages think it beneath their dignity, unworthy their powers, to devote a part of their time, even in the height of their renown, to making designs for industrial purposes. They were in sympathy with the working world around them. These historical facts are enough in themselves to show that there is no antagonism between fine art, and art applied to industr}*. A rational consid- eration of the matter, showing that the two have many teachable things in common, only confirms the verdict of history. ART NOT A MERE MATTER OF FEELING, BUT TEACHABLE. Every teachable thing must have an indisputable basis of fact and reason. It is utterly vain to attempt to formulate and teach what is a mere matter of vague, nndefinable feeling ; for when the best has been done there is always need to " explain the explana- tion." Hence it is that those who regard art mainly or wholly as AMERICAN PREFACE. xxxix a matter of feeling, believe it cannot be taught as other things are taught. If their view of the nature of art is correct, then their view of the teaching is also correct. But the consequences extend much further than they imagine ; for such a view of art leads natu- rally to purblind criticism and chaotic rhapsody from those who discourse upon art; while the work of those who practise art in such faith can but display the same uncertain character. 1 But others there are, and their number is increasing, who believe that art has its clearly defined, teachable features, which can be taught in the same rational Way that other things are taught. They do not claim that all matters relating to art can be thus taught, that great artists can be manufactured to order.^ By no means. With Winckelmann they acknowledge they cannot tell, for example, what beauty is in {jie-last analysis ; yet they claim that they can clearly define 1 some of the laws of beauty, and teach one to (Jiserimmate with intelligence between ugly and beautiful objects. This is nothing more nor less than what happens in every other department of knowledge. Ask the biologist to tell you what is vegetable or animal life in its last analysis, and he will reply that it is impossible. But will 1 When one, in the use of language, gives no heed to fixed grammatical rules and rhetorical principles, but relies alone upon his feelings for proper expres- sion, the result is apt to be somewhat remarkable. Here is an illustrative instance. "The Boston Advertiser," May 25, 1875, contained the following patriotic burst from a circular issued by an Irish organization: " Remember 1775. Sons of the sires of '98, you are respectfully reminded by this notice, and in accordance with the spirit of '76, together with the patriotism of this or- ganization, that on the coming 17th of June you will respond together with the tens of thousands who will rejoice to honor the memory of the past, and perpetuate the chivalry of those whose sons were emblazoned with freedom against tyranny, and resolved to die, or live as free men, the result of which shook the pillars of tyranny and despotism in Europe. It is hoped that you will join with us on this centennial celebration with martial music and freeman's duty, beneath the shadow of Bunker Hill, in glorious Columbia, the refuge of the oppressed of all nations, as you are the sons of the fathers whose untiring patriotism and love of freedom made these British vipers bite the dust." Here we have a suitable occasion, and plenty of feeling, two essential con- ditions for a display of " fine art " in writing. Verily, the result would have been more pleasing, had the writer paid some attention to a few simple things that should be learned by the youngest pupils in a grammar school. But such displays are not confined to literature alone: they are witnessed in art, when the artist takes feeling alone for his guide. This is the truth of the matter. Every artist, as every writer, must work according to definite rules and prin- ciples which he has either been taught, or else has acquired by experience. xl AMERICAN PREFACE. he hesitate about giving an explanation of the laws and conditions of animal or vegetable growth ? No, indeed. He will assert that he knows much about these matters which can be described and taught with the utmost certainty. Ask the chemist whether he can inform you what gives to food that peculiar flavor, lacking which food is not appetizing and life-supporting, and he will reply that it is beyond the reach of chemical analysis, and that no chemically compounded food can be substituted for the natural product. But he will not hesitate to say that he can give a vast deal of other and useful information about food ; that he can tell what ingredients to add to any given soil to improve the wheat crop, and with what to feed animals to keep them in health and to improve their flesh for the table. Just so it is with those w r ho have made a study of what is called, for the want of a better name, Art-science. While they realize and acknowledge that many things pertaining to art have not yet been explained, and that some of them probably never will be, they, on the contrary, hold that other things have been definitely settled, and can be taught with precision. This teachable art- knowledge has been derived from a study of art as illustrated in the works of the past, also from the study of nature as the original source of art. Some of it has come, indirectly, from a study of nature for other purposes, as for the purposes of chem- istry and physics ; indeed, it is impossible to draw a clear line of demarkation between art and science. Art is not wholly independ- ent of other lines of human endeavor. It may not be out of place to enumerate some of these teachable elements of art. FORMS AND LINES. All art involves the representation of forms. The simplest and elemental forms, those upon which rest all the varied forms of art and nature, are geometric. It is essential to know these as they really are, and the power to draw them should be acquired before an attempt is made to draw forms of greater intricacy. But the representation of forms by any method calls for lines, and not unfrequently for mathematical lines, that is, lines which are expressed by an equation. Mathematical lines are especially em- pi 0}*ed by those who are engaged in designing the beautiful forms AMERICAN PREFACE. xli of objects for manufacture and in decorative art, as well as by draughtsmen and architects, who use them for purposes of con- struction. Nature, too, employs them : thus her use of the vari- able spiral is charmingly illustrated by the longitudinal section of a nautilus shell. Indeed, her whole fabric rests upon geometry, from whose rigid outlines she departs only in matters of detail. The artist should, therefore, be perfectly familiar with geometric forms and mathematical lines, making this knowledge aid him, as it can most effectually, in the production of new forms for indus- trial purposes, and in the rendering of natural forms for purely artistic purposes. Now, these things can be taught with mathe- matical precision ; a " feeling for form " is not at all essential. SEEING WITH THE UNDERSTANDING. All art involves the seeing of objects just as they are pre- sented to the eye by their outlines, and by the modifications of light and shade. If the forms are imaginary, they must be represented as they would appear if they existed and were seen under the given conditions. Mere possession of the faculty of sight is no guaranty of that true vision which is required by art. If one would see truly, he must see with the understanding. To this end the essential thing is a knowledge of the laws of vision, of fore- shortening, of perspective effects, of the projection of shadows ; and all this knowledge rests upon a rigid mathematical basis, and so can be imparted with mathematical precision. Mere "feeling for light and shade," or for any thing else, has nothing to do with the matter. Of course there is much about chiaroscuro that can- not be taught with such positive assurance. COLOR. Both decorative and pictorial art have much to do with color. Now, in the study of color there are three definite things to be regarded : facts, scientific laws, historic usage. Different colors can be learned as facts ; and, in learning them, one has the fixed solar spectrum for his guidance. Thus the eye can learn readily to distinguish thousands of colors. There is also a knowledge of dyes, of pigments, of approaching and retreating colors, and of xlii AMERICAN PREFACE. certain arrangements of colors, which can be acquired in the same way. The scientific study of color shows that all the observable facts are subject to rigid laws, which can be explained with peda- gogical precision, and a knowledge of which contributes greatl} r to one's success in the use of color, or to his enjoyment of its effects. Simply by repeated experiment one may learn, for example, that, if he desires to make an exact copy of a colored pattern, he must not use just the colors he thinks he sees, but other colors, which, placed side by side, will produce the general effect of the given pattern ; but a scientific study of the subject enables him to understand the reciprocal influence of juxtaposed colors, and so to produce at will any effect that may be required. Thus some- thing more than the mere faculty of sight is demanded for the in- telligent handling of color. It is true that a person who has a quick perception of color, and a very retentive memory, may learn, without attending at all to the science of color, a great deal about its proper artistic use ; but what he learns slowly in this empirical way, he would learn rapidly by the scientific study of his subject, and, when once master of the science, he would be prepared to " mix his colors with brains." An historic study of color shows how color has been used. This is sure ground, too, especially so far as the use of flat tints for decorative purposes. Of course there is much essential to the proper handling of color that cannot be formulated with scientific precision. Especially is this true in the case of chiaroscuro; yet a prior knowledge of what can be taught with scientific precision is essential to a com- plete- mastery of what cannot be thus taught. And so it is not merely a blind ' feeling for color " that the artist should possess, but also positive knowledge. DECORATIVE AET. Decorative art employs both form and color ; and, so far as these can be taught with precision, so far decorative art has a teachable basis. But other things there are which can be taught with precision, things to imitate, things to shun; things, if one does imitate, he is certain to go right, and things, if he does not shun, he is certain to go wrong. Among the things to imitate is the rhythmical construction and the rhythmical arrange- AMERICAN PREFACE. xliii ment of ornamental forms, a matter which can be so readily exemplified by an appeal to historic usage, or by an appeal to nature, especially to the vegetable world,' the great source of decorative art. It is this rhythm, more than any thing else, that distinguishes decorative from purely pictorial art. Then the use to which the decorative object is to be put, the material of which it is to be made, and the mode of production, the position and light in which the ornament is to be viewed after it has been wrought, with many other particulars, are all to be duly consid- ered. About these matters there is much that can be positively taught. Thus an ornament suitable to engrave on silver may be altogether unsuitable to cut in granite, a material so different from silver ; and an ornament to be viewed in a poor light, or at a great elevation, requires more breadth, more large features, with less of fine detail, than a similar ornament to be viewed in a strong light, and at short distance. The determination of such things as these is not at all a matter of feeling. Of course, in decoration, what it is alwa} r s proper to do in a particular case is not always the best thing to do, and so there is ever an abundance of room for the exercise of aesthetic judgment. Between what is positively good and what is positively bad, there is a wide debatable ground, with which the teacher need not concern himself. He need not, for example, undertake to show just where science ends, and art begins ; just where decorative art passes from its own proper domain into that of pictorial art ; just where industrial art and fine art diverge, each taking a different road : nor need he take part in the " battle of styles," though he should and can teach style, or attempt to say just how much attention should be paid to the precise rendering of minute details. These will always be sub- jects for endless discussion among those who delight in things of that sort. It is well to remember that there is nothing sin- gular in the debatable questions which have been mentioned. The naturalist, for example, finds objects he cannot affirm, with positive certaint} r , to belong to the animal or to the vegetable kingdom, to this species or to that. The linguist meets with the same puzzles. But, after one has made due allowance for all debatable matters, there is much relating to decorative art that can be taught with absolute positiveness. xliv AMERICAN PREFACE. THE HUMAN FIGURE. Even when we come to the artistic treatment of the human figure, we find four fundamental preliminaries, which can be taught with sufficient exactness to satisfy educational considera- tions. They are, the anatomy of the figure, the attitude or action of the figure, the elements of facial expression, the massing of the figure. It is by study of the skeleton that the ground knowledge of the proportions of the human figure and of the foreshortening of its parts, also of attitude or action, as indicated by sitting, standing, walking, running, dancing, can be best acquired. This knowledge of its internal structure and varied movement is the only true basis for the artistic representation of the human figure. Facial expression is largely a matter of lines. Hence it is by a careful analysis of the face, by stud}'ing it line b}' line, that one can best learn to distinguish, first in extremes, then in gradations, between anger and laughter, compassion and scorn, grief and joy, fear and confidence, vanity and pride, and so on to the end of the alphabet of character. The effect of each line when considered by itself must be noted, must be learned with the most rigid pre- cision. It is easy to be seen in the study and representation of character, that the learner should, for pedagogical reasons, draw 1, from flat copies, 2, from the cast, 3, from life. When one comes to the artistic representation of the whole figure, it is proper that he attend first to the masses or grand divisions, and not advance a step further until these have been properly rendered. To facilitate the study of the figure by masses, and to make the study severely accurate, the masses should be first treated as rigid geometrical solids, perfectly preserving the proportions and action of the figure. With the masses of the figure correct, then and only then is it time to attend to the variable details of nature. No matter how exact may be the rendering of the details, the whole result cannot be good, if the rendering of the masses of the figure is wrong and the action faulty. 1 Now, it is not at all a 1 Mr. F. D. Millett, from the Antwerp School of Art, was one of the Mas- sachusetts Commissioners to the Vienna Exposition. In his report on "Fine Arts of the Present Times," he makes the following remarks about the treat- ment of the hiiman figure: " No arguments are necessary to prove the value of a general indication of AMERICAN PREFACE. xlv matter of vague feeling, this preliminary study of the human figure : what there is to learn is of a rigidly precise character, and altogether teachable according to ordinary pedagogical methods. Yet the artist who lacks this knowledge lacks that which is essen- tial to the highest success in the representation of the human form and spirit, in activity or repose. However delicate his aesthetic feeling, he can never be a master of his art. But such a view of the proper method of beginning to study the human figure for artistic purposes implies a deal of preliminary work, of drudgery some may call it, before results are reached. That, however, is true of other things, of law, medicine, engi- neering. Results are reached in these things only after long, laborious stud}-. There are those, indeed, who, laughing at study, rely upon inspiration, upon the vigor of their untrained genius ; or more, perhaps, upon the credulity of the public. Such are called quacks in medicine, pettifoggers in law. Is there not also danger of quacks in art, if hard, systematic study, if foun- dation principles and rational beginnings, are ignored? In the artistic study of the human figure, to begin with the cast is to begin where the master left oif, and to begin with the living form is to begin with nature's elaborate product. The learner, in the first instance, ignores all the preliminary steps taken by the the character, as opposed to neglect of grand lines and movements in the elab- oration of minutiae. A few charcoal lines, giving the direction of the mem- bers, and indicating in the simplest way the action of a figure, are more indicative of the impression the figure makes upon the spectator, than the most carefully studied drawing of the same object, where the grand lines fail and the action is faulty. Any" one who has drawn the figure knows the value of the first few strokes, indicating, not the sum-total of the impression made on the mind, but the characteristics of it. Then, in teaching, show the begin- ner the grand movements of the body, the most characteristic contours, and the just relation of the masses; instruct him how the branches vary in differ- ent species of trees, how the foliage is massed in each, and everywhere insist on grand character and simplicity. The importance of detail is, in general, the uppermost idea in the beginner's mind, and the instructor will rarely have to insist on this quality in beginners' work. As for finish, this acquirement comes of itself: certainly enough skill in this direction will be gained by the pupil long before he has learned the grand lessons of his profession." Any person familiar with the general principles which are regarded by the best educators as underlying all good instruction, no matter what the subject taught, would say at once, though he had never drawn a line in his life, that the general principles enunciated by Mr. Millett must be correct. All other things, when well taught, are taught in the same way: first the masses, then the details. Thus it is with history, with grammar, with geography, with arithmetic even, with botany, with zoology, with chemistry. xlvi AMERICAN PREFACE. master ; in the second, he ignores all the formative processes of nature. Mention has now been made of a few essential elements of art knowledge, elements which can be scientifically treated, and therefore taught with that precision demanded by sound educa- tional principles. It will be observed that industrial art and fine art haA T e, in the main, the same elementary basis ; hence that whatever promotes the former must promote the latter directly or indirectly, directly by educating the artist, indirectly by edu- cating the public taste and judgment. But, while industrial art leads to fine art, the latter exerts a reflex influence upon the former, because it elevates the public taste, and because the instruction specially required by fine art often proves of service as a discipline to the artisan. Thus the drawing of the human figure is an excel- lent discipline for the artisan because of the subtle training which it affords the eye and hand. But to make the human figure the foundation of all art, to expect, for example, by persistently drawing it fully to develop the power of seeing, or to produce a good industrial designer or decorative artist of any kind, is the height of educational absurdity. HOW CAN INSTRUCTION IN ART BE BEST GIVEN? Finally, how can instruction in the teachable elements of art be best given ? The answer shall be brief, so brief that it will perhaps appear dogmatic. As the whole people should be reached, the means must be adequate to the end desired. There must be books, drawing-copies, models, casts, and, for some of the ad- vanced work, special school accommodations. The forms given to be drawn, whether flat copies or solid, should be scrupulously exact, should have pronounced character, and, if they are to affect the taste, should be as beautiful as it is possible to make them. They should, of course, be graded according to sound educational principles. Then the forms to be drawn, especially in the earlier stages of each department, should be accompanied by a printed text, on whose preparation the utmost care should be bestowed, to the end that not only the requisite information may be given, but that all inaccurate and slovenly use of language may be avoided as in the preparation of a grammar, rhetoric, or other school-book. AMERICAN PREFACE. xlvii A carefully prepared text is thus insisted upon, because it is seen that at the foundation of all art there lies a great body of facts and principles, which can be described in language, and must be so described in order that they may be learned. If this verbal de- scription is possible at all, and no one will den^y it, then it is possible to be made in printed^ language which will crystallize the statement of facts and principles for universal and perpetual use. Whenever the learner fails to comprehend the text, or special circumstances require that more should be said, then the text must be supplemented by oral explanation from the teacher. A good text and a good teacher are much better than either alone. Those who look upon art as a mere matter of feeling, who do not acknowledge such a thing as Art-science, will, of course, see no use in such a text as described, though they would applaud a printed rhapsod} T on art that was calculated to produce a tumult of indefinable feeling in the bosom of the learner. Teachers are another essential thing, and they must be numerous enough to do the great work required. What should be their qualifications? First, they should possess general teaching ability ; second, a knowledge of the teachable elements of art. Hence artists as artists are not required ; of course there can be no objection to them, provided they also know how to teach. If they lack the teacher's gift, they will inevitably fail. Whoever, therefore, can learn teachable things, and having learned can impart their knowl- edge to others, are the ones to give instruction in art. The more, indeed, they know beyond what they are required to teach, the' better. Hence, to disseminate an elementary knowledge of art among the whole people, the instruction must be^given by the regular teachers in the public schools. To say, as some do, that we can have no good instruction in art until we have great artists for teachers, is the same as to say we can have no good instruc- tion in arithmetic, in grammar, and reading, until we have the pupils in our public schools taught by great mathematicians, great poets, great orators. There are probably thousands of primary teachers in this country who can teach the elements of drawing better than could Raphael, just as Sherman probably had hun- dreds of sergeants in his army who could drill a company better than himself. Give the regular teachers in the public schools the xlviii AMERICAN PREFACE. means to work with, make the study of the elements of art as of mathematics compulsory, and good results will surely be secured. But what of more advanced instruction in both industrial and fine art? This must be given in well-appointed art-schools, otherwise it can be made neither so general nor so good as it should be. Were Massachusetts, New York, Penns} T lvania, and Illinois as well supplied with these schools as England, that is, for each 210,000 inhabitants one school with 190 students, Massachusetts would have 7 of them, New York 20, Pennsylvania 17, Illinois 12 ; which would give the four States a total of 57 schools, with 10,640 students. These schools, supplied with all necessary means for their work, should be in the charge of persons who possess a thor- ough knowledge of the teachable features of the subjects of instruction, and who, in addition to this knowledge, possess tho ability to impart, in the most rational way, what they know. But it will be vehemently urged by some, that this teaching of the schools cannot be effectual, that old practices should be followed, that art-students must get their training, if it is to be of any value, in the studios of great artists, as formerly was the fact. To this there are several objections ; but one, which is all-suffi- cient, is enough to name : the large number who ought to be taught, and in various things, cannot be reached by such a mode of procedure. This studio instruction, excellent in many points, was essentially an apprenticeship under the old masters. Now the times have so changed that apprenticeship has, in obedience to natural causes, nearly or quite disappeared from all industries. In a similar manner, to meet the rapidly increasing and varied demands for art-instruction, the school must, in the main, sup- plant the private studio, doing the work required better than the private studio can possibly do it. But, again, it will be vehe- mently urged that art-instruction, which is limited to the things that can be taught with pedagogical precision, will never produce a genuine artist ; that there must be a certain something which a student can obtain only by working under a great master. It is indeed true that a knowledge of the precise and teachable features of art is far from enough for the making of a genuine artist ; but it is also true that there can be no genuine artist who has not this knowledge, which is all that even the greatest master can impart. AMERICAN PREFA CE. xlix The power which a great artist displays in handling the teachable elements of art, and in producing his wonderful results, he cannot impart to any one: that is something which must " exist in the man, in the subject, and in the occasion," as Webster said of true eloquence. The great artist is distinguished, not for disregard of the precise and teachable principles of art, but for his power, for his genius, in using them ; and that is something he cannot confer upon another by teaching, not even if he were no less a teacher than artist. A great master may, indeed, impress upon the work of his students, especially if they possess inferior powers, some of his own characteristics, making of his students imitators, and thus founding a " school." This, however, is not true teaching, since its result is imitative, and not rational. An art-student should, upon leaving his instructor,. be so well grounded in the rationale of his art, that he can pursue an independent course. With this power the students who studied under Agassiz left their instructor ; hence they are turning out Darwinians, though Agassiz himself fought Darwinism to the last. It is not mere reproduction of the past that we want either in science or art, but a rational use of what we have received from the past. As we increase our knowledge of the poetic art and our taste for poetry by reading Homer, Milton, Shakspeare, and do not care to have them fur- ther than this for teachers ; so the main advantage to be derived from great artists must come through a stud}' of their works, which can be collected in art schools, galleries, and museums. In this way they can teach, silently, most invaluable lessons. Yet it is not an attempted reproduction of these we want. Indeed, we want the art of no man. no country, no age ; even if we did, we could not obtain it in its essence. What specially characterizes the art of any man, country, age, being a natural growth, the pro- duct of special circumstances, and not an artificial creation, is not, in its essence, transferable ; and the attempt to transfer always results in pinchbeck imitation. This fact they will discover who talk so loudly about French art, and so vehemently urge its culti- vation in this country. Whatever there is generic and teachable about French art belongs to all art and to human nature ; that we want : whatever specially characterizes French art, being the pro- duct of French life, will always remain French and untransferable. 1 AMERICAN PREFACE. . We do not want that : we want an art of our own, and we shall surety have it one da} r , as fine as the world has yet seen, original, springing in its characteristic essence from the soil, from American civilization. Like all good art it will be rational, not a caprice, not a trick ; it will be founded on those general principles which are teachable, which underlie all art, which can be learned by the people, and when learned will enable them, if not to produce great original works, at least to comprehend and enjoy the highest achievements in art. \ MODERN ART EDUCATION. CONTENTS. PAGE INTRODUCTION * 5 AUSTRIA 9 HUNGARY 28 GERMANY : INTRODUCTION 33 BAVARIA 36 WURTEMBERG 50 BADEN 60 PRUSSIA 60 SAXONY 72 HESSIA 77 HAMBURG 79 FRANCE 85 ITALY 108 ENGLAND 119 RUSSIA 127 SWITZERLAND 134 THE NETHERLANDS AND BELGIUM 140 SWEDEN AND NORWAY 145 DENMARK 150 SPAIN AND PORTUGAL 151 AMERICA . . 157 INTRODUCTION. THE universal importance of instruction in drawing was not fully recog- nized until the products of the arts and industries of the various nations met each other at the World's Fairs. It then became evident, that most raw materials receive their value in social interchange through form only ; and that therefore the education of form, according to gesthetic prin- ciples, is the first condition for the successful development of industry, as well as for the elevation of taste in general. The first powerful impetus toward a reform in art-instruction was given at the London Exhibition of 1851, where the products of industry from all parts of the world were brought together for the first time in an international tournament ; and England herself then proceeded, through the instrumentality of drawing- schools, to regulate taste, which had long been subject to caprice, in accordance with scientific maxims ; to introduce uniformity into the treatment of the matter of form, and to give to its development a basis resting upon aesthetic principles. The industry of France, which until then had proceeded without principle in the matter of style, allowing itself to be swayed by external influences, and dazzling rather by the brilliancy of its manual dexterity than by virtue of its positive artistic merits, presently found that it must also enter into this reform, if it did not wish to see its productions seriously endangered in the markets of the world. For the example* set by England was followed by Austria, by Germany, in part at least, quite lately also by Russia ; and everywhere these efforts were accompanied by the best results. And, simultaneously with the growth of art-instruction during the last decades, art-science l 1 Art-Science, the German " Kunstwissenschaft," is a word which has hardly been naturalized as yet in the English language. It embraces all that may be known respecting art,' its history and its philosophy, as well as its technical detail. Art-science, which is a creation of modern times, seeks to impart to the study of art as much of the method of the exact sciences, as the nature of the case will permit. It therefore proceeds empirically; and its activity, in searching through archives to obtain documentary evidence con- 5 6 INTRODUCTION. likewise expanded its wings more and more powerfully, and contributed not a little towards the elucidation of the aesthetic conceptions of our time. The world followed this revolution in industry with increasing interest, at the subsequent exhibitions which have been held in the course of the past twenty years at Paris and at London ; but on these occasions criti- cism was compelled to judge by results only, as the causes of the revolution, which are to be found in instruction, could not be investigated, for want of the necessary material. This demand was, however, fully satisfied by the World's Fair of 1873; as nearly all the states represented in the domain of industry were also represented in the department of art-educa- tion, and each state had endeavored to illustrate the efforts it is mak- ing in this direction. In working up the vast material displayed by the various countries in the shape of specimens by the pupils, aids for teaching, &c., the reporter found himself compelled to notice also the achievements of industry as forming the actual starting-point of the efforts under re- view ; and he believes himself to be all the more justified in this trans- gression of the limits of his department, as it presented the only way by which a correct judgment on the subject of instruction could be arrived at. By far the greater part of the objects exhibited in the section allotted to the reporter had reference to art-industrial instruction. The rest pertained to the general schools in which art-instruction ought to be made an integral part of general education, and drawing should be used to awaken the aesthetic feeling more universally than heretofore. As this problem is still everywhere waiting for its positive solution, and as our own time, more than any other, is strenuously at work upon its elu- cidation, the reporter has endeavored, as far as possible, to show the present position of this branch of instruction in the various countries. Next to the laws, enactments, &c., concerning the subject, he has there- fore directed his attention principally to th. forms and the methods employed in its study. A short characterization of the copies, models, &c,, in use may serve to complete the picture. The reporter believes it unnecessary to call attention to the fact, that cerning the lives and the works of the artists of the past, has been marvellous, especially of late years. It also lays great stress upon the comparative study of art, and has therefore been of great service in the elucidation of the ques- tion of style, not only in its application to nations and periods, but also to individual artists. Its ultimate aim must of course be, to deduce those general laws, which will enable us to comprehend art in its essence and in its historical development. Transl. INTRODUCTION. 1 his department, looked upon from the point of view just designated, is one of vast extent ; and he must ask indulgence, if here and there he has not done justice to his task. As it was frequently impossible to obtain other than insufficient information concerning the deficiencies of the Exhibition, he must also be excused if some parts of the report should appear to be more broadly treated than others. The remark already made in other reports must be repeated here : viz., that the enormous dispersion "of the materials rendered the task infinitely more difficult. The character of Groups XII. and XXV. 1 fre- quently caused a dismemberment of objects of Group XXVI., 2 which ought to have been together, thus frustrating the coup-d'ceil ; and, in matters of education, there were added to this difficulty the separate exhibitions in the schoolhouses, where fragments of the various aids for teaching had likewise to be looked for. Nevertheless, the reporter believes that he has recorded many things which may in future be of value to the highly important subject of education. It is self-evident that the great industrial powers, such as France, Germany, Austria, England, and Italy, had to receive a more detailed treatment than the other countries, in which the efforts in question are of less importance. If, as far as Germany, and especially France, are concerned, the past has been drawn upon to a greater extent than the programme of the " Official Report " seemed to demand, this may be justified by the fact, that there was a defect in this respect in the dis- cussion of our subject in the reports on former World's Fairs; and that it appears important, in view of the current of the present day, to throw some light upon the sources of the traditional elements of art- industry. 1 Group XII. embraced "Graphic Arts and Industrial Drawing;" Group XXV., " Works of the Fine Arts of the Present Time." 2 Group XXVI. "Education, Teaching, and Instruction. " Transl. ART EDUCATION. AUSTRIA. WHOEVER compared the results of instruction in drawing in the Austrian People's and Middle Schools, with those attained in the schools of a similar category in other countries, was forced to admit, that, on the whole, this subject is cultivated much more carefully and much more successfully in Austria than else- where. Even in the relatively short time which has elapsed since its introduction into the scheme of education, the methods of teaching have very generally shaped themselves in accordance with a uniform principle deduced from experience; and it was noticeable, that those schools took the lead, and shone as models before all others, which have the advantage of superior teachers, who perceive drawing to be an integral part of general education. Drawing in the Austrian schools, like every thing that is new, had to pass through the phases of childhood, had to become nat- uralized among the existing subjects of stud} r , and had to overcome prejudices, and to struggle against a number of other difficulties, before it succeeded in gaining a solid basis upon which to erect a superstructure of well-defined proportions. Art-science, industry, and instruction in drawing, have almost kept pace with each other in their development in Austria (where Vienna is looked upon as a common centre), since about the year 1850. Industry demanded forms, art-science pointed them out, and drawing stepped in as a bridge, as a connecting link between the two. The reform for which taste was prepared by these agents could only be accom- plished by the aid of the drawing-classes ; and as the industries 9 10 ART EDUCATION. demanded this reform on the one side, while art-science endeavored to carry it through on the other, drawing necessarily became the central point of the theoretical, as well as of the practical elements of art-education. With the international combats which took place at short intervals in the arenas of the World's Fairs, between the products of art, of industry, and of education, the factors from whose co-operation true progress can alone be expected, approached nearer and nearer to each other, and the current in- creased in rapidity. What Austria mostly stood in need of was a common centre for the reformatory movement. England secured such a centre in its South Kensington Museum, with the Art-School attached to it ; the principal cities of France and of Germany are struggling to attain the same end ; Russia reached it when she established her Museums and Art-Schools at Moscow and at St. Petersburg ; and Austria has also 51 with nearly equally good results, and that even the youngest schools were represented by the most praiseworthy specimens. This shows how excellently the whole educational system of Wur- temberg is organized in this respect, and how beneficial unity of system is to education itself. Unfortunately the results only of the schools had been kept in view in the Exhibition, and the method had not been illustrated by successive drawings ; which, in the presence of the results, would have been especially desirable. Industrial Improvement Schools are at present to be found in 155 places (110 cities, 45 villages) of the kingdom of Wurtem- burg ; and these, according to their organization, are divided into the following groups : Improvement Schools, in which instruction is given on Sundays and evenings, in the industrial and commercial branches, and which have public drawing classes (5). Improvement Schools, with industrial instruction Sundays and evenings, and public drawing classes (15). Improvement Schools with instruction on Sundays and evenings, without public drawing classes (92). Improvement Schools with industrial instruction in the evening, without instruction on Sunday's (10). Drawing Schools simply, without further instruction (33) . The number of pupils, amounting to 8,876 in 150 Industrial Improvement Schools in 1870-71, rose to 9,763 in 1871-72 in 155 schools ; 7,430 of the pupils being under, and 2,333 over, seven- teen 3*ears of age. Besides these schools, the country possesses of technical institu- tions of learning, the Polytechnical School and the Building-Trades School at Stuttgart, and, for the special cultivation of art, the Art- School at the same place. It is impossible to review the achievements of each separate school without exceeding the space at command ; but it will prob- ably suffice, for the purposes of general characterization, to touch upon the most noteworth}^ only. In freehand drawing, a beginning is generally made with the drawing-copies by Herdtle, published by the Royal Commission on Industrial Improvement Schools. 52 ART EDUCATION. This excellent work has also naturalized itself in most of the German and Austrian schools, and is especially used to practice outline-drawing in systematic progress from geometrical ground- forms to curvilinear ornament ; at the same time it offers an opportunity to give the pupils simple exercises with the brush in laying flat tints. When a certain dexterity of conception and of technical execution has been reached, object-drawing is taken up, beginning with geometrical forms, but immediately passing on to ornaments in plaster, at first in outline, and by degrees in shading. For this purpose there were executed in the modelling institu- tion of the Ro} T al Wurtemberg Central Bureau for Industry and Commerce, a series of more than four hundred plaster models, which are also arranged progressively, beginning with straight-line geometrical forms, and then, from the simplest leaves, passing on to richly developed ornaments which are composed for given spaces, thus showing their eventual practical application. In style, the motives belong almost exclusive!}' to the Renaissance, a few only having been selected from the Gothic' and the older antique styles. To aid in the transition from conventionalized to natural plant- forms, casts of plants, &c., have also been admitted into the col- lection. For figure-drawing there is a collection of casts from antique busts, torsos, limbs, reliefs, and small statuettes ; a series of models for the study of theoretical forms has likewise been added. A large part of this excellent collection was on exhibi- tion, together with an illustrated price-list. The drawings from casts are executed throughout with crayon or charcoal upon white paper, the tint being carried up to the high- est light. This method is in use almost universally in Germany, although it entails the greatest waste of time, and the tinted paper of the French would be preferable. Occasionally the execution was masterly, and the patience of the pupils in minutely stippling out the tints in backgrounds, sometimes a foot square, compelled admiration, coupled, however, with regret for the time spent upon them. The most extraordinary feat in this respect had been achieved by the school at Rottenberg, where the whole ground- surface in large decorative pieces for panels had been filled in with an even grain. This dwelling too long upon the form in general, GERMANY. 53 * is also the reason why the shadows are frequently rendered too dark, so that the drawings from models no longer make the im- pression of plaster, but look like bronze. A decided emphasizing of the planes, with less finish, would certainly be preferable for the study of form. In ornament, which always obe} r s a distinct rhythm, the uncertainty in the mastery of the form is not as noticeable as in figure-drawing a fact that was quite apparent in some of the schools. * Special instruction in drawing adapts itself to local necessities, and in most of the institutions very superior results are also attained in linear drawing. To give a more detailed insight into the state of instruction in drawing in the Industrial Improvement Schools of Wurtemberg, we will mention a few of the schools, together with their achievements, as follows : Aalen. 1 Principally machine-drawings, with simple outlines of the sections. Modellings in wax (mostly in plaster casts) of rich Renaissance ornaments, gracefully executed, of good st}'le. Biberach. Architectural drawings, some of them treated very effectively in color ; building in bricl*; ; Swiss style ; and Renais- sance motives ; also purely decorative ornaments ; large pen- drawings of outline ornaments ; figure-drawing tolerably feeble. Of modellings : Renaissance ornaments, busts, Thorwaldsen's relief " Day." Wood-carving : Ornaments for panels, frames, &C M of excellent technical execution. Ellwangen. Architectural drawings beautifully finished; sys- tematic representations of projections and shadows. Esslingen. Projection, machinery, architectural details; also small landscapes in oil, flowers, &c., to supply the wants of local industries. Geislingen. Linear drawing is treated very thoroughly and sys- tematically, also the most important points in perspective. Tech- nical drawing : Principally architecture ; good designs of furniture also deserve to be mentioned. Carving in ivory being a promi- nent branch of industry in Geislingen, small ornaments are prin- cipally practiced in freehand drawing, and these are succeeded by the forms of the Renaissance and of nature ; the ivory carvings 1 The Industrial Improvement Schools of the respective places are always to be understood. 54 ART EDUCATION. on exhibition were rather overladen with ornament. In the larger modellings and in the wood-carvings, the imitation of German motives is more prevalent. Gmund. Special attention is paid to the manipulation of the metals, and the thorough training of engravers, chasers, &c. Very beautiful drawings from antique examples were exhibited, as well as finished works in metal of exquisite execution. Giengen. Well executed ornaments in crayon and in red chalk from casts, and building drawings. Eliingen. Architecture, furniture, vessels, &c., some of them very beautifully carried out in color. Hall. Pretty drawings of decorative motives, only somewhat hard in color ; studies in descriptive geometry. Heilbronn. Nearly all branches of industrial drawing; beauti- fully drawn ornaments from casts, especially worthy of notice. The same is true of Balingen. Ludwigsburg. Mostly decorative motives in color for decor- ators, paper-hangers, &c., also projection and machine draw- ing. Sulgau. Good architectural drawings and wood-carvings, principal!}' in the Gothic style. Ravensburg. All branches of drawing ; above all beautiful projections and topographical drawings ; also good color-studies in oil. Rottiveil. All branches of drawing. Freehand drawing prac- ticed with all materials ; special mention must be made of beauti- ful copies from Calame's landscapes. In linear drawing, very pretty projections and stone construction. Good modellings for architectural decorations, and tasty carvings in wood and ivory, were likewise exhibited. Rottenburg. Beautiful drawings from casts, as mentioned above ; a large frame carved in wood, but rather overladen with ornamental work ; also a large frame of a more architectural nature, in plaster, and very humorous groups of animals in wood. Scliweningen. Principally small landscapes, flowers, &c., in oil, such as are used by the manufacturers of clocks in the Black Forest. The Industrial Improvement Schools of Ulm, Kirckheim, Laup- GERMANY. 55 helm, Mergentheim, Tubingen, Neresheim, Aethaussen, Elingen, Blaubeuren, Waldsee, Herbertingen, Spaichingen, and Horb were likewise represented by specimens worthy of notice. The " Women's Work-School" of Reutlingen exhibited very tasty needlework, as well as very pretty drawings. Instruction in drawing and coloring in this institution is intended to lead the pupils, by successive stages, to the invention and execution of tasty designs for the various branches of female handiwork ; the construction of geometrical plane figures and bodies is also taught. The " School for Interior Decorators " (painters) of Reutlingen likewise exhibited some specimens by its, pupils, which, however left much to be desired in regard to taste ; the same may be said of the designs of the Weaving School of Reutlingen, which were unsatisfactory both in color and in forms. The motives of the Weaving School at Heidenlieim were somewhat lighter and more graceful. 1 Stuttgart, with its higher schools, and as the central point of art-industrial education, naturally had also more important results 1 The Industrial Improvement Schools of Wurteiriburg. It is very interesting to note the population of the various towns and villages, in which the schools spoken of by Prof. Langl are located. Some of them are. so small that they cannot he found in any " Gazetteer" or geographical hand-book. The follow- ing statistical table is made up from Bitter's " Geographisch-Statistisches Lexikon," Oth edition, 1874. Where no figures are given, the population could not be learned. Aalen 5,552 Kircliheim (unterTeck?) . . . 5,863 Aethausen Laupheim 4,090 Balingen 3,212 Ludwigsburg 11,785 Biberach 7,091 Mergeutheim 3,713 Blau Beureii 2,216 Neresheiin 1,133 Elingen Ravensburg 8,433 Ellwangen 4,145 Reutlingeu 14,237 Esslingen 17,941 Rottenburg 6,145 Ehingen 3,547 Rottweil 5,135 GmUnd 10,739 Schweningen 4,314 Geislingeii 3,334 Spaichingen 2,321 Giengen 2,560 Stuttgart 91,623 Hall 7,793 Sulgau 120 Heilbronn 13,955 Tubingen 9.243 Herbertingen 1,532 Ulm 26,290 Heidenlieim 5,167 Waldsee 2,529 Horb .' "~. . 'V ' ..' . . . 2,071 The same remark holds good of the Austrian schools. The question-mark in the following list indicates that there are several places in Austria of the same 56 ART E DUG AT JON. to show, and, in continuation of what has so far been said, we must now speak of the Royal Wurtemberg Art-Industrial School. The specimens of this school were exhibited in the middle of the pavilion, in a pretty decorative arrangement, so that the various drawings formed, as it were, an architectural whole. The com- mission had taken care to exhibit all the branches of drawing and modelling which are practiced in the institution. In style the Renaissance predominated, but there were also very beautiful studies from classical monuments, Pompeian mural decorations, &c. High praise must be awarded to the outline ornaments, to which name, leaving it undecided which place is alluded to in the report. But the towns or villages so marked are quite insignificant. Asch il> i.f 9,405 Landskron 5,016 Aussig ....... 10,933 Mondsee 1,240 Bielitz 10,721 Petrowitz ? Briinn 73,771 Reicheuberg 22,394 Carlstein (Karlstein?) .... 666 Rietz ? Gablonz 6,752 Rochlitz (unter-Rochlitz?) . . . 8,097 Graz 81,119 Rothmiihl 3,267 Gmund 1,900 Rumburg Graslitz 6,549 St. Ulrich . . . . . . 1,096 Hallein 3,614 Schonbach 2,640 Hallstadt 1,671 Steinschonau 3,100 Haida 2,069 Tachau 4,111 Hochstadt 1,492 Vienna (in 1864) . . . . 607,514 Hohenelbe 5,316 Walkern Imst 2,236 Znaiiu 10,600 Innsbruck 16,324 Zwittau 5,781 For further information on technical and industrial education in Wurtem- burg, the reader is refered to Mr. John Scott Russell's interesting work on " The Systematic Technical Education of the English People," London, 1809. It will be seen from the above lists that all these schools are located simply with a view to the interests of the industries carried on in the various places. The idea of limiting the schools according to the population is not entertained, nor is this idea justified; for a town containing one thousand inhabitants carrying on a special trade, certainly has more need of such schools, than a city of ten thousand inhabitants carrying on no special trade. There are a number of American industries which might be improved by the instrumentality of these schools. Take, for instance, the Yankee clocks. The clocks of the Black Forest are no better, as clocks, yet they command the markets of the world; while the Yankee clock, possessing no artistic features, generally speaking, is restricted to certain markets. But then, in the Black Forest, art-education is a matter of course, while in America it is generally regarded as of little value. The sewing-machine is also awaiting its artistic development, not so much in the case which encloses it, but rather as far as the machine itself is concerned. The ne plus ultra of artistic finish, so far, appears to be black lacquer, and big blotches of mother-of-pearl. In the hands of artists, it must certainly be capable of something better. Transl. GERMANY. 57 relief had been given by the simplest means (one tint in sepia) , which is certainly quite as serviceable for industrial purposes as minute finish in crayon. Among the plastic objects exhibited, some works in metal, of good style, deserve to be especially men- tioned. The wood-carvings gave evidence of considerable tech- nical skill on the part of their authors. The only department of sculpture which exhibited more weakness was the figure ; but as a- matter of course a thorough schooling in this branch among artisans is beset with great difficulties. The anatonry of the orna- ment resolves itself into the simple rhythmical development of the motive, and can soon be attained in practice ; the case is different, however, with the human figure, in which the forms are more sub- ject to caprice, and must always be penetrated by an intellectual idea. The drawings of figures from the antique, as well as from nature, made a better showing. In linear drawing, classical examples are adhered to in architecture, as well as in decoration. The Royal Building Trades School of Stuttgart exhibited excel- lent specimens by its pupils in all the branches of industrial draw- ing, among them the plans of its own stately building. On two of the walls of the southern part of the pavilion there were to be seen, handsomely arranged, representations of buildings in various styles, decorative architectural designs (among them polychrome Greek ornaments of exemplary execution) , and original composi- tions by the pupils in the department of architecture and of machine-building. It is the principal object of the Building Trades School to train builders, civil and hydraulic engineers, surveyors, and machinists. Instruction is divided into preparatory and special, the latter being given not only theoretically, but also practically. Practical in- struction in the industrial manipulations which can be acquired at the yard, or in the shop, is, however, given only to those who happen to live in localities where such knowledge is not attainable. Up to the year 1864 the school was open during the winter only, but in 1865 summer courses were also arranged ; and since then the institution has expanded in various directions. Excellent specimens were also exhibited by the Evening Classes and by the Public Drawing Class. Drawings from casts, of bril- liant execution, were especially to be seen among those by the 58 ART EDUCATION. pupils of the latter institution. The heads from nature were more feeble. The pupils of the Sunday Course for Painters likewise had good results to show in the various branches. The Polytechnic School exhibited the plans of its magnificent building, as well as autographs of buildings, and the well-known collection, " Architectural Studies," published by the Society of Architects of the Polytechnicum at Stuttgart. The institution consisted, in the school-year 1871-72, of a mathematical division (in two classes) , and a technical division, with six special schools. The Art-School of Stuttgart exhibited diverse studies from nature, together with original compositions by its scholars. Among the latter, a summer landscape of charming conception, with man}' figures, and a drawing in Schwind's manner, illustrat- ing the tale u Siebenschon," especially attracted our attention. The studies of heads in oil showed very good intentions. The results of the study of the figure were more feeble. Before closing this part of our report, we must also speak of drawing in the People's Schools of Wurtemberg. According to an order of the Royal Ministry, dated May 21, 1870, the subject is taught in the People's Schools wherever there is a desire for it, on the one hand, and the necessary teachers can be had, on the other ; with the proviso, however, that thirty hours per week for instruc- tion in all subjects shall not be exceeded, and that none of the other compulsory subjects shall be slighted. An}- extension of instruction in drawing beyond this limit is left to mutual agree- ment between the communal authorities and the teacher. As a rule, instruction in drawing does not begin before the pupil has reached the twelfth year ; and its end and aim is defined to be, the attainment by the pupil of an understanding of form, together with some dexterit}^ of execution, so that the feeling for the beau- tiful may be developed and exercised, and the pupil may be pre- pared for usefulness in life. According to the regulations, free- hand drawing only (without mechanical aids) is permitted, at first from charts, at a later period from copies, the attention being strictly confined to outline-drawing. The specimens on exhibition showed unity of system throughout (Herdtle's examples) , and the best results. The outline ornaments were executed on a pretty large scale, which can only be of advantage in the People's Schools. GERMANY. 59 The results of drawing in the Teachers' Seminaries, as seen at the Exhibition, gave evidence of an excellent method of instruction in freehand as well as in linear drawing. In the first course, out- line ornaments are practiced with pencil and pen ; in the second course, geometrical bodies, shaded, and ornaments from casts, in crayon or India ink ; in the third course, blackboard-drawing as a preparation for practical teaching. Instruction in geometrical drawing is divided between geometrical constructions, projection in its application to architecture, &c. Very good work was shown b}' the Teachers' Seminaries at Esslingen and at Gmiind, including topographical and building drawing. In the drawings of the " Woman's School " of Stuttgart, the careful choice of- tasty motives is especially to be emphasized, besides their beautiful execution. The work by the convicts, shown in good studies from casts, in ornaments in color, machine and linear drawings, &c., also de- serves to be mentioned. The Commission for the Industrial Improvement Schools of Wurtemberg, as before stated, has rendered very good service in providing for suitable and practical copies. The "Schools" edited by E. Herdtle are altogether the best we now have for the first stages of instruction, a fact which is proven by their wide dis- semination. Of these " Schools" we will, only mention here the "Ornaments of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance" (drawn from the originals by F. H.) , on account of their charming motives. For special instruction in all the industrial branches, the Commission has published a series of copies, which for simplicity and perspicu- ity of representation, as well as for suitable selection of objects, leave nothing to be desired. On most of the plates the drawing is accompanied by a short explanatory text. The " Copies for Technical Freehand Drawing," by P. Holder (mostly for iron-work), are good, but lack a pronounced style. The "Art of Shading," by C. Riess, contains very beautiful problems in shadows, curves of intensity, &c. Guido Schreiber's "Studies on Bodies" are also to be recommended for the first stages, as showing how plastic objects are to to be represented. " Stereometrical Drawing as a Preparation for Descriptive Geom- etry," by A. Brude, is intended to be used in the transition from 60 ART EDUCATION. geometrical drawing in the plane, to drawing in space, as practiced in descriptive geometr}-. It appears to us, however, that it would be better to go through stereometry at once, in geometrical pro- jection, with good aids for teaching, if, it is to be continued at all. "Drawing Geometry," by G. Muller, is a very practical little work, by means of which the pupil can principally be trained in the use of his instruments. The " Collection of Naturalistic Orna- ments " for interior decorators, by Ch. Kammerer, contains neat- ly executed plates in the French manner. As a world's journal of art-industry, the " Work- Shop," of Stuttgart, was exhibited in seven languages. The architectural publications of Conrad Wittwer, Stuttgart, must also receive honorable mention. BADEN. The Grand Duchy of Baden, the same as at Paris in 1867, participated but little in the Educational Exhibition at Vienna. The Industrial Improvement Schools receive the best of care in this countr}', and their number at present amounts to forty- three ; their aim, however, is general education, rather than special. Great attention is also paid to the education of the female sex since 1870. Specimens of the work of pupils were exhibited only by the Industrial Educational Institution of Carlsruhe. Among these specimens most of the industrial branches were represented, and the decorative designs (vessels and furniture) deserve to be espe- cially mentioned for their elegant, tasteful st}'le, and their exact, artistic execution. Excellent studies from Greek and Oriental (polychrome) ornaments must likewise be noticed. Of model- ling there was but little, most of it ornamental. Of drawing-copies there were exhibited, "Ornamental Drawing for Citizens and Industrial Schools," by W. Tonius (Carlsruhe) ; the forms represent various styles ; the execution is somewhat hard. The "Landscape Studies," by J. W. Schirmer (died 1863), published by Vogelweider (Carlsruhe), have been repro- duced in excellent style, and will also be a welcome gift to the friends of art, as a memento of this poetical artist. PRUSSIA. Instruction in drawing is beginning to gain a better GERMANY. 61 foothold in the People's and the Middle Schools of Prussia, although more slowly than in the South of Germany. The Normal Plan of Instruction of the year 1863 made it apparent already, that this subject was favorably looked upon, and that especial attention was to be devoted to its cultivation in the Intermediate Schools. ,The plans of instruction forming the basis of the Real- Schools and of the Gymnasia, were elaborated at the time by a commission of artists and schoolmen, and certainly left nothing to be desired, except the time necessary to carry them out to their full extent. In these plans the subject was conceived of as a vehicle of general education, and was therefore considered as an integral part of the educational system of all the higher schools. Accordingly, drawing in the Real-Schools must be a preparation for technical and artistic pursuits ; must endeavor to reduce graphic delineation to its primary geometrical operations ; and by practical exercise of projection, by perspective based upon mathe- matics, as well as by continued practice in drawing from casts, must develop the comprehension of space and of form. In the Gymnasia, in which the oesthetical, rather than the technical phase of drawing must be brought into prominence, instruction is divided into four, in the Real-Schools into five, courses or stages, which are independent of the progress of the pupils in the general classes, and are organized according to the abilities of the pupils, and their progress in this subject itself. It is further directed, that teaching shall commence in the first stage with the general knowl- edge of form, from wall-charts or blackboard-drawings ; this is to be followed up in the second course by drawing from geometrical models, as well as from copies, both ornament and figure ; and to be succeeded in the third and fourth courses by the drawing of orna- ments from casts, the practice of figure-drawing being continued. In the choice of the copies and models, special attention is to be paid to the education and refinement of taste. The teacher is left perfectly free within these limits in regard to choice of method, it being remarked very correctly, that man}' teachers may be able to reach good results according to the method by which the}' them- selves were instructed, while they might fail under the constraint of another, although perhaps in itself a better method, with which they are not familiar from the start. 62 ART EDUCATION. If the results, in the Gymnasia as well as in the Real-Schools, have not thus far corresponded to the intentions of this plan of instruction, the first reason for this failure will be found in the fact, that, as before remarked, too little time has been set apart for the subject. With only two hours each week, the long intervals make it difficult to preserve the manual skill, and stjll more so to keep up the interest, which is principally promoted by results. The Royal Prussian Educational Administration did not exhibit any of the works of the pupils of the Middle Schools, by an examination of which a judgment might have been arrived at. Looking over the numerous programmes of schools, it became apparent, however, that in most of the institutions the desired aim had either not been reached, or that the subject is looked upon and taught in a manner which is not in accordance with the intentions of the plan of instruction. Drawing in the G3^mnasia is frequently classed with the "accomplishments," which sufficiently indicates the position assigned to it in these institutions. Then, again, there are to be found class reports, according to which the drawing of heads is begun with in the first stage, and is followed up by shaded buildings and landscapes. In the higher classes these latter are succeeded by "large heads in crayon, landscapes with trees, animals, &c." Even with the most talented pupils it may be doubted whether all this can be practiced with success at the rate of two hours weekly. The Real-Schools are not much more favorably situated as regards the time allotted, the small addition in the number of hours being expended upon linear drawing, which must be practiced in them to a greater extent. It is well known that there are two classes of Real-Schools in Prussia, besides the higher Citizens' Schools, which latter are simi- lar in their organization to the Real-Schools of the second class. The institutions just mentioned being of a lower order than those of the first class, as far as the sciences are regarded, they might offer better opportunities for the cultivation of drawing. But even in these schools it depends to a great extent upon the insight of the rector for the time being, whether the importance of the subject is recognized, or not. According to the General Regulations of Oct. 15, 1872, two hours for drawing are allotted to each of the three classes of the Citizens' GERMANY. 63 Schools. The paragraphs in question are, however, so "lawj-er- like " in their phraseology, that it must certainly be left to the respective teachers to make the best out of .them for their subject. The passage reads thus: " Stage I. Linear drawing from draw- ings upon the blackboard by the teacher, reference being made to their geometrical basis ; Stage II. Geometrical views of objects of simple form, according to a given reduced or enlarged scale ; copying of simple shaded examples of various kinds ; Stage III. Elements of perspective ; drawing of wooden solids, plaster mod- els, and natural objects ; shading in black crayon, India ink, and sepia ; copying of finished ornaments, heads, &c." The complaints frequently made by the teachers of the higher technical schools of Prussia, that the pupils coming from the Mid- dle Schools are not sufficiently grounded in linear drawing, apply equally well to freehand drawing, with this difference only, that the latter follows no further practical aim above the Middle Schools, while, in the present condition of things, an ideal aim can be reached least of all. But, however isolated the subject may still be in the Prussian schools, and however it may languish, especially for want of time, it is all the more pleasant to notice the zealous activity of the drawing- teachers, who have labored incessantly, especially of late years, to obtain for their subject that position which its importance demands. For this purpose* they have formed the " Societ}*- for the Promotion of Instruction in> Drawing," which is to enable them, by united action in matters of method, copies, &c., to give a secure basis more especially to elemen- tary instruction, and which, by means of periodical exhibitions of the work of pupils and of aids for teaching, is to keep them informed: of the condition of this branch of education, as well as to provide the opportunity for the discussion of innovations which may pre- sent themselves. The society also submitted the report of its committee on the last of these exhibitions, held in 1870 r which, in its critical review, gave a clear presentation of the state of draw- ing-instruction in Northern Germany. As this report owes its origin to specialists, some notices taken from it may serve to sup- plement the deficiencies of the following review, which deficiencies necessarily resulted from the absence of specimens by the pupils in the Exhibition of 1873. 64 ART EDUCATION. In the " General Regulations of Oct. 15, 1872," two hours per week in drawing, and two hours in the " science of space," which must no doubt be understood as the science of form, are allotted to the higher classes of the Citizens' Schools (13). In the far- ther elaboration of this point ( 30), the regulations go on to say : " In drawing, all children are to be employed simultaneously and uniformly ; and, by continual practice of the eye and the hand, they are to be enabled to copy given figures on a reduced or an enlarged scale, with the aid of ruler, measure, and compasses, as well as to give geometrical views of objects of simple form, such as utensils, garden-plats, dwelling-houses, churches, and other bodies offering straight edges and large planes. Where this aim has been reached, children of especial talent may be given an opportunity to draw from copies." Domschke's method, which had before been in use for a number of 3^ears in all the Berlin Communal Schools, has therefore been recommended for the first stage. The reporter is far from desiring to pass judgment upon this method, as he has had no opportunity to gain an insight into the results obtained by it, nor does he wish to doubt that speedier results may perhaps be obtainable by it in the science of form proper. But it seems questionable, whether the pupils, b}' imitating forms with mechanical aids, will attain to the same degree of clear comprehension which will be imparted to them by the independent reproduction of that which they see. Until now, drawing was practiced in the Communal Schools of Berlin according to the methods of Domschke and of Dupuis ; and it \vas intended that Domschke's " Guide" should prepare the way for drawing from nature by Dupuis' method. The figures were drawn upon the blackboard on a large scale by the teacher, according to the " Atlas," and were copied simul- taneously by the pupils, by the aid of compasses, rulers, measuring- papers, &c. But the report above referred to states, that " the facilities offered by the use of these aids from the very beginning prevented the pupils from attaining to a direct and clear compre- hension, and hindered the untrammelled development of dexterity in drawing, which, for Dupuis' method especially, is so very neces- sary-" While it is generally questionable, therefore, whether by .the method alluded to the aim can be reached which has been set GERMANY. 65 for drawing in the People's Schools, it is absolutely wrong to intro- duce pictures of landscapes, animals, and figures into elementary instruction, as in the case of the copies by Domschke. But the method of Dupuis, on the other hand, by which the empirical practice of perspective is aimed at, in connection with freehand drawing from surfaces and from solid models, is quite as hazard- ous. This would demand a maturity of intellect not to be expected of the pupils of the People's Schools. At the same time, if the method is to be carried out with any success at all, each class must contain as small a number of pupils as possible ; but it is well known that this must for the present remain a devout wish on the part of the teachers. The results shown at the exhibition just spoken of were conse- quently quite desultory, and made it clear that even some of the teachers were wanting in the necessary knowledge of perspective, which, of course, proved fatal to the success of the method from the outset. Many of the schools therefore left the course of instruction which had been prescribed to them, and devoted them- selves to "picture-making," which at least does not destroy the interest of the pupils in the subject, although nothing positive is to be learned by it. The numerous drawing-copies for the first stages of instruction, which had been sent to the World's Fair from Berlin, made it evi- dent, however, that this evil of conflicting methods will gradually be obviated. Among these examples, the " Wall-C harts for Method- ical drawing," by Herzer, Jonas, and Wendler, published by the society in question, are well worthy of recommendation as practical aids for teaching. Being simple in their forms, the}' are easy of comprehension. Ed. Eichen's "Wall-Charts for Elementary Instruction in Drawing" likewise follow the correct method, as a preparation for . modelling, although the admissibility of natural flowers may perhaps be questionable. On the other hand, how- ever, the author is to be praised for the emphasis with which he dwells, in the explanations, upon the necessity of making the scholar draw the figures as large as possible, and of compelling him to use charcoal for his first sketch. At the exhibition in Berlin (1870), before alluded to, the draw- ings for a " Graded Series for Elementary Instruction," by Zim- 5 66 ART EDUCATION. mermann (teacher In Zwickau), caused a sensation which was well justified ; and the wish was then repeatedly uttered, that the author might make his plates serviceable to other schools, by reproducing them. At the World's Fair they were likewise to be seen, and received the most favorable commendation on all sides. When speaking of Saxony, we shall recur to this work more in detail. The People's School at Mayence, which is so excellently managed, and the work of whose pupils received such high praise at the time of the Exhibition in 1870, unfortunately did not send any thing to Vienna. In the provinces of Prussia drawing is well managed wherever the teacher happens to be versed in the subject. This observation very naturally leads us on to the consideration of instruction in drawing in Teachers' Seminaries, whence its cultivation in the People's Schools must necessarily proceed. Down to the present this instruction was very incomplete ; and, according to the report already quoted, it was frequently in danger of dying out altogether, owing to the isolated situation of some of the seminaries. But little time being devoted to drawing, and the drawing-teacher being therefore left without adequate employment, the subject was gener- ally intrusted to one of the teachers of science. Suitable teachers were to be had only in the larger cities, which is the reason why good results were generally obtained in those places. If the later regulations in regard to drawing in the People's Schools are to be carried out, the government will have to see to it that due attention is paid to the subject in the seminaries. In regard to instruction in industrial drawing, the North of Ger- many is also still far behind the Southern countries. Not ver} r long ago, every thing that was done to advance art-industry emanated from private societies onty, and the Prussian government was the most tardy of all the German governments in de\soting due atten- tion to this most important factor of wealth. Up to about ten years ago, there were no institutions in Prussia capable of extend- ing adequate support to the art-industries, the onry exception being the u Society of Mechanics" of Berlin, which was espe- cial^ instrumental in advancing the joinery and the weaving of Northern Germany to a certain degree. The Municipal Industrial Schools provided for a more general scientific education, rather GERMANY. 67 than for special instruction ; nor was the organization of the Im- provement Schools calculated to make them the hotbed of art- industrial instruction, while the Sunday Free Schools" were totally inadequate. The Royal Industrial Institution has more of the char- acter of a technical school, and the Royal Academy of Art is given to art exclusively, so that even from this side little was to be expected for art-industry. 1 By the Plan of Re-organization of March 21, 1870, the complete course of the Prussian Industrial Schools was extended to three years,' and the modern languages were incorporated into the plan of instruction. In consequence of more rigorous conditions of admission, the aim of instruction was elevated for most of the subjects, and linear drawing especially profited by these new arrangements. Generally speaking, the schools retained the char- acter of technical schools, which is quite plainly expressed in the preamble of the Plan of Re-organization. It says: " The youth entering upon industrial life must be able to examine the progress of other nations in the departments of technology and of industry, and to put this progress to use in his own interest, as well as in that of the community. To this end it is necessary that he should have attained a knowledge of the French and English languages, sufficient at least to enable him correctly to understand the works written in them. The physical conditions of the earth's surface, its relation to the aquatic, vegetable, and animal world, must not be unknown to him. Finally, he needs an insight into the history of the development of nations and of states, into their intercourse, and their commercial relations with each other." It is apparent, that these higher industrial institutions are not intended for the education of the working people, but that they are only fitted to offer to the wealthier classes the opportunity for general improvement in harmony with the spirit of the times. The organization of preparator}" classes, as " Lower Industrial Schools," is left to the respective communes wherever it may be necessary. Art Schools and Industrial Schools of a more comprehensive kind are at present to be found in Prussia only in Berlin, Dantzic, Breslau, i Concerning the condition of art-industrial instruction in Prussia up to the year 18(>G, compare: "The Advancement of Art-Industry in England, and the Position of this Question in Germany," by Dr. H. Schwabe, part iii. p. 188, &c. 68 ART EDUCATION. Erfurt, and Magdeburg. As for the rest, special schools in Prussia are but slightly developed even to-day ; an exception is made only by the department of manufactures, in which a satisfactory ad- vance in this respect is to be noted. But the need of such schools is becoming more apparent from year to year, and by degrees the government is likewise beginning to look more favorably upon the matter. Immediately after the war with France, the authorities of the various industrial towns of Prussia were called upon, in a cir- cular issued by the Ministry of Commerce and Industry, to follow the example of France in the organization of Drawing and Indus- trial schools; and their attention was directed to the industrial im- portance of these schools, and to the fact that they form the true basis of the wealth of France. Regulations in regard to teachers of freehand drawing and modelling at the Industrial Schools were prepared at the same time. It was impossible to judge from the Exhibition how far these efforts have since been realized. Only the u Society of Mechanics " of Berlin had provided a comprehensive presentation of its activ- ity, as regards the organization and the development of its schools. Statistical tables, reports up to the year of the Exhibition, and the plans of the building of the society, were submitted. Together with the lectures on scientific specialties, drawing in all its various branches receives the most careful attention in the schools of the society ; and at the last International Exhibition at Amsterdam, the specimens exhibited by these schools were honored by the silver medal. As a considerable portion of the members belong to the building trades, and as a special theoretical and practical knowledge in drawing in this branch appeared to be desir- able, the society in the year 1864 organized a special school for building-mechanics, divided into four progressive courses, in which the pupils were educated up to a point which enabled them to pass the examination for master-builders. The attendance was very large, especially in view of the inducement held out by the final aim of the school ; and the number of the pupils is still quite respectable, although, by the new industrial laws of Northern Germany, the examination of mechanics has been done away with. According to the report, a still more suitable organization will be introduced into these special courses during the winter of 1873-74. GERM'ANY. 69 Of the Royal Prussian Provincial Industrial Schools, only the institution at Saarbriicken had sent specimens ; and this example sufficed to show, that in the schools of this class drawing, as a rule, is undoubtedly taught by more efficient teachers than in the com- munal institutions. The verdict on these schools, as given at the Berlin Exhibition of 1870, in which they were represented, was almost identical. The progress from simple geometrical ground- forms to full}' developed ornament, according to the wall-charts by Fiirstenberg, teacher in the school at Saarbriicken, was nicely illus- trated b} r the drawings submitted ; and the method as well as the results are deserving of undivided praise. The drawings from casts, ornaments, and figures were of the most delicate execution, and, to the taste of the reporter, were finished almost too minutely " a la litliograpliie " for this purpose. The drawings from casts by the pupils of the drawing school of the Museum Wallraf-Richartz in Cologne, under the manage- ment of its director, Niessen, were equally attractive. The delicate modulation of the form rivalled the precision of the outlines. Specimens of the achievements of the Mechanics' Improvement School of the Industrial Society of Nassau were also exhibited, which deserved full praise, especially in linear drawing, for their exact and clear execution, as well as for the practical course of instruction. Newer and fresher motives would, however, be desira- ble in decorative drawing, as well as in architecture. Plenty of good things are now to be had ! The course of instruction in ornamental drawing is correct. The Prussian Educational Administration also exhibited the plans of the buildings of the Industrial Schools at Brieg, Gleich- witz, Cassel, 1 Miihlheim, of the Teachers' Seminary near Mett- mann, and of the Rhenish- Westphalian Polytechnicum at Aachen, the latter in the style of the early Italian Renaissance, and of imposing effect. As regards linear drawing in the scientific and educational insti- tutions, it remains to be remarked, that its real use is unfortu- nately very generally overlooked, and that the positive results do 1 This institution also exhibited very fine models of the framework of roofs, and a thread-model of a hyperboloid of three axes (constructed by Director Wiecke, executed by Ackeruiauu). 70 ART EDUCATION. not tally at all with those shown upon paper. As a part of math- ematics, it is especially intended to accustom the pupils to spon- taneity in severe logical thinking in space, and at the same time to habituate them to exact and careful work. Too often, how- ever, the last point only is attended to, and brilliant technical dexterit} T is all that is attempted. The various problems, which the pupil ought to develop, and to solve for himself from the demonstrations by the teacher, are simply copied from examples, and thus the subject is deprived of its peculiar aim. There is nothing more deadening to the intellect of the pupil, than the copying of a drawing which he does not understand, and in which he only finds the various constructive guiding-lines, by prolonging them to the edge of the paper, and then transferring these points to his board like a scale. Very naturally the subject is treated differently in the special schools, where the practical application is directly connected with the theory. It was regretted by many visitors, that the high schools proper, such as the Royal Industrial Academy and the Royal Building Academy, had sent no specimens of their work to the Exhibition, as they are both wont to gather an abundance of laurels on occasions like this. The first of these institutions was called into life by Beuth in 1831, and at that time had only 13 pupils; in 1869 the number had risen to 608, but in 1871 it fell to 281 in consequence of the war. Since then it has again rapidly increased. The school exhibited only two glass cases, containing its excellent collection of models of parts of machines for the study of mechanics, which were the subject of marked attention on the part of specialists. The pupils of the Royal Building Academy exhibited the wall- charts for art-historical instruction in use in the institution, and the " Examples and Studies " executed from the designs of Prof. C. Botticher, a magnificent collection for the illustration of art- historical lectures as well as for studies in cop}'ing. We may men- tion also, that the " Grammar of Ornament," edited by E. Jacobsthal, according to the principles of C. Botticher's "Tec- tonics of the Greeks," was exhibited as an aid for teaching in higher architectural schools. The students likewise exhibited- the autographed drawings made by them, as studies of architectural GERMANY. 71 monuments. The publication of these drawings commenced in 1872. Besides being well-chosen and neatty executed, they offer an advantage in this, that they are all drawn to the same scale, which facilitates comparative study very materially. This inter- esting work, of which four parts have already appeared, began with antique, ancient Christian, and Romanesque architecture, and will embrace the works of the Gothic style and of the Renaissance, down to modern times. Incidentally it may be remarked, that the price of twenty-five silver groschens, for each part, is amazingly cheap. The influence of Schinkel made itself felt to such a degree, more especially in the architectural schools of Berlin, that his spirit still animates their productions ; and, if his creative power has not been inherited by his school, he has at least left to it his artistic principles. The character of the technical tendencies of architecture in Berlin was shown most conspicuously by the more important publications in this department. The world- renowned firm of Ernst & Korn truly forms the central point for the whole of Germany, for publications of this kind ; and the works' exhibited by it occupied nearly a whole section of the middle tract of the pavilion of Group XXVI. It would lead too far were it attempted here to review all the later issues. These works are well known to specialists everywhere, and a simple mention of the praiseworthy activity of the firm must therefore suffice. Of other more important publications concerned with drawing and art-education, and to be seen at the Exhibition, the " Wall- Charts of Antique Life and Art," by Prof. E. v. d. Launitz, must be placed at the head of the list. The introduction of art-scientific instruction into the Middle Schools began with these charts ; and through their instrumentality the question as to the necessity of this stud}' was first fairl}' started. The work has been widely dis- seminated, and does not need any further recommendation. The " Ornaments of all the Classical Epochs of Art," by W. Zahn (1870), are very beautifully executed in color, but too small to be of use as copies. The " Ornamental Copies," by Bogler (Wiesba- den, Roth) are distinguished by simplicity and perspicuity of form; the " Ornaments," by J. A. Miiller, issued by the same publisher, also deserve to be mentioned. 72 ART EDUCATION. Domschke's " Drawing of Ornaments," in two crayons, is not as recommendable ; the motives are stale, and the execution hard and black. The " Drawing-school in Wall-Charts," by Tro- schel, is good as far as instruction in form and in ornament is con- cerned ; the continuation in figure-drawing is objectionable ; the charts for projection are superfluous. Projection must be demon- strated by the teacher, and the figures must be drawn upon the blackboard by him. The " Berlin Systematic Drawing School," by W. Hermes, was represented by its jubilee edition of 1872, in nineteen volumes. For amateurs these things may perhaps do ; for serious instruc- tion in drawing they are not fitted. The various pictures for the lower grades of object teaching were surprisingly deficient. With the exception of Schnorr's Bible Pictures, none of them rose above the level of the ordinary picture-sheets for children. SAXONY. The exhibition made in the Pavilion of Education by the Royal Saxonian Government principally embraced, according to the preftice of the special catalogue, " only such aids for teaching, and other objects for educational purposes, as owed their origin to the savant's, schoolmen, and manufacturers of the kingdom." But further on we find it stated, " that even in this respect it was impossible to present a complete picture, as only very few of the numerous and important works relating to the subject, and ema- nating from the university of the country and from its technical high schools, had been sent to the Exhibition." Anj- further information as to the reasons for this omission was not supplied ; but it appears that the question of space had pre- vented a more comprehensive display of the Saxonian Educational Exhibition. This can only be regretted, as it is well known, that education in Saxon} T , both general and industrial, occupies a very high position. In regard to general arrangements and statistics, the necessary information was given by a report which had been specially written for the Exhibition. Industrial instruction in Saxony is adapted to the necessities of the working classes, and, compared with Prussia, the special schools have been developed much more extensively. Drawing GERMANY. 73 consequently plays a more important part throughout the Indus- trial Schools of the country as it becomes a necessity wherever special branches are to be successfully cultivated. The education usually received in the People's Schools is accepted as a preparation by most of these institutions ; the courses extend through three years (in winter only) , the pupil continuing to work at his trade in the mean time. This is the case, for example, in the Building Trades Schools of Chemnitz, Leipsic, Plauen, Zittau, and Dresden. Sax- ony also possesses a considerable number of Weaving Schools, among which those at Chemnitz, Glauchau, Frankenberg, Oedema, Werdau, Gross-Sch6nau,.Hainichen, Limbach, and Mittweida are the most prominent. The wooden-ware and toy manufactories of the Saxonian Ore-Mountains have also received some attention of late, and drawing and painting schools have been opened in Seiffen and Griinhainicheu for their benefit. As previously remarked, there was. little to be ceen of speci- mens by the pupils, only the Technical High Schools at Dresden and at Frankenberg having made a display of any extent. Draw- ing-copies, models, and other aids for instruction, made up the rest of the exhibition. By the People's School law of 1873, drawing has also been made compulsory in the lower schools, in some of which, however, it had already been carefully practiced before. The drawing-copies of H. Schmidt and W. Zimmermann (teachers in the Middle Schools of Zwickau) must here be mentioned before all others as very superior aids for teaching in the first stages of instruction. According to Schmidt's method, the simplest geometrical ground- forms are drawn upon the blackboard by the teacher, to give to the pupils an insight into the formation of the figures ; at a later period, the more complicated forms, together with their guiding-lines, which are given in red, are copied freehand from examples. The lines of shadow must be found by the pupil him- self, the teacher having'previously explained them, after which the back-ground and intermediate planes are filled in with flat tints. Zimmermann' s copies pursue the same method on the whole. The forms are marked in strong black outlines, and relieved by colored tints, which adds measurably to their distinctness at a dis- tance. The guiding-lines, which the pupil must erase after he has sketched his drawing, are given in red dots. 74 ART EDUCATION. These methods banish all mechanical aids, and aim at the education of the eye, as well as of the hand. As a basis for the copies in question, which are exemplary as far as method is con- cerned, the " Little Draughtsman," by F. W. Tretau, professor in Chemnitz, has been used, while, for the ornamental forms, the works of Herdtle and Weishaupt have principally been drawn upon. The results of instruction in drawing in the Real-School at Zwickau deserved the fullest praise in every respect. In the higher classes of this school, the transmutation of forms, as an exercise in composition, is also practiced with very good success. By filling in the intermediate spaces between the flat .ornamental designs, the drawing receives a more lively appearance, and, at the same time, the pupil is given an opportunity to accustom him- self to the use of the brush. In the first class of the same insti- tution, drawing is practiced from the Dresden casts, 1 on paper of a light tint, color being again used to subdue the background. The Girls' Improvement School of the same place submitted very cred- itable specimens. The specimens by the pupils of the Real-School in Chemnitz were less attractive, no definite plan of instruction being apparent in them. Among the specimens there were also studies of the effects of light and shade on geometrical bodies, executed on a large scale in crayon, which takes a good deal of the time of the pupils, and is of little use to them. The Citizens' School of Werdau, and the State School of Planitz, on the contraiy, had very pretty specimens to show, which permitted a clear insight into the course of instruction. The specimens of drawing exhibited by the schools of Dresden made it evident, that in the capital of the county, more than else- where, this branch of instruction is still very uns}'stematically cultivated. Flowers, painted landscapes, even whole human fig- ures, were to be met with in the lowest classes ; besides these subjects, projection and perspective are practiced, which ought not" to be expected of children of such tender years. The school of the eighth district probably went farthest astray in this direction, as it exhibited large heads after Julien (stumped) together with 1 These casts are described on p. 75. Transl. GERMANY. 75 I landscapes after Hermes. Better results, with a more systematic course of instruction, were shown by the first Citizens' School, the First Communal School, and the Free School of the society, " Zu Rath und That " (" for council and help "). In the Girls' School, a good beginning is made with Frobel's drawing-method, but the road to a clear comprehension of form is blocked too quickly by taking up flowers and landscapes. Of the Teachers' Seminaries only the one at Friedrichsstadt- Dresden had exhibited drawings, showing the course of instruc- tion in four stages. A beginning is made with Tretau's "Little Draughtsman," which is succeeded by Herdtle's ornaments, and eventually by drawing from nature, at first from geometrical wooden models, and then from ornaments in plaster. Besides the drawing-copies alluded to as being in use in the schools of Zwickau, the plastic " Models for Freehand Drawing and Mod- elling," issued by the Royal School for Modelling and Pattern- Drawing in Dresden, must also receive honorable mention. These models were designed by Profs. Krumbholz and Hanel, and are intended to continue the instruction in drawing, from the elemen- tary stage up to the round. The collection consists of three series, the first embracing leaves in symmetrical as well as in natural arrangement, together with ornamental motives, these lat- ter principally in the style of the Italian Renaissance ; the second series comprises larger details of ornaments in successive develop- ment, up to complete ornaments (in the same style) with refer- ence to their local application ; while the third series embraces pure severe ornamentation on the one hand, and examples of a naturalistic tendency on the other, thus demonstrating to the more advanced pupils how plant-forms may be utilized fqr ornamental purposes. The publication of this collection was not undertaken as a business speculation. The models owe their origin, in the first instance, to the necessity of providing the institution which pro- duced them with good plastic examples, fitted to educate the taste and the feeling for the beautiful ; and, as it was desired to enable other institutions to share in the benefits to be derived from the use of the models, the price of the casts (executed in the casting- shop of the institution) has been placed so low that even the poorer schools can afford to buy them. Series I. ( twelve models) 76 ART EDUCATION. costs six thalers ; Series II. (twelve models) , nine thalers ; Series^ III. (nine models), ten thalers. The choice of motives in these models, and their systematic group- ing, must be called excellent, while the execution is truly exem- plary. In original models even, the edges are but seldom found as sharp and as clean as in these casts, which are herewith warmly recommended to all institutions. Other smaller works by various authors, which were likewise exhibited, did not offer any thing specially noteworthy. Selt- mann's models for instruction in drawing (wooden solids of vari- ous shapes capable of forming a variety of figures) are somewhat clumsy. Frobel's useful stigmographic copies for the first stages of instruction are well known. As aids for object teaching, there were exhibited the Bible Pictures, by Schwarz and by C. Ehren- berg; also " German History," in pictures by various authors, and Overbeck's magnificent " Atlas of Greek Art-Mythology," for the higher educational institutions. Two volumes of this exten- sive work, " Zeus " aud "Hera," have so far been issued. The Royal Polytechnic School of Dresden exhibited specimens by the students ranging through all the branches of technical drawing, together with models of bridges. The specimens by the mechanical section were especially interesting, including a large number of plates which represented the machinery of a flax-yarn spinning-mill, and of a paper-manufactory. The engineer section submitted a project for a bridge across the Elbe at Dresden, plans for railroads, viaducts, geodetical work, &c. Among the models there were many which were executed from the designs of Dr. E. Winkler, now professor at the Viennese High School, while he was yet assistant. at the Dresden school. The Polytechnicum of Frankenberg likewise exhibited the achievements of its students in beautiful arrangement, embracing .numerous portfolios and books from the preparatory class (mostly studies in descriptive geometry) , and excellent specimens from the special schools (principally machine-drawings) . The exhibition of Saxonian -toys, arranged by the commission for the advancement of this branch of industr} T , must also be men- tioned. A well-justified effort is now making, to give even to the first pictures put into the hands of the child a character which GERMANY. 77 will awaken a feeling for form ; and to reach this end it will also be necessary to introduce a better taste into the to3*s manu- factured for commerce, so as to educate the eye to a feeling for the beautiful. In the Saxonian Ore-Mountains, this industrj' has been traditional among the people for hundreds of j'ears, and its produce is scattered all over the world. The commission alluded to is endeavoring gradually to improve it, a beautiful idea, which deserves full recognition. It has been before remarked, that the absence of the work of the pupils of the Saxonian Improvement Schools was greatly to be regretted. The careful attention paid to drawing in the Industrial Schools of Saxony was made apparent by the report of the Roj'al Saxonian Educational Administration (pp. 27-33), previously cited, in which the organization of the various institutions, their division into categories, &c., was explained in detail. HESSIA. The Grand Duchy of Hessia exhibited almost noth- ing but specimens by the pupils of the Artisans' and Improvement Schools. These institutions, the first of which were opened in Darmstadt, Mayence, and Giessen in 1838, have increased consid- erabl}' since then, so that now each little town in the countiy pos- sesses one of them. The attendance is voluntary everywhere ; and, until quite lately, the instruction, to which apprentices and journeymen are admitted, was gratuitous ; at present, the pupils are charged a moderate tuition-fee (six to thirty kreutzers per month) , but the notoriousl}' poor are exempted from its payment, and in some of the schools are even provided with the necessary writing and drawing materials free of charge. The main stress in instruction is laid upon technical drawing, to which are added the other branches, such as geometiy, arith- metic, style, &c., with reference to practical wants. In view of the shortness of time, the schools confine themselves to that which is the most necessary and useful for the working-man, while the branches of education of lesser importance are passed over. No premiums are given to the pupils ; but every j r ear their work is submitted to a special commission, by whom it is examined, and reported upon. The general part of this report is published, while the part devoted to special criticism is communicated confi- dentially to the school-committees and teachers. 78 ART EDUCATION. The Hessian Industrial Association has rendered great service to these schools, whose influence upon the ^industries is so bene- ficial. The first impetus toward their organization was given by this society, and it has since done all in its power to advance the schools, and to increase their number. But the most important part of its activity consisted in the 'encouragement which it gave to the publication of practical and suitable copies. The basis for this excellent collection for all branches of industry was laid by the former secretary of the society, the present Grand Ducal Upper Building Councillor Rossler. The " Drawing Copies for the Artisans' Drawing Schools in the Grand Duchy of Hessia," as well as the "Technical Designs, and Designs for the Various Branches of Industry," which were issued at a later period, have gone through repeated editions, and have been disseminated far be} T ond the limits of the countr} T for the schools of which they were originally designed. B}' reason of their simple, practical repre- sentation, they will always remain an excellent aid for teaching in all industrial schools. The activity and the care which the society in question has devoted to the advancement of the indus- tries were most beautifully illustrated by these examples at the Exhibition. In view of the fact that these schools have evening and Sunday courses only, the work of their pupils must not be criticised as severely as if it were the production of da3'-schools ; it showed honest, conscientious effort throughout, ver} r generally also accom- panied by good results. Machine-drawing is principally culti- vated ; but some of the schools exhibited also very neat freehand drawings from copies and casts. For the benefit of technical linear drawing, it would appear desirable, however, to pay more attention to projection ; many of the schools were very deficient in it. Very good exercises were to be seen in outline ornament, which is more useful than painstaking finish in shading, wherever there is lack of time, even for the better schools. Of further aids for teaching in drawing, the models by J. Schro- der again held the first rank, the same as at previous exhibitions. This rich collection contains representations in geometry, descrip- tive geometry, machine building, stone constructions, railroad building, carpentry, metallurgy, and agriculture. Schroder's insti- GERMANY. 79 tution is so well known eve^where by its excellent productions, that a detailed description appears to be quite superfluous here. Frederic Losser also exhibited models for instruction in descrip- tive geometry, the solids being of wood, and placed upon planes, upon which their projections were drawn, together with the con- struction-lines. Very instructive apparatus for perspective, b} r the same author, must likewise be mentioned. Large wall-charts for elementary instruction in drawing were exhibited by J. Kumpa (published by W. Peyerle, Darmstadt), which progress systematically from simple geometrical elements to ornament. The forms are broad, delineated in a dark tint upon white, and the work can be highly recommended for the first stages of instruction. Besides the Industrial Schools, the Real-School of Darmstadt was also represented by specimens from the hands of its pupils ; and, indeed, very successfully. The lead-pencil, however, would be preferable to the crayon for the first stages. But the verdict upon the manner in which drawing is continued in this school must be less favorable, as there is no fixed principle. This is true, even in a still higher degree, of the Gymnasium in Darmstadt, by which drawings had also been sent. HAMBURG. There is hardly another city in Germany at pres-~ ent, in which drawing is taught as carefully and as conscientiously as in Hamburg. By the united action of the intelligent and capa- ble teachers employed in the General Industrial School of the cit3 r , a definite method of teaching has developed itself in this institution (now also introduced into the People's Schools), which deserves to be called exemplary in its well-ordered, gradual prog- ress. The favorable impression made upon the visitor by the exhibition, was not, however, to be alone attributed to the excel- lent results which were shown, but also to the painstaking arrange- ment, the conscientious adjustment of the whole, by means of which the aim of the exhibition to give an insight into methods and results was completely attained. There were on exhibition specimens of the achievements of the Elementary Schools, the General Industrial and the Building Trades School, and of the Industrial School for Girls ; the systematic course of instruction 80 ART EDUCATION. was shown by the usual drawings, arranged upon revolving stands. Before entering upon our review, we will endeavor to give a short general sketch of the organization and the arrangement of the institution under the excellent management of O. Jessen. The General Industrial School in Hamburg was opened in 1865 ; its aim being to provide the scientific knowledge and artistic edu- cation whfch is necessary to all who are engaged in industrial pur- suits, but which cannot be acquired in the workshop. Alongside of the other scientific and commercial branches, the widest field is given to drawing ; and, taking the various classes together, not less than 218 hours each week are devoted to it, which are distributed as follows : Hours. Freehand drawing 66 Drawing with the aid of compasses 28 Special drawing for building-mechanics, joiners, &c 8 Special drawing and lecture for shipbuilders 6 Special drawing for machinists, locksmiths, &c 8 Special drawing for tinsmiths, &c 4 Special drawing for painters, sculptors, &c 12 Special drawing for lithographers 8 Drawing from living plants and animals 8 Forms and color applied to art-industry 2 Drawing and designing of ornaments 8 Decorative painting 10 Modelling in clay 6 Elementary drawing for boys 44 Instruction is given on week-days from five to nine in the even- ing, and on Sundays from eight to twelve in the morning. The School for Building-Mechanics, under the same management, offers a thorough and comprehensive theoretical education, and special training in drawing. The complete course can be finished in three winters ; 112 hours each week are given to drawing, which are divided among the various branches as follows : Hours. Freehand drawing 30 Drawing with the aid of compasses . 10 Descriptive geometry 18 Architecture, construction, estimates, working-drawings .... 54 GERMANY. 81 Instruction is given daily from eight o'clock in the morning until seven in the evening, with the necessary intermissions. In the General Industrial School there are also three additional courses of elementary drawing for boys. Yearly exhibitions of the work of the pupils are held at Easter, but no premiums or other marks of distinction are distributed. In the united institutions there are at present employed, besides the director, 18 teachers, and 15 assistant teachers. The number of pupils rose to 1161 in the winter half-year of 1872-73. This number is sufficient evidence of the practical management of the institution, but its excellent reputation is mainly owing to its success in drawing. The method of elementary instruction may be briefly stated as follows : The pupils begin with drawing in squares, practicing the straight line in the various directions, in its combination in frets, borders, &c., progressing gradually to more complicated star- shaped figures. The teacher draws upon the blackboard, which is divided into squares, the pupils at the same time drawing upon slates, and at a later period into books. This is followed up by a short but thorough exercise: 1, changing a figure into its oppo- site ; 2, transformation of the opposites ; and, 3, combining new forms. Finally the teacher also causes the pupils to draw figures into the squares, from figures which he has drawn upon the black- board without squares. At this stage the instruction therefore adheres in general to the principles of Frobel. The next thing is drawing from printed wall-charts, at first in classes, then in sections, and at last individually. Instruction in drawing is separated from systematic instruction in the knowledge of form. The wall-charts offer only plane figures in front view, and without guiding-lines. The latter must be found by the pupils themselves under the direction of the teacher. A com- mencement is made with straight-line figures, which are drawn simultaneously upon the blackboard b} r the teacher ( from Dr. Stuhlmann's Wall-Charts), and these are followed up by curvi- linear ornamental forms (from the Wall-Charts by H. Wohlien). 1 When the pupils have acquired the necessary skill in these i According to a private communication H. Wohlien's charts only will be used in future. 6 82 ART EDUCATION. exercises, drawing from objects is taken up with each pupil indi- vidually. Each pupil (sometimes also two or three) draws from a sepa- rate model, which is placed before him at a distance of from 1 to 1.5 metres. The pupils must acquire the facility of discerning, estimating, and representing the changes caused by the perspective by means of simple observation in gauging with their lead-pencils. The beginning is made by F. Heimerdinger's wooden models ; these are succeeded by simple models in plaster, and by utensils, with reference to light and shade. In the upper sections of the girls' classes the drawing of designs for -embroidery is added to the previous subjects, the pupils being first made acquainted with the most important ele- mentary forms, then led to the application of a given form to vari- ous uses, and finally instructed in the making of original designs. In the Industrial Schools, drawing is practiced from models only, at first simply in outline, then gradually progressing to shading^ the various means of representation being employed in the course of the instruction. Figure-drawing is practiced only by those whose calling requires it. The specimens exhibited gave proof that all branches of draw- ing receive careful attention in the institution, that the study of ornament is supported by the study of plant-forms, and that the incitement to self-activity in composition is not neglected. The objects exhibited by the pupils of the special courses for decorators, joiners, &c., showed in the practical, simple construc- tion of the forms, and in the correct formation and application of ornament, that the school follows with zeal in the track of the reformator}- tendencies which are making way for themselves in England and in Austria. In the drawings of the objects, which drawings are not to be used as pictures, but are produced simply with a view to their practical execution, the readiest means are employed, and all superfluous painting and time-taking finish is avoided. Drawing and modelling only are practiced in the institution ; and it is left to the opportunities and to the diligence of the indi- vidual pupils to execute in their shops the designs which they GERMANY. 83 have made in the school under the direction of their teachers, This is a very excellent means of transplanting the advantages of the school directly into the industries, and therebj" keeping alive the interest in the school among the tradesmen. Several objects were on exhibition which had been produced through the instru- mental^ of the institution in this manner, and which gave evidence of a very refined taste. Specially prominent among these objects were the works of the joiners. In modelling (plaster and wax) ornamental and figure subjects had been executed, and the exact, severe treatment of the forms deserved all praise. Linear drawing is carried on quite as systematically as free- hand drawing, and the geometical constructions always find their application in practical examples. Truly excellent work Afas espe- cially shown by the School for Building-Mechanics, which also exhibited very pretty architectural designs. The execution of the drawings was as precise as it was simple ; and so-called exhibition- drawings, only calculated to catch the eye of laymen, were nowhere to be seen. The St. Pauli Industrial School, which is under the care and the administration of the General Industrial School since 1870, also submitted very good work. Although the Industrial Schools of Hamburg were not brilliant in pompous tableaux, rather contenting themselves to exhibit their achievements to the public in a more modest form, they never- theless attracted the attention of specialists to a high degree, and gave thorough satisfaction on all sides, for the very reason that their appearance was so unostentatious. The institution sent almost all its teachers to visit the exhi- bition at Vienna; and the increased experience there gathered will no doubt contribute to the further development of the schools. 1 In 1867 there was also opened in Hamburg a Girls' Industrial School (instruction during the da} 7 ) , which embraces all the branches of general education, and in which drawing is likewise cultivated 1 It was only to be regretted that the Hamburg Industrial Museum had but a limited supply of funds to make purchases of art-industrial objects at the World's Fair. In this respect the collections of Germany, Austria, and Ilussia had been more abundantly provided for. 84 ART EDUCATION. with especial care. In the higher classes of this school attention is devoted more particularly to the designing of patterns. The instruction commences with the representation of simple linear ornaments, borders, &c., executed from slight sketches ; and this is succeeded by attempts at composition, for rosettes, decorations for flat surfaces, &c., in their application to the dress, and for other domestic purposes. The drawings and finished objects which were exhibited gave evidence of surety in the handling of form, and of a health}' feel- ing in original composition. Many of the patterns invented by the pupils of the institution have found their way into various journals of fashion. The specimens by the pupils of the " Society for the Advancement of Female Industrial Activity " likewise deserve honorable mention. The Girls' School of the Women's Society in Paulsenstift also submitted drawings, which illustrated the practical character of the method in use in Hamburg. 1 I Industrial Schools at Hamburg. According to the last yearly report (1874) of the " General Industrial School, and School for Building-Mechanics," the city of Hamburg has voted eight hundred thousand thalers (about six hundred thousand dollars), for a building which is to accommodate the school in ques- tion, together with the Hamburg Real-School and the Industrial Museum. The rooms set apart for the Industrial School will embrace nineteen drawing and modelling halls, seven class-rooms for scientific instruction, several rooms for collections, and the necessary offices, &c. The great service which the Industrial Museum renders to the school is fully acknowledged in the Report, and the importance of instruction in drawing in the People's Schools is thus alluded to: " It is of equally great importance to the activity of the' Industrial School, that instruction in drawing is carried out rigidly and systematically in the Hamburg People's Schools. Even now (i.e., after drawing in the People's Schools has been taught only a short time) many of the pupils come to the school with a much better preparation than heretofore; and it is therefore possible to make good draughtsmen of them while they are still apprentices." The " Industrial School for Girls" also possesses a building of its own, which was commenced in 1872. This school was called into life by the "Society for the Advancement of Female Industrial Activity." Being a private eiitei-- prise, the cost of the building, one hundred thousand marks (about twenty-five thousand dollars) was raised by subscription; but the city donated the land (twenty thousand feet) upon which it stands. Transl. FRANCE. WITH no nation has drawing, as such, played a more important part, for upwards of a century, than with the French. In. truth, it might be said, that their wealth is owing principally to their drawing-schools, which are the mainstays of their industry, even to-day. We would have to go far back into the past did we wish to seek for the causes which have enabled the French to raise them- selves to the mastery of the world in the departments of art and of art-industry, and to maintain themselves as the recognized leaders of taste down to the very present. The first impulse towards the emancipation from blind submission, on the part of other nations, was given by the contests at the World's Fairs ; and, under the leadership of art-science, a campaign was opened against the weaknesses and the defects of established French custom. England energetically took the lead ; Austria and Germany fol- lowed, the latter, however, only in part. Thanks to the Museums and Art Schools, the reform, which took its rise at the London Exhibition of 1851, has advanced victoriously thus far, and has produced a change of forms, even in France. But with the French highly-gifted artistically as they are, and with past successes upon which they can justly look with pride the inherited tradi- tions are too strongly rooted to make a rapid revolution possible. It cannot be gainsaid that all efforts in the direction of art, although they arise unconsciously in every civilized nation, can be superintended, directed, and fostered much more readily to-day than in former times. This is first of all owing to the fact, that, as a result of the great activity displayed in the field of art-scientific research, the classics of the past have been put at our disposal, and can be used as a means for the education of taste by being presented to the people in collections. But besides these we have 85 86 ART EDUCATION. also the drawing-schools, or, more generally speaking, instruction in art, by means of which a direct influence can be brought to bear upon the productions of art and of art industry. In England and in Austria, these means for the reform of taste are in successful operation. In France, museums and collections have, of course, been in existence all along, but they were only called to mind again, as a means of art-industrial education, by the opposition which used them as a basis of operations in its warfare against inherited French traditions in matters of art. The energetic efforts lately made in France to exert a purifying influence upon the education of taste, by instruction in drawing, cannot be mistaken. But little value was formerly attached in the French drawing-schools to the cultivation or the perfection of any definite tendency in style. The celebrated national art of the French was brilliant only in technical dexterit}', in the facility of imitation, in exterior qualities, in all of which it stands unsurpassed, even to-day. Henceforth, however, the position of their industiy will depend upon the measure of success with which they may apply their technical skill to scientific and purely artistic efforts. Undoubtedly the competition at the Exhibition of 1873 has again exercised a far-reaching influence upon France. The fact that the external qualities the easy and the graceful on the one hand, the pompous and the theatrical on the other should have principally developed themselves in the art of France, while deeper feeling and ps3 r chical qualities are wanting, will find its explanation in the history of French art itself. Instead of having its sources in the poetical necessities of the people, it was trained by the courts in the service of luxury. It is characteristic, that, even in the period of the Renaissance, only those elements of the Renaissance style found entrance through the South of France, which, in the shape of ornament, were nothing but the wanton out- growth of the noble forms of that brilliant epoch. The enthusiasm for the grand creations of grave art found no reflection in France. The graceful and elegant decorative ele- ments alone were accepted ; and these, being without a firm basis, soon grew shallow and degenerated. Fontainebleau ma}' be said to mark the beginning of specific peculiarities in French art, which afterwards, during the period of the Baroque style, devel- FRANCE. 87 oped themselves still further in the most pompous and theatrical manner. Nevertheless, however emphatically we must protest against the hollowness and unmeaningness of French art under Louis XIV. and Louis XV., with its useless waste of means, and however objectionable we may regard it with respect to taste, we cannot deny, that, through the liberal encouragement of art on the part of the courts and the aristocracy, the French artists of that time had already attained a technical skill which is truly admirable, even in the works of the Baroque style. In art-indus- try especially, and in scuplture, which stands nearest to it, their achievements were most brilliant ; and the traditions of these suc- cesses have been preserved even to this day. Painting pursued a more independent course. With the period of the Revolution, a great change began in all departments of art. The first empire constituted the period of classicism. What David was for paint- ing, Canova and Bosio were for sculpture. But painting subse- quently veered around into romanticism, and, during the second empire, turned completely into realism. Sculpture, however, re- tained the forms of the antique, but also, to a great extent, the hollow pathos of the Rococo. And how were industry and ornamentation affected? Nature, pure and simple, was combined with the elements of the Rococo. She was copied literally. The ornament became every thing ; and, as a necessary consequence, the ground-form of the object was totally neglected ; the feeling for, and the comprehension of, the form in relation to its purpose, was lost, and the materials were applied in the most disgustingly false manner. Contrary to all this, the aims of the present reformatory move- ment may briefly be stated to be the following : the artistic con- struction of the ornament ; its organic development from the forms of nature ; due regard to practical use in the ground-form of the object ; and the correct application of the material employed. How far, then, has this purification of forms in industiy pro- gressed in France since the last Exhibition ? What means are employed in the schools for the purpose of encouraging fur- ther development in this direction ? And what ma}- possibly be the result of such a revolution in instruction on French art proper? These are the main points, which the reporter kept in view in c f 88 ART EDUCATION. examining the aids for teaching, specimens by the pupils, &c., which were to be seen at the Exhibition. Dark days intervened for France between the years 1867 and 1873, and the fury of war rudely compelled the studios and the workshops to pause. But in spite of these drawbacks, the country appeared in the arena of labor at Vienna most gorgeously decked. In art (painting and sculpture) not much that was new was to be seen, the traditional character being represented on the whole ; but in industry an important advance in the revolution of taste was to be noticed. The style of the time of Louis XV. is, indeed, still dominant; flowers and plastic ornamerits are still to be found where neither of them belong ; but, nevertheless, forms of well- defined style are gaining ground step by step, and the architec- tonic, which used to be tabooed, has found its way into designs for textile fabrics, into bronzes, faiences, &c. That the elements of the reform have not yet been adopted to a greater degree, and that the imitation of old, and especially of Oriental art, is more gener- allv preferred, may perhaps be owing to national pride, which at present is more irritated than ever. In these imitations, how- ever, in consequence of the national character, the effective is fre- quently preferred to the beautiful. We must now endeavor to answer the following questions : What is the prevailing tendency in the schools in regard to style ? And what position does art-instruction in general occupy in France at present ? As regards the first question, the most important point, which we will have to place above all others, is this: " What is it that is drawn in the schools? " for the practical draughtsman will finally express himself in the forms in which he was trained, or will at least find pleasure in them. The importance attaching to copies, models, &c., has long been recognized in France, and for decades Parisian firms have ruled the world by the drawing-copies published by them. Julien, with his numerous works, was the leading author until after the year 1850, and not in France alone. His smoothly- executed heads, his showy ornaments, taking to the eye, but of doubtful value for rational instruction, were to be found wher- ever there were drawing-schools. With such models figure-drawing FRANCE. 89 must of necessity go astray ; an observation which was again con- firmed at Vienna by the specimens exhibited by those institutions in which the older publications of this author are still in use. Besides Julien's copies, there were also employed simple ornaments (of which those by Bilordeaux were perhaps the most elegant) , and, above all, studies of flowers. Standard examples of the latter class were produced quite early, and are still being produced ; for in them lies the most important element of industry. Now came the World's Fairs, and competition demanded forms of greater precision in industry. But these could be introduced only by new means of art-instruction. The revolution that has been consummated in the department of art-instruction in France, within the last few years, is a most portentous sign of the gradual revolution of taste in French art- industry. Drawing-copies no longer spring into existence out of the imagination of individuals ; a stricter method is pursued in the selection of motives, and a return to the classics has taken place. The firm " Julien" itself brought out "Etudes d'apres T Antique ; " but these unfortunately were again too bold, too broad in treat- ment, to be useful as standards in the elemental stages of figure- drawing. In ornament the Renaissance was at first gone back to ; but finally motives and forms from the whole range of art-history were presented in the copies, beginning with the Hindoos, Egyp- tians, &c., and reaching down to the latest Rococo. The imita- tion of the most varied styles in modern French industry may have some connection with this fact. A number of prominent pub- lishers, such as Delagrave, Delarue, Ducher, Monrocq Freres, Baudri, Morel, &c., have produced truly magnificent works of this kind. The return to classical examples, and more especially to the antique in figure-drawing, has continued to increase since the last Exhibition ; and the government of France, even up to the present time, has given its support to these efforts. To be sure, the fruits of this movement, generally speaking, are not visible as .yet ; but it must be acknowledged that energetic efforts are making eveiy where to introduce purer elements into form. Of the latest publications to be seen at the Exhibition, men- tion must be made before all of F. Ravaisson's " CLassiques de PArt, Modellcs pour 1'Enseignement du Dessin." Most of the 90 9 ART EDUCATION. photographs of which this series consists are taken from the clas- sical plastic works of the Louvre, the rest being from drawings by the old masters ; and they are treated in a manner which makes it easy to copy them in crayon or other material. An excellent management of light, together with well-chosen backgrounds, give the greatest lucidity to the form, especially of the plastic objects. The work embraces two hundred plates, but is unfortunately too luxuriously gotten up to enable it to come into general use. Price, eight francs each plate. In accordance with a desire of the government, it is to be introduced into all the Drawing-Schools, Lycea, &c., of France, for the purpose of purifying taste by means of the antique, and of giving unity to ideas on art. For the present, however, only a few of the Parisian schools possess it. In the provincial cities, where the older elements are as yet more deeply rooted, these modern efforts are sometimes forced to contend against gross prejudices. The " Cours de Dessin par Ch. Bargue (avec le Concours de Gerome) " outdoes all earlier productions, although it is more general in its tendencies. The first part contains sculpture from antique models in exceedingly delicate, picturesque treatment; the second part brings us faithful copies from classical works of various kinds, drawings by the old masters, &c., of all epochs, among which the "good" German masters have not been forgot- ten. The execution is slight, but exact, and in only one cra}'on. These superior examples (published since 1868) have already found their way into many of the Austrian schools ; and their general introduction is most desirable. The " Exercises au Fusain pour preparer a 1'fitude de 1' Academic d'apres la Nature" (Hachette, 1871) can be put to excellent use in higher drawing-schools, as a preparation for academical studies. The work consists of sketches onty, and special attention is ,de- voted to quick comprehension and correct proportioning of the figures. Among the publications of Monrocq Freres, the " Grand Cours d'Animaux," by H. Lalaise, is to be singled out ; the exe- cution is somewhat bold, but the forms are rendered with consid- erable knowledge. The " Modeles d'apres la Nature," b} T J. Ducol- let et Felon, on the contrary, go back again entirety to Julien's manner. FRANCE. 91 Of ornaments the " Cours d'Ornement," by Lievre (Goupil, 1868) must be placed at the head of the list, as being superior in its choice of motives. The objects original models in all styles are represented in a manner easily comprehended, on paper of a light-gray tint, in craj'on underlaid with the stump. With examples of this kind, it is indeed easy to teach the styles in the drawing-classes. A similar work, 'but one which em- braces the history of art still more fully, is that of Camille Chazal (Hachette). The first plates represent Egypt in figure, orna- ment, and architecture ; the Orient follows in a similar manner, then the classics of antiquity, and so on down to the Renaissance. In the last part, on French art, the object of the plates, to serve as drawing-copies, has unfortunate!}' been lost sight of somewhat ; the smaller genre-pieces might have been left away quite as well. The work compiled by the meritorious Frere M. Victoris, " En- seignement Populaire du Dessin d'Ornement," intended for ele- mentary instruction in ornament-drawing, is carried out in a similar spirit. The motives are given in outline with geometrical lines, lightly shaded, and in historical order. This work has been introduced into most of the primary schools which are under the care of the " Congregation of the Brethren of Schools ; " farther on, we shall have to speak of its successful emploj'ment in in- struction. In the same schools, the " Cours d'Ornempnt," by the Frere Athanase, conspicuous for its easy, elegant execution, is likewise frequently in use. The forms begin at once upon the first plates with palmettos, spiral lines, &c., and advance to motives of moderate difficulty, which are culled from the classical monu- ments of the Renaissance, of the Greeks, Romans, and Etru scans, and of the Gothic style. They are executed in one crayon on paper of a light tint. Series of copies for the first stage of instruction have been pro- duced in Paris in large masses of late years ; and, on the whole, it may be remarked, that the principal aim held in view, even at the very beginning of instruction, is an artistic and free manner of expression. The question here is not and this is the essential difference between French and Germans the exposition of the form, its geometrical construction. The straight line is quickly done away with, or is simply omitted ; and all efforts are at once 92 ART EDUCATION. directed upon the object of instruction, i.e., on freehand ornament in its development. Long practice of outlines as such is very sel- dom seen. As it is the aim of all French art to interest, to grasp the mo- ment in its focus, and to please the eye by a wealth of variety, it is not strange that we should find this national trait distinctly ex- pressed even in the first aids for teaching. It must undoubtedly be beneficial in many respects, if, during the earlier years of child- hood, the imagination is fed upon forms which have been taken directly from life, and if the drawing-book answers first of all the purposes of an instructive picture-book, while at the same time it offers an opportunity for the ready imitation of the forms. To awaken and to retain the interest for the beautiful at a time when the activity of the mind still unfolds itself more or less unconsciously, is certainly a piece of pedagogical legerdemain ; but success may surely be counted upon if the material selected for instruction is made to conform closely to the instinctive ele- ments in human nature. Drawing, the same as any other sub- ject, demands a certain maturity of mind for each of its stages. Learning to see, however, which is the principal discipline in drawing can only be attained by means of highly developed and adequate object-teaching. Of later publications for the first stage of instruction in form, we must confine ourselves to those issued by the more prominent among the active Parisian publishers. " L'ficolier Parisien, simples Modeles de Dessin avec Esquisse " (Monrocq), offers, in small books, a collection of the more simple forms in the various branches of drawing, and, according to the motto upon the titlepage, aims at instructing the hand in drawing lines, and educating the eye for form. The figures are executed in vigorous outlines, and are repeated at the side towards the right, in fine lines, which at first are simply to be gone over ; later on, the pupil copies more independently. The low price (ten centimes each) at which these books (sixty thus far) are sold, is astonish- ing. "Le Dessin pour Tous (Methode Cassagne) " is similarly ar- ranged, but in addition the books are furnished with a short explanatory text. The whole work, indeed, far exceeds the ex- FRANCE. 93 ecutive ability of the children for wnom it is designed (this may be remarked more especially of the " Etudes du Genre"), but its purpose is to train the eye, rather than the hand, in the matter of form, and principally to acquaint this organ with the most important and the most beautiful in art and in nature. Besides this, the firm of Monrocq Freres, which is exceeding^ active in the field of instruction in form and in drawing, publishes a jour- nal, "Le Petit Artiste" (1st and 15th of each month), in which motives from all departments of drawing, with a short text, are pre- sented in the greatest variety. Whoever turns over the leaves of the volumes thus far published will be forced to acknowledge, that the choice, as well as the execution of the objects, which is some- times quite artistic, are well fitted to create an interest, and to be practically useful in teaching the knowledge of form. Luzanne's slate-copies are likewise a very recommendable means to interest children in the imitation of forms. The drawings are executed in red lines on the left half of the slate, and are reflected, by means of a glass plate placed vertically, upon the other blank half, where the outlines are gone over by the hand of the pupil. The " Cahiers d'Enseignement Pratique du Dessin," by J. Carot, the " Cahiers Esquisses de Dessin d'Ornement," by A. le Bealle, as well as the works of J. Bardin, L. Grunblot, Blery, &c., are already devoted to higher aims in drawing-instruction proper ; and it needs only to remark in general, that the plastic ornament prevails everywhere. The natural flower gradually steps into the background. Land- scape likewise is very properly excluded from elementary instruc- tion ; and, indeed, since Calame's incomparable lithographs, noth- ing prominent in this genre has appeared. Strange to say, very- little has as yet been done for elementary figure-drawing. It is evident, that art-instruction in France is bent especially upon the practical, upon industry, in which department truly magnificent works have been published, and in which the Parisian publishers, in spite of the efforts of the English, still stand unsurpassed. The space at command would have to be exceeded, if only the most prominent were to be mentioned. These works have been given to all the world ; and it must be sufficient here to have drawn attention to them. For instruction in linear drawing, numerous works were also 94 ART EDUCATION. exhibited, all of which, however, moved in the same track, i.e., after the general part, aimed immediately at practical application. Here, again, the most prominent work was the excellent " Cours de Dessin Geometrique et Industrie!," by the Frere Victoris, which was already favorably known from the Exhibition of 1867. With it there were also exhibited the models (of plaster and of tin) be- longing to it. Mention must also be made of the " Dessin Line- aire Industrie! applique a la Mechanique et a la Construction," by M. S. Petit. Of geometrical models there are still to be noted the practically arranged collections of Rives, Delagrave, A. Julien, and others. They offered nothing new, however. Hach- ette & Co. exhibited wooden models for descriptive geometry and stone constructions, and small models of machineiy. The " ficole Professionelle " at Evreux had sent a variety of models for locksmiths, joiners, machinists, &c. Having given a general idea of the tendencies to be observed in the copies, &c., lately published, we will now turn to the schools, i.e., to drawing-instruction itself, and, in reviewing the drawings by the pupils, we will likewise consider the methods, arrange- ments, aims, &c. It is well known that educational matters in France, even to- day, leave much to be desired, and that, in spite of the efforts of the government, the communes, and of humanitarian societies, they are still in a very defective state. Compulsion has not been carried through ; and thus it happens, that even in the metropolis, in Paris, it is a rarity if children of the poorer classes attend the elementary schools for a longer period than three years. Accord- ing to the figures given in a report of the Chamber of Commerce of Paris in 1867, twenty-five thousand children still of the school- age were at that time drawn away from school by the Parisian manufactories and other establishments. But this number has increased considerably since. 1 That drawing does not play a prominent part in the People's Schools, will therefore be readily understood. Still the subject is i According to a report of the " Societe pour 1'Instruction Elementaire," of the year 1870, there are two millions of children in France who receive no instruction whatever, and fourteen millions of adults who can neither read nor write. FRANCE. 95 cultivated in many institutions (as an elective stud}') , and in Paris especialty a teacher of drawing is employed for the Municipal Schools of each arrondissement. In the Elementary Schools under the charge of the u Christian Brethren," drawing is cultivated incomparably better and more systematically. Although the method here is likewise left to the choice of the individual teacher, a certain system, more or less successfully carried through, has nevertheless been generally in- troduced through the copies published b}' the congregation itself. On the average, the children begin to draw at the age of from nine to ten years, freehand and linear drawing being treated as totally separate branches. In freehand drawing, geometrical forms are therefore omitted, and, as before stated, rhythmical ornament is immediately aimed at. The copies most in use are those already named, by Victoris and Athanase, partially also those of J. Carot. The teacher executes the drawing in hand upon the blackboard on a large scale, and explains it; each pupil (in the case of large classes every two pupils) has before him a lithographic copy of the same original, showing the drawing as it is to appear when finished. The pupils always draw with charcoal upon paper light- ly tinted, and correct the forms, by wiping with tinder, or cloth, until they appear correctly ; this is succeeded by the execution in crayon or in lead-pencil. The drawings executed in this manner, and exhibited at the World's Fair, frequently showed results that were quite astonishing ; and those of the " ficole de St. Sulpice " (Paris), and "St. Michel" (Havre), must be mentioned more particularly. As shaded, plastic ornament is practiced from flat copies in these schools, the transition from the flat to the round is much easier there than from the outline-ornaments universally introduced with us. In the numerous Boarding-Schools connected with the element- ary educational institutions in France, which, especially in the provincial towns, are frequently in charge of the " Brethren," and in which there are often found pupils fourteen to sixteen 3*ears of age, drawing from the round (casts) is practiced with the best success. The models of ornaments are taken almost exclusively from the Renaissance, those for the figure from the antique. The portfolios exhibited in large masses by the various educa- 96 ART EDUCATION. tional institutions of the provinces unfortunately gave evidence in but few cases of a systematic course of instruction. Most of the specimens sent were selected show-pieces done by the more tal- ented scholars, some of which, indeed, claimed our admiration, but were little in accordance with the purposes of the Exhibition. This much only became evident from all that was to be seen : that each teacher cultivates his own genre, according to his espe- cial liking, and that no uniform principle has as yet been carried through in general. As a rule, instruction in drawing in the in- stitutions named culminates simply in brilliant execution, and, having no positive aims, frequently degenerates into shallow dilet- tantism. Thus in the " ftcole Communale " of Marseilles almost nothing is drawn but pictures of saints from bad lithographs, and the objectionable large heads in cra}*on by Julien ; at the St. Joseph School at Beauregard, Thionvilie, the ornament is prac- ticed, but in conjunction with figures and landscapes, which make it apparent that drawing is there treated only as an amusement ; in Besar^on, again, landscape in charcoal is attempted, and so on. The Boarding-School at Toulouse, on the contrary, exhibited a tolerably systematic course of instruction, from simple geometrical forms up to well-developed ornament. Good drawings from casts were also to be found in the portfolios of the institutions at Mou- lins, Rouen, and Clermont, where some of the drawing-copies lately published are successfully used. In the more important cities, evening-classes are connected with these institutions, which are frequented by persons engaged in industry, and in which draw- ing is therefore taught with more especial reference to particular trades. Excellent work is done in these schools in constructive drawing, and, indeed, linear drawing is generally well cultivated even in the lower educational institutions. In freehand drawing, however, very praiseworthy specimens were likewise exhibited. We will here mention only those by the schools of St. August! n and St. fitienne du Mont (Paris) . Superior drawings from casts had been sent by the schools of Rheims and Besan9on. With these we ap- proach the field of the special schools, in which, as is well known, drawing receives better care than in any other schools in France ; but, before passing on to them, we mast glance at the higher Peo- ple's Schools, the Lycea (the " ecoles secondaries" in general), FRANCE. 97 in which drawing ought to be practiced rather as an element of general than of special education. This demand, however, has not been satisfied by the study of drawing, as taught in the schools of France up to the present ; for even in the Primary Schools special aims are generally kept in view, and drawing is simply cultivated for the practical purposes of in- dustry. As little attention as in other states has, so far, been paid in France to general art-education, i.e., to educating the people to a comprehension of art ; and the French Lycea, as Latin Schools, are quite as much strangers to it as are those of Germany and of Austria. The official instructions for drawing at the Lycea (De- partment of the Seine) do not even intimate that the subject is looked upon in this light ; for, besides fixing the hours (one to two per week) , they confine themselves to prescribing the regulations to be adhered to in teaching. But these regulations receive very little attention, being of a nature which makes it next to impossible to carry them out. During the first two 3'ears, for instance, with one hour weekty, the study of the ornament is to be completed ; in the two following (two hours weekly) the human! figure and per- spective are to be taught ; and so on, leaving to the last classes (two hours weekly) " figures in light and shade from casts." The specimens by pupils in this category only served to show that the teachers treat the subject according to their own indi- vidual fancy, and attach but little importance to it. Some of the institutions had again committed the mistake of sending magnifi- cent show-pieces, with the names of the pupils attached (Nimes for example), which can only be passed by in silence. The same error was made by man}' of the Communal Schools (and especially of the Department of the Seine) in respect to linear drawing; unless, indeed, these children are prodigies, who, at the age of twelve years, are capable of producing a locomotive in all sec- tions and all projections, or complicated architectures in perspec- tive, with an exactness, and a manual skill, such as wa*s shown in the work which some of the schools did not shrink from oiler ing to the admiration of specialists. The higher courses of the u ficoles communales (lai'ques) " of Paris exhibited very creditable specimens ; ornament, lightly shaded in crayon, is mostly practiced after the manner already 7 * 98 ART EDUCATION. specified. Drawing in the schools organized after the pattern of the " ficole Turgot" (Colbert, Lavoisier, Auteuil) rather bears the character of the professional, which, in truth, is the first aim of these* schools. Constructive drawing predominates. Of the ' ' coles commerciales " (founded by the Chamber of Commerce) the school at No. 23 Avenue Trudaine exhibited drawings by its pupils, mostly decorative pieces, and designs for textile fabrics, which, however, offered nothing new as far as style is concerned. In the girls' schools for general education, drawing is, indeed, practiced everywhere, but the results are below those of the boys' schools. Flowers and landscapes are taken up before outlines have been sufficiently practiced, which self-evidently must lead to dilettantism. In the " ficoles professionelles " for females, draw- ing is more successful, and more so in those under the patronage of the Archbishop Mons. Guilbert than in those called into life by Duruy. Of the institutions first named, twenty-one have been organized down to this time in the various arrondissements of Paris, according to the necessities of the different localities ; and drawing is cultivated especially with a view to female industrial pursuits. The " ficole professionelle " of the Faubourg Pois- soniere deserves to be especially mentioned for its pretty needle- work and tasteful drawings. It may be gathered from what has been said so far, that much is still left to be desired in instruction in drawing in the French schools for general education, and that, above all, a common centre is still wanting, proceeding from which well-defined principles might be enforced. No one, however, will doubt that it is very difficult to introduce reforms in a state in which educational mat- ters are still in so many different hands, and are, indeed, in great part left to private enterprise. The efforts made in this direction by the government since. 1870 deserve full recognition ; and the future of France may be congratulated, if all that is now pre- scribed by law can be carried out. The French have generally intro- duced their innovations according to the measure of their wants ; and the }*ear 1870, therefore, brought to their educational institu- tions, what the World's Fairs brought to their industry, i.e., a re- form. They demonstrated plainly at the exhibition in the Prater, that they are capable of holding their own against all other states FRANCE. 99 in the new direction which taste has taken. For this they possess inherited advantages. But it is still a question of the future as to how far the reforms in matters of education can be accomplished. The luxury of the upper classes in France during and after the epoch of the Baroque style kept French industry in a flourishing condition, and aided its diffusion all over the world. Lucrative occupation called forth numerous industrial schools in which the French artisan gained that technical routine which marks French industry even to-day. Everything done for art-industrial drawing by the government, by the communes, or by individual manufac- turers, was done, as already remarked, not so much for the pur- pose of purifying taste, as with a view to increasing wealth, and keeping business in a flourishing condition. All the world, indeed, believe 1 to be beautiful, and admired, whatever came from France. Thus, although it is left to other nations to lead form back to law from caprice, France still has the advantage of a legion of technically well-trained workmen, made over to her by her past, who can be used to good purpose in the reform of her art-industry, while in other countries such workmen will first have to be educated. The special Industrial Schools arose in obedience to local wants, and, in the provinces, are mostly of a purely local character; in Paris the larger schools are so organized as. to serve more general interests. Besides the higher Art-Schools, the city at present has forty Public Drawing-Schools, which are sustained partly by the commune, parti}' by the government, or by private individuals. All the Municipal Schools, furthermore, have evening classes, in which apprentices and adults are. taught free of charge. The greater number of these evening-classes were opened as late as 1864 ; and the attendance in the yQ&r 1 869 had risen from twelve hundred to four thousand ; after the war it decreased again to two thousand. The attention which the commune of Paris has lately bestowed upon the Industrial Improvement Schools is best shown by the increase in the amount expended upon them, which, from thirty thousand francs shortly after the year 1850, has now reached the sum of three hundred and fifty thousand francs. 1 The best of the drawing-schools at present to be found in 1 What Paris does for Art. The following interesting remarks are taken from an article by R. v. Eitelberger on "The Cultivation of Art by the State," 100 ART EDUCATION. .Paris were mostly established some time ago by capable artists, and at a later date were subventioned by the commune. Of these, the schools of E. Levasseur and Just. Lequien are still the most prominent. At the Exhibition, the works of their pupils were incorporated into the " Exposition de la Ville de Paris," where the contained in C. v. Liitzow's "Art and Art-Industry at tlie Vienna World's Fair, 1873," Leipsic, 1875, p. 208, &c. " We have before us the ' Liste des Objets exposes par la Ville de Paris ' (Exposition universelle de Vienne, 1873. Paris, 1873. 143 pp.). What were the objects principally exhibited by the city of Paris? They were objects of art. " Under the heading ' Service des Travaux d' Architecture,' we find the Palace of Justice by J. L. Due, the Chamber of Commerce by Bailly, the Church of Sfr Ambrosius by Ballu, the Church of St. Augustine by Baltard, the Church of St. Bernard by Magne, the Church of St. Francis Xavier by Lusson, &c., several communal. and school buildings, the fountain of the ' Theatre francais,' that of St. Micliel and Luxembourg by Davioud, and so on. The most inter- esting objects are the projects for the restoration of the 'Hotel de Ville,' especially those by Ballu and Deperthes, which received the first price. It will be seen that the city of Paris employs independent architects in the erection of its buildings. " This section is followed by the ' Service des Beaux Arts,' consisting of Peinture (paintings, designs, water-colors, photographs, painted windows), Sculpture, Gravure (medals, copperplate engravings), and Tapisseries. The catalogue of the 'Service des Beaux Arts' takes up fifty-four pages, and is well worthy of detailed inspection. "Among the historical painters who have been employed by the city of Paris, there are to be found artists of all tendencies: Barrias, Delacroix, both the Flandrms, Blaize, Hesse, Jobbe Duval, Lehmaun, Lenepveu, Robert- Fleury, Signol, Yvon, and others. " Most of the oil, fresco, and glass paintings were executed for the churches of the city of Paris, the lesser number only having been executed for other public buildings; the same is true of the sculptures. In this department artists of various tendencies are also met with : Carrier-Belleuse, Duret, Fre- rniet, Guillaume, Maillet, &o. The old custom of coining medals in memory of important events has been kept up by the city of Paris. "Among the copperplate prints there are specimens, executed in line- manner, from paintings which belong to the city of Paris. In short, this ex- hibition of the city of Paris was a hint to all those who desire to know why art flourishes so vigorously in France. It is not only because the art-schools of France are better organized, and are managed in accordance with higher principles, than elsewhere, but it is also because the arts are provided for in the budget of the commune." Fortunately for America, we are not encumbered with a state church, so that the religious branch of art is out of the question with us. But would not the bare white walls of the halls of our public schools, of the council chambers of our city councils, or of our legislative halls, offer a splendid field for the ex- ercise of the powers of a coming race of Aruerican historical painters? Ti'ansl. FRANCE. 101 admirable model of the Lequien School was likewise to be seen. It showed the grand drawing and modelling hall, which is used in common, with all its arrangements, down to the smallest detail ; adjoining this on both sides, the halls for scientific lectures ; the hall for the living model (human figure) ; the collection of models ; the office, &c. This school received a premium at the last Paris Exhibition, for its exceedingly practical arrangement; and in Vienna it was likewise highly applauded by specialists. In Lequien's school, as well as in most of the municipal schools, of Paris, all branches of freehand and linear drawing are taught,, and its exhibition made an imposing impression by the artistia* perfection, as well as by the variety of its work. In the choice of the motives of ornamentation in these higher schools, the tra- ditional, indeed, has not yet been fully done away with. 1 The Rococo still disports itself in tolerably extravagant variations,, and has been preserved, especially in Levasseur's school ; but,, alongside of it, the Renaissance has already appeared upon the* field with tolerable decision, and, with the examples of classical architecture, the ornamental motives of the latter are likewise coming into use. Figure-drawing adheres much more closely to* the antique. The French, in fact, have never degenerated as- much in the figure as in ornament, and their preference for antique- forms, especially in sculpture, is characteristic. The execution in drawing, although picturesque throughout, never neglects modu- lation, and the effort at complete deception is always apparent. The feeling for light and shade is educated to a much higher degree in the French schools than in the German, in which latter the main stress is laid upon the elaboration of the form, and the truly picturesque effect is slighted. The German drawings from casts have a plastic look ; but the shadows are mostly untrue in tint,, and black to exaggeration. Even in the choice of the tint of their paper, the French show a finer feeling ; and it never happens that drawings are made upon paper i the local tint of which does not correspond to the tint of the object. 1 The designers -working for art-industrial purposes are in the same state of vacillation. Their works were exhibited in the transept of the French division. V. Duinont, Prignot, J. Dnhuisson, are all of them still flirting with the style of the time of Louis XV. Edan already employs purer and more compact forms. J. Gonelle and Charles Fransois remain unsurpassed in their designs for shawls. 102 ART EDUCATION. The academical studies evince precise, individual conception, coupled with a good understanding of the anatomy. The practice of sketching from the living model, carried on in the school of Lequien (fils) , is very praise worthy. The position of the model is changed at the end of two hours, and the scholars are held to study and represent nature as fully as possible during the time allowed ; certainly a much more practical wa} 7 of studying it than by means of the minute finish given to the objects according to the method still so often the fashion in German art-schools. It must not remain unnoticed here, that the new drawing-copies, spoken of above, are in general use in the municipal drawing- schools, with the best of success, and that Julien has been driven from the field. . In architectural drawing there were exhibited, of classical sub- jects, Greek columns and temples, but surprisingly little of Italian Renaissance. Most of the drawings of facades are taken from the epoch of French pomp, or adhere to the insipid productions of modern times. Constructive drawing proper, on the contrary, flourishes in all its branches, and especially in the department of machinery. <>y the administration, and are required to execute two drawings under surveillance: first, a copy of an ornament from the Mat; and secondly, acopy of an ornament from acast. Three pi-ixes and six honorable mentions are given yearly. Each medal is accompa- nied by a diploma signed by the prefect. 106 ART EDUCATION. les ficoles Primaires et dans les Classes d'Apprentis ou d' Adultes de la Ville de Paris," the enactments of the year 1865 (by Duruy and C. E. Hausmann) are still in force. The examination which the drawing-teachers of the " ficoles Municipales " must undergo before the commission especially appointed for the purpose embraces the following subjects : For free- hand drawing : 1 , The execution of a drawing from a plaster orna- ment ; 2, A drawing from an antique statue ; 3, A thoroughly finished drawing of the human figure from nature ; 4, An original composition of an ornament with figures (the candidate ma} T draw or model, according to his preference) ; 5, Correction of an orna- ment and of a figure drawn by a pupil ; the correction to be made before the commission by the candidate, who is held at the same time to accompany the correction b} 7 explanations given in a loud voice (en expliquant a haute voix) . For linear drawing the candidate must execute: 1, An archi- tectural theme according to a given programme, and, 2, A prob- lem of descriptive geometry ; furthermore, 3, He must pass through a verbal examination on the elements of mathematics, geometry, descriptive geometiy, perspective, architecture, and mechanics. As superintendents of drawing, two inspectors were nominated (for the department of the Seine) , according to the organization of the year 1865 (Article II.), whose duty it is to report to a com- mission on the activity of the teachers, and to see to the conser- vation of the schools. The commission just mentioned consists of fifteen members, five of whom are renewed every 3*ear. It examines the candidates, proposes the models (originals) for drawing-instruction, and decides on regulations, methods, pro- grammes, &c., for drawing in the different schools. The duties of the inspectors were more clearly defined in the year 1870, in four articles by the prefect, M. Henri Chevreau ; and a circular by the present " Directeur de I'Enseignment" Greard still further emphasizes that each school in the department must be inspected at least twice a year, and that a detailed report must be made . to the prefect. The attention which is devoted to drawing in France, and the readiness with which sacrifices are made for it, have no doubt been FRANCE. 107 inspired by industry, and industry has repaid the outlay with bountiful interest. It needed only a stroll through the art-hall, however, to make it apparent that art itself, which has always been at the service of the manufactures to a much greater extent in France, than in Germany, is likewise recognized by the govern- ment as an important factor of industry. Nearly two-thirds of the 1024 French paintings and sculptures were marked in the catalogue: " Belonging to the state" (" Appartient a Pfitat"). The millions expended upon them are abundantly returned to the coffers of the state through other channels ; l and this policy of France in respect to art can only be recommended to other states. Let the laurel decorate not only the sword, but also the lyre of a nation, and let us remember the lesson, already demonstrated to us by antiquity, that art, if it is to flourish, must be fostered by the government. But, at the same time, let no nation neglect to educate its people to the comprehension of art a problem which in France, quite as much as with ourselves, is still awaiting its solution. 1 The statistics of commerce showed thirteen hundred millions of francs in 1851, and four thousand millions in 18G9, of which nearly one-half is made up by articles of luxury. ITALY. THERE are few branches of art-industry whose origin and first development must not be sought upon Italian soil. The revolution which took place in art in this country during the Cinque-Cento acted also upon the art-industries. While in art the human figure suddenly awoke to life, in art-industry the ornament freed itself from its rigid architectural framework, shot forth in an abundance of animated forms, and developed such a wealth and variety of motives, that, even after the pause which was brought about by the Baroque period, it was still capable of becoming the never- failing source of modern industry. The Italian Industrial Exhibi- tion plainty showed how the development of form in art-industry can be influenced by good examples. The Italy of to-day may, indeed, be likened to a museum contain- ing the monuments of all those branches of art whose triumphs were achieved upon its soil a few hundred years ago. With these splendors continually before its eyes, it is impossible for Italian industry to leave its noble old traditions. It continues to build in the same direction, uses the motives already in existence, and transplants them, as the gardener transplants his flowers, into the most varied compositions for the decoration of its objects, and in this manner is finally led to original invention in the spirit of the ancients themselves. But, together with the forms of the Renaissance, its various technical processes have also been inherited ; and Italy is therefore still unsurpassed in certain departments of art even to-day. The spirit of the Renaissance has been handed down undimmed in the ornament as applied in the industries ; but in the figure, that form which of all forms is the most truly artistic, it has descended from sublime solemnity to the naive and the profane. It made a 108 ITALY. 109 painful impression upon the lover of art to see so much brilliant technical execution, in the Italian sculptures, wasted upon so much that was unmeaning. It would lead us too far, were we to enter upon the principal branches of Italian art-industry as regards forms and technical management. The skill of the Italians in glass and in marble, in faiences, bronzes, and above all in wood- carvings, is an inheritance of the classical period of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. The traditional education in the matter of form, by means of the schools, is closety connected with these various branches of industry. It is remarkable, for instance, that in the ornamentation of textile fabrics, which has for some time been ignored in the schools, the traditions of the Renaissance have died out almost entirely, and foreign (French) elements have found entrance to a greater extent than in other departments, a proof of the connection which exists between art-instruction and the modification of form in industry. It was commerce, undoubt- edly, which prescribed the models for the schools in Italy ; and the artists trained in the spirit of the Renaissance made the forms of the Renaissance traditional ; but, when the artists followed the fashion in regard to French flowers in the designs for textile fab- rics, the schools took no notice of the fact. Now, if the design- ers in this branch had also been trained in the classical forms by the schools, these forms would certainly have maintained the field. In the industrial districts of Italy drawing is indeed more than a desideratum, and therefore finds the most careful cultivation. The " scuola tecnica" very generally has also the character of a technical school in which technical aims take the precedence of the elements of general education. The drawings gave evidence everywhere of the practical purposes of the decorator, even in linear drawing, in which the geometrical ornament (mosaic floors, &c.,) always played an important part. The Exhibition had been abundantly supplied with drawings by the pupils. All the prov- inces of the country, far-off Sicily not excepted, were represented by portfolios ; and, in view of the mass of interesting material, it was only to be regretted that no systematic arrangement had been made, either geographically, or according to the categories of the schools, and that the government had neglected to delegate a 110 ART EDUCATION. specialist to the Exhibition who might have supplied further in- formation. The representation of the course of instruction had only been partially kept in view ; generally speaking, mere exhibi- tion pieces had been sent, i.e., the best productions of the schol- ars. We shall begin with the North of Italy, that part which was most extensively represented in the Exhibition. The "Istituto Industriale e Professionale " of Turin exhibited specimens by its pupils, which embraced all the departments of drawing. The drawings of the technological sections were espe- cially prominent, and the course of instruction in the preparatory class could be clearly traced in them. In the special courses very good specimens in machine-drawing were to be seen, while archi- tectural and topographical drawing was also represented by ex- cellent work. In freehand drawing the ornament (in lead) was especially brilliant. Drawing in this institution is intrusted to the excellent management of Prof. G. A. Boidi, the author of many works in this specialty, which were on exhibition, and must here be mentioned. His " Manuale di Disegno Lineare Geo- metrico ' ' embraces the knowledge of form applied to geometrical ornaments, projection applied to buildings, and the most impor- tant parts of perspective. The same author's " L'Ingegnere," *.n which descriptive geometry is thoroughly treated, the examples being mostly selected from machinery, may be looked upon as a continuation of the first work for the higher classes. For archi- tecture the " Corso Compiuto di Disegno Geometrico Industriale " offers an excellent school in construction, while the " Manuale di Disegno Architectonico " contains beautiful motives for architec- tural decoration. Boidi' s "Corso Eleinentare d'Ornato " has been designed for the first stages of instruction in freehand drawing, in accordance with the legal requirements of the plan of instruction. It pro- gresses gradually from simple leaf-forms to move developed orna- ment, and is succeeded by the " Corso Progressive d'Ornato Ombreggiato a Due Dinti," which serves as a preparation for drawing from nature, and embraces Renaissance forms as well as Gothic forms. It is somewhat hindering in these copies, that the tint fills in only the outlines of the figures, while the background is left white ; otherwise the execution, and the treatment of form, ITALY. Ill are very neat. For female industry the author has published a " Corso di Disegno a Mano Libera," flowers executed in sepia and in colors ; but this is not as successful as the other works. The motives in the ^ Corso di Disegno Applicato ai Lavori Don- nesche " are entirely in French taste. Boidi has extended his activ- ity also to topographical drawing, as was shown by his " Corso Metodico Teorico-Pratico di Disegno Topografico," in which the elements of this branch of drawing are arranged in good order. The " Scuola di Ornamentacione del R. Museo Industriale " of Turin was represented by very beautiful modellings, which were especially brilliant in their virtuosity of execution and their mas- tery of form. Prof. Pietro Giusti, the director of the school, ex- hibited a frame artistically carved in wood, in which an abundance of charming motives in the style of the early Renaissance had been united into a whole. Two volumes of drawings of designs for decorative wood-carvings, by Giusti, were also submitted. They adhered throughout to the spirit of the Renaissance, and, by introducing the forms of figures and animals, offered many new and original motives. In the " Scuola Governativa di Po," of Turin, older French ex- amples are mostly used, and the results were of less importance. Very good specimens were exhibited by the " Scuola Civica Fem- inile di Disegno Industriale," at Genoa ; they also gave an insight into the method in use in the institution, which in many respects is identical with that employed in France. The pupils begin by sketching simple forms on a large scale with charcoal on gray paper, and then draw the outlines with brush and India ink ; in the further prosecution of the exercises the surfaces are laid in with the brush and the forms are drawn with the pern, This is followed up by drawing from wire-models, from geometrical solids, and from casts of ornaments. In the higher courses, drawing from nature is extended to other objects, such as flowers, fruit, &c., ornaments for flat surfaces in color being practiced at the same time. Finally, after the requisite preparatory studies have been made, the pupils are exercised in original composition. The designs of this kind which were on exhibition deserved unquali- fied praise for their technical execution, as well as for their taste- ful style. In some cases, natural flowers played so delicately and 112 ART EDUCATION. gracefully about the forms of the Renaissance, that these two decorative elements united with each other quite harmoniously, although they are in themselves incongruous. In the " Scuola Professionale per le Artigani " French taste pre- vails almost exclusively. This school also gave a comprehensive survey of its course of instruction. The drawings of the " Scuola Tecnica Occidentale," of Genoa, did not offer any thing especially interesting. The " Istituto Tecnico" of Alessandria submitted very attract- ive specimens by its pupils. Freehand as well as linear drawing showed a very correct course of instruction ; and machine and architectural drawing was particularly well represented. The topographical drawings were also very praiseworthy ; in figure- drawing, however, deficiencies were noticeable, which made them- selves felt also in ornament wherever figures had been introduced. The institution at Guneo, of a similar character, had sent beau- tifully executed outline ornaments and architectural drawings, and pretty drawings of furniture, &c. From Milan only the " Scuola Superiore di Agricoltura " had sent some drawings by its pupils. Among them there were to be found landscapes (Calame) in pencil on tinted paper, heightened with white, of especially neat and clever execution ; also flowers from French examples, which, however, did not come up to the originals. Drawings from casts of ornaments, exceedingly minute in execution, were sent by the u Reale Scuola Tecnica " of Pavia. The drawings were executed partly in pencil or crayon, partly in India ink, and the relief had been imitated to the point of photographic illusion ; the same almost excessive execution was noticeable in linear drawing, where, especially in the perspective studies of stereometric bodies, the ne plus ultra of finical execution with the brush had been reached. On the other hand, the really constructive, the geometri- cal element in itself, appeared to have been neglected, geometrical ornaments and architectural decorations being prevalent. The " Scuola Tecnica " of Lodi exhibited good ornaments and India- ink drawings from geometrical bodies ; in linear drawing : con- structions, the orders of columns, and mosaic floors. The work of the " Scuola Serale di Carita" at Lodi was less attractive. At the "Scuola Popolare della Societa d'Industriale e Belle ITALY. 113 Arti," in Vigevano-Lomellina, drawing is practiced without the least system. A good commencement is made in ornament after the French manner; but otherwise landscapes, flowers, &c., are copied purely after the amateur fashion, while drawing from the cast is very deficient. The specimens sent by the " Scuola Com- munale Maschile-Feminile " of Codogno, although consisting only of show-pieces, must also be condemned. With the exception of some well-drawn heads, all these specimens exhibited a want of training, of comprehension of form, and of execution. Very excellent specimens in linear drawing were shown by the "Istituto Tecnico" of Mantua in machine drawing and archi- tecture, as well as in topographical drawing. The " Reale Isti- tuto Industrial " at Piacenza exhibited a collection of casts from nature and from ornaments, which can be recommended for instruc- tion in drawing. The " Patrio Istituto Manin " of Venice was also represented at Vienna by superior specimens, the same as at Paris at the time of the last Exhibition. In the first course instruction progresses from simple geometrical forms to more complicated ornaments in the usual manner ; and in the second course drawing from plastic models is taken up. These drawings (in India ink and in pencil) were most exact and artistic in their execution. The main stress, however, is laid upon drawing with reference to the various spe- cialties, all branches of which were represented by eminently successful specimens. Linear drawing appears to receive less care. Quite a peculiar method is employed for the first stages of instruction in the "Reale Scuola Tecnica" at Venice. Con- structive perspective is here practiced ; but freehand work is sometimes introduced into the same drawing (glaring mistakes, however, were noticeable here and there) ; this is followed up by the study of objects from nature (minutely executed), and con- structive drawing of a very defective quality. The greatest part of the labor in most of these drawings had, however, been expended upon the borders surrounding them. These borders were frequently quite artistic in execution, the most complicated Greek and Renais- sance ornaments having been employed ; and they must have taken three or four times the time devoted to the drawings themselves. The projections were good, and tolerably well finished; there were 8 114 ART EDUCATION. likewise ornaments from casts, executed in the well-known brilliant manner, sometimes grouped together with other objects in small groups of " still life," frequently quite picturesque, but always treated as show-pieces. Such work will ever remain a waste of time. The " Scuola Tecnica e Serale " at Ravenna exhibited large draw- ings of Renaissance ornaments, partly in good outlines, partly in India ink ; and larger groups of models and vessels in color, as well as pretty architectural pieces. The specimens by the " Scuola Tecnica" at Treviso stood upon the same level ; projection-draw- ing in this school is also good, and, as an exception, figure^ drawing likewise. At the "Istituto Tecnico" of Udine constructive drawing and descriptive geometry are practiced pretty thoroughly, and are suc- ceeded by geometrical ornament (mosaic floors) and the orders of columns ; in freehand-drawing, surface ornament in color is culti- vated more especially. Prettily-drawn ornaments in pencil and in India ink, from the " Reale Scuola Tecnica e Scuola Festiva," must also be mentioned ; but the arrangement of the specimens was tolerably unsystematical. Turning now to the South, we must notice first of all the splen- did achievements of the " Scuola Tecnica Pareggiata " of Ferrara. The drawings of this school, almost exclusively Renaissance ornaments, were executed with admirable delicacy partly in pen- cil, partly in India ink, and color. Among them those pictures of groups of objects were again especially brilliant, which find such general favor in Italy. In linear drawing there were good studies in projection, columns, arches, &c. The achievements in free- hand-drawing of the " Scuola Tecnica Diurna " of Bologne were equally good, a stronger emphasis, however, having been laid upon colored decoration ; the institution also submitted good architectural drawings. But the specimens of the " Scuola Tecnica Serale " of the same citj 7 were among the most prominent of the whole Exhi- bition. Among them there were to be found large decorative Renaissance ornaments (in various styles of execution) , represen- tations of " still life " of amazing virtuosity, flowers, fruit, &c., drawings from jewelry of the best period, charming vessels, furni- ture ; in short, studies for all branches of art-industry. ITALY. 115 The technical communal school " Dante " at Florence gave a very comprehensive survey of its course of instruction, and of the method emplo}