' THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA PRESENTED BY PROF. CHARLES A. KOFOID AND MRS. PRUDENCE W. KOFOID THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM; HAND-BOOK OF PLANTS AND FRUITS. BY L. D. CHAPIN. WITH ONE HUNDRED AND FORTY ILLUSTRATIONS, A COPIOUS GLOSSARY, ETC. Comprising: PART I. VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY, ANATuMY OF PLANTS, ORGANS OF PLANTS, COMPARATIVE PHYSIOLOGY, PRINCIPLES AND KINDS OF PLANTS, BOTANICAL CLASSIFICATION, VEGETABLE CHEMISTRY, CHEMISTRY OF AGRICULTURE, VEGETABLE GEOGRAPHY, AMERICAN VEGETATION, VEGETABLE REGIONS, AGENCY OF LIGHT, HEAT, AIR, MOISTURE, GEOLOGICAL CHARACTER OF SOILS, HEALTH, FOOD, AND HABITS OF PLANTS, VEGETABLE ALIMENTARY PRINCIPLES, NUTRITIVE QUALITIES OF PLANTS, USES OF VEGETABLE FOOD. PART II. CEREAL GRAINS, OR CORN PLANTS, FOOD OF ANCIENT AND MODERN NA- TIONS, VEGETABLE INTOXICATING AND OTHER DRINKS, TEA, COFFEE, &c. SUGAR, COTTON, HEMP, FLAX, TOBACCO, COAL, SILK, HONEY, PAPER, POTASH, THEIR NATURE, USES, STATISTICS, t ESCULENT ROOTS, SPICES, -< By L. D. OHAPIN, Published by JEROME LOTT, 156 Fulton Street, N. Y. Illustrated by 140 Engravings, Maps, Copious Glossaries, SfC. PART IST. Heads and Divisions of Subjects. PREFACE, p. 4. INTRODUCTION, p. 5. Importance of a knowledge of veg- etable products want of acquaintance with their nutritive and medicinal properties, uses in the arts and domestic, economy condition of the world without them the food of man and animals source of life, civilization and happiness a glance at their various uses in life and special properties important examples explanations of the objects and character of the work. ELEMENTS AND OUTLINES OF VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY, p. 13. Sketch of divisions and history of Plants variety and classification progress of dis- covery knowledge of the ancients arrangement of Linnaeus numbers and characters results of commerce fruits and garden plants. Physiology of Plants structure and composition definition of terms; fluids circulation evolution odor color secretions excretions existence and growth- changes reproduction sexes substances, etc. Principles of Plants, p. 20. Proximate principles acids gums wax- resins fixed oils volatile oils sugar modes of procuring and preparation 2d class of principles ultimate elements examples, &c. composition of sap powers of plants nourishment sponglets sap vessels forms and variety existence of plants age of plants examples, etc. Comparative Physiology of Plants, p. 23. Relations between plants and animals opinions designs of Supreme Wisdom instinct reason exam- ples feeling physical causes phenomena structure, etc. Microscopic Vegetables, p. 27. Appearance location species develop- ment diffusion of seeds remarkable examples, etc. Animal Plants marine products radiated animals powers of volition- sensation germination infusoria zoophytes senses principles of life , etc. Laws and vital principles, p. 29. Organic and inorganic matter seeds de- velopement of life light decomposition death. Diseases of plants, p. 31. sources of nourishment quantity and quality causes of diseases reme- dies deformities insects extraordinary cases larvae remarkable exam- ples economy of plants location forms germs uses important kinds. Diffei-ences in species of plants, p. 34. Anomolous character transforma- tions signs of the weather. Periodical opening of flowers times remarka- ble examples singular facts superstitious notions dedications, etc. ooa TABLE OF CONTENTS. Carbon a constituent of vegetables, p. 37. Elements of the world the dia- mond assimilation of carbon a constituent of the body quantities con- sumed and expired by man combinations in plants Bread made of trees preparation sugar and starch. Charcoal, p. 39 Uses in the arts methods of making. Organs of Plants Necessary to nutrition necessary to reproduction- definitions engraving. VEGETABLE ORGANIC CHEMISTRY, p. 40. Elementary parts of plants Requirements of plants particular kinds require particular manures, soil, etc. vitality of organs dependence on the atmosphere nature of the air decay and final products of plants quantities of carbonic acid soils humus production and use life of plants provisions of the atmosphere quanti- ties and use of oxygen primeval vegetation nutriment of plants effects of light of darkness plants yield oxygen functions of seeds and leaves size and development of organs extraction of food from soils transform- ation of nutriment -decomposition of water appropriation of food form- ation of acids nitrogen and amonia uses as food of plants earthy salts kinds and uses juices of plants remarkable properties elements for the growth of plants generation of plants peculiar wants and supplies peren- nial and annual plants causes properties of seeds sugar of the maple formation processes plants improve or deteriorate soils their different requirements change of forest trees causes matter expelled from roots alkalies kinds and properties in vegetation appropriation nitrogen hydrogen uses, etc. ORGANS OF PLANTS, p. 53. Seeds Their importance to all existences structure seed lobes phenomena of growth embryo gemlet size, num- ber and forms of seeds illustrative cuts membranes of seeds germination air light growth of one lobe of two lobes leaflets radical time of ger- mination cut of structure of seed lobe elements of seeds heat develop- ment of parts selection of seeds new mode of preparing seeds effects of the discovery guano remarkable products. Roots, p. 58. Their character form powers selection of food habits parts of roots offices of each spindle-shaped, with cut abrupt, with cut branched, with cut -fibrous, with cut tuberous, with cut necklace, with cut hand-shaped, with cut bulbous, with cut-truncated, with cut scaly bulb, with cut creepiny, with cut bulb-bearing, with cut general character uses, with cut duck-meat, with cut, etc. Stems of Plants, p. 63. Origin and growth membranes vascular texture spiral and annular vessels glands bark various functions fluids of plants circulation of sap interesting phenomena cuticle cellular integu- ment and cortex their functions perfect wood sap-wood divisions of plants, according to internal structure monocotyledonous dicotyledonous endogenous exogenous, with three cuts circulation effects of injury TABLE OF CONTENTS. divisions of stems seven classes leaf stalk branches bulbs. Appendages of Plants stipules thorns prickles glands scales stings tendrils pubescences bracts hairs, etc. Leaves of Plants, p. 70. Cellular structure ribs veins origin skin secretions excretions expiration respiration habits functions foliation periods forms of leaves plants known by these description insertion size color duration causes defoliation anatomy and physiology pow- ers, etc. Suds, p. 75. Leaf-buds flower-buds characteristics uses formations budding frondescence, etc. Fruits, p. 77. Product of flowers processes kinds of fruit causes secretions position food diseases causes light heat properties seeds duration composition divisions structure. Classification of Fruits, p. 81 nine classes orders classes and genera capsules, with cuts peri- carps, with cuts bivalve, with cut dllicle, with cut legumes, with cut uni- valve, with cut drupes, with cuts berry, with cuts compound do., with cuts pomes, with cut strobulus, with cut pappus, etc. Flowers, p. 84 Composition floral envelops sexes calyx, with cut position division parts, with cuts corolla petals various forms, with cuts nectary odor, etc. The Sexes, p. 87. stamens pistils positions form, etc., with cuts style stigma pollen diffusion, with cut organs combined, with cut phenomena of sexes inflorescence position of flowers various parts described compound and aggregate flowers, etc. BOTANICAL CLASSIFICATION, p. 90. Linncen system characteristics of clas- sification natural families artificial and natural classification rules vege- tation reproduction subdivisions classes orders genera species va- rieties descriptions changes stamens and pistils descriptions with nu- merous cuts. Classes, p. 93. Described from one to twenty-four orders genera and species described. Natural classification of Jessieu, p. 98. prin- ciples lessons directions descriptions analysis divisions by the fruit. The Natural System, p. 101. method classes sub-classes tribes descrip- tions characteristics Natural Orders and classes described, etc. p. 103. VEGETABLE GEOGRAPHY, p. 106. Its importance causes particular plants local vegetation, etc. Outlines of American Vegetation, p. 108. Forest trees of North America northern, middle, and southern districts east and west divisions prairie regions rocky mountains review of kinds peculiarities and uses comparison of American and French forest trees, etc. Topography of Plants, p. 112. Local circumstances tribes of plants wars against one another examples remarkable plants red snow plant particular plants in particular places dispersion of plants causes seeds streams seas winds birds obstacles deserts mountains orders habitation of plants, etc. Vegetable Regions, p. 116 Twenty-two regions denned. TABLE OF CONTENTS. Influence of the elements on Plants, p. 118. Effects in their distribution tolar light general effects. Temperature, p. 121. Particular months im- portance of heat effects illustrated different climates freezing tempera- ture effects on particular plants excitability of plants, etc. Heat and moisture, p. 124 Examples degrees explained where plants flourish moisture importance mean temperature illustrated examples cited applications effects on tissues, etc. atmospheric moisture examples in New York and parts of the world effects of wind evaporation amount degrees. Radiant heat, p. 126. illustrations influence of soils general influence of the atmosphere illustrations, etc. General Remarks, p. 128. Adaptation of plants indigenous plants culti- vation and productions illustrations effects on the condition of man, etc. Vegetable regions of America, p. 131. Illustrated and defined by two Maps remarks, etc. CHEMISTRY OF AGRICULTURE, p. 132. Character of plants composition organic and inorganic matter choice of soils table of elements of plants ashes constituents estimated inorganic matter proportions in soils soluble ingredients insoluble earthy parts proportions to be supplied, etc. Geological character of soil, p. 136. Subsoil soils explained position of rocks, with a drawing stratified and unstratified valleys and elevations of strata, with drawing nature of soil produced natural order explained divi- sions of strata character and names of soils effects of inundations effects of climate powers of absorption temperature of soils. Chemical constitu- tion of soil, p. 139. choice of location by plants soils sick of certain crops preparations for other crops supplying the soil with food for plants sea weeds charcoal properties, effects and kinds of manures estimated Animal substances, p. 142 for fertilizing soils nature and examples digested substances onimalized charcoal effects nitrogen in substances eaten source amount Mineral waters salt kelp. Lime, p. 145 uses effects sources irrigation of soil draining productive powers of soils chemical constitution Analysis of soils, p. 148. qualities and quantities of grain elements gathering crops food afforded per acre table of estimates ele- ments required in food and animals kinds of plants and proportion of nutri- ment, etc. ELEMENTS AND PROPERTIES OF VEGETABLE FOOD, p. 154 Interest of subject divisions of aliments elements of food in plants vegetable diet mixed food necessary man omnivorous carbon combinations production of animal heat carbon consumed climate on consumption of food diseases combustion of fats and oils in the lungs extraordinary consumption of fats, etc. in northern regions organ of alimentiveness examples first and second classes of elements of the body hydrogen nitrogenized food for nutrition identity of vegetable and annual composition analysis of the food of the horse Liebig's views alcohol and its properties non-nitrogenized food TABLE OF CONTENTS. for respiration proportions of nitrogen afforded by plants phosphorous and phosphates of food and the body chlorine of the blood, etc. sodium-- calcium magnesium potassium, etc. ALIMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF VEGETABLES, p. 165 Divisions seeds prox- imate and ultimate principles composition of flour and meal, etc. Farinaceous principles Proportions in the grains uses as food time of digestion, etc. Lignine or woody fibre, p. 167 Skin and husks of grains and fruits prac- tice of eating effects vegetable jelly, etc. Albuminous principles Nutrition, etc. Oleagenous principles, p. 169 Fixed and volatile oils fatty matter uses and composition butler preparation volatile oils essences, etc. Protieu- aceous principles their importance, fibrine, casseine, etc. Vegetable albumen, p. 172 Elements gluten proportion in grains quali- ties uses, etc. Mucilaginous alimentary principles. Gums proportions in plants, etc. WATER, p. 174. Proportions in plants and animals drinks essential properties in the body qualities divisions well, pump, river, spring, rain, lake and marsh waters properties, etc. Analysis of Croton water Man- hattan Boston and Philadelphia water filtration distillation Sea water > composition Mineral waters kinds, etc. NUTRITIVE QUALITIES OF FOOD, p. 177. Proportion of solid matter, water, carbon, nitrogen, and time of digestion of principal vegetables con- clusions of Magendie, etc. secretion and composition of gastric juice pro- cess of digestion cooking mastication, etc. Time of eating, p. 180 Quantity of food return of hunger children fed too little food before exposure to disease or miasma, etc. luncheon break- fast dinner, etc. Amount of food to be eaten intervals between meals respiration and growth in children apetite remarks future volume. TABLE OF CONTENTS. PART SND. Heads and Divisions of Subjects. PREFACE. -EXPLANATIONS OF TERMS AND BOTANICAL ABREVIATIONS, (so that the class, order, species, and botanical description of every plant in the work is found under the head of each plant, as well as its description, varie- ties, nutritive and medicinal qualities, modes of. culture, domestic uses, prepara- tion, preservation, composition; and therefore, THE WHOLE CHARACTER will be seen at once.) THE CEREAL GRAINS OR CORN PLANTS Their importance to mankind divi- sions and definitions origin distribution causes grains of different nations products of United States ; produce of each state progress of improvement culture last years products increase exports proportions for each person wheat estimate of future products amount of exports estimates of foreign grains English lands and products exports of each country, etc. Wheat, p. 16. Character varieties cultivated, with descriptions and cuts of each modes of propagation crops of United States diseases Blight ex- plained weight and price English products and duty American varieties composition of wheat straw manufactures in the United States, etc. Rye, p. 22. Cut value compared varieties composition products and exports of nations distillation diseases, etc. Indian Corn, p. 24. Where cultivated origin prejudices qualities uses modes of preparation products of United States and other countries varieties planting culture story of the Indian Chief Broom corn man- ufactures. Corn Sugar quality product mode of extraction, etc. Rice, p. 28. Cut origin in United States importance in India varieties composition modes of culture product of the United States rice bird uses preparation, etc. Oats, p. 32. Cut where cultivated species and varieties uses proper- ties products culture, etc. Barley, p. 33. Growth and product composition culture varieties with cuts uses in beer English production land and vast consumption re- marksliquor distilled in the United States, etc. Buck Wheat, p. 37. Cut origin prejudices character growth uses products of United States, etc. Millet, p. 39. Cut character growth culture species, etc. Proximate principles of the Grains, p. 40. Starch kinds modes of obtain- ing elements sugar gluten albumen gum table of quantities vegeta ble diet, etc. Bread, p. 43 History and kinds processes of making qualities ant character composition effects of eating potato bread warm bread- rice bread ginger-bread breads of rye, barley, rice and Indian meals wooc bread table of composition of vegetables, etc. TABLE OF CONTENTS. Food of the ancients, p. 49. State of society causes oi improvements- food eaten ages, etc. FOOD OF MODERN NATIONS, p. 51. Products and consumption ot vegeta- bles in France, Switzerland, Italy, Spain, England, Scotland, Ireland, United States comparisons estimates cattle. Mexicans, Persians, Arabs, Abysi- nians, East Indians, Chinese, Japanese, Tartars, Siberians, Norwegians Sweeds, Germans, Belgians, Russians, etc. Drinks remarks. INTOXICATING VEGETABLE JUICES, p. 58. Remarks beer constituents effects adulterations, etc. Consumption, p. 61. Estimates France England United States im- ports and exports calculations relative amounts of alcohol comparisons statistics, etc. Fermentation, p. 64. Methods wine distillation rum, brandy, spirits, gin, arrack, whiskey. Malt, p. 66. brewing processes consumption statistics, etc. IMPORTANT BEVERAGES. Kinds remarks, etc. Tea, p. 67. Cut character tree tea of China species sorts culti- vated modes of cultivation modes of preparation composition proper- ties physiological effects importations, etc. Coffee tree, p. 72. Cut character origin introduction cultivation species preparation by different people qualities effects production exportations consumption statistics, etc. Chocolate, (Cocoa), p. 76. Cut description qualities preparation va- rieties, consumption, etc. Sugar cane, p. 78. Cut varieties sugar history cultivation manufac- ture refining processes proportions consumed molasses -qualities com- position effects products statistics average consumption and importa- tions product of United States, etc. Cotton Tree, p. 85, Cut history species products of United States- culture exports produce of all countries manufacture progress in the United States consumption calico printing in United States statistics, etc. Hemp, p. 90 Cut character production cultivation extraordinary effects of seeds preparation manufacture canvass and cordage consump- tion importations, etc. Flax, p. 94 Cut varieties history cultivation preparation manufac- ture composition Unseed properties, etc. Mulberry, p. 97 Varieties Silk modes of preparation worm arts of rearing worms manufacture of silk history progress in United States crops silken fabrics, etc. Papyrus, p. 101 description and ancient use. Paper modern manufac- ture do. in United States do. in England qualities, etc. Tobacco, p. 104, Cut history description composition physiological TABLE OF CONTENTS. effects administration uses cultivation manufacture processes for snufl chewing, smoking, etc. products of United States exportation duties statistics remarks, etc. VEGETABLE SUBSTANCES Honey, p. Ill Character properties uses efiects Comb cut Wax, etc. COAL, p.l 13 Remarks character uses origin production Bituminous Anthracite mines and working in United States varieties geological char- acter formation productions in United States, etc. Potash, p. 118 Character preparation uses decomposition by Davy products of plants soda, etc. ESCULENT ROOTS, p. 120 Enumeration and composition. The Potato varieties history and origin introduction singular preju- dices cultivation propagation varieties diseases produce composi- tion starch with cuts nutritive properties modes of cooking comparisons estimates new species and varieties, etc. The Beet, p. 131 Character properties products uses mangol wurzel composition sugar mode of producing quantities nutriment cultiva- tion manufacture of sugar products, etc. Turnip, p. 134 character varieties cultivation composition amount of nutriment, etc., Carrot, p. 136 character history properties j uice uses composition soil and cultivation, etc. Parsnip, p. 139 varieties uses culture composition, etc. Radish, p. 141 Culinary uses varieties properties culture, etc. Skirret Character culture uses, etc. Horse Radish, p. 143 Uses preparation properties, etc. Jerusalem Artichoke Growth uses culture, etc. Arrow Root Uses properties consumption, etc. Salep Nutriment importations uses, etc. C.issava Species preparation qualities uses, etc. ALSO, p. 148 Tumeric, Scwzoneca, Draggon Root, Arum, Cyperus, Cam- punela, Psoralla, Wild Liquorice, Dentaria, Earth Nut, Bind Weed, (Enothera, Tacca, Culadium, Golden Thistle, Club Rush, Arrow Head, Smilax, Hottentot's Bread, Arracacha, Yam, etc. LEGUMINOUS PLANTS, p. 153 Remarks THE PEA Character varieties production origin cultivation composition properties how to preserve modes of cooking. Chick Pea, food of the Hebrews and now in the East. Sweet Pea, etc. Beam, p. 159 Origin varieties modes of cooking cultivation of best varieties diseases mode of preservation uses, etc. Other Legumes, p. 163 Sacred Bean, Cytissus, Vetch, Corab Tree their properties uses, etc. ALIACEOUS PLANTS, p. 164 Remarks GARLIC Chemical composition TABLE OF CONTENTS. uses source species description medicinal uses Syrup cultivation preservation, etc. THE ONION, p. 167 description cultivation in other countries modes of cooking composition peculiar qualities as food production in the United States varieties medicinal uses. Tree Onion, etc. Chives cultivation properties uses, etc. Leek, p. 171 Varieties properties uses cultivation, etc. Shallot properties uses cultivation, etc. Rocambole Qualities cultivation, etc. CRUCIFEROUS PLANTS, p. 173. Remarks. BRASSICA Remarks. Cabbage Varieties " Saeur kraut " cultivation uses properties r ode of cooking preservation Cow cabbage. Cauliflower, p. 177. Cultivation delicacy. Brocoli Culture properties varieties. Borecole Varieties culture qualities. Rape Culture seed ^-useful properties. Milan Cabbage, p. 179. Brussels sprouts culture properties, etc. ACETARIOUS PLANTS, p. 180. Remarks. Salad Plants Remarks Celery varieties qualities uses culture, etc. Spinach, p. 183. Varieties properties uses wild spinach. Parsley Culture-uses properties. Endive Chickory varieties properties culture. Lettuce, p. 185. Qualities varieties culture lettuce opium uses, etc. Mustard, p. 187. Varieties culture uses physiological effects proper- ties of seed manufacture, etc. Cresses, p. 189. Common garden culture uses. Water Cress Arts of raising qualities. Indian Cress Water lily properties and culture. ALSO, p. 192. The description, properties, uses, culture, etc., of burnet, corn salad, corhorus, fennel, salsafie, common nettle, sow thistle, sorrel, oxalis, (with anew species of great value,) lovage, angelica, stone crop, myrrh, goose foot, tarragon sylybum, samphire, picridium, waterleaf, alexanders. ASPARAGINOUS PLANTS, p. 197. Remarks Asparagus soil qualities modes of early culture shakers, etc. Artichoke Origin varieties uses qualities. Cardoon, Sea Kale. SPICES Black Pepper, p. 200. Culture in East Indies productions ex- ports composition effects medicinal uses long pepper cubeb pepper, etc Capsicum Varieties uses preparation red pepper, etc. Pimento or Allspice, p. 203. Qualities composition uses betel. Nutmeg, with cut Culture qualities imports composition uses oil Cinnamon, p. 295 Description imports cultivation composition me dioinal uses, etc. Cassia Character imports properties and uses. Ginger Properties preparation uses. Clove, p. 208 Introduction Cultivation by the Dutch oil composition imports Mother of Cloves Use by the ancients cherry capsicum bird pepper, etc. TABLE OF CONTENTS. HERBACEOUS SEASONING PLANTS, p. 211 Remarks character culture- varieties properties cullinary and medicinal uses preparation and compo- sition of Thyme, Savory, Stock, Mints, Sage, Majoram, Mary Gold, Chervil, Basil, Borage, Okra, Hyssup, etc. PLANTS DISTINGUISHED FOR THEIR AROMATIC SEEDS, p. 217 Remarks varieties cultivation properties medicinal and domestic uses and prepa- ration of Anise, Caraway, Coriandar, Cumin, Dill, Common Jasmine, etc. MISCELLANEOUS EDIBLE PLANTS, p. 220 Rhubarb varieties cullinary and medicinal uses cultivation composition, etc- Also of the Cabbage- Palm, Cane Tree, etc. EDIBLE FUNGI, p. 222 Description composition propagation qualities varieties culliuary uses, etc., of Mushrooms Truffle Morrel Lichens Fucus Cenomyce, etc. EDIBLE WILD PLANTS, p. 226 Description nutritive properties prepara- tion, etc. of White Beet Couch Grass Sea Pea Wild Chickory and others. CONTENTS OF A FUTURE VOLUME, In preparation by the same Author. With Numerous Illustrations. FRUITS of every useful Mnd Mellons, Drupes, Pomes, Berries, Nuts, etc, their properties, edible qualities, chemical composition, nutriment, modes of preparation, domestic and cullinary uses and preservation ; with the pro- pagation, growth, culture, diseases and remedies of Fruit Trees, Shrubs and Vines, with all useful information in HORTICULTURE. MEDICINAL PLANTS their culture, properties, preparation, chemical com- position, administration, with remarks, etc. GUMS AND ACIDS their character, modes of preparation and various uses. PLANTS USEFUL IN THE ARTS Including forest trees used in the mechanic arts, and others used in dying and for the various domestic purposes, etc. FOREST TREES Their important character, relative qualities, uses, propa- gation, etc. ORNAMENTAL TREES, SHRUBS AND VINES. CURIOUS AND REMARKABLE PLANTS. Also Plants useful in Agriculture. GARDENING and Garden Plants. GRASSES, their kinds, qualities, culture American Grasses, etc. USEFUL AND ORNAMENTAL FLOWERS their culture, properties, and all other interesting particulars. TABLE OF IMPORTANT FACTS and an APPENDIX, embracing all the latest discoveries and improvements in the various branches of Agriculture, particu- larly, in the adaptation of plants or fruits to the useful and ornamenra) purposes of life. INTRODUCTION. Nothing contributes more to the pleasures and necessities of man than the productions of the vegetable kingdom. Every constituent of the bodies of man and animals is derived from them, not a single element being generated by the vital principle. We must see, consequently, that they constitute the fountain of animal life from which are de- rived, not only the vital energies that animate the world of organic beings, but all the comforts and luxuries of our race, both in a civilized and barbarous state. Whether we regard them, therefore, as essential to the life and growth of animals which furnish us with food, or partake of them as they are presented us immediately from the bountiful hand of nature, they are alike important to mankind. Nor do they, as articles of food, contribute more to the gratification of the animal taste than they do, as beautifully organized beings, to the mental taste and the rational indulgence of the noblest faculties of mind. Again, it is not only in the life, the health and the growth of the animal body that we perceive the importance of vegetable productions, but likewise in the unlimited materials they alone afford us for pro- tecting and preserving it from injury and death ; and that, too, in a manner alike necessary for comfort and for the gratification of the caprice and the most diversified tastes of society. Under any circum- stances, therefore, in which the life, the interests and pleasures of man are concerned, they constitute the most important subject which can engage our attention. But it is deserving of remark that the majority of people, perhaps, and even those of the most cultivated society, are singularly ignorant of the character and nutritive properties of the most distinguished products of vegetable nature ; except so far, perhaps, as they confer a momentary sensation of animal taste, felt equally by all the lower orders of animals which are necessarily unconscious of their origin, nature and tendency. It is but reasonable to assert, however, that it is the interest as well as the pleasure of every intelligent mind, above that of the mere vegetative animal, to inquire into the causes, effects and qualities of productions thus essential to life and the enjoyment of the physical and social condition of man. Viil INTRODUCTION. What, indeed, would be that condition and that of the whole animal world, if it were possible otherwise to exist, without the resources and oeauties of the vegetable kingdom ? Not only would the face of the earth be devoid of all that is now lovely, rich, animating and productive in herb, shrub and tree, foliage, blossom and fruit, but nowhere would oe seen the splendid arts of man which now adorn and diversify it. Naked and houseless should we roam the bleak and barren world, shrunk and deformed by withering blasts, or scorched beneath a torrid sun, with all around a wide, wild and desolate waste. But little better should we be, enriched, enlivened and beautified as is our fair earth, with all that is useful, charming and fruitful, were we unacquainted with the nature and properties of the vegetable pro- ductions by which we are surrounded. Thus, then, whilst nature cheers and animates the world, and pours forth her fruitful treasures upon the earth, she would be, in all else, rude and desolate but for the use made of her bounties by the genius and necessities of man. Hence it was at the first, and now is, our greatest interest and pleasure to become acquainted with the vegetable products designed for our life and happiness. But, though necessity has taught us the use of many of those prod- ucts so important to life, and fashion that of others for the mere luxury of sense, we are still unacquainted with many of their most valuable qualities ; nor are the majority familiar with a tithe of what has been, or may be known of their utility in the various purposes of life. Nature does, indeed, point us to our beautiful mother earth, and ask us to contemplate her all-bountiful bosom, of which we are so way- wardly neglectful. She has spread for us a luxurious repast in the vegetable kingdom substances innumerable that may be reproduced and multiplied in quantity and variety without limits. She invites us within her banqueting house and bids us select for ourselves among the choicest of her products. She does not, as with many, demand even the gathering, but she points out the best products and suggests to us the uses to which they may be applied, in numerous ways, to our wants in health and disease, or to our greatest convenience or luxury as food, or as important objects in the useful and ornamental arts. To render thus familiar, then, the products and uses of vegetable na- ture, as already determined by and known to others, and to induce persons to reap the advantages of those uses, without the inconvenien- ces of experience, is the design of the following pages. For this, little or no studied or practical effort is necessary. The whole is intended to exhibit the nature and useful qualities of fruits and vegetables, so that any one may become familiar with them, or apply them to his use in all the varied purposes of life ; and also that he may not at all times depend on the dictum of the inexperienced, or the caprice and cupidity of the interested, but may serve himself better and always in a manner most satisfactory, economical and safe. INTRODUCTION. IX The whole study of life, in earlier periods of man, was necessary to acquire a knowledge of fruits and plants essential to health and exis- tence ; and the longest was incapable of affording an approach to the comforts and luxuries now known and enjoyed. An hundred genera- tions devoted to this object were unequal to what may now be acquired in a few hours' quiet reading reading which, unlike much of that of the present day, contributes immediately to the length, utility and plea- sures of existence, which enlarges our views of creative wisdom and power and gives no false coloring to life which improves the morals, taste and judgment and is eminently useful and instructive in all the individual and social interests of life. A glance at some of the uses of a few vegetable products in the com- mon purposes of life the arts and sciences in commerce and manu- factures agriculture the fine arts the various purposes of clothing in medicine for fuel for the food of man and animals, &c., exhib- its a general, though imperfect, idea of their importance. The use of cotton in the annual fabrication of hundreds of millions of yards of cloth, worn for comfort and ornament by as many millions of people of flax, in the manufacture of linen so generally worn throughout the civilized world of the mulberry plant, which feeds thousands of millions of worms for the production of silk, worn so extensively by the people of all civilized nations the roots of plants, the chief food of people in a large part of the world and used in numerous ways as medicines, and as food for cattle, (the tuberous and bulbous, as the potato, onion, carrot, beet, turnip, etc., entering so largely into the mass of wholesome nu- triment) the leaves of plants, widely used for dyes, food, &c the bark of trees, used so extensively for tanning, for dyes, cordage and food the gums and resins so important in the various useful and orna- mental arts, for medicinal purposes, etc the juices of plants, so val- uable and important, distilled and concrete, as sugars, syrups, or molas- ses, or as beverages and drinks of numerous kinds and for medicinal uses, etc the vegetable alkalies, so important in the arts and sciences the various vegetable oils, volatile and essential, extensively used in the useful and ornamental arts of life, for domestic purposes, for medi- cines and for essences in perfumery, etc the innumerable varieties of wood used and indispensible in house building, ship building, cabinet work, for musical instruments, domestic articles, both useful and orna- mental and, in truth, for every art of life, for fuel, for the comfort and preservation of life and in the preparation of food, etc hemp for sail cloth and ropes, indispensable in commerce, for ticking, bagging, cords, twine, etc., and so much used for all practical purposes in society the rf.eds, greatly used in the arts for chair bottoms, umbrellas and for their juices, as sugar, treacle, or distilled into spirits of various kinds pine pitch, tar and rosin, as used in ship building, for producing gas for lighting cities and for numerous purposes in the arts seeds for the pro- X INTRODUCTION. duction of oils of various and important kinds, so important in the arts for seasoning food and for the great purpose of perpetuating their spe- cies -flowers that bedeck the earth with beauty, supply the bee with honey, and serve for food and as medicines herbs that supply the ta- ble with sauces, greens, seasonings, &c., of every variety and quality stalks, as food for cattle, for making paper, sugar, etc., for thatching, for beds, &c the various grains or corn, prepared as bread in innu- merable ways and emphatically the staff of life," as food for man and cattle, or distilled into spirits of various kinds the leaves of tea, so universally drank as a beverage coffee so commonly used as a drink and almost as food Chocolate little less used as a beverage in various parts the vegetable acids, so extensively used for domestic purposes and in the arts all the varieties of fruits that serve so many purpo- ses in life and are so valuable as food in all forms, and their juices as used for drinks made into wines of every variety and for culinary pur- poscs,or as berries, so valuable in the arts and so luxurious as food, crude or prepared. But time and space fail in the enumeration of the endless variety of purposes to which fruits and vegetables are ap- propriated in life ; a consideration of them separately therefore, can alone furnish a knowledge of their practical utility, or convey an idea of the range of our subject. EXPLANATORY. In the brief notice here given of the useful properties, the nature and organism of fruits and plants, little will be expected from us as to the various modes of their cultivation, or in relation to their botanical arrangement. These branches of science are to be found distinctly treated in other works ; besides which they might appear less enter- taining to the mass of readers than the general and popular view we have taken of our subject. Nor should we be expected to pay much regard to style, as the object of the writer has been merely to state remarkable facts as to the organization and functions of plants ; and to condense into short notices and paragraphs whatever is practical in the uses to which each fruit or plant has been applied, for food, for me- dicinal purposes, or in the arts and domestic economy. Upon these subjects, and as objects of interest and curiosity, the writer trusts that sufficient has been said as to the nature and qualities of plants and their productions, to awaken attention, and to induce their examination as a branch of the most useful and entertaining knowledge. All per- sons being individually interested in a knowledge of their characteris- tics and uses, it should be evinced through life. An unknown proper- ty or a new mode of application of but one kind of fruit or vegetable, may prove of more value than the price of fifty such books as this. It cannot, therefore be a matter of indifference with any one as to the nature of objects which enter, in some shape, into every department and purpose of individual and social life. No work which we have INTRODUCTION. xi noticed, has taken the view of the subject here presented ; and, as few subjects are of more importance and yet few as little understood, our design has been to render it entertaining and popular with the great body of readers, instead of claiming the discovery of any new facts, or deducing any new theories therefrom. In the outlines of vegetable physiology much information it is believ- ed has been condensed, less however with regard to system than use- fulness. And, incur general review of vegetable nature, a wide field of observation is glanced over for the purpose of exhibiting the range of our subject, and to encourage a more particular acquaintance with it. This, indeed, is a primary object of the work ; and the reader is therefore heartily invited to extend his acquaintance with the vegeta- ble kingdom as the most productive source of pleasure and advantage. GLOSSARY. A, privation, or destitute of ; as acau- lis, a plant without a caulis or stem. Abortive flower. Falling oft' without producing fruit ; stamens without anthers. Pistil, defective in some essential part. Seed, imperfect, through want of pollen. Abrupt pinnate leaf, with an old or ter minal leafet. Absorbent. A vessel which sucks up liquid. Acetate, a salt composed of acetic acid, or vinegar, and a base. Acrid, having a hot biting or bitter taste. Acotyledonous. (From a without, and cotyledon, a seed lobe.) Acuminate. Taper-pointed, the point mostly curved towards one edge of the leaf, like an awl. Acclimatized to become inured to the climate. A djuvant, helpful assistant. triform, resembling air. Areation, to render like air. Affinity, apparent preference a sub- stance has for another, connection. Agamous. (From a, without, and ga- mos, marriage.) Ages of plants. Ephemeral, such as spring up, blossom and ripen their seed in a few hours or days ; an- nual, living a few months or one summer ; biennial, springing up one summer and dieing the following; perennial, living an indefinite period. Aggregate. Many springing from the same point aggregate, compound, umbellate, cymose, amentaceous, glu- mose, spadiceous. Aggregate flower , erected on footstalks; all have one common receptacle on the stem. Alburnum (From albus, white.) Soft white substance in trees between the liber, or inner bark. It is the sap- wood, formed by a deposite of the cambium, or descending sap ; hi one year it becomes wood; and a new layer of alburnum is again formed. Albumen, the farinaceous part secreted in most monocotyledonous seeds or fruits, between the embryo and outer skin, furnishing the flower chiefly of the corn plants, and composed of similar chemical characters with the albumen of animals : it is never poisonous, though the plants may be. Alga. Flags ; plants of the order Hepaticce and Lichens. Alkalies, fixed salts, composed of oxy- gen and an earth, as soda, potash, etc. These neutralize and form salts with the acids. Alkaloids, substances like alkaline bases, of vegetable origin and com- posed of oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, and nitrogen. Alpine. Growing naturally on high mountains Alternate. Branches, leaves, flowers, etc. beginning at different distances on the stem ; opposite, is when they commence at the same point, base standing against base. Alveolate,' with cells resembling a honeycomb. Ament. Flowers collected on chaffy scales, on a thread or slender stalk ; a catkin. Ammonia, a volatile alkali existing chiefly combined with acids and forming salts : in the form of gas, its pure state, it is composed ot ni- trogen and hydrogen. Amylaceous, of the nature of starch. Analysis. (Botanically.) To ascertain the name, by observing the organs, and comparing them with scientific descriptions of plants ; separation of parts. Anatomy, the structure or organiza- tion of vegetables or animals. Animal Charcoal is commonly pre- pared by boiling the refuse of slaughter-houses and mixing it with sifted coal ashes. Androgynous plants. Bearing stami- nate and pistillate flowers on the GLOSSARY. same root ; as the oak and Indian corn : class Monoecia. Angiospermal. Plants whose seed are enclosed or covered. Annual. A plant living but one year The herbage is often annual, while the root is perennial ; the plant is then perennial. Annulus.. A ring, annular, ringlike. Anomalous. (From a, without, and nomos, law.) Irregular, whatever forms an exception to a general rule. Anther. (From anthos, a flower) part of the stamen which contains the pollen ; it is of various forms. Anthei'iferous. Flowers bearing an- thers without filaments. Antiscorbutic. Curing eruptions or scurvy. Antacid, remedy for acidity or sour- ness. Apetalous. (From a, without, and. pet- alum, a petal.) Having no petals or corollas ; flowers incomplete; desti- tute of stamens or pistils ; they are imperfect. Aphyllous. (From a, without, and phyllon, a leaf.) Destitute of leaves. Appendaged. Having bracts, thorns, prickles, etc. Aquatic. (From aqua, water.) Grow- ing in, or near water. Arenarius. Growing in sand. Arid. dry. Argillaceous, consisting of clay or alu- mine. Arms, (arma.) Plants are armed when furnished with prickles, thorns, etc. Aromatic. Sweet-scented. Aroma, odour, purfume. Arrow- form. Shaped like an arrow- head, hind lobes acute, saggitate. Artificial Manure, (Daniel's,) is wood in powder saturated with bituminous and animal matters of any kind, and then mixed with soda and quick- lime. Articulated. Jointed ; as in the culm or stem of the grasses. Arvensis. Growing in cultivated fields. Assimilation, the act by which orga- nized bodies incorporate foreign substances and convert them into their own substance. Awn. A short stiff bristle. Axil. Angle between a leaf and stem on the upper side. Axillary. Growing out of the axils ; leaves are axillary when they pro- ceed from the angle formed by the stem and branch. Axis. The elongated part of a petiole, on which are many flowers. A centre. Sase in chemistry, applied to metalic oxides or the leading constituents of compounds ; thus soda is the base of sulphate of soda, (Glauber's salts) and of sulphate of magnesia, (Ep- som salts.) Bacca. (Berry.) A pulpy pericarp, enclosing seeds without cupsules. A berry is proper when formed of the pericarp or seed vessel; improper when formed of other parts. In the mulberry and rose, a large fleshy calyx becomes a berry. In the strawberry, a berry is formed of the common receptacle ; in the rasp berry, of a seed. Bacciferus. Bearing berries. Barb. A straight process, armed with teeth pointing backwards. Barbatus. Bearded. Bark. Coverings of vegetables, con- sisting of as many layers as the tree has years : a new layer being formed from cambium, or alburnum. The newest layer is liber. Barren. Producing no fruit ; contain- ing stamens only. Baryta, oxide of barium, called an al- kaline earth, composed of seventy barium and eight oxygen : it is of a grey color and poisonous. Benzoin, a poisonous gum of the tree benzoe, combination of the resin with benzoic acid. Bi, from bis, signifying two. Bicarbonate, see salts. Biennial. Living two years ; in the second the flower and fruit are pro duced ; as in wheat. Bilabiate. Corolla with two lips. Binate. Two growing together. Bipinnate. Twice pinnate Biternate. Twice ternate 5 petiole supporting 3 ternate leaves. Bivalve. Two-valved. Bolus, a pill rolled and taken ; a ball. Brachilate. Branches opposite; each GLOSSARY. pair at right angles with the pre- ceding. Bract. Floral leaf; a leaf near the flower,different from the other leaves of the plant. Branchlet. Subdivision of a branch, twig. Brumales. Plants which blossom in winter. Bulbs. Called roots ; sometimes grow- ing on the stem ; bulbs are buds, or winter residence of future plants. Annual plants have no bulbs j they are preserved by seeds. Caducous. Falling off early ; as the calyx of the poppy. Calcareous. Containing lime ; as shells of oysters, etc. Calyx. Greek, signifying afloicer-cup; in most plants it encloses and sup- ports the corolla. Calumella. The central pillar in a capsule or fruit of any kind. Capillary. Hair-like. Capitate. Growing in heads. Capsule. Little chest ; kind of hollow seed vessel which becomes dry and opens when ripe. Cartilage, gristle, tough substance be- tween bones, etc. Carbonic Acid, a gas formed by the combination of carbon with oxygen, carbureted, this gas with hydrogen. Carbonate, a salt formed by the union of carbonic acid with an earthly or mellatic base ; carboniferous, par- taking of carbon. Carniverous, eating flesh. Carpel. Divisions of the fruit. Each carpel generally forms a distinct cell. Caucasian, derived from or belong- ing to Caucasus or the Caucasian mountains, where the white Euro- peans and Americans are supposed to have originated, and hence dis- tinguished from other races of men. Caulii. Main, herbage-bearing stem of plants. Cellular. Made up of cells or cavities. Cerealia. Grain from which bread is made. (From Ceres, goddess of corn.) Chaffy. Made up of short membranous portions, like chaff. Chlorine, a gas obtained by mixing muriatic acid in a flask with half its weight of powdered per oxide of manganese, and applying moderate heat ; it is the best bleaching sub- stance with water. Chorion. Clear liquor contained in a seed at the time of flowering. After the pollen is received, this liquor becomes a perfect embryo of a new plant. Chronic, long continued. Chyle, the white nutritive fluid secreted by the lacteal vessels and conveyed to the blood. Ciliate. Fringed with parallel hairs. Cirrose. Bearing tendrils. Citrate, a salt compound of citric acid, (the acid of lemon or lime juice,) and a base. Claw. The narrow part by which a petal is inserted. Cleft. Split, or divided less than half way. Coagulate, to curdle, turn into a clot. coagulum, thick mass, clotted. Climbing. Ascending by tendrils, as granes; by leaf-stalks, as the Cle- matis ; by cauline radicles or fibrous roots, as the creeping ivy. Collinus. Growing on hills. Coloured. Different from green ; in botany, green is not a colour. White in reality is not a colour, but is so called in botany-. There are 16 primary and intermediate colours in botany. White is most common in roots, sweet berries, and petals of spring flowers. Black, in roots and seeds. Yellow, in anthers, and pe- tals of compound flowers. Red, in the petals of summer flowers and acid fruits. Blue and violet, in the petals. Green, in leaves and calyx. Column. The filaments in gynandrous plants united with the style ; the whole is a column. Comparative Physiology, the natural functions of animals or plants as compared with man. Coma. A tuft of bracts on the top of a spike of flowers. Como/te. Ses- sile bracts. Compound. Made up of similar sim- ple parts. flowers are in the class Syngenesia, having florets with united anthers. GLOSSARY. Compound Leaf. When several leaf- ets, grow on one petiole. raceme When several racemes grow along the side of a peduncle. umbel. The peduncles subdivided into peduncles of lesser umbels. petiole. Divided leafstalk. peduncle. Divided flow- er stalk. Conchoidal, shell-form. Constirpated, costive, bound, crowded. Condiment, seasoning food, a relish. Congeries, masses of bodies, groups, collections. Concentric, in layers around a com- mon centre. Cone. Scaly fruit like that of the pine, a strobilum. Coniferous Bearing cones. Conjugate. In pairs. Connate. Opposite, with the bases united or growing into one, forming the appearance of one leaf. Anthers are sometimes connate. Convolute. Rolled into a cylindrical form, as leaves in the bud. Corculum, or Corcle. Embryo or miniature of the future plant, found in seeds often between the cotyle- dons. Cordate. Heart-shaped, side lobes rounded. Corolla, or corol. (From corona, a crown.) Usually enclosing the sta- mens. Cortex. (From corium, leather, and tego, to cover.) The rind or coarse outer bark. Cortical. Belonging to the bark. Cotyledons. (From kotule, a cavity.) Seed lobes. Fleshy part of seeds in most plants rising out of the ground and forming the seminal or seed leaves, lobes generally two ; very conspicuous in the leguminous seeds; as beans, peas, &c. Cotyledons are externally convex, internally flat and enclose the embryo or principle of life, which they protect ant nourish. Creeping. Running horizontally stems are creeping, as also roots. Crenate. Scalloped ; notches on the margin of a leaf pointing towards neither the apex nor base. Cruciform. (From crux, cruets, a cross ) Four petals placed like a cross. Cryptogamous. Plants which have stamens and pistils concealed. Culinary. Suitable for preparations of food. ulm or straw. (In Latin culmus.) The stem of grasses, Indian corn, sugar-cane, wheat, &c. Culmifer- ous. Having culms. upule. A cup, as in the acorn. Cuttings, branches or sprigs of trees or plants. uticle. The outside skin of a plant, commonly thin, resembling the scarf or outer skin of animals. Cylindrical. Circular shaft of nearly equal dimensions. Deciduous. Falling off in the usual season ; opposed to persistent and evergreen, more durable than cadu- cous. Decomposition. Separation of the chemical elements of bodies. Decumbent. Leaning upon the ground, the base being erect. Applied to stems, stamens, &c. Decurrent. When the edges of a leaf run down the stem or stalk. Decussated. In pairs, crossing each other. Deflected. Bending down. Defoliation. Shedding leaves in their proper season. Dehiscent. Gaping or opening. Most capsules when ripe arc dehiscent. Deltoid. Nearly triangular, as in the leaves of the Lombardy poplar. Dentate. Toothed ; edged with short projections ; larger than serrate. Denticulate. Minutely toothed. Denudate. Plants whose flowers ap- pear before the leaves ; appearing naked. Diabetes, a continued and excessive discharge of urine. Diadelphous. (From dis, two. and adelphia, brotherhood.) Stamens united in two parcels ; flowers most- ly papilionaceous ; fruit leguminous. Diagnosis. The characters which dis- tinguish one species of plants from another. Diantheria. (From dis, two and an- ther.) A class of plants having two anthers. Diclinia. Stamens in one flower, and GLOSSARY. pistils in another ; on the same plant or on different plants. Demulcent, softening, molif'ying. Diaphoretic, promoting perspiration. Dicotyledonous. With two cotyledons or seed lobes. Digitate. Like fingers. When one petiole sends off several leaflets from a single point at its extremity. Digynia. Having two pistils. Ditecious. Having staminate and pis- tillate flowers on different plants. Disk. The whole surface of a leaf, or top of a compound flower, as op- posed to its rays. Diurnus. Enduring but a day. Diuretic, promoting urine. Drupe. Fleshy pericarp, enclosing a stone or nut. Drupaceous } Resem- bling, or bearing drupes. Dulcis. Sweet. Dumosus. Bushy. Duplex- Double. Dyspepsia, difficult digestion, desease of digestive organs. Echinate. Beset with prickles, as a hedge-hog. Ecostate. Without nerves or ribs. Edible. Good for food, esculent. Eflorescentia. Effloresco, to bloom, expressive of the time of the year, and month in which every plant blossoms. Efflorescence is ap- plied to the powdered substance found on Lichens. Effoliation. Premature falling off oi leaves, by deseases or accidental causes. Egret or Aigrette. Feathery or hairy crown of seeds, as the down of thistles and dandelions. Elaborate, done with labour, with much care and attention. Eliminated, released, openend, rejected Embrocation, fomenting, application a lotion, Emarginate. Having a notch at the end, refuse. Embryo. (From embrao, to bud forth. The germ of a plant ; corculum. Emollient. Softening and relaxing to the animal fibre. Endocarp. Inside skin of a pericarp Endogenous. Stems which grow from the centre outwardly, as in monoco tyledons. Ensifprm. Sword-form, two-edged, as in the flag and iris. Entire. Even and whole at the edge. Epicarp. (Epi, upon, and karpos, fruit.) Outer skin of the pericarp. Epidermis. (From epi, upon, and der- ma, skin.) Cuticle or outer skin. Equivalent of the same value or pro- portions of the same thing in dif- ferent substances. Equinoctial, relating or belonging to the equator, the imaginary line 23 either way from a central line around the earth or in the heavens. Eroded. Appearing as if gnawed at the edge. Esculent. Eatable. Zver green. Remaining green through the year, not deciduous. Evolution, unfolding, the theory of germination. Evolve, to unfold, dis- entangle. Exhale, evaporation, to give off va- por, etc. Exogenous. Stems which grow exter- nally. Exotic. Plants brought from foreign countries. 'xcrete, to eject, throw off'. Excre- tories, vessels which excrete. Exuvice, the remains, cast off skins or shells of animals. Factitious. (From facio, to make.) Not natural, produced by art. Families. In Botany a natural union of several genera into groups ; some- times synonymous with Natural Orders. Farina. (From/ar, corn.) Meal or flour. Glutinous parts of wheat and other seeds, obtained by grinding and sifting. It consists of gluten, starch, mucilage, etc. Polenisalso called farina. Fascicle. A bundle. Fasciculate. Col- lected in bundles. Febrile, relating to a fever. Feculent, dreggy, muddiness, or starchy. Ferns. Cryptogamous plants, with the fruit on the back of the leaves, or in spikes of minute capsules opening transversly. Fertile. Pistillate, yielding fruit. Fibre. Thread-like part. GLOSSARY. Filtrate, to strain, percolate through a paper. Filament. Slender thread-like part of the stamen, etc. Fimbriated. Divided at the edge like fringe. Fistulous. Hollow or tubular, as the stalk of the onion. Fleshy. Thick and pulpy. Flora. The goddess of flowers ; de- scriptions of flowers are called Floras. Floral leaf. Bract. Floret. Little flower ; part of a com- pound flower. Florist. One who cultivates flowers. Flower, (Flos.) Formerly applied mostly to the petals. At present a stamen and pistil only form a per- fect flower. FloweT'Stalk. Pedun- cle. Foliaceous. Leafy. Foliated, formed like leaves. Follicle. Seed-vessel opening length- wise, or on one side only. Foot-stalk. Used instead of peduncle and petiole. Friable, easily crumbled or reduced to powder. Frond. Leaf of cryptogamous plants. Frondescence. Time in which a species of plants unfolds its first leaves. Frondose. Leafy, or leaf- like. Fructification, the act of causing fruit ; theory of generation. Fructiferous. Bearing or becoming fruit. Fungi. Plural of fungus, a mushroom. Fungous. Growing rapidly with a soft texture like the fungi. Funicle. Stalk which connects the ovule to the ovary. Fusiform. Spindle-shaped; a root thick at the top and tapering down- wards. Galvanic, relating to galvanism, a fluid like electricity, excited by chemical action by means of an arrangement of copper and zinc plates, between which is a surface of sulphuric acid and water, the whole is called a galvanic battery. Ganglia, enlargements in the course of Herb nerves, sometimes called little brains and having apparently some similar functions in the lowest animals Galic Add, obtained from galls and other vegetable astringents, and composed of 7 carbon, 3 hydrogen, and 5 oxygen. Gemmaceous. Belonging 10 a bud ; the scales of a bud. Generic name. The name of a genus. Genus. (Plural, genera.) A family of plants agreeing in their flower and fruit. Plants of the same genus are thought to possess similar medicinal properties. Germ. Lower part of the pistil, after- wards the fruit. Germination. Swel- ing of a seed and the unfolding of its embryo. Gibbous. Swelled out, commonly on one side. 'land. An appendage for secretion or exhalation. 'lume. Scales or chafF of grasses, composing the calyx and corolla ; the lower ones are the calyx, all others the corolla ; each scale, chart', or husk, is a valve ; if but one, the flower is univalve, if two, bivalve, rafting, the process of uniting the branches or buds ot separate trees. By inserting these into the bark, the tree thus engrafted upon, becomes the stock. Gramina. Grasses and grass-like plants. Mostly in the class Triandria. Gramineous. Grass-like ; or culmi- Jerous. Zrandiftorus. Having large flowers. jrranular. Formed of, or covered with grains. gregarious. In flocks, plants growing in groups. jfra?nnivorous, grain or grass eating, feeding on herbs. Gymnocarpes. (Gumnos, naked, and 'karpos, fruit.) Fruits not covered or concealed. Gymnospermia. (Gum- nos, naked, and sperma, seed.) Hav- ing naked seeds. ynandrous. Stamens growing upon the pistil. Hepatic. Liver-like, belonging to the liver. erb. A plant without a woody stem. Herbaceous. Not woody. Herbage. Every part of a plant except the root and parts of fructification. GLOSSARY. Herbarium. Collection of dried plants. Herbist. One who collects and sells plants. Hilum. Eye or mark on a seed at the place of its attachment to the seed- vessel. Holeraceous. Suitable for culinary pur- poses ; derived from holus, signify- ing pot-herbs. A natural order of Linnaeus, called holeracece, including plants used for the table, or in do- mestic affairs- Homogeneous, Consisting of the same nature. Hybernalis. Growing in winter. Hybrid. A vegetable produced by the mixture of two species : the seeds of hybrids are not fertile. Hydrate, relating to, or composed in part of water. Hydrogen, a simple gaseous element in its purest state, but is combined with a very large number of solid and liquid substances ; it composes 85 of 100 parts of water. Irritability. Power of being excited so as to produce contraction ; belong, ing to vegetables as well as animals. Inspisated, thick state of liquids j in- spisate, to thicken. Integument, a covering, an envelop. Interlacing, to intermix, to weave to- gether. er of Inanition, emptiness of body, exhaus- tion. Jagged. Irregularly divided and sub- divided. Joints. Knots or rings in culms, pods, leaves, etc. Keel. Under lip of a papilionaceous flower. Keeled. Shaped like the keel of a boat. Imbricated. Lying over, like scales, or shingles of a roof. Imperfect. Wanting the stamen or pistil. Incomplete. Flowers destitute of a ca- lyx or corolla. Incipiency, begining, first state of a thing. Inorganic, not organized, irregular without deffinite arrangements parts. Indigenous. Native, growing wild in a country. (Some exotics, after a time, spread and appear as if indig- enous.) Infusoria. Microscopic animalculae, generally found in infusions of de- decayed animal and vegetable mat- ter. Inflexed. Incurved, bent inwards. Inflorescence. (From infloresco, to flou- ish.) The manner in which flowers are connected to the plant by the peduncle, as in the whorl, raceme, etc. Interruptedly-pinnate. When smaller leafets are interposed among the principal ones. Intermittents, fevers occuring at in- tervals. Involute. Rolled Inwards. Labiate. With lips, as in class Dydy- namia. Lactescent. Yielding a juice, usually white like milk, sometimes red, as in the blood-root. Lacustris. Growing about lakes. Lamellated. In thin plates. Lamina. Broad or flat end of a petal, in dis- tinction from its claw. Expanded part of a leaf. In general, any thin plate or membrane. Lanceolate. Spear-shaped, narrow,with both ends acute. Larva. The caterpillar state of an in- ir,j sect. of Leafet. A partial leaf, part of a com- pound leaf. Leaf-stalk. Petiole. Legume. A pod or pericarp, having its seed attached to one side or su- ture ; as the pea and bean. Legu- minous. Bearing legumes. Liber. Inner bark of plants. Ligneous. Woody. Lignum. Wood. Liliaceous. Corolla with 6 petals, spreading from the base. Linear. Long and narrow, with par- allel sides, as the leaves of grasses. Lip. The under petal in a labiate co- rolla. Locomotive, power of changing place, moving, as in walking, etc. Lobe. Large division, or distinct por- tion of a leaf or petal. Lyrate, Pinnatifid, with a large round- ish leafet at the end. Lymphatics, small vessels in the ani- GLOSSARY. mal system, which absorb the lymph or moisture. Magnesia, one of the earths, having, as with other earths, a metalic base magnesium. Malic Acid, commonly obtained from apples and other fruit. Macerate, to steep, make lean. Maritime. Growing near the sea. Metalic salts are composed of an acid and metals. See salts. Medulla. Pith or pulp of vegetables. Centre or heart. Medullary, like marrow, pulpy, pithy. Membranous or Membranaceous. Very thin and delicate. Miasma, poisonous particles arising from putrifying substances, etc. Microscopic, belonging to a micro- scope, an arrangement of magnify, ing glasses ; to be seen only with the microscope. Midrib. Middle rib of a leaf, running from the stem to the apex. Morphia, a vegetable alkali from opium, constituting its narcotic prin- ciple ; it forms salts with acids, as nitrate of morphia, etc. Molar es. Back teeth, grinders. Monadelphous. Having stamens united in a tube at the base. Monilliform. Granulate, strung to- gether like beads. Monocephalous. (From mono, one, and kephale, head.) Applied to per- icarps, which have but one summit, as wheat, while the geum and ane- mone have as many as they have styles ; they are polycephalous. Monocotyledonous. Having but one cotyledon. Monoecious. Having pistillate and staminate flowers on the same plant. Monopetalous. The corolla in one piece. Monophyllous. Consisting of one leaf. Monocepalous . A calyx of one leaf or sepal. Monospermus. One seed to a flower. Montanus. Growing on mountains. Mosses. The second order of the class Cryptogamia. Mucous, slime, thick tenacious sub- stance of membranes. Mucilage., gum. Mucilaginous, partaking of gum, etc. Multiflorus. Many-flowered. Narcotic. (From narco, to stupify.) Having the power ofprocuring sleep, as opium. Natural character. That which is ap- parent, without reference to any particular method of classification. Neutralize, to make indifferent, to destroy bad qualities. Neutral com,' pounds. See salts. Nectary. (From nectar, the fabled drink of the gods.) The part of a flower which produces honey. Nitrogen or azote, a simple elementary substance, usually combined in the formation of solids and liquids, but is found in its gaseous state in the composition of the atmosphere, of which it composes 71 of the 100 parts. Nitre, a salt formed of nitric acid, (aquafortis,) and potash, commonly called salt-petre. Nitrates are thus formed of this acid and any other base. Nucleus. Nut, or kernel. Obovate. Ovate with the narrower end towards the stem, or place of inser- tion. Obtuse. Blunt, rounded, not acute. OjHicinalis. Such plants as are kept for sale as medicinal, or for use in the arts. Opposite. Standing against each other on opposite sides of the stem. Orbicular. Circular. Organism, the state of organization, the organs of a body, organic struc- ture. Ovary. Germ, egg, part impregnated. Ovate. Egg-shaped, oval with the lower end largest. Oviparous. Animals produced from eggs, as birds, &c. Ovum, an egg. Ovules. Little eggs : rudiments of fruit or seeds before its fertilization. Oleagenous, oily, like oil, oleous. Omnivorous, all-devouring, eating ani- mal and vegetable food. Oxalic acid, a compound of the juice of sorrel, &c. and oxygen ; this acid combined with any base, forms oxa~ lates. Oxide, a compound of oxygen with an- other substance, as any of the metals GLOSSARY. in such proportions as not to form an acid ; as the oxide (rust) of iron. Oxygen, a simple gaseous element in its tree state, but entering largely into the composition of various sol- ids and liquids ; it composes 28 of 100 parts of atmospheric air and 85 of 100 of water. Palmate. Hand-shaped; resembling the hand with the angers spread. Palustris. Growing in swamps and marshes. Panicle. A loose, irregular bunch of flowers with subdivided branches, as the oat. Panicled. Bearing panicles. Papilionaceous. Butterfly-shaped, an irregular corolla of four petals ; the upper one is the banner, the two side ones wings, and the lower one the keel, as the pea. Mostly in the class Diadelphia. Papillose. Covered with protuberan- ces. Pappus. The down of seeds, as the dan- delion ; a feathery appendage. Parisitic. Growing on another plant and deriving nourishment from it. Parenchyma. A succulent or cellular vegetable substance ; the thick part of leaves between the opposite sur- faces ; pulpy part of fruits, as in the apple, &c. Partition. The membrane which di- vides pericarps into cells, called the dissepiment. Parted. Deeply divided; more than cleft. Pathology, relating to diseases, the dis- eased condition of a body in contra- distinction to the healthy state. Pectinate. Like the teeth of a comb, between fimbriate and pinnatifid. Pedicel, A little flower-stalk, or par- tial peduncle. Peduncle. A stem bearing the flow- er and fruit. Pellicle. Thin membranous coat. Pendent. Hanging down, pendulous. Perennial. Lasting more than two years. Perfoliate. Having a stem running through the leaf; differing from connate in not consisting of two leaves. Perianth. (From peri, around, and anthos, flower.) A sort of calyx. Pericarp. (From peri, around, and karpos, fruit.) A seed vessel or whatever contains the seed. Perigynous. From peri, around, and gynia, pistil. Persistent. Not falling off. Perma- nent. Petal. The leaf of a corolla, usually colored. Petiole. The stalk which supports the leaf. Phenogamous. Such flowers as have stamens and pistils visible, includ- ing all plants except the cryptoga- mous. Physiology. A knowledge of nature ; natural functions of organized bod- ies. Pinnate. A leaf is pinnate when the leafets are arranged in two rows on the side of a common petiole, as in the rose. Pinnatifid. Cut in a pin- nate manner. It differs from pin- nate, in being a simple leaf deeply parted, while pinnate is a compound of distinct leafets. Pistil. Central organ of most flowers, consisting of germ, style, and stig- ma. Pistillate. Having pistils but no sta- mens. Pit h. Spongy substance in the centre of stems and roots. Medulla. Placenta. The internal part of the germ or ovary to which every ovule is attached, immediately or by the funicle, as in the womb. Plumose. Feather-like. Pumula or Plume. Ascending part of a plant at its first germination. Pod. Dry seed-vessel, not pulpy, com- monly applied to legumes and sili- ques. Polyandrous. Having many stamens inserted upon the receptacle. Polygamous. Having some flowers perfect, and others with stamens only, or pistils only. Polymorphous. Changeable, assuming many forms. Polypetalous. Having many petals. Polyphyllous. Having many leaves. Polysepalous. A calyx of more than one leaf, or sepal. Pome. A pulpy fruit, containing a capsule, as the apple. GLOSSARY. Pratensis. Growing in meadow land. Process. A projecting part. Pubescent. Hairy, downy, or woolly. Pulp. Juicy, cellular substance of ber- ries and other fruits. Punctate. Appearing dotted. Perfor- ated. Petalous, leafy ; petaloid, like a leaf. Putrescent, rotten, putrid, decaying. Prophylactic, preventative against de- Proximate, next, near, intimate. Phosphate, a salt composed of phos- phoric acid (Phosphorus and oxy- gen) and an earthy base, as phos- phate of lime. Potash, a fixed alkali from the ashes of plants having a metalic base, pot- assium. Physical, relating to or effected by nat- ural agents, material objects or Raceme A bunch or cluster, kind of infloresence in which the flowers are arranged by simple pedicels on the sides of a common peduncle ; as the currant. Rachis. The common stalk to which the florets and spikelets of grasses are attached ; as in wheat heads. The midrib of some leaves and fronds. Radiate. The ligulate florets around the margin of a compound flower. Radiz. A root ; part of the plant at- tracting moisture from the soil. Radical. Growing from the root. Radicle. Part of the corculum which forms the root ; the minute fibres of a root. Ramiferous. Producing branches. Ramose. Branching. Ramus. A branch. Ray. The outer margin of compound flowers. Receptacle. The end of a flower- stalk : the base to which the differ- ent parts of fructification are usually attached. Reflexed. Bent backwards. Reclined. Bending over with the head inclined towards the ground. Regimen, diet in sickness. Reniform. Kidney-shaped, heart-shap- ed without the point. Residuum. What is left after experi- ment or distribution. Reticulate. Veins crossing each other like net- work. Ringent. Gaping or grinning ; applied to some labiate corollas. Rootlet. A fibre of a root, little root. Rotate. Wheel-form. Rudimentary, first or early forms or principles. Saccharine, partaking of or having the quality 01 sugar. Saline, partaking of salt, belonging to places where salt is found. Saltiferous. Bearing or producing salt. Salts, in chemistry, substances com- posed of an acid and a base, as chlor- ide of sodium, (common salt); when salts do not color infusions of litmus, etc., they are neutral salts, when they do, they are acidulous ; and super or bi denotes the excess of acid, and when the acid is deficient or the alkaline base predominates, sub is added. There are great num- bers of these salts. Saponaceous, soapy, like soap or thick oil. Sarmentose. Running on the ground, and striking root from the joints only, as the strawberry. Scope. A stalk which springs from the root, and supports flowers and fruit but no leaves, as the dandelion. Scions. Shoots proceeding laterally from the roots or bulb of a root. Secrete. To seperate, collect, with- draw from. Secretaries. The ves- sels which secrete. Segment. Part or principal division of a leaf, calyx, or corolla. Sepal. Leaves or divisions of the calyx. Septa. Partitions that divide the inte- rior of the fruit. Serrate. Notched like the teeth of a saw. Sessile. Sitting down ; placed imme- diately on the main stem without a foot-stalk. Setaceous. Bristle-form. Setose. Covered with bristles. Sheath. A tubular or folded leafy por- tion including within it the stem. Shoot. Trees and shrubs send forth annually a large shoot in the spring and a smaller one from the end of that in June. GLOSSARY. Shrub. Plant with a woody stem,! Subulate. Awl-shaped, narrow and branching nearer the ground than a tree, and smaller. Silique. A long pod or seed-vessel ol two valves, having the seed attached to the two edges alternately. Silex or silica, an earth, consisting of oxygen and a metalic base ; silicon, quartz, flint. Silicate, a salt formed of silex or flint and an acid. Soluble, capable of being dissolved in liquids, etc. Spadix. Elongated receptacle of flow. ers, commonly from a spatha. Sjiatha. A sheathing calyx opening lengthwise on one side, with one or more valves. Spatulate. Large, obtuse at the end, gradually tapering into a stalk at the base. Specific. Belonging to a species only. Spike. A kind of inflorescence in which the flowers are sessile, or nearly so, as in the mullein,or wheat. Spikelet. A small spike. Spindle-shaped. Thick at top, gradu- ally tapering, fusiform. Spine. A thorn or sharp process grow- ing from the wood. Spinescent. Bearing spines or thorns. Spinosus. Thorny. Spiral. Twisted like a screw. Sporules. That part hi cryptogamous plants which answers to seeds. Stamen. The part of the flower on which the artificial classes are founded. Staminate. Having stamens without pistils. Stellate. Like a star. Stigma. The summit, or top of the pistil. Stipe. The stem of a fern, or fungus, also the stem of the down of seeds, as in the dandelion. Stipule. A leafy appendage at the base of petioles, or leaves. Strigose. Armed with close thick bristles. Strobilum. A cone, an ament with woody scales. Stomachic, relating to or good for the stomach, tonic. Stomates, pores, small holes. Style. The part of the pistil between the stigma and the germ. sharp pointed. Succulent. Juicy ; also a pulpy leaf, juicy or no/. Sucker. A shoot from the root by which the plant may be propagated. Sulphate, a salt composed of sulphuric acid, (oil of vitriol,) and any solid base, as sulphate of soda, (Glauber's salts,) etc. Superior. A calyx or corolla is supe- rior, when it proceeds from the up- per part of the germ. Suture. Line or seam formed by the junction of two valves of a seed- vessel. Sylvestris. Growing in woods. Syngenesious. Anthers growing to- gether, forming a tube ; constituting the class Syngenesia, being also compound flowers. Synthetical, joining, uniting, com- pounding. Tartrate, a salt foi med of tartaric acid and a base, usually potash in vegeta- bles, as the tartrate of potash. Tannin, an astringent principle of plants, etc. Tegument. The skin or covering of seeds ; as in the pea. Temperature. Degree of heat and cold to which any place or sub- stance is subject, as dependant upon latitude. The mountains of the torrid zone produce the plants of the frigid zone. In cold regions white and blue petals are most common ; hi warm regions red and other bright colors ; in the spring- we have more white petals, and in autumn more yellow ones. Tendril. A filiform or thread-like ap- pendage of some climbing plants, supported by twining round objects. Terminal. Extreme, situated at the end. Ternate. Three together, as the leaves of the clover. Tetradynamous. With four long and two short stamens. Tetrandrous. Having four stamens. Tissue, thin fabric or envelop com- posed of or interwoven with small fibres. Tomentose. Downy; covered with fine matted pubescence. GLOSSARY. Topical, local, confined to a place. Torrid, very hot, parched. Trituration, rubbing to powder, pul- verizing. Trifid. Three-cleft. Trifoliate. Three- leaved. Trilobate. Three-lobed. Trilocular. Three-celled. Truncate. Having a square termina- tion, as if cut off. Trunk. The stem or bole of a tree. Tube. Lower hollow cylinder of a monopetalous corolla. Tuber. A solid fleshy knob. Tuber- ous. Thick and fleshy, containing tubers, as the potato. Tunicate. Coated with surrounding layers, as in the onion. Ultimate, last, final. Umbel. A kind of inflorescence in which the flower-stalks diverge from a centre, like the sticks of an um- brella. Umbelliferons. Bearing um- bels. Uniflorus. One- flowered. Unicus. Single. Vascular, composed of vessels. Valves. Parts of a seed-vessel into which it separates ; the leaves which form a glume, or spatha. Volatile, flying oft', evaporating, dis- tinguished iromfixed or permanent. Variety. Subdivision of a species, dis- tinguished by characters not perma- nent. Vernal. Appearing in the springs. Verrucose. Warty, covered with pro- tuberances, VerticiJMe. Whorled, having leaves or flowers in a circle round the stem. Vesicular. Made up of cellular sub- stance. Villose. Hairy, the hairs long and soft. Virose. Nauseous to the smell, poison- ous. Viscid. Thick, glutinous, covered with adhesive moisture. Volatile, flying off, evaporating, dis- tinguished horn fixed or permanent. Wings. Two side petals of a papilio- naceous flower. Zoophytes. Lowest order of animals, sometimes called animal plants though considered as belonging to the animal kingdom. Many resem- ble plants, and exhibit faint marks of sensation. GLOSSARY. FOR THE SECOND PART. Absorbent. A vessel which sucks up liquids. Abrupt. Pinnate leaf, with an old or terminal leafet. Acuminate. Taper-pointed, the point mostly curved towards one edge of the leaf, like an awl. Acrid. Having a hot, biting, or bitter tast. Acidulous. Sour, partaking of an acid. Adjuvant. Helpful, assistant. Agamous. (From a, without, and ga- mos, marriage.) Ages of plants. Ephermeral, such as spring up, blossom and ripen their seed in a few hours or days ; an- nual, living a few months, or one summer ; biennial, springing up one summer and dying the following ; perennial, living an indefinite period. Aggregate. Many springing Irom the same point aggregate, compound, umbellate, cymose, amentaceous, glu- mose, spadiceous. Aggregate flower ; erected on foot- stalks ; all have one common recep- tacle on the stem. Alburnum. (From albus, white.) Soft while substance in trees between the liber, or inner bark and wood. It is the sap-wood, formed by a depo- sit of the cambium, or descending sap ; in one year it becomes wood ; and a new layer of alburnum is again formed. Albumen. The farinacous part secreted in most monocotyledonous seeds or fruits, between the embryo and outer skin, furnishing the flower chiefly of the corn plants, and composed of similar chemical characters with the albumen of animals : it is never poisonous,though the plants maybe Alga. Flags: plants of the order Hepatica and Lichens. Alternate. Branches, leaves, flowers etc., beginning at different distances on the stem ; opposite, is when they commence at the same point, base standing against base. Alternately-pinnate leaf ; when leafets are arranged alternately on each side of the common footstalk or petiole. Anthilminthic, Destructiv'c to worms. Amonia. A volatile alkali existing chiefly combined with acids and forming salts : in the form of gas, its pure state, it is composed of ni- trogen and hydrogen. Animal Charcoal is commonly pre- pared by boiling the refuse of slaughter-houses and mixing it with sifted coal ashes. Analysis. (Botanically) To ascertain the name, by observing the organs, and comparing them \vith scientific descriptions of plants ; separation of parts. Annual. A plant living but one year. The herbage is often annual, while the root is perennial j the plant is then perennial. Anomalous. (From a without, and nomos, law.) Irregular, whatever forms an exception to a general rule. Anther. (From anthos, a flower) part of the stamen which contains the pollen ; it is of various forms. Antiscorbutic. Curing eruptions or scurvy. Antiseptic. Preventive of putrifaction. Antispasmodic. Good for relieving spasms. Aperient. Having the quality of open- ing. Aphrodisiacai. Relating to, or a cure for the venereal disease. Aquatic. (From aqua, water.) Grow- ing in, or near water. Arenarius. Growing in sand. Arid. dry. Aromatic. Sweet-scented. Aroma. Odor, purfume. Astringents. Substances which con- dense the fibres. Assimilation. The act by which orga- nized bodies incorporate foreign substances and convert them into their own substance. GLOSSARY. Atonic. Relaxing to the body. Awn. A short stiff' bristle. Axillary. Growing out of the axils ; leaves are axillary when they pro- ceed from the angle formed by the stem and branch. Axis. The elongated part of a petiole, on which are many flowers. A centre. Bark. Coverings of vegetables, con- sisting of as many layers as the tree has years : a new layer being formed from cambium, or alburnum. The newest layer is liber. Biennial. Living two years ; in the second the flower and fruit are pro- duced ; as in wheat. Bolus. A pill rolled and taken, a ball. Bulbs. Called roots ; sometimes grow- ing on the stem j bulbs are buds, or winter residences of future plants. Annual plants have no bulbs ; they are preserved by seeds. Calcareous. Containing lime j as shells of oysters, etc. Calyx. (Greek) signifying a flowercup; in most plants it encloses and sup- ports the corolla. Capillary. Hair-like. Capsule. Little chest ; kind of hollow seed vessel which becomes dry and opens when ripe. Cordate. Heart-shaped, side lobes rounded. Cardiac. Superior opening of the sto- mach ; belonging to the heart. Carbonic Acid. A gas formed by the combination of carbon with oxygen, Carbureted hydrogen, carbon with hydrogen. Carminative. A medicine used to dispel wind. Cataplasm. A poultice, soft plaster. Cellular. Made up of cells or cavities Cerealia. Grain from which bread is made. (From Ceres, goddess of corn.) Chaffy. Made up of short membranous portions, like chaff. Chronic. Long continued. Chyle. The white nutritive fluid secre- ted by the lacteal vessels and con- veyed to the blood. Claw. The narrow part by which a petal is inserted. Climbing. Ascending by tendrils, as grapes ; by leaf stalks, as the Cle- matis, by caulino radicles or fibrous roots, as the creeping ivy. Cleft. Split, or divided less than half way. Coherent. Sticking together, adhering, lollinus. Growing on hills. Coloured. Different from green ; in botany, green is not a colour. White in reality is not a colour, but is so called in botany. There are 16 primary and intermediate colours- in botany White is most common in roots, sweet berries, and petals of spring flowers. Black, in roots and seeds. Yellow, in anthers, and petals of compound flowers. Red, in the petals of summer flowers and acid fruits. Blue and violet, in the petals. Green, in leaves and calyxes, Compound. Made up of similar sim- ple parts. Flowers are in the class Syngenesia, having florets with united anthers. oncentric. In layers around a com- mon centre. Constirpated. Costive, bound, crowded. Condiment. Seasoning food, a relish, Connate. Opposite, with the bases, united or growing into one, forming the appearance of one leaf. Anthers are sometimes connate. Convolute. Rolled into a cylindrical form, as leaves in the bud. oi'olla, or corol. (from corona, a crown.) Usually enclosing the sta- mens. Crisp. Brittle, curled. Crenate. Scalloped j notches on the margin of a leaf pointing towards neither the apex nor base. Cryptogamous. Plants which have stamens and pistils concealed. Culinary. Suitable for preparations of food. Cuticle. The outside skin of a plant, commonly thin, resembling the scarf or outer skin of animals. Cuttings, branches or sprigs of trees or plants. Cylindrical. Circular shaft of nearly equal dimensions. Deciduous. Falling off* in the usual season ; opposed to persistent and evergreen ; more durable than cadu- cous. GLOSSARY. Decomposition. Separation of the che- mical elements of bodies, Decurrent. When the edges of a leaf run down the stem or stalk. Demulcent, softening, molifying. Dehiscent. Gaping or opening. Most capsules when ripe are dehiscent. De-obstruent. Removing obstructions. Dentate. Toothed ; edged with short projections ; larger than serrate. Denticulate. Minutely toothed. Disk. The whole surface of a leaf, or top of a compound flower, as op- posed to its rays. Diaphoretic. Promoting perspiration. Diuretic. Promoting urine. Dyspepsia. Difficult digestion, desease of digestive organs. Edible. Good for food, esculent. Elaborate. To do with labour, with much care and attention. Embryo. (From embi-ao, to bud forth.) The germ of a plant ; corculum. Emollient. Softening and relaxing to the animal fibre. Entire. Even and whole at the edge. Endogenous. Stems which grow from che centre outwardly, as in mono- cotyledons. Esculent. Eatable. Evergreen. Remaining green through the year, not deciduous. Exogenous. Stems which grow exter- nally. Exotic. Plants brought from foreign countries. Excrete. To eject, throw off. Excre- tories, vessels which excrete. Expectorant. (From expectoro, to dis- charge from the breast.) Promot- ing a discharge from the lungs. Exuviae. Remains, cast off skins or sheDs of animals. Families. In Botany a natural union of several genera into groups ; some- times synonymous with Natural Orders. Farina. (From/ar, corn.) Meal or flour. Glutinous parts of wheat and other seeds, obtained by grinding and sifting. It consists of gluten, starch, mucilage, etc. Polen is also called farina. Febrile, relating to a fever. Febrifuge. (From/e&m, a fever, and fugo, to drive away.) Possessing the property of abating a fever. Feculent. Dreggy, muddiness, or starchy. Ferns. Cryptogamous plants, with the fruit on the back of the leaves, or in spikes of minute capsules opening transversly. Fibre. Thread-like part. Filtrate. To strain, to percolate through paper. Fleshy. Thick and pulpy. Floret. Little flower ; part of a com- pound flower. Florist. One who cultivates flowers. Foliated. Formed like leaves. Friable. Easily crumbled or reduced to powder. Fungi. Plural of fungus, a mushroom. Gangrene. Mortification, putrefaction. Generic name. The name of a genus. Genus. (Plural, genera.) A family of plants agreeing in their flower and fruit. Plants of the same ge- nus are thought to possess similar medicinal properties. Germ. Lower part of the pistil after- wards the fruit. Germination. Swel- ling of a seed and unfolding of its embryo. Glaucous. Sea-green, mealy, and eas- ily rubbed off. Gonorrhoea. Morbid venereal discharge Granular. Formed of, or covered with grains. Graveolens, Having a strong odor. Hemorrhage. Violent flux of blood. Hepatic. Liver-like, belonging to the liver. Herb. A plant without a woody stem. Hei-bage. Every part of the plant ex- cept the root and parts of fructifi- cation. Intermittents. Fevers occurring at in- tervals. Iodine. A soft substance obtained from ashes from sea- weed ; it is the most delicate test for starch, etc. Incisors. Front teeth. Indigenous. Native, growing wild in a country. Some ->xotics, after a time, spread and appear as if indi- genous. Indurated. Becoming hard. GLOSSARY. Iridescent. (From Iris, the rainbow.) Reflecting colored light. Irregularly divided and sub- vided. Labiate. With lips, as in class Didy- namia. Lamellated. In thin plates. Lamina. Broad or flat end of a petal, in dis- tinction from its claw. Expanded part of a leaf. In general, any thin plate or membrane. Lanceolate. Spear-shaped, narrow with both ends acute. Larva. The caterpillar state of an insect. Leafet. A partial leaf, part of a com- pound leaf. Leaf-stalk. Petiole. Legume. A pod or pericarp, having its seeds attached to one side or su- ture ; as the pea and bean. Ligneous. Partaking of wood, wood like. Ligulate. Strap or riband-like, flat, as the florets of the dandelion. Linear Long and narrow, with par- allel sides, as the leaves of grasses Lobe. Large division, or distinct por tion of a leaf or petal. Lyratf.. Pinnatifid, with a large round- ish leafet at the end. Marmalade. Quince and other fruit- juice with sugar. Masticatory. A medicine to be chewed. Medulla. Pith or pulp of vegetables Centre or heart. Morbid. Diseased, inactive, corrupt- ed, without life. Narcotic. (From narco, to stupify.) Having the power of procuring sleep, as Opium. Niger. Black. Offidnalis. Such plants as are kept for sale as medicinal, or of use in the arts. Oleaginous. Oily, unctuous. Orbicular. Circular. Organism. The state of organization, the organs of a body, organic struc- ture. Ovate. Egg-shaped, oval with the lower end largest. Oxide. A compound of oxygen with another substance, as any of the metals in such proportions as not to form an acid, as the oxide (rust) of iron. Oxygen. A simple gaseous element in its free state, but entering largely into the composition of various sol- ids and liquids ; it composes 28 of 100 parts of atmospheric air and 85 of 100 of water. Palmate. Hand-shaped ; resembling the hand with the fingers spread. Panicle. A loose, irregular bunch of flowers with subdivided branches, as the oat. Panicled. Bearing panicles. Panification. Capable of being moul- ded into bread in pans. Parisitic. Growing on another plant and deriving nourishment from it. Parenchyma. A succulent or cellular vegetable substance ; the thick part of leaves between the opposite sur- faces ; pulpy part of fruits, as in the apple, &c. Petalous. Leafy. Petaloid. Like a leaf. Pectinate. Like the teeth of a comb, between fimbriate and pinnatifid. Peduncle. A stem bearing the flow- er and fruit. Perennial. Lasting more than two years. Petal. The leaf of a corolla, usually colored. Petiole. The stalk which supports the leaf. Phosphate, a salt composed of phos- phoric acid (Phosphorous and oxy- gen) and an earthy base, as phos- phate of lime. Physiology. A knowledge of na.ure ; natural functions of organized bod- ies. Phlegmatic. Sluggish, dull, troubled with phlegm. Pinnate. A leaf is pinnate when the leafets are arranged in two rows on the side of a common petiole, as in the rose. Pinnatijid. Cut in a pin- nate manner. It differs from pin- nate in being a simple leaf deeply GLOSSARY. parted, while pinnate is a compound of distinct leatets. Pith. Spongy substance in the centre of stems and roots. Medulla. Potash, a fixed alkali from the ashes of plants having a me talk base, pot- assium. Proximate, next, near, intimate. Pratensis. Growing in meadow land. Pulp. Juicy, cellular substance of ber- ries and other fruits. Pungent. Sharp, acrid, piercing. Putrescent, rotten, putrid, decaying. Rationale. Reason, conclusion. Refrigerants. From refrigero, to cool. Cooling medicines or drinks. Residuum. What is lett after experi- ment or distribution. Resolvent. Having the power to dis- solve or analyze. Regimen, diet in sickness. Rubefddent. Substances which, ap- plied to the skin, produce redness without blistering. Sfiltiferous . Bearing or producing salt Salts, in chemistry, substances com- posed of an acid and a base, as chlor. ide of sodium, (common salt); when salts do not color infusions of litmus, etc., they are neutral salts, when they do, they are acidulous ; and super or bi denotes the excess of acid, and when the acid is dificient or the alkaline base predominates, sub is added. There are great num- bers of these salts. Saline, partaking of salt, belonging to places where salt is found. Saccharine, partaking of or having the quality of sugar. Sedative. Assuaging, composing, di- minishing the natural energy. Segment. Part or principal division of a leaf, calyx, or corolla. Sepal. Leaves or divisions of the calyx. Sessile. Sitting down ; placed imme- diately on the main stem without a foot-s ; alk. Setaceous. Bristle-form. Setose. Cov- ered with bristles. Shrub. Plant with a woody stem, branching nearer the ground than a tree and smaller. Silique. A long pod or seed-vessel of two valves, having the seed attached to the two edges alternately. Soluble, capable of being dissolved in liquids, etc. Soporific. Causing sleep. Spindle-shaped. Thick at top, gradu- ally tapering, fusiform. Spine. A thorn or sharp process grow- ing from the wood. Spinescent. Bearing spines or thorns. Spinosus. Thorny. Spurred-rye. A morbid swelling of the seed, of a black or dark color, sometimes called ergot ; the black is called malignant ergot. Grain in low, moist ground, or new land, is most subject to it. Striate. Marked with fine parallel lines. Stamen The part of the flower on which the artificial classes are founded. Stipe. The stem of a fern, or fungus, also the stem of the down of seeds, as in the dandelion. Succulent. Juicy ; also a pulpy leaf, juicy or not. Sucker. A shoot from the root by which the plant may be propagated. Supuration. The formation of pus or morbid matter in abscesses, sores, etc. Sudorific. Promoting or causing Tannin. An astringent principle of plants, etc. Topical. Local, confined to a place. Tonic. From tono to strengthen. Medicines which increase the tone of the muscular fibre. Torrid. Very hot, parched. Trituration. Rubbing to powder, pul- verizing. Ultimate. Last, final. Umbel. A kind of inflorescence in which the flower-stalks diverge from a centre, like the sticks of an um- brella. Umbelliferous. Bearing um- bels. Volatile. Flying off, evaporating, dis- tinguished t'rorcifixed or permanent. Vermifuge. A medicine for the cure of worms. GLOSSARY. Vesication. Blistering the skin. Vicera. The bowels, organs of the chest, etc. Viridis. Green. Virose. Nauseous to the smell, poison- ous. Zoophytes. Lowest order of animals, sometimes called animal plants though considered as belonging to the animal kingdom. Many resem- ble plants, and exhibit iaint marks of sensation. PART I. ELEMENTS AND OUTLINES OP VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY. VEGETABLE ORGANIC CHEMISTRY, VEGETABLE ORGANS, BOTANICAL CLASSIFICATION, GEOGRAPHY OF PLANTS, EFFECTS OF CLIMATE ON PLANTS, AMERICAN PLANTS AND FORESTS. Sketch of the Divisions and History of the Subject. jl knowledge of plants, or vegetables, consists in an acquaintance, 1st, with their external forms and appearances, and 2d, with their in- ternal structure and organic action. The former comprehends botany, and requires a careful observation and study of the peculiarities of plants, with an extensive knowledge of terminology. The latter re- quires an investigation into the anatomy and functions of the organs, and an analysis of the component parts of plants. This may be de- nominated vegetable physiology, or vegetable organic chemistry. There may be a 3d division, consisting of a practical knowledge of the modes of cultivating plants, and also of their qualities and uses, which be- longs properly, to gardening and horticulture. The great variety of plants has rendered their systematic arrange- ment into classes, orders, genera, species and varieties, a somewhat difficult task. The processes, also, of determining the internal organ- ization and vital action of plants, with the phenomina of assimilation, nave likewise been a task of much labor and scientific research. Still, as few subjects possess equal interest, or are more attractive, a knowl- edge, both of the nature and classification of plants, has rapidly ad- vanced, of late ; so that either may now be known with comparative- ly little time or labor. The want of this knowledge must have been long and painfully felt by mankind, as it has been only within a few years that a systematic arrangement and philosophic investigation have determined the character and useful properties of plants, and 2 14 DIVISION AND HISTORY OF PLANTS. rendered their study and cultivation so important and agreeable a3 they now are. Scarcely 1,500 plants were known from the descriptions of the ancients at the time of the revival of letters ; whereas more than 56,000 species are now known, arranged and described. A perfect chaos must have existed in the vegetable kingdom before the labor of scientific men began to display the order by which it is charac- terized. As it was at first obvious that the production of seeds was the great object of vegetation, attempts were made to classify plants by them ; but their uniformity not corresponding with the diversified character of plants, other organs were resorted to for this purpose. The flower was therefore, thought to present the best means of classi- fication ; yet the absence of flowers in numerous plants, with other limits, soon made it necessary for the principal founder of the science of botany, (Linnaeus), to confine his arrangement to the sexual parts of the flower. The principle was thereupon established which at once led the way to the great Linnaan system. Plants were divided into two divisions, one having visible sexual or- gans, (phenogamous), and the other invisible sexes, or wanting those or- gans, (cryptogamous.) The first comprehends the first 23 classes of the system, according to the situation of the sexual parts. But objections have been urged against parts of this system by succeeding botanists, and other organs have been considered as necessary, as well as other methods, to complete the arrangement. The second division is based on the anatomy of plants, and may be called chemical botany. It leads to a knowledge of the laws of vegetative life, their physiology, or physiolo- gical botany, which is analogous with the physiology of animals. On this is based a knowledge of the diseases or deformities of plants, or their pathology, which is of great importance in their cultivation, and also in their general distribution, or vegetable geography. The history of vegetable science is brief and imperfect. The Greek philosophers having derived their knowledge principally from Asia and Egypt, examined the laws of vegetable life very superficially, from their want of means and their ignorance of chemistry. They at once arrived at general conclusions and asserted that plants possessed rational souls, capable of the mental powers and indicative of the or- ganization of animals. Aristotle, 384 B. C. published his works on natural history, in which he formed a more rational theory, though little corresponding with that of the presently. Theophrastus, the pupil of Aristotle, is said to have been the founder of philosophical botany ; he wrote several works on the subject. Dioscorides compiled a work containing a partial description, particularly of the medicinal qualities of 1,200 plants, in the first year of the Christian era ; and this was the only source of botanical knowledge for fifteen centuries. To this, Persian and Arabian physicians added 200 plants. FRUITS AND GARDEN PLANTS. 15 The elder Pliny and Galen contributed also to a knowledge of the properties of plants. But the Germans were first to found historical botany and to commence scientific classification. The Italians followed, and then the Belgians. The French greatly increased the number of plants and reformed the nomenclature ; so that, at the beginning of the 17th century, the number of species known was 5,500. This number continued to increase, by an awakened attention to the sub- ject and the united labors of others in various countries, until Linnaeus appeared with his Species Plantarum, when the number of plants known was 7,300. Since this time it has increased most wonderfully. A more systematic, or natural method of arrangement has been intro- duced by Jussieu, Condolle, Mirbel and others, and the whole now presents in every department the most attractive interest. The pro- gress of the science of vegetables, botanical and agricultural, has been unexampled in the history of any other science. But however inter- esting this may be, we lack time and space to notice it further. Chemistry, the chief source of improvement in this branch of science, has recently disclosed, through Liebeg and others, the most important facts, as to the nature, requirements and properties of fruits and plants, and shed a noon-day light in the path of the practical agriculturist. By this we have been governed in our expositions of the several branches of the subjects hereafter treated. We will not, therefore, go back to show how little has been known but briefly present what is now known of these subjects. Of fruits, their great variety and useful properties, comparatively little could have been known before commerce, in the 15th and 16th centuries, conveyed those of one country to the people of another. They had, from the earliest periods, constituted a chief article of hu- man food ; and now, as we shall see, they are at once the most im- portant, luxurious and wholesome aliment, as well as the most valuable for many other very important purposes in life. Constituting an essen- tial part of vegetables, the scientific history of fruits is connected with the plants which bear them, though they were much earlier used and valued by man, as they contributed immediately to his existence. The modes in which they may be used both for food and drinks, and in the arts have increased with the progress of science and civilization. The rich products of the tropical climates are now transported to every other clime, and the use of our own has been refined by every art of genius and luxury. Garden Plants have received attention corresponding with the pro- gress of agricultural science and civilization. This branch of our subject, therefore, has advanced rapidly within comparatively a few years. Luxury has fortunately contributed greatly to the develope- ment of the most valuable properties of garden productions, which are now everywhere, and justly esteemed, not only as the most grateful, 16 VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY. but the most wholesome food. Refined modes of cooking as well as the truths of science, have happily changed the tastes of civilized people and induced the cultivation and consumption of a greater variety and number of vegetables ; while they have, at the same time, diverted the taste and attention from the undue consumption of flesh. That this has added to the health and longevity of mankind there can be no doubt, though neither is equal to what it was in earlier periods of society, as a consequence of the then greater comparative consumption of vegetable food. The best interests of man, therefore, demand more attention to the cultivation and use of garden plants. It cannot be long, we trust, before this will be the most popular, as it is the most useful, department of knowledge. Appearances indicate that it is even now with us, as it is in parts of Europe, unfashionable to be ignorant of the nature and properties of vegetables and fruits ; certainly no subject is receiving so much attention among us. While the agri- culturist is thus rapidly adding to his practical knowledge, in every part of the country, the inhabitants of our cities, merchants and me- chanics, are wisely directing their attention to the subject as a branch of the most valuable and pleasing information. And it is worthy of remark, in this connection, that many of them are becoming at the same time the most profitable agriculturists, from the facilities af- forded by the perusal of books. OUTLINES OF VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY. PLANTS are organized living bodies which, like those of animals, are composed of solids and fluids. They are without powers of loco- motion, and, it is thought, of voluntary motion. They are fixed to the earth by roots, from which they rise upward by a stem which throws out branches that in their turn give out others, all bearing leaves, flowers, fruits and seeds. The word plant literally means " fixed or rooted ;" but in Botany it signifies all productions of the vege- table kingdom. These are of three kinds herbs, shrubs and trees; they are annual, perishing within the year ; biennial, flowering the second year and then perishing, or perennial, surviving many years. They are deciduous when their leaves fade in autumn, and evergreen when these are constantly renewed, as with all resinous trees. They are indi- genous, or native, and exotic or foreign. The solid parts of plants consist mostly of cellular substance, woody-fibre, pith, bark, etc., and of fluids and juices, of various degrees of consistence, as volatile and fixed oils, gums, resins, air, water, etc. These are circulated in vari- ous ways and in numerous vessels and organs, each cbntaining par- ticular substances and performing peculiar functions. FLUIDS AND CIRCULATION. 17 The. fluids or juices moving in the vessels of plants contain the nourishment and constitute the essential means by which food is assimilated with their solid substances. A correspondence is thus observable between their functions and the circulation of the blood and other physiological phenomena of animals. They possess powers of motion, irritability, and of reproduction ; they breathe, sleep, digest, and perspire. Their peculiar individual character is preserved by their vital functions which constitute their life ; and when they cease, their bodies are exposed to the chemical processes which act alike on all inorganic substances, and they die. " See dying vegetables life sustain ; See life dissolving, vegetate again." The circulation, or motion of the juices of plants, is thought to be mechanical, the result of their irritability, the vessels acting as capil- liary tubes, etc. This irritability is destroyed by shocks of electricity, as with animals. Heat and light greatly increase this circulation, as in the spring of the year, while cold as readily checks or suspends it, as in autumn and winter. Long continued heat and rapidity of circu- lation, as in summer, exhausts their powers or irritability, till in au- tumn it is slow and their fluids are thick, as in animal life, both in regard to season and old age. Their repose, too, after the activity of the day, and their revival on the appearance of light, are not less remarkable than with man, or lower animals, under like circum- stances. The breathing of plants is their absorption and exhalations, phy- siological facts as notable as any other in the vegetable or animal economy. This is performed by, and is especially observable in the leaves. A plant growing under ice constantly emits bubbles of pure oxygen, which rise to escape. Placed also in a tumbler of water, exposed to the sun, it is soon seen to be covered with air-bubbles, which rise to the surface and burst. The inspiration of carbonic acid through the leaves of plants is as constant, and in quantity still more abundant. By this they live and furnish their organs with nourish- ment ; and, by their expirations during the day they afford the vital gaseous principle, oxygen, which is as necessary to the life of man and the animal world as to that of plants withdrawing at the same time, carbonic acid, which is most hurtful to animal life. Besides gases, they also exhale liquids which, in a common sized tree, amounts to 30 pounds a day. Their odor, thus exhaled, consists of volatile oils which, in quantity is proportionate to their volatility, their nature, light, heat, etc. Their taste depends on like circumstances, the chemi- cal character of their constituents and the nature of the soil. 2* 18 GROWTH AND CHANGES. The color of plants resides in their cellular substance, beneath the scarf skin, or epidermis, and depends on the peculiar functions of their organs, their situation, heat, etc. Green leaves placed in the dark become yellow, and then white. Young leaves grown in the dark, turn from white to yellow, and then to green, on exposure to light. Blossoms raised in the dark, are not materially changed by light. Plants are lighter by combining with oxygen, and darker on parting with it. Completely saturated with it, they become yellow, as with the leaves in autumn ; but under other circumstances, when exposed, they turn to green. The light of a lamp and that of the moon pro- duces no sensible difference in effect. Secretions and excretions are likewise remarkable functions of plants. All that is healthful and nutritive they secrete for their food and de- velopment, and all that is baneful and unproductive they reject and excrete through their roots. These, withdraw from the soil its various qualities, which constitute their life, health, and the perfection of their fruit ; combining and assimilating all that is essential for these pur- poses and casting off all that is useless or poisonous ; yet that which may be eminently useful, nevertheless, for other plants. The existence and growth of plants depend, as with animals, on the reception and assimilation of food. A knowledge, therefore, of the kind of nutriment they require is of great importance in vegetable physiology, as well as in practical agriculture. A beautiful connec- tion is thus seen between the organic and inorganic kingdoms. In- organic matter affords food for plants, plants afford food for animals, and both afford food for man. Men and animals require substances that have life and organization ; but plants require inanimate and in- organic matter. Both are apparent machines of greater or less com- plexity, each depending on the other and acting to produce a deter- minate end. The changes produced in plants by the assimilation of the various substances of which they are composed, are the results of chemical action and are traceable from the germ to the full-grown plant and fruit. Water arid carbon are resolved into their constituent parts, and these enter into new forms and combinations to constitute their solid portions. The hydrogen of the water unites with the carbon, received through the leaves from the air, to form oils, resins, sugar, etc. The oxygen of the water combines with fluids to form acids, etc. and is also given off from the leaves in the form of gas. The reproduction of plants is by evolution, which in process and effect, is similar to that of animals. They are endowed with organs which distinguish sexes and which are generally observable, but which change after evolution. The polen or farina, the seminal prin- ciple of plants, is contained in vessels called anthers. A part of this penetrates the stigma, the head of the pistil, and is conveyed to the SUBSTANCES OF PLANTS. 19 ovary of particular plants, and there the germ or ovules are affected. Both sexes are united in one flower in most plants ; in others they are separated, and the former is therefore called a perfect flower, while the latter is called male and female. These last stand on one stem, or are attached to different plants. Evolution is consequently most perfect and most readily effected in the perfect flowers, as they are called, and likewise when the stem has male and female blossoms. But where the two sexes are entirely separated evolution takes place only where the plants are sufficiently near for the polen of one to be carried by the wind, by insects, or by artificial means to the other. Should this not take place, the germ falls off, or the partial fruit is incapable of germination. Glands within the flowers secrete honey and attract insects which powder parts of their body with polen, and when visiting flowers of another kind, they deposite it. In others, it is said also, where perfect flowers of the two sexes are not near, small flies, being attracted by the honey of one flower, are suddenly enclosed by it and, in their endeavors to escape, necessarily deposite the polen obtained from other flowers. On this system of sexes, Linnaeus founded his arrangement of plants. Further outlines of this will be found in other parts of this treatise, and scientific terms will be defined by the glossary at the end of the volume. We have, however, studiously avoided technical language where it has been possible, wishing to render vegetable physiology as entertaining as it is useful. The substances of plants are in general said to consist of wood, gum, fecula or starch, sugar, gluten, albumen, fibrine, gelatin, caoutchouc, or india rubber, wax, fixed and volatile oils, camphor resin, gum-resin, balsam, extract, tannin, indigo, acid, aroma, the bitter, the acid and nar- cotic principles, ligneous-fibre, etc. Many of these, however, are con- vertible into one another by heat, air, moisture, or alkalies, which change more or less the relative proportions of their constituents. Modern chemistry has added others, or arranged the same under new names and forms of combination and much diminished and changed the terms by which vegetable substances have been known. A chemical analysis has proved the substances to be carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulphur, silex, oxide of iron, magnesia, carbonate of lime, potash, etc., and the various parts of plants are composed of these in different proportions. The formation of substances composing plants is the result of chemical operations during their growth and the development of fruit. The process of combining the original ele- ments, their absorption by heat and light, their unition in various forms and combinations, and also the resolving of original substances into other forms and compounds, constitute more especially the im- portant and interesting science of organic chemistry. (See another article.) 20 ACIDS, GUMS, RESINS, ETC. Principles of Plants. The. proximate principles of plants are the products of chemical combinations effected by the action of the vital principle. Such are the vegetable acids, wax, resins, the fixed and volatile oils, etc. The ultimate principles are the elements composing the proximate princi- ples, as carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen, and these are proportionate to the nature and quantity of these elements. Thus those substances composed of them form one class of proximate principles and those, with the addition of nitrogen, another class. Those of the one class have an excess of oxygen, (the general acidifying principle) and there- fore constitute the Vegetable acids. Acetic acid, or pure vinegar, is commonly produced by the fermentation of wine, cider, etc, : it is also found pure in the elm. Malic acid may be obtained from green apples, and barberries. Oxalic acid is found in a species of the sorrel, or the genera oxalis and rumex. Tartaric acid is obtained from the tamarind, cranberry, etc.; and when combined with potash, forms cream of tartar. Citric acid is found in the lemon and is mixed with the malic acid as in the goose- berry, cherry and strawberry. Quinic acid is obtained from the Peruvian bark. Gallic acid is from the oak and sumac, and is very astringent. Ben zoic acid is found in the laurus benzoin and vanilla ; it is highly aromatic and is the agreeable odor of balms. Prussic acid, an active poison, is obtained from peach meats and blossoms, bitter almonds, cherry leaves and meats. Gums, sugar, etc., compose that order of proximate principles in which hydrogen and oxygen are in the proportion to form water. These unite with water, but have little taste or smell. They com- pose gum arabic ; the common gums of the peach, cherry and other trees. Sugar is from the sugar cane, maple trees, beets, corn stalks, pumpkins, sweet apples and most vegetables with a sweet taste. Oils, wax, resins, etc., (in which hydrogen is in excess) are of the second order of proximate principles. They do not unite with water, Oils are fixed, as oil of almonds, olives, flax seed (linseed oil) and volatile, which have aromatic odors that fly off when exposed to the air, as the oils of orange, lavender, rose, jasmine, and peppermint, and when mixed with alcohol they form essences. The aroma is the volatile or ordoriferous part exhaled from aromatic plants, especially abundant in warm climates. Wax is found on the fruit of the bay- berry ; and bees wax is produced by bees from the polen of flowers. Resins exude from the pine, etc. ; they are insoluble in water and in- flammable. Mixed with volatile oils they form balsams which are thick and inflammable, as balsam of tolu, copavia, etc. When mixed with gums they are then gum-resins, as gamboge, guaiacum, aloes, as- safcetida, etc. Gum elastic, or caoutchouc, from South American and COMPOSITION, SAP, ETC. 21 some other trees of the tropics, possess remarkable properties. The juice of the common milk weed is said to be similar to that of the India rubber plant. The valuable properties of these substances will be treated in the second part of this work, with those of the fol- lowing. The. second class of proximate principles are composed of the ulti- mate elements we have mentioned with nitrogen. Such are opium, the narcotic principle of the poppy ; hematine, the coloring principle of Campeachy wood ; indigo, from species of the indigo plant , gluten, from the cotyledons of leguminous plants, as beans and peas; also from the albumen of wheat, rye, etc., when separated from the starch. Jelly is the juice of suculent fruits, as apples, quinces, currants, etc. The coloring principle of plants gives to them their green color, by the aid of light. It is changed, as in autumn, by the formation of an acid. Thus a drop of an acid on the green part will turn it to a brown. The coloring matter of some plants has never been obtained separate from the plant, as in logwood, and saffron. The red coloring of fruit is produced by the combination of an acid with a blue coloring princi- ple, as an acid will do with all vegetable blues ; this is deeper in pro- portion to the quantity of acid. An acid with iron is the common coloring principle of flowers. The composition of the sap of plants is from the before-mentioned elements and water holding in solution the earths and their metalic bases, alkaline, salts, etc., with vegetable and animal substances. It is not obtained pure, being always mixed with the proximate principles before-mentioned ; and it differs in plants in proportion to those prin- ciples. The power or property of a plant to secrete one kind of sub- stance and not another depends on their constitutional peculiarities, as with races of men in the formation of their different colors. Water is always a predominant constituent of the sap of plants. An analysis of the sap of the elm gives water, volatile matter, acetate of potash, carbonate of lime, sulphate of potash and vegetable matter; of the beech, water, acetate of lime, acetate of potash, gallic acid, tannin, mucous extract, acetate of alumine, etc. These show the differences in the elements of the sap ; they also differ materially in their pro- portions. The odor, taste, nutritive and medicinal qualities, color, etc., are all the result of these elements, variously combined. The elements are the same in substances of very different character, solids as well as fluids, but their mode of combination may form vinegar or a liquid in one, and sugar or a solid in another. By knowing these elements and their proportions, similar substances may be produced by the chemist, but not the form and organization of the plant, these being alone the work of nature in conformity with laws established jy Supreme Wisdom. 22 ORGANS OF PLANTS. The. nourishment of plants. Being deprived of the powers of locomotion, plants must have organs to obtain their food from the situation in which they are placed, and also for assimilating it. This food is in a liquid or aeriform state. The solid particles held in liquids must be in a very fine state, as commonly diffused in water or rain. When placed in water, plants bloom, but the nourishment of the water is soon exhausted. Distilled water has lost that nourishment, or its carbonic acid gas, etc., and plants soon die in it. Sponglets or suckers, like the organs of insects that live by suction, are minute sponge-like vessels, on the point of the rootlets, radicles, or small fibres. These pores admit only of fine particles dissolved in water, otherwise they become obstructed and the plant perishes. The pores or suckers of leaves are similar, and perform similar functions. The. sap vessels are congeries of fine tubes, straight and curved, forming lace-work, or they are of a beautiful spiral form. The. straight vessels are hollow threadlets, fifty times finer than a hair, and forming, together, large tubes. The spiral vessels act singly or in bun- dles in every part of the plant, except the bark. The circulation through these, upwards and downwards, is elsewhere alluded to. The organs of aeration are not like those of the lungs, any more than the pith in the cirulation is like the heart of animals ; yet analogous functions are performed by them in both. They breathe, and it is by the air they are chiefly nourished, as will be seen in another place. Organs of sensation in plants. It has been thought by some that plants are endowed with sensation, sentiments and propensities. Ner- vous organs have been disclosed, it is said, in the sensitive and other plants. There is at the base of the leaf-stalk of this plant, a swelling collar constituted of a delicate tissue of cells, on which the motion of the leaves depend. The under part being cut away, the leaf bends down and cannot again rise, and the upper part being cut, it cannot bend. These are acted on, it is believed, by nervous globules, or grains or ganglia, as diffused in all plants by medulary vessels. The effects of experiments certainly show an analogy between plants and animals. Leaves and flowers turn to the light when twisted ; these curl up and die when watered with poisons. Twining plants twine from right to left or left to right, according to species. The existence of plants has been compared to that of animals when asleep, their functions proceeding during the time without conscious- ness. A seed placed in the earth is similar in its nature to the egg of an animal, and the effects of the earth would seem not unlike that of sitting upon it, or the development of the young of amphibious animals with the egg covered by the earth. It is obviously very difficult to determine at what point vegetable life ends and animal life begins. The sponge is in many respects less sensible than some plants, yet COMPARATIVE PHYSIOLOGY. 23 it is ranked among animals ; and so also with corals. And, although we show hereafter how plants grow, yet it may not appear plain how they live. They live, it is true, like animals, by the food they receive and assimilate, yet the generation of the vital principle which consti- tutes life is not explained. By observing, however, the facts which are hereafter stated, it will be seen how they live best, how they decay, and how they die. dge of Plants Many small funguses, called moulds, live but a few hours, or not longer at most than a few days. Garden plants and mosses live but one season, dying of old age as soon as they ripen their seeds. Others live two years, and sometimes three, if their flow- ering is prevented, such as the fox-glove and hollyhock. These are the annual and biennial shrubs, herbs, etc. Many live not only through the winter, but are perpetually, or perennially green. Such are evergreens or forest trees. These live oftentimes for many centuries, producing annually new leaves. Thus the olive, vine, oak, cedar and chesnut, live three hundred, and even a thousand years. The dragon's-blood of Tenerifle is estimated to be two thousand, or more, years old ; and the banian may be six thousand. The interior of trees often becomes too compact for the sap to circulate, or for the formation of new vessels, its moisture passes into younger wood, and the fibres shrink and be- come powder : but the outer parts live, and the tree survives, even for centuries. Comparative Physiology of Plants. An observance of the relations between animals and plants is highly instructive and entertaining. Many of the most important functions in the life and growth of plants, are seen to be not only analogous, but apparently the same as in animals. This cannot fail to arrest the at- tention of the common observer, as well as of the naturalist. It is frequently alluded to by some writers, who, at the same time, affect to scout the idea of there being any thing more in all this than a seem, ing resemblance." The coincidences are so striking, that constant reference is made to them without a show of reason for dissenting from the conclusion of their functional identity. But the reference is followed by the assumption that the distinctions are, nevertheless, so obvious, that any other conclusions than those they draw would be inadmissible. This assumed guardianship of men's opinions, without facts as a basis for their declarations, cannot have escaped the atten- tion of the general reader. The ostensible reason for this is founded in the narrow conclusion, that to infer a common dispensation of the gifts of Supreme Power and Wisdom in the endowments of or- 24 INSTINCT AND REASON. ganized beings, would interfere with previously formed opinions of the ultimate designs of that Being. On this subject there is quite too much cant, and too little ingenuousness in the world. As if, with all the facts which God has spread before us in nature, it would not comport with His wisdom to be equally liberal in his blessings. Hence, lines of distinctions are assumed in the premises, which apply alike to Creative Power, and the conclusions of men, that thus far shalt thou go, and no farther." The feelings which can thus bound the goodness and benevolence of an all-wise Being, by human prejudices and as- sumptions, and for the narrowest of reasons, cannot be envied by an enlightened observer of the works of Nature. The Instincts of Plants. If, with this view of the subject we may be allowed the expression, are remarkable, and evidently correspond with the same powers in animals. In some plants they are obviously far more remarkable than in some animals. When, therefore, we are unable to define distinctions, or show reasons why they should exist, it would be much more rational to refer similar effects to similar causes, as in all other modes of reasoning. Where, also, ignorance does not allow men to speak from known facts and clearly established principles, it is safer to doubt than to assume to base conclusions on what is not known. It has been common, however, to follow prejudices in other departments of organic life as well as in this ; for it is inferred, that if ignorance be bliss, 'tis folly to be wise." Thus, the received opin- ion is, in spite of the demonstrations of science and of daily observation, that the whole of the lower orders of animals are without the least evidence of reason ; and, in conformity with this opinion, it has been the universal custom, though none the more rational for its being so, to resolve all the manifestations of mind in the whole world of organic beings, man excepted, into the general powers of " instinct" while the same powers in man are referred to as not less remarkable evidences of his reasoning faculties. This, to say the least, is a very convenient mode of avoiding inquiry, and of settling a point about which little may be known ; but it does not satisfy the ardent and candid student of nature. The elephant, which, on finding it out of his power to reach with his trunk, a potato near the wall opposite from that to which he was confined, carefully extended his probosis in an exact line with the object of his wishes, and with his breath forcibly blowed it against the wall, so that it rebounded to a position within his reach, manifested the same mode of reasoning from effects to causes, that Newton did on seeing an apple fall from the tree. But this is no more remarkable than daily exhibitions of reason in lower animals. The African monkey manifests powers of mind which very many other beings more elevated in name, and belonging to the same regions, rarely evince. All this, however, may be called instinct," ingenuity/' or any other convenient term, in the elephant, the beaver, monkey, or the REASON AND FEELING. 25 dos, for the gratification of prejudice, or for the avoidance of the term - rea.son,'-" but no reasonable person will assume to say if he reasons from cause to tiled himself, that the same effects produced by the lower animals as those produced by man does not presuppose the same causes ari.l the exercise of the same faculties. That man possesses .iiru faculties in greater perfection or power than lower ani- . distinct moral sentiments, no one will deny ; but this is no evidence that lower animals do not possess reasoning faculties ; for the grades of perfection and powers of exercise vary as i;, maa ;j - they do in other animals. To deny, then, to all the wet animals, as it is popular and somewhat fashionable to do, all powers of reasoning, is to evince in man less of those powers than he claims and should be accredited for. But it would seem from some writers on vegetable physiology that "comparisons are odious." We would not disturb the sentiments which dictate such prejudices. We believe that to " Vindicate the ways of God to man." sentiments are required of a very different cast. While the dis- tinctions beween organic and inorganic bodies are apparent and striking, many of those between the two classes of organic beings are not thus apparent. Similar phenomena, therefore, can only be referred to smilar causes. It does not necessarily follow that because organs produce similar functions, they are necessarily the same in organic structure. Many parts of animals vary much in their organiza- tion, while they perform similar functions with those differently con- stituted. It is the same in plants. The organs of circulation and of respiration in plants are very different from those of animals, still they are admitted to perform similar functions. Feeling appears to be the principal distinction proposed between plants and animals. The justice of this distinction, however, does not appear to us apparent. Linnaeus declared his views of these dis- tinctions in the following summary aphorism. " Stones grow, vege- tables grow and live, and animals grow, live and feel." The senti- ment of this declaration is almost universally adopted, although most men confess their inability to decide where feeling begins or where it ends. But stones do not grow, for it is a distinction between the mineral and vegetable kingdom, that members of the former do not increase in size by anything within themselves. Mere depositions upon their surface is not growth. Now, that plants feel is as clear and evident a proposition as that animals feel. But the inference is that if feeling be allowed to plants we must allow them to possess orsrans of sensation similar with those, perhaps, of animals, which would indicate intelligence, a fact that few are disposed to admit, 3 I 26 PHYSICAL CAUSES. although the same facts resulting from precisely the same cause in animals, no one doubts to be intelligence and that, too, oftentimes of a high order. Here, as with instinct in animals, all phenomena of this kind, not understood, are referred by the wholesale to "physical causes." It must be admitted, however, by all advocates of physical causes, under such or any other circumstances, that no evidence either of sensation or of intelligence is, or can be manifested in man or lower animals without physical causes. The distinction therefore fails. Nerves, or a brain, are essential both to sensation and intelli- gence and these are physical agents ; hence the existence and opera- tion of physical causes are as essential to the production of an effect in animals as they are in producing an effect in vegetables. No indi- vidual of either the animal or vegetable kingdom wills or acts without the agency of a physical cause. The sensitive plant that trembles and shrinks at the approach of danger, or the Dionce that seizes its enemy with its leaves and wills, if you please, to close its parts for pro- tection, does so through the agency of physical causes, and so does an animal act for like reason. If no physical effect were produced on the nerves of animals, either through sight, sound, or external sensa- tion at the approach of a body, no will, act, or motion would be produced, as the result of fear, or for any other reason. Call these phenomena by whatever name we please, it is the same in both animals and vegetables. The feeble and apparently conscious tendril, that seeks to elevate itself and adopts various and curious expedients to obtain its objects, acts from some cause within itself, or it would not act at all. If this is not from a consciousness of its wants, what is the cause of its action ? Is it that objects at a great distance, (to which it often goes, avoiding intermediate and apparently better support,) possesses some unknown physical power of attraction ? If so, that power has the same effect on its organs that it would have on those of animals, and no more. But this is not offered as a reason for the apparent preference which the tendril manifests. How then can it know that one object is better than another for the accomplish- ment of its purposes for purpose it has, or it would not seek, on account of its conscious feeble nature, any object to sustain its growth, much less take so much apparent pains to seek that which is best. But we have thrown out these remarks rather to awaken attention to the physiology of plants and to induce their careful study, rather than to advance any new views or to controvert those of others. There is, however, a descrepancy in the opinions of some who, whilst they assert the stale opinions of others, venture to determine what they profess not to understand in vegetable life. This subject is to be approached, like all others, for the purpose of arriving at truth and not for the establishment of previous opinions or favorite theories. SPECIES OF FUNGI. 27 Microscopic Vegetables. SOME of the class of fungi and mosses we have noticed elsewhere ; but such as are invisible without the aid of the microscope, present the most remarkable peculiarities in vegetation. Without this mag- nifying power, we never should have understood the singular character and economy of these plants. When collected in masses they are called canker, mould, etc., and are found on decayed vegetable and animal substances, or covering damp walls of cellars and caves. They are all parasitic plants and are often found on grains, grasses, etc., occasioning the diseases to which they are subject. The number of species already discovered is immense, and their various modes of propagation render them one of the most interesting subjects in vege- table nature. The most common species is the common dscobolus. It is found during the whole year, of a greenish color and of different forms, according to its age. At first it is of a globular form, of the size of a pin's head ; it gradually opens and forms a cap and then becomes flat. The seed vessels are small black specks which slowly rise from the surface of the fungus until the seeds are ripe, when they suddenly burst and distribute the seeds over the ground. Another of a star- like form is commonly found on rotton wood. The seed vessel is in the form of a minute ball within the body of the plant. When the seed is mature the vessel splits into five or six equal parts ; the inside lining then suddenly, with a jerk, turns inside-out, throwing the seed to a considerable distance. The lining then forms a dome over the top. The whole process is otherwise highly curious. Another kind is found at all seasons on the dead leaves of the holly. It is like so many black spots of the size of a pin's head. Its structure is very curious ; it has three or five seed vessels. The seeds, when ripe, are discharged in a stream from one or both ends of these vessels. Another minute fungus has been found as a parasite on a parasite ; i. e., at- tached to and deriving its nourishment from another fungus, growing on rotton wood. The seeds are dispersed from the head of the plant. Another very minute fungus, also a parasite on one of its own order, is found in damp places in spring. The seeds and the physiology of the plant are likewise very curious. Another is found on the leaf- stalk of the sycamore. It appears like minute black spots in dry weather ; but in moist weather it appears gradually distending a small slit in the surface. Another singular fungus appears on the surface of old leather. That appearing on an old shoe in the form of mould we here give a magnified view of. These curious vegetables will be seen to possess much interest as regards their forms and habits. A single plant is invisible to the naked eye ; and it is 28 ANIMAL PLANTS. only where they are collected in masses that they are observed ; but with a powerful glass the forms we have mentioned appear distinctly. The various species of microscopic mosses have, of course, variously formed organs. The seed receptacle under the glass presents very singular appearances ; and, on examination of their structure in this and other particulars, they cannot fail to strike us with surprise. Many species which inhabit the water keep it pure and wholesome and their remains ultimately contribute to the formation of useful soil. Peat- moss, so valuable in many countries as fuel, are formed in a great measure of these mosses. They sometimes protect plants from too great heat in summer and from severe frosts in winter. They are likewise useful as food for animals. , The arctic bear is said to line nis cave with them against the approach of winter. The squirrel's warm pendulous nest is formed of them, and also that of many birds. Numerous tribes of insects find a safe retreat within them and subsist on. their delicate leaves. The Laplanders prize a bed of moss as much as we do one of feathers 5 they also employ it as bed clothes for infants in the cradle. The mosses are made into brooms in some places in England and the north of Europe and some have been used as dyes and medicines. Minimal Plants. These are generally marine productions : many are fixed to rocks? and are generally called zoophites and radiated animals. The sea- nettle, daisy, marygold, carnation, etc., are carried about by the water without any apparent volition. The great variety of corals, the sponge and other animals are little, if any in advance of plants. They are not so sensitive, and consequently manifest less of life. Sensation in them cannot therefore be any more evidence of their being animals than the same power in plants. Some species of the sponge attach themselves to crabs in the same manner as some parasitic plants do to trees. They are nourished by the water which they imbibe through their smallest pores and which they part with through their largest ones. The fibrous part is therefore the skeleton of the animal. They produce their species in a similar manner to plants. A kind of germ is formed like a bud upon a stalk. This falls off at a proper time and becomes an animal, like its parent. If these are separated into parts, each part will become an animal, like the polypus, or like plants by cuttings or shoots. Some of these are called hydras, or many headed, from this circumstance. Infusoria, small homogeneous masses, are an extensive class of ani- mals. These with many of the fungi before mentioned, are greatly inferior in their organization to plants. The single sense of touch characterizes the zoophites as animals. The senses are increased in LAWS AND VITAL PRINCIPLES. 29 number and acuteness as animals advance in the scale of organized beings, some having two, some three and some four, etc. The power of locomotion, it will be seen, cannot be urged as a distinction in favor of animal life ; for, being attached to rocks or floating without volun- tary motion, they are no more locomotive than plants. Nor can the presence of nitrogen, which by some has been considered a proof of anirnality, be deemed conclusive, since it is found also in plants. The fact is that individuals of both kingdoms approach one another so nearly in some particulars that no line of distinction can be drawn. The idea lhat because the elementary principles of plants and animals differ in the fact that plants possess more carbon than animals and animals more nitrogen, there is a notable distinction between them, appears too much like an effort to discover differences without a rea- son. The only differences, then, that appear marked, are in the facts that plants feed on inorganic matter and animals on organic matter, and that they throw off oxygen and inhale carbonic acid, while animals throw off carbonic acid and inhale oxygen. The fact that life is more limited in plants than animals and that they consequently manifest less of the powers or properties of irritability, will readily be seen and acknowledged. Laws and Vital Principles. Inorganic matter is the medium through which organic matter de- rives its oganization and vitality. This matter in its ordinary state, neither undergoing the processes of organization or of decomposition, belongs especially to the mineral kingdom. From this, then, the vegeta- ble kingdom mainly derives its powers ; and from the vegetable kingdom is derived those of the animal kingdom. It is only when animal and vegetable substances have been deprived of vitality, and are no longer subject to the laws of organic matter, but have become, by death, sub- ject to the laws of inorganic matter, that vegetables are in part support- ed by them. But animals are supported by organic matter, or that which has had vitality, and before the laws of inorganic matter have ope- rated upon it. It will be perceived that inorganic matter, or that of the mineral kingdom, possesses the same properties when divided or ground to powder that it does in the mass ; i. e. each particle possesses those properties in proportion to its size ; while the organic parts of animals or of vegetables, if thus crushed or divided, are deprived by death of the vital forces which distinguished them from inorganic matter. The seed of a plant, if placed in the earth, forms a living plant, which, from its incipiency, opposes inorganic laws, or those of decom- position. The vital principle which it has received from the seed and which the seed having parted with, together with a portion of its sub- s' 30 THE SEED AND LIGHT. stance for its support, continues to animate the plant ; while the re- mainder of the seed has thereby become subject to the inorganic laws and rots, or is decomposed in the ground. The plant lives and flour- ishes, and by the force of its vital powers, thus obtained, appropriates inorganic matter to its support and the development of its organs, until by violence or the exhaustion of its vital energies at maturity, it is at length, and in turn, subjected to the force of the inorganic laws it dies and is decomposed, either in the ground or by being consumed by animals. The seed originally derived its vital principle from its parent plant through its pericarp, or fruit, and retained it within its envelops until buried and excited to germination by the heat and moisture within the earth, when it gave it to its offspring. During the period from the birth to the death of a plant, periods of repose intervene, as with biennial and perenial plants in winter. It loses its leaves, the principal means of its support, and remains par- tially dormant, until awakened to action by the heat of returning spring, when its leaves are renewed and its dormant energies call forth new shoots, buds and blossoms, and the scene of life, health, vi- gor and action is reenacted. Light is evidently one of the necessaries of life" and plays an im- portant part in vegetation and the economy of plants. By it they form their combustible parts. The carbon they receive must be, in some way, modified by its influence before it can become a constituent of the plant. During the night they probably do little more than to digest the food they have received during the day and to separate and give off that which is not found nutritious. Light is a primary agent from the time the plant emerges from the soil to its death. Its nature becomes changed by its absence so that the observer would scarcely recognize its identity by its form, color, taste or odor. If a branch of any spreading plant penetrates in its growth a subterranean place its character becomes not only thus changed, but is found composed almost entirely of water and assumes the nature of a fungus, so that all of its native beauties and virtues are lost; it is a mere pulp deprived of its resinous qualities. The acid taste of some vege- tables as the endive and celery, may, however, be corrected by bleaching. Diseases of Plants. These arise from many causes, as with man and lower animals. They may be detected and cured by a careful observance of the nature and wants of plants. The change in the color of the leaves of the box and holly is said to be a disease or disordered condition of the juices. Too great or too little food, or that which is poisonous, pro- duces diseases. Too little or too great light, heat, air, water and soil ; DISEASES OF PLANTS. 31 an excess of light, so as to cause the escape of too much oxygen, or too rapid a deposite of carbon, are also causes of disease. By a knowledge of the properties and characteristics of plants we may per- ceive their wants and frequently apply remedies adapted to their dis- eased condition. Their health is often affected by external injuries. Rains and winds also injure them, oftentimes. Smoke obstructs the pores of the leaves and is thereby greatly prejudicial. Animals are a frequent cause of disease in plants. Some penetrate the bark and deposite their eggs, producing larvae and the insect cynips. By one kind of these, protuberances are produced, as the nut- gall of oaks, apple or berry galls. Some prey on the juices, as with the insect cochineal, a species of which is so valuable for dying a scarlet color. The Mexican plant cactus cochinilifer is that which they feed upon. Disease is likewise produced by contiguity with other plants, either by ejecting deleterious matter from their roots or withdrawing that which is necessary for one or the other. Mosses and lichens attach themselves to trees and absorb moisture or attract insects, both of which destroy the wood : they do not however feed on the juices, and are therefore called false parasites. The miseltoe pierces the bark and feeds on the juices and is a true parasite. An- other parasite called the pterospora is found on the leaves and branches of trees. Smut and rot are fungi, the former fastening itself on the ears of cereal grains and the latter preying on the seeds. If these seeds be planted the disease will be continued in the plant. Rust and ergot are also fungi, the one a disease of rye and the other of grasses. As plants renew their parts annually, they seem less liable to be affected by old age ; still their powers of renewal, or vital prin- ciple, becomes exhausted in time as with animals. In annual plants, the production and maturing of fruit exhausts their energies, during the year, and in biennials, in two years. These, however, as with perennials, depend much on their constitution and the amount of their fruit, as with the apple tree which, being very fruitful, does not often attain to so great an age as the oak, the fruit of which is light. The effects produced by insects on plants is vastly greater than in producing deformities. Like great fires, however, they may often prove a benefit and maintain a balance among the various species of plants, for the devastating effects of these insignificant agents are wonderful. Scarcely a plant is without one or more species of insect. The diseases they produce often constitute an important article of food, medicine and commerce, as we have said, in the cactus, or cochi- neal insect, the lac insect, the cantharia or Spanish fly, the gall apples, and the nut galls. The sweeping destruction produced by the locust affords a striking discrepancy between the magnitude of the means and that of the effects. They can strip entirely of their foliage thousands of square miles of 32 INSECTS ON PLANTS. forest tress during one brief visit, and annihilate every appearance of vegetation; as when they thus scourged Masinissa, causing the death by famine of more than 800,000 persons ! Compared with such effects, earthquakes and volcanoes dwindle into insignificance. Their numbers are so vast as often to overshadow immense tracts of country. The swarm which passed over Smyrna, like a living cloud, for three days and nights, was calculated to be 900 feet deep, more than 40 miles wide and 50 miles in length ! The number ex- ceeded 168,608,563,200,000, and the magnitude of the mass, if gathered into a heap, would exceed by more than 1.030 times that of the largest pyramid of Egypt, or would encircle the whole earth with a belt a mile and a furlong wide. When borne down by tempests their bodies have overspread large tracts of country four feet deep, or formed, when thus driven into the sea, winrows along the shore 3 or 4 feet deep, for 50 miles in extent ! The aphides, or rose bugs, the flies of the turnip fields, and the timber grubs are also terribly destructive. The "great goat moth" is likewise a powerful and destructive insect to plants. Its larvse are proved to increase their weight 140 times within an hour, and when full grown, are 72,000 times heavier than when hatched ! The termes bellicasus lays sixty eggs per minute and continues to do so without interruption for an incredible time ; thus laying, it is calcu- lated, 3,600 eggs per hour, or 86,400 per day ! The common flesh fly, it is said, will give birth to 20,000 young ; and the three flies, musca vomitoria, Linnaeus and others have said, can derour a dead horse as quick as a lion, or commit more ravages than an elephant. They are thus important scavengers. The pine forests of Germany have sustained immense injuries from a small beetle which has de- posited 80,000 larva in one tree. Preying on the inner bark, they have thus destroyed in one forest 1,500,000 trees and then, on maturity, taken wing and flown to other forests with like results. It was a subject of great wonder at one time in London, how the elm trees in some of the parks became completely stripped of their bark. Sus- pecting it to be caused by soldiers, many were arrested and watches stationed to secure the depredators ; still the work of destruction ceased not. Various other causes were supposed and severe measures taken to punish the culprits ; until, at length, they were found to be no others than insects, which were ultimately checked in their career by art. The economy of plants, as observed in their habits, is strikingly il- lustrative of the harmony of nature. We see them adapted to the peculiarities of their situations. If indigenous to the tropical cli- mate, they cannot live in our temperate zone without the aid of art ; if inhabitants of the valley, they cannot dwell on the mountain's sum- mit ; nor, if the rugged tenants of the bleak and frosty mountain^ caa FORMS AND ECONOMY OF PLANTS. 33 they endure the enervating daliance of the luxurious vale ; nor can either dwell with the aquatic plant immersed in a liquid element. We have noticed many of the habits of plants ; and, in the progress of our remarks, we shall notice how they minister to our wants as food, clothing, medicines, in the arts, and for the support of inferior ani- mals. The interest with which they must be viewed, with their num- berless shoots urging into life and action their millions of buds, that are expanded into light and being by the genial sun, rivalling one another in their efforts to produce the fairest flower and choicest fruit these, we say, render them objects of peculiar attention. But a change comes over them, as we have seen, and as we daily witness, with fellow mortals. They die and mingle with the soil, and from their decomposed remains spring up new beings. The various forms of plants, in this connection, cannot fail to strike us with wonder. Although this is remarkable in the 100,000 different species of insects, yet the variations are not so obvious in the range of such minute objects as in plants, nor is it more prolific in wonders. In every situation capable of sustaining life we find plants arise and continue their species in endless perpetuity. The germs are every where found where the soil is upturned, and where they may have re- mained dormant, perhaps for centuries. Islands formed of coral-reefs, and even sterile rocks, cinders and lava of recent volcanoes, are found covered with vegetable forms. The germs that float invisibly in the air, successively follow each other and plant the most barren places with verdure, which, rising from grasses to shrubs, and from shrubs to trees, soon present all the varied forms of meadows, thickets and for- rests. Thus, considered in reference to their utility, the beauty of their forms and colors, their fruit and fragrance, or the continuation of their species, they forcibly impress us at all times with admiration and delight. The utility of plants is unbounded and illimitable. No where do they rise in vain. The lofty tree, whatever its intrinsic properties, presents its cooling and refreshing shades for flocks and herds, and of- fers an asylum for the insect tribe and for the songsters of the air. As food, the bread-fruit tree of the Pacific, and the cabbage tree of our own and other southern climes, the sugar maple of the United States, the tea tree of China, the sugar cane, the cotton shrub, and the coffee tree, and the innumerable fruit trees which every where yield in rich profusion their varied products ; the fountain tree of the Canaries that yields pure water ; the tallow tree of China ; the Mulberry tree, nour- ishing myriads of beings that industriously supply us with siks ; the salt tree of Chili that daily supplies the people with salt ; the cinna- mon, pimento and clove that furnish our spices ; the Peruvian bark, the senna, manna and innumerable other medicinal plants ; those too yielding their healing balsams, turpentine, resins, oils and gums all, 34 SPECIES OF PLANTS. all furnish us with their invaluable products. Nor are they less im- portant in protecting us by the buildings we raise with them, or in the conveniencies and luxuries they afford us by the ships we build of them to transport the products of one clime and people to those of another. Shrubs and herbs also supply us with every variety of food and use- ful product. There the golden wheat presents its abundant crops, and here the flowing oats and potatoes, the loaded pea, the swelling turnip, beet and carrot, the luxuriant grass and bountiful corn, crown the earth's surface with life and nourishment ; while the universal smiles of variously tinted flowers invite us abroad to view the charms and inhale the odors of their fragrant breath All here spread out before us the rich bounties and varied delights of vegetable nature. Well may it be said, with all these in view, that In reason's ear they become preachers." Differences in the Species of Plants. These are known as races, varieties and variations. Where these differences are remarkable, or striking, and are ever continued by the parent to the offspring, through the seed, they are termed races. The polen of one species being strewed on the pistils of another, the seed produces a plant resembling both species, but the race is continued. Varieties are produced by grafting, or by other means than by the seed, and thus they are continued. Variations are slight differences pro- duced by variations in soil, climate, moisture, &c. jSnomalies, or deformities, are produced by accidental circumstan- ces ; such as the adhesion of parts ordinarily separate, as with the leaves, flowers and fruits. Some assert that the single petal of many flowers are, in fact, many petals, and that they adhere together before the expansion of the flower, as in the blue bell and stromonium ; and thus with the sepals of monosepalous plants. Peculiarities are like- wise produced by the want of the necessary vigor to mature their parts, as is observed in the different number of seeds in the flowers of the same plant. Of the six acorns of the oak, only one is matured ; and of the six in the horse chestnut but two are perfected. Some or- gans appear incapable of performing their natural function, and thus produce deformities. Buds, unable to develope leaves, form a perma- nent deformity upon the stem, as with the prickly pear, where the branches become thick from imperfectly formed leaves. Excessive nourishment induce the stamens and pistils to swell and become pe- tals, as with all double flowers. Thus poppies naturally have many stamens, but double poppies are often seen without any stamens. This is also common with the rose which has, naturally, five petals, with many stamens and pistils ; but, in full double roses, these are SIGNS OF PLANTS. 35 not found. Foot -stalks are often changed also to leaves and petioles ; and peduncles sometimes change to tendrils, as with the vine. Buds are often transformed into thorns, caused by a superabundance of buds, in which the sap becomes hardened, exhibiting short protuberances. Many changes are affected by cultivation, when natural deformities disappear. Changes produced by geographical situations and the in- fluence of external agents on the growth and position of plants are considered in another place. Signs of plants, produced by the atmosphere, are often observed, and are by some considered signs by which to judge of the weather. It is said that not only the coming weather may be foretold by an acquaintance with flowers, but also the time of the day and the time of the year. Linnaeus is said to have possessed such a knowledge of them as to need no watch, calender nor weather glass. Lord Bacon observed that when the flower of the chickweed expanded fully and boldly no rain will succeed for some hours or days. It partially con- ceals its small flower in a rainy day, and entirely shuts it up with its green folds when there is a prospect of a long storm. If the flowers of the Siberian sow-thistle keep open during the night, rain, it is said, is certain to fall the next day. The leaves of the trefoil are al- ways contracted at the approach of a storm, and hence called the husbandman's chronometer." If the African marygold does not open its flowers by 7 o'clock, A. M. rain may be expected with certainty on that day. An uncommon quantity of seeds is produced by white thorns and dog-rose bushes in wet summers, and this is considered a sign of a severe winter. Many plants with compound flowers direct them towards the east in the morning, carefully following the direction of the sun, and appearing towards the west in the evening ; but, be- fore rain, they are as carefully closed, as with the tulip. A species of the wood-sorrel doubles its leaves before storms, but unfolds them under a serene sky. Cassia and the sensitive plant do the same. The flowers of the pimpernel appearing widely open in the morning indicate a fine day, and if the petals are closed, rain may soon be ex- pected ; it is found in stubble fields. Nettles appearing abundantly in winter indicate a mild season. Most plants, indeed, expand their flowers fully on fine days, but all do not close their petals on the ap- proach of a storm. Periodical Opening of Flowers. The yellow and purple Star of Jerusalem, or the goats beard of both species, open their flowers in the morning and close them at noon, without regard to the weather. The evening primrose opens with a snapping noise at sunset and closes at day break. The flow- er of the garden lettuce opens at 7 and shuts at 10 o'clock, A. M. 36 FLOWERING OF PLANTS. A species of the aloes, without prickles, gradually opens its large and beautiful flowers at 5 o'clock, P. M. in July, exhales its odor, then droops and dies ; and, by 10 o'clock it is entirely withered. The marygold, the tamarind tree, water lilly, false sensitive plant, with others of the class diadelphia, always expose their flowers during a serene day and close them at night. The tamarind tree is said to enclose with its leaves the flowers and fruit each night, to protect them from rain and cold. The beautiful flower of the cerea, a foot in diamater in Mexico and Jamaica, expands and emits a fragrant odor during a few hours of the night and then closes Jor ever. The flow- ers of the dandelion close entirely during the extreme heat cf the day : it opens a little past 5, and gathers its petals about 9, A. M. Forty- six flowers have been mentioned as possessing this sensibility. Those which observe less accuracy in folding, though in accordance with the weather, are called meteoric flowers ; and those opening in the morn- ing and closing daily before evening, in accordance with the duration of the day, are tropical flowers ; and those opening at an exact hour, and closing mostly at a different hour are equinoctial flowers. Very many plants droop before rain, when the wind which brings up the rain begins to blow. Most of the syngenesious plants have particular hours for closing and shutting their flowers, as the cat's-ear, which closes at 3, and the mouse-ear at 2 o'clock. The Prince's Leaf, or four o'clock of the Malay Islands, opens at 4 o'clock, P. M., and closes at 4 o'clock, A. M. It is said to be used by the people as a clock. Superstitious notions have originated in the Romish Church from the periods at which flowers blossom, if these periods happen about the time of any saint's day. Thus the dead nettle is consecrated to St. Vincent, the winter hellebore to St. Paul, the crocus to St. Valentine, a species of the daisy to St. Margaret, the cardamine, or " our lady's flower," to the Virgin Mary ; and likewise the marygold, from its im- aginary resemblance to rays of glory, &c. The blue bell has been dedicated to St. George, and thought to be emblematical of British rule over the ocean. St. John's wort is so called from its blooming near the day of that Saint. The plant lychnis, called the great can- dlestick, is believed to have been lighted up for St. John the Baptist. The white lilly is supposed emblematical of the Virgin Mary, and roses are supposed to fade about St. Mary Magdalen's day. The passion flower is supposed to blossom about Holy Rood day. The mandrake has been viewed by some with equally superstitious notions. On pulling it up by the roots, piercing shrieks are said to have been heard from it, and the act has been looked upon with horror by the ignorant ; so that the person withdrawing it from the ground always approached it with his face turned in the oposite direction. It was also supposed to be possessed of talismanic powers, always securing good fortune to its owner. The victories of the Maid of Orleans have thus been at- THE CARBON OF VEGETABLES. 37 tributed to the possession by her of the mandrake root. These and other superstitious ideas in connecting natural objects with religious faith by monks, nuns and others, exhibit far less love of the good and beautiful in nature, from their intrinsic excellence, than of ignorance, and prejudice from their imaginary advantages. Carbon, as a constituent of Vegetables. Of the fifty-four elementary substances composing the material world, four only enter generally into the composition of bodies, viz. : oxygen, hydrogen, carbon and nitrogen ; and of these but one is found univer- sal. This is carbon. Consequently every variety of form and appear- ance must be given to this important element. It constitutes one-half of the whole vegetable kingdom and a still larger portion of the mineral world. It also enters largely into the composition of animals and forms a portion of the atmosphere and of water. Its purest form is that of the diamond, and next that of charcoal. It is the least destructible of any known substance. If heated for centuries no change could be perceived. Sugar, in which it is an important con- stituent, may be reduced to carbon and water, but we are incapable of reuniting these to form sugar. The process is gradual and known only to nature. The diamond, if decomposed by means of the galvanic battery, would combine with the oxygen of the air and form carbonic acid gas, which, floating in the atmosphere till inhaled by a plant, would pass through all the secret processes of elaboration and assimilation by the plant. The plant: suppose it to be grass, is then eaten by an animal the ox it then again passes through all the processes of assimilation and be- comes at length, incorporated in his body, as it was before in that of the plant. Now, if the flesh of the ox be eaten, it again goes through all the processes of assimilation in the human body, is converted into chyme, then into chyle, is then taken up by the innumerable lacteal vessels and carried at length, into the general circulation into the heart, then into the lungs and a part through the arterial vessels ; is thence secreted by the lymphatics and converted into the secretions perhaps tears taken up and passed off by the glands in various ways, or perhaps, becomes incorporated in the bones, etc., and re- mains for years and becomes at death, and in the process of time a constituent of the earth, from whence in many years, it may be again incorporated into plants. Plants derive their food, in part, from matter once organized in tne animal or vegetable kingdom, but not less from the mineral kingdom. A rock presenting a new surface is soon covered by lichens which, with the air, rains, etc., ultimately decompose its surface and form soil in which trees may rise and tower above it. The production of carbon, 4 38 BREAD, CHARCOAL, ETC. however, in such vast quantities as is required for vegetables may be a matter of wonder ; but on an examination of the natural resources and a glance at the views of Leibeg this wonder will cease. The grains of one season in this country, must afford by the straw many thousands of tons of carbon. Yet this is but a limited resource compared with the quantity yielded by other vegetable productions, the combustion of coal and other fuel, and by expirations from, and decomposition of animals. The amount of carbonic acid gas emitted from the lungs of a healthy person in 24 hours is 40,000 cubic inches, or 11 oz. of solid carbon. Thus about 100 tons of solid carbon are exhaled in this city every 24 hours from man alone. The facility with which it blends in the air, notwithstanding its superior gravity, prevents those deleterious effects on animal life which we might otherwise experience. The formation of proximate principles, such as we have before mentioned, requires carbon to unite with oxygen and hydrogen in the proportion in which they form water. Thus 100 parts of sugar is composed of 40 carbon and 60 water; starch 41 carbon and 59 water; gums 42 carbon and 58 water ; acetic acid 47 carbon and 53 water, and wood 50 carbon and 50 water, with small proportions of other elements. Starch and paper may be converted into gum, wood into acetic acid, woody fibre into gelatin, starch 'nto sugar and wood into starch. As flour is principally composed of starch, wood, in being converted into starch, is converted into the principle constituent of bread. It is known that a pound of starch may be converted into more than a pound of sugar, simply by boiling it, diluted with water. Letting the water and starch stand together will in time produce the same results. 12,00 parts of water with 100 of starch, allowed to stand two months, yields sugar 48 parts, gum 24, and starch 22. Bread may be made of beech saw-dust, carefully roasted to a pale brown, kneeded with yeast and baked in the common way. It will be seen that a small difference exists in the elementary constituents of the before mentioned bodies, and that these differences may be cor- rected by heat and by the addition of an acid or by the abstraction of carbon and oxygen, when those substances may be converted from one to another. Most vegetable substances contain sugar in greater or less quantities. When sugar is produced a partial conversion of the woody fibre takes place during the first fermentation. Charcoal, as we have said, is the purest state of carbon next to the diamond ; and it may appear singular that these two states of this element are derived from two entirely different kingdoms. It is ob- tained, as may be known, by driving off, under cover of earth and through the agency of a uniform and moderate heat, all the aqueous, alkaline, volatile and resinous parts, leaving the carbon of the wood alone. Its uses in the arts as well as for fuel are of the greatest im- portance. In the manufacture of gunpowder, the lightest, most compact METHOD OF MAKING CHARCOAL. 39 and equable coal is used ; such as that of alder, willow and dogwood, or buckthorn. The wood is charred in iron cylinders. Gunpowder is composed of 75 parts of nitre, 15 charcoal and 10 sulphur. The char- coal of the oak or beech is preferred for the assay of metals, or alloys, and that of the vine or willow for draughtsmen. The use of charcoal as fuel is often dangerous, as it renders the air, when burned openly, unfit to support life, by reason of the carbonic acid gas it evolves and which, it is thought, covers the lungs when inhaled so as to prevent the access of oxygen. Charcoal is used for making printers' ink, Indian ink, black chalk, etc. Charred turf is a preparation of the re- mains of vegetables imbedded in soils. To preserve wood from the attacks of insects and from decomposition, the surface is often charred. Charred fruits, wheat and pulse intended for use by the people of Her- culaneum and Pompeii are now found in their houses. The discovery of innumerable strata of ferns, palms and grasses in the coal measures and other carboniferous deposits, prove that the temperate zones of the earth, and even the polar regions, were at one period of the world within a tropical climate. The method of making charcoal is by the arrangement of billets or sticks of wood so as to ensure the dissipation of all the parts except the carbon, and the escape of as little of this as possible. The tree is generally cut the previous season and the wood subsequently pre- pared and piled in a regular conical form and then covered by a coat- ing of turf with the grass inwards. Over this is spread a dressing of earth mixed with charcoal ashes. A course of billets is first laid horizontally a foot apart radiating from a central space to a circle, say 100 feet in diamater. The central space is filled with under brush and 4 large billets set up endwise converging and secured together at their tops. The inclination of these forms a guide for the conical pile of billets placed endwise around them to the extent of the circle. Above these another horizontal layer is made, and on this is placed a central stick reaching above the top of the pile, and around this is again arranged another erect pile of billets inclining to the centre like the first. The interstices are filled with smaller sticks. The dressing of turf and earth is then laid on and the inside brush fired by drawing out the central billet and introducing brands of fire from the top. Another method is by piling the whole of the wood horizontally around the upright billets and withdrawing the upper and one of the lower ones of these to fire the brush. Another is to set up the first range of billets perpendicularly in a pit, then to place three billets conically as before, and lay the other courses horizontally to the top, the cone formed by the three sticks being filled with inflammable materials. Another mode is to form a triangle horizontally in the centre with bil- lets, notched into each other and three feet high, with an upright timber running from the top to the bottom of the pile. The wood is 40 ORGANS AND CHEMISTRY OF PLANTS. then piled up endwise around these. Earth is added or water thrown on to subdue the burning, if too great, and air is admitted if it be too slow. Four days is generally required for the burning. The Organs of Plants. (Necessary to nutrition and growth.) The Root its neck, radical and stalk. The Stem its branches and their branchlets. The Bud and its scales. The Leaf and leafets. Appendages prickles, thorns, glands, stings, scales, tendrils, etc. (Necessary to reproduction.) The Flower The Calyx, its sepales, or leaves The Corolla, its petals, or leaves The Nectary The Stamen, its filaments, anther and polen The Pistil, its stigma, style, ovary or germ, and ovules. The Fruit The pericarp, its cells, valves, etc. The Seed columella hilam, albumen, cotyledons. Embryo, its radical and plume. The accompanying cut exhibits all the prin- cipal parts of a plant. a the root ; b the bulb ; c root-leaves ; d stem ; e stem-leaves ; / branches ; g flower-stalk ; h flowers. The whole is the Bulbous Butter Cup. VEGETABLE ORGANIC CHEMISTRY. The elementary parts of vegetables, we repeat, are carbon, hydro- gen, nitrogen and oxygen. These are always present in plants, and they produce by their union all the various principles of which plants consist. The principal parts are composed of carbon, with oxygen and hydrogen ; these last two being in the relative proportion in which they form water. These parts are the woody -fibre, starch, sugar and gums. Another class of vegetable substances, such as the organic acids, contain oxygen in a greater proportion than is necessary to form water with the hydroeen, and they thus have an excess of oxygen. A third class of vegetable compounds, such as the volatile and fixed oils, wax, and the resins, contain carbon and hydrogen, but no oxygen ; or less REQUIREMENTS OF PLANTS. 41 of it than is necessary to convert the hydrogen into water ; thus these have aa excess of hydrogen. Nitrogen is a part of vegetable albu- men, giuten and of the acids. It forms but a small proportionable part of the weight of plants, yet it is always present in some part. The juices of all plants contain organic acids, generally combined with metalic oxides, which are found in the ashes of plants. A plant requires, then, for its growth, such substances as contain carbon and nitrogen, or which are capable of yielding these two ele- ments for its organization; and also water, or its two elements, oxygen and hydrogen ; and finally, a soil is required which will furnish the plant with the metalic oxides, or inorganic bases. Each, genus of plants requires special conditions for their life ; and individuals require many conditions : they cannot be brought to matu- rity, indeed, if but one of these be wanting. Their organs, like those of animals, contain substances of very different kinds; and in all are found metalic salts. For the production of all their organs, therefore, their food must contain all their elements. These may be united in one substance, or they may exist in several. Vitality in each organ is the power it possesses at all times of re- producing itself; hence it requires substances containing those com- posing itself and capable of transformation. When this is not the case, or the food is too great, or exerts a peculiar chemical action, as with poisons, the organ is changed. The most nutritious food may cause death, and hence the importance of considering every quality of their food. Other substances are also required, such as common salt, so essential to animal life ; and metalic compounds are equally essential to the life of plants. But, before we can understand or administer nutriment to the plant, it is necessary to become acquainted with the nature of the soil it grows in, and of air and rain water. Vegetables depend on the atmosphere for much of their support and vital energy. The chemical constituents of this are known to be the two gases, oxygen and nitrogen, in the proportions of 23.1 of oxygen to 76.9 of nitrogen, in the 100 parts, by weight ; or in volume 21 to 79. The properties of these are modified by watery vapor and car- bonic acid gas. The latter is discharged from active volcanoes, mine- ral springs, andthe combustion and decay of organic matter. It is detected in most parts of the atmosphere, and it performs a very im- portant part of the process of vegetable nutrition. The annual evo- lution of carbon from springs and fissures in the volcanic district of the Eifel, has been estimated at 100,000 tons, containing 27,000 tons of carbon. The final products of all vegetables are carbonic acid, water and am- monia, which last is a compound of nitrogen and hydrogen. Ammo- nia is supposed to be always present in the air, and is brought down by rain with other matter, as it is always found in rain water. Plants 42 SOILS AND HUMUS. undergo two processes after death ; one is fermentation and the other is putrefaction, decay, or eremacausis. Decay is a slow process of combustion, in which the combustible parts of plants unite with the oxy- gen of the air. The decay of woody fibre in contact with oxygen converts the gas into an equal volume of carbonic acid. During this process water is necessary ; alkalies promote, but acids retard it. The woody fibre in a state of decay is called humus, and the remaining coal-like substance is called mould, the product of complete decay. Decay is the great process of nature by which oxygen, assimilated by plants, is returned to the air. The oxygen of all organic matter is given off combined with carbonic acid. Acids yield more carbonic acid than neutral compounds ; while fatty acids, and resins do not putrify. Soils are considered a magazine of matter which is variously pre- pared by vegetables for their nutrition. The rich virgin soils of many parts of our country contain a very large proportion of vegeta- ble matter, and hence is called vegetable mould. To this is attributa- ble the great fertility of these soils. Humus, which is the active and important principle in manures, is considered the product of vegetable decomposition. It is believed to be the principal nutriment of plants and to be extracted by them from the soil, and to contain some of their constituents during life. It is a brown substance, soluble in alkalies, but slightly so in water ; it is produced by the action of acids and alkalies during vegetable decom- position. It is artificially obtained by treating peat, woody fibre, soot or coal with alkalies by decomposing sugar, starch &c. by acids, or exposing alkaline solutions of tannic and 'gallic acids to the action of the air. Its modifications are humic acid, humin, coal of humus, &c. Geine is stated by some to be the basis of all the nourishing parts of vegetable manures. It is the decomposed organic matter of the soil and the product of putrefaction. Humus does not nourish plants in its unaltered state, but as a source of carbonic acid, it is absorbed by the roots, principally when young and destitute of leaves and unable to extract food from the atmosphere. It is a constant source of carbonic acid for the supply of vegetables. The carbon of plants is derived from the atmosphere and in part from the humus of manures. Plants possess the power of decompos- ing carbonic acid gas of the air, and of appropriating the carbon to their use. The oxygen of the acid is therefore returned to the air, by which its deficiency, from various causes, is in part supplied. This office is performed by the leaves and green parts of the plant, and this they will do independently of and when separated from the stem. Plants, however, yield to the soil more carbon than they extract. The life of plants is evidently connected very closely with that of animals. Vegetation may exist without animal life, but the existence THE CARBON OF VEGETABLES. 43 of animals depends on the life and growth of plants. These, therefore, afford both the nutriment for the existence and growth of animals and the essential gaseous element, oxygen, for their respiration. They likewise perform the important office of purifying the air for respira- tion, by separating from it carbon, ammonia, etc. Animals expire car- bon and plants inspire it ; plants expire oxygen and animals inspire it. Thus, by this wonderful economy of nature, both are enabled to exist, and the due composition of the air is uniformly maintained. The provisions of the atmosphere are remarkable. It may be thought strange that it furnishes the great quantity of carbon necessary for the support of the whole vegetable world; yet as it is clearly proved that a column of air of about 2,400 Ibs. rests on every square foot of the earth's surface, the 1000th part of this is carbonic acid, 27 per cent of which is carbon. The whole atmosphere, then, contains 3.306 bil- lion Ibs. of carbon, a weight more than equal to all the plants and mineral surface of the earth. The superfices of the leaves and other green parts of plants which absorb carbonic acid gas, are deemed to be more than double the whole surface of the globe, and yet, from de- terminate calculations, they are adequately furnished with all the carbon necessary for the support and growth of the plants. The inexhaustible oxygen of the tropics, furnished by the inconceiva- bly luxuriant vegetation under a glowing sun, supplies that required by the deficient heat and vegetation of the temperate and frozen zones; while the superabundant carbon produced by artificial heat, etc., at the north, supplies the plants of the tropics. This equilibrium and mutual interchange of local products is most happily effected by the uniform horizontal current of air moving with the revolution of the earth from the equator to the poles, bringing in its passage from thence its superabundant oxygen, and transporting at the same time, the superabundant carbonic acid generated during our northern win- ters. This acid is greater by night than by day, when it is decom- posed by plants. Thus the health of every country is increased by vegetable cultivation. The remains of primeval vegetation are seen in the vast quantities of peat and coal beneath the surface of the earth; showing vegetable nature to have greatly abounded then and the consumption of carbonic acid to have been incomparably greater than now. It is inferred from this that the atmosphere must now be eminently richer in oxygen than at an early period of the world ; as much more so, indeed, as the quan- tity of carbon and hydrogen which those immense deposits contain. The superabundance of carbon at that time readily accounts, then, for the manifestly superior luxuriance of vegetation. The giant plants of those times, the palms., ferns, reeds, etc., by an immense extension of their leaves, dispensed with nutriment from the soil and resembled, from the small development of their roots, many now which do not 44 LIGHT, AND THE NUTRIMENT OF PLANTS. exhaust the soil. Their importance, therefore, at the commencement of vegetation, is now observable. Humus, as a product of decayed vegetables, could not then have existed for their support. But their decay has furnished the soil with vegetable matter, now seen to be essential to vegetation. The leaves, fruits and seeds, but not the roots of the vegetables of a former world, are now abundantly found in coal formations. The roots of trees of later periods are however seldom found wanting when taken from below the surface. Jls nutriment for plants no substance can be serviceable or neces- sary to their growth which is identical with, or even similar in its composition. Hence the sugar, starch, gum, etc., which are the pro- ducts of vegetables, cannot be assimilated. Aqueous solutions of these substances are imbibed by the roots and conveyed to the various parts of the plants ; but they are not assimilated, and therefore afford no nutriment. This is remarkable, since the form of these bodies is most convenient for assimilation and as they contain, in nearly the same proportions, the elements of woody fibre. The effects of light on vegetation is seen by the arrest of their power of decomposing carbonic acid by its absence. A true chemical process of oxydation is said then to commence by the action of the oxygen of the air on the substances of the leaves, fruits and blossoms and equally on those of the dead or live plant. The green parts of plants contain- ing volatile oils, which are changed into resins by the absorption of oxygen, should, of course, absorb more than those without such oils ; and so also with those containing astringent principles, as those of nut-galls, in which nitrogen exists. This has been proved to be so. Some, indeed, are sour in the morning, as the leaves of sorrel from the absorption of oxygen during the night, are tasteless at noon and quite bitter at night. These are deprived of their oxydation in the day time by combining a part of it in their composition. The time required for the leaves to change their color by the effects of the at- mosphere likewise indicates the oxygen they absorb. Those con- tinuing the longest green attract the least oxygen in a given time. Hence many retain a durable green color and are found to absorb only about 0.86 of their volume of oxygen, while the poplar absorbs eight and the beech nine and a half times their volume of this element ; and these are remarkable for the rapid change of the color of their leaves. They are in a state of oxide, and thus the brown leaf of the oak no longer possesses tannic, nor that of the poplar, balsamic properties. This is true also in respect to the wood of trees. On the departure of (lay the carbonic acid and the water absorbed by the roots, cease to be decomposed ; they are dissolved in the juices and afterwards escape through the leaves. Carbonic acid is also absorbed by the roots, generally, through the water of the soil; they also absorb air in like manner. The processes of emission and absorption have no SOURCES OF NUTRIMENT. 45 connection with assimilation, nor with one another : the first is a mechanical and the other a chemical process. Thus a cotton wick, in a lamp containing water saturated with carbonic acid, acts like a plant in the night, sucking up both by capillary attraction and evapo- rating them from its upper surface. Plants in a moist situation give off more carbonic acid in the night than in a dry one ; and also more in moist than dry weather. Plants yield oxygen in greater quantities than they absorb it. Those growing in the bottom of ditches, etc., are perceived, whilst covered with clear ice, to emit bubbles of oxygen during the day. This they derive from the carbonic acid of the water absorbed by them, and the water is supplied with it by the decayed vegetables in the soil. Oak wood is found to contain an excess of one-twelfth of hydrogen ; in pines the excess is one-seventh, in Tilia and in ebony it is in the pro- portion to form water. The proportion generally is in relation to the weight of the wood ; the lighter kinds containing the most and the heavier the least. When seeds are planted and the parts designed for the reception of food are absent, the former are employed entirely in the formation of roots ; each new fibre, and afterwards each new leaf constitutes a ,new mouth, lung and stomach. The functions of the leaves are per- formed at first by the roots ; and they extract carbonic acid from the humus of the seed-soil. Sugar and mucilage in the seeds form the nutriment of the young plant and these disappear during the develop- ment of the buds, leaves and sprouts. The access of air and formation of carbonic acid is favored by loosening the soil. As the humus is absorbed by the roots, it is replaced by the air, which renews the pro- cess of decay and the portions of carbonic acid, till the plant receives food both from above and below, and hastens to maturity. The size of a plant, it is affirmed, is in proportion to the surface of the organs destined to convey food to it. When the food is more abundant than the existing organs require, the superfluous nutriment is employed in the formation of new organs ; so that at the side of a cell, a twig or a leaf, arises another. The amount of nutriment re- ceived from the air is in proportion to the extent of the surface of the leaves ; and new developments correspond with this amount. When new products are no longer employed, the nutriment they imbibe goes to the formation of woody fibre and other solid parts. The leaves then produce sugar, starch and acids and when the solids are suffi- ciently extended, the nutriment goes to the production of blossoms. The functions of leaves cease in most plants on the maturity of their fruit and yield to the chemical influence of the oxygen of the air, change their color and fall oft'. Between blossoming and the maturity of fruit, a transformation of the matter of plants takes place and new compounds are formed in the blossoms, fruit and seeds, while other 46 FOOD OF PLANTS. substances pass off by the roots as excrementitious matter. This is a chemical process. Elements arrange themselves in new combinations, according to their reciprocal attraction ; and under the same condi- tions, these are incapable of farther change ; but the products are as variable as are the conditions. These transformations in plants are curious and interesting, but they belong, more especially, to organic chemistry in general. Each organ of a plant extracts from its food that which is necessary for its own sustenance and other parts, not assimilated, are separated as excrement. This, coming in contact with another organ in its cir- culation, affords nutriment to it, and so on with a third, etc. ; and when incapable of further transformation, it is separated from the system by appropriate organs. Each part or organ is therefore fitted for special functions and one may receive very different substances from another. Thus man may receive carbonic acid into the stomach with impunity, and even with advantage ; but to receive it into the lungs, might, as it often does, produce death. So also with other transformations in the animal economy ; the kidneys, for example, separate from the body substances containing a large proportion of nitrogen, the liver those with an excess of carbon and the lungs prin- cipally those composed of oxygen and hydrogen. Volatile oils and alcohol, which are incapable of being assimilated, are exhaled through the lungs. Superabundant nitrogen is excreted as a liquid excrement from the body and passes through the urinary ducts ; all gaseous matter passing through the lungs and all incapable of further trans- formation, through the intestinal canal. Transformations of the com- pounds of plants are constantly taking place during their life ; and, as a consequence, gaseous substances are eliminated by the leaves and blossoms. Solid excrement is deposited in the bark. Soluble sub- stances containing carbon, are excreted by the roots and are absorbed by the soil, where they decay or putrefy and become nutriment, as humus, for another generation of plants. Decayed leaves and old roots of grass thus become humus. These excretions are most abun- dant during blossoming and they diminish after the maturity of fruit. ^5 plants decompose water, they assimilate its hydrogen with carbonic acid and separate oxygen. Thus united, the first two form woody fibre. An acre of ground, producing 10 cwt. of carbon, would annu- ally give to the atmosphere 2.865 Ibs. of oxygen gas. For every pound of hydrogen thus assimilated, it is calculated 547 cubic feet of oxygen is received ; or, in the decomposition of water by plants, one equivalent of the latter to one of the former imbibed. The hydrogen of water decomposed by plants, also goes to the formation of wax, fats, gums and volatile oils, which contain it in large quantities. Vegetables likewise contain hydrogen in the form of water. In the formation of acids little oxygen is separated. Fruits are NITROGEN AND AMMONIA. 47 very acid in cold summers, while in the tropics the most numerous trees are those producing oils, caoutchouc, etc., which contain little oxygen. Thus the effects of heat are particularly noticeable upon fruit, both in its nature and quality. The resins of leaves diminish and oxygen is absorbed by ripening fruits in the dark ; coloring matters are formed, and some of the acids replace sugar, starch, or gum. Nitrogen in plants forms an important part, as well also as in rich vegetable moulds. Rain and snow are supposed to be the means by which plants are supplied with this element, through the ammonia in the atmosphere brought to the earth by them. Ammonia is a gas composed of 1 vol. of nitrogen to 3 of hydrogen. This is the fruitful source of nitrogen in temperate climates and nitric acid in tropical climates ; but the formation of the latter is a product of the former. Ammonia is considered the last product of animal putrefaction, and nitric acid is the result of the transformation of ammonia. A genera- tion of 1000 millions of men, with as many of lower animals dying annually, is considered an adequate source for all the ammonia and nitrogen required for vegetation. Its presence in rain water may be detected by adding a little sulphuric acid to it and evaporating it to dryness in a porcelain basin. The ammonia remaining with the acid is detected by a little powdered lime. The sensation of softness in rain water is owing to carbonate of ammonia. A portion of the nitrogen thus contained in ammonia is taken up by the roots and produces cer- tain qualities in plants in which it is found, as albumen, gluten, quinine, morphia, etc. Every part of vegetables contains ammonia; the root, as the beet, the tree stem, as maple, and in all blossoms and unripe fruit. In the form of urine it is one of the most useful manures. Ammonia forms the red and blue coloring matter of flowers. The quantity of food which men or other animals eat is increased or diminished in proportion to the substances containing nitrogen. Nitrogen is believed to constitute one-hundreth part of the weight of grass. Certain soils absorb ammonia from the air, and thus obtain nitrogen. Humus, or decayed wood, affords a considerable quantity of ammonia. The inorganic constituents of plants are derived from acids and alkalies, and these form neutral compounds, or salts, of various and important qualities in vegetation. Phosphate of magnesia is an in- variable constituent of the seeds of all grasses and is introduced into bread and also into beer. Most plants contain organic acids, all of which are in combination with bases, as potash, soda, lime, or mag. nesia. These are in the greatest quantities in the organs which pre- pare substances for the food of plants ; in the leaves more than the branches and in these more than in the stem. As all plants yield ashes containing carbonic acid, all must contain the salts of an acid in the 48 REMARKABLE PROPERTIES OF PLANTS. form of carbonates. The action of all alkaline bases is alike, and all plants must contain them, though it may be in different forms : at least similar quantities of inorganic matter are always found. Corus or vines can thrive only on soils containing potash. Potatoes grown where they are not furnished with earth form a very poisonous alkali in their sprouts. The ashes of the potato is, as compared with oak wood 1,500 to 250, and with pine 83, and rye 440. JBy sprinkling plants of certain kinds, or the soil in which they grow, with the juices of others, they manifest the properties of those plants from which the juices are taken. The soil of the hyacinth sprinkled with the juice of the American night shade will exhibit the white blossoms in an hour or two of a red color ; but the jnice under- goes no chemical change. So with others whose roots are steeped in solutions of some of the salts. Plants have the property, however, of returning to the soil all things unnecessary to their growth, or which are hurtful to their existence. The nature of soils suitable for plants must be selected with reference to the proportion of these salts found in their ashes. Thus on sandy and calcarious soils containing little potash, grass will not thrive. The leaves and small branches con tain the most potash. Some plants are remarkable, particularly those of the grass tribe, the seeds of which supply man with food, in their habit of following him like domestic animals. Some plants require common salt, others require ammonia and are attracted to dunghills. Corn seeds require a large portion of phosphate of magnesia. Hence such plants grow only where these elements are found ; and, as no soil abounds with them so much as that where men and animals dwell, there they are attracted. Saline plants, for like reasons, seek the sea shore, or salt springs. Al- though seeds are carried in various ways to different places, yet the plants will not grow unless they meet with the elements essential to their growth and existence. The original generation of plants of peculiar kinds in the vicinity of places affording peculiar substances essential to their life, as sea plants near salt works, &c., is not doubted. So also the generation of fresh water muscles in fish ponds, fish in pools of rain, trout in moun- tain streams, &c., are not deemed improbable circumstances by philos- ophers. Hence a soil consisting of rocks of particular kinds, decayed vegetables, rain and salt water etc., are considered as possessing the power of generating such particular plants as saltwort &c. Plants thrive best by such manures as have completely lost the property of giving color to water. All plants die in soils containing no oxygen. Stagnant water on marshy soils excludes air, but if the water be with- drawn and free access is given to air, a marsh may be changed into a fruitful field. In perennial plants a new process of vegetation takes place after the ANNUAL PLANTS, SEEDS, SUGAR, &C. 49 maturity of their fruit. But after August, the leaves form no more wood, all the carbonic acid being employed for nutriment for the fol- lowing year ; and, instead of wood, starch is formed and diffused by the sap in autumn. The bark of such (aspens, pines, &c.) conse- quently contains so much starch that it may be extracted, as from po- tatoes, by trituration with water. The roots and other parts of peren- nial plants also contain much starch, and sugar and gum are produced from the starch in spring. The juice of the maple is no longer sweet when its leaves, buds, and blossoms have become matured. The branches of willows, contain much starch ; and when placed in snow water, they produce roots several times longer than in pure distilled water, in consequence of the greater quantity of ammonia in the former. Part of the sugar of the cane disappears after it blooms, and that of the beet root does not accumulate after the leaves are per- fectly formed. Annual plants collect future nourishment in the same way as the perennial, but they store it in their seeds in the form of starch, gum and albumen, which are used by them in germination, for the formation of their first leaves and radical fibres. The introduction through the roots, artificially, of the same materials that plants use in the formation of their organs by means of the leaves, destroys the plants, unless the process of assimilation can take another form. Sugar, gum, or starch are not therefore food for plants. Thus the production of blood in animals is a vital function by their own appropriate organs, and these admit of no artificial supply of that material. Seeds are composed of starch and gluten, in the quantities just suf- ficient for the germ and radical fibre. The starch is converted into sugar and the gluten takes a new form. Both being dissolved by water, they "are conveyed to every part of the plant. This conversion of starch into sugar is termed diastase, which is a new principle formed at the beginning of germination : it contains nitrogen and furnishes the elements of vegetable albumen. The sugar of maple trees is not formed in the roots, but in the woody parts of the stem ; and the quantity increases until it reaches a certain height, and remains stationary above. At the commence- ment of vegetation a substance is formed which, being dissolved in water, enters the trunk and converts the starch of the tree into sugar. This is evidently greater than is used by the leaves and buds. Every fibre and particle of wood is surrounded by a juice, while the starch granules and sugar are enclosed in cells : these are supposed to be formed simultaneously. The assimilation of substances generated in the leaves depends on the quantity of the juices contained in the food. When deficient, the substances which do not contain it, are separated as excrement from the bark, roots, leaves, &c. The exudation of gums and sugar by healthy plants is accounted for in this way ; and 5 50 CONTIGUITY AND CHANGES OF PLANTS. the processes are analogous in the animal body. It is said that per- sons living almost exclusively on potatoes pass unchanged granules of starch which is not the case when gluten or flesh is taken in due pro- portion with potatoes, as the starch has thereby been rendered capable of assimilation. Thus potatoes alone are said to be incapable of af- fording much strength; but mixed with other substances they are wholesome and nutritious. Hence a superabundance of food, such as carbon, without a due proportion of nitrogen, cannot be converted by plants into gluten, wood, albumen, or other parts of an organ, but is excreted as sugar, wax, starch, oil, resin, &c. When supplied with an excess of nitrogen, the quantity of gluten, albumen and mucilage will increase, and ammoniacal salts will remain in the sap, as in the beet when the leaves are taken off. Plants growing beside each other are mutually prejudicial to their growth, if each requires the same kind of food ; otherwise they may thrive, if in the same state of development. Annual plants are less perfect and abundant by cultivation on the same soil for successive years. Some plants improve the soil while others, and the most nu- merous, impoverish it ; some slowly and others speedily. All this, however, depends on the supply by art of those materials which are the peculiar wants of plants ; and this, not by an indiscriminate ap- plication of nutriment, or manure, but such as affords in required proportions the component parts of their organs. Their roots, doubt- less, imbibe many substances not adapted to nutrition ; but these are expelled into the soil as excrements from other parts of the roots. Hence the more of them thus expelled the less fitted is the soil for the growth of plants of the same species. Still, other kinds of plants may require for their growth the same matters which have been ex- pelled, and thus the soil may be made fertile for dissimilar crops. These, again, expel substances which were nutritive to the previous plant and a repetition of such, after a few years, may therefore be ad- vantageous. The change of vegetable productions appears evident in nature from the well known fact that forests of oak, maple, etc., when destroyed or worn out" or disappear as they often do in our country from par- ticular soils, are spontaneously followed by trees of the fir tribe; and again, when pine forests are cut down, young oaks or other similar species will shoot up in their places. Excretions from the roots are more abundant in the night time than during the day. Some plants if placed in water impregnated with the excrements of others are impeded in their growth and prematurely fade, while others grow vigorously. The matters thus expelled from the roots are acids, gums, resins, etc., some of which are poisonous and others nutritious to particular plants. Analogous circumstances are very obvious in the animal kingdom. It is worthy of remark, however, that a change THE ALKALIES. 51 in the nature of the matters expelled is effected by their exposure to the air in the process of cultivation. The nature of the soil also greatly contributes to hasten or retard this change. Flax, peas, clover and potatoes require the longest time in argillaceous soils, for the mod- ification of the matter they expel ; but the use of alkalies and burnt lime effects this in a much shorter time ; so that the artificial use of certain substances will speedily effect what would require a long time by the unaided processes of nature. This change is supposed to be the conversion of the expelled matter into humus. The inundation of fields or meadows is admirably calculated, oftentimes, to accomplish this change. Ml plants require alkalies, the grains especially in the form of sili- cates ; that is, silicic acid combined with an alkali ; others require tartrates, citrates, acetrates, or oxalates, which are also salts formed by the union of an acid, i. e., tartaric acid, acetic acid, or vinegar, oxalic acid, etc., with alkaline bases. The alkalies are potash, soda, ammo- nia, lithia, etc. ; the 1st is a vegetable, the 2d a mineral, and the 3d a volatile alkali. Lime, magnesia, baryta and struntian are called alka- line earths. Morphia and quinia are alkalies or alkaloids : all form salts with the acids in the same manner as common salt, which is a union of muriatic acid and the alkali soda. Silica is an earth in the form of sand, flint, quartz etc., and is most abundant. The woody parts of plants, and the stalks of grains, reeds, etc., have much of it. Silicic acid is the first form taken up by plants for the formation of the wood. Some plants require phosphate of lime, some phosphate of magnesia, and others carbonate of lime. Some require very little of these inorganic matters, as sanfoin, lucern, etc. ; these spread wide their roots, and are much used now to alternate crops. When soil is manured once in nine years, turnips are first sown, next barley, with sanfoin, or lucern for five or six years, then potatoes, then wheat, then barley ; and then it is manured and the same crops follow. The importance of spreading light silicious soils with ashes of wood and bones for the purpose of furnishing alkalies, especially phosphates are well known. The ashes of oak are least and those of beech most valuable. Bones afford 10 times more than either. A time will come, says a distin- guished chemist when fields will be manured with a solution of glass (silicate of potash) with the ashes of burnt straw, and with salts of phosphoric acid, prepared in chemical manufactories, exactly as medi- cines are given for fever, etc. The most important object in cultivating plants is the production of nitrogen in a form for its assimilation by them. The roots, from which the leaves are formed, and the leaves which nourish the woody parts and prepare substances for the composition of the fruit, and also the seeds, abound with it. This is furnished mainly by the atmos- phere, as we have said, and plants convert all of it into nutriment 62 ACIDS AND ALKALIES. for animals. But the air does not furnish the required quantity. Herbs may grow without it, but no grain ; even starch and sugar may be formed, but no gluten; and plants may produce but one seed to per- petuate their kind. An additional quantity enables the plant to attract more carbon from the air and to fix it in its organization. The gene- ration of organic acids is prevented in all vegetables which yield food to man and animals when alkalies are absent from the soil they grow in. These acids are rarely free, but are found in combination with potash, lime, soda or magnesia, as salts, and as before mentioned. These are not found in all plants. Soda is the only salt in saline plants ; lime and potash form constituents of grain plants. Some have soda and potash, others potash and magnesia ; and the acids vary in a similar manner. The philosophy of cultivation is therefore to give to one plant those substances necessary for its development and to spare those not necessary. Hence the same kind of manure is by no means to be administered to all plants. One may flourish luxuri- antly on an arid soil, while another requires much moisture and dif- ferent quantities at different times. Culinary vegetables contain sulphur, as turnips, rape, cabbage, celery, etc. ; hence they thrive best in soils containing sulphates. This, then, must be introduced where it is not, by urine with gypsum, by wool, horn and hoofs. The best manure for wheat is the ashes of straw. Indian corn, poppies, etc., contain little or no potash. Charcoal is found to be of the greatest importance in the cultivation of plants, and especially animal charcoal. Hydrogen is most abundant when plants begin to secrete oils, camphors, etc., which most abound in the tropical plants, from the in- fluence of the sun. The greater sweetness of sub-acid fruits in those than in plants of colder climates arises from the transformation of more tartaric and other acids into sugar in warm climates. This transformation of substances into the organs of a plant is analogous with that of animals ; for the plant must Lave appeared above ground having previously had all the required elements of its growth to that state in its seed. In the early stage of man's existence, before the organs, like those of plants, have acquired the power to effect this transformation and assimilation, he is provided by his mother's milk with the aliment already, or nearly, elaborated as in seeds. Leguminous plants, sich as beans, peas, etc. best succeed crops of grain, as they contain no free alkalies required and withdrawn by crops of corn. The same plant differs in constitution when grown in different climates. Thus in the warm climates of France, nitre takes the place of sugar in beet roots. These are thus better for cows, as they require more nitrogen and phosphate of lime for the formation of their milk than sheep, which require more sulphur and salt than they, for the forma- tion of their wool. As all kinds of corn contain nitrogen, a full sup- ply of the materials affording it is of great importance to man. ( 53 ) THE ORGANS OF PLANTS. Seed, Rooty Stem, Fluids, Leaf, Flower, Fruit, Appendages, etc. SEEDS, separated from their parents, are organized and independent living bodies, possessing powers of reproducing their parent stock and their own vital principles. These products, though characteristic of those of their own species, may vary from them in their qualities and from those of the original. For the exercise of these powers they re- quire to be placed so as to receive moisture, air, light and heat, with a proper situation within the earth. The embryo then swells and bursts through its envelopes, extends itself downwards and then up- wards, thereby forming a central point from which subsequently emanate other parts. Proceeding upwards with almost resistless power it ultimately appears above ground. The importance of seeds is readily perceived in the continuation of the vegetable world. In one brief year would be swept from the face of the earth the whole of the annual plants, those most important for the food of man, were not the powers above refered to continued by the seed. Another year would divest us of the biennal plants, the most valuable of vegetables, and within a few years more the whole vegetable kingdom would present a wide scene of ruin. Thus this important link in the chain of vegetable existences is seen to connect and sustain the whole world of animate beings, man, animals and plants. And here our admiration of the wise and determinate laws of Supreme Power, as established and manifested in nature, is most fitly excited. The structure of seeds Seeds present three principal parts, the eye, husk and kernel. The first is connected to the internal en- velope or ovule of the fruit by a thread, or funicle which is separated when the seed is ripe and exhibits the hole or pore through which the seed received its nourishment, as in the garden bean. The husk is the external coat or cuticle which is separated by boiling, as in beans, Indian corn, etc. Its importance is obvious from the fact that the kernel which it encloses was at first in a liquid state. The kernel or nucleus, includes all within the husk and is composed of the albumen, cotyledon and embryo. The albumen invests the cotyledon and affords, it is said, the same support to the embryo that the white of an egg does to a chicken. It defends the embryo ; and, in germination, serves as its nutriment. The cotyledons, or seed-lobes are simple or double ; they are the fleshy part of the seed. They generally appear above ground as the seed-leaves, the first visible parts which nourish the infancy of the plant. When this is done and the young plant can support itself by the 5* 54 CHARACTER AND PARTS OF SEEDS. H stem and the leaves, the cotyledons wither and die. These vary in dif- ferent plants ; and some, as the cryptogamous plants, mosses, etc., have none. Those having but one are called Mono-cotyledons, as the grasses, etc. ; those with two are Di-cotyledons, which include the greatest number of plants, as peas, beans, etc., and those having more than two are Poly-cotyledons, as the hemlock, pines, etc. As the number of cotyledons or lobes rarely vary in the same family of plants, the fact has been adopted by some as the bases of bontanical classification. Some remain below and others appear above ground, by the elongation of the neck or life-knot, as cabbage, radishes, mustard, etc. By placing a piece of cotton in a tumbler of water with a few seeds of wheat or rye, upon it, the fibres of the seeds will soon be seen to shoot from them perpendicularly downwards in quest of the water, an obvious instinct of the vital parts of the seed. The embryo, the most important part of the ,-eed, and to which all other parts seem subservient, is the point from which the life and organization of the plant originate. It is plainly seen in some seeds, (di-cotyledons,) as the apple, bean, orange, etc. ; but in others it is not easily discovered. It consists of the plume and radical. The plume ascends and displays itself in herbage, while the radical descends and appears as roots. The plume or gemlet is a small thin body, like a feather, in the cavity of the seed-lobe or cotyledon when there is but one, and be- tween the two, when there are that number. It is the bud and all parts proceed from it. The size, form and number of seeds vary greatly. Some, as the mus- tard, are globular ; others, as the bean, are oblong ; others, as buck- wheat, are angular. Some plants have one seed, others two, four, or thousands. A corn-stalk will produce 2,000, the poppy 8,000, and a single thistle seed from the 1st crop 24,000, and the 2d crop 576,000,000. The sizes of seeds are 4 ; large, from the size of a walnut to the cocoa- nut, middle size, from a hazel nut to a millet seed ; small, from those of the poppy to the bell-flower and minute, like dust, as in ferns and mosses. 12 13 oo "14 15 iV 17 13 19 20 The above cut represents various and peculiar forms of seeds. No. 1 is the Tuberose, 2 Spanish Brown, 3 Acanthus, 4 Euphorbia, 5 Spider Wort, 6 Jonquil, 7 Lily, 8 Sycamore, 9 Comfrey, 10 Borage, 11 Violet, 12 Trefoil, 13 St. John's Wort, 14 Convolvulus, 15 Sun- flower, 16 Pompion, 17 Geranium, 18 Pink, 19 Passion Flower, 20 Campanula. GERMINATION OF SEEDS. 55 The membranes of the seed, as stated, are three, the outer one forms the tube of the flower cup, the middle the fleshy part of fruit, as of the apple, peach and melon, and the inner with three partitions, en- closes the seed, forming, as in the cherry and filbert, one chamber and in the apple and pea two. The first is thick and stony, and the second thin and husky. Germination is the evolution of a young plant from the seed. Some seeds, as the coffee, require to be sown on being gathered ; others, preserved from heat, moisture and frost, may be long kept. Soil is riot indispensable to germination, as mustard germinates on a sponge or moist flannel, and some seeds in water, on glass, bark rocks, etc. Water is indispensable, but too much macerates the seed and it rots, as with the grains, beans etc., in wet seasons. Mr is also essential, as the seed must receive oxygen from it. A seed will not germinate under a receiver exhausted of air ; when buried too deep in the soil they receive no air and will not vegetate. Acorns that have lain for centuries, on being ploughed up, have soon vegetated. The absence of light is as essential for germination as its presence is necessary afterwards. Heat is likewise requisite. Seeds remain in a torpid state when planted in winter, but the warmth of spring urges them into life ; and vegetation is subsequently hastened by increasing it. Germination will be as forward in six hours by in- creased heat as otherwise in nine. Too great heat, however, destroys the vital principle. Roasted seeds will not vegetate. Some seeds germinate sooner than others, varying from one day to several years. Those of grasses and grains germinate in two days ; the peach, wal- nut, etc., remain in the ground a year. Seeds germinate sooner by being planted on removal from the fruit. Mosses revive on being soaked in water after having been kept 200 years in an herbarium. Some seeds kept dry 1000 years will germinate. In the germination of the seed-lobe, as with wheat moistened thirty hours, the smooth hard sheath becomes downy, and first presents a radicle with one at each side. The gemlet appears on the lobe com- posed of leafets. Small rootlets spring from the three radicles, and new buds burst upward from the crown of the root. The embryo thus be- ginning to grow is called the plantlet. Germination with two lobes first presents the radicle projecting like a cone and the naked gemlet appears between the lobes. When planted, or moistened in the dark a day or two, the shell is soft and white, which being stripped off, the two lobes appear with the small gemlet, having yellow leaves and the radicle between Ihem, while the neck is united to each lobe by a small stem. The second day after planting, the radicle protrudes as the shell yields ; the third day it sends out rootlets, the seed-lobes separate and exhibit the gemlet. On the fifth, the white stem shoots up with the green gemlet on the top. 56 ELEMENTS OF SEEDS, On the seventh it is much advanced, and on the ninth the plant is com- pletely formed. The lobes then shrink and afterwards decay. The lobes of the horse chestnut do not appear above ground, but send up the gemlet which becomes the trunk of the tree. These organs may be seen in the bean after soaking it a day or two in water and dividing the lobes. A magnifying glass greatly adds to the pleasure of obser- vation in seeds and all other parts of plants. The accompanying cut shows the two seed-lobes, or cotyledons of a seed, with the radicle (a) and the plume (b) as with the bean. The close of the life of annual plants and the sus- pension of vegetation in woody and perennial plants is signified by the maturity of their seeds. The diffusion of seeds will be noticed in another place. The principal element of seeds is carbon, which they must part with before they can grow. They therefore convert this carbon into car- bonic acid by decomposing moisture or water, with the oxygen of which the carbon forms the carbonic acid, while they incorporate the hydrogen of the water with their tissue. This carbonic acid they give out, when above the surface, in the dark, but by expo- sure to light the oxygen is given off, and the carbon is again fixed. The water which they absorb also softens and expands the parts and forms the ap or blood, with which they begin a circulation. Heat sets in motion, within the small cavities, the vital principle which thus be- ginning to act never ceases till death. All the parts now enlarge, and new ones are formed by a mucilage which seeds form for that purpose. The radicle or root penetrates the soil in search of food, while the young stem rises and unfolds its rudimentary leaves to the light for the absorption of carbonic acid from the air, to form the solid matter of the plant. The selection of seeds is an important object. It is a law of nature that like produces like." A disregard, therefore, of a principle so obvious in this particular, must be attended with lasting evils, whilst the contrary must ensure equally enduring and important results. Every variety may be improved, or new and valuable ones formed, by attention to this subject. Let those seeds be selected, then, from the earliest and best fruits. Some plants of every crop will be found to be earlier and superior to others ; from such should annually be se- lected the best seeds, and in time the result cannot be otherwise than plain and important. Peas and beans maturing early from long and full pods on vines growing abundantly, seeds from the stalks and ears of the corn plants selected on the field with like attention ; and the best seeds from onions, etc., early ripe and of good form ; and indeed good seeds of all other kinds, will insure early and improved COMMUNICATION ON SEEDS. 57 crops. As with the potato, however, we are inclined to think other seeds should not be quite ripe, but should be taken in their fullest vigor a little time previous. New mode of preparing seeds. We give the following notice of the discovery of a new mode of preparing seeds, so as to render manures almost if not quite unnecessary. The facts are remarkable ; and, if found to be practicable under all circumstances, they will soon effect a wonderful revolution in the arts of agriculture. The withholding of the process by which this may be effected, if what is stated be true, is criminal. However, we give the notice from Prof. Lindley, conductor of the Gardener's Chronicle, London. (Communication on the Art of Cultivating the ground without Manure.) By F. H. Bickes, Frankfort on the Maine, 1842, p. 31. WONDERS WILL NKVKR CEASE ! While our agriculturists are eagerly discussing the comparative advantages of particular soils, and studying the theory of manures as propounded by Sprengel and Liebig, a country- man of these distinguished professors comes forward to proclaim that their labors are vain ; for, if we are to believe him, he has discovered the art of growing luxuriant crops on the poorest lands, and without any manure whatsoever ; and the cost of the process is so trifling, that for the acre of wheat or maize, it does not exceed five pence sterling ; and for rape, cabbage, etc., amounts to only about half that sum. At first we were disposed to consider such extraordinary pretensions as an effusion of quackery ; and entitled to little or no credit ; but our in- credulity has been somewhat shaken by the numerous and respectable attestations which the author has appended to his pamphlet, and which tend to prove that his method has been practiced with success during the last twelve years, in various parts of Germany and Holland. Thus the certificates from Vienna, dated in 1829 and 1830, declare that Mr. Bickes's process, which would seem to consist in some prepa- ration of the seed renders all manuring unnecessary, is applicable to the poorest soils, and to all sorts of plants, and imparts to them a wonderful degree of vegetation and fulness ;" and they gave the results of the experiments in the Imperial Garden, from which it ap- pears that wheat raised from seed sown by Mr. B. had larger ears and more grains than that produced from unprepared seed ; that the barley showed ears with four rows and a large number of grains, while that from unprepared seed had only two rows and a smaller proportion of grains on each stalk ; and the Indian corn exhibited a larger number of much stronger and thicker heads. Some plants of the sunflower, treated according to Mr. B.'s method, grew to the height of ten to eleven feet, with woody stems of eight and a half to nine inches in circumference. Ten or twelve potato plants, of a large yellow sort, called Marburger, yielded each, on the average, thirty good sized tubers, with stem and branches seven feet long ; and 58 ROOTS, GUANO, ETC. maize, which grew partly singly and partly in rows, had from two to five, and in some instances, as many as eight and nine heads. We are further assured that they were raised in ground but partially dressed, and in the midst of tall weeds ! The trials of this method in Holland, made in the summer of 1834, were attended with results not less astonishing : prepared wheat and rye, though sown thick, gave from 50 to 60, and even 80 stalks from one grain : and a plant of bar- ley bore 8 large ears. Buck wheat rose to 4 and 5 feet ; flax had 4 and 5 stems from one seed, and Indian corn grew from 9 to 10 feet in height, with 4 to 5 heads from a single corn. The green crops were equally luxuriant. Liebeg's Agricultural chemistry, teaches us that Ammonia is the great stimulant to the growth of plants. At one of the late agricul- tural meetings in London, Dr. T. C. Jackson suggested that the seeds might be coated with some gummy substance, and then rolled in Guano, enough of which would readily adhere, to produce all the effects as- cribed to those foreign prepared seeds, the new plan being a secret. A mere tea-spoonful of guano applied to a newly struck rose cut- ting of a few inches in length had been sufficient, the following spring, to produce a bush of some six or eight feet in height. It is the re- ceived opinion that the nourishment of vegetable life is derived from the atmosphere. Guano is the product of innumerable birds on some of the Pacific islands, found 50 feet deep, and is now largely exported to this coun- try and Great Britain for manure. It is exciting much attention among cultivators here. The effect of a small portion on some plants is astonishing. Roses not more than 4 or 5 inches high when the guano was applied soon ran up to 3 feet, while those cultivated in the common way, in pots, have not exceeded one foot. Some geraniums have produced leaves 7 feet long and 8 inches broad. Other not less remarkable effects have been noticed. Roots. As soon as the stem rises to the surface and the leaves begin to draw nourishment from the air, the roots cease to enlarge, but they extend themselves in length, like icicles, by additions to their points. They are then spongy and are called sponglets. The extreme points possess the principal absorbing and conveying power : they both draw up useful and convey off useless matter. They change their direction and spread through the soil like cattle in a pasture in search of food, but they cease to work when the seed-lobes or leaves cease to act or consume. Their size and force of absorption are in proportion to the required food of the plant, being most active in summer and more or less torpid in autumn and winter. They still work, however, during CHARACTER OF ROOTS. 59 winter and store up food in the plant for returning spring ; at which time the new shoots of the plant are in proportion to the quantity of food thus stored up. Hence the longer the period of rest, the more vigor there will he in the plants and shoots on returning warm weather. The quality of the nutriment which roots select is according to the wants of the plant. Thus some select one kind and some another, and hence the importance of providing the soil with such substances as the plants are known to require. Those things which are poison- ous to man are generally so to plants. Thus opium, or arsenic, pre- sented to their roots will destroy them as soon as it would man. The power of life in roots does not become so soon expended as in bearing branches. If half a root becomes poisoned the other half will throw off' the poison. The length of roots varies in different plants : they are generally proportioned to the extent of the branches. They are more extended in open fields than in woods and forests, and more on the windward than on the sheltered side of a tree, in order to secure the tree more firmly. The roots of palms and pines are comparatively short. An oak, but 6 inches high will, in a rich deep soil, put out roots 4 feet long. Roots are not only designed to supply nutriment immediately to plants, but to store it up for future plants, as with the potato, etc. To avoid light the roots of some plants placed on glass will send them inward and they accordingly grow best on dark substances. Tuberous roots and bulbs or conns are called subterranean stems, of which are the tuber, as in the potato, arrow-root, etc., and the corra, as in crocus, saffron and creeping-root. Roots consist of 2 parts, the caudex or body, and the radicles, or fibres, which are capillary tubes that absorb nourishment and convey it to the main branches, or the body. Between the body and stem is the neck, root-stock or life-knot. Roots are annual, coming from the seed in spring, and dying in autumn, as the pea, bean, cucumber, etc. ; biennial, producing no flowers tlie 1st season, blossoming the next summer and then dying, as the onion, beet, carrot, etc. ; and perennial, living many years, as asparagus, rose, geranium, trees and shrubs. Some perennials become annuals by planting them in colder climates. The neck being a vital part, the others may be injured or cut away yet, the plant will grow. The crown or neck of a radish in water will throw out vigorous leaves in a warm place, when divested of all other parts. The radicles are to the caudex or body of the root what the branches are to the stem. They are the chief support of the root. The herbage of a young radish with all parts except the radi- cles in water will soon perish, but if the radicles be immersed and the other parts remain out, it will continue fresh. Roots shun the light as carefully as leaves and shoots seek it. Forms of roots. The following are examples of some kinds of oots, as characterized by their forms. FORM OF ROOTS. Fig. 1. Fusiform, or spindle-shaped. It is simple or in one piece as beet, carrot, radish, &c., or branched, at the lower If part, as in the mandrake, and consists of the body and radicles M or fibres which absorb nourishment and are therefore the true root. w In perennial plants these fibres are renewed annually. They are produced early in spring; the best time therefore for transplanting trees is in autumn. The effect of cultivation on many acrid and poisonous roots is to render them wholesome and nutritious. Thus the wild parsnip and carrot have large stems containing an acrid juice, and their roots are deleterious, hard, and dry. This root may be abrupt. Fig. 2. Abrupt, or premose root, signifying bitten, as plantain, violet, etc., devil's bit said to have been bitten oif by the devil, out of spite on finding it a useful medicine. These roots are not, however, abrupt until after they are a year old, being at first spindle-shaped the lower part then decaying and separating ; after which the lateral branches shoot out. Fig. 3. Branched root, the most common of all, and be- longing to trees and many annual and biennial plants, all terminating in radicles. It resembles the branches of a tree, from which it differs but little, except in growing under ground. Many will grow on being pulled up and the tree inverted, bearing branches, leaves and fruit, while the tops shoot out fibrous roots, as with the willow, a limb of which being bent and both ends inserted in the ground, will each take root, and branches will spring from the circle. The limbs of shrubs being thus bent down into the ground and after a time cut off, form a new plant. Trees are divided and multiplied in China by removing in the spring an inch or two of the bark of a limb. The naked place is then covered with moist earth, secured by a slip of matting. Over this is suspended a vessel of water with a small hole in its bottom which keeps the earth moist. In the autumn small roots will have shot into the earth when the limb is sawed off just below this place and set in the ground and con- tinues to bear fruit. Dwarfs of the smallest size may thus be formed. Fig. 4. Fibrous root, common to most of the grasses and many annual plants. It is calculated for a light sandy soil, sing thread-like and presenting numerous points for ab- sorption. Fig. 5. Tuberous or knotted root, consisting of knobs connected by fibres. Some are perennial, as the Jeru- salem artichoke or annual, as the potato. They are and fleshy as the potato, etc., the source of mois- , food and vital energy. The Orchis, etc., have two tubers. In some they are crowded (grumose) as in the Orphis or fasciculated, as in asphodel, etc. SAMPLES OF ROOTS. 61 Necklace, or moniliform root is a tuberous root regularly connected by fibers, like a necklace. Sometimes the small tubers grow in clusters, or are scattered on the radicles like grains, and hence are called granulated roots, as many of the grasses, wood sorrel, etc. Fig 7. Handshape, or palmated root, oblong fleshy tubers, parted like fingers, as orchis, dahlia, etc. Bulbous roots are of several kinds. Fig. 8. Solid bulb) uniformly fleshy, as turnip, crocus, etc. But one root is attached to a plant, Many inhabit sandy barren places. Fig. 9. Tunicated root, consisting of many con- centric layers, one over another, as onions. Fig. 10. Scaly bulb, consisting of scales connected at the base, overlaying one another, as white lily. Some small bulbs are connected in the same coating as in the garlic. Bulbs are analogous to buds or turions, and are re- servoirs of nourishment for the germ and future plant during the winter. Sometimes they grow on the stalk and take root, as the orange lily. Bulbs generally die before winter. They are important articles of food, generally. Tulip roots are thus used in Italy. Bulbs are dried in the sun, baked, powdered and made into bread, or eaten boiled or roasted. The bulb of the onion, leek and garlic, are well known. Bulbous roots belong to the great divisions of mono-cotyledons with one seed-lobe, as the hyacinth, lily, etc. Bulbs growing on the stem or branches, take root on falling to the ground, producing its offspring alive, thus being viviparous instead of producing by seeds, or oviparous. Roots of this kind appear to have for their object the protection of the young plant from wet and cold. Fig. 11. Creeping or Repent root, creeping hori- zontally or just under the surface of the ground. Bulbs sometimes die after they have blossomed, and others are formed 6 03 CHARACTER OF ROOTS. which produce plants, as with the orchis tribe. Bulbous roots are taken up once in two years, as new ones formed under or over old ones are too deep in the soil or too near the surface. These are bulb bearing roots, the fibrous part being truly a root. They continue the old ones, while a new plant is only produced by seeds. The cut shows a bulb-bearing root also a sectional view of the same cut vertically show- |ing the embryo and the seed-leaf enclosed. If continued long however, by means of bulbs or grafting, the plants degenerate, as by old age. Such being the case with the potato, new roots are produced from the seed. The names of plants are often derived from the form of the root. These forms are various, but they are precisely such as are required for the growth and situation of the plant. Some are suited for growth in water, and others are adapted to bark, stone, etc., as with parasites growing upon other trees, as is common in the tropical climates. Those growing without roots are called air plants, the stems of which inhale but do not exhale. These are found on rocks, etc. while some will live suspended from the ceiling of a room. The virtues of plants are most concentrated in winter; hence that is the best season for collecting them for medicinal purposes. The roots grow most rapidly in autumn. As the juices of plants condense in the roots at that time, the sun being less powerful to attract them upward and the air more moist than in summer, they throw out fibres at intervals, as in mint, strawberry, etc. Some are very tenacious of life, and any part having a joint will throw out new roots and form a perfect plant. These roots are often very troublesome to agriculturists. They have a sweetish taste, and are occasionally used as food. They are col- lected and thus used in parts of Europe. By interlacing the soil they give to it great permanency, as on the coast of Holland, they are there- fore well calculated for such as are light and sandy. Thus, too, a small reed, though otherwise unimportant, has saved the most valuable soil of Egypt from being washed away by the Nile This cut represents another form of the creeping root. There are some plants which throw down roots from the surface of the water on which the leaves fioat. These constitute the whole of the plant, as the Duck's Meat," repre- sented in the cut. There are numerous other kinds of roots which manifest various habits, and which are variously adapted to the peculiarities of their situation. Some plants have no roots, deriving their food from air or water. (63) The Stem of Plants. The stein of plants, as soon as nutriment is conveyed to it by the roots, is rapidly forced upward. Its cylindrical form is thought to be much in consequence of its seeking so earnestly to reach the surface, being impelled upward by the sap and, at the same time, pressed upon by the surrounding earth. Its points, or opening bud, are the plumule or plume, which is fed by the matter stored in the seed leaves, and furnished to it by the radicle. This matter is not exhausted before the proper leaves appear to furnish the required nutriment from the air. When the stem first appears it is weak and brittle ; and the first object of the leaves is to supply its exterior part with a woody substance, com- posed of fine tough tubes that pass downwards through the cellular tissue, giving it strength and flexibility ; and also to form the bark according to the wants of the plant and the abundance of the leaves it is to possess. The woody matter first forms a ring within the exte- rior, leaving a space in the centre for the pith, and thereby forming 3 parts, the pith, wood, and bark. The wood is formed perpendicularly and the bark and pith horizontally ; and the last two are connected by cellular tissue. The wood part when wounded is healed by the cellu- lar or horizontal parts, forming granulations which coalesce. Some plants suffer great lacerations, but readily close the wounds. The membranous parts of plants are the cellular texture and the vas- cular texture. The first is composed of small cells, like honey-comb, or like the cellular system in animals containing the fat of the body. In vegetables the cells contain resinous, oily or saccharine juices, and sometimes air only. They compose the principal part of the pith of plants. This texture also abounds in fleshy and pxilpy fruits, tuberous roots and stems of grasses. It is situated in the bark under the ex- terior, or cuticle. Being filled with juice, it gives to plants their color, which is mostly green, in the same manner as the texture be- neath the cuticle of the human skin gives color to man. These juices also give color to flowers and leaves. Cells are principally filled with water in young plants, while old ones are often empty. The vascular texture is composed of tubes, like the blood vessels of the human body. These are opened at botli ends and lined with a cellular substance. They extend throughout the plant, transmitting air, etc., to its various parts. Those which are entire, or without per- forations, convey the proper juices containing oils and resinous matter, and those which are porous partake of the character of the cellular parts. The spiral and annular vessels are so called from their form, the 1st resembling that of a screw, and the 2d that of a ring. The spiral are formed of a fine thread, turning from right to left, and in the an- 64 PARTS OF THE STEM. nular the tube has the appearance of being composed of rinses. There are also moniliform vessels, resembling a string of beads, which connect larger ones and convey sap from one set of vessels to another. Mosses and lichens have no vascular system, being composed of the cellular tissue altogether. Vascular fibres compose roots and the stem ; and these may readily be split longitudinally, but with great difficulty horizontally, having to cut across the tubes. The glands of plants are internal vessels which effect changes in their fluids. They are situated in the cells and on the borders of spiral vessels. The nectaries of flowers, which secrete or make honey, and the small bodies secreting poison at the base of the stings of plants, are external glands. The bark of plants, as we have intimated, has two distinct parts, the one internal, woody and cellular, and the other external and cellu- lar. The most internal part is called liber, and the external the corti- cal. These are independent of each other, the 1st being mostly hori- zontal fibres, or medullary rays, and the 2d is perpendicular. In plants acquiring an age beyond a few years, the wood is divided into two parts, the heart-wood and sap-wood, or alburnum. The first, or central part is generally of a brown or dark color and the other, or external part is softer and of a yellowish color. The internal was at first the external part, it having been changed by age from the harden- ing of the matter within its tubes. The external part, or alburnum, being the young wood, its matter has not become solid. The stem consists, then, 1st, of wood, the oldest part of which is heart-wood and the newest alburnum, through which the sap ascends ; 2d, of bark, through which the sap descends ; 3d, of the pith, the cen- tral portion of the horizontal part, and 4th of the medullary rays, which connect the rind or external part horizontally with the pith and maintain a communication with it. In some plants these are mixed ; and in the annual and herbaceous they are least distinct. The differ- ences appear by comparing the oak, the cabbage and asparagus. The fluids of plants. These are 1st, the sap, or ascending fluid, 2d, the cambium, or descending fluid, and 3d, the proper juices. The sap is inodorous and limpid, being imbibed through the pores of the roots from the earth in the state of water holding in solution earthy salts and other substances, all of which are converted into sap. This ascends through the woody part to the branches and into the ribs and veins of the leaves, entering all the vessels and cells of the plant. Thus ascending it is always in action, though its energies correspond with the season and age of the plant. It is facilitated by heat, though in very warm weather it is often slow, because of the absence of moist- ure in the soil. The leaves then eagerly absorb it and revive, if sup- plied artificially. The development of buds is dependent on this cir- culation and the storing of nutriment for them on the return of spring. CAUSES OF THE CIRCULATION. 65 In the imperfect plants which, having no vascular system, as the lichens, mushrooms, etc., no sap ascends, as they imbibe fluids from the air. The cause, of the circulation in opposition to gravitation, is not well understood; it is, however, the apparent result of mechanical or capillary action, promoted by heat. This is the popular opinion at least ; but it fails in dead plants, as the sap will not rise in them on the principles of capillary attraction. It will be seen, therefore, that what we have said before on the circulation and functions of plants generally should elicit further inquiry, and that we should not be con- tent with the summary declarations of those predetermined to admit no identity between the functions of plants and animals. Indeed, the process is undoubtedly like that of the circulation in the animal system, to which, throughout vegetable physiology, we observe a close func- tional analogy, however much some may affect to discard the striking resemblances. On arriving at the leaves the sap is exhaled in the form of pure water, while the important substances it contained are deposited in the leaf. The process of perspiration may be plainly observed in the grasses and other plants. Thus about 2-3ds of the sap absorbed by the roots is exhaled ; the remaining 3d containing the nutritive properties distributed through it being retained. This would appear like the chyle of the animal blood, and the leaves as peforming the functions of lungs ; the difference being that plants in light inhale carbonic acid and exhale oxygen, which is reversed in the dark ; while animals inhale oxygen and exhale carbonic acid. The carbon of the sap is further fitted for nourishment by the the absorption of oxygen through the leaves during the night, to convert the carbon into carbonic acid. The same process it does also by decomposing the water absorbed by the roots, to obtain its oxygen. The cambium is the sap after its elaboration in the leaves, by which it is rendered suitable for nourishment. It then descends through a system of vessels between the liber, the yiternal layer of the bark, and the young wood, or alburnum, contributing at the same time to the formation of a new external layer of wood and internal layer of bark, as well as the formation of new buds and roots. The descent of the sap and the progress of these important functions are arrested by cutting through the bark, when the plant dies. The proper juices are all the fluids except the sap and cambium, and are oils, gums, etc. They are, in fact, secreted by glands from the latter, as the many fluids, such as tears, saliva, etc., are secreted from the blood by the glands of the animal body. The epidermis, cellular integument and cortex constitute the bark. The first is also called the cuticle, as the scarf or outer skin of animals is called. It varies in thickness in plants, from the delicate covering of the rose-leaf to the ragged bark of the oak or walnut ; or like the 6* 66 INTEGUMENTS OF PLANTS. cuticle of the hand and foot, or covering of the ox or tortoise, com- pared with the membranes of the eye, etc. It peels off in the birch, etc., as with animals, not possessing, as with them, vitality. It is designed to protect the plant from external injury and to regulate through its pores, perspiration and absorption, as with animals, yet admitting light and heat, but excluding injurious substances. The cuticle of rye, wheat and some grasses is valuable in the arts, espe- cially in the manufacture of bonnets, for which the cellular texture is removed, leaving the cuticle only. It contains, in many plants, silex or flint, as in the reeds and scouring rush. It is the least destructible part and often has upon it wool, or down, like that of animals and for like purposes. The cellular integument or texture is next beneath the epidermis, or cuticle, and contains a resinous fluid which, in young plants, is commonly green. In this are the glands for decomposing the gases and other materials for the growth of the plant. It is the true skin" and the depository of color as in animals and man, alike in the white Caucasian and the black African. In fruits this integument has vari- ous colors. It dies on the surface like the cuticle. It often cleaves off, but is renewed by the cambium, or descending sap. The cortex is directly beneath the cellular texture. It is formed of longitudinal fibres, or cortical vessels which, forming every year, are plainly seen in annular deposits, or rings, when a tree is cut down : by these its age is determined. The particular qualities of plants reside in their cortex. The resins, astringent principles, and the aro- matic oils are found in it. The inner part, called the liber, is the seat of the principle and vital functions of the plant. The name is from a book, the leaves of which it resembles in its annual layers deposited by the descending sap. It is a kind of net work resembling cloth. As a new layer is formed, the old one of bark is pushed outward which readily loses its vital principle and forms an inert crust. It is of liber that cloth is made, a with flax, the paper-mulberry, etc. This being the vital part of the plant, it cannot be destroyed with impunity. The most recently formed part of the liber, between the wood and the bark, remains inactive during the repose of vegetation. After effect- ing the development of buds and the formation of new wood and bark it hardens, as in previous years, and loses its vital power. Herbs and shrubs generally have a larger portion of pith than trees, and young vegetables more than old ones. The medullary rays diverge from the centre to the circumference. They are fibrous textures inter- woven in the wood; and new buds appear to originate where they terminate on the exterior. The wood consists of the perfect wood and the alburnum or sapwood, which is the outer new part, at first soft, but annually becoming hard. As with perfect wood, new layers are formed yearly. Most of the sap DIVISION OF STEMS. 67 ascends through it. The perfect, or heart-wood, is darker than the sap-wood and is the principal part of the tree, as used for timber, being the annual hard concentric layers and longitudinal woody fibres. The age of a branch is determined by the layers at the base of each. In the increase upwards of a tree, the sap having extended as far as pos- sible, forms there a cone, at the summit of which a bud is formed. From this springs a new shoot ; and a new layer of alburnum is, of course, organized, which becoming perfect wood the following year ; another new bud is again formed on the cone of the last ; and so on, one annually encompassing another. Plants are distinguished on account of different modes of growth, as mono-cotyledonous, arising from seeds with one cotyledon or lobe, and di-cotyledonous, those from seeds with two cotyledons or lobes. The first are also called endogenous (inside growers) the wood augment- ing annually by internal additions to their centre, thereby pushing to the surface previous annual formations. The second are also called exo- genous (outside growers) the woody matter being increased annually by external additions. All trees and shrubs of the U. S. except the few palms of the south and some grasses, as the sugar cane, Indian corn, etc. are of this latter kind di-cotyledons or exogenous. This cut represents the formation and structure of the outside growers, which constitute most northern plants, and shows the concentric circles and medullary rays radiating from the centre. These are important distinctions in vegetable phy- siology, and are of recent origin. The mono-cotyledons, or endogenous plants,- seldom have any bark distinct from the other texture ; no liber or alburnum in concentric layers, nor medullary rays, as the pith extends almost to the circumference', instead of being confined to the centre, as with di-cotyledons. The number is however small here, as we have stated. The cut is a representation of the internal structure of this species of plants. The appearance of the wood shows it to be composed of longitudinal fibres. Each appears to vegetate separately, and the principal part of them seem to be pressed outward by new ones in the centre. The old fibres thus pressed, are thick and compact near the exterior. It is apparent that this mode of growth is favorable to the extension of plants logitudinally, i. e., for a straight, slim and uniform size, as we find the palms, sugar cane, etc., of the tropical climates to be ; but it is unfavorable to their growth in diameter. The roots of this kind of plant are mostly fibrous. r ._._. Jl sectional view of the stem shows the cellular fMl tissue to occupy three-fourths of it, and to be en- jiffi?T: croaching upon the vascular system near the exteri- pyb ''!''k l! ;!"'' 68 FLOW OF THE SAP. or ; thus growing inwardly from the exterior, and therefore endogenous. Such continue to grow in height without increasing their diameter, as we find in the long canes or reeds. These are of the great division Mono-cotyledons, while the other division, Di-cotyledons, or exogens, are the reverse of this in their growth. These divisions should be remembered. In the latter the vascular system begins to organize around the pith and continues to form outwardly by annual layers of liber deposited by the cambium flowing downwards between it and the bark. These concentric layers are seen near the base of the tree, when cut. The circulation, then, is the passage upward of the original sap or watery fluid from the roots, through the new wood beneath the bark to the leaves where it is changed by the action of the leaves and the air. From thence it flows downward through the liber, a part passing off horizontally to the centre and depositing a portion of its solid matter ; hence the oldest or heart-wood, has the greatest portion of solid substance. The sap being first water, holding in solution earths, salts, etc., it takes up the mucilage and other soluble matter it finds in its passage and increases in density until it reaches and is distributed among the leaves. The attraction of the leaves is thought to be the cause of the flow of the sap. It begins to flow in the spring from the ends of the branches ; but this is not the motion of feap which continues in winter. This is the filling up of the sys- tem effected by the attraction of the roots, and not by the exhalations from the leaves. It is therefore probable that, as the leaves do not exhale or attract in winter, the sap does not then flow as in summer. The effects of injury to the central wood or pith, are not great, it being often destroyed, as we see in old trees, without affecting the stem. The mere bark or rind may also be destroyed without per- manent injury, but the liber and arburnum cannot be injured without danger to the plant. In some cases of emergency plants will alter their functions and circulate their fluids laterally instead of horizon- tally. Many curious experiments have thus tested the pliancy and restorative powers of plants. Girdling or ringing a tree, usually destroys it ; but it may be saved from death by taking a circle or section from the limb of a similar tree and adapting it carefully to the wounded edges and binding them with grafting clay. The application need not encompass the whole trunk, as the union by a portion will preserve the whole tree, and the other part will be covered in time. Stems are divided into 7 classes, the caulis, or proper stem, the culm, scape, peduncle petiole, frond and stipe. When plants have no stems, flowers and fruits grow from the tops of roots. The caulis is seen in the stem of the tree and common shrub, or annual plants. The culm, or straw is the stem, as seen in grasses, grains, bamboo, sugar cane, rushes, etc. It is without knots, as in the bullrush ; jointed, as in Indian corn and wheat, and bent as in fox-glove and PARTS OF THE STEM. 69 some grasses. Scape is a stalk springing from the root and bearing fruit and flowers, but not leaves, as cowslip, dandelion, lily of the valley, etc. Plants with scapes are often called stemless. Peduncle is a part of the stem, bearing fruit, but not flowers nor leaves, as in the plum and peach. When there is no peduncle the flowers are called sessile, or sitting. Its length bears a relation to the species. Petiole or leaf-stalk, is also a part of the stem, supporting the leaf, and is commonly green. The leaves and flowers are thus generally supported by distinct foot-stalks, but sometimes one supports both. Frond is applied to the leaf of the cryptogamous plants, or those with- out visible sexual organs, as the fern where the leaf grows from the stem; Stipe is the stem of such plants as the fern, the stem of the mushroom, and the column supporting the down of the dandelion, etc. These are a division of the stem, as boughs are of branches. Branches. These arise from buds and proceed from the trunk, dif- fering little from the stem except in age. They are simple or divided. They grow with or without order ; are sometimes opposite, alternate or in rings round the trunk, as in the pine. They are erect, as in the poplar, or pendent, as with the willow. As they grow older they branch more and more until they become pendent. Bulbs often grow from the axils of the leaves of stems ; and, like bulbous roots, contain the germ of new plants. They are buds of a large and particular kind ; magazines in which are stored nutriment secreted by the leaves. Being the parents of other individuals and the origin of branches, they are the most important organs of plants. Soon after their formation some separate themselves from the stem, fall to the ground and take root. The banyan tree is remarkable for throwing down stems which, taking root, form a small forest under and around it. Stems are divided into the two great divisions we have elsewhere spoken of, as exogens, (growing externally,) and end,ogens, (growing internally. Stems are also woody, as birch ; pithy as elder; branched, as oak ; naked, as saltwort ; hollow, as fennel ; simple, as lily and tulip ; passing through a leaf, as woodbine and twining, as the hop and bean. The stems of herbs are generally soft and watery, bearing flowers once and then dying. The space between the collar of the root and the first leaf or bud, and also between two or more leaves, is sometimes called the bole, and the whole is called the trunk. The running stem is termed a runner ; a short runner that does not take root is called an offset, and a larger one as in cucumber, a vinelet, and a small stem running laterally from a root is a sucker. When a stem bears permanent, or perennial, branches, it is called a tree ; when these branches arise from the root, the plant is called a shrub ; when small and much branched, a copse shrub ; and when furnished with branches, not permanent, it is called 70 APPENDAGES OF PLANTS. an under-shrub, and when the stem is not woody, dying down to the root annually, it is called an herb. Appendages of plants. These are stipules, thorns, prickles, glands, scales, stings, tendrils, pubescences, bracts, hairs, etc. They are found on various species of plants ; and, although their functions are not perfectly known, yet no one can doubt their importance in vegetable economy. Stipules are membranes, or leafy scales, commonly in pairs at the base of the leaf on either side of the foot stalk, in most plants, as in the sweet pea. Prickles arise from the bark and are generally found on the stem, as in the rose ; sometimes on the base of the leaf, or petiole, as in the raspberry, on the calyx, or on the berry, as in the gooseberry. They are straight, hooked, or forked. Thorns grow from the woody part, where they remain when the bark is stripped off, while prickles come off with the bark. They often dis- appear when the plant is cultivated. Some think them bulbs which by cultivation form branches. Glands are small globules containing a liquid secretion which, it is thought, give the odor of some plants. They are sometimes at the base of leaves, sometimes in the leaves, as in the lemon and myrtle, or they may be on other parts of leaves, and also on the ends of hairs, as in the moss rose, nettle, etc. Stings are hollow and pointed, giving pain by an acrid liquor which they eject when pressed. Scales are found on all parts of plants resembling the scales of a fish ; on calyxes of compound flowers, on the envelops of grasses and sustaining the stamens and fruit of the pine, oak, etc. Tendrils are weak stems that clasp other bodies for support. They commonly rise from branches, but rarely from leaf or flower-stalks. They serve for roots in the ivy, trumpet flower, etc., and for shade in the cucumber. They twine in pea-blossom plants ; and in the prefer- ences and movements of tendrils generally, great apparent intelligence is manifested. Pubescence is the downy, silky or woolly parts of plants. With a magnifying glass they present interesting features and resem- ble the clothing of animals. When in rows they are called fringes. On mullein leaves they look like flannel or the felt of a white hat. They assist evaporation and protect leaves from the cold. Dresses are made of them in some places. They are of various forms. Bract is a floral leaf situated near the flowers. In the sage they much resemble the leaves, and they are often mistaken for the calyx. They are green or colored, deciduous, or persistent. The Leaf. This is an expansion of the bark of the plant and consists of cellu- lar substance, with ribs and veins running through it, the whole being coveredby a green skin, or cuticle. The cellular tissue consists of woody matter springing from the pith and liber. The tissue of the FUNCTIONS OF LEAVES. 71 veins is arranged in two layers firmly united, the superior part arising from near the pith and the inferior from the liber. The former con- nects the leaf and wood and the latter the leaf and bark. Thus as the sap ascends through the alburnum and wood and then descends through the liber, the upper system of veins communicates with the ascending and the lower with the descending current. The skin is filled with small cavities, at first charged with fluid and lastly with air. It is hard and thick in hot climates and thin in moist and shady places, but it varies according to species. Some leaves contain more parenchyma, or cellular texture, than others, and are accordingly more juicy and pulpy. The cells vary greatly in size ; in some leaves they may be seen with the naked eye. They secrete fluids like glands and communicate with the vascular system. The leaf breathes and perspires through innumerable small pores, or stomates, which are larger or smaller according to the above circum- stances, being large and abundant in moist shady places, so as to ob- tain liquid aliment, and also for exhaling and inhaling gases. Leaves present to the air a more extended surface than all other parts of the plant, and are thus of the greatest importance in deriving nourish- ment from it, and giving off gases which are useless or prejudicial to the plant. The natural habits of the plant may be known by a microscopic ex- amination of the leaf-skin, or epidermis and its stomates. Those with a thick skin and few stomates will naturally inhabit dry places where liquid food is scarce, while those with a thin skin and numerous and large stomates belong to humid climates and damp soils : intermediate structures are governed accordingly. But the relative size of stomates is generally a more important mark than their number. The number of these in an inch of skin on some leaves, aloes for example, is 45,- 000, and in some others 70,000. Still, the size of those most numer- ous may not be equal to those of a less number. The functions of leaves thus show them to be the lungs and stomach of plants, having a system of veins, etc. Their skin is an extension of the skin of the stem, which, in some plants, performs the functions of leaves when leaves are wanting. Respiration, perspiration and digestion, as performed by the leaves are not less essential to the life and growth of plants than are the same functions to men and lower animals. The primary agent in the performance of these functions is solar light. This, in striking the leaf, causes a decomposition of carbonic acid and the extrication of nitrogen, with an insensible per- spiration. Foliation is the manner in which leaves and flowers are enclosed oy the scales of the bud, which is so varied that the families of plants may be distinguished by it. Plants which are destitute of leaves are called aphyllous ; i. e., wanting a leaf. To the various characters of 72 FORMS OF LEAVES. leaves much importance is attached in determining the species and other botanical characteristics of plants. In some the species is decided entirely by them. The periods of leaves are three. The seminal leaves come up from the ground with the plant, and after nourishing it, they die. The primordial leaves immediately follow the seminal and are like them in form, position and size. The characteristic leaves are found in the mature state of the plant. These changes do not however always take place, the latter being in some plants the only ones which appear. The forms of leaves are various and important in classification. A leaf commonly consists of the leaf-stalk and disc. It is simple or com- pound. The simple is when but one grows on a leaf-stalk and com- pound when there are several, as in the rose. The obicular, or round leaf, has its petiole, or base inserted into the centre and is peltate, as the nasturtion. Reniform, or kidney-form, as the ground-ivy : it is crenate, with margin scolloped and ciliate, fringed with hairs. Cor- date, or heart-shaped, with accuminated or acute point, serated, or with notched margin, like saw-teeth, as in the aster. Ovate, or egg shaped : this is also abovate, oval, or eliptical. Lanceolate, as in the peach. Linear, as in Indian corn and the grasses, and sheathing, or enclosing the stem. Deltoid, or triangular, as in the lombardy poplar. Sagittate or arrow-head shaped, as sagitaria. Jlcerose, or needle shaped and clustered as in the pine ; it is subulate, like an awl, rigid and evergreen, as with trees common to the mountains. Pinnatiftcd and pectinate, like comb teeth and lyrate, with a broader segment. Palmate, or hand-shaped, as passion flower, segments oblong like fingers. Digitate, finger-shaped, distinct leafets, without palm, as the horse chestnut. Cannate the bases of two united, appearing as one leaf. Lobed, deeply indented at their margins and three or four lobed, according to number. Sinuate, margins with deep round divisions. Emarginate with slight indentation. Flabelliform, or fanshape, as in some palms : such leaves are sold in China for fans. Ste.llated, or whorled, as in a ring around the stem. Tubular, of which there are numerous varieties, as the onion, etc. Some are hollowed out at the base and contain fluid, deposited during rain. The pitcher plant of Ceylon is a remarkable example of the tubular shape, being a cylin- drical cup six inches long filled with pure water, with a lid opening and shutting according to the weather. Primate, wing shaped, leaf stalks opposite each other. Sinate, two leaves springing from the petiole. Ternate, three leaves arising from the petiole and biternate, triternate, decompound and tricompound. There are also other forms, even to the burden of the science, which are not at first important to the general reader. To those minute in their enquiries and making large collections of leaves and flowers a more extended work will be neces- sary. CHARACTER OF LEAVES. 73 The circumference of the leaf presents variously formed outlines, tips and margins which will be recognized by the observer without any other description than that found in the glossary. The insertion and direction of leaves in regard to the stem will also be seen to be characterized by numerous terms, most of which are burdensome, unless the subject is studied minutely. The size of leaves greatly differs. They increase in magnitude to- wards the tropics, where some are of immense size. Those of the Talipot-tree in Ceylon, it is said, will cover 20 men each. Numerous ..and important uses are made of them, especially the palm leaves, in warm and rainy latitudes. The size of the leaf, however, bears no proportion to the tree or shrub, as seen in the oak and burdock. The color of leaves, though generally green, is beautifully varie- gated in autumn, yet never so beautifully as the corolla of flowers. Green is most agreeable to the eye ; and it is remarkable that leaves are so constituted as to reflect that color, mostly. The changes in this color are effected by the combination of oxygen with iron, as in the colored petals of flowers. The duration of leaves is characterized as caducous when they fall off before the end of summer ; diciduous when they fall at the begin- ning of winter, as with most leaves in our climate, or 30 or 40 degs. from the equator ; persistent when they remain on the tree or shrub during the changes of season, as with the pine, box, etc., and evergreen when they preserve their green color throughout the year, as with pines and most resinous trees. These leaves are indeed annually changed, but the young leaves appear before the old ones decay. Leaves, in the torrid zone, are generally persistent and evergreen ; but, if the plants be removed to a colder climate, they become annual and lose their foliage annually, as with the passion flower, a native of a warmer climate. The defoliation of plants is the falling off of the leaf. It is attributed to the death of the leaf and the cessation of the vital principle in the parts to which it is attached. On a tree struck by lightning, which does not possess the power to throw off the leaves, they adhere to the dead branches. The accomplish- ment of the important functions of the plant, such as the formation of its buds, flowers and fruit, and the exhaustion of its energies, with the occurrence at that time of frosts and winds, are the general causes of defoliation. The leaves of some trees turn red, others brown and others yellow about the middle of autumn, when they present to the eye, in an American forest, the richest scene imaginable. Some few plants have no leaves, as the mushroom, indian pipe, etc., nor is it known how the deficiency is amended. In the renewal of the leaf a leaf-scale appears at the base and also a floral leaf in flowers. The. anatomy of leaves. The skeleton or frame of a leaf may be 7 74 ANATOMY OF LEAVES. observed in a dead leaf for some time exposed to the weather. In ihis will be seen a rib running midway through it and numerous fibres branching from it towards the margin. The skin may be removed by boiling it slightly and rubbing out the cellular texture, leaving the different vessels or the vascular system entire. They then present (he appearance of veins and arteries, being tubular, etc. This will now be more apparent by immersing it in a colored fluid which will penetrate the fibres. The skin or cuticle which covers and protects the vascular system, is sometimes covered with down or hairy glands for security against variations of the weather, and sometimes with a clear varnish which protects the leaf against too much moisture. This is common in parts where there is much rain. The leaf is said to be regose when the cellular tissue abounds and the upper surface swells while the under surface becomes depressed, and cancellated when there is little cellular tissue and the vascular system presents the appearance of net-work. The rib proceeds from the upper end or the petiole of the leaf-stalk through the middle of the disc ; and the branches proceeding from this are called riblets. Grasses have the simplest form of leaf. Beside the mid-rib, some leaves have two, others one at each side and are called three-nerved leaves. The grass leaf has one, the ivy leaf two and the grape leaf three. Simple, leaves have one, the main rib with its branches ; and the branches of the compound leaves divide the disc into many forms. The, physiology of leaves is of the greatest importance to plants, and, indeed, to the whole animal world. The upper part of the leaf per- forms the respiratory functions : it is of a deeper green than the under part ; but when the upper part is placed on the surface of water, this color diminishes and the leaf withers. The under surface, however, with like circumstances, will preserve the leaf fresh for many days. Plants almost invariably present their upper surface to the light, at which time it gives off oxygen by decomposing the car- bonic acid which the plant receives through the roots and also that received from the air through the leaves, the carbon remaining and ultimately forming starch, gums, sugar, and other solid parts. But in the dark, instead of oxygen, carbonic acid is given out, so that during the day leaves yield oxygen to the air and withdraw carbonic acid, while during the night they give out carbonic acid, but no oxygen. The labor thus performed during the day is generally in proportion to the intensity of light and the circumstances of their situation. Some plants close there leaves at a certain period of the day and open them at another, as with the sensitive plant ; and most of them shrink, fold their leaves or corollas and cease to act after the disappearance of the sun, but resume their task on the apearance of light in the morn- ing. This has been termed the sleep of plants, which is doubtless as necessary to them as sleep to animals. Other than solar light will PROPERTIES OF LEAVES. 75 awaken plants to action as shown by placing the sensitive plant in a dark cave and illuminating it with lamp light ; when it will suddenly unfold its leaves and again close them on withdrawing the light. The irritability of leaves is a remarkable phenomenon, as observed in their motions on presenting the hand or other substances to them. This is particularly notable in the sensitive plant. These leaves seem to be much agitated, as if afraid of injury under such circumstances. The perspiration of plants is more abundant than in animals, though in neither do we see it passing off except in cold weather. A root placed in a bottle of water will withdraw it all and give it off in an insensible perspiration. Thus a sun flower will perspire in a warm day 30 ounces, or, as is said, 17 times more than a man ; but in the night time little or none. The stem of a vine cut off near the head, and a bladder secured tightly around it, will in the sun soon send off sap enough to swell and burst the bladder. Plants, however, absorb moisture during the night by their roots and are increased in weight in the morning. Those in the shade, or in damp places, hence absorb more than they loose, and the result is to render their parts soft and watery. The power of leaves in sucking up moisture is evidently very great ; as, upon a lofty tree, they act upon the roots at 3,000 times the distance of their length. Roots placed in a warmer situation than that of branches, absorb liquids faster than the leaves consume them, and the sap often bursts through the stem and eventually destroys the excita- bility of the tissue. In reversed situations the leaves, not receiving sufficient sap from the roots, will die, the fruit will fall off, or the flowers be unable to set it. One of the leaves of a branch taken off, if kept constantly wet, will supply another below it with moisture, even though the communication be intercepted. The powers and properties of leaves and other organs of plants, vary much, however, in their spe- cific nature and in their phenomena. Buds. Buds are divided into leaf-buds, containing the nidiments of leaves without flowers ; flower-buds, containing the rudiments of one or more flowers, folded over each other in scales, and mixed-buds., containing both leaves and flowers. These, closely examined or cut through, pre- sent beautiful incipient forms in progress cf development. Some con- sider the bulb and turion as a species of bud. Leaf-buds, in most res- pects are like bulbs ; they are commonly oval and are composed of tough scales closely fitted together and covered with a gummy resin, with a moist and downy substance between the scales for the protec- tion of the embryo from the cold; while the external scales are dry and hard. The embryo is thus often protected for years, even in 76 BUDS AND BUDDING. water. Herbs and shrubs commonly unfold their buds the same sea- son and are without scales, while those of trees are not perfected in less than two, and often not less than several years. In the midst of summer, vegetation seems to cease, but no suspension takes place, as plants are then busy in storing up nourishment for and in forming new buds. Thus the future leaves are safely secured from the coldness of the season, so as to take the place of those which have disappeared. Budding implies the expansion of the leaves or flowers in the spring. The first point in the plant which gives rise to the bud is the eye ; when this swells and becomes apparent it is the button, and when this un- folds it is the bud. Some suppose that the eye is formed late in the summer and that the young shoot forces itself through the bark, when the young leaves become chilled. They then contract, harden and form protective scales which, in like manner, seek the light and air. There are no buds scales in warm climates or in hot houses, as they are not needed. Few trees in the United States can endure the cold without them. The scales generally fall off as the interior parts en- large by growth. The manner in which the young leaves are folded or rolled within the bud, varies greatly and is, withal, very curious. Frondescence is the period in which any species of plants unfolds its leaves. Linnaeus thought that when the buds of the birch tree opened, barley, etc., should be sown ; and the American indians believed that when the young leaves of the oak were of the size of squirrels's ears, Indian corn should be planted. The orange tree, like most tropical plants, never will form scales for the protection of its buds ; but there are some plants more yielding in their habits, and which ultimately conform to the necessities of colder climates ; the horse chestnut for example. Monocotyledonous plants rarely produce annually more than one bud. The great source of vegetable life is the sap; this is carefully secreted for the growth of the buds during the winter. The axils of leaves or the extremities of branches and stems, where they appear, are at the most suitable places for the accumu- lation of nourishment. Branches originate from buds. Thus we see the wise provisions made for the renewal of branches, leaves, flowers, fruits, etc., and the continuation of the species. The flower-bud is usually at the end of small and short branches and is used in grafting, which is done by cutting into the bark of some other tree and placing one or more buds into the place cut ; when in due time, it will bear the fruit of its parent stock. The mixed buds produce both flowers and leaves, as the lilac. Leaf-buds planted in the earth put forth roots and flourish, but flower-buds perish when placed in the earth. Bulbs are formed at the base of leaves where they store up nourish- ment for subsequent use. The base leaves are formed in layers, or concentric plates, as in the lily, snow drop, hyacinth, etc. These FRUIT. 77 plates expand into leaves and the flower stalk in spring. Small bulbs are formed into bulbous plants on the crown of the root, which en- larging and becoming detached, form perfect bulbs that shoot up leaves and flowers. Fruit. Fruit is the immediate product of flowers. The fertilization of the seed having taken place, the pistil, or the pistil and enveloping parts, grow, change their form and appearance, obtain new color, texture, flavor, etc., and ultimately become fruit. Two essentially different kinds of fruit are formed by different processes in flowers. The pistil in one instance grows separately from the envelopes, which fall off, and the fruit is formed by a change and enlargement of parts of the pistil ; this is called superior fruit. In the other case the pistil and envelopes grow together and the fruit consists of a change and enlargement of the whole flower ; this is called inferior fruit. The essential difference between the two is that the superior fruit is at- tached to the branch alone by the pistil, while the inferior adheres by the base, both of the pistil and all the envelopes. The qualities of fruit, however, are not significant of these terms ; they are not indeed used by many botanists, those of calyx-adherent and calyx-free, being substituted. Among the superior are the strawberry, raspberry, peach, plum, apricot, cherry, grape, and fig ; and among the inferior are the apple, pear, quince, medlar, currant, gooseberry, melon and cucumber. Fruit is a kind of branch, it being an advanced state of a flower, which is a kind of branch ; and it has the same kind of organic con- nection with the plant as other branches, requiring, like them, to be supplied by it with food. Its interior, however, not being woody, but pulpy, it more readily leaves its parent stem. The inferior fruit consists of a less number of leaves than the superior ; and, as the sup- ply of food to the plant and its attractive force is in proportion to the number of leaves, the inferior is more attractive than the superior, and consequently it is less liable to fall off. The pistil of the superior fruit being unprotected, it is more exposed to frosts and other changes of the atmosphere, and is more liable to suffer therefrom than the inferior. There are, however, some variations from this rule. Fruit, like leaves, has power to form and elaborate secretions, but it contributes little to the plant, as its powers are exerted in perfect- ing itself; still, some kinds do form wood. The object of fruit is evidently the protection and nourishment of the seed for the perpetua- tion of its kind ; and, for this purpose, its fluids are mostly consumed. This it attracts from neighboring parts and, in doing so, often destroys fruit in its vicinitj r , if it be more healthy and vigorous ; and the weaker fruits, as we often see, shrink and fall off. 78 NUTRIMENT OF FRUIT. The food of fruit, employed in its maturation, is derived in part from the atmosphere, but mostly through the leaves, which, after re- ceiving it from the roots, prepare it for the food of the fruit. All cir- cumstances, therefore, which impair the health and action of the roots and leaves affect, in like manner, the fruit. It is necessary, also, that the leaves should be contiguous to the fruit, in order to furnish it readily with its requisite food. Hence it is seen that fruit on naked branches will not grow, and that leaves immediately over the fruit prove of the greatest advantage to it. A full supply of nutriment from these sources is therefore the only assurance of good fruit, however valuable its kind may be. It sometimes happens that an undue ac- cumulation of sap proves injurious to the products of plants, especially tuberous plants. The potato, from this circumstance, is liable to the disease called curl, owing to the inspisated state of the juices. Fruit oftentimes fails to elaborate the juices within it, or receives more water than it passes off through its small pores, and it therefore be- comes watery." But when its stomates readily give off superfluous aqueous particles, it becomes hard and dry. A superabundance of water always retards or prevents ripening. The quality of fruit, de- pends much on the quantity and quality of its juices. It is certain that these undergo a great alteration in the fruit after coming from the leaves, as the juice of the leaves of many species are acrid and even poisonous. Thus the leaves of the peach, the fig, etc., are very dif ferent from the fruit. Light and heat have an immediate and very important influence in the maturation of fruit. The valuable qualities of fruits, natives of warm climates, certainly could not be developed in this climate. The production of sugar and many rich flavors are obviously the effect of a bright light and a high temperature, while, under diverse circum- stances, the same fruits become acid and unpalatable. The sweetness of ripe fruits depends on their sugar. This contains much carbon, the superfluous oxygen which formed with it the vegetable acid having been expelled by the action of heat. Besides, vegetable acids, at a high temperature, may enter into combination with gums, starch, etc., and thus form sugar much more readily than at a low temperature. Hence acid fruits become much sweeter by cooking. The seeds of fruit, during ripening, attract from it matter for their organization, and serve at the same time to correct some of its quali- ties. They are lodged in and are attached to a soft part of the inte- rior called the placenta, the most absorbent of tissues, and are envel- oped by the parenchyma of the fruit. They are dry when ripe, and their interior is filled with starch, earthy matter, etc. Being enclosed by an indurated envelop, these substances will remain undecomposed and possessed of the vital principle for hundreds and even thousands of years. Melon seeds and rye have germinated when 40 years old, COMPOSITION OF FRUIT. 79 beans at 100, raspberry at 1,700 and some seeds, it is said, taken from the Egyptian tombs and pyramids have also germinated. The difference in these seminal properties depends much, no doubt, on the chemical character of their parts, the starchy parts being most durable, while the oily are easily decomposed. Warmth and moisture are the princi- pal cause both of their germination and their death. So long as their carbon remains they no doubt possess germinating powers. The effect of water is to decompose their constituents, its oxygen combining with their carbon and forming carbonic acid, which is a process of germina- tion, and which they are incapable of renewing. The health and vigor of the plant correspond with the seed ; hence the importance of selecting such seeds for cultivation as will insure good fruit. Fruit is composed of two principal parts, the pericarp and seed* The former is the seed vessel and signifies around the fruit. It is of different kinds. Some fruits are capsules, opening by the separation of valves. Within are cells or carpels containing the seeds ; so that all which is not seeds belongs to the pericarp. On cutting a germ hori- zontally ovules are seen with their outer covering or ovary. The ovules, at first scarcely perceptible, become enlarged after fertilization by the pollen, and the embryo and other parts appear and form the seed. The ovary which enlarges with the ovules is furnished with glands that secrete the juices necessary for the growth of the ovules ; and as it becomes more mature, it is called the pericarp. This, in its growth, becomes woody or pulpy. Pulpy pericarps absorb oxygen gas and throw off carbonic acid ; and saccharine juices are elaborated in their cellular integuments. At their period of decay they pass through a slight fermentation, the juices become sour, the pulp is decomposed, and putrefaction follows. When the germ is fertilized, the parts of the flower not necessary for the growth of the fruit commonly fade, wither, or fall off, while the pericarp and seed continue to enlarge until perfected. All fruit has once been the germ of a flower. Fruit, as generally understood, is pulpy and us'ed as food, but botanically, it is the seeds and pericarp of all plants. Its size bears no proportion to the vegetable producing it, as seen by the acorn of the oak and the pumpkin of the small vine. Fruits are divided into 3 parts, in some pericarps, 1st the epicarp, the skin or membranous part surrounding it ; 2d, the sarcocarp, the fleshy or corky part, covered by the epicarp ; 3d, the etidocarp, a membrane of the fruit lining the internal cavity and forming the partitions and cells. The skin of the peach, for example, is the epicarp, the pulpy substance absorbing the juices is the sarcocarp, and the dry and tough shell enclosing the kernel is the endocarp. The pericarp, in most fruits, consists, 1st, of valves, external pieces forming the sides of the seed vessels. If the pericarp is composed of but one valve, as in the chestnut, it is termed univalved, if of 2, as in the pea pod, bivalved ; 80 DIVISION OF FRUIT. if of 3, as the violet, involved ; if of 4, as hi the stramonium, qriad- rivalved. Sutures or seams are the lines uniting the valves which separate at maturity, as with the two valves of the pea pod. Parti- tions divide the cells and are longitudinal or transverse. Column or columella is the axis of the fruit, the central point of union of the partitions, as in the core of the apple. The cells contain the seeds : they seldom vary in the same genus of plants. The Receptacle of fruit is the part of the pericarp to which the seeds are attached until maturity and which through its connecting fibres conveys food to the seeds from the pericarp. Some plants have no pericarp, as with the grasses and compound and labiate flowers : the seeds lie in the bottom of the calyx, which performs the office of the pericarp. The division of fruit, by Linnaeus was into 9 classes, viz: 1. The capsule, a little casket, opening by pores or valves. The seed cells are one-celled, two-celled, etc., according to number. It rises from the re- ceptacle and has the seeds attached all around. In one-celled cap- sules this is wanting. 2. Silique, a two-valved and two-celled peri- carp, with the seeds attached alternately to opposite edges, as radish, mustard, etc. Silicle is a little pod, 35 and is the distinction in the class tetradynamia. 3. Legume, a pericarp of 2 valves, with the seeds attached to one suture, as the pea. Plants producing the legume are called leguminous, and the term pod is generally applied to the pericarp. 4. Follicle, a one-valved pericarp ; the seeds are loose or not attached to the suture, which opens longitudinally on one side, as in the milk-weed. 5. Drupe, a stone fruit, without a valve. It con- tains a nut or stone in which is a kernel or nucleus. It is mostly moist and succulent, as the peach, cherry, plum, etc. Nut is a seed covered with a shell, as the walnut, almond and chestnut. 7. Pome, a pulpy pericarp without valves, but with a membranous capsule and numer- ous cells, containing seeds. It has no external opening, or valve. The apple, pear, quince, and gourd are examples. 8. Berry, a pulpy succulent pericarp, the seeds having no covering but the pulp, in which they are dispersed promiscuously, or placed on receptacles with- in it. A compound berry consists of single berries : each is a grain containing a seed united, as in the mulberry. The orange and lemon are berries with a thick covering. The strawberry is commonly called a berry, but it is a pulpy receptacle with naked seeds. The fig is a juicy calyx with numerous florets in its cavity, each with a pulpy calyx investing the seed. 9. Strobilum, a catkin hardened into a seed, as in the pine : it is called an aggregate pericarp ; and some seeds of the fruit are enveloped by scales. It is of various forms. A pepon is a fruit like the melon, cucumber, etc. A berry is said to be proper when formed of the pericarp, and improper when formed of other parts. ( 81 ) Classification of Fruits. The fruits or pericarps of all phenogamous plants have been divided by Mirbel into two classes, viz., gymnocarpes, those not covered or masked by an organ concealing their character, and angiocarpes, those which are covered by an organ concealing them. These two classes are subdivided into orders and genera. Order 1st, carabrulares, class 1st, gymnocarpes, (fruits not covered.) Simple fruits without valves, never opening spontaneously and includ- ing fruits of the grasses, and syngenesious plants, etc., genera cypsela, pericarp 1 celled, 1 seeded, adhering, seed erect, monocephalous, etc., as the lettuce, oyster-plant, dandelion, etc. Gen. cerion, embryo on side of persisperm, 1 cotyledon, large and fleshy, as fruit of indian corn, grasses, wheat, rice, etc. Gen. carcerula, as buckwheat, rhu- barb, elm, etc. Order 2d, capsulares, simple capsules opening at maturity, free, sin- gle ovary, etc., Gen. capsule as in the lily, 1 or more cells, etc. Gen. Le- gume, irregular bivalve, monocephalous, free, 1 cell, embryo with 2 coty- ledons, as the bean, pea, cassia, etc. Gen. silique, bivalved, seeds at- tached to upper and lower valves, as white mustard, etc. Gen. Pyxides, 2 valves opening like a box, as bachelor's button, etc. Order 3d, dieresila, simple fruits, many symetrical carpels opening at maturity, as seed of nasturtion. Gen. cremocarp, ovary surmounted with 2 styles, 2 cells, 2 seeds, embryo with 2 cotyledons, as seeds of carrot, parsley and other umbelliferous plants. Gen. Regmate, many seeds, 2 valves opening with a spring, as euphobia. Gen. Dieresil, variable, as geranium, hollyhock, etc. Order 4th, compound fruits, from ovaries bearing styles. Gen. Double follicle, as milk weed. Gen. Etairon, many seeds, as ranun- culus, anemomone, as monk's hood, &c. Order 6th, Drupaces, simple, succulent fruits, containing a nut. Gen. Drupe, pericarp woody, or bony, as nuts, and fleshy as peach, or pulpy as cherry. Order 7th, simple succulent fruits, many separate seeds. Gen. Py- ridion, fruit regular, pericarp round and fleshy, several cells, each with 1 or more seeds, embryo with 2 large cotyledons, as the pear and apple, seeds in 5 carpels or cells. Gen. Pepo, 3 celled, many seeds, regular monocephalous fruit, as water melon, cucumber. Gen. Bacca, a berry many seeded, without capsules, as pericarp of orange, whortleberry, current, barberry, potato, grape, etc. Class 2d. (Fruits covered) 5 genera. Gen. Strobilum, or cone, car- cerular fruits, concealed by scales, as pine, juniper, pine apple. Gen, Calybion, as the fruit of the oak, (in a scaly capsule) beech, yew, etc. Gen. Sycone, as ambara, etc. Gen. Sorose, fruits united in a spike and covered with succulent floral envelops, as mulberry. DEFINITION OF FRUITS. These are barely the names of the orders and genera. A more mi- nute description would be burdened with terms not important, it is thought, to the general reader. The capsule, as we have said, consists of one or more cells which are shown in the accompanying cut. These discharge their seeds spontaneously by the division of the valves, on becoming dry. Some are discharged through small pores, and others are dis- persed by the pericarp acting like an elastic spring and throwing them in various directions, as with the touch me not, etc. This cut exhibits the form of the pericarp of the primrose, with the same cut in two, showing the seeds within and the manner of their growth on the receptacle. This cut represents a two, or bivalved, pericarp which is a siliqua, or pod, in which the seeds are arranged alternately along the edges of the partition separating the pod by the two sutures, as in the wall flower, cab- bage, turnip, etc. This shows the form of a little pod, or silicle, and differs from the siliqua only in its size and shape, as in the satin-flower and shepherd's purse. This is a representation of the legume, a kind of pericarp with two valves, but without a partition, or dissepiment. It bears its seeds along one suture only and is the well known pod of the pea, bean, etc., all composing the legu- minous plants of the 17th botanical class, and one of the largest and most useful tribe. SPECIMENS OF FRUIT. This pericarp is a univalve consisting of but one valve or piece, and is called a follicle or bag. The seed grows on the receptacle or the margin of the suture ; and the pericarp bursts and discharges its seeds, as seen in the cut, and as with the periwinkle and milk weed. This cut represents a drupe or drupa, a stone fruit with a fleshy or pulpy pericarp, without valves. The stone has a seed or kernel, as with the plumb, cherry and peach. The nut is a bony fruit with one cell generally, but it has no fleshy pericarp as with the last. Its exterior envelop is hard, with valves, as with the walnut, or membranous as with the hazel-nut. With the acorn the envelop is but partial. The Bacca, or berry, is a succulent fruit, as elsewhere noticed. It never opens by valves, like the capsule : the currant and gooseberry are examples. This and the last cut show the fruit divided with the kernel and seeds within. A compound berry is here shown composed of many small berries or grains, each with a seed. This is a pome ; a fleshy pericarp without valves ; but, unlike the two last, it has a capsule enclosing its seeds. The apple, pear and quince are well known ex- amples ; but these pericarps vary greatly in shape and quality. The cone, or strobulus, is a hardened capsule, or seed vessel, covered with scales, as in the pines, cypruses, &c. e alder and birch present an aditional capsule ; and in the willow the capsule is bivalved and suspended by a stem dis- tinct from the scales. . _ 84 FLOWERS. The pappus, or seed down is generally attached to seeds wanting a pericarp, as with the compound flowers, dandelions, thistles, &c. In the first the pappus is elevated on a stype above the seed ; and in the second it is sessile or sitting on the seed. Flowers. These are an important organ of plants. They are designed for the protection of fruit and the reproduction of their species by the agency of seeds, and are the means, also, by which these species are determined by botanists. They consist of several parts or organs, differing much from one another, but collectively, of the floral envelops and the sexes. The first consists of the calyx or flower-cup, the outer green envelop and the corolla, blossom, or inner envelop, the colored part of the flower. Each part of the envelop consists of parts or leaves, which, in the calyx, are called sepals and in the corolla petals. One or both of these envelops is often wanting in plants ; in the calyx, as with the tulip and lily ; and in the corolla, as with most forest trees. The sexes consist of the stamens, pistils, &c. The pericarp and seed are also distinct parts of flowers. The calyx is an expansion of the outer bark of the flower-stalk. It envelops the corolla before it expands, and subsequently remains, or falls off, as with the poppy. It consists either of one leaf, or sepal, and is called monosepalous, or of several sepals, and is polysepalous. This cut shows a monopetalous calyx, or flower-cup, five-parted., as in burglass, tobacco, etc. When surrounded by another it is double, and when belonging to many flowers it is common. It is composed of 3 parts ; the tube, rising from the base ; the throat, the part above the tube, and the mouth, the upper expanded part. It is a curtain in mushrooms, etc., and a veil in grasses, grains, etc. The scales are husks of one piece in rye and many pieces, as in panic-grass. The position of the calyx in relation to the germ is important in marking the distinctions of genera, or natural families. It is superior when at the top of the germ, as in the apple, etc., and inferior when below it, as in the pink. It is called caducous when it falls off before the flower expands, and when it falls off with the corolla it is decidu- ou,s, and when remaining till the fruit is mature it is persistent, as with the apple, pear, pea, etc. The divisions of the calyx are 1st, the perianth, the real calyx, or cup, as in the rose : this is double in some, as the hollyhock ; 2d, involucrum, as in the carrot, etc., in which the calyx does not FLORAL ORGANS. embrace the flower, like the perianth, but is distant, sur- rounding the stem and consisting of small leaves, as in parsnip, dill, etc. It is universal when surrounding several umbels, and partial when surrounding the peduncles of the flowers; 3d, ament or catkin, which is a calyx of many scales, along a thread receptacle, each scale protecting one or more stamens, or pistils, as with the oak, chestnut, pop- lar, etc. ; 4th, spatha or sheath, encloses a flower at first and then bursting the flower stalk that grows above it, as the wild turnip, onion, narcissus, etc., displaying a spadix on which, in some flowers, the stamens and pistils grow, or which bear fruit, as in the palms. 5th, glume, or husk, is the calyx of the grasses and grains, composed of one or two pieces, or valves. The beard or awn belongs to the glume. Of the awn of wild oats is made an hydrometer to indicate moisture and dryness. The middle part of the awn is twisted like a screw and one end cemented to a circular plate marked into degrees, while a bristle is attached to the other end to serve as an index; and the whole is covered with a glass. The awn untwists and moves in one direction in damp and rainy a weather, but moves in a contrary direction when the at- mosphere is dry. The corolla is a part of the calyx in grasses. 6th, calyptra, or veil, which is the cap or hood of parts of the mosses, as at a. 7th, volva, the wrapper of the head of fungous plants. All these are different kinds and forms of calyxes, and these are various in form and situation. The corolla, corona or crown, is the continuation of the inner bark of the flower-stalk. It exhales carbonic acid, but not oxygen. It is the seat of all the beauty and variegated colors in flowers. Before blossoming it is folded in the calyx, after which it is the flower-bud. A flower is said to be petalous when with the petals or leaves of the corolla, and apet- alous when without them. These are definite when not more than 20, and indefinite when more than 20. When composed of 1 petal the corolla is monopetalous, and when of more than 1, polypetalous. The 1st consists of the tube, the lower part; the throat, the entrance to the tube, and the limb, the top border of the corolla. In the 2d the petals consist of the lamina, the thin marginal part, some times entire, as with the rose, or notched or crenate, as with the pink. The claw is the lower 86 COROLLA AND STYLES. part of the petal inserted on the receptacle : it is long or short. The corolla is regular when petals correspond with each other, as in the rose and pink, and irregular when they do not, as with the pea and labiate flowers. This cut shows the form of the corolla and calyx as in the cowslip. The form of the monopetalous corollas may be bell-formed, 5 parted, and superior, as the blue- Ir-^fajF' bell, etc., with the calyx ; funnel-form, as the morning glory ; cap-shaped, as tobacco ; salver-shaped, as jasmine ; wheel-form, as mullein, potato,etc. ; star-shaped and pitch- er-shaped ; also tubular, as in primrose. Labiate corollas are like the lips of an animal ; they are personate with the throat closed, or ringcnt with it open, or anomalous, as in the fox-glove. The form of the polypetalous corolla may be cruciform, like a cross, with 4 petals, as radish, cabbage, etc. ; caryophyllous, 5 petals, termi- nating in a long claw and inclosed in a calyx, as the pink ; lilaceous, with 6 petals, of a bell-form, as the lily, tulip, etc. ; rosaceous, round- ing petals, without claws, as the apple, rose, etc. ; papilionaceous, from the butterfly, with a banner, 2 wings and a keel, as the pea. Without any of these forms a corolla is anomalous. The nectary is an organ of flowers which secretes honey. It is a cavity in flowers provided with glands, wherever the honey is found, which differs in different flowers. There is a difference of opinion as to the purpose for which honey is secreted. Its extraction, however, seems not to affect the flower or the plant. The odor of flowers arises from the volatilet oils made by or se- creted in the corolla. The process is facilitated by heat, but the oils are more readily dissipated by it. They are more abundant in the morning, especially if the air be moist. The nature of odors differ essentially in conformity with the peculiarities of the organization, and the food whichwantsextract from the soil. Some are poisonous, fetid, or narcotic, while others are most agreeable ; yet these qualities vary with individuals, some being pleasant to one and offensive to others, showing a difference in our own organization corresponding with that of plants. The Sexes. These consist of stamens and pistils. The pistils generally stand in the centre of the flower with the stamens surrounding them, except when the sexes are on different flowers and each sex is central in its own flower. They are indispensible to the perfection of fruit. They generally stand on the same flower enclosed by the same envelop, or upon the receptacle. They are on different flowers arising from the SEXES OF PLANTS. 87 same root in the class Mon&cia and on different flowers from different roots in Ditzcia. Stamens take various positions in regard to the pistils, without how- ever varying much in the same family of plants. When inserted upon the pistil, as in umbeliferous plants, they are epigynous ; when under the germ, as with cruciform plants, they are hypogynous and when inserted on the calyx and around the germ they are perigynous. Sta- mens are commonly double, equal, or half the number of divisions of the carolla in monopetalous flowers, though never more than 20 ; but, in the polypetalous flowers they may be greater. Stamens alternate with z J^ these divisions of the corolla when equal in number; when double those divisions, half are in the intervals of the divisions and the other half are before the lobes of the carolla. Those stamens, found without anthers, or barren, are generally before these lobes. In the cut, a is the anther and b the filament. Filaments are parts of the stamens. They are long and slender, as in pink, or short and thick, as in the tulip, are commonly smooth, but sometimes bearded, as in mullein and downy, as in spider wort. A filament commonly supports one other, but sometimes two or more. When enclosed in the tube of the corolla they are inserted, but when out of it they are exserted. When the filament is wanting the anther is sessile or sitting in the throat of the flower. The stamens change to petals in double flowers, or disappear, as the result of cultivation, and the anther also. No perfect fruit is produced when the stamens disap- pear. The Anther is a small knob on the top of the filament, having cells in which is the powder pollen. Pistils are upright stems varying in number, like stamens, in differ- ent plants. They consist of 3 parts, the germ or ovary, the style and <^ stygma. In the cut, a is the germ, b the style, and c the stigma. j j The germ is at the base of the style or column : it is the seed / vessel in which are the ovules, or young seeds. The germ is I superior when above the calyx, as with the strawberry, and in- * 'f ferior when below it, as in the apple. Its form is round, cordate or angled. The style is the upright part or stem of the pistil. The stigma is the sximmit of the style ; but, if the style is wanting, it is sessile or sits upon the germ, as in the tulip. It is of different forms, is downy and is moistened with a thick fluid to catch the polen from the anther and con- vey it through the style to the ovary, or germ. The cut shows the central pistil and surrounding stamens. The pollen is a yellow dust, or farina, given out in granules by the bursting of the anther at a particular period. Each particle is an organized body, as may be seen with a glass, when it is placed on the 88 INFLORESCENCE. surface of water : It is oblong, globular, or triangular, smooth or with points and is sometimes connected by threads. It is essential for the production of seeds and the propagation of the species. In the East Indies, where palms are cultivated, branches of the wild palm are gathered and the pollen strewed over the cultivated plants. Pistilate flowers are fertile, staminate flowers, are infertile. The cut shows the pollen thrown out when the anther bursts. Insects fertilize some flowers by the pollen they bear upon their bodies, when in search of honey. Rains and moist weather are often injurious to plants when flower- ing, as the pollen is thereby often lost ; but most flowers preserve it by holding down their heads in the absence of the sun. The pollen is also conveyed by winds upon pistilate flowers, as may be seen often times in a cloud of dust over forest trees. In every conceivable way nature has provided for the accomplishment of this important purpose, both in the form and situation of the organs and the means of com- munication. The trees of warm climates generally have stamens and pistils on the same corolla, but in cold climates these are on separate flowers. In some, as in the parnassus, the stamens lean over the stig- ma successively and shed their pollen on them. Some anthers, as in the laurel, are confined in the corolla till the proper time, when they are suddenly liberated, and by the force of the spring scatter the pollen in a stream over the stigma. The slightest touch at this time will produce the effect. The calyx, corolla, stamen, pistil, anther, and stig- ma are seen in this cut. The use of the sexes, or stamens and pistils, is to per- petuate the species. Without them no seeds are capable of vegeta- tion. They exist in all plants. The process of fecundation we have before explained. The flower is formed before the fruit in all cases. In Monaecious plants the stamens and pistils are on the same plants, but on different flowers, as in indian corn, where the stamens are on the panicle or top and the pistils are within the husk, forming long fil- aments or the silk. Pumpkins, cucumbers, gourds, etc., are of this kind. Inflorescence. This is the mode of flowering in plants. The corolla in reference to its organs, is important in this subject. We have said that the monopetalous corolla supports the stamens, which in number correspond to the divisions in the limb or top of the corolla. These stamens are inserted on the calyx or receptacle in polypetalous corollas and are double the number of petals, generally, as in the pink. When inserted below the germ, the corolla is hypogynous, or inferior to the style, as with the stramonium ; when inserted into the calyx, surrounding the germ, as with the currant, it is perigynous, or enveloping the style, and when inserted upon the germ, as with the honey-suckle, it is epygyncus, upon, or superior to the germ. POSITION AND PARTS OF FLOWERS. 89 The position of flowers on the branches or flower-stalks, like that of leaves, is radical, arising from the root, or cauline, arising from the stem. They are also sessile, solitary, scattered, opposite, alternate, ax- illary, etc. They grow on one side of the branch and sometimes on all parts of the peduncle, or supporter, causing a great diiference in the appearance and position of flowers. This peduncle is the green part, the fruit, or flower-stalk, coming from the stem. Its divisions are pedicels. The flower, when it has once blossomed, is commonly inserted in the end of the stem and the peduncle is scarcely distinguish- able. An assemblage of flowers around the stem forms a whorl, as in mint and labiate plants, in the same manner as leaves in this form are stellate, or like a star. When flowers are arranged on a common pe- duncle, or flower-stalk, as in the locust and currant, they are raceme, and panicle when borne in an irregular cluster. Spike is where flow- ers, arise from the side of a stem on a short peduncle, as mullein and the grasses. It is erect and the flowers are sometimes crowded around an ear, as in indian corn. When several flower-stalks spread out like an umbrella, as in the carrot and fennel, the form is umbel, and when these stalks are irregularly divided, as in the elder and snowball, it is cyme. Corymb is a false umbel, the peduncles rising from different heights as in the yarrow. Flowers on small stalks variously arranged are a fascicle, and when sessile flowers form a tuft, like clover, poppy, etc., they are a head. Flowers composed of scales, stamens or pistils, etc., as in the willow and chestnut, are ament, or catkin. Spadix is an assemblage around a common receptacle with a sheath, etc., as with the wild turnip, etc. The receptacle is the point of the flower-stalk between the peduncle and flower. It first supports the flower and subsequently the fruit. It is scarcely distinguishable in simple flowers, as the tulip, etc. It is proper, when supporting 1 flower, as in the lily and violet, and common when supporting many flowers, as in the sun-flower and dandelion. These are convex, concave, Jlat, spherical, etc., and its surface is also punctate, hairy, naked, chaffy, pulpy, etc. Radiis is a receptacle con- necting the florets in a spike, as in wheat. In compound flowers, forming chiefly the class syngenesia, the receptacle is most important. It is the thread-like part of the ament to which are attached the florets, as seen in stripping off the scales of the ament of the willow. Compound flowers consist of many small flowers each with its sta- mens and pistils, and all on a common receptacle, as in the daisy, dan- delion, sun-flower, etc. The anthers of the flowers are united in a cylinder. They are monopetalous and superior. The central part of the flower is its disk, and the portion surrounding it is its radius, or ray. Aggregate flowers have several florets situated on the same recep- tacle, and each has its anthers distinct and not united into a cylinder as in compound flowers. The teazel and cats-eye are examples. ( 90 BOTANICAL CLASSIFICATION OF PLANTS. The Linnean system of classification is founded on the stamens and pistils of flowers. All plants are thus divided into 2 great divisions, the phenogamous, or those plants having apparent flowers, or sexes, and comprehending the first 23 of the 24 classes of Linnaeus, and cryptogamous, the 24th class, comprising all plants with non-apparent flowers or sexes. Some include these in the 21st class. The characteristics of classification used by Linnaeus were of 3 kinds : 1st factitious, made, or artificial ; 2d, essential character ; i. e. a peculiar character of one genus, distinguishing it from all others ; and 3d, natural character the general aspect or appearance of plants, by which persons form some classification in their minds independent of rules, etc. Jl natural family is composed of several genera having some com- mon marks of resemblance, somewhat like artificial orders. Families, truly natural, are such as to enable any one without the aid of science to recognize them, as with the umbellate family, composed of dill, fen- nel, caraway, etc., from the form of the seed-stem and branches, (like an umbrella.) Other families are similarly distinguished by the form of the corollas, as labiate, (like the lips,) cruciform, (like a cross,) umbellate, (like an umbrella,) corymbiferous, leguminous, etc. The artificial classification is such that genera, unlike in general ap- pearance, are classed together by the number of their stamens and pistils, as the tulip and bullrush in order 1, class 8, and the beet and elm in order 2, class 5. Still, this, though more difficult than the natural classification, is essential to botanical arrangement, as great numbers of plants cannot otherwise be arranged. It is like a diction- ary, by turning to which we learn the character of plants, their habits and qualities ; and the natural method is compared to the grammar of botany. The rules of botanical science are 1st, that botanical classification results from an examination and comparison of plants. 2d, every or- ganic peculiarity in individual plants, establishing a resemblance or difference, is a character or sign, by which it may be known and dis- tinguished. 3d, the presence of an organ, or its absence, is a character. 4th, the presence of an organ is a positive character, and its absence a negative character. Botany rests on constant characters and these may be isolated or co-ex- istent : as a butter cup" has a nectary in the form of a scale, a charac- ter, which though constant, is isolated, not being necessarily connected with any other characteristic. The calyx of the blue-bell" adheres SUBDIVISION OF PLANTS. 91 to the germ, which must be without divisions. This adherence in- duces the inference of several other characteristics, and it is then co-existent. Vegetation and reproduction are two distinguishing orders of char- acters in vegetable organs. Those plants resembling one another in their character of reproduction differ little in those of vegetation ; yet those resembling one another in their characters of vegetation often differ much in those of reproduction. The seed combines the characters both of vegetation and reproduction. The subdivisions of plants. The 2 great divisions of plants (pheno- gamous and cryptogamous) are separated into classes, orders, genera, species, and families. Classes have been compared to states, orders to counties, genera to towns, and species to families, and families are composed of individuals. Each individual is an organized being, dis- tinct, separate, and complete in all its parts, as an oak, a rose, or a moss. A species comprehends individuals agreeing in certain particu- lars of their stems, leaves, or flowers. These have passed into innu- merable varieties by different modes of cultivation, by soil, climate, and also by strewing the pollen of one species upon the stigma of an- other. But these, not producing perfect seeds, are incapable of repro- ducing themselves. The specific difference is not effected by color, taste, or size. Species should present the essential characteristics of the family, and of the genus to which it belongs ; yet the mark distinguishing it from another species of its genus may be such as does not belong to the whole genus or family. The generic characters are more important than the specific, these being founded on the characters of the organs and isolated ; while the former are founded on important apparent co-existent characters ; as a pink is more easily distinguished from a rose than one species of rose from another. Families are grouped by marks in the genera to which they belong, and are the most important of all characters. The characters of the classes and orders are arti- ficial or factitious ; while in genera, species and families the essential characters are natural characters. A genus includes one or more species which are grouped together because of some resemblance in the proportion, situation, or connec- tion of the organs of the flower. Each of these species is therefore a type of the other, and is easily referred to its proper genus by a knowledge of any one of them. Some genera are more distinctly marked than others ; the rose genus for example. Peculiarities of form or color of the flower, or some remarkable properties of plants also give the generic names. Iris, or flag, is named from its colors resembling the rainbow; digitalis, or foxglove, from the resemblance of its corolla to the finger of a glove. The generic names are nouns, while specific names are adjectives ; yet many of these are derived 92 ORDERS, GENERA, AND SPECIES. also from the names of men, the number and character of leaves, etc. Family resemblances may be in seeds, pericarps, or seed envelops, stamens, and pistils, corollas, calyxes, mode of flowering, or inflores- cence, the situation of the flower, leaves, stem or roots. But it is necessary to observe plants, and the invariable characters of their or- gans closely to give them their place in species and genera. The genus geranium furnishes an example of the specific character- istics. In several species of this genus, as in other genera, they are named from some plant, the leaves or other parts of which the geranium resembles. Thus there are the oak-leaved, crow-foot-leaved, acorn- leaved, etc. ; also the lung-stalked, thick-stalked, etc. ; likewise the rose-scented, fish-scented, and musk-scented geraniums. Places also give rise to the names of species. These then, form convenient and invariable peculiarities, which are incorporated with the name of the species. Changes produced by varieties mostly affect the size, color, and num- ber of petals ; forms of the leaves, size, color, and taste of the fruit, and the forms or qualities of the roots, while the seed is unchanged, and produces the original kind and not the variety from which it was taken. The varieties of the apple and pear, though they belong to the same genus, are thus numerous in taste, form, and color, but the species is always the same. Seeds from the same apple tree may pro- duce trees with fruit differing from the parent stock and from one another. Those from green and sour fruit may thus produce sweet, large and red fruit, or otherwise, but they never produce pears, or another species, nor does cultivation or other means ever change the species or genera. Orders are founded 1st, on the number of pistils, which correspond with the number of the order in each class ; 2d, on the seeds being covered or uncovered in the calyx ; 3d, on the relative length of the pods ; 4th, on a comparison between the disk and ray florets of com- pound flowers ; 5th on the number of stamens ; 6th, (cryptogamous) by natural family characteristics. Stamens and Pistils. The above cut represents the number of stamens in the first 10 classes, according to the number of the class. This cut represents the class Icosandria, (over 10 sta- mens inserted on the calyx.) It may, however, designate more or less than 20 stamens. This cut shows the class Polyandria, (over 10 sta- mens inserted on the receptacle.) CLASSES, THEIR STAMENS AND PISTILS. This cut shows the difference in the length of the 4 sta- mens, 2 short, and 2 long, and is class Didynamia. This is the class Tetradynamia, 6 stamens, 4 long and 2 short. Class Monaddphia, stamens united by their filaments in one set. This is class Diadelphia, (stamens with their filaments united in two sets.) This class Syngmesia, (5 anthers united in a compound flower.) MM jfa *P The last cut represents class Gynandria, stamens growing out the pistil ; the two next, class Mon&cia, stamens and pistils on separate corollas on the same plant; and the two first, class Di- (zcia, stamens and pistils in separate corollas on different plants. This cut represents the cryptogamous plants, (stamens and pistils invisible.) Classes. The 1st class, M'jnandria, is composed of those plants the flowers of which have one stamen. 2d, Diandria, those with two stamens. 3d, Triandria, with three. 4th, Tetrandria, with/owr. 5th, Pentandria, with jive. 6th, Hexandria, with sir. 7th, Heptandria, with seven. 8th, Octandria, with eight. 9th, Enneandria, with nine. 10th, De.c- andria, with ten. llth, Icosandria, over ten, (on. the calyx.) 12th, Polyandria, over ten, (on the receptacle.) 13th, Didynamia, four, (2 long and 2 short, flowers labiate.) 14th, Tetradynamia, six, (four long and 2 short; flowers labiate.) 15th, Monadelphia, (Stamens U4 CLASSES. united by their filaments into one set.) 16th, Diadelphia, (stamens united by their filaments into two sets ; flowers papillionaceous.) 17th, Syngenesia, five stamens (united by their anthers; flowers compound) 18th, Gynandria, (stamens growing on the pistils.) 19th, Moncecia, (stamens and pistils on different flowers of the same plant.) 20th, Diozcia, (stamens and pistils on different flowers of different plants.) 21st, Cryptogamia, (Stamens and pistils invisible.) Three more classes are added, or some of these last are differently arranged by some writers. The first 10 classes are thus founded on and named from the number of the stamens; the llth and 12th on the number and insertion of the stamens ; the 13th and 14th, on the number and relative length of the stamens; 15th, 16th, 17th and 18th, on the connections of the stamens by filaments or anthers ; 19th and 20th, on the position of the stamens relative to the pistils ; and, 21st, on their being no visible stamens or pistils. The orders belonging to each class with examples of flowers, or plants, in which they may be seen, may be briefly stated as follows, omitting the repetition of the names of the orders and the number of the pistils, as both are the same in each class, less than 12. The orders of the first 12 classes are according to the number of pistils, and these are named by prefixing Greek numerals to the word gynia, which signifies pistil. The orders in the first 12 classes are founded on the number of pis- tils, as 1st, Mono-gynia, 1 pistil ; 2d, Di-gynia, 2 pistils ; 3d, Tri- gynia, 3 pistils ; 4th, Tetra-gynia, 4 ; 5th, Penta-gynia, 5; 6th, Hexa- gynia, 6 ; 7th, Hepta-gynia, 7 ; 8th, Octa-gynia, 8 ; 9th, Eenea-gynia, 9 ; 10th, Deca-gynia, 10 ; 13th, Poly-gynia, over 10 pistils. 1st class, 2 orders ; 1st, Monogynia, 1 pistil, as ginger, marsh samphire, hippuris, saltwort. 2d, Digynia, 2 pistils, as starwort, blitum, etc. 2d class, 3 orders ; 1st, (name of the order as 1st above,) as lilac, jasmine, sage, olive. 2d, (same as 2d above,) as spring grass, catalpa. 3d, Trigynia, 3 pistils, as pepper. 3d class, 3 orders ; 1st, as crocus, iris, or fluor-de-lis, cotton grass ; 2d, as wheat, oats, rye, sugar cane and other grasses ; 3d, as blinks. 4th class, 4 orders (same number of stamens as in the 14th class ;) 1st, as teazel, plantain, dog- wood, innocence, or venus' pride, madder. 2d, as witch-hazel. 3d, as 4th, Tetragunia, 4 pistils, as holly, pond- weed, etc. 5th class, 6 orders ; 1st, as violet, primrose, currant, tobacco, potato, coffee. 2d, as carrot, beet, hemlock, elm, coriander. 3d, as elder, snow-ball, sumac. 4th, as grass parnassus. 5th, Pentagynia, 5 pis- tils, as flax, sea-lavender. 6th, Polygynia, many pistils, as yellow- root, mouse-tail. This class comprehends a 10th part of all known plants. Plants with 5 stamens, with those that have anthers united, CLASSES. 95 constitute a 4th part of the vegetable kingdom. The umbelliferous family of plants, as parsnip, celery, parsley ; also aromatics, as dill, fennel, caraway, are of the 2d order of this class. 6th class, 5 orders ; 1st, as the lily tribe, tulip, crown imperial, hy- acynth, pine-apple ; the family of palms, onion, bulrush, squill, bar- berry. 2d, as rice. 3d, as dock, sorrel, meadow-saffron. 4th, (6 pistils,) as 5th, Polygynia, (many pistils,) as water plantain. 7th class, 4 orders ; 1st, as horse-chestnut, chick-wintergreen. 2d, as limeum. 3d, as Or. Heptagynia, (1 pistils,) as septas. This is the smallest class and without natural families. 8th class, 4 orders ; 1st as bilberry, evening primrose, nasturtion, heaths. 2d, as 3d, as buckwheat, water-pepper. 4th, as paris. 9th class, 3 orders ; 1st, as sassafras, camphor, cinnamon, cashew- nut of W. I. 2d, as 3d, as flowering rush, rhubarb, etc. 10th class, 5 orders ; 1st, as laurel, rue, wild indigo, winter-green, venus's fly-trap, rose tree. 2d, as pink, hydrangia. 3d, as silene, sandwort. 4th, Pentagynia, (5 pistils,) as stone crop, corn-cockle, sorrel. 5th, Decagynia, (10 pistils,) as Virginia pokeweed. llth class, 6 orders; 1st, as prickly pear tribe, or cactus, plum, cherry, peach. 2d, as agrimony. 3d, as spurge, migniotte. 4th, as 5th, as 6th, Dodecagynia, as house-leek. But recent botanists include from one to 6 of these orders under one, called Di-pentagynia, signifying from 2 to 5 pistils, and they give an additional order, Poly- gynia, in which are the rose tribe, blackberry, and strawberry. This class furnishes more fine fruits than any other. 12th class, (Stamens separate from the calyx and attached to the receptacle, or top of the flower, the number of stamens varying from 20 to several hundreds. The class has few fruits, but many poison- ous and active plants. It is said that no plants with the stamens on the calyx are poisonous. 5 orders; 1st, as mandrake, side-saddle, white pond lily, tea-tree, poppy, the genus citrus, containing the lemon and orange. The 4 succeeding orders are Di-pentagynia, from 2 to 5 pis- tils, as the poisonous Larkspur, monk's-hood, columbine, etc. Or. Polygynia, as the peony, clematis, hellebore, magnolia, tulip tree. 13th class, (founded on the number and relative length of the sta- mens and the orders on the enclosure of the seeds in the pericarp, or without it, and the comparative length of the pod.) Flowers with 4 stamens, 2 long and 2 short, the outer 2 longest. 2 orders, Gymno- spermia, (seeds naked, or without a pericarp,) and angiospermia, (seeds in a pericarp.) 1st, as the peppermint, lavender, savory, majorum, thyme, penny-royal, catmint, hoarhound, scull cap, blue gentian, (plants with labiate corollas.) 2d, (plants with many seeds in a capsule, but none used in food ; yet some are medicinal, as fox-glove, cancer-root ; some fine flowers as geradia, trumpet-flower, etc. 14th class (cruciform plants, with 4 petals and 6 stamens, 4 long 96 CLASSES. and 2 short ; calyx with 4 sepals and corolla of 4 petals, each fastened to the receptacle by a part, with the form of a cross ; hence the name ; one pistil in the centre of the flower, as the cabbage, mustard, radish, gilly-flower. 2 orders, depending on the length of the pod. 1st, sili- culosa, producing short round pods, as pepper grass, shepherd's purse. The plants here are nutritious and medicinal. 2d, Siliquosce, with long narrow pods, as radish and mustard. The turnip, and wall-flower, are of this order. 15th class, signifying, with the 16th, the brotherhoods, the union of the filaments in 1 or 2 sets. The 13 orders of this cl-ass depend on the number of stamens ; 1st, Triandria, 3 stamens, with filaments united in one set at the bottom of corolla, and anthers separate, as blue-eyed grass, tiger-flower. 5th, Pentandria, as passion-flower, stork-bill, geranium. 7th order, Heptandria, including the green-house geraniums, of many beautiful varieties, and mostly natives of the cape of Good Hope. 10th, Decandria, containing another genus of gera- niums, with 10 stamens. 13th, Polyandria, many stamens ; the group columnifera, stamens united in form of a column, as the hollyhock, mallow, cotton, tall japan rose. 1 6th class, 2 (broth erhoods) stamens united by their filaments in 2 sets ; flowers papilionacious, or butterfly-shaped, (the flower, with 10 sepa- rate stamens are in the 10th class.) The orders depend on the num- ber of stamens. Order Pent-octandria, (5 and 8 stamens,) as the corydalis, fnmaria, seneca-snake-root. 10th, Decandria, leguminous plants, as the bean and pea tribe, rattlebox, clover, locust tribe, indigo, sandal wood, liquorice, sensitive plant, gum arabic, tamarind, furze. Some give 8 orders in this class. 17th class, (a union of anthers,) mostly 5 stamens. Some are re- tained in the 5th class, but are distinguished from that by the union of anthers and compound flowers, which are distinguished as semi-floscu- lous, (having ligulate florets, )flosculous, (having tubular florets,) and as radiated with tubular florets in the centre and ligulate at the cir- cumference. These florets are called rays. Plants of the 1st char- acter have a bitter narcotic milky juice, as lettuce, dandelions ; the 2d are bitter in leaves and roots, as burdock ; and the 3d corymnif- erous, as crysanthemum, aster, etc. Tansey and boneset are of this division. The daisy, sunflower, etc., are of the order. This class, depending on the situation of the florets, these are 1st, perfect, when with stamens and pistils ; 2d, barren, with stamens only ; 3d, fertile, with pistils only ; and 4th, neutral, without stamens or pistils. 5 orders in this class, 1st, Equalis, compound florets, all perfect, distinguished by florets ligulate, tubulous, (in a head, as dandelion,) or tubulous without rays, as boneset, thoroughwort. 2d, Superflua, the pistils of the ray being without stamens and therefore superfluous. There are 2 sections of the order, 1st, without rays, as life everlasting, CLASSES, ORDERS AND SPECIES. 97 tansey. 2d, those with rays, as the aster genus, golden-rod. 3d, order Frustranea, disk florets perfect, as coreopsis, helianthus, blessed thistle. 4th order, Necessaria, rays fertile, disk florets barren, as the marygold. 5th, Segregata. 18th class, (from the situation of the stamens on the pistil.) 1st, with one stamen, as the orchis tribe of plants. 2d, as ladies' slipper. 5th, as the milk-weed. 6th, as snake-root. 10th, as wild ginger. 19th class, (imperfect flowers, determined by the number of sta- mens or pistils only. 1st, as bread-fruit in the natural order of fig, mulberry, etc. 3d, as cat-tail, sedge, indian corn. 4th, as white mulberry, oth, as genus amaranthus. Order Polyandria, as many of the most beautiful forest trees, hazelnut, oak, beach, walnut, chestnut, birch, Egyptian lily. 15th, Monodelphia, as cucumber, squash, water- melon, pumpkin, pine, cypress. 20th class, imperfect flowers, stamens or pistils only ; orders from the number of stamens. 2d, as the willow. 5th, as hemp, hop, etc. 6th, green-briar, honey-locust. 8th, as poplar. 15th, as red-cedar, yew, etc. 21st class, cryptogamous plants, stamens and pistils concealed and all plants not in the above classes. 1st, as ferns. 2d, as mosses. 3d, as liverworts. 4th, as sea-weeds, fucus, etc. 5th, as lichens. 6th, mushrooms. The 2 orders of the 14th class are known by the form of the fruit ; i. e., 1st, Silicula, fruit a roundish pod and 2d Siliqua, fruit a long pod. The orders of the 15th and 16th classes are known by the number of stamens. The 5 orders of the 17th class are distinguished by cir- cumstances of the flowers ; i. e. 1st, equalis, (stamens and pistils equal ; 1 stamen, 1 pistil, and 1 seed, hence perfect,) 2d, superflua ; i. e. florets of the disk perfect and of the ray with pistils only, which being without stamens are superfluous. 3d, frustranea, florets of the disk perfect, and of the ray neutral, which being without stamen or pistil, are useless or frustrated; 4th, neccssaria, florets of the disk, staminate and of the ray pistilate, which is necessary to perfect the fruit. 5th, Segregata, partial calyxes or florets with a perianth, or one envelop. Orders of classes 18, 19, and 20, depend on the number of pistils as with the 15th and 16th ; and the orders of the 21st, cryp- togamous, class are f elides, as ferns ; musci, as mosses ; hepaticce, succulent mosses ; algea, as sea-weeds ; lichens, growing on old trees ; and fungi, as mould and mushrooms. Genera. The class and order of a plant in the Linnean system Having been found, the genus is the next object of inquiry. In a genus having but one species, the generic description is confined to that species ; but when it includes many species the description is based on the parts of the species agreeing with one another. Generic descrip- tions are founded on the flower or sexes and are so brief that a genus 9 98 NATURAL SYSTEM. is completely described and distinguished in a few words. Large genera are separated into families consisting of species having a general agreement in some peculiarities among themselves. The names only of a part of the classes and orders are mentioned in describing plants, they being understood by the number of stamens and pistils; for example, the class Monandria, has 1 stamen, and the order Monogynia, 1 pistil, etc. The genus Viola, (violet,) thus comes under class 5, Pentandria, and order 1, Monogynia. Its divisions under this class and order are, flower poly pet alous, inferior, seeds in a capsule ; and its generic de- scription expressing the essential characters of the genus, is, sepals 5, petals 5, irregular, connate behind, anthers adheringby a membrane at the end, or distinct, capsules 3 valved, 1 seeded. The class signifies the num- ber of stamens from pente, 5, and aner, a stamen, (pentandria,) and the order also signifies one pistil. The division likewise shows that the flower being polypetalous" means that it is composed of many petals, and " inferior" means that the corolla is situated below the germ. Seeds in a capsule," signifies that the seeds are within a pericarp which becomes dry and opens by valves. The corolla is irregular" because the petals are of unequal size, and one of them ends in an appendage behind. Connate" means joined ; i. e. the petals are ap- parently connected. Sepals are the leaves of the calyx, and petals are the divisions of the corolla. This genus (Viola) includes a great number of species, all agreeing in these essential characters ; but they differ from one another by the forms of their leaves, or other circum- stances, as the sweet-violet, from its pleasant odor, or toothed-violet, from its leaves being dentated or toothed on their margin. The specific description applies only to those parts of a plant which simply distinguish one individual of the same genus from another and is defined botanically in a few words, as with the viola pedata, " stem- less, leaves pedate, 7 parted." Thus the pistils, stamens, calyx, corolla, fruit, flower, signifying the place of the plant in the system, have nothing to do with the specific description. The natural method of classification by Jussieu, and others depends 1st, on the structure of the seed with respect to cotyledons : thus a plant with no cotyledon is d-cotyledonous ; with 1 cotyledon it is Mono-cotyl- edonous, and with 2, Di-cotyledonous. 2d. The insertion of the stamens. These are above the germ and epi-gynous, under it and hypo-gynous, or around it and peri-gynous. 3d. The presence or absence of t\\e corolla. Thus, when wanting the corolla, plants are a-petalous. The corolla being of one piece, or without petals, it is mono-petalous, and when the corolla has many petals it is poly-petalous. 4th. j3 union or separation of anthers, i. e. anthers distinct) or combined. DIVISIONS OF NATURAL SYSTEM. 99 By this system all vegetables are divided into two great classes, founded on their structure ; viz., Vascularr.s and Cellulares. The 1st includes the phenogamous, or flowering plants, and the 2d, the crypto- gamous, or flowerless plants. All the 1st are propogated by seeds composed of 1 or more cotyledons and hence are called cotyledonous. while the 2d are supposed to have no seeds, properly speaking, or cotyledons. The vasculares possess spiral vessels and a woody fibre, with retic- ulated leaves. The cellulares are distinguished by their cellular structure, having no vascular system, like the first. These classes are characterized further by their structure and growth, as noticed at page 67. The cryptogamous, or " flowerless" plants of the Linnean system are included in the d-cotyledonou-s of Jussieu. The monocotyledons consist principally of palms, grasses etc., and are endogenous. This divis- ion consists of 2 large groups : 1st, of plants, the flowers of which have petals, petalloidce, as the lily and iris, the calyx and corolla being in 3 or 6 divisions ; 2d, where the stamens and pistils are surrounded with bracts, glumaca>, as in the grasses. The dicotyledons include all the phenogamous plants, or first 23 classes of Linnaeus, except the monocotyledons. Those are vascu- lar in their structure or exogenous in their growth. The 1st lesson in this system is to examine the seed-lobes, and then to answer the questions Has the seed any lobes ? If none, it belongs to Div. 1 ; if it has, then how many has it ? If one, then it belongs to Div. 2 ; and if 2, or more, then it belongs to Div. 3. If the seed cannot be found, then the stem or the leaves must an swer the following : Are there any sap and pulp vessels ? If not, then the plant belongs to Div. 1 ; if there are, then is the stem taper- ing upward, covered with bark and the wood softer on the exterior than the interior ? if not, then it belongs to Div. 1 ; but if it is, then it belongs to Div. 3. This is simply a notice of Jussieu's method, and there is another of Tournefort's. The 1st depends on the cotyledons, and the 2d on the aspect and other circumstances of the corolla, while the Linnean sys- tem is based on the stamens and pistils. The 1st is thought by some too indefinite; the 2d is not and cannot be relied on, and the 3d is, and has been from the first, the system generally adopted. Jussieu's method, however, is in part, if not entirely, adopted by many distin- guished botanists. A few directions may be suggested to those who, from the brief botanical sketch we have given of the artificial system, may desire to make some examinations of flowers. An herbarium may be made of a quarto book of white paper in 100 ANALYSIS OF PLANTS. which flowers or leaves are secured, after being pressed in some old book or soft paper to absorb the moisture- At the side of the speci- men may be written the class, order, genera, species, and any remarks as to locality, time, etc. If brushed over with corrosive sublimate, worms will not affect them. Nothing can be more pleasing than ex- cursions for the collection of specimens. A magnifying glass will add much to the interest of observations. Classes. If the stamens and pistils are not visible, then the plant belongs to the division cryptogamia. If visible it belongs to the divi- sion phenogamous, including 20 of the 21 classes. If both stamens and pistils are on different flowers, it then belongs to the class Dickda or Monozcia, according as they proceed from the same or different roots. If both are on the same flower and the anthers are united around the pistil, the plant belongs to the class syngenesia ; but if the anthers are separate and the filaments are united to the pistil, it belongs to the class Gynandria; but if the filaments are not united to the pistil and are united with each other, and are in two sets, it belongs to the class Diadelphia, and if in one set, to the class Monadelphia. If the fila- ments are separate, and of different lengths, (only where there are 4 or 6 stamens,) and the flower has, say 6 stamens, 2 short and 4 long, it is of the class Tetradynamia ; if 4 stamens, 2 short and 2 long, it is of the class Didynamia. If the flower has no one of the above peculiarities and the stamens are more than ten, then their insertion is to be considered. If inserted on the receptacle, the flower is in the class Polyandria ; but if inserted on the calyx or corolla, then it is in the class Icosandria. Should the flower have less than 20 stamens, without any of the before mentioned distinctions, as to connection, position or length, then the number of stamens, if less than 11, deter- mines the class, and so with all the other 9 in the order of the class. This is the analytical mode of determining the place of plants ; but when they are placed together to form a species, and several of these to form genera, these to form orders, and these to form classes, the process is synthetical. For analysis simple and natural flowers should be taken, as double ones often change their stamens and sometimes their petals by cultiva- tion. Let, for example the pink be taken. This will be seen to have 10 stamens, and therefore of the class Decandria; and, as the 1st 12 orders depend on the number of pistils it will be seen that this having 2, belongs to the 2d order, Digynia. The flower must now be com- pared with the different genera until its generic character be found. Thus, for example, take the genus hydrangea which is calyx 5 toothed, superior, etc. The calyx of the pink has 5 notches or teeth around it, but is not superior. Then take Saxafraga ; calyx 5 parted, half su- perior, but the pink not being half superior, take the genus Saponaria, calyx inferior, leaved, tubular, 5 toothed, and calyx without scales. JUSSIEU'S SYSTEM. 101 The pink therefore agrees with this, except that it has scales. Take then the Dianthus ; calyx inferior, cylindrical, 1 leafed, with 4 or 8 scales at the base ; petals 5, with claws, capsule cylindrical, celled, de- hiscent, or gaping. This agrees with the pink throughoiit, and it is therefore of the genera or family Dianthus. Now, as to the species, take a description of the species of plants and go on in like manner by comparison of flowers and leaves, when it will be found caryophyl- lus, which is flowers solitary, scales of the calyx sub-rhomboid, very short, petals crenate, beardless. And thus the botanical description is complete. For these and other terms turn to the glossary. The rose, lily, poppy, etc. may be analyzed in a similar manner. The Natural System. We here give a synopsis of this method of classification, and the principles on which it is founded. It has been said that by this ar- rangement plants are divided into two great classes based on their structure and called vasculares and cellulares. The artificial system- arranges plants in conformity with the number, appearance, or situation of some particular organs or parts. The natural method distributes them according to their natural affinities, or qualities. Many discrep- ancies exist in the natural affinities of plants as classed and grouped together by the artificial, or Linnean system ; and there are likewise some in the natural system ; but it is thought that the natural points of resemblance, affinity or relation in both forms and qualities add greatly to the interest of the study of plants ; though in this arrange- ment plants are necessarily divided into a very large number of families, or orders. The 1st class, vasculares, includes all the flowering, or phenogamous plants, and the 2d class, cellulares, includes all the flowerless or cryp- togamous plants. These two divisions are also characterized by the different modes in which they are propagated. They are, as we have before noticed, distinguished by the number of the lobes or cotyledons of the seed. All flowering plants being thus propagated by seeds are called cotyledonous, or vasculares, while the flowerless plants are with- out cotyledonous seeds, stamens, or pistils, hence are called acotyledon- ous or cellulares. Plants of the 1st class have, of course internal spiral vessels, or a vascular system, with more or less woody fibre and with their leaves reticulated, or in parallel veins. Those of the 2d class are formed, of course, entirely of cellular tissue, containing no spiral vessels nor woody fibre, and their leaves are not traversed by veins, as are those of the other class. Thus these two divisions, though very unequal in the number of plants they embrace, are founded on their anatomical structure as well as external characters. The class Vasculares is separated into two sub-classes, on account 103 SUBDIVISIONS. of their two different modes of growth. The first of these divisions is called, as we have before noticed in speaking of stems, exogenous, or outside growers, as the oak, for example ; indeed all trees of the U. S. and of all northern latitudes, except the palms of the south. The 2d division of this class is composed of endogenous plants, or inside growers, as the palm, lily, and iris ; they, having no need of bark or external coveringj as they grow internally. Their substance or struc- ture is confused, while that of exogenous plants is distinct and in reg- ular annual deposites from the pith or centre outward, as will be seen by examining any of our trees or their branches, when divided cross- wise. These last have seeds with 2 lobes, are propagated by such, and hence are all called dicotyledonous, while the former, or endoge- nous plants, have single-lobed seeds and are monocotyledonous. Again the exogenous plants are divided into two tribes called angio- spermia, and gymnospermia, the first denoting that the seeds are en- closed in a pericarp, and the 2d, that they are naked, or destitute of a pericarp. The endogenous are also divided into two tribes, the first being called Petaloidce, including all plants of the class (all, in fine, with 1 cotyledon, except grasses, and sedges) which have a calyx and corolla in 3 or 6 dvisions ; or if these are absent, then the stamens and pistils are naked. The 2d tribe is called glumaca ; such plants of the class as have flowers with no true calyx nor corolla, but which are enveloped in imbricated bracta, as all the grasses and sedge tribe. There are also 3 sections in this class called Filicoidee, Muscoidece, and Jtphylla. The 1st are such plants as have a distinct axis and vascular system, as ferns, club-mosses, and horse-tail ; 2d such as have a distinct axis, but not a vascular system, as musci, (mosses,) and hepaticae, (liverworts,) and the 3d have no distinct axis nor vascular system, as the fungi (mushrooms) Algae (flags.) Sub-class 1. Exogenous or dicotyledonous plants. Tribe Jlngiospermce, 2 seed-lobes inclosed in a pod, shell or coat, as pea, chestnut, etc. The flowers of this tribe are polypetalous, (many petalled,) with calyx and corolla, as crow-foot ; apetalous, (without petals,) with calyx, but no corolla ; achlamydeous, (no calyx, or corolla,) as birch, willow, etc ; monopetalous, with a single petal, as trumpet-flower, morning-glory. Tribe 2, Gymnospermce, seeds without a pericarp, and plants with- out a stigma or pistil. The tribe is divided into Conniferce. (fir tribe,) as pines, juniper, etc., and Cycadea, as cycas, zamia, etc. Sub-class 2, endogenous or monocotyledonous plants. Plants of this class are intermediate between those of the 1st, which are of the highest order of development, and the cryptogamous plants which are of the lowest. Their character is indicated by their leaf when held up to the light, these leaves being traversed with veins, showing that its seeds are dicotyledonous, as plum, apple, radish, etc. ; the leaves are also articulated or jointed with the stem. If veins of another leaf, NATURAL ORDERS. 103 held to the light, be found running parallel with each other, unlike net-work and unarticulated with the stem, then it is also known that the plant sprung from a single cotyledon, as lily, indian corn, wheat, the grasses, etc. These are remarkable evidences of harmony in nature. There are 272 orders in this system. One example may illustrate the others. .rfmygdalea, the almond tribe, (including the peach.) The diagnosis is, polypetalous, cotyledons with a superior, solitary, simple ovarium, having a terminal style ; regular perigynous indefinite stamen ; a drupaceous fruit ; an exalbuminous suspended seed and alternate stip- ulate, simple leaves, yielding hydrocynic (prussic) acid. Essential characters (description of the several parts.) Affinities ; distinguished from the rose and apple tribes by their fruit being a drupe, the bark yielding gum and the presence of prussic acid in the leaves and ker- nels, also from the pea tribe by the last characteristic, by their regu- lar petals and stamens and the odd segment of the 5 lobed calyx being inferior, not superior, etc. Geography, (natives of northern hemi- sphere,) Properties, (description of the various qualities.) To find by the definition of the class, sub-class and tribe where the class jJmygdalece belongs, the peach may be taken as the represent- ative of all the other species of the order. The peach, then, is characterized by its pith, woody fibre, spiral vessels and bark and dis- tinct flowers furnished with stamens and pistils, showing that it is of class 1, Vasculares, or flowering plants. The leaves also having veins distinctly reticulated and articulated with the stem, and the seed having 2 cotyledons, placed opposite each other, show that it belongs to the sub-class 1, exogenous or dicotyledonous plants. The seed is inclosed in a pericarp, called a peach-stone, it therefore falls under tribe 1, Jlngiospermce. The flowers also being many-petaled brings it under division Polypetalous. Essential characters of the peach, calyx 5 toothed, deciduous; petals 5, perigynous; stamens 20 or more, arising from the throat of the calyx ; ovary superior, etc. All the species and varieties of the order dmygdalcce, coincide in the description and qualities noticed, and therefore form one natural order and tribe. Other examples may be taken in the same manner. But we are compelled to be brief; and we have therefore simply noticed some general distinctions in order to lead to further examinations of the natural system of classification. Natural Orders. This is the arrangement of orders by Jussieu, as before said, and is that adopted at the Jardin des Plants, Paris, and by eminent botanists. We propose only to take from this arrangement the useful properties 104 CLASSES AND ORDERS, and distinct characters of the plants under the several classes. Thus far it is important to every reader. CLASS 1. ^cotyledons, (embryo destitute of cotyledons.) Fungi, (mushroom-like plants ;) substance fleshy, fungous, or mucilaginous, round or flat, no leaves, flowers, anthers nor pistils ; known as toad- stools, puff -balls, etc. ; tonic when dry, narcotic when juicy ; some eat- able, others poisonous. Musci, (moss-like plants;) herbaceous; grow in wet places, in northern latitudes ; resemble herpatica. dlgce, (sea- weed-like plants ;) aquatic, herbaceous, grow in salt and fresh water; ex. rock-weed, fucus, conferva. Lichens, rarely vegetate on the earth, parasitical, grow in dry places, some used in dyeing and some for food. Filices, (fern -like plants ;) fibrous roots ; ex. common fern, scour- ing rush. Hepatica, (liverwort plants;) succulent; some grow irt water, some in earth ana some are parasites ; resemble mosses. Naia- des, (duck-meat tribe j) floating plants, cellular stems, leaves scarcely seen; astringent. CLASS 2. Monocotyledons, (stamens hypogynoos, embryo with 1 co- tyledon.) dndroidea;, (arum tribe,) acrid and heating ; ex. wild-tur- nip, calla. Typhee. (cat-tail tribe;) grow in marshes or ditches. Cyperoidea, (sedge-grass tribe;) herbaceous, leaves grass-like, flow- ers glume-like, roots fibrous. Gramineee, (the grasses;) important family; farinaceous, valuable as food for man and animals ; ex. wheat, meadow-grass, sugar-cane, etc. CLASS 3. Monocotyledons, (stamens perigynows / fruits with 3 cells.) Palmce, (palm tribe;) of warm climates. Liliacea>, (lily-like plants;) ex. tulip, lily. dsparagi, (asparagus-like plants ;) fruit a berry. Narcissi, roots bulbous. Irideat, (iris-like plants,) roots tuberous. Juncece, (rush tribe.) Bromlice, (pine-apple tribe.) JlsphodeU, (as- phodel tribe; acrid and stimulating. Commclinca;, (spider-wort tribe.) dlismacea, (arrow-head tribe.) Colchicea:, (cholcicum tribe,) emetic and cathartic. CLASS 4. Monocotyledons, (stamens eprgynons.) Orrhirlece. (orchis- like plants,) farinaceous and emolient. MUSCP, (banana tribe ;) ex. plantain and bread-fruit. Cannea, (indian-rced tribe;) aromatic and carminative. Hydrocharid.es, (tape-grass tribe ; floating plants. CLASS 5. Dicotyledons, (apetalous, stamens epigynons.) Jlristolo- chicB, (wild-ginger tribe,) perennial. CLASS 6. Dicotyledons, (stamens perigynovts ; monosepalous.) Ele- ct gnea> ; ex. pepper-grass. Hymelece, under shrubs ; ex. leather-wood ; bark caustic. Protean, (silver-tree tribe.) LcKttri, (laurel tribe;} trees ; fruit a berry or drupe ; ex. spice bush and sassafras ; various and important medicines. Polygonea, (dock tribe ;)herbaceous ; fruit a nut; seed farinaceous ; ex. buckwheat, dock, rhubarb. Atriplices, (pig-weed tribe;) ex. beet, poke, and pig-weed. CLASS 7. Dicotyledons, (stamens beneath the germ.) jlmaranthi, CLASSES AND ORDERS. 106 (coxcomb-like tribe,) herbaceous. Plantaginea, (plantain tribe;) herbaceous; useful pot herb. Nyctagines, cathartic and emetic. Plumbagin.es, (marsh-rosemary tribe.) CLASS 8. Dicotyledons, (corollas monopetalous, hypogynous, etc.) Lycimachice, (primrose tribe.) Pediculares. Acanthi. Jasminice, (lilac tribe.) Vitices, (verbena tribe;) stimulating. Labiatee, (mint- like plants ; ) large family ; seasoning food ; ex. sage, summer-savory, thyme ; medicinal, as horehound, catnip, etc. Scrophularece, narcotic. Solanea, (potato-like plants;) ex. tomato, red pepper; narcotic and stimulating. Boraginece, (borage-like plants;) emolient. Convolvuli, (convolvulus tribe;) ex. sweet potato ; some medicinal. Folemonia, (phlox-like plants ;) herbs. Bignonia, (trumpet-flower tribe.) Qcn- tiance, (gentian tribe;) herbs, some medicinal; ex. columbo-root ; cathartic. Sapota,W. I. plum, dpocynce, (dog-bane tribe;) ex. milk-weed. CLASS 9. Dicotyledons, (corolla monopetalous; perigynous.) Ebo- nacece, (ebony tribe.) Klenacece, (persimon tribe;) foreign. Rho- dodendrete, (rose-bay tribe.) Ericea, (heath-like plants.) Guaiaca- nee, (lignum vitee,) gum guaiacum. Campanulacea, (bell-flower tribe;) ex. lobelia, indian tobacco, powerful medicine. CLASS 10. Dicotyledons, (corollas monopetalous ; epigynous.) Ci- choraceoz ; ex. dandelion, lettuce ; anti-scorbutic and anodyne. Cin- arocephalcB] ex. thistle, burdock. Corymbiferce, (thorough wort plants;) valuable for medicines ; some reckon thistle tribe, aster tribe, colt's- foot tribe, sun-flower tribe, etc. CLASS 11. Dicotyledons, (corolla monopetalous ; epigynous.) Jlra- leap., (ginseng tribe.) UmbeliferecK, (parsley-like plants,) herbaceous ; ex. dill, fennel, caraway ; medicinal qualities various. CLASS 13. Dicotyledons, (corolla polypetalous ; stamens hypogy- nous.) Ranunculacece. ; large order some astringent, as gold-thread ; some good dyes, etc. Papaveracea, (poppy-like plants;) herbaceous; ex. blood-root ; narcotic and anodyne. Cruciferece, plants with cruci- form corollas, chiefly garden vegetables. Capparides, (cruciform plants.) Sapindi', ex. soap-berry, jlcera, (maple tribe.) Malpighice. Hypericce, (St. John's-wort tribe;) resinous juice; some healing to wounds. Gutiferece ; ex. gambogia. Jlurantia, (orange tribe;) ex. lemon; refrigerating tonic. Melice, astringent, anodyne. Vites, (vine family.) Gerania, (geranium tribe.) Malvacea, (holly-hock tribe.) Magnolia, (tulip-tree tribe.) dnnonce, ex. custard-apple. Menispermea, moonseed. Berberides, ex. witch-hazel, barberry. Til- iacece, (bass-wood plants ;) ex. tilia, lime-tree. Cisti, red rose plants ; ex. cistus. Rutacece, (rue plants.) Caryophillea, (pink-like plants ;) herbaceous. CLASS 14. Dicotyledons, (corolla polypetalous ; stamens epigynous.) Sempervivce, (house-leek plants,) emolient. Saxafragece, (saxafrage 106 VEGETABLE GEOGRAPHY. plants.) Cadi, (prickly-pear tribe.) Portulacea, (purse-lanet tribe,) emolient. Ficoidea ; ex. ice-plant. Onagra ; (willow-herb plants.) Myoti ; ex. mystus. Melastoma. Salicarice. Rosacete ; (rose and apple tribe.) Leguminosa, (pea tribe;) fruit legume. Terebintacece; ex. sumach. Rhamni ; ex. buckthorn. CLASS 15. Dicotyledons, (stamens and pistils declinous, or on differ- ent flowers.) Euphorbia; ex. spurge. Cucurbitacece, (melon-like plants;) ex. water-melon, cucumber. Urticece ; ex. hop. Jlmenta- cea ; ex. oak, willow. Conifera, cone-bearing trees 5 ex. pine, cedar. VEGETABLE GEOGRAPHY. Vegetables, considered with reference to their habitation and their particular locality or station, is a science of much importance to the general reader and observer, the natural philosopher and horticulturist, and, in truth, to whole nations of people. Nothing can more enlarge and exalt the mind or prove of more practical importance in the selec- tion and cultivation of the most valuable vegetable products in other places and countries than those in which they are commonly found. Forest trees, fruits, grasses, grains, etc., have thus been widely diffused and rendered productive for the best interests of man. The productive strength of a country is justly estimated by its vegetable resources. It is from this, more than from any other consideration of a general char- acter, that our own country is distinguished. A glance at American vegetable geography in the following pages will be a convincing evi- dence of this fact. Linnaeus was the first who, besides his systematic arrangement of plants, gave their stations or habitations ; and he has been followed by many learned and all systematic writers on vegetable nature, especially by Humboldt, Schouw, and Candolle. The laws observed in the distribution of vegetable forms," by the first, is eminently valuble. But we propose by the following remarks a broad survey only of the regions of vegetation, and a glance at the natural agents which influence the situation, life and development of plants. Particular plants, it must be obvious to the reader, are limited to particular districts, or parts of the earth. The causes of this are likewise known to be chiefly soil and climate. The two extremes of climate are plainly the tropics and the polar circles. One is exhibited in the most luxuriant and magnificent dress of vegetation within a never-ending summer, while the other exhibits a feeble, diminutive, and scattered vegetation, with little freedom from withering cold and OUTLINES OF AMERICAN VEGETATION. 10? blasting frost and snow. Between these extremes, it is apparent, vegetation assumes an intermediate character, varying as the zone ap- proaches one or the other of the extremities. Both the temperate and torrid zones are likewise little less distinctly divided by mountains. At the base of these may be seen healthy and luxuriant vegetation, while upon their summits it is characterised by that of the polar regions. This, however, corresponds with the altitude of the moun- tains. Some even in the torrid zone, present the climate of that of the arctic regions, while others of a less elevation maintain a vigorous vegetation. Local vegetation depends again upon the peculiar constitution of plants. Some plants are so hardy and vigorous as to sustain the extremes of climate, growing with little difference of vigor and pro- ductiveness in both cold and and warm climates. This is most provi- dentially remarkable with many of the most nutritive plants. It has been said, in regard to climate upon vegetation, that the earth is com- parable to two high and immense mountains with their bases united, like the halves of an orange in the centre, the circumference of which constitutes the equatorial region, and the summits the arctic regions. It is remarkable, however, that almost every country has a vegetation peculiarly its own, distinguished by the peculiarities of its natural boundaries and the general character of its surface. Thus it will be seen that Europe presents a very different class of vegetables from the same latitudes in America. Parallels of latitude corresponding with those of Africa also exhibit in America very little resemblance. Even the small island of G. Britain is distinguished by a remarkable differ- ence in plants on its eastern and western sides, and like differences are observable on islands of corresponding latitudes. Medicinal plants and drugs are particularly distinguished, in vegetable geography, by location. Outlines of American Vegetation. J? glance at the forest region of North America presents an eastern and western division, with an intermediate range of underwood. There are 332 genera of plants which are considered peculiar to N. America. Prior to the introduction of civilization, the whole eastern portion of this country, from Hudson's Bay to the Gulph of Mexico, was an unbroken forest extending back to beyond the Mississippi, and presenting the most extensive forest on the globe. It comprised about 140 kinds of trees, more than half of which rise to over 60 feet in height. Among those that distinguished it were the Jim. Cyprus, the hickories, the tulip tree, the locust, numerous and magnificent pines, oaks, ashes, the coffee tree, magnolia, sycamore, loblolly-bay, and innu- merable others of remarkable kinds. Vegetation is here divided into three districts ; the 1st, or northern, 108 VEGETABLE DISTRICTS. extending south to lattitude 44* ; the 2d or middle, from thence south to 35, being sub-divided east and west by the Alleganies ; and the 3d or southern, from 35 to 27, after which vegetation is blended with that of the tropics, especially on the Atlantic coast. The species begin far up in the northern division and run south to the red and white pines, the Jim. Larch, etc., soon after which are found the canae, the yellow and black birch, the true sugar and the red maple, the red beech, the Am. elm, etc. The underwood of this divis- ion consists of numerous important shrubs and small trees, while the herbaceous and smaller plants comprise many species common to Sibe- ria and northern parts of Europe. Every native species of the last on both continents, as an invariable rule, extends to near the Arctic Circle, where trees and large shrubs cease, and vegetation every where within is the same. The aquatic plants have little peculiarity, the more showy of the southern kinds extending far into the northern division. In the desolate region of the extreme north, few vegetable species are able to exist. On Melville island, lat. 74 J 30' N., the most northern part to which vegetation has been traced, it consists of the humble grasses, mosses and lichens. No tree appears and nothing of a woody structure, save the solitary willow, 6 inches in height. The red snow plant, here exists and penetrates still more northern latitudes, multiplying amidst eternal snow and staining it with its crimson color. The middle district introduces us to the Flora of the U. S. This is characterized by numerous oaks, ashes, hickories, walnuts, red birch, white cedar, red juniper, pines, maples, etc. And the underwood consists of innumerable varieties common in the northern, middle, and eastern states. Within this district the herbaceous plants are very nu- merous and many are of signal importance. Fine flowering aquatics are also numerous in this division, with many important grasses of pe- culiar forms. This district, as was observed, is sub-divided by the Alleganies which mark a distinctive soil between the east and west, and characterizes the nature of the plants. These peculiarities are numerous, but are perhaps so well understood as to render a notice of them unnecessary. The Alleganies themselves possess many remark- able species of plants and others common to the northern division. The southern division, on proceeding from the middle district, pre- sents an increasing variety of species and genera. While this contains many plants common to the middle and even northern districts, it is signalized by the tropical kinds. The evidences of an approach to a tropical climate are first perceived in the cotton and rice fields. The in- creased heat and humidity are strongly marked, and the vegetation is more mixed, than in corresponding latitudes of other parts of the earth. With the cotton and rice we find also the indigoand the sugar- cane. The Cyprus of gigantic dimensions and dense masses of long moss, etc., are indicative of the mixed productions. This southern THE PRAIRIE REGIONS. 109 district passes almost insensibly into the tropical vegetation of Mexico. The eastern parts, however, possess distinguishing features from the western. The nutmeg and hickory mark the west, while the tall palmetto and long-leafed pine, do the same with the east ; still there are few tropical plants that might not be cultivated in the genial clime of Florida. Climbing plants have also become much more numerous, often rendering the forests impenetrable, while others impart an aspect peculiarly tropical to our American vegetation. Many of the herba- ceous plants of this district are also remarkable and important. The aquatics are very abundant and peculiar, among which is the cane, a gigantic grass so important in its production of sugar. The prairie regions of the west present a wide difference in the character of vegetation from that we have considered. Here the grasses have taken the place of forest trees and shrubs ; and in the northern parts is presented a gay profusion of flowers. The south- west, however, is almost barren of vegetation, and towards the Rocky mountains it is literally a desert. A few spruces in the north, pines, maples, oaks, and poplars in the middle, and pines in the south are the only trees to relieve this vast western plain. These wastes are far beyond the Mississippi; reaching quite to the Rocky mountains, and from near the Mexican gulph to lat. 54 9 N. and botanically divisible into two sections by the 35th parallel of latitude. Their vegetation, in many respects is peculiar ; but it would be impossible to describe the diversified features of this wide, wild and romantic region. Crossing the Rocky mountains we meet with a range of forest ex- tending along their base 100 miles from the Pacific, for several hundred miles in extent, abounding with some of the most magnificent forest trees in the world, especially the gigantic pines before mentioned. This is, indeed a new botanical region, distinguished alike in its characteristic trees, shrubs and herbaceous plants; and it opens a vast field for scientific investigation. The northern shores of the Pacific present the same vegetation as those of the northern Atlantic, and very many trees and shrubs reach the opposite shores of Asia. American Forest Trees. It is only after arriving within the U. S., from the north, that the most beautiful and valuable of nutritive plants and the more useful and magnificent of forest trees present themselves to view. At this point, too, appear successfully the cereal grains, so important to man. The North American Flora here, indeed, presents her characteristic features, and trees and products the most valuable abound. Here are the white oaks of the northern and middle states, with a height of 70 and a diameter of 6 feet. The live-oak, the most durable of trees, so valuable for ship building, abounds in E. Florida. The scarlet oak is common in 10 110 AMERICAN FOREST TREES. the middle and southern states, rising to 80 feet in height ; the red oak of the more northern states, the black or yellow-oak, one of the most lofty of our forest trees, rising to the height of 90 feet, common to most of our states and affording the valuable quicitron dye ; the swamp oak, the pin oak, and the post oak, extensively diffused through the country ; the black-jack, the water oak the laurel oak, etc., all af- fording excellent timber in the various arts and the bark of which is valuable for tanning ; The shagbark, pekan hickory, with their admired fruit ; the nutmeg hickory and the pignut, all affording strong and weighty timber ; The black walnut, a highly valuable wood and re- ceiving a fine polish ; The butternut, etc. ; The sugar maple, affording its vast supplies of sugar ; the birds-eye maple, for cabinet work, etc. ; The black maple, the red maple, yielding the curled maple, so much admired ; The white maple, the ash-leaved maple, etc. ; all beautiful trees and highly valuable in the arts ; The button-wood, or sycamore, one of the largest of our forest trees and useful for its timber ; The numer- ous birches of both the northern and southern states, the timber of which is light strong and handsome, especially the black, or mahogany birch ; The red bay of the southern states, growing to the height of 70 feet and receiving a fine polish ; The sassafras, abounding in all parts of the country, the wood and root of which are aromatic, fragrant and medicinal ; the Am. holly, abundant in the middle states, and valua- ble in the arts ; The persimon, and papaw of the southern states, esteemed for their fruits ; The various poplars, especially the large Carolina and cotton wood, abounding in the southern and western states ; the aspen tree ; The cabbage tree, a palm of the Atlantic coast of Car- olina and Georgia ; The Jim. chestnut, one of our loftiest trees, with its univalved fruit and valuable timber ; The red beech, of the northern states, affording a tough and durable timber ; The white beech, still more widely diffused ; The horn-beam or iron-wood, generally prevailing and valuable for its timber ; The dog-wood, running from north to south through the Atlantic states 1 , both beautiful and useful ; The sourgum and great tupelo of the southern states, some of great height ; The dm. nettle tree, of the southern and western states, attaining 70 feet in height ; The hackberry, or hoop-ash, of the western states, of still higher growth and of greater utility in the arts ; The red mulberry, abounding in the western states, with its agreeable fruit and durable wood ; The white mulberry and the black mulberry, now naturalized and affording their extended harvest for the silk worms of our country ; The various species of ash the white ash of the northern states, one of the most beautiful and valuable of the American forest trees ; The blue ash of the western states, and the black ash of the north ; The Am. linden or basswood, a lofty and useful tree; The innumerable willows, widely diffused throughout our country, both beautiful and useful in the arts ; The Jim. elm, of the northern states, towering to the height of 90 oj AMERICAN FOREST TREES. Ill 100 feet; The winged elm, or wahoo, and the slipery elm, remarkable for its mucilaginous bark ; The numerous and valuable pines, spread all over our country, at once the most numerous, lofty and valuable of the America Q . forest trees, often lifting its head more than 200 feet, and spreading its towering trunk to 20 feet in diameter ; (see article on Pines in the 2d part of the work. ;) The dm. larch, or hackmatack, of the extreme north, rising 100 feet and affording a most valuable wood, The bald Cyprus of the southern swamps, attaining a height of 120 feet and affording a strong and valuable wood ; The red cedar of the south, one of the most durable, light, and compact of woods ; The catalpa, also of the south, remarkable for its beauty ; The alder, common to most parts of our country and highly esteemed for its various uses ; The white, cedar, along the Atlantic of the middle states, attaining the height of 80 feet and very valuable in the arts ; The Am. arbor vita, highly durable and allied to the last, with similar good qualities; The hemlock spruce, found with the white pine, and a beautiful and valuable tree, rising to 80 feet ; The black or double spruce, peculiar to the north, and with the others much used in the arts ; The white or single spruce; the Am, silver spruce, much distinguished for its balm of Gilead; The osage orange, or bow-wood, of Arkansas, its fruit resembling the orange and its wood very valuable; The locust, a native of the valleys of the west hut everywhere mixed with our trees and the most valuable wood of our northern climate ; The honey-locust, little less diffused and valu- able for its hard timber ; The big laurel, or magnolia, of the southern states, one of the most remarkable trees of America for its majestic form, the beauty of its flowers, and the magnificence of its foliage ; The cucumber tree of the Allegariies, little inferior to the big laurel in beauty and size ; also the long-leafed and umbrella trees of this genus ; The devil wood of the south ; The wild cherry of the west, distinguished for its gigantic form ; All these, with others quite innumerable and of little less importance, characterise the soil, forests, and the floral features of the United States, presenting in one broad view the most extended and the richest aspect of productive vegetable nature on the face of the earth. Further and more interesting particulars of the qualities and pro- ductions of many of our forest trees will be found under their respective heads in the 2d part of this work. Jl comparison of American and French forest trees shows that in France but 37 species of trees grow higher than 30 feet ; while in N. America there are 90 more than 40 feet high. But 18 of the former constitute the mass of forest trees there, while the 90 form the mass here a difference of 72, or 5 to 1. Of the 90 here 76 are found in the northern and southern states. But 9 of the French trees are suit- able for civil and naval architecture, while there are 51 here. The 90 of large growth in America are composed chiefly of 20 species of 112 SITUATION OF PLANTS. oiks; 16 do. of walnuts', 7 resinous trees ; 5 poplars ; 3 birches; 4 maples ; 3 ashes ; 2 cypruses ; 2 elms ; 2 tupelos ; 2 honey-locusts ; 3 magnolias ; 2 ceWw, nettle, or hockberry. 30 of the 90 rise from 60 to a hundred feet, 57 from 40 to 60, and many of these from 100 to 250 feet. Topography of Plants. The situation of plants in regard to local circumstances and the effects of physical causes upon them is a subject of general interest : it is called their station in contradistinction to their habitation, or geo- graphical position. When found in woods, or mountains, or on the sea shore of a particular country, their static is referred to, but the particular country is their habitation. Seeds, as we before said, are widely dispersed. Some are unproductive, being deposited in unfavor- able positions, while others take root and flourish. Both soil and climate are causes of the one or the other result. Tribes of plants originate in particular placos and increase so as to drive out, or destroy, vegetables of a less vigorous growth, and thus occupy large tracts of country exclusively. These are termed social plants, and are thus observed in distinct tribes and of peculiar species in all parts of the world ; wherever, indeed, patches of partic- ular plants and of greater or less extent are- found growing wild. Some of these, it is said, are constantly at war with their neighbors of different species, each tribe struggling for supremacy until one or the other is victorious. Some herbaceous and perennial plants are thus often overpowered by a colony of shrubs of a taller and more vigorous growth, and these in turn are often compelled to yield to others of still greater power. Such are rarely found mixed ; they are sometimes seen in patches at a respectful distance" either when the contest is going on or when neither is able to prevail. Others, however, which do not in- crease much by root, and which bear few seeds or are easily dispersed, do not form groups, especially if they have little choice of soil. Singular plants of certain species occupy exclusively a large portion of country. That curious vegetable, the red-snow, found among and nourished by the common snows of the arctic regions, is the only plant there brought to perfection. The truffle is found entirely beneath the surface of the soil, where in Europe it is hunted for by truffle-dogs and pigs. There are some fungi which plant themselves on the hoofs and horns of dead animals, and on some dead bodies, though never on living ones. Mosses and fungi grow on the dung heaps of animals. A small plant is found upon and is nourished by common paper and even the glass of windows, and otherthings,when exposed to dampness for considerable time, produce peculiar forms. Cellars and the articles PECULIAR PLANTS. 113 in them, especially casks that have been filled with wine and other kinds of liquor, and even wine itself, produce peculiar vegetables. Particular plants are produced on the borders of the ocean, as the solem or maratime plants, and also near salt licks ; these are the salt- worts and glassworts. They abound in parts of our western country, on the Atlantic and in the interior of Africa and Russia. Marine plants inhabit exclusively the seashore and are the sea-wracks, and others of the algce, fuci, ulvce, etc. Aquatic plants grow in fresh water ; stagnant and running waters also abound in plants of various kinds, many growing beneath the surface, but all, with one exception, the awlwort, rising to the top of the water where they flower, to prop- agate their species. There are likewise numerous marsh, or swamp plants, meadow and pasture plants and field plants. Many of the lat- ter are introduced in sowing grain. Rock plants are those found on stone walls as well as upon rocks. Many upon the latter are in con- siderable perfection ; and the mosses upon the former are very exten- sive, and some are eaten. There are likewise sand plants and those of dry moors and heaths. There is an important class of plants which follow and attach themselves to places inhabited by man, such as the nettle, dock, etc., which proceed even to the highest mountains in following human settlements. The forest plants are among those living in so- ciety. Hedge plants are numerous and well known. Subterranean plants, too, are numerous and important, growing in mines and caves, and one yielding a strong phosphoric light. There is also a large class of mountain or alpine plants, varying in their character, size and peculiarity of location. The parasites are a remarkable class : they attach themselves to portions of other living plants and derive their nourishment from them. These are the miseltoes, a species of the co- ranthus, and the rafflesia arnoldii, the most wonderful of all products. Many fungi likewise subsist on the leaves of plants, some exclusively on the lower and others on the upper sides. A very extensive class of plants is composed of those denominated pseudo-parasites, securing themselves by roots to the decayed branches and trunks of trees, as lichens, mosses, etc., but obtaining their food chiefly from the atmos- phere. Among these is a numerous and remarkable family called air plants. The dispersion of plants, whatever the means may be by which it is effected, is constantly going on. Islands in the neighborhood of con- tinents of apparently the same soil contain the same species, but they are not possessed of all the same varieties. This would indicate that they have been separated from the main land and that the diffusion of seeds has been interrupted by the intermediate water. Many plants are thus bounded in Europe by portions of sea, though they reach moxe distant parts in the same direction by land. Volcanic islands, rising up naked, are in a few years covered with vegetation by the 10* 114 DIFFUSION OF PLANTS. conveyance of seeds to them, either by water or birds. Some seeds are furnished with wings and down as if intentionally for their con- veyance, as the dandelion, thistle^ etc. The ash, fir, sycamore, etc., have membranous wings and others have hooks. The migration of plants is supposed to be facilitated by the currents of the sea. Thus seeds from the W. I. Islands are transported in this way to the coast of G. Britain, Norway, and Ireland. Most frequently, however, seeds are destroyed by the effects of the water, or, from their greater specific gravity, they sink in it. Currents of rivers also convey seeds to a great distance ; so that on. the banks of streams are generally found a more varied vegetation than in regions distant from them. Mountainous plants are brought down, upon plains by these streams of water ; and seeds which do not vege- tate on such elevated situations, but are readily caught or intercepted when conveyed by the wind, are thus conducted to valleys where they flourish. The wind, as we have elsewhere said, is also a constant and active means in the dispersion of seeds, particularly the light winged and pappous. Those which have hooked bristles are often con- veyed on the coats of animals, whilst wandering from place to place. Seeds conveyed and voided in a perfect state by birds are said to be better fitted for germination than they were before ; and in this way they are deposited in situations most favorable for their growth. Seeds conveyed by man are mostly productive. A ship from Good Hope with bulbs on board was wrecked on the island of Guernsey, when one getting astray, was propagated by the soil which now yields the Guernsey lily, so as to afford an important branch of trade in its roots. The potato is said by the Irish to have been introduced into Ireland by the wreck of a vessel on its coast. A species of artichoke, introduced by seeds from Europe at Buenos Ayres, now densely covers a space of 900 miles, springing up to the height of 10 feet; and what is remarkable, it annually and suddenly alternates with clover, neither being able to drive the other out. Thus with many other plants when once introduced, they either exterminate the natives of the soil, which is most frequently the case, or they alternately prevail, as in the above case. When one species of plants dies at a particular season, another springs up and in its turn occupies the soil for a brief period. The extraordinary fruitfulness of some plants in seeds, is also to be considered in the diffusion and propagation of their species. 32,000 seeds have been counted in a single poppy. The elm produces an- nually 100,000 seeds. Each of these seeds is capable ofbecom- ing an individual plant or tree, and if each were to grow up the world might soon be covered with vegetation almost in despite the efforts of man. Thus nature provides against all the contingencies to which seeds are exposed as she does in the perpetuation of animals by the multiplication of their eggs. The queen bee, for example, lays DIFFUSION OF SEEDS. 115 5000 or 6000 eggs ; the smallest herring 100,000 ; the carp, of half a pound weight, lays 362,000 ; the small perch 324,600 ; the sturgeon 7,653,200 ; and the codfish 9,344,000 ; yet the proportionate increase, as we see, may not be greater than with higher animals or with plants bearing a less number of seeds or eggs ; and the number would ap- pear to be wisely adapted to the contingencies to which they are liable and the probabilities of their failure to produce their kind. With man there is a constant increase, as we notice, over the mortality, though no such provisions are observed, while with the animals be- fore mentioned it is doubtful if any increase is perceptible. Obstacles to the diffusion of plants are common. Some are found no where beyond a certain spot, as the tree pink on the island of Crete, and the double cocoa of the isle Praslin, though the nuts have been widely diffused. The common thrift, the scurvey grasses, and the rose- root are found only in rocky places, on shores or the tops of moun- tains. Dry deserts, more than any other cause, intercept the diffusion of seeds and plants. Districts of Africa, separated by burning sand, exhibit widely different vegetation. Mountain ranges also present extended barriers to the dispersion of plants, though their valleys, for reasons before mentioned, are often enriched by various and valuable plants. Plants on one side of a high mountain are very different from those on the other side, as upon the Alps, and also on the Pyrenees. On the eastern side of the Rocky mountains vegetation is not only very different, when it is found on both sides, but there is little or none for a great extent, on the east, while it is most luxuriant on the west. The natural orders of plants, are very important in their geographi- cal distribution ; for this reason we notice a few primary divisions. First, is the acotyledons having no cotyledons, or seminal parts surround- ing and nourishing the embryo of the seeds. These include the mosses, lichens, seaweeds, fungi, ferns, etc. ; 2d, monocotyledons, those with one cotyledon, as the grasses, liliaceous plants, rushes, sedges, palms, etc. ; 3d, dicotyledons, those with two cotyledons, such as shrubs and trees, and many herbaceous plants. Each of these have also other peculiar- ities ; and in numerous instances, a peculiar station and definite geo- graphical situation. Those of the 1st order increase as we proceed from the equator towards the poles, the/er?w excepted, which most abound in the tropics, in moist, hilly and sheltered places. The palms of the 2d order are confined to the tropics, while the others of that order vary ; some diminishing towards the equator and increasing to- wards the north ; they mostly abound in the temperate zone, as with the grasses. The 3d are most extensively diffused. The compound plants of this order are an extensive family and are found on all parts of the earth, but most abundantly in the torrid and temperate zones ; yet they vary much in different situations of the former zone. In the frozen zone the proportion of plants of this family is one half less 116 VEGETABLE REGIONS. than in the temperate zone. Leguminous plants of this order, of which are the pea, bean, etc., abound most in the tropics, diminishing gradually therefrom. Others of this order, such as the goose-grass, madder, etc. abound in the temperate region ; while those of the medicinal barks, etc., are confined to the equinoctial region. The umbeliferous and cruciferous plants, two extensive natural families, are rare in the tropics, but abound in the S. of Europe. The habitation of plants presents a wide view of vegetable creation and of the characteristics of plants as regards their natural country or as found in their wild state. In New Holland, we find all the spe- cies of the banksia, goodenia, epacris, etc., with acacia, without leaves, but with organs so enlarged as to perform all the offices of leaves. The fig, marigold, stapelia, with numerous kinds of protea, etc., are found at the Cape of Good Hope. The family of plants to which be- long the orange and lemon, as well as the camelia and Thea of China, are of Asiatic origin. The remarkable mutisice, with the vai'ious species of fuchsia, cacti, cinchona, cr the medicinal barks, etc., pecu- liar to S. America. A few varieties of some of the above and suc- ceeding plants may be found in some other countries, but the general law in regard to locality is not thus overturned. The genera of plants within the tropics on both continents, are generally the same, but the species are as generally different. This is equally true in the temperate climates. In parallels of latitude north and south, on both continents, are likewise found plants with great affinities ; i. e., in the south parallels of America and north parallels of Europe. Vegetable Regions. From what has been said, a division of botanical regions is easy and natural. There are 20 or 22 of these regions. The hyperborean region, the northern extremity of Asia, Europe, and America ; Siberian region, the great plains of Siberia and Tartary ; Mediterranean region, the basin of this sea, including Africa to the Sahara mountains, and Europe to the first range of mountains. Oriental region, the country bordering on the Elack and Caspian seas. India ; China ; Cochin China, and Japan ; New Holland; Cape of Good Hope ; Jlbyssynia, Nubia, etc. ; Equinoctial Africa, Congo, Senegal and Niger ; Canary Islands ; United States ; Western and temperate coasts of N. America ; West Indies ; Mexico ; Tropical S. America ; Chili ; S. Brazil and Buenos Jlyres ; and Straights of Magellan. Each of these regions is characterized by the facts, 1st, that one half of a species of plants is peculiar to that region ; 2d, that a fourth part of the genus belongs exclusively to it ; and 3d, that individual families of plants are peculiar to it, or have their maxima within it. These, VEGETABLE REGIONS. 117 again, are named after their particular products, in conformity with the above localities, as 1st, The region of saxafrages, mosses, gentians, duckweed, sedges, willows, etc., or alpine arctic flora, with an entire absence of tropical families, scarcity of animals, etc. 2d. Region of the umbeliferous and cruciferous plants. This is European and is separated from the same parallels in N. America ; the fungi, pines, etc., form a large portion. 3d. Region of the labiate flowers and caryophillece, to which belong the pink, catch-fly, sand-worts, etc. It has a few tropical plants, 1 or 2 palms, laurels, the arum tribe, grasses, evergreens, etc., vegetation never entirely ceasing. 4th. Japanese region, in which are 358 genera, 270 occurring in Europe and Africa, and the same in N. America, 5th. Region of asters and solidagos,ihe eastern part of N. America, with about 400 genera. There are, however, the southern and northern divisions. This region is characterized also by the great oaks, pines, etc. 6th. Region of magnolia, the southern part of N. America, distinguished from the northern by the number of its tropical form of plants, and from the same parallels in Europe. 7th. Region of the cacti, peppers, and mellastomas, parts of central America, as Mexico, Peru, Guatimala, W. Indies, etc. The character of vegeta- tion is here remarkable and extensive. 8th. Region of the cinchona, or medicinal barks ; this is the middle district of S. America. 9th. Region of Escallonia, and vacinia, (whortleberries and winter barks,) the highest parts of S. America. 10th. Chilian region, possessing some remarkable distinctions. 1 1 th. Region of arborescent plants, with tree-like forms ; it includes Buenos Ayres and southern temperatures of S. America, agreeing with the flora of Europe ; of 109 genera, 70 being like the European. 12th. Antarctic region, including the straits of Magellan ; of 82 genera, 59 having species in the northern hemis- phere. 13th. Region of New Zealand ; this has a mixed vegetation, but so distinct in some genera as to claim a division. 14th. Region of epacoidcs and eucalypti, temperate parts of N. Holland, with Van Dieman's Land. This is a remarkable region in its vegetable charac- ter. 15th. Region of Jig-marigold, S. of Africa ; its flora is greatly distinguished. 16th. Region of Western Africa, with many peculiar- ities, yet with a mixture of the flora of Asia and America. The Baobab of this region is the largest tree in the world. 17th. Region of Eastern Africa, with 290 known genera, 196 of which are found in India. 18th. Scitaminean region ; this appertains to India, west of the ganges, with parallel islands. 19th. Indian Highlands, having a very dissimilar vegetation to that of the low lands, and otherwise remarkable. 20th. Flora of the south of China, and of Cochin-china, its families resembling those of India. 21st. Region of the cassia; ar.d mimosa;, prevailing particularly in Arabia and Persia , of 281 genera, 109 are, however, found in the sduth of Europe. Abyssinia might be, 118 INFLUENCE OF THE ELEMENTS. from its peculiar productions, a distinct region. 22d. Island* in the South Seas, within the tropics ; it has about 214 genera, but 173 are found in India ; others are in common with America. The bread-fruit tree is a characteristic of these islands. It will be understood by the above outlines that genera are referred to as the distinguishing characteristics of these regions which, of course, comprehend innumerable species and varieties. This is a very interesting subject, when pursued farther, but space here admits only of the names of the regions, without particulars as to their peculiar and remarkable vegetable productions which are treated in the 2d part. INLUENCE OF THE ELEMENTS ON PLANTS. Light) heat, moisture, soil, and atmosphere. These, like the effect of natural boundaries, determine with equal certainty the fiat, "thus far shalt thou go and no farther." Some plants, it is seen, are found alone in the tropics, such, for example, as the palms, the tree-ferns, etc. The temperate region contains the cruciferous and umbeliferous plants almost exclusively, while the con- iferous and amentaceous flourish in the regions of the north. These with others are all effected by the great physical agents light, heat f moisture, and soil. Solar light on vegetation is no less impoi tant than temperature. It produces, indeed, in vegetable life, the greatest variety of phenomena. Plants, it is well known, imbibe less humidity in darkness than in light and consequently the latter greatly influences their character and growth. It effects materially their decomposition of carbonic acid, so essential to their life and growth, and changes their properties and the composition of their organs. In its absence they absorb oxygen gas, which gives acid qualities to their productions, while in the light they vigorously perform the important function of giving off oxygen to the air. To its absence also is attributable the phenomenon of the sleep of plants. Light is more generally diffused than heat, pervading as it does the cold climates and seasons with little apparent diminu- tion during the day. Its rays are however more oblique, as we pro- ceed to the extreme north, where it is little wanted by vegetation during the winter, as the loss of leaves renders it useless to plants. During the period of vegetation it is, however, almost continuous. Plants, too, which maintain habitually the same position can live in cold climates, where, in summer, light is thus continued ; while those species exist at the south which are in the habit, alternately day and night, of sleeping and waking, or closing and expanding their flowers. From this is seen the difficulty of cultivating tropical plants in north- ern climates. The vine fails to ripen in the foggy air of Normandy, LIGHT AND HEAT. 119 from the absence, not of heat, but of light ; hence alpine plants flour- ish in the rays of the sun, far at the north. They flourish even on a base of ice, as seen in a valley of the Borneo mountains filled with ice Some earth having been brought down by avalanches upon it, food is thus grown for flocks in that region. When secluded from light, plants become lax, and send out long, thin and whitish shoots, and in fact become bleached from the effect of oxygen in forming an acid with their carbon, which oxygen they obtain from water but can- not give off. Darkness favors their length by softening their parts while light, by maturing nourishment, consolidates the parts. A due adjustment of their materials, therefore, depends on the balanced alter- nations of day and night. Plants spring up in the arctic region whilst the sun is constantly above the horizon ; and the incessant light acting on them perfects them before they have time to acquire much weight. Direct rays of the sun, we know, contribute more to the flowing of the sap of the sugar-maple than heat a frost at night succeeded by a sunny day being best for the flow of this j uice. When the temperature is 62' 6', nature revives during spring in the north, the mean temperature of which is from 42 to 46. The heat most congenial to tropical plants can be imitated and they will flourish in the long sunny days of summer, but in winter, though a high temperature be maintained, they will languish or die. Thus plants are located according to the light they require. Much light is required to stimulate to action all plants of a succulent nature, with watery leaves, few pores, and containing very resinous and oily juices, or which have a great extent of surface. Others, such as mosses, ferns, and some evergreens, flourish best beneath the shade. But we have elsewhere alluded to the effects of light on plants and fruit. Heat is obviously the most powerful agent in the life and growth of plants. All vegetation ceases in winter if not aided by artificial heat. As they are chiefly nourished by water, or its parts, after decomposition, vegetation is necessarily arrested by a temperature below the freezing point, as it is in deserts where the heat is so great as to dry up the moisture of the earth. Trees, however, having long roots resist the influence of both heat and cold, the soil at some depth being both warmer in winter and more moist in summer. The tree partakes of this warmth in winter through the influence and communication of the roots, as it partakes of the moisture obtained from sub-soils and communicates it to the plant in like manner. The greater the size of the stem or branch, therefore, or the greater the number of layers be- tween its surface and the pith, the better do plants resist the effects of cold and heat. The pith being the softest and most moist part, is most susceptible of these effects, and a tree or shrub, as it grows older, is less liable thereto. Thus the plant, pride of India is destroyed by a little cold when young, but when older it sustains four times the f^ 120 TEMPERATURE. degree of cold. Plants are also fortified against the effects of cold by the amount of carbon and resin they contain, as well as from their clothing of bark, which is readily perceived by its effects on young shoots of fruit trees. Thus also succulent plants, having no distinct bark, are easily destroyed by cold, while the birch, which is covered with numerous layers of dry bark, and pines, the bark of which abounds with resin, are thereby greatly protected. The latter with others in our northern latitudes, sustain unaffected a temperature of 44 below zero. The extremes of heat and cold in this country are very trying to many plants, especially fruit trees ; and, but for their hardy constitution, they must perish by the one or the other. Temperature, from what has been said, will appear to have very great influence on the geography of plants. It may be considered, in reference to the mean temperature of the ye.ar, the extremes of temper- ature, and the temperature of the months of the year. The 1st is of the least importance generally to vegetable geography, as it affords uncertain data for general conclusions ; while the 2d is more definite though less immediately practical, as almost every locality presents peculiarities of vegetation, arising from local heat and other causes. Widely different temperatures or long intervals of extremes enable us to select and cultivate plants with more certainty in intermediate cli- mates. The vine, olive and orange can thus be cultivated, but if left wild to themselves, even in more genial climes, they would not be productive nor withstand the winter. Hence between wild and culti- vated fruits of the same kind in different latitudes, there is a remark- able difference. This may be termed the acclimation of plants. It is maintained, however, by some that no change in the constitution of plants can be effected by change of climate. The power or property of accommodating themselves to different climates is certainly remark- able. The vine is cultivated in Hindostan and Arabia, between the 13th and 15th parallels, also in latitude 51, and at an elevation of 10,000 feet in lat. 32. The greatest importance of heat in vegetable geography is in its dis- tribution in the several months of the year. Great uniformity is ob- servable in some climates, especially on the sea coast, where it is modified by the sea, which is almost always of an equal temperature, thereby enabling even tropical plants to thrive in northern latitudes. Annual plants, requiring the heat only of summer to ripen their fruit and remaining in the state of grain, apparently torpid in the winter, abound in regions where the extremes are great ; but perennial plants, which can delay or dispense with maturing their fruit, are greatly af- fected by the severity of winter. Of these, such as have deciduous leaves best accomodate themselves to inequalties, while those which retain their foliage, or evergreens, prefer equal temperatures. Seeds having no substances much affected by moisture are less sensible to TEMPERA.TURE. 121 heat and cold, and they may therefore be conveyed from one country to another with safety. On the eastern continent there are, it is thought, about 160 natural groups or families of plants, the tropical parts of which contain types of the whole, and beyond which they become gradually extinct; scarcely one half appearing in lat. 48 '. In lat. 65^ there are only 40, and but 17 near the polar regions. In the tropics the woody species, or the trees and shrubs, are equal to the herbaceous, annual, biennial and perennial; but this proportion decreases from thence to the poles; yet the perennial increase over the annual and biennial, so that near the limits of vegetation they are as 20 to 1. The same elevations in corresponding latitudes, do not however equally favor the vegetation of the same plants, as circumstances often modify the degree of heat. The greater the depth of valleys the greater is the cold on the sum- mits of neighboring mountains ; hence plants thrive on some which will not thrive on others of the same altitude, and this is likewise true in respect to valleys. Temperature. The gelatinous, gummy and mucilaginous parts of plants may be converted into sugar. Thus apple jelly treated with a vegeta- ble acid dissolved in water, yields a sugar like that of the grape. So also with the gum of the pea, placed with oxalic acid in a temperature of 125 '. The gum from starch, mixed with the juice of green grapes, renders it saccharine, and tartaric acid, aided by heat, produces the same effect : this is the cause why most fruits become sweet when cooked. The production of sugar and of many flavors, oils, etc., in plants with little or no oxygen is attributable to high temperature and bright sun light, while acidity is the result of opposite circumstances. The effect of an excessive high temperature upon unisexual plants, is to cause the production of male flowers, while that of a low tempera- ture is to produce female flowers. Thus the same fruit-stalks may be made to produce male or female flowers, in conformity with these cir- cumstances. Plants are incapable of decomposing carbonic acid or water at a low temperature and without light, and consequently of assimilating their food ; they are therefore deprived of their green color, flavor, sweetness, nutriment, fruit and flowers. A preternatural elevation of heat and evaporation of moisture faster than the roots can supply, hastens the secretions, so that the plants cannot elaborate them or furnish parts to receive them, and the old leaves burn or dry up and the young ones perish. But this heat and dryness is favor- able for certain secretions and the former, with moisture, produces leaves and branches, but these only : hence wheat, etc., are often, raised in some climates as grass for fodder only, they producing no seed. A freezing temperature produces different effects, according to the specific nature of the plants, some being destroyed by it, while others endure great cold. The general effects are that the fluids within the 11 122 EXCITABILITY OF PLANTS. cells are congealed and expanded, which produces a laceration of the cells, impairs the excitability, expels air from the air-cavities ; the green coloring matter and other secretions are decomposed, the vital fluid is destroyed, and the interior of the tubes is thickened. These effects are considered mechanical, chemical and vital, the last two being dependent on the quality of the fluids and organic matter. The temperature at which salt and water freezes varies from 4 ' to 27", ac- cording to density ; oil of turpentine at 14 ; oil of bergamot at 23, of olive 36', and of annise at 50'; vinegar at 28', milk at 30', and water at 32, thus showing that the fluids of plants resist cold very differently. The air held by water is disengaged on freezing, and crude sap contains much gaseous matter ; so that the derangement of the functions, ending in the death of plants, is a necessary consequence of freezing. Such as have a dry tissue and dense secretions resist frost best; hence young shoots are destroyed by a degree of cold which old ones resist. All things being equal, the power of plants and their parts to resist extremes of temperature is in the inverse ratio of the quantity of water they contain and directly in proportion to the viscidity of their fluids ; also in the inverse ratio of the rapidity with which their fluids circulate ; in direct proportion to the quantity of confined air retained in their organs and the capability of the roots to absorb sap ; And their liability to freeze is in proportion to the size of their cells etc. The excitability of plants caused by heat would soon impair or destroy them, but for a provision of nature against this effect, by the fluctuations of temperature during the day and especially by its dimi- nution at night. The temperature rises with the day and stimulates the vital action of plants and falls at night, when the vital forces are not demanded ; so that they, like animals, have their diurnal action and repose. The waste and exhaustion during the day, caused by perspiration under the sun light, is made good by the continued at- tractions by the roots during the night. Alternations of seasons, like those of day and night, produce like effects. At the end of the sea- son the excitability of the plant is impaired, the vessels and perishable parts are exhausted, the leaves are choked so as to be unable to breathe or digest, the stems are dried up, when they gradually sink into repose on the fall of temperature and the appearance of winter. But they are not dead ; their vital actions are not wholly arrested, but only diminished in intensity. Food continues to be thrown into the sys- tem, but finding no exit, it gradually accumulates and fills the ves- sels made empty by the summer's heat, while the excitability of the plant is restored by rest. On the return of spring and a genial sun, their energies are renewed which are in proportion to the food thus acquired. This period of rest and stimulus are provided in hot cli- mates by what are called the dry and rainy seasons. HEAT AND MOISTURE. 123 The great importance of heat in the economy of plants and for the purposes of gardening should be attentively regarded. The tempera- ture of springs affords no satisfactory evidence of that of the surface of the ground, as they mostly come from a distance below, where the temperature is equal at all seasons. The changes within the soil through which roots penetrate should be ascertained monthly, so as to compare the temperature with the state of vegetation. The greatest difference between the mean temperature of the earth and atmosphere appears to be in October, when at a foot below the surface, the former is from one to one and a half degrees above that of the latter. It ap- pears also that in the spring when vegetation commences, the mean temperature of the earth is higher than that of the atmosphere by from one to two degrees and that this difference remains thus higher in autumn ; by which the condensation of the tissue and secretions of perennial plants against the approach of cold weather is effected. The average difference of temperature between 1 and 2 feet below the surface is as 48.87 to 50. J 5, the atmosphere averaging 48.26. The comparative difference in hot latitudes is often very great, as in the tropics, where the temperature, just below the surface, is often from 126 J to 134', while that of the atmosphere is 84.5; in France 118-122', atmosphere 91.5" ; C. Good Hope, 59 and in the shade 119, atmosphere 98. The mean temperature of the state of New York, for 14 years has been 44.31", Fahr. ; the lowest mean for a single year was 44.11, and the highest 49.99. The mean temperature near this city during the coldest month (January 1839) was 28.89, and of the warmest (July) 70.69"- At Albany the mean of January was 23.38 ', and of July 72.38 '. It is calculated, on the whole, that the mean difference of temperature between the earth and atmosphere, as before noticed, is uniformly from 1 to 2 1 . Moisture has not only an important effect on vegetables, but is an essential element of their substance. Those having a large or spongy cellular tissue necessarily absorb a large amount of water, and also those with soft and broad leaves, provided with many cortical pores, and likewise those with long and numerous roots. Such cannot live without an abundant supply of moisture. Nor can those live in moist and damp places which have a compact tissue, with small leaves having few pores and clothed with hair, nor yet those depositing much oily or resinous matter. The more water abounds with substances which obstruct its passages, the slower will be its absorption. These sub- stances more or less effect the topographical distribution of plants. They consist mostly of carbonic acid, atmospheric air, alkaline earths and animal and vegetable substances. Plants containing much car- bon, such as those producing hard wood, avoid water that is mostly free from carbonic acid gas, but the fungi, as the mosses, etc., prefer such situations ; so also those requiring other materials for their com- 124 HEAT AND MOISTURE. position will select situations most favorable for their supply and near such waters as contain them. Heat and Moisture. The evidence of something like a bottom heat" in the greater temperature of the soil over that of the atmosphere and the marked vigor of plants growing near hot springs, or subterranean fires, may have induced the practice of employing hot beds in cultivating delicate plants and in producing valuable seeds. But this cannot be applied beneficially by art when such plants are natives of colder climates. The soil in which are to be raised tropical plants is to be permanently elevated to at least 75 - 1 or the seeds will not germinate; or, if they do, they present a sickly appearance. Hence they cannot germinate at the ordinary temperature of our soil as it seldom rises, even for a short time, above 65 P . But the intensity of bottom heat depends nevertheless on the constitution or species of the plant and the known temperature of its native climate, a little above which the heat should doubtless be raised, in order to secure the original properties of the plant. Hence the failure to raise successfully oranges in tubs when the soil cannot be above 66 and in winter sinks to 36, while that o{ the soil where they flourish is from 80 to 85 and never falls below 58. The same may be said in respect to the vine. The necessity of the soil-temperature being above that of the atmosphere accounts for the fact that ornamental trees in our parks and elsewhere, when paving stones are placed around them, frequently die or fail to flour- ish, because the earth, instead of being warmer, is thereby kept con- stantly colder than the atmosphere. If the bark of a fruit tree be stripped off in spring, while the bark is loose and a new layer of inner bark is forming, and a frosty night or cold wind occurs, the inner bark becomes again firmly attached ; and, although the tree may appear healthy and sustain its foliage and blossoms, and its fruit set well, yet nearly the whole falls off at the time its growth should commence. The, moisture and temperature of a soil, more than its mineralogical character, is believed to determine vegetation. A distinguished gar- dener soaks the roots of fruit trees in a mixture of equal parts of boiling and cold water, and sprinkles the trees when necessary with lukewarm water. This is attended with great success. The success of the Dutch gardeners is also attributed to their application of heat to the roots. Tan-bark beds are the usual source of bottom heat. The importance of water in vegetation is that it supplies the plant with the elements of its food and is the means by which the soluble parts are conveyed into the system of plants. The object is to learn the amount required and the periods at which it should be applied ; plants evidently require an abundant supply during growth ; and in WATER AND AIR. 125 winter no more generally than what results from the capillary attrac- tion of the particles of the soil. The younger the leaves of plants the more active their perspiration. A constant supply of water ren- ders the parts of plants succulent, as with the leaves sent to the table, and also fruit. To effect this artificially, or its appearance, market-gardeners and hucksters are in the habit of pouring copious and frequent showers of water upon them, but generally at the sacri- fice of their quality. The quantity of water in the soil of succulent fruits should be diminished when they are ripening. The solar light should correspond with the quantity of moisture, otherwise the tissue becomes disorganized. When in great excess water gives to plants a yellow appearance, owing, it is thought, to the destruction by water of the blue matter, by the mixture of which with yellow parts the green verdure of plants is formed. Undue moisture about the roots is relieved by draining and no good fruit can grow in soils imperfectly drained. It has been thought, too, that the watering of plants artificially in the open air is of very questionable advantage, as the air is not fur- nished with corresponding moisture. The roots are thus but momentarily excited while the sudden evaporation from the soil produces cold, and the surface becomes incrusted, which are not the results of watering by natural showers. In late spring planting it is far better to water in the hole. In the case of annual plants only is watering recommended, and then chiefly by inundations through sluices etc. Copious water- ing thus prevents mildew. Atmospheric moisture varies greatly in different regions, while the constituents of the air rarely vary ; yet these are intimately connected. The effect of excessive perspiration in plants is to dry up their juices, while an obstruction of the perspiratory organs, the leaves chiefly, prevents the assimilation of fluids and the formation of new matter. This is closely analogous with the same process in the animal economy. An atmosphere which maintains perspiratory action in the most uni- form and healthy state, is that most desirable. By Daniell's hygrom- eter all the points of moisture may be ascertained, which will be found of great practical importance. The changes of moisture ex- tend in this latitude from 1000, or saturation, to 389 and often lower. The mean depth of rain and snow in this state (N.Y.) for 14 years has been 84.40 inches. The highest average from 54 stations for one single year (1827) was 44.40, and of the lowest (1839) 22.10 inches. In London it is 24.01; St. Petersburg 16; Algiers 27; E. Indies 31 to 64; Madeira 31; Bahamas 54.99; Calcutta 59.83 to 81 ; Ceylon 84.3 ; Macao 48.8 to 107.3 ; Equator 96; Coast of Malabar 123.50; Grenada 126 ; St. Domingo 150 ; Bengal 20 to 22, in a single month ; Bombay 32, in 12 days, and in Savoy 205 inches in 6 months, or 8.5 in a day, oftentimes ! The effect of wind is to increase in the same ratio the dryness of 126 EVAPORATION AND WIND. the air; and the perspiration of vegetables; so that anything retarding the force of the wind diminishes, of course, the perspiration. A surface exhaling 100 parts of moisture in a calm air yields 125 in a moderate breeze and 150 in a high wind ; hence the advantage of walls and screens to break the force of wind. The difference in fruit trees trained upon the walls and in exposed situations is owing princi- pally to this circumstance. The amount of evaporation 43 feet from the ground, is annually about 37.85 inches ; the evaporation guage being placed lower and less exposed the annual average is 33,37 and when the guage is near, or upon the ground, it is 20.28 inches. The easterly winds are said to be the coldest and dryest in England. The mean temperature, dryness and moisture of the air with respect to the wind, as appears from observations in the London Horticultural Society is south wind; temperature 51.4; dryness 4.2, moisture 8.77. South wind; temperature 52.2; dryness 4.7, moisture 8.59. "West wind; temperature 51.3 ; dryness 6.2 ; moisture 7.33. North wind; temperature 46.2; dryness 6.0; moisture 7.49. The radiant power of heat may be advantageously modified by screens. By these the radiant heat of the sun is intercepted and returned into space ; thus the perspiration and the temperature sur- rounding a plant are diminished ; the radiant heat of the earth is also intercepted and returned to the earth. Thus the temperature may be modified, when necessary, by art. In northern climates garden walls are often blackened by which plants near them are favored in their growth by the increased heat. Cold air being heavier than warm, a great difference will be observed in plants growing in a valley and on more elevated situations. This however is less remarkable in the wide valleys of the U. S. especially those of our rivers and lakes. The valley of the Hudson, with from one half to one mile marginal width, is protected from autumnal frosts ; but beyond that, plants suf- fer much. The warm vapor rising during a cold night from the water is thought to protect adjacent shores. Our large lakes thus have an important influence on the neighboring soil. A garden placed on a gentle slope" having a southeastern aspect, with a running stream at its base, secures the greatest advantages of position. Plants in this climate, however, where the frequent bright suns of winter tem- porarily thaw the plants, a more northern aspect is preferred, espe- cially if they are not covered by matting, straw, or boards during the winter, which, with all delicate plants, should not be omitted. The air in warm climates is generally filled with vapor to a greater extent than in colder ones, though it is occasionally more dry ; hence the object of glazed houses is to effect the same conditions, when provided with hot water pipes. As general rules, moisture is most required when plants begin to grow, and least when their growth is completed ; 2d, the atmospheric moisture required by plants ; all things being equal, INFLUENCE OF SOIL. 127 should be inversely proportionate to the distance of the countries they naturally inhabit from the equator; 3d, plants with annual stems re- quire more moisture than those with ligneous stems ; and 4th,the amount of atmospheric moisture required by plants at rest is inversely propor- tionate to the water they contain at the time. Thus succulent plants when at rest require a dry air. Much attention has been paid to ventilation and other particulars connected with the growth of plants, but these do not fall within the scope of the present chapter. The influence of soil on plants, in a general point of view, is well known. Its consistence, as a predominant quality, varies in different parts of the earth. The light and drifting soil of deserts can, at best, support only humble shrubs, while that of a compact nature, which distinguishes large tracts of country, sustains plants of a large and lofty growth. Extremes of loose and compact soils are therefore equally devoid of vegetation. Water or wind may equally affect the one while the other is impermeable to the roots of plants. The chem- ical nature of soils, or the rocks which compose them, is the general cause of the local distribution of plants. These are composed of the constituents of neighboring mountains. Hence, as a general rule, the character of the soil may be known by that of rocks composing the mountains which would most naturally, from their situation, con- duct water upon the soil. The materials for this will be such as con- stitute the elements of plants flourishing upon it. Other soils are de- posites from water which have formed at distant periods various kinds of earths from distant situations, either as a running stream or as a portion of the sea. Vast tracts of country are deposites from the sea, thus forming immense deltas, islands, etc. The peculiarities of soil are consequently as various as were the causes which produced them ; and the combination of materials which those causes must have effected in the progress of many ages, was therefore greatly varied and singular. How diversified soever the agents may be which contribute to the growth of plants, it is certain that they will not grow in any climate, if the soil be devoid of the elements essential to their composition. Soil must be so constituted as to absorb water more or less readily, retain it with more or less force or part with it with greater or less facility. In a dry climate it should have the property of absorbing moisture most readily, and in a humid atmosphere of resisting it to a great ex- tent ; yet this is to be considered in reference to the nature of the plants grown on the soil. Every kind of soil has these properties in a greater or less degree. Some are more or less readily pulverized and others, from their nature and color, are more or less readily heated ; or they retain their heat longer or shorter. The influence of the atmosphere both upon the growth and distribu- tion of plants is of the greatest importance, for they can no more exist without it than without a soil. It is from the atmosphere that they 128 INFLUENCE OF THE ATMOSPHERE. extract their chief support. The carbonic acid from which they derive so much of their solid carbon is obtained principally from the atmos- phere, as well as their nitrogen and ammonia. Hence their distribu- tion is more or less affected by the materials within the atmosphere. Saline particles abound in certain parts, especially in the vicinity of sea water. From these is derived the soda necessary for the support of certain kinds of plants. Many indeed can exist nowhere else, nor with- out this alkaline salt. An important general influence is likewise ex- erted by the air on plants by its hygrometic action, or its property of retaining and imparting moisture. The motion of the air and conse- quently that of plants, doubtless exerts a salutary influence on the health and vigor of plants by the wholesome exercise thus given. Its rarity or density, has also a very important effect on plants. Rare air has a greater capacity for heat than dense air. Hence the condition of the atmosphere at different elevations, in its effects upon plants whicn are less affected by heat m temperate climates, is important. The potato, ;vhich flourishes in plains with us, grows in Peru at an elevation of 10,000 feet above the sea, but the ol ive, growing at 44 N. will not grow above 12.50 feet. A less degree of moisture exists in proportion to the greater degree of height. The general effect of elevation on the growth of plants is however in the diminution of temperature. But the most general influence in the distribution of plants by the atmosphere is in its conveyance of seeds. These are, it is well known, widely diffused by it, and very many plants have thereby been tested as to their capability of growing in various climates and parts of the world. That it has been thus instrumental during high winds in distributing plants and inducing their growth, where otherwise they would not have grown, must be apparent. It likewise affords the means by which birds become agents in their diffusion. General Remarks. The adaptation of vegetable productions to the peculiar constitution of plants is not more remarkable than it is to the necessities of man and other animals. The luxurious profusion of vegetable nature in the tropical regions ; the less vigorous and prolific powers of plants in the temperate zone and the scanty and stinted productions ol the polar circles, prove the same wise adaptation of nature to the re- quirements of human society and the necessities of animals and of plants themselves. But it is natural for men to conceive their own latitudes best supplied with plants. The ancients of the temperate climates thus conceived the torrid and frigid zones to be uninhabitable ; and the people of the tropics may readily imasine that, on departing from the track of the sun, the great source of vegetable life, they must meet with nothing but sterility and death. But, though most GENERAL REMARKS. 129 tropical plants will not flourish in more northern latitudes, yet these latitudes are, nevertheless, well provided with such as are essential to the life and vigor of animals. In approaching the frozen zones both animals and plants diminish ; hence vegetable life every where keeps pace with that of animals. But though we lose sight of valuable plants, it is only because they are not required; whilst we find at the same lime others which are required and which are even of greater value to the particular wants and the diffusion of men and animals ; and this not only by indigenous plants, but by the sus- ceptibility of tropical plants to yield to the change of climate. Indigenous plants of both continents we see maintain the laws alluded to. At every step, north or south, the groups of plants change in accordance with the circumstances of life. In central lati- tudes we find the nativity of the clove, the nutmeg, pepper, mace, cin- namon, the odoriferous sandal wood, the teak, the ebony, the banyan, etc., in similar latitudes ; but in another district are found balm, myrrh, frankincense, tamarind, coffee, and more northerly, the important grains, the peach, the apricot, citron, walnut apple, chestnut, plum, pear, etc. Thus we may wander from one region to another, south, north, east or west, and find the groups of plants differing in their l\inds, yet always corresponding with the diffusion, the necessities and the interests of both animal and vegetable life. The vegetable food of the people of every country varies with the productions in each. Nature, in the hot climates of the south lavishes her vegetable stores ; but art and industry have abundantly furnished the temperate climates, not only with necessaries, but luxuries ; so that many of the productions of a more genial clime are here little less valuable as necessary or luxurious food. Thus the grape, and the melon are not inferior here to those flourishing in their own native soil. Yet it is remarkable that so little attention is paid here to the transplanting and improvement of many important fruits and vegeta- bles of other countries. The cultivation of the soil presents a marked distinction between races and nations of men. Wherever this is most the object of their attention and ambition, there man is found most advanced in intelli- gence and morals. And whoever contributes to the arts of vegetable culture, or adds a new species of plants for useful cultivation, adds a lasting blessing to his own species and a never-fading laurel to his brow. Wherever vegetation is abundant it preserves the soil from the des- olating effects of the elements ; and where cultivation is most success- fully prosecuted, there health, comfort and civilization follow. The improvement of climate, as well as of the social and Christian virtues, keep pace with the arts of agriculture ; and wherever industry is free and property secure, there less government is required and fewer pre- 130 EXCITABILITY OF PLANTS. cepts are necessary. There, too, famine and epidemics occur less fre- quently and the fluctuations of trade and the revulsions of productive industry are least felt. The introduction and cultivation of a single seed often sways the destiny of whole nations, and may change the aspect of the whole world. The potato, rice, cotton, and a blade of wheat are examples in point of the effects produced by vegetable pro- ducts and cultivation. And when we see that a seed not larger than a pin's head is elaborated by nature, within a brief season, into a flourishing root twenty millions of times larger than its present grain, we cannot be insensible to the arts of culture, the principles of nature, or the power and wisdom of the benificent Author. Some plants, it will be seen, are evidently destined to render the earth cheerful and beautiful, and others are distinguished by their great utility as food for man and beast, while a very great number are both useful and beautiful. Trees are such as to afford us hard wood, as the oak, apple, and elm, and many others afford soft wood, as wil- low, poplar, etc., while others afford us gums and resing, as pines, fir, etc. The hard wood is best for fuel, giving out the greatest heat, as it has the most carbon, while resinous woods burn most freely from the greater quantity of hydrogen which they contain. Not only are the differences in vegetable products admirably calcu- lated both for the support and gratification of our physical nature, but those of different climates and. countries have an important influence on the moral and social condition of man. This is perceived in the study of natural history, the discovery of new and valuable produc- tions, the extension of commerce and the establishment of colonies ; thus extending the comforts, the arts and literature and the general prosperity of whole nations. The desire to possess the different pro- ducts of different countries stimulates alike the merchant and the traveler ; and the introduction thereby of a few new seeds has essen- tially changed the condition of the people of large and populous countries. Almost all of the most valuable vegetables have thus been introduced from other countries. It is by marking these facts and reflecting upon the attendant circumstances that we become impressed with the importance of our subject. it i ^- V v*wHy* ^\ ,& Kerr Lp . V.U^TPb.1^ Uv, ^ T '- 5? V^ ^'<~ti. ?C ./. tf _4 -V ^ 2> A f' in one grand harmonious whole. Vegetable food supplies the solid borves of animals in the same man- ner as other parts These are composed of phosphate of lime, in the proportions of 70 per cent, in the sheep, 67 in the horse, and 55 in the cow. A portion of this is also daily rejected from the animal sys- tem, which requires to be replenished; and, for this purpose, the glu- ten of plants is admirably adapted, as well also as the fibre of animal muscle, the curd of milk, etc,; so that the nitrogen and bone-earth are freely abstracted by those living on vegetable food, by the y::ung; living on inilk or by others feeding on flesh. The sugar of milk sup- plies the necessary quantity of carbon for the young, and the curd, the materials for the muscles and animal parts of the bones. These elements, by weight, in 1000 parts of the cow's milk, for ex- ample, are butter 27 to 35, cheesy matter 45 to 9U, milk-stuar 3(5 to 50, chloride of potassium and sodium 1^ to 10, phosphate of lime 2i to 10, other salts 6, and water 815 to 882. These vary with every con- dition of the animal, with its food, breed, the weather, etc. Ten gal- lons contain 4 Ibs. of casein, or cheesy matter, which is said to be equal to the formation of 18 Ibs. of muscle and 3 Ibs. of bone-earth, or 7 oz. of dry bone. The casein also supplies the skin, horn,. hooi y etc., with their portions of boae-earth. The milk contains more but- ter in warm weather and more cheese and sugar in coll weather. The amount of solid matter thus furnished from the milk is large. If a cow affords 3,000 quarts per annum, every 10 gallons contain bone sufficient to form 7 oz. of dry bone ; thus depriving the cow of 33 Ibs. of dry bone, which must be supplied from the soil. If this be exported in milk or butter, the soil is drained of bone to the amount of 30 Ibs., which would not be the case if it were consumed on the spot. In time this will produce an obvious effect on a particular place or country. It will appear plain, from what has been said, that attempt* to supply the wastes of animal life by any one substance, sugar or starch for example, is futile. Carbon might be furnished, but not all the nitrogen, saline and earthy materials essential to animal composition and growth. Gelatin, too, might supply carbon with a portion of nitrogen, but not the necessary saline matter. The relative amount of nutriment in different substances, taking hay for instance as a standard, may be thus stated The proportions of nutriment in pounds equal to 10 Ibs. of hay : clover-hay 8 to 10, green clover 45 to 50, wheat-straw 40 to 50, barley-straw 20 to 40, RELATIVE VALUE OF FOOD. 153 oat-straw 20 to 40, potatoes 20, pea-straw 10 to 15, old potatoes 40, carrots 25 to 35, turnips 50, cabbage 20 to 30, peas and beans 3 to 5, wheat 5 to 6, barley 5 to 6, oats 4 to 7, Indian corn 5, and oil-cake 2 to 4. Thus 6 Ibs. of oil-cake will nourish an animal as much as 40 Ibs. of potatoes, and 10 pounds of oats as much as 20 Ibs. of hay. It is an important consideration, that in rich natural pastures there is a mixed herbage, consisting of different plants, some abounding more in starch or sugar, others more in gluten or albumen, and others more in earthy or saline matter. The digestive organs select from these such elements as are most required, and reject any surplus. Hence on pastures occupied by one or two particular grasses, animals will not thrive ; or, if they do, they must necessarily consume large quantities to supply all the parts. Whenever, indeed, animals are fed on one kind of vegetable only, there is a lack of the requisite elements of animal composition ; so that a due mixture of the important constit- uents of food being practised by nature, she should be copied by man. 154 ELEMENTS AND PROPERTIES OF VEGETABLE FOOD. A consideration of the nature, constituents and physiological effects of vegetable food very naturally follows what has been said of the organs, physiology, character, habits and location of plants in their living state. The importance of plants to man, and all the graminivorous animals depending alone on the vegetable kingdom for subsistence, and the human family depending in turn on them for essential elements of food, will readily be seen to present, in this connection, the most in- teresting view of the vegetable kingdom. It is, indeed, for the nour- ishment and very existence of man, and lower animals, that plants are cultivated; in doing which the great body of mankind are employed, and in which plants assume their chief interest. The relative amount and qualities of the food which plants thus afford, constitute their rela- tive value; and their properties and physiological effects in the ani- mal economy should give to this branch of our subject deeper interest than any other. It is, in fact, the final result or resolution of every other into one, and an exposition of their ultimate utility, composition and properties. In considering this concluding view of plants and their relations to mankind, we shall be brief, as heretofore, however extensively the subject deserves to be or has been treated by others. Our object is to embody the most important truths known and recorded in this department of our subject, without the ambition to start new theories or controvert those established by the experiments and con- clusions of others. All compound substances are composed of a greater or less number of simple or ultimate elements. Of these there are 56 ; some of which, variously combined, are the alimentary constituents of all food. Thus composed, they form the proximate principles, in various proportions, of all plants. All vegetable food, therefore, is resolvable into its proximate or alimentary principles ; and these in turn, by analysis, are divisible into simple or undecompounded elements. Thus wheat is composed of fibrine, gelatine, albumen, &c., and these are composed of the chemical elements carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, &c. 19 or 20 only of the simple elements have been found in organized, or animal and vegetable bodies. The elements, therefore, of animal or vegeta- ble bodies must be the constituents of their food. As 13 of these en- ter into the composition of the human body, our food must be compos- ed of the same number and kind of elements. These are carbon, hy- drogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulphur, iron, chlorine, calcium, ) sodium, magnesia, potassium, and fluorine. Other substances be- J come incidentally component parts of organized bodies, such as gold and VEGETABLE DIET. 165 some other metals, in vegetables and lead, copper, etc. in animals and man. Silica and alumina are also found in organized bodies. The latter is much eaten, indeed, by some people of the east and of South America. Vegetable charcoal is composed of charcoal, volatile mat- ter and calcined ashes, in somewhat different proportions, according to the nature of vegetables ; but of this, as a product, we have already spoken. Carbon is a prominent and necessary element in all living bodies, and consequently of all food. It is an important and chief constitu- ent of the embryo and food of plants and animals. It averages about 40 per cent, of the chief vegetable alimentary substances, and of some fats and oils as high as 79 per cent. It is consumed in different pro- portions according to the circumstances of persons. An adult with moderate exercise consumes daily about 15 oz. adv. This is given out by the lungs and the skin in the form of carbonic acid. It is therefore assumed that 6 grs. of carbon combine with 16 grs. of oxy- gen to form 22 grs. of carbonic acid. Exclusive vegetable diet has long and strongly been maintained, but it may not be out of place here to say that neither an exclusive vege- table nor animal food is to be recommended, as it is beyond reasonable doubt that the organization of man is calculated and evidently designed for both. The 12 canine and lesser mollar teeth correspond to those of the carnivora, while the 20 incissor and larger molar teeth corres- pond to those of the herbivora ; it is therefore certain that our organs of mastication are intermediate between these two classes of animals. This is equally apparent in the organs of digestion and the length of the alimentary canal, by which man is fitted for, and obviously de- signed to inhabit any part of the earth. But although thus organized, it is certain that both kinds are not indispensable to health and growth. Vegetable food cannot be obtained in cold northern regions, nor is ani- mal food much required or desired in tropical climates. It is, there- fore, apparent that man, in the temperate regions particularly, is em- phatically omnivorous. It happens, too, that a due proportion of both animal and vegetable life there exists. But was man from infancy to be confined in this climate to either animal or vegetable food, all his mental and physical powers would undoubtedly be fully developed ; nevertheless, if a mixed diet should be abstained from at an intermedi- ate period of life, and animal or vegetable diet exclusively adhered to, neither nutrition nor organic developement will be complete. Innu- merable facts and experiments, and the most rational deductions prove this ; so that man by nature, habit and circumstances, is omnivorous. The quantity of oxygen consumed, and of carbonic acid produced, by an adult male in respiration during 24 hours is, of oxygen consumed, not far from 45,405 cubic inches, or 15,751 grs.; but about 5000 inches of this is employed in oxydating other matter. Much depends, however, 156 TEMPERATURE OF THE BLOOD. on the quantity and quality of the food", the state of the system, &,e. Something less than this is the probable average. It is also thought that the skin effects changes of the air not unlike those produced by the lungs. The combination of carbon with oxygen thus, or in aay way effected in the system, evolves heat. Thus a pound of pure charcoal, by combination with oxygen gas, evolves heat sufficient to elevate the temperature of 78 pounds of water from 32 to 212 Fahr. This, then, Is supposed to be the source of animal heat, indispensable to the vita) process. The conversion of sugar or starch into fat, supplies the system with oxygen, and heat is developed by the union of this with carbon, as with the bile, &c. Whilst the animal system is in a healthy condition, the necessary carbon for the supply of heat is fur- nished by the food, but otherwise and without food, the fat of the body is consumed by its carbon being converted into carbonic acid and it bydiogen into water. Diseases of the liver, so frequent in hot seasons and climates, is as- cribed by Liebig to an accumulation of carbon in the body. Hep- atic diseases arising from an excess of carbon, are prevalent in summer, while in winter pulmonary diseases are frequent, in consequence of an excess of oxygen. The system requires less carbonaceous food and less in quantity in warm than in cold weather j and hepatic diseases among people from the north, residents of tropical climates, is attributed to the use of food fitted only for their former residence and climate. The size of the liver is thought to be inversely in proportion to that of the respiratory organs. Carbonic acid is evolved in proportion to the temperature, the lungs being inefficient when the air is much rar- ified ; consequently the liver must excrete more carbon to preserve the blood from carbonaceous matter ; and a greater secretion of bile is- required in hot climates to compensate for the lesser action of the lungs in purifying the blood. Less carbonic acid is evolved by per- sons living on vegetable diet than when living on animal food. The heat of the blood being the same in all climates and conditions, a, larger portion of combustible materials is required to preserve the necessary temperature in cold than in warm weather, because more heat is given off to surrounding objects, having less of it ; conse- quently more food is required. It is, indeed, generally known that a person well supplied with nutritive food in cold weather sustains the cold much better than one sparingly supplied, and that a person will die much sooner without food in cold than in warm weather. Hence the enormous quantity of food consumed by people in very cold lati- tudes, and the small quantities consumed by those in very warm cli- mates. The customary food also of the first is seen to be chiefly fats and oils, containing from 66 to 79 per cent, of carbon, while that of the latter (the Hindoos for example) is a light vegetable food. An ALIMEMTIVENESS. 157 Esquimaux eats, says Capt Ross, 20 pounds of flesh daily, and Capt. Cochrane says he has repeatedly seen aYakuti eat 40 pounds of meat a day ; and a Russian Admiral was informed that one of them con- sumed in 24 hours the hind quarter of a large ox, 24 pounds of fat, and a proportionable quantity of melted butter as drink. To test this, the Admiral gave him a thick porridge of rice, boiled with 3 pounds of butter, the whole weighing 28 pounds, which he consumed on the spot ; and this, too, after he had breakfasted. The natives of Greenland cannot subsist without large quantities of fats and oils ; but this, undoubtedly, is in part an instinctive propen- sity, and not wholly the result of climate, as some in warm climates are little less voracious. Dr. Pereira justly ascribes this fondness for food to an original propensity. It is certainly everywhere well known that some persons are what are called great eaters, while others are small eaters. This fact is observable in the people of different na- tions. The Spanish and French are very moderate eaters, while the Germans, English and Americans are great feeders. The organ of this faculty, Dr. Vimont observed to be remarkably distinguished among a large collection of men of those nations. This, of course, usually corresponds with the accustomed exercise of the propensity, as the result of necessity. In the above example, the Doctor saw that the Spanish and French were satisfied with some fruit, a light soup and a little meat, while the Germans constantly complained of the want of meat, and continually assailed him with the cry of flesh, flesh, sir." The organ of alimentiveness, the function of which is an appetite for food, is considered as established by some of the most distinguished medical men, both as to its office and location. It is as apparent that the instinct of nutrition must have physical powers for its manifesta- tions as that any function of the body or mind must have an appropri- ate organ. Nor is it less true that each function of mind must have a distinct and fit instrument for its exercise, than that all must have such an instrument as the brain or the whole body for the manifesta- tion of the whole or any class of the phenomena of life. Strange in- consistency that which would make the brain an exception to all the laws of organic nature ! Mr. Combe says the stomach is to this or- gan what the eye is to the sense of seeing. Cut off the communica- tion between it and the brain, and the appetite will be lost. A dog was kept without food till he was ravenous with hunger ; the phneu- mogastric nerve was then divided and the sensation left him at once. Examples in the crania of mankind are remarkable." Hydrogen is an essential element of the body and a necessary ingre- dient of vegetable and animal food. The proportion in which this is found varies in different alimentary substances. In one class it is in the proportion to form water with oxygen, in another it is in a greater 14 158 HYDROGEN OXYGEN. proportion, or in excess, and in another it is in a less proportion than in water. The first class of alimentary principles in which these two elements are in the same ratio as in water, are called hydrates of carbon, con- sisting of carbon and the two elements of water, hydrogen and oxygen, as with starch, sugar, gum, vinegar, &c. These, therefore, afford carbon for oxydation in the system, while the hydrogen remains united with the oxygen in the water. Gramnivorous animals expire a vol- ume of carbonic acid equal to that of the oxygen they inspire ; hence there is no loss of oxygen. A large proportion of the food of these animals consists of principles containing hydrogen in the proportion of water, or at the point of its saturation with oxygen. The affinity of hydrogen at the temperature of the body is greater than for carbon, hence a volume of carbonic acid is expired corresponding with that inspired, as little hydrogen is afforded to combine with the oxygen. The second class or group of principles, in which hydrogen is in ex- cess, includes nitrogenized and non-nitrogenized food. These princi- ples are lard, alcohol, protein, albumen, fibrine, &c. These constitu- ents of food are ultimately changed in the system by the conversion of their carbon into carbonic acid, and the hydrogen into water. The hydrogen of food unassimilated with the unoxydized carbon is expel- led in urine and the faeces. The union of hydrogen and oxygen causes the evolution of heat ; and in the combustion of equal weights of hy- drogen and oxygen the former gives out more heat than the latter. The third class or group contains hydrogen in a less proportion than in water, as in pectine, or vegetable jelly, and some vegetable acids ; their hydrogen is therefore combined with carbon and oxygen. Oxygen. This is the most important element of food and of organ- ized beings, and is said to constitute 3-4ths of the solid globe. It con- stitutes 23-100ths, by weight of the atmosphere, and 8-9ths, by weight of the water and mineral portion of the world, and 16-22ds of the car- bonic acid of the atmosphere. The three most abundant constituents of the earth, silica, carbonate of lime and alumina, are composed of about 45 per cent, of oxygen. It is the most active agent in all nat- ural phenomena; and without its ceaseless influence, all life would cease. It is an essential element of food, such as starch, fats, sugar, gum, &c. It is thrown out of the animal system in the form of car- bonic acid and water ; so that such food as contains oxygen in a small quantity, consumes a larger portion of atmospheric oxygen than that in which it is deficient ; the quality of food, consequently, greatly af- fects respiration. Vegetable diet greatly reduces and animal food equally augments the consumption of oxygen. Some of the vegetable salts, as acetate, tartrate, citrate, &c. when swallowed, are partially de- composed in the system, the acid disappears and carbonic acid is sub- stituted. In taking these salts in a state of effervescence, this change is obvious. NITROGEN. 159 Nitrogen is an essential constituent of the body. It enters into com- bination very slowly. The albumen of the egg and the caseine of milk alike afford this element for the growth of the young. The prin- cipal ingredients of the blood, and indeed of every part of the organs, contain 17 per cent, of it, at least. The albumen of wheat, vegetable fibrine, caseine, and gluten contain 15 per cent, of it. The grains, peas, beans, potatoes, cabbage, carrots, turnips, &c. contain portions of it. Nitrogenized food is supposed to be alone capable of conver- sion into blood, and of forming the animal tissues, hence they are call- ed plastic elements of nutrition ; while the non-nitrogenized foods go to the support of respiration, in which their carbon and hydrogen are oxydized, and heat is evolved ; and hence these are called by Liebig the elements of respiration. Of the first are vegetable fibrine, albumen, cassine, and animal flesh and blood ; and of the second are fat, starch, gum, sugar, pectine, wine, beer and spirits. Plants, as we have else- where said, derive their nitrogen from the ammonia of the atmos- phere; and it is probable that animals also derive a small portion from the same source. Animals cannot subsist alone on gum, sugar, starch or butter, for when thus fed they die in from 16 to 24 days. Thus a person feeding for a month on potatoes and water, passed a large quantity of urine, and was extremely feeble, but recovered in a short time on being fed with nitrogenized food. It has been said, also, that the English ne- groes, fed on potatoes only, are apt to die of the dropsy, and that the planters found it necessary to allow them milk and bread ; and fur- 1 ther, that the Irish, who feed chiefly on potatoes, drink sour milk to ] ..... digest them better. Nitrogenized aliment is not, however, capable alone of supporting life, if we except gluten. Animals taking gela- tine, fibrine and albumen, separately, die with inanition, but a diet of flesh, bones, or of gluten, collectively, afford complete nutrition. In- stances are cited in which life has been prolonged with sugar and also with gum alone, but some other principles were, it is thought, taken in connection with them. It is an important fact connected with animal and vegetable physi- ology, and one which may be viewed in connection with the remarks made on vegetable life in a preceding part of this work, that the vege- table organic principles are identical with animal fibrine, albumen and caseine, possessing the same proportions of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen, and also the same relative amount of sulphur, phosphorus and phosphate of lime. The 3 first, fibrine, albumen and caseine compose Proteine from I hold the first place. If, therefore, animal or vegetable proteine be wanting in food, nutrition is arrest- ed, both in graminivorous and carnivorous animals. The food of all, contains nitrogenized matters identical with the constituents of the blood and tissues of the body, and therefore the elements of gum, su- 160 THE HORSE L1EB1O ALCOHOL. gar and oils are not required for the production of the blood. The amount of nitrogenized food is amply sufficient for the growth and to supply the waste of the organs of all animals. It has been found that a horse will consume, in 24 hours, 7,500 parts of fresh hay, 2,270 of oats, and 16,000 of water total 25,770, containing 3,938 parts carbon, 446 hydrogen, 139 nitrogen, 3,209 oxy- gen, and 672 of salts and earthy matters. In this time the excretions are, urine 1,330, faeces 14,250 -total 15,580; which, deducted from the food eaten, leaves 10,190 excess of food, but a loss in salts and earthy matter of 12. The excess of food in a dry state is 4,565, and of the elements of carbon 2,465, hydrogen 255, nitrogen 24, and oxy- gen 1,846. Deducting the nitrogen of the excretion from that of the food, the surplus is 370 grs..troy. Thus, if the blood contain 80 per cent, of water, and 20 per cent, of dry residue, of which 15 per cent, is nitrogen, 370 grs. will form 2,457 grs. of dried blood, or 1| pounds adv. of common blood daily. The surplus carbon to be thrown out of the system by the lungs and skin in the form of carbonic acid is also shown to be equal to about 4 pounds adv. Hence it follows that ni- trogenized foods are alone converted into blood and organized tissues that such of these as contain proteine alone form albumenous and fibrinous tissues that gelatine is not converted into blood, but may form gelatinous tissues ; as the membranes, cartilage, and cellular tissues ; and that the non-nitrogenized foods form fat, the carbon and hydrogen of which are burned in the lungs, and thus produce animal heat. These are deductions from, or positions of Liebig, but statements have been adduced to controvert some of these, with other positions of that bold and accomplished author. We believe, however, that at the present stage of chemical research, Leibig's views will not easily be impaired. No author has of late thrown so much light on animal and vegetable physiology as Liebig, from whom many of these principles are gathered ; and we perceive that Dr. Pereira, whose order of ar- rangement we have observed, has, in most cases, given due credit to that author. Dr. Prout, Boussingault, and others also agree in most respects with that writer. Alcohol, as well as sugar and fat, is one of the elements of respira- tion, when taken, and is burned in the lungs. It is absorbed, but does not pass off by the excretions. A large portion evidently escapes by the lungs, after getting into the circulation, as perceived by the odor of the breath. It does not contain the important elements (nitrogen, sulphur and phosphorus) for the formation of tissues. When thus burned in the lungs it is converted into carbonic acid and water, evolves heat, and thereby elevates the temperature of the body. It is emphatically, as Dr. Pereira says, "a fuel in the animal economy." In common, language, it is taken in cold weather to keep warm, or to HUMAN FAT NUTRITIVE EQUIVALENTS. 161 prevent catching cold." It is therefore temporarily used in cases of extreme exhaustion from exertion and want of food; but a reaction ensues, and its ultimate effects are disastrous. It is apparent that people of cold climates take more spirits than those of warm climates, with less injury; for, us Liebig says, they inhale a more condensed air, take in more oxygen by inspiration, combustion is more rapid, and the alcohol is thereby more readily thrown off. Before it gets to the lunus, however, it exerts a pernicious influence in the circulation on the brain, liver, &c., and there are other and much more salutary com- bustibles fur the support of animal heat. It does not form fat, as its carbon (79) and hydrogen (19-74) are not in the proportion of these elements in fat; nor do we commonly find drunkards fat. When the non-nitrogenized food, such as sugar, starch, gum, fat, &c. are disproportionate to the quantity of oxygen taken into the lungs by inspiration, the excess forms fat. These contain about 79 carbon to aboiu 11 hydrogen. Tne conversion of starch and sugar into fat is illustrated by the fact that a goose weighing 4 pounds gained in 36 days, by bemsj fed on 24 pounds of Indian corn, 5 pounds, and yielded 85 pounds of fat. Fat is evidently converted into most of the princi- ples necessary for the prolongation of animal life, as seen by the ab- sorption of that of the body. The use of fat is evidently as a reservoir of nutriment; for, in the absence of the required food, it is taken up and consumed. It yields carbon and hydrogen for burning in the lungs for the promotion of heat, but it does not renovate. Indian corn contains 9 per cent, of a yellow oil, and a bushel yields 2 pounds. Hay contains 2 per cent, of fatty matter. Milch cows have less fit than the food they have consumed, because it goes to the milk. The food richest in starch, sugar, &c. contributes most to fat in ani- mals. Human fat is composed of carbon 79, hydrogen 11, and oxygen 9 percent. Turkish women, it is said, by tueir diet of rice and strong soups, unite the conditions for the formation of cellular tissue and fat; and in the Bey's seraglio they are fattened against a certain day by repose, baths, and a diet of Turkish flour with honey- This is ac- complished in 15 days. A scale of nutritive equivalents of the most important vegetable food has been formed on the proportion of the nitrogen they contain, which is as follows : Substances. Equirts. Substances. EquivU. Wheat . . 107 Do. Flour, . . 100 Barley Meal, . 119 Barley, . . .130 Indian Corn, . . 138 Rice, -. . .117 14* Buckwheat, . . 108 Potatoes, . . 613 Do. kept 10 months, . 894 Do. died at 212, . 126 Lentils, . . .57 Turnips, . , 133b 162 PHOSPHORUS AND PHOSPHATES. White Haricots, 56 White Garden Cabbage, . 810 Do. dried at 212, . 83 Oats, . . .117 Rye, . . Ill Jerusalem Artichokes, . 539 Carrots, . . 757 Do. dried at 212, . . 95 Horse Beans, . 44 Peas, . i *-, . 67 Thus 44 parts of horse beans, 67 of peas, or 83 of dried cabbage are equal in nitrogen to 100 parts of wheat flour, 138 of maize, or 613 of potatoes. But while Ihese afford the most nitrogen, they are deficient in the elements (phosphate of lime and magnesia) which compose the bones, and are therefore of much less value than others as articles of food ; they satisfy the appetite, but add little to the strength. All vegetable poisons contain nitrogen, and some nitrogenized articles of food contain poisonous principles, as with the solanina of potatoes and some others of that genus ; but these principles are always dissipated or modified, as we have shown, by heat. Phosphorus is an essential constituent of animals and vegetables. It is an ingredient in the bones and in the albumen and fibrine of tis- sues, and in nervous matter. It has been thought that an unequal proportion of this substance exists in the brains of sane and insane persons and idiots ; but this has not been confirmed. In bones, it ex- ists in combination with oxygen and lime, hence it must constitute an element of animal food. It is an important part of the yolk of eggs, and forms the skeleton of the embryotic animal; and also of milk, by which the frame of young mamals is produced. In the flesh, blood and bones of animals eaten as food, it is an essential element of nu- trition. Fishes also abound with phosphoric matter, which is recog- nized by the phosphoric odor of the breath of those who have eaten much of them. In plants it exists in the form of earthy phosphates in the ashes. It is yielded to them by the soil in the form of phos- phoric acid ; and they yield it to animals and man, as a constituent of the bones, the brain, &c. It being thus abundantly afforded in plants and animals eaten as food, so much of it as is not required for the ibove purposes is given out in urine, perspiration and excrement. Phosphate of magnesia and ammonia constitute a part of the seeds of all the grasses consumed by animals and man. It is chiefly in the outer husks. Horses consume much of it, and hence their coecum, consisting of these substances, is often as large as a child's head, and sometimes weighs 5 or 6 Ibs. Beer derives these principles from the husks of barley ; and bread affords it by the bran of the grain. The seeds of peas, beans, etc. contain little of the phosphates, though they yield much nitrogen, and hence their insufficiency as food. An earthy phosphate is abundantly afforded by unrefined sugar. The crust re- maining after boiling raw sugar contains 92 per cent, of sub-phos- phate of lime. The principal organic constituent of potatoes is also SULPHUR IRON. 163 phosphate of magnesia and ammonia. The earthy phosphates afford in 100 parts 22 of phosphorus. In 1000 parts, the fibrine of animals and vegetables yields 4.3 ; the albumen 3.3 ; acids of the brain 21 ; caseine 13 ; bone of the ox 9, and of the sheep 11 ; milk 0.56; blood 0.143 ; potatoes, dried, 2.5; wheat .792 to 1.98 ; rye 1.32 to 9.196 5 barley 0.22 to 1.32; oats 0.352 to 1.32; rice 0.286 to 0.88 ; garlic 0.242. Sulphur is likewise a component part of animals and vegetables ; it is contained in all the tissues composed of fibrine and albumen. A silver spoon, in eating eggs, indicates it by the formation of sulphuret of silver, and a solution of flesh in liquid potassoe also forms a sul- phuret. Caseine, hair and bones contain it. Powdered litharge, or oxide of lead, and lime is a dye for coloring hair black, it being the black sulphuret of lead ; the lime and lead form a sulphuret with the sulphur of the hair. The bones likewise contain it. This sul- phur of the body is detected in the sulphuretted hydrogen given off by | excrement and putrefying animal substances. This gas darkens the white paint of privies and silver articles in various ways. Sulphur- etted hydrogen prevails in the air where there are decaying vegetable and animal substances. The existence of it is undoubtedly the cause of the fatal miasma, so destructive to travellers, especially in Africa. It is said that the waters on the western coast of Africa are impreg- nated with it to the extent of 40,000 miles. Hence places in the west, where vegetation is rank and is in process of decay in autumn, this gas proves baneful. Urine and saliva contain sulphates, formed by the action of the oxygen of arterial blood on the sulphur of the tissues. The sulphur of the saliva acts on metallic substances placed in the mouth, as seen on the metal used in supporting or filling the teeth. The sulphur of the body is derived from vegetable and animal food. Spring and common water contain sulphate of lime. Most culinary vegetables, as we have before said, contain it ; such as celery, hops, rice, ginger, &c. The cruciferous plants abound with it. It is de- tected in the vapor of charred mustard, potatoes, cabbage, peas, and most fruits. Iron is a constituent of animals and vegetables, and consequently of most articles of food. The state in which it exists in organic bo- dies is not exactly known ; it is found in the ashes of burned vegeta- ble and animal matter. It is contained in the blood, and is thought to give it its bright red color. Hence the use of chalybeate waters in the disease anaemia, in which the blood contains little of it. The quantity in blood differs in different persons. 10,000 parts of blood contain 8 parts of peroxide of iron, or 5.6-10th parts of the pure me- tal. In the arterial blood, it is saturated with oxygen, but part of the oxygen is lost in circulating through the system ; and a protoxide of iron is formed by combining with carbonic acid, which is given off on 164 ELEMENTS OF VEGETABLES. coming to the lungs. The hair contains iron ; the black colored more the white. Iron has aTso"BeenlI?fecte(r in the gastric juice and the chyle. It is found in eggs, milk, mustard, potatoes, peas, cabbage, cucumbers, &c. Chlorine is an element of the blood and most of the secretions, as in urine, saliva, tears, gastric juice and the foeces. It is combined with sodium in the blood, and in the gastric juice with hydrogen. It being constantly consumed in these states, it requires equally constant re- newal. It is therefore taken into the body in the form of common salt, (chloride of sodium.) It is found in the yolk of the egg and in the mother's milk. It is an indispensable constituent of food, hence the strong appetite for it evinced by animals. Persons are too often neg- lectful of this fact, both with regard to themselves and the animals un- der their care. It is of the greatest importance in the formation of hydrochloric acid in the formation of the gastric juice. A disordered condition of the functions of this secretion is no doubt often attributa- ble to the want of an edequate supply of common salt. Its composi- tion is water, gastric mucous, and hydrochloric acid. The mucous membranes contain mucous, but none other. The juice may be made artificially. Sodium is a metal (the base of soda), constituting a part of the blood, tissues, and secretions of animals: also of feathers, hair, flesh, bristles, &c. It is received into the system in the form of chloride, &c., and exists in the form of sulphates and phosphates of soda. Calcium is a metal (the base of lime), and is a constituent of ani- mals and vegetables, as well as of minerals, existing principally united with phosphorus to form the bones. Subphosphate of lime is also a component part of blood, milk, muscles, nerves, the liver, and in fact, most of the animal solids. It is derived from the food from the three kingdoms. It is found in the grains, onions, and most other vege- tables. Rhubarb contains the oxalate, and grapes the tartrate ofcal- _^ ^cium. It is also derived from well and river water. The Chinese mix gypsum (sulphate of lime) with pulse, to form a jelly, which they eat. A morbid appetite for lime is not unfrequent. It is said that children not supplied with sufficient lime in their food, sometimes col- lect and eat it. Magnesium. This metal forms a small part of the bones, nervous matter, &c. of the body. It exists combined with oxygen and phosphoric acid, and often with ammonia. It constitutes portions of vegetable food, and is found in the cereal grains, potatoes, &c. Potassium is a constituent of animal and vegetable food. We have spoken of this important vegetable product in a previous chapter. It exists in plants combined with the acids, forming salts which are found in their ashes. Liebig says that the production of milk without pot- ash is impossible. It is found in potatoes, grapes, &c. 165 ALIMENTARY PRINCIPLES OF VEGETABLES. These are divided into those derived, 1st, from seeds, fleshy fruits, roots, buds and young shoots, leaves, leaf-stalks and flowers, receptacles and brats, stems ; and 2d, from ferns, lichens, alga, or sea-weeds, and fungi, or mushrooms. Seeds used as food are farinaceous and oleaginous. Among the most important of the farinaceous seeds are those of the cereal grains, which we have already described, but to which, from their great im- portance, we shall add some further useful particulars. The proximate principles of these valuable seeds are starch, albu- men, fibrine, glutine, mucine, oily matter (which 3 last are included in. gluten). Sugar, gum, earthy phosphates, ligneous matter (from husks, &c.), and water. To these have been added resin and a bitter principle found in some grains. Some alimentary substances composed of two simple elements, are denominated simple aliments, and the union of these with others, forms compound aliments. Water is a simple alimentary principle, formed by the union of two elements; sugar and fat is composed of 3, proteine of 4, and fibrine and albumen of 6 elements. These will be alluded to in order. The simple are the undecomponnded or ultimate elements, as the oxygen and hydrogen composing water, which water and other compound substances constitute separately or when com- bined, compound alimentary principles. The ultimate elements of the grains are stated in the last chapter. Their constituents, termed nitrogenized or plastic elements of nutrfc h f [ g~~ tion, are vegetable, albumen, fibrine, gluten and mucine, and their non- f nitrogenized constituents or elements of respiration are starch, sugar and gum. It appears that the average time of digestion of the grains when prepared, are boiled : rice 1 hour, barley 2 h., and barley-soup 1 h. 30 m Baked : sponge cake 2 h. 30 m., custard 2 h. 45 m., apple- dumpling 3 h., corn bread 3 h. 15 m., do. cake 3 h., wheat bread, fresh, 3 h. 30 m. The composition of wheaten bread with distilled water, but without salt, is, starch 53, gummy starch 18, sugar 36, gluten 20. In 100 parts of bread 30.15 are carbon. It does not appear that bread alone is capable of supporting life for a long period, in consequence of the small portion of nitrogen it contains. Oat meal is thought to be as nutritive as wheat flower, since it is found to contain about the same lUw-^ quantity of nitrogen. But having elsewhere spoken of the grains, the ' legumes, and of bread, we shall reserve further remarks on this sub- JL/O ject and the fruits for a future volume. The average composition of peas and beans may be assumed to be, in 100 parts starch 34, amyla- ceous fibre 16, legumine 15, gum 5, (kidney bean 19), albumen 1, sweet *w* AAw - 166 FARINACEOUS FOOD. extractive matter 3, membrane 8, water 15, salts 4. And the ultimate elements, carbon 37, hydrogen 5, nitrogen and oxygen 39, ashes 3, water 15. The quantity of nitrogen being larger than in the grains, they are thought by some to be more nutritive ; thus about 55 to 60 parts are assumed to be equal to 100 of wheat flour ; but their defi- ciency in the phosphates, &c. render them probably less important as food. Farinaceous or starchy principle. This is obtained from and vari- ously abounds in plants. It is called amylum, starch, fecula, or farina- ceous matter. It is found in the roots, stems, tubercles, fruits and seeds of almost all plants. The starchy particles are seen by the microscope to be organized in various forms, each exhibiting a circular spot, or hilum, which adhered to the cell containing them. The grains consist of concentric layers, appearing like rings. The quantity of starch in some important substances is as follows in the 100 parts : Potato kidney 9, do. red 15, do. champion 15, do. L. orpheline 24; Tapioca 13, arrow-root 26, ginger 19, tumeric 12, yam 22, barley meal 67, wheat flour 56 to 72, oatmeal 59, rye do. 61, Indian corn 80, rice (Carolina) 85, peas 32, garden bean 34. The composition of dried wheat starch is, 42 carbon and 57 water; in 100 parts, and these 2 substances constitute similar proportions in the starch of other substances. Starch is converted by digestion into gum and sugar; and this is in part effected by the saliva of the mouth. When cooked, starch is nutritious and easily digested, and is considered a necessary article of food. Without it, Dr. Prout says, animals could not exist. A much larger quantity of amylaceous matter may be eaten than of sugar, and for a much longer period. To render it di- gestible with man it requires to be cooked ; and the more effectually its grains are broken the more wholesome it becomes. Thus, boiled and kneaded with water or milk and flour, it is suitable for many uses in cookery. The stomachs of birds and graminivorous animals are capable of dissolving the raw starchy particles, while with man and many animals they pass off unaffected. Hence the saving of nourish- ment by boiling potatoes before giving them to domestic animals. Liebig considers that, as starch is a non-nitrogenized food, it is an element of respiration, and in the formation of fat is not transformed into blood or tissue. Children, it is further said, fed on salep, arrow- root, or other amylaceous food, not contributing to the formation of bones, become fat ; but they do not acquire corresponding strength or an equal developement of their organs. Sago requires for digestion 1, and arrow-root 2 hours. These and other farinaceous aliments being the least irritating, are best for persons with a morbid sensibility, and in febrile and inflammatory diseases ; and they remain on the stomach when it rejects all other food. It has been thought, however, of little LIGNINE, OR WOODY FIBRE. 107 value in some forms of dispepsia, as it sometimes passes the system undigested. As animal food requires less modification in the process of assimilation than vegetable food, the animal aliments, and especially jellies, have been used in preference to farinaceous substances in this and other cases where the latter have been recommended. Of tb.3 amylaceous matter of arrow-root, salep, tapiaco, sago, &c. we have elsewhere spoken. The quantity of starch in rice has been turned to account in England by a patent for obtaining it, which is simply by the addition of a weak solution of caustic alkali; and in another patent an alkaline salt is substituted. The still larger pro- portion of starch afforded by Indian corn is also said to have led to the establishment of manufactories of starch from it in this country. No substance, it has been said by a distinguished physician, is so much relished by infants when weaned, or which is less apt to turn sour, as the tapiaco starch. The milk and other preparations of this >- and other kinds of starch are made like that of sago ; but less boiling ? is required. Lignine, or Woody Fibre, as an Alimentary Principle. This is the substance of all vegetable tissues, and is obtained by submitting vege- tables successively to the action of ether, alcohol, water, diluted acids and alkalies, in all of which it is insoluble. The proportion of lignine in 100 parts of rice is 4.8, Barley; (husk) 18.75, Oats (bran) 34, Rye (husk) 24, Peas 21, Garden bean 25, Kidney do. 18, Potato 4 to 10, &c. The proportions of this and of other principles in the fruits will be given in another volume. Amylaceous fibre, often spo- ken of by writers, is not essentially different from the woody fibre ; and its composition is probably nearly the same. In most plants it is composed of nearly equal parts of carbon and water. It is doubtful as to lignine being a nutritive principle with man, though it is the common food of many insects and some other animals. It requires to be reduced and otherwise preprared, when it resembles the amylaceous powders. Under bread we have spoken of it as af- fording that article to the Laplanders, but as starch is diffused through the plant by the sap, this may form the nutritive principle attributed to lignine. It is certain that the ligneous matter of most of our common vege- table food is quite indigestible, and is consequently evacuated. Thus the skin of potatoes, grapes, the peal and cores of apples, and other fruits, and the shells and stones of nuts, plums, cherries, the coats of the grains, seeds of peas, beans, melons, &c., are all incapable of assi- milation, and ought always to be removed, as they are very liable to cause obstructions in the alimentary canal. We do not doubt that many, very many, deaths are occasioned by eating thick and tough-skinned fruits without removing these indiges- tible and refractory substances before the fruit is eaten ; for they very , 168 EFFECTS OF SKINS OF FRUITS, STONES, ETC. often resist the operation of powerful cathartics, especially if there ia a torpid condition of the bowels. The loss of a son from these causes, though unobserved by the attending physician, has induced the author to notice the importance of these facts, and to call the attention of parents and physicians to them, as he is well convinced that the heed- lessness so commonly manifested on this subject is the primary and frequently unknown cause of disease and death with great numbers. It may be said that, with some of the grains, the external skin or husk acts as a stimulant and mechanical agent on the bowels. This may be true with respect to some of the lower animals, but few per- sons are willing to acknowledge themselves a horse or a cow. And, although the practice of swallowing these husks may find an apology in the opinion that they are mechanical and stimulating agents, it by no means follows that the husks of all or any other fruits are, in like manner, to be swallowed with impunity. The vulgar practice also of swallowing the stones of many fruits is not less reprehensible, either from a voraciousness which admits of no regard to safety, or from the not less unreasonable opinion that they contribute to the digestion or wholesome effects of the fruit. The stones of many fruits are known to contain prussic acid; and it has been said by some writers that they, as well as the seeds of fruits, should be, or were designed to be eaten. But this opinion can find no fact in science to support it. As to the husks of some of the grains being ground, mixed and eaten with the flour or meal, there can be less objection in certain conditions of the body, but the constant prac- tice is not warranted by the necessities of our nature or the organiza- tion of the alimentary system. Certain it is that, in order to afford the required nutriment, a much larger quantity of matter must be con- sumed, and it is equally certain that the husks do not contribute a par- ticle of such nourishment, nor are they in any form digestible. If the contrary were to be contended for, or the utility of swallowing the husks admitted, the swallowing of most kinds of indigestible trash hav- ing no nutriment, with most other kinds of food, cannot be objected to. The fact commonly is that too much of the nutritive and unadulterated flour is eaten at a time, or is quite as commonly wretchedly prepared, but this offers no apology for eating an indigestible substance, or for adulterating wholesome and nutritive food. ! The external covering of the seeds of the cerealia, and particularly of wheat, is the best form in which lignine may be taken. Bread," says Dr. Prout, made with undressed flour, or with an extra quantity of bran, is the best form in which farinaceous matter, can be usually taken, not only in diabetes but in most of the other varieties of dys- pepsia, accompanied by constirpation." The fleshy parts of mush- rooms are similar to lisnine. It is the part remaining of mushrooms after all other parts have been dissolved in water, alcohol, or a weak alkaline sulution. . JELLY ACIDS OILS. 169 Vegetable jelly, or the pectinaceous alimentary principle in vegeta- bles has starch for its basis ; with pectine, or pectic acid. These last are veaeto-gelalinous substances. They are extensively distributed in the various pulpy fruits, as we shall notice in another volume, to which the reader is referred for useful and interesting particulars on this subject. This principle is also found in the carrot, turnip, celery, Jerusalem artichoke, onion, beet, and other roots. Pectine and its acid are analogous, but the first dissolves in cold water, while the acid is not easi'y soluble. ISu^ar dissolved in a solution of pectine, forms a partial jelly, which is manifest in the preparation of fruits. It is con- sidered nutritive and easily digestible; perhaps not unlike gum. It is composed of caibon and water, and is considered an element of res- piration. An acidulous principle is also an element of food. Succulent herbs, as well as fruits, contain vegetable acid. Vinegar has been employ- ed in all ages as an aliment, or rather the substances containing it, and veritable acids are considered necessary for the preservation of health, but they undergo no chemical change in the body, except to combine with a base. Scurvy is a common result of abstinence from succulent vegetable substances having the organic acids; and the ben- eficial effects of these acids appear to be owing to the existence of a salt with which they are capable of being incorporated in the system. No artificial preparation of these equals the natural fruit or vegetable substance. All vegetable acids are not, however, equally valuable as a constituent of food. They are, as we have before mentioned, highly grateful and cooling ingredients in drinks. But further particulars respecting vegetable acids will be given under the head of fruits, par- ticularly vinegar, or acetic acid, which, as we have seen, is of much importance with solids and other articles of food. Vinegar in a pure state cannot be strictly considered an alimentary principle. The com- mon vinegar may be so considered, from the fact that it contains a portion of starch, sugar, gum and gluten, but it is less necessary in cold climates than in warm ones. The alcoholic principle we have before alluded to. It should not be considered an alimentary principle. Alcohol has also been detected in the blood, the brain, the urine and the bile. Oleaginous aliments are the fixed and volatile oils of vegetables ; and these, it will have been seen, are before spoken of under the heads of the plants affording them. The fixed vegetable oils affix a permanent greasy stain to paper, while the volatile may be removed by a moderate heat. In the vegetable kingdom, oils are obtained chiefly from seeds, such as rape, poppy, mustard jeeds, and nutmeg, / also from various roots, described in the next volume. The proportion of this in black mustard is 18, linseed 22, and maize 11 to 18. The fixed oils are composed of several fatty or saponaceous princi- 15 170 OILS AND FATTY MATTER. pies, each of which is convertible, by a caustic alkali, into a fatty acid, saccharine matter, called glycerine, and water ; they have, therefore, been called kydrated salts of glycerine. Some of the acids are termed fixed acids, and others are odorous, volatile, and acrid. Many of the oily seeds and nuts are very indigestible, and being non-nitrogenized foods, they are thought to be incapable of transformation into food ; but are employed in the process of respiration. Liebig maintains that fat may be formed in the body by sugar and starch. It is quite certain that animals derive fat chiefly from vegetables, both by the process of assimilation and from the original oil many are known to contain. The chyle at all times, whether feeding on vege- table or animal food, contains floating globules of oil ; and the adi- pose, as well as the nervous tissues, obtain their fatty parts from the blood. The relative amount of oily matters in the system constitute marked differences in the appearance, the leanness and obesity of in- dividuals. Gall-stones have been attributed to the imperfect assimila- tion of oily substances. But, notwithstanding the use of oily substan- ces have been much condemned, they are important elements of food, and they are found, in many cases, highly useful, even to diabetic pa- tients. They afford, when they agree with the stomach, a sensation of satisfaction and support not experienced from other food. Butter is more especially an agreeable form of oleaginous food. This is ex- tensively produced in the U. S. 600,000 pounds are annually ex- ported to the W. Indies. For this purpose it is clarified before it is salted, by placing it in a vessel surrounded by water within another vessel, and slowly heating it until melted. After standing for parts to settle, it is turned off, cooled and salted. Butter may be preserved by covering it, when packed, with brine, in which has been dissolved a small portion of saltpetre. Oil is .digested with difficulty in most cases ; and although," says Dr. Pereira, it has been said by some writers, that, taken as a condiment with salads, it promotes their di- gestion, yet I do not coincide with them." Bone oil, it is said, when taken with salads, is less likely to disturb the stomach than the same or other oily or fatty substances when cooked. Olive or sweet oil will be noticed in the next volume, under the head of that fruit, with the other vegetable oils. The volatile oils, which belong exclusively to the vegetable kingdom, are a constituent, as we have seen, of many plants served at table in a raw state, and of the labiate plants generally, as with the seasoning herbs, such as mint, savory, thyme, majoram, &c, This oil is con- tained in small cells within the leaves. The aromatic seeds and leaves of many of the umbelliferous plants, such as anise, carroway, fennel, &c. are also seen to contain this oil ; and it is to it that they, with the preceding, owe their flavor. This oil, in the latter plants, is con- tained in tubular vessels called vitta, within the pericarp of the fruit. ESSENCES ALBUMEN. 171 The cruciferous plants we have described, such as horse-radish, mus- tard, water-cress, &c., owe their pungency to their acrid volatile oil. These are termed siliquose condiments. So also with the aliaceous condiments we have mentioned, such as garlic, onion, leeks, &c. ; like- wise the spices, as the nutmeg, cinnamon, cloves, peppers, allspice. The leaves of the peach, laurel, and many others, contain this oil. The volatile oils are much adulterated, as sold from the shops, with resinous substances, fixed, and inferior oils and alcohol. The two first are detected by distillation, and the last by agitating the oil in water, when it becomes milky. Essences are prepared from the volatile oils by dissolving 1 part of them in 8 of spirits of wine. It is not known that the effects of these oils, as combined with the above substances, serve any other pur- pose than the gratification of taste ; yet it is but reasonable to con- clude that they do. They are thrown out of the system, after absorp- tion, in the secretories, possessed of all these peculiar qualities. They are evidently stimulating ; and it may be their chief office thus to promote the action of the fluids and solids, and quicken their action. They may produce heat by being burned in the lungs. It cannot be doubted that they exert an important influence in the ani- mal functions. Albuminous substances. These, with fibrine and caseine, are de- nominated proteinaceous aliments, or the albuminous principle. Pro- teine is composed, per centum, of carbon 55.44, hydrogen 6.95, nitro- gen 16.05, oxygen 21.56, in 100 parrs. It exists in organic bodies with sulphur, phosphorus, potash, soda, common salt, &c. The compounds of protiene form the elements of nutrition ; and these are produced by vegetables alone, though the power of converting one modification of protiene into another is possessed by animals. In this point of view, says Liebig, the vegetable forms of proteine ; vegetable fibrine, albu- men and caseine become signally important as the only source of pro- teine for animal life, and consequently, of nutrition, or the growth in mass of the animal body." These vegetable proteinaceous principles, though, as we have before said, identical with those of animais, are distinguished as vegetable fibrine, albumen, caseine and pure gluten. ^ How beautiful and admirably simple," says this author, appear the processes of nutrition and the formation of the organs of animals in which vitality chiefly resides ! Those vegetable principles, which in animals are used to form blood, contain the chief constituents of blood, fibrine and albumen, ready formed. All plants, besides, con- tain a quantity of iron, which reappears in the coloring matter of the blood. Vegetables produce, in their organism, the blood of all animals ; for the carnivora, in consuming the blood and flesh of the graminivora, consume, strictly speaking, only the vegetable principles which have served for the nutrition of the latter. 172 FIBRINE, ALBUMEN, GLUTEN, ETC. Albumen is very nutritious, and is of easy digestion ; but its diges- tibility is impaired by being boiled hard, and by frying. Liquid al- bumen is coagulated by the gastric juice, and afterwards dissolved. It is said to be the origin of all the animal tissue, and all nitrogenized food, derived either from animals or vegetables ; and its principles are converted into albumen before they form a part in nutrition. But animals cannot subsist alone on albumen ; they refuse to take it, in- deed, after a few days, and prefer to suffer hunger and death. Caseine, constituting chiefly a part of animal substances, milk and cheese espe- cially, does not claim so much attention here. Fibrine, in the gluten of wheat flour, and rye meal, is composed, in 100 parts, of the first named Carbon 54, hydrogen 7.200, nitrogen 15.500, oxygen, sulphur, phosphorus 23, and in that of rye meal of nearly the very same elements. The proximate or proteinaceous principles of vegetables, Liebig says, are identical with the fibrine, al- bumen and caseine of animals, and also the gluten. Vegetable fibrins is most abundant in the cereal grasses, in many rich fruits and fresh vegetable juices, as beet roots, carrots, turnips, &c. ; and it is seen to coagulate from these by standing. The albumen of rye is composed of carbon 54.74, hydrogen 7.77, ni- trogen 15.85, oxygen, &c. 21.64. These principles are equally as nutritive in vegetables as in animals. In the latter they form blood. These important elements are indeed chiefly obtained by animals from the vegetable kingdom. Vegetable albumen abounds in the cerelia. It is likewise found abundantly in oily seeds, as with the nuts, &c. A considerable quan- tity is contained in vegetable juices, as in those of the cabbages, car- rots, cauliflowers, asparagus, turnips, and most cultivated nutritive vegetables. It is separated from its coagulum of fibrine. Vegetable caseine, or legumine, is obtained chiefly from leguminous seeds, as peas, beans, &.c. ; also from oily seeds, or nuts, and vegetable juices. Gluten remains after the starch, gum, sugar, and albumen are washed from wheaten dough under a stream of water. When boiled in alcohol it is formed into 2 parts; one is held in solution, and the other is insoluble in it. This last, according to Leibig, is vegetable fibrine, and the first is gluten, which is supposed to consist of mucine and glutine. The composition of gluten, in 100 parts, is glutine 20, vegetable fibrine or albumen 72, mucine 4, oily matter 3, with traces of starch. The proportions of this in wheat vary according to soil and culture, from 9 to 35 in 100 parts. Manured with human urine, it yields 35, and the foeces 33.94, ox blood 34, horse manure 13, cow do. 11.96, pigeon do. 12, vegetable humus 9.6, and without manure 9.2. Rice yields 3.60, maize 3, beans 5.758, dry peas 10, potatoes, 3.5 red beet 1.3. Gluten is of easy digestion by the acid of the gastric juice ; it is GELATINOUS AND SACCHARINE PRINCIPLES. 173 highly nutritious and is capable alone of the continued nutrition of animals ; but an aversion to it is excited in animals obliged to subsist entirely upon it. It is without odor or flavor, and is sometimes nauseous; yet it has been given to animals, by Magendie, without dis- taste, in doses of from 1850 to 2300 grs. daily, for 3 months, they pre- serving excellent health. This appears to be opposed to the received opinion, that one aliment alone is unfitted for prolonging life beyond a short time ; but in gluten are found two or more different substan- ces. It is to gluten that wheat flour owes its chief nutriment and susceptibility of being made into bread. Gluten bread has of late been made for diabetic patients ; and it seems well fitted for dispeptic persons. The gelatinous principles of food have been thought a modification of albumen, but these, with the tissues formed of them, are said to differ in their properties and composition ; and the one has not been con- verted into the other. The composition of proteine compounds is said to be identical with the flesh and blood of animals, while those of the gelatinous tissues are not; therefore the nutritive qualities of the former are not the same. The albuminous tissues are insoluble in water, and become hard by boiling, while those of gelatin become soft and tremulous, forming gelatin or jelly. Such compounds as soups, hashes and stews, from the gelatin they contain, are said to be objectionable with dispeptic persons and invalids, in consequence of the changes effected in the gelatin by heat ; but certain gelatinous foods must be excepted. These gelatinous principles, however, are more especially connected with animal food, of which it is not our pro- vince now to speak. The variety of alimentary substances in the vegetable kingdom are much greater than those of animals, and from the difficulty commonly of determining the nutritive properties of these, our subject assumes great importance with every reader. The saccharine alimentary principle. Of the general properties of sugar, and as a product of the cane, we have spoken in the 2d part of this volume, and also as an article of commerce and domestic use ; it is, however, a constituent of vegetables, generally, and also of ani- mals. The cereal grains contain portions of it, varying from 1 to 8 J per cent. The fruits, and some of the roots especially, abound with it. The highest proportion in fruits is the fig, 62.5, and of the roots in ,J """jft the carrot juice evaporated to dryness, 93.71. Of that in the fruits we shall speak under the head of fruits. It has heretofore been considered a nutritious principle, but Liebig affirms that it is chiefly an element of respiration. Brown sugar is said to be extensively adulterated with sugar prepared from potato starch and from that of sago flour. The mucilaginous alimentary principle is extensively diffused in the vegetable kingdom, in the form of gums. It exudes spontaneously 15* 174 MUCILAGE WATER. from very many plants, and is an important article in medicine and in the arts. Of the gums thus used we shall speak particularly in the next volume. The grains contain from 1 to 18 per cent, of mucilage, the largest proportion being in wheat flour. Rye meal also contains 11 parts in the 100; the kidney bean 19.37, and marsh-mallow root 35.64. The properties of the gummy matters in different plants differ materially. Gums likewise differ much in their composition and solu- bility. Their chief constituents are carbon and water. They have Been thought to possess nutritive principles, but are now considered an element of respiration, as before asserted. - They are of difficult di- gestion, and therefore not apt to agree with dispeptics ; still they are employed by invalids as a demulcent and in some inflammatory dis- eases. In coughs, irritations of the throat, &c. they are used in va- rious forms, as we shall hereafter show. Water. It has been stated throughout this work that water is a paramount and an essential constituent of plants, and consequently of vegetable food. It is equally essential in all the vital functions of animals ; hence it was anciently thought the primary principle of vi- tality. It is seen to compose a large portion of the organs of human and animal bodies, as well as of all plants, with the exception of some few infusoria and mosses. Flesh contains about 74, and the blood 80 per cent, of water; thus it is estimated to constitute about three- rths, by weight, of the human system. This being rapidly con- sumed by the secretions, it follows that both animals and plants must be often and abundantly supplied with it. In this respect it is more essential to animal life than solid food, and is intermediate between that and air. Some, however, have considered it unimportant as a drink, and j Ay*k have abstained from its use ; but they have, nevertheless, consumed it in nearly equal quantities in succulent vegetable food. As this is com- r F/M&rw* posed of nearly 5-6ths of water, and as the quantity of water drunk by an adult in health is about 6 pounds in 24 hours, it is probable that a free use of succulent vegetables affords nearly, if not quite, as much water as that usually drunk by an individual. It is not so important as to how this fluid is taken ; but that it is essential to health and the functions of the body, no rational person will deny, when it is con- sidered that about 40 oz. are given off from the skin and lungs in 24 hours, in addition to that passed otherwise. Entering into the composition of most solid food, it is taken into the stomach in that state and in drinks. It is in the form of a hydrate in many substances, as in starch, sugar, albumen, &c., or when these are in a moist state. It exists in the grains in the proportion of 14 to 20 per cent., legumes 14 to 16, potatoes 75, turnips 92, carrots 87, beet root 87, and most other edible roots in like proportions ; cabbage 92. QUALITIES AND KINDS OF WATER. 175 It is not known that water is decomposed in the animal system. Liebig says the tissues of vegetables are derived from water, thus exerting a vital influence throughout the vegetable kingdom. The tissues of the body are also modified and rendered flexible by it. It aids digestion by acting as a solvent, and is instrumental in convert- ing acids into urea in most animals, birds and reptiles excepted. It combines chemically in converting the sugur of cane or starch into the sugar of milk, and in other combinations in the animal economy. It is used in many diseases as a dietetical remedy, and in numerous ways holding in solution nutritive food. But its use is restricted in what is called a dry diet, to limit the fluidity of the blood and retrench circulation in valvular diseases of the heart, by affecting the coagula- tion and deposition of fibrine. The quality of water is of the greatest importance to the health of plants and animals. It is divided into common water, as used in or- dinary drinks, and for domestic purposes, sea water and mineral water. Distilled water may be obtained from any one of these. Common wa- ter is known as well or pump, river, spring, lake and marsh waters. Rain water is the purest of these waters ; it is, however, much less pure at the beginning of a shower than after raining a few hours, as it at first brings down the impurities suspended in the atmosphere. It contains at all times a portion of air, and generally a portion of car- bonate of ammonia, yielded to the air by decomposing organic substan- ces, as we have mentioned in the last chapter. It is this ammonia which affords nitrogen to plants, renders water soft, &c. Other sub- stances, such as metalic and earthy salts, are also found in rain water, especially when it first falls. Rain water in cities, if collected from the roofs of houses, has im- purities, and should be boiled and strained before use. Snow water is devoid of air and other gaseous principles, and hence fishes will not live in it. When in the state of snow it does not quench thirst, bat increases it, hence the people of northern regions suffer extreme thirst rather than eat it; but when melted it allays thirst like other waters. Spring water is rain water which has passed through the earth and appeared again at its level on the side of a hill or mountain. It usually takes up in its passase earthy salts and such other soluble matter as the soil contains. River water is both rain and spring water, com- monly holding in suspension several impurities, especially decomposing vegetable substances, oftentimes in sufficient quantities to have dele- terious effects, as commonly recognized in producing a relaxation of the bowels, dysentary, &c. " An analysis of the Croton water of New York gives in 1 gallon, carbonate of lime 1.52 grs., sulphate of lime .44, chloride of calcium and of magnesium .90, carbonate of magnesia .84, with traces of vegetable matter and iron total of solid matter 4.16 grs. in the gall. 176 SUBSTANCES IN WATER. This is doubtless the most favorable condition of the water. Manhat- tan water contains in Reed and Chamber streets 125, in Bleeker st, 20, and in 13th st. 14 grs. of solid matter in the gall. The wells in the lower parts of N. Y. city contain 58 grs. of solid matter. The water of the Boston wells, from which that city is supplied, is brackish and hard; and 682 of the 2,085 drinkable, are unfit for use . but 7 wells yield soft water, and but 2 of the 32 wells made by boring, con- tain soft water. The water of the Schuylkill, which supplies the citi- zens of Philadelphia, is one of the purest streams in the country-' The water of the Thames, near London, contains about 20 grs. of solid matter. 30 galls, yield also 28 grs. of a carbonaceous substance. When taken to sea, it soon becomes putrid and offensive from decom- posing organic matter; but if racked off into larger vessels and ex- posed to the air, it deposits a thick slime and becomes sweet. Well or pump water contain substances like those in river water, but generally in greater abundance in populous places. It is there- fore hard or soft in proportion to these constituents, especially the sul- phate of lime. The action of this salt with soap is that the sulphuric acid unites with the alkali of the soap, setting the fatty portion of the soap free, which combines with the lime of the salt and forms an in- soluble compound, hence called hard. This water dissolves organic substances less perfectly than rain water, and is therefore less useful for making decoctions, as in teas, in beverages, and for drinks in dis- pepsia ; it also occasions urinary deposits. It indnces constripation and disordered digestion in some, but with others, or differently com- bined, relaxation and diarrhea. To the horse it is especially injurious ; and he instinctively rejects it when river water is to be had : it makes his coat stare, and often gripes him. Water should rarely be conducted through leaden pipes, particnlarly if a piece of polished lead will not remain untarnished in the water 24 hours. Croton water cannot therefore be safe conducted through leaden pipes. Water ordinarily acts on the pipes of beer pumps ; hence, it has been said by Dr. Lee, that it is not uncommon for porter house keepers and others to be at- tacked by palsy in consequence of their drinking beer in the morning which has been standing in the lead pipe during the night. Marsh water, though like lake water, yet being stagnant, it con- tains much putrescent vegetable matter. This matter decomposes the sulphates in sea and other waters, and causes an evi lution of sulphur- eted hydrogen, occasioning the offensive smell from marshy and swam- py grounds. Carbonic acid and air being given off by water when boiling, the carbonate of lime held in solution is deposited, as seen by the incrustations on tea kettles and boilers. Water containing car- bonic acid will deposit awhile precipitate by adding lime water. Lit- mus or syrup of violets is turned red by water which has free acids in it. Tincture of galls turns water black when it has iron in it. Fit" p SEA AND MINERAL WATERS. 177 tration deprives water of living objects and impurities suspended in it. Distillation, is the best mode of purifying water, but its taste is flat and unpleasant, in consequence of the absence of air and carbonic acid. The distillation of sea water for use at sea has been attempted of late with what success we do not know. Pure water on shipboard, as elsewhere, is a subject of great importance, as the impurities of water are the cause of numerous diseases. Alum cleanses rnuddy water, 2 or 3 grains answering for a quart of water, but renders the water harder ; it does not therefore render it chemically purer. Alkaline carbonates contribute to soften water by decomposing the earthy salts ; and the addition of lime precipitates carbonic acid and sulphate of lime. Sea water includes that of the ocean and of inland seas having the same composition. It varies in amount of solid matter in different seas. That of the Medeterranean contains 410 grs. of solid matter in 1000 parts; that of the English channel 380, of the German ocean from 200 to 345, the Baltic from 66 to 168. The average quantity of saline matter is therefore assumed by Dr. Pereira at 3 per cent-, and the mean density at 10.274. The composition is about 964 water, 27 common salt, 2 sulphate of magnesia, 3 magnesium, sulphate of lime, with fractions of other salts. In moderate doses, it is useful in scrofulous affections, as in grandular enlargements, mesinteric diseases, &c. Topi- cal applications of it are stimulating, and it is used as an embrocation in chronic diseases of the joints. Persons are less likely to take cold after a salt water bath than a fresh water one. Mineral waters, like sea water, are not useful for domestic purposes ; but, as drinks, they are much used for medicinal purposes. Those in which iron predominates are chalybeate or feruginous. Some of these contain a carbonate of iron, and are carbonated chalybeates. Some arc impregnated with sulphuretted hydrogen, and have the odor of rotten eggs ; these are sulphurous or hepatic waters. Some are brisk and sparkling, with an acidulous taste ; these are carbonated or acidulous waters, and others are saline. But these require no further notice here. NUTRITIVE QUALITIES OF FOOD. We have shown that the amount of water in vegetables is very great ; and that it differs in different plants ; the nutritive properties therefore, depend much on this circumstance. Those substances which possess little or no water, are called anhydrous, but these are not al- ways nutritive, as shown under Lignine. Green resinous matters of plants are likewise wanting in nutriment ; hence of the solid nutritive portions of vegetable food, the woody and coloring parts are to be de- ducted. Again, those constituents of plants which are called nitrogenized 178 COMPOSITION OF FOOD TIME OF DIGESTION. are distinguished from those called non-nitrogenized. The last depend for their value on the amount of carbon they contain, as shown under Car- Son and Fats or Oils, which contain most of it. It will be seen under Proteine, also, that its alimentary principles, fibrine, albumen, caseine, being the same in composition as the flesh and blood, afford the great- est amount of nutriment. The following table shows the dements, the amount of solid matter and of water, of some of the principal vegetable substances. We give the average estimates and avoid fractions. Kinds of Food. Solid Matter. Water. Carbon. Nitrogen. Sugar, 36 to 42 Starch, 81 to 85 14 to 18 36 Wheat, 85 14 39 1.966 Rye, 83 16 38 1.417 Oats, 79 20 40 1.742 Peas, 84 16 36 3.838 Beans, 85 14 38 Lentils, 84 15 37 Potatoes, 24 75 10 Cabbage, 7 92 3 Carrots, 12 87 J. Artichoke, 20 79 9 Turnips, 7 92 3 Milk, ' 12 91 The time for digesting some vegetables, is Beans 3 h. 30 m. (pod), potatoes 3 h. 30 m., carrots 3 h. 15 m., turnips 3 h. 30 m., beets 3 h. 45 m., milk 2 h. 15 m., do. boiled 2 h., beans and corn 3 h. 45 m., parsnips 2 h. 30 m., cabbage with vinegar 2 h., do. head 2 h. 30 m. do. boiled 4 h. 30 m. The conclusions of Magendie in relation to some alimentary princi- ples are that extracts from bones cannot be made a substitute for meat that gelatine, albumen and fibrine, taken separately, nourish only for a limited period, are incomplete, and excite an unconquerable disgust ; and that, though united or rendered more agreeable by season- ing, &c., animals eating these exclusively, ultimately die with inani- tion that muscular flesh, in which these are united according to the laws of nature, and when in connection with fats, oils, &c., are suffi- cient, even in small quantities, for continuous and complete nutrition 1 "that the preparation of bones, or transformation into gelatine, dimin- ishes their nutritive qualities that gluten from wheat or Indian corn alone affords complete nutrition that fat alone will support life for some time, but that nutrition is disordered and imperfect. The digestion, or assimilation of food, is the process of converting MASTICATION AND DIGESTION. 179 alimentary substances into organized portions of the body. In this the first process is the conversion of food into blood, and second, the for- mation of tissue, &c., from the blood. In the preparation of the food two substances are necessary, the hydwchloricjiicidj,nd chymosine. The first is said to soften the food and cause it. to swell up, while the second liquefies it. These substances are secreted in the lining membranes of the stomach by a vital process. Digestion is chiefly a chemical process, and may be performed out of the stomach by an artificial liquor prepared by the maceration of the dried lining membrane of the 4th stomach of the calf in a weak solution of hydrochloric acid. By the action of the gastric fluid, sugar, fatty and oily matters, starch, gum, &c., are divided into minute parts ; and subsequently the pro- teinaceous substances are absorbed and converted into chyle. The process of digestion is generally slower with vegetable than with animal substances; but oils and fat are very difficult of digestion. Some of the former, pass the stomach, in a crude state, while others are retained ; thus it is with cathartic medicines, many fruits, seeds, &c. The artificial preparations of many kinds of food also render them difficult of digestion, while others are so modified by art as to be easily digested. It is said that violent exercise in animals, just pre- vious to death, renders their flesh more tender, and that the practice of bull-bating and whipping pigs to death may have originated in a knowledge of this fact. It is also believed that flesh kept for some time after death, or which is in the first stages of decomposition, is more easily digested than fresh meat. That of young animals is thought to be more tender and soluble, but not so digestible as that of older animals. The stomach disposes of solid more readily than fluid food ; though, nPan exhausted condition of* the body, the latter more readily restores strength. It is of the first importance that food should be minutely divided, as the time* of digestion is much shortened by it. Thus potatoes, fruits, and other vegetable substances are more easily digested by being soaked, so as to be susceptible of easy mastication. Some of these are much more so from their structure than others, as with mealy potatoes, &c. The complete mastication of food by chewing cannot be too for-' cibly impressed upon the attention of all, and especially dispeptics. The complete mixture of food with the saliva is also necessary to di- gestion. When this is not done, a desire is always manifested to swak low drinks to moisten the food eaten ; but this cannot be so well cal- culated to effect the object designed by insalivation. The process of cooking is designed, in addition to the gratifica- tion of the taste, to destroy the organic structure of food ; hence this is almost universally practiced by civilized people, with most organic substances. The modes of cooking effect some remarkable changes in the elements of food, as with poisonous plants, &c. But this change 182 NUTRIMENT OF CHILDREN. natural food ; the carbon by the sugar of milk, and this with hydrogen in butter, both going to respiration. The constituents of its blood are derived from the caseine of the milk ; and these are sufficient for the metamorphosis of tissues, &c. The fondness of children for sugar is explained by their necessities for its use in respiration. This is ob- tained from the mother's milk ; but oftentimes too little is afforded in this way, or by hand nursing. Fatty matter supplies its place in northern regions. It has been well said, the natural appetite is an index of the wants of the system," and, although there are cases in which prudence would withold substances desired for consumption by children, yet cases are not unfrequent in which the appetite is a better guide than the judgment of parents. Neither animal nor vegetable food, when craved, should be witheld in most cases. Whenever sugar, starchy, or fatty matters are taken in quantities more than sufficient for respiration, they contribute to the accumulation of fat. Nitrogen- ized food furnishes the materials for the growth of the bones, car- tilage, muscles, membranes and cellular tissue ; and milk affords, by its caseine and phosphate of lime, the elements for these purposes ; these are also supplied in the flour and meal of the grains, when eaten. A deficiency of food causes in children many bowel diseases, which are often best controlled by potato stew, pea soup, &c. Insufficiency and inequality of food are also sources of many other diseases, much more frequently than parents are aware of. Commonly, there is little danger of overfeeding, if the quality of food be good and properly va- ried. The children of the poor, and those especially in poor houses, are believed to be in general smaller and shorter than the children of those by whom they are well fed. Boiled milk, beef and mutton soups, rice cooked in various ways, with bread, are recommended for children under, and even over, nine years of age. But, as dietetics naturally lead us into the consideration of animal food ; as indeed they have already incidentally done, we shall conclude these miscellaneous remarks. The subject is one, however, of much interest ; and further particulars, under other heads, and especially that of fruits, will be found in a future volume. fa&u INTRODUCTORY REMARKS As preliminary to the second part of this work, circumstances render it necessary to add a few remarks to those made at the commencement of the volume. It will be seen that the following pages differ materially from the preceding. It was our design in the first division of the subject to condense some of the most important facts in relation to the life, habits, structure and general character of plants, reserving for the second part a brief notice of the most useful and remarkable properties of particular plants and their fruits. But the subject, from its great interest, has insensibly grown in our hands, however far short of its merits the present work may appear. Both parts having been finished, we should do injustice to ourselves and others, did we not avail ourselves of this opportunity to express our appre. hensions of disappointment with some who might very naturally look for more or particular information on branches of a subject so fruitful of inter- est, and did we not at the same time express our obligations to sources of information which the volume may be found to contain. The same remarks are due from us in respect to either part. The choice of topics in both de- partments being, however, left with ourselves, as well as the manner of their execution, we must trust to the majority of our readers for a favora- ble decision upon the merits of our choice and labor in both. Many other departments of the subject might have been introduced, and much more have been profitably said upon those we have presented, but that would not have corresponded either with our limited space or our ori- ginal design. It is apprehended, indeed, that we have condensed too much within our allotted space, and that this has been done at the sacrifice of perspicuity. To us this appears the most obvious fault, and we therefore beg of our readers a repeated and more careful perusal. The whole having been written with a view to embrace a greater number of useful facts than most works on the same subjects, we could not have enlarged upon any one of them, or more fully illustrated their extent and importance, but by the exclusion of other facts and other subjects. Under these circumstances we trust our readers will look rather for useful facts than for any display of language or power of illustration. The book, consequently, if read as we designed it should be and as its numerous particulars evidently require, will be perused often and carefully. That we are under obligations to numerous sources for facts embodied in the work, it will scarcely be necessary for us to assert. Like most works on science, and especially on this branch of it, where the extended and com- bined observations and long practical experience of so many are necessary IV INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. to disclose and establish the many and important truths it embraces, ours is equally indebted to the experiments and researches of patient and dis- tinguished men. We should not, and we cannot, therefore omit to express our sense of obligation for the interest which those observations and experi- ments confer on the present volume. In addition to the sources already enumerated in the first part, we would mention Loudon, Johnson, Barton, Bell, Meeks, and the English and American Materia Medicas. Still, it may not be irreverent to say that every word of the work has been written by us with great care and much labor, requiring in its execution the undivided time of more than a year, and necessarily demanding patient and extended inquiry. In this, however, we have been animated by the conviction that our selection and arrangement of subjects, and compression of the most useful and remarkable particulars within the wide range of so interesting a subject, was much wanted, and would be received with general favor and liberality. And we cannot now deny ourselves the pleasure of anticipating a favorable view of our design, and the importance of the many useful facts we have given in the work, whatever that view may be of the style and manner in which our design has been executed. In noticing particular plants, in the following pages, such only have been described as have some useful or remarkable properties ; nor have we in- cluded all such, for this would have swollen our work to double its present size. But those most valuable to man as food, or as used in the various purposes of life, and those, whether native or foreign, most essential to the existence of lower animals, have been carefully presented and their known qualities enumerated. Some errors and confusion may arise in this, from the local, and consequently various, names given to plants. We may have errrd ourselves in this particular, and the same plant may therefore be de- scribed twice in some instances. But when the difficulty is so general and obvious, not only with the public, but with all writers, we hope to escape censure for that, at least, which was unavoidable. We have in all instances given the popular name when that is known, and the botanical name when it is unknown, or doubtful. It is greatly to be regretted, that uniformity has not been or cannot be obtained in this very important matter. An effort is imperiously called for, in our opinion, to accomplish this great object. English authority, in this respect, serves only to render the difficulty still greater, for there, as here, the popular name has originated oftentimes from the caprice or ignorance of the peo- ple. Superstition and fancy have also contributed to the diversity of names in other parts of Europe. In regard to the nativity or locality of many important plants, great dif- ficulties also exist, both as to the country and the particular parts of the INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. country they inhabit. British authority, to which we are often induced to refer for the character and habitation of plants, is studiously silent or egregiously erroneous in reference to most American plants, and some of our own writers differ much as to their classification and quali- ties. Again, the properties of some plants vary much from their situa- tion, modes of culture, and varieties. The medicinal properties of many plants are likewise very unsettled among medical men. Many of those we have noticed are not now used at all, though formerly in high repute for their great and various medical qualities. For the most of those de- scribed, however, we have referred to London and American Materia Me- dica ; so that errors, in some of these particulars, are not unavoidable. The study of our subject is the study of nature ; nature in her most ad- mired form and aspect, rewarding her votaries with enobling and enduring pleasures. And he who passes on coldly, indifferently, stupidly, in the iiudst of her beauties and wonders " Who ne'er has felt her hand assausive steal Along his heart that heart can never feel." Insensible indeed must be the mind that cannot be awakened to the rich and joyous scenes around us. Here, if any where, ignorance and indiffer- ence are synonvmous ; ignorance without bliss, indifference without freedom from care. But the mind of the attentive and enlightened observer ; he who holds up natural truths in the light of science is thrilled with pleasure, steady and exalting pleasure, as new truths burst forth at every step; where each plant, flower and fruit is a miniature world of thought. The tree that was viewed only as a thing to be cut down and burned, puts on new features, inspires new themes of interest and association within and around. The birth, nature and destiny of these become objects of new and profitable reflection. Flowers but what can be said anew of these nurs- lings of nature, the fresh and laughing innocents of her care and love No where, then, can mind find a wider range or more fruitful field of ennobling thought. As knowledge increases, new pleasures thicken in our path ; and it never should be forgotten that unhappiness is not so much from the want of objects of enjoyment as from the will and ability to enjoy those we possess. Here the highway is every where lined with new objects of pleasure and admiration. There is no monopoly here, no locked up treas- ures we cannot reach, no special interests we cannot share, but all is open as light and as free as thought. JSeed we urge the reader further, however, when his own interest and na- ture herself present inducements more numerous and strong. EXPLANATION OF TERMS. In cases where we do not give the generic name in italics, it is the samo as the popular name. And where the family name is omitted, it is like the popular name, in capitals, or is not thought of special importance, or has been mentioned in describing the genus which belongs to it, "and there- fore not necessary to be mentioned in the species under consideration. But one species of a genus may be worthy of notice, in which case we have given the popular, the specific, the generic, and family, or divisional names. The varieties, in most cases, have not been mentioned, as they are supposed to possess the same general properties as others of the spe- cies. The generic name of plants, when not given as the popular name, is the first of the scientific names in italics, which are the generic and specific names together. Thus, for example, the Pea is the popular name of the pea plant ; it is of the genus Pisum, of the species sativus, and of the fa- mily or division of plants Leguminosce. The name of the natural family is commenced with a capital and is not italicised. To avoid repetition, the initial letter of the genus is placed before the species, as N. tabacum (Nico liana) tabacum, &c. The clans, in the Linncean arrangement, is signified by the letter (C.) and the figure following it denotes the number of the class the plant belongs to. (O.) signifies the order, and the figures fol- lowing it the number, or what order the plant is in. Sp. stands for species, and the figure before or after it denotes the number of the species in the genus ; and where two or more figures follow sp., and are divided, the first one or two signifies the number of species which have been described or cul- tivated ; and the second one or two is the number of species which are known to belong to the genus. (D. u. s.) stands for Deciduous under shrub. (D. c.) stands for Decidu- ous climber or creeper. (D. t.) for Deciduous twiner or trailer. (D. s.) for Deciduous shrub. (D. t.) for Deciduous tree. (D. h.) for Deciduous herb. EXPLANATION OF TERMS, ETC. VU (E. t.) stands for Evergreen tree. (E. s.) for Evergreen shrub. (E. h.) for Evergreen herb. (E. t.) for Evergreen twiner, or trailer. (E. c.) for Evergreen climber or creeper. (B. r.) stands for Bulbous rooted plant. (T. r.) for Tuberous rooted plant. (F. r.) for Fusiform or spindle shaped rooted, (a.) stands for Aquatic plant, (p.) forparast/e. (A.) for annual plant. (P.) for Pe- rennial. (B.) for Biennial. (ft.) stands for /ce/, and the figures following or preceding it are the number of feet the plant is high. If there are two or more figures divided, they signify that the species are from to foet high. In class 24, or the Cryptogainous plants, (T.) signifies the tribe to which the plant be- longs, and the figures, the numbers. For an illustration of these abbreviations take TOBACCO (the popular name) nicotiana tabacum, or Virginiani, the first is the generic and the second the specific name,) C. 5 (class,) O. 1 (order,) Solanse (natural family,) sp. 14-26 (i. e. 14 species described and 26 belonging to the gen. us,) A. (annual,) 4 ft. (4 feet high.) Those desirous to examine or preserve any particular plant described, whether indigenous or foreign, can apply to Prince's Botanic Garden, Flushing, (L. I.) or any large garden of the kind, or at the seed stores, where the seeds may also be obtained. Class 13, polyandria., is class 12 with some, and the 4 orders after the first, are embraced in one (dipentagynia,) instead of the orders as in Lin- neas. Our classification is according to Loudon, but alterations have been made and the natural order is now much adopted, as we have often done, to conform to practices in particular cases. THE CEREAL GRAINS OR CORN PLANTS. No class of vegetable substances is so important to man as this, either as contributing to his luxuries or as comprising articles of prime necessity. The powr and prosperity of every people and nation are likewise immediately dependent on the cereal grains, their nature, quantity and quality; so that no subject can be more worthy of our consideration. In view of these facts which must be apparent to every observing mind it becomes a matter of great interest and satis- faction with every American to contemplate the immense and rapidly increasing productions of our country. And it cannot be less a matter of curiosity and instruction to examine the nature and properties of substances thus important to ourselves, to the world of mankind, and to a large portion of the whole animal kingdom. All farinaceous seeds are divided into two classes : the first are those of annual plants, comprehending the true grasses, or corn growing plants. These are called cerealia, (from Ceres, the Goddess of Corn.) The particular kinds of grain upon which a people chiefly depend are called by them Corn, as the wheat, maize, (or Indian corn) &c., in the United States ; wheat in England ; rye and oats in Scotland ; rye around the Baltic ; rice in India, &c. The second class of farinace- ous seeds are also chiefly from annual plants, but they are contained in pods, or legumes, and hence are called leguminous seeds, or pulse. All vegetable productions, useful as food, are farinaceous (from farina, meal,) and such may be ground into meal, or flour. The form of farina is sometimes almost a limpid fluid, and at others as hard as wood. Such vegetables, therefore, as contain the most farina are best for the food of man. Both seeds and tubers (extending under ground by farinaceous deposites) when mature, are consequently farinaceous. Corn plants are all annuals in their roots and stems, as the plants die after maturing their seeds. Their stem is a straw, or culm. This is hollow and jointed, with leaves at each joint. The stem contains silex, or flinty earth, which is useful in the arts, as well also as the ashes. The principal corn plants are Wheat, Maize, or Indian corn, Rice, Rye, Oats and Barley. The cereal grasses, however, comprise many other grains, and some little less important. Wherever these A* 10 CEREAL GRAINS OR CORN PLANTS. are found, man is generally seen to be advanced in civilization. The wheat found buried with the ancient Egyptians, and some other peo- ple of the East, indicates their civilized condition. Corn plants, as they are now found, do not generally grow wild in any place. Some few species of an inferior character found in a wild state, may be greatly improved by cultivation, as those have been which are now cultivated ; but such, with many other useful vegetables, have generally followed the course of Man. They have attended conquests and commercial intercourse. Cortez introduced some of the most valu- able plants into Mexico. Wheat followed the conquests of the Romans ; the vine those of the Greeks ; cotton, &c. those of the Arabs ; and very many useful plants have come to this country through the English and French. Maize only, of the cereal grasses, was found in Mexico at the time of the conquest, and in North America at the period of its dis- covery. The first seeds of wheat in the New World were three or four found, in 1530, by a slave of Cortez among some rice. The In- dian planted them, and thus conferred on that country an imperishable blessing. The rice of this country was sent in a small bag as a pre- sent to a gentleman in Charleston, S, C., not 150 years since, and now it is not only a principal article of food here, but is exported in large quantities to the place whence it came. The potato, a native of A- merica, was taken hence to England and Ireland in 1586, and a few hills only planted, but it is now the chief article of food there and in other parts of Europe and the Eastern world. The. distribution of corn plants depends mainly on climate. They cannot be traced beyond the 60th degree of North latitude. In more southern parts of Siberia, however, they are abundant. Buckwheat there yields six crops successively with but one sowing ; oats are like- wise excellent. In Lapland plentiful crops of rye are produced, and still further north potatoes supply the place of grain. South of Siberia and in Kamstchatka the cereal grains are not at all cultivated, which is attributed more to the soil than to the frosts. Oats and barley are found farthest north in Europe. Rye is next ; and in parts of Sweden, Norway, Denmark, and the north of Germany it is the chief article of cultivation. Being a hardy plant, it is more suitable for those lati- tudes ; and no where is it so much cultivated. The harvests of Nor- way, notwithstanding its intensely cold climate, are generally good and abundant. In Sweden, cultivation is attended to scientifically, and wheat, rye, oats and barley are there raised. South of this, rye gives place to wheat ; and this predominates in England, France, and parts of Scotland, Germany, Hungary, and Western Asia. Still farther south, in Spain, Portugal, parts of France, Italy and Greece, wheat is abundant, together with rice and maize. To the East, in Persia, Northern Asia, Arabia, Nubia, Egypt and Barbary, rice, maize and millet most abound, with little of wheat. Barley, with wheat, rice GRAINS OF DIFFERENT COUNTRIES. 11 and millet, prevail near the Caspian sea, in Georgia, &c. Wheat and barley are raised in Egypt, simply by strewing the seed upon the mud after the subsidence of the Nile. Occasionally it is slightly ploughed in, but it is not again attended to till gathered. Further up the Nile, iri Nubia, water-wheels are used to water the grain soils. The grains much cultivated in the United States, Rice excepted, are rarely seen in China and Japan. Rice, indeed, constitutes the chief grain there, though wheat, and other grains might be successfully cul- tivated. The greatest attention is there paid to agriculture by the government. One of their Emperors was taken from the plough and placed on the throne, and most others have Been distinguished agricul- turists. Rice is principally cultivated in the tropical parts of Asia. In parts of India wheat is good, but it gives place to rice. In colon- ized parts of Africa rice and maize are chiefly cultivated, but in these last countries the arts of agriculture are comparatively wretched. la North America, wheat and maize, or Indian corn, are principally cul- tivated and in such quantities as to be largely exported. The highest limits for the cultivation of the cereal grains, on this continent, is in the southern parts of the Russian possessions, about latitude 58 J north, where rye and barley are raised. On the eastern coast, however, the limits are no higher than about 51. In the lower latitudes of Mexico wheat, rye, oats, &c. are not cul- tivated lower than 2500 feet above the sea. In France every 540 feet of vertical elevation is equal to a recession of one degree from the equa- tor, and in the tropics 390 feet are equal to one degree North. On the Cordilleras wheat cultivation does not generally commence lower than 4000 feet above the sea, but in Guatemala it is raised much low- er. Some of the finest harvests in South America are more than 15000 feet above the sea. On more level lands irrigation is necessary, which produces good crops. Some Mexican farms, thus watered, are wonder- fully productive, yielding often 50 or 60 measures of wheat for one sown. Maize is much cultivated in Mexico and yields in some valleys two hundred for one. The Indians mostly feed on this. In southern temperate latitudes the productions are similar to those of the north- ern. Wheat is found abundant in Chili, Buenos Ayres and Brazil. In Australia it is the principal object of culture and makes beautiful bread ; and further south rye and barley are raised. In New Hol- land wheat is abundant. All these grains grow abundantly in the United States ; and, as im- provements in the arts of culture increase, there can be no definable limits to the amount of their production. Rice is limited to the south- ern states, but all the others are cultivated in the other states. Wheat and maize especially abound in the western states. The amount of products in the United States in 1842 may be gath- ered from the following. Of wheat there was raised, 102,317.340 12 PRODUCTS OF THE STATES. bushels; Indian corn 441.829.246; Oats 150.883.617; Rye 22.762.- 952; Buckwheat 9.483.409 ; Barley 3.871.622; Potatoes 135.833.381 ; Rice 94.007.484. The principal producing states. Of wheat, in bushels. Ohio 25.- 387.439; New-York 11.132.472; Penn. 10.887.015; Ind. 8.500.666; Tenn. 5.915.033; 111.5.799.038; Ken. 5.131.114, and Mich. 3.952.- 389. Of Indian Com., Tenn. 55.742.384; Ken. 49.053.849 ; Ohio 39.424.221; Ind. 38.838.275; Va. 38.101.657; Ala. 26.345.105 ; 111. 25.546.728; Mo. 25.338.922; N. C. 25.332.194; Ga. 24.072.043, &c. Of oats, N. Y. 24.882.671 ; Penn. 24.120.363 ; Ohio 19.381.035; Va. 14.264.539, and 111. Ken. Ten. and Ind. over eight millions each. Of Potatoes, N. Y. 36.880.017; Penn. 12.724.180 ; Me. 12.504.308; Vt. 10.941.718 ; N. H. 8.218.369 ; Ohio 7.277.309 ; Mass. 4.821.308. Of Rice, S. C. 70.265.554 ; Ga. 14.535.309 ; La. 4.000.500 ; N. C. 3.491.- 667. Of Rye, Penn. 8.368.661; N. Y. 3.280.306; N. J. 2.201.592; Ken. 1.987.236; Va. 1.186.449. Of Buckwheat, Penn. 3.119.831; N. Y. 2.917.974; Ohio 741.230. Of Barley, N. Y. 2.196.081; Ohio 229.282. The progress of improvement in these products and of agriculture is steadily progressing. Besides the amount required for home consump- tion, these and other agricultural productions now furnish three- fourths of all the exports of the United States. The sale and cultiva- tion of the public lands will continue to increase greatly the amount of these products, while the late geological surveys of the states have and will continue to develope and reveal the mineral and other resources of our country. It is estimated that 83 per cent, of our population is engaged in agriculture, or depending on it for a livelihood, and that 2.700.000, or one fifth, are effective male laborers three times more than are employed in commerce, manufactures and trade. In Great Brit- ain nine millions are engaged in agriculture, and four in manufactures. Last year was highly productive in all the grains. More than two- thirds of the wheat was raised in the western states, and more was sown than during any previous year. It was better in the New Eng- land states than the year before, the improvement in grain in New Hampshire, and also in Kentucky and Tennessee being estimated at 25 per cent. Next to Ohio, New- York is the greatest wheat state ; and it exceeds all others in its agricultural products, generally. The wheat crop of last year in New-York and Penn. was inferior to that of the year before by 20 per cent. A new species of wheat lately in- troduced into this latter state from the Mediteranean is said to with- stand the effects of the fly rust. This is attributed to its peculiar vigor of root. Its energy in the spring is greater than any other winter wheat ; so that its hard and sapless stem in April is impenetrable to the young maggot ; and, being eight or ten days earlier, it is not liable to rust. INCREASED PRODUCTS OF THE UNITED STATES. 13 The crop of Ohio was better, though scarcely equal to that of 1840. Of this, fourteen millions of bushels were allowed for exportation. The yield in Indiana and Illinois was estimated as high as 50 per cent, gain. In 1840 there was shipped to Buffalo from Chicago but 20.000 bushels, while in 1841, 200.000 bushels were shipped. This, with the fact that one half more seed has been put in for this year than any year before, proves the rapid increase of this grain in Illinois. In Missouri, Arkansas, and Michigan the increase was nearly 50 per cent. The great surplus thus apparent in the western states must produce a vast revenue by exportation to Canada and to our Atlantic cities. Calculating the grain last year to be 10 per cent, over the preced- ing ; and if we estimate the increase in this ratio annually for ten years from 1840, the amount of wheat will be over 250 millions of bushels, or 15.000 millions of pounds as the product of 1850, which alone will support a population of 31.250.000 persons. The aggregate amount of bread stuffs, including corn, potatoes and rice for 1842 was 717.714.691 bushels, this will allow for each person of our population, man, woman and child, about 40 bushels ; or without rice, nearly 37 bushels each, or without potatoes, 35 bushels each. This shows an immense surplus, according to the usual calculations. Other articles, it will be seen, add greatly to this amount of the agri- cultural surplus of our country. If we estimate the annual consump- tion of wheat at 480 Ibs. for each individual, and each bushel of wheat at 60 Ibs., we have 6,139,040,400 Ibs. of wheat as last year's product, which alone would support 12,789,672 persons. But rejecting rye, rice, barley, oats peas, beans, (the two last of which constitute a large proportion of the English estimates, as we shall show,) with the other American grains, and retaining two grains only, and we have near 32 bushels for each person. We may safely estimate, on the whole, the product of last year, 1842, as capable of supporting a population of more than 50 millions. The production of wheat is said to be increased by manuring with salt-petre, and nitrate of potash, or animal substances, bones, urine and lime ; and also that the best grain for bread is not the best for seed. The seed must contain the elements of wheat in due proportions ; and some soils are better calculated for this than others, though others may produce better bread-grain. It is likewise said that the best seed wheat should contain much starch and little gluten, and that, conse- quently, it should not be raised on rich or highly manured ground, as this deranges the required proportions of starch and gluten. The se- lection of large full grains by means of a seive, and the sunning of these for two days, has proved effectual in resisting the effects of the Hessian fly. Further notice of seeds, with a recent discovery in pre- 2 14 PRODUCE OF THE UNITED STATES. paring them, so as to require no use of manures, will be found in our article on seeds. If an improvement in the seed of our crops was made to the extent of 10 per cent, only, the increased value of the crops would be equal to $20,000,000 annually. Thus we -may safely calculate on improve- ments and additional culture to the extent of more than 10 per cent. Wheat has decreased in price, and the consumption for distillation has also greatly decreased within a year or two. This decrease for this purpose is equal to three millions of bushels annually in the state of New- York alone, as there has been a diminution in the manufacture of spirits of 10 millions of gallons. Barley has not increased in the United States since 1840, far less having been manufactured into malt liquors. Oats are said to have been far above an average crop last year, and in New York to have gained 25 or 30 per cent. Rye, in the aggregate, was in advance last year. Potatoes were more abundant than in 1841, though proba- bly not an average crop. Maize, or corn, yielded a large crop last year, in the aggregate, though not greater than the year previous. In some States it was very productive, while in others it suffered much. Mr. Young of Ken. raised 190 bushels on an acre, and his average crop for some years is said to have been 140 to the acre. The estimated crops of the United States, as we have shown, are sufficient to support many times our population ; and when our vacant lands are improved, 300 millions of people may be supported by them alone. Were the 39 millions of acres of our prairie lands cultivated, they alone would produce, at 20 bushels of wheat the acre, 780 mil- lions of bushels of wheat, or more than 6j times the present crop of our whole country. There were exported from the United States into Canada, in 1841, 193,137 bbls. of flour, and 212,458 bushels of wheat, (in 1840, 1,720, 659) and 90,158 bushels of maize, besides about 400,000 remaining to ship in the spring. Last year, from Cleveland alone, 380,684 bushels of wheat, 94,248 bbls. of flour, and 59,670 bushels of maize were shipped to Canada, besides 44,750 bbls. of pork, and 170,000 bushels of wheat, on hand, to ship this spring ; all valued at $981,348. Wheat, corn, and other grains, flour and pork, are admit- ted free into Canada. A small duty has been imposed this year, which on flour, is 2s. per bbl. The increase of last year, over 1840, was, in Wheat 17.494.068 bushels; in Rye, 4.117.385; in Indian Corn, 64.297.371; in Oats, 27.812.276; in Suck Wheat, 2.191.666; in Potatoes, 27.585.321 ; in Rice, 13.166.062 Ibs. From this may be easily estimated the additional population which the increase would support, although the crop of last year is doubtless considerably below a just estimate. There was a decrease in Barley of 289.882 bushels. Our annual productions and exportations of grains may be estimated ENGLISH CROPS AND IMPORTS. 15 from the fact that in 1838 our exportation of wheat and flour was but 6,291 bushels of the former, and 448,161 barrels of the latter; while in 1790 (49 years previous) we exported 1,124,458 bushels of wheat and 724,623 barrels of flour. The average annual exportation of wheat during all that period was 209,666 bushels and of flour 877,000 barrels. It would appear further that the amount of exports of wheat, during the eight years prior to 1839, from the United States, was not equal to that exported from the single state of Pensylvania more than 100 years ago ; nor, during the last 25 years (two years excepted) have the exports from the country equalled those from Pen- sylvania 60 years ago. The exports of flour have been less also than they were 50 years since, yet the price has increased up to 1840. The average annual inspections for the 10 years previous to 1 840 were nearly alike. The number of barrels inspected in 1838 was 2,546,079, while the exportations were but 448, 161 barrels, leaving for home con- sumption 1,097,818 barrels. But the inspections afford no just esti- mate of the flour manufactured. Estimate of foreign grains Of the 57 millions of acres in Great Britain, 13 millions are incapable of culture, and 10 millions are waste land ; the present population is therefore supported by 34 millions of acres, or twenty persons by every 34 acres. If all the waste lands were cultivated, not over 6 millions more could be supported ; so that, at the present increas-e, the consumption will have reached the utmost production of the land in 20 years, or in 1860. One crop in seven fails in England. The crop of 1840, in the whole kingdom, was 320 mil- lions of bushels, and in 1841, 86 millions less. The yearly consumption of wheat in Great Britain is 104 millions. In 1841, 21,604,840 bushels were imported into England, of which, 2,528,600 were from the United States; but in 1840, 6,831,000 bushels were from the United States. The exports of wheat and flour from Canada to Great Britain, in 1835, were 88,695 cwt. of wheat and 48,811 of flour. From 1828 to 1839, Great Britain raised enough for her consumption only 4 years out of the 12, and in two of every three years she imports 10 per cent, of all her home consumption. Great Britain imported in 1840, Wheat, of bushels, 9.931.688; beans, 514.864; peas, 238.784 ; Rice, 265.642 IDS., and wheat flour, 456.74 cwt. The English include the products of Peas and Beans in their esti- mates of grains ; so that, of 44 millions of bushels estimated as the an- nual consumption of the kingdom some years since, 14,880,000 bushels were of peas and beans ; and the proportion of wheat was but 12 mil- lions. Half of the grain crop is said not to be brought to market. In 1831 the importation of grain was 28,000,000 of bushels, about a sev- enth part of the produce brought to market. In 1835 the quantity of grain sent from Ireland to Great Britain was 21,352.104 bushels ; 5,294,208 of which were wheat, and 14,581,648 oats. It is estimated 16 WHEAT. that 9 millions of people in England are fed on wheat, 1,500,000 on barley, 4,500 on oats, 500,000 on rye, and 500,000 on peas and beans. Thus the proportion to each person would be of wheat 8 bushels ; bar- ley 10 bushels ; oats 10 bushels, or peas and beans 8 bushels. The consumption of oats is thought to be underrated, there being more fed on them by the diffrence of 18 millions of bushels consumed; and those fed on peas and beans must also, we think, be similarly under- estimated, as seen above. The quantity of grain raised This in France, annually, is estimated at 497,769,640 bushels. 16 per cent, of this is consumed in seed, 19 per cent, in feeding animals, and 2 per cent, in distilleries and brewe- ries. This and other facts we shall hereafter mention, show that not less malt liquors but ardent spirits, are consumed in greater propor- tions in France than in England and Ireland ; probably from 50 to 100 per cent, less, and with the exception of wines, 50 per cent. The wheat grown annually in France is about 176 millions of bushels; the proportion of grain, consumed therefore, by each person is about 10 bushels, or two more than in England; and the whole amount cf grain raised is about equal to the consumption; but when deficient it is imported from the Black Sea. In Hungary 105 millions of bushels of strain are raised, which, supposing none to be consumed in seed or distillation, afford but 6^ bushels for each of 13 millions of inhabitants. The annual expectations , for 25 years, from Dantzic, the depot for the productions of Poland, are 1,602,640 bushels of wheat, and 540- 088 bushels of Rye. But, in 1830, there were exported from that place 3,232,000 bushels. This port and Hamburgh are the two great grain markets of the North of Europe. Spain exports wheat largely to Great Britain; the amount in 1831 was 1,264,000 bushels. The amount exported from Odessa, on the Black Sea, the only grain-port in the south of Russia, is annually about 3,421,976 bushels. Little if any is exported from Sicily, though once the principal granary of Rome. WHEAT (Triticum) c. 3, o. 2, Gramineae, sp 16-28. Ds. A. 4 ft. This, of all the genus graminae and of the cereal grains, is universally esteemed as the most valuable, although the comparative cost of its pro- duction induces less attention to its cultivation in some countries than to other grains. It is especially remarkable that it sustains the ex- tremes of heat and cold, and it is therefore one of the greatest gifts of nature. It is now the chief food of the people of Ameriea ; and, as we have shown, is exported in large quantities, both in grain and flour. There are several species and a still greater number of varieties of this grain, most of which last are attributable to differences in climate and modes of culture. All kinds are however distinguished in this coun- try by the season in which they are sown, as Spring or Summer Wheat, and Winter Wheat. SPECIES AND VARIETIES OF WHEAT. 17 The species of wheat are 1st, T. JEstivum, summer or spring wheat. 2, T. Hybernum, winter or lamas wheat, (var. 1 red, 2 white, both with- out awns, 3 red, 4 white, both with awns) 3, T. Compositum, Many spiked wheat ; 4, T. Turgidum, Duck Bill, Grey Pollard or cone wheat; 5, T. Polonium; Polish wheat; 6, T. Spelta ; 7, T. Monoco- cum. The remaining species of the genus are called wheat grasses and are of no use in agriculture. Winter wheat is red and white, the grain of the red is small; the white is chiefly cultivated here of which there are two kinds, the best is the thin chaffed. The first, or Spring Wheat, as shown in the cut, is sup- posed to be a native of Siberia : it is not so hardy as the second, and it has a thinner and less erect stem, more slender ear, with a longer beard or awn ; its grain is smaller and its product less. The reason for its culture is the security it affords against a cold and wet spring. It is sown in April or May. Its nutritive properties are not equal to winter wheat, by a difference of H per cent., and its gluten is as 19 to 24. Winter Wheat, or Lamas, as it is called in England, is sown in Autumn ; it stands through the winter and ripens during the fol- lowing summer. Its varieties are distinguished by a difference of color in the tunic enclosing the grain. The colors are com- monly red and white. The red is most hardy, but not so produc- tive as white, nor is the flour of so good a quality. It is beard less. Duck Bill, or conical, wheat is another variety, but it is little cultivated. Egyptian, many spiked wheat, or "corn of abun- dance," is mostly cultivated in Egypt and Italy; it re- sembles, in its habits, the spring wheat. Its ear is beard- ed, and it sustains great heat and drought. Polish wheat is some cultivated in parts of Europe. 18 SPECIES AND VARIETIES. Spelt wheat, or T. spelta, is supposed to be the triticum of the Romans, and the zea of the Greeks. It appears to be a distinct species, more hardy than common wheat. It continues to be cultivated in the South of Europe, and requires less culture, and it may be raised on coarser soils than our wheat. There are two varieties, the bearded and beardless. The latteris larger, but has ftw grains, part of the flowers proving barren. It is sown in spring and is strong, the stems being nearly solid ; the flour is dry. One seeded wheat, " or St. Peter's corn/ 5 is another vari- ety, the smallest in stem and leaves of any ; the spike con- tains but one row of grains. It- is mostly raised in parts of Switzerland, and is better for gruel than for bread. The ear is four sided and very regular. The seven eared wheat is raised in the most warm parts of the world and is the kind formerly raised in Egypt and Syria ; it is often mentioned in the Bible by the name of corn. Its stem is filled with pith and is thereby able to sustain the weight of the ears. The mode of propagating wheat is in two ways ; the most ancient as well as the most common is to scatter the seed with the hand, or broad cast, the other is to deposite it in holes formed in straight furrows, at regular intervals, which is called drilling. Various methods have been invented, or suggested, for sowing, but the first is the common mode here. The mode of germination has been elsewhere explained, but it is not unworthy of remark that it is wonderful how the little germ of wheat produces, not only a plant, but one plant after another, so that in a few seasons the minute germ affords food for a whole nation of people. The number of stalks from each seed depends on local causes. The multiplication of these is called tillering. They spring from the young sprouts, but are often attacked at the roots by the in- sect musea pumilionis which deposits its eggs in the core of the plu- mule. But their injury is more than repaid by the plant sending out, in consequence, new shoots from the knots, which fix it more firmly and produce many stems and ears, instead of but one. A plant of barley has been known to produce 249 stalks and 18.000 grains, and in another case 100 ears, each with from sixty to seventy grains. The produce of wheat varies with the soil, season and culture. An BLIGHT. 19 acre of good ground generally produced in England, in the thirteenth century, only about twelve bushels of wheat and in the sixteenth from sixteen to twenty bushels, and barley thirty-six bushels. Fifty years ago the produce was twenty-two and a half bushels the acre. Since this the amount has increased as all productions do increase by the advance of people in knowledge and industry. The crops in the United States show an average vastly greater than, this, and probably greater than in any other part of the world. In- stances of extraordinary production are frequent, but the medium may be estimated at about forty bushels the acre. The aggregate product of the United States in 1842 was 102.317.540 bushels, being an increase of 10 per cent., or 10.674.683 bushels on the previous year. When a distinguished Roman farmer was indicted and brought be- fore an assembly of the people for sorcery in having produced larger crops from a small spot of land than his neighbors from their extensive fields, he answered the charge by producing his more efficient instru- ments of husbandry, his vigorous oxen and his hale young daughter, and said " these, Romans, are my instruments of witchcraft, but, I cannot show you my labors, sweats, and anxious cares." The principle casualties to which wheat is liable are blight, smut and mildew. By the first the fibres are contracted and enfeebled, and the grain is deprived of sufficient nourishment. It was considered among the Greeks and Romans a sign of the wrath of the offended dei- ties, and no remedy was, of course, resorted to. By the second the stem and ear are affected, and by the third the grains are filled with a dark powder. But the two last are confounded, or they may be refer- red to the same disorder at different periods of the plant's growth. Three causes are assigned for these disorders ; viz. cold and frosty winds, sultry and pestilential vapors and a parasitical fungus. The first stops the current of juices, the leaves die and the vessels of the plant become filled with insects. The second occurs after the growth of the grain and commonly after heavy rains. Its effects are called burnt grain and were thought contagious. The grain of mildewed plants are said to answer for seed. Smut consists in the conversion of the farina of the grain into a black sooty and offensive powder which, under the microscope, shows millions of minute globules. It has been attributed to a diseased state of the seed, but is now known to be a fungus, (see blight.) BLIGHT pucinia c. 24, o. 9, T, 4, sp 30. P. graminis is the well known blight, a minute parasitic fungus. In attacking the stem or leaves of the grain-plants, or corn, it first has the appearance of orange colored streaks, which afterwards take a deep brown color. The plants attack the parenchyma just below the pores of the cuticle. Each is so small that any pore on a straw will produce from 20 to 40 fungi and each of these will doubtless produce at least 100 reproduc- 20 BLIGHT, ETC. live particles ; so that the progeny of a single pore will be sufficient to infect a whole plant. The period of yeneratun is thought not to exceed a week ; and as the particles are very light they are waited into the air in clouds of animated dust, carrying disease into all the neigh- borhood. Numerous illustrations of the forms of this plant, and the progress of its development, have been published, which space denies us the liberty to notice; but, with a strong magnifying glass, the whole structure and varied appearances may be seen. The fungus in- sinuates itself into the open pores and stomates, where they germinate and push their minute roots into the cellular texture beyond the bark, where they draw nourishment by intercepting the flowing sap necessary for the growth of the grain. In some cases the corn has been so completely robbed of its flour by the fungus, that hardly an atom of it remains in the grain ; and bran is alone the product. Every spe- cies of corn is subject to the blight, but spring corn is less damaged by it than winter. Bearded wheat, with the straw full of pith, is less subject to blight than Lammas, which ripens a week later. It is thought probable that the leaf is first infected before the corn shoots up into straw, when it is of an orange color. It has long been be- lieved by farmers, though doubted by botanists, that wheat near bar- bery bushes seldom escapes blight, and many examples would appear to confirm the opinion. This has been attributed to the farina ol the flowers of the barbery. The leaves of the barbery, it is well-known are very subject to the attack of a yellow parasitic fungus, larger, but otherwise not different from the rust in corn. Whatever the cause of the diffusion and propagation of this fungus may be, recent obser- vations have thrown much light on its nature and habits, so that we may hope that means may soon be discovered by which to prevent its ravages. The average weight of a bushel of wheat is about 60 Ibs., seldom less than 56 or over 62. The average weight-yield, on being ground,, is 47 Ibs. of bread flour, 4 fine pollard, 4 oz. coarse pollard, 2 oz. bran, loss 2 oz. total 60 Ibs. 14 Ibs. of American flour make 2l5lbs. of bread, the same of best English flour make but 18| Ibs. The average price, per bushel, of wheat, in England, from 1834 to 1840 was in 1834, $1.264; in 1835 $1.20; in 1836 $1.324; in 1837 $1.54*; in 1838 $1.72; in 1839 $201; in 1840 $1.91; showing a rapid increase, except in 1840- The average price of flour there from Dantzic is $7 per barrel. The annual consumption of all grains in Great Britain is estimated at 416.000.000 of bushels. All Europe it is said could not supply England with more than 18.000.000 of bushels, yet she imported in 1841, 21.604.840 bushels ; showing her dependence on America for this strain. Ohio alone yields one-fourth more than the whole of that amount. The duty on imported grams, according to the sliding scale, is, when the price is under $1.53 AMERICAN WHEAT. 21 per bushel, 60 cts. ; and 3 cts. less per bushel for every increase of 3 cts. on the price up to $2.19, and over 1 when the duty is 3 cts. per bushel. On flour, for every barrel of 196 Ibs., the duty is equal to that on 38J gals, of wheat. The duty on wheat from her colonies is 15 cts. per bushel, when the price is under $1.51 ; under $1.54, 10 cts.; under $1.57, 8| cts. ; under $1.59f, 5i cts., and upwards 3f cts. Wheat yields 955 parts of nutritive matter. According to Davy, 14 Ibs. yield 13 Ibs. of flour, the same of barley 12 Ibs., and same of oats 8 Ibs. 1000 parts yield 955 soluble parts, of barley 920, and ol oats 743 ; the gluten of wheat being 90, of barley 60, and of oats 87. Starch is mostly obtained from the flour by washing it in cold water. Its constituents are carbon, 43.55 ; oxygen, 49.68, and hydrogen, 6.77- in 100. The bran is the husks, separated by grinding ; it is used as food for cattle, and for washing the hands in lieu of soap. The straw, cut fine and mixed with water, is used as provender and for the litter of cattle, for thatching, filing beds, making paper, for ropes, chairs, etc. ; and when bleached with sulphur and split, is plated for hats, bonnets, etc. The value of straw bonnets made in the United States in 1840, was $1.476.505 persons employed, 20.176; capital invested $485.300. Leghorn hats are made of a bearded variety of wheat, 18 inches high, resembling rye. It grows on sandy soil on the Arno, between Leg- horn and Florence. It is pulled when green and bleached like flax on the gravelly bed of the river. The straw is not split, as here, which renders the plait tougher and more durable. American wheat is of 2 kinds, smooth and bearded; the first gene- rally produces here the finest flour, and the second the largest crops, with a stiffer stem and less liability to disease. The first requires a dry mellow soil, and the second new, stiff' and moist soil. Of the smooth kind the white variety is best for flour, and the red for amount of product. An Italian spring wheat, lately introduced, is said to be of a superior kind. Whittington's new prize wheat, also recently intro- duced, from 2 stalks from Switzerland, produces from 20 to 30 ears on each plant ; the ear is full, the kernel white, and it grows equally well on sandy or clayey soil. 12 bushels on 6 acres have produced 350 bushels. The new Mediterranean Wheat we have mentioned before. The solid-stem wheat, lately from Asia, resists the fly well and yields a large and heavy grain. The Trigorica wheat is said to yield 400 fold and to have much nutriment. The Lamas wheat of England is here generally red. The Red-chaff wheat, a variety which originated on the shores of Maryland, and now widely cultivated, yields a white and superior flour, though later than other varieties and liable to mil- dew. The yellow-bearded wheat, originating on Long Island, N. Y., yields and stands the winter well ; it gives a dark flour, and is liable to smut. Red-chaff wheat, of Virginian origin is strong and stout pro- duces well, makes white flour, and stands the winter well. Early 22 RYE. Virginia Wheat is 2 weeks earlier than other kinds, and yields well. Jones's Wheat of Pensylvania produces excellent white flour, stands the winter well and resists the fly, but yields least of any. Spelt is cultivated here and yields a brown but wholesome flour. We are indebted to other countries for the grains, originally, Indian corn ex- cepted, though we have produced many inestimable varieties. RYE Secale Cereale, C. 3, O. 2, Graminse, sp. 24. Ds. A. 3 ft. This grain is considered next in value to wheat, in temperate climates. Its appearance in the grain and in growing differs little from wheat. It is supposed to have been brought originally from the Levant, though it has been cultivated in Kurope from time immemorial. It has been the least changed by cultivation of all domestic plants, nor has it been found wild. It is much more common on the continent than wheat, it being a more certain crop and requiring less manure and culture. In Russia and Germany it is the bread corn ; it is also con- siderably grown in the United States, but much less in England. It sustains cold climates and grows in a greater variety of soils than wheat, and arrives at maturity sooner; it also has a belter flavor, though it is not so nutritious as wheat; still it is much used for bread. A great part of this grain has been used heretofore for distilling spirits. The straw is more durable than that of wheat and is used for thatching, laying bricks, and other purposes in the arts. The flour is much used mixed with that of wheat, the bread being cheaper and by some preferred. Two centuries ago it furnished all the bread con- sumed by the laboring classes in England. As food for cattle it is sown in November and eaten early in spring. It is now much culti- vated for an acid procured from it and employed by Tanners in a pro- cess called raising ; by which the pores of leather are opened to receive tannin the more readily. Parched and ground Rye is now much used as a substitute for coffee, both here and in Europe. There are four species of rye, but the secale cereale is the only one cultivated in this country. There are two varieties of this species, the winter and spring rye. When sown with wheat the harvest is termed meslin, mung corn, or monk corn, from its having been eaten in monasteries. Next to wheat, it contains more gluten than any ce- real grain. Five parts of every 100 consists of ready formed saccharine matter, and hence it is easily converted into malt beer and ardent spirit, though much inferior for the first purpose than barley. It yields 792 parts of soluble matter, of which 645 are mucilage, 190 gluten and 38 sugar 1000. It contains from 70 to 79 per cent, of nutritive matter; that of wheat being 95 with 19 parts of gluten. It passes rapidly from the vinous to the acetous fermentation. All the grain spirit of Germany, known as Holland, Geneva, #c. is made by the mix- ture and fermentation of unmalted rye mixed with barley malt, in the MAIZE. 23 proportion of two parts by weight of the former to one of the latter, and flavored with juniper. Some peculiar process however is used by Dutch distillers, as all attempts to make the same quality here have failed. The common bread of the people about the Baltic is made of rye, which is largely exported from Prussian ports. Of the 650.000 bushels exported from Dantzic in 1830, (which is about the annual ex- port,) three-eights was taken to Holland for distillation. A million of bushels of rye and 200.000 of wheat are exported from Archangel an- nually and 400.000 of the first from Riga. In 1829 a million of bush- els were exported from St. Petersburgh. The crop of the United States last year, 1842, was 22.762.952 bushels 5 of which Pennsylvania and New-York were the greatest producers. Rye cakes are the principal food of the peasants in Sweden. These are baked twice a year and are therefore as hard as a board. Rye is sown mixed with barley in Lap- land and with wheat in France, and thus mixed, is made into bread. Jl disease attacks rye which renders it noxious and even poisonous. It is thus called horned-rye, or ergot, the grain resembling a cock's spur. A wet spring and hot summer are the attendants of this disease. It is an excrescence or irregular vegetation, 1% inches long, springing from between the grain and leaf. Bread made of rye thus diseased has a nauseous acrid taste and produces spasms and gangreens. Many fatal epidemics have widely prevailed in Europe where this grain is cultiva- ted. The first symptoms are apparent drunkenness, after which the toe-s mortify and fall off and then the disease extends upwards to the trunk, even after amputating the limbs. Insects, poultry and other animals are also fatally affected by it; even flies that light upon it die with convulsions. But, singular as it may seem, this poison is admit- ted into practice as a medicine. Rye is apt to be confounded with rye grass and by some with rag-grass. MAIZE or Indian Corn, zea mays, C. 2, 0. 3, Graminse, sp. 2, Ds. A. 3-12 ft. The name zea implies to live. There are numerous varie- ties of this important plant, but only two species ; these differ in time of growth, quality, etc. but the varieties differ, from peculiarities of culture, soil and climate. Maize is cultivated in a wider range of cli- mate than most other grains ; and, next to wheat, is the most import- ant grain in utility in this country. It is evidently more stimulating than any other of the cereal grains ; and wherever Indian corn forms the principal food, the people are strong and hardy. It is convertible in- to human food in a greater variety of forms than any other grain, and no crop is more beneficial to the American farmer. No crop returns more to the soil, and none is better fitted perhaps for fattening domes- tic animals. A religious reputation is attached to the Valparaiso maize, from its splitting, when roasted, into the form of a cross; and it has been denominated here, in view of its importance, a magnum JDei donum. Two crops are often raised annually in the western states. 24 NATIVITY, QUALITIES, ETC. The form and growth of Indian corn are too well known to need de- scription. Some of the varieties are suitable only for the long summers of the southern states. The top produces a bunch of male flowers call- ed the tassel. Each plant bears one or more spikes or ears generally 3 and sometimes 7, enveloped in a sheath of husks. The eyes, or germs of the seed are arranged in radical lines on the cobb, each send- ing out a filament of silk. These are the stigma which hang out to re- ceive the farina which drops from the tassel or flower, and without which the ear would produce no seed. When this is effected, both wither. The color of the seed varies even in the same ear. The native country of this plant is undoubtedly America. The In- dians throughout this continent were found, on its discovery, engaged in cultivating this grain, and it is now found wild in Paraguay ; so that 250 years ago, this important plant was known only to the Ameri- can Indians. As food, it is extensively used throughout this country and in South America. In Mexico it is the principle support of the people, and in Africa its consumption is equal to that of rice. A prejudice has existed against this grain, but obviously from a na- tional feeling well known to be characteristic of the people whence it originated. But it has been justly said by an English writer that no argument, as to the quality of particular kinds of food, can be based on individual or national liking or disliking. This may be so with re- spect to other people, but it is not applicable to the source of the sen- timent, for the taste of no people is more questionable on this subject the sentiment to the contrary notwithstanding than that of the English. The useful qualities of maize are numerous. Coarsly ground and boiled it forms the favorite old fashioned hominy of the southern states ; and, when finely ground and mixed with water or milk, the mush of Pennsylvania and the hasty pudding of the eastern states ; and also when hulled, the samp so generally admired with milk, or the johnny- cake much eaten by the negroes of the south ; and, in the early history of our country, by the people generally, as was the acorn, or hog nut, some centuries since by the people of England. Indian meal is still much used as a favorite, sweetly flavored and wholesome bread ; and in puddings, well prepared, it is not excelled by the flour of any other grain. Mixed with wheat flour it makes a bread decidedly more pala- table and wholesome than wheat flour alone. It does not lie within the stomach a heavy mass, affected with difficulty by the gastric juice, as with the greater portion of fresh baker's bread, but is always light, stimulating and well flavored. White corn is said to be the best for bread, and the yellow best for cattle. Sweet corn is best for early boiling and also for fodder. Musty corn is cured by turning upon it twice the quantity of boiling water, letting it remain till cold ; musty wheat is ctired in the same manner. PREPARATIONS OF MAIZE. 25 Domestic animals of all kinds are extremely fond of it; and, as is well known, readily fatten upon it, their flesh being at the same time re- markable for its firmness. Both men and horses feeding upon it are very hardy and perform more labor than when feeding on most other kinds of food. The cobbs should be ground with the corn when design- ed for cattle, the advantage being as 3 in 13. Maize when fed to horses should be soaked 12 hours in water, it being then more easily mashed and more nourishing. The wet meal fed to chickens is the very best and most nutritive food, and the grain is equally so to grown fowls. Maize eaten in various ways, is wholesome and delicate before the harvest. The tender green ears, stripped of their leaves, are roasted before a quick fire till brown, and the grain eaten with salt and butter. When riper, the ears are boiled, either with or without the leaves, and eaten as above, or cut off' and eaten with kidney beans. The tender grains dried may be kept through the year and eaten with beans, also alone, if soaked some hours in water and boiled. When ripe and hard, it may be soaked during the night in a lye of ashes, then pounded in a mortar, by which the skin is peeled off and the farinaceous part is left whole. This on boiling, swells into a while soft pulp, which is eaten with milk or with butter and sugar. Ground loosely into pieces of the size of rice, winnowed and boiled, it is eaten with fowls, etc. Finely ground and boiled, it is eaten with milk, or as puddings, or baked before the fire on flat erect pieces of iron, as a hasty bread cake or Johnny cake." It is also blended in soups or broths. The grains placed in an iron pot filled with sand and heated hot, burst on stirring the sand, and are then large and white. The whole is then turned into a wire seive, the corn separated, and the sand returned to the pot and the process repeated, if desired. This parched corn is then pow- dered in mortars or eaten otherways. 6 or 8 oz. mixed with water supports a person a day. Our Indians, and the people of the East, travel mostly with this light and nutritious food. An oil, almost equal to Olive oil, is extracted from the kernel, which promises to be of much importance, both in the arts and for culinary purposes. It is now obtained in considerable quantities at the West. In Mexico, corn is often sowed thick, and the small stalks are cut and served like asparagus, as a dessert. There is said to be a disease of this grain, resembling the ergot of rye, though less serious. All eating of it shed their teeth and hair, and quadrupeds their hoofs ; fowls also, eating of it lay their eggs without shells. Administered medicinally, it is also said to be more powerful than the ergot of rye. Maize, in the Levant, is called Turkey corn ; indeed it might be call- ed the corn of every country, the latitude of which does not exceed 46 ; for, next to rice, perhaps, it supplies with food the greatest number of the human race. It is the handsomest and largest of all 3 26 AMERICAN INDIAN CORN AND STORY. the grasses used for food, having the appearance every where of a tropical plant. In Italy the flour is prepared for many dishes, all of which are called polenta. All attempts to extend its cultivation in England have failed, as the climate is too cold and moist, generally. In Mexico a saccharine beverage is prepared from it with much ad- dress by the Indians, and they thus used it when conquered by Cortez. The, American Indian Corn is the largest grain of this kind known. Its stalk often attains at the West to the height of 12 and even 20 feet, and yields very abundantly, as we have before shown. The average crop of last year in the United States was 441.829.246 bushels. In some of the provinces of Mexico, at an elevation of 6 or 7000 feet, wnich nearly corresponds with our temperate climate, it also yields even 800 for 1. This variety rarely comes to maturity in extreme northern climates, nor can it be relied on, it is thought, as a safe crop in any part of Europe. Manures are rarely used in our Western States in raising this grain, nor so much in the Eastern States, as with some others. The 12 rowed corn is said to be best for planting and also for the amount of product. Buel said that it is earlier than any other field variety, and that two bushels of ears yield 5 pecks of shelled grain, weighing 62 Ibs. the bushel. Others say the eight-rowed proves the most valuable, though it may be hard to make a superficial obser- ver believe it. Three varieties are best for green corn, which by a little pains may be picked four weeks earlier than field corn, viz. : Golden Soix, Flour Corn or York Cheat, and Sweet corn. The first is the earliest and is well flavored ; the second is white and soft, and lasts till sweet corn is fit for use. It was called cheat from its having been mixed when ground with flour. And the third is superior to the rest for boiling, sweetness, etc. The Aborigines of our country were guided in the time of sowing maize by the appearance of some particular bud, or certain fish within their waters. They shelled it from the cobb soon after harvesting, dried it thoroughly in the sun and then buried it in the earth, sur- rounded by mats of dried grass. They had a tradition respecting this grain which was related by a Susquehannah Chief, and recorded by Dr. Franklin. In the beginning," said this child of nature, our fa- thers had only the flesh of animals to subsist on, and if their hunting was unsuccessful, they were starving. Two of our young hunters having killed a deer, made a fire to broil a part of it, when they were about to satisfy their hunger, they beheld a beautiful young woman descend from the clouds and seat herself on that hill, which you see yonder among the blue mountains. They said to each other, it is a spirit that has perhaps smelled our broiling venison and wishes to eat of it ; let us offer some to her. They presented her with the tongue. She was pleased with it and said, your kindness shall be rewarded ; BROOM CORN AND CORN SUGAR. 27 come to this place after 13 moons and you shall find something that will be of great benefit in nourishing you and your children to the latest generation. 5 They did so, and to their great surprise, found plants they had never seen before, but which, from that ancient time, have been constantly cultivated among us, to our great advantage. Where her right hand touched the ground, they found maize ; where her left had touched it they found kidney beans ; and where she had seated herself they found tobacco." The second variety of maize produces white grains, and this is the kind chiefly cultivated in the Sontli of Europe, where it is only 6 or 7 feet high, and the ear 6 or 7 inches long. Neither of these varieties come to maturity in England, except in very favorable seasons. The third variety has both white and yellow seeds, and is even smaller than the last, rarely exceeding 4 feet in height, and the ears 4 or 5 inches in length. It is cultivated in this country and in the middle parts of Europe. In Germany it is used in the preparation of beer. It is common, in cultivating corn in some places, to remove the blades and the top and tassel, as soon as the farina or polen, has been deposited on the ears, in order to admit the sun and to afford more nutriment to the grain. Parts removed are slacked, making good food for cattle and sheep in the spring, and being very sweet. The ears are either picked on the field or the stalk is cut and the whole removed, when the stalks are fed to cattle, as they abound with saccha- rine matter. Latterly, however, the stalks have been discovered to be still more valuable for making sugar. The leaves make a good wrapping paper, and the husks a good writing paper. Broom corn is another species, which, with us, is very valuable for making floor brooms. It is much cultivated on the Connecticut river, in Mass. The amount produced on the acre is from 800 to 1000 Ibs., beside 60 or 70 bushels of seed. The brush is estimated to be worth 4 or 5 cts. the Ib. and sometimes 10 or 12 cts. The seed on an acre, at 33 cts. the bushel, is said to be equal to a crop of oats. 1.300 acres of this plant are cultivated in the town of North Hampton and vicinity, the brush and seed of which is valued at $100.000 annually. The adjoining town of Hadley manufactures brooms to the value of $ 1 60.000 annually. One person it is said makes 80.000 brooms a-year. The process of cultivation is like that of the Indian corn. Corn Sugar Considerable attention has been attracted within the last year to experiments made to obtain sugar from corn stalks. Thus far the success indicates the most important results. An excellent syrup, or molasses, has been obtained, and Ihe susur we have seen was cer- tainly of a very superior quality. Mr. Webb, of Wilmington, (Del.) has introduced this discovery to notice ; and he affirms that his an- ticipations have been more arid more confirmed by every succeeding step in the investigation." At present it appears that there is " no RICE. deficiency in the corn," and that the only difficulty is in crystallizing the sugar. Experiments evidently " show the superiority of the corn stalk over the cane for making sugar." It has been shown that the juice of the corn stalk is two tenths stronger than the juice of the sugar cane. From many experiments made at the west, it has been estimat- ed that from 600 to 1,000 pounds of sugar may be obtained from the acre, and that three quarts of juice will yield saccharine matter equal to one pound of sugar, or 8 or 9 gallons will make 10 of thick molas- ses. These trials are to be repeated with the assurance that in a few years the corn sugar will become an article of export and of great value to the west." Sugar has been made of the water in which the ears of corn have been boiled; and it is consequently inferred that the cobb also contains much saccharine matter. Large stalks yield most juice in proportion to their size ; and the corn, it is said, should therefore be grown in drills : the leaves are stripped off before the stalks are cut. Experiments have been made at the south with prospects not less flattering than the above. Having sugar mills and every conve- nience, it is thought that the corn stalk will there be preferred to the cane. A saturated solution of the cane juice contains 5 parts of su- gar and 3 of water. An acre yields at most but 700 gals, of cane juice, of which 122 Ibs. of sugar are made, showing an equal, if not superior average quantity fro-m the corn stalk. The juice fermented and distilled yields an excellent spirit. The Mexicans, Cortez says, made honey from the stalks of maize as sweet as sugar cane," and also "sugar; and this sugar they sell," they also prepared a ferment- ed liquor from it. This they continue to make and also several beve- rages resembling beer, cider, &c. which, in some places, are articles of commerce. RICE Oryza, (Sativa,) C 6, 2, Graminae, sp.l,Ds. A. 1-6 ft. This is an annual grain well known in this coun- try. It was long cultivated in the East before it was in- troduced into Egypt and Greece. It came to South Caro- lina in 1697, a small bag of it having been sent as a pre- sent from Mr. Dubois, Treasurer of the East India Com- pany to a merchant in Charleston ; it is also said that 60 tons were exported to England in 1798. But the author of a work published in 1701, says, a brigantine from fthe island of Madagascar put in at Carolina, having a ^ little seed rice left, which the captain gave to a gentle- man by the name of Woodbury. From part of this he had a very good crop, but was ignorant, for some years, how to clean it. It was soon dispersed over the province, and, by frequent experiments and obser- vations, they soon found cut ways of producing and manufacturing it to so great a perfection that it is thought to exceed any other in value. The writer of this hath seen the said captain in Carolina, where he re- VARIETIES OF RICE. 29 ceived a handsome gratuity from the gentlemen of that country in ac- knowledgement of the service he had done the Province. It is like- wise reported that Mr. Dubois, then Treasurer of the East India Com- pany, did send to that country a small bag of seed rice some short time after." To this has been attributed the fact of having two kinds there. The cultivation of rice in this country is confined to the southern states, where its increase has been wonderful and from whence great quantities are now shipped to British and other ports. Its quality is much superior to that of India, whence it came originally, or to any other known. The destiny of whole nations of people has been changed by the cultivation of rice; hundreds of millions depend upon its annual crops. The Chinese and Hindoos owe their civilization to it. The for- mer obtain two crops a year from the same ground. They cultivate it even upon rafts covered with soil. Rice, in fine, constitutes the food <.-f the largest portion of the human race, but where it is mostly cultivated in the East the people are in the lowest state, and life is most preca- rious. They have no inferior food to fall back upon. Rice seeds di- rect from India do not ripen in Germany. The mountain rice is cul- tivated in Hungary, like barley or summer wheat. Rice is superior, as an article of diet, to almost any other vegetable in warm climates, but is not so well calculated for the constitution of people of the north. There are four varieties though but one species of rice, but these are the result of difference of soil, culture and climate. The stem is com- monly from 1 to 6 feet high, resembling wheat ; the flowers also resem- ble those of oats. Each grain is terminated by a beard and is enclo- sed in a rough yellow husk, the whole resembling barley. Its yield is about six times as much as wheat on the same space of land. A kind grows near the snows of the Himalaya mountains which, it is thought, may be made valuable to the American cultivator. The farina of rice is almost entirely composed of starch, with little or no gluten and without saccharine matter. The outer husk adheres so closely that the grain has to be passed between mill stones to remove it. Swamps occasioned by the tide and those caused by the floodings of the rivers are best suited for the production of rice in this country. It is raised with very little labor. It is not much used as a bread grain here, but boiled, it is the chief food of the slaves of the southern states. Mixed with wheat flour it makes a fine bread. For puddings it is greatly used throughout the country. A pound slowly boiled yields, it is said, 4 pounds of nutritive food. Where rice is the chief food of the people, dearths are not uncommon, from a failure of the usual supply of rain. Here we are most happily guarded against dearths or famines by the diversity of our crops. Articles of food which may have been at any time luxuries have been by their naturilization brought within the reach of all ; so that in unfavorable seasons we are now supplied with articles on which we can always fall back. 3* 30 CULTURE OF RICE. The Common Rice is a marsh plant, so that if the soil becomes dry before its maturity, it withers. This grows most strongly, and upon its peculiar soil, no other kind, or perhaps any other plant, can be advantageously cultivated. Early rice is also a marsh plant, but is of a smaller size than the other. It however comes to maturity two months earlier, this requiring but four, while the other requires six months to become perfected. Mountain Rice is cultivated on the sides of hills, but \s mostly confined to eastern countries. After many experiments it does not seem susceptible of cultivation on low lands. Clammy rice grows both on wet and dry soils ; and the period of its maturity is between the early and common rice. The culture of rice in America extends from the Gulf of Mexico to Virginia, but grows most abundantly in Georgia and South Carolina. The entries for home consumption in Great Britain in 1830 were 153. 652 cwt. of cleaned, and 189.249 cwt. of rough grain, but these were less in subsequent years. Of 76 millions Ibs. raised in the U. S. in 1840, 60 millions were cultivated in Georgia, and 12 millions in South Carolina. Of this product the value of exports was $1.942.076. The Carolina rice is prefered to any other variety. The aggregate crop in the U. S. in 1842 was 94.207.484 Ibs. Wild rice, zizania, aquatica, abounds on the margins of the northern lakes and upper branches of the Mississippi, and also as far south as lat. 32. It some resembles oats. Water fowls fatten on it. The In- dians of the north, traders and hunters feed much upon it. It rises in water 6 feet deep and appears the same distance above it. The grain is as white as the common rice, and puddings are made of it which taste like those made of sago. The mode of cultivating rice is by sowing it in straight rows, in trench- es eighteen inches apart. This is generally completed by the middle of March, when the land is flooded several inches deep for some days, by water before kept back by flood gates. This promotes the germina- tion of the seed. After the withdrawal of the water for about four weeks, it is again let on when the sprout is three or four inches high, by which the weeds are destroyed. It is then hoed several times until the middle of July, when the water is again admitted and is allowed to remain until the grain is ripened. The harvest commences about the end of August. The rice is reaped with a sickle by male and gather- ed and bound by female negroes. Owing to the moisture of the soil and the heat of the sun at this time, this operation is a very unhealthy one. In Italy and Spain water is allowed to stand on the soil during the growth of the rice, and three crops are successively taken from the soil, after which it is manured and other crops are substituted. In Ceylon the rice is cultivated on terraces ; the water is brought from a distance to flood successively each terrace, according to the relative RICE BIRDS AND USES OF RICE. 31 states of the growth of the rice. In China the rice is placed in baskets immersed in water several days. The ground is thoroughly- soaked, then ploughed, afterwards covered with water and then harrowed. The plant appears above ground in one or two days after the seed is sown. When the plants have acquired a little strength they are sprinkled over with lime water to destroy insects. After this the plants are pulled up and speedily planted in tufts in prepared fields, which are frequently watered and weeded ; and the grain is then gathered and prepared as in this country. In Hindostan the mode of culture is simi- lar to that of China, but wild hogs destroy much of the crops during the night time. The Rice bird, in America and the West Indies is very destructive. This bird is said to be the same as our Bob Lincoln. These birds first attack the earlier crops of Cuba, and when the grain there becomes too hard they proceed in immense flocks to our southern fields, where, from being very lean, they become excessively fat in the three weeks of their visit. They then subsist on insects and green plants till the maize begins to form its grains, when they attack that with like avidity and eflect. These birds are found in extensive flocks in the New Eng- land states in spring and summer, where they breed, leaving with their young in season for the rice grains in Cuba, all the females going first and alone with their young and the melodious males following. Their flesh is considered a great delicacy. The uses of rice are various. In India and China it is more the staple article of consumption than any other in other parts of the world. There and in Africa little other preparation than boiling is made of it ; while in this and some other countries it is commonly prepared for the table with eggs, milk, sugar, etc. Fermented bread may be made of rice by reducing it to powder in a mill or by pounding it in a mortar, after soaking it some hours in nearly boiling water. The flour is then passed through a seive and placed in a trough with water, made glutenous by boiling rice in it for some time ; add salt and the proper leaven or yeast, and kneed the whole intimately toge- ther. The dough is then covered with warm cloths and left to rise. Becoming softer by rising, it is placed in pans of the size of the loaves required, is covered with sheets of paper and set in the oven ; in a little time the pans may be reversed and the bread turned on the pa- per. The Chinese make white wine of rice ; and in the East, ardent spirits are made by fermentation and distillation. It may be made into beer by mixing 1 part by weight of malted barley with 4 parts of crushed rice, previously mixed with its own weight of water. Rice is often used and crushed with the husks on, when it is called Paddy, or more properly Paddee. It is thus largely exported to Europe to avoid duties, especially to England ; and is thus called cargo rice. OATS AND ITS VARIETIES. OATS dvena saliva, C 3, O 2, Graminse. sp. 9 34. Ds. A. 3 ft from to covet. This is a grain well known in our country. It is much grown and com- monly used here as food for horses, and some little is eaten by the people. In England it was formerly much used as bread. It was accidently discovered there in a field of potatoes, in 1788, but its origin is not known. It is best adapted for northern and moist climates, and succeeds in almost any soil. The meal is very nutritious, but a little bitter. Beer was formerly made of it in England and Poland, Freed from the husks it is called Groats, and is used for broths, etc., for sick and in- firm persons. It is cooling and laxative. Ground into oatmeal, it is made into cakes, puddings, etc. A nutritive jelly is also made of it, boiled in water., with sugar, etc. A new variety called skinless oats has been introduced from Holland and China. It is more nutritive and better flavored, yields more and is more easily culti- vated than the common oats, and but half the quantity of seed is required for the crop. For culinary uses it is very superior. The varieties are entirely from the continent of Europe, where it is the hardiest of all the grains. The branches bend, so that light and air visit it and the rain washes the grains, and the deposit of larvae is thereby prevented. Heat and drought are unfavorable to it. The species commonly cultivated, Avena saliva has many varie- ties, of which are the black, or long-bearded, the white, red, and naked oat. The best, however, is said to be the potato oat, so called from its being found growing with some potato plants. This requires soil well prepared, where it yields abundantly. Th-e seed time of oats is in March and April. It is sown broad-cast, from 4 to 6 bushels to the acre, and the produce is from 20 to 60 bushels. The Siberian oat is cultivated far at the North. The nutritive properties of oats are less than any cereal grain, being but 75 per cent. 14 Ibs. yield 8 Ibs. of flour. Malt was formerly made from oats and wheat ; that of the latter produces a strong-bodied and high-flavored liquor, while that of oats produces a light, mild and plea- sant beverage. A drink called mum was formerly made in part of oats ; and the English gin or geneva is made of oats and barley, dis- tilled with Juniper berries and oil of turpentine. 100 Ibs. of oat meal are estimated to yield 36 gallons of spirits. The wild oat is a very troublesome weed ; the seed often remains a century under ground without injury, and thus is perpetuated. Hy- grometers are made of the straw and its seeds are used as flies in fishing. No botanist has yet ascertained satisfactorily the native place BARLEY. 33 of this or any one of the cereal grains. It is calculated for northern climates, as in Italy and France the ears are small and husky. A warm climate is as uncongenial to it as a cold one is to rice. In Scotland and Ireland, where it is a principal food, it is said to be cultivated in the proportion of 10 bushels to one of any other grain. In 1765, 623.000 persons in England and Wales were estimated to be consumers of oats. Ireland exported in 1825, chiefly to England, 12.025.632 bushels, in grain and in meal 204.607 qrs., or 1.636.936 bushels. France pro- duces about 90 millions of bushels, 25 millions of which are used for food, mostly in the southern provinces. Oats are largely shipped from Odessa, as the product of southern Russia. The crop of last year in the United States was 150.883.617 bushels, being an increase on the crop of 1840 of more than 50 millions of bushels ; of this, New-York and Pensylvania raised over 24 millions each. BARLEY Hordeum, C 3, O 2, Graminee, sp. 9-12, Ds. A. J 1 ft. This is considered in England next to wheat in importance, but it is less so here than Indian corn, rye, rice or oats. As a bread corn it is now less esteemed abroad than formerly, but it continues to be greatly used in the manufacture of beer and other spirits. Eastern traditions have it that this was the earliest grain used as food for man, and to this as well as to other grains they ascribed remarkable peculiarities. But, with the Eastern people, as with our Indians and other reputedly ignorant people, what was not understood was referred to some super- natural agency, nor was this more apparent then, perhaps, than at the present comparatively enlightened period of the world. The seed of barley rarely if ever germinates, if sown by chance; while some of the grasses classed with barley are never found to be useful as human food, or susceptible of material improvement by culture. Barley is capable of a wider range of cultivation than wheat, sus- taining as it does greater heat and maturing more readily in the brief summers of northern climates where wheat will not ripen. It is indeed the earliest sown and the earliest reaped of the summer grains. The season of maturing is often not longer than 6 or 7 weeks. Two crops of it are annually obtained from the same soil in Spain and Sicily. It thrives best on light dry soil, but it is nevertheless an expensive grain. It is reckoned next to wheat in Great Britain, on account of its malting qualities ; and is there much used as food for the people, and also for fattening black cattle, poultry, etc. The barley consum- ers in England are estimated at 730.000. The usual crop is from 25 to 35 bushels of 50 Ibs. per acre. The sale rate is 48 Ibs. per bushel. The crop of the United States last year was but 3.871.622 bushels ; and this, probably, chiefly for brewing and emigrants. Excessive moisture is extremely injurious to it. If this is felt be- fore the formation of the ear, the leaves become yellow and sickly and the ears may not appear ; if afterwards, the grain sprouts arid the ear 34 VARIETIES OF BARLEY. assumes the appearance of grass, if the wet is soon followed by warm dry weather. This rapidity of germination, though destructive in one case, is favorable for its conversion into malt, which is the process of germination. But we cannot believe that this latter circumstance is a redeeming consideration for its use in manufacturing it into ardent spirits in such immense quantities. Barley contains more starch, but much less gluten than wheat, 7 parts in the 100 being ready formed saccharine matter, which wheat does not possess before germination, The four varieties of barley are the result of differences of culture, soil, and climate, as with rye, etc. Spring Barley, H. vulgare, or two rowed barley is the kind commonly cultivated, and this is of two sorts, the common and the rath-ripe barley, as it is called in England ; but the latter is occasioned by long culture on warm gravelly soils. Seeds of this kind, sown on cold or strong soils, ripen two weeks earlier, the first year, than if taken from the latter kind of soil. The Pilurian barley has a broader blade and deeper green color than the common : it has shorter ears and with but from 5 to 9 grains, while the common kind has from 9 to It arrives at maturity two weeks earlier than other kinds. Winter, or Square barley, H. hexastichon, is the second spe- cies. It is more hardy than the first, and hence is more culti- vated further north. The grains are large and full and its spike is thicker and but 2 inches in length and square. The number of grains is one-third more, often yielding 40 grains, which are disposed in six rows, two on each of two sides and one on each of the others. Long eared, or two rowed barley, H. distichon, is considered a good sort and is considerably cultivated, though apt to lodge. The grains are in a double row, lying over each other like the scales of a fish. Its malting qualities are said to be excellent. Sprat, or battledoor barley, H. zeocriton, has shorter and broader ears than either of the sorts mentioned ; its beard is longer and the grains lie closer together than that of other kinds. The rest of the species are weeds. French barley is barley freed from the husks, as is Pearl barley. It is a singular circumstance that the nativity of this and all the useful grains is unknown. The budding of the oak is taken as the time for sowing barley, but the time differs in different countries. The average weight of the bushel of barley is about 50 Ibs. The Romans cultivated barley as a horse corn, and also for the army. Gladiators were called Hordearii, from their feeding on it. It was culti- vated 1500 before Christ, and is often mentioned in scripture. Pearl barley is produced by grinding off the husks, when it is used in soups, gruels, and medical drinks. Barley flour is the ground grain, and is made BEER AND LAND IN ENGLAND. 35 into puddings or pottage which, spread in thin cakes and toasted, is eaten warm with butter, cream and sugar. The malting property of the seed depends on the fact that the lobes or cotyledons of the seeds are always converted by the heat and moisture of the earth into sugar be- fore the young plant is produced ; and malting is an artificial process of effecting the same thing. The chemical constituents of mucilage and sugar are nearly alike. The use of barley in preparing fermented liquors is very ancient. Its invention is ascribed to the Egyptians. In Nubia the green ears are boiled in water and eaten with milk. The beer of the Greeks was called barley wine. The ancient Germans also made wine of it. It was the general drink of the Anglo Saxons, wine being the drink of elders and the wise,"" they did not, however, use hops in their ale, as these were first used in the Netherlands, in the beginning of the 14th century, and in England two centuries afterwards. There are more than 30 millions of bushels of barley annually converted into malt in Great Britain, and more than 8 millions of barrels, or 288 millions of gallons of beer made, of which four-fifths are strong beer. One would think from this and certainly not without reason that, in addition to the vast quantities of wines and ardent spirits made, im- ported and drank in that country, that it must be a land of drunken- ness;" and when we find this statement accompanied by the following remarks from the professedly pure and philanthropic source from whence it is derived, the fact is not more startling than the conclu- sions are mortifying. This is," says the commentator, a consump- tion by the great body of the people of a favorite beverage, which in- dicates a distribution of the national wealth, satisfactory by comparison with the general poverty of less advanced periods of civilization in our own country, and with that of less industrious nations in our own day." We might enquire, perhaps, without being charged with presump- tion, if the annual distribution" of 40 millions of bushels of barley, thus in our opinion infinitely worse than wasted, to hungry millions of poor, would not indicate" a far more " satisfactory distribution of the national wealth ?" 55,000 acres of land were occupied in 1838 in the cultivation of hops, and the malt on which duty was paid was 40,505,566 bushels ; and in 1836,44,387,719 bushels. Estimating the product at 30 bushels the acre, the land which this must occupy, is 147,959j acres, to which add that occupied by hops, and the land employed for the purpose of pro- ducing malt liquor, would be 202,959j acres of prime soil. Calculat- ing the soil to produce the same number of bushels of wheat as of bar- ley consumed, as above, and each bushel at 601bs., the product would be 2,663,263,140 Ibs. Now, estimating 500 Ibs. to support one person, or as equal to 480 Ibs. of flour, the estimated anuual consumption of each individual, and this land would support 5,326,526 persons ! who 36 SPIRITS IN U. STATES AND ENGLAND. are, in fact, deprived of bread by this satisfactory distribution of the national wealth !" to say nothing of its wretched and destructive effects ; or, to use more apt words, the poverty of less advanced pe- riods of civilization /" The beer manufactured in Great Britain and Ireland, according to the returns of 1830, which are the last, was over 9,500,000 barrels ! or 342,000,000 gallons (!) the proportion for Ireland being estimated at one million of barrels, or 36,000,000 of gallons. In view of such facts, another eminent British writer says, Barley ranks, in importance, next to wheat, as affording an innocent and invigorating fermented liquor." Besides this there were imported into G. Britain, in 1840, 8,518,489 gallons of wine, 6,451,743 of which were retained for home consump- tion. There was also imported during the same year 8,011,017 galls. of ardent spirits. If these amounts be added to the foregoing, viz : 9,500,000 barrels, or 342,000,000 gallons of ale, beer and porter made and sold in Great Britain and Ireland, as per returns of 1830, the re- sult is (deducting, say two million gallons of spirits for exportation,) 354,462,750 gallons ! of these alcoholic liquors drank there annually ! But this does not include the large quantities of gin, wine and rum, manufactured throughout the kingdom, or the many thousands of pri vate breweries. But whatever may be said of the use of malt liquors in such vast quantities, or whatever the motive may have been for remarks like those we have quoted, and others of a similar kind, it cannot be denied that in a country where, as we have shown, land is so scarce and valuable where millions of people are suffering for bread, an immense wrong is done by the continuance of such a state of things. Beer, ale and porter are, intoxicating drinks, the effects of which are scarcely less baneful than those of ardent spirits. Besides, it might be very difficult to discover where the invigorating" qualities of beer are to be found, since it is known that beer does not contain a fourth part of the nutritive matter contained in the barley, itself not so nutri- tive a grain as others. The melancholy picture presented by a late Parliamentary Report, from a " Committee on drunkenness," might have been so much more deeply toned by a consideration of the evils arising from the use of malt liquors, that we are not surprised that the inquiry was limited to ardent spirits, in the common acceptation of that term. It has, how- ever, been well suggested by Dr. Bell of Philadelphia, that " they feared either to shock popular prejudices, or to exhibit a state of things which might lead to the diminution of his Majesty's excise." If," continues that writer, the inquiry had been extended in the manner suggested, (by the chairman of that committee) it would have brought to light, or rather put on a more formal record, a series of evils to indi- BUCK-WHEAT. 37 viduals and the community, resulting from the general use of malt liquors, analogous to and in many cases rivaling those which follow in the train of ardent spirits." It is indeed true, that the beer-bibber suffers deeply, becomes heavy, stupid, sullen, and approaches in body and mind more nearly to the swine than does the gin and whiskey drinker, and who, if he feels flattered by the comparison, may be said to exhibit more resemblance to the tiser or mad dog." This, as well as the convictions of every man of common sense, as to the nature and effects of malt liquors, may be viewed in connection with the language of the interested, though reputedly eminent men we have previously quoted. The amount of liquor distilled in the United States, in 1840, was 36,343,236 gallons, and the number of distilleries in the United States was 9,657. Pennsylvania distilled 8,784,138 ; Massachusetts 5,177,910 ; New York 4,008,616 ; Indiana 1,786,964, and other states less. The amount of Wines of all kinds imported in 1840 was $2,209,176 ; the amount of spirits from grain $420,069 ; do. from other materials $1, 172.495; the amount of beer, ale and porter in casks and bottles was $135,485. The gallons of wine made here was 286,638; of which Ohio made 161,844. The total number of gallons cannot be seen from the price, but the amount, of beer made is seen to be small from the small amount of barley raised in the U. States. But sufficient may be seen from the above facts, to stimulate the friends of temperance, both in the U. States and G. Britain, to increased and continued efforts. BUCK- WHEAT, Brank or Beech Wheat, Polygonum fagopyrum C 3, O 3, sp. 36-60, Dh. A. 2 ft The last popular name of this plant is said to be a corruption of the first from Beech and corn. The fruit is a dark colored triangular grain, of increasing importance in this coun- try. It was first brought from Asia to Europe, and was cultivated in England in 1600. It was first used as food for poultry, etc., but it is mostly used here, when ground, in making a fine light cake, much esteemed both by our countrymen and foreigners. Buck-wheat cakes, well prepared, are indeed a delicacy, and are, and long have been much eaten. A late British writer, of acknowledged authority in many other mat- ters relating to srains, says, however, the seeds are rarely used as hu- man food in any country and never so employed in England." Whatever the reason may be for this assertion, it is well known to be untrue as regards buck-wheat in this and several other countries. It is used, says Loudon, in cooking and bread-making in various parts of Eu- rope, to make cakes and crumpets in England, and as rice or gruel in Germany," etc. In China and the East it is cultivated as a bread- corn. The seeds are used in Germany for puddings, and in other 4 38 PROPERTIES OF BUCKWHEAT. countries the meal is mixed with a small proportion of wheat flour and made into bread. In other places it is converted into malt for making beer and ardent spirits, especially in Dantzic. This plant is an annual with handsome flowers and stem. The flow- ers are used for coloring brown, and are a great favorite with bees. Its culture has been recommended where bees are raised, principally for their use. The seed is sown in May or June, and its culture is attended with little labor or care. Although it readily matures, gen- erally within 100 days, yet it is liable to be affected by early frosts, of which it is very susceptible. The growth of Buckwheat is best on light, mellow and dry soils, where it yields from 40 to 60 bushels to the acre, on which from 1 to 3 bushels only have been sown. It makes excellent fodder in a green state. In a forward season, if sown in April, two crops may be ob- tained. It is generally cut for fodder when the blossoms are begin- ning to appear. Cows thrive well on it and yield an abundance of good milk for butter. It sustains heat better than other grains. It is sometimes ploughed in, when the flowers are full, manuring the ground for other crops ; and in three or four months, it has become thoroughly decomposed. The Tartarian Buckwheat is of very luxu- riant growth and is most highly recommended. Fowls, horses, and swine are very fond of this grain and fatten well upon it, but for the two latter it should be crushed. It is said that swine, when first fed on the fresh plant, exhibit marked signs of in- toxication. It yields a considerable quantity of good spirit and is used for this purpose by distillers in Europe. Bread is also made of it mixed with wheat flour. Some of the species are used medicinally, and many are incorrigible weeds in temperate climates. P. hydro- piper is a powerful diuretic, and dyes woollen cloth of a yellow color. P. tinctorum is cultivated in China for dying a beautiful blue and green. B. bistota, snake-weed, is one of the strongest astringents, and may be used for tanning. The young shoots have been eaten in herb pud- dings and as greens. The roots of P. viviparum are likewise eaten and the flowers change into bulbs. P. aviculare has grateful seeds like the cultivated kind, and is the knot-grass of the English or hog- weed. It is eaten greedily by most animals. Leaves heart arrow-shaped ; stem upright, without prickles ; angles of seeds even ; roots fibrous rather succulent ; stem zig-zag, leafy, downy on one side ; leaves entire acute, smooth ; flowers handsome, numerous, red and white, in clusters. April to October. Remarka- ble for the number and variety of stamens in the species. It will be seen that nearly two-thirds of the crop in the United States is raised in New-York, Pennsylvania, and New- Jersey. The increase during the past year in New- York was from 20 to 30 per cent., and in Pennsylvania it was in advance of former years. Little MILLET, ITS VARIETIES, ETC. 39 of this grain is raised in the most Southern States. The whole pro- duce of the country last year is estimated at 9.483.409 bushels. Great Britain imports annually about 80.000 bushels. France raises annually 25 millions of bushels, and the people use it to a consider- able extent as food. MILLET, Panic Grass, Panicum milaceum, or Millium effusnm. C 3, O 2, Graminae, sp. 582. Dh.A. & P. 1-3 ft. This is a species of sorgham and sitaria, which are true grasses. It is cultivated on light sandy soils. It is one of the chief articles of support among the people of parts of India, Arabia, and Syria. In Nubia it is grown to the exclusion of almost every other grain. The panicum millet is the smallest, yet the grains are the most numerous of all the grains ; hence its name, rnille, a thousand. There are two species of this with many varieties. The German millet, as with other varieties, resembles a jointed reed, 3 or 4 feet high. The principal use made of it is in feeding poultry. The Italian millet, a native of India and there called congue, is larger than the last and requires a warmer climate. Fowls and horses are fed with it, and the Italians and others make a dark and coarse bread of the flour. Panicled millet is the species com- monly cultivated. The varieties of this are known by different names wherever it is cultivated. In the West Indies it is called guinea corn. In Egypt it is 5 or 6 feet high, while in some Eastern parts the stalk is from 16 to 20 feet long, and the leaves are 30 inches long. The seed was first cultivated in Switzerland about 100 years since. It is adapted to all kinds of soil, requires little manure and little labor, and does not exhaust the soil in comparison with its abundant crop. The drill husbandry is believed to be best for its cultivation. It would prove valuable here in light dry soils and places. The yellow millet seed is by some sold here for puddings, and by some preferred to rice. It is a native of India, and is largely cultivated in China, and some in the West Indies. Millet is sown in May and June, and is ripe in four months. It is not subject to blight, nor is it easily in- jured by rain or drought. Weeding and hoeing during its early growth are all that are necessary. It will keep long and well when cut, if perfectly dry when stored. A species is raised in Borneo which is the chief support of man and beast. It is eaten parched, and even without any preparation. By some it is steeped in water, and by others, more particular, it is cleaned, pounded, and made into a light paste with fat. The juice is often sucked from the stem. The Nu- bians prepare a fermented liquor from it which they esteem as whole- some and nutritious. A good vinegar is also made of it by fermen- tation. The stalks, managed like sugar cane, yield a sweet juice, of which excellent sugar is made. There are three species the Polish, German, and the Indian. 40 PROXIMATE PRINCIPLES OF CORN. QUINOA is the name of a Mexican grain-plant, recently introduced and exciting attention in Europe. In Mexico it ranks with the best grains. The leaves are used as a spinnage or as greens, and the seeds in soups, broths, or like rice. The seeds ripened first in England in 1834 : it is considered a great acquisition as a field plant; and as is thought, it may be cultivated like barley. It will thrive best in the United State? and should be introduced. Having finished the grains, the following is the sum total of exports. The amount of the grains, flour and meal exported from the United States in 1840 was $15.049.013, besides ship bread, $428.988. Of this was wheat $1.635.483 ; flour $10.143.615; maize $338.333 ; do. meal $705.183; rye meal $170.931 ; rye, oats, etc. $113.393 ; rice $1.942.076. Proximate Principles of the grains, their uses, 6,-c. We have before alluded to many of the uses and qualities of the cereal grains under their respective names ; but the importance of these in life would seem to demand further a few general and practical remarks. The nutritive principles of the grains, as well as of most vegetable substances, are seen to be few, however different their form or flavor. These principles are termed the proximate principles, in contra-distinc- tion to the ultimate principles, the elements of which the proximate principles are composed. They are chiefly gluten, fecula or starch, sugar, gum or mucilage, oil, &c., in the quantities of which, the rela- tive merits of vegetable food consist. Starch constitutes the bulk and the chief nourishing principle of most of the grains and the most important roots, as the potato, cassava, &c., and of the kernels of the leguminous plants, as the pea, bean, &c. It is insipid, inodorous, of a white color, and insoluble in alcohol, ether or cold water. But hot water, between 160 and 212>, readily dissolves it, and converts it into a tenacious jelly. Treated with wa- ter and a small quantity of sulphuric acid, half its bulk may be con- verted into sugar. Thus the nutritive principles of the potato, not less than the arrow root, salep, &c., depend on the starch they contain. Starch is also found in the roots and other parts of many shrubs and trees ; and these have been used for food in times of scarcity. Thus the inner bark of the pine and larch trees is ground with rye meal and made into bread in parts of Sweden and Norway. In some trees it is so abundant as to be as easily extracted by trituation with water, as from potatoes. The process of obtaining starch, from its importance as food and in the arts, may not be without interest. It is obtained chiefly from wheat flour and the flour of potatoes, seeds, &c. This flour is slowly and repeatedly washed through a cloth or seive into a vessel of water, when the starch is precipitated in a fine white powder, and the gluten STARCH. 41 remains in the form of a grey tenacious substance. Arum roots, acorns, horse chestnuts, &e., may be, and are used in Europe for making starch. These, with the potato, are grated into a hair seive and the starch washed through. Oily seeds require the oil to be pressed out before the farina is extracted. Water, a little acidulated, is mixed with the flour to regulate the fermentation and prevent the mixture from becoming putrid. It is then left ten days in summer and fifteen days in winter, when the water is skimmed, poured off, and the starch washed from the bran and dried in the air or in an oven. Potato starch, when roasted at a low heat in an oven, forms a gum much used by calico printers. Starch is otherwise in great use for do- mestic purposes, in manufactures, and occasionally as a medicine. Po- tato starch differs from that of wheat ; it is more friable, the grains are larger and it decomposes less readily by fermentation. It is sold under the name of English arrow root and potato sago, in parts of France, and nearly resembles the starch of these plants, which are composed mostly of starch. A sympathetic ink is made by writing with starch-water on paper, and then, at any time afterwards, washing it with Iodine in alcohol, when the writing appears of a deep blue color. When triturated with iodine, various and fine colors are produced ; hence each is a test for the other. The ultimate elements of starch are carbon 43.48, oxygen 49.45, and hydrogen 7. These differ little from those of sugar, but starch is much better calculated for human food, as it does not undergo the changes in the stomach which sugar does, producing, frequently, flatu- lency, &-C. To change starch into sugar, 2.000 parts are diffused in 8.000 of water containing 40 parts of sulphuric acid. The mixture is boiled 36 hours in silver or leaden vessels, and stirred during the first hour, and occasionally afterwards ; and the water is replaced as it evaporates. Chalk and animal charcoal are then added, and the whole is clarified with the white of eggs, or other substances, then filtered through a flock of wool, and the liquid concentrated by heat till of a syrupy con- sistence. The basin is then removed, and its sulphate of lime precipi- tated by cooling ; the syrup is decanted and evaporated to dryness. Sugar and gum are also obtained by mixing starch with dried gluten. 1 part with 12 of water, fermented by dry gluten, yields 47 sugar, 22 sum, etc., in 100 parts. Starch is thought to be susar partly organ- ized. Gluten and Vegetable Albumen are commonly combined and are the most important of vegetable proximate nutritive principles. Wheat flour owes to its gluten the property of forming light and spongy bread, the mass being distended or raised by carbonic acid disengaged by its fermentation. This substance abounds in wheat flour and gives to it its advantages in making bread. Vegetable albumen resembles that 4* 42 PROPORTIONS OF NUTRIMENT. of animals, and is contained in most of the grains, peas, beans, seeds, almonds, and most nutritive fruits. Gluten also resembles the fibrin of animals, the substance of muscular flesh and its nutrive part. The gum of vegetables dissolves when placed in water, forming a viscid so- lution, while the mucilage is not soluble, but forms, with water, a thick paste. Oil is a principle abounding in some vegetables, especially in some fruits : as the nuts, etc., and it resembles some animal oils, as butter, etc. Of vegetable Sugar, one of the most important of the proximate nutritive principles, we shall speak more at large in a distinct article. The proportions of proximate principles in 100 parts of the chief of the cereal grains are estimated as follows : Gluten. Starch. Sugar. Gum. Albumen. Wheat - 7 to 14* - 56 to 72 - 4 to 8k - 2 to 6 Rye - 5 to 9 - 60 - 3i - 11 - 3 Barley - 3^ - 67 - 5* - 4J - 1 Oats - - 59 - 8J - 2J - 4 Rice - 84 Indian Corn is principally starch with some sugar. Water is in the proportion of 8 to 10 per cent, and bran from 1. 20 to 1. 30 per cent. Peas and beans consist mostly of starch, with some oil and sugar. Potatoes possess a dry substance in the proportion of 24 to 30 per cent, and water forms the remainder. This dry matter is composed of from 13 to 15 per cent, of starch ; 2 to 9 of fibrous matter; 1 to 2 of vege- table albumen, with 70 to 80 of water. Like some other roots, there- fore, potatoes depend on starch for their nutritive properties. Vegetable diet should embrace a variety of proximate principles in order to afford health and strength. Wheat supplies a considerable variety of these in its starch, gluten, sugar and gum ; but Rice does not afford this variety and therefore some other substance should be eaten with it ; vegetable oil, or animal fat, is commonly used. Three of these proximate principles are found in milk, which is therefore highly nutritive. One of these, in the form of butter or cheese, is consumed to a great extent. Ripe fruits afford an abundance of sugar and mu- cilage, and hence are a valuable addition to vegetable diet. In the date, much eaten in countries where the chief aliment is vegetable, abounds in these principles, as with many of our own fine fruits. These, with rice or millet, therefore, afford a good diet. It will be apparent, from what was said of the requirements of the body in the latter part of the chapter on the chemistry of agriculture, that this variety of proximate principles is absolutely necessary, and that those restricting themselves to vegetable diet necessarily require more and a greater variety of food to meet the demands of the body. The practice therefore, whether from choice or the advice of others, of BREAD. 43 limiting the diet to one vegetable substance, or even two of similar kinds, cannot reclaim or sustain the health of the body. Besides this, the peculiar constitution of some may not render certain substances either agreeable or nutritive, as is often the case with oily, starchy, and saccharine matters. But much depends on the habits of individ- uals. The mode of preparing vegetable food will appear important after what has been said of its chief principles. Bread is first among the forms in which vegetable principles are combined. That made of wheat-flour is most common in this and perhaps most European coun- tries. Bread. This is applied, figuratively, to the food of man, and literally to food prepared from wheat, rye, oats, barley, rice, maize, peas, beans, etc. It is still unleavened in the East, after a lapse of 4,000 years, since its use there was recorded. The improvements which have been made in it in Europe are of comparatively recent date. In thinly settled countries, and in the early history of all, the making of bread, is the business of the household, but by the growth of cities it has become a trade. Such was the case with the Jews, as the bible speaks of "Baker's street." Bakers were unknown in Rome 850 years after its foundation. In England the tenants of a manor under feudal laws were obliged to grind at their lord's mill and to bake at his oven, and subsequently at the corporation ovens." The bread of the Jews was mostly made of wheat, barley or lintels and beans. Corn was ground in the East then as now by females, in a hand-mill, and in quantity sufficient only for the day. It was regarded as the symbol of all food ; hence the ex- pression, give us this day our daily bread." Wheaten bread, in the 16th century, was a luxury and reserved for the rich, while the poor fed on coarse kinds. Unleavened bread is a simple mixture of meal and water, made into a tough cake. The component parts of the flour are little altered. Thus oat meal cakes of the north of England and of Europe are un- leavened. The soldiers of Scotland used to carry a griddle or girdle to bake their cakes on, and this is now a common appendage of every northern cottage. A plate of iron is also used in the East, though commonly the bread is baked in a pit in the centre of the floor. Lea- vened bread is of two kinds, that fermented of sour dough, or leaven, and that fermented with barm or yeast. The bread of leaven alone is sour, hence a small piece of sour leaven is kneaded with fresh dough, which soon ferments the whole mass, and hence the scriptural phrase a little leaven," etc. The use of barm and yeast was a great im- provement. It is the foarn collected on the surface of beer in fermen- tation, and it was brought into use in baking bread, by the Parisians ; 44 PROPERTIES OF BREAI>. but the physicians there denounced its use in 1688, and it was intro- duced with difficulty elsewhere. It was made into balls and largely exported. At length, having been analyzed, it was found that its pro- perties depended on gluten and a vegetable acid. It is now made with hops and malt. The heat in baking bread is 418, and the bread in the process looses one fifth of its weight in water. The peculiar odor of new bread, which is probably alcohol, is lost by keeping. The gluten of flour in baking unites with the starch, thus giving to it its nutritive properties. The best bread is made of wheat flour, owing to its having more glu- ten than that of other grains, this being one-fifth of the whole. Oats make a pleasanter bread than barley or rye, but is apt to cause heart- burn ; that of barley is heavy, viscid and flatulent ; and that of rye, acescent and purgative. Bread is sometimes made of turnips. Of potatoes and rice we have before spoken. That made of peas gene- rates a gas in the intestines, and that of chestnuts perhaps the acorns used by the ancients for bread is heavy and indigestible. Sago is much used for bread in the Moluscas. Nearly a pound of salt is added to a bushel of flour by the bakers ; but the French use much less. The process, where potatoes are used, is to beat up the potatues in a tub ; add water, yeast, and a handful of flour, and stir well ; set aside for 8 hours for the first fermentation ; then add water and flour and stir the whole briskly ; then set a proper heat to rise (according to weath- er.) The sponge stands six hours, during which it rises and lalls twice ; more water, flour and salt are added, and the ^ponge is brok- en up by hand into a thin consistence, and a little flour added to work well. It is then left in the trough two hours ; taken out, divided into loaves, and baked for two hours. Acorn bread will be found under the head of oaks and acorns. The starch of bread is most favorable for its form, as well as nutri- ment; its sugar for its fermentation, and its gluten for its lightness, as well as nutrition. The flour should be pure, should be kneaded with light water, seasoned with salt, fermented with sood yeast, well baked at a proper heat, and appearing when baked, through a magnifying glass, like honey comb. Of flour and water is made a paste which undergoes fiTuu-ni.t.i .,, if exposed to heat, and which is often used as te-wtu > bui this i.- ,u - liable to make sour bread than yeast. The paste is simply u viscn tissue of gluten, the interstices being filled with stare. i, su.:ai- an.J al- bumen. The leaven acts on the sugar of the flour, giving rise succes- sively to the vinous and acetous fermentations, to alcohol, and to acetic and carbonic acids. The gluten of the doush resists the disposition of the latter acid to fly off; and the porous and spongy character of the bread is the result forming cavities by its expansion. MIXTURES WITH BREAD. 45 The want of gluten in some grains and roots prevents the rising of the bread made of them. All the alcohol produced by the vinous fer- mentation of dough is evolved in the process and in baking. The carbonic acid not being volatile, is likely to prove injurious to bread, especially if the flour should not be fresh or of a good quality. To correct this, sub carbonate of ammonia, or carbonate of magnesia, may be added, which both prevents the acidity and improves the quality of bread. Thus, Sir H. Davy says, loaves are made by it to rise well in the oven, and when baked are light and spongy, have a good taste, and keep well. The carbonate of ammonia is entirely dissipated in baking ; it neutralizes any acid in the dough and makes biscuit short. 20 to 30 grains of carbonate of magnesia to the pound of new and poor flour much improves bread ; and when the flour is of the worst quality, 40 grains are required to produce a like effect. Alum is also much used by bakers, in the proportion of 2 oz. to 5 bushels of flour. A distinguished chemist says that it is impossible to produce white, light and porous bread in London without the use of alum, unless ihe flour is of a very fine quality. It is believed that no such declaration is ne- cessary in this country, yet we have reason to believe that much poor flour is used by our bakers, and that alum is much resorted to to im- prove the appearance of their bread. A simple method of delecting this is to mix crumbs of the stale bread in water, squeeze the paste through a cloth, then pass the liquor through a filter-paper and the re- sulting limpid infusion, if it contain alurn, will exhibit a white cloud on adding to it a dilute solution of muriate of barytes. These salts are said to have little effect on the rising of bread, and the former is converted into an acetate by combining with the free acid in the dough. The use of common salt is thought to be slightly like that of alum or blue vitriol. The effect of such bread is evidently injurious, especially on those who are costive, with impaired digestion. Both white and blue vitriol are also used by bakers ; much more in parts of Europe, we trust how- ever, than in this country, for there can be no reasonable apology for the use of any deleterious substances in the bread of our people ; no- thing but reckless cupidity can induce the practice. In Belgium and France this is most common. The ostensible effect of the latter on bread is like yeast, to retain the gas and render the bread more porous. A minute quantity produces this effect, even a grain in 1\ Ibs. of bread. Double this is said to produce a greater rising, but still more renders the bread flat and moist. Bread is sometimes adulterated with carbonates of soda and potassa, to prevent it from becoming soon dry. Plaster of Paris, chalk, whit- ing and burnt bones are also used. Potato flour is a common addition to wheat flour in bread making in Europe, but this can hardly be called an adulteration, if the price is 46 STARCH BREAD. made to correspond. An admixture of a fourth is not unsatisfactory. Equal parts render the bread close, hard and of difficult digestion. Fresh potato starch has been added to flour with much success in France, and danger of famine has been thereby prevented. Millers have added 20 per cent, and the process of admixture has been so im- proved by the addition of sugar or barm that 50 per cent, has been added. By the liquefaction of starch and the addition of malted bar- ley still higher proportions have been made. A bread of fine appear- ance composed entirely of starch has been still later made, but the en- tire absence of gluten, and of course of nitrogen, so essential to the animal body, must preclude its use. By other experiments a principle called caseurri has been found to be an immediate constituent of gluten, which being rendered soluble by the addition of bicarbonate of soda, has been added to starch in the proportion of 20 to 100 of the starch, and being dried two days in the sun and ground, makes good bread with yeast, etc. If potato starch and wheat flour be mixed and ground together, a very large proportion of starch may be used, even to 50 or 75 per cent. This may also be used in like proportions mixed with wheat and rye. There are so many processes for making good bread, cakes, pud- dings, and other preparations of flour, that it will not be important to our purpose to describe any one of them. Bread made of unbolted flour, or more familiarly, bran bread, is now much used ; it is recom- mended to dispeptics and to obviate costiveness, etc. ; with those in health, having much exercise and sensible digestive organs, it is irrita- tive and wanting in requisite nourishment. Fine bolted flour is also very apt to form a concrete mass in the stomach, and in this state is less readily and effectually digested than coarser flour. Very much of the flavor .and goodness of bread, under all circumstances, depends on the manner in which it is made. Machinery has been introduced to knead dough more effectually ; and the addition to the flour of the salts before mentioned prevents the souring of the leaven and dough in summer. Warm bread is at all times unwholesome, but especially in warm weather, to those who do not exercise much in open air and to the dispeptic, occasioning a train of unpleasant consequences. The bad effects of this are increased by the addition of melted butter. Fresh bakers bread, particularly when warm, is indeed one of the principal evils of city diet, and one giving rise to numerous diseases ; yet some persist in its use, despite the suggestions of their own good sense. The flavor which is the reputed advantage of fresh over stale bread, is not, in our opinion, equal to that of thoroughly dry bread. Bread, there- fore, as a safe and general rule should not be eaten in any way until it is a day old. Rice. There are a variety of forms and admixtures in which flour MIXTURES OF FLOUR AND GRAIN. 47 is made into light nourishing aliment, alike valuable to the diseased and healthy, and among the useful additions to it is rice. This boiled and mixed in the proportion of 1 to. 3 of flour, and made into dough with the water in which it has been boiled, affords 1 Ib. and 14 oz. of fine bread. The flour of beans added to wheat flour also makes a nu- tritious bread. Five pounds of this with 50 of the flour of wheat, kneaded with salt and yeast produce 93 Ibs. of dough, or 82f Ib3. of bread ; the wheat flour alone yields but 69 Ibs. of bread. 280 Ibs. of flour are estimated to make 347 Ibs. of bread ; but flour varies ia the weight of water it absorbs. In London it is said the amount of bread calculated upon for each person of a family is 6 Ibs. per week or 13oz. per day. Ginger-bread is an important bread, from the extent of its use, for the composition of which the following receipt is given by a distin- guished English writer 1 Ib. of flour; Ib. of molasses ; i Ib. of raw sugar ; 2 oz. of butter ; ^ oz. of carbonate of magnesia ; oz. of tartaric acid ; oz. of ginger ; oz. of cinnamon and 1 oz. of nutmegs, or these in corresponding proportions. In this way the bread is ready for the oven in an hour. Eye flour is one of the most common mixtures with that of wheat. The grains are grown and ground together for this purpose in many places. Thus-grown they are called metcil in France. The bread is very wholesome and well flavored, having less solidity in the stomach than wheat bread. The proportion of the flours, when mixed, is one- third or little more of rye flour. Rye bread retains its humidity and at the same time its flavor. When ground coarse, the bread is good for the dispeptic and costive. Boiled in water (rye-mush) it is recom- mended by the faculty, with milk or molasses, in the morning, for con- stirpation, and also in some surgical cases. Barley, from its small quantity of gluten, does not make good bread. The husk is acrid and laxative ; but deprived of this, in which state it is pearl barley, it is quite nutritious and is much used. 2 oz. of pearl barley to 4 pints of water forms the well known barley water which, with lemon juice, is a very refreshing drink in fevers and is otherwise very nourishing. Rice water is used in a similar way. The first is made as follows : wash the seeds, then boil a short time in half-pint of water, throw away the water, pour on four pints of hot water, boil down to two pints, and strain. This may be made of barley flour; two spoonfuls being boiled for ten minutes in one quart of water, strain- ed, sweetened and flavored. Oat meal, though not easily made into bread, forms fine cakes with milk and aromatic seeds, baked before the fire. Boiled with water till rather thick, it is nutritious and useful in sickness; but the meal fer- mented in water, boiled and strained, forms a jelly still better. The bread is bitter; the meal is chiefly used in gruels, which is good, drank 48 FORMATION OF BREAD. after purgative medicines and in cases of a morbid condition of the bowels. Two parts of oat meal and six of water are mixed ; a quart of boiling water is added, then boiled and stirred ten minutes, sweetened and flavored. Or a pint of boiling milk is added to a pint of water, with which the meal has been mixed ; boil and stir five minutes, strain and sweeten. This is excellent for invalids. Wheat bran thus prepar- ed is also good for such persons, for catarrh and to preserve laxity of the bowels. Rice having no gluten is unfit for bread. It suffers no change by transportation, like most grains, and is most easily prepared for food. It is excellent for long sea voyages. The Chinese prepare it numer- ous ways and with much delicacy. It is commonly boiled and served with lintels or beans. Boiled and pressed into small cakes it is pre- served a long time ready for use. A favorite porridge is made of it. It nourishes with little irritation and little residuum. In violent dis- eases and lingering complaints, rice diet is excellent. Inflammations of the bowels, dysentery, chronic complaints of the digestive organs, looseness of the bowels, with gripings, &c., are controled by rice diet and rice drinks. It is seasoned with sugar, cinnamon and salt. Kice jelly is made of two oz. of the flour, quarter Ib. of loaf sugar and a pint of water, boiled till thick, flavored and cooled. Ground rice is apt to become musty by keeping ; the grain answers all purposes. In convalescence, or in forming states of disease, it is equally valua- ble. In the summer complaints of children, for medicine and nutri- ment, nothing, it is said, is better than rice water or rice and cream, sweetened and salted. Salt is best to add for acidity of the stomach and flatulency of the bowels, either to this or barley gruel. Rice and milk is an excellent nourishing diet, when there is not a state of inflamma- tion. The rice is simmered three or four hours with the milk. This, if then baked brown, forms a very fine wholesome pudding, if desired. Indian corn meal, like other meal not susceptible of panification is not made into bread alone, but it makes with flour an excellent bread 1 , retaining its softness for 36 hours. In this country, it is thus much used, and also in cakes and puddings. Mush is made by stirring a portion into boiling water; it is then eaten with milk, cream or molas- ses. We have spoken of many preparations of this important grain. A gruel is made of it like oat and barley gruel, and for like purposes. A peculiar and slightly acrid oil Is contained in the bran, so that this should be entirely removed. This, however, is probably the stimulant of the grain, when fed to animals. Buckwheat is not used in the usual form of bread, or is not suscep- tible of panification. Indian meal mixed with buckwheat flour when used for cakes is a great improvement. It is mixed with the flour of other grains in Europe and made into bread. It has little or no glu- ten ; its starch being its ehief nutriment. COMPONENT PARTS OF VEGETABLES. 49 Wood bread.^-A. palatable and nutritious bread is made of the beach and the wood of other trees, destitute of turpentine, in the following manner All the soluble parts are washed from the wood, reduced to fine powder by frequent maceration and boiling. It is then repeated- ly heated in an oven and ground like the grains. It then has the smell and taste of corn flour, though not quite so white ; but, like that, it will not ferment without leaven, which is best made of grain flour. The bread thus made and well baked is spongy and uniform. A thick, trembling and nutritious jelly is also made by boiling the wood flour in water and seasoning it as usual. The composition of vegetable secretions may be stated as follows. Substances. Carbon. Water Oxygen in excess. Substances. Uarbon. Water. Hydro gen in exce&s. Gum, - - 57.318 42.682 Acid, Gallic, 56.64 43.36 Starch, - - 43.481 56.519 Acetic 46.23 55.17 Tannin, 51.160 41.477 3.568 Oil, Olive, - 77.21 10.71 12.08 Cane Sugar 44.2 55.79 Almond 74.40 13.37 4.45 Grape Sugar 36.71 60.08 3.48 Anise, - 83.468 14.887 6.465 Lignine, 50. 50. Lavender 75.50 14.59 9.55 Acid, Citric, 41.309 34.234 24.397 " Roses, 82.053 4.442 12.631 Malic 40.68 45.76 13.56 Turpen. 88.348 11.652 Oxalic "Tartaric 19.04 36. 42.85 36. 38.11 32. Hydrocynic Acid, 44.39 3.90 Ulmic, 56.7 43.3 (nitrogen 51.71) FOOD OF THE ANCIENTS. In the early condition of society, population was scattered and sparce, from the nature of the food on which man subsisted and the difficulty of obtaining it. The increase must have been slow in comparison with the present period, and especially in view of the increased casu- alties and consequently comparative increase of deaths, as the result of the arts both of war and of civil life. In the tropical climate people have required, or desired, little animal food ; and with those in what has been termed savage life, animal food has been procured from wild beasts by the chase. This, it has been suggested, may have arisen with man from seeing one superior animal pursue, destroy and devour another. But it is in a more civil- ized state that man has devoted his attention to the cultivation of ve getable food ; and his advancement in this has ever kept pace with his advancement in civilization. Animals, as a consequence, were domesticated, and especially those which are gregarious and the flesh of which is the most palatable and nutritious, such as neat cattle, swine, sheep, &c., and so also with fowls. Husbandry, therefore, ne- 5 50 FOOD OF THE ANCIENTS. cessarily succeeded the savage and pastoral life ; and the cereal grains, leguminous plants, tubers, bulbs and various fruits were cultivated, and in such quantities as to be stored up for winter's use. These improvements in the social condition of man have been intro- duced by conquests, but more especially as the result of commercial intercourse. There are, however, still those in the East, removed from such intercourse, who yet follow a pastoral life, but compara- tively few who hunt wild game. The regimen among the most an- cient people of the East, from the days of the patriarchs, has been lit- tle changed. It is now, as then, almost exclusively vegetable. Rice was cultivated among the early Egyptians and has continued the chief food to the present time. To this is added a variety of agreeable and nutritive fruits. There have been those, however, who were far advanced in agricul- ture without intercourse with other people, as with the ancient Mexi- cans, the Chinese, &c. It is a remarkable fact in this connection that where vegetable substances are mostly cultivated and eaten, there population is most redundant, as in India, China, and the most popu- lous parts of the south of Europe. As the arts of agriculture advan- ced in particular parts, population has increased ; and, as we have be- fore said, such have become most populous and happy. All history shows the truth of this and the evils resulting from an opposite state of things. Among the improvements introduced in the progress of agriculture, was that of the aid of animal power. This, it has been said, is equal to five times that of man in France, and twelves times that of man in England and the United States. For 30 on either side of the equator, vegetable substances may be said every where to be the chief, and in many parts the exclusive food. Beyond this, particularly towards the north, the proportion of animal food increases to near the arctic regions. But the great body of man- kind have heretofore subsisted and now subsist on vegetable aliment. The most renowned people of antiquity, as the Egyptians, Greeks, etc. have subsisted almost entirely on vegetables. The chief food of the heroic age, it is said, was barley, and barley meal-porridge, with oil. Wheat bread, olives and figs, with cheese and eggs, were the principal food of the Athenians in their best days. Onions, garlics and honey, were also much eaten ; and animal food, fresh and salted fish, poultry and game, were eaten by the higher, yet little by the lower classes. The food of the Spartans was chiefly meal, eggs, cheese and occasionally meat. Wine was occasionally drank as with the Greeks generally. The first animal eaten was swine, because otherwise the least use- ful, probably, while it was deemed wrong and unlawful to destroy the ox, one of the most useful animals, particularly in cultivating the soil. FOOD OF THE MODERNS. 51 The food of the Romans in their early history, as with the Spartans, was extremely simple and mostly vegetable, such as barley and pulse. Wheat was afterwards much cultivated, and barley was given to sol- diers by way of punishment. The distribution of the public grain was cause of frequent excitement and disturbance, as are the corn, laws of England at this time. Fruits were much eaten by the Ko- mans. Flesh and poultry, as now, constituted much of their animal food. Pork was in high repute, as also the flesh of bears, dogs, asses, camels, and wild boars. Sucking puppies, water rats, snails and maggots were great delicacies, with grass-hoppers, locusts and other insects. After the Romans, great changes ensued in the diet of the people who succeeded them, and in the arts of agriculture. Barbarism and poverty prevailed for five centuries, during which the soil was little cultivated. The Monks afterwards continued to cultivate small por- tions of soil, and are said to have been instrumental in continuing and introducing agriculture at later periods. FOOD OF THE PEOPLE OF MODERN NATIONS. There are in France, according to M. Dupin, 7* millions who eat little or no bread, and 20 of the 33 millions are deprived of animal food. These last live on the grains and potatoes, while the above 7^ millions subsist on rye, flummery made of buck wheat, chestnuts, pulse and some potatoes. Improvements, however, are making in France, in food, as well as in the use of ardent spirits. The whole amount of vegetable food in France, as estimated for 1830, was 170 million bushels of wheat, 322 do. of other grains, and 130 million do. of potatoes and chestnuts total, 622.500.000 bushels. This is about 19 bushels for each person. There were in 1826 but 6.684.952 horned cattle and 4.000.000 swine, in France, while in the United States there are of all of the above grains not less than 961.039.051 bushels; and with peas, beans, chestnuts, etc., not less probably than 1200 millions of bushels, or double the quantity raised in France, though with but about half her population. This would allow for each individual in our country 70 bushels. We have also about 17 millions of neat or horned cattle, 30 millions of swine, and 25 millions of sheep, with fish, poultry and wild game almost without limit. In Switzerland the people are provided with about six bushels of wheat each ; and in the city of Geneva with 6 oz. of animal food daily, or double that of the Parisians. The bulk of the people live on oat meal, potatoes, milk, coffee, with meat and half a pint of cider on Sundays ; but a proportion have a little wine and meat two or three times a week. In Italy the chief subsistance is on maize with rice, and in some parts potatoes, in others wheat, and in the Appenine regions, chestnuts. FOOD IN GREAT BRITAIN. Maccaroni, made of flour into small cylindrical rolls, is also much eaten by a large class. In Spain the people live chiefly on the grains, though there is not a sufficiency raised for the wants of the people. Salted meat and fish are likewise much eaten. The people of Portugal subsist mostly on vegetable soups, salt fish and maize bread. The mass of the people indeed, on the Continent, subsist principally on vegetable food, con- sisting chiefly of the inferior cereal grains, pulse, the dairy, and small portions of meat or fish and wine. In England the flesh eaten is said to be in the proportion of 107 Ibs. to each person annually, but the great mass of the operatives are de- prived of meat and of a sufficiency of vegetable food of any kinds. In the chief manufacturing towns they do not taste meat oftener than once a week, and are unable to obtain a supply even of the simplest nutritive vegetable food. They subsist chiefly on potatoes, the coars- est bread, oat meal and water. These, it is said, and their equiva- lent in London think to find temporary relief from the knawings of hunger and the lassitude consequent upon excessive toil and close shops, in potations of the worst of intoxicating drinks " In Scotland the food is of the simplest kind, chiefly oat meal, fish and products of the dairy. 280,000 acres of the land are said to be devoted to raising barley, principally for distillation, (which is much more than we have estimated heretofore,) and only 140,000 acres for wheat ; so that the soil there wasted, it may be said, in raising barley for intoxicating drinks would raise annually 8,400,000 bushels of wheat, or 504 million Ibs. of flour, equal to the consumption of 1,800,- 000 persons. Of 1,800,000 acres cultivated 1,260,000 are applied to the raising of oats. 300,000 barrels of herrings are caught on the coast, 100,000 of which are retained for consumption, and of 65,000 cwt. of dried cod 40,000 cwt. are retained. The quantity of intoxicat- ing liquor made there in 1833 was about six million gallons. In Ireland the chief food, it is well known, is potatoes, while in most other countries they are auxiliary food. Oats constitute the next invquantity of vegetable diet, and fish is the chief of the animal food; but in part as a substitute for meat, at particular seasons, on account of superstitions opinions. Of 181,654 barrels of herrings exported from G. Britain in 1830, 89,680 were consumed in Ireland. Fish are also abundant in the streams and estuaries. The swine and much of the grains are exported. The shipments to G. Britain of wheat in 1830, were 4,508,944 bushels ; of oats and oat meal, 12,508,744 bush- els ; and in 1832, 69,624 cows ; 150,000 pigs ; 74,260 sheep, and 24,- 000 lambs. The whole amount of aliment in value annually shipped from thence to Great Britain is estimated at $44,400,000. In the United States, as we have elsewhere said, the amount of ve- getable and all other alimentary products are more abundant than in FOOD IN THE UNITED STATES. 53 any country on the earth. The slaves of the southern states are more abundantly furnished with food than the mass of the population in Europe, and even luxuriously," says Dr. Bell, compared with a lar^e proportion of the operatives of Great Britain." They have a full supply of animal food, usually bacon or salt pork and fish with corn bread, to which is added rice and the common and sweet potato. In Virginia and the west, fresh meat is frequently given them. Gen- erally each is allowed apiece of ground for a garden, where they raise vegetables and fruits for themselves and often for their masters, who pay them a fair price for these products. They have also poultry and eyus which they generally sell either to their master's family or at neighboring villages, and with the proceeds purchase groceries or some articles of luxury, either of food or dress. The house slaves are gen- erally furnished with the food of their master's family. It will ha.ve been seen from the products of the grain-, potatoes, &c, that the people of our country are in fact over-fed, nor is vegetable aliment more superabundant than animal food. The mechanic and the laborer in this country eat meat more frequently and of a better quality than do large land proprietors in the south of Europe. Pork and beef are the chief animal food throughout the country; and this is variously prepared. Poultry and the products of the dairy constitute also a prominent part of the food of the people. The estimated value of Poultry in the United States, in 1840, was $9,344,410. In Ohio, Kentucky, and Tennesse alone, were raised in 1840, six millions of swine ; in New York two, and in Pennsylvania \\ million, and in the States collectively, 26,301,293. It may be estimated, Mr. Elsworth thinks, that the increase since, cannot be less than 5 per cent, and that therefore the present number exceeds 30 millions. If these average 300 Ibs. each, the amount of pork, lard, bacon, etc., is annually 9.000 million Ibs. The hams, at, say 20 Ibs. each, give, with loss of one-third in curing, 800 million Ibs. of bacon, and the lard, at 60 per cent., if the balance be tried up, would be 4.680 million Ibs. This would give, at 8 Ibs. of lard for a gallon, 585 million gallons of oil. But if half the swine be thus taken, the oil would be 292 million gals, or 25 times as much as all the sperm and whale oil annually brought into the country. The value of the oil and stearin, at 50 cents per gal. and the hams at 6 cents per lb., would be $170.250.000, or about dou- ble the value of all our exports. An increase of 1 cent per lb. would add 30 million dollars to the value. Swine are raised at the West at comparatively little expense. The neat cattle in the United States numbered in 1840, 14.971.586, and now, by an increase of 5 per cent, per annum, 17.217.3^3 ; while in Germany, with 30 millions, and in France with 33 millions of peo- ple, there are not half this number and only one-eight of the number of swine. The sheep in the United States are estimated at 25 millions, 5* 54 FOOD IN SOUTH AMERICA. These, when the prairie lands are devoted to their growth, will in- crease astonishingly. The number of neat cattle in Great Britain has been estimated at 5.100.000, one-fourth of which, or 1.275.000 are annually slaughtered. The same proportion slaughtered in the United States would be 4.304.330 head, affording here about 4 Ibs. for 1 con- sumed in England, with any differences, probably, of weight, etc. The difference too in swine, poultry, fish, and wild game, gives to the peo- ple of the United States an advantage in animal food of probably not less than six fold. The great difference also, as we have seen, in the amount of the cereal grains, potatoes, &c., presents this disparity be- tween the two countries in a still stronger light. The value of products of the dairy in the United States were esti- mated, by returns of 18-10, at $33,787,008; (of which New-York pro- duced about 10 millions) ; those of the orchard at $7,256,904 ; market garden products $2,601,196; all of these, however, are considered greatly below the true amounts. It is estimated that an American consumes three times as much animal food as an European, with a greater proportion of vegetable food, fruits, pastry, &c., or five times as much as an East Indian. In Mexico the chief food of the laboring people is Indian corn, made into bread, porridge, or cakes. Cassava, beans, and the natural fruits of the country, constitute also a large proportion of aliment, with chile used in large quantities as seasoning for pulse, &c. Wheat forms a part of the food of the inhabitants of cities, where meat is also con- siderably eaten. The banana is said to be to the people of the torrid zone what the cereal grains are to Europe, and even what rice is to India. It has been estimated that the same extent of ground appro- priated to the banana in Mexico, and which will support fifty persons, will not support under wheat in Europe, two persons. Cattle in other parts of South America are very abundant, both wild and domestic ; and nothing but indolence can deprive the people of abundant animal food. Some of the land proprietors have from 10 to 15,000 head. Half as many cattle are slaughtered in Caraccas as in Paris, with twenty times the population. The cereal grains are greatly imported in flour from the U. States. In Peru, maize is much eaten in various ways, also potatoes, fish, eggs, cheese and onions. 150,000 gallons of wine are made from the fine grapes of this country. In Bra- zil good wheat is raised, potatoes and fine fruits. The cultivated land is extensive and rich. Still, the grains are not adequate to the wants of the people. Cassava and kidney beans are the chief support of the Indians. Cattle are very abundant in some parts, but here, as in some other parts of South America, they are prized mostly for their hides. Meal is much eaten in the provinces about Buenos Ayres by all classes. Flour to a great extent is exported from this country to that city. The beef is of superior flavor ; and great quantities are dried in the sun FOOD OF EASTERN PEOPLE. 55 and exported. The Paraguay tea, made from a shrub of the holly family, is greatly used. But we shall notice the vegetables and the various drinks made from them, under their respective heads. The Persians make rice a chief aliment, united with wheaten cakes, sour milk and cheese, dates, grapes, melons, peaches, cherries 3 cur- rants, and many other choice fruits. -Wine is used freely. The pro- ducts of the dairy are also abundant, derived as they are from immense flocks of wandering cattle. Most of our best culinary vegetables are there abundant. Little meat is eaten beside that of the flocks. The Arabs every where have similar alimentary regimen. This is derived chiefly from their flocks of cattle and from a small quantity of grain, the flour of which affords an unleavened bread. Camel's milk and dates are also a common food ; and in Esypt and Persia they have rice, and in other parts millet, with some wheat and pulse. Camel's meat is occasionally eaten, and sheep and lambs, with coffee and but- ter. The latter, indeed, is taken to excess, whole cups full in a melted state being frequently drank before breakfast. Water, camel's milk, and occasionally a drink distilled from rice, and coffee, are the only drinks. The jlbyssinians have, however, so great a relish for meat, though within a warm climate, as to cut the raw flesh from the live animal and devour it while yet quivering. The wound of the animal is after- wards sewed up or plastered over. Others are more humanely killed before this process is performed. In India, as we have elsewhere said, rice is the general food of all classes ; and in fact in all Southern Asia, with herbs, vegetable oils and fruits, it constitutes the almost exclusive aliment. The Hindoo lives and works on 1J Ibs. of rice per day, with water, for his drink ; travelling with coolies, or passenger cars, with 500 Ibs. weight, fifteen miles per day. No one of caste, it is said, ever partakes of beef; and none but out-casts are intemperate in stimulating drinks. The prin- cipal luxury of the mahomedans is fruit. The Chinese subsist chiefly on rice, a kind of cabbage, and a few other culinary vegetables. Swine, or pigs, and ducks are the principal animal food, and these are necessarily sparingly eaten. Dogs, rats, and almost every other animal, is eaten with avidity when they can be procured. Fish are caught on the coast and in the rivers, and these contribute a little to the animal food. The rich, as a luxury, eat soups made of bird's nests, slugs, &c. Tea, cold and without milk or sugar, is the chief drink, and opium affords them a source of baneful luxury. The Japanese are less fed than even the Hindoos : they refrain both from animal food and milk, though those upon the coast are said to be provided with fish and fowls. They use considerable tabacco and their principal drinks are tea and rice-beer. In Sumatra } Java, Borneo and the Philippines, the diet of the people is 56 FOOD IN THE NORTH OF EUROPE. also simple, it being mostly rice and fish, taken on the coast, and fruits. Maize is some eaten in Sumatra. Wine and spirits of their own make are much drank. The latter, called bang, is extracted from hemp. Opium and tobacco are indulged in to excess. The Tartars, like the Arabs, are a wandering people ; but, instead of the camel as the source of nutriment, they subsist chiefly on horse flesh. The animal is carefully fattened for the food of the more wealthy, but the value of the horse renders the food scarce with the poor, par- ticularly in winter. Sheep are however considerably eaten. Few vegetables or fruits are cultivated or eaten. Considerable mare's milk is drank, but more is fermented into an intoxicating drink. The Siberians, in the north, obtain their food mostly by hunting and fishing, though in the south of their country the grains are abundant. Sour milk and horse flesh are also chief articles of consumption. They have no knowledge of raised bread. The greatest delicacy is fat, raw, melted or rancid. A soup is made by them of the inner bark of the larch tree ; milk or fat is likewise consumed in considerable quantities. Fresh fish are eaten in large numbers, and the flesh of the Reindeer is much esteemed. Their dogs are said to eat the same food as their masters, while those of the South Sea Islands in doing the same, are seen to eat nothing but vegetables, yams and bread fruit. Tobacco is a luxury in the northern parts, inducing stupefaction by the smoke be- ing swallowed for that purpose. The Norwegians are well provided with rye, as their bread corn ; the bark of the larch with the meal of rye, barley or oats is also much used as bread. Their chief animal food is fish taken in great abundance on the coast and in the bays. 2,650,000 tons of grain arc annually raised in Norway, and 750,000 tons are imported. The dairy products are abundant and much exported. Coffee is much drank, and even to excess by the women. In Sweden the agricultural products are abundant and great quanti- ties are exported, though thirty years since the quantity was insufficient for their own consumption. The grain grown in 1828 was 6,499,000 tons and 3,248,000 tons of potatoes. The neat cattle are estimated at 1,900,000 and the sheep at 1,562,000, yet a fifth of the people are said to be unable to support themselves. In Denmark the chief vegetable food is rye, buckwheat and pota- toes. Wheat is in the proportion only of half a bushel for each per- son. Fish and beef are largely eaten. Barley is the chief grain of the islands. This, with oats and buckwheat, forms the bread of the people. The products of the dairy are here also abundant. Denmark has exported in six months 4,671,260 Ibs. of butter and 596,100 Ibs. of cheese. The Hamburg beef" so famous, is from Denmark. In Mecklenburg, and other near duchies, the food is like that of the Danes. The consumption of persons on a farm has been estimated at RUSSIA AND GERMANY. 57 two-thirds of a bushel of wheat, ten bushels of rye, with barley, peas and meat; and, for a family of eighteen persons, 144 bushels of grain, six bushels of peas, one ox, four cows, ten sheep, with some herrings. In Holland the products of the dairy and potatoes are the chief sup- port of the people. Potatoes constitute almost the entire food of the people of the eastern and northern provinces. The peasants add a gruel made of oats or rye, and they are afforded salted meat once or twice a week. Their bread is chiefly rye. Cheese, buttermilk, beans, buckwheat, with a proportion of garden vegetables, and occasionally pork, are eaten by the farmers and a part of the artizans. In Belgium grain and live stock are considerably abundant. Rye is the principal corn bread ; it is to wheat as 2 to 1, the same to oats, 7 to 2 of barley, to 2 of buckwheat, to 1 of potatoes, and 1 of pulse. Buttermilk, with rye flour, is a favorite dish with farmers. The ani- mal food is mostly pork and salt fish. Milk and cheese, with vegeta- bles, butter or lard, a weak beer, and occasionally fish and flesh, are the common diet in the country. Beans stewed in milk are much ad- mired. Rye affords the principal bread of all the north of Germany. In the south, wheat is raised to considerable extent, with some maize. The great body of Germans are said to be decidedly a pork eating peo- ple, and the principal vegetable is cabbage. Bacon, raw herrings, sau- sages, with beer or sour wine, constitute, with these, the bulk of the food of the German family of thirty millions. Still, the poor obtain meat of no kind oftener than once or twice a week. Eight millions of hogs are said to be annually slaughtered in Germany. The sheep have been estimated at twenty millions and the neat cattle at over twelve millions; Prussia, west of the Elbe, having 1,328,000, and Austria 2,800,000. In Russia, rye and oats are grown abundantly in the northern, and wheat in the southern provinces. Yet the mass of the peasantry are otherwise poorly fed. Barley, rice and maize are also cultivated in some parts. The chief food of the farm laborer is rye bread, buck- wheat, sour cabbage soup, with a few vegetables, and occasionally fish and sometimes flesh. The more wealthy have salt fish, cheese, honey, &c. In Poland the food is very similar. The truth and purport of the remark that, " wherever a loaf is ad- ded, there's a man born," is every where observable in the increase of health and population. All the variations in mortality are seen in Europe to be produced by the price of bread. These facts should in- duce a comparison between the mortality of our countrymen and Eu- ropeans. Improvements in the arts of agriculture and the consequent increase of vegetable and animal food in some countries of Europe, to- gether with the laws applicable to food, accounts for the gradual in- crease of population, as may be observed in France. The increase of 58 VEGETABLE INTOXICATING DRINKS. the population of Ireland is also justly attributable to the extended cultivation of the potato. It need not be argued in this place, that in this country, the great abundance of both vegetable and animal food is the chief cause of its prosperity, its rapidly increasing population, and the comparative health and energy of the people. Our country, under these circum- stances, in connection with its free institutions, cannot be otherwise than prosperous and powerful, if the rapid developement of this power and prosperity does not itself disturb the clear current and check the steadily onward tide of their progress. This, we are free to say, is mostly to be apprehended from the mingled population flooding our shores from all countries, and in general consisting of those little qualified from previous habits, prejudices and ignorance of letters and of our institutions, which are prematurely pressed under their con- trol ; to appreciate and perpetuate the purity and variety of our na- tural, political, civil and religious blessings. Whilst this is desirable in the extension of the advantages we enjoy, of health, freedom and happiness ; in the additions to our numerical strength and in the more rapid developement of our resources ; yet the influence of political power made to accompany the advantages thus afforded, necessarily hazards the purity and prosperity of those blessings, as time has al- ready revealed and will hereafter reveal in demonstrations not to be mistaken by the most reckless political demagogue. INTOXICATING VEGETABLE JUICES. As intoxicating drinks of all kinds are the products of vegetables and essentially connected with our subject, we may be expected to make some general remarks, in addition to what has been heretofore incidently said on this important subject important from the con- trolling influence it exerts on society, on the happiness, the intellectu- al and the moral condition of mankind. These products are chiefly from the cereal grains, which, as we have just seen and as all must well know, are the most valuable of the vegetable world. The sin- gular anomaly is therefore presented of their being at once the greatest blessing and the greatest curse of mankind. No fact can be present- ed to the mind, therefore, so fully illustrative of what we have before said and what we wish could be more deeply impressed on every mind that it is the abuse of the blessings of nature which is the great source of evil and crime in the world. But it should be understood that alcohol does not exist as an ele- ment in vegetable substances. It does not exist in the sugar or the starch of the grains nor in the grapes, when whole ; it is the result of the act of fermentation and of the arts of men that the elements are changed and spirits are produced. Nor will the juices ferment if kept from the air. Starch is free from any thing like alcohol, but kept moist INTOXICATING PRINCIPLE. 59 for some time it is gradually converted into sugar, and by fermentation undergoes such changes as convert it into alcohol. It is therefore ap- parent that the author of nature designed no such perverted use to be made of vegetable productions. The Intoxicating principle of vegetable juices is alcohol, whether found in distilled liquors, fermented wines, beer, cider, perry, or others of the many compositions in which ingenuity has concealed that prin- ciple. It is a poison to the nerve applied externally or internally. Opium, too, is a poison, and one of the most active of the vegetable kingdom ; yet, like alcohol, in some cases, it is medicinal. We have, however, spoken of alcohol in another place. It is the use of these things in all cases which is to be considered ; and it is the obvious use designed in their creation by a wise and Beneficent Being that alone gives them, with all other substances, their value to man and animals. Most happily the wisdom of the present period views alcohol in a more just and rational light than formerly. The judgment of men has become convinced, though the natural taste may not be otherwise chang- ed ; and the consequence is, as may always be expected under like cir- cumstances, the one has triumphed over the other. This conviction of the judgment, it should be remarked, is the only certain and efficient precursor of good. Rum and brandy, gin and whiskey, beer and wine drinkers have become convinced, we say, of the evils which necessa- rily flow from their use, and hence the progress of the popular achiev- ments in temperance, and hence men cease to abuse the blessings of vegetable nature, as well as the health and existence of their own. The process of fermentation does not take place in nature so as to develope alcoholic liquors ; but it is the result of art. The making of wine and beer, as with the distillation of molasses, consists in numer- ous and elaborate artificial processes. In brewing there is grinding, mashing, hopping, boilins:, cooling, cleansing, fining, attenuation, &c., in all of which great care is necessary. In wine making the processes are equally numerous. Grape juice might pass, by a natural process, if the grapes were prepared, into the vinous fermentation ; but it would almost immediately pass into the acetous fermentation and form vine- gar. This, indeed, would seem to be the natural process. It is not a natural process for barley to form beer any more than it is for the fa- rina of the seed to form beer in passing into sugar in germination, for the support of the young plant. Wine, therefore, is the manufactured liquor of the juice of the grape, and beer is the manufactured liquor of barley, and not, as some would believe, the result of natural pro- cesses. The composition of grape juice consists in sugar, extractive matter, gum, glutenous matter, malic acid, citric acid, cream of tartar, etc. ; and wine is alcohol, water, tartaric or malic acid, extractive matter, etc. Carbonic acid is found also in the effervescing wines, blue color- 60 CONSTITUENTS AND EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL. ing matter, tannin, etc. in the red wines, and sugar in the sweet wines ; volatile oils and 2 or 3 other acids are likewise found in some wines. Beer is composed of a large proportion of extractive and mucilagi- nous matters derived from the malt. The nutritive properties, as compared with the barley, or even the malt, are very small, not amounting to a fourth part. An analysis of North River Beer shows that a pint contains 816 grains, or a llth part of extractive matter. Beer, like wine, has a tendency to pass into acetous fermentation, hut is restrained by the bitter principle of hops. In the infusion of malt, the gluten of the grain acts as a ferment to the saccharine part. Both wine and malt liquors resemble each other in being the product of su- gar with water ; they are decomposed by yeast or gluten ; and alcohol and carbonic acid always result. The ultimate, constituents of alcohol are carbon, oxygen and hydro- gen. These we cannot unite so as to form alcohol; and fermentation is therefore resorted to, which extricates these elements and unites them in a new compound. By distillation this new compound is evolv- ed, diluted with water and associated with essential oil. This oil is afterwards separated by rectification. The alcohol of wines is procured from them by distillation ; or it may be obtained by adding subucetate, or sugar of lead, which throws down the acid and coloring matter ; and then, by adding dry sub-car- bonate of potassa, the alcohol is brought up to the surface. This al- cohol is present, as we have said, in all intoxicating drinks. The effects of alcohol are proved by chemistry, physiology and expe- rience to be pernicious and destructive. It is opposed to digestion, retarding the conversion of articles of food into chyme and also the conversion of this into chyle. It has no reducing power, like water, by which the food is dissolved ; but, on the contrary, it coagulates the albumen and hardens the muscular fibre of flesh taken into the sto- mach, hence its use in preserving animals in natural history. Beside this, it is proved to render the gastric juice inert. If these results are not perceived at once on the introduction of spirits, beer, wine, etc. in small quantities, they are nevertheless certain. All the processes therefore of digestion and assimilation are impaired or destroyed by it. Nor do these truths depend alone on science, the health of the liv- ing or on facts after death any one of which should be satisfactory but on immediate observations, as seen during life, in the stomach, in the case of Martin, as reported by Dr. Beaumont, who says the use of ardent spirits, wines, beers or any intoxicating liquors has invari- ably produced these morbid changes. It is folly therefore to assert that any alcoholic drinks promote digestion. Wine and beer, drank in health under any circumstances, comes within the category of al- coholic drinks and the evils we have noticed. Both produce drunken- ness taken in larger quantities than spirits, and both manifest all the CONSUMPTION OF ALCOHOL. 61 other accompanying and resulting effects of alcohol so apparent to all who are not interested observers. ddutleratiuM are causes, too, of still more alarming evils, if possi- ble. In view of these, in beer drank, as we have mentioned, in such immense quantities in England, it has been said by British writers that the taste of the people generally is so vitiated by the adulter- ated ; in fact poisonous beer, ale and porter, that even if the brewers were all honest, they would not find customers for their purer liquors." Consumption of alcoholic spirits Something of this will have been seen, but the amount shipped from one port in Spain, Barcelona, in the form of wine and brandy, affords one of the elements of estimates we propose to add. These exports were to Cuba 12,000 pipes of wine and 3,000 pipes of brandy ; to South America 16,000 pipes of wine and 6,000 pipes of brandy ; to the North of Europe 2,000 pipes of wine and 2,000 pipes of brandy total, 60,000 hogsheads, or 3,780,000 gallons of wine and 22,000 hogsheads, or 1,638,000 gallons of brandy grand total, 5,418,000 gallons. Calculating a pipe of brandy in every three pipes of wine, there was 46,000 hogsheads, or 2,898,000 gallons of brandy. To the large amount of brandy for the English and American mar- kets, drugs of various kinds are almost always added ; and after they are received they are still more and still worse adulterated. The ac- counts of these adulterations, both here and at the places where the wines are made, are revolting. 01 Champaigne it is said that not one in one hundred of the bottles drank, here or in England, come from Champaigne. It is therefore confidently asserted, in comparing the wine and grog drinkers, that the advantage, so far as health and lon- gevity are concerned, is in favor of the grog drinker. Intoxicating liquors in France are chiefly wines, brandy, beer and cider. These, in 1830, were in gallons respectively as follows Wine 611,466,000 ; Cider 234,121,000; Beer 124,000,000; Brandy from wine, &c., 15,074,000 ; Brandy from cider, cherries, potatoes and grain 2,- 890,000 total, 987,551,800 gallons ! The amount exported, however, is large. It is now estimated that there is annually made in France 141 million galls, of brandy. The quantity of intoxicating drinks con- sumed there has been estimated in the proportion of 32 galls, for each of 32,500,000 persons the population of 1830. The amount of beer in France is also enormous. The excise duties on beer alone in 1824 were $1,800,000. The use and manufacture of beer and cider are chiefly in the north of France. The amount of al- cohol in Burgundy wines is estimated at from 8 to 10 per cent., and by Brande at 11 to 16, and Champaigne at from 12 to 14 per cent. ; Claret at 15, and the common country wines from 4 to 5, and cider at from 7 to 9 ; strong beer (which forms four-fifths of the malt liquors made in France) 5 to 8, and Brandy 50 per cent., so that the sum total of the 6 62 ALCOHOL IN GREAT BRITAIN AND U. S. alcohol drank or produced annually in France, at a low estimate, is 86,570,870 or more than 2 gallons for each person. Deducting, as consuming none of this, one-third of the population for children under twelve, and say all the women, which is scarcely supposable, and there will be consumed by each of the 10,167,000 males over ten, between 7 and 8 gallons of alcohol. But from this should be deducted, say one- third for exportation, and the amount then consumed by each would be above five gallons. This, though not so apparent in its effects to a stranger as in most other countries, is said to be appalling to residents, especially in the north of France, where it is chiefly drank. Drunk- enness is said to be the curse of the laboring classes; and of the insane, it appears that a large proportion are made so by drinking wine. Intoxicating drinks in Great Britain we have briefly noticed, but to make a comparison we might repeat that the amount of beer drank, as stated, is 9| millions of barrels, or 342 millions of gallons. The amount of alcohol in this, at five per cent, is 17,100,000 gallons. The amount of cider drank is estimated, for 1830, at 4,725,000 gallons, the alcohol of which, at 7 per cent., is 330,750 gallons ; the ardent spirits drank, say in 1830, was 27,708,831, the alcohol of which, at 50 per cent., is 13,854,415, and the wine 6,434,445, the alcohol of which, estimated at 20 per cent., is 1,286,889, making the total of gallons 380,868,276, or near 16 gallons for each person. The total of this in alcohol is 32,- 572,054 gallons. Taking the population of 1830 at 24,500,000, and one-third as males over twelve, as estimated with the French, and the amount for each of 8,333,500 persons will be over four gallons. But this does not include the amounts produced by the great numbers of private breweries. Drugged beer and spirits," it is said, constitute the staple drink of the great body of the people, especially in the metropolis, where it is rapidly accelerating their degeneracy." The excessive use of in- toxicating liquors in Ireland has been a revolting evil, but the late en- couraging progress of temperance there has most happily produced a remarkable change, whilst in England little, if any change in this re- spect has been, or from appearances is likely soon to be effected. The amount of alcoholic drinks in the United States may be determin- ed as follows. There were produced in 1840, 41.402.627 gals, of dis- tilled liquors ; 124.734 gals, of wine, and 23.267.730 gals, of beer. The value of spirits, of grain and other materials imported was $1.592.564, of that of molasses $2.910.791. Of beer, ale and porter $135.485, and of wines $2.209. 176. Calculating the above amount distilled to be of spirits 36.343.236 gals, and the alcohol at 50 per cent., this would be 18.171.618 gals. ; also the amount of foreign spirits at 2.500.000 gals, and the alcohol at 50 per cent, would be 1.250.000 gals. Calculating also the wines im- ported at 4,000.000 gals, and the alcohol at 18 per cent, and the do- ALCOHOLIC DRINKS IN THE UNITED STATES. 63 mestic wines as above at 12 per cent, the alcohol of the two amounts of wine would give 734.494 gals. Add to this the alcohol of the beer produced and that imported at 5 per cent, (estimating the latter at 7.000 gals.) viz. 1.163.736 gals, and the total of alcohol is 21.319.848 gals. This, taking a third of the population as consumers, say 5.730.- 000, would be about 3|d. gals. each. But by estimates made by Dr. Bell, the amount drank in 1830 must have been more than treble this, and greatly exceeding the consumption in England or France. Beside these estimates, the amount of cider drank, with 7 per cent, of alcohol, would probably increase the latter to four gallons of al- cohol for each individual of the above proportion. But the remark- able decrease in the consumption of intoxicating drinks since 1840 will have reduced this amount of alcohol, at a fair estimate to 3| gals, as the proportion of each person at the present time ; and since 1830, the decrease has been, according to other estimates for that year, more than three-fourths ! These facts are indeed encouraging to the friends of temperance in this country. The whole amount of the above mentioned liquors, as per returns for 1840, and other estimates as above for that year, is 71. 295.791 gals. This allows near 13 gals, for each individual of the above proportion of our population. The quantity of wine for each is 2.4-5th quarts. The number of breweries in the United States in 1840 was 406 ; and of the 23.267.730 gals, brewed, 12.765.474 were in Penn. ; 6.059.122 in New-York. There were also 10.306 distilleries, and of the 41.402. 627 gals, of products, 11.973.815 were in New- York ; 6.329.467 in Ohio; 6.240.193 in Penn. and 5.177.910 in Massachusetts. Capital employed $9.147.386. It has been remarked that the prodigal supply of esculent vegeta- ble food which abates the thirst excited by animal food and of the fine fruits of America, of which all can partake, afford less excuse for us than for others who seek to vary the pleasures of the palate by fer- mented and distilled liquors. The exciting property of the air of our climate, also, with the natural excitable temperament and incessant activity of our people, afford less inducement for physical stimulants than with most others. "The young and spirited horse and even the well-broken courser require the rein and the bit more than the spur. We, of all people on the face of the earth, want brief snatches of calm- ness for meditation and revision, but no goading." Fermentation. This is the spontaneous change which vegetable juices undergo under certain circumstances, terminating in the pro- duction of alcohol by vinous, or vinegar by acetous fermentation. A third species of fermentation is the putrefaction of animal substances. An elevation of temperature is always necessary. This, in the vinous process, with some juices, proceeds just above 32, but best between 50 and 70 ; if much higher the acetous fermentation may be excited. . 64 WINES. No vegetable juice can be made to undergo the vinous fermenta- tion without sugar and a certain fluidity. This sugar comes from the malt in brewing, and in wine-making from the grape; from the apple in cider and the pear in making perry. Most juices go into vinous fermentation soon after being exposed; but artificial solutions of ve- getables, as with malt, require yeast to begin the process. To com- plete vinous fermentation the juice should come from ripe fruit, in which sugar is most abundant, and the flavor is best. With unripe fruit fermentation is imperfect. Honey nor sugar ferment without the fluidity of water. All parts of fermenting liquors do not ferment at the same time ; the slowest are the poorest. The first fermentation being checked, the suspended parts are separated, as lees and the acid salt tartar. If the sugar be small the fermentaton soon ceases ; and the liquor exposed to air com- mences acetous fermentation by the absorption of oxygen from it ; the result is vinegar. Wine is the product of the vinous fermentation of the grape juice ; and much skill is necessary to regulate the process. The quality de- pends on the sugar and the odoriferous matter contained in the grapes. If these be sufficient and the fermentation is carried to the exact point, the wine is good. If the sugar be in excess, the excess remains; if deficient, the wine is thin and weak. If bottled before fermentation is complete, it continues to disengage carbonic acid gas ; and when the cork is drawn, it sparkles, as with Champaigne, &c. Few wines possess much flavor or color; but both of these are fur- nished by the manufacturer, to suit taste and profit. Bitter almonds, oak chips, wormwood, rose-water, &.C., supply the first, and dye-woods, iron, &c., the last. The kinds of wine are the astringent, dry, sweet, foaming, sparkling, &c. The last is generally to be avoided. Bor- delais are most wholesome of light wines and Madeira of the strong. White wines are from white grapes and red from purple, crimson and black grapes, with the husks, which contain the color, aroma and tan- nin, or astringent principle. These are salutary, if the husks be used ; but they are wanting in white wines, which contain most alcohol. Of the nine of these, Malaga is sweetest and Hock the most acidulous. Much of the port wine is said to be made with Brazil rum, logwood and rhatany root. More vessels leave Oporto with wines than the whole of Portugal can produce. The Champaigne and Burgundy are the best of the French wines. The Rhenish, or Hock, is the best of the German wines. Malmsey is made from Muscadine raisins. The varieties and peculiarities of wine are, however, too numerous to de- scribe here. The method of making and fining wines is worthy of notice. Red wines in the south of France are made by treading or by squeezing grapes with the hands. The juice and husks having stood a time are DISTILLATION. 65 pressed; but for white wines these are pressed immediately. They tun the juice or must and leave half a foot for the wine to work. The wine and husks sometimes stand two days for white, and a week for claret wine before they tun it. To fine it, shavings of green beach are put into it. If impurities remain, isinglass, powdered alabaster, roch- alum or sulpher, &c. are added. Domestic wines may be made of raisins, currants, elderberries, gooseberries, &c. with sugar and spirits. Tokay wine is made in a volcanic district and is famous. Genuine port is rarely met with in this country. The briskest wines keep the poorest. Mercgout or mother drop, is the virgin wine running from the top of the vats before the grapes are trodden. Draught wine is made of husks left of grapes by throwing water on them and pressing them again. The goodness of wine consists in its being net, dry, clear, brisk, with- out taste of the vessel, with a clear steady color, strong, but not heady, a body without sourness, and in keeping without growing hard. But the vocabulary of terms and shades of quality are quite unnecessary here. Cider will be noticed under apples, perry under pears, and oth- er drinks under appropriate heads. DISTILLATION Rum is obtained by the distillation of the juice of the sugar cane, or molasses. It contains much alcohol and a gross essential oil. This is called in the United States New England rum, being mostly distilled there, and is largely exported. Jamaica proof, or low wines, is the same but stronger, so that oil will sink in it. Brandy is a distillation of wines or of coarse fermented grape juice. The still is filled with the liquor and a slight heat applied till the sixth part passes over, or till what runs into the receiver is not inflammable. It is colorless ; the dealers give it its color ; and its peculiar taste is given by the addition of an essential oil. Brandies are principally prepared in France. That shipped from Cognac and called Cognac brandy is most esteemed. They are prepared in numerous ways with strong liquors, sugar, spices, flowers, fruits, &c. Olive oil, or tallow, will sink in the best brandy. Burnt sugar is added to give mellow- ness, color and flavor. When first used, brandy was greatly extolled as a medicine, a sovereign remedy and elixir of life. Spirit of wine is colorless and very inflammable. It is obtained chief- ly from fermented malt liquor called wash, but formerly from wines. In its purest state it is alcohol, and is one of the lightest liquids known ; a pint weighing, or it should weigh, 13J oz. ; 95 parts being of alco- hol and 5 water. It is much used in medicines and the arts. Proof spirit is colorless and inflammable. A pint should weigh 15 oz. 55 parts being of alcohol and 45 water. Brandy was considered proof spirit ; but this is now made by the addition of water to spirits of wine. It is used in the arts and in medicine. Gin, or Geneva, is a compound made of juniper berries or oil of 6* 66 DIFFERENT DRINKS. turpentine and distilled with malt spirits. Angelica root and other aromatic vegetables are also often added. The common hot and per- nicious gin is, or has been, much used as a dram. Arrack is a spirituous liquor imported from the East Indies, and is considerably drank in Europe as a dram and in punch. This Indian name means strong water, as all ardent spirits are called by the peo- ple of India. It is procured by the distillation of a vegetable juice called toddy, flowing from incisions in the cocoa nut tree, or by the distillation of rice, fermented with the juice of the cocoa nut tree. The Goa arrack is said to be made from the toddy, and the Batavia from rice and sugar ; it is also made from a shrub. A spirit like this is made from the juice of the maple tree which is said to taste like that of the cocoa tree. Whiskey, formerly meaning water, is a strong liquor distilled in Ire- land and Scotland from wheat, rye and maize. From thence it has spread abroad. Potsheen is the kind of whiskey distilled in the hovels of Ireland. Mountain dew is a kind distilled in Scotland. Whiskey is much distilled in the United States. Malt is made by steeping barley in a stone trough full of water till the water is red or till the grain is much swollen and soft. This be- ing taken out is laid in heaps till the water is drained, then turned into a new heap. In 15 or 16 hours the grains put forth roots ; and this is done in 40 hours. The malt is then turned over and spread five or six inches deep, then turned over and over for 48 hours. It is then thrown up into a heap where it grows as hot as the hand can bear it, which is done in 30 hours. It is then spread, turned and cooled and laid on a kiln, upon hair cloth or wires. These processes require about 14 days. The drinks made are pale or brown, as the malt is more or less dried on the kiln ; the least dried tinges the liquor least, or is pale, and that dried most, or roasted, gives a higher color. Coloring drugs, &c., are used to give color when the malt is poor. Brewing is the preparation of ale or beer from malt. A quantity of water being boiled, is cooled to 175; the malt is mixed and stirred ; a few handfuls of dry malt being reserved arc now spread over the mixture to retain the heat and the vessel is covered with cloths ; this is mashing. The whole stands about three hours, when the liquor or wort is drawn into a receiver. This mashing is repeated with the grain for the second wort. On drawing off these worts a quantity of hops is added to them, and the liquor is again boiled, then strained, cooled and barm or yeast is then added, which causes it to ferment ; after which it is tunned up in vessels for use. Two or three months time is required before it is fit for use. Ten bushels of malt are ne- cessary for a hogshead, or 54 gallons, of strong beer, and five bushels BEVERAGES. 67 for one of good ale. Hops are said to preserve malt liquors from sour- ing. There are numerous other kinds of alcoholic drinks obtained from different vegetables, which we have noticed under the heads of the re- spective plants or fruits from which they are obtained. COMMON AND IMPORTANT BEVERAGES. Numerous vegetable substances are added to water for the purpose of drinks, or beverages. The juice of many fruits are common addi- tions for this purpose, especially in warm climates. These are refriger- ating and allaying to thirst. The citric, acetic and tartaric acids are mostly used. Lemonade is a well known drink used for these purpo- ses in warm weather in this climate. Infusions of apples, tamarinds, currants, cranberries and preserved fruits of various kinds are also much used. Vinegar, with sugar or molasses, are likewise frequently drank. Pleasant beverages are made, in fine, of most of the native fruits of our country, containing sacharo-acid principles. A feeling of heart-burn or acidity of the stomach, is said to be occasioned more fre- quently by the compound juices of fruits than when acids are alone. Thus orange juice often disagrees with the dispeptic, while that of the lemon, with sugar, is grateful and not inconvenient in its effects. Ci- der, or wine, also gives rise to these feelings, while vinegar with water will often relieve them. Sugar and water is a common drink with the French. Sugar candy allays thirst and is often nourishing. But beverages most extensively drank are made by the infusion of herbs of different kinds and the coffee berry. Common aromatic and bitter herbs, such as balm, sage, &c. are considerably used as teas. The gums, though devoid of taste and stimulating qualities, are sooth- ing ; and thus quench thirst better and for a longer time than wa- ter. A good mucilaginous drink is thus made of gum arabic, which may be administered in cases of fevers, allaying thirst and avoiding the want of water. The desire for all these drinks ceases with the quench- ing of thirst, having no stimulating properties to induce a habit of frequent drinking. We have already alluded to rice and barley water, &c. But of all the beverages used, that made of the tea plant and of coffee is the most common, and these therefore merit special notice. TEA, Thea, or as it is called by the Japanese, Teak. Camellia, (or Linn.Columniferae, or Juss. Aurantia.) C. 16, O. 7, sp. 6-8, Es. 4 ft. (Some place the tea tree in class 12.) This is a plant greatly cultivated in several provinces in China, Japan and Siam, an. infusion of the leaves of which constitutes the well- known drink, tea. The roots resemble those of the peach tree'; the leaves are green, sharp at the point, narrow, 1| inches long and jagged all around; and the flowers are white and like those of our wild rose. The fruit is a berry of different forms, round, long 68 TEA. or triangular, of the size of a bean, and the pods contain 2 or 3 peas each, with a kernel. These peas are the seeds sown. Thea bohea, or Bohea tea plant and the Thc.a viridis or Green tea plant are those dis- tinguished by botanists ; but there are other species and many varie- ties, as the kinds we receive indicate. Some maintain that there is only the latter species. The tree, as it is called, is a branchy evergreen shrub, from three to five feet high, though one species is a tree forty feet high. The leaves are gathered when they are nearly full and juicy, in April, June and September, and are passed, some say, over the vapor of boiling water and dried on porcelain plates, by which they curl up, as we find them. But tea is rarely free from the admixture of other herbs, such as moss- ferns, &c., with the olea fragrans to give it flavor. The price there is usually from five to eighteen cents per pound. The Chinese know nothing of the many names by which tea is distinguished in Europe and this country, or of its advanced price. They have, however, dis- tinctions of their own, such as voui soumlo, etc., which are used by those of rank and the sick. Tea has been cultivated by them from immemorial time, and sung by their poets since the time of Confucius. The poor, however, often beg the steeped leaves of strangers, which they say makes a better drink than that which they commonly obtain. The common tea of the Chinese is the green, or bing tea,'* gathered in Apri}, and the bou, or bohea tea, which is gathered while in the bud in March, as seen from its small leaves and deep tincture ; but others attribute this to the district in which the plant is grown ; and the color of the green tea to both place and time of gathering, which much affect the quality and appearance. The Chinese make and drink tea as we do, except that they use little or no sugar and no milk to temper its bit- terness, as is done by us. The Japanese pulverize it, stirring the pow- der into hot water and drinking it as we do coffee. The former re- gale their friends with it and take it three times a day, or oftener ? though they consume a less quantity in proportion to numbers than Europeans. The species of tea are the camellia bohea. or bohea tea, C. viridis or green tea, and C. Japonica, (Japan Rose,) which is a lofty and beau- tiful tree growing in gardens in Japan ; and there are twenty garden varieties. The C. viridis is undoubtedly the species chiefly cultivated and which furnishes the tea of commerce ; but this is much and vari- ously adulterated with the other species and poor varieties, and espe- cially by the leaves of other plants, to which is added the oil of the seeds of the C. oleifera to improve their quality. This latter species is much cultivated in China and Japan for the oil of the seeds which, when expressed, is there used for many culinary purposes, like that of the hemp and poppy seeds. The seeds of all the species likewise afford this oil. The Slack teas are the bohea, congo, campo, souchong, pou- cfcong and pekoe. The green teas are the twankay, hyson-skin, VARIETIES AND CULTIVATION. 69 young-hyson, hyson, imperial and gunpowder. These varieties are placed in the order of their relative value from the lowest upwards. About a dozen kinds are quoted in the Hamburg and New-York mar- kets, but only six or seven in England. The principal sorts in China are called from the places where they are grown, and others are known by the periods at which they are gathered, the mode of curing, &c. The five kinds of bohea are named from the mountain Vou-yee, covered with tea plantations. The first crop of leaves here is Saatyang (souchong) and Pekoe or back-ho ; the second gathering, when the leaves are more mature, is the Kong-fou, or more common bohea tea. The province whence comes the green tea affords the Poa-sut-tcha, or padre-souchong, which is there esteem- ed for its supposed medicinal virtues. The three kinds of green tea are called hayssuen, or hyson, and consist of leaves carefully picked and dried with less heat than other sorts and costing a fourth more than souchong. The kind most abundant is called Singlo, from the name of a mountain on which it grows, 150 miles from Nan-king. The gunpowder tea consols of tender leaves rolled in the hand into the form of a ball, which sells for 15 per cent, more than hyson. There are green and black tea districts ; and the various qualities of tea chiefly depend on this, the time of gathering and mode of pre- paration. The first crop is gathered about the first of April when the leaves are young and tender. These have an aromatic flavor, and are the imperial tea, often used on great occasion-s in China, and reserv- ed for the wealthy. They consist of buds and half expanded leaves which, though strong, scarcely color the water. The 2d gathering is early in summer when the leaves are full size. And the 3d crop is made in autumn. A 4th gathering is also sometimes made. The two last crops are of an inferior quality. The Chinese are said not to use their tea until about a year old, it being considered too strongly narcotic. It has acquired little less age, indeed, when brought to this country. The East India Company are obliged by their charter to have on hand at their London warehouses a supply for one year's con- sumption. The cultivation of tea is mostly prosecuted in the eastern parts of China, called " the tea country," between lat. 30 and 33 N some say 27 and 31. The plant prefers and succeeds best in valleys or the side of mountains with a southern aspect and a light, strong soil, consisting chiefly of red sand-stone and granitic rocks. The leaves of plants must be exposed, and those from young wood are always the best. Seeds are grown some in hot houses in Europe and this coun- ty, in sandy loam and peat. Those of the species C. sassanqua are used to produce the female plant for new varieties. This plant may be successfully cultivated in parts of Florida and Texas, no doubt, by slave labor. A plant has recently been discovered in Texas which 70 CULTIVATION AND PREPARATION. is said to resemble the Chinese tea-plant very closely, both in appear- ance, and quality. Attempts hitherto made to cultivate the tea-plant elsewhere than in the places named have however failed, except in Ja- va, chiefly from the difference in price of labor. The climate of Bra- zil is very favorable, but the cost of labor has frustrated the attempts to cultivate it there. That the leaves of many of our domestic plants may be used as a good substitute for tea, except so far only as the fan- cy and caprice of the drinker is concerned, we cannot doubt. The young currant leaf is thus considerably used as a substitute, and very frequently without being recognized. The, mode of cultivation and preparation are to plant 7 or 8 seeds in holes 4 or 5 feet apart in rows ; this number of seeds being necessary from the uncertainty of their vegetation. The plants then require lit- tle further attention, except to keep out the weeds. In 3 years they furnish a crop of leaves and three crops annually thereafter. In 7 years they acquire their height and are then trimmed down or remov- ed and new ones planted. The leaves are picked one by one ; and from 4 to 15 Ibs. are picked daily by one person. When gathered they are exposed to the air or sun a few hours and then taken to houses having from 5 to 20 small furnaces, 3 feet high, each having upon the top a flat iron pan. This being heated, a pound or two of the leaves are thrown on it, when they quickly curl up. They are then removed with a small shovel to a long table covered with mats and surrounded by workmen who rapidly roil small quantities in their hands in one di- rection, while others fan them that they may cool and retain their curl. This is sometimes repeated 2 or 3 times, or is repeated after the tea is sent down to Canton ; the tea is then carefully picked over. With finer sorts the heating is often dispensed with, and each leaf is rolled with the hands into a small ball. The tea is then winnowed ; that falling nearest the machines is the heaviest and best. When brought to Canton it is there often winnowed and afterwards packed and stored. The properties of tea have long been a subject of discussion. From analytical experiments made at the Royal Institute, London, some time since, no deleterious properties were detected in green or black tea ; nor has a trace of copper ever been found. An analysis of black and green tea gives results as follows : Black. Green. Tannin .... 40.6 - - 34.6 Gum - 6.3 5.9 Woody fibre - - - 44.8 - - 50.3 Glutinous matter 6.3 - - 5.7 Volatile matter and loss 2.5 - - 2.5 A crystaline solifiable base called theina is said to be found in tea, though this is thought to be identical with caffein. Still, some have PROPERTIES. 71 maintained that bad properties exist, and that, in a highly concentrated state, the decoction is very poisonous. The injurious effects of drink- ing tea, however, if any, may be attributed, we apprehend, more to the hot water in which it is drank than to the qualities of the tea. Tea is a mild narcotic, and like all narcotics in small quantities, is exhilarat- ing ; the green tea is more especially so. It acts as a diuretic and diaphoretic; and it assists digestion. Most nutritive and valuable vegetables, when their properties are obtained in a highly concentrated state, are deleterious to man and ani- mals, are narcotic, acrid or poisonous, as with the potato, the ferment- ed juice of the grains, &c. The most poisonous of vegetables are among the most valuable of medicines, and immediate death follows their use in some cases, while in others they restore health and nour- ish the body. The astringency of tea has acted as an antidote to the ef- fects of poisons from vegetable alkalies. Where the bowels are torpid or costive, tea of much strength should be avoided. Its exhilarating effects on the nervous system has recommended it to the studious, hypo- condrical and dispeptic, though, like other excitants, it is followed by more or less depression. It has been recommended in feverish and in- flammatory diseases, though its effects should not interfere with the re- quired sleep of the patient. To those affected with nervous complaints, palpitation of the heart, or great functional disorders, it should be ab- stained from, A knawing at the stomach, vertigo and sick headache are said to be sometimes referable to its use ; but we apprehend these l;ist are seldom. Plethora or morbid fullness and excessive excitement of the brain are diminished by its use, and it is therefore better adapt- ed to those of fleshy habits than to the thin and nervous. Green tea in its effects is more stimulating and occasions ill effects where black tea is devoid of this or any obvious effects, It seems in too many cases where the use of particular vegetable food or drinks have been loudly condemned that the declaimer is dis- posed rather to quarrel with the gifts of Providence than to condemn the undue use of them. It is the abase of such and of other produc- tions, laws and blessings of nature, we repeat, that is baneful, or which constitutes crime. The argument is that if these are deleterious in one state they must necessarily be more or less so in all others ; but the falacy of this is shown in their medical use and in the application of the principal to all vegetable products. The introduction of tea and coffee may be said to have produced the greatest change that ever took place in the diet of civilized nations. They afford stimulus without producing intoxication, and the lovers of these beverages are rarely excessive drinkers of ardent spirits. The use of tea has contributed more to the sobriety of the Chinese than the severest laws of that na- tion. The gout and stone are said to be unknown in China ; and this lias been attributed to the use of this plant. 72 COFFEE. Tea was scarcely known in Europe before the middle of the 17tfi century ; but now more than 50,000 tons of shipping are employed in its importation. In 1664, 21bs. 2oz. of it was brought by the East India Company to London for the king j and, in 1666 it was introduced into Europe by the Dutch East India Company and sold for $13 per pound. In 1800 the consumption in Great Britain was 20 million Ibs. which is about the quantity now annually consumed there. The ave- rage consumption by each person would then be about 1 Ib. annually. In 1838 the importations into Great Britain were 32,366,412, and in 1840, 40,413,714 Ibs. The average quantity consumed in Ireland is only about half a pound by each person annually. In the United States about 8 millions, in Holland about 3 millions, in Russia 6 or 7 millions and in France 2 millions. The consumption in France has long de- clined, and coffee has been substituted, though it is said to be reviving. The consumption in the United States does not increase with the popu- lation. The average annual imports for six years prior to 1840 was 14,500,000 Ibs. The value of the imported teas into this country in 1840 was $5,417,589. T. Bohea ; flowers white, with 6 petals ; stem bushy ; branches nu- merous, leafy ; leaves alternate, evergreen, eliptical, oblong, cerrated j anthers and stigrna yellow : resembles the Camellia. E. I. COFFEE TREE, Coffeea C. 5, O. 1, Rubiacea, sp. 2-28, Et. & Es. 6-20 ft so called from the Arabic name of the liquor obtained from the berry, or Caffa from a province of Africa. C. Arabica is an erect low tree with white flowers resembling those of the Jasmine and of a grateful odor. The berries are of a greenish red when grown, and dark when ripe, with two lobes and two seeds, each of the .size of a pea. A decoction of these berries forms the well-known drink Coffee, which is said to have been in use in Ethiopia from a very early period. The introduction of coffee, was first into Arabia from Persia about the middle of the 15th century. Its use there as a drink is ascribed to the prior of a monastery who, on being informed that his cattle, browz- ing on this tree, would sometimes wake and caper during the night, concluded to test its virtues on his monks to prevent their sleeping at matins. Others prove its introduction from Persia by a Mufti, of Aden, at the mouth of the Red Sea, who finding that it dissipated fumes of the head, inspired joy, prevented sleep, &.c., recommend its use to his dervices with whom he spent the night in prayer. This ultimately introduced its use, though prohibited by the Syrian government. There is a manuscript in Paris, written by a Sheikh, which proves that coffee was introduced by a Sheikh and scholar, Dhabani, of Arabia Felix, about 870. In Egypt is use was regarded as a religious ceremony. Coffee passed to Mecca, then to Arabia Felix and Cairo, and from thence to Syria and Constantinople in 1554. It was introduced into Venice HISTORY AND CULTIVATION 73 about 1616, Marseilles in 1644, Paris in 1657, and from thence into London. It is said to have come to London in 1652, and afterwards made for sale by a Greek and by an Armenian from Paris. Coffee soon came to this country, on its settlement by Europeans, It is said that all the coffee trees cultivated here and in Europe are the progeny of a single plant presented in 1714 by the magistrates of Amsterdam to Lonis 14, king of France. This being placed under the care of the celebrated Jussieu, whose name we have often men- tioned in this work, it was in a few years widely distributed. Its use was strenuously opposed by the ministers of religion, even in Turkey, and by their influence severely taxed, but it is there used now to great excess ; so that not to supply a wife with coffee has been deemed by the government ample reason for a divorce. The tree was introduced into Europe by the Dutch, and also into Batavia, for cultivation, in 1690, then into Surinam in 1718, and by the French into Cayenne and Mauritius soon afterwards, and then into Martinique, and afterwards to other W. India Islands and Jamaica in 1730. The, mode of raising the plant is from seeds planted in nurseries and then transplanted into fields in rows and from 5 to 10 feet apart, chief- ly on hills and sides of mountains, in fresh soil. In gravel it attains a height of only 6 feet. They produce fruit the following year and are in full bearing the third year. The produce of a good tree is from li to 21bs. The berries are gathered by shaking them into blankets when they begin to fall, and their pulpy bark shrivels ; then spread and dried, placed under sheds and passed between rollers to seperate the husks, then sifted, winnowed and bagged. The berries of the Arabian plant are much smaller than those of the West Indies and the United States, the increased size in richer soils and more humid climates being how- ever at th.e expense of the flavor. The berries are sown soon after gathering them, as in 6 weeks they lose their vital powers. The plant may be raised from cuttinss. There are 10 or more varieties de- scribed by botanists ; some are peculiar to the East and West Indies South America, Arabia, &c. The coffea Jlrabiaca or Jasminum Jlri- bicum is the tree affording most of the coffee of European commerce, of which there are two varieties. It is an Arabic evergreen 10 or 15 feet high, of a beautiful appearance at all seasons. The eastern coffee tree is about 15 feet high and 12 feet in Europe. The berry is as hard as horn and is 4 or 5 inches long and 2 broad. Coffee cannot be culti- vated in a climate falling below 55. The worst West India or Ame- rican coffee, it is said, if kept a few years, not over 10 or 14, becomes as good in every respect as that from Turkey. The period of flowering does not last longer than 1 or 2 days. The blossoms expand so profusely in one night as to give to a plantation the appearance of a sudden fall of snow. In the East the berries are sha- 7 74 PREPARATIONS AND QUALITIES. ken upon a blanket and spread out to dry in the sun, then rolled, and again dried. The berries are pressed into bags by the negroes in the West Indies, each averaging: 3 bushels a day, and each bushel yielding 50 Ibs. of merchantable coffee. Sometimes the coffee is exposed to the sun in layers 5 or 6 inches deep on a platform, when in a few days the pulp ferments and gives off an acidulous moisture, and in 3 weeks the husks are seperated in a mill with fluted rollers and the berries are winnowed. The preparation of coffee The Mahommedans make their coffee from the pods as well as the berries, and some say that these are the flow- er of the coffee tree, but they are not so easily transported. The pre- paration commonly consists in roasting the berry in a metalic vessel or cylinder till thoroughly brown, and the grinding as much as is re- quired for the occasion ; as its flavor is soon lost by exposure when burned, and especially when ground. The Turks do not sweeten it by sugar, but add to each dish a drop of the essence of amber, or boil it with 2 or 3 cloves, &c. It is one of the necessaries, it is said, with which they are obliged to furnish their wives. When roasted in any quantity, it is common here and in Europe to use an iron cylinder full of holes and turned by a crank over a char- coal fire, now and then taking it up and shaking it. When the oil rises the berry looks bright and oily, and it is of a dark brown ; it is then emptied into receivers and shaken till cold. The smell of the oily matter distinguishes it from peas or beans, barley or rye, which are much substituted by coffee grinders. Care should be used that it is not burned. The Mocha coffee is small and of a dark yellow ; the Java and East India coffee are larger and of a paler yellow, and the W. India, Ceylon and Brazil is of a blueish or greenish grey. The outer pulp and the in- ner membrane investing the seeds are used by Arabians ; the former constitutes the coffee a la Sultane. If stowed in ships with rum, pep- per, &c., it is said to acquire a bad flavor, and hence the inferiority of much imported coffee. The qualities of coffee are known as those of the Mocha coffee, which is the best ; the next best is Java coffee from the Red Sea, and the cheaper kinds are from the West Indies and Brazil. If underdone its qualities will not be imparted, and its use will oppress the stomach, and if overdone it yields a flat, burnt and bitter taste ; its virtues are then destroyed ; it is heating to the body and acts as an astringent. In Asia, and sometimes elsewhere, the coffee is pounded and each cup is boiled by itself. The Turks do not separate the coffee from the infu- sion, but leave it in the dish. Coffee is best when made in the form of an infusion. In that of a decoction and boiled, as it is commonly prepared, the fine aromatic oil, producing the flavor and strength, is dispelled by the boiling, and a mucilage is extracted which renders it PROPERTIES AND EXPORTS OF COFFEE. 75 weak and insipid. Boiling water should be poured through the coffee in a strainer, or poured upon it and left to stand on the fire not over ten minutes. The best coffee is made in France and Turkey, and the poorest in England and the United States. Ground coffee, as commonly sold in shops in our large cities, is much adulterated and has few of the properties of the best article. It is adulterated, especially in England, with chicory. This is de- tected by shaking the coffee in a glass, when the pure coffee swims without coloring the water, while the chicory sinks and colors the wa- ter red. Roasted grains of any kind are detected by the blue color produced on the addition of a solution of iodine to the coffee in cold water. The aroma of coffee is said to be caused by the decomposition, of an acid (caffdc acid.) A volatile neutral, called caffein, exists in coffee. The other constituents are gum, resin, fixed oil., albumen, ex- tractive and lignin. The principle peculiar to coffee forms 17.59 per cent, of raw and 12.50 of roasted coffee. Raw coffee has been used medicinally like Peruvian bark ; it is slightly nutritive, but when ground this property is destroyed and an impyreumatic matter is given out which is stimulating to the nerves. The properties of coffee are known to be a powerful stimulant and cordial. Coffee is used as an antidote to the effects of narcotics and to relieve those of intoxicating drinks. It is good when strong for asthma, for exhaustion from fatigue, for sickness at the stomach, head- ache, &c. It has been used as a febrifuge in intermittent^, as a stom- achic in dispepsia, and an astringent in diarrhoea ; but some of these virtues are disputed. Its use is to be avoided by those having affec- tions of the heart. It is said to be an enemy to the skin, depriving it of freshness, softness, &c. Those nursing should use it sparingly. Many sermons were preached against coffee when it was introduc- ed into Europe, one of which has the following : " They cannot wait until the smoke of the infernal regions surround them, but encompass themselves with smoke of their own accord, and drink a poison wnich God made black that it might bear the devil's color." The amount of exports in 1831 from the different places where it is crown was 123,500 tons, or 251.000,000 Ibs., nearly a fourth part of which was consumed in Great Britain and America. Of the 147,000 tons estimated by McCulloch as produced, 42,000 tons were from Spa- nish Main, 25,000 from Cuba and Porto Rico, and 20,000 from Hayti. The consumption estimated by him was, G. Britain 10,000 tons, Neth- erlands and Holland 40,500, Germany and around the Baltic 32,000, France, Spain, Italy, Turkey, &c., 35,000, and America 20,500 total, 138,500 tons. The average annual importation into France from 1830 to 1832 was 1 1,476 tons, or not three-fourths of a pound for each of her population. In Great Britain, at 22,000,000 for 1830, it was also less than a pound each. But in 1840 she imported 39,932,279 pounds. 76 CONSUMTTION IN THE V. STATES. Arabia supplies about 15 million Ibs., and St. Domingo, before the re- volution, exported 70 million Ibs. annually. France probably now con- sumes more than any other European nation. The consumption in the United States from 1821 up to 1831 was nearly trebled. The value of imported coffee in 1840 was $8,546,222 and the amount continues to increase. From 1821, when the quantity was 21,273,659 Ibs. the increase up to 1831 is shown by the imports of the latter year which were 81,757,386 Ibs. In 1835 the amount was 103,199,577 Ibs. costing $10,715,466. It was less up to 1839 when it rose to 106,696,992 Ibs. and in 1810 it was 94,996,095 Ibs. But we have constantly exported large amounts. In 1821 the ex- ports were 9,337,596 Ibs. ; but averaging up to 1835 about one-third the amount imported ; since which the exports have greatly decreased; and, since 1837 they have been comparatively very small. The im- ports from 1826 to 1832, both inclusive, were 418,667,681 Ibs. and from 1834 to 1840, 655,116,660, showing an increase during the last 7 years of 236,448,979 Ibs. And there was a decrease in the amount of expor- tations during the last period of 45,553,586 Ibs. which added to the increased importations makes the increased consumption during the last 7 years over the first 7 of 282,002,565 Ibs. The amount consumed, therefore, since 1833 has increased in the U. States over 101 percent., while the price has increased both here and where the article is grown, and while the increase in the population from 1830 to 1840 has been but 39,9-lOth per cent. The average consumption of each person from 1826 to 1832, according to the census of 1830, was 37-10 Ibs. per annum, and that from 1834 to 1840, lakins the population of 1840, would furnish each person 47-10 Ibs. This shows an increased con- sumption during the latter period of 1 Ib. annually by each person. C. Arabica. Flowers 5 cleft, white, sessile, axillary, 4 or 5 to- gether, sweet scented ; leaves oblong, accurninate ; peduncles axillary, aggregate; berry dark red, oval, globular. Arab. CHOCOLATE NUT TREE, Theobroma cacao C. 18, O. 1. Malvacae. DT. 2 sp. 16 ft from god and/oorf. The tree is beautiful ; it is 5 or 6 inches in diameter, and resembles the cherry or apple tree, producing a smooth nut of the size of an al- mond, in a pod having from 20 to 100. These oily seeds are dried or roasted, ground to a powder, made into a paste with sugar and water, or orange- water and aromatic spices, then formed into cakes, exported and ex- tensively used as a wholesome beverage. The covering of the nuts are the shells, also much used. The cacao harvest is quite uncertain, but one person is capable of taking care of 1000 trees, which yield annu- ally on an average, about 18 bushels of the kernels. The tree is com- mon to S. America and West Indies, and was cultivated under Monte- PROPERTIES OF CHOCOLATE. 77 zuma, when the seeds were used as money, as they now are. Some 6 or 8 are of the value of a penny. The trees are raised from seeds and do not bear under 6 years. Some Mexicans raise 5000 Ibs. of cacao seeds annually in their gardens. The flavoring ingredients are commonly vanilla, cloves and cinnamon, and sometimes annotto, musk, annise and ambergris. An analysis of the kernel gives 53 per cent, of fat or oil, 17 brown albumenous mat- ter, which contains the aroma of the kernel, 11 starch and 8 of gum or mucilage. The husks afford 12 per cent, by weight of the kernel, but they have no fat or oil, being mostly mucilage and lignin. There are two principal crops annually. The Indians make a kind of bread of it ; thus making it food and drink. When fresh and pulpy, the kernels may be eaten like other fruit ; but when dry they are export- ed in bags. When ground and made into paste, it is formed into cakes in hot tin moulds, and this is afterwards the chocolate of the shops. If kept free from the air, it may be preserved for some time, though not over two years. It is always best when new and is very agreeable and nutritive to healthy persons. It would be less objectionable, however, if the vanilla and some other flavors were omitted. But much of the chocolate sold at the shops has little of the properties of the genuine article. It is made to froth by the addition of soap. It is the opinion that much of it is made with half cacao and the remainder of flour and Castile soap, especially in England and the United States. In Mexico and Spain, where the article is genuine, it is almost indispensable at breakfast and is considered an object of prime necessity. It is also greatly esteemed in France. The chocolale of Caraccas is considered the best. A white oily matter is obtained from the seed by bruising and boil- ing them. The oil rises to the surface where it congeals. This is called the butter of cacao and, when fresh it has a very mild taste, and is used in pomatums. An oil is also obtained from the nuts or shells, some- times used in medicine. The best chocolate dissolves entirely when heated, even in the sun and without water. The thin shell of the cacao nut is ground like coffee and boiled, yielding a beverage resembling that made of the kernel. It is economi- cal and wholesome, but less rich than the oleous compound. The shells are extensively imported into Europe and this country. In 1806 the consumption of cacao in Europe was estimated at 23 million Ibs., of which from six to eight millions were consumed in Spain. The amount thus imported of husks and shells by G. Britain in 1840 was 384,842 Ibs. and of cacao 4,096,409 Ibs. The value of cacao import- ed into the U. States in 1840 was $161,389 and the amount of choco- late manufactured here was $79,500. T. Cacao Smooth-leafed chocolate tree leaves entire, alternate, 7* 78 SUGAR AND SUGAR CANE. stalked, drooping, one foot long, elliptical, pointed ; flowers reddish, small, in tufts ; calyx rose colored ; fruit red or yellow. S. A. SUGAR CANE, Saccharum officinia- rum C. 3, O. 2. Graminse. sp. 1-14, Ds. 6-12 ft from the Arabic Smikar. This grass or reed is not only one of the most important of that great natural family, but one of the most valuable vegetables known to man. The species are found wild and cultivated, and are natives of the East and West Indies and America, growing on the banks of rivers, meadows, &c. It is found abounding in the U. States, South America, the Indies, China, Africa and South Sea Islands, and is now greatly cultivated in a zone ranging from 35 to 40 on each side of the equator. It was probably first culti- vated for its juice in China and the E. In- dies, as the Venitians imported it from thence in 1148. It was after- wards cultivated in Sicily, Crete, Rhodes and Cyprus, and an abun- dance of sugar was made there prior to the discovery of America in 1492. It was brought by the Moors from Egypt. The Arabs obtained it from China, and are said to have known how to make it for 800 years. The su^ar cane has been cultivated in China from immemo- rial lime, certainly 2000 years before it was known in Europe. Pre- vious to 1416 however it was known only as a medicine in Europe, from all we can learn. It was afterwards cultivated in Spain; and in the 15th century it was introduced into the Canary Islands, thence in- to Madeira, and thence to the Brazils, and afterwards to the W. India Islands. The Dutch commenced making sugar in St. Thomas in 1610, and the English in Barbadoes in 1643, and it was first cultivated in the United States in 1700. There are now several varieties cultivated on this continent which are said to have been brought here from Bourbon, Java, &c., all of which have been greatly improved. The old Brazil cane has been en- tirely superceded by a larger variety ripening several weeks sooner. The sus:ar cane is very luxuriant in oUr southern states and often at- tains a height of 20 feet ; but in arid and calcarious soils it does not rise above 6 or 8 feet. It flowers, but does not ripen the seed in this country. Humboldt maintained that the sugar cane is indigenous to America. The varieties here are the African, Otaheitan, West In- dian and Riband, the last ripening several weeks earliest. The cane is raised chiefly on the gulf coast and bayous. Sugar. This is undoubtedly one of the most valuable vegetable substances HISTORY AND CULTIVATION. 79 known in civilized society ; and, from the great variety of its uses in life, ranks inferior only to the cereal grains we have just described. It now forms one of the first articles of commerce throughout the world, and is one in which our own country is greatly interested by its production. It is considered by political economists as a test of the relative degrees of comfort and civilization enjoyed by a people, though it has done more, perhaps, towards establishing slavery by the British than any thing el-e. Sugar is described by Pliny and Galen as a "sweet salt," and was apparently known to them only in medicine. Strabo says, reeds in India yield honey without bees," and others of that time thought it was found adhering to the reed, or exuded from it; but sugar, as they knew it, was probably sugar candy from China. It was first substi- tuted for honey in medicinal compositions by Acturias in the 10th century, and was then called < Indian salt," it was kept and used in the mouth during fevers, etc. Much has been written against this as well as most important vegetable substances, fortunately with no bet- ter success ; many have also advocated the great advantages of its use. But modern chemistry has established its just relative merits. For the two last centuries it has been an important ingredient in the popular diet of the people of Europe and America; and its con- sumption has constantly and rapidly increased in all civilized parts of the world. If the ancients knew how to express the juice from the cane they certainly had no knowledge of the art of condensing and clarifying it, if we except the Chinese. Sugar as a constituent of vegetables has a wide range and is con- tained by them either ready formed or so combined as to be developed in all that yield alcohol. From many of these it has been obtained in various ways. The chief of these are the sugar cane, the beet, the maple tree, Indian corn and parsnip. The manufacture of sugar in this country from the second and third sources will be described sepa- rately, and that from maize is noticed under the head of that grain. All liquors in order to undergo the vinous fermentation must contain sugar. The farina or starch of the seeds of all plants is converted into sugar by germination ; but the seeds, as with the cerealia, have no saccharine taste in a dormant state. The cultivation of the sugar cane is always by cuttings, as the seeds are not known to vegetate here. There are three varieties cultivated, the white, red and clphantine. The top joints are taken for planting, having less saccharine matter than lower parts, yet as much vegetative power. The sround is generally moist, and the cane is planted in rows three or four feet apart and in holes 8 or 10 inches deep, with in- tervals of two feet between them, and often with still wider spaces for carting. It comes to perfection in from ten to fourteen months. It was formerly hoed by hand labor, but lately by the plough, when the 80 MANUFACTURE. soil admits. It is not planted annually, but the roots of a part being left, fresh canes (rattoons) spring up as large the first year as plant- ed canes. But these deteriorate annually ; and the removal of the plants is therefore resorted to once in a few years, or in spots where they are thin. Sometimes, by careful culture, the roots have afforded good rattoons for 20 years. A plantation lasts from six to ten years. In India great care is taken in the cultivation ; but scientific skill fails there to produce as good sugar as here. They suffer no innovation on old practices. If at a trifling expense, the improvements of machine- ry were introduced, India might supply all the markets of Europe with sugar. The manufacture of sugar in this country, where art is probably most perfect, requires much labor and skill. The processes are too long for details in this place, we thererore give only outlines. The reeds, when ripe, are cut off at a joint near the roots, and lie a few days to ferment ; the leaves are cleared and the stems tied in bundles and conveyed by mules to the mill. This consists of three iron fluted cylinders placed horizontally or perpendicularly, closely matched, through which the reeds are passed twice, in order to express all their juice. This runs into a cistern and is drained from thence into the boiler and immediately submitted to heat, with the addition of lime which imbibes the acid ; it otherwise becomes acid in a few minutes. The lime assists the separation of the feculent matter in the juice, and the heat is just sufficient to cause the impurities to col- lect on the surface to be skimmed off. It is then conveyed into other boilers and a rapid boiling is produced, to evaporate the water and reduce the juice to a consistency for granulation on cooling. It is then transferred to a wooden cooler or shallow trays where a part concretes into a crystalized mass and the molasses is conducted oft'. It is then put into hogsheads with the lower head perforated with holes, and placed over a cistern, so that the molasses may run through. The casks are then filled up with sugar and exported, under the name of muscovado, or raw sugar. This is the state in which it is exported, but it is often ground over by grocers and better fitted for sale. On some plantations the sugar is submitted to another process called claying, which is to place it, when cool in funnel-shaped moulds, as done in our sugar refineries, with the small end downwards and the upper one covered with wet clay, the water of which soaks through the sugar and removes any remaining molasses. This is then called clayed sugar, and is common- ly divided, when taken from the mould, into three parts, the upper paits being relatively the whitest and best. The quantity of juice obtained in some mills is 10,000 gals, per day ; but this and the amount of sugar varies with the season, soil, quality of cane, &c. Commonly every five gals, of juice yield five or six Ibs. REFINED SUGAR. 81 of crystalized sugar and is afforded by 100 full grown reeds. The fuel used in boiling is supplied by the dried cane itself after the juice is expressed. The molasses thus drained off, and the uncrystalizable portion of the juice, is exported for domestic use, or with the skim- mings, &c. is fermented and distilled into rum. In favorable seasons the treacle forms, proportionably, a small part. The amount of spirit produced from this is five or six gals, for every 100 weight of sugar. The. refining of sugar is usually another process, performed after ex- portation. It is boiled in pans with lime water and a portion of bul- lock's blood, or hydrate of alumina. The albumen of the blood mixes with the impurities of the sugar and rises to the surface, where it is skimmed off; the white of eggs and butter are said sometimes to be added. When purified in this way, it is placed in coolers and agitat- ed till it becomes thick, or strained through woollen bags, or is made to pass through animal charcoal. It is then placed in conical iron or unglazed earthen vessels, the large end uppermost, when the remain- ing uncrystalized syrup runs off through the small hole in the apex. Wet pipe clay is then covered over the top an inch thick, the water of which drains through the sugar, carrying off the remaining coloring matter, and this is repeated. It is then carefully dried, and constitutes Loaf sugar. It is refined or double refined according to the number of operations. The green syrup which passes from the mould is made into lump sugar. The art of clarifying or making loaf sugar was the discovery of a Venitian about the first of the 16th century. 63 million Ibs. of raw sugar were refined in the 43 refineries of the United States in 1840. Almost all the sugar imported from beyond the Cape of Good Hope is refined here. $1,260,000 is paid annually to operatives in this business. The price at which refined sugar is af- forded the consumer here is from 10 to 13 cents per Ib. ; in England it is from 17 to 23 cents, and in France from 17 to 20 cents. From 100 Ibs. of raw sugar (one-third white Havanna and two-thirds brown) the product of refined is 51 1 Ibs. Candied sugar is made by dissolving common sugar, slowly evaporat- ing the water, and re-crystalizing it ; and it is brown or white, according to the suscar used. This is the only sugar esteemed in the East. White sugar candy is the raw su^ar boiled and clarified in moulds, as before described ; it is made to crystalize in various ways. Besides the nu- merous uses and delicate preparations made of this, it is used by min- iature painters to prevent colors from cracking when mixed with gum- Arabic. It is much used with wheat flour to make sugar toys, &c. The value of confectionary made in the United Stales in 1840, was $1,148,565 and the capital in the manufacture was $1,769,871, chiefly in Mass. La. Penn. N. Y. and Md. Most modern preparations of sugar, much extolled for their medici- nal virtues in curing diseased states of the bronchse and other thoracic 83 QUALITIES OF SUGAR. viscera are sheer quackery. Sugar is much boiled in barley water in England, and hence called barley sugar. Other candies are similarly prepared. The mode is to boil till brittle, cast it on a stone anointed with oil of almonds and then twist it into sticks; saffron, oils and es- sences, &,c. are added, to suit the taste, and herbs, frequently, for colds, hoarseness, &c. Syrup is a solution of sugar in water, and is often flavored with ve- getable substances, anil hence the many varieties of the shops. It is formed by dissolving sugar in \ its weight of water. It keeps well in close vessels, but if considerably diluted, it changes rapidly, if exposed to air, and becomes sour and mouldy. Molasses is much used in this country for various domestic purpo- ses, for making brown candy and for the manufacture of spirits. The latter use, however, has greatly diminished, most happily, within a few years; for the liquor commonly made of it is vile stuff; and. Jlav ored with the pernicious druss known to be used, it is destructive and abominable. Molasses, by the addition of yeast, undergoes the acetic and vinous fermentations. Some of the molasses is converted into coarse soft sugar called bastard. It is used in large quantities here and in Europe, by bakers and in confections, in the preparation of tobacco, in preparing preserves, &c. A large amount is imported from the West Indies into the United States for these purposes. $2,910,791 worth was imported in 1840 and Great Britain imported 650,055 cwt. The qualities of sugar are widely known. It preserves both animal and vegetable substances from putrefaction and is a principal ingredi- ent in the preparations of all vegetable food. It is nutritious in mo- derate quantities, but is not apt to agree with the weak and dispeptic. With other approximate nutritive principles, it increases their value as food. Its effect on the negroes is remarkable. The children and even the cattle and dogs on the plantations grow fat during the sugar season. Animals fed on sugar alone, however, soon manifest feeble- ness and disease. The fondness of children for sugar is doubtless in- stinctive, as the milk on which they subsist when young is composed in part of it. Its effect on the teeth of children are mostly ideal and generally a device of economical mothers. No people in the world have finer teeth than the negroes, much fed with it on sugar planta- tions. It is a mild vermifuge and is of the greatest advantage in most medicinal prescriptions, in beverages, and liquors of most kinds. Sugar is the important element in vinous and panary fermentations and is an active agent in most chemical changes in vegetable organic bodies. It is composed of water, sugar, gum, green fecula, extractive, gluten, acetic and malic acids, acetates of lime and potash, super-malate and sulphate of lime and lignia. The common sugar contains a por- tion of lime, tannic acids, glutinous and gummy substances, &c. ; but the process of refining removes these. One cwt. of raw sugar, af- IMPORTS AND EXPORTS. 83 ter refining, is said to consist of refined sugar, 89 Ibs. bastard do 17 Ibs. molasses ] 6 Ibs. of which 12 Ibs. are solid matter, and water 4 Ibs. Sugar is called a neutral salt ; it gives a gloss to ink, varnishes and pigments. When very cheap it has been used to fatten cattle. The composition of pure sugar (candy) is 42.85 carbon and 57.15 water; when less pure it contains less carbon and more water. Maple and beet sugars contain 42-1 carbon and 57.9 water. The saccharine principles are sugar, gum, vegetable jelly, starch and lignin, all of which consist of carbon and oxygen and hydrogen, generally in the ratio to form water. Of these 5 principles, sugar alone is crystalizabie and therefore is most removed from organized life. These are the common sugars of the cane, maple and beet and the granular sugars of the grape, honey, starch and diabetic sugars and the sugar of milk ; the uncrystalizable liquid or mucous sugars, are molasses, &c. In a healthy stomach sugar is readily digested and is nutritious. It con- tributes directly to the nutrition of plants and especially the young. It is a constituent of milk, but birds, dogs and fowls die when fed alone on it. The copious use of it is to be avoided. The character of sugar is distinguished, when pure, as a white granu- lar solid, but crystalizabie in 4 or 6 sided prisms, terminated by 2 or 3 sided summits and the crystals are nearly anhydrous. The specific gra- vity is 1.4 to 1.6. It is hardly soluble in alcohol, though proof spirits dissolves it in considerable quantity. Sugar combines with the oxide of lead forming saccharate of lead, and also other oxides. It has little or no action on salts. With water it reduces muriate of gold and oth- er metalic salts. From the average of experiments its composition is 50.50 oxygen, 42.50 carbon, and 6.80 hydrogen. 45 Ibs of sugar du- ring fermentation are resolved into 23 alcohol and 22 carbonic acid. Su i 4ar and water do not ferment alone. Sugar has been extracted from elm dust and several of the woods, nrul uf late from woolen rags by means of sulphuric acid, with chalk. A puund of rags are thus convertible into more than a pound of su- SMI-. The process of manufacturing sugar from old rags is now con- :-i jcrably carried on, it is said, in parts of Germany. Sugur in the United States is a subject of increasing interest. The (U'iiiiuni is rapidly advancing. Its production in the state of Louisi- ;;u;t, to which it is here principally confined, is a source of much wealth. The capital employed in that state i> $52,000,000, with 40,000 hands ttiid J 0,000 horses, and the average annual manufacture of sugar more than 80,000,000 Ibs., and 4,000,000 gallons of molasses. The cane crop in the U. S. last year (1842), was an average one, and the whole a^iiregate sugar crop of the year was 142,445,199 Ibs., though near 13,000,000 less than in 1840. Our imports in 1840, were of brown sugar, to the value of $4,742,492 ; white or clayed, $838,458. But there was exported of refined sugar to the value of $1,214,658. It is 84 STATISTICS OF SUGAR. thought a supply of sugar for home consumption might be produced in the U. S. The consumption in the U. S. in 1830 was about 70,000 tons. The product of a hand on a sugar estate is put down at the cultiva- tion of 5 acres, producing 5,000 Ibs. of sugar, and 125 gallons of molas- ses. The value of the sugar on the spot is 5\ cents a pound, and the molasses 18 cents a gallon; total, $297.50. The annual expense per hand, tools, &c., $105. Two crops are made in succession on the same land, one of plant-cane, and one of rattoons ; it then lies fallow two years, or is planted with Indian corn or peas. An acre yields about 12,00 Ibs. of sugar. The state of Louisiana has 700 plantations, 525 in operation, producing annually about 90,000 hogsheads of 1000 Ibs. each. The raw sugar imported in 1840 was, 121,000,000 Ibs. valu- ed abroad at $5,600,000, and imported from 6 different countries. This, with our own product, is over 263,445,000 Ibs. But maple sugar con- stitutes in addition a large proportion of our domestic consumption, amounting annually to 8 or 10 millions Ibs. The protection afforded by a tariff has greatly increased the production of sugar in the U. S. From 1816 to 1828 this increase was from 15,000 to 45,000 hogsheads. The annual consumption of sugar in Great Britain in ISBOMcCul- loch estimated at 180,000 tons, or over 400,000,000 Ibs., which was about 30 Ibs. for each person. The consumption is rapidly increas- ing there and on the continent, where the annual consumption is 260,- 000 tons. The British West India Islands yield about 195,000 tons. Other West India Islands, 200,000, and Brazil, 75,000. During the first half of the last century the consumption increased five-fold. The sum total of sugars brought into all the markets has been estimated for 1838 at 738,000 tons, but the present average quantity produced of all kinds may be estimated, in round numbers, at one million of tons. Great Britain employs, according to an English account, 200,000 tons of shipping in the exportation of 500,000,000 of Ibs. of sugar from her colonies, which, if consumed by her twenty-eight millions of people, would be equal to 25 Ibs. each ; but this is so taxed that the poor can get but a fraction of this proportion, as the revenue from this is an- nually $22,200,000. The British imported, in 1831, from their East India possessions, 485,326 cwt., costing from 22 to 35s. with a duty of 24s. Notwithstanding the large amount imported, Mr. Huskisson has said that "two-thirds of the poorer people drink their coffee without sugar." The average annual amount consumed by each person is, in Ireland 5 Ibs., in France 7, Spain 7j, United States 18, and England 23. The consumption of maple sugar and molasses in the U. S. makes the amount equal, probably, to 23 or 24 Ibs. each ! S. Officinarum ; leaves flat ; flowers in pairs, panicled, on loose zigzag spikes ; panicle spreading in feathered branches, 1 foot long ; stem 10 feet, jointed E, I. and A. 85 IMPORTANT PLANTS USED FOR CLOTHES, &C. COTTON TREE, gossypium herbaceum, C. 16, O. 7. Linn. Columniferae, Juss. Mal- vaceae, sp. 6-10 A. 3 ft This important plant was evidently well known to the ancients, but its use in the manufacture of cloth, for which it is now so deservedly celebrated, has been generally known only during the last century. The Hindoos were the earliest manufacturers of cloth from cotton. Hero- dotus says there is a tree in India producing a kind of wool superior to that of sheep, and the natives dress themselves in cloth made of it." The cotton plant has bright green 5 lobed leaves. The flowers are a. pale yellow and 1 petaled. The pods are triangular, 3 celled, and, when ripe, they burst open, displaying their beautiful snow white con- tents, within which are black seeds of the shape of grapes. The fibres of the down are very fine and flexible, and the threads are finely tooth- ed, which causes them to adhere closely together, and to make good thread. The shrub is about the size of the currant bush ; and, though an annual, yet by repeated cropping it may bear sufficiently for 3 years. The seeds are sown in rows 6 or 8 feet apart. In 5 months the plant flowers, and in 7 the pods form. When ripe, it is picked by hand, gined and pressed into bales, averaging about 300 Ibs. each. The down, or cotton wool, lines the capsule containing the seeds of the plant. Two species are cultivated, G. herbaceum and G. barba- dense ; the first is generally cultivated in the east and here, though the latter is said by some to be the species cultivated in the West Indies and America. There are numerous varieties growing naturally in the tropical regions of Asia, Africa and America and further north in the United States, where it is most abundant. In Europe, the Levant, Malta, Sicily and Naples are the chief places of its growth. Several species are grown in the E. Indies, but principally that first named, which there produces a down of a nankeen color. The seeds of all the species yield oil, and this is eaten in the Levant where it is considered very wholesome. Cotton is distinguished in commerce by the color, length, strength, and firmness of its fibres. White is the common color, but the yellow, if not the effect of accident, is indica- tive of greater firmness. The varieties in the market are character- ized by the places where they are produced. They are generally known as long and short stapled. The sea-island is the best of the first and is grown mostly on the shores and islands of Georgia. The 8 86 COTTON IN THE U. S. price, however varies greatly, from differences in quality. Superior Brazil cotton is among the long-stapled. The best of the upland cot- ton is grown also in Georgia. The Cottons of India are short stapled and these, until lately, have been wholly consumed there. Cotton in the U. S. has increased beyond a parallel in the history of any vegetable product. The first plant was cultivated in 1787, though it is indigenous. In 1791 there was grown in the U. S. 2,000,000 Ibs., half in each of the states of S. Carolina and Georgia. In 1801, 40,000,000 Ibs. were raised, part being grown in some other stales. In 1811, the crop was 80,000,000; in 1821 it was 170,000,000; in 1828 it was 348i millions ; in 1833 it was 437f millions; and in 1840 790,479,279 Ibs. S. Carolina yielded the most cotton from 1791 to 1826 ; then Georgia to 1834, then Alabama and Mississippi, and now the latter is the most productive state. The cotton of the southern states is of 3 kinds, the nankeen, the green seed (white with green seeds) and the black seed. The two first or short stapled, grow in the upper or middle country and the last in the lower country, near the sea and on small islands. This long stapled is fine, white and strong. The roller-gin and saw-gin are the machines used for cleansing cotton : The first consists of 2 rollers, between which the cotton passes ; the size of the seeds prevent them from passing through. The latter was invented by Mr. Whitney in 1793 and consists in a receiver having one side covered with strong parallel wires of an inch apart. Between these pass circular saws, and the cotton becomes entangled in the teeth of these and is drawn out through the wire grating, which prevents the seeds from passing. The cotton is then swept from the saws by a revolving brush, the seeds falling out at the bottom. The application of this machine was a new era in the production of cotton in the U. S. Prior to this, little or none was exported, and not a pound in 1790. The rapid increase since is seen above. The Exports from the U. S. in 1829 was, to Great Britain 498,001 bales, to France 184,821, and other parts of Europe 66,178 total, 749,000. In 1841 the amount exported to Great Britain was 902,191 bales ; and she received from India the same year 274,984 bales, 50, 000 Ibs. more than in 1840, and 80,000 more than in 1839, or nearly equal to the consumption of the U. S. in 1840. The value of our ex- ports of cotton in 1840 was $63,870,307. The crop of last year was large, while that of 1840 was not an aver- age one ; that of 1839 was unusually large. The price has decreased, but improved modes of culture have lately been introduced. A planter of Alabama has raised from 3000 to 5000 Ibs. per acre, where, by the old system, but 500 Ibs. only were raised, and the quality of the article is said to be much improved. He says he has picked 5,989 Ibs. from an acre. Texas is now beginning to raise large quantities of cotton, and COTTON MANUFACTURES. 87 the French are cultivating it much more extensively than formerly. In Egypt, too, it is slowly increasing, and in India, as we have seen, the increase is rapid. It is certain, however, that no country can raise better cotton than that produced in the United States. In India great attention is now paid to the cultivation of cotton, especially in the British possessions. Within a few years, several ex- perienced cultivators in the U. S. have been engaged by the British authorities, who, with cotton gins and seeds procured in this country, are now employed in India for the purpose of raising and cleaning cotton. The success of the enterprise, though reported to have par- tially failed, is apparent in the rapidly increasing quantities raised and exported. The crop of 1841 exceeded that of the previous year by 38,538,303 Ibs., or 105,874 screwed bales. The imports of cotton into Bombay amounted to 174,212,755 Ibs., which is a larger quantity than that raised in the U. S- in 1826. For the two years 1840-1 the pro- duce was nearly one third that of the U. S., and for the 3 years previous to 1840, it averaged about half that of 1841. The annual growth of cotton in the U. S. and elsewhere now amounts to 1200,000,000 Ibs. ; 700 millions in the U. S., 30 in Brazil, 8 in the W. Indies, 27 in Egypt, 36 in the west of Africa, 290 in the west of Asia, and India, 35 in Mexico and S. America, (Brazil excepted,) and 80 in other parts. This at 10 cents is $120,000,000, but the average price for fifty years was about 19 cts., which would make the present crops worth $234 millions. The annual consumption of cotton is supposed to be 350 million Ibs. in G. Britain ; 130 millions in the U. S. ; 80 do. in France ; 250 in China and India ; 25 in S. America ; 35 in Germany ; 45 in Turkey and Africa; 10 in Spain and 20 in Prussia. The value of manufac- tured cotton in G. Britain is annually about $170 millions, in France $70 millions and in the U. S. $50 millions. The capital employed in the manufacture in England is about $200 millions, in France 120 and in the U. S. $50 millions. The consumption in the manufacture in all Europe was in 1838, 500 million pounds. The progress of cotton manufacture, has much interest, from the great rapidity which has marked that progress within the last half century. The immense capital invested in this business, with all the improvements which have been introduced, shows this branch of art to have no equal in the civilized world. It has, indeed, been the most extraordinary phenomenon in the history of industry. Even the fine fabrics of India and China are now rivalled in Europe, notwithstand- ing the great difference in the price of labor; and the raw mate- rial is taken from thence 5000 miles, manufactured and returned for consumption. The manufacture began in England about the first of the last cen- tury, when the cotton was imported from India ; but, up to 1773, only 88 MANUFACTURES OF COTTON IN THE U. S. a part of the cloth was of cotton ; and the whole to 1760 was made in cottages by hand, when the value of the manufactures was 200,000 Ibs. In 1767 the spinning jenny was invented by Margraves. This was soon followed by the spinning frame by Arkwright ; and on the expiration of his patent in 1785, the mule jenny by Crompton, and not long afterwards the power loom by Cartwright. These combined, soon brought the manufacture to great perfection ; and the market for the fabrics made, was rapidly extended over the civilized world. The total annual average value of the manufacture of cotton in G. Britain has been 36,000,000 and the cotton imported has averaged 220,- 000,000 Ibs. The manufacture of cotton in America by machinery, was intro- duced in 1787 ; but it made little progress prior to the non-intercourse acts and the war of 1812, which gave a wonderful impulse to the genius and industry of our countrymen. This was however tempo- rarily prostrated by the peace of 1815. But the protective duty of 1816 and the cotemporaneous introduction of the power loom gave in- creased activity to this branch of our industry ; and, followed by the acts of 1824-28-32, multiplied the manufactures here more rapidly than during any period of their history in this or in any other country. In 1825 the consumption had reached 100,000 bales and in 1840, 300,000 bales, or 120 millions Ibs. which was equal to the whole of our exportations of cotton up to 1820. The fabrics made were also distinguished over all others for their weight and strength, which soon gave them preference in the principal markets of the world and in- duced their imitation by English manufacturers. The inferiority of the latter, though stamped with American marks, has not however successfully competed with the American cloth. The result of this was to reduce the price per yard from 16 cts. in 1816 to 7j cts. in 1840. Sail duck, negro cottons and drilling were wholly of American origin, and they are now those exclusively of American sale. The difference in price of the raw material in England and America and also of water power with a superiority in parts of the machinery, enables our manufacturers, with a slight protection, to compete suc- cessfully with those of that country ; and no where in the world are manufactories conducted upon so healthy and liberal a system as in this country. The finer descriptions of white goods have also lately equalled those of the foreign fabric, both in price and quality. Calico Printing was introduced in 1825, and the progress of this branch of the art was even more rapid than that of the construction of the fabric; so that in 1840 it amounted to 158,058,000 yards, or 5,- 267,600 pieces, valued at $16,500,000, ami employing a capital of $25,000,000. The beauty of the productions in both designs and co- lors now rivals, if they do not excel, those of England and France ; yet, for four years prior to 1842, there were annually imported 21,852,- MANUFACTURES IN ENGLAND. 89 610 yards of colored or printed cottons, costing $6,049,433 per annum. The importation of white cottons averaged for the above four years in value $1,415,893. But the value of manufactured cottons imported in 1840 was $6,504,484 per annum. This, with other facts illustra- tive of the singular penchant of our countrymen for things foreign is fatal alike to the arts and the independence of our country. The Manufactories in the U. S. in 1840 were 1240 ; the number of spindles 2,284,631 ; printing establishments 37 ; and dying houses 92; persons employed 72,119; capital invested $51,102,359 ; and value of manufactures $46,350,458. Of this, the products of Massachusetts were $16,553,423; of Rhode Island $7,116,792; Pennsylvania, $5,- 013,007 ; and New York $3,640,237. It is stated that nearly a million and a quarter of yards of cloth are made at Lowell, Mass., per week ; employing about 9,000 operatives (6375 females) and using 434,000 Ibs. of raw cotton per week. The annual amount of raw cotton used is 22,568,000 Ibs., enough to load 50 ships of 350 tons each, and of cotton manufactured 70,275,910 yards 100 Ibs. of cotton will produce 89 yards of cloth. The Manufacture of Cotton in England, though now and heretofore far exceeding that of the U. S., will not, it is quite probable, maintain her superiority in the quantity, as she does not equal France, and, in some fabrics, the U. S., in the quality of articles manufactured, espe- cially if consistency of legislation affords the required encouragement to this and other branches of our productive industry. Some idea, however, of the extent of the present manufactures of cotton in Eng- land may be gathered from the facts that the manufactures there now give employment to 1500,000 persons, and the value of the goods pro- duced exceeds 31 million pounds. It has been calculated that the cot- ton yarn annually spun there would, in a single thread, encircle the globe 203,755 times, would reach from the earth to the sun, or encircle the earth's orbit 8* times ; and the wrought fabrics would girdle the circumference of the equator 11 times. It furnishes one half of Bri- tish exports, and the receipts of merchants and manufacturers from this business, equal two-thirds of the revenue of the kingdom. One man now produces, by the aid of machinery, as much as 300 did at the beginning of the century, and the steam-engines now do the work of 33,000 horses ; yet the operatives have increased from 40,000 in the reign of George III. to 1500,000. The amount paid for wages then was 220,OOOZ. or 2s. a week ; it is now but 63,0002. per annum. It seems that the number of persons employed has increased in the exact proportion that machinery has been improved, and that the rate of wages, on an average, has increased, while the cost of production has diminished. It might seem from the extent of the manufactures of cotton, that the markets of the world are, or soon will be, overstocked ; but cotton 8* 90 HEMP. is now made into the heaviest as well as the most delicate fabrics ; and nothing seems so well calculated, from its strength, beauty, and cheapness, for universal use as cotton cloth. G. Herbaceum; leaves 5-lobed, glaucous, pointed; stem smooth, bushy, branched, zigzag ; flowers yellow or purple ; capsule size of walnut in calyx like filbert E. I. & A. HEMP, Cannabis saliva, C. 22, O. 5. Urticea sp. 1, A. Dh. 5-8 ft. This is an important plant, from the great use made of the fibrous parts of the stalk in the man- ufacture of cloth and ropes, especially sail cloth. It grows wild in the East Indies, but has long been naturalized and cultivat- ed in Europe and this country. Russia is particularly distinguished for its growth and manufacture into canvass and cordage, whence most maritime nations import it in large quantities. A moist, loose, or new soil, or black mould near water, is best for this plant. The seed is sown early in spring, and the stalk is pulled in four months. The male plant, orfimble hemp, matures and is pulled before the female, which is the seed hemp. Hemp, when pulled, is tied in bundles and set up for 10 days to dry. These are then loosened at the top, and held upon a Rundle, and the seed beaten out with a flail, or otherwise, without bruising them. These seeds are valuable for their oil in painting and for burning, and also for birds and fowls, which arc said thereby to lay more eggs, though some are said to change their plumage by eating them. The oil is much used in Russia and China for culinary purposes. The seeds are spread and turned to prevent fermentation. When grown for seed, the plant is said to be exhausting, but when pulled green it is a cleaner of the soil. The plant has a strong odor with narcotic and intoxicating pro- perties, and hence is used in India, mixed with tobacco, for smoking, and also in making an intoxicating drink, banga or gunjah, and this is likewise much in use in Egypt. The seeds preserve their vegetative properties only one season, on account of their oil. If this be rancid the seeds will not germinate, or if they be white or pale. The seeds are sown broad cast, more or less thick, according to the use intended. If thick, the fibres are fine, have a better lustre, are more easily bleached, and make a finer cloth. When sown thinly, it is coarser and better for cordage. It should be thinned and cleared of weeds. Some remarkable properties are said to belong to hemp. Besides PROPERTIES OF HEMP. 91 the narcotic and intoxicating effects we have noticed, strange pheno- mena have been attributed to the use of the expressed or distilled juice. The gunjah, a spirit or tincture prepared from the hemp in the East Indies, having been administered lately to some young persons, it is reported that ten drops of the tincture induced, in a lad, the most wonderful effects. He could recognize none of his acquaintances, they appearing as perfectly changed as was his own mind. He enact- ed the part of a Rajah, in which he gave orders to his courtiers in the most accomplished manner, described his former associates and teach- ers with truly dramatic effect, detailed imaginary travels in former years, gave the particulars of his wealth and power, and discussed re- ligious, political, and scientific subjects with astonishing eloquence, and disclosed an extent of reading and readiness of wit far beyond his known abilities. This was continued for three hours with an ease and dignity perfectly becoming his imaginary situation, when it was suddenly terminated without occasioning any unpleasant effects. The effects are spoken of as resembling those produced by the inspiration of the Delphic oracles. Frequent gigling, a peculiar gait, a constant rubbing of the hands, and a propensity to caress or chafe the feet of by-standers ; and, in some cases, violent passions and a voracious ap- petite are mentioned among the effects produced. The Sythians are said to have cultivated the hemp, to have made garments of it, and to have thrown the seeds on hot stones, and inhaled the perfumed vapor, which excited feelings of great exhilaration. It is, and long has been, known in India as the assuager of grief, in- creaser of pleasure, increaser of desire, cementer of friendship, causer of a reeling gait, the laughter mover," &c. The India species (C. indica) is thought not to differ from the common hemp except in some peculiarities of appearance. The parts used for intoxication are the resinous juice from the leaves, small stems and flowers. It is collect- ed by men dressed in leather running through the hemp, thus brushing off the soft resin and afterwards scraping it from their cloths and mak- ing it into balls. A finer kind is collected on the naked skin; and in Persia, by pressing the plant on cloths, then scraping it off and melt- ing it in a pot with a little water. Gunjah is the dried hemp from which the resin has not been removed ; it is sold in small bundles in Calcutta for smoking. Bang is the larger leaves and capsules. The leaves of the common hemp yield a volatile oil, resin, &c., these being thought of some medicinal importance. When distilled with water the liquor has the powerful narcotic odor of the plant. 10 grains administered to a dog created complete drunkenness for 2 hours. Its effects on men alleviate pain, increase appetite, and induce aphrodisia and great cheerfulness. To a pa- tient afflicted with rheumatism a grain of the resin being given, he became very talkative, sang, hallooed, and called for food. la four 92 PREPARATION OF HEMP. hours he slept soundly ; and, on his arm being raised, it remained in the position in which it was placed, exhibiting that extraordinary nervous eondition called catalepsy. When raised to a sitting postnre, or his limbs were moved in any position, his body and limbs remained, like a waxen doll, in the exact position in which they were placed. He thus continued for 7 hours, when he suddenly awoke with all his nat- ural powers of motion. Others, on taking it, were excessively mirth- ful and elevated. The effects however have not been so remarkable on persons in London who have taken the powder or extract sent from Calcutta. It has lately been recommended for rheumatism, tetanus, hydrophobia and cholera. The extract is obtained by boiling the tops of the dried stalk in rectified spirits, till all the resin is dissolved. The tincture is then evaporated to dryness in a vessel over boiling water and the extract made into pills. 3 grains are dissolved in a drachm of proof spirit and 3 drops given every half hour for tetanus, till the paroxysms cease or catalepsy ensues ;. for cholera 10 drops each half hour, and for hydrophobia from 10 to 20 grains are chewed and repeated if necessary. The novelty of these effects should induce a trial with our hemp. The harvest, with the male plant is soon after flowering, and this should be pulled without disturbing the roots of the females, which are three times more numerous, and which are allowed to remain sev- eral weeks longer to perfect their seed. The seed stalks are too coarse for lint, but make excellent charcoal for gunpowder, &c. The roots of male plants, and female, if used, are cut off as soon as pulled, and the upper leaves beaten off. Seed crops should be sown in drills. But hemp is now much cut just above the ground. The process of rotting consists in dissolving the substance which en- velops and unites the fibres. For this purpose the stalks are generally placed in pools of water for from 5 to 15 days, after which it is dressed. The water in which it is rotted becomes poisonous to fish and to all other animals, and it should therefore be removed from all communi- cation. Hemp may be rotted by spreading it upon a green sward during the night, and heaping it during the day. If dry, it may be wa- tered at night. But this process requires 7 or 8 weeks. It may be rotted, likewise, by burying it a foot deep in the soil, after being well watered j but this, too, requires a long time, and is unequal to water- rotting. Steeping hemp in boiling water with green soap has been practised. Snow-rotting bleaches the lint ; and we suspect steam might be advantageously and expeditiously used for this purpose. The brake used in dressing resembles that used for flax, but is longer. A hand breaks from 1 to 200 Ibs. per day, and the price is from $4 to $6 per 1000 Ibs. The quantity of net hemp to the acre is from 600 to 1000 IDS. This is estimated, while growing, by the number of feet it is high, caculating 100 Ibs. for each foot. Hemp is an article that will always command cash. CANVASS AND CORDAGE IN THE U. S. 93 After rotting and drying, hemp is combed, beaten, or dressed, &c., by machinery or by hand, like flax. It is then spun into threads, which are made into twine or ropes, or wove into canvass and cloth of various kinds. A good cloth is made of it for towels, table-cloths, &c. The cloth is very durable for outside garments for laboring per- sons ; and for finer cloth, it possesses advantages in strength and warmth over flax. Its color also improves by wearing, while that of linen de- teriorates. Canvass is of 2 kinds, the threads ^In one are worked into squares and wrought into tapestry with the needle, and the other is a coarse stout cloth for the sails of vessels. Much of this is also used by painters, for the ticks of beds, for cotton bagging, etc. These cloths, as imported are called Russia duck, Russia towelling, hempen Russia, etc. Indeed the importance of hemp for these purposes ren- ders it scarcely less valuable than cotton. Hemp and cordage in the U. S. is now regarded as of the utmost importance. The great use now made of hemp in this country for cotton bagging, sail cloth and ropes renders it an object of the great- est value, especially to our increasing navy. The duty on imported canvass and cordage, however, will hardly make it an object to culti- vate hemp and manufacture it here into cordage to the extent it merits ; the serfs of Russia working for 15 cts. per day, will successfully compete with our countrymen. The value of imported sail duck in 1840 was $615,723; of cotton bagging $310,211; of cordage $102,- 938, and of twine, thread, etc., $141,973 total $1,170,845. The hemp and flax raised in the U. S. in 1842 was 158,569f tons. Some years our importations have been to the amount of $10,000,000. Canvass for our ships is much obtained and fitted to vessels in foreign ports, thus avoiding the duty upon it. One seventh of the marine of this city, it is estimated, is supplied in this way ; cordages, chains and anchors have also been thus obtained. There are but two manufactories of flax duck in this country. 100 bolts of canvass are required for a suit of sails for a ship of 1000 tons, the cost of which here is $16 per bolt and in a foreign port about $11 ; likewise about 1700 Ibs. of bolt rope at 7j cts. per lb., with 100 Ibs. of bolt twine. Our annual consumption of Russia duck is estimated at 40,000 pieces, heavy; 30,000 do. ravens, and 10,000 do. of light. If cotton duck were substituted for this, 2,700,000 Ibs. or 6,750 bales of 400 Ibs. ench would be consumed. Cordage is also an important article in this country. The use of cotton is now much substituted for fishing lines, etc., and cotton duck is now manufactured to considerable extent. 15,000 barrels of tar is annually used in making cordage in the U. S. of which 10,000, tons are made at the west. About 1,000 tons of cordage are annually im- ported. There are in the U. S. 388 rope walks, employing 4,464 men 94 FLAX. and $2,465,577 capital ; and the value of products is annually, $4, 078,306. Ken. has 111, Mass. 51, N. Y. 46, Penn. 39, etc. In 1840-1, the crops were very deficient in the U. S. ; but last year the attention of government was directed to it, and in Ken. and Mo. 700 tons of water-rotted hemp were produced. This, at the price of the Russian hemp, was $200,000, and quite equal in quality to that article. An important discovery is said to have been lately made in the application of waste hemp, costing but 2 cts. per pound, to the making of a strong snow white paper. Hemp has also lately been made into beautiful and durable bonnets a process having been discovered of making hemp as white as snow. Hemp produces, vrhen planted in drills, from 20 to 40 bushels of seeds to the acre, but sown broadcast, for lint, at three bushels to the acre, it produces from 700 to 1000 Ibs. of clean hemp to the acre. Hemp in Petersburg is one of the most important articles of com- merce. It is of 3 kinds, clean or Ists, out-shot or 2ds, half clean or 3ds, and codilla. Of the 1st 2 million Ibs. are annually shipped in bun- dles. England imports annually 374,932 cwt. of undressed hemp, almost all of which is from Russia. C. Saliva ; stem upright, little hairy ; leaves opposite, stalked, digitate ; leafets 5 or 7, lanceolate, acuminate, serrate ; male flowers in loose spikes ; female flowers axillary, solitary, but male flowers on female plants, and vice versa E. I. FLAX, Linum usitatissimum. C.5, 0. 5. Caryop- hyllae, sp. 29, Ds. A. 2-3 ft. This is one of the most important plants in civilized society, though the introduction of manufactured cotton within the past century has rendered it far less important than it was formerly for purposes of cloth. The plant has been cultivated for various purposes from a remote pe- riod in Asia, Africa and Europe. Its origin is not known, but it is found wild in Persia, and is supposed to have come into Europe from parts of Egypt exposed to the inundations of the Nile. There are, beside the common flax above named, the L. perenne, perennial flax ; L. hirsutum, hairy flax ; L. reflexum, reflexed-leafed flax ; L. tennifolium,_/irie- leafed flax ; L. angustifolium, narrow-leaf ed flax ; L. Galicum, annual flax; L. Maritimurn, sea flax; L. Alpinum, Alpine flax ; L. Austriacum, Austrian flax ; L. Flavum, Perenial Yellow flax ; L. Strictum, Upright flax ; L. Catharticum, Purging flax. Flax is chiefly cultivated for its use in the manufacture of linen cloth and thread from the bark. This cloth was made and worn even by barbarous nations at a very early period. The mummies of Egypt CULTIVATION OF FLAX. 95 are found enveloped in it, and it is now mostly worn by the people there. Most of the neighboring nations are furnished with it from Egypt. From thence it passed to Greece and Rome. Indeed little other cloth, prior to the comparatively late introduction of cotton, was worn by civilized nations, and most fine fabrics still continue to be made of it in the south of Europe, and imported to this country. Flax has been an article of considerable export from this country, and also the seed. In 1770, 312,000 bushels of seeds were exported, and the average annual amount for 22 years, prior to 1816, was 250,- 000 bushels. It being an exhausting crop, much less attention is now paid to its cultivation. The smooth, rich prairies of the West afford, however, a good soil for its cultivation to any extent. The best soil is flat bottoms covered by fall and spring floods, and reclaimed marshes and swamps. Top dressings of plaster, ashes, soot, &c., are impor- tant, just after the plant appears. Salt is excellent manure, ploughed in with flax, at the rate of five bushels to the acre. The best paper is made of linen rags, for which they are greatly used. The cultivation of Jinx is comparatively small in this country. The value of the manufactures in 1840 was $322,205, and the capital in- vested was $208,087. The best seed for growth comes from Holland. It is sown in March or April, and pulled in autumn, laid in the sun to dry, then tied in small bundles and laid in a pond of water for 10 or 15 days, by which the bark becomes separated. It is then spread in the sun until dry and brittle, so that the flax easily separates from the stalk. It is then sent to a mill to be broken and dressed, or this is done by hand, in which a handful is taken in one hand and laid on a table or flax-brake and beaten, then drawn forcibly over the edge of a board and afterwards heckled or combed on a board filled with iron teeth. Dressing mills are, however, now common, especially in. this state, and on an improved principle, so as to dress it in an unrot- ted state, and at a toll of a tenth. The medium price of flax is 10 cts. per Ib. The expense of dressing has been reduced in this country from 1-3 to a 10th its value, and spinning machines are now in use here for making thread and cloth, and nothing is wanting but the application of power-looms to compete with foreign fabrics. The water in which it is rotted is poisonous to animals. It under- goes various dressings, according to the use for which it is designed. It has not been placed in water in many cases of late, but dew-rotted ; by which, it is said, the fibre is much stronger. It is cut and stacked like the grains, after which the capsules and fibres are separated by machinery. The remains of the flax are used as fodder for horses and cattle. The bleaching is effected by steeping the flax in soft soap. Running water is also used, or that of canals, for rotting flax. This is better for the fibre than stagnant water, though double the time is required. In any water, it must be turned once in 3 or 4 days. Boil- 96 PRODUCTS OF FLAX. ing or steaming it for 10 hours in salt water, spreading and watering it, is a new and good process. The seeds are removed with long combs, dried, thrashed, cleaned, and pressed for their oil (linseed oil), which is of great value for mak- ing paints, for medicinal preparations, for making green soap, for var- nishes, &c., and the cake, after the oil is expressed, is one of the most valuable articles as food for fattening cattle, and for broken-winded horses. A decoction of the seeds is used for coughs, and a variety of disorders ; and when powdered, a common and valuable poultice is made of them. Equal parts of lime-water and linseed oil are one of the best applications for burns. In times of scarcity the seed has been used for human food, but it is heavy and unwholesome. 8 or 10 bush- els of seed and 400 Ibs. of flax are the product of an acre of good soil. The American seed has a high reputation abroad for flax. England imports annually over 2 million bushels, and the amount of linseed im- ported in 1840 into this country was $173,830. The amount of flaxen dyed and colored goods was $113,662, and of other manufactures of flax $321,684. There are 143 oil mills in the U. S., and the value of export of flax seed was $120,000. One or two of the other species are cultivated. The New Zealand species is used by the natives for cords and clothing ; it is stronger than any other species or any other vegetable, and is almost equal to silk. The stem is 6 feet high, and is adapted to any kind of soil. The fibres are long, snowy white, and lustrous. The cultivation of this is being introduced into Europe and the U. S. The common flax is said to deteriorate if continued long in the same soil and without changing the seed. There are three varieties commonly cultivated. The 1st is tall and slender, with few flowers ; it ripens late, and affords the longest and finest fibres ; the 2d has numerous flowers, and is best for seed, but its fibres are short and coarse ; the 3d is the most common, and is intermediate between these two. The seeds of these varieties should not be mixed, as they ripen at different times, and should be sown at different intervals. When a few inches high, flax should be cleared of weeds, especially of a parasitical plant with small while flowers, which should be pulled and burned. To prevent flax from falling, lines are often stretched across the field, and when it begins to turn yellow it is pulled. A superior method of preparation is said to be to dry and store it till October, then put it in soft clear water till the fibres are separated with some difficulty, then spread it on grass for the frosts to complete the operation, and when dry, secure it immedi- ately. The composition of linseed is fat, oil, wax, acrid soft resin, resinous coloring matter, yellow extractive with tannin and salts, sweet extrac- tive, with malic acid, gum, mucilage, starch, gluten ; and the ashes contain oxide of copper. The mucilage of linseed resides in the seed- THE MULBERRY AND SILK. 97 coats, and is extracted by hot water ; its soluble part is 52, and insol- uble part 29, with ashes and water. It is emolient, demulcent, laxative, and nutritive, and is employed to allay irritation, as a tea. The seed is bruised with Liquorice root and steeped in water by the fire, strained (sliced lemon and sugar are added), and used for pulmonary and urinary, and other membranous irritations. Seeds yield 18 or 20 per cent, of oil by cold expression, and 22 to 27 by aid of heat. When ex- posed or heated it dries and is called drying oil. The elements are carbon 76, hydrogen 11, oxygen 12. It is rarely employed internally. For a poultice it is powdered and boiled. L. ussitatissimum ; calyx leaves ovate, acute, 3-nerved ; petals of corolla crenate ; leaves lanceolate ; stem erect, smooth, leafy ; flowers on stalks, erect, sky-blue, &c. E. I. IMPOKTANT VEGETABLE SUBSTANCES. MULBERRY, morns multicaulis, C. 21, O. 4. Erticea DT. This is a variety of the morns alba, or white mulberry, and is cele- brated as the food of the silk worm, which, with its product, are men- tioned below. The other species of the mulberry tree will be described hereafter. This species often grows to the height of 40 or 50 feet. The mulberry is greatly cultivated in the south of Europe, the E. In- dies, and America, for the silk worm, though the black mulberry is used by the worms in parts of Spain and Persia, and both are grown in China for this purpose. Plantations are numerous and large where silk is produced. In this country speculations in this plant from 1836 to 1839 exceeded all bounds, and the disastrous failures in the latter year were but the natural result of such a state of things. But the present more steady and rational increase in the cultivation is pro- mising of equally steady and permanent prospective results. In parts of Europe the plant is grown like willow for baskets, and in the same soil ; and in the East as low bushes which are rooted up and renewed every three or four years. The leaves are stripped off the young shoots in some places for the use of the worms, and in others the shoots are cut off. The plants are raised from seed, but commonly from cuttings put down in the spring. An ounce of seed produces 500 trees. The Italian variety is often grafted on seedling stock of the common sort, to prevent degeneration. In the E. Indies it is raised from cuttings, 3 or 4 being placed together. The plant is now naturalized in Europe and the U. S. The leaves are thought to contain less water and more nutriment in warm climates. The white mulbery flourishes in this country as far north as the 43d deg., and south as far as 36. M. alba ; leaves alternate, obliquely ovate, somewhat heart-shaped, nearly smooth; stem whitish, copiously and irregularly branched; flowers green, in shortish spikes. China. 9 98 SILK. SILK. This is the ultimate product of the silk worm, and the pri- mary product of the mulberry tree, and one of the most important arti- cles of clothing known in society. It has been classed with agricul- tural subjects and vegetable productions; a comprehensive view of it therefore appropriately occurs in this place. The name is from Sericum, Seres, the supposed ancient name of the Chinese. The thread is spun by various species of caterpillars or larvae, of the phalsena genus, of which the Phalcena jittas produces the greatest amount, though the Phal&na Bambyx is the species common- ly employed. In its first, or caterpillar state, after acquiring 2 or 3 inches in length, it encloses itself in an oval case, or cocoon, formed of fine yellow silk filaments from 30 to 35 feet in length. This is ejected from its stomach in its insect state, prior to its taking the crys- alis form. After freeing itself from its silken case, it seeks its mate, which has undergone the same process, and in 2 or 3 days the female deposits from 300 to 500 eggs, when the existence of both is termin- ated. An improvement has recently been adopted by J. W. Gill, Esq., of Ohio, which, as he states in a late communication, Curtails expenses about one half, and more than doubles the quality and quantity of co- coons raised over the most improved method heretofore practised." The name of this improvement is " Gill's Patent Feeding Tent and Silk Worm Ventilating Cradle." This," Mr. G. says, I fully believe will work as complete a revolution in the growing of silk as the disco- very of the Gin did in that of cotton." The object of the instrument is to remove all impure air about the worms and among the mulberry branches, and also all dry leaves and impurities by the motion of the cradle and its appendages ; which motion, he rationally infers, is agree- able to the worms, it being like that of the branches on which they feed in a state of nature. The representations of this gentleman are said to be entitled to implicit confiden.ee. He is one of the largest silk growers in the U. S., having some forty acres of trees, and being largely engaged in the manufacture of silk. The prevailing practice has been, here, to feed in enclosures, but this and other facts prove that open feeding and ventillation are essential to the health and pro- ductive labors of the worm. 20,000 worms are said to throw off 50 Ibs. of impure matter every 24 hours, hence the necessity of ventillation. Hot and sultry weather are said also to be more prejudicial than cold weather. The Cocoons are collected 7 or 8 days after the worm has enclosed itself, heated in an oven by steam, to destroy the life of the worm, and being then immersed in hot water, to soften the gum, the raw silk is brushed up and reeled off, forming one smooth thread of nume- rous filaments. The thread from each cocoon is from 900 to 1800 feet long. When dry, this is taken from the reel and made into hanks. PROGRESS OF SILK MANUFACTURE. 99 One of the threads being twisted is called singles, and two or more threads twisted are called tram, which forms the weft. Thrown silk is formed of two or more singles twisted in a direction contrary to that of the singles, and is called or gamine, forming the warp. This pro- cess was long kept a secret in Spain, but was discovered and practised in England in 1562. Twelve Ibs. of cocoons, yielding 1 Ib. of reeled silk, are the results of the labors of 2,800 worms, which have consumed 152 Ibs. of mul- berry leaves. Silk, when thrown, is hard silk, and is boiled 4 hours in soaped water, to discharge the gum before dying, and then washed in clear water. Various arts are now adopted in the preparation and weaving of the diversified silken fabrics. Most of the American silk is still used for thread. The art of rearing silk worms, and making silk, was first known to the Chinese, and was probably introduced at Rome in the time of Pompey and Caesar, who wore articles made of it. Its cost was then equal to its weight of gold. By a law, however, in the time of Tiberus, no man was allowed to disgrace himself by wearing it. Still, it soon came into use among the wealthy ; large quantities were imported, and the price was reduced; so that down to the 6th century it was largely exported from China, and very generally worn. The Chinese date their invention of silk manufacture 2,700 years before the Christian era. The raw ma- terial was exported before the insect, and was manufactured in Persia and Tyre. The culture of silk worms was confined to Greece for 600 years. In 550, two monks, who had resided in China, carried the eggs to Constantinople, where they were hatched, mulberries grown, and the manufacture of silk commenced. The Greeks were skilled in rearing the worms and in making silk until the 12th century, when the art was in- troduced into Sicily, and soon spread into Italy and the south of Eu- rope. It was introduced into France in 1480, and silk was there soon extensively manufactured. - From thence it passed to England in the 15th century, and an association was formed in 1562 for the manufac- ture of silk. In 1666, 40,000 persons were engaged in the business. Manufacturers from France came in large numbers to England in 1685-6, and the importation of silk also at this time, was near 700,- OOOZ. In 1719 a great improvement in throwing silk was intro- duced by Lombe, which formed a new era in the manuafcture of silk in England. From this to 1824 the art progressed, though the annual importations amounted to 500,000/. The manufacture was, however, greatly checked by the introduction of cotton about 1785, though it continued to progress on the continent ; and important improvements were there made in every branch a'nd fabric of the art. In 1826 a great change was effected in England by the abolition of the prohibi- tory laws; the silk manufactures rapidly increased, and 4,693,5 17 Ibs. of 100 SILK IN THE U. S. raw and thrown silk were imported. The exports in 1830 amounted to 437,880L, an advance of more than 300 per cent, over that during the prohibitory laws. This may be thought a strong proof in favor office international competition in the arts. France in 1824, exported 100 million francs worth of silken goods. Both England and France are furnished with much raw silk from Spain. In the U. S. great efforts have been made to produce and manufac- ture silk, our climate and other circumstances being highly favorable for these purposes ; but to compete with the long trained manu- facturers of Europe, with a difference of one-half in the price of labor, renders success uncertain at present, unless aided by protective duties. Still, much has been done, and the silk mania a few years since has had the effect to steady and direct the efforts now making to cultivate the mulberry and manufacture silken goods. Every year exhibits pro- gressive improvements ; and it cannot be long before we shall have attained eminence in this branch of industry. A bounty is now given in 12 states, and the products nearly double annually, and the manu- factures increase with the production of the raw material. In Ohio and other western states the manufacture is rapidly increasing. In New England, too, steady progress is making by practical and enterprising men. Many family machines, besides large establishments, are in operation, and the products are found profitable. The progress in this state has been remarkable since the convicts at Auburn have been em- ployed in the business. Organzine is worth from $5 to $10 per pound in the gum. 2000 bushels of cocoons are said to have been produced in Tennessee last year. $4 per Ib. is now paid for cocoons at manufacturing establish- ments, and one manufactory in Ohio realizes $1,000 per month, at a profit of 10 per cent. 3 cocooneries there fed 2 million worms last year, which are supposed to have yielded $2000. That state paid $6,699 bounty last year, and the reeled silk amounted to 3000 Ibs. The mulberry tree is indigenous to this country, and the worms can be freely raised in every state in the Union. Florida is particularly favorable and is now prepared for the most extensive operations in this important department of our productive industry. The American raw silk, it is said, is superior to the foreign article in brilliancy, strength and scent. The air pump and camphor have been used to destroy the crysilis, by which any injury to the silk is avoided. Other important improvements have been made in this country ; and the after growth of leaves has been profitably used in the manufacture of paper. The amount of the silk crop in the U. S. last year was 244,- 124 Ibs. of cocoons. The amount of silk made in 1840 was 15,742 Ibs. ; value of the silk $119,814; persons employed 764, and the capital invested $338,754. Silken fabrics. These are numerous, but all depend on different PAPYRUS PAPER. 101 modes of manufacture. One of the richest is shaggy velvet, (Italian veluto.) The soft shag or pile is produced by the insertion, during the process of weaving, short pieces of silk under thread, doubled under the shoot, and it stands upright on the upper surface so crowded together as to conceal the interlacings of the warp and shoot. This pile gives it its softness to the touch ; and the beauty depends on the evenness of the pile and the equality of the threads. Gauze is a light transparent fabric formerly brought from Gaza ; hence its name. The plainest mode of silk weaving has the name of Persian, sarsnet, gros de naples, ducopes, &c. ; the two first are flimsey textures, and the two last are stouter. Satin is a peculiar twill, the soft lustrous face of which is given by keeping a large part of its warp visible. The flossy or warp face is dressed by being rolled on heated cylinders, which gives it its brilliant lustre. Crape is a lighter fabric of plain weaving. Levantine is a stout easily-made twilled silk. Gros des Indies isformen by using different shuttles with threads of various substances for the shoot. Watering silk gives to it its peculiar wavy appear- ance. Two pieces are passed lengthwise through metallic rollers and thus subjected to different degrees of pressure, which causes the wavy appearance. Silk is embossed by passing plain stuff between rollers, the surfaces of which contain the desired pattern, on one cylinder raised and on the other sunk. Bombasin is twilled with its warp of silk and shoot of worsted. Poplins and lustres are plain woven goods with more silk than bombasin. Tabby is a coarse taffety watered. There are numerous other kinds of silken fabrics. PAPYRUS, antiquorum. C. 3.01, Cyperaceae, sp. 1, 3. A. 10 ft This plant grows wild in Egypt, Syria, Sicily, &c. It is an aquatic plant. For paper the inner rind of the stem was cut into strips in parallel and transverse rows, which adhered on pressure, or was past- ed, and formed the paper of the ancients for writing upon, as seen by ancient manuscripts. It is now made into sail-cloth, ropes, mattresses, and cloth, by weaving the stems and plastering them with resins. Boats are also made in this way. " The ark of bullrushes," in which Moses was found is supposed to have been thus made of this plant. The floral thyrus, used to adorn ancient temples and statues, repre- sented a tuft of the papyrus. The root was chewed as the cypruses now are in Abysinia, and also that of maize. It grows in stagnant water. This plant has given name to the modern valuable article paper, also made of vegetables, but very differently from that of former times. PAPER. As this is a vegetable substance, and chiefly the product of the foregoing plants, cotton and flax, a brief notice of it, especially since it is one of the most valuable articles in civilized life, may not be without interest. The manufacture and use of paper made from the papyrus, was continued down to the 8th century, and was an ar- 9 102 MANUFACTURE OF PAPER IN THE U. S. tide of great commerce. At this period it began to be supplanted by cotton paper, though it still continued to be used in Italy till the llth century. The paper of the ancient Mexicans, before the conquest by Cortez, was made of the leaves of the dgave, in a manner much like that of the Egyptians. Besides these kinds of paper, one was made of the inner bark of trees, and in the llth and 12th centuries skins were much used. Strips of bark and leaves are still used among the eastern nations, and these are written upon with sharp-pointed instruments, curious spe- cimens of which we have in our possession. The Arabians are said to have been acquainted with cotton paper in 704, A.D., and prepared it themselves from the plant, and exported it considerably to Spain during the llth century. The first paper mills were there erected, and their products were carried to France and Germany in the year 1300. This cotton paper differed from the linen paper by its loose texture. The paper of the U. S. is mostly cotton, on account of the abundance of cotton and its fabrics in this country. The Germans were proba- bly the first to add linen to cotton rags in paper making, in the 12th century, and proper linen paper made its appearace about 1318. Doc- uments in Germany, dated 1324-26-31, are seen there upon this pa- per. None is found in Spain or Italy before 1367. The Chinese to this day have manufactured their paper of hemp, the bamboo, and mul- berry. The English, at a later period, brought the manufacture of linen paper to great perfection. The French papers are also of fine qualities. That of the Italians and Germans is durable, but not equal to that of this country. The manufacture of paper in the U. S. has rapidly increased and in proportion quite equal to the increased demand. In 1829 the quan- tity made in this country was from 5 to $7 millions, employing 11,000 persons; and in 1840, the importations of paper were $70,267, and of books $210,764. We exported also of paper and stationary $76,957 ; books and maps $29,632. The number of paper manufac- tories in the U. S. is 600 457 in operation, with 1500 engines and $16,500,000 estimated capital invested. The amount of rass, junk, canvass and cotton waste used is estimated at 190 million Ibs. per annum, of which from 15 to 20 millions are imported, which, at 3 cts. per lb., is $6,615,000. The number of adults employed in the man- ufacture is 8,250 and the value of products $5,600,939. The quality of American paper has greatly improved of late, and the recent inventions and especially that for making paper of any required length by machinery, as rapidly as it can pass off from the machine, places us in advance of any nation in the quantity we are capable of making. Immense quantities of wrapping paper are made and much of this is now made of corn stalks, straw, the refuse of hemp, &c. PAPER IN ENGLAND. 103 Coarse paper is also made of the pine tree and from several other vegetable substances. The process of paper-making is generally un- derstood or it may be readily seen by most of our readers. The manufacture of white paper was first made in England in 1690, and in 1721, 300,000 reams were made, and In 1783 the value of the paper made was 780,000/, and in 1830, 1,200,OOOZ. There were then 800 paper mills in the kingdom and 25,000 persons employed. But the manufacture is loaded with an excise duty three times as much as the whole wages of the working people employed ! This duty on first class papers is from 25 to 30 per ct. and on the finest 200 per ct. ! Me CuJloch says that one-third of the books and nineteen-twentieths of the pamphlets do not pay expenses. The publisher pays the duty on every book of an edition before he brings one copy into market ; and upon an advertisement announcing the sale of a six-penny pamphlet, the duly is as great as upon one for the sale of an estate worth 100,OOOL The annual revenue from paper is over 700,OOOZ, and the paper charged with duty is over 60,000 cwt. A paper maker says he is obliged to give from 24 to 48 hours notice to an excise before he can move a ream of paper and to keep it 24 hours afterwards, before he can send it to market. Every room, vat, engine, chest and press must be num- bered and every ream of paper labelled. Should one label be lost, the penalty is 200/. He orders 500 labels at a time and should any person steal or destroy them, the penalty is 100,000^ / This j| in addition to his yearly license and all his other taxes. Such, says McCulloch, is the encouragement given to literature, such the facilities afforded to the diffusion of useful information by the popular government of England ! " Paper, in its dimensions, is atlas, elephant, imperial, superroyal, royal, medium, demy, crown, foolscap, pot, or letter-note, &c. Wove pa- per is made in moulds ; blotting paper is made of woolen rags without sizing ; pasteboard is made of many sheets pasted together ; mill board, used for book covers &c., is made of coarse materials, as old ropes &c. All of these are bleached, when, required, by chloride of lime, solphuric acid, or a mixture of this and sea-salt. Marbled paper, paper hangings, and many other kinds are now chiefly made in this country. Paper is made up into sheets, quires and reams, 24 sheets makina: a quire, and 20 quires a ream. TOBACCO, Nicotiana tabacum. C. 5.01. Soleanea, sp. 14-26. A. 4 ft. This is also called the Virginia tobacco, it having been first discovered there by Europeans. The generic name is from /. Nicot, embas&ador from France to Portugal, who obtained the seeds from a Dutchman who procured them in Florida. The name tobacco, which has superseded all others is a corruption of Tobasco, a province of Mexico, Tobago, or tabac, an instrument used by the natives of S. America for smoking the herb. The species grown are, N. tabacum 104 DESCRIPTION OF TOBACCO. and N. rustica. We have else where noticed Betel, a plant of the E. Indies, as being used in a manner like that of tobacco and as the only rival of this celebrated weed. The first of these species, or Virginia tobacco, is the most popular narcotic in use, not excepting perhaps opium. It was taken from this country to England in 1586 and the smoking of it was first introduced by Sir W. Raleigh. The plant is now to be seen on his arms at Islington, Eng. The smoke of burning vegetables has been used to produce intoxication, or for medicinal purposes, from very remote time. The Baby- lonians intoxicated themselves in this way, and the efficacy of smoking certain plants for diseases, is mentioned by Pliny. Tobacco has been cultivated for these purposes by the natives of this continent from time immemorial. It is thought that the Asiatics may have known it before the Europeans obtained it from this country. The exhibition of segar smoking to an European was first witnessed among the natives by Columbus on his arrival at Cuba, in 1492. Toledo took the seed from that place to Spain and j^ortugal, from whence John Nicot sent the seeds to France. Description. Tobacco is of a brown color when cured, strongly narcotic, with a bitter and nauseous taste. The Virginian is the strongest kind and therefore best adapted for smoking in pipes for snuff and for medicinal use. The Maryland is milder and better for cigars ; the pale cinnamon being best for these. The Kentucky is in- termediate between the two. But the Havannah tobacco, N. Rapanda, excels all other for cigars ; it is of a yellow brown color, with a musky or spicy odor and light yellow spots on the leaves. There are various other kinds in the European market. The dmersfoort, a Dutch tobacco, is very mild, but lacks flavor. There are several Ger- man varieties. The Asiatic is not in much repute. The Manilla is much esteemed for sheroots, as well also as the Mexican. There are several kinds in the East Indies and Turkey, but none have the repu- tation of the American tobacco. The cultivation is restricted in Eng- land to "not more than half a pole in a physic, university or private garden." Nicotia Rustica, green tobacco, is cultivated in Europe; and the Syrian, Turkish and other tobaccos are prepared from it. N. Persica is a delicate and fragrant tobacco of the east. The composition of 100 parts of tobacco is water 88.280 ; Utter ex- tractive 2.87 ; Lignin, with a trace of starch, 4.969 ; albumen and gluten 1.308; alkaline and other salts 0.734; gum with malate of lime 1.74; silica 0.88 and traces of several other substances. The EFFECTS OF TOBACCO. 105 expressed juice yields, beside these, woody fibre, oxalate and phos- phate of lime, with oxide of iron and silica in the ashes. The manu- factured tobacco yields, in addition to these, carbonate of ammonia, and chloride of calcium, produced probably by the salammonic used to give it pungency. Nicotina, a volatile alkali, exists in the leaves roots and seeds. It acts as a narcotic poison on insects ; it is inflam- able and has an acrid and burning taste. The concrete volatile oil of tobacco is obtained by submitting the leaves with water to distillation. 6 Ibs. of leaves yield 11 grains of oil, swimming on the surface of the liquid. The oil is a solid, soluble in ether and caustic potash. The empyreumatic oil of tobacco is scarcely distinguished from that of the fox-glove. Tobacco smoke is composed of carbonate and acetate of ammonia, nicotianin, empyreumatic oil, soot, moisture, &c. Several gases, water, oil and resin, with several acids, are obtained by the distillation of tobacco. The physiological effects on carnivorous animals, are nausea, vomit- ing, sometimes purging, trembling, staggering, convulsive movements, and stupor. 5 drachms of rappee introduced into the stomach of a dog, secured by a ligature on the aesophagus, caused death in 9 hours, and 2 drachms applied to a wound killed one in an hour. An infusion, thrown into the rectum paralysed the heart, and death ensued in a few minutes. Its effect on the heart is through the nervous system, solely. The effects on the herbivora, as with other poisons, are less marked. 4 ounces given to a horse produced no very remarkable effects. The effects on man are a sensation of heat in the throat and stomach, nausea, and a peculiar giddiness. It is thought to promote absorp- tion, as dropsical swellings often disappear by the use of it. In larger doses i-t produces a distressing sensation at the stomach, cold sweat, enfeebled vision, laborious breathing, &c. ; and in excessive doses, be- side these effects, convulsions, paralysis, and death. Taken as snuff, it blunts the sense, alters the tone of the voice, and sometimes causes dispepsia, &c. Smoking produces similar effects. With moderate smokers thirst is induced by the increased secretion of saliva. It tranquilizes the mind, and hence its general use. Some medical wri- ters say that they know no ill effects arising from the practice, while others describe many. As a prophylactic against contagous or epi- demic diseases, it is believed to have no special virtues, as has been. supposed. Chewing is attended with effects like those above no- ticed. The operation of tobacco is like that of Lobelia in/lota ; it also agrees with foxglove in enfeebling the action of the vascular system, though much inferior in its power. It promotes secretions, and relaxes the muscular fibre. It differs from beladona and stramonium, and is thought by some to produce effects not unlike those of aconite. Its effects in relaxing the muscular fibre renders it a valuable antispas- 106 PROPERTIES OF TOBACCO. modic ; and, jointly as a purgative, it is very useful in alvine obstruc- tions. It is not otherwise remarkable for its curative or therapeutic properties. In colic, hernia, tetanus, consumption, ileus, &c., its effi- cacy depends on its powers of relaxing the muscles. In spasmodic asthma it has been found useful in the form of smoke. Topical ap- plications, in cases of gouty and rheumatic inflamation of the joints, and some skin diseases, are said to be serviceable. Tooth-ache has been relieved by the smoke, and it is said that tobacco promotes the growth of the hair. It is seldom administered in substance, the wine of to- bacco being used for all internal purposes. But all the uses of to- bacco require great caution. Vegetable astringents and acids are the best antidotes to its effects, such as an infusion of nut-galls, green tea, also sour fruits, coffee, &c. The wine is made by digesting the leaves for 7 days, straining and strongly expressing the residuum, and filtering the liquor. It is boiled with lard until friable, and strained, when applied to ulcers, but the application must be made cautiously. The properties of tobacco are generally narcotic and stimulating to the whole system, especially on the stomach and intestines, to which it proves an emetic and cathartic. The smoke may be administered as a clyster, and an infusion of the leaves forms a powerful lotion for obstinate ulcers. The oil applied to a wound is extremely poisonous, and almost as fatal as the bite of the rattlesnake. This property of tobacco is made available in destroying insects in gardens, in the form of a decoction, powder, or smoke ; it is also used, much diluted, to cure cutaneous eruptions in domestic animals. A quantity of tobacco ought to be raised by every cultivator to exterminate insects. A decoction of the stems or poor leaves diluted with water, or a gallon or two of water from a tobacconist, thrown with a syringe upon peach and other fruit trees, effectually destroys insects. In destroying lice on cattle, and ticks on sheep, its importance is well known. Its use gives plea- sure alike to the savage and the philosopher, the people of the torrid and the frozen zone, and for no other reason than its stimulating ef- fects. A hundred volumes, the titles of which have been preserved, have been written against the use of tobacco, but with no other effect, one would suppose, than to increase its use. Could a great moral move- ment be made, like that now prevailing in this country and parts of Europe, against the use of ardent spirits, and now controling willing millions of people, we might anticipate equally important results. This, alone, could accomplish the great and necessary reform. Its use is certainly a strange propensity in man. Its entrance into the domin- ions of the Grand Doke of Moscow was forbidden under pain of the knout for the first offence, and death for the second. James I. wrote a celebrated work, styled Counterblasts to Tobacco." The Emperor of the Turks, the King of Persia, Pope Urban 8th, and others, have CULTIVATION AND MANUFACTURE. 107 issued edicts against its use, but with no better success than those is- sued against coffee and Jesuit's bark, or any of the denunciations against the potato and many other vegetable productions. . All the sovereigns of Europe now derive a large portion of their revenues from tobacco. Tobacco is cultivated as far north as Sweden in Europe, and Ver- mont in the U. S., and likewise in the hot climates of S. America, China, Japan, and other parts of Asia. N. rustica, or green leaf, be- ing considered hardier than N. tobacum, it is some cultivated in more northern latitudes. Its growth is prohibited in England, except as a border flower for curiosity, or by gardeners for killing insects, but an enormous revenue is derived from its importation. In Germany and some northern countries, families having gardens, grow sufficient for their own use, but being unable to cure it, they seldom make it into snuff or chewing tobacco. Cultivation. Tobacco is commonly raised on beds early in spring, and when the plants have grown 4 leaves, they are transplanted into fields, and placed 2 or 3 feet apart. They are then daily examined to discover and destroy a worm which infests them ; and when 5 or 6 inches high, they are hoed or hilled up. After acquiring 8 or 10 leaves, and are ready to stalk, the top is taken off that the leaves may become larger. The buds at the joints are subsequently plucked off, and the plant is constantly examined for a caterpillar which appears on the leaves. When the leaves become brittle, the plants are cut even with the ground ; and after laying for a time, they are taken to a shed and hung up in pairs, and separated on poles to dry and sweat. When wholly dry, the leaves are stripped off, tied in bundles, laid in. heaps, and covered with blankets ; care being taken that they do not become overheated, by spreading them out occasionally. When no more heat is perceived they are packed in hogsheads for market. Manufactured tobacco includes the three different forms of chewing, smoking, and snuff tobacco. Cut tobacco is used for smoking in pipes and also for chewing. Of this shag is preferred. Returns is a light- er and milder kind and is the shag recut. Bird's-eye is the same, except that the ribs of the leaves are cut with it. Canister is a fa- vorite European, or Spanish smoking tobacco. Roll or twist tobacco is mostly for chewing. Of this there are pig-tail, negro-head, bogie, alloe, cavendish, ladies and Irish twist. Cigars are of various kinds and qualities ; the Havannah and American are distinguished from sheroots, which were originally from the east. Of these the Manillas are the best. Snuffs are made of fermented tobacco, it being laid in heaps for a month and sprinkled for that purpose, by which ammonia is evolved. It is then ground in mills; and all the varieties are pro- duced by different modes of preparation. Snuffs consist of two kinds, dry and moist. The one is dried at a high temperature, lime being 108 TOBACCO IN THE U. S. sometimes added, and the other is the rappee, to which pearl-ash is often added to preserve the moisture. These are of 3 kinds, the sim- ple, the mixed and the scented rappees, each with several varieties. Sea salt and salammoniac are said to be added in the various prepa- rations of tobacco, also liquorice and molasses. The process is first by washing out any sand or decayed parts of the leaves. These are then sprinkled with salt and water or other soluble substances, according to taste. The midrib is then removed and the leaves are placed together and watered with any desirable mixture. They are then rolled with the hand into cigars, or laid on a machine having a revolving knife, and cut into fine shreds for paper or chewing tobacco ; or when dried, they are ground into snuff in a mill for that purpose, with the addition of perfumes to distinguish kinds, etc. In the two last processes more or less of the stems are mixed. In the southern states, where the head or plug tobacco is made, the leaves, after several preparations in which treacle and sweetly scented fla- vors are used, are rolled and pressed into the required form of the plug or head ; again pressed closely into casks or barrels and submitted to heat in ovens or kilns when the mass is thoroughly sweated. In this country the latter kind is mostly chewed in the south, while the cut or paper tobacco is chiefly used in the middle and northern states, where it is prepared. Little of the latter is exported. The principle kinds of snuff are the rappee, Scotch, or Spanish, thirds, yellow, black, &c. These are variously granulated and scented, constituting numerous va- rieties. There are several species of tobacco growing wild in this country, which are smoked by the Indians. The tobacco of the U. S. constitutes one of the principle staple arti- cles of production and export, being inferior in this respect only to cotton, the grains and sugar. Its growth is limited, except in com- paratively small quantities, to 6 or 8 states. It is the great staple of Virginia and Maryland, and is largely cultivated in Ken., Tenn., and Mo. The crop of 1842 was but about \ of the average crop, while that of 1841 was a large one. The product depends essentially on the weather. The usual annual average crop of Virginia is 50,000 hogs- heads. Nearly one-tenth of the whole population of this country are said to be engaged in the culture of tobacco, two-thirds of which are in the states of Va., Md., Ken., and Mo. The value of manufactured tobacco in the U. S. in 1840 was $5,819,568; the number of persons employed 8,384, and capital invested $3,473,191. The crop of that year was 219,163,319 Ibs. In Ken. there are said to be 5,000,000 acres of land on which tobacco may be raised at the rate of 600 Ibs. per acre, the products of which would be 3000 million Ibs. In Mo. and some other states there is probably the same amount of land which may be thus appropriated, so that the reader may easily calculate the quantity which may be produced in this country. Increasing attention PRODUCT AND EXPORTS. 109 is now paid to the growth of tobacco in Illinois and other western states, and also in N. England. The product of the, U. S. last year is estimated at 194,694,891 Ibs, and the value of our importations of cigars and snuff was $869,833 5 $399 only of which was for snulf ; while the amount of our exports of tobacco was $9,883,957. The whole amount furnished elsewhere than in the U. S. is estimated at $150 million Ibs. and the amount which might possibly be consumed if grown in the U. S. is estimated at 1,000 million Ibs. ; so that we raise but a fifth part of that amount ; yet we see that the land which may be used for the growth of tobac- co in Ken. alone, would afford three times the whole amount, and our revenue would be increased $120 millions. From 1821 to 1840, ex- clusive, there were exported from the U. S. 1,792,000 hogsheads, valued at $131,346,514, or an annual average of 89,600 hhds. at $6,567,325 per annum. During the above time there were exported 788,477 Ibs. of snuff and 57,196,254 Ibs. of manufactured tobacco, valued at $5,556,- 581. During the last 10 years the excess over the first 10 was 143.,- 510 hhds. or $17,567,932; the annual average export of the first 10 was 82,424 hhds., or $5,688,929 and of the last 10 96,775 hhds., or $7,445,722. During the whole period the average price was $73,21 per hhd., and during the first 10 years it was $69-11, or 5| cts. per lb., and the 2d 10 $76,83, or 6-40 cts. per Ib average 6-10 cts. esti- mating the average weight of the hogshead at 1,200 Ibs. Of the above products durinsr the 20 years there were exported to England 524,640 hhds., at $50,194,466 ; to France 146,824 do. at $16,- 361,346; to Holland 423,707 do. at $21,907,465; to Germany 373,- 918 do. at $18,734,186, and other countries 322,901 do. at $24,149,051 total 1,792,000 hhds. at $131,346,514. The increase in exports to England during the last 10 years over the first 10 was 40,802 hhds., and the annual average for 20 years was 26,- 232 hhds, at $2,509,723 ; the increase to France was 15,190 hhds. or an annual average of 7,341 hhds. at $818,067; to Holland there was a decrease of 13,651 hhds., and the average annual export was 21,185 hhds, at $1,095,373 ; to Germany the increase was 94,888 hhds. ; aver- age annual export 18,695 hhds. at $936,709, and to other countries the increase was 6,281 hhds. Gibralter of the other countries" averaged for the 3 last years 5,130 hhds. ; Sweeden and Norway 1,564; Belgi- um 1,255; Italy, 1,660; Cuba 769; Africa 1,108; Spain 1,067; Scotland 854 hhds. The duty paid in Great Britain in 1840 on manufactured tobacco was 3,525,956/., or $15,655,244.64. While the value of the whole exports from the U. S. in 1840, to all countries, was but $9,883,957. Of this ll-12th are drawn from the working classes. This duty (be- side an additional duty of 5 per cent, on the duty), is 2s. per lb. on tobacco from the British American possessions, and on that from other 10 110 DUTIES ON AMERICAN TOBACCO. parts 3s., or 70 els. for what is received from us at 6 cts. ; on snuff 6s., and on cigars 9s. per Ib. It is not suprising that, with these en- ormous duties, smuggling is extensively practiced. 120,884 cwt. of tabacco, and 169,777 Ibs. of cigars paid duty in England in 1840. The rate of duty naturally affects the consumption. This being, in 1841, 3-l-8-10ths, the consumption per head being l2-4-5ths. Since May, 1840, the duty in Great Britain on tobacco is about 75 cts. per Ib., or twelve hundred per cent, on our price : in Austria about 60 cts., or 1000 per cent. ; in Prussia 30A cts. per Ib., or over 500 per cent. ; and in France $1 per Ib., or 1,666 2-3 per cent ! Taking there- fore our annual exports at $9,225,145, the duty annually levied on this article of our produce alone is $32,462,546 ; so that the tobacco sells, exclusively of freight and charges, for $41,688,685, of which the American farmer receives one fourth, and foreign governments three fourths. This tax in England, including 50,000/., or $222,000 im- posed for licenses and charges of collection, &c., at 270,000/., or $1,- 198,800, with the duty, as before stated, at $15,655,244, amount to $17,086,044, or near two-thirds the expenses of the British navy, or three-fourths the expenses of the whole government of the U. S. France derives a revenue from it of $11,013,333, beside $204,490 from 2,500 retailers. This dut} r is British reciprocity in commercial trade. The labor of the people of the U. S., exported to different nations, amounts annually to $90,000,000, and pays an average tax of over 50 per cent., while the productions of European nations annually imported into the U. States, amounting to, say 100 millions per annum, are taxed not over 25 per cent. Thus foreign nations receive, as revenue, from our labors and agricultural products, $90,000,000, while they insist (and we comply) on our receipt of their labors at little or no duly. That is, in effect, our farmers pay one-half the amount of their products, for the privilege of selling the remainder to European nations, and of allowing them to sell us their arts at a 4th the price we pay them. Or, suppose we sell them of the products of our industry, in value to them, $200,000, and we receive $90,000, the difference in their favor, or in our loss, is $110,- 000, as duties, for the support of their governments, and we then re- ceive of their arts, $90,000, on which the difference of duty is 3-4ths in their favor. Thus the average duties levied by them on our pro- ductions is 6 times as great as the average duties on theirs. We have availed ourselves of this occasion to allude to the duties imposed on our agricultural products ; and what has been said applies to all the staple vegetable productions of which we have spoken, and of which we shall hereafter speak, though not with the same force as to the staple product under consideration. The facts stated are of immense importance to our country, and most intimately connected with our subject, but we have not space for further remarks, nor can HONEY. Ill we, in view of these facts, better express our conclusions than in the language of Jefferson : "Should any nation, contrary to our wishes, suppose it may better find its advantages by continuing its system of prohibitions, duties and regulations, it behooves us to protect our citi- zens, their commerce and navigation, by counter prohibitions, duties, and regulations, also. Free commerce and navigation are not to be given in exchange for restrictions and vexations, nor are they likely to produce a relaxation of them." HONEY. This is also a vegetable product of much value, the im- mediate production of the bee, feeding upon the flowers, as the silk worm does upon the leaves of plants. It was greatly used as food by the people of the east from their earliest recorded history. The ancients seem not to have known its origin. Some believed it a dew from heaven, and afterwards collected by bees ; and that the wax only was obtained from flowers. Their poets describe it as running abundant- ly from the trees during the golden age. It was used by them medi- cinally as we do sugar, and likewise for making wine, which was given to the soldiers on returning from triumph. The gods of Greece were supposed to live on milk and honey (ambrosia). The Bible makes frequent mention of bees and honey, of grape and tree honey, or that thrown out on certain trees and shrubs. Honey is secreted by the nectariferous glands of flowers, at the base of the pistil, and is taken up by suction and passed into the resopha- gus, crop, or honey-bag, beyond which it does not pass, as it has never been found in the true stomach. It is disgorged at the hive by an inverted peristaltic motion, somewhat altered, doubtless, in its proper- ties. It is used by the bees as food. Its physical properties vary, as to taste and odor, according to the age of the bees and the char- acter of the flowers affording it. A hive that has never swarmed af- fords the best, which is called virgin honey. The flavor of the Nar- bonne honey, so much admired, is thought to arise from the labiate flowers on which the bee feeds. To imitate this, sprigs of rosemary are added to common honey. Flour is also added, to increase the quantity. This may be detected by its insolubility in water, and by the blue color produced by iodine, which should be used as a test be- fore honey is used medicinally. Mixed with water and fermented, it becomes mead, a vinous liquor, much admired by some. It is used for preserves, &c., and served upon the table by itself. Honey is abun- dant in parts of this country, and in the Isle of Candia. Sicily, and Minorca honey has a superior flavor, and is gathered three times a year. The sage of Europe is said to give honey a superior flavor to that of our country. The honey of spring is better than that of sum- mer, and this is better than that of winter. That of mountainous dis- tricts is best. The chemical properties of honey vary according to circumstances. 112 USES OF HONEY HONEY-COMB. It is to be regarded, however, as a concentrated solution of sugar t mixed with mucilage, odorous, coloring, gummy, and waxy substances. Its saccharine portion is of two kinds, uncrystalizable, like grape su- gar, and crystalizable like the molasses of the sugar cane. The physiological effects are emolient, demulcent, nutritive, and lax- ative. It is said, when fresh, to occasion indigestion and colic, and when collected from poisonous plants, to be deleterious. That of par- ticular places has been known to possess deleterious qualities, causing head-ache, vomiting, and partial intoxication ; and in larger doses, de- privation of all sense and motion for some hours. Similar effects are described by ancient writers. With flour, and spread on a cloth or leather, it is a good application for the maturation of abscesses. It is used also as a gargle, to promote expectoration, as a vehicle in taking medicinal prescriptions, and as an emolient and demulcent in inflam- matory diseases. With barley or rice water and slices of lemon, taken warm, it is excellent for coughs. Mixed with vinegar, jn the pro- portion of 2 Ibs. to 1 of the acid, and boiled slowly to a proper con- sistency, it forms the oxymel simple of the shops. It is thus also im- pregnated with different vegetable juices, and is the basis of several compositions in pharmacy. Clarified honey is prepared by melting the honey in water and removing the scum; this, however, injures the flavor and odor of the honey. Honey Comb, a peculiar secretion by the bee, has been supposed to be the pollen of flowers, but it is a secretion from the ventral scales of the abdomen. With the wax, this comb, or hexagonal cells are formed. These are lined by a resinous substance called propolis, collected from the buds of trees. _ ^_ These cells are most admirable specimens of art. The front row shows the cells cut across ; the angles of the planes form the roof of each cell, as seen in front. This arrangement gives the most room with the greatest sav- ing of space, work, and wax. Each cell has six plane sides, equal to each other, and strongly secured by a cord around the verge of every cell. The bottom constitutes a solid angle under 3 equal angles. The celerity with which these are constructed, while great numbers are employed, and the formation of 3 or 4 stories at the same time, is worthy of the greatest admira- tion. Wax is extensively used in the arts and in medicine. It is extract- ed by heating the comb with a little water in pans, and constantly stir- ring it ; it is then put in a thin linen cloth, and pressed. This is then yellow wax, of a peculiar odor. It is sometimes adulterated with suet or resin, bean or pea meal. The second may be detected by alcohol, in which it dissolves, and the third and fourth by oil of turpentine, in which they are insoluble ; the feel and taste of the first are readily re- COAL. 113 cognized. Wax is bleached by melting it in a vessel by steam, and running it off into a vessel placed over water and perforated with holes, and then exposing it to the air a week or two. It is melted again, and a cylinder in the water tank into which it falls, beneath the surface, draws it into ribbons. It is then refined by melting it in water acidulated with sulphuric acid. Spermaceti is added in candles, to improve the color. It is composed of cerine, which forms 70 per cent., and Myricine. Wax is used, melted with soap, yolk of eggs, or mucilage, for diarrhea and dysentery ; but generally externally, as a protective application, and as a constituent of most cerates. The vapor from wax placed on hot iron is inhaled for phthisis. 628,303 Ibs. of wax were made in the U. S. in 1840, of which the value of $59,685 was exported. COAL. This, too is a vegetable substance, the product of prime- val vegetation and one of the most important articles with which vegetable nature has enriched the earth and blessed mankind. But, as we propose to continue our treatise on living vegetable existences, our consideration of dead vegetable matter will be brief. The vege- table remains in connection with our subject, and viewed as consti- tuting that highly important substance coal, can scarcely be deemed less important to man than the world of vegetable existences we have considered. The comparatively prodigious exuberance of vegetable nature, during the early condition of our planet, the entombment of innumer- able and magnificent plants and the formation of these into immense beds of coal, are one of the most interesting subjects of inquiry which can be presented to the mind of the student of nature. The wonder- ful changes to which the earth has been subjected and the astonishing transformation of the infinite series of vegetable productions for in- appreciable time into vast masses of carboniferous deposits beneath the present surface of the earth, are boldly presented to the mind and they call up a thousand startling propositions and associations. Our limits however will not allow us to go into a discussion of this fruitful subject nor to enter upon an analysis of the causes which have pro- duced these important results. Brief statements of some of the par- ticulars connected with these events are sufficient for our present pur- pose; and these may lead, as desired, to more satisfactory investi- gations of the phenomena. It will appear plain that the deposit of the extensive and luxuri- ant vegetation which crowned the earth for millions of years, must have produced a vast accumulation of matter and formed strata that, when disclosed at far distant periods, must have undergone remarkable changes in their nature and appearance. Such we find to be the case with the masses of bituminous and anthracite coal from time to time revealed and disengaged from their subterranean beds in this country. 10* 114 COAL FORMATIONS. The extent of these strata it is impossible to conceive; but parts of those brought to light by the labors, prompted by the necessities of man, afford a glance at the resources with which vegetable nature has thus supplied the wants of mankind. No example of the providence of nature is more signally remarkable than this. The world of living vegetable existences, when viewed in this connection, appears little more essential to the necessities and happiness of our nature than the world of dead vegetable matter. The decay of vegetable substances and the conversion of woody fibre into humus, mould or coal, is one of the most remarkable pro- cesses in the decomposition of organic bodies. By decay, dead vege- table substances give off the oxygen so essential to their living exist- ence. This takes place when in a moist state and exposed to the ac- cess of air, when the air is excluded and when covered with water in contact with other putrefy ing substances. It is not possible to explain in detail the processes which vegetable matter has undergone in the formation of coal, during a period ex- tending far, very far, beyond that commonly alloted to the existence of our earth ; but proximate causes may be percieved in known chemical phenomena and in a notice of the fact, always to be borne in mind, that the same causes which have heretofore produced extraordinary changes in our earth, are still in operation. Vegetable substances, on the application of heat, are known to give off their water, while their gummy resinous matter remains incorpora- ted with their carbon. If this heat be gradual, as it undoubtedly has been in the interior of the earth, especially in the latitudes where coal is mostly found, the processes of decomposition of vesetable struc- tures and the combinations of the juices and solid matter of vegeta- bles are especially adapted to the formation of coal. This heat, so im- portant here, is well understood to have existed since the formation of the crust of the earth. It increases in the ratio of one de- gree for every 60 or 70 feet towards the interior from about 40 feet below the surface, though it differs in different places upon the earth ; so that at the depth of 45 or 50 miles it is sufficiently intense to melt or dissolve granitic rocks. But it is not less true that the latitudes in which coal most abounds have been, at a comparatively early period of our earth exposed to a tropical climate, and the superficial heat has therefore facilitated the processes in the production of coal. Vegetable juices thus exposed to heat precipitate a black product called extractive matter, and the action of air on vegetable solids also produces h umus. Most vegetables acted on by water in contact with other decaying bodies, undergo that slow process of combustion essential to the formation of peat and coal. Peat, indeed, and the gradual car- bonization of parts of vegetable remains, like the trunks of trees, are evidences of the progressive formation of coal. When no more oxygen CAUSES IN THE FORMATION OF COAL. 115 is admitted to vegetables, much of the carbon is separated in the form of soot or lamp-black ; and this would seem to characterize, more es- pecially, the smutty bituminous coals. If the oxygen is not sufficient to consume the hydrogen, other compounds are formed, like coal-tar, or naphthalin, as we see have been formed in coal beds in our western states, running into pools or breaking out and overspreading fresh water streams and ponds and often taking fire. The oxygen of the water of vegetables may have been evolved, as one of the processes in the formation of coal and the inflammable por- tion, hydrogen, remained. Woody fibre contains a proportion of hydrogen which forms the inflammable principle of some coal, and the color of decayed woody fibre show that both brown and mineral coal are the results of vegetable decay and putrefaction. It loses at the same time its powers of coherance, like linen exposed to heat and moisture, as we observe in bituminous coal. The trunks of decayed trees are found to have given off carbon, while the hydrogen has increased ; so that the elements of the water in vegetables have united with the wood and the carbon has united with oxygen and been disengaged. Liebeg says that coal in all its varieties possesses more hydrogen, than wood, and less oxygen than is required to form water, this is proof of what we have before said. The process of the disengage- ment of carbonic acid still goes on at great depths in coal formations, and hence its escape in what are called blowers ; and it is thought that mineral springs from this circumstance, have become impregnated with the gas. Gas often passes off in streams from beds of mineral coal. This in volume is composed of 91.36 light carburretted hydrogen, 6.32 of olefiant gas and 2.32 of nitrogen gas, showing that changes in the coal are constantly taking place. The decay and friable character of the upper strata of coal beds is owing to the action of the air by which the hydrogen is removed, and the coal is less combustible. What is termed wood coal contains volatile oil, while the carburetted hydrogen is found in connection with mineral, or anthracite coal. But among the primary causes which have contributed to the form- ation of coal, is pressure. Coal is found in the carboniferous group of secondary rocks including the red sand stones and the formations of mountain limestones. The deposits are called coal measures; and, from their form, coal basins, or coal fields. It is pretty certain that these have been formed in beds of lakes and streams of fresh water, and that they have, after a long interval, been thrown upward by the internal action of heat, more or less violent in its effects. Other de- posits were probably formed in the beds of large streams and in the bottom of the sea, where the processes of their formation are still going on. Over these have been gradually deposited innumerable strata of sand and gravel, washed down during countless ages, in which all have become consolidated and have slowly undergone the 116 COAL IN ENGLAND. peculiar changes alluded to. The agency of pressure and heat in these changes from organized vegetable bodies to anthracite coal, have therefore been apparent in producing the chemical changes which have marked their transformation. Some of these coal beds are worked at a depth of 1,000 feet; but in this country, there is no occasion to work anthracite to a great depth, as it is elevated and the beds are numerous and extensive. It has been said of the British coal measures, limited as they are com- pared with those of this country, that they are the most valuable of all the mineral substances from which Britain derives her prosperity, and indeed may be regarded as the main support of the whole system of British production." If this be true in regard to G. Britain, of how much importance are our vast coal productions to the present and fu- ture prospects of our country. The annual consumption of coal in the kingdom is estimated at 28,575,000 tons, giving employment to 200,000 persons. The exports are 7,190,433 tons. There is shipped to London alone 2,638,256 tons by 7,500 vessels. Coal was first dis- covered in Eng. at Newcastle in 1300, and was first taken to London in 1381 ; but Edward 1st, supposing it corrupted the air when burned, forbade its use by proclamation. It has been calculated that there is a sufficiency in G. Britain for 3000 years ; but this does not appear probable from the fact that they are already worked to an immense depth to supply the present demand ; while the vast regions of coal near the surface and yet unwrought in the U. S. render our resources in this respect, truly inexhaustible. There were raised of anthracite in the U. S. in 1840, 850,926 tons, of which 859,676 were raised in Penn., 1,000 in R. I., 200 in Va., and 50 in N. C. ; men employed 3,013 ; capital invested $4,450,112. Of bituminous coal there were raised 1,533,015 bushels, of which 622,345 were raised in Va., 620,654 in Penn., in Md. 222,000, Conn. 38,000,, and in N. Hamp. 29,920. The varieties of coal are numerous. These may be accounted for by the natural changes which have taken place in the history of the earth. The bituminous coals burn with a bright flame and most freely, They are supposed to possess most hydrogen, while the anthracite is composed mostly of carbon. This does not appear from their combustion to be always the case. The difference may be attributed to the differ- ent states of combination in which these elements are found. They are less coherent in the hituminous coals; and the soot given off may be equivalent to the carbon of the carburetted hydrogen burned in the anthracite. The bituminous coals are divided into the black and the brown cvals. Of the latter is the bituminous wood, with a ligneous or woody structure and without lustre. Earthy coal is less coherent and the particles are loose and friable. The moor coal has no ligneous structure and is without lustre j it splits readily on removal. The ANTHRACITE COAL. lit common brown coal is firmer than most of the varieties, has traces of woody structure, and has a conchoidal fracture, with considerable lustre. Among the black coals are the pitch coal of velvet-black, but sometimes brownish, with strong lustre aud perfect conchoidal fracture. Slate coal has a coarse structure, somewhat lamellar and hard; foliated coal has thinner laminae, and coarse coal is similar, with smaller parti- cles ; and is somewhat granular. Cannal coal has a flat conchoidal fracture in every way, with little lustre ; it is harder and smoother than most varieties. These coals, though divided and possessing different degrees of in- flammability, have certain characteristics in common. Some form coke, and others are soft on burning, giving off more or less smoke, with different lights, and leaving different products. They are decomposed in a large way to obtain their gases for burning as light in cities. The coked coal is used for smelting metals. All exhibit their vegetable origin, though some are not so distinctly marked as others, or the an- thracite. Some are found above the chalk formations, and even in the diluvial and alluvial deposits. They naturally alternate with clay-slate, sand-stone, lime-stone, &c., of the secondary series, and are often associated with animal exuvia, iron-pyrites, &c. They are the coals of Europe, and they also abound in Va., Penn., Ohio, and some other western states. Anthracite, or Mineral Coal, though classed as a mineral ; yet, be- ing acknowledged to be of vegetable origin, it properly belongs to the vegetable kingdom. Its mineralogical character is described as co- lor greyish and jet black; lustre imperfectly metalic ; opaque ; speci- fic gravity 1-4 to 1-6 fracture conchoidal. This is one of the best, if not the very best, kinds of coal. Some of the varieties have highly iridescent colors, with a columnar structure, and variable lustre. Its geological position is confined to the transition rocks. It consists chiefly of carbon, with a proportion of oxide of iron, silex, alumina, &c. It is not so widely distributed as the bituminous coals, being little known in Europe, except in small veins, not worth working ; but it abounds in the U. S., and during the last twenty years has been con- sumed in large quantities. It is ignited with difficulty, arid it was therefore introduced into use very slowly ; but grates being adapted for its combustion, it soon came into general notice and esteem, and its consumption since has rapidly increased, not only for warming apart- ments, but for all manufacturing purposes ; and, more recently, for producing steam. It is devoid of all the smoke and smell which char- acterises the bituminous coal, and its heat is much greater ; so that its advantages are far superior, for most purposes. The extent of this coal in Penn. is well known ; it furnishes 2-3ds of the coal consumed in the U. S. It is of easy access, being in hills mostly 200 or 300 feet above the water, and from 15 to 40 feet thick. The beds are mostly 118 POTASH. horizontal. Extensive formations of the slate coal a species of the anthracite, is found on the island of R. I., which is very good for ma- nufacturing purposes. According to estimates there are there 1000 million tons. At Worcester and other places in Mass, this coal also abounds. POTASH, or Potassa, is also a vegetable product, and one of the greatest importance in the arts of life, and as a staple product of our country. Its name is from ashes and the pots in which the lixivium, from which it is obtained, is boiled ; its old name was Kali, vegetable alkali ; also salt of tartar, alkali of nitre, &c. The process of obtain- ing it is to mix the ley of vegetable ashes with quick lime, and to boil it down in iron pots ; the residuum is ignited, and the resulting substance is potash. The purest is obtained from the action, in a red-hot pot, of nitre 1 part, and 2 parts of tartar ; the basis of these salts is potash, and the acids previously combined with them are given off. Plants growing remote from salt water yield this alkali most abundantly, herbs more than trees, branches more than the trunks of trees, and leaves more than all. Potash is commonly obtained from the ashes of almost every spe- cies of vegetable, by simply pouring water upon them. This dis- solves the salt from its combinations, and the water is then evaporated ; the residuum is carbonate of potash, and purified, the pearl-ash and the salt of tartar of the shops. With nitric acid it forms salt-petre, or nitrate of potash. As an article of commerce it is of a dark grey color, and contains much vegetable extractive matter. After being procured as above, it is heated in a reverbatory furnace, which dissipates the wa- ter, destroys the extractive matter, and reduces it 15 per cent. The potash is then white and pure, and hence called pearl-ash. It liquefies on exposure ; and if adulterated with lime, as commonly, it falls into powder. A highly important alkali soda is obtained from sea plants, and used, with others, in the manufacture of glass and fine wares. No class of salts, indeed, is more important in the arts than that afforded by the combinations of potash. The Greeks and Romans were acquainted with caustic alkalies, and soap was made, says Pliny, from tallow and wood ashes. In combina- tion with acids, potash is found in both kingdoms ; in the inorganic or mineral kingdom, combined with sulphur, nitric, silicic, and carbonic acids, and in the organic, or animal kingdom, with phosphoric, sulphuric, nitric, carbonic, and various organic acids ; thus being a component of the three kingdoms. In rocks it is more abundant than soda, and in vegetables more than in animals. To purify it, a solution in water is evaporated in an iron vessel, and the hydrate is poured into moulds ; or. pour it upon a bright iron plate, when drops rising on the surface become hard on removal, and when hard, put it immediately into bot- tles with ground stoppers. Pure hydrate of potash is white, extremely i NATURE AND EFFECTS OF POTASH. 119 caustic, and dissolves in alcohol or water. Having a strong affinity for water, it liquefies on exposure to the air. It is used in surgery, by the name of lapis causticus ; it is also much used in chemistry and in the arts. It is the basis of common soft soaps, though not thus used in a pure state. It forms numerous salts with acids ; but free, it gives a green color to the infusion of red cabbage, or the syrup of vio- lets, reddens tumeric, and colors blue litmus reddened by an acid. It has 1 atom of potash to 1 of water, 48 to 9 by weight, and 84 to 15 per cent, in quantity. The physiological effects are its immediate destruction of parts of living plants ; on animals it is an energetic caustic poison, and most frequently perforates the stomach. Injected into the jugular vein of a do?, it coagulates the blood, and causes speedy death ; but, mixed with blood out of the body, it does not coagulate it, but actually pre- vents coagulation. On man it neutralizes any free acid, or the phos- phate of lime of the bones, where it is applied, and combines with the fibrin and albumen of the flesh, forming fibrate and albuminate of pot- ash ; also with gelatine, and thus acts as in forming soap. It is in- jurious to the stomach, by saturating the free acids, which are essen- tial to digestion. If insufficient to exert action on the tissues, it is absorbed, and alters the qualities of the secreted fluids, particularly of the urine, so that it is a powerful diuretic ; if continued, it acts like mercury, as a resolvent, and the ultimate effects are pernicious, pro- ducing scurvy, &c. In water, it is applied for an issue, by washing a linseed oil poultice with a hole in the middle. For the bite of poison- ous animals, serpents or mad dogs, it is used with advantage; and also as a wash for ulcers, for destroying warts, to modify the quality of urine, &c. The alkalies, in fine, are used in numerous cases. The antidotes are acids or oil, both forming salts with this or other alkalies, and diminishing their causticity. The decomposition of potash was effected in 1807, by Sir H. Davy, with a galvanic battery. A piece of solid hydrate placed between 2 platina plates was connected with the ends of a battery of 200 double plates, 4 inches square, when it soon underwent fusion, oxygen sepa- rating to the positive surface and metalic globules to the negative. This metal (potassium) is the basis of potash. It may be obtained by heating potash to a whiteness in a gun-barrel in cotact with iron turnings, the air being excluded, the potassium is liberated and col- lects in the cold end of the tube. It is immediately placed in naptha to prevent combustion by exposure to the air. 300 grains have been obtained from 24 oz. of crude tartar by a different process. Potassium is the lightest solid known ; it is lighter than water, has a color like silver, fuses at 150, and takes fire and burns rapidly on cold water by- combining with its oxygen, and also in chlorine gas. It forms several different compounds. Potash is a protoxide of potassium, and the 120 SODA ESCULENT ROOTS. numerous combinations which it forms as alkaline salts are of the greatest importance. But as an immediate product of burnt vegeta- bles, and as a constituent of living ones, it has a more special relation to our subject. It is alluded to in the chapter on the agriculture of chemistry as an important agent in soils ; and as a staple article of commerce in this country, it is highly important. Of pot and pearl- ashes, the exports from the U. S. in 1830 were 8,957 tons, valued at $1,105,127. The value of the product of 1840 is put down at $533,193 though it is thought to be increasing as our lands become cleared and the trees and herbage are consumed. There is probably a greater quantity exported from this country than from any other, as it can be produced in great quantities only where there are extensive forests. Vegetables yield potash in very different proportions. In 1000 Ibs. of the following vegetables, saline matter is afforded as below worm- wood 748, fumitory 360, stalks of sunflower 349, beech 219, stalks of wheat 198, elm 166, vine 162, fir, 132, heath 115, fern 116, oak 111. Grasses, leaves, the stalks of peas, beans, melons, cabbages, pota- toes, artichokes and maize are very rich in this alkali. Leached ashes forms an excellent manure for damp or clay soils and is used in making black glass. The potash of America affords alkali 857, sulphate of potassa 154, muriate do. 20; in all of which it is richer than that of any other country. Soda exists in all plants impregnated with marine salt, and many are burned for it, and some especially cultivated. For the manufac- ture of soda the plants are collected when vegetation has ended, dried and thrown into a pit 4 feet square, previously heated by a split wood fire, and the plants gradually thrown in and the combustion continued for 7 or 8 days, when a block of soda is found in the bottom which is taken to market and used in glass works. From the immense quanti- ty of sea-weed thrown upon our shores, we are inclined to think this might be made a very profitable business in parts of this country. Soda is also furnished to commerce by the decomposition of common salt, converted to a sulphate by sulphuric acid, and this is decomposed in a furnace, when mixed with charcoal and chalk. The most common salts in plants are sulphate of potash, common salt, phosphates of lime and nitrate of potash. The 4 earths obtained from plants by com- bustion are silica, lime, magnesia and alumina. Dry plants afford far larger portions of potash than green ones. Saussure's table of the proportions afforded, as found in Chaptal, is the best guide. ESCULENT ROOTS. Roots are of different kinds, the common spindle shaped, or fusiform root, shooting into the ground, with fleshy fibres and radicals branching from the main stem like the beet, radish, the tree, &c. ; buttons THE POTATO. 121 roots with skins like the onion of the alium tribe, and with fleshy fibres, (strictly speaking these are not roots,) or tuberous roots with fibres in like manner as the potato ; and the parasitical roots with fibres not fixed to the earth, but attached to trees or other objects. Succulent roots are the beet, turnip, carrot, parsnip, (the two last are umbeliferous,) skirret, mangel wurzel, &c. These are all annual while many other roots are biennial or perennial. Roots have been noticed more particularly in part I. The relative proportion of nutriment in these, taking potatoes as the standard, have been stated by Sir H. Davy, as follows, in 1000 parts, of each. Quantity of soluble or I Mucilage I Saccharine I Gluten or nutritive matter. J I matter. J albumen. Potatoes, 260 to 200 200 to 155 20 to 15 30 to 40 Red beet, 148 14 121 13 Mangel wurzel, 136 13 119 4 Common turnip, 42 7 34 1 Sweedish turnip, 64 9 51 2 Carrot, 98 3 95 Parsnip, 99 9 90 The esculent vegetables which belong to this class constitute a very important part of human and animal food, though not capable of yielding all the nutrition necessary for the support of man. They are the common auxiliaries of the table in almost all countries, and are very palatable and wholesome, cooked in any of the numerous ways in which they usually are served up. Some are also highly im- portant for the purposes to which their juices have been applied as will hereafter appear, especially for the sugar with which they gener- ally abound. We propose to speak of all the edible roots under this head, commencing with the potato, by far the most valuable known. POTATO. Salanum tuberosum. C. 5. 0. 1. sp. 79 360. Tr. A. 2 ft. This plant is a native of N. and S. America, having innumer- able varieties, and producing a tuberous root of greater dietetical im- portance than any other, esculent root in the vegetable kingdom, and inferior only to the Cerealia. The Sweet Potato, papas (Conovolvulus Batata}, was introduced into Ireland from New Granada, by Capt. Sir John Hawkins, in 1545 ; and was cultivated in the South of Europe probably before that time. The common Virginian potato was introduced into England by Sir W. Raleigh and his associates in 1584-6. The first requiring a warmer climate, did not succeed, but the latter was soon brought into use. SirW. first cultivated it in his own garden in Ireland, in 1610; and such has been its progress there, that it has long constituted from 1 to 2-3ds of the food of the Irish. 11 ORIGIN AND INTRODUCTION. The potato was at first esteemed a great luxury in England, and Queen Anne ordered them served on her table at 2s. the pound. In 1663 it was recommended by the Royal Society for the prevention of famine. Indeed, no vegetable production has ever made so much pro- gress in cultivation and consumption as this has within the last 60 years, notwithstanding the great opposition to it. Though not culti- vated in Scotland, except in gardens, till 1728, yet the quantity raised there 10 years ago was 12 times that in 1784. In this country the cultivation of the potato has increased with our population, so that the product of the U. S. last year was 136,883,383 bushels. It was called, in the records of the voyages to this country, openawk. The Irish gardner of Sir W. R., on finding one potato of the maturity of" apples," as the result of planting, earnestly enquired of Sir W. if that were the fine fruit of Amiriki. Pretending to be disappointed himself, Sir W. ordered his gardner to root out the seed entirely, in doing which, instead of one, he found a bushel of potatoes ! The potato was found wild in various parts of America, by the first discoverers, and it still is so found. It grows abundantly in a wild state, near Valparaiso, and along the coast for many miles, where its flowers are always a pure white, instead of being colored like the cultivated plant. It has been transported to foreign botanical gardens, where the tubers vary but very little from the common cultivated plant. The attempts, therefore, to make it appear doubtful as to its origin, or as not indigenous to this country, render the fact of its being so the more apparent, and the quibblers the more silly and s-elfish. It was brought into use in G. Britain against the strongest and most ridiculous prejudices and misrepresentations of the aristocracy and professional men. Many writers on plants did not even mention it for more than 100 years after its introduction, and not until its merits and cultivation had forced it upon public attention. It had long been ex- tensively cultivated in Ireland, and was well known in Scotland, be- fore it was much used in England. Religious prejudices were waged against it, it having been main- tained that potatoes are not mentioned in the Bible !" Therefore the same anathema was pronounced against it as was pronounced against spinning wheels" and corn farmers." On no subject do men appear so irrational as when arraying their religious prejudices against science and the gifts of nature. More recently the priests of the Ionian Islands pronounced the potato the forbidden fruit," and the cause of the fall of man ;" hence its use must be sacrilegious and wicked. Nor were the French without their prejudices against its use, they having rejected a gentleman for cul- tivating it, and alleged that he invented it. Popular favor subsequently set in so strongly in its favor that Louis XIV. and his court wore the flower in the button-holes of their coats. During the dearth of the HISTORY AND CULTIVATION. 123 Revolution, the cultivation was effectually established. The peasants of Italy were offered a reward by the government before they could be induced to cultivate it ; but during a subsequent famine, they re- fused to receive a reward for that which had saved their lives. The potato is now generally cultivated in India, China, and the East. But it does not thrive well in tropical climates, below 3 or 4,- 000 feet from the level of the sea. The potato came into general use on the continent about the middle of the last century. A royal edict brought it into general cultivation, in Sweden, in 1764. In Switzerland it was in use in 1720, and was first made into bread in 1730 ; so that in 1760 it constituted the food of 2-3ds of the people. In Poland, also, it has become a chief article of food, 85,763,700 Ibs. being raised there in 1827. It was intro- duced into India about 40 years ago, and it is there now extensively cultivated. It is said to be the best gift which the natives ever received from their European masters." In Hindostan it is increas- ingly cultivated, as there, it is said, no religious prejudices exist against its introduction, as was the case with their enlightened European mas- ters. But this plant has forced itself into universal use by its valu- able qualities, and is now admitted, even by British writers, as " neces- sary to the Englishman's fare," and as " the plant which seems alone to have been wanted to make the British isles complete." A glance at the products of our country shows the engrossing importance of this vegetable, especially since emigration has become so great. The cultivation of the potato on the continent of Europe has been rapid beyond example. In fine, its introduction and consumption has had, and will continue to have, a wonderful effect on the condition of the population of the world. It has added millions to Europe, and seems designed, as well from its nature as from the facility of its cultivation, to render unknown the famines of former years. It ap- pears also to be adapted to almost all climates and soils. The appearance and growth of the potato are too well known to need description. The supposed root consists of many tubers connect- ed to the base of the stem by fibres. The points where the rootlets connect with the tubers to convey nourishment to the plant, are the eyes of the potato, and contain germs of future plants. This plant, unlike all grains and leguminous plants, is secure against late rains, an advantage of the highest importance. Uplands and light soil ap- pear to be better adapted to its culture than strong rank lands ; still, new soil produces better potatoes than that which is light and spongy, on account of its moisture, and the large quantity of vegetable matter elaborated so soon, requiring much moisture, and little resistance to its expansion. Side hills and mountains, mostly composed of a mixture of sand and vegetable matter, are therefore best adapted for the pota- to. Even loose and light soils, with a plenty of moisture, are produc- 124 CULTIVATION OF THE POTATO. tive of this root ; and it is its great and peculiar advantage over the grains, legumes, and most other esculent vegetables, that it can be cultivated where no other can be profitably grown, and at small ex- pense, and also, that it is less subject to disease, and more secure against degeneration on such soils than many that are richer. The propagation of potatoes is commonly by putting them into the ground divided, into as many parts or sets as they have eyes. The blossoms are now often pinched off, on their appearance, this being thought to increase the root an ounce in each potato, or more than a ton to an acre. The plant is likewise propagated by cuttings or lay- ers of green shoots, and by the seeds. The first is only to multiply a rare sort speedily ; the second produces few and small tubers at first, but it may improve the quality, and form varieties without number, while the cultivation by the tubers enables one to extend and perpetuate good varieties once obtained. Jl nursery system for the potato would be of the greatest importance, for the purpose of obtaining the best seedling tubers. Quite too little attention, it is very evident, has been paid to the improvement of this invaluable esculent in this country. It has been, in fact, for the most part, scarcely fit for swine. Three years being required to bring it forward from the seed, it should be the pleasure, as it is the duty, of every cultivator, to plant superior seeds annually, for the purpose of forming new and improved varieties. Grown on the same soil for a few years it invariably depreciates ; so that instead of requiring the least care, as commonly supposed, it requires the greatest care. A new variety, called the Kelseyan, or Perfectionist, originating near New Haven, Ct., produced last year from 2 tubers 494 potatoes. The eyes are numerous, and are cut singly, and 3 placed in a hill. It is said to be equal to the Mercer. The Pinkeyes have a very great num- ber of eyes, and it has been thought that two are most productive, and that the stems should not exceed five. A new variety, called the Bakewell potato, is spoken of as of supe- rior quality, even to the Pinkeyes or Rohans. Tubers will also im- prove by changes from one place to another. *# disease called the curl, or curl-top, attacks the plant, during which the top-leaves shrink about the time the tubers should form ; the growth ceases and the plant afterwards looks yellow and sickly and the product is but little and that of a bad quality. If the seed tuber be taken up it is found firm and less exhausted than others, showing that it has been too compact for the vegetative powers of the plant. This is avoided by selecting seed tubers which are not quite ripe. The ripe potato has performed all its operations, and becomes inert and worn out with age ; but the circulation in the unripe tuber having been arrested by removal from the soil, it starts again readily and with increased vigor when planted. The over ripeness appears therefore PRODUCTS OF POTATOES. 125 to be the cause of the disease. It is caused also by using seed stock exposed to the light or air during the winter; it should be covered to protect its juices. The eyes of the tuber also vary in this particular, as those nearest the end securing the tuber to the plant ripen first, while those of the other, or larger end, are soft and waxy and best suited for planting. High culture and stimulating manures induce this disease, or it arises from properties left in the soil by previous crops. It is less frequent in new lands and in cold upland places. The production of an acre of land with the same care and manuring as with wheat, may produce 300 bushels of potatoes, or 24 bushels of wheat. The food of the first, at 38 Ibs. the bushel, will be 1 1,400 Ibs. weight, and that of the second at 60 Ibs. the bushel will be 1,400 Ibs. or of the first by weight. Wheat contains about 3 times as much mucilage or starch and of gluten or albumen as the same weight of potatoes, but it is deficient in saccharine matter, while the potato contains from 3 to 4 per cent of it. It has been estimated that 2 Ibs. of wheat are equal to 7 pounds of potatoes, the mean weight being as stated 1 to 8 ; if, therefore, 480 ibs. of wheat be required for each individual, or its equivalent 1680 Ibs. of potatoes, an acre of wheat will sustain 3 persons and an acre of potatoes will support 6|, or more than twice the number. The average produce in Ireland is considered 82 barrels the acre, or 22,960 Ibs. If 4 pounds of potatoes are equal to a pound of wheat, the above amount divided by 4 will give the amount of nutriment as 5.740 Ibs. The relative proportion of solid nutriment yielded by an acre of wheat and of potatoes is estimated by Mr. Young as 1 to 3. According to Sir H. Davy, wheat yields 950 parts of nutri- tive matter in 1000, and potatoes 230 in 1000, the product of an acre of potatoes being 9 tons and of wheat 1 ton ; the quantity of nutri- tive matter will therefore be as 9 to 4 or more than double, so that the population of a potato feeding country, other things being equal, may be from 2 to 3 times more dense than if fed entirely on corn plants. Still, the use of potatoes wholly, cannot be desirable, nor is their accumulation and preservation in quantities without many difficulties. It appears therefore important and desirable that the pro- ducts of a country should not be wholly one or two kinds, but as va- ried, if possible, as we find them at present in our own country. The use of potatoes in the composition of bread appears to be greatly in- creasing. It is said that 40,000 tons of potatoes are annually made into flour, for the purpose of uniting it in the formation of bread, within a circuit of 8 leagues around Paris. The estimated annual product of potatoes and chestnuts in France is 130,000,000 bushels and the estimated annual value of potatoes in the kingdom of G. B. is about 12 millions sterling. The products of potatoes are various. Alcohol is extracted from 11* 126 CHARACTER OF THE POTATO. them in considerable quantities in Europe and they are believed to be cheaper for this purpose than barley. In Prussia, where they are greatly cultivated, many uses are made of them. Starch, molasses and sugar are produced from them, the two first being of superior quality. Mixed with wheat flour, curd and salt, potatoes make a light and wholesome bread. Starch is manufactured both here and in Europe, in large quantities by scraping them in cold water. Yeast is also pre- pared from them, and the seed vessels are said to make a pickle equal to the cucumber. Potatoes do, indeed, furnish flour without a mill, and bread with- out an oven." They are most wholesome and palatable when cooked by steam. They make two kinds of flour by manipulation, gruel and a parenchyma to be used in bread ; and chemically, they are made into beer, vinegar and spirits. Cheese may also be made of the flour, reduced to paste, with salt and an equal amount of cheese curd, and formed in moulds. The Germans eat potatoes by slicing, boiling and pouring gravy over them ; they are used for salads, with a mixture of anchovies. The starch makes an excellent paste. Potatoes eaten raw are said to be among the best remedies for and preventives against scurvy. Mashed, mixed and distilled with malt, the spirit afforded is abundant and strong, and by vinous fermentation a good wine is produced. 22k Ibs. of starch are yielded by 100 Ibs. of potatoes, and this yields ]| gals, of proof spirits. The tissue of potatoes is cellular and each cell contains 10 or 12 grains of starch. In the cells and intercellular spaces is an albu- minous liquid. Boiling separates the cells, the starch absorbs this liquid, and the albumen coagulates in fibres between the grains of starch. When this takes place the potato is mealy ; but when im- perfect it is doughy or watery. This cut shows the difference of character and appearance between a raw and boiled potato, which is here represented as cut in two. a. shows the cells and the particles of starch, as seen by a mag- nified power before boiling, with concentric spiral and irregular rings ; and also the cells broken with the particles entire, b shows the state of the pota- to and its cells after boiling, as noticed above. The substances of potatoes are starch, starchy fibrin., albu- men, gum, acids, salts and water. A salt (solarind) has been discovered in the potato, particularly in the bud which is the cause of the bad effects of germinating potatoes when eaten by cattle. Diastase is also found near the bud. The starch in a potato varies with the season. 100 Ibs. of potato yield in PLANTING OF THE POTATO. 127 Aug. 10 Ibs., in Sept. 14 J, in Oct. 14f, in Nov. 17, in March 17, in April 13, and in May 10 Ibs. From the spirit of potatoes a volatile oil is produced ; and an extract from the stalks and leaves is said to possess narcotic properties. Potatoes are less nutritive to cattle in a raw state than when boiled 5 and they are then laxative and diuretic to man. The rows of potatoes should point north and south, as they thereby receive a greater breadth and duration of solar light. This is also to be regarded in cultivating other plants. Mr. Knight recommends the planting of whole large potatoes 4 or 5 inches apart, with the crown end upwards. He thinks a luxuriant haulm or herbage is no evidence of a diminished tuber, except when it falls or becomes matted, thereby losing the influence of the sun. Outside and single rows produce far the largest crops, owing chiefly to their greater exposure to air and light. This has proved equivalent to 58 tons to the acre. Sets or eyes, when planted, should be cut from the crown end or the middle of the tuber, never from the lower or root end and they may be planted nearer together than whole tubers. Close planting in single rows is recommended. Potatoes produce 1st, cottony flax, from the stalk, 2d, sugar from the roots, 3d, potass by combustion, 4th, vinegar from the apples, 5th, soap, or a substitute from the tubercles for bleaching, 6th, spirits by distila- tion, and lastly, when cooked by steam, the most farinaceous and eco- nomical food of all vegetables. We have described its starch and its employment in bread elsewhere. When given to animals they should be cut in pieces or boiled, which is far better more nutritive and less dangerous. Potatoes renewed from seed. Take the apples when ripe, in Oct. before the frost has hurt them, hang them by the foot stalks in a dry place, so that they will not freeze, till March or April ; mash them, wash the seeds from the pulp and dry them in a sunny place. These will produce full sized roots the 2d season. They are sown in a well prepared bed early in May and transplanted into prepared soil, one or two plants in a hill, when 4 or 5 inches high. The tubers thus raised will differ much from those which bore the apple. Plant one potato of the new variety in a hill so as to keep the varieties and the pro- duct separate. No variety will continue good over 15 years. The soil should be light and sandy, though rich, for dry and mealy potatoes ; not greatly manured. The more the soil is pulverized the better will be the crop. It should be ploughed deep, as the roots generally grow as low as the soil is stirred. The manure of swine with straw is considered best, as the latter being light, admits air and ferments when the potato most needs it. No crop pays better for good cultivation, though it is often good with little. 128 PROPERTIES OF POTATOES. In Sweden brandy is distilled from them, an acre of potatoes pro- ducing more than one of barley, and a gallon of spirits is produced by 6 pecks of boiled potatoes by distillation. 72 Ibs. boiled, are bruised and passed through a riddle with fresh water. The pulp is then mixed with cold water to the amount of 20 gals. To this is added yeast and in 12 hours the fermentation begins and continues for the same time. By stirring it briskly the fermentation goes on for 2 weeks. It is then put into a still, boiled and stirred, the cap put on and the boiling continued till the whole runs over. The taste is like fine brandy. Thus one acre produces 300 gals. The previous estimate of the nutritive properties may be too low. Some have estimated that 3 Ibs. of potatoes are equal to 1 of bread, and that the quantity of food produced by an acre is three times greater than that from an acre of wheat. It is certain that they yield more than double the quantity of food to the acre, and that they are raised at less expense of labor. As the price of labor is estimated by the food mostly used in a country, the labor will necessarily be lower where the laboring classes subsist mainly on potatoes. This is proved by the example of the Irish, both here and in Europe. The properties of potatoes are various. They are especially nutri- tious to those who take much exercise, but to those of a thin or spare habit they are not so. They require to be cooked with care. An Irish gentleman says, they should always be cooked in an iron sauce- pan, and that they should not be peeled when cooked, as much of their nutriment is thereby lost, but only washed and a little scraped at farthest. They should soak for an hour, before being put in the pan, in cold water, just covering them. When the water begins to boil, let a tea cup full of cold water be put in, which checking the boiling, gives time for their being cooked through without breaking. When tried with a fork and found done, the water is poured off, and they are left to stand for a short time over a gentle fire, by which the remain- ing moisture is evaporated ; they are then peeled for the table, and found, if of a good kind, mealy and delicate. Or put them in a pot with cold water, and with the top loosely on; let them boil gradually with the water just covering them. After a time put the top closely on and boil until soft ; pour off the water, and drain them in a cullen- der, then put them on again without water, and dry them till they split. It has been a question, of late, as to the depreciation of this vege- table. Soil and climate certainly alter their nature, but not more than inattention to their improvement by art. The pieces planted should have at least two eyes, and should be previously dried a few days. About 14 bushels of seed potatoes are required for the acre, and these have often yielded 500 bushels. Potato tops, it is said, cut when in flower, and the juice extracted by bruizing and pressing them, color linen or woollen soaked in it, a fine and permanent yellow. VARIETIES AND SPECIES. 129 As few of the early varieties of the common potato produce blos- soms, seeds may be procured for changing the varieties by depriving the plant, of its tubers as they appear, and keeping the runners above ground by not earthing them, and blossoms and seeds will soon be pro* duced. The flowers of superior kinds should also be plucked to in- crease the tubers. The rationale of this is found in the fact, that the same sap gives existence to both the tubers and blossoms. This is di- minished, of course, by both, and the flower, therefore, wastes a part of the crop of tubers, by consuming the sap necessary to their growth. The importance of plucking the flower, to increase the crop of tubers, and of removing the tubers to improve the seed, and the variety of potatoes they produce, is therefore apparent. And this may answer equally well with other fruit plants. The varieties are so numerous that it would be needless to particu- larize them, or the peculiar soil and treatment they require. The ash- colored kidney is in high repute abroad. For keeping, they should be fully ripe and dry, and stored in dry straw, but not in heaps. The Mercer is also a good, if not the best variety. Many others have their advantages. This extensive genus, solanece, includes the tomato and egg plant, celebrated in cookery, but not many handsome plants. S. dulcamara has roots which smell like the common potato, but being chewed, it excites at first a sensation of bitterness, and then of sweetness. The berries excite vomiting and purging. The twigs and leaves have been successfully used in rheumatic and scorbutic cases. S. lycopersicum a deceitful fruit, is cultivated much about Naples and Rome, for the berries. It is used in stews, soups, and sauces, and makes excellent sauce for fish, meat, &c. This begins to be cultivated in England, but not here, we believe. It is there raised on hot-beds and walls. S. nigrum grows on dunghills, and is narcotic and poisonous. S. pseudocapsicum is cultivated inChina for the fruit, served on the tables of mandarins, like our cherries. S. melongena is cultivated in Eu- rope and the E. and W. Indies ; and the fruit is used boiled, stewed, and in sauces, like the love-apple. A plant has recently been introduced into this country from S. Am- erica, the fruit of which grows some 15 feet above ground, and has been incorrectly denominated a potato. It is said to possess excellent edible qualities. From a description of it, there is no doubt it belongs to the genus solatium, of which there are some 360 species, and pro- bably to the species lycopersicum, as cultivated in Italy and the W. In- dies, to the love-apple or tomato family, a native of S. America, the S. melongena, egg plant, or others of the berried species. A variety answering to this is cultivated in the W. Indies for the fruit, which is eaten, boiled, stewed, in sauce, &c., like the love-apple. These, like all of the night-shades, to which the potato belongs, are poisonous ia 130 SWEET POTATO. a raw state. A specimen of the fruit alluded to may be seen, we un- derstand, at the American Institute in this city, it having been raised from seeds obtained from S. Carolina, where the plant is some culti- vated for its nutritive properties. S. Taberosum. Stems unarmed ; leaves uninterruptedly pinnate, entire with 5 or 7 lanceolate, oval leafllets ; flowers panicled, large, purplish, or white, drooping, handsome ; flower, stalks subdivided Peru and N. A. The Sweet Potato, or convolvulus battata, was introduced into Spain from S. America, and afterwards into England, about the middle of the 16th century, from Spain and the Canaries. Its stalks are a pale green, trailing, and extending several feet around the centre. The tubers, in a favorable climate, are very large : 40 or 50 often grow from one plant. The flowers are purple, but the varieties differ in the size, form, and flavor of the root. It often multiplies spontaneous- ly in S. America and the W. Indies, but it is generally propagated by laying down young shoots in the spring. It is of abundant growth, and easily propagated in warm climates. It is much cultivated in the Carolinas and other southern states, and considerably in Va., Md., and N. J. The climate is too cold for it further north. Its consump- tion increases in the northern states. It is sweet and nutritious, containing more saccharine matter than the common potato, and with most people, it is a favorite food. It may be kept during the winter in perfectly dry places. Efforts are making to acclimatize it in France, and increasing attention is paid to its cultivation both at the south and in some of the middle states. The seed potatoes are raised in a hot-bed ; the sprouts are then cut off and planted in a field of rich soil, 3 or 4 sprouts in a hill; they then grow up so fast as to suffocate weeds. Those with a red skin form a very nutritious jelly with water. Bowen's Patent Sago," used by the army, is this powder. The roots are grated and the mass washed with water through wire seives of different sizes, then dried in pans. The water in which potatoes are closely boiled is reputed poisonous. Boiling expels the poisonous qualities of many of the most nutritive plants. Oxalis Deppie is a new vegetable now successfully cultivated in England, but it will soon come into general cultivation. The flavor of the stalk and tubers is distinct from any vegetable now culti- vated. It was introduced from Belgium, where it is much raised. This plant is also a native of the E. Indies, but has produced varie- ties in all warm parts of the earth. It is the potato of Shakspeare and cotemporaneous writers. Leaves hastate, or 3-lobed ; flowers white externally, disposed in clusters on axillary foot-stalks. THE BEET. 131 BEET, beta vulgaris. C. 5.02. Chenopodeae. Fr. Dh. A. sp. 5-7. 4 ft from the Greek letter of that name which the seeds resemble. This is a well known succulent root much cultivated in this coun- try and in Europe where it grows wild. It is a native of Sicily and came to England in 1548. The principal varieties are the rc.d and white, though there are 6 others cultivated. The former is principal- ly used at table, scraped, in salads, boiled, and cut in slices, as a pickle and stewed with onions; but if eaten in great quantities they are inju- rious. They are taken from the ground in August, but are not per- fected before October. The red beet when boiled, is tender, sweet, and palatable. Deprived of most of its juice and treated like malt, it is found to be a good substitute for barley ; and the beer is perfectly wholesome, palatable, and little inferior to that of malt. The beet af- fords a great amount of saccharine matter, and the French continue to make large quantities of sugar from it. In this country, also, both kinds are extensively grown for the manufacture of sugar, for cattle and for culinary uses. For sugar, beets are boiled soon after being taken from the earth ; and, when cold, sliced and pressed, and the juice evaporated to the consistency of syrup, after which the sugar is obtained by crystaliza- tion. 110 Ibs. of the root yield 41 Ibs. of juice, which, by evaporation, yield 4 Ibs. of brown sugar, or 4 Ibs. of white powdered sugar. The residuum, with the syrup and molasses, yields 3 quarts of rectified spirits, similar to rum. The manufacture of sugar from the beet does not however compete successfully with that from the sugar cane, though the amount is about the same. The leaves of the beet, raised in rich soil, contain considerable pure nitre, supposed to be derived from the animal matter of the manure. Beside its uses as food for man, it is very valuable for cattle and other animals. The early turnip-rooted beet is good for summer use, the tops being used boiled as greens. Cattle fatten on the sugar beet and cows give more milk for a short time, after which they grow too fat. The Sinclair beet has large leaves which are tender and excellent, served up as spinnage with the boiled stalk. Beets are preserved as a confection and pickle, and are used as a substitute for coflee. For sugar, the green topped and for salads the small red are preferred. They should have deep, well com- minuted soil, and each should have a square foot. Sliced with boiled onions, the beet is a nice condiment, with cold meat, mixed with spices, vinegar and hard boiled eggs. The stalks and ribs of the white are good in soups, for stewing and dressed like asparagus ; and the leaves are fine pot herbs. Beets make good pies, when well cooked. The mangel wurzel beet, or mangol wurzcl of the Germans, is grown principally for cattle; having a larger root and making sugar. The leaves, when young, scraped and boiled and served with butter, are good, and also as spinach. The silver or kail beet, is mostly culti- 132 PRODUCTIONS AND PREPARATIONS. vated now for sugar. The beet requires about 10 pounds of seed to the acre, on the garden plan. The quantity raised on an acre is from 3 to 500 bushels in this country, though 1000 and even 1600 have been raised. A bushel weighs about 90 pounds ; and the root yields 7 per cent of sugar, 3 of molasses and 25 of cake. If the sugar is worth 7 cts. per pound, the molasses 3 and the cake as much as the beet, the produce of an acre of, say 60,000 pounds will be 4,200 pounds of sugar at 7 cts. $294, 1,800 pounds of molasses at 3 cts. $54, 15,000 pounds of cake at 4 mills $90 total, $407,00; expense of cultivation and making sugar, $108,00 ; nett profit $300. The beet ("the root of scarcity") is sown in drills, 1 or 2 feet apart, or broad cast, and raked in. When up, 2 or three inches, they are thinned to give room for their large leaves which are excellent, when young, boiled served with butter, or as greens ; never disturbing the central leaves. Beets being pulled, the tops taken off and dried under shelter a few hours, are laid for winter on alternate layers of straw and dry sand, covering the top with 3 inches of sand and a coat of straw, in an open place, or in the cellar. The weather nor insects affect them much, and they prepare the soil for other crops. They are cultivated like other beets. They often weigh from 9 to 16 pounds, and 4 or 600 pounds are raised on an acre. Cattle are very fond of them, and cows fed on them give much milk and cream, and others fatten on them quickly when cut and mixed with clover, &c. Oxen fed with 40 pounds and 10 pounds of hay per day one month, and 50 pounds alone thereafter, are fattened for sale in 2 months. They are equally good for all domestic animals. The culture of beets cannot be too highly recommended, on account of the occasional failure of grass crops. They furnish cattle with a cheap and nourishing forage summer and winter. When eaten warm, the beet has a mawkish flavor, and it is there- fore preferred cold, boiled and cut in slices with vinegar. Sir H. Davy has estimated its nutritive properties to be greater than any other root, the potato excepted, this being 148 in 1000 parts, or about 15 per cent. 12 per cent of the whole is saccharine matter, which is greater than in any other esculent ; the amount of this and mucilage is the same in the white and red beet, but the red has nearly three times as much gluten ; that is, 13 parts and 14 of starch in 1000 ; and it is therefore one of the most nutritive of the esculent roots. The larger the roots the more tender they are. It is thought to be less apt to produce heartburn, or flatulency, in weak stomachs than any of the succulent roots. The beet from which the French obtain sugar has a red skin, but it is white within. The white beet is chiefly cultivated for domestic ani- mals in this vicinity, for which purpose it is preferred to the carrot or tur- BEET SUGAR. 133 nip. Some varieties of the field beet have red stem, branches and veins of the leaves ; in others the leaves are wholly red, and in others the roots are red, brown or yellow. The colored varieties are thought to be more hardy than the white. Some white varieties are cultivated in gardens for their large leaves, which are used as spinnage and in soups, especially the great white, or sweet beet, the foot-stalks and ribs of the leaves of which are stewed. There is a sea-beet found in salt marshes. Beets require a mellow and warm soil, well pulverized to a good depth. They are sown early in squares of about 8 inches. The beet capsule, or seed vessel, con- tains several cells, each of which has a seed; therefore 4 or 5 plants may be produced ; these should be reduced to the healthiest one, and those taken up may be transplanted. They are hoed 2 or 3 times. The under leaves may be broken oft' for swine towards fall ; this ad- mits the sun and air to the roots. These should be taken up before frosts come. The fibrous roots should not be removed nor the herbage cut close. They keep good all winter. 1,160 bushels per acre were raised in Monroe co. N. Y. last year, and some weighing 25 pounds. One weighing 42 pounds, it is said, was raised in Europe a year or two since. The manufacture of beet sugar The discovery of sugar in the beet was made in Prussia in 1447. In 1800 the Institute of Paris decided that it was unwise to manufacture from it. Napoleon, by the Milan, decrees of 1809 prohibited the importation of British sugar and at once sought for means to supply its place, which were found in the beet ; and, in 1812, the manufacture was successfully prosecuted. But the peace of 1814 and the introduction of W. India sugar, soon destroyed the manufactories. Again, a duty on foreign sugar, which in 1829 amounted to a prohibition, revived and established 100 manufactories, producing 11 million pounds. This continued for a time, but the re- duction of the duty ultimately gave the advantage to the cane sugar, and that of the beet of late has been neglected ; so that only 44 man- ufactories are now in operation in France ; and the amount of sugar produced there last year, was but half a million pounds. Beet sugar, no one doubts, can be successfully manufactured in this country, having advantages superior to any other country for the purpose, with a superabundance of soil. The process of making beet sugar is first by cutting off' the rootlets and necks, washing, rasping and pressing. The juice is put into a copper boiler and mixed with one 400th part of sulphuric acid, and lime to saturate the acid. A brisk heat is applied, when a thick greenish froth forms, and the juice, of a yellow cast, becomes clarified The scum is removed in an hour or two, and the juice let ofl' by a stop cock, a little above the bottom, and transferred to a boiler and evaporated. At a certain density animal charcoal, in the proportion 12 134 THE TURNIP. of 2 to 100 of juice is added in powder, and afterwards the froth is removed and the syrup is filtered through woolen cloth and cooled. Sulphate of lime is added in a few hours which is carefully removed before boiling for crystalization. Otherwise the process is the same as with cane sugar. B. vulgaris. (Red) flowers heaped ; leaflets of the calyx toothed at the base; lower leaves ovate. B. cicla (white.) Flowers in threes; spikes greenish, axillary ; leaflets of calyx without teeth ; leaves ob- long, spear-shaped; colors various, as with 1st; subject to many varieties. TURNIP. Brassica rapa. C. 15. O. 2. Br. siliquosae. A. 1 ft. from to boil. The turnip is a well known and valuable esculent and edible root, much cultivated here and in Europe. The tops and roots are eaten by sheep and the latter by horses and cattle; the milk of cows, however, is made unpleasant by eating them. Boiled or roasted, and with pepper, they are a valuable.food for man. Bread has been made of them in times of scarcity by boiling them over a slow fire, squeez- ing them dry, mixing them with as much flour, and kneading them with yeast, salt, warm water, and then baking them. Their taste is not then perceptible. Turnips are good sea stores and the young tops are used for greens. They are raised from seeds in light soils, sown in June and are preserved stacked, or put under ground, for win- ter use. The value of the turnip crop in England is estimated at $60 mill- ion ; it emiatus barren soils and leaves them clean for other crops. A leg of mutton without mashed turnips is thought but half a dish. They are pulled, boiled, pressed dry, and served with butter, pepper, salt, &c. Turnips are used medicinally, for cough, hoarseness and similar complaints. The syrup extracted by baking them, when mixed with honey, is used for the same things. Middle sized turnips are best for the table as larger ones are more or less spongy. They are most useful in broths and white soups. They are nourishing though some- times flatulent and indigestible to weak stomachs, especially in a raw state. They are preserved by keeping them, with the tops off to within an inch of the bulb, in a dry pit, or cellar, and covered with straw. 600 bushels or 20 tons is a moderate crop per acre. They are becoming the basis of a great improvement in our husbandry. 1200 bushels of 60 pounds each, were raised in Monroe co., N. Y., last year, per acre. There are several varieties, the common white and ruta-baga being the principal. Bridgman selects 16 varieties for the garden. The varieties commonly known are the white and yellow. Of the first are the globe and green-top, with the bulb greenish, and the blue- top, with the bulb redish ; and also the red-top^ Of the 2d or yellow, are the aberdeen, more hardy than the globe, and the Swedish) or ruta CULTURE AND QUALITIES. 135 baga. The latter consumes a good deal of manure. These are sown about the middle of June with a drill harrow. When in the rough leaf, they are hoed and thinned to 8 or 10 inches, and afterwards the ground is small-ploughed and the weeds covered. The white, or the old English are sown about the middle of July, and managed as above. The seed plants should be placed by themselves and not exposed to the farina of others. All the degenerated Swedish turnips bear bright yellow flowers which should be pulled before the seed ripens ; but the true sort have brownish yellow flowers. Tobacco plants, set a rod apart among turnips, are said to save them from insects, or lime strewed over Them. Turnips are commonly sown here as a 2d crop, about a quart, or a pound to an acre, broad cast. Ashes and lime are strewed over the soil after sowing; say 15 bushels of the Island 25 of the 2d. Newly cleared or swarded land is said to produce the best turnips. For sheep and cattle, turnips are superior food. Sown broad-cast, the land should be harrowed and rolled. The turnip prefers a lighter soil than the cabbage tribe, but it must be well manured, especially the garden turnip. The field culture has become an important part of agriculture, as it should be, from the fact we have stated under the head of the chemistry of agriculture, as to its being the most productive crop grown. The best culture is in drills, by which 25 to 30 tons are raised from the acre ; even 60 tons have been raised. This plant was cultivated by the Romans and es- teemed by them next in value to corn, both to man and animals, and it was thought, their mode of cultivating it was superior to that of moderns. It was, indeed, long cultivated in the east before being brought to Europe. It is a favorite vegetable in Sweden and it is much cultivated and greatly esteemed even in Lapland, where a whole cheese is given for a single turnip. It is eaten raw with avidity by the Russians, and handed around with brandy, on silver plates, among the nobility. Its size is very small in the S. of Europe, scarcely ex- ceeding half a pound, though in ancient Rome they are said to have weighed 40 pounds. They are cultivated in India but appear to have less weight and flavor in hot than in temperate climates. The turnip is a biennial plant, with large radical leaves. The flowering stem shoots up the second season, bearing flowers, the pe- tals of which are in the form of a cross, and hence called cruciform. Field and garden varieties differ, and these differ according to soil and culture ; all have, however, a globular form, with crown and top-root. The 10 varieties commonly cultivated are distinguished by differences of color, size, time of flowering, &c. The Maltese golden turnip is much esteemed for its flavor, though small. The Swedish turnip is large and more hardy than other kinds, but it is strong and coarse. The French turnip differs from others, having a root similar to that of a carrot, and highly flavored. It is widely cultivated in Europe, and 136 CARROT. considerably here. The rind is barely scraped when cooked, as its peculiar taste resides in it. Few dinners are made without it in France and Germany. This turnip grows on almost any soil, and without manure. By sowing turnips broad-cast in spring and summer, they may be obtained during all the year. They are thinned and hoed, or left thick, so that the turnip-fly will spare sufficient for use. Turnips often acquire great weight, even 29 pounds, and a yard in circumference, it is said. An oz. of seed is said to contain near 15,- 000 single seeds; each weighs, therefore, a 15,000th part of an ounce. Its growth, when uniform, increases 15 times its weight in a minute, and it has been proved that turnips have increased 15,990 times the weight of their seed every day ! The weight and surface of turnips, in regard to soil, is also very great. An average crop yields 11,664 roots per acre ; and if each average 6 pounds, the whole will be 69,- 994 pounds. The rind of the common turnip should be carefully peeled off before being eaten, as it contains an acrid principle, as in mustard and the rind of radishes. Boiled or mashed in milk, turnips are a light and wholesome food, especially to the plethoric and sanguine. The com- position of the turnip is chiefly water combined with nutritive matter, of which 4 or 6 parts are saccharine, 8 or 10 starch, &c. The juice, after boiling, coagulates and deposits albumen. B. rapa; root a continuation of the stem, orbicular, flattened, fleshy; radical leaves, lyrale, rough ; stem-leaves entire, smooth ; stem erect, branched, round, smooth ; flowers yellow ; calyx yellow ; pods round. CARROT, Daucus Carota. C. 5.01. Umbilliferse, sp. 8-17. Dh. Tr. 2 ft. The wild plant is a small woody root, but the cultivated carrot is large and succulent. It contains much nutriment, but il must be perfectly boiled. It is an excellent food for horses and cows in winter, with hay, causing in the latter an increase of milk ; swine also thrive well on it, as it contains much saccharine matter. 10 pounds of carrots yield half a pint of strong ardent spirits, and an acre pro- duces 240 gals. A syrup made of the roots, and clarified with the white of eggs, is useful for many domestic purposes, and the juice and an infusion of the seeds are some used for the gout, &c. For scurvy a marmalade is made of them, and they are used as a poultice for gan- grenous ulcers. With a paste of flour and arsenic, crickets are effec- tually destroyed by it. The carrot is supposed to have come from Candia, but the wild plant grows here and in Enrope. It is much used for soups, stews, &c., and forms a fine side dish with boiled meats ; it likewise makes an excel- lent pudding, and in some places it is much eaten pickled. There are several varieties (Loudon reckons 10 garden varieties). The early orange is best for the garden, and the long orange, or red, for field crops. The horn carrot is a good crop for thin soil, being both early CHARACTER AND CULTURE. 137 and late. A distinguished physician says, that besides one of the most considerable culinary roots, it strengthens and nourishes the body, and is very beneficial for consumptive persons." It has less su- gar than the parsnip or beet. A fine carrot pudding is made by grat- ing half a pound of the best carrots, and adding a pound of bread, and 6 or 8 eggs, half a pint of wine, wilh nutmeg and sugar to the taste. Stir the whole well, add milk if too thick, lay a puff-paste over the dish, and bake it an hour. Carrot pies are made like pumpkin pies, the carrots being boiled tender, skinned, and sifted. The seeds do not retain their vegetative powers more than a year, hence they should be proved before sowing. A main crop is sowed about the 1st of April. The root requires a deep sandy loam, and af- fords one of the best returns. The largest have been raised in grav- elly soil. They bear drought well, as they draw nourishment from considerable depth, nor is the ground much exhausted by continued crops. In gardens, and sometimes in fields, they are sown in drills or small furrows, an inch deep, 9 to 12 inches apart and across beds. The space between rows may be turned over with a narrow spade, in May and June. They should be boiled for cattle. The crop is rarely affected by insects, and seldom fails of a good yield. For the table, they need not be much thinned. The land should be twice harrowed, 1st with a long.toothed harrow. 727 bushels, exclusive of tops, have been raised in Mass, on 3-4tbs of an acre, the tops weighing 5 tons. It is certain that the carrot was well known to the ancients as an edible root, being often mentioned by their writers ; and it has contin- ued to be cultivated since in the east. All attempts to change the wild carrot into the esculent root have failed. It was introduced into England by the Flemish. The ladies in the time of James I. orna- mented their heads with carrot leaves, to resemble the plumage of birds, and they are some used now for house ornaments. A section, cut in winter, from a thick sprout of the roots, and placed in a shal- low vessel of water, throws off young and delicate leaves in the form of a tuft, making a fine ornament for the mantel-piece at that season. The root, cut transversely, shows 2 parts of different texture c.nd co- lor, the bark and wood. The bark is most pulpy and sweet, while the heart or woody part, particularly when full-grown, is fibrous and stringy, and are seen, when separated, to be bristly, even through the rootlets. The crown, sending off the leaves, is connected with the woody part, and the outer skin of the leaves and stem is connected with the bark of the root. The latter being most nutritive, the value of the carrot depends on the relative proportion of these two parts of the root ; hence it is important to obtain that part in the greatest pro- portion, and this depends on the mode of culture. The soil should be light, mellow, and deeply dug, so that the root will meet with no ob- structions, to throw off lateral branches. 12* 13S PROPERTIES OF CARROTS. Generally, all esculent roots do not require strong soils, or those highly manured, as they thereby yield much of their strength to the herbage, at the sacrifice of the best part of the root. The seeds have numerous forked hairs, by which they adhere together ; they should, therefore, be mixed and rubbed with fine sand, in the proportion of 1 bushel of sand to 5 pounds of seed ; the mixture is then laid in heaps, and occasionally turned, for 2 or 3 weeks before sowing. This occa- sions their quicker germination withal. The seeds are sown with the sand, as that assists in their equal diffusion. The plant springs up before the annual weeds, and in 5 or 6 weeks it is hoed, which being repeated 2 or 3 times, it requires no further culture. 800 bushels have been gathered per acre ; but commonly from 200 to 500 are grown. In the garden a succession of crops is obtained ; they are thinned to 6 or 3 inches, and cultivated with care. They are dug in November, and preserved in winter in sand. Those intended for seed are re- planted in February, 2 feet apart, the crown a few inches below the surface; they produce seed in autumn, and are a source of profit. Some carrots have weighed 4 or 5 pounds each, and have measured 2 feet in length, and 12 or 14 inches in circumference. Cattle, after being fed on carrots, are said to prefer them to turnips, and readily fatten on them ; swine are fattened in a very short time, and the flesh is white and firm. Carrots are very efficacious in restoring the wind of horses, which also retain their strength and sleekness fed alone upon them and worked. Poultry also thrive on them ; and they are said to afford a good nourishment for dogs. Being highly antiseptic, they are sometimes used in surgical cases. Some say carrots are more nutritive than turnips, but the nutritive matter is less, perhaps, in proportion to the quantity of land. 98 parts in 1000, or 10 per cent, are nutriment, of which 3 are mucilage and 95 saccharine matter, which accounts for their antiseptic qualities ; and this matter, ready formed, is greater than in any of the cereal grains, and 6 times greater than that of potatoes ; and, consequently, are sup- posed to be better for distillation, but it cannot be crystalized to form sugar. It has been said that an acre will yield for this purpose $175. 18 tons, the produce of an acre, yield 100 gals, of proof spirit, a great- er amount than that yielded by an acre of barley, while the refuse will feed swine. 168 pounds of malt yield 6| gals, of spirits, 24 per cent, above proof, or 2 gals, per bushel ; so that an acre of barley should produce 74 gals, of proof spirit, or 899, wine measure. As food for man, the carrot is light and wholesome. It increases milk in mo- thers eating of it freely. When eaten by invalids, the external parts, for reasons before mentioned, should be selected. The officinal root of physicians is the common carrot (radix dauci sativa). Carrot juice (rob dauci) is reddish, and after standing, de- posits a feculent matter which has lately been used in medicine. This, PARSNIP. 139 At a temperature below 212, coagulates, forming a yellow substance, which is dried. The carrot seeds used in medicine are those of the wild carrot ; they have a peculiar aromatic odor, while those of the cultivated carrot are much milder. The constituents of the juice, evaporated to dryness, arc fixed oil, with some volatile oil, carotin, un- chrystalizable sugar, with some starch and malic acid, 93.71 ; albu- men 4.36, ashes, with lime, alumina, iron, &c. The volatile oil has an unpleasant taste, and but half a drachm is obtained from 34 pounds of the root. Carotin is a crystaline salt. The seeds are aromatic, stim- ulant, diuretic, and carminative. They have been employed in sup- pression of the urine and in dropsies, and the expressed juice as an anthelmintic. A poultice is made of the cultivated root boiled, and is used to correct fetid discharges, to allay pain, and to change the ac- tion of ill-conditioned ulcers. The wild plant is indigenous in pastures and the borders of fields. The species recognized in botany are D. carota, wild carrot, or bird's nest. D. mauritanicus, fine-leafed carrot. D. visnaga, Spanish car- rot. D. gingidinm, shining-leafed carrot. D. muricatus, prickly- seeded carrot. D. carota; leaves pinnatified, much cut, trebly winged; foot-stalks of leaves nerved beneath; stem upright, grooved, hairy; flowers white, separated ; calyx-absolite ; petals inversely heart-shaped. The culti- vated root is a variety, but longer, softer, with a taller stem ; umbel, when in seed, concave. Root of wild plant small, dry, sticky, white and starry flowered. PARSNIP. Pastinaca-sativa, C, 5. O. 2. Umbelliferae, sp. 4-6. Fr. B. 2-4 ft. from to feed ; a name given for its nutritive and whole- some properties. It is a native of the south of Europe; and, in its wild state, is a slender, woody, and poisonous root; but cultivated, it becomes large, succulent, and highly valuable. It is biennial, as most other sap-rooted vegetables are. It was long cultivated in the S. of Europe before its virtues were known. It abounds with saccharine juice, or sugar, excites appetite, and is excellent for convalescents. By distil- lation it yields an ardent spirit not unlike that of the potato. Wine is made from the roots, which approaches very near to the Malmsey of Madeira and the Canaries. This is made, too, with very little trou- ble or expense ; and a few years only are requisite to make it agree- able and wholesome ; and yet, singular as it may appear, dollars are paid for foreign wines, which may be more easily obtained for dimes. Beside their well-known use with salt fish and meats, parsnips form an excellent side dish, when boiled and dipped in a batter of flour and butter, or the white of eggs, or fried brown. A very agreeable soup is also made of them, but they are not less valuable fried or roasted. For family use in winter and spring, they should be abundantly culti- vated, being wholesome, nourishing, and profitable. For cattle and 140 VARIETIES OF PARSNIPS. other animals they are likewise of the first importance. Cows give more and richer milk, and their butter is of a better taste and color when fed on this root. They fatten sheep, pigs, and oxen in a short time. For ship's stores no vegetable is better. They should be boiled from 30 to 40 minutes in water seasoned with salt, or with salt pork, which is better, and then mashed and fried in butter. In parts of Ire- land they are used for brewing, with hops, an agreeable beer or bever- age. Their seeds are used for intermittent fevers. There are but few varieties. The Guernsey parsnip is an im- proved variety of the common kind, and the large Dutch, or headed - f it is now much cultivated. They should not be dug too early. They are kept good in dry sand under cover, or left in the ground till spring. The average crop is 24 tons to the acre. They are said to render the flesh of fattening cattle delicately white. From a species on the shores of the Mediterranean is obtained a gum which is celebrated in the East for curing all diseases. The variety with which milch cows are fed in some places is called Coquaine; they run 4 feet deep, but are not over 6 inches in diameter. Parsnips are sowed in drills, in March, with room to admit of stirring the soil, and then thinned to 12 inches, with the usual subsequent culture, and gathered in Oct. They are housed as carrots, or as required, they not being easily injured by frosts. No insect injures them, and they require little manure. They do not impoverish the soil, and often improve annually in quantity for 30 years on the same soil. They will continue to grow till winter. They should not be wounded, nor should the tops be taken off close. They should be kept in an out-house, not in a warm cellar. Cultivat- ed for domestic animals, horse-hoeing husbandry is applied. They are much sown in autumn as a second crop. But one or two varieties are generally cultivated, though there are many sub-varieties. The 3 varieties of Guernsey and French are the Coquaine Lisbonaiae and Siarn. The first we have noticed ; the 2d is shorter, but thicker and of the same quality, with short and small leaves upon the crown. The third has not so large a root, but is more tender and of richer flavor than the others. The Guernsey is now much cultivated in the west, but it degenerates if the seed is not care- fully kept from other varieties. The parsnip requires a deep, free soil ; the seed is often sown broad-cast, and afterwards merely kept free from weeds. It is pulled when the leaf decays and stored in sand, or may remain in the soil through the winter without injury. In very rich soil, it acquires a rank taste, but is more abundant. A light soil, dug 18 inches deep, is best. Roasted in the ashes of peat, it is as farinaceous as the best potato, and is much used as a substitute for it. In some places, also, it is beaten up with the potato and butter, and is thus nutritive and wholesome. Its cultivation, however, has somewhat declined, for human food j since it requires the THE RADISH. 141 same soil as potatoes, which are more nutritive; but it continues to be much eaten by papists with salt fish. The analysis of parsnips gives in 1000 parts, 99 nutritive matter, of which 9 are mucilage, and the remainder saccharine matter. The botanic varieties are P. Lucida, shining leafed parsnip ; P. saliva, common parsnip, and P. opoponax, rough parsnip. This last is the species affording the gum-resin before alluded to. Water parsnip, sium, a genus of aquatic plants S. nodiflorum closely resembles the water cress (nasturtium officinale) when not in flower. It is considered poisonous, though in doses of from 2 to 4 dchms. alone or with milk, it is an excellent alterative in cutaneous diseases. P. Saliva. Stem upright, striated, rigid and branching ; leaves pin- nate, alternale and sheathing at the base, composed of oval, slightly lobed, incised leaflets; flower small, yellow, in umbels. S. of Europe. RADISH, raphanas sativus. C. 15. Cruciferse, sp. 5-9. Fr. A. 3 ft signifying quick, in allusion to its quick vegetation. It is supposed to have come from China; but it is universally cultivated in temperate climates, and valued for its grateful pungency and agreeable relish, when mixed with salads, or eaten raw with bread and butter, &c. It has a penetrating nitrous juice, by which it is medicinally a good anti-scorbutic. It should not be eaten to excess, as it contains little nourishment, especially in a raw state, in which it should be crispy and not tough, stringy, or over-grown. For all complaints of the chest, such as difficulty of respiration and hoarseness, the syrup is as good as that of turnips, and is said to be efficacious in the hoop- ing cough. When boiled and served up with asparagus, radishes make an excellent dish. An agreeable pickle is also made of the seed pods, alone or mixed with other vegetables, for which use they are gathered young and pickled soon afterwards. Radishes when young are esteemed a great luxury in our chief cities, and are much cultivated in this vicinity. For the markets, they are forced in hot-beds, like cucumbers. There are 9 or 10 varieties chiefly cultivated in the temperate climates. The turnip-rooted are best for a late crop. They are externally red, white, violet, &,c., but always white within. Oil is extracted from the seeds of one variety for culinary purposes. The wild radish, R. raphanistrum, is a troub- lesome weed in our grain fields. It requires a deep, sandy, loamy, mellow soil. The 2 spindle-shaped and globular-rooted kinds are chiefly cultivated ; and there are many sub-varieties known as spring, summer., autumn, and winter sorts, all forcing well on hot beds. R. caudatus, or true radish is remarkable for the length of its pods, which are greater than that of the whole plant. The varieties commonly known is the Zongand round, or turnip rad- ish. The usual mode of culture is to sow in drills, 6 inches apart, early in spring, and repeated every 2 or 3 weeks, to keep up the pro- 142 THE SKIRRET. duct. Scarlet top is esteemed the best in England, requiring less room than those with larger tops. The long purple is raised for salad, and for the pods for pickling, for which it is sown in drills and cut young, like mustard and cress. The white turnip-rooted is crispy when young and is esteemed in spring. The black turnip-rooted Spanish is large and esteemed for autumn. For early consumption the seed is sown in Feb. in hot beds and covered with mats during frosty weather. The long scarlet and the white and red turnip are sown for early crops and renewed monthly in moist soil. Some have better success with crops sown in Aug., as they are more sticky and strong in mid sum- mer than in spring and fall. Radishes being uncertain in their growth, sowing between rows of other plants is recommended ; for, being soon pulled, they do not incommode them. They require much room when raised for seed ; the most thrifty are therefore transplanted. Equal quantities of buckwheat bran and fresh horse manure, mixed well in the ground, is advised to prevent the attacks of insects. The fermenta- tion is succeeded in 48 hours by toad stools ; then, if the ground be dug again and the seed sown, radishes grow rapidly and free from insects. R. Sativus ; leaves lyrate, notched, rough ; stem branched ; flowers purple in corymbose clusters ; sepals 4, oblong, parallel, erect ; petals heart-shaped ; pods erect, juicy, oblong with 2 cells, pale, glaucous, tipped with an awl-shaped beak ; roots varying from spindle-shaped to round, and in color from white to purplish black. China. SKIRRET, slum sisarum. C. 5. O. 2. Umbilatas. sp. 18. Fr. P. 1 ft. This is a species of the water parsnip ; but it partakes of none of its poisonous qualities ; it is, indeed, a very nutritious vegetable. It is a native of China, and has been known in England since 1548 and is now much cultivated there. The roots are fleshy tubers, half an inch in diameter. When washed, boiled, drained, dipped in butter, fried brown and served with melted butter &c., they form an excellent dish. They may be stewed, or when boiled, eaten cold, with oil and vinegar. It is thought to be superior to the parsnip by many. It may be raised from seeds or offsets. If raised from the former, the seeds are sown the 1st of April, and thinned out to 8 or 10 square inches. It is taken up as wanted, or when full, in Sept. Skirret was much esteemed by the Romans. It has a luscious sweetness not pleas- ing to the majority of people ; besides, it requires a large quantity of soil. It should have a light, sandy soil, a little moist. The seeds are sown broad-cast, say an oz. over a 4 foot bed, or in shallow drills 10 inches apart, on ground well and deeply dug. The plants are thinned^ out to about 8 inches. The longer they remain in the ground, during open weather, the better, but, on the appearance of frost, they should be taken up, cleaned and preserved, like other roots, in sand. The species commonly known are S. sisarum, skirret ; S. rigidius, HORSE RADISH. 143 Virginia water parsnip ; S. fulcaria, decurrent water parsnip ; S. sicu- lum, Sicilian water parsnip. S. sisarum ; leaves pinnate ; upper leaves in 3 J s, sharply cerrate ; umbels terminate ; root fleshy, oblong, tuberous ; stalk a foot long, terminated by an umbel of white flowers. China. HORSE RADISH, Cochlearia-amoracia, C. 15. Crucifera, sp. 11. Fr. P. 3 ft, A common kitchen plant and species of the Scurvy grass, the roots of which are much used on the table, cut into shreds in vin- egar, and accompanying meats ; the herbage is also used as a winter salad and in sauces. It is a native of this country and England, and commonly found growing in ditches, marshes, or near farm houses. Before its use upon the table, it was applauded for its medicinal vir- tues. It stimulates the solids to activity ; and, from its warming na- ture, is good for nervous diseases arising from cold and viscid juices. As a condiment with fish or flesh, it creates and assists digestion, and is recommended in hard dry coughs, and also on account of its pene- tiating qualities, for rheumatism, scurvy, palsey, dropsy, &c., used in- ternally or externally. It may be preserved all winter, by grating the root when in perfection, and putting it in bottles filled with vinegar and corked tight; or the roots may be preserved in dry sand. An in- fusion of horse radish in cold milk is the best and safest cosmetic known. It is easily cultivated, being propagated by the tops, 2 in- ches long; and, for its virtues, merits much attention. The tops are used as greens. It is grown best by trenching the soil and putting in manure. A moist soil increases the bitter alkaline flavor of this and all the cruciferous plants. All the scurvy grasses have powerful medi- cinal properties, as antiscorbutic, sialagogue, and stimulating. When grated, the root evolves a highly penetrating acid vapor, ex- citing a copious flow of tears ; and it is very pungent. Its composition is acrid volatile oil, bitter resin, extractive, sugar, gum, starch, woody fi- bre, vegetable albumen, acetic acid and acetate and sulphate of lime. It causes vomiting when taken into the stomach in the form of an infu- sion, and produces vesication when applied to the skin. Chewed, it serves as an excellent masticatory. It may be used as an emetic, or to promote the operation of others, particularly in poisoning by narco- tic substances. It is a general stimulant, diaphoretic, and diuretic, in small doses scraped into threads. The compound spirit is obtained by macerating and boiling the root and seeds in water for 2 hours, and straining, and then using it in small doses for chronic rheumatism, paralysis, dropsy, and scurvy. The species are C. officinalis, common scurvy grass ; C. glastifolia, wood-leafed scurvy grass ; C. armoracia, Horse radish ; root leaves, oblong crenate; stem leaves lanceolate, gashed or entire; root peren- nial, spindle-shaped, long, durable, acrid ; stem erect, leafy ; root- leaves stalked, large, sometimes wing-cleft; flowers white, in loose panicles. 144 ARTICHOKE. JERUSALEM ARTICHOKE, C. 19. O. 1. Dh. 5 ft. (sea arti- choke), has a potato-shaped root, produced by a species of the sun- flower (helianthus tuberosum), growing wild in S. America, and often found in our gardens. It is 8 or 10 feet high, with yellow flowers. 70 or 80 tons of the roots are grown on an acre, often times. They suc- ceed in almost any soil, and once planted, they flourish in the same soil without much attention. They are planted in March and in Oct., and are preserved in sand during winter. The roots are eaten plainly boiled, or served up with fricassee-sauce and in other ways. They are said to be valuable for swine, and if ground, for horses. The Cardoon, C. cardunculus, is the foreign name of this plant. It is much eaten in the S. of Europe, as a salad, pot-herb, and in stews. It is a native of Candia, and is called the Cardoon artichoke. The cardoon of France was introduced from thence into Canada, and called the Canadian potato. This is a variety, and is now the Jerusalem artichoke of our country. This name has been corrupted by the En- glish from the Italian girassole to turn with the sun. It is a native of Brazil, and is there baked in pies with marrow, dates, ginger, sack, and raisins. The roots are mostly boiled in water till tender, then peeled and stewed with butter and a little wine. They are planted and raised like the potato on a light rich soil. If earthed and co- vered in winter, the tender leaf stalks are fine as salads, for soups and stews. It was introduced into England in 1167, where it was much culti- vated and esteemed till potatoes came into use. Its name arises from its similarity to the artichoke. It flowers in autumn, and bears our severest winters. The root is composed of many tubers in clusters. 40 are often attached to one stem. If a small piece of tuber be left in taking them up, a plant will spring up from it. The best roots are obtained from cuttings of tubers, planted like potatoes (though earlier), which they resemble. 7 acres will yield near 400 tons, or sufficient to keep 100 swine for 6 months. Its chief recommendation is the certainty of a crop; its not requiring manure, its flourishing upon any soil, and being proof against winter weather. It has been found to yield 640 bushels to the acre, while the same land yielded but 327 bushels of potatoes. It also withstands well the dryest weather. On poor soil, it will produce at least 30 per cent, more than most esculent roots. Leaves spiny, all wing-cleft, large, cottony beneath, upper ones decurrent ; scales of calyx ovate ; stem thick, cottony, a little branch- ed ; flowers blue, terminal. ARROW ROOT (fecula tuberis) maranta arundinacea, C.I. O.I. Cannea sp. 7-20. Eh. 2 ft. This is an important plant on account of the value of its root. Its properties resemble those of the potato. It is a native of S. America, and much cultivated in gardens in the East PROPERTIES OF ARROW-ROOT. 145 and W. Indies. Its name is from the use made of it by the Indians in healing the wounds made by poisoned arrows. It is also used as a remedy for the stings of bees, the bites of insects, for burns, and for poisons. There are several species. As imported, it is a kind of starch, or hardened mucilage, obtained by pounding and blanching the roots, and is a pleasant and valuable aliment for children and invalids. When the roots are a year old, they are dug, washed, beaten to a pulp in wooden mortars, washed, and the fibres removed. The milky liquid is then passed through a seive and allowed to settle, when the water is drawn off. The white starch is again washed, settled and dried on a white cloth in the sun, and powdered, when it will keep for a long time. No vegetable except the salep or orchis-root yields so much nu- triment. It is often much adulterated with flour of potatoes. The purest is the Jamaica or Bermuda. The potato starch answers as a good substitute, prepared in the same way. It was found in the east on the shores of the rivers. The bulb is oblong, with pendulous tubers. The fecula obtained from its tubers is sold in the eastern markets. There are 2 kinds of fecula in com- merce from the E. Indian root. Its fine white is distinguished from that of America. Examined with the microscope, it consists of ovate particles, not unlike the starch particles of the potato, with numerous and fine rings. Fecula, like that of arrow root, is obtained from several species of curcuma, and several other plants in various places. Its com- position is carbon 44 and water 55. It is largely exported from the W. Indies. About 2,500 cwt. are annually taken to England. It is used at the table in the form of puddings. In irritations of the alimen- tary canal, of the pulmonary organs, or urinary passages, it is valu- able as an emolient and demulcent. It is given to infants and invalids in water or milk with sugar, spices, or lemon juice. Wake Robin has been used as a substitute. Carolla unequal, one inner segment in form of a lip ; stamens pe- taloid, with half an anther; style-hooded; ovary 3-celled; fruit 1- seeded ; stems branched ; leaves ovate, lanceolate ; peduncles 2- flowered. SALEP, orchis mascula. Order 20 of Juss. This plant is much cultivated in Asia for the root which, in Syria, Turkey, and Persia, constitutes a large portion of the food of the inhabitants. There are many species of this genus, from which salep is prepared ; that above is however much preferred, and it is from this that the article of com- merce is prepared. It comes from the Levant in small, hard and yellowish white pieces. Still, the plant is found here and in Europe, and though not of so fine a quality, it should be more cultivated and improved ; for it is said to contain more nutriment, in proportion to its size than any other vegetable root known. The root is composed of two fleshy lobes ; and the stem is sent up from a lobe of a former 13 146 SALEP AND CASSAVA. year and a new one formed, which is matured when the leaves and stalk decay. The roots are then dug, washed in warm water, and the skin removed with a brush. They are then put on a plate in an oven for ten minutes, when they become transparent ; they are then spread in a room a few days. In hot water they form a thick mucilage, highly nutritive and valuable for the sick, and as an article for ship's stores. A small quantity added to milk retards its acetous fermentation, and milk is thus kept sweet a long time. Hence, mixed with wheat in bread, it would be highly valuable. An ounce to a pound of flour is sufficient, when the bread will be much improved. Salep is very wholesome and has been much used in medical practice. It is obtained from many of the orchis tribe of plants. It is much imported and no doubt it might be made very profitable cultivated here. An oz. with 2 quarts of water forms a jelly that will support a man a whole day. It should therefore be found on board of all ships, and with travellers as affording, in emergencies, the most nutriment in the smallest space. in rich land the orchideae do not come to maturity, but rot in the ground. Wake Robin, arum masculatum, grows wild in woody and shady places and possesses properties not unlike those of the salep. In its wild state the plant is very acrid and the juice of the root blisters the tongue ; but this noxious quality is readily dissipated by heat, as with that of cassava. It has been proposed to substitute this root for the salep and arrow root. CASSAVA, Tapioca plant, physic nut, or mandioc. Jatropha tnanihot. C. 21. O. 8. sp. 9-21. Euphorbeacese. Es. 3 ft from remedy and to eat. The farinaceous fibres of the roots of this plant constitute its value and the object of its cultivation. The plant is a native of S. America where it formerly afforded the greatest part of the food of the indians ; and it is now greatly used in Brazil and Mex- ico. There are nine species, two of which are cultivated for food, the bitter and sweet. The first, (J. manihot,) in its natural state, is poisonous ; the 2d is innocent, but it is not so much cultivated. It is a spindle-shaped root, about .15 inches long and appears like the beet. It has a tough fibre running through it which the other has not. The bread from both of these is palatable and wholesome, and is preferred by those accustomed to it, to wheat bread. When dug, the roots are washed, the dark rind peeled off and the root ground or grated on a revolving wheel. The pulp is then placed in a bag and pressed, to extract all the deleterious juice, and then baked on a hot iron hearth, in the form of thin cakes. The cakes remain good for a long time, if kept dry. The poisonous juice of the bitter cassava is entirely expelled by the heat of baking; it is so volatile that the sun expels it, when the root is cut into pieces ; so that cattle feed on it with safety. If the juice be drunk, however, violent retching en- THE JUICES OF ROOTS. 147 sues, the body swells and the animal or person dies in convulsions ; out, if 'uoued with meat and seasoning, it forms a favorite and whole- some soup. Cassava forms the chief bread in Guiano, and parts of the W. Indies; and the juice when pressed out is used for poisoning arrows. The roots of the sweet Cassava are roasted in hot ashes and eaten without grinding, tasting like chestnuts. With butter, &c., they are delicious ; both are propagated by cuttings, and in 8 months the tubers arc eaten. The juice is fermented with molasses and con- verted into an intoxicating drink, much used by the Indians and negroes, and also in use when this continent was discovered. A starch, or tapioca, prepared from the roots is much exported from Bra- zil, and is a very wholesome and nutritive food, in puddings and for children and invalids. A new species was lately discovered in St. Domingo. The poisonous juice of the root acts only on the nervous system, in- flames ihe stomach and reduces it one half in size. A little mint water and salt of wormwood, timely administered, prevent all delete- rious consequences. The plant thrives in any situation. It may be cultivated here by cuttings. It is thought to be identical with the Brazilian arrow root. When dried, it is called tapioca by the natives. Two kinds are imported, one in small lumps and the tapioca of the shops ; the other is in powder. The scrapings of the fresh root are successfully applied to ill disposed ulcers. They are used to catch birds with, as they on eating it, lose the power of flying. The milk white juice, which is the narcotic poison, is said to be of the nature of prussic acid. The local application of the root is demulcent and emol- ient ; and, as an article of dietetical importance, is light, nutritious, and very wholesome for the sick and convalescent. Flowers monsecious ; calyx 5 parted ; no petals ; stamens 10 ; style 1 ; stigmas 3 ; leaves palmate, 5 to 7 parted, smooth ; segments lan- ceolate, entire ; root thick, tuberous, flesh white ; flowers axillary. SCORZONERA, or viper's grass. C. 1. O. 1. Composite, sp. 19-33. Dh. 1-2 ft. Hispanica. This plant is greatly esteemed in Spain as a certain remedy for the bite of the viper scurzo ; but this idea arises, it is thought, from the tortuous form of the roots; for it is a rule that all plants used as food by man possess very inactive qualities, otherwise they would be unfit for food. S. hispanica is es- teemed as diuretic, stimulant and sudorific. A drink is made of it for viriola ; it is also cultivated as an esculent. The root is like a carrot ; the skin being scraped off, it is boiled or stewed and eaten like carrots or parsnips, and it is cultivated like them. It is a native of Spain. Its root is extremely delicate, and is a valuable addition to the table. It is not so much cultivated as formerly in England, having been ban- ished bv fashion; for," says an English writer, "this tyrant which rules with universal sway, commands the taste as well as the smell, to 149 TUMERIC. consider as intolerable, articles to which our ancestors had a peculiar attachment." Most fortunately, fashion does not prevail to that ex- tent in this country ; so the people commonly eat what they choose. The plant was introduced on account of its supposed medicinal prop- erties ; but it was found to be nutritive and palatable. It was long kept a secret by a Moor, but is now much esteemed in the S. of Eu- rope as an edible root. It is a hardy perennial with a stem 2 or 3 ft. long, and with yellow flowers, which bloom from June to Aug. The root is thin and spindle-shaped, with a double brown skin and con- taining a milky juice. It is best propagated by seed, like carrots, as the offsets degenerate. The roots remain unaffected in the ground during the winter. The roots being bitter, are steeped in water before being used in any way. The lower leaves are linnear, painted and about 9 inches long. This root might be cultivated, no doubt, very advantageously in this country. It also much resembles salsafie, but is more delicate. Directions for the culture and cooking of one an- swer equally well for the other; but the seed of the scorzonera may be sown 2 weeks earlier. TUMERIC. Curcuma scitaminece. C. 1. 0. 1. sp. 16-18. Dh. P. 1-5 ft. The tubers of many of the species yield a beautiful, clear starch like arrow root, which, in some places in the east, forms a large part of the diet of the people. C. longa has been much used in cooking to give color and for dying. The roots are aromatic and smell like ginger, and are imported in short pieces for seasoning ; it is also considered aperient and resolvent, and has been given in jaundice. It tinges the urine a deep yellow- Curry powder is the form in which it is used in India and Europe. It gives a rich yellow color. The tubers (radix curcuma} are known as the Bengal, China, and Java ; the 1st are far the best, and they are the long and round ; the 1st is an inch long and an inch in diameter; the 2d is 2 inches long and colors the saliva like saffron. An acre yields near 2000 Ibs. of the root. Its composition is curcumin 10, yellow extractive 11, gum 14, woody fibre 57, water, &c., 8, in 100 parts. The curcumine is obtained by digesting the alcoholic extract in ether and in evapo- rating the tincture to dryness ; it is yellow and resinous. An infusion of turneric is much used as a chemical test for the presence of free alkalies, &c. It is also used as a condiment and coloring ingredient. It has been used in jaundice and several visceral diseases. Tumeric paper is unsized paper dipped in a tincture prepared by digesting 1 part of the root in 6 of proof spirits, or a decoction in water. This root might be cultivated to advantage in the U. S., as the profit must be large Corolla limbed, 2 lipped, each 3 parted ; style capillary; capsule 3 celled; leaves with sheathing petioles- spike simple, erect, comose ; flowers dull yellow, 3 to 5 together. ARUM, C. 21. 0. 7. PalmtE, sp. 30-45. Dh. ft. 1-6. Perennial ana I WAKE ROBIN. DRAGON ROOT. 149 herbaceous plants, mostly natives of hot climates. The roots are fleshy, hot, and acrid ; but those of many species are eatable. They are generally without stems, and constitute a very singular family. The stalk of the leaves of one species are spotted like the belly of a snake. The flowers smell so strongly like carion that they can hardly be endured. They might be used in medicine and domestic economy. The roots and parts of the leaves are boiled, and the latter, when young, are often eaten raw. A. macularum (Wake Robin) has a tuberous root, the size of a nut- meg, which is used as food and medicine. Their acrimony is lost in drying, and they become fit for boiling or baking. They are exported from the Isle of Portland, and sold as Portland sago. Medicinally they are stimulent, diaphoretic, and expectorant. The berries are devoured by birds. Dried and powdered, they are used by the French as a wash for the skin, under the name of Cyprus powder. 3 species are found in this country. The juice of these plants is particularly distinguished for its acrid- ity. That of the Dumb Cane of the West Indies proves fatal in two hours, if but two drachms be taken. Every part of the Wake Robin is acrid ; but by boiling or heating, it loses this property, and the white amylaceous powder is very nutritive. A. calocasia is cultivated in Egypt for the nutritive properties obtained from the tubers, and A. esculentum is cultivated in the West Indies for the same purpose. On the Sandwich and other Pacific islands, also, this last, with the bread fruit, is the chief food of the people. DRAGON ROOT, Arum triphyllum is indigenous to the U. S., growing in damp woods, and is known here also as the Indian turnip and Wake Robin. The root is perennial, and the tubers are round and flattened. It sends up a purplish stem early in the season. At the extremity of the stem is an ovate accuminate green spathe, striped with purple, convoluted at bottom, flattened at top and bent over like a hood. The male flowers are at the summit, and the female at the base. The berries are clustered, scarlet ; leaves are long, sheathing ; petioles composed of 3 ovate accuminate leaflets. The plant in all its parts is extremely acrid, but this is more apparent in the roots, producing a corrosive and burning sensation in the mouth, when chewed. This acrid principle is very volatile, being driven off entirely by heat, or drying ; but it is not imparted to water or alcohol. The root consists almost entirely of fecula or starch, which can be obtained from it as pure and white as that from the Arrow Root. When partially dried, it possesses highly stimulating properties, increases the secretions, and particularly those of the mucous coat of the bronchia?. It may there- fore be efficaciously used in chronic bronchitis. The powder is used applied to the apthae of the mouth of children. Dose 3j. Whilst so much has been said of the nutritive properties of Salap, Arrow Root, 13* 150 VARIOUS EDIBLE ROOTS. Cassava, &c., foreign vegetable products, we are provided with one no less valuable, and one meriting general attention and cultivation. CYPERUS, C. 3. O. 1. Cyperacese, sp. 22-250. P. ft. J_l. The roots of some species are eatable, and considered eminently aphrodisia- cal, hence the name from Venus. They are marsh sedgy plants. The root of C. longus is warm, bitter and agreeably aromatic. Another species produces pea-like tubercles, which, when boiled, are eaten in parts of France and Spain, tasting like chesnuts. CAMPUNULA, C. 5. O. 1. sp. 75-240. Dh. P. ft. $-4. C. specu- lum, or Venus' looking-glass, a showy genus, and the roots of some species are eaten, and it is thought those of all may be. The long, thick roots abound with a milky juice. C. rapunculus is much culti- vated in France and Italy for the roots, which, being boiled tender, are eaten hot or cold with vinegar and pepper. Other species may be cultivated for the same purpose, and for their flowers, which are much admired. PSORALEA, C. 17. O. 4. Leguminosese, sp. 28-62 Es. ft. 2-6. The species are covered with little tubercles. They are chiefly low shrubs, and some are ornamental and of easy culture. P. esculenta is the In- dian bread root of America, and is said to be cultivated in Missouri and the west, where it is used like potatoes. WILD-LIQUORICE, abuis, C. 17. O. 4. Leguminosese, sp. I. E. ft. 12 from elegant. The roots are used in the W. Indies like those of liquorice, and the seeds are strung as beads, both for ornament and as rosaries. They are said to be deleterious, but are eaten in Egypt, though the hardest of the pulse tribe. The common liquorice will be described under the head of Medicinal Vegetables. DENTARIA, C. 15. Cruciferse, sp. 7-16, Tr. P. ft. 1-2. Plants with showy flowers. The dried root is said to be used in this country instead of mustard, under the name of pepper-root. 2 sp. N. A. EARTH-NUT, arachis, C. 17. O. 4. Leg. sp. 1-2. ft. 2., anciently applied to a plant which had no stem nor leaves, but was all root ; it is now applied to a plant, the fruit of which is borne under ground. The specific name, hypogcea (below ground), is in allusion to this cu- rious circumstance. As the pods grow they force themselves into the earth, where they ripen their seeds ! It is cultivated in the southern and northern climates. The seeds are said to be used as chocolate in S. Carolina ; in the east as almonds ; and in China they furnish oil used for lamps, and are a substitute for the oil of olives. It is raised in hot-beds, and transplanted. It is common about Paris. 1. sp. S. A. EARTH-NUT, bunium, E. 5. O. 1. sp. 2. P. Tr. ft. 2 growing in elevated situations. The roots of some species are dug up and eaten.. They are sweet, farinacious, and nourishing. Swine are very fond of them, and fatten very soon by feeding on them. ESCULENT ROOTS. 151 BIND-WEED, Convolvulus, C. 5. O. 1. sp. 34-185. P. ft. 2-6 An extensive genus of beauty and usefulness. The C. abatatas is well known as an edible root (the sweet potato before mentioned). The stems are generally herbaceous and trailing. It is a native of Amer- ica and the East Indies. It was sold as a delicacy when exported to Europe. It is cultivated in the tropical climates like the potato. The young leaves, as well as the tubers, are eaten boiled. Species are known as C. major and C. minor, and some are a common pot-herb in the East Indies. C. arvensis is a worm-like plant, difficult to eradicate in gardens, and is a certain criterion of a dry soil. C. Seammonia af- fords the well known gum resin of that name. CENOTHERA, C. 8. O. 1. Onograriae. sp. 32-41. Dh. 1-4 ft. The roots of the O. biennis are eaten after meals, as olives are, to induce wine-drinking. It is an ornamental genus, and is called the night primrose, from its flowers opening between 6 and 7 o'clock in the evening. The roots are eaten in the spring in some places. The herbaceous kinds of this country are among the most beautiful of plants. TACCA. Pinnatifida, C. 6. 0.1. Arodideae sp. 1 Eh. ft. 2. Has a large sized, red root which, in its natural state is extremely acrid and bitter, but these qualities are modified by culture. The raw- root being rasped and washed frequently in cold water, a white meal like starch falls to the bottom. This is again washed two or three times till no acrimonious taste is perceived in the water ; and all the infusions are carefully thrown away as poisonous. This meal is made into a nourishing bread by many of the Pacific islanders. It is also used in the east and preferred to the Saco bread. It is safely applied to deep wounds. The leaf stalks, boiled a long time are also used, as well as the roots, for food in China. It is exported and sold as arrow root," as prepared at the Missionary stations in the S. Sea islands. Cakes made of the meal of the tubers are the tacca yony, a diet of China, Cochin China, &c. This order of plants is imperfectly known. The roots become larger and milder by cultivation. They are analogous to the arrow- root. The fecular or starch is highly nutritious. At Tahita, Otaheita, they are scraped by strings made of the cocoa-nut tree, and the pulp being washed, is made into balls and dried in the sun and then re- duced to powder. Nutall has given it the name Tacca oceanica. CULADIUM. C. 21. O. 7. Aroidese, 1 sp. 20 ft. Ds. 16-37. A species is cultivated in the W. Indies for the leaves which are boiled and eaten. It is supposed to be a species ef the arum family, the most universally cultivated. It is found in America, both the Indies, the S. Sea Islands, &c. The root is very acrid, but roasted in ashes, it becomes well tasted. The leaves are used instead of plates and dishes 2 to 8 ft. Eh. 152 ESCULENT ROOTS. GOLDEN THISTLE. Scolymus. C. 19. O. 1. sp. 3. ft. A spring plant with simple, soft and sweet roots, used for food. The leaves and stalks also abound with a milky juice, and are eaten in Spain in the same manner as cardoons. The flowers are used for adul- terating the imported saffron. CLUB-RUSH, Scirpus, C. 3. O. 1. Cyperacese, sp. 11-96. E. P. 6 ft. a Rush, principle food for cattle and sheep in parts of Scotland, in the spring. The bull-rush S.Lacustris, is used for bottoming chairs. For this use it makes the finest bottoms when a year old, and is coarser as it becomes older. For thatching and packing it is also much used. Several varieties are eaten by cattle and the roots have been ground for bread in times of scarcity. The water-chestnut of the Chinese is a species. The tuberous roots are cultivated there in tanks and are eaten boiled or raw, and are esteemed as food and medicine. The club-rush abounds in this country, in moist places. ARROW-HEAD. Sagataria. C. 21. 0. 7. Alismaceae. A.sp. 6-16 ft. 1 to 2. A very handsome aquatic of this country, Europe and parts of Asia. The bulb fixes itself in the earth below the mud, and is used for food by the Chinese who cultivate it extensively. SMILAX. C. 22. O. 6. Smilacese. DC. 5-10 ft from a grater; the stems are rough with stiff prickles. S. aspera has roots not unlike those of the sarsaparilla with similar but inferior qualities ; it is larger, more porous, and less compressed. S. sarsaparilla is another species of the genus (which see under head of medicinal plants.) S. China has long roots and is employed in China as food and as medicine and in the W. Indies to feed swine. HOTTENTOT'S BREAD. C. 22. 0. 6. A plant of the east the root of which is cracked and resembles the shell of a tortoise ; it is a large fleshy mass, which the people use the pulp of as a sort of yam in times of scarcity. ARRACACHA is a plant cultivated in South America for its farin- aceous root. The principal root branches into several parts, each of which is often over a foot in length. It grows at an elevation, near Bagota, of 8,700 feet, corresponding nearly with our latitude, and hence it is believed that it may be successfully cultivated in the U. S. The product must be abundant ; and we are surprised -that no greater ef- forts are made by the friends of agriculture to introduce this and simi- lar exotics. It is highly nutritive and palatable, and is being intro- duced into England. YAM, dioscorea sativa. This plant is supposed to be a native of the E. Indies, and transplanted to the W. Indies. It grows sponta- neously in Ceylon and some other places, and is extensively cultivated in Asia, Africa, and America, for its valuable tuberous root, which is eaten roasted and boiled ; and like our flour, is made into bread, pud- dings, &c. It much resembles the potato in its farinaceous qualities, LEGUMINOUS PLANTS. 153 and is considerably exported. It is a climbing plant, with tender stalks, about 20 feet long. The root has singular horns ; is about a foot in breadth, of a dark color externally, but white within. The winged yam (dioscorea-alata), is a species much cultivated, with roots 3 feet long and often weighing 30 pounds. The species are cultivated like the potato ; are planted in Aug. and dug in Nov. Hav- ing apparently no buds, and sending out stems from any parts of the surface, a portion of the skin is left on each piece planted. When dug, the roots are dried in the sun, and placed in dry sand or casks. The yam is esteemed little inferior to the potato either in flavor or nutriment. It is easy of digestion and palatable. The juice, like that of many of the most valuable roots, before being boiled, is acrid and irritating to the skin. The roots of some varieties are twisted like serpents, or spread out like the hand and fingers. They arrive at maturity sooner than the potato, but are raised in a similar manner. Care is taken that they be not wounded when dug. 30,000 pounds have been raised on an acre. The species are all vines,with heart-shaped leaves and small flowers. One of these is common in our southern and middle states. No doubt they might be cultivated here to great advantage. LEGUMINOUS PLANTS. This useful class of vegetables affords the 2d division of the farina- ceous seeds, those of the cerealia constituting the first. Next to these and the potato, they are the most important esculent vegetable in this and most countries of Europe and Asia, both for man and the lower animals. They are found in the tropical climate, even on dry and otherwise unproductive soil. Their nutritive parts, or seeds, are with- in 2 valved, oblong pods. Carbonic acid is said to be more abundant where these plants are cultivated especially during their flowering, and that miners are made fatally sensible of it. Those of this family of plants, not applicable for human food, are much eaten by domestic animals; and they are not only thus useful to the animal creation, but, by attracting moist- ure from the atmosphere, they greatly aid in the growth of other plants, the seeds of which are sown with them. They are therefore grown together by the Hindoos, to be more certain of a crop of small grain ; and, in the event of a drought, of a pulse crop. The tops, from this circumstance, are observed to be fresh and green when the bottoms are dead. The properties of the legumes are exceedingly variable. Similar organs of species closely allied are often found to elaborate very dissimilar principles, and the diatetical, medicinal or poisonous properties therefore vary in a corresponding manner. Of all the species of this genus the well known pea and bean are most valuable. 154 THE PEA. The flower of the leguminous plants, on maceration in water, ex- hibit an alkali, which is an evidence that they contain nitrogen, an element of animal matter ; while that of the cerealia, under like cir- cumstances, always exhibits an acid. PEA. Pisum sativum, (corrupted by the English from pisum to bruise, in allusion to the grinding of the legumes by the ancients, or from the town Pisa where they grew into peason, or peas. C. 17. O. 4. Leguminoseae. sp. 4. Dh. A. 1-6 ft. The botanical species of this plant are P. sativum, common pea; P. arvense, field or green pea; P. Maritimum sea pea; P. ochrus, yellow -flowered pea. The garden varieties of the pea are very numerous ; those commonly cul- tivated constitute the most valuable of the culinary legumes. The tendrils spring from the terminations of the compound leaves, and none of the species are without them for their support. Green peas are the most agreeable and nourishing of prepared fruits. They are raised in large quantities in this country and much eaten without injurious effects. If somewhat flatulent, that quality may be corrected by the use of mint. They are excellent, as commonly said, in sweetening the blood and correcting scorbutic humors. During their seasons our markets are well supplied with them. Some 20 or 30 varieties are cultivated. These grow to different heights according to soil, season and kinds. It is quite an object therefore to obtain early peas and hence much attention is paid to their cultivation near this and all our large markets. They should be cooked, when fresh and young, immediately after they are shelled. The water is first seasoned with salt and boiled ; the peas are then put in, with a bunch of spearmint and the cover eased, so as to let off the steam. They are boiled about 25 minutes, according to their ages, &c. ; but they should be tried, to en- sure their being done to a nicety. They are then drained and pre- pared with butter, spices, &c. Sugar-peas, having no tough skins within the pod, are boiled without shelling, and served up like the kidney beans. To keep green peas for winter use, fill a stew-pan with those which are young and green, put in two or three table spoonfuls of sugar, place the pan over a brisk charcoal fire a few moments, stir them 2 or 3 times, and as they yield their water pour them on a dish to drain ; which done spread them on a paper out of the sun and turn them fre- quently. They should be perfectly dried or they will mould when put away. French beans may be prepared in the same way, and they will keep till the next season as good as when gathered. It is said also that they may be kept by putting them into bottles and corking them perfectly tight; or, after bottling, submitting them to heat l hours; this is the French mode. They should be used as soon as they are taken out. Young peas are thus much better for soup than when ripe. PROPERTIES OF THE PEA. 155 For the best pea-soup take a knuckle of veal and boil f of an hour; boil 3 pints of peas till soft; strain, mash and rub them through a sieve. Mix the pulp with the water the veal was boiled in ; put the whole in a stew-pan with good lettuce, some powdered mint, pepper, salt, &c., and stew moderately till the lettuce is well done ; then serve them up with thin toasted bread and a little ginger. Of the sugar pea is made a favorite dish Take the young pea in the pod, stripping off the outside edges only; put them in a stew pan with good gravy, thickened with flour and butter, a little mace, ginger and nutmeg; stew gently till the pods are quite tender, then serve up as a side dish. These two dishes are superior to any other of this vegetable. New varieties of the pea are frequently noticed, but few become popular. The garden and field pea are different. The flour of the latter is often mixed with that of wheat by bakers. Alone it is heavy and unwholesome, but with three parts of rye flour, they make a palatable and nourishing bread. Dried and split in a mill, peas are much used in soups ; and, when burnt like coffee, they are considera- bly used as a substitute. Much of that sold as ground coffee is ground peas. By raising in hot beds and transplanting, peas are had the 1st of May, and by raising and maturing in pits they are had in April; but the pea does not force well. Stiff or sandy loam land, that has been limed or marled, always produces the best peas, whatever the variety may be. The straw of the pea, cut and dried, is as nourishing as hay and an excellent fodder for sheep. Pea flour is as 3 to 2 of the bulk in srain, in nourishment, and when husked and split, as 4 to 20. The flour affords in a 1000 parts 574 or 57 } per cent of nu- tritive or soluble matter, of which 501 is mucilage, or vegeto-animal matter, 22 sugar, 35 gluten and 16 insoluble extract. On open ground the pea is sown from Jan. to the middle of July. . The pea is indigenous to the south of Europe, and was well known to the Romans, who probably introduced it into England. Of the many varieties the 2, P. sativum, or garden pea, and P. arvense, or field pea, are generally cultivated. It is sometimes cultivated with the bean, for, since the use of drill husbandry, the bean has been much more cultivated than formerly. It attaches itself to the bean so as to ad- mit of being hoed and exposes its roots to the air, by which its growth is promoted. The pea is greatly used as sea provision, and also in hospitals and workhouses. In Great Britain more than half a million of people live on peas and beans. In addition to her product, which must be very great, there were imported in 1831-476,480 bushels of peas, and 187,- 104 bushels of beans, the greater part of which came from the north of Europe, mostly from Russia, Germany, and Denmark. And the exports from Calcutta were over 1,300 tons. The pea is much used in India as the most light and nutritive article of food in travelling, and 156 VARIETIES OF PEAS. they are sold in the shops as bread is in this country. It is the sole busi- ness of many in Egypt and Syria to fry peas for those who cross the deserts. It is cultivated in China and most parts of the east. The white, yellow, and grey are the chief varieties of the common pea, and the sub-varieties are innumerable. The colors are also much intermixed. The white and yellow are the garden and field peas, the first of which is the choicest, and is raised for eating green, while the latter is allowed to mature. The names of the sub-varieties can hard- ly be preserved, being arbitrary and derived from the names of per- sons and slight circumstances. All may be distinguished by some dif- ferences of tenderness ; but, if attention be paid to soil, situation, cul- ture and time of sowing, most varieties will afford good crops. The garden varieties are chiefly early and late. The first are more slender and less productive, but are more hardy ; and others admit of being forced, to afford the best luxury of early summer. The latter having the full influence of the sun to mature, are large, more productive, and they contain more saccharine matter; thus, as with many vegetable products, they are cheapest when most nutritive, and within the means of all. The period of vegetation is short, two crops being sometimes raised within the season. The earliest crops are obtained by sowing the seeds in a dry soil, last of Oct. In favorable situations and seasons, they sustain the winter, and may be gathered about the first of April. But they are a precarious crop, and do not always pay the cultivator; they are therefore brought forward in hot-beds, when the demand and price justify. Of the field varieties, the dark sorts are longest in maturing, and their flavor is rankest. If sown in favorable places in autumn, and cleared as soon as ripe, they may be succeeded the same year by a crop of turnips. Peas are believed to improve the soil, particularly for turnips and wheat. The rows should run north and south, and the early crops should be slicked. The soil for early crops should have been manured the year before, and should be light, dry and sheltered. Fresh manure causes peas to run to herbage. The soil of late crops, sown from March to July, should be moister and of more consistency. The addition of marl, lime, or road-stuff is important. The mode much practiced in the early cultivation, is to sow cross- ways on warm borders or ridges, 2 feet broad at the base. Drills are drawn 1 inches deep near the bottom; the seeds being sown, are carefully covered when observed to break ground. When sown last of November, soot, mixed with slacked lime is strewn over the rows, or finely sifted coal ashes, to prevent the attacks of insects. A light stirring of the soil is a preventive. When a few inches high, they are staked thick on the most sunny side, and a foot higher, but not too near, the pea. CULTIVATION OF PEAS. 157 Different varieties require different distances at which peas should be sown. 3 feet apart for those not over 3 feet high, and 4 and 5 for those over that, is thought the best average distance between the rows ; but some dwarf kinds need not be over 2. Nothing is gained by sowing too thick. A pint of seed for early small kinds is sufficient for a row of 20 yards, and for main crops, this will sow a row of 33 yards. Peas grown without sticks require least room. 3 peas within an inch of each other, of the frame ; 2 of the hotspur and dwarf mar- row-fat ; 3 in 2 inches of the Prussian blue and middle sorts, and larger sorts 1| inches, and Patasonian, 2 inches apart, are good distances. But field peas are not usually sown thick enough, for when thick they support one another. 3 bushels are sown on an acre, and 20 are the average product. One row only of high peas is advised leaving within, a bed of 12 feet for onions or carrots. Some sow peas between hills of potatoes, and find them very productive ; 3 peas in each hill after the potatoes are planted. Two earthings are necessary for peas that are to have sticks ; the 1st when 4 inches high, and the 2d when 6 or 8. If a succession of peas is required, they are sown more or less every 3 or 4 weeks from Feb. to July. If the weather be dry, the drills are to be soaked with water, and the peas also during the night previous. Lines of strings, a foot apart, are often run along and attached to each stake, and the tendrils entwined by hand around them. Stakes and strings thus al- low little place for birds to light to destroy the pea, and also a free circulation of air. Mice are said to be kept from peas and beans by sowing the tops of furze, cut fine, in the drills. Soaking the peas a day or two in train oil is better. For forcing, the mode is like that of beans. They may be sown in pots or pans, placed in a frame, under glass, and transplanted in frames or pits, 2 or 3 inches apart. Early dwarfs are best for this. But fall- sowing is thought preferable. The soil should be very dry for these, and they should be protected from frosts by straw or brush-wood. Some top the leading sprouts when in blossom, to hasten the sitting and ma- turity of the fruit. Knight's marrow pea is thought best for late crops, sown at intervals of 10 days. A new variety has lately been brought from Cuba to Charles- ton, S. C., by Dr. Strobel, which is said to be of a very superior quality, yielding in Spain 300 bushels to the acre, and selling in Havannah for $1.00 to $1.50 per bushel. Bishop's early dwarf prolific pea, 12 or 14 inches high, is spoken of as one of the best varieties. The finest plants of a variety should be preserved for seed. Peas are often sown broad-cast, but the row culture is the best, sown 2 ft. or so apart, and 6 inches deep in light, and 4 in clay soil. By sow- ing peas 10th of June, the pea-bug has been effectually avoided. This bug, or fly, lays its eggs or larvse when the plant is young, and when 14 158 CHICK PEA. furnished with wings, it appears, perforates the pod and diminishes the fruit nearly a half. Buggy peas scalded half a minute, then cooled and sown immediately, destroys the bug and hastens the growth of the fruit. The bugs do not infest peas on new settlements, if not carried and planted in the pea. Peas degenerate faster than most plants, and should be had for seed from more northern places ; they should be changed once in 2 or 3 years ; and when cut with a sickle, should be spread to dry, and not stirred till carefully taken to the barn. After thrashing, they should be spread on the floor to be aired 2 weeks, and then put into casks. For mildew, water applied copiously once a week, is recommended. Peas steam-boiled, or when ground, fatten swine well ; and the flour is greatly used for human food, mixed with the flour of the grains, particularly rye, as bread, for soups, and in various ways. P. Sativum ; foot-stalks cylindrical ; stem branched, leafy, smooth ; leaves alternate, pinnate, eliptical, opposite leaflets ending in climb- ing tendrils ; stipules in pairs ; flowers white, inodorous ; seeds 5 to 9 ; many varieties. CHICK PEA, Cicer-arietinum, C. 22. O. 4. sp. 19. This plant be- longs to the same class, order and family as the common pea and bean. It is a small legume much cultivated in the S. of Europe as a dying ingredient, and as an article of food. It was the parched pulse which constituted the common food of the Hebrews in the field. It is called on the coast of the Mediterranean, garavance. The seeds are not eaten alone ; for, unlike most other pulse, they do not form a pulp by boiling. They are commonly used as a garnish strewed over viands ; and in Spain they form the favorite dish, o/Zu, composed of bacon, cab- bage, pumpkin, &c. Parched, they have been greatly esteemed from a very early period, and they are still much eaten in Europe and Asia. They were a common food of the lower orders of Rome. What was before said as to the use of peas as food in crossing the desert, applies especially to this species. In Nubia the seeds of a small pulse, called Kerkedan, grows wild, and is much eaten, made into a kind of bread, and as a substitute for coffee. Another plant of the kind, called symka, and indigenous to that country, produces seeds resembling the pea, and affords a valuable food for the camel; and when green, for man. An oil is also obtained from it, by boiling, which is used by the natives, as they use butter, for oil- ing their hair and bodies. Numerous other small legumes are cultivated in the East, like the grains. Rains being very unfrequent, the legumes are necessarily much cultivated there, as the pulse sustain dryness better than the cerealia, by their absorption of atmospheric vapor. The smaller and more hardy these are, the more certain are they of affording a crop. THE BEAN. 159 LYTHYRUS is a genus of the leguminous plants, containing 19 species. To this genus belong the Sweet Pea, so frequent and ornamen- tal, the perennial Everlasting Pea, Earth Pea, jlnsorts Pea, &c. L. Sativa, or Chickling vetch, and L. pratensis, or Meadow vetchling, are cultivated in Europe as fodder. The genus Pterocarpus, of a Red Saunders, which is the well known tree, affording the fine coloring wood of commerce, is in this class and order, as its fruit is in pods. Many other plants belong also here, but are mentioned under other heads, or do not merit particular no- tice. BEAN, Viclafaba. C. 22. 0. 4. Leguminoseae. sp. 38-100. DC. A. 2-6 ft A native of Egypt, and probably introduced by the Ro- mans into Europe. The seeds, the parts mostly used, are a whole- some aliment and are much eaten here in their dried as well as green state. There are 12 varieties cultivated. As an accompaniment for a boiled dinner, the garden beanis excellent, served with butter, gravy and spices and a bunch of green parsley. 30 or 40 minutes are re- quired for boiling. With fat pork or bacon, they are a dainty dish. They should be gathered when soft for the table, and hard for seed or baking. To bake the white beans, put them in water and hang them over the fire during the night, rinse them in the morning, put them in a kettle with half sliced pork, cover them with hot water for an hour, put in pepper, &c., and place them in the oven for three or four hours A pound of pork to a quart of beans. String beans should be eaten with caution in hot weather; and dried beans are flatulent. The latter are exported in large quantities from the middle and eastern states and are used as ship-stores. There are several varieties of the field bean ; but the fine and small ones are the best. Bean flour is nutritive ; it is much used for bread, especially with wheat flour, with which it is said dealers often mix it. Beans are often roasted as a substitute for coffee. Roman ladies used bean flour as a cosmetic. If injured, beans may be cut down to the ground, during their flowering, and they will grow again and bear a new crop and be made, it is supposed, perennial. The pole, or running beans are the large white, or Carolina Lima. A quart are required for 100 hills : a quart of the small pole beans plant 300 hills. The kidney bean should not be tough, when gathered, and the strings should all be stripped off; soak them in salted water for a time, then put them in boiling water, and in 15 or 20 minutes take them up, drain and serve them with gravy and melted butter. This bean is in the highest repute. It was brought from the Nether- lands in 1509. There are 11 varieties of it cultivated, 8 of the dwarf and 3 of the running kinds. A favorite dish, called haricot, is made of the former by putting them into a stew-pan, after being boiled for a short time, with strong gravy and high seasoning. The former 160 QUALITIES OF THE BEAN. should not be minced as is customary, but a small part of the sides being peeled off, they are cut into 4 pieces and boiled. Some dress them with onions, oil, vinegar, pepper, &c. For working horses beans are an excellent food, and also for fatten- ing swine. We have shown that beans are more nutritive than oats, though less easy of digestion, a bushel yielding 14 pounds more flour than one of oats, and a bushel of peas 18 pounds more. A 1000 parts of bean flour yield 570 pounds of nutritive matter, of which 426 are mucilage, or starch. 103 gluten, and 41 insoluble extract. A va- riety or two grow in meadows and are considered a valuable herbage plant, yielding a great bulk of very nutritive fodder. The summer and winter tare or vetch, is also a valuable agricultural plant for its herbage, especially for milch cows and working stock. The species of the bean recognized in botany are 16, the common names of which are, the pea vetch, the great wood vetch, common wood vetch, cassubian vetch, tufted vetch, sanfoin^ vetch, biennial vetch, officinal vetch, two-flowered vetch, common vetch or tare, broad podded vetch, common bush vetch, broad-leaved vetch, nar- bonne vetch, saw-leafed vetch, and common garden bean. The latter, like the pea, is now known to be extensively cultivated in most parts of the world. It is said to be found growing wild in Persia. Stewed with oil and sarlic, beans constitute a chief food with the people of Barbary. In Ireland, they are much eaten by laborers, bruised and mixed with mashed potatoes. They are exported from G. B. in large quantities to the W. Indies for the food of the negroes. In 1840, 514,864 bushels were imported beside the vast quantity pro- duced there. Although a coarser plant than the pea, it is even more liable to disease and insects. Small fungi also infest the plant, especially the sphceria nidula, upon the roots and the blight, uredo fabce, upon the stems and leaves ; of which we have spoken under that head. The black aphis also preys upon the young leaves, and should be timely removed, or its ravages will be great. Like the pea, the bean is divided into the field and garden varieties, though both are often indiscriminately cultivated. The kidney bean (Phaseolus vnlgaris,) is the general name by which the common dwarf bean is called on account of its resemblance in shape to the kidneys. It is also called the French bean, it being a native there, as is supposed, and having been introduced from thence into other European coun- tries. The other species is called the runner (Phaseolus multiflorus) and is a native of S. America. This has been greatly esteemed for its or- namental flowers ; and, in England, it is said to have been thus es- teemed solely on that account for more than 100 years before the value of its legumes, as an edible substance, was known. The general VARIETIES AND CULTURE. 161 character of both species is similar, but runners rise to considerable height if supported by their tendrils. These tendrils axe remarkable for their habit of always turning to the right in a direction contrary to the apparent course of the sun, and contrary to the habit of other plants. This circumstance has been attributed to the supposition that its native place is south of the equator, and that, in northern latitudes, it turns in the direction it would turn if in its native climate ; that is, towards the sun. The dwarf varieties were introduced into England against much prejudice, but they are now found equal in flavor and tenderness to others, while they are more productive and hardy. Numerous varie- ties have been introduced within the last 50 years, and among these are the dwarf varieties of the kidney. These are the large and small. The latter are best for forcing and are generally planted for the first and last crops, as they come quickly in and go quickly off. Of these are the dun-colored, red-speckled, black and purple speckled, yellow or cream colored. The 3d and 4th are probably the best. They are also known here as English dwarfs, early mazagan, sword long pod, green nonpariel, Broad Windsor, &c. The running varieties, or pole beans, are the scarlet ; from the color of its blossoms, the white Dutch, and Jlzouian kidney. The 2d and 3d are most esteemed. The latter is small and flat, producing pods 6 or 8 inches long in clusters of 4 to 6 on each joint from the ground to 20 feet high. The zebra and painted lady are sorts some cultivated. The soil for early dwarf kidneys should be rich, light and dry, and manured for a crop or two before. It being well wrought and leveled, drills are drawn 2 inches deep ; and, for a chief crop, at 2 or 2 feet distance, and the seeds are planted 2 or 3 inches apart, about the 1st of May. Subsequent culture requires the ground to be kept clear from weeds. When the first rough leaves are expanded, the earth is drawn around them. For successive crops a few rows are sown every 3 weeks, from May to Aug. The last crop is often what the English call the negro vari- ety, which continues to Oct. The seed and drills may be soaked with water, as with the pea. The Canterbury and Battersea, if sown in May, come in earlier than the main crop ; and by peculiar culture, like that of the pea, they may be obtained still earlier. The culture of the running varieties is easy and simple, which may be made to form a fine arbor or natural porch to a dwelling, by run- ning on a frame or strings. When planted in drills, like other kinds, or little farther distant, they are hoed when 3 or 4 inches high, and roush stakes are put down, or strings are used ; after which they are hoed 2 or 3 times. The scarlet bean requires a more bushy pole than other kinds. If cut down and the roots are covered with litter, it will produce an early and good crop the following summer ; and it may be 14* 162 CULTURE OF THE PEA. taken up and preserved in dry mould during the winter and replanted in April. A new method of planting the pole bean has been recommended, which is to put the pole down and plant the beans in 2 or 3 circles a few inches apart around the pole ; thus they bear more and protect one another. A main crop may be sown about the 1st of June. Beans are so prolific that the returns from 3 sowings in May, June and July will last till Oct. They are gathered for the table when fleshy and brittle. Plants last longer and bear better to gather clean from each stem, leaving none to grow old. The beans saved for seed should be of the 1st crop and left till fully matured ; then cut, laid in the sun to dry, shelled, bagged and housed. They are wet and rolled in plaster be- fore being planted. Some say they should not be hoed when the dew is on, or in wet weather. 5 beans are enough for a hill. Buel prepared an acre of light ground with 8 loads of long manure ploughed and harrowed it immediately ; furrowed it with a light plough, at 2i feet distance, scattered the beans along the furrows, at the rate of a bushel to the acre ; passed a double moulded plough be- tween the rows, followed by a roller, and cleaned the crop twice of weeds ; and the product was 48 bushels. Some plant between potatoes and then transplant. Some object to topping. Artificial culture brings the bean to hand easier than most culinary plants, and for this purpose the pine stove is resorted to. The green pods are mostly used in this country, while in parts of Europe, the ripe seeds called haricots are cooked in various ways. The seeds of the Dutch runners are large and excellent, and are made chiefly into soups. The leaves are also much used as food in some places, when boiled. A small black bean (fricollis\ is much cultivated in Mexico. In Africa there are 4 kinds much eaten. The bean affords much of the food of the Roman Catholics during Lent, in various shapes. Sliced and stewed in milk, beans are a common dish in Flanders. The garden bean is often called the horse-bean. The Windsor bean is however raised in its stead, which may be planted in stiff, moist soil, a pint for a row of 80 feet ; the rows 3 feet apart, 2 inches deep, and 4 inches distant in the row. The tops of high beans are cut off to accelerate their podding, when the first blossoms begin to drop. If done sooner, a fresh shoot will put forth. The pods then rapidly increase, and the harvest is ad- vanced two weeks. The nourishment which before went to the top, afterwards, it is said, contributes to the production of the fruit, as with the potato, pea, &c. This should not be done before the plant has produced all its pods. With small early beans this is done when the blossoms at the bottom of the stalk begin to open. 'he field white bean is thought to be the only one that can be culti- SACRED BEAN, ETC. 163 vated on a large scale in this country. But the China bean, with a red eye, is preferred by Buei. Beans are generally worth about $1 per bushel, and with care may be as profitable as wheat. The addi- tional sorts of kidney dwarf's or string beans are, Early Cranberry, Early Mohawk (very hardy), Early Yellow (6 weeks), Early Canadian. Dwarf, Early Dwarf Cluster, Quaker, China Dwarf, Large White Kidney do., White and Red Cranberry do., Warrington or Marrow, Refugee, Rob Roy, v hite Cutlas of Carolina. Of the Pole, or Run- ning beans are Large White Lima, Carolina, or Saba, Scarlet and While Dutch Runners, Red and White Cranberry, (3 last String Beans) Asparagus, Dutch Knife, &c. Beans may be preserved throughout the winter by removing the strings and breaking them up when green, as usual for cooking ; put them in layers in a stone pot, and sprinkle salt upon them, covering and pressing them with a board and a stone upon it. They then make their own brine, and are as good in mid-winter or spring as in their season, if soaked over night, &c. SACRED BEAN, nelumbium, C. 13. O. 6. Nimphacea, sp. 2. A. called in Ceylon, nelumbo. It is considered a sacred plant in Japan, and the East, and pleasing to the Deities. The long stalks are eaten, as pot-herbs. It grows in muddy marshes, and is cultivated in the gardens of the Chinese mandarins as Lien wha. Both seeds and roots are esculent, sapid and wholesome. The seeds, with slices of the roots, kernels of apricots and walnuts and alternate layers of ice, are served up to the most distinguished persons at table. The roots are also laid up in winter in salt and vinegar. The seeds are of the size and form of the almond, but of a still more delicate taste. The ponds in China are generally covered with it, exhibiting a very beautiful ap- pearance, the flowers being both handsome and fragrant. It sustains the cold well, and might probably be cultivated here. There are many varieties. The Esyptians are supposed to have prepared their coloca- sia from the root of this plant, but it is not now found in that country ; from which it is inferred that they cultivated it with great care. The Romans also made many efforts to cultivate it, as well as moderns in Europe. They should be grown in a tub or pot partly full of water all the time the plants are growing. The seed will keep 40 years, and flower the first year. 1. sp. N. A- DOLICHOS, C. 17. O. 4., a plant of the ancients, supposed to be the kidney bean of the moderns. It is a climbing species, many run- ning to the top of the highest trees in the East. Most of them are eatable, though inferior to the kidney bean. Some have tuberous roots also, which are eaten. The seeds of D. soja are used in soups in Ja- pan, and are the most common dish there, being eaten 3 times a day, frequently. The Kitjap of the Chinese is prepared from the seeds, and is used in almost all their dishes, instead of the common salt. 164 ALLIACEOUS PLANTS. They make a favorite dish of the seeds, called Tau hu, which resem- bles curd, and which, though insipid, is made agreeable and wholesome by seasoning. CYTISUS, Leguminosae, C. 17. O. 4. sp. 24-41. E. & Da. ft. 2-30. A genus of ornamental trees and shrubs of which some species are much admired. The true Laburnum, the false ebony of the French, is often sown in plantations, the twigs of which hares and rabits are ex- tremely fond. The timber has been sold for $2 or $3 per foot. It is often planted as a fence to the sugar plantations in the W. Indies, and it thrives on barren soil. The seed is much eaten by the poor and negroes, and is considered a wholesome pulse. By some it is pre- ferred to the pea. It is mostly used for feeding pigeons, but is given, with the branches and leaves, to feed and fatten hogs, horses and cattle. It should be cultivated here. VETCH, (vicia sativa) belonging to the class and order of the com- mon bean. This is commonly known as a small species of bean grow- ing wild in dry meadows and corn fields. They are cultivated in England, but little here. The pods are usually in pairs ; leaves winged, with about 6 pairs of leaflets, and branched tendril at the ex- tremity. They are chiefly useful as an agricultural plant, for feeding horses and cattle. They are grown early, to allow for sowing turnips the same year; but are often ploughed in, when the soil is to receive a wheat crop. The seeds are very grateful to pigeons. Tares are of the same species. V. Eroilia is cultivated in parts of Europe for the above purposes, but is inferior. The others of the 16 species are little cultivated. The Horse bean, now much cultivated, has 2 or 3 varieties, one of which is the Tick bean, a low plant and good bearer, much used in England, says a British writer, for horses and fattening cattle, and formerly much bought up at Bristol for the Guinea ships as food for the negroes in, their passage from Africa to the. West Indies." CAROB TREE, Ceratonia, C. 23. O. 2., a Leguminous evergreen, and called St. John's bread, as St. John is said to have fed on the long pods, containing a sweet fecula, for which they are now imported. It is the locust tree of scripture. The seeds are eaten in Spain, where the tree is common. ALLIACEOUS PLANTS. These consist of bulbous-rooted plants, belonging to the natural or- der of dsphodelece. The bulbs grow upwards from the crown of the roots, instead of downwards, as with the tuberous roots we have des- cribed. They are not, therefore, strictly speaking, roots, but buds, destined for the protection of the embryo of the future plant, as will be seen by reference to our article on buds and bulbs. They comprise GARLIC. 165 plants greatly esteemed and eaten ; but they are not very nourishing, though possessed of pungent qualities highly grateful to a large class of people, especially in the S. of Europe. But their nature will be recognized by mentioning the names of the chief kinds, which are the Onion, Leek, Garlic, Chive, Shallot, Racombole, &c. Of this class, and in fact, of any other class, no vegetable products are more general than these. Their bulbous roots are chiefly eaten. Their peculiar pungent and stimulating flavor is owing to a white volatile oil; they contain also much phosphoric acid, but their unpleasant odor has pre- vented their use as generally as their wholesome properties merit. GARLIC. JUium Sativum, C. 6. O. 1. Asphodelese. sp. 76-107. Br. B. -3 ft. This is an extensive tribe of bulbous rooted plants, ex- tensively grown in this country and the S. of Europe, where they have less acrimony. They are used for seasoning, flavoring, pickles, and in numerous ways as food. Great quantities are consumed by the poorer classes in France, Spain, Italy and Portugal. Jews are said to eat them to excess. They are esteemed as strengthening to the stomach. They are little used here by native citizens. Their smell pervades the whole plant, and in this respect, they differ some from the onion. When bruized and applied to the skin, they cause inflammation, and sometimes a blister. The juice is said to form a strong cement for glass and china, leaving no mark. The sauce of garlic is made by peeling and dividing the cloves, boiling them in 3 changes of water and afterwards putting them in a drip- ping pan an hour before use. There is but one variety cultivated. They are divisible into parts called cloves. The most important spe- cies of this genus will be found under the head of onions, leeks, shal- lot, &c. The species recognized in botany are, great rounded Garlic ; A Porrum, common Leek; linear leafed Garlic; long rooted; hairy; Homer's Molly, or Sorcerers ; oblique-leafed ; tartarian ; rose-colored ; A. sativum, cultivated garlic; Scorodoprasum, Rocambole; small round headed; purple headed ; sm/dl flowered ; sulphur-colored; palc- fl&wcred ; panicled; A. ascalonicum, eschalotte, or shalotte ; narcissus- leafed ; Canadian ; Ramson three cornered ; yellow, or molly ; A. Fisiulosum, Welsh onion; A. Schsenoprasum, chives, or chives garlic ; A. Sibiricum, Siberian Garlic ; Bastard Garlic. All of these species are cultivated; some for their bulbous roots and others fur pot-herbs. We shall notice a few only which are chiefly cultivated in this country. A. cepa, or the common onion is the most important A. porrum has an imperfect bulb and cylindrical scale, is blanched in gardens and much used in soups and stews. A. sativum has bulbs used in seasoning and in medicine. It is propa- gated by dividing the bulb. A. sarodoprasum has bulbs like garlic, and is cultivated like it and for the same purpose, though it has a 166 PROPERTIES OF GARLIC. more delicate flavor. A. scolonicum, or shallot, is the mildest of cul- tivated Aliums. It is propagated by the clove planted in the spring. Garlics differ from onions chiefly on account of their greater pun- gency. The leaves are grass-like and not fistulous, as with the onion. It acquires its fulness, in the middle states, about the last of Aug. It forms an excellent expectorant and is otherwise like the onion, valua- ble in many diseases. Snails, worms, and the larvae of insects, as well as moles and other vermine are driven away by placing prepara- tions of the garlic or onion in their paths, or upon vegetables. Their virtues are extracted by spirits of wine. Their composition is acrid, volatile oil, extractive, gum, woody fibre, albumen, water, starch, sul- phur and saccharine, matter. Their ashes contain alkaline and earthy salts. The oil of garlics has a very acrid taste, strong smell and yel- low color. It is heavier than water. 20 pounds of the garlic yield 6 drachms of the oil. With oxide of iron it strikes a black color ; it is a powerful irritant. The Hindoos prepare a stimulating oil from it which they give internally for the ague and apply externally for palsy and rheumatism. Garlics when eaten, operate as a tonic and stimulant to the stom- ach, and they impart their well known odor to the secretions. Their volatile oil becomes absorbed, quickens the circulation, occasions thirst and is thrown off by the excretories, the activity of which it promotes. Eaten in large quantities, they occasion nausea, vomiting and purging; and the expressed juice has proved fatal. They are used as a stimulant in enfeebled digestion, as a diuretic in atonic dropsies, in chronic catarrhs and as an anthelmintic. Externally it is a resolvent in indolent tumors ; a local irritant, or rubefacient applied to the feet to cause a revulsion from the head or chest ; an antispasmodic as a liniment made of oil and garlic juice in infantile convulsions ; a remedy for ear ache or deafness a clove wrapped in muslin, or a few drops of juice being introduced into the ear. It is taken inter- nally as a bolus or in pills. A dose of the fresh bulbs is 1 or 2 drachms ; or the expressed juice, mixed with sugar, or the infusion of garlic may be employed. Its use, and even its smell, is said to be valua- ble in the cure of vapors and other nervous diseases of females, in spasmodic asthmas, for a languid circulation, catarrhs, &c. The syrupus alii of the shops is, 6 oz. of fresh garlic, a pint of distilled vinegar and 2 pounds of sugar macerate the garlic in the vinegar in a glass vessel 4 days, express the liquor, and set it by to subside. Add the sugar to this clear liquor and use the syrup as stated. Onions are substituted for garlics and they answer the above purposes, (which see) except that they are not so efficient, or strong. The cultivation is on rich dry soil, not recently manured. It being very hardy, it is not particular as to climate. It is propagated by the cloves planted in march and pulled in Aug. The wild garlic of Rus- THE ONION. 167 sia is much esteemed, and is preserved in winter and eaten, steeped in water and mixed with cabbage, onions, &c. as a ragout, cold. It is there a specific asainst the scurvy. The satid, crow and leek garlics are found wild. They are planted singly in beds, in rows, lengthwise, 6 or 8 inches apart and 2 or 3 deep. When ripe the leaves change to yellow, and they are then taken up. The stalky part of the leaves is left on the root ; they are spread in the sun to dry and then tied in bunches and housed. A. Sativurn ; bulb a compound of 12 or 15 cloves invested with a white skin; stamens 3-pointed ; leaves linnear, long, narrow; flowers white. Sicily. ONION, (Garlic) allium cepa. C. 6. O. 1. Asphodeleee. sp. 76- 107. Br. B. 2-3 ft. This is a species of a genus of strongly scented bulbous plants called garlic. The varieties are innumerable, and new ones are constantly presented. There are above 20 varieties recom- mended for garden culture. It is a biennial, with long tubulated leaves, a pithy stalk, swelling in the middle and a large round head of flowers, expanding the 2d summer after sowing. The root or bulb, is formed of concentric coats, which vary according to soil and culture. The small bulbs of this genus, as a general rule, are proportionably less pungent ; and those of a red color are more so than the white. Those also with the outer rind or tunic thin and transparent, are always the mildest. The tops are used as a pot-herb, salad and pickle. This plant is one of the most important flavoring substances ; it has been cultivated in this country since its first settlement and was known and cultivated in Africa at a very remote period. In Egypt it was known and much esteemed 2000 years before Christ ; and it is still a favorite article of food there. Its qualities are such there that it may not be thought remarkable that the Israelites lamented its loss after leaving Egypt. It appears indeed to have been worshipped in Esypt. An onion taken from the hand of an Egyptian mummy, at least 2000 years old, vegetated on planting it. Its taste differs in different countries, being soft and mild in some warm climates and in northern latitudes coarse and hard. A soup made of it in the first named places, is very rich. Those too, of the S. of Europe, are much superior to the onions cultivated here; yet it is an article of great importance in this country, both of consumption and export, chiefly to the W. Indies. Boiled, chopped and stewed in a pan for 15 minutes, with a little milk, butter, salt and pepper, and served upon the table hot, they are a very fine dish. The water should be changed when half boiled and salt added to the second water, poured hot upon them. Meats smothered with stewed onions are much admired. They are eaten raw, sliced in vinegar, with salt, pepper, &c. ; but they thus taint the breath, while boiled ones do not. 168 USES AND CULTURE OF THE ONION. The name onion is from unio, the Latin signifying that the bulb or cloves are united. It has been much subject to the caprice of fash- ion and medical criticism ; still it has continued to be a common, and perhaps the most important seasoning herb for meats from the earliest periods. No flavoring substance is now more in use in cooking. It imparts a savory, fragrant and delicious taste to every culinary pre- paration in which it is used; it also affords considerable nutriment, and possesses important medical properties. The laboring classes in every country are especially fond of the onion; and the quantities they consume, both of this and other species of the garlic, are very great ; although, in northern climates, it is not easily digested, but remains oftentimes a day or two in the stomach. It is eaten raw, but most commonly in this country, boiled and served up with white sauce or melted butter. The scent of onions is removed by eating a few raw leaves of parsley, and their digestion is thus assisted ; vinegar does the same. The water should be changed when onions are about half boiled, the second water being in a boiling state from a tea-kettle. This greatly improves their quality. Fried onions are not more easily digested than raw ones, and neither are much eaten except by gross feeders. They should be chopped fine when used for stuffing geese, ducks, or any other meats, in connection with sage, &c. When chop- ped, they are boiled for 6 or 8 minutes, put into a cullender to drain, then pressed till no water remains, mixed with chopped sage, &c. Roasted onions are less wholesome than fried ones ; and, as with these, should be eaten sparingly by those with weak stomachs. The onion flourishes well in southern parts of New England, and is there greatly cultivated and exported. Mellow, sandy, and somewhat moist soil or gravelly loam, is preferred, requiring, as they do, much heat and considerable moisture. Soot and yard manure is recommend- ed near the surface. Ashes are also spread over them after sowing, if the soil is not very sandy. They impoverish the soil but little, if any ; and they often continue to improve upon it, with manure. The ground is dug or ploughed thinly in autumn, made fine and the seed sown the last of April. They are commonly sown in beds, 4 rows of holes in each, 10 inches apart, and 10 holes in the rows. 5 or 6 seeds, if good, are placed in a hole, and covered an inch deep. They also grow quite as well in drill-rows, a foot apart. Or, make the drills 8 or 10 inches apart, and drop the seeds at the intersecting angles. By the use of the drill-plough in field culture, half the labor may be saved. A better mode is probably that pursued in England. The ground being dug and levelled, manure in a rotted state is spread upon it, and the seed is sown on this and covered thinly by earth from the alleys, and a roller passed over it. Crops are very productive this way. In fields they are sown broad-cast, and thinned gradually for use, out of the 1st crop; the 2d remaining for planting out in spring. CULTURE AND PROPERTIES OF ONIONS. 169 These are withdrawn some weeks before the autumn crop. Small onions produce very fine and larse ones, and yield offsets, but the larger ones produce the largest clusters. Care should be taken in se- lecting seeds, as all weeds or poor stock are pernicious. To be drawn young, 2 oz. is required for a bed 4 feet by 24 ; but for bulbing 1 oz. suffices. 625 bushels have been raised on the acre in Mass. Earthing up is objectionable. Middle sized onions are better for eating than larger ones. They are hoed 3 or 4 times till the tops arrive at their height ; the weeds are afterwards pulled by hand. Trampling the soil between the rows and withdrawing the soil from the bulbs, to expose them to the sun, is recommended. When the greenness of the stalks are gone from the tops, they are pulled ; for after this the roots decay. When pulled they lie on the ground for 10 or 12 days to dry and harden, if the weather be fair, and then placed on a floor in a dry covered place. Scallions should not be mixed with good onions, but hung up in bunches. A warm and moist cellar is not so good as a cool and dry place, or dry casks in garrets or lofts. When shipped, they are strung on a wisp of straw. If they begin to sprout, which injures them for eating, the fibrous roots are some- times seared with a hot iron ; the pores are thus stopped, which, ad- mitting the air, causes them to rot. The seeds are obtained by plant- ing early in beds, 9 inches apart ; the largest and soundest are best. The tops appear in a month, each with several stems. They are kept free from weeds, and when the flower-heads are about to appear, the stems are secured to a stake about 4 feet long. Onions for pickling are grown on poor soil to keep them small. When gathered, the seeds are spread in the sun a day, to dry, and then put up in papers. Every plant living longer than a year, generates the sap to elabo- rate the leaves and roots of the succeeding spring. This juice, depo- sited in the bulbous roots of the onion, varies in quantity according to the circumstances of the plants. It acquires a larger quantity in the south than in the north, having there more sun and heat. To effect the same here, the seed may be sown in spring, thickly, in the shade and on a poor soil, so that in autumn the bulbs are not larger than a pea. These are taken up and preserved during the winter and planted in spring, when they produce bulbs very superior to those raised di- rectly from seeds ; they often exceed 5 inches in diameter, and are otherwise better. In Portugal they are sown in Nov., on a moderately hot bed, protected from frosts, and transplanted to a rich soil in April. The medical properties of the onion were known to the ancients. Raw onions are taken as an expectorant for winter cough. Roasted onions are employed as an emolient poultice to supurating tumors and to the ear, to relieve pain. The expressed juice is given to children and others, with sugar, &c., as an expectorant in coughs ; vinegar or 15 170 VARIETIES OF ONIONS. lemon juice is often added. It is excellent rubbed upon the flesh for any irritation, and especially for blotches, bites, or stinss of insects, which are quickly removed. Applied to the soles of the ieet for several hours, or during the night, in cases of colds or local inflammations, they are found very valuable. It is said that they may be successfully used for the bites of poisonous serpents, or the mad dog, and that in sickness, in contagious diseases, they imbibe much of the contagious matter. In all cases it is used freshly cut or sliced. Placed within tainted or putrefying poultry 01 other meats, they are said to render them pure and sweet. They are said to promote the growth of hair by being rubbed on bald heads. Indeed, it has been suggested that the physiological effects of the onion have not been fully tested. On- ions are composed of an acrid volatile oil, uncrystalizable sugar, gum } woody fibre, albumen, acetic and phosphoric acids, phosphate anid citrate of lime, and water. By boiling, the volatile oil of onions is dissipat- ed, and they are deprived of their irritating qualities. The varieties are the Strasburg onion, which is much cultivated, but the silver-skinned is superior, or milder. Of the 2 sorts, white and brown, the latter keep the longest. The white Spanish, Portugal, or Lisbon onion are good kinds, but the seed is imported every 2 or 3 years. Tripoli, is a fine and large onion for a late crop. The Stras- burg and blood-red keep well and are hardy, but strongly flavored. The Welsh onion, alium fistulosum, is the hardiest plant, but is very strongly flavored. It does not form a bulb. It is occasionally raised for a spring crop ; the seed is sown in July or in autumn, and pulled in spring. It dies early in winter, and revives in spring. It is a pe- rennial, and all others are biennial. Scallion is the name of a long- necked onion producing abundant leaves, but no bulb. The potato, or ground onion is a curious variety. It is raised from the offsets of the bulb planted in the winter, and produces no seed ; it is hardy, pro- ductive and mild, and its roots are ripened for use 2 months before any other sort, and resists insects better. It is earthed up like the potato, and pulled in summer. The Tree or Bulb-bearing onion ; allium sepa ; Var. viviparum, is a singular variety, from Canada, produced, probably, by climate. Its stem is two feet high, bearing flowers which are succeeded by no cap- sule, or seed-vessel. The bulbs are grown on the top of the stalk, which falling to the ground, put out roots and vegetate. But this va- riety is more curious than useful. It is stronger for seasoning than other kinds. The large Portuguese onions are imported and sold in shops at a high price. It is a delicious vegetable, boiled, and is pulpy. A cepa ; scape swelling out below, longer than the hollow columnar leaves; flowers white. CHIVES, or cives, allium sch&noprasum. C. 6 O. 1. & species 14* THE LEEK. in of the garlic and the smallest and finest of the genus. It is a hardy perennial and native of Siberia. It grows in tufts and is propagated by offsets from the roots. Its use is in soups and for spring salads, for which the leaves or stalks are cut close. It is cultivated as a sub- stitute for the onion, and being mild, it is esteemed for omelets, &c. It is not drawn to eat entire ; for though placed with bulbous roots, it affords none for consumption, but the thin stems are eaten when a few inches high, as a salad and seasoning ingredient. Once planted, it continues for 4 or 5 years without injury from the cold of winter. The roots are planted a few inches apart, when they soon grow into large bunches. It is found wild, but is not changed by cultivation. The bulbs are very small and connected in elongated clusters. The stalks are seldom allowed to run to seed, and when cut, others shoot up in succession. Their flavor suffers if kept after picking. The flowers are white with a purplish tinge, and appear in June. They are a fine ornament along the paths of gardens. They partake of the flavor of both the onion and leek. LEEK, Allium porrum. This is a species of the garlic, before noticed. It is said to be a native of Switzerland ; but was probably cultivated with the onion by the ancient Egyptians ; and it is still a constant attendant at the tables there. It has long been a favorite badge as well as food of the Welch, and is now so used on St. David's day, in commemoration of a victory obtained over the Saxons in the 6th century and attributed to the leeks they wore by order of St. Da- vid. Its growth is recommended in northern countries on account of its hardy and pungent character. It requires more boiling than the other species of garlics ; it taints the breath offensively, unless re- duced to a pulp ; but this, or any other vegetable odor, is not unwhole- some, if not the effects of putrefaction. Its bulb is formed of the bottoms of the leaves, but these are not composed of cloves, as with other species. The stem is 3 feet high and the bell-shaped flowers appear in large close balls in May. The blanched ends of the leaves are used as a pot-herb, though the roots and much of the leaves are eaten in some places, with bread, &c. It is a forward and succulent vegetable in cold climates, when other fresh ones are not to be obtain- ed. It is raised from seed and cultivated like the onion. The soil is light, dry and rich, and the situation open, with a dry sub-soil. It is dug in the fall and the crop sown the last of April. The plants are weeded and thinned when 3 or 4 inches high, and are often transplant- ed when 6 or 8 inches high. The long weak tops are trimmed and planted in rows 10 or 12 inches apart. The best are removed in spring to a sunny place for seed, and supported by stakes till ripe in Sep. Cut and tie the heads and hang them under cover, and when dry, rub out the seed. An ounce of seed is sown on a bed 4 feet by 8, patted down and raked lightly over. 172 THE SHALLOT. The varieties are the Flanders, or narrow-leafed; the Scotch, flag, or Musselburg and the broad-leafed, tall, or London leek. They are not suited with rank soil. A small crop may be sown thinly with on- ions. In dry weather they require watering and hoeing several times. The whole plant is used in soups and stews, but the blanched stem is mostly esteemed. They are said to be superior when taken up the middle of July, the roots cut off to an inch in length, planted in trenches, like celery, 5 inches apart, though but half as deep or wide. The trenches are manured and the plants hoed as they grow, like celery. The leeks thus grow 18 inches under ground, and are very thick. 3 of these planted for seed are generally sufficient. A. Porrum ; umbel globular ; stamens 3-pointed ; petals with rough keel ; root coated ; leaves sometimes very narrow : spatha short, conical, deciduous ; flowers purplish, close, in a large ball, on purple peduncles. SHALLOT, or Eshalote, allium uscalonicum from JLscalon, Syria, and hence the name scallion. C. 6. O. 1. Br. P. ft. A species of the garlic, with a small bulbous root; brought from Syria in 1548, some say by the crusaders. It has a strong but pleasant smell and is preferred to onions in seasoning soups, gravies, hashes &c. It is also used as a pickle, particularly in the E. Indies, and is the best seasoning for beef-steaks. It is propagated by planting the bulbs, or cloves, which increase greatly by offsets, like the true garlic. These are not large, but grow into clusters. The soil should be a light, rich, sandy loam, or dry soil, well manured the year before. The separated offsets are planted in very shallow drills, 6 inches apart, early in March, or in Oct., or Nov., attaining their growth the following summer. Too much moisture is apt to rot the roots before they vegetate. They are slightly covered with earth. Soot, mixed with the surface soil pre- vents the depredations of insects upon the plant. They are then carefully weeded by hand or by hoeing. The leaves decay in Aug., when the bulb has its growth. These are then taken up, dried in the sun and placed in a dry loft, in casks, boxes, or tied in bundles. Planting on the surface is recommended to avoid the worm rais- ing the soil on each side to support the root, with a rich soil beneath. This edge soil is afterwards removed and the roots watered, being mostly out of ground. The growth resembles that of the onion, but the form of the bulb remains different. The above mode greatly improves the quality and size. The shallots, if wanted, may be taken up of good size in June or July. The shallot seldom flowers, but the want of seeds is com- pensated by the multiplication of the roots. It bears the severest win- ters. Its flavor is more pungent than that of the garlic, but not so rank. Stem naked; columnar leaves all-shaped, umbels globular j spatha CRUCIFEROUS PLANTS. 173 membranous ; petals of corolla, erect, ovate, blue, with dark keel ; bulbs oblong. ROCAMBOLE, allium scorodoprasum. C. 6. O. 1. Br. P. 2 ft. A species of the garlic, and a native of the N. of Europe. It is distin- guished for its mild and fine flavor. It has narrow flat leaves, wilh a keel or ridge on the under side. The head is contorted, but untwists on maturity, and presents a cluster of small bulbules of a purplish tinge. It is propagated by the cloves from the root, or the top of the stalk, which are larger, but less pungent. The plant holds an in- termediate space between the garlic and shallot. The bulbs are smal- ler than those of the garlic ; they are heart-shaped ; and those, both of the top and bottom are used for the same purposes, but the former are more delicate. They are also planted in the same way, in Oct. or Nov. The richer the ground, the more cloves are produced. The composition of the edible alliaceous plants we have just con- cluded is nearly alike in the various species and varieties, as stated under garlic and onion. Their volatile oil, constituting their acrid and stimulating qualities, being dissipated by cooking, they form a mild and easily disgestible food. CRUCIFEROUS PLANTS. These are a class of plants which do not afford the nutritive princi- ple sugar, farina, or starch ; but they are, nevertheless, important ar- ticles of food. . It is certain that the human system requires a propor- tion of herbaceous vegetable matter to preserve health, and that none supply this in a more efficient form than this order of plants. These differ from most others in containing more nitrogen, a well known and essential element of animals ; and it is further remarkable that all plants of this order are innocent if not always nutritive. Although they do not possess the principles above-mentioned, it is probable that, in the process of assimilation they are quite as important as those which do, especially in furnishing the body with the important ele- ment nitrogen. This order of plants embraces the Cabbage and its numerous varie- ties of Brocoli, Cauliflower, Sprouts, &c. ; also the Turnip, Sea-kail, Radish, Cress, Mustard, &c., some of which we have arranged under the general head of esculent roots, salads, &c. The plants of this order derive their nutritive properties from their mucilaginous, saccharine and extractive matter ; and, with one or two doubtful exceptions, no cruciferous plants are poisonous. In most varieties of the braccia, or cabbase tribe, the parts used are the leaves. They are composed chiefly of water, with small portions of acids or salts. 90 per cent, of these are given off by drying. The remaining parts in the 100 are 15* 174 THE CABBAGE. nitrogen 3-7, extractive 2-34, with fractions of gum, resin, albumen and green fecula. Cauliflower differs a iittle from this analysis. It has been estimated that the mean time of chimification or digestion of raw cabbage with vinegar is 2 hours, do. boiled 4 hours and 30 minutes. The, Umbelliferous plants, to which belong the Carrot, Parsnip, Cel- ery, &c., it may be here remarked, are possessed of very opposite qualities. They are always injurious, and often fatally poisonous. But the poisonous principle of these, being contained chiefly in a volatile oil elaborated mostly in the leaves, is readily given off by heat in boiling. The fruit or seeds, is thus generally preserved by peculiar chemical and provident changes, from deleterious principles. We have seen also that the juices of the principal esculent roots are deleterious or highly poisonous, but that this quality is easily removed by heat; so that cooking by fire renders them innocent, if not nutritive, by dissi- pating the dangerous properties ; while it leaves the nutritive ones greatly improved by the process. We cannot be too forcibly impressed with the importance of this wise and beneficent provision in the laws of nature. This class comprehends the cabbage species with their numerous varieties, belonging to the large family of Crucifera. Some of these have been cultivated from very early periods, but the varieties have been much improved, being greatly disposed to run into numerous di- versities of form and character. They are eaten in a great variety of ways ; and the roots, leaves, stems and buds are consumed, both cook- ed and raw ; the seeds of some are also valuable for their oil. None of these cruciferous esculents are poisonous. They contain a portion of nitrogen, which is readily detected in the leaves ; hence the un- pleasant smell when they undergo decomposition, and also of the wa- ter in which cabbages have been boiled. The family of the cruciferse contains also many weeds, and are consequently frequently changing ; even those which are cultivated are crossed by the polen of the wild plants. The Romans introduced some of the species into Germany and England, and the cabbage, to this day, is a general and favorite vegetable with the German people. Very many and improved varie- ties have, at comparatively recent dates, been introduced. Parts of Scotland, where the cabbage was early cultivated, are now called the land of kale. The species Oleracea contain the principal cultivated varieties and sub-varieties. All of these are reduced to three classes ; viz : 1st, Cabbages ; 2d, Kale, or Colewort ; and 3d, Cauliflmvers and Brocoli. CABBAGE, Brassica-oleracea, C. 15. Cruciferee, sp. 12-34. Eh. and B. 2 ft. from to devour or boil. A well known edible plant derived SAUERKRAUT. 175 from a stock growing wild on the sea-coast, and from which is also the colewort, borecole, cauliflower, and brocoli. The effects of cultivation on this plant are thus remarkable. In the wild state the leaves are spreading, but in the cultivated plant they lie like the scales of a bulb. The cabbage is greatly cultivated in this country and most parts of Europe, for the food of man and beast, and is one of the most important plants in use. It has been cultivated from re- mote antiquity, and was introduced into Europe by the Romans. The Saxons named the month February, Sprout Kale, from this plant. The seed is sown in April, and the plants are transplanted in rows. Boiled with meats, they are a common dish ; and also cut fine with salt, spices, and vinegar, as a salad. The Germans make of them, pickled, a favorite dish called " sour-crout." "Sauerkraut" is an excellent preparation of the Germans. It is prepared with close-headed white cabbage cut in shreds and placed in 4-inch layers in a cask. The first layer being put in, is strewed with salt, unground pepper, and a small portion of salad and oil ; it is then, trodden down by a person having on wooden shoes. Another layer is then put in and managed in the same way, and so on till the cask is full. The whole is then heavily pressed, and allowed to ferment for a time, after which the casks are headed up and stored away for use. The preparation of this is a distinct profession, and is performed chief- ly by the Tyrolese. The shredding is performed by machines carried on the back from house to house ; so that every German family stores up one or more barrels of this food. Oct. and Nov. are the busy months in this art, and huge white pyramids of cabbages are seen crowding the markets ; while in every court and yard into which an accidental peep is obtained, all is bustle and activity in the concocting of this national food ; and the baskets filled with the shreded cabbage resemble mountains of green-tinged froth or sylabub." This sour- crout has been much used in the English navy, both as food and as a preventive against scurvy. The method of cooking this is simply to stew it in its own liquor with bacon, pork, or other meats ; aromatic seeds and other carminatives are often added. It is not suitable for those with an acrid stomach. Its effects are somewhat laxative on the bowels. Cabbage, though much used for feeding cattle, is said to give an unpleasant flavor to the flesh and milk of cows. But the re- moval of the lower leaves, most disposed to putrefaction, is said to be a remedy for these effects. The crops of this article in England ap- pear to be greater than ours, 36 tons being an average crop per acre on dry soil ; but on sandy soil the crop is not over 18 tons. A cabbage, it is said, was produced in Devonshire, a year or two since, measur- ing 5 feet in circumference, weighing 60 pounds, and occupying a space of 15 feet of ground. 176 VARIETIES OF CABBAGE. Cabbages are sown one year, produce seed the next, and die the next. The roots, stems and leaves are dressed and eaten in numerous ways. 4 or 5 varieties only are cultivated. One of the best of tiiese is the Early York, brought from Flanders. The cabbage is easily cultivated, and produces all the year. Being sown in spring, summer and autumn, a constant supply is afforded. The Cow Cabbage (var. arborenscensj has lately come into use, and is the best in use for cattle. 60 plants are said to afford food sufficient for a cow for 3 or 4 years without fresh planting. Thus a square of 60 feet will contain 256 plants, 4 feet apart, and furnishes food more than sufficient for 4 cows. It is cultivated in England. The leaves of the head, by their own compression, are effectually blanched, and the green color is more completely destroyed than the red. The more blue or purple the leaves, the more sweet and crisp they are. The various modes of cooking are well known. After stripping off the out- side leaves they are usually boiled in salted water, taking care to skim the water and not to confine the steam within the boiling vessel. In France they are boiled from 10 to 20 minutes, or until the fork enters the stem, easily ; then drained, cut up and bathed with gravy. An oz. of seed will produce 4000 plants. The soil should be light, moist, not very rich, and rather clayey. When sown in autumn, say loth Sept., they are transplanted in Oct., or in Spring. They are picked out of the bed in which they are sown, when they have one or two leaves, one or two inches broad, and afterwards transplanted into rich or manured soil. They are hoed when two or three inches high. Battersea is a fine oval headed cabbage, but the Nonpariel, a recent va- riety, is probably the best cultivated, coming in early and heading quickly ; it is delicate and good sized. Brompton, early Salsbury, late Savoy, early l)warf, flat and red Dutch are also valuable varieties. The white and red are the usual distinctions here. The dwarf, Savoy, Cauliflower, and Dutch are also sorts well known. The large Scotch is said to be the best field plant. Plants should be 2 feet apart, or greater in the field, and planted early in May. When the sun is very hot, 2 shingles on the north and south side are made to shelter them. A worm often travels from plant to plant during the night, eating off the stems and burying itself in the ground at day break. Lime or rockweed scattered around the plant is useful, or the worm may be found at the root of the stem last destroyed. Brine, soap-suds, saltwater, or smoke of sulphur, tobacco, or straw is used for the lice found on the plant. A belt of hemp seed sown around the ground keeps away the caterpillar. The top and stem, dipped in muddy water, is good against drought. The under leaves of the cabbage, may be stripped off without in- jury and given to cattle, for which they are very good, but not for milch cows. The plant is much fed to cattle in winter, in England CAULIFLOWER BROCOLI. 177 and it is said to fatten them sooner than turnips. To preserve cab- bages, they are taken up on a dry day, the heads turned downwards for a few hours, to remove any water between the leaves ; then set in a ridge, or bed of dry earth to their heads, in a sheltered, dry place, having removed all loose leaves. A low temporary shed made of boards, or straw on poles, is placed over them, with the ends closed with straw in severe weather. The heads may then be cut off as wanted; and if frozen, soaked in water a few hours before cooking. The best are removed to a distance for seed. They are transplanted in moist weather rnd watered frequently. When the heads begin to form, the steins should be earthed up. When the plants come up too thick they are thinned ; 3 oz. of seed to a square perch is best. The early heading kinds are set 2 and the late sorts 3 feet apart. 32 tons 2 cwt. have been raised on an acre in Mass. The stalks, after the heads are cut off, should be preserved for spring greens, by trimming off the long roots, laying the stumps in rows 4 or 5 inches out of ground, in a slop- ing direction, in a warm dry place ; cover them with straw, or stalks, in severe weather ; and when frosts cease, hoe them, or they may re- main if protected. If not thus preserved, pull them, when cut, for the compost heap, that they may not exhaust the soil. Cabbage means the head ; and it is thus said, the cole has cabbaged ; the lettuce has cabbaged, or the tailor has cabbaged ; meaning in this case that parts of the cloth have been rolled up and packed away like the head leaves of the cabbage. CAULIFLOWER, var. botrytis, the most delicate vegetable of the cabbage tribe and greatly improved by cultivation. It is supposed to be distinct from the cabbage. It has not been made to approach the cabbage in form. It was called coleflorie, from caulis, a stalk, and florea, to flourish ; chou-fleur, or cabbage flower is the French name. There are 2 varieties, early and late, or white and red. They do not resist our winter without aid. The seed is sown last of Aug., the plants pricked out and preserved in winter, planted in spring, and per- fected from May to Aug. For summer crop, seed is sown in March and plants set out in May, and for autumn crop it is sown in April, set out in July and is perfected in Oct. A bed of light, rich earth, well prepared, may be sown, the seed raked in, or a 4th of an inch of light mould sifted over it;- Water and weed the plants occasionally. They are a delicious winter vegetable ; and are gathered whilst the pulp is close. They are cooked and cultivated in a manner similar to that of cabbage. The plant attains great perfection in Cyprus. It has improved by culture in England and is there much more culti- vated and esteemed than here. Dr. Johnson said Of all flowers, I like the cauliflower best." The head of the plant may be preserved for months, but loose leaves become putrescent. BROCOLI is considered a sub- variety of the cauliflower which is 178 BORECOLE RAPE. constantly running into new varieties. Thus, like many other plants, having been often changed, it continues the more readily to admit of others. The red and purple Brocoli, only, were known a few years since in Italy ; but there are now 13 varieties raised in England. Im- provements in the culture of Brocoli, have been more rapid than those in the culture of any other plant. A hard white variety has lately been produced, both handsomer and more delicate than the green or red, and it is afforded throughout the year. A fresh, loamy soil, is re- quired for Brocoli, and the seeds are thinly sown on beds of rich mould, and covered with mats or litter till the plants are up. The heads are a rich, seedy pulp, the white much resembling the cauliflow- er. The purple is generally cultivated here. In the southern states, they will stand in open ground, but they require more care in the northern. Sudden transitions from cold to heat, as with most other vegetables, is worse than continued cold. Brocoli is mostly for spring and winter use, and is served up like most other varieties of the cabbage. With the cauliflower, it is one of the greatest luxuries of the garden. Grange's early Cauliflower, Brocoli and late Tartarian Dwarf, are the two best varieties. The seeds of all the sorts are sown in open ground in rich loamy soil, in April, May and June, in rows, 2| feet apart and 2 feet distant in the rows, watered and hoed. They are transplanted and sheltered like other species. BORECOLE, var. Sabdlica, is the curly-leafed colewort, and is found mostly in English gardens. The Scotch kale is the green bore- cole ; this, with the brown and purple are the most hardy. The plants grow vigorously in rich soil, and become very large but the middle- sized are the best, the larger being harsh and the stinted bitter. This has many sub-varieties, all hardy and continuing green through- out the winter. 6 only, of these are cultivated. The tall green, or Scotch kale is best, the Russian kale is the most hardy, and the 1000 headed cabbage grows to the height of 4 or 5 feet, throwing off nu- merous branches, and is chiefly extolled as an agricultural plant. All the varieties are cultivated by seed, like the others we have described. The dwarf, curled, or finely fringed, is cultivated here and in Europe, for the table ; it is grown in trenches on gravelly soil, and covered in winter. RAPE, Brassica napus. C. 15. Eh. B. 2. ft. A plant of the cab- bage tribe, growing wild and cultivated in this country as a small sal- ad in summer and winter, like mustard and cress. The seeds are sub- stituted for those of mustard, and .with millet for bird-seed. It is much cultivated for winter greens and salad. Oil is obtained from the seed by pressure, which is used in large quantities by clothiers, in medicines, in making green soap, or burning in lamps, &c. The roots are eaten like those of turnips. It is commonly sown in July, for win- ter use, and transplanted. When frost-bitten, it is good and tender. OTHER CABBAGE SPECIES. 179 Rape is chiefly valuable as an agricultural plant for feeding cattle. The cole seed, as it has been called, when sown for this purpose, is sown the middle of June. The ground is prepared like that for tur- nips. The quantity sown is from 6 to 8 pounds the acre. The plants are hoed like turnips 2 or 3 times, being however nearer together. It is recommended to keep them for scarcity in winter, when there is no other green food. If the stalks are left in the ground, they will shoot out aijain early in spring and produce a crop in April, which may be fed off or run to seed. The plant withstands the winter, and affords a bite for sheep and cattle when nothing else is green. The curled colewort, or Siberian borecole is preferred. Eape fattens sheep, as if by magic, and comes in timely between tares and turnips. In drilling, the ground should have manure. It is biennial, and seeds the 2d year. Plants intended for s-eed, should not be eaten down. A fair crop of seed is 35 bushels per acre. It is cut with the sickle, laid in rows and then thrashed, taking care to lose no seed. The seeds are spread thinly on the barn floor and often turned ; the herbage is excellent for cattle. Rape and cole seed are different varieties of a plant, with yellow flowers growing on ditch-banks and amongst corn. It is distinguished from others of the tribe by its root being a continuation of the stem. When the cole and rape seed are sown together, the 1st is known by its being higher, more soft and less branched. The rape commonly stands for seed and the cole for cattle. The cake, after the oil is ex- pressed from rape seed, is well known for its value in fattening cattle. The roots are often eaten like turnips, and the stalks are used for fod- der, fences, or are burned for their ashes. SAVOY, Sabauda (wrinkled) from Savoy, a district near Italy, where this variety of the cabbage was first cultivated. The general properties of this are the same as those of other varieties of the tribe. It should always be a little frost-bitten and not hard before used. The sub-varieties cultivated are but 3, the Large Green, Dwarf Green, and Yellow. Its culture is also like that of other varieties. It is a very useful vegetable and should be generally cultivated. 3 or 4 sowings are advised for a succession. It is sometimes planted between beans or peas, &c. MILAN CABBAGE, the choux de Milan of the French. This is a variety much cultivated about Milan, growing tall, and producing an open, central and delicate head, with numerous equally fine sprouts. It is cultivated like the green kail, but requires more room. BRUSSELS SPROUTS, a variety of the Savoy cabbage. There is but one variety which is in much repute as a dish for the table. It is much cultivated in Flanders. The stem is 3 feet high, with many shoots having heads like miniature cabbages, which are used as win- ter greens. After the sprouts are frosted, which makes them tender, 180 CRUCIFEROUS PLANTS. they are immersed in cold water for an hour, boiled in water for 20 minutes ; when soft, drain them, put them in a stew-pan with cream or butter thickened with flour, seasoned with pepper and salt ; stir them till hot, then serve them up with a little vinegar. They are used with every sort of meat by the richer classes, and stewed in rich gravies. To preserve their color, as with all kinds of cabbages, a lump of pearl-ash may be added. It requires similar culture to the brocoli. A disease, common to the cabbage tribe, and called clubb," arises from a worm in a hard case found at the root. The disease being in- dicated by the drooping of the leaves, the worm will be found to have eaten off the small fibres, if not the main root. It is more common in gardens and rich soil than in open and light sandy soils. It has been advised that young plants, before planting, be looked over, and the clubb brushed off, and that a little soot, mixed with lime, be sprinkled in the holes. Frequent turning of the soil is also useful. The. properties of the cabbage tribe are pungent and stimulating. They are nutritive, condimentary and antiscorbutic. Their pungency de- pends on an acrid volatile oil, composed of carbon, nitrogen, hydro- gen, sulphur and oxygen. This oil becomes absorbed, and is found in the secretions. The nutritive properties arise from their mucilage, sugar and extractive matter. The essential character of the brassica is sepals 4, deciduous, cruciate ; petals 4, alternate with sepals ; stamens 6-2 short ; stigmas 2 ; ovary superior ; fruit a silique ; seeds attached in one row. Herbaceous, annual, biennial and perennial ; flowers yellow or white. ACETARIOUS PLANTS. This class comprises those plants which are eaten raw, blanched, or in their natural state. They are chiefly salad plants, seasoning herbs, &c. They are recommended for their coolness, pungency, and agreeable flavor. They contain little nourishment, but usually render the food with which they are eaten more grateful, and they are there- fore the usual and valuable accompaniments of other dishes. They belong generally under the head and order of cruciferous plants. As most of the edible portions of these consist of the leaves and stalks, it may be remarked that the green matter giving color to the foliaceous parts is globular (called clorophylle), without alimentary properties and intermediate between fat and resin. It is little acted on by the sto- mach of man. It contributes, however, to the action of the bowels, and is thought, therefore, to disagree with dispeptic persons, by pro- ducing acidity and flatulency. Herbaceous vegetables, generally, are less suited for such persons than farinaceous plants. 181 Salad Plants and Pot-herbs. The term salad is usually applied to two or more of any of the nu- merous salad plants, dressed with mustard, oil, vinegar, salt, pepper, or other substances, forming with them a consistence more stimulating and antiscorbutic, and calculated to correct any injurious effects likely to arise from the raw vegetable substances thus eaten. Most persons in health crave these salads, and they may thus enjoy them to great extent with impunity. The cucumber, though prepared in a similar manner, is a. fruit, and does not, therefore, belong to the list of cruci- ferous plants. The radish and water-cress, and some other plants, may be eaten without this preparation. Some are spring, others sum- mer, and others autumn and winter salads. Lettuce, endive and some others belong to the order Compositae. The daisy, thistle, and leon- todon are types of the sections of the order. To forward salad herbs, the tomato, &c., in small quantities, a hot- bed is made early in spring of heating substances, on which may be laid to the depth of 9 inches, leaf-mould, old tan, horse-stabling, or light compost. The seeds may be sown in boxes or flower-pots, and sunk in the bed to the top edge. Annual flowers may also be thus raised early. The pungency of some of these is owing to their volatile oil and sulphur, as with horse-radish. CELERY, opium graveolen*, C. 5. O. 2. sp. 1. Eh. B. 4 ft. This is a native of Europe. It is found in a wild state in ditches, marshes and on the sea-coast under the name ofsmallage ; it is poisonous, with a very coarse unpleasant taste ; but when cultivated, it loses these pioperties and becomes grateful and wholesome, especially by being kept from the light, so that its poisonous principle is not elaborated. But like all raw vegetable matter, it is inoxious only when completely boiled. The leaves abound with a cooling clear juice ; but when the plant is old, the juice is milky and bitter. The leaf-stalks are eaten raw with oil, mustard, pepper, salt and vinegar, and also stewed and in soups; an agreeable conserve is made also of the blanched stalks. The roots of the celeriac (the turnip-rooted), are used for soups and sa- lads. The seeds contain a fine aromatic scent and taste, and are used as a substitute, in soups. Celery has come into general use within 30 or 40 years. The up- right kinds arc distinguished as the red and white, with solid or hollow stems. The red is most hardy and coarse ; but is good for stews and soups. The unblanched leaves are eaten in soups by the Italians. There are various modes of cultivating it, the most common being to select a deep, rich, rather moist soil, or vegetable mould. The seed is sown in April, on a bed ; and, in 8 or 10 weeks, transplant into nursery beds; and when 10 or 12 inches high, into manured 16 182 CELERY SPINAGE. trenches, 18 inches wide, 6 inches deep, and 4 or 5 feet from each other; strip off the loose leaves, trim the roots, and water in the trenches. Earth them when dry, every 10 days, until covered 1 or 2 feet, to blanch ; they may then be used in winter. Preserve the roots in winter in sand, and those in beds with litter upon side boards to form a shelter. There are 3 or 4 varieties cultivated, the white solid, rose-colored, Italian and celeria, or turnip -rooted. Half an oz. of seed is sufficient for a bed 4 by 10 feet ; they are sowed and raked in from 20th of March to May, but the principal sowing is early in April. The plants are watered in dry weather and thinned when 2 or 3 inches high, then transplanted and watered and afterwards planted in trenches, as above. When dug, begin with a row and draw up entire. For seed, leave some good plants in spring, or set them out alone, 2 feet apart. The celariac are not put into trenches but are frequently watered when trans- planted and occasionally hoed up. The roots are used in Sept. and Oct. Thty are excellent in soups, in slices, readily imparting their flavor. This is a common salad with the Germans, in which the roots are boiled tender and then eaten cold, with oil and vinegar ; they are sometimes served up with rich sauces. The coat and fibres of the roots are cut away before boiling and then put in the cold water when first put on the fire. The botanical species are A. petroselium, common parsley, (var. 1, sativum, common parsley ; 2, crispum curled parsley, 3, radic.e escu- lenta, Hamburg parsley.) A. gravcolens, smallage or wild celery, (var. 1, dulce, or common celery ; 2, rapaceum, turnip-rooted celery. A. dulce ; stem-leaves wedge-shaped ; stem smooth, shining; radical- leaves pinnate, ternate; leaflets 3-cleft; umbels axillary; flowers small white. SPINACH. Spinacea oleracea. C. 22. O. 5. Chenopodese. sp. 1. A. li ft. from spina, its seeds being prickly. This is a hardy annu- al, a native of Persia, and now much cultivated as a grateful and whole- some salad. Though not very nutritive, it is laxative and cooling, and is eaten when other vegetables are not allowed. The large succulent leaves are used as salads, but mostly boiled without water, except that upon them after rinsing. The flowering stems are hollow and branch- ed, and the male flowers grow on different plants from those of the female, bearing the seed ; the plant is therefore diozcious. 3 or 4 varieties are cultivated ; one of the two most common has arrow- shaped and rough leaves, and those of the other are round and smooth. They are sown at different seasons ; the latter grows faster, is larger and more succulent, and is sown in spring and summer; the first, for a winter supply, is sown in Aug. Frequent sowings are made from Feb. to Aug. The prickly seeded, sown in Sept., is best for winter or Spring, and the round seeded for summer. Another variety lately WILD AND NEW ZEALAND SPINACH. 183 1 from Flanders is said to be superior ; and the New Zealand spinach differs from all. Spinach makes a delicious dish, served up with gravy of roast meats, melted butter, &c. It is the only vegetable advantageously raised the last of the year. It should be picked clean and washed in 6 waters before cooking. It is then put in a sauce-pan, without water, salt sprinkled upon it and covered closely. When shrunk and the juice is evaporated, it is done. Then drain it well in a sieve and prepare it with gravy, butter and hard-boiled eggs ; the leaves are also used in soups. The seed is sown broad-cast, the plants thinned to 3 inches, and, as they increase, the distance is doubled. When left for seed a due pro- portion of male and female must be left. When the seed-capsules are set, the male plants are pulled. Spinach requires soil highly manured, an open situation and good weeding. If sown in drills, which is best, the drills are made 2 inches deep, a foot apart; the seed is scattered thinly and equally and the earth is matted down . The drills may be made between peas, beans, or cabbages. The plants are gathered when the leaves are 2 or 3 inches broad, either cut up or drawn. They are covered in winter. Sown broad-cast, 2 oz. answer for a bed 4| by 30 feet; if in drills, 1 oz. suffices for the same space. French physicians consider this plant both physic and food; and hence call it the broom of the stomach," sweeping and deterging every part of it without pain or interruption. Wild Spinach. This plant grows wild on loamy soil, on waysides, among ruins, &c. The yellowish green flowers appear in June and July. It is perennial and is propagated by seeds, or offsets from the 'root. The leaves and stem, when young, are succulent ; the latter is used like asparagus and the former as spinach. N'ew Zealand Spinach, (tetragonia expansa,) found growing wild there by Capt. Cook. It was recommended to the natives by the nat- uralists of the expedition and found excellent ; and it is now natural- ized in England. Wherever it has once grown, it springs up spon- taneously. Its leaves are abundant and succulent in hot weather; it is milder and more rapid in growth than the common sort. It is an annual in northern climates. The stem has thick and strong branches ; the leaves are green beneath and pale on the surface ; heart-shaped, with apex pointed ; and the whole plant is studded with aqueous tuber- cles. The leaves may be gathered in 6 weeks after sowing. It is found wild in many other places; leaves yellowish green, appearing in Aug. Leaves arrow-shaped, male flowers in long spikes, female in clusters on the stalks, at the joints. PARSLEY, jdpium petroselinum. C. 5. O. 2. Umbelliferse. sp. 2-5 Fr. B. 3 ft named from its supposed medical qualities. It is a use- ful and pleasant vegetable growing wild in most climates. It has been 184 PARSLEY. and now is used for dropsy in Holland. It is a garnish to meats, and removes the ta-ste and smell of onions. It is a fine pot and seasoning herb, and gives an agreeable flavor to stews and soups. To preserve it for seasoning meats &c. it should be gathered dry, put into a tin. roasting screen and placed by a large fire, where it becomes brittle ; then rub it tine and put it up in glass bottles. Parsley is eaten greed- ily by sheep and cures them of the rot, and also some diseases of the horse; it also improves the flesh of sheep. Curled-leaf kind is the finest of several varieties. It is sown in March or April, and is 6 weeks in coming forth. With care, it may be kept green through the winter. It is said to be poisonous to fowls. Celery is a species of the same genus. For curing the liver-rot in sheep, it is sown among pasture grasses. The curled leaf and Hamburg, or large rooted parsley are principally cultivated for culinary uses in soups, &c. The resemblance of cultivated parsley to fools parsley," or lesser hemlock, has banished it from many gardens, as that is poisonous. The one can hardly be detected from the other. The leaves of the poisonous plant are darker green ; and if bruised, emit an unpleasant odor, very different from that of parsley, and, when in flower, it has what is termed a beard hanging from every umbel. In the garden parsley there is but one leaflet at the umbel, and the hairs are very fine. Parsley is raised from seed sown early in spring, commonly in single drills around the edges of beds. The leaves may be plucked in a few weeks, and a succession springs forth through the year, till May ; when they run, bloom and seed in Aug. Horses and rabbits are very fond of it. It poisons birds and sometimes occasions epilepsy, or ag- gravates it in persons eating it, and it also inflames the eyes. The roots and seed are employed in medicine. The seeds are soaked 12 hours in water, mixed with sulphur, before sown, and should not be over a year old. The plants should be watered, and on gathering them, they are cut close and regular. The Hamburg parsley is sown in mould, well dug, in drills, 9 inches apart, or broad-cast and raked in ; they are afterwards thinned to 9 inches. The Siberian, or sin- gle-leafed, may be sown early in fields with spring grain, or grass. It should be brought to the table with onions. ENDIVE, or Succory cichorum endivia, C. 19. 0. 1. Compositee, sp. 5-7. A. 2 ft. A hardy plant from China, introduced and now nat- uralized here. It is cultivated as a winter and spring salad, and also for stews, &c. The French make great use of it raw, in salads, boil- ed, fried with meats, and as a pickle. It never disagrees with the stomach, but is cool and refreshing. It grows spontaneously in this country. The tops are profitable for cattle. In France the roots of C. intybud, dried and combined with coffee, give a more mellow and fragrant taste to it, greatly increasing its tonic and exhilarating quali- LETTUCE. 185 ties. The roots are dried, roast'.d as coffee, ground and mixed in the proportion of 2 oz. to a pound of coffee. The wild succory contains a milky juice, used by physicians as a tonic and aperient. When, blanched the bitterness is diminished. Chickory or similar plants constitute half the food of the Egyptians. Endive is probably derived from Arabia. The seeds are sown in drills in July, 6 inches apart and well weeded. The roots are taken up in winter, and packed in layers in a warm cellar, the crown of the roots being exposed, when in a few days they afford young leaves abundantly. The varieties cultivated are the green, curled-leaf, white and broad- leaf. The 1st is best for main crops in autumn and winter; the 2d for spring, and the 3d is best for soups and stews. an oz. of seed is required for a bed 4 feet by 10. May is a proper season for a small early crop, and June and July for a principal crop. Late supplies may be sown in August. The soil should be rich, mellow and exposed. The seed is thinly sown and raked in ; and the plants, when 1 or 2 in- ches high, are thinned ; when 5 or 6 inches high they are transplant- ed into prepared soil, and placed in shallow drills, 15 inches apart, with the plants 10 or 12 inches assunder. Water at planting, and if dry, once in 10 days afterwards ; trim the ends of the leaves, and shorten the tap-roots. Plant som 1st of Sept., on a bank of light dry soil, a foot high, sloping south, to remain dry during winter. Some of the crop, with full leaves, may be tied up weekly, in dry weather, with strips in the middle to blanch. The Batavian variety is best for this. They blanch in 8 or 10 days ; or 2 shingles may be set down, which, meeting at top, exclude the light, and thus blanch them. In winter they are covered with litter. Some strong old plants are raised in March for seed. The root of chicory cut, dried, roasted and ground, is an article of commerce as a substitute for the adulteration of coffee ; and this is adulterated with roasted peas, beans, grains, coffee-husks, &c. ; it is preferred by some to coffee. The Venetian bole is used for coloring it. The fresh root is tonic, and in large doses, aperient. It has been used in the form of a decoction for chronic, visceral and cutaneous dis- eases, torpor of the liver, &c. There are 5 species ofChicorium, viz. Wild Endive or Succory, Com- mon Endive, Prickley Endive, &c C. Endivia flower stalks axillary, in pairs, with single flower and the other 4-flowered ; leaves oblong, somewhat toothed, alternate, runciate ; flowers blue. LETTUCE, latuca sativa, C. 19. O. 1., Composite, sp. 19-26. A. 3 ft from lac, on account of its milky juice, but corrupted by the En- lish to lettuce. It is a native of most parts of the world, but the best was originally from Egypt, Aleppo and Cos, from which island the up- right lettuce takes its name. It is cooling and soporific, and in 186 PROPERTIES OF LETTUCE. respect is recommended in declining age, which is naturally wakeful. Pope has said " If you wish to rest, Lettuce and cowslip, wine probatum est." It is emolient and easy of digestion, but is not good for cold, weak, or melancholy temperaments, except medicinally. It is more wholesome in summer than winter. It allays thirst and the fumes of wine, and is altogether the best salad vegetable grown in open ground. There are 17 varieties cultivated, 6 of these are hardy kinds, suitable for our climate. There are 7 cabbage and 7 Cos lettuces ; the latter are pre- ferred for salads, but the other is best very young. An oz. of seed produces 400 plants. When getting too old, cut off the tops, and they soon spring up fresh and tender. For winter, they are sown in Sept. and covered in the cold months. Others are sown in March and April. When young, the cabbage-lettuce is best. Refuse leaves are good for swine, geese, ducks, &c. Indeed all lettuce should be eaten young, as it is said to be poisonous when in flower. Whoever has command of lettuce, onions and cucumbers, it is said, may well dispense with most other acetarious plants. L. virosa, a poisonous plant, is thought to be the parent of our cultivated sorts, as our celery is naturally one of the strongest poisons. All the species have the qualities of opium, but these are most abundant in the wild plant. The juice is collected by incisions and by scraping off the thick juice, as with the opium of the poppy; it is little inferior to the opi- um of the East ; it is called lactucarium, and may be given when opium is unadvisable. It is sown monthly throughout the year, and thinned and transplanted. Its succulency is also increased by water- ing. Blanching is promoted by tying up the leaves with strings when 2-3ds grown. Lime-water effectually destroys the snails and slugs. White and green Cos are best for the main crop in summer. Brown Cos is best for winter and in open ground ; the dwarf of this is best. Brown and white Silicea are the best for stewing. Imperial and cab- bage lettuces are among the best for summer salads, and continue long- est in use. A bed of 4 by 30 feet, well supplies a family ; or it may be sown among onions, carrots, &c. The soil is dug deep, the seed sown dry, covered lightly, patted down and raked over ; the plants arc thinned and put in drills 3 inches apart. Sowings are made every 3 weeks, and frequently watered when dry. For winter, it is sown in a warm sloping place 1st Sept., or in hot-beds or houses in Nov. Lettuce opium of commerce is in hard brown masses, and is em- ployed as a.n anodyne, antispasmodic and sedative. It is given to al- lay coughs, in phthisic and other pulmonary affections, to relieve ner- vous irritation and watchfulness, in febrile and nervous diseases, in which opium may not be used, and in spasms of the uterus. 3 or 4 MUSTARD. 187 grains are given ; and 3 or 4 drachms have been used during the day. This may be collected by any one on cutting the plant, and many make a profitable business of it Leaves rounded; stem-leaves heart- shaped ; flowers yellow, small one species with crisped and another with 3-cleft leaves. Strong-scented Lettuce (letuca virosa) is found about hedges, walls, and borders of fields; flowering in Aug. and Sept. It yields double as much opium as L. sativa, but is not so good. MUSTARD, Sinapsis. C. 15. Crucifereae. A. 4ft. The seed was first obtained from Esypt. It is much cultivated here and in Europe, and the ground seeds are daily served on the table. An excellent sauce is made of this, eaten with fish or flesh, as it promotes an appetite, warms the stomach and helps dieestion. It is also a wholesome condiment mixed with salads, in summer or winter. The seeds yield 35 pounds of mild and sweet oil to a 100 of the seed, on pressure. The white are used medicinally for asthma, rheumatism, palsy and for drafts in colds. A teaspoonful 2 or 3 times a day of dry white seed is good for disordered stomachs. A powdered infusion is used as an emetic, and in smaller quantities, as an aperient and diuretic. The seed in pickles give a fine flavor and render cucumbers more salutary. The leaves, when young, are valued as a salad herb, with cress, radishes, &c., or boiled with meats or greens. Two sorts are cultivated, the white, or S. al- ba, and the black, or S. nigra ; the seeds of both afford the flowered mustard of the table, but chiefly the latter, which is the common kind, while the other is the best salad herb and is sown all times of the year. The seed must be esteemed abroad from the fact that, beside the vast quantity raised, England imports 17,517 bushels annually. The French use the must of sweet wine with the mustard for the ta- ble. All the species are hot and acrid, and they are often mixed. For the oil or flour, the seed is sown in rich soil the last of March, and kept free of weeds. Where once sown, it comes up spontaneously for many years. Half or a quarter of a wine-glassful of the seed, swallowed fast- in?, or early in the morning, is a powerful tonic and strengthener of the digestive organs. For spring and summer, sow once in 10 or 12 days. In summer sow in shallow drills, in shady places .from 3 to 6 inches apart, then cover half an inch. In Europe the white seed is ground for the flour, because milder. The black is larger, with dr.iker leaves ; it is grown in fields for the seed and for medicine. In moistening the seed flour for the table, milk is used, but it does not keep over two days. For the mill, sow moderately thick, broad-cast, or in drills, rake or harrow in thin, keep out the weeds and gather in Ausrnst. It is often found wild among corn plants. It flowers in June and then produces round rough pods. It germinates quickly, like cress ; and the seeds strown on a wt flannel or cork in water, quickly put forth tender leaves, and thus a salad is produced, at the fire-side, in a few days. 188 PROPERTIES OF MUSTARD. Physiological effects of mustard Mustard was employed medicin- ally by the ancients and is now an important article of the materia medica. The black seed contains myrosyne with potash, fixed oil, pearly fatty matter, gummy matter, sugar, coloring matter, free acid, a green mat- ter, some salts, &c. The seeds afford a peculiar acid and volatile oil, the latter being formed when water is added, as with some other fruits. The fixed oil forms 28 per cent of the seed ; both are medicinally effi- cacious. Mustard, as one of the volatile pungent stimuli, is between horse-radish and pepper. Its acrid effects in topical applications de- pend on the volatile oil. Cataplasms cause, if Ion? continued, ves- ication and, sometimes, ulceralions and gansrene. When swallowed, mustard causes the same effects on the stomach and bowels. In mod- erate quantities, it promotes appetite, assists the assimilation of sub- stances difficult of digestion. In larger doses, it arouses the gastric susceptibility and becomes an emetic. Its general effects on the sys- tem are those of a stimulant ; it quickens the pulse, promotes secre- tions, (particularly urinary,) and exhalations. It is recommended as a condiment to phlegmatic persons, and all with torpid digestive ac- tion ; and generally with fatty or other food not easily digested. In malignant cholera, narcotic poisoning and some forms of paralysis, it is important as an emetic ; also as a moderate stimulant in dispepsia, loss of appetite, &c. It is employed as a febrifuge in intermittents. Its common use, however, is as an application to the feet, orrubifa- cient. As an emetic, from a tea to a table spoonful is given in a tum- blerful of water. In dropsy and some other diseases, mustard whey is a good form of administration. This is made by boiling half an oz. of bruised seed in a pint of milk and straining; given in small quan- tities twice a day. The poultice, or cataplasma sinapsis of physicians, is composed of mustard seed and linseed, with boiling vinegar, to form a proper consistence. This is rendered more stimulating by adding scrapings of horse-radish root. Crumbed bread is often substituted for linseed meal. Vinegar checks the formation of the acrid oil, so that a sinapsism without vinegar is as effectual in 6 minutes as one with it in 50. Water over 100 P should not be used. In affections of the brain, as in the stupor delirium of low fevers and many other cases. it is valuable, applied to the feet; and also in pulmonary and cardiac diseases, it is equally effective applied to the chest. Its effects are quickened by the addition of the oil of turpentine. The operation should be watched that sloughing does not ensue. The effects and composition of white mustard are similar, but it is milder. The mus- tard flour of the shops is adulterated with wheaten flour, colored by tumeric and made hot by pod-pepper. The manufacture of mustard is performed by crushing the seed be- tween rollers and then pounding it in mortars. The mass is then CRESSES. 189 sifted, and a 2d sifting yields the pure flour. The si/tings yield a fixed oil, by pressure, which is mixed with rape and other oils ; the whole seed is never pressed. Mustard cake is used as manure, being too hot for cattle. CRESS, Lepidiurn sativum. C. 15. 0. 1. A. common garden cress, a species of the genus Lepidium, or pepper-wort. Its native place is unknown. There are 3 varieties cultivated, the curled leaf, plain- leaj'ed, and golden cress. The first is used as a small salading herb, like mustard, and as a beautiful garnish. The 2d is the most common, because the seed of the first is not obtained genuine ; it has the same flavor, but is not so handsome. The 3d resembles the 1st, but is more slender and dwarf. With mustard they form the principal in- gredients in winter and spring salads, and with some all the year. It is grown as rapidly as possible, and cut when young and crisp. The seeds are sown as wanted for use ; once in 8 or 10 days is not too often for delicate cress. Sowings are made in open ground, the 1st of April, in shallow drills 4 or 5 feet apart, or thickly broad-cast and earthed over slightly. The plants are occasionally watered. Late crops may be sown in hot-beds. Twice as much seed as that of mus- tard is required, though not sown so frequently ; an oz. for a bed of 4 feet square is requisite. The curled and broad-leafed are most culti- vated here. The soil should be mellow. For seed, sow in spring, or leave some rows of old crop. WATER-CRESS, Nasturtium officinale, C. 15. Cruciferae, sp. 10- 24. P. 1 ft. It has warm cordial qualities, which have been thought to infuse life into dull and stupid persons, and to brighten the under- standing. An ancient proverb says, eat cress and learn more wit." It has been so named from its acrimony, signifying a convulsed nose. It is notorious for its antiscorbutic properties, and may be eaten at all times of the year. Cresses are much esteemed in the London market, and are in very considerable use here as a salad-pot-herb. They grow in rivulets and springs here and throughout Europe. As a salad herb the young leaves are very popular, being supposed to purify the blood. The creeping water-parsnip, which is pernicious, is often ga- thered, through ignorance, instead of this purifying plant. They are grown on running streams with sandy or chalky bottoms, or fresh pools. By throwing the seeds upon them they soon propagate abun- dantly. Garden cress, or pepper-grass, may be raised 4 or 5 times a month. In Germany great pains are taken to propagate this plant, and arti- ficial water beds are formed, called cress plantations, and the water let on or drawn off as required. Near Paris, also, it is cultivated with care near wells, and water is poured upon it daily. In England it is grown in beds near small streams, and sunk a foot under water. A stream of water through an inch pipe will irrigate l-8th of an 190 CRESS FENNEL. acre. The land being sloping, a current is produced, and cresses are produced in all winter months, if not allowed to flower. The ground is laid dry 2 or 3 times a year, and weeds, &c. removed. But living streams are best. WINTER CRESS, or Early Hedge, Barbaraa vulgaris, C. 15. sp. 4-6. D. P. 1 ft. A species of mustard growing early in spring. It is a na- tive of this country and of Europe. It is of a hot and biting nature, and the young leaves are a principal ingredient in salads most of the year. The Normandy cress is found to be less acrid, more pleasant, and is now coming into general use. It is sown in light soil in September, and as a breakfast herb in winter it is very fine and wholesome. WATER LILY, Nymphaia, C. 13. O. 1. sp. 10-20. A. P. A beautiful genus of aquatic plants upon our lakes and slow waters, af- fording a tuberous root as large as an egg, which is eaten cooked in various ways. The seeds are also used in some parts to make a kind of bread, and they were thus used by the ancients. The sweet scented and small sweet are peculiar to this country. INDIAN CRESS, Tropaolum majus, or Nasturtium indicus, C. 8. O. 1. sp. 5-13. A. 1-6 ft. This is an ornamental annual and a valuable culinary plant. It is a native of Peru, and was brought from thence in 1580. The flowers and the young leaves have a warm pleasant taste, and are much used for salads. The young seeds pickled in salt and vinegar are used as a substitute for capers, and by some preferred. It is a good antiscorbutic, and the young leaves and flowers are used for weakness or pain in the stomach, arising from cold and flatulency ; they also form a brilliant garnish. 2 varieties are cultivated here. In the evening the flowers emit, at certain intervals, sparks like those from an electric machine, which was first observed by the daughter of Linnseas. The genus to which this belongs is before spoken of under the head of Nasturtian. Common Cress is a species of Pepperwort. Spanish Cress is of the same genus. FENNEL, anethum faniculum. C. 5. 0. 2. sp. 4. Dh. P. 6 ft. A plant growing wild here and a native of the S. of Europe. The stalks and the leaves when boiled are used in fish sauces and also with pickled fish and pork, and raw as salads. The whole plant is good in broths and soups and the stalks are blanched for winter salads. The juice is said to clear film from the eyes, taken when the stalk is nearly grown. A distilled water from the seeds is used medicinally ; they are an excellent stomachic and carminative. In all its uses the plant is good for the stomach. It is easily cultivated. The seeds are im- ported from France, and are used in making gin. Fennel is a species of dill. It is 5 or 6 feet high and the leaves are divided into fine long segments of a bright green. Its flowers are yellow and appear in July and Aug. It has a strong disagreeable odor. In France and Spain it is much used put up with olives and pickled pork. CORN SALADo 191 This, like many other garden herbs we have noticed, may be com- mended by saying, with Pliny, that a good house-wife may go into her herb-garden, instead of a spice shop for her seasoning, and thus save the health of her family by saving the contents of her purse. Fennel requires little culture ; for where a plant is once established, it will con- tinue to grow for many years. The seeds are sown early in spring, broadcast or in shallow drills, 6 or 8 inches apart, and when a few inches huh the plants are thinned out or transplanted. When wanted early the roots may be slipped off and planted a foot apart, when they will soon produce a supply of leaves. They may be cut down in summer to produce young leaves below and to keep the plant from spreading if desired. Tke sweet fennel (dulce} or Finochi.no. The sweetness of this vari- ety lies chiefly in the seed which is used medicinally. The stalks are the edible part. In cooking it should be half an hour in water, thea parboiled and drained and then cooked -in a stew pan in rich gravy till tender. The stalk is earthed up to blanch the leaves, which is done in 10 or 12 days. By successive sowings and cutting down, a supply is had from June to Dec. The properties of the sc.ed of the sweet fennel depend on aromatic oil. De Candolle regards the sweet fennel as a distinct species, and others as a variety. It differs from F. vulgare, before described, in, many particulars, and affords the sweet fennel seeds used in medicine. The 2 kinds known in trade, are the short and long. The latter being most esteemed. The plant is an aromatic stimulant, like dill and anise. It is given in the flatulent cholic of children and as a carminative with griping medicines. The oil is obtained by bruising seed and distilling it with water. 19 cwt. of seed produce 78 IDS. of oil. Dose from 2 to 20 drops. This is more agreeable in odor and taste than that of the wild fennel. Fennel water by decoction is commonly used as a carminative to relieve the flatulent cholic of infants and otherwise as above. CORN SALAD, Fetticus, or lamb's lettuce. C. 3. 0. 1. sp. 15. A. veleriana olitoria. This is a species of valerian from powerful, a na- tive of this country and Europe, and a plant of mild agreeable taste and flavor and found wild in corn-fields; hence its name. It is culti- vated as a winter and spring salad and called lamb's lettuce orfetticus. It is dressed like spinach. A recent and improved variety has lately been introduced. The seed is sown as soon as ripe in Aug., otherwise it remains a long time in the earth. A warm spot is selected and the seed is sown broad-cast in a bed or in drills 6 inches apart. When well up the plants are thinned to 3 or 4 inches and the leaves are picked when wanted Flowers triandrous, blueish white; leaves lin- near, obtuse; stem 2-forked. V, dentata is the tooth-seeded com salad. 192 VARIOUS SALADS AND POT PLANTS. BURNET, Poterium sanguisorba. C. 21. O. 7. sp. 6-7 Eh. P. 2 ft. A hardy perennial plant, growing wild, but now much cultivated for the use of the leaves in culinary purposes, especially as salads and in soups. They have a warm pleasant taste. The French use them much for soups. They continue green through the winter, in the ab- sence of other salads. A drink was made of the plant which was considered useful in many complaints ; it is also used in cooling drinks. Tiiis species is sowed with clover. The leaves when bruised, smell like cucumbers and taste something like the parings. All the species are easily cultivated. It is found a foot high on dry soils. Its flowers appear in greenish heads in July. A few seeds are sown annually in the spring in drills, then transplanted into rows 6 inches apart. CORCHORUS. C. 13. O. 1. Tiliacese. sp. 7-25. 1-3 ft. The name of a culinary plant and supposed to be the same as that known as C. olitorius. This is extensively sown about Allepo as a pot-herb, and eaten with meats ; in France it is called maue-de juif. SALSAFIE, Tragopogon porifolius. Dh. B. 4 ft. This plant belongs to the genus goafs beard. It is a hardy plant resembling the parsnip, growing in meadows with purple flowers. It is wholesome and nu- tritious, has a sweetish and delicate flavor and forms a variety of excellent side dishes during the winter. The root, when dressed with cream, is delicious. Scrape them lightly, lay them in water, for an hour, boil till quite tender, take out and drain. Make a thick batter of eggs and flour, dip in the roots and fry with a small piece of butter till brown. In the spring it may be dressed like asparagus. It is sometimes called the vegetable oyster from a similarity of taste. The root is long, white, tapering and fleshy. It grows wild in the S. of Eu- rope. It is propagated by seed sown on light, rich soil, in April, in shallow drills a foot apart ; and the plants are thinned, hoed, and when taken up in Nov. are laid in sand for winter use. As with all such vegetables, if the winter be mild and the roots take a 2d growth, they must be taken out and relaid. The flowers are of a dull purple color, closing at mid day. It should be found in every garden ; its value has not been appreciated here. COMMON NETTLE, C. 21. O. 4. Uritica. sp. 32-69. A 1-3 ft. A plant common in this country on waste land and pastures. The tops and leaves are eaten when tender and boiled, as greens, which, when mixed with other food for poultry, is said to promote their laying eggs. A rennet is also made by the liquor of boiled nettles and salt, in the proportion of three pints of the former to a quart of the latter j a table spoonful of it will coagulate a bowl of milk. The fibrous stalks, dressed like flax, or hemp, may be made into canvass or paper. The boiled roots give a yellow color to woolen, linen or cotton. The stings of nettles are curious. They are slender and hollow, with a minute hole at the bottom and a bag at the base. The pressure, when SORREL THISTLE. 193 entering the skin, forces up from the bag into the wound a corrosive liquor which excites inflammation and a blister. They have been used to restore, sensation in paralytic limbs; also in syrup as a styptic medicine, in jaundice, scurvy, gout, &c. The flowers and seeds have also been used efficaciously as a substitute far Peruvian bark in agues. A leaf put on the tongue and pressed against the roof of the mouth is said to stop bleeding at the nose. The leaves are the food of the caterpillars of 3 of the most beautiful butterflies. The juice of the nettle, or that of the dock is a remedy for the sting. 4 species are generally known. The race of nettles is much more difficult to de- stroy than to raise. Attention has lately been called to the Canadian thistle to prevent its growth by penal enactment, it being one of the greatest pests of the farmer ; but, cannot cordage or paper be formed of it to advantage ? SOW THISTLE, Souchus, C. 19. O. 1. Composite, sp. 25-40. Dh. ft. l-6 from hollow or soft, in allusion to the softness of its stems. It has similar properties with the dandelion and succory. It is a favorite food with sheep and rabbits. The young leaves are boiled and eaten as greens ; and the smooth variety, boiled like spinach, is superior to most others. S. floridanus, of Florida, is used for the bite of the rattlesnake in the same way as Prenanthus serpentaria. It is called in the country gall of the earth. It is a native of the U. S. 5 sp. N. A. SORREL, Rumex acetosa, sp. 17-79. P. ft. This is found grow- ing wild in this country and Europe in grassy pastures. It is used as a pot-herb, as a green sauce for roast meat, veal and pork, and as a substitute for apple-sauce in winter. It is, like spinach, put into a sauce- pan without water, except that on the leaves when washed, boiled slowly, then beat up with a piece of butter, eggs and cream, and stew- ed like spinach. The leaves are boiled, and the milk of the rein deer added to the water by the Laplanders. The Irish eat them with milk and fish. There are 2 or 3 varieties, but the French is the best for culinary purposes, it having larger leaves than the common. The use of sorrel as food and medicine was well known to the ancients. A decoction is cooling, diuretic, grateful to the stomach, allays heat in fevers, quenches thirst, and is an excellent antiscorbutic. A good drink for spring and in inflammatory and febrile fevers, is made with a handful of sorrel boiled in a pint of whey. No remedy, indeed, is bet- ter for the scurvy, if eaten green, or the juice is drunk. The wood- sorrel is best for these purposes. Soups and sauces in France are mostly made with sorrel. It is a species of the Dock. 2 or 3 varieties are cultivated. The seeds are sown in a bed or border early in spring, raked in, and the plants trimmed and transplanted in rows. They are supplied well with water, and the leaves are cut last of summer; they continue for many years. The parted roots, planted out, are best. 17 * 194 OXALIS, ETC. This genus is allied to Rhubarb. The Alpine Dock is superior in its medical powers. R. acetosa dioecious, male and female flowers on seperate plants ; leaves oblong, arrow-shaped ; flowers reddish, clustered. OXALIS, plurnieri, Wood Sorrel, C. 10. O. 4. Oxaliclese. sp. 72-15. A. 1-2 ft. A species of the sorrel brought from Lima in 1832, where its leaves are much used in salads, and medicinally for cooling and purifying the blood. The root, which is bulbous, is now highly ex- tolled, being more agreeable than the potato, the taste of which it re- sembles. (See under head of tuberous roots.) In cookins, the tubers are boiled 10 or 15 minutes, the water is drained oil', and they stand in the sauce-pan a time to dry. The oxalis is of a peculiar shape and color, and is believed to be very nutritious. Extensive orders are now given for it to plant. It should be speedily introduced. It may be cultivated like the potato. Its stalks are good, when green, for cattle, and it is believed to possess many medicinal qualities. All of the varieties are without leaves half the year. Some species only have fleshy roots. The little bulbs are often very numerous. Some have fusiform roots, and all are very anomalous and singular. All, too, are more or less acrid, and some produce seeds, by which they are propagated, or by offsets. They are grown in light sandy soil. The O. acetosella is used as a salad plant, its acid resembling that of Ihe lemon or tartar, and an infusion of the leaves is antiscorbutic, refringerant, and diuretic, as is the plant in milk. This is given in ardent fevers, as it allays inordinate heat and thirst. The expressed juice affords an acid salt, used for removing moulds and ink stains, under the name of oil of lemons ; but it is seldom genuine. The stained part is dipped in water and the salt sprinkled on, then rubbed on a heated plate, and washed in warm water. 20 pounds of fresh leaves yield 6 pounds of juice, and 2 ounces of salt, on evapora- tion and cooling. Wood Sorrel is indigenous to this country, and abounds in woody places and borders. LOVAGE, ligusticam, livisticum, C. 5. 0. 2. Uinbelliferese, sp. 10-20. Dh. P. ft. 1-6. This is sometimes used as a pot-herb or salad ingredient, and is considered a corrective and purgative. An infusion of the leaves and roots, containing a fetid gum, used, as a purgative to calves. The seeds are used by distillers for preparing a liquor called lovage. There are 7 species of lovage and 13 in the genus Leaves repeatedly compound ; stem 5 ft. high ; flowers small, yellow- ish, in June. Italy. ANGELICA, archangelica, C. 5. O. 2. Umbellatse, sp. 6. B from angelic, the roots and leaves being supposed to have extraordinary virtues. A native of the N. of Europe and of this country ; it is pro- pagated by seeds sown in August on moist soil, and transplanted when 6 inches high. The stalks were eaten as celery; but stalks and STONE CROP, MYRRH, GOOSE-FOOT, TETRAGONIA. 195 leaves are now mostly used as a sweet meat candied by confectioners. In Lapland it is used for coughs and colds. The roots are aromatic and fragrant. It is occasionally found a native of cold and moist places. It was called the Holy Ghost," by the superstitious, for- merly, and it was supposed to drive away pestilence. The dried roots of the shops are imported from Hamburg in casks. 386 cwt. were imported into England in 1839. The root has a cylin- drical form, 6 or 8 inches long, of a brown color. When cut it ex- hibits a liquid of a strong but sweetish odor. The seeds have the same, though less strong taste and odor. The composition of the root is volatile oil, acrid resin, bitter extractive (31), gum, with common salt (31), water (17), albumen, &c. The roots and seeds are pungent, stimulants and mild tonics. They are now much used in preparing gin and bitters by rectifiers. STONE CROP, sedurn, C. 10. 0. 5. Semperviveae, sp. 41-60. Eh. P. ft. 1. These plants grow on the bare rock. They are low succu- lent plants, and some are pretty or curious. 2 or 3 species are called by the French, orpine. Some have the properties of the house leek, and others are pickled, like samphire. The juice applied to the skin blisters it; taken inwardly, it vomits; and applied externally to gan- grenes, it promotes suppuration. They are eaten mixed with salads in Holland. They are very decorative plants. 16 species are common. MYRRH, myrrhis, C. 5. O. 2. Umbelliferse, sp. 1-2. Fr. P. ft. *. A plant long cultivated. The young leaves have been used in salads, and the roots were boiled, or eaten cold or in tarts, in a variety of sauces, or candied. The seeds are used in soups, and also in polish- ing and perfuming furniture and floors. The medicinal and fragrant gum of this name we speak of under medicinal plants. GOOSE-FOOT, Chenapodium, C. 5. O. 2. Chenopodeae, sp. 34-72. A. ft. 1-3. Leaves similar to the webbed feet of a water fowl, and covered with powdery granules. The whole genus consist of succu- lent herbs. C. bonus is cultivated as a perennial spinach, and its leaves are applied to wounds, and for cleansing old ulcers. C. album is the most common, and is boiled and eaten as greens, but for this purpose C. maritium is the best of all the species ; and where it abounds it is burned with salsofa kali and other marine plants, to produce soda. TETRAGONIA, C. 12. O. 2-5. Ficoideae, sp. 10-16. ft. 1-6. The species of this genus are succulent trailing plants, but all are believed to be fit to be used as a spinach. As a summer spinach, T. expansa is now thought as valuable as O. vache. The New Zealand spinach, if well watered, grows freely, with very succulent leaves, in the hot- test weather. It will doubtless come into general cultivation. It is sown the last of March. It grows in pots ; the plants are set out in May, 3 feet apart, in rich soil ; and in 5 or 6 weeks the leaves are fit for gathering. 196 TARRAGON, SYLYBUM, ETC. TARRAGON, or Dragon's-wort, is a perennial plant of a hot or biting character, a native of Siberia, brought to England in 1548. It is frequently used in salads, especially by the French, to correct the coldnsss of other herbs ; and the leaves and young tops are used as in- gredients in pickles. They are eaten with beef-steaks, served up with horse-radish ; and an agreeable sauce for fish is made by their infusion in vinegar. They have a fragrant smell and aromatic taste, and are much used in soups. But one variety is cultivated for these purposes. It is propagated by parting the roots in April and planting them in a light rich soil ; it is also increased by slips or cuttings in June and July. When well rooted, they are planted in a dry sheltered spot, 6 inches apart. They are forced in boxes in a hot-bed, like mint. SYLYBUM, C. 19. O. 1. Composites, sp. 2-5. Dh. ft. 4. A plant formerly much cultivated, and the young leaves used in spring as a salad, or boiled as greens. The young stalks, peeled and soaked in water, are said to be excellent. In the spring of the 2d year the root is prepared like salsafie or skirret, and the receptacle of the flower is pulpy and eats like that of the artichoke. In some places the whole plant is used as fodder for cattle. ROCK or SEA SAMPHIRE, Crithmum maritimum, C. 5. O. 2. D. P. 1 ft. An umbelliferous plant growing abundantly on the sea- coast of England, and on cliffs in the South of Europe. The flowers, pickled in vinegar, are used on the table, and as salads and pot-herbs in some places. A more common kind, growing in salt marshes, is also much used ; but is inferior, and without the fine aromatic flavor of the marsh samphire (Salicomia), of class Monandria. Hazar- dous pains were formerly taken by those who collected this plant in England from the precipitous sides of high cliffs, being suspended in the air by ropes, as Shakspeare says, " Half way down ; dreadful trade !" Leaves thrice ternate, leaflets lanceolate, stems a foot high ; flowers greenish white. PICRIDIUM, C. 19. O. 1. Compositse, sp. 3. A. ft. H. Culti- vated as a spring salad; and, if cut before being too old, is an excel- lent vegetable, with a pleasant flavor, and devoid of the bitterness of endive, and of the insipidity of young lettuce. WATER-LEAF, C. 5. O. 1. Boraginese, sp. 3-6. Dh. P. ft. J., or, as better known here, shawancse salad, it grows in marshes in this coun- try. There are 2 species, both humble plants. H. V r irginicum is the species used as a salad. ALISANDERS, Smyrnium, C. 5. O. 2. Umbelliferae, sp. 6-7. Dh. P. ft. 1-3. A genus of plants smelling like myrrh. Some of the spe- cies are cultivated like asparagus and salad plants. They resemble celery, and are cultivated in a similar manner. 197 ASPARAGINOUS PLANTS. These comprehend those with pulpy stems, buds and bottoms of compound flowers ; and, unlike brassica, salads, &c., they are subjected to culinary preparation before being eaten. All young shoots were formerly as asparaginous plants. From their nature and growth, their cultivation is somewhat more expensive than most others used as succulent food. ASPARAGUS, officinalis. C. 6. O. 1. Asphodelese. sp. 2-32. Dh. P. 4 ft. A well known edible plant in this country and Europe. It grows wild in many places, but in this state it is only a few inches high and a 4lh of an inch thick; whereas in its cultivated state it is 4 or 5 feet high. No vegetable has undergone greater improvement by cultivation. It is one of the oldest as well as choicest luxuries of the garden and of the season. It has a perennial root and an annual stem and is brought forward in hot beds or houses ; it is in season in, May and June. It is raised from seeds ; the plants remaining in the ground 3 years before being cut, after which they afford a regular sup- ply. The head, if cut transversely, displays a beautiful example of vegetable anatomy. The shoots are exogenous, growing from the sur- face like the palms, unlike common trees which grow from the centre. The head of the young plant is edible only so far as the part extends which is to flower and produce leaves. Thus the part eaten contains the rudiments of hundreds of branches and thousands of leaves. It is thought to promote appetite but it is not very nourishing being chiefly a luxury. It is esteemed a diuretic ; it gives a peculiar odor to the urine ; and sedentary operatives and others resort to it when troubled with symptoms of gravel. Its peculiar qualities are due to a principle called asparamide, formerly called asparagin, which it con- tains. The young shoots are boiled 20 minutes, and when soft, are served up with toast and melted butter. When well seasoned, they likewise make excellent soups. The markets of our chief cities are well fur- nished with this vegetable in its season. A person near London has under constant cultivation 80 acres of asparagus. There are 3 or 4 varieties, all very similar. It is a native of cold climates, being in- digenous in Russia and there eaten as grass by cattle. It is found wild on the seashore, but it was cultivated and eaten by the Greeks and Romans, who were so skilful in its cultivation that 3 shoots weighed a pound. A sandy loam, deeply trenched and manured is prepared for it. The seeds should be fully ripe and from the strongest and most com- pact shoots. For a bed 4 by 6 feet a quart of seed is required ; and for a bed 4 by 30 a pint is sown. It is transplanted a year old. in 4 17* 198 ASPARAGITS. rows 9 inches distant, when 160 plants are required for the latter bed. The seeds are sown as early as the spring permits, or 3 weeks before frost sets in, in autumn press the earth well down when frosts begin. Cover the ground with litter a foot deep, with poles on it ; and when removed in spring, the plants will soon be up. Alleys should be left between the beds which may be 2 feet deep; and trenched to that depth, with manure in the bottom. When transplanted, do it immediately after taking the roots up. When not to be transplanted, sow 2 or 3 seeds in places designed for 1 stalk, cover an inch deep and thin, when up, to right distance. Shoots of 3 years old, some say, are better for planting than those of one. In March and April the beds are forked and dressed, and weeds kept out. with occasional waterings, till 3d or 4th year. Let the crop for 2d and part of 3d year run to stalks. Onions or lettuce are often sown on the ground, the 2 first years. The beds are loosened every spring with a fork, avoiding wounding the roots, and raking the soil again before the tops shoot. The tops are cleared olf when the frost has touched them, and a coat of manure strewed over the bed. The sprouts grow large and tender in shaded ground, but are not so early. The shoots of the 2d year may be cut off till middle of June, but afterwards should run to seed. Gather the tops in regular order and in the proper season ; when they are 3, 4 or 5 inches up, cut them be- low the ground, slanting an inch. Leave 2 or more shoots to each stool if you cut later than the 20th June, to draw nourishment to it. After 10 or 12 years, asparagus declines ; plant other beds, there- fore, a year or two beforehand, allowing 3 or 4 years for production. Select the finest and earliest heads for seed, in the spring, tie them to a stake during summer, wash out the seeds in autumn, when quite ripe, or keep them in the berry, in a dry place till sown, if for domes- tic use. An old shaker gardner says, make the bed as soon as the frost is out of the ground, work this to the depth of the spade blade, mix it well with rotted horse manure, sow in rows cross-ways of the bed, 20 inches apart, one inch deep, and rake in lengthwise of the bed. When the cutting season is over, hoe lightly and even over the surface. Every other year spread on an inch of yard manure before hoeing. Cut the dry tops close early in spring, spread and burn them evenly on the ground, hoe and rake the beds over. Thus large successive crops have been cut for 25 years. A pickle of salt and water applied to the beds in spring is said to be highly serviceable, or a bushel of salt to a bed of 50 feet by 6. When forced, obtain three year old plants (none others are fit) from hot-beds of stable litter, or recent manure, tanner's bark, leaves of trees, grass, or herbage, all mixed and laid set the plants at two inches. The red and green top are the varieties cultivated ; the first is larger, fuller and closer, but is not ARTICHOKE. 199 of so good a flavor as the second ; it may be grown, however, in sea sand, manured with sea weed ; and this has suggested the idea of cul- tivating it on the barren sea coast. ARTICHOKE, Cynara Scolyrnus, C. 19. O. 1. Compositse, sp. 7-10. Dh. & P. 4 ft. A native of Africa and the S. of Europe. It has been much improved by cultivation in northern climates, and is now a highly esteemed esculent plant. It is naturally a maritime plant, like tiie Sea-Kale, though it thrives best on soil having decayed vegetable matter. Burnt sea-weed must be good for the soil. The parts of one variety eaten are the receptacle of the flower ; and the chokes are the unopened florets, separated by bristles, which are re- moved, but which, if swallowed, occasion a sensation of choking ; and hence the name. The heads, before the flowers are open, are boiled in salted water till soft ; the scales are then plucked off, and the bot- toms dipped in melted butter, well seasoned, and the fleshy substance is sucked off. It is eaten raw as a salad with salt and pepper ; but stewed, boiled, and in milk, it is a standing dish at French breakfasts; or made into ragouts, pies, &c. For winter use the parts are dried in the sun and put up in paper. There are 3 varieties cultivated, the conical, oval and globe ; the first 2 being the best. The first is of dark purplish tint, with the scales much turned in at the top. This is preferred for the main crop. The scales or edible part, possess most flavor, and are thicker in the conical; but more tender than the oval or French, and should be cultivated on this account. Both produce the heads from July to November. They are propagated by rooted suckers from the old plants 1st of April, or by seeds ; and they continue productive for 6 or 7 years. The flowers are often used to coagulate milk for cheese. The juice of the stem and leaves, mixed equally with white wine, is used for dropsy, when other remedies fail. With bismuth, it gives a golden color to wool. The plant requires a light rich soil, rather moist, well dug and ma- nured ; the sets are planted with a dibble, 4 feet between the rows, and 2 in the row, giving them watet occasionally, if dry, and keeping them free from weeds. In autumn the large decayed leaves are re- moved, and the rows manured, and in cold weather they are protected by earth. In spring, a few are left for shoots. Sea-weed is a good manure for this plant. It is cultivated in England in gardens, chiefly of the higher classes, by whom it is considered a luxury. It is still more cultivated on the continent. The florets are bent down for seed, to prevent rotting. The Cardoon, the name of which has been applied to the Jerusalem artichoke, is considered as belonging to asparasinous plants. The stems and young leaves are blanched and rendered crisp and mild; and they are also used in soups and salads in the S. of Europe. Leaves 200 SEA-KALE BLACK PEPPER. pinnate and divided ; calyx undivided ; flowers blue or purple ; root- leaves 2 or 3 feet long. SEA-KALE, or Colewort, Crambe maritima, C. 15. sp. 10-15. Ij ft. This plant grows wild in Egypt, and spontaneously on the coast of England. It is not much cultivated in this country, though its merits commend it to general attention. It has been described as com- bining all the good qualities of the cabbage ; and, as Dr. Curtiss says, asweetner of the blood_in_the spring," &c. It thrives well on sandy loam when transplanted. It shouTcTbe eaten when tender ; and it is boiled like cabbage. It is propagated by seed, but it may be raised by slips or pieces of the roots. The people of the coast watch its first appearance, and cut it off underground, like asparagus, and boil the herbage as greens. It is forced by taking up the roots and planting them in hot-beds, and covering, as with others of the brassica, in the winter. The ancient plant, Crambe, was probably derived from this plant. The people of Ireland long used the wild plant before it was cultivated in England, and it has therefore been but recently introduced as a cultivated esculent. With Rhubarb, says Dr. Curtiss, it may save many pounds for medical attendance, and people may soon say, < 1 grow my own medicine. 5 " It has been further said by others, it is one of the most valuable acquisitions made to culinary vegetables within the last 50 years ; none affording a more salutary esculent for 4 or 5 months of the year." The cultivated kale is soaked in water half an, hour, well boiled in salted water, drained, laid before the fire a few minutes, and dressed with melted butter, capsicum or tomato, vinegar; or, use veal gravy, cream or milk, thickened with flour and butter. No plant requires less culture; the processes being similar to those prac- ticed with other varieties of the brassica. SPICES. BLACK PEPPER, pipper-nigrum, C. 2, O. 3, sp. 44-250, E. 6 ft., the dried berry of a climbing plant growing in the E. Indies. The pepper grounds are laid out into squares of six feet for each plant, by the side of a shrub upon which it creeps and bears in bunches from 20 to 50 grains, like currants. When these begin to redden, they are gathered, spread on mats in the sun, when they dry black, and are packed for exportation. White pepper is the best of these berries, gathered when ripe and stripped of their skin, being steeped in salt water a week for this purpose ; they are then dried, rubbed between the hands and winnowed. As the acridity is in the skin, principally, these are less pungent than the black. Pepper is an article of much commerce ; that from Malabar is best. The sales of the E. India Co. have been six million pounds annually, 800,000 Ibs. being retained for PEPPER. 301 home consumption. Ground pepper is much used for culinary pur- poses, and often as a stimulating medicine. No less than 3,682,342 Ibs. were imported into G. Britain in 1840. The productions of pepper are Sumatra (west coast) 20 million Ibs. ; do. (east coast) 8 millions ; Straits of Malacca 3,600,000 ; Malay peninsula 3,733,333 ; Borneo 2,666,667 ; Siam 8 millions ; Malabar 4 million Ibs. There are annually imported into the U. States about two and a half million Ibs., though much of this is exported. The value imported in 1840 was $189,928. Botanists reckon about 60 species of pepper, some of which are found in every quarter of the earth, except Europe. The black is a perennial found on the sides of mountains. It was at one time the principal export from Java. The plant has been introduced into Cay- enne ; and one plantation contains more than 30,000 plants. Malabar is the chief pepper country of India. The plant is propagated by shoots, which bear the 4th year, decline after the 8th, and cease to bear after the 10th or 12th. Each bunch contains 20 or 30 berries, and 6 or 7 Ibs. are afforded by a tree. The harvest in Sumatra is in Sept. and Oct., and a smaller crop is often gathered in March. The plants are constantly watered and kept perfectly free from weeds. The white pepper is from the same tree and the best is thought superior to the black. The 3 sorts are, 1st, Molucca, 2d, Catongee, and 3d, Nega- ree, which is the lightest and worst ; the berries should therefore al- ways be weighed. The Greeks derived their knowledge of it from the Hindoos, and their physicians used it in several diseases. The finest kind is called shot pepper, from its hardness. It is sometimes deprived of its husks by trituration, or is bleached by chlorine. White pepper (piper al- burn) is the fruit of the external fleshy part, and is larger, less acrid and pungent than the black. The Long pepper is found wild in India among bushes on water courses, and is cultivated in Bengal. The roots, cut and dried, are an article of commerce all over India. It (piper longum) is an inch in length, with a mild aromatic odor and violent, pungent taste. It is more acrid than the black, and its composition, uses, and medicinal effects are similar. It is much used for culinary purposes and in many pharmacopseial preparations. Cubcb pepper resembles the black, but is lighter and the plant is dif- ferent. Its analysis also exhibits some different principles, which dis- tinguish it. It is much used in medicine, chiefly for the same pur- poses as the black, but especially for gonorrhrea. Several medicinal preparations are also made of it. The Indians macerate the berries in wine and drink it to excite their passions. In affections of the bladder and prostrate glands they are given in powder, from 10 to 30 grains. The volatile oil is obtained by distillation. This and other preparations of Cubebs are used medicinally. 202 CAPSICUM. There are numerous other species of the piperacea, but these are the chief of those much used. The composition of black pepper is resin,volatile oil,peperine,extractive, gum, bassorin, starch, malic and tartaric acids, woody fibre and salts. White pepper is similar, with water, &c. Peperine is employed in medicine as a febrifuge in fevers, and is thought to be as speedy and certain as sulphate of quinia. Doses, 6 or 8 grains in powder, or pills. Its ordinary effects are well known ; inflammatory symptoms succeed its use in quantities; it acts as a stimulant, accelerates the pulse and excites the mucous surface. It has a well-known influence over the morbid condition of the urino-genital organs. It is chiefly employed as a condiment, for its flavor and stimulant effects on the stomach, by which digestion is assisted, and for a torpid state of the digestive pow- ers. Infused in spirits, it is a popular remedy in intermittent fevers, taken just before the attack. Warm water, with pepper, has long been taken for cold fits. It is employed in paralysis of the tongue, &c. as a masticory. It is also used as an ointment, and mixed with mustard in poultices, &c. A dose of black pepper in corns or powder is 5 to 15 grains ; the powder is given in the form of pills. The Pepper con- fection of physicians, for piles, &c. is composed of black pepper, Ele- campane root, or liquorice root, of each equal parts, in powder, Fennel seeds, honey, and white sugar, of equal parts, rubbed to a powder dose, 1 to 3 drachms twice or thrice a day, introduced into the rectum in a solution, and persevered in, if necessary. Gently opening medi- cines are given occasionally, in the mean time. CAPSICUM. Solanece, sp. 18-24. A. 1 ft. Species of plants of great value as a spice in this country, E. and W. Indies and S. Ameri- ca. They bear pods of various colors and size, with small flat seeds. The principal of these are the Bdl Pepper, Guinea and Bird Pepper (C. lattatum), all possessing the same general qualities. The fruit of the last is much used for culinary purposes in hot climates, eaten with animal and vegetable food and mixed with sauces, or with flour, and baked. The Cayenne Pepper, used in cooking, is the pod of a differ- ent species of capsicum, dried and reduced to powder, mixed with salt, and preserved in bottles. The species of this genus are numerous, but they all agree in their pungent properties, the smallest being most so. Their taste is very acrid, leaving a burning sensation, best re- moved by oil or butter. All are natives of tropical climates, where they form an important article of diet, and are used externally and in- ternally for a torpid and paralytic condition of the organs. In small quantities it is a grateful stimulant. One of the varieties ( red pep- per) is cultivated here in gardens, and much used for culinary pur- poses. The Guinea pepper is an annual capsicum, the fruit of which is eaten green by peasants in the S. of Europe, and is preferred to the onion or garlic. It is valuable as a pickle, and when ground, as Cay- PIMENTO OR ALLSPICE. 203 enne pepper. Many of the pod peppers are imported pickled, or pre- served here in bottles. The Common Red Pepper (capsicum), much cultivated in our gar- dens, is a valuable spice. It requires a warm, rich and exposed soil. The seeds are planted in rows or hills 3 feet apart, and the plants hoed and watered occasionally. The seeds are preserved by running a string through the pods when picked, and placed in a dry place. It should be coarsely ground and eaten with fat and coarse animal food, cabbages, cucumbers and other cold vegetables. It is highly esteemed as a pickle and for the relief of flatulency, impaired digestion, giddi- ness, &c., taking 6 to 10 grains before breakfast, more especially when the stomach is torpid or vitiated. 1'IMENTO, or ALLSPICE, myrtus pimento, a native tree of S. America and W. Indies. That of commerce is chiefly imported from Jamaica. The tree is 30 feet high and very beautiful, abounding with white flowers in July and August, and exhaling a rich perfume. The leaves, when bruised, evolve an aromatic odor like that of the fruit, and by distillation a delicate oil which is often used as a substitute for that of cloves. It grows spontaneously on the northern coast of the above island. The plantations are formed by selecting a spot where they grow and cutting down all other trees and allowing them to decay on the soil. Young pimento plants spring up abundantly the follow- ing year, and the second year the land is cleared of all else than vig- orous plants. In 7 years these attain their height. Few attempts to propagate the plant succeed. The berries are picked while green, by hand, the small branches being gathered and the fruit picked from them. The berries are then spread on floors exposed to the sun for a week, or are kiln-dried, -when they turn a reddish brown and are exported. A single tree has been known to yield 150 Ibs. of the raw or 100 of the dried fruit. The plantations are very profitable, but an abundant harvest occurs once in 5 years. The fruit is sometimes called Jamaica pepper, but com- monly Allspice, because its flavor resembles that of cloves and nut- megs. It has an aromatic and agreeable odor and taste. It is import- ed in bass of 1 cwt. each. G. Britain imported in 1840, 905,888 Ibs. and the U. S. to the value of $121.545. The composition of pimento is chiefly volatile oil 10, green do. 8, as- tringent extract 11, lignin 50, with coloring matter, gum, water, $c. Though used principally in cookery, yet it is taken for a relaxed con- dition of the stomach, and like cloves, to relieve flatulency, and with nauseous medicines, to prevent griping, &c., in doses of 10 grains to a drachm. The oil is obtained by distillation. The pimento oil of the shops is this and that of cloves. It is also used medicinally for the tooth-ache, and to correct tonic and purgative medicines dose, 2 to 6 drops. From this is prepared the water of pimento, or from the bruised NUTMEG. seed, used as a carminative and stomachic. A spirituous solution is also used by physicians. BETEL. A climbing plant of the E. Indies, of the pepper tribe. It is used in immense quantities in India, the leaves being chewed as we do tobacco, and it colors the lips and saliva a bright red and the teeth black ; the latter color being preferred to the whiteness of the teeth of Europeans. It sweetens the breath and strengthens the stomach. It is carried about the person and presented by men and women, by way of compliment, as we do snuff', it being an offence not to partake of it. The roots of another kind yield an intoxicating juice called ava. These roots are bruised or crushed, and mixed with the saliva. The chiefs drink a pint of this juice at a time. With those not used to it, it causes giddiness and excoriates the rnouth. NUTMEG, myristica moshata, C. 22. O. 13. Pt. sp. 2-14. 30 ft. This is a beautiful and valuable tree, a native of the Moluccas, E. I. The well known fruit is a kernel surrounded by the spicy integument called mace, an extremely thick husk resembling in form a small peach ; and the tree is not unlike our peach tree. When the fruit is ripe the husk opens, display- ing a shell, like that of the filbert, within which is the nutmeg. The tree is ascended and the fruit picked from the husks. The nut is then dried in the sun, and afterwards over a slow fire. When the kernel shrinks and is heard to rattle, the shells are broken and the nutmegs taken out. These are then soaked in sea- water and lime, then heated, and afterwards assorted and packed for sale. This spice is extensively used, and the amount imported is enor- mous. Distilled with water, or heated and pressed, they afford a large portion of essential oil. The oil of mace, is like that of the nutmeg. The best oil is brought in jars from the E. Indies. The mace is dried and packed in bales for exportation. It has a very fragrant odor, with the virtues of the nutmeg for culinary and medicinal purposes. The fruit in Banda is often boiled and preserved in syrup, or pickled. The husk is likewise eaten stewed. The tree is a native of the Moluccas, and was formerly monopolized by the Dutch, but it has been introduced into many other islands. 100,000 trees are growing on one plantation in Sumatra. It has also been introduced into Trinidad, W. Indies. The tree is raised from nurseries, where it remains till the 5th year ; it then puts forth its flowers, and indicates its sex. The trees are then transplanted 30 ft. apart, in the form of a diamond, with a male tree in the centre. They Commence bearing the 8th year, and continue to increase many years. CINNAMON. 205 There is said to be no particular season for bearing, but every day ex- hibits new buds, blossoms and fruit in every stage of growth. The tree is very beautiful and productive, and is now cultivated chiefly by Europeans. The shell is of a glossy black ; and the mace, seen when it bursts, is of a bright scarlet. Both tree and fruit are therefore among the most beautiful in the vegetable kingdom. Nutmegs to the amount of 157,158 bushels, and 10,333 pounds of mace, were imported into G. Britain in 1840, and into the U. S. to the value of $122,603. They are packed in dry lime for exportation. 2 varieties are known, the royal and green. The former is the larger, and produces longer mace. The good nuts are large, round and heavy, of a light grey, and finely marbled. A pound of the kernels yields 3 ounces of fixed oil, which is a third of the weight of the nut. A trans- parent volatile oil is also obtained by distillation, which is l-32d part of the weight of the nut employed. The nuts are often punctured and the oil boiled out before being offered for sale ; but the fraud may be detected by the weight. One species yields fruit, the kernels of which afford an oil like suet or fat, which is used in medicine. Being at- tacked by an insect, the nut is smoke-dried for 2 or 3 months. When imported in the shell, they are secure from this insect. A wild nut- meg, oblong and l inches in length, is also imported in the shell. The composition of the nutmeg is volatile oil 2.70, reddish soft oil 10-41, white solid do. 17-72, gummy extract 25, ligneous fibre 34-38, resin 3-42, &c. Starch is detected by iodine in both oils, and both yield volatile oil by distillation. It is on this latter oil that the acti- vity of the nutmeg and mace depend. Their effects, when swallowed are like those of other spices. In large doses they are narcotic, pro- ducing giddiness, delirium and stupor. By their stimulant properties they serve to flavor food and drinks, and promote digestion ; but food highly seasoned by them is injurious to the brain. They are frequently employed as a cordial and anti-acid in bowel complaints, taken to the extent of half a drachm in warm brandy and water. The oil of nut- meg is considerably used in medicine, often externally for rheumatism and palsy. The volrtile oil, in proof spirits, is cordial and carmina- tive. The grated nut is commonly used for flatulent colic, to relieve vomiting, &c; but with those of full habit it should be used cau- tiously. MADAGASCAR NUTMEG, C. 11, O. 1, sp.9. Et. ft. 20. The leaf has a pleasant smell like cloves. It forms a large tree in Madagascar, with an aromatic bark, and heavy insipid wood. The dried fruit is very aromatic. CINNAMON, C. 9. O. 1. Laurineee, sp. 18-68. Et. 20 ft. The Cinnamon of commerce is the under-bark of the tree L. cinnamomum, found chiefly in the E. Indies. The branches of trees 3 years old are cut down in April and November, the outside scraped off, and the bark 18 206 QUALITIES OF CINNAMON. loosened by slits, and then taken oft' entire, cut into slices and dried, when it curls up, the smaller pieces are then inserted in the larger ones, and packed for market, mainly in Ceylon and Malabar. Per- sons were employed to taste and chew it, to determine the several quali- ties ; but the office can be performed only 2 or 3 days, as the cinna- mon deprives the lips and tongue of all their mucous; the office is now abolished. The bundles, when packed, are 4 feet long, weighing 88 pounds each. The offsets of the roots make the finest cinnamon. The tree is very common in Ceylon, and is used for fuel. From thence it has been in- troduced into the W. Indies, where it thrives well. The infusion of thin pieces in boiling water is a very agreeable liquid. An oil is ex- tracted also, which is very valuable as a perfume, but cassia is much substituted for both the oil and bark. The leaves, the fruit and the roots of cinnamon likewise yield oil. That from the fruit is highly fragrant and gummy, and candles are made of it. The fruit is the size of the pea. and is soft and insipid. The ker- nel germinates soon after falling. The wood is white, and the roots are thick and exude an abundance of camphor. There are many va- rieties, but only 4 are barked. The, tree is good for nothing after 18 years old. It has been propagated by pigeons eating the fruit ; but it is now raised by planting the berries. The bark is cordial and tonic, but is chiefly used to cover the nausea of other remedies. The oil from the leaves is called the oil of cloves, and that from the roots the oil of camphor ; both are powerfully stimulating, and are used for cramps of the stomach, flatulent colic, hiccough, toothache and nervous languor. L. cassia is used like cinnamon, but is inferior to it. L. camphora is a species, from the roots and branches of which camphor is obtained. 92,000 pounds are said to be consumed annually by slaves in the mines of S. America, each receiving a small piece as a preservative against the effluvia of the mines. The inner bark yields its fragrance to the outer by drying, when packed. A larse and small harvest of the shoots are afforded annually, the first when the fruit is ripe in May and June, and the other in Nov., but on the government plantations there is but one. Prior to 1766 it was supposed to be deprived of its virtues by culti- vation, and was therefore collected only from forests. But the Dutch introduced its cultivation into Ceylon, which, at the time it was taken by the English, abounded with cinnamon plantations. Four or five gardens now yield more than 400,000 pounds ; and 25,000 persons are employed in the cultivation of it. The Dutch monopolized the trade of the article, and made punishable with death the selling of a stick, the extraction of the oil, the injuring of a tree, or a connivance at any one of these things without the orders of governmental officers. To COMPOSITION OF CINNAMON. CASSIA. 207 secure their monopoly, all superabundant trees and oil were des- troyed. This plant was known to the Hebrews and noticed in Scripture 1490 pears before Christ, they having received it from the Arabians. The trees are grown principally in Ceylon : the annual imports into the U. S. are $16,000. Cinnamon in chests and boxes is commonly small and inferior. Ceylon cinnamon, which is the best, is cut obliquely at the bottom ; other kinds are cut transversely, and there are 1st, 2d, and 3d kinds of the Ceylon. The latter is thicker and darker,with a pungent but bitter taste. Beside the Ceylon there are the Bombay, Malabar, Java and Cayenne, which is most acrid and peppery. The Cassia lig- nea, substituted for cinnamon, is thicker, in shorter pieces and less deli- cate, but is of strong flavor. Many prefer it. Cinnamon is chiefly con- sumed by chocolate makers. The composition of cinnamon is volatile oil, tannin, mucilage, color- ing matter, resin, acid and ligneous fibre. The physiologic effects are like those of other spices. It stimulates the stomach, and promotes as- similation, but its repeated use induces costiveness. It is an agreea- ble condiment in cookery, and is added to medicines to improve their flavor, check griping, as a tonic and cordial, as an astringent in diar- rhoea, with chalk, or vegetable infusions in low fevers, flatulent and spasmodic affections of the alimentary canal, to check nausea and vomiting, and in uterine hemorrhage dose, from 10 grains to half a drachm. The oil used in medicine is obtained by macerating the bark, reduced to grains, in sea water, and by distillation. Its elements, per centum, are carbon 81, hydrogen 7, oxygen 10. It is employed for paralysis of the tonsue, cyncope and croup of the stomach, but principally with other medicines. Cinnamon water, spirit of cinnamon and tincture and compound do. of cinnamon are used as above. The powder of cinnamon, aromatic confection and aromatic plaster are also medicinal preparations. The last is used spread over the region of the stomach for dispepsia, to allay pain, nausea, &c. The confection is made of cinnamon, cloves, saffron, chalk and sugar, mixed with water, and used for diarrhrea, flatulency, &c. CASSIA, or Wild Cinnamon, laurus cassia, C. 10. O. 1. Legumi- nosse, sp. 56-149. A tree grown in the E. Indies and China, and well known to the ancients, as to moderns, for its spicy bark. It is inferior to cinnamon, a more recent knowledge of which has mostly excluded cassia. This being less expensive, however, it is much substituted for cinnamon, especially for the oil, which is sold for it. The buds are used in cookery and for other purposes, and imported from China. One species, senna, an Arabic name, is well known in medicine. Nu- merous species are found in S. America, some being shrubs and some trees. Cassia lignea, or China cinnamon-, and the cassia buds are imported 208 GINGER CLOVE. in chests and bundles from China and other places in the East. Vast quantities are brought to Canton from near Kwei Lin Too, the city of Cassia trees* A particular kind is said to be so much esteemed by the Chinese as to command $10 a pound, there. Another fine kind is met with, for which $100 is paid per catty (1 \ lb.). These do not get abroad. The best is cut in the 3d or 4th moon, and the 2d sort in the 6th or 7th moon, and the buds in the 8th or 9t.h. Malabar cassia lignea is much inferior, and cinnamon is exported for it. Cassia buds resemble cloves, but are inferior in odor and flavor to cinnamon. 75,- 000 pounds are imported into G. Britain annually, and in 1830, 837,- 586 Ibs. of cassia were imported; but in 1840, 64,000 pounds only. Cassia contains the same substances as cinnamon, and its effects are similar. The oil of cassia, spirits and tincture, are used medicinally. GINGER, Zingabar officinal, a native plant of Asia and of S. America, or early introduced by the Spanish. It is largely imported from thence, as well as from the W. Indies. That from the latter is superior to the E. Indian. The roots, and as a dried preserve, are the forms in which it is imported. It is an annual with a perennial root. As im- ported it is black or white ; but this difference depends on the mode of preparation. The tuberous roots are taken up when the stalks wither, and, for the black ginger, they are scalded in boiling water, and dried in the sun ; but for the white, the best roots are taken, though not scalded, but cleanly scraped and carefully dried. This is the best, and bears the highest price. The root is dug young for preserves, washed in cold water, and peeled; then repeatedly washed, and put into jars and covered with weak syrap of sugar, which is replaced in a day or two by a stronger, and again replaced. The syrup is afterwards fer- mented into a cooling drink. It is cultivated in a similar manner to the potato. The properties of ginger will be spoken of under the head of medicinal plants. CLOVE, caryophyllatus arromaticus, C.12, O.I. This is a celebrated tree 15 to 30 feet high, a native of the Molucca Islands, where the na- tives have made its fruit an article of profitable traffic from very early periods. 300 years ago Europeans were ignorant of its locality, although they have used it for 2000 years. Cloves were brought as merchandize from Persia, Arabia, and Egypt, to the Mediterranean ports, where they were purchased by the Venetians and Genoese. But, in 1511 the place of production was discovered by the Portuguese, who, soon af- terwards, were driven from the Moluccas by the Dutch, who monopo- lized the trade. They are said to have destroyed the trees on all but one island ; and then the natives were compelled to cultivate 125 trees on each of 4000 parcels of land ; so that on this small island (Am- boyna) there were 500,000 clove trees, each averaging annually 2 Ibs. of cloves, and the whole more than a million Ibs. But it has lately been cultivated on other islands, and even in the W. Indies. TV .. ^io V t-o a resembles the bay tree ; it is very beautiful, with PROPERTIES OF CLOVES. 309 peach-blossom colored flowers in bunches. When the calyxes turn red, they, with the embryo seed, are beaten from the tree, dried in the sun and exported. Each berry contains one oval dark colored seed. The tree does not produce fruit till planted 8 years. All parts of it are aromatic, and the leaves are little less pungent than the calyx of the flowers. Planted along the avenues to a residence, they are very beautiful and fragrant. A larger portion of essential oil is obtained from the clove than from any other plant ; it is highly pungent and heavier than water. When the cloves are fresh the oil is obtained by pressure, but com- monly by distillation. Those from which the oil has been taken are often fraudulently mixed with perfect ones ; but they have a pale co- lor, are without flavor, and shrivelled. The essential oil, therefore, constitutes the aroma and pungency of the fruit. But these proper- ties are developed only in a favorable climate and situation ; and hence its profitable growth is limited to a narrow range. The trees of parts of Asia and China possess little flavor. The tree absorbs so much moisture that no herbage will grow under it ; and the cloves when gathered, if placed near water, absorb much of it, and are thereby much heavier. This is said to be turned to profitable account by dealers. Cloves are imported in casks and bags. 93,549 Ibs. paid duty in England in 1839, and the value of $47,518 was imported into the U. States in 1840. The name is derived from clou, fhe French word for wai7, which the fruit resembles. It should have a fragrant odor and acrid taste ; and when the nail is slightly pressed on the fruit it should give out oil. Those from the Moluccas are best. The Bencoolon clove is most esteemed. Cloves from Bourbon and Cayenne are least flavored. The clove stalks are used by distillers. The Mother of Cloves is the fruit of a tree in the E. Indies ; it has been an article of some commerce. It is of the shape of the clove, though smaller ; and its odor and flavor are also similar, but much weaker. The composition of cloves consists of volatile oil 18, tasteless resin 6, a peculiar tannin 13, extractive and gum 18, woody fibre 28, water 18. The infusion and oil of cloves suffer changes like those of opium, morphia and allspice, when acted on by nitric acid. The fruit is de void of the acridity and fiery taste of pepper and ginger. The prin- cipal use of cloves is for culinary purposes, though not in quantities to act as condimentary stimulants ; still, they are useful gastric excitants in dispepsia, with a relaxed alimentary canal. They are usually em- ployed in medicines to improve their flavor and correct their operation. Alone, they act as a stomachic and carminative, for flatulency, nausea and vomiting. A liquor called cloves is prepared from them by distil- lers. They may be taken in doses of 5 to 10 grains. 18* 210 CAPSICUMS. The infusion of Cloves by maceration, for 2 hours, in a vessel, lightly covered and strained, is used as above, and also for gout ; ammonia in- creases its efficacy. The oil of cloves is obtained by repeated distil- lations with water. Cloves yield 17 to 22 per cent, of 2 oils, one lighter and the other heavier than water; the latter, in distillation, coming over first. In commerce, the 2 are mixed. The oil is soluble in al- cohol, ether and pure vinegar. Part of the light oil is lost by rectifi- cation. The oil is often used in the hollow of a carious tooth to relieve pain and as an addition to purgatives, to check nausea and gripings dose 2 to 6 drops. Much use is also made of it by distillers and soap-makers. The tincture of cloves, a very useful and elegant preparation, is prepared by maceration in rectified spirits for some days, and filtration. It is used in tonic mixtures, and for the above purposes. The syrupus rhci aromaticus, an important medical pre- scription, is made of rhubarb, bruised cloves and cinnamon, 2 oz. each ; bruised nutmeg, 2 drachms ; diluted alcohol, 2 pints ; syrup, 6 pints. Macerate the rhubarb and aromatics in the diluted alcohol for 14 days ; strain and evaporate in a water bath to a pint, and while hot, mix with the hot syrup. The Cherry Capsicum, or Bird Pepper, omitted under the head of Spices and of Peppers to which it belongs, is now much cultivat- ed for making Cayenne Pepper, and the Sell Pepper is also culti- vated for pickling or preparing Cayenne. For this purpose the green pods, being gathered, when dry, are slit down on one side, the seeds taken out and laid in salt and water for 24 hours, changing the water after the first 12. They are then laid out to drain for 2 hours, when they are put into bottles or jars, and boiled in vinegar poured over them. The bottles being then closely stopped for a few weeks, they are fit for use, and are the best pickle known. The Bird or Cherry pepper is the most acrid of all the varieties of Capsicums, but it requires the hot-bed to perfect it. The seeds are gathered when quite ripe, well dried in the sun, then ground, dried and put in bottles closely corked, and eaten with fish and meats. They may be cut off with the stalk at the roots, and tied in bunches, and hung in a dry place, where they will remain for a long time without injury. The common, or annual capsicum, will answer, treated in the same way ; and being more hardy, is generally cultivated for this purpose. The Bell, or heart-shaped, is best for pickling, producing fine large pods of a deep red color, when ripe. The yellow variety is mostly raised for ornament. Sorts with small oblong pods are the best. These are called the Chilies, coming as they do from Chili, and greatly cul- tivated for Cayenne pepper. All the species suitable for cultivation in our climate are raised from seed, sown in April, in hot beds, if practicable, and transplanted 3 or 4 inches apart, under glass, and HERBACEOUS SEASONING PLANTS. 211 then planted out in a sheltered spot, in lines a foot a part and 6 inches from plant to plant. Large quantities are thus raised. The annual capsicum commonly cultivated is here often called the red pepper, and the different varieties abovementioned as the Cayenne, pepper, are the peppers in a prepared state, for which they are now much raised. They are usually eaten, coarsely ground, with cabbage, cucumbers, fish, and tough meats ; and are taken medicinally in doses of 6 to 10 grains, in the morning, for flatulency, weak digestion, gid- diness, &c., but only in marked cases. The Spices, we have here concluded, are productions of plants grow- ing (excepting the capsicums) exclusively in tropical climates. Their qualities are acrid and hot, and hence are called peppers ; some are also aromatic, and are therefore called spices ; these terms are, how- ever, often applied indiscriminately. They are articles of luxury ; and being of small bulk, were in ancient times, and still continue to be, articles of extensive commerce. They were much used by the ancients, together with myrrh and frankincense, both upon their altars and funeral piles. The Romans were profuse in the use of these most costly perfumes. More than a year's supply is said to have been lavished by Nero at the funeral of Poppsea, and the Sabeans of Arabia Felix, used no other fuel than that yielding the richest fra- grance. That country abounds, indeed, with fragrant spices; and from this its name originated. Ceylon is also rich in aromatic plants. The price of spices is now within the reach of all, and hence their great consumption in this country and in Europe. HERBACEOUS SEASONING PLANTS. These, though important for their culinary uses, are not substan- tial articles of food ; but they are employed for the flavor which they impart to other vegetable substances and to meats. Much taste and skill is exercised in the use of these in cooking. They have also been much employed for supposed medicinal virtues, and very many are now esteemed for these properties ; they constitute, for these combined purposes, an essential article of cultivation in every kitchen garden. They are strictly aromatic and sweet small pot-herbs, possessing, with the foregoing, medicinal properties. These plants belong chiefly to an order abounding in volatile oils, to which their flavor and perfume is owing, and which resides more in their stalks than in their flowers. Thyme, Mint. Sage, Majoram, Clary, Savory and Basil belong to this order, and also Rue, Tansey, Chamomile, &c. Parsley and Fennel are an exception to the com- monly poisonous quality of the umbelliferous plants ; they are, at least, innocent when eaten young, or before the flowers appear. The horse- radish, of the cruciferous order, the roots of which are highly pungent 18 THYME SAVORY. and wholesome, and occasionally some mushrooms and the truffle, are used for seasoning. Some of these, it will be seen, we have arranged under other heads to which their chief characteristics entitle them, it being an important object with us in this work, to arrange all plants in the natural order which their chief qualities indicate. THYME, Thymus vulgaris, C. 14. O. 1. Labiatese, sp. 20-32, E. 1 ft. A name signifying courage or thought, from its supposed qualities in reviving the spirits, &c. It was anciently used in sacrifices on ac- count of its fragrance. It grows wild in stony places in the S. of Eu- rope, where, in some places, it is 6 feet high. In Greece it was well known for the excellence of the honey it afforded ; and it is said that sheep eating of it afford the finest mutton, and deer the finest venison. Others say they do not eat it. It has an agreeable aromatic smell and a warm pungent taste. An infusion of it is used as a tonic for the stomach, for reviving the spirits and relieving the headache. Its prin- cipal use is for broths, soups and ragouts, and in stuffings to savour meats, &c. The lemon thyme is less pungent than the common gar- den kind, but is more grateful, and is used for seasoning veal, &c. Two varieties only are cultivated, and both from seeds. Thyme should be cut when in blossom, well dried in the shade, and hung up in paper bags. An essential oil from it, especially the calyx, is very acrid und pungent, and is sometimes used for culinary purposes. Thymus ser- pyllum, a variety, naturalized here, is of a milder flavor and more grateful than the common thyme. T. vulgaris has the aroma com- mon to lavender, sage and rosemary. It yields a species of camphor by distillation with water. It is put in with pickled olives, but it would not answer well with pickled cucumbers. It is known here as a low shrubby evergreen. The broad,narrow and variegated leaved are com- monly cultivated. The lemon thyme is a smaller trailing evergreen thriving in dry soil. All sorts are propagated by seeds. It was em- ployed by the Romans to give flavor to cheese. The young leaves and tops are the parts used. It is sown early in spring on a bed or in drills, 6 inches apart, and cultivated like sage, &c. It will not thrive on stiff moist soil. The cuttings and slips of the young branches, planted in the spring in a shady place, grow readily. Seven species are common, one being the Virginia thyme. SAVORY, Satureia, C. 14. O. 1. sp. 10-17. A. Ij ft to cram or satisfy. It is in much use for seasoning soups, broths and stewed meats. There are two varieties cultivated, both from the S. of Europe. The Winter (S. montana) is a perennial, hardy and shrubby, and the Summer (S. hortensis) is a hardy annual. They have a hot aromatic and penetrating taste, and are an excellent seasoning for farinacious food, as peas, beans, &c., preventing wind in the stomach. It was formerly used in cakes. The winter or everlasting savory is propa- gated from seeds or slips, and summer savory from seeds only. The MINTS. first has white flowers in May and June, and the second in June and July. They are grown in any soil ; the winter is best on barren soil. Their pungent leaves are much esteemed in salads, and they have been much used to attenuate viscid humors, dispel flatulency, and to in- crease appetite. Dried and put into a bed, they expel fleas. Being sown, the plants are thinned to 5 or 6 inches, and cut as wanted ; but they do not produce a succession. For drying, the whole plant is pull- ed, the extreme roots are cut off, and the plant preserved as other herbs, for winter's use. The slips of the winter savory are planted in spring and taken up in autumn and transplanted into beds or rows a foot apart. They should be kept clear of weeds. There are four species well known Flower stalks axillary, in scymes turned one way; leaves linear, lanceolate, entire, with sharp points. STOCK, mathiola, C. 15, cruciferee, sp. 11-26, ft. 2. Herbs co- vered with a soft white down ; and the leaves of all the species are used as pot-herbs or salads. The Gilliflowers are of this species. MINTS, mentha, C. 14, O. 1, Labiate, sp. 35-43, 1)h. P. 1-2 ft. A name given for the supposed virtues of the plant. The green, or spearmint, (M. viridis) the sort used for culinary and most other purposes, is more agreeably flavored than the peppermint. It is eaten with vinegar and sugar as sauce with lamb, and is used in spring salads ; and when dried, in soups. Its scent is very refreshing, and the leaves are excellent as a warm stomachic in producing appetite, and in allaying pains of the bowels ; it also stops crude retchings or vomiting, if not from inflammation. It grows in abundance near moist places in the U. S., and is gathered by most families in the coun- try and put in papers or bottles. With vinegar it stops the hiccough, and with sugar it makes a grateful conserve. An essential oil is dis- tilled from it, and also a distilled water, a spirit, and a tincture. In drying, the leaves loose much of their weight, but not their taste or smell. Peppermint (mentha piperita) is the strongest and most aromatic of all the mints, and is most used in medicine. Distilled in water, it yields an essential oil of considerable value. Peppermint water is made and sold extensively. Pennyroyal mint (mentha pulegium) is one of the varieties much used as an herb medicinally. There are 60 species of mints, 3 or 4 of which inhabit the U. S. They are cut for drying when in flower, in dry weather. Mint was celebrated in re- mote antiquity, both in Mythology and for its useful qualities. They partake of the tonic and stimulating properties which distinguish all labiate plants, in an unusual degree. The poets feined that Mintha was transformed into this plant. Mint is said to prevent the coagulation of milk, and is therefore recommend- ed to be used with milk diets, and even as cataplasms and fomenta- tions for resolving coagulated milk in the breasts. Dry mint digested 214 MINT SAGE. in rectified spirits appears a dark green by daylight and a bright red by candle light. Spearmint is cut just as the flowers appear, for me- dicinal purposes, but for the oil the flowering plant is preferred, and both are cut in dry weather. The roots must be transplanted every 3 years to preserve its qualities, otherwise it degenerates into spearmint. They, with most labiate plants, give fragrance to the air and correct the efHuviae of stagnant pools. Plants set in spring come into use the same year. To preserve it best, dry it quickly before the fire in a screen, powder it immediately, and put in tight bottles. Parsley, sage, thyme, &c., should be thus preserved. M. Piperita has the most penetrating smell and stronger and more pungent taste, for medicinal purposes, (see medicinal plants.) Ten species are well known. Peppermint cordial is made of 75 drops of the oil, 1 oz. sugar, with 10 pints of rectified spirits of wine, diluted with 10 galls, of water, and 3 drachms of alum. The addition of 6 oz. of salt to 10 galls, of water greatly improves the flavor and strength of any spirits. SAGE, Salvia officinalis, C. 2. O. 1. Labiate, sp. 95-170. Eh. A. and P. The common species is from the French sage (wise), and the genus from to save, both in allusion to its virtues. All are of easy culture, and some are ornamental. Of the S. officinalis there are many varieties. It has been in great repute in medicine as a sudorific, aroma- tic, astringent and antiseptic. The Chinese use it as a tonic to strengthen the nervous system, preferring it to their own tea. It is also given with us as a warm tea, to promote perspiration in colds and fevers. With food it is principally used for seasoning soups and broths, and for stuffing ducks, geese, turkeys, sausages, &c. It is likewise much used in making sage cheese. It is discarded from the English materia medica. The S. grandiflora is prepared for tea. Some species produce galls or apples, by the junction of onion seed, and are sold in the Greek markets, and are candied with sugar. S. verbenaca is a native of the four continents, and everywhere very aromatic. A mucilage is produced from the seeds, which, if placed under the eye- lids, has been said to abstract any dust, &c., which may have got there. The flowers are used in Holland to give flavor to the Rhenish wines. A wine is made with sugar, from the herb or flower, not un- like frontinac. There are 3 or 4 varieties commonly cultivated, all sown or raised by suckers on light soils for 3 years. The garden sage is highly stimulent, tonic and stomachic, resembling camphor, which it contains. There are many species, natives of this country. The red, broad-leafed, or balsamic, green, small-leafed green, or sage of virtue are cultivated. The red is most in use ; the 2d is used medi- cinally, and the 4th is best raw and for decoctions. They are propa- gated by seed suckers or portions of old roots. They grow on any soil for 3 or 4 years. 35 species are well known; the genus is indeed very MARJORAM MARYGOLD. 216 numerous. S. officinalis ; leaves lance-shaped, crenate, dull green or purplish; corolla blue. MARJORAM, Origanum. C. 14. 0. 1. Labiateae, sp. 14-24. Es. 1 ft from joy, &c. Two varieties only are used for culinary pur- poses. The pot marjoram, a hardy plant, is used as a seasoning for soups. The sweet knotted is a native of Cyprus and the S. of Europe. The sweet has a pleasant smell and warm aromatic taste, and is used also for soups. It corrects flatulency, and is serviceable for nervous complaints. Both are dried and put up in papers. The O. vulgaris is ornamental and aromatic, and is very grateful in tea and for fomen- tations. It grows wild in thickets and hedges. The essential oil is so acrid as to be used as a caustic by farriers. A little cotton moist- ened with it and put into a decayed tooth often relieves the pain. The tops are used in the country to dye cloth purple. The cloth is macer- ated in alum-water and dried, then soaked 2 days in a decoction of the bark of the crab tree, then wrung out, boiled in a lye of ashes, and then boiled in a decoction of the marjoram. Sheep eat it, but horses and kine do not. It is retained in the Materia Medica as a tonic and stomachic. Some use it powdered in cephalic snuffs. The seed is mostly from Italy, as it ripens seldom in northern climates. The winter marjoram, being most aromatic, is preferred. A sheltered situation is most favorable for its growth ; the other is a biennial, and is renewed annually by seed; while the pot-marjoram is perennial, propagated by cuttings or parting the roots into small tufts and planting in the spring in small beds or borders, in rows. It is cut when in flower, for dying. MARYGOLD, Calendula, C. 19. O. 4. Composites, sp. 10-24. A. 2 ft. A native of the S. of Europe. Many medical virtues have been attributed to this plant. It is used in the form of tea, and is given in agues. The plants are boiled in broths and soups. In Holland they are extensively sold for these purposes. The leaves are gathered when dry, and put up in papers for use. The flowers are open from 9, A. M. till 3, P. M. The flowers of C. officinalis afford a distilled water, a kind of vinegar and conserve. The species are common in this country. The soil should be light and sandy. The marygold requires little culture, as it propagates itself for years, but the flowers are not so large as by annual sowings. Sow the seed in April in a bed, and thin to 6 or 8 inches. Keep out weeds, and transplant, if desired, when in flower ; gather in a dry day, take off the outer leaves, spread on a cloth in a dry room, turn, and then put them up for use. There are 7 species well known C. officinalis; seeds boat-form; leaves sessile, lower spoon-shaped, upper lanceolate ; flowers deep yellow. CHERVIL, scandix cerefolium, C. 5, O. 2, sp. 11, A. 1} ft. A plant of warm aromatic qualities from the S. of Europe. When young it resembles parsley, but afterwards, hemlock. The tender leaves are 216 BASIL BORAGE. used in soups and salads. A soup is seldom served by the French and Dutch without chervil as a part. It is thought to be a more mild sea- soning than parsley, so common with our cooks. A writer said 200 years ago, "chervil should be eaten with oil and vinegar, being first boiled, which is very good for old people that are dull and without courage : it rejoiceth and comforteth the heart and increaseth the strength." There are two varieties, the plain and the curled, differ- ing little in quality ; the latter is principally cultivated; the former has poisonous roots, and the stems and leaves dye a beautiful green, and the umbels a yellow. It is found wild only, on fertile soils. A successive supply of the latter is obtained by sowing in Feb. and Aug. in shallow drills, 8 inches apart, and covered lightly; it is also sown broad-cast, raked in and thinned. Sown in Aug., in beds, it is used throughout the winter, if protected. The leaves, 3 or 4 inches long, are cut close, when they are followed by others. The rest of the spe- cies are weeds. Umbels sessile ; flowers white j leaves triply pin- nate ; herb pale, sweet scented. BASIL, bassilicum ocymum, C. 14, O. 1, Labiatee, sp. 20-50, A. 1-3 ft. It derives its name from the strong scent, or from quickly, owing to its rapid growth. It is of E. India origin. Two varieties are cul- tivated here. The sweet, or large leaf, is principally raised for the table. Though introduced in 1573, it has not been long used. It en- ters into all the soups and sauces of the French. The leaves, the part used, have a strong flavor, like cloves, and are excellent for seasoning dishes, rnock turtle soup, or as a salad. They are tender ; and tied in bunches and hung in a dry room, they keep well. They have been used in medicine. Both sorts (common sweet and bush) are raised from seed sown on a prepared bed in April, transplanted into warm light soil, in rows 6 or 8 inches apart each way, and watered occasionally. They are tender plants, and should be pulled, tied and hung up before frosts Leaves ovate smooth, calyx fringed, stem hairy, 3 ft. high ; flowers white and violet, small, in bunches, terminal. BORAGE, borago officinalis, C. 5, O. 1, Boraginese, sp, 4-7, A. 3 ft. It is brought from Aleppo, and formerly supposed to have cordial vir- tues. The tender leaves are used as a pot-herb in Italy, and the flow- ers in France as an ornament. In a beverage of wine, with water, sugar and lemon juice, it gives an additional coolness. The young leaves are used as a pot-herb or salad. The plants of this tribe are harmless and inert ; their prevailing constituent is mucilage ; nitre is also found in some species. Its coloring principle is employed to color unguents and oils, as lip salve and hair oil. Two species only are much known. B. O. is now mostly used as an ingredient in summer drinks, called " cool tankard." OKRA, Gombo, hibiscus esculentus, is much used in soups and stews, imparting a rich flavor and considered nutritious. The green cap- AROMATIC SEEDS. 217 sules are used for this purpose, and the seeds, if burnt and ground like coffee, can hardly be distinguished from it. The seed is planted in May (if warm and dry) in drills an inch deep and 3 or 4 feet apart ; thin and earth them 2 or 3 times. HYSSOP, is a warm aromatic plant, and the leaves and flowers have a pungent taste. When reduced to powder, these are used with cold salad herbs. This, as well as many preceding plants, is used medicinally, but these properties will be hereafter considered. Blessed Thistle, Camomile, Fever-Few, Fenugreek, Horehound, Lavender, Marsh-Mallow, Penny-Royal Mint, Rosemary, Rue, Tansy, Tea-Sage, Wormwood, $-c., will be found described under medicinal plants, in another volume. PLANTS DISTINGUISHED FOR THEIR AROMATIC SEEDS, ETC. These are the products of a large number of plants, which are thereby rendered important for their dietetical and medicinal uses. They are chiefly members of the umbelliferous class, and are distin- guished by the volatile oil they contain. In this respect they rank with many of the salads of which we have spoken, together with the parsnip, skirret, &c. Many of the umbelliferous plants, as we have said, are poisonous, or are aero-narcotics, causing, when swallowed, irritation, giddiness, delirium coma, convulsions, &c. The active pro- perties, taste and smell, are seen to be similar in most of the seeds of these plants ; and, unlike the salad plants described, it is for these seeds, and their peculiar properties only, that they are distinguished. Many of these will be described under the head of medicinal plants, wh'ere, but for the culinary purposes to which they are applied, we should have placed them. The character of the plants of this class are, however, extremely variable. ANISE, Pimpinella dnisum, C. 5. 0. 2. Umbelliferese, sp. 7-9. A. Ds. 1 ft. Cultivated in Malta, Spain and Germany, from whence the seeds are chiefly imported for medicinal use. 192 cwt. were imported into England in 1839. The seeds are aromatic and carminative; they yield an oil by expression and distillation with water, which is much used in flatulency in children, to prevent griping, as are the seeds. The oil is used for scenting poisonous baits and to obliterate other smells. Anise is sown in gardens for the leaves, which are used for garnishes, for seasoning, &c., like fennel. The seeds are used in cor- dials, with equal parts of angelica, also to flavor liquors, cakes and plumbs, ragouts, confectionary, &c. It is composed of volatile oil 3, stearin, resin, fatty oil 3, phytocol 7, uncrystalizable sugar, gum 6, extractive ulmin 8, gumoin 2, lignin 32, with several salts 8, silicic- atid and oxide of iron 3, and water 23. It is an aromatic stimulent, like dill. It is detected in the excretions of those taking it, particu- 19 218 CARAWAY-^-CORIANA. larly the urine, which, with the milk, it is said to promote. Pigeons are said to be killed by the oil of the seeds. It has been used for pulmonary affections and for horse medicines. The oil is soluble in alcohol, but exposed to air it forms resin. It is composed of 2 vola- tile oils, one solid and the other liquid. Dose 5 to 15 grains, dropped on sugar. The spirit of anise, is obtained from the bruised anise and angelica seeds ; macerate 24 hours and distil a gall. This, sweetened, is stimu- lant, stomachic and carminative. Jlnise water is commonly used. It is propagated by sowing the seed in spring on light dry soil. Anise, seed Cordial is made of 2 pounds of bruised seed, 12 gallons of proof spirits and 1 gallon of water. Distil off 10 gallons of cordial, and sweeten or these proportions. CARAWAY, Carum, C. 5. 0. 2. D. A. 2 ft. It is cultivated as an agri- cultural and horticultural plant ; in the first case for the seeds, which are used to flavor cakes, to form sugar-plumbs, and to flavor spirits, and also for a carminative distilled water. The seeds have a pleasant spicy smell and aromatic taste. Incrusted with sugar, they form the Caraway Comfits ; they are likewise used in medicine, in cakes, and to flavor liquor, &c. An oil is extracted from them, and the leaves are used in soups and boiled with herbs, or as salads. The roots make a good pickle ; and boiled, they are considered superior in flavor to parsnips. The plant grows wild in meadows and pastures, and is perfected the 2d year. It is cut in July, and thrashed on cloths in the field, and dried. Much is imported from Germany. England imports annually 500 cwt., though producing large quantities. The aromatic qualities depend on a volatile oil. It is given for flatulent cholic, to prevent griping, &c. in children, and is much used in many medical compounds. It is added to cathartic pills and powders dose 1 to 2 drops. The oil, spirits, or water is generally used. The oil is obtained by distil- ling the bruised seed with water, yielding about 5 per cent. Carbon 86, hydrogen 10, oxygen 3, are its elements. CORIANDER, Coriandum Savitum, C. 5. O. 2. Umbellifere, sp. 2-3. A. 2 ft. The leaves are strongly scented, and the seeds are aro- matic and used to cover the taste of senna, and in spices as currie pow- ders, and seasoning for puddings ; covered with sugar, also as a sweet meat. They are sometimes steeped in wine or vinegar, and then dried, to render them milder. They are used in various confections, for dis- tillation, &c. They are pleasant, warm and aromatic. The plant is cut in July and thrashed on a cloth. It chokes the wheat crop in some places. The seeds are aromatic etimulent, like other carmina- tive umbelliferous fruits. They are thought equally as powerful a cor- rective with senna as anise, and were formerly a constituent of the com- pound infusion of senna, though ginger is now substituted for it. They are now employed chiefly as an adjuvant and corregent in medicines. MISCELLANEOUS EDIBLE PLANTS. 219 Like other seeds before mentioned, its properties depend on its vola- tile oil. The plant is hardy, and is propagated from the seed sown in autum in open situations, on a bed of fresh soil. It is a native of the S. of Europe. CUMIN, lagcecia cuminoides, C. 5. O. 1. sp. 1. A. 1 ft. A native of Syria, and cultivated in Europe and some here, for the seeds, which are imported from Sicily and Malta. They have a warm and bitter taste, and contain a large quantity of essential oil possessing a carmi- native and stomachic power. The Dutch put them into bread, and the Germans into their cheese. The seeds are sown in autumn. The officinal cumin is most used medicinally. It is often mentioned in scripture. The odor is strong and aromatic. Its properties reside in a volatile oil, obtained by distillation with water. It is mostly used in veterinary surgery. DILL, anethum graveolens, C. 5, O. 2, Umbelliferse, sp. 4, Dh. A. 3 ft. This plant grows wild in this country and in Europe, produced by seed on light soil. The seeds have a warm pungent taste and an aro- matic smell ; they have been much used in medicine, and are now put in pickles to heighten their flavor, especially those of cucumbers. They are carminative, and are much used in making gin. Dill re- sembles fennel, but its odor is less agreeable. It is used to relieve flatulency and griping, and is thus used by physicians. The fruit is given to adults in doses of 10 grains to a drachm. The oil is obtain- ed by distillation with water ; its taste is sweetish, hot and penetrat- ing. Dill-water is carminative, and is given to infants with food. It grows spontaneously for years, after sowing in some corner patch. This seed is meant instead of anise in the N.Testament, (Matt.) COMMON JASMINE, Jasminum ojficinale, C. 2, 0. 1, Jasmineee, sp. 18-40, DC. 1-5 ft. with while flowers, is a native of the East. There are 30 species. It is highly ornamental, summer and winter, trained against a wall. The flowers exhale a sweet and penetrating odor, from which a grateful perfume is made by soaking cotton in a scent- less vegetable oil, and placing this alternately with layers of flowers in glass vessels. In a few days they give all their fragrance to the cotton, which is separated and the oil pressed out into small glass bot- tles. J. sambac is the species of the most exquisite fragrance, formerly so much esteemed in England as to be placed under guard. J. hirsu- tum is a tall tree, the sweet scented flowers opening during the night and fading at sun-rise. All the species thrive in light loam and peat. MISCELLANEOUS EDIBLE PLANTS. Among these are many which we have omitted to notice because they fall under no specific head, or are particularly described in the second volume under the heads of Fruits or Medicinal plants. Of this 220 RHUBARB. number is Rhubarb. The importance of this plant as an esculent, however, may render it necessary to speak of its culinary uses and cul- ture, reserving for the chapter and class of medicinal plants, as we have done with many others, a notice of its properties, particularly of the Rheum palmatum. Very many also of the fruits, which constitute im- portant articles of food, are thus arranged under the general head of Fruit, Pickles, tf-c., which, with the other important divisions in the next volume, it will be necessary for the reader to consult in order to complete his view of the Vegetable Kingdom." RHUBARB, Rheum, C. 9, O. 3. There are several species of this valuable plant in cultivation, which are mostly natives of Asia. For fruit in spring tarts, the petioles of rhubarb are a good substitute ; and they are much cultivated for this purpose. The Monk Rhubarb, R. rhaponticum, is likewise considerably cultivated. The Hybrid Rhu- barb, R. hybridum, is now the variety in general use as a culinary vegetable, and cultivated in our gardens. The leaves are much lon- ger and greener than the other, being often 4 feet in length. One has been known to weish 4 Ibs. ; its circumference was 21 feet 3 inches, and its diameter 3 feet 10 inches ; the length of leaf, with the petiole, 5 feet 2 inches. The stalks are also more succulent than those of the other, and hence more cultivated. The Buck's Rh. and Elford Rh. are, however, thought of finer flavor. The plant requires much room, but it furnishes the material for more tarts than the apple or gooseberry, the branches of which occupy the same space. It comes into use in the garden in the spring, when no fresh fruit is to be had, and is therefore a profitable plant. It has been held in the highest estimation for centuries, both for its medicinal and culinary uses. It makes one of the most cooling, wholesome and delicious tarts served upon the table. For this purpose it is served alone, or cut up with acid fruits with apples before attaining its fla- vor, and with gooseberries after losing it by keeping. As a tart, for puddings, pies, or alone, baked whole in a dish, no plant is more to be recommended for garden cultivation for its useful and wholesome pro- perties. Rhubarb is raised from seed. If these are sown in the spring the plants are planted out in autumn, and are ready for use the next spring ; after which they last for many years. Each plant requires 2 to 3 feet of space. It requires a light, rich loamy soil, not too dry nor too moist, but deep. The seed is sown thinly in beds in April, and covered half an inch. When fairly up, they are thinned to 7 or 8 inches, and hoed till planted out in autumn, in rich manured ground, 4 feet apart ; or in the quincunx order, which is best. The weeds are then kept out, and a dressing of manure put on in spring. The stalks should be taken off at the crown of the roots. When, forced in the open ground, large pots are put over the roots and cov- CABBAGE PALM. 221 ered with fermented manure, and larger ones, or barrels substi- tuted when the plants are too large. They are covered nights, if cold or unfavorable, with mats. Covering the roots 6 inches thick may alone suffice to bring them 2 weeks forward of those in open ground. Plants of ] or 2 years old are used for forcing in pots, which are sup- plied with water and placed in the hot-house, or vinery; and, when the plants have done yielding stalks, they are placed out in rich ground, and taken up again the next year for the same treatment. Hot- beds, frames, or pits, will do well for forcing this plant. The advan- tages of blanching it are the improvement of its flavor and appearance, and the saving of sugar in its preparation. The true Rhubarb is grown principally in China, from whence it is much exported by Jews and Turks, who monopolize most of the trade. The R. palmatum approaches nearest to the China plant, and this is mostly used in medicine. Of this and the medicinal uses of Rhubarb generally, we shall speak at length hereafter. There are 10 varieties in use, but 6 kinds only are generally known, viz. Russian, Dutch- Trimmed, Chinese, Himalayan, French and English. The Turkey Rhubarb is imported from Russia ; not from Turkey, as its name im- plies. It is supplied by merchants from a frontier town of China in exchange for furs, and is collected on the mountains of Tartary. 38,948 Ibs. were imported into G. Britain in 1840. Rhubarb is composed of bitter principle 14-375, yellow coloring mat- ter 9-166, astringent extractive 16-458, mucillage 8-333, extract by pot- ash ley 30-416, woody fibre 15-416, with several acids, salts of lime and potash, with water, gum, &c., the nature and effects of which will be explained in the next volume. CABBAGE PALM, C. 21. O. 7. dreca aleracea is a large tree, 7 feet in circumference, of the West Indies. The stem is hard and is divided into short joints, and runs naked to the top, with a pith in its centre like that of the elder. Its leaflets are 3 feet in length, taper- ing to a point, and decreasing in size as they extend to the ends of the branches, presenting a very beautiful appearance waving in the wind. Its seeds are in small oval nuts hanging from the centre of the branches like a bunch of grapes. At the top of the tree, within the leaves, is con- cealed the cabbage. This is cylindrical, 2 or 3 feet long, and 3 or 4 inches thick. It is composed of compact scales like ribbons, forming a crisp and hard substance. In flavor it resembles the almond, and is yet more tender and delicious. It is commonly eaten like the cauli- flower, cut in pieces, and fried or boiled with meat, or raw with pep- per and vinegar, like cabbage-slaw. To procure this delicacy the whole tree is cut down. A black beetle is found in the cavity from which the cabbage is removed, where it deposits its spawn, forming the grubs called the palm tree.-worms, which are eaten as a great deli- cacy. They are of a yellow color, with a black head, of the size and 19* 222 EDIBLE FUNGI. thickness of the thumb, and very fat ; and though disgusting to the sight, are regularly sold and considered a delicious treat. They are dressed by frying in a pan with salt and butter, or by roasting them on a skewer. They are said to partake of all the spices of India in taste. THE CANE THEE of S. America is a valuable and curious tree, from which the natives of the Cordilleras obtain a supply of rich milk. It grows beside dry rocks and on dry rocky soil. Not a shower during many months of the year, moistens its foliage, and its branches appear withered ; but from its stems, when pierced, flows a sweet and nutri- tious milk, most abundant at early dawn, affording a plentiful aliment to the natives and slaves, who gather around it with wooden dishes to catch the wholesome beverage. An abundant rneal is made at the tree, or the overflowing vessels are taken home to supply the families. EDIBLE FUNGI. All the fungous plants belong to the 24th class of Linnaeus, and con- stitute the cryptogamous plants. Many of these are the most re- markable productions of the vegetable kingdom. Their peculiar or- ganization and functions have given rise to much discussion among physiologists and botanists. By some they are classed with animals, and by others with minerals ; others, again, would exclude them from both these and the vegetable kingdoms, and give them an intermediate place. But they are now generally believed to be vegetable produc- tions ; and although they yield, when analyzed, the odor and ele- ments of animal matter, they have the habits of vegetables. These elements, it might be supposed, from their analogy with those com- posing animals, should be wholesome and nutritive, but they are sin- gularly the reverse from this, and are, withal, the most indigestible of food. All of them, in certain situations, are poisonous, and but few are edible under particular circumstances. A remarkable difference also exists between them and most other poisonous plants, as their poison is not dissipated by boiling or distillation. Another peculiarity of these plants is that they are the common at- tendants of animal and vegetable decomposition, as witnessed in the diseases of grains, &c. Their minute seeds, undetected even by the microscrope, infest the fluids and vessels, and perhaps the solids of animals and plants, and start into activity the moment the vital prin- ciple ceases. These, consequently, abound in low marshy and shady places, where vegetation is most luxuriant, and especially in autumn, when vegetables are in a state of decay, and during rainy weather. But notwithstanding the poisonous character of these plants gener- ally, some are edible, and are even considered by some an article of great luxury. The taste, however, which dictates their consumption MUSHROOMS. 223 as an article of food, we could never reconcile with prudence or good sense, since other substances far more nutritive and wholesome, not to say more palatable to the majority of mankind, are more common. Few indeed are eaten in this country. Those not deemed poisonous grow in the open country, though whenever these are found in or near stagnant water and among decayed plants, they are invariably poison- ous. The edible plants are mushrooms, trufles, the wore/, &c. But many others are also eaten in Russia and some other countries. Some of the poisonous fungi are found to contain the peculiar sub- stances fungin and boletic acid, and some are supposed to contain ptus- sic acid. Some yield spontaneously oxalic acid. It is thought that the nutritive principle resides in the fungin, and that the acid consti- tutes the poison. The former yields by distillation a brown oil, amo- nia, charcoal and water, and when burned it smells like bread. The charcoal contains several earthy salts, and all the species are similarly constituted, showing their analogy, in composition, to animal matter. When in a putrifying state, they also give out, at first, an odor like decaying vegetables, and then like putrid animal matter. The boletic acid tastes like cream of tartar. The manner in which these plants are propagated is not less re- markable than their nature and habits. Their minute germs re- main for a long time in the earth, or in vegetables, and even pass through the digestive organs, and sustain great heat, without in- ]ury, as in the case of paste made with flower; which, when in a pu- trifying state, is seen to be covered with fungi. The fungi themselves, when in a state of decay, are also attacked by other fungi. The mem- branes of the lungs have been found covered with mould or fungous plants. The fungi spring up with great quickness; even in a night. But we have noticed in the 1st part of this work many peculiarities of these plants, as the reader will have perceived. MUSHROOMS, agaricus, C. 24, O. 9, sp. 308-715. These compre- hend many edible fungi cultivated in England, but little regarded in this country. They are members of the most extensive genus in the vegetable kingdom. Much has been said of the mushroom tribe, but as they are little eaten with us, little need be said of them here. Some of the fungi are used in making a well known catsup ; and, stewed with rich gravies, are thus thought delicious. The mushrooms are much cultivated in England and some other parts, and are deemed a luxury. When gathered in the field, great care is to be taken in not collecting poisonous ones. The Field mushroom is the only one much cultivated. The stem of this is short and white, having a prominent ring a little below the cap, covering the gills in early growth. The flesh is white and firm. The gills are at first red, but change when the cap alters its form. The upper surface also changes, which dis- tinguishes it from the toad stool. 224 VARIETIES OF MUSHROOMS. The common mushrooms vary in size and appearance. Some have measured 30 inches in circumference, and weighed over a pound. They are chiefly used to give flavor to ragouts. The button, or fleshy part, only is used, the stem, gill and skin being discarded. Being laid in salt, a juice is obtained which is boiled with spices, and this forms the catsup sauce. Mushrooms usually grow in rich old pastures, and are gathered in Sept. They are sometimes found among potatoes, and in places where they are little expected. It would not seem necessary to sow their seed, as they appear to exist in most places, and to ger- minate whenever circumstances are favorable, and oftentimes in large quantities. But, for a regular supply, they are cultivated in gardens, from the seed or spawn, though the wild ones are considered best. The spawn is a white fibrous substance which exudes, in short threads, from the plant. This is scattered on beds prepared with stable man- ure, and cultivated with care. There are 10 or 12 species considered esculent by botanists. The champignon, agaricus protensis, has a stem like the A. campes- tris and A. auruntiacus, just described ; but it grows on moister soil, and is therefore more suspicious. It resembles also the poisonous toad stool (agaricus virosus) on the upper part. All the mushrooms so nearly resemble each other that persons should be very cautious in eating them. If the smell be nauseous, they should be rejected. A curious species (boletus) is eaten in Italy, which is raised from stone ; one being a lime stone, found in chalk formations, and the other a solid turf from volcanic mountains. These stones are put into a cellar and constantly bathed with water in which the boletus has been washed, when they produce the fungus, which is eaten. One species is produced from bruised fragments of mushrooms ; another from the husks of the bay-tree berries, another from the refuse of olive- oil presses. In France, the boletus edulis is raised by keeping the earth under oak trees moist with the water in which the plant has been boiled. This is said to taste like the cocoa-nut. One of the largest and most beautiful of the agaric tribe is used in the north of Asia to promote intoxication, having the same effects as ardent spirits. It is the favorite drug, moucho-more, used in Russia to intoxicate. The fungi are gathered in hot weather, and dried for this purpose. It is taken rolled up like a bolus and swallowed without chewing. When eaten fresh in soups it is not so intoxicating. One or two small fungi produce pleasant intoxication for a whole day ; and if water be drunk after it, the narcotic effects are increased. The giddiness and drunkenness are like those produced by spirits. At first the recipient is cheerful and very active and talkative, and the effects are often lu- dicrous; so that in jumping over a stone, the person leaps as if to go over a fence. A talkative person withholds no secret, and others sing continually. EDIBLE FUNGI. 225 THE TRUFFLE, tuber cibarium, C. 24. O. 9. T. 1. sp. 26. This is a highly flavored tuberous root growing wild in parts of Europe, and esteemed as a great dainty, sliced and fried in oil, salt and pep- per, or well stewed. It is much sought for, and rooted up by swine, which, with dogs, are trained to hunt for them in England and Italy ; and it is mentioned that a man has possessed the power to scent them. They are very nourishing, and of an agreeable taste and smell, when, ripe ; they are also strongly stimulating, and aphrodisiacal. They are eaten raw or roasted in ashes, or thinly sliced and soaked in wine, and are used like mushrooms in seasoned dishes. The form of the truffle is sperical without roots, of a dark color when old, and studded with tubercles. The interior is firm with capsules, as seen with a microscope, in which are 3 or 4 seeds. It grows in clus- ters a few inches under the ground, which is composed of clay and sand. Truffles are most abundant in Italy, where they often weigh from 8 to 14 pounds. Their place of growth is not known by any ex- ternal appearance of the surface, hence the use of the truffle dog and pig to obtain them. The former is trained by much pains to scent them ; and, on finding them, to bark and scratch the ground. The truffle is considered the best of the edible fungi, but it has not yet been propagated by culture. There are several varieties. THE MORREL, phallus esculentus. This is a fungus of a round and hollow form, and of a yellowish color ; it grows on a white smooth stalk 4 or 5 inches high. It is found in moist woods and pastures, and is in perfection in June. Its substance is friable and wax-like ; and it is used like the truffle, as food. It is said to be found growing most luxuriantly on spots where charcoal has been made. It is cultivated and raised from seed. It is indigenous to G. Britain, parts of the con- tinent, and probably to the U. States. LICHENS, C. 24, O. 8, are of several kinds, growing on rocks, trees, &c., and used as food, variously prepared, by people on the sea coast, and also as medicines, dyes, &c. There are 1200 known species of lichens, but only a few varieties are eaten. The Iceland moss is eaten in gruel and as bread, and is nutritious. It is an article of com- merce, and is used in pharmacy, in pectoral lozenges and syrups. It is found on the mountains of New-Hampshire, and affords a rich pur- ple dye, and stains marble green. Others afford other dyes. Litmus paper is colored by it. FUCUS, C. 24, 0. 7, T. 6, sp. 8-18, a sea weed growing in various places, and consisting of many varieties. It is eaten in Europe pre- pared in various ways. One kind is chewed as tobacco in Scotland. Funguses of different kinds are likewise much eaten cooked, near the sea coast. They are classed under the head fuci, and in different tribes. Some species are much esteemed in India. The swallow's iicst, so celebrated, is a species, it is said, in a state of decomposition. EDIBLE WILD PLANTS. These are all cryptogamous plants, comprehending immense numbers of remarkable kinds, but few are used as food. Medicinally, fucus is deobstruent and efficacious in scrofulous swellings. This and other spe- cies are burnt for their ashes, which are the ke.lp of commerce. CENOMYCE, C. 24, O. 8, T. 2, sp. 20-43, 2 ft. C. rangeferina is the famous lichen which for most of the year supports the vast herds of Rein-deer, in which is all the wealth of the Laplander. It grows in great abundance, most providentially. EDIBLE WILD PLANTS. This is a class of plants much used for food by man where vegeta- tion is either luxurious or very scanty, and generally where man is lit- tle civilized. They have been chiefly cultivated by men more civil- ized, when found to be useful. Among those used in their wild state are the following : WHITE BEET. This is found wild on the salt and marshy shores of Holland and other parts of Europe. It is hard and bitter, and is used as food only in cases of great necessity. COUCH-GRASS, a well known and pestiferous plant with farmers, containing in its roots considerable nutriment. This, in times of scar- city and by travellers, has been resorted to as a source of food, and as a substitute for brerd. During dry seasons in Africa the people ga- ther the seeds of the grasses and make a miserable bread of them ; but they appear like skeletons. One of these grasses is crowded with prickles and is painfully annoying to travellers. THE SEA PEA, growing wild among stones and sands on the coast, has been considerably resorted to as an article of food. During a famine in England, in 1555, thousands of families were saved by this plant, found growing abundantly on the coast, and this seasonable re- lief was ascribed by the superstitious to the interposition of a saint ; but he was not so fortunate as others unhonored with the title might have been ; for more nutritious vegetables could have been found in the woods and by-ways in most parts of that country. The Water Dragon Root affords food for the Laplanders in the form of bread, (missen bread.) The roots are chopped with a spade, then ground, and the meal boiled slowly in water, and stirred till thick. After standing some time its bitterness is expelled, and it is mixed with some other flour, when it makes a sweet and white bread. During scarcity it is fortunate if the peasant can obtain this to avoid a resort to the bark of the fir tree. The Silver Weed is considerably resorted to in parts of Scotland to make bread of during scarcity. Some have subsisted on the roots for months. They are roasted or boiled, and have a flavor like the parsnip. The Wild Carrot and Parsnip are also articles of food when othei kinds are not to be obtained ; and so also are other roots of the same EDIBLE WILD PLANTS. 227 family. The Wild Salsify has been considerably used, but this, with the preceding, is greatly inferior to the cultivated kinds. WILD CABBAGE, brassicacam pestris is found in most countries on the sea-coast. The leaves are used in spring, and are thought by some quite equal to the cultivated kind. The leaves have a saline and bitter taste, which is removed on boiling them in two waters. As the plants mature, however, they become unfit for use, from the ac- cumulation of alkaline matter. There are also many of the spinacious plants, of which we have spoken, that are gathered in their wild state for food. The sond is collected in large quantities for winter's use by the Laplanders. The leaves being boiled in water and stirred, are reduced to a pulp. This is then mixed with milk and put up in barrels or close vessels, and buried in holes in the ground, lined with bricks or birch bark. It has a very agreeable acid flavor. The people also avail themselves of many other plants rejected by us as poisonous, or unfit for use. The yellow wolf's bane is thus collected in large quantities and boiled and eaten. The poisonous qualities of this are evidently dissipated by heat, as probably almost all of those may be which we hold as poi- sonous. Sea Kale, as we have before said, is much eaten as found growing wild on the coast of the north of Europe. The people of the west of England eat large quantities of it, being, when boiled, a very delicate plant. The great cat's tail, growing in marshy places in this country, and most other countries, is considerably eaten by the people of parts of Europe, though rarely, if ever, here. In some parts of Turkey they are sold in shops and about the streets. The outer skin is peeled ofl near the roots, and the tender white stem for 18 inches is crisp, cooling, and a very pleasant food. It has been eaten by travellers with a good relish. It is particularly esteemed by the Cossacks. Wild Cdlery or Smallage, found on ditches near the sea, and also the wild lettuce, from which our cultivated kinds have sprung, are also eaten ; likewise Alisander and Rampion, as salads. The Cow-thistle, growing on edges of mountains, is much eaten by the Laplanders. The milky stem is peeled and eaten raw ; but, though very bitter, yet when boiled it loses much of that taste. The Water Cress, also a wild plant, is a great delicacy, as we have before described, together with Samphire, &c. Many other wild plants are doubtless wholesome and capable of af- fording much nutriment, did necessity compel people to resort to them ; but in this country, where the most nutritive vegetables are so abun- dant, no such necessity has yet existed, and we earnestly hope it may never occur with us. Still a notice of those wild plants which flourish when cultivated ones perish, may not be without its advantages. RETURN TO: LOAN PERIOD 1 Home Use 2 3 4 5 6 ALL BOOKS MAY BE RECALLED AFTER 7 DAYS. DUE AS STAMPED BELOW. SENT QK iLL OCT 1 23 ILC-BEFl;^. - ILS: DD99 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, BERKELEY 2M 3-02 Berkeley, California 94720-600' ,