:^-

y '*■■■"

A«

■:N^

.^ V'."**'

»<

5~' T;■^i V ■

l.V.>,

L\^

Pj^g

_»n|M

RARV

EUSiT^ OF

f4 DIEGO

■0

presented to the
UNIVERSITY LIBRARY
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA
SAN DIEGO

Dr. & Mrs. Homer Halvorson

ORN

B^r~.

IO%H''

ROME AND THE CAMPAGNA.

V ^»^

>MK^'

••W

V k

<" .-•

«i

'\0V a

i-'-

•

<»

" Urbem fecisti quod priiisorbis erat."

Kuril.. l\ Kfd. 66.

ROME AND THE CAMPAGNA

A.V HISTORICAL AND TOPOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION

SITE, BUILDINGS, AND NEIGHBOURHOOD

ANCIENT ROME.

WITH S5 ILLUSTRATIOXS BY yEWITT, A.VD 25 MAPS AXD PLAXS.

ROBERT BURN, M.A.

FELLOW AND TITOR OF TRINITY COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE.

^^.

TEMPLE OF JLPITER CXPITOLINLTS.

•t (Ciimbribgc :

DEIGHTON, BELL. AND CO.

!^oni)on :
BELL AND UALDY.

1871.

LONDON :

R. CLAY, SONS, AND TAYLOR, PRINTERS,

BREAD STREET HILL.

h ■ ' ' , ^

PREFACE.

My purpose in compiling this book has been to present to the student of
ancient Roman history and literature a complete analysis of the latest results of
archsological and topographical investigations in Rome and its neighbourhood.
The idea of such a work first occurred to me some years ago during a winter
vacation visit to Rome, and I have since made several journeys to Italy
with the express object of correcting and enlarging the information acquired
by study. Unfortunately for such researches, travelling in the less frequented
parts of the neighbourhood of Rome has been attended with some difficulties
of late years. Partly for this reason, and partly from the delayed publication
of Cavaliere Rosa's long-looked-for map of the Campagna, I have been com-
pelled to limit that section of my work which relates to the Campagna, and
to follow a much less extensive plan in it than I had originally intended.

The importance of archceological and topographical research, especially in
the investigation of the early history of Rome, continually increases with the
progress of criticism, and, the more mistrustful modern science renders us
with regard to the primitive traditions recited by Roman historians, the more
indispensable becomes the appeal to actually existing monuments and sites.
How plentiful a harvest remains to be gathered in this field has been sufficiently
proved by the new excavations on the Palatine Hill, and by the discoveries at
the Marmorata, at Ostia, and at the Grove of the Dea Dia. If it should ever
become possible to disinter the ruins of the north-east side of the Forum
Romanum, or to carry out further explorations on the Capitoline Hill, or on the
sites of the ancient Servian walls and gates, the gain to Roman history and
antiquarian knowledge will be great in many ways, and many most interesting
questions will obtain a solution.

I have endeavoured, by means of an index of passages quoted from

classical writers, to make this volume useful to the student of classical literature,

viii Preface.

For the construction of this index and of the general index I am indebted to the
kindness of the Rev. W. J. Edlin, of Trinity College, without whose assistance
that portion of the work could not have been completed. I must also express
my obligations to Cavaliere Rosa, director of the French excavations at Rome,
who with the greatest kindness explained his views to me on several occasions ;
to Mr. Lucas Ewbank, Fellow of Clare College, for revising the chapter on the
geology of Rome ; to Mr. J. H. Parker, and to other friends both at Cambridge
and at Rome, for valuable assistance and information.

I have endeavoured to acknowledge my obligations to former writers full)' in
the notes, and I have in all cases cited the ancient authorities quoted in the text.
A list of the most prominent of the modern books used will be found below.

In treating of the topography of Rome I have been largely indebted to
Becker's admirable work in the first volume of his " Handbuch der Romischen
Alterthiimer ;" to Xibby's "Roma nell' Anno 1838;" to Professor Reber's
" Ruinen Roms ; " and to Dr. Dyer's work on the "History of the Cit)- of
Rome."

In the description of the Campagna I have generally followed Nibby's
"Analisi Storico-Topografico-Antiquaria della Carta de' Dintorni di Roma;"
Bormann's " Altlatinische Chorographie und Stadtegeschichte ;" and the articles
in the Annali and Bullet tini dell' Institiito di Corrispondenza Archaologica
by Canina, Henzen, and others.

The o-eneral map of Rome is framed upon the model of Becker's and
Du Rieu's maps, giving the position of the modern as well as the ancient
city. In the construction of the smaller maps and plans I have consulted
Canina's and Nolli's maps ; and have also derived much help from the plans
in Hirt, Bunsen, and Reber.

The woodcuts are taken from photographs by Mr. Anderson and Mr.

Macpherson, of Rome, and have been admirably executed by the late Orlando

Jewitt (who died before the completion of the work), and his successors,
^lessrs. Jewitt and Co.

Trinity Collec-.e, Cambridgk.
■jth September, 1870.

CONTENTS.

Lisr OF THE Principal Books on Roman Topography, Archeology, and History quoted in
THE Notes P^gt- xvii

INTRODUCTION.

ON ROMANO-GREEK ARCHITECTURE.

Horizontal or rectangular masonry' — Polygonal masonrj' — Ancient gateways^Appearance of the Romulean
city— Introduction of the arch — Cloacae — Canal at the mouth of the Marta— Tuscan temples — Direct
influence of Greek architecture: (i) Modifications traceable to ancient Italian custom and tradition :
Tusco-Doric ; i'2) Modifications traceable to the want of esthetic culture among the Romans ; Romano-
Ionic order; Romano-Corinthian order; (3) Modifications traceable to the \iilgar love of overladen
ornamentation ; the composite capital ; unmeaning juxtaposition of details ; costly stonework ; porti-
coes, palaces, and house decorations ; triumphal arches and gateways ; columns ; tombs ; rock tombs :
colonnades ; obelisks ; (4) Modifications traceable to the want of space at Rome ; the arch ; bricks ;
Roman brick walls ; vaulted arches of brick. BasiUca; ; libraries ; roads ; causeways and tunnels :
bridges ; cloaca; ; harbours ; aqueducts ; ornamental fountains ; castra ; horrea ; pistrina ; therma: :
balnea ; amphitheatres ; naumachi:c ; circi ; theatres ; domestic architecture ; interior of the house ;
exterior of the house ; materials ; vestibule ; windows ; roofs— General appearance of Roman streets-
Roman architects— Vitruvius— The Romans engineers rather than architects -Their buildings illus-
trative of their character "<'g^ '"■'^^

CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF THE PRINCIPAL BUILDINGS IN RoME AND THE CaMP.\GNA . . Page Ixxx

CHAPTER I.

\ T H E S I T E O F R O M E.

Disadvantages of the site of Rome— General description of the Campagna— Course of the river through
Rome— The hills of Rome— General view of Rome— The valleys of Rome— The situation of Rome
not adapted for the metropolis of a large empire, whether commercially, or in respect of climate,
but favourable to a limited trading community combined with a large agricultural class— Beauty
of the views from Rome— The general form of the ground remains the same as in the earUest
times P^Se I

CHAPTER II.

THE GEOLOGY AND CLIM.\TE OF RO.ME.

The tertiary marine formations— The volcanic formations— Hard tufa— Granular tufa— Ancient volcanoes
of Lalium— The fresh-water formations— Changes in the Tiber water— Ancient level of the Tiber-
Primaeval condition of the country— Unhealthiness of the Campagna— Causes of the increase of the
malaria in modern times— Numerous ancient population of the Campagna— The Romansof the Empire
thought the Campagna unhealthy— Climate was once somewhat colder- Drainage in ancient times—
The ancient Roman dress more healthy than the present— Woollen toga given up ... . Page 14

X Contents.

CHAPTER III.

ROME BEFORE THE TIME OF SERVIUS TULLIUS.

Legends of the foundation, arising from a desire to exaggerate the antiquity of the city, or from a Hellenizing
spirit, or from religious feelings— Combination of the national and Hellenic legends— The modem
theory of the origin of Rome— The Palatine settlement— Reasons for choosing the Palatine Hill-
Etruscan ceremony of foundation— Pomcerium of Romulus— Ara Maxima— Ara Consi— Curiae Veteres
— Sacellum Larunds— Cavaliere Rosa's views— Roma Ouadrata— iMugionian gate and Temple of
Jupiter Stator-Porta Romanula— Germalus-Clivus Victoria:— Porta Janualis— Porta Pandana—
Successive enlargements— The Septimontium— So-called seven hills of Rome— October horse—
Settlement on Ouirinal and Viminal— The Collini— The Servian regions-The Argean chapels.

Page 28

CHAPTER IV.

THE SERVIAN WALLS.

Fortifications of Rome begun by Tarquinius Priscus— Completed by Servius- Method by which the Ser\-ian
walls may be traced— Portions of the Servian wall on the Aventine— Gates in the Servian wall— Porta
Flumentana— Porta Carmentalis— Porta Triumphalis— Porta Ratumena— Porta Fontinalis- Ruins of
the wall in the Villa Massimi, and the Convent of S. Maria della Vittoria— Porta Sanqualis— Porta
Salutaris— Porta CoUina. or Agonalis, or Ouirinalis— Agger of Servius— Porta Viminalis— Porta Quer-
quetulana— Porta Ccelimontana— Porta Capena— Temples of Honour and Virtue, and of Mars— Porta
N"a5via— Porta Rauduscula— Porta Lavernalis— Porta Minucia— Porta Trigemina— Porta Navalis— Porta
Stercoraria— Porta Libitinensis— Porta Fenestella— Porta Ferentina— Porta Piacularis— Porta Catularia
—Porta Metia— Fortifications of the western bank of the Tiber Page 42

CHAPTER V.

THE WALLS OF AURELL4N AND HONORIUS,

Loncj mierval during which no new fortifications were made at Rome— Extent of Rome— Reasons for neglect
°of walls— The Aurelian walls built for fear of the barbarians of the North— Rebuilt by Honorius—
Gates in the Aurelian walls— The course of the Aurelian walls— Porta Aurelia Nova — Porta Flaminia—
Muro Torto — Porta Pinciana — Porta Salaria — Porta Nomentana — Castra Prstoriana— Porta Chiusa—
Porta Tiburtina corresponds to Porta S. Lorenzo— Porta Prsnestina to Porta Maggiore — Vivarium —
Amphitheatrum Castrense— Porta Asinaria— Porta Metrovia— Porta Latina — Porta Appia — Porta
Ostiensis— Course of Aurelian walls in the Trastevere— Porta Portuensis— Porta Aurelia Vetus— Porta
Septimiana— Note on the Porta Viminalis and Via Tiburtina Page 53

CHAPTER VI.

PART I.
THE FORUM ROMANUM BEFORE JULIUS C.tSAR.

Site of Forum Romanum— Extent of Forum Romanum — ^Districts adjoining the Forum Romanum. Sacra
Via, Nova Via, Argiletum, Subura — Turris Mamilia — Lautumiic — Career — Scalse Gemonis- Comitium
—Curia— Grascostasis— Senaculum—Vulcanal— Rostra— Tribunalia- Putealia— Templum Jani — Basi-
lica Porcia — Basilica Fulvia et .Emilia — Basilica PauUi— Basilica Opimia — Venus Cloacina — Columna
Mcenia— Columna Duilia — Novae Taberna— Veteres Taberns — Mseniana — Templum Concordiie —
Templum Batumi — Schola Xantha — Dii Consentes — Porta Stercoraria — Tabularium — Vicus Jugarius—
Vicus Tuscus — Basilica Sempronia— Lacus Servilius — Lacus Curtius— Templum Castoris — .■Cdes Vestje
— Regia — Sacrarium — Arch of Fabius — Pila Horatia — Statues — Jani — Cnnalis — Solaria . . Page "ji^

Conicnts. xi

CHAPTER VI.
» PART I/.

THE FORUM ROMANUM AFTER THE TIME OF JULIUS C/ESAR.

Templum Felicitatis — Curia Julia — Chalcidicum — Secretarium Senatus — Rostra Nova, or Julia — Heroon of

Julius Cajsar — Basilica Paulli — Temple of Antoninus and Faustina — Basilica Julia — Three pedestals

Arch of Tiberius — Column of Phocas — Temple of Minerva — Temple of Vespasian — Arch of Severus

Graecostadium — Milliarium Aureum — Rostra of the later Empire — Chapel of Faustina — Arch of
Augustus — Equestrian statue of Domitian Pagt: 107

CHAPTER VII.

THE FORA OF THE EMPERORS.

Increase of public business at Rome required larger public buildings — Characteristics of Imperial Fora —
Site of the Forum of Julius Cresar — Temple of Venus Genetrix — Forum of Augustus and Temple of
Mars Ultor — Exterior waU — Arco dei Pantani — Statues in the Forum Augusti — Forum of Ner\'a —
Colonnacce — Temple of Miner\-a^Templc of Janus— Histor)- of Temple of Minerva — Forum of Vespa-
sian — Templum Pacis — Contained a large collection of works of art — Library — Fire in the time of
Commodus— Forum of Trajan — Forum Proper — Triumphal arch — Basilica Ulpia — Greek and Latin
Ubraries — Column of Trajan — Description of the bas-reliefs — Temple of Trajan — Later history of
the Forum Trajanum — Remains found on the site— Inscriptions ^''^f 127

CHAPTER VIII.

FART I.
THE PALATINE, GERMALUS, AND VELIA.

Natural features of the hill — Name Palatium — Germalus — Lupercal — Casa Romuli— Ficus Ruminalis —
Scalse Caci — Cornus Sacra — Ruins at the north-west corner — Temple of Magna Mater — Temple o£
Juno Sospita — Auguratorium — Domus Tiberiana — Domus Caligute — Temple of Augustus — Gateway at
north-east comer — Temple of Victory — Houses of wealthy Romans — Cicero's house — House of Catulus
— House of Clodius — Splendour of Palatine houses— Porta Mugionis — Temple of Jupiter Stator —
Palace of Tarquinius and Ancus — Saceilum Larum — Velia — yEdes Penatium — Houses of Tullus and
Publicola — Marble plan of the c\Xy — Neronian fire — Domus Aurea — Colossus of Xero — Temple of
Peace — Basilica of Constantine — Arch of Titus — Temple of Venus and Rome — Meta Sudans — Arch of
Constantine — Substructions on the south-east side of the hill — Palace of Augustus — Temple of Vesta —
Temple of Apollo— Library — Roma Quadrata in Area Apollinis — j-Edes Publicae — Atrium — Lararium—
Basilica — Peristylium — Triclinium — Nymphaeum — Portico — Library — Academia — Temple of Jupiter
Victor — Palace of the Csesars — Terrace — Aqueduct — Stadium— Septizonium — Temple of Heliogabalus
— Alexander Severus — Baths of Maxentius — Temple of Victoria — Fortuna Respiciens — Curia Saliorum
— Ara Febris — Saceilum Des Viriplaca? — Domus Flaminis Dialis — Temple of Bacchus — ' Xrppoblciov —
Temple of Jupiter Propugnator — Domus Germanici — Domus Gelotiana P'^i^i: '54

CHAPTER VIII.

PART I/.
THE CAPITOLINE HILL.

Natural features — Subterranean chambers — Weils — Favisse — History of settlements —Names of the hill —
Situation of the Temple of Jupiter — Bridge of Caligula — Statue of Jupiter — Number of sanctuaries on the
Capitol — Curia Calabra — Rostra — Temple of Jupiter Custos —Attacks upon and captures of the Capitol
— Story of Herdonius — Stor\- of Cominius and the Gauls— The Vitellians — Substructions of the Temple
— .Modem excavations — Argument from received ideas — History and architecture of Temple of Jupiter

xii Contoits.

—Foundations — Cnpitoline era— Cellae of temple — Arrangement of columns— Restorations by Sylla,
Vespasian, and Uomitian — Later history — Legend of bells — Corsi palace and castle — S. Salvatore in
Maximis— Jupiter Feretrius— Jupiter Tonans — Mars Ultor — Temples of Fides, Mens, Venus Erycina,
Capitolina, Victrix, and Ops— Chapels of Jupiter — Temple of Honour and Virtue — Fojrtuna Primigcnia
— Beneficium— Statues, &c. — Temple of Juno Moneta — Chapel of Concord— Verbena— Nonalia —
Auguraculum — Terminus of Sacra Via — Asylum — Temple of Vejupiter — Tarpeian rock— Clivus Capi-
tolinus— Clivus Argentarius — Tomb of Bibulus— Arcus Manus CarneEe — Via Publica — i^iquimajlium —
Elephantus Herbarius — Porticus Crinorum — Centum Gradus— Trophies of ]\Lirius . . . Page 183

CHAPTER IX.

PART I.
THE AVENTINE AND C.^LIAN HILLS.

Aventine : Natural features — Extent — Seat of the Montani — Scat of the Plebs — Altars of Evander, Jupiter
Inventor, Jupiter Elicius, and Consus — Cave of Cacus — Remuria, Lauretum, Armilustrium — Temple
of Diana— Temple of Juno Regina— Clivus Publicius — Temple of Minerva— Temples of Libertas,
Bona Dea Subsaxana, Vortumnus, and Luna — Thermse Suranse, Decianaj, and Variante — Magazines —
Porticus /Emilia, Tuccia, and Junia— Horrea Galbes et Aniciana — Emporium — Monte Testaccio —
Pyramid of Cestius — Therm;c Antoniniana.

Calian : Natural features — Name Cffilius — Tomb of Scipios — Columbaria — Arch of Drusus — \'a!ley of
Egeria — Aqua Mcrcurii— Fossa Ouiritium — Sessorium— Amphithcatrum Castrense — Neronian Aqueduct
— Lateran Palace — Campus Martialis — S. Stefano Rotondo — Macellum Magnum — Temple of Claudius—
/Edes Vectilianffi— Arch of Dolabella and Clivus Scauri — Dea Carna — Minerva Capta — Isium Metel-
linum— Castra Peregrina — Caput Africa; — Mica Aurea— Jupiter Redux — Navicella — Houses of Centu-
malus, Mamurra, \'crus, and Tetricus Page 202

CHAPTER IX.

PART II.
THE ESyUILINE HILL AND COLISEUM.

Campus Esquihnus : Place of burial and execution — Sessorium — Amphithcatrum Castrense — Gar3ens of
Maecenas — Horti Lamiani et Pallantiani — Houses of Virgil, Propertius, Pliny, and Pedo — Palace of
Gordian — Trophies of Marius — Nymphseum of Alexander Se\-erus — Arch of Gallienus — Columbaria-
Miner\-a Medica or Galuzze — Hercules Syllanus — Forum Esquilinum — Macellum Livianum.

Oppius : Carina; — Domus Pompeiana, Domus O. Ciceronis — Tigillum Sororium — Sacellum Streniae — Temple
of Tellus— Vicus Cyprius et Sceleratus — Clivus L'rbius, Africus, et Pullius — Fortuna Seia — Vicus San-
daliarius — Domus Aurca Neronis — Sette Sale — Therma; Titi et Trajani. Coliseum: Site, architect, date
— History — Antoninus Pius — Commodus — Macrinus — Heliogabalus — Alex. Severus — Lampridius—
Basilius— Fiangipani — Henry W\. — Bull-fight in 1332 — Hospital in 1415 — Stones used for palaces —
Passionspielen — Saltpetre stores — Benedict XIV. — Description and plan of Coliseum.

Cispius : Vicus Patricius — House of Cassonius — ^Edes Mefitis — Temple of Diana — Juno Lucina — Lucus
Pcetelius, Mefitis, Fagulalis, Larum, Libitinje — Ouerquetulanum Sacellum — Ara Mala; Fortuna; — Ara
Febris — Castra Misenatium — Curia Nova Page 225

CHAPTER X.

THE VI.MINAL, QUIRINAL, AND PINCIAN HILLS.

General features and geology- -Colles — Sabine settlements — History of addition to city — Collini — Septi-

montium.
Viminalis : Derivation of name — Patrician residents — Size of hill and height — Modern streets — House of

C. Aquilius — Lavacrum Agrippinse — Therma; Olympiadis — Therma; Novati.
Quirinalis : Peculiar shape — One of the oldest parts of Rome — Name Agonus or Agonalis — Niebuhr's Oui-

rium — Numa's house — Fortifications of Tarquinii and Servius — Gates — Houses of Martial and Atticus

Contents. ,^jjj

— Literar>' quarter of Rome— Temple of Ouirinus— Sacellum Quirini — Cli\-us Mamurri— Temple of
Semo Sancus, or Dius Fidius— Temple of Flora— Ficeliae— Ad Pyrum — Capitolium Vetus, or Temple

of Jupiter, Juno, and Miner\^a— Temples of Salus, Serapis, and Fortuna Publica and Primio-enia

Sacellum Pudicitis— Vicus Longus— Templum Febris— Campus Sceleratus— Temple of A'enus Erj-cina
— Horti Sallustiani — Malum Punicum — Heroum of Flavian Gens — Templum Solis — Thermal Constan-
tini — Therma Diocletiani — Senaculum Alulierum.

Pincius : Extent, shape, and name — Horti LucuUiani — Sepulchrum Domitianum— Horti Pompeiani Muro

Torto — Therms Neronis Page ia.-

CHAPTER XI.

THE JANICULU.M AXD THE VATICAN' HILL.

Janiculum : When added to city — Name — Walls — Natural features, height— Geology — Histor)' — Inhabitants
— Lucus Furinas — Bridges across the Tiber : Sublician, bridge of Probus, Pons /Emilias — Insula
Tiberina — Temples of /Esculapius, Faunus, Jupiter, Semo Sancus, or Dius Fidius — Statue of Julius
Csesar — Pontes : Fabricius, Cestius or Gratiani, Aurelius, Janicularis, Antoninianus, Neronianus
or Valicanus, ^Elius, Triumphalis — Ara Fontis — Temple of Fors Fortuna— Prata Mucia— Codeta —
Horti Caesaris — Nemus Caesarum.

Vatican : Name — History— Natural features — Civitas Leonina — Prata Ouinctia — Horti Agrippinae — Horti
Domitiffi or Neronis— Obelisk — Circus Caii et Neronis— Sepulchrum Romuli— Temple of Apollo or
Mithras — Circus of Hadrian — Mausoleum of Hadrian Page 261

CHAPTER XII.

THE VELABRUM, VICUS TUSCUS, FORUM BOARIUM, AND CIRCUS MAXIMUS.

General history', natural features, and boundaries of the districts — X'icus Tuscus — Vicus Jugarius — /Equi-
mai'lium — Altars of Juno Juga, Ceres, and Ops Augusta — Lacus Servilius — Via Nova — Altar of Aius
Loquens — Chapel of \'olupia — Tomb of Acca Larentia — S. Teodoro — Temples of Augustus and
Romulus — Limits of Vicus Tuscus and Velabrum — Limits of Velabrum and Forum Boarium — Forum
Boarium — Cloaca Maxima — Cloacas of the Forum, of the Aventine, of the Campus Martius — Arcus
Argentariorum — Janus Quadrifrons— Doliola — Temples of Fortune, Mater Matuta, Pudicitia Patricia.
Hercules (Vesta) — Circus Maximus, or Murcian Valley — S. Maria in Cosmedin — Temple of Ceres
Liber, and Libera — Courtyard of Carceres — Ara Consi — Ara Maxima and Temple of Hercules Victor —
Temples of Sun, Moon, Mercury, Magna Mater, Jupiter, Venus, Flora, Summanus, and Juventus.

Page 276

CHAPTER XIII.

PART I.
THE CIRCUS F L A M I N I U S.

Site of modem city — Causes of change of site to the Campus Martius — Historv- of Campus Martius — Palus
Caprea — Stagna Terenti — Ager Tarquinius — Buildings of Campus Martius — Divisions of Campus
Martius : Circus Flaminius, Campus Martius, Via Lata— Limits of the three divisions — Circus Flaminius
— Theatre of Marcellus — Temple of Pietas, Spes, Juno Sospita — Forum Olitorium — Temple of Janus
— S. Nicola in Carcere— Porticoes of Octavia and Octavius— Temples of Juno and Jupiter Stator —
Porticus Metelli — Bibliotheca, Curia, and Schola Octavise — .^des Hercu'is Musarum — Porticus Philippi
— Theatre of Balbus — Crj-pta Balbi — Circus Flaminius — Campus Flaminius — Prata Flaminia —
Temples of Delphic Apollo, BcUona, Hercules Custos, Bonus Eventus, Fortuna Equcstris, Mars, Diana,
Juno Regina, Neptunus, Dioscuri, Vulcanus — Porticus Minucia et Frumentaria — Theatre, Porticus, and
Curia of Pompeius — Domus Hecatostylon — Temple of Venus Victrix Page 299

xiv Contents.

CHAPTER XIII.

PART II.
THE CAMPUS MARTIUS AND THE VIA LATA.

Cnmpus Martius Proper: The Septa— Arch of Claudius — Villa Pblica— Temples of Isis and Serapis—
Temple of Minerva Chalcidica— Thermae Agrippa;— The Pantheon— Campus Agrippa;— Porticus Pote
— Porticus Europa; — Porticus Vipsania — Diribitorium — Posidonium, or Porticus Neptuni — Basilica
Neptuni — Ruin in the Piazza di Pietra— Temples of Marciana and Hadrian— Porticus Meleagri —
Basilica Matidite — Basilica Marcianas- Gnomon obelisk — Pillar of Antoninus Pius — Temple and
pillar of I\I. Aurelius — Arch of M. Aurelius— Stadium Alexandrinum (Piazza Navona)— Odeum —
Therms Neroniana; — Thermse Alexandrinas- Arch of Tiberius— Stabula Factionum — Temples of
Lwes Permarini and Juturna— Via Tecta— Porticus Flaminia— Altars of Fortuna Redux and Pax
— Amphitheatre of Statilius — Pradia y^miliana— Mausoleum of Augustus — Ustrina Casarum. Via
Lata: name of Via Lata — Altar of Mars— Arches of Aqua Virgo — Tomb of Bibulus— Temple of Sol.

Page 322
CHAPTER XIV.

THE ROMAN CAIIPAGNA.

Boundaries of Latium antiquissimum.— Part I. Physical geography : Geological formations — Tufaceous
beds — Tertiary marine strata— Apennine limestone— Hills of the Campagna — Volcanic craters —
Peperino — Basaltic lava — Monti di Decima— Silva Ostiensis — Hills on left bank of Anio : Mons
Sacer ; Montes Crustumerini et Corniculani — Lakes and brooks : Rio di Turno, Rio Torto (Numicius),
Fountain and brook of Anna Perenna — Lagunes and marshes: Stagno di Ostia, Satinre— Lago di
Nemi— Lago D'Albano or di Castello ; its Emissarium — Rio di Malafede — Aqua Ferentina— Aqua
Crabra — Petronia— Almo—Allia— Anio— Aquae Albute— Tutia— Rivus Ulmanus— Lake Regillus.
Part II. Period of cities :—(l) Laurens Tractus and Campus Solonius : Laurentum ; Lauro-Lavinium ;
Troja Nova ; Lavinium ; Aphrodisium ; Ficana ; Politorium ; Tellena ; Apiote ; Bovilte ; Ardea ;
Castrum Inui ; Ostia; Portus Trajani — (2) Alban and Tusculan hills: Lanuvium ; Aricia ; Nemi,
Dianium ; Alba Longa, Mons Albanus ; Fabia ; Castrimonium, Aqua Ferentina ; Tusculum (Citadel,
City, Theatre, Gate and walls, Piscina, Amphitheatre) ; Corbio— (3) Przeneste and left bank of
Anio : Labicum ; Gabii ; Prseneste (Citadel, Temple of Fortune) ; Vitellia ; Tolerium ; Pedum ; Bola ;
Scaptia ; Ortona ; Querquetula ; CoUatia ; Casnina ; Antemnse — (4) Cities on the right bank of the
Anio : Fidenae ; Crustumerium ; Nomentum ; Ficulea ; Comiculum ; Cameria ; Ameriola ; MeduUia
— (5) Tibur and its neighbourhood : Tibur ; Empulum ; Sassula ; Sisolenses ; /Efula.
Part III. Period of latifundia, villas, roads, and aqueducts — Cities on the Etruscan and Sabine frontiers
and Alban cities first destroyed — The Latin League : — (.A.) Latifundia; Gradual monopoly of landed
property — (B.) Villas : (i) Tusculan Villas— Cicero's Tusculanum; Villa of Gabinius, of Lucullus, of Cato
Junior ; (2) Alban Villas — Villa of Clodius, of Pompey ; Albanum Caesarum ; (3) Laurentine villas —
Pliny's Laurentinum ; Villa of Commodus at Torre Paterno ; Villa of Hortensius ; (4) Suburban villas
near Rome— SuburbanumCommodi ; .Suburbanum Hadriani ; Suburbanum Gordianorum; Suburbanum
Liviic ; Suburbanum Phaontis ; (5) Tiburtine villas — Tiburtinum Hadriani (Grand entrance, Patestra,
Pcecile, Barracks, Librarj', Imperial palace, Stadium, Therma, Canopus, Academia, Inferi, Lyceum,
Prytaneum) ; Tibertinum Zenobiic ; Tibertinum Cassii ; Tibertinum Sallustii ; Sabinum Horatii —
(C.) Roads: Appian road— Deus Rediculus ; Grotto of Egeria ; Temple of Bacchus or Honos ; Circus
of Maxentius and Temple of Romulus ; Tomb of Camellia Metella ; Roma Vecchia ; Villa of Seneca ;
Tomb of Atticus ; Ustrina ; Tomb of Gens Aurelia ; Temples of Hercules and Sj-lvanus ; Villa of
Persius ; Tomb of Gallienus ; Bovillas : Latin road — Tombs; Torre Fiscale ; Temple of Fortuna
Muliebris : Via Praenestina and Via Labicana — Torre Pignattara — Via Valeria— Ponte Lucano ; Tomb
of Plautii : Via Nomentana: Via Salara : Via Flaminia and Via Cassia : Via Aurelia, Via Triumphalis :
Via Ostiensis and Via Laurentina : Via Tusculana, Via CoUatina, Via Ardeatina, and Via Amerina —
(D.) Aqueducts.
Part IV. : Period of depopulation and devastation— Destruction of Hadrian's Tiburtinum— Barbarian
invasions.

Note on the name Campagna, or Campania Pa<'e 347

General Index p^ge 447

Index of the Quotations from Ancient Authors Paoe 476

Corrigenda ET Addenda ra<'e 4S4

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

PAGE

Statue of the Emperor Augustus found in the ruins of the Villa of Livia at Prima Porta . Frontispiece.

Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus Title-page.

Temple of Saturn xxxi

Arch of Titus xl

Tuscan, Tusco-Doric, Romano-Ionic, Romano-Corinthian, and Composite )

. , ,. \ XXVl, XXVUl, XXXll, XXXIV, XXXV

orders of architecture S

Ground-plan of pseudoperipteral temple xxx

Ground-plan of Roman basilica xlix

Via Appia liv

Arco dei Pantani Ixxviii

\'alley of the Tiber where the Flaminian road crosses it at the forty-second milestone from Rome . . 2

Ruined Arch of the Marcian Aqueduct, with the Sabine hills near Tibur in the distance 11

Alban Hills from S. Pietro in Montorio ig

The luined Arches of the Claudian Aqueduct, with Frnscati Tusculum} and the Alban Mount ... 24

The Palatine Hill /western side), with the Villa Mills on the summit, as seen from the Capitoline . . 30

Southern end of Palatine and Arch of Constantine 35

Seri ian Wall on the Aventine 50

Porta Salaria 60

Porta Chiusa 61

Porta S. Lorenzo 63

Porta Maggiore, Tomb of Eurysaces, and the Specus of the .Aqua Claudia and of the Anio Xovus . . 65

Ancient Porta Asinaria and modern Porta S. Giovanni 66

Porta S. Sebastiano 67

Porta Latina 68

Site of the Forum Romanum, from the slope of the Capitoline Mill 76

Temple of Saturn and Temple of Vespasian 03

Column of Phocas and Temple of .Saturn 00

Temple of Castor loi

The Forum Romanum, looking towards the Capitoline Hill log

Temple of Antoninus and Faustina ii-j

Site of Basilica Julia nr

Fragments of the Capitoline Plan 116

Temple of Vespasian iig

Arch of Septimius Severus (north side) 121

Temple of Mars Ultor and Arco dei Pantani 132

Portion of the Peribolus of Nerva's Forum : Colonnacce 136

Forum of Nerva, as it appeared in the sixteenth century 138

Shops in Trajan's Forum 142

Trajan's Column, with the bases of the Columns of the Basilica Ulpia, and the Church of Xome di Maria 145

Base of Trajan's Column 14-

Basilica of Constantine 166

Arch of Titus (Triumphal Car and Procession) 168

Ruins of the Temple of Venus and Roma, and Meta Sudans 170

Arch of Constantine, south side 172

Palace of the Caesars, with the Baths of Caracalla in the background 1 79

Capitoline Hill from the Marmorata, looking northwards up the stream • 184

The Tiber and the Marmorata, with the Capitoline Hill in the distance, and the Aventine on the right . 208

Pyramid of Cestius and Porta S. Paolo 210

Baths of Caracalla 312

Arch of Drusus 217

C 2

xvi List of IUnstratio7is.

PAGE

Arch of Dolabella ^22

The Cohseum, from the Palatine Hill 237

The Ouirinal Hill as seen from the Palatine 247

Frontespizio di Nerone 254

Fragments in the Colonna Gardens 256

Muro Torto 260

Ponte Rotto 264

Insula Tiberina 265

Cone from the top of Hadrian's Mausoleum 273

The Cloaca Maxima 280

Mouth of the Cloaca ^Maxima and Temple of Hercules (V'esta) 283

Arcus Argentariorum 285

Janus Ouadrifrons 287

So-called Temple of Fortuna Virilis 2S9

Round Temple of Hercules, usually called the Temple of Vesta 251

S. Maria in Cosmedin 293

Theatre of Marcellus 302

Plan of Temples in the Portico of Octavia 307

Porticus Octavia; 30S

Pantheon 328

Bas-relief on pedestal of Antonine Column : Groups of Cavalry and Infantiy 334

M. Aurelius on horseback 338

Alban Lake from the Capuchin Convent of Palazzolo, looking towards Marino and Tusculum . . . 355

Cascatelli at Tivoli 396

The Temples of Vesta and of the Sibyl, Tivoli 398

Vico Varo and Lucretilis 429

Circus of Maxentius, with the Arches of the Claudian and Marcian Aqueducts 434

Tomb of Cscilia Metella 435

Plautian Tomb and Ponte Lucano 438

Ponte Nomentano, by which the Wa. Xomentana crosses the Anio 439

MAPS, PLANS, ETC.

Rome and the Campagna To face 2

The Seven Hills ^

Geological Map of Rome > . . . 14

Roma Antiquissima 33

The Servian Walls 42

Servian Agger and Porta Mminalis 49

The present Walls and the Walls of Aurelian 53

The Forum Romanum, before the time of Julius Csesar 74

The Forum Romanum, after the time of Julius Ctesar 107

The Fora of the Ctesars 126

The Palatine and Velia 154

The Capitolium and the Arx 182

Excavations on the Capitoline Hill 188

The Baths of Caracalla 213

Mons Oppius 232

Therma; Diocletianse 257

The Circus Flaminius 299

Theatre of Marcellus 306

Fragments of Pianta Capitolina 317

Agri Romani Tabula ^^y

Plan of Temple of Fortune at PrKneste 385

Environs of Tivoli 3^5

The AJban Lake 410

Pliny's Villa at Laurentum 412

Iconographia Romae Vetcris 484

LIST OF THE PRINCIPAL BOOKS ON ROMAN TOPOGRAPHY
AND ARCHEOLOGY QUOTED IN THE NOTES.

I.— ROME.

1. Preller, Die Regionen der Stadt Rom (Jena, 1846). Curiosum Urbis. See Becker's Hand-

buch, Th. i. S. 712.

2. Uer Regionar der Stadt Rom in der Handschrift des Kl. Einsiedlen. G. Haenel in Archiv

fur Philologie und Psedagogik, 1837, Bd. v. Hft. i, S. 115. See also Mabillon, Vet.
Analect. (Paris, 1723), p. 358.

3. Mirabilia Romoe e codicibus Vaticanis emendata edidit Gustavus Parthey (Berolini, 1869).

4. Fragmenta Vestigii veteris Romce ex lapidibus Famesianis. Bellori (Roma, 1673) in Grasvii

Thesauro, torn. iv.

5. Monumentum Anc)Tanum sive Cjesaris Augusti index remm a se gestarum ex reliquiis Graecae

interpretation is restituit Joannes Franzius commentario perpetuo instruxit A. W. Zumptius
(Berolini, 1845).

6. Poggius Florentinus, De fortunK varietate urbis Romse et de ruina ejusdem descriptio. Poggii

Opera (Basilete, 1538), p. 131.

7. Blondus Flavius, Roma instaurata (Basileae, 1559). The first edition was dedicated to

Eugenius IV., 143 1— 1439.

8. Andreas Fulvius, De Urbis Antiquitatibus (Rom. 1527). I have referred to the Venice

edition of 1588.

9. BartolomKus Marlianus, Urbis Roms Topographia (Rome, 1544).

10. Lucius Faunas, De Antiquitatibus Urbis Romae (Venetiis, 1549).

11. Gamucci, Le Antichita della Cittk di Roma (Venezia, 1569).

12. G. Fabricii Roma (1550), Graevius, Thes. vol. iii.

13. Onuph. Panvinii .\ntiquse Urbis Imago (Francofurti, 1627).

14. J. J. Boissardi, Topographia Romse (Francofurti, 1627).
15 Ficoroni, Le Vestigia di Roma Antica (Roma, 1744).

16. Donatus, Roma vetus ac recens (1665).

17. Nardini, Roma Antica, ed. Nibby (Roma, 1818).

18. Venuti, Descrizione Topografica delle Antichitk di Roma (Roma, 1803).

19. Guattani, Roma descritta ed illustrata (Roma, 1805).

20. Nibby, Del Foro Romano, della Via Sacra, dell' .A.nfiteatro Flavio e de' luoghi adjacenti

(Roma, 18 19).

21. Nibby, Le Mura di Roma disegnate da Sir William Gell, illustrate con testo e note da Antonio

Nibby (Roma, 1820).

22. Nibby, Roma nell' Anno 1838 : Parte Antica.

23. Fea, Miscellanea filologica, critica, ed antiquaria (Roma, 1790).

xviii List of the Principal Books quoted in the Notes.

24. Fea, Frammenti dei Fasti (Roma, 1820).

25. Flaminio Vacca, Memorie di varie Antichita (1594), in Nardini's and edition (Rome, 1704).

26. Falconieri, Piramide di Caio Cestio; also in Nardini.

27. Sachse, Beschreibung der Stadt Rom (1824).

28. BuVisen, Le Forum explique.

29. Plattner, Bunsen, Gerhard, and Rostell, Beschreibung der Stadt Rom (Stuttgart und Tubingen, 1830).

30. Canina, Indicazione Topografica di Roma Antica (Roma, 1850).

31. Montfaucon, Diarium Italicum (Parisiis, 1702).

32. Du Perac, Vestigj di Roma (Roma, 1674).

33. Labacco, Libro appartenente al Architettura nel qual si figurano alcune notabili Antiquita di

Roma (1559).

34. Overbeke, Reliquiae Antiquae Urbis Romas (Amstelodami, 1708).

35. Piranesi, Antichita Romane (Roma, 1784).

36. Nolli, Pianta di Roma (1748).

37. Desgodetz, Les Edifices antiques de Rome (Par. 1682).

38. Bellori, Veteres Arcus Augustorum (Rome, 1690).

39. Bianconi, Descrizione dei Cerchi particolarmente di quello di Caracalla (Roma, 1789).

40. Bartoli, Picture Antique Cryptarum Romanarura (Roma, 1738).

41. Brocchi, Suolo di Roma (Roma, 1820).

42. Friedlander, Sittengeschichte Roms (Leipzig, 1869).

43. Becker. ^^■. A., De Romre Vet. Muris atque Portis (Lipsise, 1842).

44. ,, Die Romische Topographie in Rom (Leipzig, 1844).

45. „ Zur Romischen Topographie (Leipzig, 1845).

46. „ Handbuch der Rom. Alterth. Theil i. (Leipzig, i843).»

47. L. Uriichs, Romische Topographie in Leipzig, i. (Stuttgart, 1845).

48. „ . „ „ „ „ ii. (Bonn, 1845).

49. Ampere, Histoire Romaine a Rome (Paris, 1862 — 1864).

50. Dyer, T. H., The City of Rome (London, 1865).

51. ,, Art. " Rome" in Smith's Diet, of Geography.

52. Martinelli, Roma Sacra (Roma, 1653).

53. Lipsius, De magnitudine Romana (Antverpite, 1599).

54. Tournon, Etudes Statistiques sur Rome (Paris, 1831).

55. Von Reumont, Geschichte der Stadt Rom (Berlin, 1867 — 1869).

56. Klausen, .'Eneas und die Penaten (Hamburg und Gotha, 1839).

57. De urbe Roma prisca et nova varii auctores (Romse : Mozocchi, 1523).

58. Reber, Ruinen Roms und der Campagna (Leipzig, 1863).

59. Canina, Pianta di Roma Antica.

60. Guattani, Monumenti Antichi (Roma, 1784 — 1788).

61. Merkel, P. Ovid. Nasonis Fastorum, libri sex, ed. R. Merkelio (Berolini. 1841).

62. Fontana, C, L'Anfiteatro Flavio (Haia, 1725).

63. Gsell Fels, Romische Ausgrabungen (Hildburghausen, 1870).

64. De Romanis, Tenne di Tito (Roma, 1822).

65. Vignoli, Dissertatio de Columna Imp. Antonini Pii (Romas, 1705).

66. Rossini, Roma Antica (Roma, 1828).

67. ,, Sette Colli di Roma (Roma, 1828).

68. Martinus Polonus, ap. Corp. Hist. Med. ^vi. Eccard (Lipsise, 1723).

List of the Principal Books quoted in the Notes. xix

II.— CAMPAGNA.

1. Nicolai, Bonificamenti delle terre Pomptine (Roma, 1800).

2. Cluverius, Italia Antiqua (1624).
Abeken, jNIittelitalien vor den Zeiten Romischer Herrschaft (1843).

4. Bureau de la Malle, Economie Politique des Remains.

5. Bormann, Altlatinische Chorographie (Halle, 1852).

6. Xibby, Analisi Storico-Topografico-Antiquaria della Carta de' Diniorni di Roma (Roma, 1837).

7. ,, Viaggio Antiquario (Roma, 1819).

8. Westphal, Die Romische Kampagne (Berlin, 1829).

9. Dennis, Etruria (London, 1848).

10. Dionigi, Viaggio in Lazio (Roma, 1S09).

11. Miiller, C, Roms Campagna (Leipzig, 1824).

12. Bonstetten, Voyage dans le Latium (Geneve, 1803).

13. Fea, Viaggio a Ostia (Roma, 1802).

14. Canina, Carta di Campagna (1856).

15. Carta Topografica di Roma e Comarca (Roma, 1865).

16. Von Moltke, Carta di Roma (1846).

17. Thon e Nibby, Tempio di Fortuna Praenestina (Roma, 1825).

18. Ligorio, Pianta della Villa Tiburtina di Adriano Cesare (Roma, 1751).

19. Kircher, Latiura (Amstelodami, 1671).

20. Gregorovius, Geschichte des Rom. Kaisers Hadrian (Konigsberg, 1857).

21. Blume, Lachmann, und RudorfT, Die Schriften der Romischen Feldmesser (Berlin, 1848).

22. Volpi, Vetus Latium (Roma;, 1726).

23. Rossini, Contorni di Roma (Roma, 1828).

III.— ARCHEOLOGY AND HISTORY.

1. Miiller, K. O., Archsologie der Kunst (Breslau, 1848).

2. Winckelmann, Sur I'Architecture Ancienne (Paris, 1801).

3. Reber, Geschichte der Baukunst in Alterthum. (Leipzig, 1866).

4. Hope, Essay on Architecture (London, 1840).

5. Lanza, Palazzo di Diocletiano (Trieste, 1855).

6. Gell, Topography of Rome and its Vicinity (London, 1846).

7. Anastasius Bibliothecarius, De Vitis Romanorum Pontificum, ed. Blanchini.

8. Nissen, Das Templum (Berlin, 1869).

9. Liibke, Geschichte der Architectur (Leipzig, 1865).

10. Canina, Architettura Antica, Sezione iii. (Roma, 1840).

11. Marini, Atti dei Fratelli Ar\-ali (Roma, 1785).

12. Hirt, Geschichte der Baukunst bei den Alten (Berlin, 1822).

13. Lewis, Credibility of Early Roman History (London, 1855).

14. Palladio, Architettura (Venetiis, 1570 and 1642).

15. Roncalli, Vetustiora Lat. Scrip. Chronica (Patavii, 1787).

16. Dureau de la Malle, Recherches sur I'Entendue et la Population de Rome. Acad, des Inscr.

torn. xii.

17. Mabillon, Museum Italicum (Paris, 1724).

XX List of the Principal Books quoted in the Notes.

i8. Servius, Commentarii in Virgilium Semani, ed. Lion (GottingK, 1826).

19. Fergusson, Principles of Art (London, 1849).

20. „ History of Architecture (London, 1862).

21. Bellori, Columna Antoniniana (Rom»).

22. Bartoli, Colonna Trajana (Roma).

23. Fabretti, Colonna Trajana (Roma).

24. Cameron, C, The Baths of the Romans (London, 1775).

25. Schwegler, Romische Geschichte (Tiibingen, 1853—1858).

26. Eckhel, Doctrina Nummorum Veterum (Vienna, 1792— 1828).

27. Becker, W. A., Callus. 3 Ausg. berich. von Dr. Rein (Leipzig, 1863).

28. Dyer, T. H., History of Kings of Rome (London, 186S).

29. Visconti, Opere Varie, ed. Labus (Milan, 1827).

30. Gori, Columbarium Lib. et Serv. Aug. (Florentice, 1727).

31. Fabretti, De Aqureductibus (Romse, 1680).

32. Fasti Prfenestini, Amiterni, &c., in Corpus Inscr. Lat., vol. i. (Berolini, 1863)

33. Dodwell, Pelasgic Remains (London, 1834).

34. Wilkins, Syracuse, Girgenti, and Paestum (Cambridge, 1807).

35. Wood, Baalbec and PalmjTa (London, 1757).

36. Zoega, De Obeliscis (Romoe, 1797)-

37. Nibby, Dissertazione delle Vie degli Antichi, in Nardini, torn. iv. (Roma, 1820

38. Hobler, Roman Coins (Westminster, i860).

39. Allason, Pola (London, 1819).

40. Donaldson, Architectura Numismatica (London, 1859).

41. Tillemont, Histoire des Empereurs (Paris, 1630).

42. Spanheim, De usu Numismatum (Amstelod. 1706).

43. Niebuhr, B. G., Roman History, translated by Hare and Thirlwall (London, 1855).

44. Arnold, T., History of Rome (London, 1848).

45. Mommsen, Th., History of Rome, translated by Dickson (London, 1862).

46. Merivale, C, History of the Romans under the Empire (London, 1852).

47. Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum, vol. i., ed. Th. Mommsen (Berolini, 1863).

INTRODUCTION.

Oy ROMAXO-GREEK ARCHITECTURE.

HORIZONTAL OR RECTANGULAR MASONRY — POLYGONAL MASONRY — ANCIENT GATEWAYS — APPEARANCE OF THE
ROMULEAN CITY — INTRODUCTION OF THE ARCH — CLOACB — CANAL AT THE MOUTH OF THE MARTA — TUSCAN
TEMPLES— DIRECT INFLUENCE OF GREEK ARCHITECTURE: (I) MODIFICATIONS TRACEABLE TO ANCIENT ITALIAN
CUSTOM AND TRADITION ; TUSCO-DORIC ; (2) MODIFICATIONS TRACEABLE TO THE WANT OF ^ESTHETIC CULTURE
AMONG THE ROMANS; ROMANO-IONIC ORDER; ROMANO-CORINTHIAN ORDER; (3) MODIFICATIONS TRACEABLE
TO THE VULGAR LOVE OF OVERLADEN ORNAMENTATION ; THE COMPOSITE CAPITAL ; UNMEANING JUXTA-
POSITION OF DETAILS; COSTLY STONEWORK; PORTICOES, PALACES, AND HOUSE DECORATIONS; TRIUMPHAL
ARCHES AND GATEWAYS; COLUMNS; TOMBS; ROCK TOMBS; COLONNADES; OBELISKS; (4) MODIFICATIONS
TRACEABLE TO THE WANT OF SPACE AT ROME ; THE ARCH ; BRICKS ; ROMAN BRICK WALLS ; VAULTED ARCHES
OF BRICK ; BASILIC* ; LIBRARIES; ROADS; CAUSEWAYS AND TUNNELS; BRIDGES; CLOACS ; HARBOURS;
AQUEDUCTS; ORNAMENTAL FOUNTAINS; CASTR.^ ; HORREA; PISTRINA ; THERMAE; BALNEA; AMPHITHEATRES;
NAUMACHIyE; CIRCI ; THEATRES; DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE; INTERIOR OF THE HOUSE; EXTERIOR OF THE
house; MATERIALS; VESTIBULE; WINDOWS; ROOFS — GENERAL APPEARANCE OF ROMAN STREETS; ROMAN
ARCHITECTS — VITRUVIUS — THE ROMANS ENGINEERS RATHER THAN ARCHITECTS — THEIR BUILDINGS ILLUS-
TRATIVE OF THEIR CHARACTER.

" Magnificas aedes operosaque visere templa
Divitiis honiinum aut sacris memoranda vetustis
Traducti maria et terras per proxima fatis
Currimus, atque avidi veteris mendacia famx
Eruimus, cuiictasque libet percurrere gentes; "

JEtna, 568-572.

IN the Aventine hill, under the Monastery of S. Saba, there is a vast sub-
terranean quarry, from which carts may often be seen at the present day
carrying blocks of a reddish-brown stone to the various quarters

r -T) 1 I -IT 1 • Horizontal or

or Rome, wherever new buildmgs happen to be m the course of rectangular
erection. The stone obtained from this quarry is the harder """"'"J-
kind of tufa, of which a great part of the hills of Rome consist.' It
naturally became the building stone used by the first founders of Rome,
and is found in all the most ancient fragments of masonry which still remain.
In many places, as on the cliffs of the Alban lake, and the sides of many
oi the hillocks in the Campagna, this stone may be seen presenting, when
partially decayed, a very considerable likeness to a wall of horizontal layers

' See chap. ii. p. 15.
d

xxn

Inti-odiiction.

of stone. When quarried, it naturally breaks into rectangular blocks, and
suo-o-ests of itself that mode of building -which we find actually to exist in
the earliest efforts of Roman builders.

The most interesting of such primaeval relics is a fragment of wall
which skirts the west end of the Palatine hill, and is assigned by M. Braun
to the earliest enclosure of that hill, the so-called Roma Ouadrata of
Dionysius.^ The blocks in this wall are arranged in layers placed alternately
parallel to and across the line of the wall (headers and stretchers), so as to bind
the mass together firmly. No mortar is used, and the joints are fitted so
accurately as to show a more considerable knowledge of the art of masonry
than we should expect at so early a period. It seems on this account
questionable whether the usually received opinion as to the antiquity of
this wall can be correct, and the fragments of the wall of Servius Tullius
(B.C. 578 — 535) found on the sides of the Aventine and the Ouirinal hills
are perhaps more deserving of attention as undoubtedly ancient works.' In
these fragments of the Servian wall the art of building appears in a more
imperfect state than in that on the Palatine. The vertical joints are not
so carefully arranged, and are often allowed to stand immediately one over
the other, so as to impair the s-olidity of the masonry. The stones are
placed close against the side of the hill, and in some places the lowest
layers of them are imbedded in the natural rock.

The hills of Rome and of the Campagna being mostly low, and not offering
in their natural state a sufficient defence, were frequently cased in this way with
walls, which either abutted immediately upon the natural rock, as on the Ouirinal,
or were placed at a slight interval, which was filled up with rubble, as at
Algidum near Pra?neste.^ Other specimens of these rectangular horizontal
tufa walls which belonged to cities destroyed during the Regal period, and
therefore of indubitable antiquit)-, are to be seen in the neighbourhood of
Rome. Such are the walls of Apiolae, destroyed by Tarquinius Priscus,
situated on the right hand of the \'ia Appia at the tenth milestone from
Rome, and of Politorium, now La Giostra, near Castel di Leva on the
\'ia Ardeatina.^ In the walls of Tusculum and of Ardea, and many other
places in the Campagna, the same mode of construction may be seen.^

As has been already mentioned, this style of building is the natural
product of the peculiar parallel cleavage of the tufaceous rock.s. Accordingly,

1 Ann. dell' Inst. 1852, p. 32+ : Mon. vol. v. tav. ' Gell, Top. Rom. p. 42.

39 ; chap. iii. pp. 34, 41 ; Dioin s. ii. 65. ■* Livy, i. 35 ; Cell, Top. Rom pp. 87, 2S1 ; sc;

- Chap. iv. pp. 44,47 ; -Inn. delT Inst. 1855, plates chap. xiv.

xxi.— XXV. " Gell, Top. Rom. pp. 432, 98.

Jntrodtiction.

XXllI

wherever the prevailing stone of the district is otlic-r than tufa, this horizontal

work is not found, and we see instead of it in the more ancient

walls the polvgronal, or, as it was called in Greece, the Cvclopean ^''ygo'tai

i. ■> ^^ ^ r masonry,

or Pelasgic stj^le. It has sometimes been assumed that polygonal
structure indic?.tes a higher degree of antiquity than horizontal. This,
however, is not the case ; for the style of building depends principally upon
the nature of the material, and some oi the polygonal walls in Latium, a.s
those of the Temple of Fortune, built by Sulla at Praeneste, belong to the
time of the later Republic' These later polygonal walls are easily distin-
guishable from the earlier by the greater accuracy of the joints, and the work-
manlike style of the masonry. In the most ancient v/alls, as in some parts
of those of Medullia, Alatrium, Artena Volscorumj and Signia, the joints are
filled up with small stones, while in the later polygonal masonry the stones
are closely fitted and selected with great care so as to present a flat surface."
Of the most ancient kinds of gates, anterior to the discovery of the arch, no
remains have been found at Rome ; but in the Campagna there are
several curious and interestingr varieties of ante-historic grateways. ''"""'

■^ o J gateways.

Sometimes, as at Olevano and Alatri, they are composed of a
large horizontal slab placed upon two vertical side posts ; sometimes these
side supports are slanted inwards, as in the gateway now to be seen at
Signia •,' and sometimes a kind ot pointed arch is formed by making each
block of stone project a little beyond the one upon which it rests, till the
uppermost stones meet. The most perfect specimen of this third kind of
gate is found at Arpino, and closely resembles the well-known gate of Mjcense.
A single instance of such a mode of construction is found at Rome in the
vault of the old well-house of the Capitol called the Tullianum, the lower
part consisting of overlapping horizontal blocks which formerly met in a
conical roof, but are now truncated and capped with a mass of stones
cramped together with iron.^ The Tullianum must therefore be considered
to be the earliest specimen of building, other than simple wall constructions,
now extant in Rome, and probably anterior to the Cloaca Maxima, in which
we find the principle of the arch alread)- fully developed. If we may draw an

* See note in Dennis, Etruria, vol. ii. p. 29. Dennis p. 1 24 ; Dionigi, Viaggio in Lazio. Fragments of this

acknowledges the influence of local materials on the kind of work are to be seen in the Via di Casciano,

style of masonr)-, but does not think that it amounts and at the so-called villa of Cassius near Tivoli, and

to a constructive necessity. See a paper by Mr. also at Arpino and Ferentino. See Nibby, Analisi,

Bunbury in the Classical Museum, vol. ii. p. 145. tom. i. 397, iii. 226.

- Cell, pp. 314, III; Motiumettti deir Inst. 1829, ' See Aiinali dell' lust. 1829, p. 78; Monnnunti

Plates i. ii. iii. ; Dodwell, Pelasgic Remains, p. 92. deW Inst. tav. i. ii. iii.

The walls of Tiryns are of this loose polygonal * See chap. vi. p. 81. There is a precisely similar

rnsonry. See Schlicmann's Ithaka und Troja, well-house at Burinna in Cos. See Keber, Gesch.

1). 108; (Leipsic, 1869). Dodwell, Pelas?ic Remains, der Baukunst, S. 222.

d 2

xxiv Introduction.

inference from the most ancient gateways of Etruria and the rest of Latium,'
the gates of Roma Ouadrata on the Palatine were not bare openings in the hne
of wall, but consisted of a square chamber with two doors, the one opening
inwards and the other outwards. It seems probable that the Temple of Janus
was a modification of such a gateway chamber ; for as a part of the pomcerium
these gateways would naturally be held sacred, and as the starting-point of
all expeditions beyond the city walls would be placed under the protection
of Janus, the god who presided over the beginning of undertakings.^ The
inner door had the advantage of offering a second point of resistance to any
besieging force which might have stormed the outer; and a further means of
defence was usually provided for the gate by the construction of a projecting
bastion on the right hand side, from which the unshielded side of the attacking
troops might be assailed with missiles. The gates of Norba and of Alba
F"ucensis show defences of this nature.^

Of the general aspect of the city of Rome during the first years of its
existence we can, of course, form only a conjectural notion. It pro-

Appearance ^ -' ^

of the Roimi- bably consisted of an irregular collection of thatched cottages,
similar to that shown in later times as the Casa Romuli on the
Palatine, among which were interspersed a few diminutive chapels, such as
that of Jupiter Feretrius, which, even after its enlargement by Ancus, was not
more than fifteen feet in length,* the modest house of Numa, the curia of
Hostilius, the auguraculum, and the Temple of Jupiter Stator.^ Tufa walls
with wooden supports were employed even in the more important buildings.

We are assured, by the almost unanimous testimony of Roman historians,
Introduction of that the Tarquiuii first introduced that great invention in building
the arch. which the Roman engineers and architects carried, in later times, to
the highest possible perfection, and which became the great glory of Roman
masonry, the round arch." In Assyria and in Egypt the arch had long been
used in subterranean buildings. The palaces at Nimrud contain several instances
of arched structures, and round arches are used in the older Egyptian tombs. ^
l>ut it is a strange fact in the history of architecture, that while we find tlie
western branches of the great Pelasgian family settled in Central Italy possessed
of a full knowledge of the principle of the arch, the eastern or Hellenic branch

' As at Volaterra;, P^vsuhs, and Cora: Abekeii, « Livy, i. 38, 56 ; Dionys. iii. 67, iv. 44 ; Flin. N. H.

Mittelitalicn, p. 159. - See chap. vi. p. 87. xxxvi. 15, 24.

" Abeken, Mittelitalicn. p. 160 ; Vitrav. i. 5, 2. " Wilkinson, Ancient Egyptians, vol. iii. chap. 10,

* Uionys. ii. 34 ; Livy, i. 10, 33, iv. 20 ; chap. viii. places the invention of the arch in Egypt 2020 B.C.,

p. 192. and gives numerous instances of its very early use.

^ Ov. Fast. vi. 263 : Livy, i. 30 ; chap. viii. pp. 83, See also Layard, Nineveh and Babylon, 1853, vol. i.

103, 195. p. 163 ; Nineveh and its Remains, vol. ii. p. 260.

Inlroduction. xxv

appear to have been still iijiiorant of it, or unwilling to employ it, diirino- the
period when their architecture was carried to the highest pitch of perfection in
other respects.

Whether the early inhabitants of Central Italy obtained their knowledge of
this most important principle in building by tradition from Eastern ancestors, or
whether they discovered it independently for themselves, cannot be determined.
Greece, at all events, cannot claim the credit of having led the way to the
frequent employment of the arch in building. In whatever way the principle was
introduced into Italian architecture, it must have made great progress in early
times ; and the fact that the tufa stone, commonly used for buildings not exposed
to the outer air, could be so easily split or cut into suitable wedge-shaped masses,
contributed not a little to the rapid development of this architectural contrivance.
Another cause which has also been justly assigned for the great per-
fection to which the art of subterranean tunnelling and vaulting
arrived in Etruria and at Rome in very early times, w-as the necessity for regu-
lating the floods to wTiich the valleys of the Arno and Tiber are peculiarly
subject, and of draining the pestilential swamps or maremmas of the coasts of
Latium and Tuscany. Works like the Cloaca Maxima and .the great canal
on the bank of the Marta, first described by Dennis, were indispensable as soon
as it became desirable to occupy the lower grounds of these districts. Such
considerations may partly excuse our surprise at finding so gigantic a work as
the Cloaca undertaken at so early a period of the history of Rome ;' and we
cannot but observe that the description given by Dennis of the canal at the
mouth of the JMarta seems to be a strong confirmation of the much-disputed
authority of Livy and Dionysius, when they ascribe the construction of the
Cloaca to the Etruscan Tarquinii. The very name Tarquinii belongs to the
town at the mouth of the river Marta ; and not only is the „ , , ,.

^ Canal at the

canal arched over in the same style with enormous red tufa month of tht
blocks, but the side of the river at its mouth is protected by an
embankment, which seems the very counterpart of the " pulchrum litus " at the
mouth of the Cloaca Maxima. The width of the Marta canal is not interior
to that of the Cloaca, the span of its arch being fourteen feet, while
the stones employed are far larger." But though in the time of the Tarquins
the principle of the arch was so thoroughly understood, yet it was not
very widely used at Rome till a much later time. The specus of the
Aqua Appia (li.c. 312), lately discovered near the Porta Maggiore, is
not arched over, but has a gable-shaped covering, formed by two flat
stones inclined at an acute angle to each other. Nor is the mouth ot the

' See further in chap. xii. p. 283. ' Dennis, Etruria, vol. i. p. 393.

XXVI

Introduction.

as
\'itruvius,

Tiiscau
tciuplis.

I I III III

I !

J I

emissary at the Alban lake, which was built at the end of the \'eientine
War (B.C. 396), formed by an arch, but by a large horizontal block, which
shows, by the slanting manner in which the ends are cut, a rude appli-
cation of the principle of the arch.' These two instances prove clearly
that even in subterranean works, where the arch was most useful and most
easilv constructed, it was not always employed in the period of the early
Republic. Still less was the invention of the arch applied at this time to
the construction of public buildings. The great public building of the later
Regal period, the Temple of the Capitoline Jupiter, was built on the normal plan
of Tuscan temples, with columns and horizontal architraves. Its appearance
was flat and low,^ the breadth being nearly equal to the length, the intervals
between the columns very wide, the architrave of wooden beams, and the
wooden gable-ends built
with a low pitch. 3

Of th(; so-called Tuscan
style, as described by
we have no
ancient speci-
mens left.^ It
was, in fact,
the Italian contemporary
of the Greek Doric, and
its peculiarities consisted
rather in the proportion
which the several parts of
the building bore to each
other, than in an\- con-
structive difference. The
columns were nearly of
the same height in both
the orders, but in the Tus-
can they rested upon a
Imse which was generally

omitted in Doric architecture. The shafts were coarsely and superficially fluted,
and the capital rather less ornamental in the Tuscan than in the Doric order,

Fig. I.

1 Hirt Gesch. dcr Baukunst, ii. S. 108. mentions a Tuscan column as existing at the emis-

2 Vitruv. iii. 2. sarj- of the Fucine lake. He also cites an Etruscan
=• See chap. viii. p. 189. vase figured in Dempst. Etrur. torn. i. tab. 7, which
' Winckelmann, however (CEuvres, torn. ii. p. 575.. represents Tuscan columns.

Introduction. xxvii

having one annulet only instead of tliree under the capital (see Fig. [).
One principal characteristic of the Tuscan style was the position of the
columns at wide intervals from each other (araeostyle), an arramrement
which was hard!)- possible, unkss wooden beams were emplo\ed for the
architrave, the difficulty of obtaining stones of the requisite leno-th beino-
insurmountable. W'c know from \'itruvius that the Temple of Ceres, near
the Circus, first built seventeen years after the expulsion of the kino-s, was
a Tuscan temple, with wide intervals between the columns, and three cella;
similar to the Capitoline Temple ;^ and it is just possible that the columns
in the walls of S. IMaria in Cosmedin, which are placed at unusual distances
from each other, ma\' have belonged to the Imperial restoration of this temple
in the old tashion. Other characteristics of the Tuscan style were the
wooden architraves, and tlie rough projecting ends of the cross beams,
which corresponded to the Doric triglyphs. The ornaments of the pedi-
ment and gable were adapted to this rude structure. They usually consisted
of pottery roughly gilt or painted.-

The old Tuscan style must not be considered as the peculiar production of
the district between the Tiber and the Arno. It was in reality

1 /-^ 1 i-N ■ Direct iiijliieiui

descended from the same root as the Greek Done, and stood in o/ Cmt
the same relation to that style as the Italian section of the Peiasgic ''^'''"'''<"-<:-
stock to the Hellenic section. But after the \-ear B.C. 406, four- ^lodificathm

' \ traceable —

teen years after the expulsion of the kings, a more direct in-
fluence began to be exerted on Roman art by the Greeks of Lower Itah-
and Sicily.^ Pliny, speaking ot the decorations of the Temple of Ceres
above mentioned, quotes Varro as his authority for stating that " before
the time when that temple was built all the temples in Rome were
wholly Tuscan." ^ The older Doric architecture, so characteristic of the
Greek temples of Lower Italy and Sicily, as at Paestum, Syracuse, Ap-ri-

' Vitruv. iii. 3, 5 ; chap. xii. p. 292. The Temple of romain. Mais ils ont inipiime au.K divers genres de

Juno at Elis had originally wooden columns and monuments adoptdes par eux le caractere de leur

architrave, and resembled the Tuscan temples. gSnie et le sceau de leur grandeur.' — Amp&!'e, His-

Pausan. v. 16 ; Hirt, Gesch. vol. iii. S. 5. toire romaine \ Rome, vol. iv. p. 9.

- Plin. xx.'cv\ 46 ; Vitruv. iii. 2. The abo\e passage fairly expresses the amount of

' " II y a un style romain, mais on ne peut pas dire merit due to the Romans as architects. It should

qu'il a existe un art romain. Quand ils ont eu une not, however, be forgotten that they were the first

architecture a eux, les Romains n'en ont point cxi€ nation who employed the arch, both simple and

les Elements qu'ils empruntaient i I'architecture vaulted, extensively in building, and thereby opened

grecque, ils les ont seulement modifies, alterds trop an entirely new field of architecture. Their mistake

souvent, combines quelques fois d'une maniere nou- was that they clung so long to the Greek style of

velle pour satisfaire des besoins qui leur dtaient decoration, which after the development of the arch

propres. lis n'ont cred que deux genres d'archi- had lost its original constructive meaning,

tecture : I'amphitheatre, qui suppose les gladiateurs,et * "'Ante hanc a?dem Tuscanica omnia in a:dibus

Tare de triomphc, qui suppose le triomphe. Or, le fuisse auctor est Varro." — I'lin. xxxv. 12,45. For the

triomphc, comme le gladiateur, est excluaivement date of the temple,see Tac. Ann. ii.49: Dionys. vi. 19.

XXVlll

Introdjictiou.

gentum, and Selinus/ was not, however, introduced in a pure form into
Rome, but modified by an admixture of the already prevalent Tuscan. The
so-called Temple of Hercules at Cora, which, though built in later times,
was probably a restoration of a very early temple, is a good specimen of the
mixed style which thus arose. It has the Tuscan wide intervals between its
columns, and the simple Tuscan capitals and bases, combined with the Doric
triglyphs and mutules. The metopes are left plain, and the cornice has lost
its characteristic eavelike slope. '^

Fig. 2.

Fig. 3.

Italian custom
and tradition ;

Tusco-Doric.

In the columns of this Tusco-Doric style, as may be seen in the Doric
, , „ . , columns and capitals of the Theatre of Marcellus and of the

(\) 10 ancient C

Coliseum, the Attic ba.se, consisting of a plinth, lower torus,
scotia, and upper torus, was usually employed ; the shaft was much
more slender than in the Grecian Doric, and was only partially
fluted, if at all, and a cima recta was substituted for the echinus of the

' See Wilkins' Syracuse, Girgenti, and Pjcstiim. restoration of Rome on the ancient plan. See Fea

- Nibby, Viaggio, vol. ii. p. 208. This temple was on Winckelmann, torn. ii. p. 582, note, and ii. part 2,

carefully copied by Raphael when he was entrusted by p. 238. Winckelmann assigns the present temple at

Leo the Tenth with the strange design of the entire Cora to the time of Tiberius.

Introduction. xxix

capital. The position of the triglyphs and the proportions of the cornice
were also considerably changed (see Figs. 2 and 3), and the whole effect
is less massive and bold than that of the Tuscan temples.'

The increasing influence of Doric forms of architecture also altered the
ground-plan of the Roman temples considerably. The old square Etruscan
temple, in which the width was nearly as great as the length, gave way to
the more oblong form of the Greek temple, in which the length was nearly
double of the breadth. It was necessary, if the wooden architraves were to be
replaced by stone, tha.t the intervals between the columns of the front should be
diminished. But though the proportion of the sides was thus chancred, the
ancient Tuscan arrangement of the interior remained as before. Even down
to the time of the Empire many of the Roman temples were still divided
in the Tuscan fashion into two principal parts ; the open portico in front,
with the single, or double, or triple cella behind it. In the Roman Forum
there were several temples exhibiting this arrangement, to which the name
of prostylos was given by Vitruvius. The three ruins which now occupy so
prominent a position at the northern end of the Forum, the Temples of
Saturn, of Concord, and of Vespasian, were all of this kind. The Temple
of Concord is especially remarkable for the union of a broad Tuscan cella
with a narrow Greek portico ; " and the Tuscan double-chambered plan may
be also observed in the Temples of Jupiter and Juno, in the Porticus
Octavise, as given in the Capitoline plan of Rome.^ The Roman prostylos
is in fact, as Professor Reber well remarks, nothing else than a compromise
between the old Tuscan temple and the newer Greek models.''

In the restorations of older temples by Augustus, the old square shape
of the ground-plan was frequently retained on account of the difficulty of
removing surrounding buildings ; and even where, as in the Temple of
Venus and Rome, designed by Hadrian, the Greek peripteral temple was
reproduced, the influence of old traditional forms may be traced in the
breadth of the cella in proportion to its length, and in its conventional
division into two instead of three compartments."

An alteration peculiarly Roman was also made in the cella of the Greek
temple. The Roman eye was offended by the . naked walls of the Greek
cella, and, with that want of perception of the true principles of art which

' Of the three Doric temples at Ptestum the large ■ See chap. vi. p. 91.

hypaethral temple is the oldest. " It has low columns ' See chap. xiii. p. 308.

with a great diminution of the shaft, bold projecting ■> Rebcr, Gesch. der Baukunst. p. 400.

capitals, a massive entablature, and triglyphs placed in ^ See chap. viii. p. l6g.
the angles of the zophorus." — Wilkins' Passtum. p. 59.

XXX

Inirodticfion.

.r-'^-

marked the Roman architects, they proceeded to clothe them with pilasters
and other decorations, which were totally without meaning in relation to the
structure. Thus was formed the pseudo-peripteral temple, a weak imitation of
the Greek peripteral (see Fig. 4).

The round form of temple was more affected by
the Romans than by the Greeks, who used a circular
shape only in their smaller monumental works, as in
the choragic monument of Lysicrates and the Temple
of the Winds at Athens. The. difficulty of finding
a suitable roof, the necessarily contracted space of
the cella, and the inartistic curve of the architrave,
probably deterred the Greek architects from employing
this form of building. The well-known round temple
in the Forum Boarium at Rome, usually called the
Temple of Vesta, and the somewhat similar temple
at Tivoli, are the most familiar specimens. It has not
been ascertained in what manner the roof of these
temples was constructed ; whether, as in the monument
of Lysicrates, it was a tentlike conical roof, or a
dome, and whether it rested on the cella walls or
on the architrave of the circular colonnade. The
domed roof of the Pantheon cannot be admitted as
decisive of this question, because it is nearly certain
that the Pantheon was originally intended to be a
part of Agrippa's baths, and was only by an after-
thought converted into a temple, and provided with the incongruous Corinthian
portico which forms its entrance.' The difficulty of the roof was avoided in
cases where, as in the octagonal portico of the Church of S. Cosma e Damiano,
formerly the Temple of the Penates, a colonnade was dispensed with.^

The Ionic order became known and employed by the Romans early
in the third century B.C. We find a strange mixture of the
Ionic volute and dentil with the Doric triglyph and gutta in the
tomb of Scipio Barbatus, now preserved in the Vatican Museum.
This is the first monument upon which the Ionic volute appears
at Rome, and it shows at how early a period the Romans had
begun a practice, which was afterwards carried by them to such
excess — the use of Greek architectural forms merely for decorative purposes.

€

Fig. 4.

(2) To the

want of tzstkdic

culture among

the Rovians.

Roman mcdiji-

fations of the

Ionic ordif.

See chap. xiii. p. 330.

" See chap, viii. p. 163.

Introdtution.

\.\xi

without structural meaning. A hundred years after the death of Scipio
Barbatus, when the Macedonian wars of tlie second century b.c. had familiar-
ized the Romans with Greek art, the Ionic order became well known in Rome-,
and the Ionic capital and column were used in many temples where the

ILMl'l.l; OF SATIKN.

old Tuscan ground-plan was still retained. The Temples of Forluna \ inlis '
and of Saturn.- and the exterior decorations of the Coliseum/' illustrate the
Roman treatment of the Ionic capital. In thr first of these buildings we

' See chap. xii. p. 289.

Ionic caj)ital

- See chap. vi. p. 92

' .Sec chap. ix. p. 237.
c 2

XXXll

Introduction.

have a small pseudo-peripteral temple with Ionic half-columns, the shafts of
which are cut in tufa and the capitals in travertine. As, however, travertine
is too rough a material for the finer mouldings of the Ionic capital, recourse
has been had to stucco to complete the decorative work. Marble was
probably still a rare luxury when this temple was built, and therefore the
architect had some excuse for this inartistic device.

The other peculiarity which we observe here is in the volutes of the corner
capitals, which are turned outwards. It was the weak point of the Ionic order

Fig.

Fu:

that the corner capitals could not be made to correspond with both the front
and side capitals without this change.^ The Greeks had already in most of
their Ionic peripteral temples endeavoured to remedy this defect by making
the corner volute project in the line of the diagonal instead of the line of the
side of the building. This device is imitated in the Temple of Fortuna

' Interesting specimens of the capitals and columns
of Roman temples are now to be seen in some of
the older churches and basilicas of Rome. The
basilica of S. Lorenzo fuori le Mura is full of Ionic
capitals of ,ijreat variety and beauty. There arc

seven Ionic capitals and four Corinthian in the
Church of S. Maria m Trastevere. Others may be
seen in the churches of S. Maria in Cosmedin,
S. Stefano Rotondo, and S. Maria in Ara Cseli.

Iniroduciion. xxxlii

Virilis, and carried still further in the Temple of Saturn, where the volutes of
all the capitals are placed diagonally instead of laterally (see Figs. 5 and 6).
The Ionic capital was deprived by this modification of its beautiful simplicitv,
and the peculiarity of its volutes was destroyed ; but on the other hand — -what
was of great use where poverty to imagine and incapacity to adapt prevailed
among architects, as at Rome — a model form was gained applicable to any
situation, and presenting the same appearance on all sides. To the practical
and utilitarian Roman such considerations seem to have outweio-hed an\-
regard for the principle, to which the Greeks always adhered, of pre-servintr
in all cases the structural meaning of their forms. In the work of Vitruvius,
the court architect of Augustus, this desire to reduce every detail of archi-
tecture to fixed rules, in order to supply the want of originality in desio-n and
taste in proportion, appears on every page. But even \'itruvius protests
against the unmeaning employment of the Greek decorative forms.'

The Romans, however, not only thus disfigured the Ionic capital of the
Greeks, but failed in another point essential to architectural excellence, in
the conscientious execution of details. The second range of capitals in the
Coliseum exemplifies this neglect very clearly. The spirals of the volutes
are there extremely shallow, the curls are not completed, and the enrichment
of the ovolo is omitted.- In the Theatre of Marcellus this deterioration of
artistic feeling is not yet exhibited, and the Ionic order there appears in its
original Greek simplicity and beauty.

With the introduction of marble as a building material ^ came the general
use of the Corinthian order in most Roman temples of consider-
able size. In Greece the Cormthian capital was treated with CmnMan
great freedom and variety, and its details not very strictly '"''"^'
defined, nor was it attempted on a large scale except under Roman in-
fluences.* In Rome itself the topical Corinthian form became more fixed,
in consequence of the above-mentioned anxiety of the Roman artists to work
by pattern and rule in everything; and it soon outstripped the Doric and Ionic
on account of its more general applicability and its alluring richness of
ornamental detail. It is supposed that the first introduction of this order into

' " In Griccisopcribus, nemosubnmtulodcnticulos inthian and composite orders of the grand .\niphi-

constituit, non enimpossuntsubtuscantheriosasseres theatre of El-Djemm (Thysdrus) in Tunis. See

esse . . . ea probaverunt antiqui quorum expHca- Ann. e Monum. dell' Inst. 1852, p. 246.

tiones in disputationibus rationem possunt habere ^ Probably about the time of Metellus Mace-

veritalis." — Vitruv. iv. 2. donicus, B.C. 143. Veil. Paterc. i. 11, 5.

'' " 11 faut savoir que les parties de cet Edifice [the •" The only extant Greek Corinthian building is

Coliseum] ne sont pas trop exactement executecs et the choragic monument of Lysicrates at .'\thens.

que les moulures cliangent de hauteur d'une place k The most ancient Corinthian capital was found at

I'autre."— Desgodetz, p. no. A similar neglect of Elcusis. Hirt, ii. p. 116.
the details of the capitals may be seen in the Cor-

XXXIV

Introduction.

Rome was brouo-ht about by the barbarian act of Sulla, in transporting the
columns of the Temple of Zeus at Athens to adorn his restoration of the
Capitoline Temple of Jupiter.' Of the remaining specimens of this order in
Rome the portico of the Pantheon is probably the oldest. In that building
the capitals appear somewhat shorter and broader than in the later examples
in the porticoes of the temples of Castor (see Fig. 7) and Vespasian in the

Forum, and in the peristyle of Nerva's Forum. ^
Like the Ionic order, the Corinthian also suffered
miserably at Rome, in some cases from the want
of conscientious execution of its details. This
is particularly remarkable in the foliations of
the capitals of the Coliseum, in which the edges
of the leaves are left smooth and plain, and
the grooves and curves are made blunt and
shallow.

The above-mentioned buildings contain the
best-proportioned specimens of the Corinthian
order. While the capital remains nearly the
same in all the Roman examples, with the
exception of a few trifling differences in the
indentation of the leaves and the small central
volutes, the base and cornice are varied in
several instances ; the Attic base being intro-
duced in the Temple of /\ntoninus and Faustina
and in the Thermae of Diocletian, and the
cornice being without dentils in the former
building, and in the Portico of Octavia.' An-
other remarkable modification of this order at Rome is to be seen in the
ruins of the Forum of Nerva and in the Arch of Constantine. The columns
are there placed in front instead of under the entablature, and connected with
it by projections of ornamental work similar to the entablature.'' More im-
portant variations from the normal structure are to be seen in the little
temple at Tivoli, called the Temple of the Sibyl, marking a transit from the
pure Corinthian to the composite order. The capitals in this building have

Fk;. 7.

' Chap. viii. p. 75 ; Tac. Hist. iii. 72. See Wood's Baalbcc and Palmyra : London, 1753.

- See pp. 101,132, 136. ^ See pp. 113,309. The Church of S. Paolo at Naples, formerly the

' The temples of Baalbec, probably built by Temple of Castor, shows the projections in the

Hadrian, and those of Palmyra by Aurelian, arc the entablature which we have remarked in the Forum

most colossal ruins of the Roman Corinthian order. of Nerva.

Introductio7i.

XXXV

■«iJ.';iii;',A'.<xl^ A WAV. .1.1AJ* W^>a'J

H.i'AlAlAIAMITTTi

their angular volutes so much enlarged that they might be easily mistaken
for those of the composite order, and the second ring of acanthus leaves is
diminished and almost hidden beneath the first; but the Corinthian character
is preserved by the presence of the smaller central volutes. The leaves are
remarkable for the very peculiar thistle-like mode in which their curves and
indentations are cut, and the lotus flower over the centre is of a much lareer

size than in the ordinary Corinthian capital. The date of this temple is
uncertain. Nibby refers it to the period of Roman architecture between

Sulla and Augustus, before the Greek rules
ot proportion were so completely recognized
as at a later time.'

The composite capital, for it can hanll\-
be called an order, as there is nothing in the
entablature or the base to distino-uish it i'vum
the Corinthian, was formed pro-
bably under the patronage of the
first Emperors. The earliest in-
stance we have of it now extant
in Rome is in the Arch of Titus
(see Fig. 8) ; and there are onh' three other
ruins where it is found. These are the Arch
of .Septimius Severus, the Arch of the Gold-
smiths, and the Baths of Diocletian, where it
is mixed up with Corinthian capitals. The
peculiar combination of which it consists, the
superposition of the Ionic volutes upon two
rings of Corinthian acanthus leaves, is not
generally considered a very happj- artistic
design. Hope says of it that " instead of
being a new creation of genius it gave evi
dence of poverty to invent and ignorance to combine ; " and Fergusson is
hardly less complimentary to the Roman architects."

But though we must deny to this Roman adaptation of Greek forms the
credit of originality, or even of symmetry of design, yet its rich appearance
was peculiarly suited to the lavish ornamentation with which the Roman
emperors delighted to trick out their palaces and halls, and it well represents

'Y'.V'.\',VA'AJA.'A!J

(3) Tothevtilgar
Icrce of ffi'trladen
ornavieutatioti.

The comf-rsiU
capital.

' Nibby, Viaggio, vol. L p. 159. See below, chap. ' Hope, Essays on Architecture, vol. i. p. 6S : Tcr-

xi/. gusson, Principles of .'Vrt, p. 482.

xxxvi Introduction.

to us the character of the Roman Imperial architecture, with its indiscriminate
combination of mouldings and profusion of gaudy detail.

We can trace the beginning of this faulty juxtaposition of incom-
patible forms even in the age of the revival of Greek architecture under
Augustus and the earlier emperors, when, as we learn from Vitruvius, the
strictest regard was in general paid to the Greek rules of pro-
Unmeaning portion. Vitruvius himself complains of the Romans for not
' deiaiis. observiug the golden principle of Greek architecture, that each
exterior ornament must express some real part of the building;^
and we find his strictures exemplified in several of the remaining temples in the
Roman Forum. In the entablature of the temples of Castor, of Concord
(a fragment of which may be seen in the corridor of the tabularium), and of
Vespasian, belonging respectively to the reigns of Augustus, Tiberius, and
Titus, and in the Thermie of Diocletian (S. Maria degli Angeli), the mistake is
committed of introducing into the cornice various ornaments which originally
represented the same part of the wooden roof, and ought not therefore to
be combined in the same building. It will be ob-served also that in the
cornices of the temples of Vespasian and of Castor some of the ornamental
work loses its significance by the incongruous mixture of designs." Between
the leaves of the so-called Ionic egg-moulding we have the original sprays
or stalks of the leaves changed into meaningless arrow-heads. The curve
of the cymatium, and other parts of the upper cornice, are overladen
with rich foliated work, which, however elegant in itself, is quite misplaced
in such a position.

This tendency to incongruous ornamentation shows itself also in the
variety displayed in the fluted shafts of the Imperial times. .Some of
these have a beading inserted between the flutings, while others have
half their length only fluted, or the upper half fluted in a different style
from the lower. Spiral and even horizontal fluting was some-
sionnmrk times iutroduccd, and occasionally a combination of the two.
Connected with these strange displays of the Roman want of
aesthetic perception of the beautiful in art was the effect necessarily pro-
duced by the use of foreign stone brought from all parts of the world. Huge
granite columns from Egypt and ponderous blocks of African marble were
constantly on their way up the Tiber to the Roman quays, where we still
find them lying in profusion, as if too common to be worth removal into

' Vitruv. iv. 2. Cicero, De Oratore, iii. 46, states sedium non venustas sed necessitas ipsa fabricata
the true principle which his countrymen afterwards est.'"
lost sight of: " Capitolii fastigium illud et ceterarum " See chap. vi. p. loi.

Introduction.

xxxvii

the great cit)-, glutted as she then was with the spoils of half the world.'
These stones were often too hard to be cut into the requisite shapes, as
in the case of granite or porphyry, or too richly veined and tinted to need
other embellishment than their own bright hues and lovely shades of colour.
They were therefore cut in any way which was calculated to show off their
gorgeous brilliancy, without regard to the rules of symmetry of proportion or
beauty of form. Plin)- records a remark of Cicero when his attention was
drawn to a wall built of exquisitely variegated Chian marble as a great work
of art : " I should have thought much more of it in that respect," said he, " if
you had made stone from Tibur (travertine) look as well as this does.'"' Not
only innumerable marbles, but a great variety of other stones enumerated by Pliny
were used in the decoration of the Roman Imperial buildings. The French
excavations on the Palatine hill have lately discovered to us the richness of
design displayed in ornamenting the palace of the Flavian emperors. At
least a hundred specimens of polished marble may be seen in the museum
there, of the most varied and beautiful colours, all of which were collected
in the ruins.'

Thus, from the lack of purity of taste and a want of adherence to the
natural and simple rules of art, the Roman buildings, clothed in their Greek
dresses, too often showed like the jackdaw in the fable tricked out with the
peacock's feathers. The sneers of the great architect Apollodorus at the
incongruity of the internal arrangement of Hadrian's masterpiece, the
Temple of Venus and Rome, with its exterior pretensions, cost him his life ;
but they were doubtless well deserved.* The core of that temple was
essentially Roman, consisting of huge vaulted roofs and hemispherical apses
of brick, around which the Greek columnar structure was wrapped, as if to cover
its nakedness. The Greek clothing of the interior of the Pantheon is another
notable instance of such a hybrid composition. In all this the great
deficiency of the Roman architects was, that they seemed blind to the
majestic capacity for beauty of that great invention, the arch, which they
themselves, from their peculiar circumstances, carried to such perfection,
and applied to such a variety of practical objects. Their greatest buildings,
such as the Coliseum, would have been much more dignified and noble

' On the different shapes — good, bai, and indiffer- ' Plin. N. H. xx,xvi. 6, 5, ed. SiUig.

cnt — introduced by way of variety into Roman archi- " See Caiii/uitii^e Journal of Philology, vol. ii. p. 88.

lecture in Imperial times, see Winckelmann, Essai Sen. Ep. Ixxxvi. 7: " Eo deliciarum venimus ut nisi

surl'Arch.jCEuvres, tom. ii. p. 630. Statius, Silv. iv. 2: gemmas calcarc nolimus." Apul. Met. lib. v. init. :

"/Emulusillic Mens Libys Iliacusque nitcnt, ct multa "Pavimcnta ipsa lapide pretioso CKsim diminuto in

Syene, et Chios, et glauca ccrtantia Doride saxa, varia pictura: genera discriminantur."

Lunaqueportandis tantum suffecta columnis." * Dion Cassius, Ixix. 4. See chap. viii. p. 170.

xxxviti Introduction.

had their designers omitted the unmeaning half-columns and capitals which are
stuck on their sides, and left the noble rows of arches in their unadorned
grandeur to tell their own tale.' No small part of the majesty of the
Coliseum, as a ruin, is due to the fact that the bare arches of the interior are
now, by the destruction of so large a portion of the exterior shell, exposed
in their natural strength and simplicity. The Romans never seem to have
taken that step in advance, afterwards made by the inventors of Gothic
architecture, the development of the decorative capabilities of the arch.

Accordingly, in the decorative parts of their porticoes, palaces, and patrician

residences, the Greek colonnade and horizontal entablature were

^iac'esT<^nd chiefly used, and no skilful union of the useful with the orna-

house mental was found. The great porticoes of the Campus IMartius

decorations. i i i n 11

probably had fiat entablatures and roofs, and were entirely
Hellenic ; so also were the exteriors of the palaces and houses on the
Palatine and Esquiline.- That the Golden House of Nero was chiefly in the
Greek style may be inferred from the enormous space it occupied. Hellenic
architecture had no upper floors or stories, and therefore necessarily occupied
a large area. This was natural in the Greek cities, where the population
was not crowded, and space was easily obtained for extensions on the ground-
floor. But if the requirements of an extravagant despot like Nero were
to be satisfied after Greek models, and he was, according to his own fancy,
to " be lodged as a man should be,"^ an enormous area was necessary to
provide for him. The descriptions we have of the Golden House show
how this was carried out. Three colonnades of a mile in length* formed
the limits of the great Imperial folly ; and it covered a great part of the
Esquiline, the northern slope of the Cselian, the whole of the Coliseum
valley, and the Velia as far as the Arch of Titus. Many parts of Hadrian's
great villa near Tibur were not only built, but named after specific Greek
buildings. He had a Paicile there, a Palaestra, a Lyceum, and a Prytaneum.*
At a much later date the vast palace of Diocletian at Spalatro exhibits
still the same reluctance to resign the Greek decorative features, although
their structural meaning is lost. The same ornamental network of columns
and half-columns and pilasters is spread over the walls here, as in the older

1 The Septizonium was perhaps the worst instance Meleagri, Pwticus Flaminia, &c. &c. Arches sup-

of this kind of meaningless decoration. The Amphi- ported on columns were not commonly used,

theatre of Verona, on the contrary, has no columns, » Mart. De Spect. 2 ; Suet. Ner. 31, " quasi homi-

and shows a more simple taste. nem tandem habitare cospisse."

' See chaps, viii. and xiii. for illustrations. On ' Suet. loc. cit.

the Campus were the Porticus Pote, Porticus Eu- * See Ligorio's description, Rome, 1751 : and

ropas, Porticus Vipsania, Porticus Neptuni, Porticus Hist. Aug. Hadr. 26.

Introduction. xxxix

palaces of Rome.' Rows of triangular pediments, sometimes truncated,
sometimes rounded, with other scattered and mangled limbs of the Greek
facade, are here to be seen planted without meaning against the interior walls
to break their extended flat surfaces. One great step, however, towards the
artistic union of the column and arch, which the want of genius for combina-
tion long prevented the Romans from making, is found in the palace of
Diocletian. The spaces between the columns are bridged over by means of
arches instead of flat entablatures ; and thus colonnades are changed into
arcades, and a union effected afterwards prolific of beautiful forms in modern
architecture.

A step towards this had already been taken in the triumphal arches of
the Romans ; and yet their servile adherence to Greek forms of decoration, and
the poverty of their invention, were not less glaringly displayed in that class
of buildings. The triumphal arch could be claimed as a creation
of the national warlike character ; " it was intended primarily to arcjie's'l'Itrla s
perpetuate the fame of a victorious general, to picture his exploits, coiu7nns, and
and to raise his effigy above the rest of mankind. But though
these arches are upon the whole some of the most successful efforts of purely
Roman architecture, because the real and solid constructive parts occupy
the most prominent place, yet Greek decorations are dragged in even here. The
Romans placed an unmeaning front of pedestal, column, and capital, with abacus,
frieze, and entablature, upon the surface of their massive piers of masonry,
"thus tying, as the tyrant Mezentius did, the dead to the living."' The three
great triumphal archways of Titus, Septimius Severus, and Constantine at
Rome, and also the Arch of Drusus, are decorated with this foreign dress-
In the Arch of Constantine alone the columns which stand in front are, in
some measure, justified by the statues they support. Of the minor archways
at Rome, that of Gallienus has Corinthian pilasters in the roughest style of
art; the Janus Ouadrifrons, in the Forum Boarium, probably once had rows
of Corinthian columns between its niches,^ and the small gateway near it has
decorative pilasters with composite capitals. On the other hand, the Arch of

' The Thermae of Diocletian at Rome (S. Maria oribus ora." Hope, Essays on Architecture, vol. i.

degli Angeli) were the great repertorium whence p. 67. The first triumphal arch recorded is that

the architects of the Renaissance borrowed the pat- of Stertinius, B.C. 196: Livy, xx.xiii. 27. Scipio

terns for their niches with columns on each side, Africanus and Fabius Maximus afterwards erected

their broken cornices and pediments, and their rows arches: Livy, xxxvii. 3 : see chap. vi. p. 104. The whole

of columns without entablatures. Winckelmann, number of ornamenial arches at Rome was thirty-

Essai sur I'Arch. torn. ii. p. 633. six : Preller, Reg. p. 234. Reber, Gesch. der Bauk.

' Plin. xxxiv. 12. § 27. S. 424, gives a list of seventeen extant arches in

» Virg. v4Ln. viii. 485: •' .Mortuaquin etiam jungebat Italy. France, Spain, and .Africa,
corpora vivis, cnmponens manibusque manus atque * See chap. xii. p. 287.

f 2

iniroduciioH.

Dolabella, on the Cselian, which has a single line as cornice, and the Porta
S. Lorenzo are examples of the impressive effect of a plain arch without Greek
ornament. The Porta Maggiore may, perhaps, be classed with these ; but
though it exhibits the sterling merits of Roman architecture in its massive

ARCH UF TITUS.

rustic arches of travertine, it also shows the defects not less plainly.' The
unmeaning pediments and tasteless columns, with which the exterior is
adorned, remind us of Pope's receipt for the front of a villa : " Clap four
slices of pilaster on't ; that laid with bits of rustic makes a front."

' See woodcut on page 65.

/jitroduclion. y\[

The high stylobate or joedestal, placed under a Ci)lumn, first makes its
appearance in the gateways and triumplial arches of the Imperial acre.
The Porta Maggiore and the Arch of Constantine afford specimens of
columns so mounted, as it were, on stilts. The Temple at Assisi, and two
Roman buildings at Palmyra, are cited by W'inckelmann as the only cases
in which separate stylobates are found in larger edifices.' These columns
on pedestals were frequently imitated in the Renaissance period.

The idea of placing a statue upon the top of a column was, apparently,
unknown to the Greeks ; or, at least, was never carried out by them on the
immense scale of the two great Roman columns of Trajan and Marcus
Aurelius." Such a mode of employing the column would have seemed
strange to Greek architectural ideas, in which a column was always used for
the purpose of supporting a flat entablature. The column thus employed
is, in fact, nothing more than a huge pedestal, which must necessarily be out
of all proportion to the statue it carries on its summit, and the spiral band
of sculptures with which the shaft is ornamented have their effect destroyed
by the impossibility of seeing them in a horizontal line. It must not, however,
be forgotten that the column of Trajan was erected partly to show the vast
labour expended in levelling the sides of the Ouirinal and CapitoHne
for the construction of his Forum, and that it was enclosed within a
narrow court, and did not rise much above the buildings
which immediately surrounded it.^ It is not known whether in
the case of the column of Marcus Aurelius any buildings were thus placed
close round it. The adjoining colonnades seem, as far as can be concluded
trom their remains, to have stood at some little distance.

Colossal columns were as genuine a creation of Imperial Rome as
triumphal arches. In both, the sculpture has become subordinate to the
pedestal on which it is supported. In the Republican era some of the statues
in the Comitium stood upon columns ; but these were on a much smaller
scale, and proportioned to the height of the statues themselves.* Some
columnar monuments, as the columna rostrata of Duilius, were made to
carry symbolic ornaments or trophies instead of statues. A column of Numidian
marble was erected in honour of Julius Caesar in the Forum ;" and after his death
honorary columns became very frequent in the Imperial age, not onl)- at Rome,
but in the provinces, as at Alexandria, Constantinople, Ancyra, and Cussy

' Sec Pirancsi, Maf;n. de Rom. tab. 38, fig. i. ^ Sec the remarks in chap. vii. p. 146. The pi.'laiot
■■' Hlin. xx.\iv.6, 12 : " Columnarum ratio erat attulli Antoninus Pius was a monolith of red syenite. Sec-
super ceteros mortalcs ; quod ct arcus significant chap. xiii. p. 333.
novicio inventa" •* Plin. loc. cit. ' See chap. vi. p. 11::.

CoUmuis.

XlU

Introdtiction.

la Colonne, twelve miles from Beaune in Burgundy. They had die advantage,
in an ao-e of declining art, of concealing the defects of the statues erected at
such a heitdit above the eye ; and when the Roman world afterwards became
full of empty adulation, it was a cheap method of flattery to a patron to steal
stones for a pedestal and a handsome column from the ruined temples, and erect
them, with a fulsome inscription in his honour. Such is the column of Phocas
in the Forum Romanum, a cento of fragments filched from some older buildings.^
Not more originality of design or elegance of taste is displayed in the
decorations of the Roman tombs than in those of the triumphal
arches and columns. The sarcophagus of Scipio Barbatus has been
already noticed as an incongruous adaptation of Greek forms of ornamental
work. Innumerable varieties of such adaptations might doubtless have been
seen on all the principal roads leading out of Rome ; but all these have now
been stripped of their Hellenic marble facings and reduced to mere cores of
brickwork. We may form some idea of the forms they generally assumed from
the tombs at the Gate of Pompeii, which are mostly built in square or cubical
stacres, and present pediments, pilasters, and columns in different combinations.
The tomb of Mamia at Pompeii, as restored by Mazois, is the miniature
frontispiece of a Greek temple, with columns, entablature, and pediment com-
plete." Of this kind is also the tomb of Bibulus in the Via di Marforio at
Rome, which has Doric pilasters and an Ionic entablature. Many tombs had
a small peripteral or pseudo-peripteral cella mounted upon a cubical block.
Such is the monument at S. Remy near Tarascon in France, which has a square
base ornamented with bas-reliefs, and bearing a circular monopteral temple.

Egyptian forms were however sometimes employed, as in the pyramidal
tomb of Cestius at the Porta S. Paolo, or Etruscan, as in the conical structure,
commonly called the tomb of the Horatii and Curiatii near Albano. The bread-
contractor's tomb, representing a pile of bread-baskets, which still stands at the
outside of the Porta Maggiore, is an original but not a very pleasing design.^
Foreign architectural forms, especially those of the Greek temple, were also
reproduced in the rock-hewn tombs of the Romans. Few of these
are to be found in the neighbourhood of Rome, as might be anti-
cipated iVom the nature of the rocks. There are, however, some on the
Flaminian road, and one very remarkable instance is to be seen in the
garden of the monastery of Palazzola, on the edge of the Alban lake.'' The
rock-hewn tombs of Petra, once a much-frequented Roman station, present

' Chap. vi. p. 1 17. ' See Dyers Pompeii, p. 530. in Monumenti dell' Inst. 1830, Plate xiii. The

■' Secchap. viii. 197; Nibby, Viaggio, torn. ii. p. 143 ; cones probably represent the mctas of the circus.

Monumenti dell' Inst. 1837, Plate xxxix. Compare Hence the popular name of the Meta Sudans.

with this strange device the tomb of Porsena figured ^ Nibby, Viaggio, torn. ii. p. 125.

Introduction.

xiiu

most extravagant instances of the Roman misapplication of columnar archi-
tecture. The facades of these tombs, exquisitely cut in rose-coloured sand-
stone, consist of a crowded medley of meaningless columns, half-columns,
pilasters with curved or truncated entablatures, and pediments similar to those
found in the Pantheon and in the still existing ruins of the eastern hemicycle
of Trajan's Forum. ^

Far more characteristic of the Roman national taste in architecture are the
huge cylindrical masses of stonework based upon square platforms, cylindrical
of which the mausolea of Augustus and Hadrian in Rome, and *"'"'"■
the tombs of Caecilia Metella on the Appian way and of Plautius on the
bridge over the Anio at Tibur, are the most conspicuous examples. The
ponderous walls of these massive and indestructible marvels of masonr}-
were essentially Roman ; but there the originality of their construction ends.
We find, again, a strange combination of Orientalism with Hellenism in their
outer decorative dress. The Mausoleum of Augustus was covered with
terraces and trees in imitation of the Temple ot Belus at Babylon, and the
Mausoleum of Hadrian was dressed up with the usual show array of
pilasters, columns, and statues."

Among the architectural decorations of Rome must also be reckoned the
great colonnades of the Campus Martins^ and the arcades of the fora
and streets. The colonnades were built in the Greek fashion, "Arcada'
wnth horizontal architraves of marble, and in some of them great
magnificence was doubtless displayed. The arcades which were built by Nero
along the principal streets were, on the contrary, constructed on piers, sup-
porting arches and vaults of brickwork or concrete. They were specimens
of the genuine Roman architecture in its unadorned simplicity and practical
utility, for they served the double purpose of shelter from the sun and rain,
and also of giving assistance in case of fire to the upper stories of the houses.

Not only imitation, but actual appropriation of the decorative works of
Greece and other countries helped to adorn the streets and fora, the public
buildings and arcades of Rome. The walls of their halls and temples were
hung with the pictures of Zeuxis, Timanthus, Apelles, Aristides, and the
other great masters of Grecian painting,* and filled with statues in bronze,
ivory, and marble brought from Athens and Corinth.^ Of all the foreign

* See pp. 142,328. * Plin. N. H. xxxv. § 60 — 150; Rochette, Pein-

' For the Mausoleum of Augustus, see chap. xiii. tures Antiques.

pp. 343, 344; the Mausoleum of Hadrian, duip. xi. * Preller, Reg. p. 231, gives from the Breviarium the

p. 272. The planting of trees upon a sepulchral following enumeration: 22 colossal cqucsirian statues,

tumulus is mentioned in Homer, II. vi. 419. Hl<e that of Marcus .A.urclius on the Capitol ; So gilt

' See chap. xiii. pp. 309, 316, 319, 331. statues of gods, like that of the Capitolinc Jupiter :

Obelisks.

xliv Introdjictioii.

architectural ornaments collected in Rome, perhaps the most conspicuous were
the Egyptian obelisks of syenite, which the emperors brought from
the East and erected in the spinae of the Circi. The Curiosum
and Notitia mention only six of these, but the remains of eleven have been
found at Rome.^ In Egypt obelisks were always used in pairs, and erected at
the entrance of the great temple portals, close to other gigantic monuments of
nearly the same size and height The two obelisks set in front of the great
temple at Karnak overtopped the portico but little, and were in such a
position suitably and naturally placed." But the Romans, viewing them only
as trophies of their vast Imperial dominion, cared but little to render them
effective by placing them in appropriate situations. The Mausoleum of
Auo-ustus was indeed decorated in the true Egyptian style, with a pair of
these monoliths at the portal, but in general they were not placed near
anythino- of equal height, and presented nearly as forlorn and naked an
appearance as those in the modern squares of Rome.^

In proportion, however, as the architectural taste of the Romans deteriorated,
their eneineering- skill seemed to grow. In the employment of

(4) The -Mint ° ° ... .

of height, size, the arch in great works of engineering skill, and in the develop-
Romefomp'eUed ment of its useful Capabilities, the Romans have been the great
theRomansto teachers of the world. Neither the Assyrians nor the Egyptians,

iisethearch, and ••tri iii i-

to employ h-ieks to whom the pnuciple of the arch, both round and pomted, was
asmata-iai. ^^ kuown, employed it except on a very moderate scale, and
that chiefly in subterranean works.^ Nor was the arch often used in any of
the sacred buildings at Rome except in the interior, A superstitious dread
of offending the deities by altering the form of their temples was quite sufficient

74 ivor)' statues, like that of Minen-a in the Forum time. The final robbery was committed in the

of Augustus (Paus. viii, 46; Suet. Tit. 2); 3,785 seventh century, when Constans II, carried the

bronze statues. In the time of the Republic most greater part of the Roman works of art to Con-

of the statues stood in the Forum and Area Capito- stantinople. (Anast. Vit. S. Vital. Mirabilia Rom.

lina, but there were also collections in the Temple p. 23, ed. Parthey, 1869,)

of Honour and Virtue of Marcellus, in the colonnade ^ Zocga, De Obeliscis, cap, iv. Besides those at

of Metellus, and in the Atrium Libertatis of Asi- Rome, obelisks brought by the Romans have been

nius Pollio. Augustus and Agrippa ornamented all found at Constantinople, Catana, Arelate, \'elletri,

the corners of the streets, the public fountains, and Benevento, and at Wansted in England.

the porticoes, parks, therms, and theatres with J See Reber, Gesch. der Baukunst, p. 167 ; Fer-

works of art. At a later time the Forum Ulpiuni gusson, Arch, vol, i. p. 108.

was filled with statues of celebrated personages ; and ^ The medijeval name for obelisks was agulia;

Alexander Severus is particularly mentioned as (aculeus). Besides those mentioned in the Curiosum,

having taken great pains in the erection of such there was one in the gardens of Sallust, another in the

monuments. (Hist. Aug. Ale.x. Ser. 24, 25, 27.) Circus of Maxentius, another in the Circus of Heho-

Many of the great works of art were carried away to gabalus, and another in the Iseum and Serapeum in

Constantinople; but Cassiodorus (Var. vii. 15, viii. the Campus.

13, X. 30) speaks of a large number — especially ot * See above, p. .\xiv., note 7.

bronze statues — as still remaining in Theodoric's

Introduction. ^]^.

to prevent any improvement in tliat department of architecture so lono- as
Paganism lasted ; and even if this difficulty could have been o-ot over the
Romans had no notion of making an arch ornamental as well as useful. But
the increasing numbers of the Roman people, their gregarious habits, the
necessity under the emperors for providing amusement and excitement on a
large scale, and the pre-eminently practical genius of the race, soon pro-
duced their natural effects upon the national buildings. The Hellenic forms
of public buildings, which sufficed for petty towns like Athens, or Corinth.
or Ephesus, were totally inadequate to the conditions required in the metro-
polis of the w^orld.

The population of Athens was probably less than 200,000,' while that of Rome
w^as at least 1,000,000.- To afford room for the vast assemblies of people who
would naturally meet in the public halls of so large a city, the columnar structures
of the Greeks were insufficient. Height, it was true, might have been obtained
in their buildings by employing shafts of colossal dimensions ; but then the diffi-
cult)' of supporting the roof naturally arose. If the columns were placed so close
together, as to allow the old short horizontal architraves of stone to be laid
from the top of one capital to the next, a forest of great columns crowded
together, such as the temple at Karnak contains, would have been the result ;
and this would have ill suited the gregarious habits of the Romans.

The ancient plan of timber architraves and roofs was equally objectionable,
for Rome had suffered so often and so much b)- fires that a natural dread
would be felt of combustible materials. And the Romans, even from the
earliest times, as the massive structure of the Cloaca shows, despised all
merely temporary and destructible work, and strove to combine the oreatest
possible utility and solidity in their buildings.

From the determination to supply these needs arose the two oreat charac-
teristic features of Roman architecture — the use of brickwork, and of the vaulted
arch. To carrj- a sufficient quantity of travertine for the whole mass of a laro-e
building from the distant quarries near Tibur was an expensive and laborious
task ; and the tufa stone of the Roman hills was not only unpleasin<»- in
appearance, but soft, easily disintegrated by the weather, and unavailable for
exterior walls. The Romans, therefore, had recourse to brickwork, a mode of
building long before practised by the Etruscans, their earliest teachers in art,'
and facilitated at Rome by the abundant beds of e.xcellent clay to be found

' Bockh's Economy, chap. vii. p. 58. brick (V'itruv. ii. 8 ; Plin. xx.w. 173), and some parts

- -See Merivale, vol. iv. chap. xl. ; Bureau de la of those at Vcii (Dennis, Etruria, vol. i. pp. 15, i6j.

y\.TA\Q.'m\\\e. Mc'moiirs lie V Academic des Inscr.xiz':,. The Greek brick buildings arc noticed by riin.

^ The walls of Arrctium and Mevania were of xxxv. 172.

xlvi

Introduction.

on the western bank of the Tiber, and by the unrivalled mortar which could be
made from the granular tufa (pozzolana) of their hills u'hen mixed with lime.
Roman brickwork and cement has become one of the marvels of the world.
Even the damp and rotting climate of the Western Islands, where all stones
decay, has not injured those well-known blocks of long, thin, flat bricks and
stony concrete.

The earliest Instance of the use of concrete (fartura) at Rome is in the nn'ns
of the Emporium, B.C. 195.^ We find there a mass of concrete of

Roman rouo^h stones mixed with mortar, and faced with reticulated work.

brick watts. ^

The same mode of construction appears again in the Muro Torto," at the
corner of the Pincian hill, commonly said to be of the time of Sulla. An immense
core of artificial concrete is there still remaining, as hard as a natural conglomerate
rock. The improvements in the public walks have, unfortunately, of late years
diminished this interesting mass of masonry considerably. The exterior surface
is made of small pieces of tufa, wath flat diamond-shaped faces, and wedge-shaped
bases. These pointed bases w^ere pressed into the concrete while it was still
wet, so that the diagonals of their faces are horizontal and vertical, while the
joints run in slanting lines. The name of opus reticulatum is commonly given to
this kind of work. Sometimes the pieces of which the facing was made were
irregularly placed, so as to present the appearance of polygonal masonrjr ; and
this seems to have been preferred, in many cases, from the greater solidity of
the joints when irregular. The appearance was not much considered, as such
walls were frequently covered with stucco.

Many concrete walls w-ere faced with regular courses of bricks Instead of
these bits of stone ; and In some we find the facing of opus reticulatum combined
v.ith courses of bricks, giving a sort of panel-work appearance to the wall ; and
in other and later buildings, as the Circus of Maxentius, the brickwork Is
alternated with rough facings of brick-shaped tufa stones. The regular brick-
work walls of the time of the early emperors are the most skilfully constructed.^
The bricks used In them are flat like tiles, and the joints most carefully fitted
with a thin layer of mortar. A more negligent style Is found In the buildings of
the Middle Empire ; the bricks became thicker, and the mortar less evenly and
compactly laid.'' It followed, naturally enough, when the great development of

' Beschreibung Roms, Synchronistische Tabellen. Nimes, p 59"! says: "I muri fatti z. pietre quadrate

- Chap. X. p. 260. dichiarono il tempo degli Etruschi, I'hiccrio rcticolato

3 Beschreibung Roms, vol. i. p. 1S9. The brick- il principio della Romana repubhca. \\ certo reticolato

work of the first century was the best. After the il fior della stessa, ed il ntkolato allcrnante con la-

Antonine era it deteriorated. The kinds of bricks icrizio il declinare della medesima : il lalcrisio i

arc described by Vitruv. ii. 3, and ii. 8, 16. tempi d'.'Vugusto et degli imperatori sequenti sino all'

J Ciampini on the different kinds of construction anno 200 deli' era volgare ; ed // latcrizio altcriiantc

used at different epochs (Pelet. L'Amphith^atre de a strati ditofo\\.e.m^\i:\ G allien o e tutto il declinar

Introduction. xlvii

Roman building took place under the emperors, that conveniendy situated beds
of clay and brick-kilns became very desirable property, and that the excellences
of various kinds of bricks were compared, and the bricks of certain kilns
preferred. Partly from this reason, and pardy in order to preserve a record
of the date of a building, the larger bricks were stamped with the name of the
proprietor of the kiln, and sometimes with the names of the consuls of the year.
Large numbers of these stamps (bolli) have been collected and illustrated by
the Roman antiquaries.^ The names found upon them include those of persons
of high and even imperial rank, who owned kilns in the neighbourhood of
Rome. The core and main body of the great Imperial buildings always
consisted of concrete, with brick, or tufa, or marble facings ; and the
famous boast of Augustus, that he found Rome built of brick and left it
built of marble, referred solely to the outer casing of the public buildings with
panel-work of marble, the remains of the fastenings of which may still be seen
on some ruins in Rome.'

But even after the art of wall buildinof had been carried to the greatest
perfection, there remained the difficulties of roofing in the enormous spaces
required for the crowds who spent their lives in the public baths, theatres,
and amphitheatres of Rome. Greek architecture, when carried out
on a large scale, required enormous blocks for the architraves, and ""/^jX/^""'
for the far-projecting cornice, such as we now see in the fragments
of the baths of Constantine in the Colonna Gardens at Rome,* and in the
temples of Baalbec and Palmyra. The expense of labour and time required
in cutting, carrying, raising, and laying such huge blocks was so great, and
the result so inadequate, that the practical mechanical genius of the Romans
soon discovered a new method of roof-construction to meet the exigencies
of the case. The old semicircular stone arches were found to be too heavy
when constructed of the requisite span, and required enormously thick walls
to support them. Recourse was therefore had to the lighter material of bricks,
and the employment of these in vaulted arches removed the difficulty, and
caused an entirely novel and fundamental change in the principles of the
construction of roofs.* At the same time the arch was also introduced into

deir Impero ; selce, croste di marino, e mattoni i Terentians, Fulviance, are among the most con-
tempi di Theodorico ; il tiimultuario aggregate a spicuous.

cemento quei di Belisario ; i quaiirilateri bisliuighi di 2 As in those on the Palatine hill, and at the Baths

tofo e mattoni i giorni di Carlo Magno sino al 1,000, of Caracalla, and in the great basiliciB.

del qual epoca degenero la construzione dei muri in ' See p. 256.

opera tumultuaria e cemento e continua sino ai tempi * "It was the Romans with their tiles who first really

present!." understood the true employment of the arch." — Fer-

' Sec Becker and Marquardt's Hdbh. Bd. v. i, p. gusson, .-Vrch. i. p. 188.
167. The tiglinae Domitiana;, Augustanse, Caninianae,

xlviii Introduction.

wall building. The lightening of the roof made it possible to lessen the
ponderous thickness of the supporting walls, and to relieve their monotonous
flat surfaces with arched perforations. Even lighter materials than brick were
occasionally employed. We find pumice stones introduced in the vaulted
arches of the Coliseum, Pantheon, and Thermse of Caracalla;' and in the
Circus of Maxentius and other ruins empty jars of pottery are to be seen
built into the concrete vaulting to diminish the weight and to save materials.
The vaulted arch, constructed with tiles as voussoirs, and concrete of great
thickness, ornamented with coffers of rich stucco work, or with mosaic patterns,
became, in the Imperial times, the usual mode of construction in all build-
iu'Ts, from the ordinary rooms in houses to the vast halls of the public edifices.
The ruins on the Palatine hill, the great Basilica of Constantine, and the
Thermse of Caracalla and Diocletian still show, in their huge vaults and masses
of brickwork, the mechanical skill of the Roman architects. Three remaining
arches of the Basilica of Constantine are sixty-eight feet in span, and eighth-
feet in height from the ground ; and the vaulted concrete roof of the nave was
eighty feet in span, and one hundred and fifteen feet in height." They delighted
in forming the most varied and novel combinations by crossing their vaults in
different directions, by forming domes and semi-domes, and by introducing the
arch into every part of their buildings. The dome of the Pantheon shows at
how early a period under Augustus they had carried the mechanical art of cupola
building to the perfection of solidity and durability. With all their wonderful
skill in brickwork, and in the construction of walls, arches, and vaulted roofs, there
remained a stiffness and inflexibility in the forms they employed, which showed
an inability to diverge from their received models. As in the mouldings of
their decorative work they had confined themselves to arcs of the circle only,
excluding the other curves employed by the Greeks, so in their arches they
made use of the semicircle only, thus sacrificing variety to solidity. And
while skill in engineering works and mechanical contrivance made rapid
advances among them, the genius to imagine and power to adapt new
ornamental additions in harmony with the new structural forms seemed to
be entirely wanting. Unable quite to shake off their Greek fetters, they still

1 Hirt, Gesch. dcr Bauk. ii. p. 402 ; Winckelmann, Rotondo at Rome are built in the same way. Fea,

Obs. sur I'Arch. vol. ii. pp. 554 — 556. The vaulted Notes on Winckelmann, loc. cit.

roofs of the Romans were made by simply piling a - The roof of the Diribitorium was the largest in

great thickness of concrete upon the centres and Rome, but constructed of wood. It was pulled down

leaving it to consolidate. The concrete is ih feet because it was not considered safe. Some of the

thick in some of the vaulted roofs of the thermse beams were 100 feet in length. Plin. N.H. xvi. § 201.

.It Rome. The cupola of the Church of S. Vitale, Flat roofs of timber cannot usually be made more

at Ravenna, is constructed of hollow pipes of pot- than 25 feet wide with safety. Fergusson, Arch. vol.

tery, and parts of the arches surrounding S. Stefano i. p 158.

Int7-odnctio}i.

xlix

sometimes covered up their arches with horizontal entablatures and pediments,
and a mask of marble devices, in no way connected with the real parts of the
building they concealed.

A prodigious displa)- of constructive energy followed the adoption of the
new features in their architecture. Not only Italy itself, but the provinces of
the remotest west and east, were covered with huge engineering undertakings,
in the shape of aqueducts, bridges, viaducts, amphitheatres, basilicas, and
thermae. Under Trajan and Hadrian the rage for building reached its height.
The Ulpian Forum, for which a space was cleared between the Ouirinal and
Capitoline nearly equal to the area of the other three imperial fora in Rome, w^as
long one of the wonders of the world ; ^ and the Villa of Hadrian, near Tibur,

occupied the space of an ordinary
Italian town, eight miles in circuit,
and contained within itself a circus,
three theatres, huge thermae, an imita-
tion of the Vale of Tempe,of Tartarus,
and of the Elysian fields." All these,
to judge by the remains, were rather
remarkable for their colossal size and
for the imperial grandeur and force
they expressed, than for their beauty
of proportion or design. The Romans
were in fact rather engineers than
architects, and throughout their build-
ings they made elegance of appear-
ance entirely subservient to practical
utility.

Among the buildings appropriated
to the public service at Rome, none
were more important than the Basilica;.
Although their name is

Greek,' yet they were

Fig. 9.

Basilica:.

Buildings for
public utility.

essentially a Roman crea-
tion, and were used for
practical purposes peculiarly Roman, — the administration of law, and the
transaction of merchants' business. Historically, considerable interest attaches

' Amm. .Marc. xvi. 10. -' .See cliap. xiv. Pausan. i. 3, i ; i. 14, 6: Aristoph. Eccl. 684. In

» The name probably originated in the piaa.'Xeior Stat. Sylv. i. 30, the Basihca of Paullus is caUcd
oToa at Athens, the court of the .Archon ^aaCKili. legia.

1 Introduction.

to them from their connection with the first Christian Churches. The name
of Basilica was applied by the Romans equally to all large buildings intended
for the special needs of public business, and it does not appear to have
referred to the particular form in which such buildings were arranged, so
much as to the uses they served. Generally, however, they took the form
most adapted to their purposes — a semicircular apse or tribunal for legal
trials, and a central nave, with arcades and galleries on each side, for the
transaction of business (see Fig. 9). They existed not only as separate build-
ings, but also as reception rooms attached to the great mansions of Rome.
The villa of the Gordian family on the Via Praenestina contained three
basilicas, each a hundred feet long,^ and a ground-plan of a basilica attached to
the Emperor's palace has lately been discovered upon the Palatine hill."

It is the opinion of some writers that these private basilicse, and not the
public edifices, served as the model for the Christian Basilica.^ The first
public basilicoe were intend'ed to serve as extensions of the fora, in which
shelter could be had from the weather, and interviews carried on without
interruption. The public men of Rome, as well as the merchants, probably
appeared in them to afford opportunities for conversation on politics or busi-
ness to those who wished to communicate news to them or ask their advicC*
The convenience of a basilica therefore required that it should be as spacious
as a covered building could be made, and should have, in connection with the
central area, some rooms for merchants or notaries' offices. Whether the
primitive basilicse at Rome borrowed their ground-plan from the Greek stoa
or not is a disputed question. The Stoa of the Hellanodicae at Elis, de-
scribed by Pausanias as consisting of three parallel naves divided by columns,
seems to present the model upon which most of the great basilicae at Rome
were planned, but the description is so brief as to leave us in doubt.^

The /Emilian Basilica in the Forum Romanum is the first of which we
have any structural knowledge. A fragment of the Capitoline map, which
is supposed to give the ground-plan of this building, shows it as divided
into several naves Ijy rows of columns. The plan of the Basilica Julia has
been discovered by excavations carried on during the last ten years, and
shows us a central rectangular nave with a double arcaded corridor on all
the four sides. There is no trace of columns having been used, but the

1 Hist. Aug. Gordian. 32. See chap. xiv. observari videmur et coli. Basilicarum loca adjiincta

^ Szn Cambridge Journal of Philology,\o\.\\.-^.Z\. foris . . . ut per hiemem sine molestia tenipestatum

* Zeitschrift fiirchristlichen Archa:ologie; Leipszic, se conferre in eas negotiatores possint." Vitruv. v. i.
1859. " Pausan. vi. 24, 2 : lisv aroiiv Se >J irpos fji«nifij3fiiai'

* Cic. Pro Mur^na, 70 : "Si intcrdum ad forum de- •pyaa-las eVri Tf;s Aiofiiov, Bimpoitri St avTr/t) «V fiuipui rpeU
ducimur, si uno basilicee spatio honcstamur, diligenter o! tcioves.

Introdtiction. jj

arcades were supported by solid piers of masonry with pilasters, and
resembled the arcades underneath the seats of the Coliseum. Nor was
there any apse in the Julian Basilica, a part which is usually considered
characteristic of this class of building.

Vitruvius gives a description of a basilica built by himself at Fanum (Fano)
in Umbria. In this building, one of the longer sides formed the front facino-
the forum, as in the Basilica Julia, but it differed in having a semicircular
tribunal on the other longer side, with a Temple of Augustus attached to it. From
Vitruvius' description it appears that the Roman architects allowed themselves
great freedom as to the arrangements of their buildings, and did not by any
means rigidly adhere to one type.

The basilica at Pompeii is an oblong, with one of the shorter sides turned
towards the forum, and has in front a chalcidium or portico. There is no
apse, but a raised square platform served as the tribunal. In the great Ulpian
Basilica there were four naves divided by rows of columns, and two tribunals,
or semicircular apses, in the shorter sides of the oblong.^

Other differences of form are to be found in the ancient Italian basilicEe,=
which show that the shape of such buildings depended upon the space
to be occupied and upon the taste of the architect, and was not regu-
lated by any strict rules of construction. None of them were, it is pro-
bable, very ornamental buildings ; and certainly that one of which we have the
most relics left, the great Basilica of Constantine, was rather a stupendous
exhibition of mechanical skill than a building with any pretence to beauty of
form. The interior was, it is true, ornamented with colossal columns and
marble sculpture, and the monotony of the huge vaulted roof relieved b)-
coffers and rosettes, but the exterior was very ungainly and heavy in appear-
ance. We find in it three naves, the central one higher than the rest, and
so arranged that, whether the building was entered from the side next the
Sacra Via or from that next to the Temple of Venus and Rome, it presented
a triple division of the interior, with an apse at the end of each central division
opposite to the entrance.^ It is perhaps due to the protection of the massive
arches of the roof (which at the present day support a large kitchen garden)
that this basilica has so long survived its contemporaries, most of which had
timbered roofs, and were therefore liable to destruction by fire.

Several buildings were erected by the Emperors for the purpose of pre-
serving large collections of manuscripts. The Library of Asinius Pollio was

' See chap. vii. p. 144, and plan of the Fora of the is a single nave only. Ilirt. r/cscli. der Baukunst,
Emperors. ii. p. 222. See below, chap. .\iv.

- In the basilicas at Prasncste and Aquinum there ' See chap. viii. p. 166.

Libraries.

Hi Introduction.

the first public library at Rome, but we know nothing of its size or archi-
tectural arrangements.' The famous Palatine Library of Augustus
seems to have been connected with the Temple of the Palatine
Apollo by a colonnade, and was itself a large hall capable of containing a
colossal statue of Apollo.' ^^"hether the poetical descriptions of Propertius
and Ovid aj^ply to the library building itself, or to the Temple of Apollo,
or to the colonnades attached to them, is not certain.''

We know more about the plan of the Library of Trajan, which formed a
part of the group of buildings surrounding his forum. One side of it is
represented on the Capitoline map as a rectangular building, standing to the
north of the eastern tribune. The interior has a row of columns running
round it, and it is flanked by the columns of the basilica on one side, and
by those of the Temple of Hadrian on the other. There was a corresponding
building on the other side of the small square court in which the pillar stood ;
and in one of these was the Greek, and in the other the Latin library. This
mode of division into two departments, connected by an atrium ornamented
with the busts and statues of famous literary men, seems to have been the
usual form of Roman public libraries.^ The library at the Porticus Octavise
was probably a double building.^

The facilities for public traffic between the different parts of Rome were
lono- nesflected, and the streets havinsj been rebuilt, after the
Gallic conflagration, without a regular plan, must have been
crooked and inconvenient. But as soon as the nation found itself in posses-
sion of funds available for works of public utility, the streets, roads,
and bridges were taken in hand, and methods of construction adopted, the
solidity and massive strength of which was as unrivalled as that of the
Roman masonry."

An examination of the existing Roman roads has shown that they were
constructed exactly according to the rules laid down b)' Yitruvius for the
pavement of floors ; '' and this is further confirmed by a passage of Statius,
describing the reconstruction of a part of the Appian road by Domitian.'

I See Preller, Reg. p. 219. Twenty-eight libraries ■* See chap. vii. p. 146, and the plan of the Forum

are catalogued by the Regionaries and Mirabilia. Trajani. Preller, Reg. p. 220.

Plin. N. H. vii. 115. ' Ibid, xxxiv. 43. ° See chap. xiii. p. 310.

' Propert. ii. 31, 3 : Ov. Trist. iii. i, 6r. Seechap. ° Strabo, v. p. 235. Tolls were taken on paved

viii. p. 175. A recitation room w\as at a later period roads for repairs. Bull, d'lust. 1S45, p. 132 ; 1847,

attached to the Palatine Library. See Plin. Ep. i. 13. p. 174.

Perhaps the lecture room lately excavated may have ' Vitruv. vii. i ; N'ibby, Dissert, delle Wn degli

been the place to which Pliny here alludes. Ca7n- Antichi.

bridge Philolog. Journal, vol. ii. p. 87. ' Stat. Sylw iv. 3, 40 — 53.

Introditction. ];;;

'•'If the pavement is to be laid," says Vitruvius, "on the ground-floor, it
must first be ascertained whether the earth is thoroughly solid; and if it is,
it should be levelled, and the first and second beds (statumen and rudus)
laid down : ^ if, however, the whole or a part of the earth be unsound, it
must be very carefully hardened by ramming wuth beetles. Then let the
lowest bed be laid (statuminetur) with stones not larger than will fill the
hand. When this is done, the second bed may be laid (ruderetur) with
rubble (rudus). If the rubble be new, it must be mixed with a fourth part
of lime ; if it has been used before, with two parts of lime to five. The
rubble must then be rammed down verj' hard with wooden beetles, by gangs
of ten men, till the thickness is not more than nine inches. Above the rubble
bed must be laid the kernel of the pavement (nucleus), composed of potsherds
mixed with a third part of lime. The thickness of this should not be
less than six fingers' breadth. The paving stones must be bedded in the
kernel, and accurately adjusted with a level."- The stone used in the streets
of Rome for paving was either the hard black basaltic lava obtained in
many places near Rome, particularly in the quarries near the tomb of Cjecilia
Metella, and at Bovillae on the Appian road, and also on the Via Labicana,
or the travertine from Tibur, or peperino from Gabii. The first, which has a
conchoidal cleavage, was laid in polygonal blocks, fitted accurately together,
as we see in the fragments of the old roads still visible on the Appian, Latin,
and Tiburtine roads. The two others were laid in rectangular blocks, such
as may be seen in the pavement of Trajan's Forum, and a part of the
Forum Romanum, near the column of Phocas. The former method was called
"silice sternere," the latter "saxo quadrato sternere," and the roads so paved
were called " stratse." ^

It must not be supposed that all Roman streets or roads were laid down
in this elaborate manner. There were two other kinds of roads mentioned
by Ulpian, the gravelled road (glareata), and the earthen road simply levelled
and left without further covering (terrena).* In early times, as in the
censorship of Fulvius (b.c. 174), only the streets w'ithin the city were paved
wath lava, and the roads outside the walls laid with gravel ; but afterwards,

' statumen is used in the sense of '" foundation." is a roadway (viottolo) paved with basalt, branching

Rudus is defined by Isodorus to be "lapides contusi out from the \'ia .\ppia under the tomb of Qecilia

et cake admixti," broken pebbles mixed with Hme. Metella, tow^ards the Circus of Maxentius, which is

Isodor. Orig. vi. 3, 1209. Nucleus, the kernel, as only four feet wide. Nibby, Diss, delle Vie degli

being enclosed and protected by the other beds. Antichi, p. 38, in Nardini, Roma Antica, torn. iv.

^ The width of the principal Roman road, the ^ Livy, xli. 27, '• Silice sternere;" ib. x. 23, "Saxo

Via Appia, is fifteen feet. The Via Tusculana is quadrato sternere."

only eleven feet wide, and the cross roads in the ^ Digest, lib. xliii. Dc via publ. refic. i- § 3 ; Plu-

Campagna are not more than nine feet wide. There tarch, C. Gracch. chap. vii.

liv

Introduction.

so far as can be ascertained, all the consular roads were paved with stone.'
In places where the road passed over rock, the statumen and rudus were
dispensed with, and the nucleus and pavement only laid, as on the Appian road
near Albano. Besides the central causeway, a Roman road had, in general,
a raised footway on each side,' about four inches high, edged either with
slabs of basaltic lava or squared stones. Xibby mentions a piece of
road which still shows footways of this kind, leading from the Labican
into the Latin road, about two miles from Tusculum. The centre of the

VIA Al'l-IA.

footway was composed of gravel, and some of the kerbstones were longer
than others, and were driven into the mass of gravel so as to bind the
margin of the pathway firmly into it.'

When a road was carried along the side of a hill, or across a valley,
although the Roman architects did not build such viaducts as are now
constructed for railways, yet they took great pains to modify the slopes of
the hills as much as possible, by massive substructions of masonry, or by

' Nibby, Diss, delle Vie degli Antichi, p. 39 : Livy, ■• Hence these longer kerbstones are called ^'ow//;/

xli. 27 ; compare TibuU. i. 7, 59. by Statins, loc. cit. : " Et crebris iter alligare

- Crepido, margo ;Livy, loc. cit.) ; umbo (Stat. gompliis."
Sylv. iv. 3, 47'-

Infrodiulioti. ]y

cutting away the rocks, or even tunnelling through them. In the valley of
Ariccia, between Albano and Genzano, the massive substructions of the
old Appian road still remain ; on the Via Pr?enestina the Ponte di
Nono carries the road over seven massive arches formed by blocks of
peperino and tufa, fitted together without mortar, and of the most solid
construction possible ;' and on the way from Rocca di Papa to the old Via
Latina, near the so-called Camp of Hannibal, Nibb)- found a cutting- made in
the side of Mount Algidus, fifty feet in depth, for the passage of a cross
road from the Via Latina to the Via Triumphalis or Albana.-

The tunnel on the road from Puteoli to Naples, 2,244 ^et in length
and twenty-one in width, mentioned by Strabo" as the work of Cocceius in
the time of Tiberius, is well known to travellers ; and the cutting and tunnel
of the Furlo pass, on the Flaminian road, through the Monte d'Asdrubale
near Fanum, in the valley of the Metaurus, still bears an ancient inscription,
stating that it was the work of the Emperor Vespasian. Claudian has Tunneh.
described this pass, in his poem on the sixth consulate of Honorius, as one
of the sights to be noticed by Honorius on his road from Ravenna to Rome.^

Of a similar kind, but for a different purpose, were the great cuttinor and
tunnelling works undertaken for the regulation of the water of the smaller
Italian lakes. The \'eline lake, near Reate, on the banks of which Cicero's
friend Axius lived, ^ was drained by M. Curius Dentatus in B.C. 290, by means
of a deep cutting, through which the now celebrated cascade of Terni falls.
The tunnel of the Alban lake, made in B.C. 395, is also still in activity, and
draws off the superfluous water." This tunnel is cut through the grey peperino
of the side of the lake, which lies in a crater-like hollow under the Alban
hill, and is 7,500 feet in length, 5 feet wide, and 7 or 8 feet in heio-ht. At
several places the vertical shafts by whrch the chips of rock were removed,
and also the sloping approaches for the entrance of the workmen, can be
traced. At the end where the water flows from the lake there is careful
provision made, by the position of the walls, for resisting too sudden a flow
of water, and also by a piscina limaria for the deposit of mud and refuse.
At the other end, where the water issues from the tunnel, is a larw reservoir
whence the water was distributed in different directions for irrigation.' The
principle of the arch was evidently known to those who made this tunnel,
and it is probable that it was bored under the direction of Greek engineers

' Westphal. Campagna, p. 98. Sec chap. xiv. it was not then paved with Vesuvian lava, as it

5 Nibby, op. cit. p. 42. now is. ■* Claud. \'I. Cons. Honor. 500.

' Strabo, bk. v. p. 245. Seneca, Ep. Ivii, calls it ' Cic. .'\d. .^tt. iv. 15 : " Rosea rura \'elini." y€n.

Cr>'pta Neapolitana, and complains of having been

well-nigh stifled by the dust in it. which shows that

vn. 712.

8 Livy. v.

'5-

'' See chap. xiv.
h2

Ivi Introduction.

sent in consequence of the Delphic oracular response which ordered the work
to be undertaken. At all events, the Greeks, from the formation of their
own hills and lakes, were well acquainted with this kind of tunnel-work.

But perhaps the most difficult undertaking of the kind that Roman energy
ever carried out was the tunnel of the Fucine lake, made by Claudius in
order to reclaim the neighbouring district from the water.^ This is a far longer
tunnel than the Alban, being nearly three English miles in length, nineteen
feet hio-h, and nine feet in width. It was cut through the hard limestone
rock of Monte Salviano, which rises i,ooo feet above the level of the lake,
and crave the water of the lake an outlet into the Liris."

To the same class as these tunnels belonged also the great cloacae of Rome,
which not only served as outlets to carry off the superfluous rain-water and
sewage of the city, but also to drain off the enormous quantity of water daily
poured into Rome by the aqueducts, which must have increased the volume
of the Tiber to an appreciable degree.^ Many of these great archways, no
doubt, lie buried under the rubbish of modern Rome. The only
two large cloacae now known and still utilized are the Cloaca
Maxima and the cloaca which leads from the Pantheon to the Tiber.''

Great engineering works in connection with the harbours of Italy and
the mouths of the great rivers of the Mediterranean were also
undertaken by the Romans. They laboured under the serious
disadvantage of having no large harbours on the west coast of Italy. The
first great effort to remedy this was made in the time of Augustus by
Agrippa, who made a canal from the Gulf of Baise to the two lakes of Lucrinus
and Avernus.'' This was considered one of the great marvels of the age at
the time, but it does not seem to have long continued to be the station of the
Roman fleet, which was removed to Misenum.'^ A great reservoir, called
Piscina Mirabile, and extensive subterranean warehouses (cento camarelle),
were built there for the service of the fleet.

Great harbours were constructed at a later time, by Claudius at Ostia, and
by Trajan at Centum Cellae. The extent and cost of Claudius's operations
may be inferred from the fact that he sank the great ship upon which Caligula

1 /En. vii. 759: "Te nemus Angitife vitrea te quarter in diameter. The three aqueducts now re-

Fucinus undate liquidi flevere lacus." maining, the Aqua Vergine (Virgo), the Aqua Paola

^ Suet. Claud. 20, 21, 32 ; Tac. Ann. xii. 56, 57; (Aureha), and the Fehce (Claudia) pour 20,485,100

PUn. xxxvi. 15, § 124; Hirt, Gesch. der Bauk. ii. p. 322. cubic feet of water into Rome daily. In the time of

Fabrctti's treatise " De Emissario Fucini" is most Procopius there were fourteen aqueducts,

complete: Rome, 16S3. Kramer, Fuciner ins. See. * See chap. xii. pp. 279—286.

Berlin, 1839. ^ Virg. Georg. ii. l6i ; Hor. Art. Poet. 63 ; Suet.

3 Statius, Silv. i. 5, 24 : " Thybrimque novis attol- Oct. 16.

litis undis." In Frontinus' time the 7tiiic aqueducts " Suet. Oct. 49 ; Tac. Ann. xiv. 62 ; Plin. Ep. vi.

supplied 15,000 quinarias or pipes, an inch and a 16, 20.

■ Harbours.

Introdiiclion. \y\\

brought a huge obelisk from Alexandria, to assist in forming a foundation
for his breakwater/ Trajan's breakwater at Centum Celine, forty-seven miles
from Rome, was formed of a mass of huge stones sunk in the sea, and had
a lighthouse at each end.-

It was of course natural that bridges should be among the first buildintrs
to which the Roman engineers would apply the principle of the arch. The
bridges over the Tiber at Rome are described in a subsequent
chapter, and therefore need not further be alluded to here than "'^''''

to remark that, after the piers of the yEmilian bridge — the oldest stone
bridge at Rome — were built, the completion of the arches, perhaps from the
old prejudice against permanent bridges, was not carried out till thirty-seven
years afterwards.^ This seems to show that the construction of bridcres of
stone was then a matter about which some hesitation was felt.*

The medal figured by Nardini, which gives an outline of the /Elian
bridge at Rome, shows the mode in which the Romans endeavoured to
decorate their bridges.^ A row of pedestals, rising from the parapets of the
bridge, suppo'rt statues, and the parapets are built with an open balustrade
instead of a solid wall. In general, however, the Roman bridges were left
without ornament ; and I am not aware that attempts were often made to
dress them with Greek decorative forms. The bridge of Rimini, built by
Tiberius, and entirely composed of marble, has decorated pediments and
columns upon the piers, showing that, at the time of its construction, Greek
decorations were still considered necessary adjuncts of any considerable
building. Trajan was the great Roman bridge builder, and in his
forum the worst faults of the Roman adaptations of Greek art were
illustrated ; ° yet no such affectation extended to the trreat enCTineerinof works
of that emperor. His bridge over the Tagus, at Norba Caesariana (Alcantara),
is perfectly plain and unadorned, yet produces, by a peculiar arrangement of
the arches, which are sprung from different levels, a singular impression of
graceful proportion united with compact and durable strength.' The bridge
of ApoUodorus over the Danube, represented in the sculptures of Trajan's
column, and described by Dion Cassius, was a great eftbrt of engineering genius ;
but as the piers only were of stone, and the upper part of woodwork, scarcely
any remains of it are now visible.*

' Suet. Claud. 20 ; Dion Cass. Ix. 1 1 ; Plin. N. H. not constructed till a century later, 62 B.C. : chap. xi.

xxxvi. 70. See chap. xiv. ' Plin. Ep. vi. 31. p. 265.

^ The finest ancient Roman bridges are at Rimini ^ Nardini, Roma Antica, vol. iii. tav. ii. Xo. 57.

(see Eustace, Classical Tour, vol. i. p. 279; Orelli, « Sec chap. vii. p. 143.

Inscr. 604) and at Alcantara in Spain (Gruter, ' Figured in Fergusson's Architecture, vol. i.

Inscr. p. 162). p. 346.

■* Livy, xl. 51, B.C. 179. The Fabrician bridge was " See chap. vii. p. 150.

Iviii Introduction.

The want of a supply of water at a high level first led the Roman architects
to raise their aqueducts on the mighty ranges of arches which now

Aqueducts. ., . ^ ^ , ""

form the most strikmg feature of the Roman Campagna. The
most ancient aqueduct, the Appia, constructed in B.C. 312, was entirely sub-
terranean ; and even the Aqua Virgo, the sixth in chronological order of the
fourteen which flowed into Rome in the time of Procopius,^ is chiefly subter-
ranean. But the Claudian aqueduct, begun by Caligula and finished by
Claudius, and the Anio Novus were intended to be at a height sufficient to
supply the top of the highest hills at Rome, and were therefore carried upon
lofty arches during a great part of their course.' For ten miles out of the
whole forty-six traversed by the Aqua Claudia it is supported on arches; and
the Anio Novus flowed for fourteen miles on the summit of an arched aque-
duct, some of the arches of which were 109 feet in height.' The arches of the
Marcian aqueduct, first constructed in B.C. 145, are not nearly so high as those
of the Claudian, but are even more solid and durable. At the Porta Furba, an
arch constructed by Sixtus V. for the Aqua Felice, about three miles from the
Porta S. Giovanni on the Via Tusculana, the ruins of these aqueducts are best
seen. The Aqua Marcia and the Aqua Claudia there run nearly in parallel lines
on the left-hand side of the road to Frascati, which they cross at the Porta
Furba. The former is carried on massive arches at a level twenty-five feet
lower than the former.* Various kinds of stone are used in these arcades,
but chiefly travertine and peperino. In the branch of the i\qua Claudia built
by Nero to supply the Palatine and CEelian hills, which diverges from the main
aqueduct at the Porta Maggiore, the arches are of the best Roman brickwork ; °
and the aqueduct of Alexander Severus,* a great number of the arches of
which are to be seen on the left of the Via Labicana, near Torre di Cento
Celle, was also built of brick. As the Romans used pipes for the distribution
of the water in the city itself, no other explanation of the reason why all these
lofty arches were built for a purpose which could have been equally served
by subterranean pipes is satisfactory, except that of Fabretti, who remarks, in
noticing the strange course of the Aqua Alexandrina, that a reason may be

' Procop. Bell. Goth. i. chap. 19. See Bunsen's Subiaco are now being laid by a new Roman water

Beschreibung, Bd. i. p. 195. company (1868).

= Plin. xxxvi. 15, 121 : "Ad eam e.xcelsitatem ut ■" "Sternum Marcius humor opus;" Propert. iv.

omnes urbis montes lavarentur." See Statius, Silv. 22, 24. The arches of the Aqua Claudia are repre-

i. 5, 24 : '• Marcia pra^celsis quarum vaga molibus sented in the woodcut in chap. ii. p. 24.

unda crescit, et innumero pendens transmittitur " See chap. ix. part i. p. 222, Neronian arches at

arcu." Arch of Dolabella on the Caslian. Winckelmann,

' Frontinus, DeAqusd. 14, 15, iS : " Altissimus est Qiuvres, vol. ii. p. 546.

Anio Novus, proxima Claudia, tertium locum tenet ^ Hist. Aug. Vit. Alex. Sev. 25. This aqueduct

Julia, quartum Tepula, dehinc Marcia." Pipes to supplied the thermae in the Campus Martius. Set

bring water from the sources of the Marcia near chap. xiii. p. 341.

Introduction. Ij^

foiiiui for this apparent waste of labour in the magnificent appearance of such
structures as these aqueducts, the arches of which are frequently not less
than seventy feet in height.' The)- are often taken across a valley in pre-
ference to an obviously shorter and more level course, apparently for the
sole purpose of carrying an archway across.

The same fondness for display led the emperors, at the places where the
line of their aqueducts crossed the public roads leading out of Rome, to erect
a secondary kind ot triumphal arcli, upon which an inscription might be placed,
recording the name and titles of the l)uilder and of the successive restorers
of the aqueduct." At the Porta Maggiore and the Porta S. Lorenzo speci-
mens of these commemorative archways are to be seen.^ and above them the
specus, or the channel in w^hich the water flowed. These channels are about
three or four feet wide and seven or eight feet high, so as to allow a man
easily to walk along them for the purpose of clearing awaj- the sediment whi(;li
rapidl}- accumulated. The whole breadth of the arcade w'as generally from
ten to twelve feet. At intervals along the specus were ventholes laro-e
enough to admit a man's body, and at the sources of the aqueduct and also
at certain distances along its course w^ere basins (piscince limariai) in which the
earthy deposit was allowed to settle. There were, besides these piscinae, con-
siderable reservoirs (castella) here and there, to keep stores of water either
for irrigation or for any sudden emergency. The reservoir called the Sette
Sale at Rome, on the Esquiline,^ is still well j^reserved ; and a still more
remarkable building of the kind is to be seen at Misenum, where a supply
of water was kept for the Roman fleet stationed there.

The aqueducts supplied many ornamental cisterns and fountains in Rome.
The cisterns and wells were frequently surrounded with a circular Onmmeniai
marble edging decorated with bas-reliefs, specimens of which ma)- fountains.
be seen in the Roman museums, or they were protected by a round monopteral
building with a cupola.'

The only fountain which now remains in situ at Rome is the Meta Sudans ;"
and not a trace is left of its marble casing, which was probably very splendid.
But the museums of Rome ct)ntain numerous stone basins t)f porphyry,

' See Rutilius Numatianus, Itin. i. 97; "Quid extant specimen of the grandeur and simplicity

loquar aeria pendentes fornice rivos, Qua vix imbri- of Roman buildings when unadorned by Greek

feras tolleret iris aquas?" Fabretti, De Aquicd., columns and pilasters. Sec Clerisseau, Antiquites

Rome, 1788, p. II. It appears from Vitruv. lib. viii. de la France, p. 127.

chflp. 7. that Roman aqueducts were sometimes made ^ See woodcuts in chap. v. pp. 63, 65.

with leaden or earthen pipes. Pliny, xxxi. § 57. recog- ■• Chap. ix. p. 232.

nizes the principle that water will find its level in a " See Preller, Rcgionen, p. 108, who gives a number

pipe. of interesting details about the lacus and nymphica

'- The Pont du Gard near Nismcs is the best of Rome. " Chap. viii. pp. 171, 237.

Ix Introduction.

granite, basalt, alabaster, marble, and breccia, which show the amount of cost
and labour expended on such ornamental works. A beautiful little house
fountain is preserved in the Capitoline Museum, formed in the shape of a
tripod, in the centre of which a hollow column throws up a jet of water,
which, falling into the basin, is carried away through the legs of the tripod.^

Other laro-e public fountains were made in the shape of cascades, like the
modern Fontana Trevi. The ruins of one of these are preserved on the
Esquiline. The front of this consisted of two raised ledges, upon which
the water flowed from the reservoir behind by six or seven openings, and
fell into a basin. The upper part was ornamented with a large niche for
sculpture in the centre, and two arched openings at the sides, in which the
so-called trophies of Marius, now placed on the ascent to the Capitol, stood. -

The castella of the aqueducts were also frequently rendered ornamental by
rparble decorations and statues. Pliny tells us that Agrippa alone, when
.(Edile, constructed at Rome no less than " seven hundred cisterns, fifty jets
of water, and one hundred and thirty castella, which he decorated with three
hundred marble and bronze statues and four hundred marble columns."^

Besides the Castra Prsetoriana,^ which were built by Tiberius, some other per-
manent camps in Rome deserve a passing notice among the principal
public buildings. These were the Castra Peregrina on the Cselian,
the Castra Ravennatium in the Trastevere, the Castra Misenatium, and the
Castra Priora and Nova of the Equites Singularii. Architecturally, they were
probably less ornamental even than the Castra Prstoriana, but must have been
spacious and conspicuous buildings, and contributed to the general impression
produced by the aspect of Rome. The Peregrini were foreign troops, possibly
introduced as a counterpoise to the Praetorian Guards by Septimius Severus,
who boasted that he had quadrupled the number of troops in Rome ;^ and
the Misenates and Ravennates were detachments of the marines from Misenum
and Ravenna, who were employed in the amphitheatre to manage the velaria.''
The Equites Singularii seem to have been a picked body of cavalry attached
to the Emperor's body-guard, who were used as couriers to carry despatches.'

Augustus, among the other great services he rendered to the citj-, built
large public warehouses, mills, wash-houses, and bake-houses, which were

1 See Jordan in Ann. dell' Inst. 1867, p. 398. 3\I. " See chap. ix. p. 227.

Jordan conjectures that the stars engraved on the 3 Plin. xx.xvi. § 121.

Pianta Capitohna represent puteaha and fountains. ■• See chap. v. p. 61.

There is one in the guard-house of the Vigiles, lately ' Preller, Regionen, p. 99 ; Herodian, iii. 13.

excavated, of this star shape. See Bellori's Pianta e Hist. Aug. Commodus, 15.

Cap. ix. 5, in Grasv. Thes. Several beautiful house " Tac. Hist. iv. 70 ; Preller, p. 99 ; Notitia Dign.,

fountains are preserved at Pompeii. See Dyer's ed. Bocking, p. 788 ; ^««. i/t//' /«j^/. 1850.
Pompeii, pp. 87-90, 385.

Introauction. Ixi

improved and enlarged bj- subsequent emperors, until they became sufficiently
important to be included in the catalogues of public buildings
eiven bv the writers of the Notitia and Curiosum. Amono- the
warehouses were the papyrus warehouse, near the booksellers' quarter in the
Vicus Sandaliarius, at the back of the Templum Pacis ; the pepper and spice
warehouse in the same neighbourhood ; the warehouses of Agrippa and
Germanicus, near the shops of the Vicus Tuscus ; and those named after
Galba and Anicius near the Emporium.

The Capitoline map gives a plan of one of these buildings, the Horrea
Lolliana, which exhibits it as a large central hall, with open arcades in rows
on each side. They were built of stone in order to be fireproof and Nero
was obliged, on account of their solidity and strength of construction, to employ
military engines in pulling some of them down when he wished to extend
his Golden House over their site.' Pliny states that public bake-
houses were unknown in Rome before the year of the city 586, but
in the Imperial times the contractors for bread became important persons, as
may be seen from the monument of Eurysaces at the Porta Mao-o-iore, and
from the mention of a Collegium Pistorum at Rome in the reign of Trajan. '
The pistrina publica are enumerated in the catalogues of the Recrionarii,
together with the horrea and balnea, and were therefore probabl}- buildino-s
of considerable size and prominence.

With all their earnestness and practical sagacity in public business and
in works of national utility, the Romans, or perhaps it should
rather be said the motley crowd who in Imperial times inhabited Bididhigsfor
the city of Rome, were a people passionately fond of recreation and rccteation.
excitement. The buildings raised for these purposes were the most
magnificent and durable in the empire. While the temples of the gods and
the fora of the emperors have nearly disappeared, the thermre and amphi-
theatres still defy the inroads of time, and, if spared by the hands of man,
seem likely to justify the epithet of Eternal applied so frequently to Rome.

The Roman thermae were a combination on a huge scale of the common
balnese with the Greek gymnasia.' Their usual form was that of
a large quadrangular space, the sides of which were formed by
various porticoes, exedrae, and even theatres for gymnastic and literary exercises,
and in the centre of which stood a block of buildings containing the bath rooms
and spacious halls for undergoing the complicated process of the Roman warm

' See Prellcr, Regioncn, p. 102. ^ The older therma; arc sometimes called gym-

' Aur. Vict. Cebs. xiii. 5 ; Prcller, Reg. p. 1 1 r. See nasia. Dion Cass. liii. 27 ; Tac. Ann. .\iv. 47 ; Suet,
below, chap. v. p. 65. Nero, 12.

Ixii I)itroduction.

bath.' The area covered by the whole group of buildings was, in many
cases, very large. The court of the Baths of Caracalla enclosed a space
of 1,150 feet on each side, with curvilinear projections on two sides. The
central mass of building was a rectangle, 730 feet by 380, covering an area
equal to that occupied by the English Houses of Parliament together with
Westminster Hall ; and the largest hall, which St. George's Hall at Liverpool
resembles very much, was 170 feet in length, 82 feet in width, and 120 feet
in height.' It was roofed by intersecting vaults of brickwork in three com-
partments supported by eight huge columns, similar to those now standing
in the Thermae of Diocletian^ (Sta. Maria degli Angeli). The other great
Imperial thermae of Rome, those of Nero, Titus, Domitian, Diocletian, and
Constantine, were probably upon the same plan as the Thermae Caracallae.
All were built of brick, and the interior was decorated with stucco, mosaics, or
slabs of marble, and other ornamental stones. These architectural embellish-
ments have in all cases disappeared, with the exception of the grand granite
columns of the great hall of Diocletian's Thermae, and it is therefore
impossible to say what was the original appearance they presented. Some
idea of the effect produced by their stuccoed roofs may be gained from the
coffers in the roof of the Basilica of Constantine, or the Temple of Venus
and Rome, or the interior of the Pantheon.'' It is not likely that the taste
displayed in the ornamental work would be faultless, since most probably the
vulgar love of the Romans for costly splendour showed itself in an exaggerated
form in these halls of luxurious recreation ; but the whole impression derived
from groups of building of such colossal dimensions must have been one of
vast Imperial power and grandeur. The exterior of the thermae was probably
very plain, and even unsightly, and illustrates the Roman tendency to
develop the interior of their buildings at the expense of the exterior, a
tendency also to be noted in their basilicae. Greek gymnasia, on the contrary,
opened outwards, and were ornamented on the exterior with colonnades and
gateways. These great thermae were, in fact, in every way characteristic
of Rome. The baths at Pompeii and other provincial towns were merely
establishments like the Oriental baths of Constantinople and Damascus at
the present day ; but the extent of the Roman thermae implies that thousands
of the inhabitants of Rome spent a large portion of their time in the indolent
recreations thus provided for them.

Agrippa and Alexander Severus were the principal founders of the public

' Amm. Marc. xvi. lo : '• Lavacra in modum pro- ' Chap. x. ji. 257.

viiiciarum exstructa." ■" Chap. viii. p. 166 ; xiii. p. 327.

- Chap. ix. p. 212.

I 71 irodiiciion . ] ^. j j I

balneae, as distinct from thermre.' The balnece were used simply as baths
and had none of the luxurious accessories attached to them which
were found in the courts of the great thermal, such as gymnasia, " '""'
exedrx, and theatres. At Pompeii a tolerably perfect balneum is preserved,
the principal room in which is a laconicum, or circular buildino- with a domed
roof, and the ground-plan of a similar establishment is to be found in the
Capitoline map under the name Balneum Caesaris.

There was hardly a town in the empire which had not an amphitheatre
large enough to contain vast multitudes of spectators." The savage excitement
of gladiatorial combats seems to have been almost a necessary to the Roman
legionaries in their short intervals of inaction, and was the first
recreation for which they provided in the places where they were
stationed. At Rome a more effeminate mode of life was allowable, and even
literary recreation might be tolerated in the halls of the therma; ; but when
abroad, and in the subject provinces, the Roman was expected to wear the
military dress, and to strike terror by a military ferocity of character.

It is very difficult to determine whence the Romans took the elliptical shape
of their amphitheatres. Gladiatorial combats Avere held from early times in
the Forum,^ and wild beasts hunted in the Circus ; but until Curio built his
celebrated double theatre of wood, which could be made into an amphitheatre
by turning the two semicircular portions face to face,'' we have no record of
any special building in the peculiar form afterwards adopted. It may have
been, therefore, that Curio's mechanical contrivance first suggested the elliptical
shape. There is an elliptical amphitheatre at Sutrium, in Etruria, excavated in
the rock, which is by some antiquaries thought to be anterior to the time of
Curio, and which might, in that case, have furnished the pattern of the Roman
buildings.^ Canina and Nibby, however, both pronounce it to be of Roman
construction, and not earlier than the reign of Augustus.* It still remains,
therefore, uncertain whence the Romans derived the elliptical form of their
amphitheatres."

As specimens of architecture, the amphitheatres are more remarkable
for the mechanical skill and admirable adaptation to their purpose displayed
in them, than for any beauty of shape or decoration. The hugest of all, the

1 Plin. xxxvi. 15, § 122 ; Hist. Aug. Alex. Sev. 38. ' Dennis, Etruria, vol. i. p. 95.

' Sixty-two amphitheatres are enumerated by " Nibby, Analisi, vol. iii. p. 142 ; Giorn. Arcad.

Clcrisseau, Antiquitds de la France, p. 92, as still xxiii. p. 311.

existing in ruins. See also Fricdlander, Sittcngesch. ' Some of the later Greek stadia, as that of Apliro-

Roms, ii. pp. 284, 404, where an exhaustive account disias in Caria, had two rounded ends, and may have

is given of all the known Roman amphitheatres. suggested the form of the Roman amphitheatre.

' li.C. 264, Livy. Epit. 16 ; Val. Max. ii. 4, J 7. Rcber, Gesch. dcr Baukunst, p. 253.

* n.C. 50, I'lin. N. 11. xxxvi. 15, 24, 117— I ig.

Ixiv Introduction.

Coliseum, was ill proijortioned and unpleasing in its lines when entire. The
solid wall of its uppermost story gave it a heavy appearance ; the width of the
whole mass is too great in proportion to its height ; and the columns and
entablatures with which its exterior is decorated are structurally false, as they
afford no real support to the building. But vast size and massive dimensions
force admiration even from the most critical, and produce an overwhelming
impression of grandeur and immoveable strength. Two architectural merits
have been pointed out in the Coliseum — the impression of height and size
conveyed by the tiers of arches rising one above another, and the graceful
curves produced by the continuous lines of the entablatures as they cross
the building.^ But what the Roman emperor under whose auspices this
o-reat buildino- was raised would doubtless have valued more than any ele-
o-ances of design which could have been pointed out to him is, the perfect
adaptation of the structure to its purposes. After the great catastrophe at
Fidens, where 20,000 persons were injured or killed by the breaking down of
a wooden amphitheatre, solidity and safety were the principal requisites." Free
ino^ress and egress for crowds of spectators, as well as for any great personages
who might attend, was also indispensable. A glance at the plan of the
Coliseum will show how admirably each of these objects was attained. The
extraordinary solidity of the building removed all possibility of the failure of
any part to bear whatever weight might be laid upon it, and the entrances,
galleries, and vomitoria were, by the oval form of the building rendered so
numerous that each seat in the whole cavea was accessible at once, and without
difficulty. A system of carefully-arranged barriers in the passages would
effectually prevent confusion and excessive crowding.'

In endeavouring to adorn the great amphitheatre of the metropolis more
richly than that of the provinces, its architect defeated his own object. Some
of the provincial amphitheatres, as that of Capua, though in other respects like
the Coliseum, show a simpler, and therefore more natural exterior. When the
Doric order is retained in all the tiers, it harmonizes far better with the rude
strength of such an edifice than the Corinthian and Ionic orders of the Coliseum.''
At Verona and Pola a still further improvement is made by the rustication of
the exterior." At Nismes, on the other hand, the faults of the Coliseum are

' Fergusson, Hist, of Arch. vol. i. p. 304. ways, so as to preserve the same width throughout.

- Tac. Anil. iv. 62 ; Suet. Tib. 40. Tlie plan of the Amphitheatre of Thysdrus in the

•■' See chap. ix. p. 237. It has been pointed out to Monitmentl dell' Inst. 1852, vol. v. tav. 43, is cor-

me by a friend that some of the plans of Roman rectly drawn in this respect.

amphitheatres represent the passages leading from ■" See Fergusson, Hist, of Arch. vol. i. p. 304.

the exterior to the vomitoria with convergent sides, ° See Allason's Pola, and Maffei's Verona.

whereas in rcalitv thcv were built with skew arch-

Introductmi.

ixv

aggravated by breaking the entablatures and introducing pediments over each
front; and in the small Amphitheatrum Castrense at Rome, where the Corinthian
order is executed in brick, a lamentable illustration of Roman want of taste is
exhibited.'

The naumachias at Rome were very similar to the excavated amphitheatres,
of which many are still remaining,- but the central space was
necessarily much larger, in order to make room for the combatant
ships. The great Naumachia of Augustus was i,8oo teet long and 1,200 feet
broad,^ showing that the shape was oval, like that of an amphitheatre. But
we know nothing of the extent or height of the spectators' seats. They were
constructed of stone, for Suetonius tells us that the Naumachia of Domitian
was pulled down at a subsequent time to furnish stone for the repairs of the
Circus Maximus.*

The races and wild beast shows in the circi were among the most ancient
and most favourite Roman amusements, and the buildings dedi-

1 • • Circi.

cated to these sports were numerous, and nearly equal m magni-
ficence to the amphitheatres. The Circus Maximus, which was first provided
with permanent seats for the spectators as early as the time of Tarquinius
Priscus,' was successively restored and ornamented by the Republican
Government in 12-j and 174 e.g., and by Julius Caesar, Augustus, Claudius,
Domitian, and Trajan." The result was a building which, in dimensions
and magnificence, rivalled the Coliseum, but has, unfortunately, proved far
less durable, scarcely a vestige of it now being left. From the scattered
notices which can be picked up here and there, and from the representations
given upon the medals of Trajan, struck in honour of the circensian games of
his r^'j-n, we eather the foUowino' information as to the architectural arrang-e-
ments of the Circus Maximus in the time of the Empire, when it was entirely
constructed of stone." The exterior consisted of a triple range of arcades,
one above the other, supported on piers, with the usual ornamental half-
columns added. These tiers of arcades were of the same pattern as those
of the Coliseum, only on a much smaller scale. The inner sides of the two
lower arcades supported the seats, which were arranged as in an amphitheatre ;
and the upper arcade formed a covered gallery, somewhat similar in appear-

' See Le Grand's Antiquities of Nismes ; Pelet, ■• Suet. Dom. 5.

L'Amphithdatre de Nimes ; and below, chap. ix. p. 219. •' Livy, i. 56 ; Dionys. iii. 68.

'- As at Sutri and Dorchester. See Stukeley, Iter * Livy, viii. 20, .\li. 27 ; Suet. Jul. 39, Aug. 45,

Curiosum, p. 166. Claud. 21 ; Dom. 5 ; Dion Cass, lxviii.7 ; Plin. xxxvi.

' Sec Monum. Ancyr. ed. Zumpt. At the sea-fights 15.

exhibited by Julius Casar there were 4,000 seamen ' See Panvinius, De Lud. Circ. pp. 49, 50 ; liian-

and 1,000 marines engaged. Appian, B.C. ii. 102. coni, Descrizione dei Circi.

Ixvi Introductio7i.

ance to the gallery which runs round the uppermost part of the Coliseum.
Shops and offices of various kinds occupied the vaults of the lowest
arcade. At each end was a grand gateway, and at each corner of the
rectangular end (or oppidum), and at the extremities of the hemicycle of the
rounded end, were towers, called mceniana, where persons of distinction had
places assigned to them. The Emperor's pavilion, a projecting portico, was
on the left of the carceres, and so placed that he could give the signal for
starting from it.^ The magnificence of the whole building after the resto-
rations of Trajan was much celebrated. Pliny especially notices the beauty
of the long lateral arcades, which he says rivalled those of the great temples.
We can well understand that the effect of the whole was probably superior to
that of any of the Roman amphitheatres or theatres.^ The arcades gave a light
and elegant appearance to the exterior, and the monotony of their long lines
was broken by the gates and towers which rose above them. The interior
was also agreeably diversified by the podium with its gilt railings, the tiers
of stone seats, and the upper gallery, rising one above the other.^

The other circi of Rome were not equal in grandeur to the Circus
Maximus. The Maxentian Circus, near the tomb of Caecilia Metella, on the
Appian road, the plan of which can still be easily traced, had no exterior
colonnades, but a blank brick wall, pierced only here and there with doorways.
There were only ten rows of seats, and the gallery above them was narrow
and low.

The Theatre of Marcellus is the only Roman theatre of which the ruins are
still left in Rome itself Scarcely a vestige of the great theatres of
Pompey and of Balbus can be found ; but Vitruvius has left so com-
plete a description of the plan on which the Augustan theatres were built, that
we know pretty accurately what their architectural excellences and defects must
have been. In speaking of amphitheatres, I have already anticipated much
v/hich applies equally to theatres. The exterior of the Theatre of Marcellus
is similar to that of the Coliseum, but the details are worked out in a much
purer style ; and though the same objection must be felt to the principle
of exterior decoration with half-columns and entablatures, yet in the Theatre
of Marcellus there was probably no solid wall, as in the Coliseum, forming

1 Besides the Circus Maximus there were in Rome See Adams' Spalatro.

the Circus Flaminius and the Neronianus. See '' The Hippodrome at Constantinople, built by

below pp. 270, 295, 313. Constantine, shows the same architectural peculi

= Pl'in. Panegr. 51. A somewhat similar appear- arities. The lower story was built on piers with

ance to the exterior of the Circus is presented by the arches between them, and the upper decorated with

cryptoporticus of Diocletian's palace at Spalatro. columns. See Panvinius, De Ludis Circ.

Introdtution. Ixvii

the uppermost story, and the general appearance must therefore have been
less heavy. The ground-plan of the Roman theatres differed from that of
the Greek chiefly in the greater extent of the scena. This alteration was
caused by the abolition of the chorus as intermediate between the spectators
and actors, and the division of the place assigned to them, the orchestra,
between the spectators and the stage proper. Thus the stage was brought much
nearer to the spectators. The Greek cavea was a segment of a circle greater
than a semicircle. The Romans, with their peculiar fondness for the semicircle
above alluded to, reduced their cavea to that form — an alteration also required
by the necessity of making more room for scenic displays, as the drama became
less and less simple in its accessories, and depended more upon gorgeous effect
than real dramatic art. Of the provincial Roman theatres, the best preserved
is that of Aspendus, in Asia Minor, which shows not only the cavea, but the
scena nearly entire. The theatre of Orange, in France, presents a complete
scena, the outer wall of which is one of the grandest masses of Roman
masonry extant, and free from the sham ornamental network of columns
and entablatures so often found in such buildings.'

In domestic as well as in civil architecture, the Romans borrowed the most
ornamental and luxurious parts of their houses, their peristylia,
their triclinia, oeci, exedroe, diaetae, sphseristeria, pinacothecae, and DonusUc
bibliothecae, from the Greeks. All these Greek names belong to "'''^ "'""''' >
the unessential and extraneous apartments attached, for the sake /wu^e.
of recreation or pleasure, to the normal Roman house. In the
primitive times of Rome, the houses of the citizens consisted of one principal
central room, the atrium, round which the other parts of the house were
grouped. In the atrium all domestic transactions took place; the family
hearth and the images of the Penates were there, meals were taken there, the
mistress and her slaves worked there, the kitchen was there, the waxen masks
of ancestors, the marriage-bed, and the monej-chest of the paterfamilias stood
there, visitors were received there, and it was in all respects the common room
of the house. The name atrium is probably Etruscan,^ and the primitive atria
were such as Vitruvius describes under the name "cavaedium Tuscanicum," a large
room, with a roof supported on four beams, two placed across from wall to wall,
and two others at right angles to them, so as to leave a square opening in the
centre, towards which the roof sloped down on all four sides from the walls.'
The opening in the centre was possibly, in the earliest times, intended only

' At Vicenza there is a theatre called Teatro Olim- - Miiller, Handbuch der Archaeologie der Kunst, S.
pico built by Palladio (1580), after the rules of Vitru- iSl ; \'arro, L. L. v. 161.
vius, with the e.\ception that it has an elliptical cavea. " Vitruv. vi. 3.

Ixviii Introduction.

as a vent for the smoke ; but as the atrium became enlarged, it took the form
of the impluvium. In the course of time, most of the domestic acts originally
performed in the common hall were transferred to separate rooms, and the
atrium came to be used only for the reception of guests, ^or the symbolical
marriage-bed, for the images of ancestors, and for the lying in state of the
dead. The extension of the atrium naturally caused the introduction of
columns to support the roof, which had been unnecessary in the narrow, old-
fashioned atria.^ A further enlargement of the house then took place, and the
atrium was left as the reception-room for clients and visitors, while another
similar but larger court was built beyond it for the use of the family and
intimate friends or guests. This was the cavaedium. Both these courts are
generally found in the houses at Pompeii, which were probably imitations of
the ordinary houses of the metropolis, and not, as is sometimes supposed,
planned on Greek models.^ We find the Pompeian atria sometimes further
enlarged by quadrangular recesses at the side furthest from the entrance, to
which the term "ala;" used by Yitruvius probably applies.^ The space between
the atrium and cavaedium was filled up by a central square room, where it
was customary to keep family records and documents ; this was called the
tablinum : and on each side of it were passages (fauces) forming the com-
munication between the atrium and cavaedium.^

The caveedium (Plin.), or cavum aedium (Mtruv. and Varro), was a
repetition of the atrium on a larger scale. The most common methods of
building it were those called by \'itruvius Tetrastylon and Corinthium ; the
former with four pillars — one at each corner of the compluvium — and the
latter with rows of pillars supporting the timber of the roof^ The central
opening had a lacus or cistern to receive the water from the roof, or a fountain
and basin, with flower-beds or shrubs and statuettes.^ The intervals between
the columns were sometimes closed against cold winds, rain, or sun, by vela or
by boards which could be removed like shutters." Thus the atrium and
cavaedium, but especially the cavaedium, were the central points towards which
the other parts of the house converged ; and into them the cubicula and culina

> Plin. Ep. V. 6, 1 5 : "Atrium ex more veterum." Pompeian houses. The name tablinum is only men-

Hor. Od. iii. I, 46 : " Cur invidendis postibus et novo tioned by Yitruvius, vi. 3, 5 ; Festus, p. 356 ; Paul,

sublime ritu moliar atrium." One of these old atria Diac. p. 357 ; Plin. xxxiv. § 7, as a muniment room

is to be seen at Pompeii, No. 57, Strada Stabiana. next the atrium.

2 The Pompeian houses all have the tablinum and ° Besides these there were two other kinds of
fauces, which were essentially Italian parts of the cavasdia, the displuviatum with the roof sloped out-
house. They also correspond with the ground-plans wards, and the testudinatum entirely covered with a
of the houses given on the Pianta Capitolina. lacunar. Vitruv. vi. 3.

5 Vitruv. vi. 3, 4. ^ Hor. Ep. i. 10, 22 ; Od. iii. 10, 5.

■* The position of the tablinum is almost entirely ■" Isodor. xix. 26 ; Ov. Met. x. 595; Hor. Sat. ii.

conjectural and rests upon the arrangement of the 8, 55.

l7ttrodiictio7i. ],

XIX

opened, and received light and air through the doorwajs. The chamber devoted
to the Penates, after their removal from the atrium, was called the larariuni
and was usually on the left of the atrium, near its entrance.

So far, the Roman houses were national in construction and arrano-ement.
But as soon as it became fashionable at Rome to imitate Greek customs,
and to borrow from the Greeks all the refinements and elegances of life, the
great houses at Rome were enlarged b)- the addition of various rooms and
courts. The most common of these was the peristylium, which is found in
man}- of the Pompeian houses, and w^as probably attached to the houses of
all wealthy persons at Rome. This was a court surrounded with colonnades
on three sides, or sometimes on all four sides, and containing a flower-o-arden
(viridarium) in the centre. It differed from the caveedium only in havincr no
dwelling-rooms round it, and in having rows of columns as an indispensable
part. If any further enlargements of a house were desired, they could be added
to the peristylium. The most common of these extra rooms were the triclinia,
several of which were sometimes built to suit the different seasons of the
year. Besides triclinia, other extensions of the Roman houses, such as
exedrai, w-hich w^ere semicircular projections or bays, furnished with seats
for discussion or conversation ; airy saloons called oeci, opening upon
gardens ; basilicae, or halls for business ; pinacothecee, and bibliothecae, were
all borrowed from the Greeks.

We have, unfortunately, not much to guide us in the endeavour to form
an idea of the exterior appearance of the common houses in the
streets of Rome. The interior arrangements of the Roman houses,

^ Domestic

and the domestic life of the Romans, have become known, in minute arMtKimr;
detail, to us from the Pompeian excavations, and may be most
vividly realized by a walk through the streets of the resuscitated
city, and a study of the contents of the Museum at Naples ; but we are
left to construct, from a few scanty notices, as we best may, the ele-
vations and decorative peculiarities of their exteriors. The houses at
Pompeii were mostly small and mean, and of the simplest plan. Scarcely
any of them had upper floors, with the exception of those placed on
sloping ground, where the first floor formed a kind of receding higher
terrace. The fear of earthquakes, and the facility with which extensions
could be made on the ground-floor, probably prevented the Pompeians from
building lofty houses. But in Rome, where a large population was closely
compressed round the great centres of business and pleasure, — the fora
and the Imperial palaces, — it was necessary to raise the houses to a con-
siderable height, to make the streets narrow, and to build projections into

ixx

Introdiution.

them.^ Even after the great Neronian conflagration, when parts at least of
ten out of the fourteen regions were burnt down,- the houses in Rome were
probably far higher, and of a different construction from those of provincial
towns, where no want of space was felt.

Pliny expressly mentions the lofty height of the houses as one of the
characteristics of Rome in his time; and the complaints of Juvenal as to
their insecurity are well known. ^ Nero fixed the extreme height to which
houses mio-ht be raised. But though the houses were still very lofty, the
o-eneral aspect of the streets must have been very different before and after
the Neronian restoration. Cicero, comparing the old state of Rome with
that of Capua, says that Rome was situated on uneven ground, and that the
dwellino-s of the inhabitants were hoisted up and almost suspended in the air
that the streets were not of the best kind, while the alleys were execrably
narrow, and that the metropolis could not bear comparison with her regularly
built and wide-streeted neighbour Capua.* In Cicero's time the evil was
probably at the worst : we hear of Rutilius Rufus urging this subject on
the consideration of Government ; and Augustus abated it considerably by
his wise regulations forbidding houses to be built more than seventy feet in
heio-ht, and instituting a regular public service for enforcing this law, and
takino- supervision of the streets and buildings.' Trajan restricted the height
of houses to sixty feet.'^

The height of the houses in Rome must have had a considerable effect
upon their exterior appearance, for it is plain that when the building was
raised to a second or third story the rooms could no longer be lighted from
the inner courts, but must have had windows looking out into the streets.
Thus the tendency to make all the openings of the house turn inwards, which
appears so plainly at Pompeii, must at Rome have been counteracted by the
necessary conditions of their sites. But here attention must be drawn to
the difference which prevailed in this respect between two great classes of
private dwellings at Rome, the domus and the insula ; for while the donius
was in all probability seldom more than one or two stories in height, the
insula, on the other hand, must have had five or six stories ; and great in-
equalities in the appearance of the streets must have been the consequence.

1 The population was most dense in the fourth, p. 235. Aristidos the rhetorician, at a later date, the

eighth, and tenth regions. See Preller, Regionen, Antonine era, said that if the houses now piled one

p. 86 ; Vitruv. ii. 8. ' Tac. Ann. xv. 40. upon another in Rome were to be placed on level

3 Plin. iii. 5, § 66 : " Ouod si quis altitudinem tec- ground by the side of each other, they would reach

torum addat, dignam profccto," &c. Juv. iii. 190, to the Ionian Sea, covering the whole of Southern

270 ; X. 17. Italy. Aristid. vol. i. p. 324, ed. Dindorf, 1829.

■* Cic. De Leg. Agr. ii. 35, 96. "^ Aur. Vict. Epit. 13. See also Gruter, Inscrip.

•■■' Suet. Oct. 30, 89 ; Dion Ctss. Iv. 8 ; Strabo, v. 1090, 19.

Introduction. Ixxi

The small number of the domiis in Rome in proportion to insulce' shows
that the former were tlic houses of men of wealth and importance — the
palazzi of ancient Rome, built according to the rules laid down by Vitruvius
for houses covering a large space of ground — while the latter, inhabited by
the middle and low^er classes, and generall)- built upon a narrow site, were
carried up to the extreme height allowed by law. Each insula contained a
great number of separate suites of rooms, or single rooms having separate
entrances, which were let as lodgings to families or individuals.- These were
called ccenacula.

An ordinance of the Twelve Tables fixed the space which must be left
clear between each insula or domus at two feet and a half;' but this enactment
appears to have been completely neglected before the time of Nero, for we
find that in his restoration of the city it was expressly laid down, as a new
regulation, that each building should have separate walls and a space
(ambitus) left open all round it.''

The insula must, as Preller remarks, have been very much like the large hotels
of modern times, with one or more courts ; and they sometimes occupied the
whole of a block of buildings, bounded on all sides by streets, as in the case of
the Louvre Hotel at Paris.^ A passage of Mtruvius well explains the mode
of construction usual in the insulae : " The laws of the land do not allow any
house wall built on public ground {i.e. towards the street) to be more than one
and a half feet in thickness, and the other walls, in order to save space, are always
built of the same thickness. But unburnt brick walls less than two or three
bricks thick (a Roman brick being one foot in length) will not bear more than
one story. The immense size and crowded population of Rome, however,
make it necessary to have a vast number of habitations, and as the area is
not sufficient to contain them all on the ground-floor, the nature of the case
compels us to raise them in the air. And therefore lofty buildings supported
on stone pillars, burnt brickwork, or ashlar, and furnished with numerous
boarded floors, are made to supply the requisite number of separate
apartments."®

1 I ^i, /- . 1 f .1. o • ■• dornus , offices the risks were great. See Gell. .w. I, 2.

' In the Catalogues of the Regionani . , = "j- ., ,, , t^- ^ ,? t r

insulse " •' Paul. Diac. v. i6; \arro, L. L. v. 22.

Preller, p. 86. See the description of a domus in ■* Tac. Ann. xv. 43.

Petronius, 77. ° The insulse were then called vici from their

- Rooms at the back or top of a domus were also resemblance to a vicus, i.e. a group of houses sur-

sometimes let. See Plaut. Trin. i. 2, 157; Livy, rounded on all sides by streets. Festus, p. 371.

x.\xix. 14. Crassus owed his great wealth partly to Insula also means a set of rooms in an insula,

successful speculation in building a vast number of " Vitruv. ii. 8, 17. One of the insulcc, in Reg.

insula; : Plutarch, Crassus, 2. See Orelli, Inscr. ix., named Felicles Insula, from the name of the

4324 ; Martial, iv. 37. Juvenal complains of the owner, became proverbial for its enormous number

high rents ; Sat. iii. 166. But without insurance of stories. Tcrtullian compares the Gnostic ideas of

k 2

Ixxii hitroduction.

After the great fire at Rome all the new houses were, by Nero's orders,
constructed partly of peperino stone to resist fire, and had arcades built in
front of all, from the top of which help might be afforded in case of fire.'
The front ground-floor under the arcades would be probably occupied with
shops. The interior of the insula; was very complicated, from the number of
passages and staircases required to reach all the separate lodgings, and to
arrange all the storehouses and offices of various kinds. The building was
under the charge of a dominus insulse, or insularius, an agent who accounted
for the rents to the proprietor."

The passage of Vitruvius above quoted shows that the insulae were
usually, in the time of Augustus, built of unburnt brick in the lower
Materials arid parts, aucl of bumt bricks or stone in the upper, with timbered
cmutniain. Aoors. The Roman unburnt bricks (lateres) were of two kinds,
either whole bricks one foot and a half in length and a foot wide,
or half bricks half a foot wide and one inch in thickness." In building a
wall of the regulation thickness (a foot and a half), on one side a row of
whole bricks was laid, and on the other a row of half bricks, and in the
next layer a row of half bricks was laid upon the row of whole bricks, and
a row of whole bricks upon the half bricks, so as to bind the wall together
firmly by an interlacing structure.* Sometimes the bricks were laid in sloping
rows diverging from a central line (herring-bone work, or opus spicatum, so
called from its resemblance to the arrangement of the seeds in an ear of
corn), and confined by stone edgings. These unburnt brick walls were
always covered with stucco (tectorium or albarium) made \yith great care,
sometimes of pounded marble chips, and were generally painted in bright
colours, as may be seen in the streets of Pompeii. When concrete (fartura)
was used for the core of the wall, it was sometimes cased with stones placed
irregularly (opus incertum),'' and was then always covered with stucco ; or it
was cased with small square stones arranged in a regular chess-board pattern
(opus reticulatum), in which case stucco was not always used. Walls of
unburnt brick were also sometimes cased with opus reticulatum, and occasionally

different stages in heaven to this building: "In- the arcades) cum pcrgulis suis et ccenacula equcstria

sulam Feliculas credas tanta tabulata coelorum." such as a knight might live in) et domus. Con-

Adv. Val. chap. vii. ductor convcnito primum Gn. Al. Nig. iVIai servum."

1 Tac. Ann. xv. 43. These arcades were similar Orelli, Insc. 4324, 4331. ^ See Vitruv. ii. 3.

to those of Padua, Bologna, and other Italian towns. ■* Winckelmann, Arch, des Anciens, Oiuvres, vol. ii.

' See numerous names of insula; in Preller, p. 92. p. 545. Roman bricks were sometimes of a much

The following notice of the lodgings in an insula larger size. Those used in vaulting were generally

to be let, found at Pompeii, is interesting : " Insula wedge-shaped.

.^rriana Polliana Gn. Alifii Nigidii Mai locantur * It is doubtful whether the term " opus incertum''

c.K id. Jul. primis {i.e. pro.ximis) tabern.TE (under includes ashlar-work.

Introduction. Ixxiii

brick and concrete were mixed in alternate layers and cased with stucco or
opus reticulatum or incertum. The larger houses and public buildino-s
were built with solid walls of squared stones, reaching completely across
the whole breadth of the wall, and laid in equally-sized courses (opus
isodomum), or in unequally-sized courses (opus pseudisodomum).

The principal entrance of a domus stood a little back from the line of
the street in a recess (vestibulum), the two projecting sides of
which were frequently occupied by shops opening into the street.' Exurioro/ihe
These vestibules w^ere of various depths. At Pompeii the)- are vestiLi^.
generally very small, but in some of the large houses at Rome
the vestibule was ornamented w^irh trophies which would require a con-
siderable space.- They were occasionally ornamented with pilasters or a
portico of Greek construction. In the case of Nero's Golden House the
vestibule must have been a splendid court surrounded with arcades and
ornamented by the huge colossal statue of the emperor.^ The threshold
and lintel (limen inferius and superius) and the doorposts (antepagmenta)
were of wood or stone, according to the wealth of the owner. There were
frequently inscriptions or signs over the door, marking the house as in
mediaeval times, ^ and sometimes a parrot taught to .say "Salve" or "Xalpe" was
hung up in a cage.'' Doorbells do not seem to have been usual, thouo-h bells
were sometimes employed for giving signals of other kinds ; but there were
always knockers of metal to the doors, at which every one except inmates of
the house were expected to knock." As carriages w^ere not used commonly
in the streets before the third century," few of the principal house entrances
were large enough to admit them, but they were of course wide enough to
admit the sedans of considerable size in which Romans often went out into the
town. There w-ere generally side and back doors of smaller size, without
vestibules, leading into the side streets.

The ground-floors both of the domus and insulae were, as has been stated,
usually occupied by shops, and therefore rooms on the ground-floor had

' Cell. xvi. 5 : " Vestibulum non est in ipsis aedibus, But Seneca, De Ira, iii. 35, mentions a doorbell. The

sed locus ante januam domus vacuus," &c. Becker doors at Rome generally opened inwards (Uionys.

derives vestibulum from v^, apart, and stabulitm, a v. 39', contrary to the Greek fashion, as shown in the

place to stand in apart from the house ; as prostibii- comedies taken from the (ireek. Plaut. Bacch. ii.

htm, I'ecors, vesanus. 2, 56 : " -Sed foris concrepuit nostra C|uinam exit

- As rostra, Cic. Phil. ii. 28: statues, ^n. ii. 504, foras?" It was the custom in Greece to knock before

vii. 177 ; Juv. vii. 125. going out in order that any one passing might

^ Suet. Nero, 31. See below, p. 165. Vitruvius avoid being struck by the door opening outwards,

speaks of "vestibula regalia." But in later times many doors at Rome also opened

■* As "ad malum punicum ; ad capita bubula," &c. outwards. See Pandect, lib. viii. tit. 2.
Suet. Dom. i, Oct. 5. " See Friedlander, Sittengesch. Roms, S. 52 ;

' Patron. 28 ; Mart. vii. 87, xiv. 76 ; Pers. Prol. 8. Amm. Marcell. xiv. 6.

« Plautus, Most. ii. 2, 14; Cist. iii. :8, &c., &c.

Ixxiv Inirodtiction.

doors opening on the inner courtyard and had no windows. In the lofty courts
of the insulee, where the ground-floor rooms would naturally be

IVindo-LOS.

very dark, they were probably used as storerooms and offices.
The rooms on the upper floors opened by windows on the street, which
were often provided with balconies or projections supported on brackets and
called moeniana, pergulse, or podia.^ These balconies must have improved the
exterior appearance of the houses very much by breaking the flat surface of
the wall. From them shows in the streets were surveyed and speeches
sometimes delivered." Martial gives a lively picture of the spectators on the
line of the Emperor Trajan's entry into Rome: —

" Quantlo erit ille dies quo campus, et arbor, et omnis
Lucebit Latia culta fenestra num.
Quando mora; dulces, longusque a Cfesare pulvis,
Totaque Flaminia Roma videnda via."^

The windows were closed with lattice-work or plates of talc, or sometimes
with glass, to keep out the cold and wind, and had folding shutters/ The
roofs of the houses in Rome were sometimes gabled (pectenata) exactly
like modern houses, and it is a mistake to suppose that only temples
had gables, and that, the streets of Rome showed a succession of flat roofs.
Some of the pictures of houses in the Pompeian house decorations show
gabled roofs, and Cicero, writing to his brother, speaks of the
roof of a house as having more than one gable.' The regular
triangular pediment, however, was peculiar to the temples of the gods, the
palaces of the Caesars, and some of the other public buildings. The eaves
sometimes projected considerably over the street, and enactments were passed
limiting their size." Domed roofs and quadrilateral roofs were sometimes
built, but naturally these were for the most part confined to small angular
or circular edifices, such as the Temple of the Penates in the Forum, or the

T Si'Xtoi' f|oxai7roXXai 8f iivTai KarA ttjv irciXiv. Hero- XftiKi;', in Philo, Leg. ad Caium, § 45, probabi)' means

dian, vii. 12. glass; in which case the palace of Cahgula had glass

- Livy, i. 41, Tanaquil addresses the populace from windows. In the public baths at Pompeii a bronze

a window. Vitruv., v. 6, speaks of a view from a casement with panes of glass was found. Mazois,

window in a common house. Livy, xxiv. 21 : " Pars Pal. de Scaur, viii. p. 97. See Plin. N. H. xxxvi. 45 ;

tectis fenestrisque prospectant." See also Juv. iii. Ep. ii. 17, 4 : Sen. Ep. 90 : Mart. viii. 14: Ov. Pont.

270; Prop. iv. 7, 15 ;and Claudian, Ue VI. Cons. Hon. iii. 3, 5 ; Amor. i. S, 3 : Hor. Od. i. 25, i.

ii. 544 : " Quantum licuit consurgere tectis una replet » Festus, p. 213 ; Cic. O. F. iii. i, 4. Trichorus, in

turbit facies, undare videres ima viris, alias effulgere Stat. Silv. i. 3, 57, and Hist. Aug. Pesc. Nig. 12, pro-

matribus aedcs." bably means a house of three stories in height. In the

* Mart. X. 6. tenth century, trichorus = triclinium. See Gregorov,

■> The subject of glass windows in ancient houses Gesch. der Stadt Rom. vol. iii. p. 563.

is fully discussed in Hirt, Gesch. der Bank. iii. I, Bei- ^ Digest, ix. 3, 5, § 6. The term used for eaves

lage C. He thinks that the expression "specularia" was suggrund;e. Vitruv. x. 21 (15 Schn.).
denotes glass windows and = specularia vitra. "YaXos

I ntroductioH, Ixxv

so-called Temple of \'esta on the river-bank. The " cavaidium testudinalum "
of \'itruvius was roofed in this way.' Flat roofs were the most frequent in
the Roman domus, the other kinds being more adapted to the insula-. Upon
the top of their flat roofs gardens were constructed, and filled with flowers
and fruit-trees, and seats were made for basking in the winter sun.^ The
usual outer covering of the roofs when flat was of stone, stucco, or metal.
For sloping roofs, thatch or shingles, tiles, slates, or metal plates were
used. Pliny states that, until the time of the war with Pyrrhus, all
Rome was roofed with shingles.^ The common form of dwelling-house in
those times was probably the primitive hut (tugurium), or at best the old
Tuscan form of the atrium, a small court with a square impluvium supported
by four beams. The Roman tiles were of two kinds, flat tiles and smaller
curved tiles. The flat tiles had raised rims at the sides, except at the
upper end, which was pushed under the tile next above on the roof. The
small curved tiles were then laid over the joined edges of the lower ones,
and formed a complete protection for the joints.^

To say that the dwelling-houses of Rome presented in general an irregular
appearance is no doubt correct ;' but when their architectural pretensions
are condemned as inferior to those of modern houses, it may be questioned
whether such an opinion has not been too much influenced by the aspect of
the Pompeian houses. It has been shown that contrasts were drawn b)'
Roman writers between the metropolis and the provincial towns, especially
with reference to the size and height of the houses ; and in the crowded
parts of Rome, and along the principal thoroughfares leading to the great
roads, as the Via Lata and the Alta Semita, which seem to correspond
to the modern Corso and Via della Porta Pia, nearly all the dwelling-
houses were probably lofty, well built, and furnished in the upper stories
with handsome windows and balconies, and with porticoes or arcades \)XO-
jecting over shops on the ground-floor.

At the same time, on account of the hilly nature of the site and the
interruption of the lines of the streets by the great fora and public buildings.
but few long wide streets could have existed in ancient Rome. There was
apparently a constant necessity for edicts providing against the excessive
crowding and blocking up of the streets by vehicles. Carriages or carts,

' Vitruv. vi. 3. The space between these raised ' Plin. xvi. 10, § 36.

roofs and the ceiling was sometimes used as a hiding- ■■ Tegula? and imbrices. Plautus, Mil. Glor. ii. 6,

place. See Tac. Ann. iv. 69. 24: " Confregisti imbrices ct tegulas ;" Mostell. i.

' These places at the tops of the houses were some- 2, 25.

times called solaria, an expression which was also ' Cf. Rein in lljcl^er's Gallus, ii. p. 271.
applied to balconies. Seneca, Ep. xx. 5 (122).

I'xxvl Introduction.

with few exceptions, were not allowed to pass during the first ten hours of
the day, and a clearance of the projecting moeniana and the stalls of all
tradesmen and hucksters had to be made periodically.* Martial complains
bitterly of the noises at night, from the traffic in the streets, which would
not allow him to sleep, and praises Domitian for having cleared the barbers',
cooks', butchers', and winesellers' stalls away, and made it at length possible
to pass freely along the streets."

It has been remarked that, with all the Roman passion for Greek forms

Roman of architecture, yet the names of the architects employed at
architects. Rome which have come down to us are mainly Roman,* and
that even before the time when the first Greek architect, Hermodorus of
Salamis, is mentioned as employed at Rome, we find a Roman, Cossutius,
engaged in the erection of the great Temple of Zeus Olympius at Athens in
the reign of Antiochus Epiphanes.''

The architect of the famous Temple of Honour and Virtue, dedicated by
Marius, was a Roman, C. Mutius; and Cicero employed a Roman architect
in the erection of the chapel in memory of his daughter Tullia. \'itruvius
praises three books on architecture written by the Romans Fufitius, Varro, and
Publius Septimius.^ Under Augustus, besides Vitruvius himself, who was an
Italian by birth but a Greek by education, we find only Valerius of Ostia
mentioned as employed in architectural works, and a freedman, L. Cocceius."
Ap-ain, in Nero's time, the orreat architects Severus and Celer have Roman
names ; and Rabinius, the architect of Domitian, appears to have been a
Roman." A Greek artist, Apollodorus, first comes into prominent notice
in the reigns of Trajan and Hadrian, but it is probable that a Roman,
Frontinus, was also largely patronized by these emperors.

But in the Imperial times a perfect army of architects and builders must
have been kept up in order to execute new works or keep the old buildings
in repair. It is said that 700 architects were employed by Nero and Trajan
for the sole purpose of attending to the supply of water for the city.* The
whole number engaged in different parts of the world under these emperors
must therefore have numbered many thousands. We find the governor of

.->

' Anim. Marcell. xxvii. 9, 10: "Moeniana sustulit = Vitruv. loc. cit. ; Cic. Ad Att. xii. 17, xiii. 29.

omnia, fabricari Romas prioris quoque vetita legibus.'' Three architects mentioned by Cicero, Cyrus, Chry-

'' Martial, vii. 61, xii. 57. sippus, and Corumbus, have Greek names, but were

' Hirt, Gesch. der Baukunst, ii. p. 257 ; Ampere. possibly slaves. Pro; Mil. 17; Ad Att. xiv. 3.

Hist. Rom. a Rome, vol. iv. p. 77. « Plin. xxxvi. 24, §1. ' Mart. vii. 55. x. 71.

■* Vitiuv. iii. 2, 5 ; vii. ))ra;f. § 15. Caius and * Diet. Antiq. s. v. Aquffiductus. Under Aurelian

Marcius Stallius were also employed at Athens. the architects received regular salaries from the State:

\'itruv. v. 9, I. Hist. Aug. Aur. 35.

Introduction. Ixxvii

Nicomedia asking for an architect from Rome to construct a serviceable
aqueduct for the city, as two previous attempts, possibly by local architects
had not succeeded.* Hadrian, it is well known, was his own architect
in many cases, and prided himself upon having designed the great Temple
of Venus and Rome ; but he also employed vast numbers of architects to
assist in his minor works. "

Several names of ancient architects have been found at Terracina, Pozzuoli,
in Spain, and at Bonn, all of which are Roman ; and the probable reasons
for the employment of Romans in preference to Greeks are not difficult to
assign. = The Roman Emperors sought, above all things, durabilit)' and
colossal size in their architectural works. While therefore Greek sculptors
would doubtless be preferred for the decorative parts of the buildino-, the
designing of the whole on a large scale, and the strength of the construction,
would be best entrusted to a Roman, who might well be more an eno-ineer
than an architect. In the raising of huge stones, and the construction of
enormous arches, the Romans had more practical talent and skill than the
Greeks ; and as these were principal matters in their huge buildino-s, it does
not seem strange that Roman architects were more frequently employed than
Greek. The profession of an architect at Rome was considered inferior to
that of a military engineer, a natural result of the supremac)' of the military
and political elements in the Roman national character.

The architect about whom we know most, \'itruvius, uas reall)- a military
engineer, and had served in that capacity during a great part of his life.
He would have so remained, or at least would not have published
his scientific views on architecture, had he not seen that Augustus
was something more than a mere hard, practical statesman, and possessed
great refinement of taste, and a desire to introduce into Rome a love for
the beautiful in art.^ Vitruvius's chief object was to perpetuate the o-reat
principle of purity and simplicity in design and elegance in proportion laid
down by the great Greek master, and to counteract the vulgar taste for
coarse and overladen decoration, which he saw prevailing at Rome. While
we sympathize with X'itruvius in his dislike of the Roman fondness for accu-
mulation of unmeaning ornament, and with his protests against their neglect
of constructive truth, we cannot help regretting that he failed to see wherein

' Plin. Ep. X. 46,47. 2 Ampere, Hist. p. 79.

= Dion Cassius, Ixix. 3. 4. Aur. Vict. Epit. 14: ■* Vitruv. i. prx-f. ; "Ad cxitum vitic .... ha;ctibi

'• Namque ad specimen Icgionum militarium, fabros, scribere ccepi . . . . te non solum dc vita communi

perpcndiculatores, architectos, genusque cunctuni ex- curam habere, sed etiam de opportunitate publi-

truendorum mocnium sou decorandorum in cohortcs coium adihcionim lit .Majestas imperii publiconim

centuriaverat.' adificioruni egregias haberet auctoritates."

IXXVlll

Introduction.

the real strength of" Roman architecture consisted, and in what direction its
true development lay, and that he encouraged instead that slavish imitation
of the Greeks, which was as fatal to the growth of genuine Roman
architecture as it was to the development of a really national Roman

ARCO DEI PANTANI.

literature. The horizontal lines of Greek architecture, and the necessarily
narrow areas of their buildings, were never brought into living union with
the peculiarly Roman method of construction by the arch. ^\'e can derive
much pleasure, it is true, from the Romano-Greek buildings ; but we feel

fntroduction. \

XXIX

that they are not a real embodiment of Roman iilcas, but a composite mass
of heterogeneous elements, which no skill can reduce successfully into a
harmonious whole.

The same mixed character belongs to their literature, in which their real
natural characteristics, their deep and practical views of human nature, their
political and military genius, are everywhere overlaid and dressed up with
Grecian art, and forced into Grecian forms. Just as a native Roman style of
architecture was never developed by the Romans themselves, but in their
arched structures they left to succeeding ages the rudiments of the grandest
and most perfectly expressive of all styles of architecture, so in the same waj-
the intense interest in human life, and the moral and practical spirit which
pervaded their literature, and formed its support, has, like the hidden arches
of their buildings, proved the framework upon which some of the noblest
creations of modern intellect have been reared.

The Romans were the greatest builders that the world has ever seen ;
but they never succeeded in developing any system of decorative architecture.
They were an arch-building but not an architectural nation. They
planted in the West and the East, in the remotest part of Britain <.^,'X!v"j
and the deserts of Petra and Palmyra, imperishable monuments of rather timn
their engineering and masonic skill ; but in all their attempts to
create ornamental structures they failed to produce anything more than
gigantic or grotesque imitations of Greek art. From an sesthetical point of
view, therefore, the study of their buildings is barren. They did not possess
an eye for fine proportion of outline, or symmetrical and harmonious com-
bination of details. A certain vulgar love of gorgeous and costly ornament,
and an incapacity for appreciating the beauty of simplicity and purity,
pervade all their most elaborate buildings. But as historical monuments,
illustrative of the peculiar genius and character of the Romans, the study of
Roman structures is most important and valuable. We see embodied in
them that indomitable energy and strength of purpose which bridged the
valleys and tunnelled through the hills ; that con\'iction of the grandeur of
their empire and destiny which could not be satisfied with anything short
of the colossal and imperishable ; that strong practical utilitarianism which
constantly sought means to improve the conditions of human life, and
render the earth a more convenient habitation for man, and at the same
time that intense passion for fierce excitement and luxurious enjoyment,
which made them lavish untold wealth in the construction of stupendous
amphitheatres and thermae.

/ 2

CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF THE PRINCIPAL BUILDINGS
IN ROME AND THE CAMPAGNA.

A. C.

A. U. C.

753

715

673

641

113

616

138

578

176

534

220

I.— REGAL PERIOD.

Roma Quadrata. Temple of Jupiter Stator.

Regia and Temple of Vesta. Capitolium Vetus. Temple of Quirinus. Temple

of Janus. Argean Chapels.
Temple of Tellus. Tigillum Sororium.
Ostia founded. Fossa Quiritium.
Tsmple of Jupiter Capitolinus. Cloaca Maxima. Circus Maximus begun by

Tarquinius Priscus.
Walls of Servius. Regions of Servius. Temple of Diana on the Aventine.

Temples of Fortuna and Mater Matuta.
Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus and Cloaca Maxima finished by Tarquinius

Superbus.

507

247

497

257

495

259

493

261

484

270

429

325

399

355

391

363

367

387

344

410

338

416

312

442

306

408

305

449

302

452

298

456

294

460

II.— PERIOD OF THE REPUBLIC.

Capitoline Temple consecrated.

Temple of Saturn.
Temple of Mercurius in the Circus.
Temple of Ceres, Liber, and Libera.
Temple of Castor in the Forum.
Temple of Apollo in the Campus Martius.
Temple of Mater Matuta restored.
Temple of Juno Regina on the Aventine.
Temple of Concord on the Cli\'us Capitolinus vowed.
Temple of Juno Moneta in the Arx.
Rostra.

Via Appia. Aqua Appia.
Equestrian Statue of Tremulus in the Forum.
Temple of Concord consecrated.
Temple of Salus.

Temple of Bellona. Capitoline Wolf and Twins cast.

Temples of Jupiter Stator (Regulus), of Quirinus, and of Fors Fortuna
(Carvilius). See p. 288.

Chronological Tabic of the Principal Buildings in Rome,

&c.

ixxxi

A. C.

A. V, C

294

460

291

463

272

482

260

494

259

495

220

534

218

536

215

539

212

542

2°5

549

195

559

193

561

191

563

190

564

187

567

184

570

181

573

179

575

169

585

167

587

148

606

144

610

142

612

■32

622

125

629

121

633

120

634

109

645

108

646

673

685

692

696

699

5°

704

708

712

718

12,

721

Via Appia paved as far as Bovilla*.

Temple of ."Esculapius on the island of the Tiher.

Aqueduct of the Anio Vetus built.

Columna Rostrata of Duilius.

Temple of Tempestas.

Circus Flamiuius and Via Flaminia.

Temple of Concord in the Arx.

Temple of Venus Eiycina in the Capitol.

Repair of the Walls of Rome.

Temple of Honour and Virtue.

Triumphal Arches of Stertinius.

Emporium built.

Temple of ^Magna Mater.

Arch of Scipio Africanus.

Temple of Hercules Musagetes.

Basilica Porcia. Cloacse enlarged and repaired.

Temple of Venus at the Porta Collina.

Basilica Fulvia. Temples of Juno Regina and Diana in the Circus Flaminius.

Theatre of .Emilius Lepidus. Macellum Magnum. Streets of Rome first

paved.
Basilica Sempronia.
Porticus Octavii.

Temples of Jupiter and Juno built by Metellus in the Circus Flaminius.
Marcian Aqueduct built.
Pons Palatinus.

Temple of ^fars in the Circus Flaminius.
Tepulan Aqueduct built.
Basilica Opimia.
Arch of Fabius.
Milvian Bridge built.
Porticus Minucia built.
Capitoline Temple rebuilt.
Capitoline Temple reconsecrated.
Fabrician Bridge built.
Theatre of Scaurus built.

Theatre of Pompey and Temple of Venus Victri.v built.
Basilica Paulli (yEmilia).

Forum of Julius Cresar. Temple of Venus Genetri.x.
Basilica Julia. Naumachia in the Campus Martius.
Temple of Julius Cresar in the Forum decreed. Rostra Julia and Curia

Julia. Temple of Mars Ultor vowed.
Temple of Palatine .Apollo.
Julian .Aqueduct and .Vgrippa's great public works.

Ixxxu

Chronological Tabic of the Principal Buildings

A- C.

A. r. c

3°

724

725

726

727

728

734

735

738

740

741

743

744

A. D.

A. U. C

759

763

765

767

776

780

792

805

808

815

817

6.S

818

III.— IMPERIAL PERIOD. THE C^SARS.

Amphitheatre of Statilius.

Mausoleum of Augustus begun.

Eighty-two Temples restored. (See Monumentum Ancyranum.)

Pantheon of Agrippa.

Septa Julia. Temple of Jupiter Tonans.

Temple of Mars Ultor on the Capitol.

Aqueduct of Aqua Virgo built.

Temple of Quirinus on the Quirinal.

Temple of Saturn rebuilt.

Theatre of Balbus built.

Theatre of Marcellus built.

Eg}'ptian Obelisks erected in the Circus and Campus.

Temple of Castor in the Forum rebuilt by Tiberius.

Arch of Dolabella.

Porticus of the Basilica Julia built

Arch of Tiberius on the Cli\'us Capitolinus.

Castra Prsetoria built. Basilica Emilia restored.

Temple of Augustus built.

Palace of Caligula and bridge from the Palatine to the Capitol.

Claudian Aqueduct and Aqueduct of the Anio Novus.

Circus Neronianus.

Thermae Neronianae. Domus Transitoria.

Neronian Fire.

Golden House of Nero built

71
81
82
94

823
824
834

835
847

IV.— THE FL.AVIAN ERA.

Capitoline Temple rebuilt.
Forum Pacis built.

Coliseum and Thermae of Titus opened.

Capitoline Temple again rebuilt. Arch of Titus on the Velia built.
Forum Transitorium or Palladium begun by Domitian. Temple of Isis and
Serapis built.

849

I II

864

113

866

116

869

119

872

130 "

883

137

890

138

891

141

894

183

936

v.— THE .\NTONINE ERA.

Meta Sudans erected.

Aqueduct of Trajan built (from the Lago Bracciano).

Forum and Column of Trajan built.

Thermae of Trajan built. Triumphal Arch of Trajan erected in his Forum.

Temple of Trajan. Basilica Neptuni built by Hadrian.

Temple of Venus and Rome, ^lian Bridge. Mausoleum of Hadrian begun.

Hadrian's Tiburtine Villa built.

Temple of Hadrian built.

Pillar of Antoninus Pius erected. Temple of Antoninus and Faustina.

Column of Marcus Aurelius in the Campus (Antonine Column).

Thermae of Commodus built.

in Rome and the Campagna.

IXN.Xlll

A. r>.

A. V. C

195

948

202

955

203

956

216

969

227

980

242

995

252

1005

263

1016

571

1024

273

1026

276

1029

303

1056

VI.— THE LATER EMPERORS.

Thermse of Severus.

Pantheon and Porticus Octaviae restored by Severus.

Arch of Septimius Severus in the Foruna Romanum. Arch of the Goldsmiths

in the Forum Boarium.
Thermae of Caracalla.
Thermae of Alexander Severus.

Villa Suburbana of the Gordians built (Tor de' Schiavi).
Thermffi of Decius built.

Arch of Gallienus and Cornelia Salonina on the Esquiline (?)
The Walls of Aureliaft begun.
Temple of the Sun built by Aurelian.
The Walls of Aurelian finished.
Thermje of Diocletian. Aqua Jovia. a branch of the Marcia. built.

309

1062

312

1065

2,n

1066

326

1079

357

1 1 10

379

1132

VII.— CONSTANTINIAN ERA.

Circus of Romulus built by Maxentius.

Destruction of Praetorian Camp by Constantine. Basilica of Constantine.

Themias of Constantine.

Arch of Constantine.

Egyptian Obelisk placed in the Circus Maximus by Constantine.

.\rches of Gratian, Valentinian, and Theodosius.

402
406
410

455

472
500

537
546
553
593
602
663
756

833
846
848
916

1084
J241

1349

VIII.— THE BARBARIAN INVASIONS.

Honorius repairs the .\urelian walls and fortifications of Rome.

Triumphal Arches of Arcadius, Honorius, and Theodosius.

Rome taken by Alaric.

Rome taken by Genseric.

Rome taken by Ricimer.

Theodoric preserves and repairs the monuments, walls, and a(jueducts.

Rome besieged by Vitiges.

Rome ravaged by Totila.

Narses restores the Ponte Salaro.

The Lombards commit outrages in the neighbourhood of Rome.

The Column of Phocas erected in the Forum.

Constans II. carries away the bronze statues and decorations from Rome.

Siege of Rome by .\stulf.

Ostia restored by Gregory IV. (Gregoriopolis).

The Saracens plunder the neighbourhood of Rome.

The Leonine Suburb built by Leo IV.

The Saracens defeated at Garigliano.

Rome plundered by Robert Guiscard.

The Mausoleum of Augustus destroyed in the war between the Pope and

the Emperor.
Tremendous earthquake at Rome, by which many ancient buildinijs .irc

destroyed.

ROME AND THE CAMPAGNA.

CHAPTER I.
THE SITE OF ROME.

DISADVANTAGES OF THE SITE OF ROME — GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE CAMPAGNA — COURSE OF THE RIVER
THROUGH ROME — THE HILLS OF ROME — GENERAL VIEW OF ROME — THE VALLEYS OF ROME— THE SITUATION
OF ROME NOT ADAPTED FOR THE METROPOLIS OF A LARGE EMPIRE, WHETHER COMMERCIALLY, OR IN
RESPECT OF CLIMATE — BUT FAVOURABLE TO A LIMITED TRADING COMMUNITY COMBINED WITH A LARGE
AGRICULTUR.-VL CLASS — BEAUTY OF THE VIEWS FROM ROME— THE GENERAL FORM OF THE GROUND REMAINS
THE SAME AS IN THE EARLIEST TIME.

KTiiraf TT\v V{jL\uriv iv tottois oh wpus aip€(riv naWoy ^ Trpos dyayKTjv 67rtT7j5efoiy. OIjt€ ydp fpv^vov to tia<pos ovre
Xoipay otKftay txof ttJj/ "Tep'C ^^"^ -rr^X^i TTp6(r<popos. — Strabo, hook v. p. 229.

" Beholde what wreake, what mine, and what wast.
And how that she which with her mightie po«Te
Tamed all the world, hath tamed herselfe at last ;
The pray of Time, which all tilings doth devoure."

T/ii Ruhus of Romi, by Bella V.

ROME has no very striking advantages of situation. Her rise to be the metropolis
of the world was but little aided by local strength or opportunities, and her fall
was certainly hastened by the want of those facilities for communication by sea which
the situation of their city denied to the Romans. Strabo distinctly states nimd-anta'^c^
his opinion that the site was chosen more by necessity than on account of of the site of
its suitability. For, he adds, there is no great strength in the position,
and the surrounding country is not such as to be convenient for a large city." And
Strabo's opinion is said to have been endorsed by some of the ablest men Rome ever
produced. Julius Caesar, according to Suetonius, entertained the design of removing
Rome to Alexandria or to the coast of Asia Minor,- and something of the same kintl

1 .Strabo, book v. p. 229. One tradition about Palatine, or four miles lower down the river. Niebuhr.
the foundation of Rome relates that it was debated Rom. Hist. vol. i. p. 223.
whether the settlement should be placed on the " Suet. Jul. 79 ; Lucan, ix. 998.

2 The Site of Rome. ■*-

seems to have been rumoured in the time of Augustus.^ Religious prejudices were,
however, too strong to allow the desertion of the old site, connected as it was with so
many legends of the Gods, or to venture to provoke the avenging wrath of Juno a
second time.- Several of the later Emperors seem to have felt a wish to remove the
seat of empire to a more convenient site. Diocletian and Maximian lived mostly at
Milan, Nicomedia, Carthage, or Antioch, and would gladly, had the popular feeling
permitted, have transferred the seat of government to one of those cities.^

VALLEY OF THE TIBER WHERE THE FLAMINIAN ROAD CROSSES IT AT THE FORTY-SECOND MILESTONE FROM ROME

NEAR OCRICULUM (OTRICOLl).

At length Constantine found himself powerful enough to establish a new capital in
a more commanding, healthy, and fertile site. His opponents could no longer, as
Camillus and Horace had done, appeal to the religious sanctity of the site of Rome.'*
The superiority in beauty, security, and accessibility of Constantinople over Rome might
be thought sufficient to have perpetuated this change. But sentiment proved stronger than
expediency, and Rome has preserved a strange vitality as a capital city notwithstanding
the attempts of her own sons to dethrone her.

' Hor. Od. iii. 3 ; Merivale, vol. ii. p. 483, note. ^ ^ur. Vict. Dc Cassaribus, cap. xxxi.x. 45 ; Auson.

" /En. i. 36 : "Juno aeternum sen-ans sub pectore De clar. Urb. v. 10.
volniis." •■ Gibbon, chap. xvii. ; Livy, v. 51.

^ The Site of Rome. 3

The group of hills on whicii ancient Rome was built, and over part of which modern
Rome extends, lies nearly in the centre of a broad tract (Latium) of undulating country,
shut in on the north b}- low ranges of hills, on the east by the mighty wall ^

, , 1 , 1 A 1. 1 -11 ^ J Goural descrip-

of the Sabme Apennmes, on the south by the Alban hills, and on the west tion 0/ the
by the Mediterranean Sea. The distance of the city from each of these Campagna.
is from fifteen to twent)' miles. Into this enclosed plain there are four entrances
through which roads may be carried, corresponding pretty nearly to the four points of
the compass. The valley of the Tiber, along which the railroad to Ancona is now
carried, leads to the north. Access to the east is afforded by the opening between the
Sabine Apennines and the Alban hills, commanded by the isolated hill of Praeneste. To
the south, the Appian Road and the modern railroad to Naples pass between the Alban
hills and the sea through the damp lowlands of the Pomptine marshes ; and to the west
the railroad to Ci\'ita Vecchia is carried between the hills of Cervetri (CEEre) and the sea.
These are the four grand lines of communication between Latium and the rest of the
peninsula of Italy.

The general character of the countrj- within a radius of ten miles around Rome may
be described by the term hillocky, as it consists of numerous small isolated and steep
hills, intersected by ravines. Through the centre of this tract the river Tiber flows in a
southerly direction until it reaches Rome, and then bends towards the south-west, falling
into the sea at Ostia. The bed of the Tiber, as is the case with most rivers not
traversing a perfectly plain countr)-, forms a narrow depression in the bottom of a
tolerably wide valley, from side to side of which the river winds, cutting its way through
its own alluvial soil. The average width of the river is 300 feet, and its stream rapid and
turbid. The water contains a fine yellow micaceous sand, which gave it the name of
Fulvus or Flavus Tiberis.^

In that portion of the Tiber valley which lies within the walls of Rome, the course
of the river, on first reaching the walls, is nearly due south ; it then bends gradually
towards the west for three-quarters of a mile, and, turning sharply at a

^ ' ' & r- / (_ ,„„-se of the

right angle, runs for a mile and a quarter towards the south-east. It then river through
turns gradually round to the south-west for about a mile ; after which it Rome.

again bends to the south. Thus the river at Rome is divided into five reaches : the first,
of nearly half a mile in length, extending from the Cattle Market to the Ripetta Ferrj' ;
the second, three-quarters of a mile in length, from the Ferry to the Hospital of San
Spirito ; the third, from the Hospital to the Suspension Bridge, a little more than a mile
in length ; the fourth, three-quarters of a mile in length, from the Suspension Bridge to
the ruins of the Emporium ; and the fifth, half a mile in length, from the Emporium to
the angle of the Aurelian walls, near Monte Testaccio.

At the south-eastern end uf the third reach of the river, its water is divided nearly
equally into two channels, by an island about 300 yards in length and go in its greatest
breadth.

The western side of the Tiber valley at Rome is bounded by the Vatican hill and
the long ridge of the Janiculum. Between the slope of the Vatican hill and the banks of
the river, there is a flat space for a distance of about three-quarters of a mile, but
1 See Hor. Od. i. 2, 13 ; Ov. Met. xiv. 448 ; \'irg. ,-En. vii. 31, ix. 816 ; Brocchi, Suolo di Roma. p. 94.

B 2

4 The Site of Rome.

the high ground then rapidly approaches the river, and at the northern end of the

Janiculum comes -^vithin a hundred yards of it. The ridge of the Janiculum, combined

with the third and fourth reaches of the river, inclose the space within which the Regio

Transtiberina lies.

The hills on the eastern side of the Tiber at Rome may be divided into two

classes. The first of these is a \cxy broken and irregular series of projecting hills and

headlands, running out from a tract of table-land, which unites them at

The hills of ^j^^ back. They have been compared bv Brocchi^ to the fingers of a man's
Rome. .

hand, the palm of which represents the plain from which they jut out. This

comparison, however, gives but a faint idea of their real shape, even if we add that the

fingers must be conceived of as strangely distorted and mutilated. The most northern

of these hills is the Pincian, which approaches to within 300 yards of the river. Next

to this is the crooked ridge of the Ouirinal, resembling a bent and gouty finger. The

space between the extreme point of this hill and the river is more than a mile wide,

and comprises the greater part of the modern city which stands upon the ancient Campus

Martins.

South of the Ouirinal lies the insignificant tongue-like strip of the Viminal, round
which the Ouirinal bends itself The Esquiliije is a much broader and more im-
portant hill, comprising, besides several minor projections, two principal spurs, ancienth-
called the Cispius and Oppius. The Ccelian, though it is semi-detached, may yet, like
the above-mentioned, be considered as a spur running out from the background of the
Campagna.

The Aventine, Palatine, and Capitoline belong to a different description of hills from
the above. They are entirely isolated heights, rising in the valle\' between the river
and the high ground, from which the Pincian, Ouirinal, Viminal, Esquiline, and Coelian
project.

Another small portion of the edge of the Campagna is inclosed within the walls
of Rome, comprising the projecting tongue of Mens Celiolus, the rising ground which
runs at the back of the baths of Caracalla, and the hill on which S. Saba and S. Balbina
stand, sometimes called the Pseudo-Aventine.^

Such is a brief enumeration of the hills of Rome, which, compared with a map, will
give some notion of the general configuration of the ground upon which the city
stands. It may most conveniently be considered as a portion of the Tiber valley
inclosing three detached hills, and from which several short and shallow ravines run
up into the surrounding country. The height of the hills which separate these ravines
is inconsiderable, the highest point on the eastern side of the river, at the statue of the
Dea Roma on the agger of Servius, being only 236 feet above the sea-level. The ground
is higher on the western bank, but even there the Janiculum rises only to the height of
260 feet.

The general appearance of the site of the citj' from these highest points within the
walls is tame, and wanting in grand features. There is no striking natural eminence like

' Brocchi, Suolo di Roma. p. 84. The heights of the principal hills of Rome range from 140 to
280 feet. ■•'Mi." ^^^ chap. ix.

-m^

■*

^
^

ife,

.^^^"ifcu.^B

't.

P%:
"^M.

•7^ mmr''^^^:^^

.;^§:

■M?%#IJ

#
##

^^^ ^^^M>, W ' :IW ?>

?:
d

££&

'® '^:^il^^pir*

.^*., i#^'

P
rt

^^^^p^

'■'/ii

W'^^.^W^ ^^^^'^

"«

'm^^^'

The Site of Rinne. c

that of the Acropolis at Athens, of the Castle Mill at Edinburgh, or St. Elmo at Naples to
arrest the e\-e. There is no broad, mast-crowded Thames, but the river is swift turbid
and torrent-like, devoid of dignity and beauty. Rome did not enhance her
greatness by any superior charms of position; and from the absence of G^""-al vim>

1 ' I r J ii • ■ "/ Rome.

towers and lotty domes, the ancient cit)^ must have presented a oreater
uniformit)' of outline than the modern. It is not without some difficulty in the present da\-
that the Capitol can be singled out from the somewhat confused mass of the citv building's,
and the stranger who attempts to trace the limits of the seven famous hills finds iiimself
not a little perplexed in his endeavours to distinguish one from the other.

The highest point within the walls of Rome is the church of S. Pietro in Montorio.
on the Janiculum.i From this point of view the site of the ancient city presents to the
stranger's eye a broken and confused appearance, and the summits of the different hills
are only discoverable by the more remarkable buildings placed upon them, as they rise
but little above the general level of the Campagna.

On the extreme right, the unromantic and unstoried Monte Testaccio, a hill in great
part composed of potsherds, thrusts itself into undue prominence, as if claiming to be
one of the famous seven.- But the first veritable hill of the seven which meets the eye,
ranging over the city from the right, is the Aventine, on which the churches of S. Sabina
and S. Alessio stand up prominently over the steep travertine rocks on the eastern bank
of the Tiber. The river, itself sunk deep between its banks, is not visible except for a
short distance on the right of Monte Testaccio, where the new railway bridge crosses it.
To the left of the Aventine, the eye, when aided by the ruins of the Caesarean palace, and
the Chinese pagoda-like building in the Villa Spada which marks the site of the library of
Apollo, can discern the flat top of the Palatine. Behind the Palatine rises the Basilica
of St. John Lateran, marking the Coelian, and to the left, the tower of the Senator's
Palace marks the Capitoline. It is very difficult to discern the Esquiline, from the
want of some one prominent object. The position of the Cispian tongue is, however,
sufficiently shown by the two towers of Santa Maria Maggiore, which appear a little to
the left of the tower on the Capitol, and the extremity of the Oppian by the cluirch of
S. Pietro in Vincoli. The great mass of the Esquiline lies behind the Coliseum, which still
rears its top, though broken, above the surrounding slopes. Upon the Viminal the new
railway station is the most conspicuous object, and this insignificant hill has thus emerged
from obscurity, and become a familiar and frequented neighbourhood. Further to the
left, the northernmost of the seven hills, the Ouirinal, may be singled out by the huge
Ouirinal Palace of the Pope, the Torre delle Milizie, and the cypresses in the Colonna
Gardens.

The Pincian hill, the public promenade of modern Roman society, was not included
within the walls of Servius, and has not therefore taken rank as one of the mystic seven.-'
It is marked by the church of S. Trinita dei Monti and the gardens of the Villa Medici.
Between it and our point of view lies the modern city, occupying the Campus Martius,

' " Hinc septcm dominos vidcre inontes ct totam ' But see below on the Septimontium, chap. iii..

hcct SEStimare Romain." — MarI'. iv. 64. where it is shown that the original Septimontium did

^ See Story's Roba di Roma, vol. ii, p. 29 ; and not correspond with the seven hills as now commonly

woodcut in chap. ii. enumerated.

6 The Site of Rome.

a mass of red roofs broken by numerous domes and overgrown palaces. To the left of
the modern city, above the colossal mausoleum of Hadrian, the eye can follow the Tiber
valley northwards towards the Milvian bridge, directly over which hangs the height of
Monte Mario, with its cypress woods and beautifully-placed villa. Close to us on the left
is the Vatican hill, crowned by the graceful dome of St. Peter's.

Of the depressions, for they can scarcely be called valleys, which lie between these hills,

the most famous is that formed by the slopes of the Palatine and Capitoline,

"*''" '-f-' and the extremities of the Ouirinal and Esquiline. In that valley lay the

Forum, in Republican times the heart of ancient Rome, whose mighty

throbs were felt throughout the world. The other valleys of Rome diverge from it.

Towards the east, the Subura runs up between the Esquiline and Quirinal, a district of

ancient Rome which has acquired an unenviable notoriety from the abuse heaped upon

it by Juvenal, Martial, and Horace. Towards the west the valley which runs down

between the Palatine and Capitoline to the river had the names of Velabrum and Forum

Roarium. On the north, the opening between the Capitoline and Ouirinal was traversed

in earlier times by the Flaminian road, and at a later date it was widened by cutting

away the side of the Ouirinal, and Trajan's gigantic forum was built there.^ Towards the

south-east ran the Sacra Via, communicating with the south-eastern gates of the city.

Next in importance to the Forum-valley was that l}'ing between the Palatine and
Aventine, through which flows the brook of the Marrana. It was called the Vallis Murcia,
and the Circus Maximus, the great racecourse of Rome, occupied nearly the whole length
and breadth of it. The valley between the Palatine, Esquiline, and Ccelian, in which the
Coliseum still stands, was also the receptacle of some of the most wonderful results of
Roman power and extravagance. The gardens of Nero's Golden House extended across
it from the slope of the Palatine to the Esquiline ; in it he excavated a vast lake for
aquatic amusements, and at its entrance towered his colossal statue.

North of the Capitoline hill, and inclosed by the Pincian, Ouirinal, Capitoline, and
the river, lay the flat meadows of the Campus Martins, the southern and eastern parts of
which were called respectively the districts of the Prata P^laminia and the Campus Agrippae.
It must not be supposed that in the Imperial age of Rome there were open fields here,
and that the modern city stands on a site unoccupied by the ancient. Nearly the whole
Campus Martins was covered with magnificent public buildings of various kinds, markets,
theatres, cloisters, baths, and temples, stately columns, obelisks and statues, the spoils of
Greece, Egypt, and the East.

On the opposite side of the river, and between its bank and the Vatican hill, lie some
flat meadows, formerly called the Quinctian meadows ; and in the hollow between the
Vatican and the northern end of the Janiculum, on the site of St. Peter's, were some
Imperial gardens and a circus of Nero. Along the foot of the Janiculum, and occupying
the level space between it and the river, lay the Regio Transtiberina. Only a part of this
was inclosed by the walls of Aurelian ; namely, that part which lies between the Ponte
Sisto, the Porta S. Pancrazio, and the Porta Portese. Except as an outwork defending
the city on the west, it was of little importance, compared with the eastern part of
the city.

■ See below, chap. vii.

The Site of Rome.

Rome quickly outgrew her site. The Palatine, Capitoline, and Aventine hills, the
cradles of the empress of the world, were admirably adapted for the protection of her
infancy, and well fitted to be the emporium of Latium, but not to be the The situation oj
metropolis of a large empire. The central position of Rome in Italy enabled ^'""' '""'

her, during the first five centuries of her existence, to command that peninsula " nttrlpolh of 1
from the Alps to Calabria; but at the end of the fifth century came the large empire.
necessity for determining whether the empire should be extended beyond the limits of
Italy. Hence arose that pause and vacillation in the policy of Rome observable durino-
the First Punic War. Italy was won, and many of the Roman statesmen were opposed
to any further annexation of territorj'. They wished to rest and be thankful. Their city,
they might have urged, was not intended by its natural position to extend its dominion
beyond Italy. The Roman fleet was a mere appanage to the army, and her sailors were
never likely to become so skilful as those of other nations more favourably situated for
communication by sea. That many Roman statesmen and a great part of the nation were
of this opinion, is shown by the feeble and slack prosecution of the war ; and in fact it was
not the nation, but a few enthusiastic patriots, who raised a volunteer fleet, won the battle
of the Agates, and decided the future of Rome.

In still later times, at the height of her power under the Emperors, the unsuitability
of the site on which her towers were planted contributed not a little to her ruin. Could
the power of Rome have been successfully transferred in the time of Augustus to the
site of Constantinople or Nicomedia, the decay and fall of the Roman Empire might
have been considerably retarded. It is true that Livy and Cicero speak in high terms
of the advantages of the site of Rome. When, after the burning of the city by the Gauls,
the Roman commons wished to migrate to Veil, Livy puts into the mouth of Camillus an
encom.ium on the situation of Rome.^ " Not without good reason," he says, " did our
founders, under the guidance of God, select the spot where our city stands. The hills
on which it is built have a most healthy air, the river is most convenient for the impor-
tation of corn from the Mediterranean districts, and the encouragement of maritime
commerce ; the sea is close at hand, and offers numerous advantages ; we are not too
much exposed to danger from an enemy's fleet, we are placed in the centre of Italy ; in
fact the site seems peculiarly adapted for the development of a metropolis." Camillus
was, no doubt, right in opposing the removal of Rome to the site of Veii ; for although
Veii is perhaps more completely defensible as a strategical position, yet it is farther from
the sea, and therefore less accessible. But the rest of his speech is plainly rhetorical
exaggeration. Cicero, in a passage of his " Republic," which greatly resembles in its
rhetorical character the speech put into the mouth of Camillus by Livy, gives Romulus
great credit for having foreseen, by Divine guidance, the wonderful suitability of the site
of Rome for the capital of a large empire, as being both capable of fortification, and so
placed that the commodities of all countries could be brought by sea to supply its markets,
while the river furnished a means of communication with the inland districts as well
as with the seaboard.'

' Livy, V. 54. /En. i. 3, says : " yEneas aigre paticbatur in eum

- Cic. de Rep. ii. 5. From an agricultural point devenisse agrum macerrinium litorosissimumque."
of view, Fabius Maximus, quoted by Servius on

The Site of Rome.

Now as regards the commercial advantages secured to Rome by the river Tiber, they
may have been sufficient for the requirements of the RepubHc, but must have proved
totally inadequate in the times of the Empire. The Tiber is narrow and
liicrcJl ' rapid, and not accessible to ships of large burthen, being only from fifteen
to twenty feet in depth, and one hundred and eighty-five feet broad at the
bridge of St. Angelo.^ There is no tide, and the river winds so much as to make sailing
a very difficult and slow process. In fact, there is just enough water to carrj' stores and
affiDrd considerable assistance to an attacking army, as was shown in the Gothic wars,^
but not enough to maintain an extensive intercourse and commerce with a rich and
distant empire.^ The Tiber was also in another respect injurious to the city, for it was
subject to sudden and frequent floods, from its short and tortuous course, and from the
mountainous nature of the district through which it passes."* In the time of Tiberius a
proposal was made in the Senate to divert the affluents of the Tiber, and to decrease the
danger of its inundations by cutting off its supplies of water.^ The intention of those who
made this proposal was to turn the water of the Chiana, the principal affluent of the Tiber,
into the Arno, a junction which is now actually effected by the Canale della Chiana,'' to
separate the Nar into smaller channels, and dissipate its waters over the surface of the
country, and to block up the exit of the Veline lake above Terni. Tacitus hesitates to
decide whether the entreaties of the inhabitants of the threatened districts, or the difficulty
of the undertaking, or the superstitious fear of the anger of Father Tibcrinus at having
his supplies cut off, deterred the Senate from accepting the proposal. At all events,
the damage done by the river must have been considerable to have suggested such a
measure, and it does not appear that the loss of commercial advantages to the city
was used as an argument against the scheme, or in any wa}^ entered the minds of the
disputants."

The Tiber is, in fact, too large a river to be harmless, and too small to be of any
e.xtensive service to commerce. It is also from its narrowness easily blocked up. Marius,
when he co-operated with Cinna in B.C. 86 in attacking the aristocratical party in Rome,
occupied and blocked up the Tiber without difficulty, and thereb}- did considerable mischief
to Rome.

^ See Dionys. iii. 44. Only ships of 3,000 amphora
or less burthen could enter. The solid contents of
an amphora was e.xactly a Roman cubic foot.

- Gibbon, ch. xliii.

' Pliny, however, calls the Tiber, Nat. Hist. iii. 5, 9,
" Rerum in toto orbe nascentium mercator placidis-
simus."

* See Friedliinder, Sittcngeschichte Roms, vol. i.

P- 31-

= Tac. Ann. i. 79. Julius Ca;sar had before made
the proposal mentioned by Cic. .-^d ."Xtt. .xiii. 2,"^, that
the river should be diverted at the Pons Mulvius
just above Rome, and taken across the Campagna
to Terracina by means of a canal. See Mommsen,
Rom. Hist. vol. iv. part ii. p. 505, Eng. trans. This
was done with the view of improving the site of
Rome and providing a better harbour.

« The Chiana or Clanis seems to have been con-
fined by flood-gates in Pliny's time, which were,
however, necessarily open in flood-time. Nat. Hist,
iii. 5, 9.

" Great famines were sometimes caused at Rome
from the difficulty of importing corn. .See Fried-
lander's Sittengeschichte Roms, vol. i. p. 32 ;
Mommsen, Rom. Hist. vol. i. 4, p. 47, Eng. trans.
Many instances of the mischief caused by the
Tiber might be collected. See Hor. Od. i. 2 ; Livy,
.xxiv. 9, xxxvii. 28 ; Plin. Nat. Hist. iii. 5, 9, 55 ; Tac.
Hist. i. 86. The modern inundations are marked on
the left-hand column of the Ripetta Port, and on
the facade of the church of St. Maria Sopra
Miner\'a. The highest rose twenty-five feet above
the level of the ancient Forum. Brocchi, Suolo di
Roma, pp. 15 — 17.

The Site of Rome. g

The commercial advantages of the site of Rome may therefore be reckoned as insifrni-
ficant. To proceed to the other points commended by Cicero and Livy : whatever may
be said in favour of the opinion that in ancient times the climate was less
injurious to health than it now is, it cannot be doubted that the site of the Or mnspai oj

■" ' climate.

seven hills is unhealthy in comparison with other parts of Italy, and that
to apply the epithet " saluberrimus " to it is contrary to plain fact.^ I shall subsequently
show that the opinion of the writers of the Augustan age seems to have been that the
air of the hills was salubrious while the surrounding country was unhealthy.

The only commendation which is really deserved, therefore, of those bestowed by Livy
or Cicero on the site of Rome, appears to be the centrality of its position ; and this, no
doubt, apart from the prestige of its name, constitutes at the present day its chief claim to
be the capital of Italy. It has been acutely said that Italy looks westwards as Greece
looked eastwards,"^ and the situation of Rome on the western side of the peninsula ill
suited a city which aspired to be the capital of the East as well as the West. Had she
been content with her Western provinces, the dissolution of her empire might have been
put off till a later time ; and in this sense the invectives of the Roman satirists against
Orientalism are full of weighty meaning.

What then could have been the advantages which led the earliest settlers at Rome
to choose it as a site for their city, and what subsequently gave the city so founded a
character different from the rest of the Latin settlements, which were „ ,

But her site 'mus

numerously scattered over the neighbouring district.' It seems unlikely favourable to a
to suppose that the particular knot of men who planted themselves upon limited trading

eommunity com-

the Palatine hill had anythmg m their character dinercnt from their neigh- binedwith a
bours of the same race. The theorj' which would seek an explanation of the large agricul-
force of the Roman character in the mixture of races from which they are
said to have sprung, and in the desperate courage of the outlaws who resorted to the
asylum of Romulus, is not sufficiently borne out by what we know of their real early
history. It does not appear that the Romans were a mongrel race, or that the story of
Romulus's asylum is any more credible than the rest of the legends about him. The
destiny of a city is in the first instance more dependent upon its situation than upon
the character of its inhabitants. There were some peculiarities in the position of Rome
which first raised her above her neighbours ; and the impetus once given was continued and
increased by a variety of coincident causes, although the original source of power was
soon forgotten.

The city of the Romans stood upon the most defensible position within a moderate
distance of the mouth of the Tiber, and thus commanded all the trade of the west coast
of Italy, such as it was in the eighth century before the Christian era. The Tiber sufficed
to bring them into contact with the neighbouring tribes, and to make their settlement the
emporium of the district of the Campagna. Their commercial spirit is marked, as
Mommsen has well observed, in very early times, by the law which allowed to a foreigner
the unrestricted right of acquiring property' in Rome ;" and perhaps the legend of the

' See Brocchi, p. 22. ^. near Ardea, for the purpose of cultivating a malarious

= Mommsen, Rom. Hist. vol. i. p. 6. / tract of ground there. See Ampere, Hist. Rom. h

' Ibid. vol. i. p. 91. A modern asylum is opened Rome, vol. i. p. 67.

lo Tlic Site of Rome.

asNkini maj- be traced to tlic liberality which granted a settlement to all comers except
slaves, and the legend of the destruction of Cacus by the Tj-rian Hercules to the civilization
of the primitive inhabitants of the Palatine by the spirit of commerce. Thus, Father
Tiberinus, although, as has been said, he afterwards proved too feeble to sustain the weight
of the vast empire created by his children, \-et enabled them to take the first steps in their
rise to universal dominion, and is beautifully represented by Virgil as guiding /Eneas to
the spot destined to bear the Eternal City.' There is no other site between Rome and
Ostia which offers any defensible hills like the Capitoline and Palatine, and any city placed
higher up the river would become liable to have its commerce interrupted by the superior
advantages of Rome.

Thus Rome was placed in the most suitable locality in Latium for acquiring in her
infancy a certain degree of wealth by commerce and power on land. It was most fortunate
for her that no great Etruscan city could be founded below her on the river for want of an
eligible site. Rome was far enough inland to be safe from the invading Hellenic colonists,
who doubtless paid the western coast of Latium many a visit in the early times of Rome
and yet near enough to come into a limited contact with them, and learn from them
improvements in the art of shipbuilding and navigation.- At the same time she had no
large foreign trade like the Etruscans, and thus retained the virtues of an agricultural
community, and imported no extraneous vices. No sudden fortunes were made in her,
and her nobility lived among their dependants in the country, and preserved a sympathy
with them which afterwards prox^ed of great value.

That the majorit}' of the original inhabitants of Rome were agricultural seems to be
asserted by the legend, according to which the Palilia or Parilia, the shepherds' festival,
was celebrated upon the day of the actual foundation of the city.^ The day was, it is
plain, determined not by anj- real knowledge of the date of the foundation of Rome, but
by the vernal equinox, the season when the shepherds' chief anxieties began, and the help
of the gods was most desirable. There may possibly be some connexion between the
names Palatium and Pales, and the latter may have been the god or goddess after
whom the Palatine was named.^ In the Imperial age of Rome the Palilia was still
celebrated as the da)- of the foundation of Rome. "We heard," says Athenjeus, who
lived at the beginning of the third century A.D., "the noise of pipes, and clash of cymbals,
and beat of drums, and singing of songs throughout the city, for it was the time of the
festival called the Parilia formerly, and now the Romaea, when that most excellent and
accomplished of sovereigns, Hadrian, dedicated a temple to the Fortune of the Cit)-.
All the Romans and visitors at Rome keep this day as a particular festival ever\- j-ear." •''

' Virg. yEn viii. 31, seq.: — " Ipse ego te ripis et sen, Rom. Hist. vol. i. pp. 50, 209, 212, 223.)

recto flumine ducam niihi victor honorem ^ Festus, ed. Miiller, pp. 222, 237 ; Cic. De Div. ii.

persolves." 47, ^ g8; Plin. Nat. Hist, xviii. 66, § 247 ; Ovid. Fast.

- The chief indications of the early commercial re- iv. 721 ; Plut. Romul. 12; Propert. V. i. 19, v. iv.

lations of Rome with the west coast of Italy are: (i) 74. Schwegler connects "Roma'' with "ruma,"

The Grffico-Sicilian forms of the Greek alphabet, the teat, the nourisher, as evidence of a pastoral

and of many Greek words as used at Rome. (2) The race. Mommsen connects it with " rania," the

early treaties with commercial states, Carthage and " brushwood " city, and Dyer with pei/ii).

Rhodes. (3) The galley in the city arms. (4) The ■= Pales was both masc. and fem. See Merkel on

early use of coined money. (5) The imposition of Ov. Fast. p. ccviii.

duties on e.xports and imports at Ostia. (See Momm- '- Athensus. viii. p. 361 : Suet. Cal. 16

The Site of Rome.

I I

But w liatever nia}- be said against the general suitability of the site of Rome as the
metropolis of a wide and distant empire, and whatever disparaging comparisons may be
made between it and other cities with regard to its grandeur and beauty

1 ■ r • 11 , ,■ Beauty of t/i,

of situation, yet the view trom its walls over the surrounding country is most vU-ms from
varied and picturesque. On one side, at a distance of fifteen or twenty ■'''"""'■

miles, rise the peaks and ravines of the Sabine and Volscian Apennines, snow-clad durin"
the winter, painted with delicate tints of brown and red in the summer, and glowing with
a thousand hues of light and shade.^ Tibur and Prreneste, and the white buildings of

Rl'INED ARCH OF THE MARCl AN AQUEDUCT, WITH THE SAElNE HILLS NEAR TIBIR

IN THE DISTANCE.

numerous other places with names dear to the scholar's ear, stand perched on their jutting
spurs. On another side, and at the same distance, stands the group of the Alban hills, the
ancient central sanctuarj- of the Latin clans, clothed with groves of olive and ilex. At
their feet glisten the white villas of Tusculum and Albano, and towards them diverge
the long ranks of majestic arches on which the aqueducts of Rome were carried, and the
straight unswer\'ing line of the Appian Road, fringed with the ruined tombs of consuls and
senators. Far away on the north, Soracte and the broken horizon of the Ciminian hills
bound the prospect ; and on the west and south-west the long level glimmering line of the

1 .See Arnold's Life, vol. ii. pp. 313. 363.
C 2

1 2 The Site of Rome.

Mediterranean is seen from Alsium to Lavinium. Every charm which can be added to a

landscape of exquisite outHne by varied and dehcate colours and shades of distance is to

be found in the horizon of the Roman Campagna.

Although an immense elevation of the general level of the ground in Rome has been

caused by the extraordinary amount of rubbish accumulated during past ages, yet it
Thegeneral does not appear necessary to suppose that any very great changes have
form of the taken place in the general form of the hills and other parts of Rome since

:^rotind remains .

lite same as in the times of the Empire. Such changes as have been effected have consisted
the earliest times, chiefly in an alteration of the slopes of some of the hills. The Capitol,
for instance, was certainly much steeper on the side towards the Campus Martius,^ and
the Aventine was also considerably less accessible ; but the relative height of the hills is
much the same, a large accumulation of rubbish having taken place, not only in the valleys,
but also upon the tops of the hills. This may be seen on the Aventine, where, in a
vineyard opposite the church of S. Sabina, some huge arches of ancient buildings are
entirely covered up with rubbish.^ The Palatine under the Villa Spada or Mills is said
to be covered with ruins to the depth of nearly thirty feet. In the Vicolo di S. Felice,
between the Ouirinal and Viminal, the pavement of the ancient street was found at a depth
of nearly forty feet.^ The base of the column of Phocas, in the Forum, is about twenty-
five feet beneath the present level of the Campo Vaccino, and the Forum of Trajan about
fifteen feet below the adjoining street. Brocchi, the geologist, who made borings in a
number of different places, says that the original surface of the soil is seldom less than
fifteen feet below the present surface. Even in Nerva's reign Frontinus speaks of the
height of the hills as having been increased by the frequent fires.'' Nor is this at all sur-
prising when we consider that the burning of the city by the Gauls and the fire under
Nero extended over the greater part of the city, and that numerous other extensive fires
took place at different times. It may almost be said with truth that the ruins of four
cities lie under the present surface of the soil — the Regal and Early Republican city, the
Later Republican, the Imperial, and the Mediaeval. The level of the whole having been
thus raised, the heights of the hills above the valleys have not been much decreased,
except in so far as rubbish would naturally accumulate in the hollows. Some artificial
hills have been formed by ruins since the Imperial times, such as the Monte Testaccio
(no mention of which has been discovered among the writers of the earlier centuries of
the Christian era),^ jMonte Citorio, and Monte Giordano, the last of which was formed
in the Middle Ages from the ruins of some vast building. These, however, with
the exception of the first mentioned, Monte Testaccio, do not cause any conspicuous
alteration in the general configuration of the ground.'' That the bed of the Tiber has
not been raised more than a few feet, at the most, above its level in the early ages of
Rome, is proved conclusively by the position of the Cloaca Maxima ; and the same con-
clusion results from a comparison of the level of the river at Rome with that of the sea.

' Ov. Fast. i. 264 ; yEn. viii. 34S. ^ See chap. ix.

- Brocchi, p. 83. « The railway cutting which passes through the

' Montfaucon, Dia. Ital. p. 195. Servian agger has made the most considerable

■" Frontinus, De Aqu;fd. 18: "Nam nunc colles change in the conformation of the ground at the

qui sunt propter frcquentiam incendiorum e.\cre^■e- present day.

runt rudere."

The Site of Rome. i ,

The Tiber has always been a rapid and turbid river; but supposing that its level had ever
been much lower than at present, there would not have been fall enough to make it a
turbid stream. At present, its level at Rome above the sea-level at Ostia is said to be
only sixteen feet four inches." Add to this, that the spring of the arches in the ancient
/Elian and Cestian bridges, built by Hadrian and Valens respectively, is still visible when
the river is at its ordinary height, and the conclusion seems irresistible that the river-level
has not been materially changed in historical times.

' Bunsen, Beschreibung, vol. i. pp. 30, 31. Bunsen, the elevation of the Tiber bed since the construction
following Linotti in the " Giornale Arcadico," reckons of the Cloaca at four or five feet.

CHAPTER II.
THE GEOLOGY AND CLIMATE OF ROME,

THE TERTIARY jrARINE FORMATIONS — THE VOLCANIC FORMATIONS — HARD TUFA — GRANULAR TUFA — ANCIENT
VOLCANOES OF LATIUM — THE FRESH-WATER FORMATIONS — CHANGES IN THE TIBER WATER — ANCIENT LEVEL
OF THE TIBER — PRIM/EVAL CONDITION OF THE COUNTRY — UNHEALTHINESS OF THE CAMPAGNA — CAUSES OF
THE INCREASE OF THE MALARIA IN MODERN TIMES — NUMEROUS ANCIENT POPULATION OF THE CAMPAGNA
— THE ROMANS OF THE EMPIRE THOUGHT THE CAMPAGNA UNHEALTHY — CLIMATE WAS ONCE SOMEWHAT
COLDER — DRAINAGE IN ANCIENT TIMES — THE ANCIENT ROMAN DRESS MORE HEALTHY THAN THE PRESENT
— WOOLLEN TOGA GIVEN UP.

"Omnia [xmlus eraiit." — Ovid. Met. i. 292.

BEFORE entering upon any details of topography, it seems advisable to attempt to
give some account of the geological formation of the soil of Rome. Those who have
accustomed themselves to associate certain peculiarities in the outlines of a landscape
with the character of the underlying strata will be assisted by such a description in
realizing more vividly the appearance of the district in which Rome stands ; and an
enumeration of the different kinds of rock to be found in the neighbourhood will be
interesting in connexion with the building materials of ancient Rome. Some points, also,
in the question of the alteration of climate supposed to have taken place at Rome in
modern times, will have light thrown upon them by an examination of the geological
conformation of the district.'

The geological strata found on the site of Rome and in its immediate neighbourhood
divide themselves into three principal groups. The oldest of these is a marine formation,
and exhibits itself upon the Vatican, the Janiculum, and Monte Mario. The second, of
which all the hills on the eastern bank are composed, is of volcanic origin, and consists
chiefly of beds of tufaceous matter erupted from submarine volcanoes, and more or less
.solidified. The third, which appears in the hollows of the Tiber valley, is a fresh-water
formation, and is found on the slope of the hills on both banks of the river.

The oldest of these three groups belongs to the division of the tertiary period called by

Lyell the elder plcioccnc, as having had a fauna and flora in A\hich the greater number of

species were identical with those now living on the earth. These strata are

Theieyfiary of marine formation, and are similar to those which extend over a great

forma'i'i'ons breadth of Italy on both flanks of the Apennine Mountains, reaching as

far south as the point of Reggio in Calabria.- Their lower bed consists of

^ The geological information given in this chapter Bunsen and Plattner's '' Beschreibung Ronns," Band
is chiefly derived from Brocchi's work, " Dello State i. s. 45.
Fisico del Suolo di Roma," Rome, 1820; and from - Biocchi. p. 165.

The Geology and Climale of Rome. i -

a bluish-grey marl, which will be found in the valley between the Janiculum and the
X'atican. Its marine origin is sufficiently proved by the fossils found in it, which belong
partly to the genera Lc/'as and Balaniis, partly to those of Dciiialis and Tdliiia, with
some remains of seaweeds. This bed of clay is of a plastic nature, and is still used for
making pottery, as it was in the time of Juvenal.^ Above it lies a stratum of yellow
calcareous sand, which sometimes takes the form of loose sand w ith boulders, sometimes
of a stratified arenaceous rock, and sometimes of a rough conglomerate. This may be
seen outside the Porta Angelica, on the left, under the walls of the city, and in the Belve-
dere Gardens on the Vatican. The Church of S. Pietro in Montorio is said to derive its
name Montorio {moitte aured) from the yellow colour of this sand.-

On Monte Mario an abundance of fossil shells, most of which, according to Brogniart,
resemble the Ostrca Iiippopus, together with other varieties of sea-shells, may be seen, plainl}-
indicating the marine origin of this formation. The onh" places within the actual walls of
Rome where these tertiary marine strata are to be found are the Vatican and the Jani-
culum. At the base of the Capitoline, in the subterranean vaults of the Ospitale della
Consolazione, under the volcanic rock which forms the upper part of the hill, Brocchi
found a stratum of calcareous rock and cla\' which he affirms to be of marine origin.
and to resemble the limestone of the Apennines.' It does not seem, however, to be
determined whether this rock belongs to the same period as the sandstone and marl of
the Vatican and Janiculum. Brocchi im.plies that it is a secondary formation, by his com-
parison of it with the Apennine limestone, but it is more probabl}' of the same date as
the blue clay of the Vatican hill. The depth at which these marine formations of cla)-
and sand lie beneath those parts of Rome where they do not appear on the surface may
be conjectured from the depth at which water is found in the wells sunk through the
upper strata. At the top of the Pincian and Palatine hills this depth is about 115
feet ; and on the Aventine, Ouirinal, and Esquiline, it varies from 50 to 90 feet.

The second group of strata found on the site of Rome is one which is not confined to
the neighbourhood of Rome, but is most extensively spread over the whole of the Cam-
]3agna, the district of Campania, and a considerable part of Southern Ital_\-.
The CTreat mass of the Capitoline, Palatine, Aventine, Esquiline, Caelian, levoianu

° r ' 1 formations.

Viminal, Ouirinal, and Pincian hills is composed of this formation. Geolo-
gists give it the general name of tufa. Brocchi divides it into two kinds, the ston\- and
the granular. It is distinguished from lava by not having flowed in a liquitl state from
the volcano, and is a mechanical conglomerate of scoriae, ashes, and other volcanic products,
which have been carried to some distance from the crater of eruption, and then consoli-
dated.'' The harder kind of tufa {tufa liioidc) is a reddish brown or tawny stone, with
orange-coloured spots. These spots are imbedded fragments of scoriaceous

1 T • 1 1 1 1 1 1 -I 1- 111 Hard tufa.

lava. It is hard enough to be used as a buildmg stone, and has been

quarried largely under the Aventine hill near S. Saba, at Monte Verde on the southern

end of the Janiculum, and at other places near Rome, as at Torre Pignatara, on the

' Juv. Sat. vi. 344: " Et Vaticano fiagilcs dc .Martial, i. 18, xii. 48 ; compared with vi. 92, x. 45.

nionte patcllas." The " Vaticani cadi" mentioned in ' Ampere, Hist. Rom. chap. i.

Martial, which Brocchi thinks are jars of Vatican ^ I5rocchi, p. 155.

pottery, arc more probably jars of \'atican wine. Sec ■* Ibid., p. 109.

1 6 The Geology and Climate of Rome.

Via Labicana, at the bridge over the Anio, on the Via Nomentana, and at the
Tarpeian rock.

This tufaceous stone presents itself in very thick banks, traversed by long vertical
and oblique fissures, probably produced by the contraction of the mass on passing from
a humid and soft to a dr>' and hard state. The arch of the Cloaca Maxima,^ near
S. Giorgio in Velabro, is built of this stone, and the inner part of the substructure of
the Tabularium on the Capitol. Portions of the Servian wall were also built of it,
and many stones which were taken from this wall are to be seen at the present day in
the walls of Aurelian near the gate of S. Lorenzo. Others have been laid bare by the
railway excavations in the Servian agger. Brick-shaped masses of it are found in the
ambulacra of the theatre of Marcellus, so that the use of it must not be restricted to
the earlie.st times of Roman architecture. In fact, several buildings of the ^Middle Ages,
in or near Rome, consist of this stone, as may be seen at the fortress Gaetani, near
the tomb of Cscilia Metella, and in the large tower at the side of the Palace of
the Senator. -

From its being used generally in quadrangular pieces, this stone was called saxuin
qtiadratiim by the Romans,^ just as the Germans call a particular kind of sandstone
Qiiaderstcin. Another name by \\ hich it was called was tophus^ and the name " Ad saxa
rubra " was given to a place on the Via Flaminia, beyond the tomb of the Nasos, now
named Prima Porta, from the reddish colour of this rock which appears there at the
surface.'

In the more ancient buildings of Rome, besides the above stone, one of a similar
character, but finer grain and yellowish grey colour, was also employed. A good
specimen of it is to be seen, according to Brocchi, in the walls of a vault at No. 66 in
the Via Longaretta in the Trastevere. The place where this latter kind of stone was
procured is not known. It approaches more nearly than the reddish stone to the
pcpcrino obtained from Albano and Marino, but is not exactly similar.

The second kind of tufa is granular, with imperfect cohesion. It is of a brown,
yellowish grey, or violaceous brown colour, spotted with white grains of flowery leucite and
scales of black mica, and often contains small particles of grey or blackish
lava. The Catacombs of Rome, with the exception of that of S. Valen-
tino, which is in the travertine rock, are excavated in this granular tufa ; it forms the
greater part of the hills on the eastern bank of the Tiber, and it is also found near the
top of Monte Mario. Extensive pits were dug in it by the ancient Romans, called
armaria:^ a name which still sur\'ives in the word animr, given to such pits in the
districts of Frosinone and Segni. It is used for mixing with lime to make mortar.
Vitruvius speaks of four varieties, — the black, the grey, the red, and the carbuncular." The

' The ancient arch must be distinguished from the saxo quadrato ;" Li\y, .\. 23 ; Vitruv. ii. 7 ; Phn. Ep.

more modern masonry of the embouchure in the ad Traj. 37.
'' pulchrum Httus " of the Tiber. ^ " Nee ingenuum violarent marmora tophum,"

- The use of tufa was certainly not confined to the Juv. Sat. iii. 20 ; Vitruv. ii. 7.
earliest times of Rome. It has always been, and 5 Mart. iv. 64, 15 ; Livy, ii. 49 ; Cic. Phil. ii. 31.
still is, used largely at Rome for interior construction. « See Cicero, Pro Cluent. xiii. 37 ; " Asinius in are-
See Brocchi, p. 112; and Winkelmann, Qiuvres, vol. narias quasdam extra ponam Esquilinam perductus
ii. p. 546. occiditur." \'arro, De Re Rustica, i. 2, ad fin., classes

3 Livy, i. 26, "Horatiaj sepulcrum constructum ex "arenariffi" with ■' lapicidins." ' Vitruv. ii. 4, i.

The Geology and Climate of Rome. , -

excellence of this Roman cement is well known. Had not other causes, the violence of
fires and invading armies, and, above all, the hands of her own inhabitants, destroyed
the buildings of Rome by force, perhaps few cities in the world would have been likely
to stand so long against the attacks of time and weather.

The varieties of granular tufa are very great. Sometimes it is coherent nearly to
the same degree as recent lapillo, but not so dr\' ; at other times it is very friable and
almost passes into an earthy state. When it has suffered decomposition to this extent
it is called by Brocchi tufa terroso. He points out several spots where this earthv
tufa may be well observed, among which are the vaults of S. Francisco di Paola, on
the Esquiline, and a bank on the left hand of the road leading from the Arco Oscuro
to the Acqua Acetosa.

Mixed with the tufa of Rome, pumice in considerable quantity is found, which
affords an indisputable proof of its volcanic origin. The beds of pumice are generally
a few inches thick, and lie interspersed among the granular tufa.

It is an interesting question, and one which belongs to the history of the site of
Rome, whence these volcanic materials, which form the great mass of the Roman hills
could have come. Were they produced on the spot by volcanic craters
which have disappeared in the lapse of ages, or were they hurled from a Ancient

distance through the air, or carried by means of water to the situation --■<''<:"'«>"'>/

1 T-i Lalium.

they now occupy .' There appears to be no place in the immediate
neighbourhood of the city itself which we can point to as the remains of an extinct
crater. There is no lava to be found nearer than the tomb of Ca;cilia I\letella, three
miles from Rome, on the Appian road ; and the lava there visible forms the extremity
of a current which can be distinctly traced to its source in the Alban hills. It is probable,
then, that the tufa of Rome has been brought, either through the air or by the water,
to its present position from some considerable distance, and there can be little doubt
that water has been the vehicle by which it has been conve\-ed and deposited. For
in a vast number of places in and near Rome, and in almost all the tufa banks on the
side of the Comarca towards Tuscany, distinct stratification can be traced. Such strati-
ficati6ns may be seen in the beds of tufa along the post-road from Viterbo to Rome, and
at Rome itself in the Catacombs and many other places. Strata of basaltic gravel and
pebbles worn by water lie intermixed with the tufa in some places, and not unfrequently
beds of rounded pieces of lava or of pumice, and even of calcareous stones. And again,
the beds of tufa run up into the limestone valleys of Tivoli, Subiaco, Arsoli, and other
places, whither they must have been carried bj^ water, as there are no traces of lava
currents or volcanic craters near them. From these facts it appears evident that the
tufa-beds of Rome were laid down b}^ water. Was this water, then, the water of the
sea, or of rivers and torrents .'

The immense extent of the tufa-beds of Southern Ital}-, which are found nearly over
the whole of Campania, and extend to Calabria and Sicily, forbids us to suppose that
they could have been deposited by river water. Moreover, marine shells have been
found at Albano in this formation ; and near Montalto, on the road to Corneto, Brocchi
found a quantity of the shells of Venus islandica, a sea-shell. Sea-shells are also said
to have been discovered in the beds of sand which alternate with tufa near Acqua

1 8 The Geology and Climate of Rome.

Traversa, beyond the Milvian bridge. In Campania, also, and Sicily, similar proofs of
marine origin have been found in the corresponding tufaceous beds of those countries.
Our conclusion, then, is that the sea, which once covered a great part of the peninsula
of Italy, contained some submerged volcanoes, from which the pieces of pumice, cinders,
and lava, forming the stratified tufa, were ejected, and that the pebbles of limestone, bones
of animals, and trunks of trees, which are sometimes found in the tufa, were carried and
deposited in it by the sea.

Brocchi thinks that the constituent elements of substances ejected at a high tempera-
ture from volcanoes are not likely to be so equably distributed as to preclude subsequent
re-arrancrement under the gradual influence of water, which would give free scope to the
exercise of affinities, and induce new movement and combination among their elements.

The further question as to the place where these supposed submarine volcanoes were
situated has been pretty generally determined by geologists in favour of the extinct
craters of the Ciminian hills, of which the Lago Bracciano is the largest. These are,
it is true, more distant from Rome than the Alban craters, but certain reasons seem
entirely to exclude the latter. The tufa litoidc, so common at Rome, is not found at
the Alban hills, but, instead of it, the grey peperino.' No traces of pumice have ever
been seen near Albano or Frascati, while it is common at Rome. But both these
substances are found in great quantities near the Ciminian craters. They cover the
neicrhbouring country, extending beyond the Tiber to the districts of Sutri, Ronciglione,
Civita Castellana, and Montefiascone. On approaching nearer to Rome from the north,
the beds of tufa become less and less voluminous, showing distinctly that their source
is becoming more distant ; and it seems as if the last remnant had been deposited at
Rome itself, composing the finely-grained and solidified tufa found there.

With regard to the time at which these deposits of tufa took place, nothing more
definite can be stated than that they appear to be of about the same age as the marine
deposits of the Janiculum and Vatican, which belong to the middle tertiary formation.

Fresh-water formations cover the bottoms of all the valleys in the district of Rome

and the whole of the Campus Martins, and ascend to a considerable height on the

flanks of the hills. They consist chiefly of sand, clay, gravel, and the

Thcjresh-'iiatcr g^^^g called travertine, and of tufa-beds which ha\e been disturbed and

formations.

then re-deposited. This re-deposited tufa has been the subject of some
controversy. It was at one time thought to indicate that the lower tufa was also a
fresh-water deposit, since it is sometimes found overlying the fresh-water formations.
But no doubt now remains that it must have been formed by a re-arrrangement in
fresh water of previously deposited marine tufa-beds. The water of the Tiber, at the
time when these fluviatile formations took place, stood at such a height as to leave
deposits upon the Intermontium of the Capitol, and as high as the Church of S. Isodoro
on the Pincian, and it must have partiall}- removed and shifted the pre\-iously existing
light and porous volcanic soil of the sea-bottom. Even the top of the Pincian was
covered by this fresh water ; for fragments of calcareous matter, containing terrestrial
remains, such as are deposited in fresh water alone, were found in digging the excavations

^ The peperino so common in Roman buildings more crystallized stone than tufa, and of a finer

omcs from Albano and Gabii. It is a harder and grain and more sightly colour.

The Geology and Climate of Rome. lo

for the fountain on the public promenade. The level of the broad river which then
existed seems, in fact, to have been from 130 to 140 feet above the present level of
the Tiber, and its waters must have been more surcharged with alluvium derived from
sources with which the present river is no longer connected. Among the fluviatile deposits,
argillaceous marl-beds now play an important part. They intercept the water as it
descends from the hills, and impede its descent to the river, thus furnishing supplies to
the wells in Rome, but rendering the soil less dry and health}-. But the greater portion of

ALB.^N HILLS FROM S. PIETRO.

these strata consist of a mixture of sand and clay. The rising ground between the Campo
Vaccino and the Coliseum, on which the Arch of Titus stands, is formed almost entirely of
this mi.xed stratum of clay and sand. To prove the fresh-water origin of these deposits
we need onl\' refer to the masses of travertine and the shells of lacustrine animals
which they contain. The Helix paliistris and planata of Linnaeus, species which live in
sluggi.sh but not altogether stagnant water, were found by Brocchi in the sand-beds near
the Arch of Titus. These fossils are also to be found in the yellow marl of the Aventine,
which overlies the great mass of travertine on its western side, and in the clay of the
Intermontium on the Capitoline.

The river water has no longer the power which it once possessed of depositing the
travertine which we find lying in thick beds upon the slopes of some of the hills of

D 2

2 TIic Geology and Climate of Rome.

Rome.^ This travertine is formed from carbonate of lime, which the waters take up as
they pass through the soil containing it. In order, however, to give the water the power
of holding this carbonate of lime in solution, a certain quantity of carbonic
Changes in the acid gas must be present in it. When, by means of the rapid movement of
''"'^ier'^ the water, or from other causes, this gas becomes disengaged, it leaves the
carbonate of lime behind in the shape of a hard, ston}- deposit. This natural
process of petrifaction is familiar to all who have seen the Falls of the Anio at Tivoli,
and the way in which the artificial canals of running water in that neighbourhood are
choked by limestone concretions ; and it may be seen in all vessels made use of to boil
water which is impregnated with lime. The more violent the agitation of the water,
the more rapid is the disengagement of the carbonic acid gas, and the consequent
settlement of the lime. This process is accompanied, in most places where it can be
seen, by the presence of sulphuretted hydrogen, which produces a white colour in the
water by precipitating the substance called £-esso by the Italians. Hence an explanation
of the ancient name of Albula given to the Tiber. In the period when the Tiber had
the power of depositing travertine, its waters were much more strongly impregnated, not
only with carbonate of lime, but also with gesso, which gave a white tinge to the water,
as it now does to the sulphureous waters near Tivoli. The same colour was characteristic
of " the White Nar with its sulphureous stream," in Virgil's description of the chief
stream of the Central Apennines.^

The Tiber water still gives out a certain quantity of carbonic acid gas, but at the
time when it was called the Albula the quantity must have been much greater, from
whatever source we are to suppose that it was derived. The Acqua Acetosa, a well-
known spring near Rome, is strongly impregnated with carbonic acid, and the Anio has
deposits of travertine along its whole course ; but no considerable quantity seems at the
present time to enter the Tiber.

The most striking deposit of travertine within the walls of Rome is that on the
western side of the Aventine, which is plainly seen from the road running along the
left bank of the river. From the Arco della Salara to the Bastione di Paolo III., for
nearly half a mile this steep cliff of stone extends along the edge of the hill at a
height of at least ninety feet above the present level of the river. It contains fresh-
water shells, and there can therefore be no doubt of its fluviatile origin. Masses of
travertine are to be seen in the Catacombs of S. Valentino, and on the rock near the
Acqua Acetosa, called the Punta di S. Giuliano, where it takes grotesque shapes.

Von Buch seeks to account for the height of the ancient level of the Tiber by sup-
posing that the level of the sea was much higher, or, as it would be probably expressed
b}^ more modern geologists, that the last elevation of the sea-coast of
"tr'ri''- Latium had not then taken place. Modern science thus expresses itself,

because the elevation of certain portions of the sea-coast is considered to
be a matter of observation ; while no universal depression of the sea-level has ever taken
place since the period of scientific observation. Phenomena similar to those of the fresh-

' Travertine is the stone used in the exterior of '^ " -Sulfurea Nar albus aqua," yEn. vii. 517. Com-

most of the great buildings at Rome, as the Coli- pare Ennius.ap. Prise, vi. 692 ; Plin. Nat. Hist. iii. 12,

seum, the theatre of Marcellus, and the Mausoleum 109. The Liris is also called j//^/^/r«j- by Sil. Ital.

of Hadrian. viii. 400.

The Geology and Climate of Rome. 21

water formations of Rome are found in many other parts of the upper Tiber valley and
its tributaries the Anio, the Nar, and the Paglia, and also upon the coasts of the
Adriatic and in the valleys of the north-eastern side of the Apennines. It has been
before mentioned that, in the first centuiy of the Christian era, it was proposed to turn
the water of the Chiana into the valley of the Arno, and that this was afterwards actualh-
eiifected. There is evidence to show that in the first centur\' that portion of the Arno
itself which traverses the plain of Arezzo discharged its waters by the channel of the
Chiana into the Tiber. Thus, in addition to the higher level of the sea, the larger
body of water which anciently found its way by the Tiber valley to the sea contributed
to enlarge its operations in depositing alluvial soil.

But few traces of these primaeval conditions of the country are preserved by language
or tradition. The names Velabrum^ and Vclia seem to refer to the water which, in
the last geological epoch to which the soil bears testimony, covered the
valleys on both sides of the Palatine. The Velabrum Majus, according Prims-val
to Varro, was a lake supplied by the Tiber, and lay between the Aventine country.
and Palatine, and the Velabrum Minus, a similar lake between the Palatine
and Capitoline.- The storj' of Mettus Curtius, the Sabine officer whose horse is said
to have plunged into the morass which then occupied the Forum valley, as related by
Liv}-, Varro, Dionysius, and Plutarch, refers to the Velabrum Minus.^ The same
tradition is alluded to by Propertius, Tibullus, and Ovid, who speak of the boats which
were used to cross the water, and the reeds which grew on the margin of the lake.*
An old basso-rilievo, portraying the accident of Mettus Curtius, which was found near
the north-east corner of the Palatine, and is now fixed in the wall of the Palace of the
Conservators in the Capitol, represents the Velabrum as a marsh. A statue of Ver-
tumnus, which stood in the valley of the Velabrum, is said to have been placed there
in commemoration of the turning back of the waters by that god (ab aiiinc vcrso),^ and
a church which stood in the Middle Ages on or near the Velabrum was called
S. Silvestro in Lacu.'' A later stage of the gradual desiccation of these spots is pointed
to by the legend of the casting ashore of Romulus and Remus on the slope of the
Palatine during a flood, and by the tradition related by Solinus, that the aborigines left
their settlement on the Palatine on account of the frequent flooding of the river Tiber."

The story of Cacus, a monster living on the Aventine, who vomited flames, and
was the son of Vulcan,^ has been interpreted by M. Breislak as an allegorical repre-
sentation of the volcanic origin of the Roman hills, and the cave of Cacus has been
converted by him into a crater of eruption, which he supposed to have been situated
in the Forum valley. But this is contrary to the indications of the strata themselves
which underlie the valley of the Forum ; and Dionysius and Livy,^ in their account of
the legend, omit altogether the fire-vomiting powers of Cacus. That Cacus is repre-
sented as the son of Vulcan is not to be taken as indicating anything more than the

1 Velabrum, Gr. fe\os. The same root is found in ■' Propert. v. 2, 10.

V'elletri and Velino. "^ iMartinelli, Roma Sacra, pp. 222, 401.

- Varro, L. L. v. 43, 156. ' Solinus, i. 14, ed. Mommsen.

3 Li\7, i. 12 ; Varro, v. 148 ; Dionys. ii. 42 ; Plut. * Virg. .-En. viii. 193 ; Ov. Fast. i. 551.

Rom. 18. ' Dionys. lib. i. 39 ; Livy, i. 7.

* Propert. v. 9,3 ; Tib. ii. 5, 33 ; Ov. Fast. vi. 401.

2 2 The Gi'ology and Climate of Rome.

ordinary mythological descent of a monster. The founder of Przeneste, Ceeculus, was
also represented as the son of Vulcan/ yet Prjeneste is situated on a spur of the
calcareous rock of the Apennines, far removed from any volcanic influences.

Two other memorials of the ancient high level of the Tiber may be found in the
names of the Palus Caprea, in the Campus Martins, whence Romulus is said to have
been carried to heaven while reviewing his army ; - and the Vada Terenti, where the
river wears away the bank below the Ripetta Ferry.^

The subject of the climate of Rome is naturally connected with that of the nature
of the soil and configuration of the hills and valleys.

It is not difficult to see why the peculiar geological formation of the Campagna

proves, without careful drainage, extremely deleterious to health. We have there a

district containing numerous closed valle}"s and depressions in the soil,

inhcalthincssof ^yj(.]-,Qy(; outlet for the Waters which naturally accumulate. The tufa which

the Campagna.

composes the surface seems commonly to take the shape of isolated hills,
with irregular hollows between them, so as to impede the formation of natural water-
courses. Under this tufa is a quantity of marl and stiff clay, which retains the water
after it has filtered through the tufa, and sends it oozing out into the lower parts of
the country, where it accumulates, and, mixed with putrescent vegetable matter, taints the
surrounding atmosphere. A want of movement in the air, caused by the mountainous
barriers by which the Campagna is inclosed, is another source of malaria.'*

It is a most curious fact that the ancient inhabitants of Rome and the Campagna
do not seem to have felt the baneful influences of the aria cattiva, or malaria, to the

same extent as the modern Italians. And yet certainly at the time when

Causes of its if\yQ waters of the Tiber frequently invaded the Velabrum and stagnated

m'olTu^ii'in-r. there, when the valley of the Circus Maximus was a marshy pool, and

when the Palus Caprea and the Stagna Terenti, as has been seen, occupied
a part of the Campus Martins, the site of Rome must have been much more pestilential
than at the present time. The level of the soil has been much raised by the rubbish
of ruins, and the Tiber seldom now overflows its banks. Add to this, that the volume
of water carried by the river has decreased since the turning of the water of the Chiana
into the Arno, and the felling of the numerous forests which spread over the country in
ancient times. Scattered in various directions in the neighbourhood were lakes and lagunes,
some of which have been since dried up and drained. The Lake of Regillus, which

" bubbled with crimson foam,

What time the thirty cities

Came forth to war with Rome,"

and the lakes of Gabii, of Juturna, and of Turnus, with innumerable lagunes in the
nei'dibourhood of Lavinium, Ardea, and Laurentium, have been gradually absorbed by
the sinking of the level of the Tiber, or by artificial drainage.-'^ All these must have

1 Viro-. ALn. vii. 678. do la Malle w ith the Campagna. Kc. Pol. des Rom.

- Livy, i. 16 ; atyiir eXof, Pint. Rom. 27. ii. 226.

•' Festus, p. 351 ; Ov. Fast. i. 501 ; Serv. Ad /En. ^ Columella, Uc R. R. Hb. ix. ; 'palus Laurentia,"

^,jj; (,-, /En. X. 709 ;" stagna Numici,", 'En. vii. 150, 242. See

■* The district of Aiivergne is compared by Durcau Nicolai, Bonificamenti delle tcrre Pomptine, lib. ii.-iv.

The Geology and Climate of Rome. 2-'

contributed to make the air less healthy in past times than it now is. Now what is said to

be so extraordinary is that, from the early times of Rome down to the Aurrustan ao-e,

we find a numerous population living not only at Rome, but in the Campagna,

where now human beings fear to encounter the deadly effects of the air, Ancient

even for a single night. At the era when the Servian reforms were intro- ihJcamZipia

duced into the military organization of Rome, which must be placed in the

second century of the city, Livy, quoting Fabius Pictor, gives the number of freeholders

capable of bearing arms as 80,000.^ This is probably a conjectural calculation, as

Mommsen has pointed out, and proceeds upon the assumption that the normal strength

of the infantry composing the centuries, viz. 16,800, might be multiplied by five in order

to arrive at the whole number of citizens capable of bearing arms.^

It is more reasonable to take this number, 80,000, as including the whole population
of both sexes. We should then have a population of 190 souls to the square mile of
territory ; and it may be shown that the population increased from this time at an
enormous rate, so that in tlic sixth century of Rome it amounted to nearly 1,400,000.
Under the first Emperors, the whole number of Roman citizens, including those in the
provinces, was 4,063,000.^ This number probably continued to increase for the next
two centuries, till the time of Honorius, and may possibly have then amounted to
5,000,000. It may be supposed, therefore, that the population of Rome and the
Campagna was from 2,000,000 to 3,000,000 in Imperial times. Now the population of
Rome itself does not at the present day amount to more than 230,000, and that of the
Comarca, or surrounding province, to about 100,000. These statistics must, however, be
received with caution, and are perhaps likely to give an exaggerated idea of the
accuracy to which it is possible to attain in these matters. A few considerations,
drawn from what we know of the towns in Latium, will show more plainly the contrast
between the density of population in ancient and modern times.

The 'sites of Veil, Fidena;, and Gabii, once the rivals and equals of Rome, are now
entirely deserted, except by a few shepherds and cattle-stalls. Along the coast stood
Ardea, Laurentum, Lavinium, and Ostia, all of them towns apparenth- with a con-
siderable number of inhabitants. Of these, Ostia, formerly a large town (Nibb}-,
Viaggio, ii. p. 288), is now a miserable village, Ardea contains about sixty inhabitants,
while Laurentum and Lavinium are represented by single towers. During a part of
the year, the Roman nobility lived in great numbers on these very shores now found
so deadly. Pliny the younger describes the appearance of their villas near Laurentum
as that of a number of towns placed at intervals along the l>cach ; and he writes an
enthusiastic letter in praise of the salubrity and convenience of his own house there. ^
La^lius and Scipio used to make the seaside at Laurentum their resort, and to amuse

' Livy, i. 44. the late autumn, winter, and spring, as we see by his

■ Mommsen, Rom. Hist., vol. i. p. 102, Eng. trans. mention of cattle driven from the mountains. The

•' Lipsius, De Magn. Rom. i. 7 ; Mon. Ancyr. ed. villa of Castel Fusano, now on the site of Pliny's

Zumpt, tab. 2. villa, is only inhabited in the spring for a {i^w weeks.

^ Plin. Ep. ii. 17. The depopulation of the Cam- In the Antonine era and the following reigns, pes-

pagna began even in the time of the later Republic. tilence and famine swept off millions of inhabitants.

.See Appian,B. C. i. 7. "Latifundiaperdidere Italian!," Zumpt, Stand, dcs Bevolkcrung, p. 84, quoted by

is Pliny's expression in speaking of large farms: Merivale, vol. vii. p. 610.

Plin. Nat. Hist, xviii. § 35. Pliny lived at his villa in

The Geology and Climate of Rome.

themselves there with collecting shells.^ Nor was it only on the sea-coast that the
country villas were placed. Six miles from Rome, on the Flaminian road, at the spot
now called Prima Porta, there stood a well-known country-house belonging to the
Empress Livia, part of which has lately been excavated.'- This was a highly decorated
and commodious house, as the rooms which have been discovered, containing a splendid
statue of Augustus and the busts of several members of the Imperial family, amply
testify. The views from this spot over the Campagna and the Sabine hills are most
lovely, but the contrast between the beauty of Nature and the haggard and fever-stricken
appearance of the modern inhabitants is melancholy enough. A few squalid houses,
occupied by agricultural labourers, stand by the roadside. Among their tenants, not a

'^^

IHE RUINED ARCHES OF THE CLAUDIAN AQVEDICT, Wirii ERASLAII (TUSCULU.M) AND THE AI.BAN MOUNT.

single healthy face is to be seen, and even the children are gaunt, hollow-cheeked, and
deadly sallow in complexion. No wealthy Roman would now consent to live on the site
of Hadrian's stately villa in the Campagna, near Tivoli. Tivoli itself, which Horace
wished might be the retreat of his old age, and which was celebrated as a healthy place
in Martial's time,^ has now lost its reputation for salubrity, and is known as

" Tivoli di mal conforto
O piove, o lira vento, o suona amorto.''

Strabo speaks of the now desolate district between Tusculum and Rome as having
been once convenient to live in (eua7(U7a).^

But there is no need to multiply proofs, which might be gathered from all sides,
of what is an acknowledged fact, that the malarian fevers of the present day were not
nearly so deadly in the classic times of Rome, or even in the Middle Ages. The troops

1 Cic. De Or. ii. 6; Val. Max. viii. 8, i. meffi sedes iitinam senectK ; " Mart. iv. 6o, " Inter

■' Suet. Galb. i. ; Plin. Nat. Hist. xv. 40, 136, 137. laudatas ad Styga missus aquas."
'" Hor. Od. ii. 6, " Tibur, Argajo positum colono, sit ■" Strabo, v. 3, 12, p. 239.

The Geology and Clinicxte of Rome. 2 s

of labourers who, fearing to pass the niglit in the country, are met returning to Rome
every evening, the forsaken towers and buildings which stand rotting everywhere about
the Campagna, all tell the same tale of a pestilence-stricken district.'

Notwithstanding these evidences of a thick population, and of a general aptitude
for the residence of man, but few encomia upon the healthiness of the Campagna
can be found among ancient writers. It is true that Pliny, speaking in a rhetorical
and vague way, praises the " healthiness of the climate," and that Livy puts into the
mouth of Camillus, when enumerating the advantages of the situation of Rome against
those who wished to remove to Veii, an encomium upon Rome, as placed upon " hills
of a most healthy air ; " - but the balance of testimony tends to show that the
Romans of the Empire considered some parts of the neighbourhood of
Rome unhealthy. Certainly, terrible epidemics prevailed in the city from ^'''^ •^'"'""" '/

M<r Empire

time to time.^ Cicero's opinion is expressed clearly in the description thought the
he gives of the site upon which Rome was founded by Romulus, as Campagna

unhcaltkv.

" placed m a pestilential region, though healthy itself, and well supplied
with springs."^ A passage of Strabo, quoted above, speaks of the district on the sea-
shore as less health)- than the Campagna further inland. Frontinus, Inspector of
Aqueducts under Nerva, and Tacitus both mention the unhealthiness of Rome, and use
the epithet "infamous," as applied to the climate. Tacitus, however, in using this
expression refers only to the Vatican hill, where the army of Vitellius was encamped and
suffered much loss from disease caused by the unhealthiness of the spot.^

Horace's dread of the autumnal heats and the scirocco of Rome is well known, and
Martial condemns Ardea and Castrum Inui as fatal to health during the summer.'' Add
to this, that altars were erected in different parts of Rome to the goddess Febris, one
of which stood upon the Palatine, and two others upon the Esquiline and Ouirinal, in
the neighbourhood of the Areae Marianorum and the \'icus Longus ; and that there was
also a grove dedicated to Mephitis on the Esquiline.' Brocchi remarks that personification
of fever and malaria does not necessarily imply their wide prevalence at Rome, any more
than the erection of an altar to Fear can be taken as a proof that timidity was a cha-
racteristic failing of the Romans.^ But it furnishes a sufficient testimony of the actual
existence of fever and malaria from the most ancient times. The singular facts, then,
which we have before us, are on the one hand, that a dense population formerly occupied,
with apparent security and health, regions where vigorous health is impossible at the
present time ; and on the other, that the air of many of these very spots is condemned
by ancient writers as prejudicial to health.

A change in the average temperature has been assigned by some writers as the cause
of this alteration in the effects of the climate of Rome. And there is reason to believe

' See Story's Roba di Roma, vol. ii, ch. 2 ; Bun- Palace in summer. See also Cato, Dc Re Rust. i.

sen's Beschreibung Roms, vol. i. p. 104. xiv. 5 ; Solinus, i. 14.

- Livy, v. 54. '^ Hor. Od. ii. 14, 15; Sat. ii. 6, 19; Ep. i. ~ :

^ See Friedlander, Sittengeschichte Roms. vol. i. Martial, iv. 60 ; Juv. iv. 56.

pp. 35, 36 ; Tac. Ann. xvi. 13 ; Tillemont, ii. 594. ' Cic. De Nat. Deor. iii. 25 ; Val. Max. ii. 5, 6 :

■■ De Rep. ii. 6. Plin. Nat. Hist. ii. 7, 5 ; Varro, L. L. v. 49.

* Frontinus, De Aquasd. § 88 ; Tac. Hist. ii. 93. ' Brocclr. Suolo, p. 229.
The Pope removes from the V^atican to the Ouirinal

26 The Geology and Climate of Rome.

that the climate was colder in the times of Cicero and Horace. On the 12th of February
B. C. 54, the Senate was so poorly attended on account of the cold that Appius was
obliged to defer the session.'' Frozen snow, which Horace mentions as a hardship the
serenading lover at Rome had to encounter in his days, and frozen streams are rare
Climate -'a phenomena now in Rome.'- Much reliance cannot 'be placed upon the
once someii'hat terrible accounts given of the hard winter of 396 B.C. by Livy and Dionysius,^

colder. ^^ ^^ ^^^ mentioned by St. Augustine,-* when snow lay in the Forum for

forty days, and the Tiber was frozen over ; or upon the statement of Pliny and
Solinus, that the cedar could not be transplanted from its native soil of Media
and Persia.^

There remain, however, some reasons for supposing that the climate was rather
colder. The heats of summer must have been somewhat tempered by the greater extent
of woodland, which always promotes rain, and the greater bod}' of water contained in
the rivers would tend to cool the air.

The cooler climate may have borne some part in rendering Rome more healthy than
it now is. But without doubt the principal cause lay in the cultivation of the soil. Active
drainage was carried on ; the Pomptine marshes were successfully, though perhaps only
temporarily, dried, in B.C. 160." What is now a festering marsh, or a rank, weedy tract,
was once occupied by thousands of busy farms. The soil was purified by regular
drainage, and the air by the upturned earth, where now the water stagnates.
Drainage in ^^^ ^^ vegetation rots year after year on the ground. Some spots there

ancient times. a j j o i^

were of old, as now, in which the air was pestilent and infamous, but in general
the hillocky ground of the Campagna and the hills of Rome were healthy, because they
were inhabited thickly and cultivated regularly. The effects of agriculture were actually
tried with singular success by several of the Popes. The drainage of the Pomptine
marshes was resumed, and partially effected by canals, in the reigns of Boniface VHL,
Martin V., Sextus V., and Pius VL A law was enacted in 1480 by Sixtus IV. severely
punishing any lay or ecclesiastical proprietor, baron, bishop, or cardinal, who forbade
his tenants to sow their land, and kept it under pasture. The health of Rome itself
was much bettered by the extensive buildings and improvements of Sixtus V.

But the most beneficial influences were produced under the orders of Pius VL and
Vn., who endeavoured to compel by law the cultivation of a large extent of land in
the Campagna. By this means fever was manifestly checked, and the health of all the
neighbourhood improved."

Let us add to this another cause upon which Brocchi lays great stress — the greater
fitness of the ancient Roman dress, as compared with the modern, for resisting the

* Cic. Ad Quint. Frat. ii. 12. In the case of Rome the decrease of country popu-

- Hor. Od. i. 9, iii. 10, 7 ; Mart. iv. 18. lation began with the introduction of large farms.

' Livy, V. 13 ; Dionys. xii. 8. The snow lay7 feet (See Mommsen, Rom. Hist. vol. ii. p. 390.)

deep. ■" Aug. De Civ. Dei, iii. 17. "The Italian Government projected agrarian colo-

^ Solin, 46, 6, p. 197. ed. Mommsen. SeeTournon, nies in 1856 to remove the intemperie of Sardinia."

Etudes Statist, sur Rome, vol. i. ch. viii. He says, — Forester's Sardinia, p. 373.

" II tombe rarement de la neige dans la plaine." See further instances in Bunsen's " Beschreibung,"

" Mommsen, Rom. Hist. vol. iii. p. 404. vol. i. pp. 105 — 108.

The climate of Greece has also become less " Nicolai, Bonificamenti delle terre Pomptine, lib.

healthy. (See Grote. Greek Hist. vol. ii. p. 309, ch. i."! ii.— iv.

The Geology and Clhnate of Rome. 27

poisonous influence of the aria cattiva, and the greater simphcity and wholesomencss
of the ancient diet.^ "That fatal epoch," he says, "when the deleterious influences
which infested the air of this beautiful region, and which had been hitherto
resisted successfully, except under extraordinary circumstances, began to Roman'dra
work deadly effects upon the inhabitants, and to bring in their train an army more healthy
of diseases, dates from the time when the Romans abandoned their old """' ^'^ P^""'*-
austerity of life, and, disdaining the fashions of dress established by their ancestors,
adopted a foreign costume, and became the slaves of all the vices which opulence and
luxury engender.

" It was then that, for their decent tunics and toga of woollen stuff, they substituted
silk, lawn, and fine linen clothes, all of which they prized for their coolness and lightness.
Pliny, in speaking of the lawn dresses, plainly states the object for which
they were worn. ' Even men,' he savs, ' are not ashamed to wear these ^"f"'''^" %'»

^ ' given up.

clothes for the sake of their lightness in the summer. We have so far lost
the habit of wearing arms that even our clothes are a burden to us. We have not,
however, yet taken to wearing Assyrian silk, as the ladies have.' - The toga was
discarded, and the lacerna introduced instead, which, though consisting of wool, was yet
much less voluminous, and resembled a shawl fastened over the breast with one or two
clasps. I have never seen a statue clothed in this dress. Its shape may, however, be
seen upon the figures in some bas-reliefs on the pedestals of the columns which stand
on the side of the arch of Septimus Severus towards the Capitol, where men who are
fastening the chains of the captives wear it, and where it is fitted with a hood {cucullus)
thrown back behind the shoulders.' Augustus, who used himself to wear no less than
four tunics and a shirt {siibiicula), and a woollen under-waistcoat (thora.x lanens), and
wrappers round his thighs and legs (fcmiiialia et tibialid), in addition to a thick toga,
was unwilling that the Romans should give up their national dress, and ordered the
yEdiles to allow no one to appear in the Forum without wearing a toga." ■*

It may be somewhat fanciful to attribute so much importance as Signor Brocchi
does to the abandonment of woollen clothes in the summer by the Romans, but there
can be no doubt that one of the best presen^atives against malaria is the wearing of the
fleeces or skins of animals, and avoiding all sudden chills. The fires which are to be
seen nightly, during the summer months, in the Campagna, are lighted round the cottages
for the purpose of preventing the deadly chill of the night air, and dispersing the vapours ;
and the goatskin clothes and leathern doublet, which give at the present day to the
Roman peasant a most startling resemblance to a wild sat\T, are precautions found
by experience to be in some measure effective against the attacks of malaria. The
first settlers in the Campagna doubtless defended themselves in this way against the
fevers of the country, until the increase of population and the general prevalence
of agriculture rendered it no longer necessary to resort to such protection, except in
unusual seasons.

' Brocchi, p. 237. proof of Augustus' delicate constitution. Comp. Tac.

' Plin. Nat. Hist, book xi. 23. Ann. ii. 33, "Ne vestis serica viros foedaret ;'' Sen.

' See chap. vi. De Ben. vii. 9, 5, Ep. 90, 20, " Non dico nullum

' Martial, xii. 18, 5, "sudatrix toga;" Suet. Aug. ch. corpori auxilium scd nullum pudori est ;" Juv. Sat.
82. This is, however, mentioned by Suetonius as a ii. 65, scq.

E 2

CHAPTER III.
ROME BEFORE THE TIME OF SERVIUS TULLIUS.

I.KGK.NDS OF THE FOUNDATION, ARISING FROM A DESIRE TO EXAGGERATE THE ANTIQUITY OF THE CITY, OR FROM
A HELLENIZING SPIRIT, OR FROM RELIGIOUS FEELINGS — COMBINATION OF THE NATIONAL AND HELLENIC
LEGENDS — THE MODERN THEORY OF THE ORIGIN OF ROME — THE PALATINE SETTLEMENT — REASONS FOR
CHOOSING THE PALATINE HILL — ETRUSCAN CEREMONY OF FOUNDATION — POMCERIUM OF ROMULUS — ARA
MAXIMA — ARA CONSI — CURL« VETERES — SACELLUM LARUNDiE — CAVALIERE ROSA's VIEWS—ROMA gUADRATA
— MUGIONIAN GATE AND TEMPLE OF JUPITER STATOR — PORTA ROMANULA — GERMALUS— CLIVUS VICTORI^E —
PORTA JANUALIS — PORTA PANDANA — SUCCESSIVE ENLARGEMENTS — THE SEPTIMONTIUM — SO-CALLED SEVEN
HILLS OF ROME — OCTOBER HORSE — SETTLEMENT ON QUIRINAL AND VIMINAL — THE COLLINI — THE SERVIAN
REGIONS — THE ARGEIAN CHAPELS.

' Hsec est e.xiguis quse finibus orta tetendit
In geminos axes, parvaque a sede profectas
Dispersit cum sole manus."

Claud. De Cons. Stilicli. iii. 138.

SOME of the legends which profess to give an account of the first foundation of Rome
may be clearly traced to a chronicler's natural wish to carry back the antiquity of the
city to as remote a period as possible. Thus, Romus is said to have founded
Legmdsof the two cities on the site of the seven hills, one named ^Tnea, and after\vards
arhiiigfrom a Janiculum, and the other named Rome, both of which were afterwards re-
desireto placed by the Romulean Rome. A still older Rome than these was invented
exaggerat u , Antiochus, a S\Tacusan writer, in connexion with his history of the Sicels.^

antiquity of the j ' j y j

city; Of this class, also, is the account given by Festus of the Sacrani, who came

from Reate to the Septimontium, and expelled the Ligurians and Siculi.^

Servius takes a further step back, and says that the Sicani came before the Sacrani, and

that they and the aborigines in turn expelled each other from Latium.^

Other legends originated in a Hellenizing spirit. Thus arose the Cumaean account of

settlers from Athens, Sicyon, and Thespise, which Festus relates. Eight different accounts
are given by him from various authors, in explanation of the name Rome, all

)enizing spirit ■ °^ ^vhich are plainly intended to point to a Greek origin.* The tale of Evander
and his Arcadians was derived from a similar desire to connect the name

Palatium with the Greek language. Hence, also, the fiction that Pallantium in Arcadia was

1 Dionys. i. 73. ■• Festus, p. 266, Miiller. See also Lewis's " Cre-

' Festus, p. 321 ; Virg. ^n. vii. 796. dibility of Early Roman History," vol. i. ch. x. § 7 ;

'■' Serv. Ad /En. xi. 317, vii. 795, viii. 328 ; Macrob. Mommsen, Hist. Rom. vol. i. p. 4S2.
Sat. i. 5.

Rome before the Time of Serviiis Ttillitis. 29

the metropolis of Rome.' The poet Stesichorus, who was a native of Magna Grxcia, first
added to the legends of the destruction of Ilium the account of ^Eneas's voyage to the
West, and settlement in Hesperia. He did this with the laudable intention of enriching the
legendary stock of his countr\-, and giving it a more dignified genealogy than had hitherto
been possible.-

Another class of legends may be traced to the religious feeling which aspired to a
divine origin. On one side of the Tiber, Saturnus, the patron of agriculture
(satio, snta), founded a city, Saturnia, on the Capitoline ; and on the other bank, ^ ,• "!" ^'^"J"..
Janus, the god of opening or origin (jir>iita,ja)iiiariiis), occupied the Janiculum.^

" Hanc Janus pater, banc Saturnus condidit arcem :
Janiculum huic, illi fuerat Saturnia nomen." — ^n. viii. 357.

The legend of Romulus and Remus, as related by Livy, is an attempt, according to
Mommsen, to connect the foundation of Rome with the more ancient metropolis of Latium,
and at the same time to account for the selection of so unfavourable a spot for a new settle-
ment. If this be the case, Livy was perfectly right in his choice of this among the host of
other legends, as it is at once the most national and the best adapted to explain the
remarkable situation of Rome, which he must have felt to be a problem requiring some
solution. Dionj-sius, on the other hand, undertakes to prove that the founders of Rome
were Hellenes, and came from the most illustrious tribes of that nation.* He therefore
finds most truth in the Arcadian, Pelasgian, and Herculean myths ; gives the last place of
all to the Trojans, whom he curiously enough reckons among the Hellenes ; and entirely
discards the native Italian stocks, the Opicans, Marsians, Samnites, Tyrrhenians, Umbrians,
and Ligurians, whom he stigmatizes in a mass as barbarians.' Virgil makes the legend
of Evander supplementary to that of ^Eneas and the Trojans ; and also uses the religious
traditions about Saturn and Faunus to embellish his poetical account of the
early colonization of Latium. The credit of combining the national and Hel- Combination of
lenic accounts of the origin of Rome seems to be due to the epoch of N?evius Hdtenic Icaids
and Fabius Pictor. By this happy compromise of conflicting stories, the
national chief, Romulus, retains his position as founder, but becomes the grandson of the
Hellenic colonist /Eneas. We strain our eyes in vain to discover any real historical facts
wrapped up and concealed in the mythological fictions. The motives with which the\- have
been fabricated are too palpable, and their incongruities and variations are too numerous, to
allow us to hope that any residuum of truth can be extracted from them. The only method
of obtaining any trustworth)- information on the subject of the nationality of the founders
of Rome is the investigation of their original language, laws, and institutions, and the careful
comparison of these with the language, laws, and institutions of other nations.

The researches of modern scholars into the origin and relations of the Greek and Latin

1 Varro, L. L. v. 21, 53 ; Dionys. i. 31 ; .4in. viii. ^ Dionys. i. 5, 32, 8g ; ii. 31.

51 ; Livy, i. 5 ; Serv. ad .-En. vi. 773, vii. 678 ; Dion. ^ See Gladstone's Studies on Homer, vol. i. p.

Cass. Frag. iii. (Bekker). 494. Mr. Gladstone thinks that the Trojans, though

- iSernhardy, Gr. Lit. ii. § 108. a kindred people, were no more nearly related to

3 Serv. ad .-En. viii. 319, 357 ; Varro, L. L. v. § 42 ; the Hellenes than were the Italian tribes.

Plin. Xat. Hist. iii. 5, g, § 68 ; Festus, p. 322.

30 Rouic before the Time of Sei'vius Tulluis.

languages, and the comparison of ancient Latin laws and institutions with those of the

Hellenic nation, tend to show that the Latin people to which the clan belonged

The modern ^^.|^q formed the first community of Rome was an independent branch of the

ori^7of Rome, great Indo-European race, and that it separated itself from the Eastern parent
stock at an earlier period than the Hellenes. These researches also tend to

show that to speak of any single adventurer as the founder of the city of Rome is probably

incorrect. The analysis of the history of other cities leads rather to the conclusion that

THE PALATINE HILL (WESTERN SIDE), WITH THE VILLA MILLS ON THE ST.MMIT, AS SEEN FROM THE

C.\PITOLINE.

On the right is a part af the Aventine, and the Circus valley ; in the distance the Thermo: of Caracalla.

Rome, like Athens and Sparta, was the re.-^ult of an aggregation of neighbouring cantons or
gentcs, for the purposes of safety and defence.^

So far as we can penetrate the mist which hangs over the earliest form of the city

of Rome, the conclusion we are led to is, that a stronghold with four gates was first

established on the Palatine hill.- This spot was probably selected in

le a atme preference to the surrounding eminences on account of its natural con-

setttement. ' ^

figuration, and its nearness to the river. In pre-historic times, as we have
seen, the waters of the Tiber overflowed the valley between the Capitoline and Palatine,

' See Thucyd. i. lo : Kara km/xus oixio-fleioTjr SaK(h. - Aiil. Gellius, xiii. 14 ; Dionys. i. 88 : Trfptypdfpei

TriiXfoii. Grote, History of Greece, chap. x. TcTpiiyavov a-x'll"^ ™ X60m.

Rome before the Time of Servius Tullins. -^ \

and also that between the Aventine and Palatine. On two sides, therefore, the north-
western part of the Palatine was surrounded by water. On the north, also, the ground
was of the nature of a morass, forming a continuation of the pool called Velabrum
Minus, which lay between the Capitoline and Palatine.

The site thus chosen was not, like the Capitoline, very difficult of access. On the
contrary, though on the sides towards the Capitoline and Aventine it was protected
both by the steepness of the slopes and the lakes at their foot, yet from
the other sides it was easily approached. This may have seemed to the Reasons for
community who agreed in the choice of the hill as their head-quarters Palatine hill
to offer the double advantages of complete protection on two sides and
accessibility on the others. When suddenly obliged to collect their property and cattle,
and to retreat within their walls, it would be easier to gain a place of safety which was
tolerably accessible from the neighbouring country, as was the Palatine, than one which,
like the Capitoline or Aventine, was surrounded by steep rocks on all sides, and
cut off from the adjoining district. None of the other hills would have suited a
settlement partly commercial, partly agricultural, so well as such a position.

The historians and poets of Imperial Rome give us a description of the solemn
ceremony observed on the occasion of marking out the limits of a new settlement, and
assert that the Latins followed an Etruscan custom in such cases.^ Varro
gives the following account of the ceremony : — " In Latium," he says, " they Etruscan

,. ,.,^ . I'l ,. ceremony oj

founded towns accordmg to the iitruscan rites, which were used m many foundation.
other cases. A bull and a cow were yoked together, and the cow being
placed on the inner side, a furrow was made with a plough round the proposed site.
This was done on a lucky day, in order to satisfy religious scruples. The furrow whence
the earth was scooped out was called the foss, and the earth thrown inwards the
wall. The circle thus made formed the first enclosure of the city, and, being behind
the wall, was called the post-mxriiiui of the city, which forms the limit within which
the urban auspices may be taken." To this description of Varro the further particulars
are added by other authors that the person who, as founder of the city, guided the
plough, was to wear his toga in the Gabinian fashion {citictii Gabino), that the cow was
to be on the left-hand side, that the ploughshare must be of bronze, that the clods must
be made by an inclination of the plough to fall inwards, and that where there was
to be a gate the plough should be lifted up and carried across.'- The furrow having
been thus traced, a space was marked out on both sides of it as the pomcerium, upon
which it was not lawful to build, and within the outer edge of which the urban auspices
might be taken.^ This space was indicated by stones placed at intervals along its
margin.

From what we know of the early religion and rites of the Roman nation, it appears
probable that this Etruscan ceremony was not really used in marking out the boundary^

' Dionys. i. 88 ; Ov. Fast. iv. 819 ; Varro, L. L. v. within which auspices could be taken. It was marked

5 142 ; Paul. Diac. p. 236. out on each occasion of taking the auspices by the

' Ser\'. Ad ^En. v. 755 ; Plut. Rom. ii. presiding augur. Gell. xiii. 14 ; Varro, L. L. vi. § 53 ;

' LiN-y, i. 44. The ager effatus was the whole Serv. Ad yEn. vi. 197.
space, whether within or without the pomcerium,

•5 2 Rome before the Time of Scrvins Tiilluis.

of the fort on the Palatine. Mommsen has shown that the religion of the Latins was

mainly national, and that most of their borrowed rites were derived

Poma-rium of ^^^^^^ ^j^^ Greeks.i But, in the bookmaking times of the Empire, it was

Romulus. I, . f. . . r T~. 1 1. 1

necessary to fill in the account of the foundation of Rome as completely as
possible with detail, and therefore this ancient Etruscan consecrative ceremony was
introduced into the histories and ascribed to Romulus.

However this may be, the limits of the first fortification on the Palatine are described
distinctly by Tacitus, and we must suppose that the tradition about them was clear
in his time.- Starting from the Forum Boarium, at the western angle of the
. ;,; . .i.Mina. ^^.^^^ ^^^ states that the pomcerium ran round the Ara Maxima. This was
near the cattle-market, and upon it the Romans often vowed to present a tenth of
their property to Hercules, the god of the homestead, for the purpose of averting disease
from their stock. ^

The exact spot cannot now be determined, for though it is mentioned by many of

the classical writers, yet no one of them gives a very definite account of its situation.^

Servius places it behind the gates of the Circus Maximus,^ and we may infer from this,

and from mediaeval notices, that it stood at some distance from the foot of the hill,

at a point in the immediate neighbourhood of the modern S. Maria in Cosmedin.*

From the Ara Maxima the boundary proceeded to the Ara Consi, which,

according to Servius and Plutarch, was within the Circus Maximus. It was

covered with earth, except at the time of the horse-races, over which Consus was

supposed to preside. The spot near Avhich it probably stood is in the Via dei Cerchi,

nearly opposite to the ruins on the Palatine, thought by Signor Rosa to be the foundations

of the temple of Jupiter Victor." Unfortunately, we cannot determine with

"""' '^^''"^' any precision the site of the Curiae Veteres, the next point indicated by

Tacitus. In the " Notitia Romae," a statistical account of the Roman Empire, giving

a cataloo^ue of the buildings in Rome, and supposed to belong to the time of Constan-

tine, it is placed between the temple of Jupiter Stator and the Septizonium, which

stood at the south-east corner of the Palatine hill. Such an indication is, however,

much too vague to be of any service, and consequently the course of the pomcerium

on the eastern portion of the Palatine is not known. We must therefore pass to

the next point mentioned by Tacitus, the Sacellum Larunds. The

Sacellum situation of this chapel of Larunda, ^\■hich is distinguished by Varro

Lanindit.

from the chapel of the Lares, cannot be determined. The account of the
pomcerium by Tacitus again fails us, for he adds nothing more than that it reached the
Forum Romanum, a very vague description of its further course. Either he did not
know at what exact point the pomcerium passed round the eastern angle of the hill, or
he thought that the nature of the ground would sufficiently indicate its course. Since it
was carried along the foot of the hill on the southern side, we must conclude that it

' Mommsen, vol. i. ch. xiii. p. i85, Eng. trans. ■'' Serv. ad /En. viii. 271.

- Tacitus, Ann. xii. 24: " Igitur a Foro Boario,''&c. " See Note A at the end of this chapter.

' Mommsen, vol. i. p. 174. Eng. trans.; Dionys. " Serv. Ad .(En. viii. 636; Plut. Rom. 14; Varro,

i. 40. L. L. vi. § 20 ; Tertull. De Spect. 5, 8, " Ara Conso

■■ Dionys. i. 40; Ov. Fast. i. 581 ; Livy, i. 7; illi in circo defossa est ad primas metas sub terra.

Propert. v. i.\. 67. .... Apud metas sub terra delitescit murcias."

Qinrinal

■^S:-ii==— ^

l|i»*

»S

^¥<;

Ai-

f'i'

Capitol

Ponim

,rU»«

'IV^'''

'\\\I1V

v^J^.C'

f^r%.

^:v/j'iir

"'I.

"-^

1 Coliseum

BCS

CermaJ

P a i ^t i

s$^^

n e

JO?''

•ll'M

Aventine

ROWIA Antiquissima
ch. III. p. 33.

Rome before the Time of Se/t'ius Tiilliiis. x->

passed along the foot also on this side, and we therefore trace it from the Arch of
Titus to the church of S. Maria Libcratrice, and thence to that of S. Teodoro.' It
must be remembered that tlie line we have traced is that of the outer edge of the
pomcerium, and not of the wall itself, which would lie within it. Upon the steeper
sides of the hill no fortification was required, but upon the south-eastern side, and
possibly also on the north-eastern, a wall would be necessarily built to secure the place
from attack.-

Cavaliere Rosa, the learned and ingenious director of the French excavations on the
Palatine, has propounded an explanation of the above-mentioned passage of Tacitus,
founded upon the supposed discovery of a depression running across the
centre of the Palatine, and dividing it into two portions.' The original Cav. Rosa's
configuration of the Palatine, he think.s, was that of a double hill, divided,
like the Capitoline, by an intermontium, which ran across the hill from a point near the
Arch of Titus to a point near the Church of S. Anastasia, on the side which overlooks the
Circus Maximus. This inter\'al between the two summits has, according to Cav. Rosa,
been filled up by buildings placed on the top of those which originally occupied it, and
thus the top of the Palatine has been levelled. A deep excavation has disclosed some
ancient buildings Ij'ing below the floor of the Imperial edifices, at a depth of some twenty
feet. Unfortunately, it is not possible to carry on the further explorations necessary to
establish the existence of this intermontium, and we must therefore be content, for the
present, to acquiesce in the imperfect state of our knowledge respecting the pomcerium
of Romulus.

It may, however, be remarked that there are some points in the description of Tacitus
which favour Cavaliere Rosa's conjecture. For if the pomcerium included the whole south-
eastern end of the hill, how is it that Tacitus contents himself with mentioning one point
only, the Curiae Veteres, as belonging to that portion .' The situations of the other four
points indicated are known, and are all upon the north-western part. Further, all the sites
connected with this earliest settlement upon the Palatine are placed upon the north-
western portion of the hill, the Casa Romuli, the Tugurium Faustuli, the Lupercal, the
Auguratorium, the Scalte Caci, and the Germalus ; and the only gates of which we know
anything are also here. Cavaliere Rosa, indeed, goes so far as to surmise that the name
Germalus belonged to this half of the hill, and the name Velia to the south-eastern half
the whole being comprehended under the general name Palatine. But this, as has been
well remarked by Mr. Dyer, is contradicted by the words of Varro,^ who plainly dis-
tinguishes the Palatium from both the Germalus and Velia. While, therefore, we reject
the supposition that the Germalus included the whole of the north-western end of the
hill, we cannot but acknowledge that there is some evidence in fiivour of the restriction
of the original settlement to this part. A careful examination of the ground, so far as
the present (1868) excavations have laid the original surface bare, does not, however,

' Niebuhr, vol. i. p. 287. Niebuhr's account of in the Aiiitali diH' Insi. 1S6;, p. 346. I have c.\a-

the pomoerium is quite arbitrary. He takes no mined the views of Rosa further in an article in the

notice of Varro's explanations. JoKDial of Philohigy, vol. i. p. 146.

- See Note B at the end of this chapter. ' V'arro. L. L. v. § 43. '" Huic (Palatio) Germalum

' See a paper by M. Henzen in the Bullctino et \'elias conjunxerunt." The three are also nien-

deir Inst. 1862, pp. 225 ; and by Signer Rosa himself tioned as distinct by Paulus Uiaconus, p. 341.

34 Rome before the Time of Servius Tuliius.

l)car out the notion that an intermontium ever existed. Considering the immense depth
at which buildings originally above ground are now buried in other parts of Rome, it seems
not improbable that the ancient walls discovered by Rosa, which he thinks belonged to
edifices standing in the depression between the two summits, were not really much lower
than those of equal age upon the rest of the hill.

The name of Roma Quadrata has been given to the Palatine settlement by Dionysius

and Solinus,^ from the shape of the hill, which is irregularly quadrangular. Other writers

call a fictitious settlement, which preceded the one on the Palatine, Roma

Koma Quadrata. i , , • , - • i • • • , • • i

Ouadrata;- and a third meanmg given to this enigmatical expression is, that
it referred to the pit which was dug, according to the Etruscan fashion, at the founding of
a new city, in which some of the fruits of the soil and handfuls of earth, brought by the
various settlers each from his own neighbourhood, were deposited and covered up, and an
altar reared over them.^ Becker thinks that he can detect this four-cornered building on
the plan of the city preserved in fragments in the Capitoline Museum. For Solinus, he
savs, mentions that it was situated " in area Apollinis," and Festus places it " ante templum
Apollinis." Now, on one of the fragments there are the letters " R.E.A. A.P.O.," and the
plan of a four-cornered raised place, which probably, he thinks, is meant to represent the
Roma Ouadrata.*

The entrances to the fort on the Palatine were, according to Pliny, three in number, or
at the most four.'' The Etruscan religion required at least three gates to be placed in the
walls of a new town, and these were to be dedicated to Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva.'' If,
however, we reject the idea of Etruscan influence in the ceremony of the foundation of
Rome, the statement of Pliny remains alone for our information on this point.

The names of two of these gates only are preser\'ed, viz. the Porta Mugionis and the
Porta Romanula.

The first of these gates was undoubtedly near the entrance of the present road leading
up to the Convent of S. Bonaventura, and close to the Sacellum Larum, at the top of the
New Street, and at the point where it was connected with the Sacred Way.^
Mtigionian Gate j^g " ancient gate of the Palatine," mentioned by Livy as the gate to
Jiipiicr Stator. wliich the Romans fled when repulsed by the Sabines, is probably meant
to refer to this gate.® Close by was the Temple of Jupiter Stator (said
to have been built in commemoration of this battle),^ and the equestrian statue of
Clailia.^" The origin of the name Mugionia is not known, and the derivations given by
Varro and Paulus are very improbable.^^ The Porta Mugionis stood, therefore, near the
junction of the Nova Via, which passed along the foot of the south-eastern side of

1 Dionys. ii. 65 ; Solin. i. 17 ; Plut. Rom. 9, question is figured by Canina on the margin of his

- Dion. Cass. Frag. 4, 15 (Bekk.). map of Rome, No. xlviii.

3 Festus, p. 258. Usually called Mundus, Ov. " Plin. N. H. iii. 5, 9, § 66. " Serv. Ad JE.x\. i. 422.

Fast. iv. 821 ; Plut. Rom. ii. " Solinus, i. 24, "Supra summam novam viam ;"

* Becker, Handbuch, vol. i. p. 107. If the Dionys. ii. 50, Ik T^t Upas ohov.

Mundus was in the centre of the original city, as * Livy, i. 12, 41.

Von Reumoiit (Gesch. der Stadt Rom. p. 19), thinks, ^ Plut. Cic. 16 ; Ov. Trist. iii. i, 31. See below,

and its real situation has been rightly determined, chap. viii.

then the original city must have occupied the whole '" Dionys. v. 35 ; Serv. Ad. /En. viii. 646 ; Plin.

Palatine, and not a part only. See below, ch. viii. on xxxiv. 6, 13 ; Livy, ii. 13 ; Plut. Publ. 19.

the Capitoline plan of the city. The fragment in " Varro, L. L. v. 164; Paul. Diac. p. 144.

Rome dc/o>r the Time of Scrvins Tulliiis.

j:)

the hill, with the Sacra Via, which ran down the slope towards the Forum valley. It may
have been placed here in order to form an easy communication with the suburb on
the Velia.

The Porta Romanula (or Romana, as it is called bj- Festus') was at the north-western
corner of the hill, and opened out into the Nova Via and Velabrum.'- The sloping part of
the Palatine which looks towards the Capitoline is usually supposed to be the p^^i
Germalus ; and if we consider that the Germalus was a suburb of the Palatine Romanula.
settlement, as seems to be indicated by the words of Festus quoted above, Germalus.
the Porta Romanula would form the means of communication between it and Roma
Ouadrata.

SOUTHERN END OF PALATINE AND ARCH OF CONSTANT I NE.

The road leading up from this gate to the Palatine was called Clivus Victoriae.' Recent
excavations have disinterred the gate from the accumulated rubbish, and (^y/jv^ Hcion^
the Clivus Victoriae may now be ascended from the corner of the hill near
S. Maria Liberatrice.

It was by this entrance, which was retained in the w ing of the palace afterwards built
on the corner of the hill by Caligula, that Otho is said by Tacitus to have left the palace
when he went out to be proclaimed Emperor b)- the troops in the Forum ;^ and perhaps

' Festus, p. 262.

- Varro, L. L. v. § 164 ; vi. § 24..

' Festus, p. 262.

■* " Per Tiberianam donium in Velabrum," Tac.
Hist. i. 27. There may, however, have been a pos-
tern gate further to the west.

F 2

36 Rome before the Time of Servius TuUius.

also Vitellius, when he fled from the victorious Flavians.^ The gate, as now standing,
consists of a high and narrow arch of travertine supporting a considerable mass of
ruins, and leading to a passage underneath the lofty arches, built by Caligula to sup-
port the new buildings which he added to the palace. The bridge built by Caligula
across the valley, to connect the Palatine with the Capitoline hill, was at this corner of
the Palatine.

A gate called the Porta Janualis is also mentioned by Varro, as belonging to this

earliest enclosure of Rome ; ' but if this is to be identified with the Porta Janualis to which

Macrobius alludes,^ it cannot have belonged to the Roma Ouadrata, for

Porta jfaiiualis. -. , . . ~

Macrobius expressly states it to have been situated under the roots of the
Viminal hill. It is most probable, as Becker suggests, that Varro was misled by the
common expression, the Gate of War, as applied to the Temple of Janus,* which stood on
the north side of the Forum, under the Viminal hill, and hence assumed the existence of

a gate called the Porta Janualis. It may be here mentioned, that the Porta

Pandana, spoken of by Varro and Solinus,^ is not connected with the Palatine
hill, but with the Capitoline. The name was derived from the idea that it always stood
open,^ and a strange story is told by Polycenus about it, to the effect that the Gauls, when
they took Rome, agreed with the Romans that one of their gates should always stand
open, and that the Romans then built the gate in an inaccessible spot, and left it open.'^
Dionysius identifies the aicXei,aTO<; TrvXij with the Porta Carmentalis.* But nothing clear
or satisfactory can be extracted from the fragmentary and confused evidence about
this gate.

The history of the successive enlargements of the city, between the time of the Palatine
settlement and the erection by the later kings of the great wall, which included, besides the

Palatine, the Capitoline, Ouirinal, Viminal, Esquiline, Ccelian, and Aventine,
Succfsstve jg j^^^ jj^ obscurity. We can only glean a few scattered fragments of informa-

mlargcments. ^ "^ ° _ _

tion, and conjecture their possible meaning. To begin with the Ccelian, the
legend of Coeles Vibenna, an Etruscan, who is said to have settled there,^ bears so strongly
the marks of having been invented in order to account for the name of the hill, that we can
hardly receive it as true, especially as another legend asserts that the population of Alba
Longawere established on the Ccelian by TuUus Hostilius,^" and a third, that Ancus Martins
first enclosed the Ccelian. ^^ According to Dionysius, the Capitoline and Aventine were both
added by Romulus, who also annexed the Ouirinal upon the junction of the Sabine and
Roman nations.^- But this statement is at variance with the well-known account of the four
Servian regions by Varro, which will presently be mentioned, for the Capitoline and
Aventine are excluded from those regions.

The credit of peopling the Aventine, and building a wall round it, is also given to Ancus
Martins, who settled the population of the conquered towns of Politorium, Tellena^, and
Ficana upon it and in the Murcian valley.^^ Livy does not, however, explain how it came

' Tac. Hist. iii. 85. ' Polyoen. Strat. viii. 25. See Mommsen, Hist.

- Varro, v. § 165. Rom. vol. i. 115, note.

* Macrobius, Sat. i. 9 ; Niebuhr, vol. i. p. 288. " Dionys. x. 14. ^ Ibid. iii. 36.
■■ Virg. ^n. vii. 607, i. 294 ; Plut. Num. 20. '" Livy, i. 30 ; Dionys. iii. i.

° Varro, L. L. v. § 42 ; Solin. i. 13. " Strabo, v. 3, p. 234. '" Dionys. ii. 37, 50.

* Paul. Diac. p. 220. ' " Livy, i. 33 ; Dionys. iii. 43.

Rome before the Time of Sci-vius Tullius. ■ty

to pass that the Aventine was not enclosed until long afterwards, under the Icilian law in
A.U.C. 298,1 though this seems to cast sonic doubt on his previous statement. As to the
remaining hills, the Esquiline and Viminal, the addition of these is set down by the
historians to Servius TuUius.-

A hint of the probable extent of Rome at a time between the Palatine settlement and
the erection of the Servian walls seems to be given by the term Septimontium, which
was the name of an ancient festival held at seven places on the Montes of
Rome. Hence the tribes who celebrated it called themselves Montani, as Z^"

distinguished from the Collini, who lived on the Colles, i.e. the Viminal and
Ouirinal. Plutarch and Varro state that the Septimontium was the festival of the Montani
alone, and not of the whole people.^ Its antiquity is indicated by the tradition that the
Septimontium was a town built on the site of Rome before* the Rome founded by
Romulus, and the veneration in which it was held is shown by the fact, that the festival
was kept even as late as the reign of Domitian.^

The names of the seven places are given by Paulus Diaconus, in his epitome of Festus,
and convey some idea of the extent of the settlements of the Montani." They are the
Palatine, Velia, and Germalus, in one group, and the Fagutal, Oppius, and .svr,;//^a' scz'm
Cispius, in another, together with the Subura, a part of the valley between ^"^^^ "/ Kome.
the Esquiline, Viminal, and Ouirinal.

These names lead us to suppose, that at some epoch after the settlement on the
Palatine, but before the reign of Servius Tullius, three fortified settlements existed on the
three parts of the Esquiline, the Oppius, Cispius, and Fagutal.^

We may further conjecture, from the indications thus given, that the part of the
Esquiline nearest to the Palatine was annexed first, and that the Roman settlement
gradually extended itself to the Colles. Such an inference is supported by the apparent
superiority over the Collini assumed by the Montani, as the most ancient and genuine
stock of citizens. From what has been said, it will be seen that the hills afterwards
commonly called the Seven Hills of Rome are entirely different from the seven original
centres of worship with which the Septimontium was connected.

And in fact, during the greater part of the Republican times, and until the real meaning
of the festival of the Septimontium, together with the distinction between Montani and
Collini, was lost, though Rome was called the City of the Seven Hills, yet it was not so
called in the sense in which we now understand the expression. Later writers, in the time of
the Empire, in order to explain the term Septimontium, applied it to the Montes included
in the Imperial city, leaving out the Colles. Thus the anonymous compiler of the Xotitia,
a catalogue of the different sites and buildings at Rome, writing in the time of Constantine,
gives a catalogue of the seven Montes. He includes the Vatican and the Janiculum among
them, and omits the two Colles. Servius, who lived about a century later, speaks of the

' Livy, iii. 31, 32. ' Festus, p. 348 ; Paul. Diac. p. 341 ; M tiller.
' Dionys. iv. 3; Livy, i. 44 ; Aur. Vict., Vir. 111. 7 ; Observe that the Ccelian is omitted. The Fagutal

Strabo, v. 3, p. 234. is also mentioned by Solinus, i. 25.

3 Plut. Qu;cst. Rom. 69 ; Varro, L. L. vi. 64. '' Annali dcW Inst. 1S61, p. 58. M. Uetlefscn

* Varro, L. L. v. 41 ; Festus, p. 321. thinks that the Septimontium was a festival of the

' Suet. Dom. 4 ; Tertull. Ue Idol. 10 ; Ad Nat. Latin pagi, as distinct from the Sabine and Ltruscxin

ii. 15. pagi on the C^uirinal and Ccelian.

38 Rome before tJic Time of Servins Tiilliits.

definition of the seven hills as a matter of controversy in his time, and mentions three
opinions on the subject.^ The number seven, which, at the time of the institution of the
festival of the Septimontium, accurately agreed with the number of the districts of the
city, was retained from religious motives, but became no longer applicable to the real
features of the locality.'-

To the period of this development of the city must be referred the origin of the

ceremony of the sacrifice of a horse in October, on the Campus Muirtius, after which a

struggle took place between the population of the Sacra Via and those of

October horse.

the Subura, for the possession of the animal's head ; the latter, if victorious,
fixing it upon the Mamilian tower, which was therefore in the Subura, and the former,
on the ro)'al palace on the Palatine.^ The historical interpretation of this custom seems
to be that a friendly rivalry existed between the two divisions of the cit\-, and it points to
a time when the Palatine settlement had only extended itself to the Subura and slopes
of the Esquiline, and these two regions constituted the whole city.*

The Ouirinal and Viminal, at the time of the institution of the Septimontium, appear
to have had a separate existence as a rival and equal settlement, which coalesced with
the Palatine Romans before the enclosure of Servius was made. Mommsen has shown

that the hypothesis of Niebuhr, who assumed that the population on the
Settlement oil Q^^lnnaX was of Sabine race, is not supported sufficientlv by Varro's deriva-

Quiriital and ~ r-^ ■ •

Viminal. tion of the name Ouirites from the Sabine town of Cures, or from the Sabine
character of the divinities worshipped on the Ouirinal.^ The word Quirites,
as has been already stated, is most probably derived from qiiiris, a lance ; and the
deities whose fanes stood on the Ouirinal, Semo Sancus or Fidius, Sol, Salus, Flora,
and Ouirinus, were indeed Sabine, but also Latin gods.'' There are, however, many
proofs of the separate existence of a settlement on the Ouirinal, the citizens of which,
after the union of the districts, were called Collini, in contradistinction to the Montani
of the Septimontium. This name Collini survives in the Porta Collina, the

The Collini. ^

Salii Collini, and the Tribus Collina. Moreover, the name of the old Capitol
which stood on the Ouirinal shows that it was formerly the stronghold of a separate
community ; and the duplicate character of the oldest colleges of priests, the Luperci
and Salii, points to the same conclusion.

A still further extension of the cit\' enclosure, intermediate between the time when

1 Cic. Ad Att. vi. 5. speaks of ao-ru (■irra\o(j)oi>. So article in Schneidewin's Philologus, vol. xxiii. 1866,
also Plutarch, Ouaest. Rom. 69. Plin. N. H. iii. 5, 9, page 679, in which the sacrifice of a horse is con-
speaks of " septem montcs." So also Statius, Silv. i. nected with the erection of the principal buildings in
I, 64 ; and Claud., De Cons. Stilich. iii. 65. But the the two districts,
number 7 does not seem to have had any defined '' Mommsen, vol. i. p. 53.
topographical meaning in these passages. ° Niebuhr, Rom. Hist. vol. i. pp. 232, 289, 290;

- Servius, Ad yEn. vi. 784; Georg. ii. 535. Momm- Mommsen, vol. i. p. 78. The derivation from

sen, vol. i. p. 116, says that the catalogue of seven quiris is found in Macrobius, Sat. i. 16 ; Ov. Fast,

hills, as named in modern books, viz. Palatine, ii. 475 ; Festus, p. 49.

Aventine, Coelian, Esquihne, Viminal, Ouirinal, Capi- ^ Niebuhr does not agiee with this derivation of

toline, is not found in any ancient author. It seems " Ouirites," but suggests no other : vol. i. p. 290.

most probable that the Servian city, which was for Dyer, Hist, of Kings of Rome, pp. 85, 86. There

so long the only part of Rome enclosed by walls, is, however, no reason why cures and quiris should

gave rise to this catalogue. not both be derived from the same root. Newman,

^ Festus, p. 178, Mull. "October eqiius." See an Regal Rome, p. 65.

Rome before the Time of Servius Tullhis. lo

the Septimontium was instituted and the building of the Servnan wall, is that indicated

by the twenty-four Argeian chapels mentioned by Varro.^ The Capitoline

and Aventine are excluded from the regions occupied by these chapels, ^'''<' -S^"""'

regions.

but the Palatine, Esquiline, Ouirinal, Viminal, and Coelian, are embraced by
them, and it seems possible that they may be referred to the time shortly preceding the
Servian enclosure. If we throw aside as worthless the legends that the Capitoline was
added by Romulus, and the Aventine by Ancus, we may assume that these two hills were
really first enclosed within the city by the Servian walls, and that the exten-
sion marked by the institution of the Argeian chapels followed the annexation k Argeian
of the Ouirinal and Viminal. It seems vain to inquire into the origin of
these Argeian or Argive chapels, or to enumerate the theories which have been put
forward by ingenious antiquarians about their connexion with Argos, and with the straw
images thrown from the bridge of the Tiber.'- But the notice of them by Varro is most
valuable, as evidence of a particular period of the extension of Rome, because the rites
of sanctuaries of this kind are preserved with the greatest tenacity..

Varro connects them with the four regions into which the city was divided at the
time, and places six of them in each. The four regions were — I. The Suburan, which
comprised the Coelian Mount, the Subura, part of the Sacra Via, and the slope of the
Esquiline above the Subura. The Subura, as the oldest settled portion, gives the name
to this district. II. The Esquiline, including the Oppius and Cispius. III. The Viminal
and Ouirinal, or the CoUine region. IV. The Palatine, Germalus, and Velia."'

These regions were intimately connected with the military organization of Senaus,
for each of them was required to furnish a fourth part of the State army in each of its
divisions. Their populations were therefore nearly on an equality, both as regards
numbers and wealth. They superseded the ancient triple division of the community,
but still retained the name of tribus, deprived of its etymological significance.

We thus trace dimly three stages in the gradual extension of the city previous to
the completion of the wall of Servius, viz. I. the original Palatine settlement, II. the
Septimontium, and III. the further expansion marked out by the Argeian chapels, the first
confined to the Palatine, the second extending also over the Subura and Esquiline, and
the third including, in addition to these, the Ouirinal, Viminal, and Coelian. The exclusion
of the Capitoline was possibly due, as Becker and others have remarked, to the consecra-
tion of the hill,* and the Aventine and Janiculum were not yet sufficiently peopled to
assume the character of separate districts {pagi).

1 Varro, L. L. v. § 45. Dyer's interpretation, Diet. ' Bunsen, Beschr. i. p. 146 ; Dyer, in Smith's Diet.

KxA.\o\.\\.'^.'iy>^oireliquaurbisloca olim discreta Ant. vol. ii. p. 734; Mcrkel, Ad Ov. Fast. p. 171 ;

cannot be eorrect. Varro means that the rest of the Klausen, yEneas und die Penatcn, p. 934. See also

city was divided into districts in very ancient times Schneidewin's Philologus, vol. .xxiii. 1866, p. 679;

when the Argeian chapels were instituted. Livy. i. 21, Grimm, Mythol. 41 seq.

ascribes these chapels as a matter of course to Xuma. ^ Varro, L. L. v. §§ 41 — 54.

Ov. Fast. iii. 791 ; Gell. x. 15 ; Paul. Diac. p. 19 ; ■* Becker, Handbuch, vol. i. p. 386 ; Annali delP

Becker, Handbuch, vol. iv. p. 200. Jnst. 1861, p. 61.

40 Rome before the Time of Servius Tullius.

Note A, p. 32. — On the Ara Maxima, from the " Bulletixo dell' Instituto,''

1854, p. 28.

I. Besides the round temple, now extant, near the Tiber (called the Temple of ^'esta), another round
temple in the Forum Boarium is mentioned as extant by archeeologists of the fifteenth century.
They called it the Temple of Hercules Victor. It was pulled down under Sixtus IV. The statue of
Hercules in bronze now in the Capitol was found there. It was behind S. Maria in Cosmedin, and
the Ara Maxima was near it (Albertino, Scriptores de Urbe Roma Prisca et Nova, p. xxxiii.). Another
author, quoted by De Rossi, also places the round temple of Hercules in the Forum Boarium, and the
.\ra Maxima near it towards the .'Vventine. Andrea Fulvio, Marliano. Lucio Fauno, and Gamucci,
repeat the same assertion. The inscriptions relating to the worship of Hercules Victor, now in the
Capitol, may be proved to have come from this place, which is thus described in a MS. of the seventh
year of Sixtus IV. in the Vatican, Cod. Vat. 3616 : " Apud scholam Grjecam ubi erat Templum
Herculis." These inscriptions are ten in number, and all commemorate their dedication by Pr^etores
urbani to Hercules Victor. Other inscriptions were found in the beginning of the sixteenth centurj',
and also a cup dedicated to Hercules Victor; and Aldus Manutius, in 1592, speaks of an inscription
found in the foundations of the Ara Maxima in the Fonmi Boarium. De Rossi found a sketch of
this temple in a book of prints collected by Fulvio Orsino, and kept in the Vatican, Cod. Vat. 3439.
The sketch is by Baldassare Peruzzi, in the time of Julius II., and he describes the temple as having
been " al circo massimo al capo del burdeletto del Foro Boario." Peruzzi made his drawing from the
ruins and fragments of the temple. A. Fulvio, and Fr. Schott in his " Itinerarium Italicum," both
mention the ruins of this temple as near S. Maria in Cosmedin, or, more precisely, between that church
and the Circus Maximus. The inscriptions relate to the altar, and, as they were found close to the
temple, we must suppose that the altar stood close to the temple. The temple and altar were on the
west side of the Circus Maximus ; for besides that, as we ha\e seen, they were near S. !Maria in
Cosmedin, Diodorus places them near the river. Prudentius, Cont. Symm. i. 120, places the altar near
the Aventine, and it was therefore probably at the west angle of the Circus Maximus. An older sacred
precinct of Hercules is alluded to in Tacitus, .-^nn. xv. 41, and Solinus, i. 10, Strabo v. 3, to which
the round temple above mentioned succeeded. This older rkyieroQ was sometimes called Fanum, or
Sacellum Evandreum, Gruter, Insc. xlvii. 10. There was also a Temple of Hercules built by Pompey,
and alluded to in Pliny, Nat. Hist, .xxxiv. 7 ; Vitruv. iii. 3. This was also probably in the Forum
Boarium. Nibby and Ritschl conjecture that the round temple was built by Mummius after the
destruction of Corinth. (Nibby, Roma nell' Anno 1838, pp. ii. 19.) But De Rossi attributes it
more probably to Marcus Octavius Hersenius. following Macrobius, Sat. iii. 6, and Mamertinus,
Panegyr. i. pp. 13, 63, ed. Arntzen ; Serv. Ad ^n. viii. 363. This Octavius also probably was
the same person who founded an altar and rites to Hercules Victor at Tibur (Macrob. Sat. iii. 12)-
The temple was ornamented wth a picture by Pacuvius (Pliny, Nat. Hist. xxxv. § 19), who lived
about 160 B.C. It may very possibly have been rebuilt under the Emperors. It was burnt in the
Neronian fire, Tac. Ann. xv. 41. The statue found there, which is now in the Capitol, was,
according to M. Braun, an imitation made in Imperial times of the statue of Lysippus, brought by
Mummius from Corinth. It was not an imitation of the statue believed to have been placed by
Evander there, for that statue had its head covered (Macrob. Sat. iii. 6). The inscriptions found
on the site are all posterior to the second century a.d. The earliest, according to De Rossi,
is dedicated by L. Fabius Cilo, Consul in 193 a.d., and therefore Praetor-urbanus some few years
before. The worship of Hercules here did not probably cease till the time of the elder Theodosiusi
as it is spoken of by Macrobius and Prudentius (temp. Honorius and Theodosius) as still existing.

Rone before the Time of Scrvius Tullms. 41

11. The second altar, called that of Hercules Victor, was " ad Portam Trigeminam " (Macrob. iii. 6 ■
Plut. QiuTESt. Rom. 60). Dionysius, i. 39, exjiressly distinguishes the two, and states that this second
one was an altar dedicated by Hercules himself, after his victory over Cacus, to Jupiter Inventor
and was near the cave of Cacus. This second altar is the one mentioned by Solinus, i. 11 ■ Ov.
Fast i. 599. Solinus expressly joins the cave of Cacus and the Trigcmina Porta together. l)e
Rossi thinks that Antoninus Pius rebuilt the temple near this altar, and that it is figured on one
of his coins (Eckhel, N. D. vii. pp. 29, 47). The first builder is not known.

If the above investigation be correct, the pomoerium of Romulus must have included a lar^e
portion of the Vallis Murcia, as far as the western corner of the Circus Maximus.

Note B, p. n.

Some old tufa walls, which are supposed to be relics of the walls, or rather facings, of the sides
of the hill on which the Palatine settlement stood, were discovered in the Vigna Nussiner, on the
north-west side of the Palatine, by excavations pursued under the orders of the Emperor of Russia.

They consist of layers of squared tufa stone, fitted closely without cement, and have been sup-
ported in front by later additions of brickwork. The tufa wall, which was apparently built against the
natiual soil of the steep side of the hill, had given way in parts, and required the support of brick
walls. It is quite hidden by the brick walls, and doubtless in this way a great part of the Servian
walls, which were aids to the natural steepness of the hills in many places, are concealed. The walls
on the side of the Quirinal, in the Colonna Gardens, are hidden in the same way by brickwork
supports.

Such supports were necessary. In Livy, xxxv. 21, we have an account of the fall of a jjart of
the Capitoline hill into the Vicus Jugarius; and M. Braun, in the Annali deW Itistitiito, 1852,
p. 324, mentions another similar fall which took place not many years ago at the back of the
convent of the Ara Cceli.

M. Braun thinks that the grooves and subterranean passages found in these old walls, and behind
them, were intended to provide ventilation and drainage. He connects them with the favorissae, or
flavissae (air-holes, from flare), mentioned by Paulus Diac. p. 88, and Gellius, ii. 10, as existing in
the Capitoline hill. These, he thinks, were originally intended to be drains and ventilators, but were
afterwards employed as lumber-rooms for the Capitoline temple. It is more probable that the
grooves were once filled with wooden beams, intended to bind the walls together, as in old English
houses, and that these timbers have rotted away, and left the grooves empty. See the woodcut
on p. 30. The subterranean vaults may have been intended for various purposes, such as M. Braun
mentions.

CHAPTER IV.
THE SERVIAN WALLS.

FORTIFICATIONS OF ROME BEGUN BY TARQUINIUS PRISCUS — COMPLETED BY SERVIUS — METHOD BY WHICH THE
SERVIAN WALLS MAY BE TRACED — PORTIONS OF THE SERVIAN WALL ON THE AVENTINE — GATES IN THE
SERVIAN WALL — PORTA FLUMENTANA — PORTA CARMENTALIS — PORTA TRIUMPHALIS — PORTA RATUMENA —
PORTA FONTINALIS — RUINS OF THE WALL IN THE VILLA MASSIMI AND THE CONVENT OF S. MARIA DELLA
VITTORIA — PORTA SANQUALIS — PORTA SALUTARIS— PORTA COLLINA, OR AGONALIS, OR QUIRINALIS — AGGER OF
SERVIUS — PORTA VIMINALIS — PORTA QUERQUETULANA — PORTA CCELIMONTANA — PORTA CAPENA — TEMPLES OF
HONOUR AND VIRTUE, AND OF MARS — PORTA N.EVIA — PORTA RAUDUSCULA — PORTA LAVERNALIS ^ PORTA
MINUCIA — PORTA TRIGEMINA — PORTA NAVALIS — -PORTA STERCORARIA — PORTA LIBITINENSIS — PORTA FENES-
TELLA — PORTA FERENTINA— PORTA PIACUI.ARIS— PORTA CATULARIA — PORTA MF.TIA — FORTIFICATIONS OF THE
WESTERN BANK OF THE TIBER.

"(I F^OTtimati, quuruni jam mcenia surgunt." — .Kn. i. 437.

'IT/'E have seen that the four regions into which Rome was divided in the time of
V » the later kings did not include the Capitoline or the Aventine hills. Before
the end of the Regal period, however, there was a further enlargement of the limits of
the city, in which these two hills were comprehended. Dionysius, Livy, and Aurelius
Victor relate that Tarquinius Priscus undertook the building of a new stone wall for
the defence of the whole of the new quarters of the city, but that he

I'urlificaiions of ^ . . . . . .,' ^ r^

A'ome bcitn by °'d not live to finish it, and that the design was carried out by Servius
Tarquinius TuUius, who also Constructed the enormous agger called by his name,
still remaining at the back of the Esquiline, Viniinal, and Ouirinal hills.'
Before this great work was accomplished, we must suppose that each suburb, as it
grew out of the original settlement, was defended by a new piece of fortification ; but
these fortifications were, as Dionysius describes them,^ only temporary, and hastily
erected for the nonce. The expressions of Livy and Aurelius would lead us also to the
conclusion that they were not of stone, but probably were entrenchments of earth. ^
Rome had now become the capital of Latium ; she had lately united all her citizens —
the Montani, the Collini, and the other freeholders living within the districts of Servius —
by a complete military organization ; and her powers were directed by a form of
government which has always proved best calculated for the production of great public

' Dionys. iii. 67 ; Livy, i. 36, 38 ; Aur. Vict., Dc 84, note 39, thinks that each hill had its separate

\'ir. Illust. 6. walls before the Servian fortification was built, and

■ AuVoo-xeSm, Dionys. loc. cit. that the Porta Ratumena and Porta Saturni belonged

2 Preller, in Schneidcwin's Philologus, vol. i. p. to the wall of the Capitoline hill.

J A

The Servian Walls. 43

works. A new stone wall was accordingly planned on a vast scale, and the drainage
of the low-lying parts of the city was effected about the same time by colossal
sewers. The king having the whole control of the finances of the state
could appropriate large sums of money for works of public utility, and ^ <"«//<■'<■"' 'n'

Serviiis.

could also doubtless command the labour of immense gangs of workmen.
The Servian walls and the cloacte of Rome are to be looked upon as the parallels in
the history of Rome to the pyramids of Egypt, the walls of Babylon, and of Mycena;
and Tiryns.' They point to a time of concentrated power and unresisting obedience,
when the will of one man could direct the whole resources of the community to the
accomplishment of comprehensive designs.

With the exception of a small portion which has been discovered in the depression
between the north-western and south-eastern parts of the Aventine, another portion
upon the Servian agger, and a few remnants on the Quirinal, in the Barberini and
Colonna gardens,- no remnants of the Servian walls are now to be seen, and we have
to infer their probable extent from the nature of the ground, the rough estimate given
by Dionysius of the space which they enclosed, and the positions of the gates as
described by various ancient authors. It may be safely concluded that, wherever it was
possible, advantage would be taken of the sides of the hills, and the walls would be
made to run along their edges.^ Thus the course of the wall on the outer side of the
Capitoline, Quirinal, Esquiline, and north-eastern part of the Aventine can be ascertained
with tolerable certainty, and the agger serves as a guide along the back

. ^[^thodhyivhick

of the Viminal and Quirinal. The principal difficulty lies in the portions the Servian
between the Capitoline and Aventine along the river bank, in the space to the '""''^ "'"x '"'
south of the Ccelian, and at the hill of S. Saba and S. Balbina, where there
is but little indication in the nature of the ground to guide us.

But the general accuracy of the course commonly assigned to the Servian walls
may be proved by comparing it with the statement of Dionysius,* who says that the
whole circumference was about equal to that of the walls of Athens. Now. if we
suppose that the wall included the whole exterior edge of the Aventine and the hill
of S. Saba and S. Balbina, that it crossed the Ccelian at the back of S. Stefano
Rotondo in a north-easterly direction, ami then followed the course of the slope
nearly parallel to the Via Merulana, meeting the agger at S. Maria Maggiore, and then
running along the edges of the Quirinal and Capitoline, we have a circumference nearlj-
seven times the length of the agger; and the length of the agger, as given by
Dionysius, is six stadia : therefore the whole circumference of the supposed wall is
about forty-two stadia. Thucydides estimates the length of the circuit of the Athenian
walls at forty-three stadia, so that, comparing this statement with the assertion of
Dionysius, we may at least suppose that we have approximated to the true course of
the Servian walls in placing them as above.*

> .\rnold, Ilist. of Rome, vol. i. ch. v. p. 52 ; Grotc, ' Plin. Nat. Hist. ill. 5, 9, gives the circuit of the

Hist, of Greece, vol. iii. ch. xi.w city at 13,200 passus = 20.995 yards = nearly twelve

= See the Bulletino dell' Instituio Arch, for 1855, miles. This is too great a length for the Servian

pp. 47, 48. walls, which were only five miles and a half in cir-

» Cic. Dc Rep. ii. 6. cumference. See below, page 54, note - ; Thiicyd.

* Uionys. iv. 13 ; ix. 68. ii. 13.

r, 2

44 The Servian Walls.

A small portion of the circuit of the Servian city was defended by the river only,
for we find no mention of a wall running along the bank, nor any remains of a wall,
which would still probably have existed in such a position, where it could not be, as
at other places, overlaid on both sides by the buildings of the city. The Sublician
brid"-e led from this point to a fort on the Janiculum.^ When Horatius Codes, in the
legend related by Livy,'^ is endeavouring to restore order and presence of mind among
the Roman troops who had been driven out of the Janiculan fort, he uses the argument
that, if they once gave up the bridge, there would soon be as many of the enemy on
the Palatine and Capitoline as on the Janiculum. This, and the determination of
Horatius to keep the bridge at any cost, shows that Livy did not suppose any wall
to have then existed along the bank of the river between the Capitoline and the
Aventine. Dionysius, in relating the same story, plainly says that the city was without
any wall where the river protected it.^ I cannot think that Bunsen's attempt to show
that the wall ran across from the foot of the Capitoline to the Circus Maximus is
successful* It has been sufficiently refuted by Becker in his " Handbook of Roman
Antiquities," and by Canina in the " Indicazione Topographica di Roma." "

In the time of Dionysius the w'all was already so much covered with buildings of
various kinds that he speaks of it as difficult to trace," and therefore, naturally enough,
we find at the present day that the whole has disappeared under heaps of rubbish.'
The portion brought to light in 1855, under the south-eastern slope of
Poiiious of Ser- the Aventine, was accidentally discovered in digging in the vineyard of the
'I'lie'Avmti'il. Collegio Romano, for the purpose of clearing the ground from masses
of brickwork. This portion, some of v/hich has since been covered with
earth again, is 104 feet in length, 32 feet high, and 16 broad. The breadth shows the
great solidity and strength of the construction. The original height was probably
greater, as M. Braun remarks, and a parapet was placed upon the top.** Some parts
of this ruin are covered with reticulated work, and on others great masses of masonry
have been placed which belonged to dwelling-houses. No antiquities have been found
in these excavations earlier than the Imperial times. A brick stamped with an inscrip-
tion was discovered near one of the more modern arches, and dates from the reign
of Trajan.^

At the time when these walls were built, the stone generally used for such purposes was
the hard tufa, described in a previous chapter. The great part of the Cloaca Maxima
and the remnants of the Servian walls are composed of this material. It is hewn into long
rectangular blocks, which are placed (in builders' phrase alternately headers and stretchers)
sometimes across and sometimes along the line of the wall in order to gain greater
strength. No cement is used, but the stones are carefully fitted together, and verj'
regularly shaped.

1 Liv. i. 33. - Ibid. ii. 10. portion of Servius's wall on the Aventine near S.

' Dionys. v. 23 : arcixiVTo? olrra Ik tu>v irnpa tup Sabina was found co\ered up with buildings on

TTcn-a/xow licpav. Comp. ix. 68. each side. See the woodcut on page 50.

* Bunsen's Beschrcibung, \ol. i. p. 627. * See a paper by Braun in the BiiUctino dell' In-

'" Becker, Handbuch, vol. i. p. 139 ; Canina, Indie. stituto Arch, for 1855.

p. 456. ^ Dionys. iv. 13, Uaeipfrov. " " DE QUINTIANIS IMP. TR.^JA. CAE. AUG. GER.

'■ See Ann. dell' Inst. \ol. x.\ix. p. 64. The dac."

The Servian Walls. ,-

It must here be observed that the rectangular shape and horizontal position of the
blocks in this stonework by no means disprove its high antiquity.^ It is true that the
so-called Pelasgian walls are built in a totally different st)lc, for the stones in them arc
polygonal. But this difference of shape in the stones arises from a difference in the
material. All the so-called Pelasgian walls in Italy are built of travertine, which naturally
breaks into polygonal masses. But tufa-stone is found in the quarry in horizontal layers,
and is most easily cut into a rectangular shape. The inference sometimes drawn from
horizontally-laid masonrj', that it indicates a more advanced state of art than polygonal,
cannot be relied upon as certain.-

The position of the gates in the Servian walls must now be investigated. I shall beo-jn
at the end of the wall which abuts on the river near the south-western end of
the Capitoline hill, and point out the probable situation of the various gates ' ^'''^ '" ^''^'
which are mentioned by writers who lived before the Aurelian walls were
built. At the same time I shall trace the course of the wall so far as possible from gate
to gate.

Livy twice mentions a Porta Flumentana in connexion with the inundations of the
Tiber, by which many houses near the gate were destroyed.^ This gate must therefore
have been near the river, as its name indicates, and tradition affirmed that
the river had once flowed over the site of the gate until sacrifices oer- P'"''" P^'"""'-

^ ^ tana.

formed to Vertumnus changed its course.'* The corn-market, which was
near the vegetable-market and just outside the wall under the Capitol, was often injured
by these inundations. "^ We cannot, therefore, be far wrong in placing the Porta Flumentana
in the portion of the wall between the Capitoline and the river."

The Porta Carmentalis certainly stood in this portion of the wall, and probably close
under the south-western extremity of the Capitoline hill.'' Tb.e altar of
the nymph Carmentis, mother of Evander, was near this gate : whence its ^'"^'"'

\. . Carmentalis.

name.* The name was afterwards changed to Scelerata, from the story

that the Fabii passed through it on their way to the fatal fight with the Veientes on the

bank of the Cremcra.''

The Vicus Jugarius^" appears to have led from the Porta Carmentalis to the F"orum
along the side of the Capitoline hill."

The gate called the Porta Triumphalis was also assigned by Donatus to the short

' Reber, Ruinen Roms, p. lo. is to be obser\ed that the MSS. of Livy have in this

- Abekcn, Mittchtalicn, p. 143; Ann. dell' Inst. place " frumcntana porta" in place of " flumen-

1829, pp. 36 — 60; Mommsen, Rom. Hist. vol. i. p. tana," in allusion to the corn-market outside; but

245 ; lieber, Gesch. der Baukunst. p. 385. the best editors have adopted the reading " flumen-

^ Livy, x.x.w. 9, 21. tana."

■" Paul. Diac. p. 89 ; Propert. v. 2, 7. The statue of 7 Dionys. i. 32 : Inh tw Ka\ovii(v<a KamraXia mipa

Vertumnus stood in the Velabrum. raU Kapiievrlai TrvXais ; Solin. i. 13.

= Plut. Otho, 4 ; Notit. Keg. ix. 8 yirg. ^n. viii. 337.

" An objection has been raised to this view based Festus, pp. 2S5, 335 ; Serv. Ad yEn. viii. 337 ; Ov.

upon the account of the trial of Manlius in Livy, vi. Fast. ii. 201 ; Livy, ii. 49.

20, and Plutarch, Camillus, 36, where the Capitol is '" Livy, xxvii. 37.

said to have been invisible from the Lucus Petelinus, " Mommsen {Ann. dcW Inst. xvi. p. 309)thinks that

which was outside the Porta Flumentana. But, as the cixXtiorot TtvKai of Dionys. x. 14 refer to one of

Bunsen suggests, the trees of the grove or other in- the arches of this gate. See also Preller, in Schnci-

tervcning objects may have intercepted the view. It dcwin's Philologus, vol. i. p. 84.

46 The Servian Walls.

portion of the wall, about 300 paces long, between the Capitoline and the river. Bunsen,

however, raised a doubt on account of the difficult)' of supposing that three

Porta CTates could be situated so near each other, and he placed it at the western

Trmniplialis. °

end of the Circus Maximus.^ But if vi?e abandon, as seems necessary, his
supposition that the wall ran parallel to the Tiber at this part, we cannot accept this as the
true position of the Porta Triumphalis. Another supposition with respect to this gate is
that it was not a gate in the Servian wall, but a triumphal arch leading from the Campus
Martins into the district called the Circus Flaminius.- This rests on a passage of Josephus,
in which Vespasian's triumphal procession is spoken of as passing from the Porta Trium-
phalis through the Circus into the city.^ But the whole of the argument turns on an
expression in the Greek of Josephus, the meaning of which is doubtful. There seems to
be no valid objection to the old view which represents the Porta Triumphalis as a gate
which was kept shut, except on the occasion of a triumphal entry, and situated between
the Flumentana and Carmentalis.

Cicero and Tacitus both speak of entering by this gate as an honour only accorded
under particular circumstances. " You quibble," says Cicero to Piso, " as to whether you
came in at the Esquiline or Ccelimontane Gate. What do I care by which gate you entered,
provided it was not by the Gate of Triumph .' You are the only Proconsul of Macedonia to
whom on his return from his province the Triumphal Gate has not been opened."* At the
death of Augustus it was proposed in the Senate by Asinius that his funeral procession
should pass through the Gate of Triumph (probably on its way from the palace to the
mausoleum of Augustus in the Campus Martius), and that the titles of the laws he had
passed and the names of the nations he had conquered should be carried in the procession.-''
There is no positive evidence for the position of this gate, except the passage of Josephus
above alluded to, which shows it to have been near the Porticus Octaviae ; but it is most
natural that the triumphal entries should have been made through a gate in this part of
the wall leading from the Campus Martius, where the processions were marshalled. The
triumphs passed from this gate through the Forum Boarium into the Circus, and thence
by the Vicus Tuscus into the Forum, and along the Via Sacra up to the Temple of
Jupiter Capitolinus."

Along the north-western edge of the Capitoline hill the wall was probably identical
with that of the Capitoline fortress, just as at Carthage the wall of the Byrsa coincided
with the city wall." In the short space between the Capitoline and Ouirinal
„ /"^ there were two gates. One of them, the Porta Ratumena, was so called from

the name of a charioteer in the races at Veii who was unable to stop his run-
away horses until they reached Rome, and threw him out at this gate under the Capitoline

> Bunsen, Beschreibung, vol. i. p. 630 ; see above, to the city wall."

p. 44 ; Urlichs, Class. Museum, vol. iii. p. 194. * Cic. in Pis. x.\iii. § 55.

- Becker, Handbuch, vol. i. p. 145. ^ -j-^^ p^^.^ j g . g^g^ Qct. 100.

" Joseph. Bell. Jud. vii. 5, 4. Aia tux ^faT-pca!/ may ^ For descriptions of triumphs, see Onuph. Pan-
apply to the Circus Maximus. I strongly suspect that vinius, De Trmmpho Rom., Venice, 1600; Vopisc.
Vespasian and Titus slept in the city in the palace Hist. Aug. p. 220 ; Claudian, De Sext. Cons. Hon.
on the Coelian near the Temple of Isis, and that 330 seqq.

they then went out to the Porticus OctaviiE in the ' Orosius, iv. 22 ; Pieller, in Schneidewin's Philo-

morning. 'Ai'a;(c<ip€l would then mean ''returned logus, vol. i. p. 84, note 39.

The Servian Walls.

hill.' The gate was, therefore, probably upon the ordinary road from Veii. In the modern
Via di Marforio stands a tomb inscribed with the name of Bibulus, which must have been
just outside this gate on the old Flaminian road.-

The name of the second gate situated in this part of the wall was the Porta Fontinalis.
Livy describes it as opening upon a portico built by the yEdiles ^milius Lepidus and
L. /Emilius Paullus, in the year B.C. 193, which extended from it to the
altar of Mars in the Campus.^ The small street which now runs from S. ^ T'",.

^ Fontinahs.

Silvestro to the Piazza dei Santi Apostoli probably passes over the ancient
site of this gate. In connexion w ith it there is a gravestone in the Vatican Museum com-
memorating a letter-carrier or commissionaire, whose station was the Porta Fontinalis.''

The wall then followed the edge of the Quirinal from the Palazzo Colonna past the
Palazzo Barberini to the Villa Barberini. The side of the hill is here encumbered with great
masses of brickwork and rubble. Behind these can be seen, at two places, the remains of an
ancient wall, corresponding in style and material to that commonly attributed
to Servius on the edge of the Aventine. The first of these is near the Rotunda, ^""" "f "'"'^

. in lite Villa

in the Villa Massimi, and consists of large blocks of tufa, resting on the Massimi
natural tufa of the hill. The other is in the garden of the Franciscan monks and near s.

r^ • TT 1 ■ • 'T'l Maria delta

of S. Maria della Vittoria, not far south of the Casmo Barbermi. I he vittoria.

wall, as here seen, is also constructed of horizontal blocks of tufa, and

is not placed on the upper edge of the hill, but about half-way down the slope.'

In this part of the wall stood the Porta Sanqualis, near the Temple of Sancus, from
which it derived its name, and not far from the Temple of Ouirinus, the ^^^^^

patron god of the hill.*^ The Via della Dataria has been fixed upon by Sanqualis.
topographers as the probable position of this gate.

The Porta Salutaris was about 500 yards beyond this, and possibly stood on the
Via delle Ouattro Fontane, where it ascends from the Piazza Barberini. The gate was
named from the Temple of Salus, which Junius Bubulcus built here more
than 200 years after the time of Servius." Before the building of this temple sJutarii
there was an Argeian chapel on the spot, dedicated to Salus.** But the
principal gate upon the Quirinal hill was that from which the great road to Nomentum
and the Sabine territory issued. It was called the Porta Collina, or Agonalis,
or Ouirinalis — names which show it to have been the gate considered as ^"^'^ Collma,

or Jtgonaiis, or

peculiarly belonging to the Quirinal hill and the Colline Romans." It was Quirinalis.
probably at the northern end of the Servian agger, which overlooks the upper
part of the depression between the Pincian and Quirinal.'" This was a point often attacked,
as it was the most accessible part of the city walls. The Gauls, on their return from

' Plin. Nat. Hist. viii. 42, 65 ; Plut. Publitola, 13. ^ Reber, Ruinen Roms, p. 509.

Later excavations carried on by Mr. Parker have * Paul. Diac. p. 345, " proxima a-cii Sanci ;" Livy.

been thought to indicate a different course of the viii. 20.

wall here, excluding the site of the Forum of ' Livy, ix. 43 ; Plin. Nat. Hist. xxxv. 4 (7).

Augustus from the city. But the evidence in favour ' Varro, L. L. v. § 52.

of Mr. Parker's views is not sufficient to show that " Paul. Diac. pp. 10, 255 ; Strabo, book v. ch. iii. :

the wall did not run straight across the valley. Livy, ii. 1 1.

' See below, chap. xiii. '" Dionys., ix. 68, plainly shows the position of this

» Livy, xxxv. 10 ; xl. 45. gate. So also Strabo, v. 3. p. 234.

* Orelli, Inscr. No. 5,095.

48 The Servian Walls.

Campania, in B.C. 360, approached the city at this point. Hannibal intended to attack
Rome on this side ; and Sylla, in his famous march on Rome, in B.C. 88, Strabo in 86, and
the Democrats and Samnites in 82, marched to this place, as the weakest in the defences
of Rome.^

From the Collinc Gate the Servian wall, turning suddenly to the south, ran for

about 1 ,400 yards in nearly a straight line along the agger of Servius. This enormous

rampart has been described by Dionysius.- He says that the ditch outside

Agg"'of ^^^ more than lOO feet broad at the narrowest part, and thirty feet

Scrviiis.

deep ; and that upon the edge of the ditch stood a wall, supported by
the agger, of such massive strength that it could not be shaken down by battering-
rams, or breached by undermining the foundations. Dionysius gives the length of the
agger as seven stadia, which, taking the stadium at 202 yards, nearly corresponds to
the length given above.' The breadth he states at fifty feet. That this ditch and
wall were the work of some of the later kings there can be no doubt ; but it cannot
be determined what part each took in their erection. The final completion of the
whole undertaking is ascribed to Tarquinius Superbus, who deepened the ditch, raised
the wall, and added new towers.* The additions made by him can be distinguished
in the portion brought to light by the modern excavations in the railway cutting.
In the grounds of the Villa Negroni, through which this rampart passes, it rises
at one point into a small hill, upon which is a statue of Rome, which stands
about thirty-two feet above the general level of the agger, and is the highest point
within the walls of Rome on the eastern bank of the Tiber. Excavations which
have been made in this part of the agger, from time to time, have brought to light
an enormous wall, now buried in the earth, constructed of huge blocks of peperino.^
This is probably the wall mentioned by Dionysius, which in his time stood outside the
ramparts, on the edge of the ditch. The remains of buildings of the Imperial times have
been found placed upon and outside of this wall ; and it is probable that the whole ditch is
now filled with such remains, and the wall buried in them. The Central Railway Station
stands close to the agger, and a cutting has lately been made through a part of it to make
room for the station, by which new portions of the internal wall have been disinterred.
All these excavations have proved the truth of Dionysius's description, the wall having
been found on the outer side of the original agger, which is easily distinguishable from the
rubbish in which it is buried by being composed of clean soil, unmixed with potsherds and
brickbats. It is possibly this agger to which Horace alludes when, speaking of the Gardens
of Maecenas on the Esquiline, he says —

" Nunc licet Esquiliis habitare salubribus, atqiie
Aggcre in aprico spatiari.'"'

■ Livy, vii. II, xxvi. loi ; Juvenal, vi. 290, "Collina p. 144.

stantes in turre mariti ; " Mommsen, Hist. Rom. vol. '' Brocchi, Suolo di Roma, p. 144; Aniiali dcW

iii. pp. 264, 31S, 340. Iitstitiito Arch., vol. .\x\iv. p. 126; Fea. Miscell. torn.

' Dionys. ix. 68 ; Cic. De Rep. ii. 6. i. p. 248, n. 98 ; Venuti, Antichita di Roma, part i.

' Strabo gives the length as six stadia. ch. v. p. 1 29.

Livy, i. 44 ; Aur. \'ict., Vir. 111. 6 ; Plin. Nat. Hist. " Hor. .Sat. 1,8, 14. See Note A at the end of this

HI.

5, 9 ; Dionys. iv. 54 ; Brocchi, Suolo di Roma, chapter.

The Servian Walls.

49
excavations

Porta
I 'imiiKilis.

Porta
Quaijticttilatia.

Porta
Calimontajia.

Porta Capci

In the middle of the agger was the Porta Viminalis,' which tlic Lite
have fixed at a point about 270 paces south of the statue of Rome,
on the Monte di Giustitia ; and at the southern end the Porta Esquilina,'-
from which the Via Labicana and the Via Prjenestina ran, near the Arch of
GaUienus.

The wall probably ran from the southern end of the agger, along the back
of the Esquiline and Coelian, in the direction of the modern Via Merulana and
Via Ferratella. In this portion must be placed the Porta Ouerquetulana^ and
the Porta Ccelimontana ;^ but their exact situation is unknown.

The situation of no gate in the Servian walls can be determined so completely as that
of the Porta Capena. We know that part of the Acqua Marcia passed over it, whence it
was called the Dripping Gate (Madida Capena) by Martial and Juvenal.^ It
was, therefore, in the valley below the Ccelian hill; and we should, judging
from the form of the ground, naturally place it where the hill on which S. Ealbina stands
approaches the Coelian most nearly. A striking confirmation of this conjecture has been
discovered. The first milestone on the Appian road was found, in 15S4, in the first
vineyard beyond the present Porta S. Sebastiano, the Vigna Naro ; and measuring back
one mile from it, we come exactly to this spot. Milestones and horse-blocks were erected
on all the great roads by Caius Gracchus, before the viilliariiiui aitrcitni was put up in the
Forum by Augustus ; and it is probable that the distances were always measured from
the gates."

Near the Porta Capena stood the Temples of Honour and Virtue, dedicated by Mar-
cellus, after the capture of Syracuse," and the Temple of Mars, from which the procession of
knights started, on the Ides of Ouintilis, to go to the Capitol, in commemoration of the aid
given by the Dioscuri at the battle of the Lake Regillus.* A sort of cloister is men-
tioned by Ovid as extending outside this gate to the Temple of Mars, which may possibly
be the Tecta Via alluded to by Martial in two of his epigrams." The Manalis Lapis,
or Rainstone, was kept near this Temple of Mars, and was brought into the city in
seasons of drought.*" An order was issued by the Council, in the year 215 B.C.,
that the Senate should meet at the Porta Capena, apparently with the view of bein"-
in more immediate communication with the army, then in the south, during the Second
Punic War; and the custom of meeting there was continued for a whole year after the
battle of Cannx." ,

1 Strabo, v. 3, 7, p. 234 ; Paul. Diac. pp. 163, 376 ;
Frontin. DeAquad. 19; Annali dell' Inst. vol. x.xxiv.
p. 132.

- Strabo, V. 3, 9, p. 237 ; Dionys. ix. 68 ; Livy, ii. 11.

' Plin. Nat. Hist. xvi. 10, 15 ; Fcstus, p. 261 ;
Varro, L. L. v. § 49. Tac. Ann. iv. 65, identifies the
Coelian with the Querqiictulan Mount.

■* Livy, ii. 11.

^ Frontin. Dc Aq. 19; Mart. iii. 47; Juv. iii. 11.
The "vetcrcs arcus " of Juvenal may perhaps refer to
the old Marcian aqueduct which had been replaced
by the Claudian in Nero's time.

' Plut. C. Gracch. 7. This milestone is now in the

Piazza del Campidoglio, at the top of the steps lead-
ing up from the Piazza d'Ara Cceli on the right hand.
.See below, chap. vi.

' Livy, XXV. 40, xxvii. 25 ; Plut. Marc. 28 ; Val.
Max. i. I, 8 ; Cic. De Nat. Deor. ii. 23 ; Monimsen,
vol. ii. p. 122.

* Livy, ix. 46 ; Val. Max. ii. 2, 9 ; Macaulay's Lays,
ii. ; Propert. v. 3, 71.

" Ov. Fast. vi. 191 ; Mart. iii. 5, viii. 75.

" Paul. Diac. pp. 2, 128; Becker, llandbucli,
vol. i. note 1086.

" Livy, .xxiii. 32 ; Fcstus, p. 347.

CQ The Servian Walls.

*Almost immediately outside the Porta Capena were the tombs of Horatia, of Septimius
Severus, of the Scipios, and Ennius, still extant, and of others mentioned by Cicero.i

From the Porta Capena to the Aventine the course of the wall was doubtful before the

discovery of the fragments of the Servian wall above alluded to ; but there can be little

Porta Ncn>ia: doubt now that the wall passed round the height on which the churches of

Porta S. Saba and S. Balbina stand.^ Varro, apparently enumerating from the

Kauduscnla : ^ygj^^jng, mentions three gates in this portion of the wall— the Nsevia, the

LavcrLlh. Rauduscuia, and the Lavernalis ; but their sites are unknown.^ If it be true

that the remains of a gate were dug up in the Vigna dei Gesuiti, which lies on the slope of

SERVIAN WALL ON THE AVENTINE.

the Aventine opposite to S. Saba, and then demolished, they must in all probability have
belonged to the Naevia.

There must have been another gate on the Aventine, and therefore the Porta Minucia
mentioned by Festus has been placed by some topographers at the south-

Piirt<i Minucia.

western ansrle of the hill.''

' Livy, i. 26 ; Spart. Geta, 7 ; Livy, x.\.\viii. 56 ;
Hicron. ed. Rone. p. 379 ; Cic. Tusc. i. 7.

■-■ Traces of a part of the wall are found under the
church of S. Balbina. Cells' Topography of Rome,
p. 493, Appendix. See Bullt-tino d:ir Institulo. 1852.
P- f^3-

'■' Varro, L. L. v. § 163. Compare Hieron. Chron.
01. 134, t. i. p. 369, ed. Rone, from which it is seen
that Varro begins the enumeration from the Aventine :
Festus, pp. 117, 274; Livy, ii. 11.

■• Paul. Diac. pp. 122, 147.

The Servian Walls. cj

The last gate of which the site can be determined is tiic Porta Trigemina, which lay
between the north-western comer of the Aventine and the river. Its situation is fixed in the
following way : — Frontinus mentions that the Appian aqueduct began to have
its water distributed into small pipes "near the salt-stores, which arc close ^"'"'^

to the Porta Trigemina ;" and he also calls the same place " the bottom of the '"'

Publician Hill, near the Porta Trigemina."^ Now Solinus identifies the salt-stores with the
cave of Cacus, on the Aventine, and, as the Appian water came from the Porta Capena,
we cannot suppose that it was carried far round the corner of the hill before beino- dis-
tributed, and the site of the gate is therefore to be fixed at the north-eastern angle of the
hill. A part of the ancient wall has been (1856) discovered under the walls of the Convent
of S. Sabina. This fragment shows that the wall ran along the upper edge of the hill, and
not below, as Nardini supposed. -

In connexion with this part of the topography of Rome, it may be mentioned that the
Porta Navalis,^ which will be found in most maps of the Servian walls at the south-eastern
angle of the Aventine, has been shown by Becker not to have been there.

H. . r <i ^-I ^^ 1- . 1 , . , Porta A'avalis.

IS argument is as touows : — ihe iNavalia were not near the Aventine, but

opposite the Prata Quinctia, in the upper bend of the Tiber.^ Cato the younger, on his

return from Cyprus, refused to land at his first approach to the city by water, but rowed

past the magistrates who had come out to welcome him at the Aventine, and landed at the

Navalia, higher up."* Livy also mentions that the ships of Perseus were laid up at the

Campus Martius, probably near the Arsenal. The Porta Navalis was, therefore, most

likely not a gate in the Servian wall, but belonged to the later enclosures of Rome. A

considerable number of so-called gates are either merely arches within the walls or

mistaken readings in the manuscripts ; as the Porta Stercoraria,*^ the Porta Libitinensis,^

the Porta Fenestella,* the Porta Fcrentina," the Piacularis,^" the Catularia," the ]\Ietia,i''

and the Collatina.*^

To what extent the western bank of the Tiber was fortified, in the time of the kino-s and

the Republic, is very uncertain. Ancus Martius is said by Livy to have first fortified the

Janiculum with a wall, and united it with the city by the bridge of piles '*

( Pons Sublicius). But it appears from the account in Livy of the constant Fortijkaiions of

occupations of the Janiculum by the Etruscans, in the war with the Veii, in ^"theTib-r

475 B.C., that there were then no walls connecting the bridge with the fort.^^

A passage of Appian, in which he relates how Marius was admitted within the gate of the

Janiculum by Appius Claudius, seems to show that Appian at least thought the Janiculum

' Front. De Aquaed. 5 ; Li\'y, iv. 16 ; x.x.w. 10 ; ■> See Liv)-, iii. 26 ; Pliny, xviii. 4.

Plaut. Capt. 1. I, 22 ; Plin. Nat. Hist, xviii. 3, 4. It ^ Plut. Cato min. 39. « Festus, p. 344.

has been supposed that the channels of this water " Lamprid. Commod. 16.

have been discovered under S. Sabina. See Ann. " Ov. Fast. vi. 572. " Plut. Rom. 24.

deW Inst. xxix. p. 72. '» Festus, p. 213. >' Ibid., p. 45.

2 Sohnus, i. 8. Later excavations have proved that '- Plaut. Cas. ii. 6, 2 ; Pseud, i. 3, 97, where

the Porta Trigemina was at the Salaria, and that the Ritschl reads " ml etiam '' for •' .Metiam." Sec Note 15

Pons Sublicius was close to it. Mommsen, Rom. at the end of the chapter.

Hist. vol. iii. p. 129; Ann. deW Inst. vol. .xxix. '^ Festus, p. 37.

p. 64. '* Livy, i. 33 ; Dionys. iii. 45 ; Procop. B. G. i. 19.

^ Paul. Diac. p. 179; "Navalis porta a vicinia ■'■> Niebuhr, vol. i. p. 397, English translation ; Livy,

navalium dicta.' ii. 51, 52.

H 2

2 2 The Scfviaii Walls.

liad walls.^ But we are totally without evidence as to their extent, or when they were first
built ; and Appian probably transferred the notions of a late time to the time of Marius ;
for we find Sylla, in his march on Rome, in B.C. ^Z, occupying the bridge over the Tiber
without, apparently, having to pass any walls.- Till the time of Augustus, the Janiculum
was considered a part of Italy, and not a part of the city of Rome. Cicero expressly says
that there was no reason why, in his time, a colony should not be planted there, just as in
any other spot in Italy.^

Augustus made it one of his fourteen regions, under the name of the Regio Trans-
tiberina; but, even after his time, the jurists seem to have maintained a difference between
Roma and Urbs. Urbs, the circle of the city, did not include the Janiculum ; while Roma,
equivalent possibly to the Ager Romanus, did include if*

' App. B. C. i. 6S. -^ Cic. Ue Leg. Agr. v. i6.

- Momnisen, vol. iii. p. 265. ■• Marcell. Dig. L. 16, 87.

Note A, p. 48. — The Servian Wall on the Agger, excavated during the Railway Works.
From the " Annali dell' Instituto," vol. .xxxiv. p. 133.

The wall is composed of cut stones of peperino (lapis albanui) from one to three metres in
length, about one metre (39 '371 inches) in breadth, and 75 of a metre in depth. Three rows of such
stones constitute the whole thickness of the wall, and are placed one upon the other without mortar
or cement, or any sort of arrangement as to size, each stone having been placed as it came to hand.
But although they are cut without much care, and the interstices between them are sometimes large,
yet there is a certain appearance of skill in the work, and the stones of the central row are sometimes
let into the outer row to ensure strength. The stability of the wall is chiefly secured by an unwieldy
thickness characteristic of so remote an age, and by the huge size of the stones, rather than the
accuracy of the workmanship.

Note B, p. 51. — The Porta Metia.

Fabricius, in Grxv. Thes. iii. p. 471, and Onuph. Panvinius, icL p. 31O, first imagined the existence
of a Porta Metia from three passages of Plautus : Casina, ii. 6 ; Pseud, i. 3, 96 ; Mil. Glor. ii. 4, 6.
They identified it with the Porta Esquilina, as the well-known place of execution and burial of paupers
and criminals.

Cleostrata, how^ever, the person mentioned in the Casina, was not a ])auper or a criminal, nor
does there seem to be any reason for mentioning a particular gate of the city in the passages of the
Casina and Pseudulus. No name is given in the IMiles Gloriosus.

Ritschl, Opusc. li. p. 382, observes that the word is Metia in the Casina, and Metia in the
Pseudulus ; that all the MSS. read " mi etiam " in the passage of the Pseudulus, and vary in the
passage of the Casina between " victuam," " nictuam," " nituam," and " metuam." He therefore
wishes to read "mi etiam" and "mortuam." in the Pseudulus and Casina, and in the Miles
Gloriosus " esse pereunduin " for " esse eunduni actutum," and he concludes : " Ter igitur Plautus
' extra portam ' dixit simpliciter quemadniodum nos quoque < w'jt Tlior, vor'm Thor etiam cum de
certa urbis porta cogitamus. Potest ille ipsam Esquilinam significasse, certum est omnino extra urbem
solita esse supplicia fieri, cadavera comburi, humari, maleficorum etiam projici tantum, item communi
veterum more extra urbem carnifices habitasse."

CHAPTER V.
THE WALLS OF A URELIAN AND HONORIUS.

LON"C INTERVAL DURING WHICH NO NEW FORTIFICATIONS WERE MADE AT ROME — EXTENT OF ROME — REASONS

FOR NEGLECT OF W.VLLS — THE AITRELIAN WALLS BUILT FOR FE.\R OF THE BARBARIANS OF THE NORTH

REBUILT BY HONORIUS — GATES IN THE AURELIAN WALLS — THE COURSE OF THE AURELIAN WALLS — PORTA
AURELIA NOVA — PORTA FLAMINIA — MURO TORTO — PORTA PINCIANA — PORTA SALARIA— PORTA NOMENTANA —
CASTRA PR-^TORIANA — PORTA CHIUSA — PORTA TIBURTINA CORRESPONDS TO PORTA S. LORENZO — PORTA
P1L«NESTINA TO PORTA MAGGIORE — VIVARIUM — AMPHITHEATRUM CASTRENSE — PORTA ASINARIA— PORTA
METROVIA — PORTA LATINA — PORTA APFIA — PORTA OSTIENSIS — COURSE OF AURELIAN WALLS IN THE
TRASTEVERE — PORTA PORTUENSIS — PORTA AURELIA VETUS — PORTA SEPTIMIANA — NOTE ON THE PORTA VIMI-
NALIS AND VIA TIBURTINA.

" Addebant pulchrum nova moeoia vultum,
Audito perfecta recens rumore Getarum." '.

Claudian, /'/. Cons. Honor. 531.

IT seems almost incredible that Rome should have contented herself with the Servian
walls for nearly eight centuries, from 507 B.C. till the time of Aurelian, a.d. 270.
Yet such is apparently the fact. We find in Livy a few notices of repairs having
taken place in the walls, but no account of any fresh enclosure.^ The extension of the
pomcerium by Sylla' had no connexion whatever with the walls, as the pomoerium was
simply a religious boundary, which since the earliest times had not been
necessarilv co-extensive with the walls.^ In the attack and storming of Long munal

, • 1' 1 r T - ■ ^ 1 .- • 11 • ■without nciv

the city by the troops of \ espasian in A.D. 09 the Servian walls are evi- fortifications.
dently still in existence.^ Dionysius, who could not have been mistaken,
having lived for many years at Rome in the time of Augustus, plainly states that
up to his time Serv'ius TuUius was the last person who increased the circuit of the
walls, and that the fortifications were, on account of religious scruples, never extended
beyond these limits. " All the ground built upon and inhabited," he goes on to sa}-,
" round the city, which is of immense extent, is without walls and undefended, and
could easily, if an enemy approached, be taken. Should any one tr>' to estimate the
size of Rome, including these suburbs, he will find himself at a loss where to draw the
line between what belongs to the city and what to the country. But, if it is measured
by the old wall, which is rather difficult to trace, because it is so much covered with

' Livy, vi. 32, after the Gallic conquest of Rome, ' Gell. .\iii. 14.

B-C. 375 ; vii. 20, repairs were made 350 l!.c. : x.w. ' Vopisc. Aur. p. 216 C. chap. xxi.

7, again repaired B.C. 212. '' Tac. Hist. iii. 82.

54 The Walls of Aiirclian and Honoriiis.

buildings, but can still be traced in many places, the circumference of Rome will be
found to be not much larger than that of Athens."^

In the time of Vespasian, Pliny the elder gives some measurements of the extent of
Rome, which, however difficult they may be to interpret, can hardly be
"" ''" '^ """'■ understood to imply the existence of any new wall since the Servian." He
says : " The buildings of Rome in the reign of Vespasian and Titus, in the eight
hundred and twenty-seventh year from the foundation of the city, are nearly twelve
miles in circumference. The city embraces seven hills, and is divided into fourteen
regions and two hundred and sixty-five parishes {conipita Lariuti). The distances from
the milestone which stands at the top of the Forum to each of the thirty-seven gates,
countiniT ' the twelve gates ' as one, and leaving out seven of the old ones, which are
disused, when added together in a straight line, amount to 2gf miles. But the distance
from the same milestone to the extreme limit of the houses, passing through all the
streets which lead to roads, is a little more than 66^ miles."

The walls of the modern city are between twelve and thirteen miles in circumfer-
ence so that the regions of Augustus, the circumference of which is probably that given
by Pliny's first measurement, occupied pretty nearly the same extent of ground as that
afterwards enclosed by the Aurelian walls, which correspond to those of the modern
city. It must be remembered that nearly one-half of the space enclosed by the walls
is now uninhabited.^

The second measurement given by Pliny plainly extends to the gates of the Servian
wall only, which had been largely multiplied, and is intended to be contrasted with the
third, and to give the size of the old city within the walls as compared with the whole
extent of the buildings of Rome in Vespasian's time. It appears also from Pliny's
statement that the walls of Servius had been pierced, as we should naturally expect,
with a great number of gates in order to give free access to the outer city.

Becker considers that Strabo's remark,* in describing the policy of the Romans, to the
effect that they defended their walls by their men, and not their men by their walls, is some-
what beside the truth, for it was not till after the Punic Wars that the walls
Reasons for ^j- j^q,.,-,^ ^^g^e neglected. But Strabo's words may be interpreted to mean
iiegcc ofwa s. ^^^^ fj^Qj^e, even before the Punic Wars, depended not on the strength of
her walls, but upon the firm and compact confederation of allies who surrounded her.

' Dionys. iv. 13. This passage of Dionysius seems impossible. See a note in Friedlander's Sitten-

to me completely to negative Mr. J. H. Parker's sup- geschichte Roms, p. 10. J. H. Parker {A}-cha:ol.

position that there was an agger or outer line of de- Journal, xxiv. p. 345) thinks that the walls of Aure-

fence previously existing on the line of the Aurelian lian and Honorius were carried along the top of an

walls. See Archaol. Journal, xxiv. p. 346. agger, which was originally the outer agger of the

- Plin. Nat. Hist. iii. 5, 9. I understand niwnia to Servian enclosure (?) and that this agger was used

denote the buildings of the city as distinguished from as a fortification in the time of the Republic (?).

inuri, walls. So in Plin. Nat. Hist. vi. 26, 30, the muri But see note '.

of Babylon are distinguished from the OTa?;«ay and so ^ Preller, Regionen, s. 76, remarks that the line of

mVirg.^n.vi. 549:" Moenia lata videttriplicicircum- the Aurelian walls did not exactly correspond with

data muro." Pliny's "duodecim porta:" may have the boundaries of the fourteen regions of Augustus,

been a gateway with twelve arches, possibly belong- On the side of the Porta Appia the first region

inCT to some aqueduct. Gibbon (ch. ii.) wrongly sup- extended beyond the gate, and on the opposite

poses that the wall uf Servius was meant by Pliny in side at the Porta Flaminia the regions did not extend

speaking of the " Mccnia Romas." He thinks that so far as the wall of Aurelian.
the waif included pasture-land. But this is plainly ■* Strabo, v. 3, p. 234.

TItc ] Vails of Aurclian and Honorhis. cr

Carthage was indebted to the strength of her walls for safety on several occasions, but
Rome made her position against foreign attacks so secure by a policy of moderation
and graduated concession of privileges, securing the allegiance of the less privileged by
means of those who had superior rights, that she was, as it were, surrounded by an
impassable barrier of subject allies. The social war was only caused by the "radual
loss of position which the Latins suffered in course of time, and the feeling that thev
had b}' degrees been reduced to the level of subjects. But during the great shocks
which Rome endured, her confederacy stood firm, and broke the violence of the
invaders. The dashing attacks of Pyrrhus were repulsed by it ; and though Hannibal
carried the southern outworks of their defences by main force, yet he looked in vain
for the loosening and breaking up of the compact structure of the central allies — the
Latins, Sabines, and Etruscans. Even Cannje could not shake their allegiance.^ Each
small country town closed its gates against the conqueror, and their united opposition
broke the force of the blow he would have inflicted on Rome had she stood alone.

It is true that in the time of the civil wars, after the death of Drusus, the walls
of Rome were nominally put in a state of defence against the Southern Italian insur-
rection, but still no reliance was placed upon them. After the battle of Tolenus,
B.C. 90, the Romans seem to have despaired of holding the city, and actually made
great concessions to the Italians.- And again, when the Samnites and Democrats
attacked Rome in B.C. 82, the walls would have afforded but little protection had not
Sylla brought speedy relief to the city. Sylla himself, in his celebrated march on
Rome in B.C. 88, seems not to have anticipated any defence of the actual walls as
possible. They were then probably half in ruins ; at all events, he entered without
difficulty.^ Considerable fear was entertained at Rome lest Spartacus, in B.C. 70, should
make a sudden swoop upon Rome. No fear need have been entertained had Rome
been fortified at the time.*

Previous to the Punic Wars, no extension of the Servian walls was necessary. All
the surplus population of Rome was draughted off into her colonies, nor is there any reason
to suppose that her population was too large to be contained on an emergency within
the old walls. During the gradual subjection of Latium, Campania, Etruria, Samnium,
and the South, military colonies, each containing from two to four thousand men,
were constantly being planted in the conquered territory. In one case, that of Vcnusia,
the number of colonists was said to have been twenty thousand ; and, although this
must be an exaggeration, it shows at least that the Roman colonization was on a large
scale."

Besides this drain upon the population of Rome, the supplies of men required for
the constant wars in which Rome was engaged must have been very considerable until
the final overthrow of Carthage. The fearful losses of life are indicated by a decrease
of 17,000 in the burgess roll of the city between 281 and 275 B.C.;" and in 211 B.C.
Rome had twenty-three legions in the field engaged in constant fighting. Three

' Sec Mommscn, Rom. Hist. vol. ii. p. 335 ; vol. iii. * Merivale, Hist, of Romans, vol. i. ch. i. p. 46.

pp. 236, 239, 243, 246, 340. ' Mommscn, Rom. Hist. vol. i. p. 392 ; vol. ii.

° Orosius, V. 18; Ov. Fast. vi. 565. 352.
" Mommscn, Rom. Hist. vol. iii. p. 264. ° Ibid., vol. i. pp. 418, 436 ; vol. ii p. 52.

56 The Walls of Anrclian and Honoring.

hundred thousand Itahans are said to have been killed in the Second Punic W^ii' ; and,
though the Third Punic War was probably not so destructive, yet an enormous number
of Roman citizens must have been lost in it.^

Settlement at Rome was discouraged for the express purpose of extending the
P^mpire, and, even so late as B.C. 126, all non-burgesses were dismissed from the capital.^
Centralization was not an}- part of the Roman policy during the Republican govern-
ment. The public money at a time when the Roman state was most wealthy — viz.
from 180 to 122 B.C. — was chiefly employed, not in buildings at Rome, but on distant
works, such as military roads, aqueducts, and drainage. After 122 B.C. these works were
stopped, partly in consequence of the saving policy of the oligarchy, and partly because
the exchequer was drained by largesses to the mob.^ It may be added that great
public works are generally undertaken by a despotic government, which can concentrate
the whole force of the nation upon one point, and provide the necessary supplies of men
and money with certainty. The annual magistracies of the Roman Republican constitution
did not afford those who held office time enough to originate or to carry out great and
comprehensive schemes, except in very few instances ; and that jealous animosity with
which the proposer of any great public measure was regarded at Rome proved sufficient
to deter the ablest men from attempting improvements on a large scale, and drove
them to throw their whole energy into the foreign wars of the state, where a better
prospect of gaining both wealth and renown was open to them. At the time of Sylla's
re-organization of the state, all Italy south of the Rubicon and Arno was considered
as a home province, inhabited by Roman citizens, and subject to the ordinary autho-
rities at Rome, and no military force was ever stationed in it. The passage of the
Rubicon by Cajsar was a declaration of war, because it infringed this rule, which had
become a fundamental maxim of Roman state law.*

Subsequently, when the Empire was firmly established, all fear of an invasion of
Italy by a foreign enemy was at an end, and the energies of the Emperors were rather
devoted to the erection of buildings for the amusement and entertainment of the people
than for defence.

The writers from whom we obtain the scanty information which can be gleaned with
respect to the walls which Aurelian built round the city of Rome, are full of strange
exaggerations and legends.^ Their histories are the most meagre compendia of events,
spiced with strange and incredible statements, intended to make them interesting to
readers who wished for excitement regardless of truth. Vopiscus, in his biography of
Aurelian, states that the walls of Rome were so enlarged by Aurelian as to

have a circumference of nearly fifty thousand paces.'' It has been charitably

The Aurelian

suggested by Piale, in order to save Vopiscus's character for truth, that he
meant fifty thousand feet instead of fifty thousand double paces of five feet. But we may

as well set down the statement at once as a mere exaggeration into which Vopiscus was

1 Mommsen, Rom. Hist. vol. ii. pp. 172, 392, 192. Rone; Cassiod. Chron. t. ii. p. 214, ed. Rone.

- Ibid., vol. ii. p. 333 ; vol. iii. p. 106. '' Vopiscus, Aur. 39; Hist. Aug. p. 222. A passus,

^ Ibid., vol. iii p. 406. or double step, was reckoned from the place at which

* Ibid., vol. iii. pp. 367, 375. cither one of the feet left the ground to the place at

= Aur. Vict. Cces. 35, 7 ; Eutrop. i.\. 15 Zosimus, which it again reached the ground in walking. It

i. 37, 49 ; Orosius, vii. 23 ; Hieron. t. i. p. 481, cd. was = 5 Roman feet.

The Walls of Ajii-clian and Honorijis. c-,

led by his wish to exalt the hero of his tale. The impossibility of such an extent of the
walls is plain, for it is inconceivable that they or the parts of the town they enclosed
should so completely have disappeared, or that some further notice of so enormous a work
should not have been preserved than the few casual notices we have left to us. Besides
this, the Praetorian camp plainly formed a part of the Aurelian walls, for when Constantine
abolished the Praetorian guards and destroyed their quarters, he would certainly have pulled
down the three sides still remaining had they not formed a part of the city walls. The
Aurelian walls did not therefore reach beyond the Praetorian camp on the north-eastern
side of Rome. " The regions of Augustus corresponded, with a few exceptions which
can be explained by the nature of the ground, to the present circuit of the walls, which
we find also to be built on old foundations, and to contain considerable remains of
older walls. An extent of fifty miles if given to the walls would far outstep these limits,
which separated between town and country folk, and stretch to a great distance into
the Campagna." ^

Another apparent exaggeration is to be found in Olympiodorus, who says that the
walls of Rome, as measured by Amnion the Geometer at the time of the first attack
of the Goths, A.D. 408, contained a circuit of twenty-one miles.- This has been satis-
factorily explained by Becker as a confusion between the Roman double pace of five feet
and the ordinary single pace of two feet and a half For if we halve the distance it
nearly corresponds to the actual circumference of the walls.

Aurelian, says Vopiscus,^ feared lest what had happened in the time of Gallienus, when
the Alemanni appeared in the neighbourhood of Rome and threatened the city, might
happen again. For the first time since the Second Punic War a foreign foe
had been seen near Rome. For four hundred and fifty years the soil of J", ■''^■'""'''j
Italy had remained inviolate. But all the North of Europe was now in the North.
commotion ; the tribes were breaking up and forming new combinations,
and a wide-spread tempest was at hand. The Emperor Aurelian, who had passed
his boyhood and youth in the North of Italy, and in the Roman camps, and had filled
every post, from the centurionship to that of commander-in-chief of the cavalry, well
knew that the swift and impulsive movements of the barbarian hordes might bear
them in an instant from the frontier to the defenceless palaces of Rome. He also
foresaw that the need of employing the restless legions in distant wars, no less than his
own adventurous and militarv^ character, would constantly keep him, with the flower of
the army, at a distance from Italy, and would leave Rome at the mercy of the warlike
Germans. He therefore commenced the indispensable but melancholy task of providing
against such a disaster. His own short reign of five years was not sufficient to complete
the fortifications contemplated, and they were finished by his successor Probus.^ The
danger apprehended from the Northern nations was, however, deferred for a time by the
warlike character of the ne.xt succeeding Emperors, and the walls of Rome fell again
into decay.

' Bunsen, Beschreibung, vol. i. p. 647. for "miliaria xxii."

- Olymp. in Phot. Bibl. 80, p. 63, Bckk. In the ^ Vopiscus, Aur. 2! ; Hist. .Aug. p. 216, c. ;

passage of Martin. Polonus, Introd. p. 74, quoted by Gibbon, chap. x.

Nibby, p. 280, the Leipsic MSS. read " miliaria xii." ■* Zosimus, i. 49.

58 The JValls of Aiu'clian and Honorins.

When Honorius, 125 years afterwards, undertook to rebuild them in dread of an
invasion by the Goths, he found them in ruins. An inscription now extant over the

Porta S. Lorenzo records this restoration, and similar inscriptions remained
c m t >y j.j^^ Porta Mag2:iore and the Porta S. Paolo, till they were removed by

Urban VI 11.^ None of the gates of Aurelian are now left, as the style of
architecture plainly shows, and the above-mentioned inscriptions do not at all prove that
the gates upon which they stood were the identical gates erected by Honorius, for the
inscriptions may have been transferred from older gates. A hundred years after Hono-
rius's time, Totila destroyed a considerable portion of his walls, but it is generally
supposed by topographers that Belisarius, who renewed them, built them on the same
foundations, and that the modern wall corresponds nearly to the line of Aurelian's
fortifications.^ Pope Leo IV. first enclosed St. Peter's and the Vatican with a line of
fortifications, and -also restored a considerable part of the walls on the eastern bank.'^
Even including this part of the city, which is called the Borgo or Citta Leonina, the
area enclosed by the Aurelian walls is only two-fifths of the area of Paris, and would, at
a moderate computation, only hold about 550,000 inhabitants.''

The gates in the Aurelian walls are enumerated by an anon}-mous writer, whose
manuscript has been preserved in the Library of the Convent of Einsiedlen in Schwyz,
and also by Procopius." The former of these is supposed to have visited Rome in the

ninth century, and Procopius wrote about 540 A.D. Both of them agree
(^atcsmiie ^^j^^j. ^j.^^ number of gates was fourteen, besides some postern gates.'' The

Aurehan walls. ^ _ _ i o

anonymous writer gives with great precision the number of towers, battle-
ments, loopholes, and postern gates between each of the principal gates, so that we can
calculate approximately the distance between the gates. His list of gates is as follows: —
P. S. Petri, P. Flaminia, P. Pinciana, P. Salaria, P. Numentana, P. Tiburtina, P. Pra;nestina,
P. Asinaria, P. Metrovia, P. Latina, P. Appia, P. Ostiensis, P. Portensis, P. Aurelia. The
last two are the only gates on the western bank of the Tiber.

The course of the Aurelian walls differed from that of the Servian principally in

taking a wider range round the whole city, including, as has been seen, the outer line of

the Augustan regions. Instead of following the edges of the hills as the

The course oj Servian did, it disregarded the help afforded by the nature of the ground

the Aurehan ' & r ^ &

walls compared and crossed the level ground at the back of the Esquiline and on the south
with the present yjjg ^f ^^ ^^j^y^ where its course was plainly determined by the artificial

7ualls.

limit imposed by the extent of the houses. On the eastern bank of the
Tiber it followed as nearly as possible the line of the present walls along the slope of the
Pincian at the back of the Servian agger and Esquiline, and also at the back of the
CcElian and Aventine. But upon the western bank the line of the Aurelian wall was
totally different from that of the present enclosure, and embraced a much smaller space.'
It seems also that the Romans of Aurelius's time did not consider the Tiber a sufficient

' " Egestis immensis rudcribus," arc the words of and Ouartirly Review, 1856, p. 445, ff.

the inscription on the Porta S. Lorenzo. '' The enumeration of the Anon. Eins. is given in

- Procop. Bell. Goth. iii. 22, 24. Becker, Handbuch, vol. i. p. 192.

^ Nibby, Mura di Roma, p. 254. •' Procop. Bell. Goth. i. 19.

■* See Friedlander, Sittengesch. Roms, vol. i. p. 24, ' See the Map of the Aurelian walls.

The J] 'alls of Aui-elian and Honoi'ius. eg

tlofence in itself, for they continued their fortifications along its bank, from the points where
the wall touched the river on the eastern bank to the points where the Transtiberine wall
reached the opposite bank.^ These portions of the Aurclian walls have almost dis-
appeared at the present day. The Transtiberine wall of Aurclian began from the Pons
Janiculensis, now the Ponte S. Sisto,' and passed nearly parallel to the Via di Ponte
S. Sisto and the Via delle Fornaci to the Porta S. Pancrazio, which was then called the
Porta Aurelia. After passing this gate it turned at an angle less than a right angle and
descended the hill again, crossing the modern wall nearly at right angles. It then bent
itself to the south-cast, and reached the bank of the Tiber at a spot about five hundred
yards outside the present Porta Portese.

In describing the course of the Aurelian wall, I shall follow the same direction as in the
case of the Servian walls, proceeding from the northern point, at which it reached the river,
round to the southern. In that section of the wall which lay along the eastern bank of the
river from the Pons Janiculensis to the Porta Flaniinia, there was a gate near
the mausoleum of Hadrian, called by the anonymous writer of Einsiedlen "' " "'^""
the Gate of St. Peter.* Procopius gives it also the name of the Porta Aurelia,
probably because the new Aurelian road passed out through it. The old Aurelian road
passed out through the Porta S. Pancrazio, which ^\'as also sometimes called the Porta
Aurelia. In the time of Belisarius, and during the Gothic wars, the mausoleum of Hadrian
had already been turned into a fortress for the protection of the neighbouring gate. Two
parallel walls united it v.ith the fortifications of the city, but the gate itself is strangely
enough spoken of as if it stood upon the eastern bank of the river, so that we must sup-
pose that there was another gate on the western bank to afford an e.xit from the walls.
This gate on the western bank was probably also considered a part of the Porta Aurelia,
and the two gates being so close together are reckoned as one. Therefore, when Procopius
speaks of the mausoleum and the Aurclian gate having been attacked, he is speaking of
the outer part of the Aurelian gate alone.''

The old Flaminian gate wasa little nearer the slope of the Pincian than the present Porta
del Popolo ; for Procopius speaks of it as placed in a steep place, and not easily approached
or attacked.^ The present gate was built by Pius IV., in 1561, and named

r ^ ~, . . , , r, • ■ 1 Porta FSaminia.

from the Church of S. Maria del Popolo, close by; but the position must have

been altered long before, as we find the gate so near the river as to have been injured by

the inundations of the Tiber, in the times of Gregory II. and Hadrian I. (715 — /ga).*

Beyond this gate, on the edge of the Pincian Hill, there is a very ancient piece of wall,
faced with a casing of opus rctiodatum? This is supposed to have formed a part of the

' Procop. Bell. Goth. i. 19, 22 ; ii. 9. " Anastas. Vit. Greg. pp. 165, 271. Blanch.

- The expressions of Procopius, i. 19, ^wa-nTdv to '' " Opus reticulatum '' is made of small diamond-
Tfixof T/; yfcfiipa, and rj itpos tm iiepifiiiKa yf(f>if>a are shaped blocks of tufa set in the surface of a mass of
ver>' strongly in favour of the hypothesis tliat the concrete. These blocks were driven into the con-
bridge and wall met. Crete before the lime had dried and set. The Muro

■' Called also Cornelia, Blan. Anast. ii. p. 141 : and Torto is sometimes spoken of as having been a part

Colliana (plainly a confusion), Montfaucon, Diar. of the house of Sylla, but I do not know upon what

I tal. p. 283. authority. A more probable conjecture is that it was

•* Procop. i. 22, p. ig6 ; Dindorf; Becker, Hand- a part of the tomb of the Domitii, mentioned by Suet,

buch, vol. i. note 300. Dom. 2. Sec Guattani, Monumenti, torn. i. p. 20,

' Procop. Bell. Goth. i. 23 : eu' x<"P¥ Kprjixv<i&(t. anno 1784 ; and Venuti's Roma Antica.

I 2

The Walls of Aurelian and Honor ius.

substructure of some of the private buildings on the Pincian previous to the time of
AureHan, who incorporated it in his wall. Near the angle of the wall, where it turns
sharply to the south, is a point at which the brickwork leans in great masses
considerably out of the perpendicular, whence it has the name of Muro Torto.
Procopius speaks of this as having been in the same state long before his time, and calls it
the " broken wall." ^ The reason of the neglect to repair it seems to have been a super-

Muro Torto.

I'ORTA SALARIA.

stitious idea that it was under the protection of the Apostle St. Peter, and was therefore
impregnable ; but whether St. Peter's powers were ever put to the test does not appear.-

There is no difficulty in fixing the sites and names of the three next

Porta Pitinana, gates — the Pinciana, the Salaria, and the Nomentana.^ The Pinciana is now

Nomentana. walled up, the Porta Salaria is still extant under the name Salara, and the

Porta Pia has now taken the place of the Nomentana, and stands a little

to the north of it.*

' Procop. Bell. Goth. i. 23, n-fpi/3oXoi/ h^ppu^yiWa.

- See Note A at the end of the chapter.

^ Urlichs, in Class Museum, vol. iii. Urlichs has
shown that Procopius calls the Pinciana a jri'Xi;
oftener than a jrvXi's. But see note' on page 62 ; also

notes B, C, and D at the end of the chapter.

■■ The Porta Belisaria of Procop. i. 18, 22, is re-
jected both by Becker, Handbuch, p. 19S, and Urlichs,
Class. Museum, vol. iii. p. 196.

The ]\ alls oj Aiirclia)i and Honorius.

Near this gate the square of the Castra Priutoriana projects from the walls. Aurelian
had made use of the three outer walls of this camp as a part of his fortification, and
therefore Constantine, when he abolished the Praetorian guard, pulled down
the side towards the city only.^ The Porta Decumana of this camp is still to Castra

. . Pratoriana.

be seen, though it is now walled up, and also the Porta Principalis dextra ;

but the Porta Principalis sinistra has disappeared, or perhaps never existed. The camp

was enclosed by a wall at least as early as the time of Pertinax and Julian;'- for here

I'OkTA CHIUSA.

occurred that memorable and most melancholy scene in Roman history when the Pra;torians
shut themselves within their camp, after the murder of the reforming Emperor Pertinax,
and put up the throne to auction.^ Julian and Suipicianus were the bidders. The soldiers
let down a ladder, and allowed Julian to get up on the wall, says Hercdian ; for they
would not open the gates before they heard how much would be offered. Suipicianus was
not allowed to mount the wall. They then bid one against the other; and at last they
ran up the price, little by little, to five thousand drachmas to each soldier. Julian then
impatiently outbid his rival by offering at once six thousand two hundred and fift}-, and

• Zosimus, ii. 17.

- Possibly at a much earlier date.
Hist. iii. 84.

^ Hcrodian, ii. 6; -Spart. Julian i. Uion. Cass 73.
See Tac. chap. ii.

62 The ll'alls of Aiiir/iaii and Honorius.

the Empire was knocked down to Iiim. This was not by any means tiic first or only time
tliat the fate of tlie Empire had been decided here. The chief power in the Roman
state had lain within these walls of the Prajtorian camp since the time when Tiberius
consented to allow their designing colonel, Sejanus, to establish the Praetorians in perma-
nent quarters ; and the readers of the historians of the Empire will recall the many vivid
pictures of their rapacity and violence. To go to the Praetorian camp, and promise a
largess to the guards, was the first duty of a Roman Emperor.^

The eastern side of the camp, which is probably the only one now retaining its original
form, measures 500 yards, and the southern 400 yards. The latter seems to have been
partly pulled down, and possibly the northern side has also been altered. Aurelian's wall
did not exactly meet the two angles oi the camp towards the city ; but its course was here
determined by the houses and buildings in the vicinity which it was desirable to protect.
The walls of the camp were, according to Bunsen, at first only fourteen feet high ; but were
raised by Aurelian, and fortified with towers. Some parts of the walls, doubtless, consist
of the original brickwork of Aurelian's time, as the masonry bears the marks of great
age, and is of a most regular and solid style.^ A few of the soldiers' quarters are still
left, consisting of rows of small, low, vaulted rooms, similar to those on the Palatine,
and at Hadrian's \illa, near Tiwjli.

In the angle formed by the projecting wall of the Praetorian camp and the Aurelian

wall there is a gate, now walled up, and called simply by the name of the Porta Chiusa.

This gate is one of the mysteries of Roman topograph}-. It is not men-

Porta C/iiiisa. ■ , , -i^ ■ , , • r t-- • n

tioned by i rocopius, or by the anonymous writer 01 Emsiedlen, yet it
seems too large and important to have been altogether omitted. That a gate would be
required here in Aurelian's wall — at least before Constantine's reign, while the camp
was still occupied— seems probable. No passage would be allowed to the public through
the camp ; and besides the Porta Nomentana, another gate would be wanted for the
convenience of persons resorting to the camp from the country with supplies of provisions,
or on business of various kinds, or for the shopkeepers, who would naturalh' live within the
walls near the camp. It may have been closed when the camp was abolished by Con-
stantine, and that part of the city became comparatively empty ; and it would thus, in the
time of Procopius, or the anonymous writer of Einsiedlen, have been long blocked up
and forgotten, or perhaps concealed by other buildings. This may account for their
silence.^

The difficulty as to its purpose has been solved by Niebuhr and Bunsen in another way.
They suppose that the road to Tibur passed out by this gate, and that the next gate, the
Porta S. Lorenzo, was the exit for the Pra;nestine road, and is that called the Praenestina
by Procopius. To the third gate in this part of the wall, the Porta Maggiore, they assign

the road to Labicum. Their arguments are not, however, sufficiently strong
^.f"''" to counterbalance the universal tradition that the Porta Tiburtina corre-

I ihurtnia.

.sponded to the modern Porta S. Lorenzo ; ■* and there are some indications

1 Tac. Ann. iv. i ; Hist. i. 40, ii. 94 ; Suet. Tib. as in the case of the principal ttvXui. Yet it is

37. - Bunsen, Beschreibung, vol. iii. 2, p. 359. certainly larger than an ordinary ■avkU.

^ Procop. i. 19. There is no guard-house con- ■* See the Liber de Mirabilibus Romae;Montfaucon,

nected with the Porta Chiusa so far as can be seen, Diar. Ital. p. 283.

The Walls of Anrclian mid Ho7iorin<; a-.

of tlie same in ancient writers. Ovid, speaking of the return of the flute-players from
Tibiir, after they had left Rome in consequence of the attempt of the censors'to curtail

PORTA S. I.ORKNZH.

their privileges, saj-s that they were brought back to the P'orum, in a state of intoxication,
in waggons, and entered Rome through the Esquilia.-, an expression which it is most
natural to interpret of the Esquiline gate.' The waggons would probably take the shorte.st

* Livy, ix. 39 ; Ov. Fast. vi. 677.

64 The Walls of Aurelian and Hcviorius.

route from the Tiburtine road to the Forum, and, if they approached the city by this
road, at the point where the Porta Chiusa afterwards stood, they would pass through the
Viminal and not through the Esquiline gate.

It has generally been supposed that the Porta Viminalis, in the Servian agger, stood
exactly opposite to the Porta Chiusa, and that the one corresponded to the other in the
old and new walls ; and this has been assumed as a confirmation of Niebuhr's hypothesis,
that the Via Tiburtina ran through the Porta Chiusa.^ For, it is argued, Servius would not
have made a gate in the middle of his agger, unless some important road had absolutely
demanded an exit there, and this road must have been the Via Tiburtina. But the road
which led through the Viminal gate must have been the same as that which went through
the Porta Chiusa ; therefore it is inferred that the Via Tiburtina passed through the
Porta Chiusa.

Recent excavations have, however, rendered it doubtful whether the Porta Viminalis
was situated directly opposite to the Porta Chiusa.- The supposed remains of a gate have
been found nearer to the southern end of the agger, and in a place much more nearly
corresponding to the centre of the agger, where the gate is placed by Strabo, than the
opening near the baths of Diocletian, through which the modern road passes.^ This latter
opening in the agger was probably made when the Praetorian camp was first established
by Tiberius, in order to afford ready access to it from the city.

The idea that the Via Tiburtina passed through the Porta Viminalis and the Porta
Chiusa was possibly suggested by the position of the modern city, from which it would
certainly be the most direct route towards Tibur. But a glance at a good map of the
Roman roads will show that this was not the case with the ancient city, and that
the most direct line from the greater part of the city to the Via Tiburtina would,
in ancient times, have naturally passed through the Esquiline gate and the gate of
S. Lorenzo.

When a person wished to go to Tibur, the gate by which he left the city depended
upon the point in the city from which he started, and that gate would become the chief
starting-point for the Tiburtine road which was most convenient for the greater number of
persons. Now in the Imperial times the south-eastern part of the city was most thickly
inhabited, and the Porta S. Lorenzo would be most convenient for travellers to Tibur
from that part. And, therefore, there seems a presumption, from its situation, in favour
of the Porta S. Lorenzo having been called the Porta Tiburtina after the erection of the
walls of Aurelian.

We have no means of determining positively what was the purpose of the Porta
Chiusa. It may possibly never have been a gate of the outer city wall, but may have been
used for communication with some building which formerly existed in the angle between
the Castra Praetoria and the city wall. Some of the older topographers place the Vivarium
here, and make the Porta Chiusa the entrance to it. It was also possible that the absence
of the Porta Principalis sinistra in the camp may be in some way connected with the
existence of this gate.

The Porta S. Lorenzo, which we therefore believe to correspond to the ancient Porta

' Urlichs, in Class. Museum, vol. iii. p. 197. xxxiv. p. 130, at the end of this chapter, and the plan

' See the extract from the Annali dell' Inst. vol. of the Servian agger. ' Strabo, v. 3, p. 234.

The Walls of Anrclian ami Honoriiis. 65

Tiburtina, is built close to the side of a nionumental arch, recording the successive
restorations of three aqueducts, the Marcian, Tepulan, and Julian. The lowest of
the three specus belongs to the Marcian (B.C. 162), the middle one to the Tepulan
(l!.C. 127), and the highest to the Julian (li.C. 35).^ The arch over which the aqueducts
l)ass is necessarily much lower than the more modern gate, as it is accommodated to their
level.

roRT.V .MAGGIORE, TOME OF EURYS.\CES, AND THE SPECUS OF THE .\(>V .\ CLVIDIA
.\ND OF THE ANIO NOVL'S.

An inscription stands upon this gate to the effect that the statues of Arcadius and
Ilonorius were placed here in honour of their labours in the restoration of the walls, and
the same inscription also stands upon the Porta Maggiore and Porta Ostiensis. The Porta
Portuensis bore the same words before its destruction bj- Urban VIII.'-

Thc Porta Maggiore, which is identified by the previous argument with the Porta
Pra^nestina, is partly formed by a numumental arch commemorating the first building
and subsequent restorations of the Atjua Claudia and the Anio Xovus. The gate built !))■

' See Frontiniis. I)e Aqirnd. 7. 19

Sec Note F at the tnd of this chapter.

The Walls of Aureliau and Honor ins.

Honoriu:3, and bearing a dedication to him, was removed by Gregory XVL, and now
stands on the left side of this monumental arch.^ The tomb of the bread contractor
Eurysaces was found by its side some years ago on pulling down a mediaeval
tomb.- After the name Pra;nestina had been lost, this gate obtained the
name of Sessoriana, from the neighbouring building, called the Sessorium,
the real name and purpose of which is not known,^ and subsequently of Porta Labicana

Porta
Pnvnestina.

ANCIENT I'ORTA ASINAKIA AND MUUEKN PORTA S. GIOVANNI.

Viviiyium.

from the road to Labicum,* and of Porta Major and Porta della Donna, from the
neighbouring basilica of S. Maria Maggiore.^

The Vivarium mentioned by Procopius was near this gate," and not, as a medisval
tradition affirmed, near the Castra Pretoria. This tradition probably origi-
nated from the mistaken idea that the Praetorian camp itself was the Vivarium.
The neighbourhood of the Amphitheatrum Castrense would also lead us to place the
Vivarium here.

From the Porta Maggiore the wall of Aurelian follows the line of the Claudian aqueduct
for a short distance, and then turns off at a right angle, and after again turning to the west

' See Note G at the end of this chapter.
" Becker, Handbuch, vol. i. p. 208.
* Schol. on Hon Ep. v. 100, Sat. i. 8, 11 ; .A.nast.
Vit. Silv. p. 45. Blanch.

•* Mart. Pol. Chron. i. 4, 5; De Mir. Rom. Montf.
Diar. Ital. p. 283.

' William of Malmesbur)- ; Rer. Ital. Script, tom.
xxiv. 981. * Procop. Bell. Goth. i. 22, 23.

The Walls of Aiirclian and Honor ins.

passes the Amphithcatrum Castrense.^ wliich, like the Castra Pretoria, is built into and
made a portion of the wall. These two buildings were doubtless made to project from
the wall for purposes of defence ; for, though the length of wall to be
defended was thus increased, yet the projecting angles gave an advantage to '' "'^"' ""''""'
the besieged. A part of the lower tier only of this amphitheatre is left, con-
sisting of a few half-columns of the Corinthian order, the whole of which, even to tlu

I' Ik 1 \ >. >KHA5T1AN1

ornamental parts of the capitals, is of brick. The brickwork is of the best kind, and
probably belongs to the first centurj^ A few fragments of the second story remain, and
some slight ruins of the substructure of the arena, which measured 340 by 260 feet. A
little way further on in the Aurelian v.-all at the back of the Ccelian, stood the Porta
Asinaria, which was replaced in the year 1574 by the present gate of S. John.
The old gate is now unfortunately hidden by some buildings in front of it.-
The origin of the name is not known, but Festus mentions the \'ia Asinaria, which
probably led from it.^

In the corner of the wall, where it runs inwards between the Coelian and the hills
behind the Aventine, was the Porta Metronis or Metrovia. Its situation is Porta Marmm.

Porta Asinaria.

' Curiosum Reg. v. This amphitheatre was pro- peculiarly suited to keep up a military spirit amonj;
bably built at the same time with the I'netorian the troops, as well as to furnish them with strong
camp. The Roman gladiatorial combats were en- excitement. -' Frocop. Bell. Goth. i. 14 ; iii. 20.

couraged by the Emperors, as a kind of diversion •" Festus. p. 282.

K 2

The IValls of Aurclian and Honori,

JtS.

dctcnnincd by Martinus Polonus, who places it near the spot where the Aqua Crabra
enters tlie city.^

Two gates follow which corresponded to the old Porta Capena of the Servian wall, as
tlie Salaria and Nomentana corresponded to the CoUina, and the Tiburtina and Prajncs-

i'OKlA LATINA.

tina to the Esquilina. The first of these, a gatewa}' of Honorius, restored by Bclisarius,
,, , , ,. and now closed, is the Porta Latina, out of which the Via Latina passed; and

Porta Uitnia ' ' ' '

and Porta
Appia,

the second, the Porta Appia, from which the Appian road commenced. The

Latin road to Tusculum and Frascati now passes through a modern gate, the

Porta S. Giovanni, and the Porta Appia has lost its old name, and taken that of

S. Sebastiano, from the basilica which lies on the road outside it. There are Greek

Mart. I'ol. Chron. i. 4, 5. It is also mentioned by the Anon. Einsiedl. and Gregory the Great, Ep. ix. 69.

The Walls of Aurslian and Hoiiorins. 60

inscriptions upon tlic niasomy of the Porta S. Sebastiano, showing it to be of tlic
B_\-zantine period.

The arch of beautiful old brickwork, which is to be seen about 600 yards further on
before reaching the Bastione di Sangallo, is supposed by Nibby to have been the gate
from which the Via Ardeatina led,' corresponding to the Randusculana in the Servian wall.
It must have been closed at an early period, since neither Procopius nor the carl\-
topographers mention it.

TJie last gate on this side of the Tiber which has to be mentioned is the Porta Ostiensis
wlience ran the road to Ostia. This name is given to it b\- .\nimianus AlarccUinus, in
relating the arrival at Rome of the great obelisk which Constantine brought
from Heliopolis.- But as early as the sixth century, it obtained, the name of
the Porta S. Paolo,^ by which it is now known. The present gate was built by Honorius.
Close to it stands the pyramidal monument of Ccstius.*

P'roni the Ostian Gate the walls of Aurelian enclosed the flat space on which ]\Ionte
Testaccio now stands, and ran down to the river-bank, along which they were carried
for about half a mile to a point opposite to that which the fortifications reached on the
opposite side. A few ruinous fragments are now all that is left of the wall which ran
along the river-bank.

In the Transtiberine district the wails of Aurelian were far less extensive than the
present walls. They reached the river at a point 500 yards lower down than the present
walls, and at a little distance from the river stood the Porta Portuensis, which Course 01
was pulled down by Urban VIII., the Barberini Pope, infamous for his depre- ■lun-Ziau walls
dations on the Pantheon.^ The traces of the wall can be followed from hence 7- ,

J rastcVt're.

to the Porta Aurelia, which stood on the site of the modern Porta S. Pan-
crazio, from which ran the \'ia Aurelia \'etus. The name of Pancratian is y,,^/,,
as old as the time of Procopius, who wrote in the middle of the sixth cen-

Porta Aurelia

tury." From hence the ruins can be traced to the river-bank in the Farnese fetus.

Garden.s. But the lowest part of the ruins belong, as Becker has shown,'' to />„./„

an older wall, which possibly formed part of the enclosure of the public baths Scptimiaua.
erected here by Septimius Severus.

Becker seems to mean, though he does not express himself clearly, that Aurelian made
use of the entrance to these baths of Septimius (which probably consisted of a large
archway) to form the gate of his walls, and that upon the restoration of the walls by
Honorius, or by Belisarius afterwards, the direction of the wall was altered so as to run
close down to the bridge.

All we know is that a Porta Septimiana is mentioned by the earl\- writers on Roman
topography,^ and implied by the words of Spartianus,'-" but that the anon\-mous writer of
the Einsiedlen MS. and Procopius do not take any notice of it. Alexander \\. pulled
down the old gate, and erected what is now called the Porta Septimiana.

1 Nibby, Mura di Roma, p. 201 ; Fcstus, p. 282. ' Procop. Bell. Goth. iii. 36. ■• .See ch. \>:.

Nibby thinks that this gate was built in the tenth ^ The well known iambic line was made about

century, but Mr. J. H. Parker refers it to the time of him : " (Juocl non feccre Barbari fecere Barberini."'
Trajan. (Parker's Lecture before the Soc. of Arch. " Procop. i. 18, 23. " Hanrtbuch, vol. i. p. 212.

at Rome. p. 18.) " Marliano, i. 8 ; Lucio Fauno, ch. .x.vi. ; Fulvio,

' Amm. .Marc xvii. 4. p. 45. " Sp\rt. Sept. Sev. 19.

"O Tlic Walls of Aurclian and Honor ius.

Note A, p. 60. — The Muro Torto.

Reber (Ruinen Roms, p. 517) thinks that the Muro Torto belonged to the substructions of the
Collis Hortorum anterior to the time of Aurehus and Honorius, and that the portion of the wall
adjoining it, also cased with opus niiculatiim, and containing niches with vaulted conical tops, was a
part of the same. The wall between this corner and the Porta Pinciana is probably the work of the
sixth centur)-, and was possibly built by Betisarius.

NuTE B, p. 60. — The Porta Pixciaxa.

The TTiJAis of Procopius may, as Reber suggests, have been enlarged in the time of the Exarchate.
The fable of Belisarius sitting as a blind beggar and asking alms, " Date obolum Belisario," is some-
times attached to this gate. (See Gibbon, ch. xliii.)

Note C, p. 60. — The Porta Salaria.

The name is derived from the habit of carrying salt along this road to the Sabine uplands.
(Varro, R. R., i. 14, 3.) Only the lower part, of squared stones, belongs to the age of Honorius.
The upper part is of brick, and may have been erected after the storming of Rome by Alaric. in 409.
(Gibbon, ch. xxxi.)

Note D, p. 60. — The Porta Nomextaxa.

The street Alta Semita ran from this gate along the top of the Ouirinal. nearly parallel to the
present Strada di Porta Pia.

Note E. p. 64. — The Porta Viminalis and Via Tiburtina. From the "Annali dell'

Institlto," vol. xxxiv. p. 132.

" La prima scoperta fece vedere il fine di un muro grossissimo, dalla statua di Roma .sul monte
della Giustizia lontano circa 270 passi verso S. Antonio, al quale addossavano costruzioni di lavoro
basso appartenenti ai tempi posteriori dell' impero. Siffatta interruzione del muro, che non sembrava
essere fortuita fece supporre al Sig. Pietro Rosa che in questo stesso punto dovesse collocassi la Porta
^'iminale, supposizione certamente di grande probabilita, tanto piu che quel punto corrisponde bene
alia citata notizia di Strabone (lib. v. 3, p. 234), mentre comodamente pub credersi uscita da qui la
Via Tiburtina, che dalla Viminale partivasi, visto che le stesse case modeme situate tra esso punto
e la porta odierna di S. Lorenzo cadono nella linea piu retta che passa fra esse idearsi. L'altro
taglio al quale finora si stabiliva la Porta Viminale vicino del monte di Giustizia verso le terme di
Diocleziano, essendo lo stesso monte costruito, come pare, di terra scavata dal taglio, sembra esser
fatto in un tempo posteriore alia prima fortificazione della cittk, e siccome la direzione della strada
che passa per quel taglio, conduce nel Castro Pretorio, cosi apparterra forse al tempo della costruzione
di quello la suddetta traforazione dell' aggere."

The Walls of Aurelian and Honor ins. 71

Note F, p. 65. — Thk Pdrta S. Lorenzo.

The gate, as seen from the exterior, is an arch of travertine, surmounted by five round windows.
Above these is a cornice, and the inscription commemorating the erection of the gate by Honorius
and Arcadius, as follows: — "S.P.Q.R. Imp. Cass. D. D. N.N. invictissimis principibus Arcadio
et Honorio victorib. ac triumphatorib. semp. Augg. ob instauratos urbi Kternre muros portas ac
turres egestis imniensis mderibus ex suggestione u.c. et inlustris com. et mag. utriusque militia;
Stilichonis ad perpetuitatem nominis eonmi simulacra constituit curante Fl. Macrobio T.onginiano
u.c. praif urb. D.X.M.Q. eorum."

Inside this gate of Honorius we find two other archways, the innermost of which seems to be of
much the same date as the gateway, while the central archway is plainly of a much earlier date. It is
built of blocks of travertine, and displays in the construction and joints of the masonrj' proofs of
belonging to the best period of Roman architecture. It is apparently covered with rubbish to a con-
siderable height, but was never a ver)' lofty arch, tlie height having been limited by the le\el of the
aqueduct which it carries. On the keystone the head of an ox is carved, whence it was called some-
times Porta Taurina (De Mirabil., Montf Diar. Ital. p. 283) ; and on each side are Doric pilasters.
The architrave and frieze above the gate have been flattened to receive an inscription com-
memorating its restoration. Over these was formerly a pediment, traces of which are still to be seen.
It has now been removed to make room for an inscription. Still higher is the attica, with the
original inscription.

The lowest inscription is as follows : — " Imp. Titus Cassar Divi F. Vespasianus Aug. Pontif. Max.
tribuniciae potest. IX. Imp. XV. Cens. Cos. VII. Design. VIII. rivum aqua; Marcise vetustate dilapsum
refecit et aquam quoe in usu esse desierat reduxit."

The middle inscription, in the place of the pediment, is : — - Im]5. Css. M. Aurelius Antoninus
Pius Fehx Aug. Parth. Maxim. Brit. Max. Pont. Max. aquam Marciam variis kasibus impeditam
purgato fonte excisis et perforatis montibus restituta forma adquisito etiam fonte novo Antoniniano in
sacram urbem suam perducendam curavit."

The highest is: — "Imp. Ca;sar Divi Juli Augustus Pont. Max. Cos. XII. tribunic. potest. XIX.
Imp. XIIII. rivos aquarum omnium refecit."

This last commemorates the restoration, by Augustus, of all the aqueducts existing in his
time, i.e. the Appia, the Anio Vetus, the Marcia, the Tepula, the Julia, the Alsietina, and the Virgo.
The other inscriptions record successive restorations of the Aqua Marcia by Titus and Antoninus
Caracalla.

Three channels, one above the other, are visible over the archway. One of these, it is plain, must
have been the Marcia, and, as Frontinus states that the Tepula and Julia entered the city upon the
same arches as the Marcia (" Hae tres a piscinis in eosdem arcus recipiuntur. Summus in his est Julia,
inferior Tepula, deinde Marcia," Frontin. De Aquoed. 19), we conclude that the highest is the Julia, the
next the Tepula, and the lowest the Marcia. The Marcian water, B.C. 162, came from a spot three
miles to the right of the thirtj'-sixth milestone on the Via Valeria (Strada di Arsoli). It was carried
underground for the greater part of its course from Tivoli, till it came within seven miles of Rome,
where it was raised on arches, some of which are still remaining. The Tepula (the name of which is
supposed to allude to the temperature of its water iiuasi tepida) was brought, in the year 127 B.C.,
from the tenth milestone on the Latin way, and carried above the Marcian. The Julia was brought
by Agrippa, B.C. 35, from the twelfth milestone on the same road. It was united with the Tepula for
some distance, but separated again at the seventh milestone. Augustus improved the Marcian by
ad<ling a new spring, the Aqua Augusta, to it, and it was possibly on this occasion that the com-
memorative arch we have before us was rebuilt and decorated.

At the distance of a mile and a half from Rome a branch aqueduct was built by Caracalla from
the main channels of these three, in order to supply his TherniK with water. Thus a great part of

72 The Walls of Anrcliau and Honor ins.

their water was taken away ; and Diocletian afterwards diverted most of the rest of it to his Thermje,
under the name Aqua Jovia. (Anon. Einsiedl.) Vitiges destroyed the two upper aqueducts in 537
(Procop. Bell. Goth. i. 15); but the Marcia appears again in the time of Hadrian I. (Anast. Vit. Had. I.,
p. 113.) The Marcian water now flows into the Anio near Arsoli, but is to be brought into Rome
again by an English company (1868). The Tepula and Julia run into the Marrana near Grotta
Ferrata. The course of these three aqueducts lies along the inner side of the wall, between the Porta
S. Lorenzo and the Porta Maggiore, and lea\-es the city near the latter gate, where the triple specus
may be seen. None of the arches near the city are now standing, but a large number are still to be
seen in the Campagna at the Porta Furba. on the Frascati road, three miles from the Porta S. Giovanni,
where the}- are crossed by the more loft}- Claudian aqueduct.

I'he Aqua Felice of Si.xtus V. enters the city at the Porta S. Lorenzo, and traverses the arches
which are to be seen on the left of the Via di Porta S. Lorenzo. Most of the w-ater of this aqueduct
is conveyed to the Fontana della Piazza dei Tem-iini, but it also supplies numerous other fountains.
The aqueduct of Alexander Severus also passes from the Porta S. Lorenzo to the building called
the Trophies of J^Lirius. which is in reality an ancient nymphseum or fountain. (See chap, ix.)

Note G, j). 66.— Phrt.a Maggiore.

The gateway of Honorius, which corresponded to that still remaining at the Porta S. Lorenzo,
was removed from the Porta ALaggiore by Gregory XVI., as the inscripcion on the presi.nt gate
records, and placed near the goods station of the railway on the outside of the gate.

The removal of the old gateway disclosed the tomb of Eurysaces, the bread contractor to the
.\])paretores, a very fantastic monument, constructed of stone mortars used for kneading dough, and
ornamented with some curious bas-reliefs, of a good period of art, representing the operations of
baking. The inscriptions upon it are as follow : — "Est hoc monimentum Marcei Vergilei Eurysacis
pistoris ac redemptoris Apparetorum." " Fuit Atistia uxor mihei, femina optima vei.xsit quojus corporis
relitjuiae quod superant sunt in hoc panario." The latter of these inscriptions, however, probably
belongs to some other tomb, the remains of several having been found here, which lead to the suppo-
sition that this w-as a spot especially devoted to the burial of bakers.

The present gateway is formed by two monumental arches of the Claudian aciueduct. which
runs along the course of the walls from this point to the corner near the Amphitheatrum Castrense.
The arches are built of rusticated travertine blocks, and each of the piers is pierced with a smaller
arch, decorated with Corinthian half-columns of rustic work, and pediments in the usual Gr^co-
_Roman style of a triumphal arch. This gateway is one of the most characteristic creations of
Roman architecture. It conveys, more than any other building I know, — except, perhaps, the
rusticated archways of the amphitheatre at \'erona. — the impression of rough force and solidity.
Over the arches are three atlicas, upon which the following inscriptions are cut :—

"Ti. Claudius Drusi F. Coesar Augustus Germanicus Pontif Maxim, tribunicia potestate XII.
Cos. V. Imperator XXVII. Pater Patrise aquas Claudiam ex fontibus qui vocabantur C^ruleus el
Curtius a milliario xxxxv. item Anienem novam a milliario Ixii. sua impensa in urbem perducendas
curavit."

'•Imp. Caesar Vespasianus August. Pontif. Max. trib. pot. II. Imp. ^T. Cos. III. Desig. III. p. p.
aquas Curtiam et Casruleam perductas a Divo Claudio et postea intermissas dilapsasque per annos
novem sua impensa urbi restituit."

" Imp. T. Caesar Divi F. Vespasianus Augustus Pont. Max. tribunic. potest. X. Imp. XVII. p. p.
Cens. Cos. VIII. aquas Curtiam et Creruleam perductas a Divo Claudio et postea a Divo Vespasiano

The ]]\ills of Ajirclia7i and Honorius. 71

patre suo urbi restitiitas cum a capite aquarum a solo vetustate dilapsae essent nova forma rcduccmias
sua impensa curavit."

The Claudian aqueduct was begun by Caligula (Frontin. 13; Suet. Cal. 21; Claud. 20), and
finished by Claudius, as here recorded. Its arches are the most conspicuous, both outside the citv.
near the Porta Furba, on the road to Frascati, and also inside the walls, Avhere the branch Claudian
aqueduct, built by Nero, diverges from the main course inside the Porta Maggiore, and runs across
the Ccelian to the Arch of Dolabella, and then to the Palatine hill. The Anio Novus or Nova, the
highest and longest of all the Roman aqueducts, was carried on the Claudian arches, as the inscrip-
tions record. The specus of both is to be seen here. The arches were used by Sixtus V. to carr\-
the Aqua Felice across the Campagna, from a point beyond the Porta Furba. to the walls of the city.
The Aqua Felice then follows the Marcian aqueduct to the Piazza dei Termini.

The Claudian arches were originally built of travertine. The restorations here recorded, by
Vespasian and Titus, were of brick, and may be seen at inter\'als in the arches outside the city.
Trajan also repaired the Claudian aqueduct and lengthened the Anio Nova (Frontin. 93). It must
be observed that the inscriptions place the sources of the Anio Nova at the sixty-second milestone
from Rome, and the Claudian at the forty-fifth, while Frontinus mentions the fort)--second milestone
and the thirty-eighth as respectively the distances of their sources. The first measurements may,
perhaps, be those of the whole courses ot the aqueducts, and the second those of the actual mile-
stones along the Via Sublacensis. Frontinus, however (chap. 15), states, that the whole length of
the Anio Nova (or Novus, as he writes) was 58 miles and 700 passus ; so that this interpretation 01
the discrepancy is not very satisfactory.

From the old Esquiline Gate of the Servian walls, as we have seen, three roads issued : the
Tiburtina. the Pranestina, and the Labicana. Of these, the Tiburtina passed through the Porta
S. Lorenzo, and the Prsnestina and Labicana through the Porta Maggiore. The fact that two roads
passed out of this gate explains the peculiar trapezoidal shape of the tomb of Eurysaces, and also the
double archway. Niebuhr and Becker, however, think that a passage of Strabo makes this doubtful
(Beschreib. iii. 570 ; Handbuch, i. p. 201). Strabo says of the course of the Via Labicana, 'Apxo/xoT/
atro Tr/s HcTkruXivT/c irv\yj(; a(j) rji; cat -q Upaiyity-ifr] h> apitrnpS. 8 a'^ctira kol ravTriv eat to mciov to
^QirKvXiidv . Hence it is assumed that the two roads separated widely immediately after passing the
Esquiline gate. This assumption, however, depends entirely upon the extent assigned to the ^rcStor
HaicvXliov, which may, as Nibby remarks (Mura di Roma, p. i6i, note 220), very well have extended
beyond the present Aurelian walls.

Before the time of Procopius. the right-hand archway, through which the Via Labicana passed,
was probably walled up, and the Porta Prsenestina alone remained, which was sometimes called
Labicana by a confusion with the other arch, and because the Via Labicana became in the Middle
Ages better known as the road to the Church of St. Helena than the \'ia Praenestina. (Becker,
Handbuch, i. p. 205.)

CHAPTER VI.

PART I.

THE FORUM ROMANUM BEFORE JULIUS C^SAR.

SITE OF FORUM ROMANUM — EXTENT OF FORUM ROMANUM — DISTRICTS ADJOINING THE FORUM ROMANUM, SACRA
VIA, NOVA VIA, ARGILETUM, SUBURA — TURRIS MAMILIA — LAUTUMLE — CARCER — SCAL^ GEMONI* — COMITIUM
CURIA — GR.«COSTASIS — SENACULUM — VULCANAL — ROSTRA — TRIBUNALIA — PUTEALIA— TEMPLUM JANI — BASI-
LICA PORCIA — BASILICA FULVIA ET i>EMILIA — BASILICA PAULLI — BASILICA OPIMIA — VENUS CLOACINA — COLUMNA
MCENIA — COLUMNA DUILIA — NOVj« TABERN.'E — VETERES TABERN/E — M^NIANA — TEMPLUM CONCORDIjE —
TEMPLUM SATURNI — SCHOLA XANTHA — DII CONSENTES — PORTA STERCORARIA— TABULARIUM — VICUS JUGARIUS
— VICUS TUSCUS — BASILICA SEMPRONIA — LACUS SERVILIUS — LACUS CURTIUS — TEMPLUM CASTORIS — ^DES
VEST.* — REGIA — SACRARIUM— ARCH OF FABIUS — PILA HORATIA — STATUES— JANI— CANALIS— SOLARIA.

" Quacunque ingredimur in aliqua historia vestigium ponimus."

Cic. De Finihus, v. 2.

THE valley between the Palatine, Capitoline, and Quirinal hills was from the earliest
times the centre of political and social life at Rome. As soon as the growing
community on the Palatine had spread to the adjoining hills, and before the consolidation
and organization of the later Regal period had taken place, the common meeting-place
of the citizens would naturally be in the valley which lay between the hill
y^ "'"'" communities. But before any permanent dwelling-places or public buildings
could be erected, much labour had to be spent upon this central site.
Originally, as we have seen, a marshy lagoon extended from the Tiber nearly to the
rising ground between the Palatine and Esquiline upon which the Arch of Titus stands.
Until some permanent improvement was made in the state of the ground, no human
habitations could stand there, and the most convenient place of meeting for business
was liable to constant floods from the river.

An embankment of massive stonework ^ was therefore constructed on the bank of the
river, and drains of colossal size were built to carry off the stagnant water. The extent
of these drains is not known to us, but a part of one of them, the principal outlet for
the collected waters of the district of the Forum, still remains, and serves to show how

^ Part of the Tiber embankment still remains on or not, is doubtful. The name, "pulchrum httus,"
each side of the mouth of the Cloaca Maxima. now commonly given to the embankment, is not found
Whether this is the Kdk\] n/tri; of Plutarch, Rom. 20, in Latin writers. See Preller, Regionen, p. iSi.

'^■m.

'^» 1^ «2i-

"^^

The Fonnii Rovianuvi before J ulijis Ccesar. 75

considerable must have been tlie inconvenience to remedy which such extraordinary pains
were taken. The fragment of the Cloaca Maxima now remaining is in the district of the
Velabrum, and formed the lower part of the drainage.^ A more detailed description of it
will be given in the chapter relating to that part of the city,- and it is only necessary now
to remark that the system of drainage with which it was connected was a necessary
preliminary to the permanent occupation of the Forum valley. Before the end of the
Second Punic War a small portion only of the space between the Palatine, the north-eastern
end of the Capitoline, and the Ouirinal, was occupied as a Forum or public place of meeting.
It does not appear that even in the populous times of the later Republic the open space
of the Forum was ever enlarged, but overcrowding was in some measure prevented by
the building of open basilicne on the sites of the old shops or behind them. Thus the
Basilica Porcia was built in B.C. 184, and the Fulvia et ./Emilia behind the new silversmiths'
shops in B.C. 179,^ and in B.C. 169 the Basilica Sempronia, on the site of some of the
old shops on the south-western side towards the Velabrum.* The overcrowded state of
the city was, however, felt as early as the First Punic War ; for it is said that Claudia, a
Roman lady of high rank, whose brother P. Claudius had in B.C. 249, by his bad manage-
ment as Admiral, occasioned great loss of life in the Roman fleets at Drepana, complained
that there was no elbow-room in the Forum, and that her brother ought to be again
placed in command of the fleet in order to relieve Rome of its superfluous population."
As one province after another became subject to direct Roman control, and the custom
of appealing in all important suits to the central authority at Rome became more general,
the courts of law and public buildings must have become more and more inadequate for
the speedy transaction of business, and constant additions must have been needful.

Julius Caesar and the Emperors Augustus, Nerva, and Trajan, successively enlarged
the public buildings so much as to include nearly the whole breadth of the valley between
the Ouirinal and Palatine, as well as that between the Capitoline and Ouirinal.

The older Forum, or Forum Romanum, as it was called, to distinguish it from the later
Fora, which were named after their respective builders, was an open space of an oblong
shape, which extended in a south-easterly direction from near the depres-
sion or intermontium between the two summits of the Capitoline hill to Extent of

Forum

a point opposite the still extant Temple of Antonmus and Faustma. Romanum.
The north-western boundary was formed by the slope of the Capitoline
hill, and the south-eastern by the Sacra Via, between the Arch of Fabius and the Temple
of Antoninus and Faustina. The longer sides of this piazza measured about two hundred
yards, and the north-western end, which was somewhat larger than the south-eastern, about
seventy yards. Round this confined space were grouped the most important buildings
of Republican Rome, the temples of the most ancient and venerated gods, the Senate-
house, the Comitium, and the Rostra ; upon it stood the statues of a legion of national
heroes, and above it rose on one side the glittering Temple of Capitoline Jove and the
inviolate citadel, and on the other sides the mansions of Imperial senators, or in later
times the palaces of Emperors.

> The cloacje extended to the Subura. Juv. v. io6 : =" Livy, xl. 51. ' Ibid. xliv. 16.

"Solitus media' cryptam pcnctrarc Siibur;e." ' Livy, Epit. xix. ; Diod. xxiv. i.

- -See below, chap. xii.

I. 2

The Foniin Romanum before yullus Ccssar.

Dionysius and Livy in their first mention of the Forum speak of it as situated
between the Palatine and CapitoUne,^ and therefore Nardini, Nibby, and others of the older
topographers held that the Forum extended from the Arch of Septimius to the Church
of S. Maria della Consolazione, and that its longer axis lay in a north-easterly and south-
westerly direction. But since the discovery of the Basilica Julia, which bounded the
Forum on the south-west, this supposition with regard to the extent of the Forum has
been relinquished, and it is now generally agreed that the limits are those previously

SITE OK THE FORUM ROMANUM, FROM THE SLOPE OF THE CAPITOLINE HILL.

Excii'i^atioiis on the site of the Basiiiai yttlia.
Temple c/ A ntoitiniis and Faustina. Temtle of Castor.

Temple of Satiirti.

described. For on Nardini's supposition there would be no space left between the Forum
and Velabrum for the Vicus Tuscus, which we know intervened, running along the south-
eastern side of the Julian Basilica nearly in the direction of the modern Via di S. Teodoro,-
It appears also quite possible that Dionysius and Livy accommodated their language
to the supposed extent of Rome at the time of which they spoke. The district of the
Subura and the Ouirinal hill were then unoccupied and nameless, so that the two hills
were the only landmarks to which they could refer.

' Uionys. ii. 50. 66 : Livy. i. 12.

iii. 26.

The Fontni Romanum before ytiliics Ccesar. 77

Excavations on the site of tlie Forum Romanum have sliown that it was, at least in
the latest times, by no means a regular parallelogram in shape, and that it had streets
passing along the north-eastern and south-western edges, which were paved with basaltic
lava, while the central area was paved with travertine. The pavement of the streets
bounding the north-cast side has been discovered by several excavations between the
Arch of Septimius and the Temple of Antoninus and Faustina.^ On the opposite side
the pavement of basaltic lava bounding the Forum has been traced in front of the Basilica
Julia and the Temple of Castor, and was apparently continued in a straight line in front
of the Temple of Vesta to the Arch of Fabius, where it joined the Sacra Via. The
extent of the Forum towards the south-east has also been ascertained by excavations.
Opposite to the Church of S. Cosma e Damiano the foundations and ruins of so large
a number of private buildings were found in some excavations made in the time of
A.lexander VII. as to prove sufficiently that the open area of the Forum did not extend
beyond the Temple of Antoninus and Faustina."

Of the districts and streets which lay round the Forum the most important was the
Sacra Via. The historians of Rome derive the name from the sacred league entered
into by Romulus and Tatius on the spot where the union took place
between the Sabine and Roman communities.^ The limits of the street
called the Sacred Way are laid down by Varro and Festus.* There were two portions
of it, one extending from the Chapel of Strenia to the Arch of Titus, where the top
of the rising ground was called the summit of the Sacred Way, and the other from the
Arch of Titus to the Citadel on the Capitoline. The Chapel of Strenia stood in the
district called Ceroliensis, which was a part of the Caringe, and, as will be seen hereafter,
lay on the part of the Esquiline nearest to the Coliseum.^ The fourth region of Augustus
was called by the name of the Sacra Via ; and since both the Temple of Venus and Rome
and the Colossus of Nero, the situations of which are known from the remains of their
foundations, were included in this region, the Sacra Via probably passed to the south
of them. Otherwise they would have been included in the Palatine region.

At the highest part of the Sacred Way (Summa Sacra Via), the pavement of which
under the Arch of Titus is fifty-three feet above that of the Forum, were a number of to}--
shops " and apple-stalls." The Sacellum Larum stood close by, on the Palatine side of the
street, and also the Temple of Jupiter Stator.^ The house of the Pontifex Maximus.

' Bunsen's Le Forum expliqud, p. 7; Ficoroni, dewin's Philologus, 1S53, p. 713.
Vestigie di Roma Antica, p. 75. ' Varro, L. L. v. § 47. Strenia was the goddess ot

^ ^lenlorie di S. Bartoli, p. 244, in Fea, Miscel. new year's gifts, hence Fr. Etrennos. Aug. Civ. Uei,

p. 234. Mommsen, however, thinks that the Forum iv. 16. Nissen, Das Templuni, p. 85, thinks that the

was enlarged so as to reach the Arch of Titus in city was laid out strictly according to the Uisciplina

the time of Julius Caesar, and that the Rostra were gromatica, and that the Sacra Via corresponded to

removed for that ver)- reason. [Ann. delV Inst. xvi. the Decumanus maximus, and the street between the

P.-290, note.) Ccelian and Palatine to the Cardo maximus. He

' Festus, p. 290 ; Appian, Frag. Basil, p. 14, 20 ; makes the Porta Carmentalis the Decumana, and

Bekker : SwfX^owfs 'PwfiiXos tc ical TaTios f f tt/i' c^ the Capena the Principalis de.xtra. He confesses,

fxetvov iepav KaKovjikfriv ohov. So also Dionys. ii. 46. however, that " Die Ganz unregelmassige Gestalt

But Plut. Rom. 19 places the meeting on the Co- der Stadt entfernt sich allerdings sehr weit von der

mitium. gromatischen Grundform."

* Festus, loc. cit.; Varro. L. L. v. J47. The common « Propcrt. iii. 17, 14 (ii. 24, 11); Ov. .\m. i. S, 99.

order of the words is " Sacra Via," though in a good " Varro, R. R. i. 2 ; Ov. Art. Am. ii. 265.

many passages we find "Via Sacra."' See Schnei- * Ov. Fast. vi. 791 ; Livy, i. 47.

78 The Forum Romanum before yiilhis Ccesar.

who succeeded to the priestly functions of the king and to his official residence, was
a little further along the Sacred Way. It probably stood on the south of the Sacra
Via, close to the Arch of Fabius, and was called the Regia, the Atrium Regium, or the
Atrium VestJE.^ It is clearly proved that this Regia was the house of the Pontifex
INIaximus, from the fact that the sacred spears of the god Mars, which Gellius affirms
to have been kept in the Regia, were kept there, and that Cicero speaks of the Regia
as the residence of Julius Caesar, when Pontifex Maximus.- Whether the house of the
Rex Sacrificulus, another priestly office at Rome, was identical with the Regia or not, is
difficult to determine. Some authors seem to separate the two, others to speak of them as
identical.^ At all events the two buildings were not far from each other ; and as the
Regia stood close to the Temple of Vesta, we may assume that the house of the Rex
Sacrificulus was nearer to the Summa Sacra Via than the Regia. The house of the Kings,
or a part of it at least, seems to have previously occupied the same site as the Regia.^

The Temple of Vesta lay at the back of the Regia, and rather nearer to the south-
western corner of the Forum. Hence Horace walking along the Sacred Way from the
Summa Sacra Via towards the Forum, when he arrives at the buildings of Vesta, by which
the Regia as well as the Temple of Vesta is meant, hopes to leave his troublesome friend
behind, as they had then arrived at the Forum, and their roads might possibly diverge.^

It was to this part of the Sacred Way, between the Summa Sacra Via and the Forum,
that the name of Sacer Clivus was applied by Horace, because the ground slopes down
from the Summa Sacra Via to the Forum, and at this point the triumphal processions first
came into view of the Forum and descended into it.® The Velia is supposed to have been
the oldest name of this high ground over which the Sacra Via passed. The only proof,
however, which can be given of this is that the yEdes Penatium was on the Velia, and that
the yEdes Penatium is identical with the Church of S. Cosma e Damiano.'

The Arch of Fabius also stood over the Sacra Via at the foot of this sloping portion
of it. Cicero, in his speech for Plancius, mentions it as if at some distance from the
Summa Sacra Via. " When I am jostled in a crowd, as often happens," he says, " I do not
blame the man who is at the top of the Sacred Way while I am being pushed along near
the Fabian Arch, but the person who actually runs against me and pushes me." * The
narrow part of the Sacred Way between the Arch of Fabius and the top of the slope
would naturally become crowded when a number of people were either entering or leaving
the open space of the Forum.

The exact course of the Sacra Via through the Forum has not been determined,
but it seems probable that before the time of the Emperors it ran straight from the
Fabian Arch along the south-western side of the Forum. Becker supposes that it
formed the boundary of the fourth region of Augustus, and he therefore traces it along
the north-east side"of the Forum. In the time of the Emperors it probably went through
the Arch of Severus, and then turning to the left passed between the Temple of Saturn

' Fasti, vi. 263 ; Tristia, iii. I, 30 ; Plut. Num. 14 ; ■* Solin. i. 23 ; Livy, i. 41.

Serv. Ad. ^n. viii. 363. It existed in Trajan's time. ° Hor. Sat. i. 9, i, 35 ; Dionys. ii. 66.

Plin. Ep. iv. II. " Hor. Epod. vii. 7, Od. iv. 2, 33 ; Mart. i. 70, 5.

- Dion. Cass. xliv. 17 ; Cell. iv. 6 ; Cic. Ad Att. x. 3. ■■ See further in the chapter on the Palatine Hill.

3 Dion. Cass. liv. 27 ; Festus, p. 290; Serv. Ad. * Cic. Pro Plancio, 7, § 17 ; De Orat. ii. 66; Schol.

Hxi. viii. 363. ad Cic. V'err. Act. i. 7.

The Fontm Romanum before yuUus Caesar. 70

and that of Vespasian, after which it turned to the right and ascended the Intermontiuni.
This part of the Sacra Via was called the Clivus Capitolinus.

Along the south-western side of the Forum Valley and immediately under the Palatine
hill ran the Nova Via. It has been ingeniously suggested by Cav. Rosa ^ that this street
was called Nova from an alteration of its direction after the occupation of
the central part of the Palatine by the regal residences, and the drainage
of the Velabrum. Hence he thinks Ovid speaks of it as now passing parallel to the
side of the Forum, whereas it formerly passed over the Palatine Hill.- It probably parted
from the Sacred Way at the Arch of Titus, and was there called the Summa Nova Via.'*
The Nova Via ran at the back of the Regia and Temple of Vesta, and separated the latter
from the Grove of Vesta, near which stood the altar of Aius Loquens.* This altar was
at the foot of the sloping part of the New Street (Infima Nova Via).^ The .street then
turned round the northern angle of the Palatine, passing the Porta Romanula, and led
into the Velabrum.

The district behind the buildings on the north-eastern side of the Forum was called
Argiletum. Between this district and the Forum stood the Temple of Janus," and at a
later time the Forum of Nerva and the Temple of Peace occupied a part
of it. Some of the booksellers' shops seem to have been situated in it, and '^
Martial recommends his friends to go there to purchase his new poems.' Books from the
booksellers' stalls in this neighbourhood were used by the mob to help in burning the
Curia over the dead body of Clodius in the riot which followed his murder by Milo.'
At the back part of this district, near the passage from it to the Subura, there were some
cobblers' shops,^ and a place called Lautulx, from a warm spring and baths which once
existed there. ^^ The name Argiletum was popularly derived from a person named Argus,
who was said to have entertained designs against the life of Evander while his guest,
but was detected and killed on this spot.^^ Varro, however, gives a different derivation
of the name, from argil/a, and states that clay for the manufacture of pottery was found
there, an assertion which is confirmed by Brocchi in his work on the geology of Rome.^'-

At the back of the Argiletum, and between the converging points of the Ouirinal and
Esquiline hills, lay the Subura, a district of ill fame, much abused by the poets and
historians of Imperial times.^^ It was one of the most ancient district com-

• ■ , '\ r 1-^ 1 r 1 r - Sulnira,

mumties ypagi) of Rome, and gave name to one of the four most ancient

regions.^* Nor was it entirely occupied by the lowest class of people, as might be

inferred from the notices of it in Martial and Horace. Julius Caesar is said to have

' Annali deir Inst. 1865, p. 348. ' Ascon. Argum. ad Cic. Mil. § 3.

■^ Fasti, vi. 395 : " Qua Nova Romano nunc via ° Mart. ii. 17, i.

juncta fore est." It is more likely that Ovid refers '" Varro, L. L. v. 32 ; Serv. Ad yEn. viii. 361.

to some mucli more modern alteration in the course " Serv. Ad /En. viii. 345.

of the Nova Via than that suggested by Rosa. " Varro, L. L. v. 157 ; Brocchi, Suolo di Roma,

^ Solinus, i. 24. p. 95.

* Cic. De Div. i. 45, ii. 32 ; Livy, v. 32. '^ Hor. Epod. v. 58 ; Mart. vi. 66 ; Pers. v. 32 ;

^ Gell. xvi. 17. ^ Livy, i. 19. Juv. iii. 5.

' Mart. i. 3, I ; i. 117, 8; i. 2, 5. This last epigram '■" .See chap. iii. p. 39. The name is derived from

was probably inserted in the first book after the \\iQ.pagussuccusanus\>y\z.\\o,'L.'L.\.\^Z\ Festus,

completion of the Forum Transitorium. Class. p. 309 ; Ouintil. Ins. Or. i. 7.
Mus. vol. v. 241.

8o The FontJii Rovmmim before y^tlius Ccrsar.

lived in a small house here/ and in Martial's time L. Arruntius Stella, the friend of Statius.^
The Subura seems to have extended completely across the valley between the Esquiline and
Ouirinal, for on the slope of the Quirinal the Church of S. Agata is still called S. Agata
alia Subura, and on the other side a piazza near the end of the modern Via di S. Lucia
in Sclce retains the same name. The Clivus Suburanus of Martial was the ascent to the
Ouirinal from the Subura,^ and the Suburan road of Appian probably the ascent from
it to the Esquiline, near S. Pietro in Vincoli.* The Subura was a noisy,^ bustling" part of
Rome, full of small shops," and disreputable places of various kinds.* The Turris Mamilia,
to which the head of the October or December sacrificial horse was nailed,
,,"".'" when the population of the Subura won the annual contest in the Campus

Mamilia. '^ '^ '

before alluded to (chap. iii. p. 38), was in the Subura, but of its exact
position we have no hint given." On account of the situation of the Subura in a valley,
it was probably necessary to have some fortified place to which the inhabitants of the
district could retreat in case ot danger.

Beyond the Argiletum, at the extreme north-western corner of the Forum, in the
neighbourhood of the Church of S. Giuseppe dei Falegnami, there was a district called

the Lautumije, We cannot determine its extent w'ith any accuracy, but

we know that the x5asilica rorcia stood m it ; for Eivy mentions that Cato
the Censor, in the year B.C. 183, bought two courts in this district and four shops as
a site for the basilica.^" A fire which took place in B.C. 210, originating in several places
at once, is said to have burnt the shops of the Forum, the Lautumize, the fish-market,
and the Atrium regium.^^ One of the state prisons was in this district, and the name
" Lautumise" may have been derived, as Varro suggests,^^ from the Lautumi^e at Syra-
cuse, for it is not likely that there was ever any quarry on the spot. If the name was
borrowed from the Syracusan stone-quarries, which were made use of as prisons,^* it
affords, as Mommsen has remarked, an evidence of the early communication of the
Romans with Sicily, which may be supported by other similar facts. The converse
appearance of the Latin career in the Sicilian Greek KapKapov is singular enough.^*

That this prison was not the same as the older prison in the same neighbourhood,
the Mamertine prison, is plain from the narrative of Democritus and his brother, who,

with forty-one other ^-Etolian men of consequence, were confined there.^

Ciivcer,

The old prison was totally inadequate to the reception of such a number
of prisoners, and was appropriated to the reception of criminals condemned to death.
That there were two is also clearly shown by a passage of Seneca, in which Julius
Sabinus is said to have asked to be removed from the Career to the Lautumije.^" With

• Suet. JuL Ores. § 46. 1= Varro, L. L. v. § 151. Varro does not assert the

" Mart. xii. 3, 9, vi. 21 ; Stat. Silv. i. 2. iJentity of the Career with the Lautumire, but men-

' Mart. V. 22, 5. tions the two prisons together, and gives the deriva-

App. B. C. i. 58. tion of the names of both.

= Clamosa, Mart. xii. 18, 2. is xhucyd. vii. 86, 87.

« Fervcns, Juv. xi. 51, 141 ; Juv. iii. 5. h Mommsen, Rom. Hist. voL i. p. 167, Eng. trans.

' Mart. vii. 31, X. 94. 15 yv^.^ xxxvii. 3.

Mart vi. 66, xL66 ; Pers. v. 32 ; Hor. Epod. v. 58. i« Seneca, Controv. ix. 3 : " Rogavit Juhus Sabinus

Festus, p. 178 ; Paul Diac. p. 131 ; Plut. QuEest. ut in Lautumias transferretur. Non est inquit, quod

Rom. 97. quenquam vestrum dccipiat nonicn ipsum, Lautumiffi

Livy, xxxLx. 44. " Ibid. xxvi. 27. ilia- minime lauta res est."

The Forjim Romamim before Jidius Ccrsar. 8i

respect to the old prison, an error appears to have arisen from the attempt to explain
the name TuUianum. As the original erection of the Career was attributed to Ancus
Martins,' so it was conjectured by the etymologists Varro and Festus that the name
Tullianum must have been derived from Servius Tullius, and this error was propat^ated
by subsequent historians." The Tullianum was, however, in reality, as its name
denotes,^ the old well-house at the foot of the Capitol, and was only in later times
made use of as part of the prison, when a prisoner was doomed to be killed by cold
and starvation.

Lentulus was strangled here by the orders of Cicero, and the story of Jugurtha is
well known, who, stripped of his clothes by the greedy executioners, and thrust into this
dungeon, exclaimed, "Hercules! how cold your bath is!"'* His exclamation refers to
the spring of cold water which issues from the ground here, and has been connected by
mediaeval miracle-mongers with the ministry of St. Peter at Rome. The whole of the
chamber was in ancient times filled with water, and the opening at the top used for
drawing it out. The style of construction of this well-house is very old, and points
to a date at which the arch was not used in Roman architecture, and is, therefore,
possibly antecedent to the time of construction of the Cloaca Maxima. It was roofed
by layers of peperino stone, so placed that each overlaps the layers beneath, and it was
closed at the top by a broad stone cover. This mode of building is similar to that
found in the old treasuries of ^Mycenae and Orchomenos, and also in the oldest tombs of
Etruria. The top of the ancient conical vault is now truncated, and closed by a number
of stones fastened together by cramps of iron, which form the floor of the upper
chamber." The name Mamertinus, usually applied to the Career, is not classical, but
mediaL'val.'' Close to the Career, and between it and the Temple of Concord,
were the Scalze Gemonis, where the bodies of criminals were exposed
after execution.''

The most important spot in the Forum itself was the Comitium or meeting-place of
the primitive assembly of the Roman burgesses.^ In the early times of the Republic
this assembly exercised an oligarchical power in the state, and the Comi- ,, ,

■' . North-casteyn

tium was then aristocratic ground. The speakers in the Rostra, which stood sideof iiu

Forum

assembled within its consecrated limits. But in the later days of the

upon the Comitium," then turned themselves towards the privileged class

Romanum.

Republic, though the Comitium still remained the most important spot in
the Forum, yet it was from a different cause. The real power then resided in the Senate,
and the great object of every political man was to get a seat in that body by holding
the great offices of state. Harangues (concioiics) addressed by candidates for office or by
political agitators to the Roman people then became frequent, and the speakers, turning
their backs on the Comitium, addressed themselves to the rabble in the Forum.'" The

' Livy, i.33. - Varro, L. L. V. § 1 5 1 ; Festus,p.356. Arch. p. 156.

' " Tullios alii dixerunt rivos alii vehcmentes pro- '^ Mabillon, Mus. Ital. p. 118 ; Vita Anastas. p. 62.

jectiones sanguinis." — Ennius. " Sanguine tcpido '' Dion Cass. Iviii. 5, of Sejanus ; Val. Max. vi. 9.

tullii efflantes volant." — Fcstiis, p. 353. 13, of Ca:pio ; Tac. Hist. iii. 74, of Sabinus.

■* Sail. Cat. 55 ; Plutarch, Marius, ch. xii. * Varro, L. L. v. § 155 ; Plut. Rom. 19.

= Motnmsen, Rom. Hist. vol. i. p. 243 ; GcU. Rome " Asc. in Cic. pro Mil. v. § 12, p. 43 ; Orelli.

and Vicinity, p. 495, Appendix; Lubke, Gesch. der " G. Licinius Crassus was first guilty of this in

82 The Fonun Romanum before Jtilius Carsar.

exact spot in the Forum where the Comitium lay is so hard to determine that it has
become one of the most controverted points of Roman topography. Some writers have
placed it on the south-western side of the Forum, near the Temple of Castor, others
at the south-eastern end, near the Regia, and others at the north-western corner.
The strongest evidence certainly appears to point to the north-western part of the
Forum. ^

That the Comitium was close to the Curia Hostilia there can be no doubt, for the
statue of Attus Navius, the augur, stood in the Comitium on the steps to the left of
the Curia, and the Curia and Comitium are placed together by Livy and Cicero.^ Now
the Curia was on the north side of the Forum, for Pliny distinctly says that the hour of
noon was proclaimed by the Consul's marshal when, standing in front of the Curia, he
could see the sun between the Graecostasis and Rostra ; and this is hardly possible
except from the north-eastern side of the Forum or the north-western end.^ We are,
therefore, certain that the Comitium, since it was close to the Curia, was also on the
north-eastern side or at the north-western end.

It is also mentioned that the Comitium was under the Vulcanal or Area Vulcani,*
which was, in fact, the oldest place of meeting.^ Now some part of the Vulcanal was
so near the Forum Juliuni that the roots of a tree which stood upon it in Pliny's time
penetrated to that Forum," the situation of which to the north of the Forum Romanum
is tolerably ascertained. We, therefore, have strong reasons for placing the Comitium at
the northern corner of the Forum near the Via Bonella.

Further, it is stated by the Scholiast on Horace, that the tribunal and rostra were
removed by Julius Caesar from their old places at the Comitium, and placed at the
south-eastern end of the Forum, showing that they did not stand there originally."

The Comitium was a regularly consecrated tcmplum, or space open to the air, and
not a covered building, for we read of drops of blood and milk falling upon it from the
sky,^ and of troops passing over it on their way through the Forum.^ The Ficus Navia,
confused by the later Romans with the Ruminal fig-tree which sheltered Romulus and
Remus in their infancy, grew upon it.^" The harangues delivered from the Rostra, which
stood between the Comitium and Forum, were delivered to open-air assemblies of
the people.^^

In different parts of the Comitium stood the statues of several celebrated persons, ol
Hermodorus the Ephesian, interpreter and secretary to the Commission of Ten who drew

B.C. 145, Cic. La:l. 25. Plutarch says the same of ' Porphyr. ad Hon Ep. i. 19 ; Schol. ad Sat. ii. 6,

C. Gracchus, but probably without authority. Plut. 35. See also Dion Cass. xHii. 49. Mommsen, vol.

C. Gracch. 5. iii. p. 74, speaks of the removal in B.C. 145 of the

^ The fairest discussion of this question, and review place of assembly of the burgesses from the Comi-

of all the passages bearing upon it, will be found in tium to the Forum, but he gives no authority for this

Annali dell' Inst. vol. xxxii. p. 138, written by i\I. statement.

Uetlcfsen. * Miillcr, Etrusc. ii. 132 ff. ; Livy, x.xxiv. 45 ; Julius

- Livy, i. 36; Plin. xxxiv. 5 ; Cic. Rep. ii. 17 ; Obseq. 83, 103.

Dionys. iii. 71. " Livy, v. 55.

' Plin. Nat. Hist. vii. 60. '" Tac. Ann. xiii. 58; Festus, p. 169; Dionys.it.

* Livy, i.x.46, compared with Plin. Nat. Hist, xxxiii, 71, 79. By some trick of the augur Navius this tree
6 ; Festus, p. 290. had been moved from the Lupcrcal : Plin. Nat. Hist.

* Dionys. ii. 50 ; Plut. Rom. 20. xv. 18, 20.

" Plin. Nat. Hist. xvi. 26. " Livy, iii. 11 ; viii. 33.

The Foriim Romamun be/ore Jjilins Cccsar. 8"

up the Laws of the Twelve Tables, of three Sibyls, of Attus Navius the augur, Horatius
Codes, and some others.^ The pavement was of stone, for one of the stones in the
pavement, from its funereal blackness, was called the tombstone of Romulus or Faustulus.
A stone lion also stood upon it near the Rostra, and was commonly said to have been
erected on the spot where Faustulus was killed.- At the corners stood the statues of
Alcibiades and Pythagoras.^

There is no evidence to show that the area was enclosed or separated by a barrier
from the Forum, but Cicero seems to imply that it was so,^ and the Forum is often
mentioned as distinct from the Comitium.^ If the Comitium is to be considered as
.separated from the Forum by an enclosure of any kind, we must suppose that it was
so arranged as not to interfere with a free passage through the Forum along the road
called Sub Novis.

The Curia Hostilia was originally built by Tullus Hostilius for the accommodation
of the Comitia Curiata, who had previously met in the open air upon the Comitium.'"'
We may conclude, therefore, that it stood upon the Comitium, and that it
was slightly raised above it, and approached by steps. Tarquinius threw """ "^ ""■
Servius down these steps ; '' and, as has been already mentioned, the statue of Attus
Navius the augur stood upon them.

Upon the side wall of the Curia Hostilia was a famous picture, executed by the order
of M. Valerius Messalla, in honour of his victory at Messana over the Carthaginians and
Hiero, in B.C. 264, which decided the fate of the Carthaginian Empire in Sicily, and made
Hiero the firm ally of Rome.* This picture was probably on that side of the Curia which
adjoined the Basilica Porcia, for Cicero speaks of the neighbourhood of the Valerian
picture as a place of business ; ^ and the Basilica Porcia was occupied by bankers' offices,
and used for financial transactions.^" Cicero represents Vatinius, the creature of Cjesar,
as seizing Bibulus the Consul near the Valerian picture, when he was leaving the Curia at
the northern side, to escape the rabble in the Forum on the southern. Jn order to convey
Bibulus into the Forum, which was occupied by Clodius's partisans, Clodius forms a sort
of bridge -with the wooden tribunals on the Comitium from the Rostra down to the
Forum, and so carries off his victim. ^^

The Curia Hostilia was rebuilt by Sylla, when dictator, as an emblem of aristocratical
power. At the same time he removed the statues of Alcibiades and Pythagoras, the
representatives of Hellenic democracy.^' Sylla's building was burnt in B.C. 54, at the
time of the riots excited by the death of Clodius. The words of Cicero on this occasion,
in his speech in defence of Milo, plainly show that the Curia was regarded by the
Romans of his day as a symbol of aristocratical influence. He calls it the temple of

' Plin. Xat. Hist. .\x.\iv. 5, II, 12 ; Livy, ii. 10 ; Gell. * Plin. .\.\.\v. 7 ; Mommsen, Rom. Hist. vol. ii. p.

iv. 5. 35, 36, book iii. ch. 2. " Cic. ad Div. xiv. 2.

- Dionys. i. 87 ; Schol. ad Hon Epod. xvi. 12. " In the Notitia it is called " Argentaria," Reg.

" Plin. Nat. Hist, xxxiv. 5, 12. viii. ; Marini, Atti, p. 248 ; Plaut. Cure. iv. i, 11 ;

* Cic. De Rep. ii. 17. Mommsen, //////. dclP Inst. vol. xvi. p. 297.

° Cic. Pro Scstio, 35, in \'err. i. 22, and in numerous " Cic. in V'at. ix. 21.

other passages ; Tac. Agric. 2. '" Plin. Nat. Hist, xxxiv. 6, 12. Cic. De Fin. v. i.

" Livy, i. 30; Cic. De Rep. ii. 17 ; Varro, L. L. v- refers to this restoration by Sylla the dictator, and

§ 155 ; Aur. Vict., Vir. 111. 4 not, as most commentators think, to the restoration

" Livy, i. 48 ; Dionys. iv. 38 ; Zonaras, vji. 9. by Faustus Sylla,

.M 2

84 The Fortmi Romaimm before Julius Ccvsar.

sanctit)-, rank, and intelligence, the shrine of national wisdom, the head of the city, the
sanctuary of the allies, the harbour of refuge for all nations, the place \vhich the whole
Roman world has appropriated to one class of its citizens.^ Sylla's son Faustus restored
the Curia, but his building was again pulled down by Julius C^sar, under pretence of
a wish to build a temple to Felicitas, but really in order to abolish the memory of Sylla
and the old senatorial party.^ On another occasion the Curia was dismantled and the
roof pulled off by the senatorial party themselves. When Saturninus had been forced to
surrender in the Capitol, Marius, who was consul, placed him and his partisans in the
Curia, thinking that he would be most secure there from the violence of the senatorial
party, who would consider his being placed there an appeal to their forbearance, and
would hesitate to attack a building which was considered as the sanctum of nobility.
Marius was mistaken, for the Curia was attacked at once, and the wretched Saturninus
and his adherents pelted to death with the stones of the roof.^

To the right of the Senate-house stood the Grsecostasis, a stone platform open to the
air, raised above the Comitium,* and so called because it was originally the place appro-
priated to the Greek envoys of Marseilles by the Roman people, and after-
wards to the envoys of other foreign nations, at the public spectacles
ancient!}' held in the Forum. The Massiliots were privileged in this way on account of
the kindly feeling shown by them to the Roman state after the capture of the city by
the Gauls in B.C. 390.* The brazen shrine of Concord, erected by Cn. Flavius, Curule
yEdile in 303 B.C., in commemoration of his attempt to assert the rights and liberties
of the Plebs, is said by Pliny to have been placed on the Grsecostasis. Pliny also
mentions the removal of the Grsecostasis to a different site by some one of the
Emperors, and the name seems to have been given to a reception-hall in the Imperial
times."

The Senaculum was the designation of a place at which the Senate met in the early
times of Rome, just as the Curise met in the Comitium." It was situated, according to
Varro,^ above the Graecostasis, and therefore at the side of the Comitium
on the right of the Curia, and not far from the Temple of Concord. The
name was afterwards used as the designation of other meeting-places of the Senate.
Festus mentions two others, one at the Capenatian Gate, also mentioned by Livy,'-' and
another at the Temple of Bellona, near the Circus." In the year 174 B.C. a portico, or
cloister, was built, reaching from the Temple of Saturn to the Senaculum, and thence
to the Curia. This portico probably occupied the northern side of the Sacra Via, and
must have passed in front of the Temple of Concord.^^

The Vulcanal, or, as it is called by Livy, the Area Vulcani, must have been close to the

' Cic. Pro Mil. 33 ; Phil. vi. 4 ; Dion Cass. xl. 49. " Festus. p. 347 ; Li\7, .xxiii. 32.

- Dion Cass. xl. 50 ; xliv. 5; xlvii. 19 ; li. 22. ^" Ov. Fast. vi. 203.

^ Appian, B. C. i. 32 ; Merivalc, Fall of the ^^ Livy, xli. 27. The reading of this passage is un-

Roman Republic, ch. 2 ; Mommsen, vol. iii. p. 215. certain. It would make a more intelligible sense to

■* Varro, L. L. v. 155 ; Plin. Nat. Hist, xxxiii. 1,6 ; read "in Capitolio." Mommsen lays too much stress

Julius Obseq. 24, 28, 31. upon the word super, which I take to mean little

^ Justin, xliii. 5 ; Mommsen, Rom. Hist, book ii. more than btyond. {Ann. delV hist. xvi. p., 292.)

ch. 7, pp. 430, 467. Detlefsen, in Ann. dell' Inst, xxxii. p. 154, thinks

" Plin. Nat. Hist, xxxiii. i, 6. that this refers to the Curia Calabra, but such a sup-

" Val. Max. ii. 2, 6. * Varro, L. L. v. 156. position is unnecessary.

The Font!)! Romamim before Julius Cccsar.- 85

Senaculum, on the slope of the Capitol.^ It seems to have been originally an open space
of some extent, used for public meetings, especially those of the Comitia
Tributa,- and dedicated to Vulcan. Sacrifices of small fish were offered to
Vulcan here, and a temple dedicated to that god stood also here in the earliest times, but
it was afterwards, on the enlargement of the pomcerium beyond the Palatine, removed
for religious reasons to the Circus Flaminius, and the Vulcanal became simply a con-
secrated area.^

The Temple of Concord was built upon a part of this area, and it was hence called
Area Concordise.^ Romulus is said to have dedicated a brazen group of statuary
representing a four-horse chariot there, and to have planted the lotus tree, the roots
of which reached to the Forum Julium. The statues of Horatius Codes and of a
gladiator who had been struck by lightning were placed upon it by the advice of the
Etruscan augurs.^

The Rostra, before the time of Julius Caesar, stood somewhere near the middle of the
Forum.*' Julius Caesar built new Rostra at the eastern end. It is not, however, necessary
to suppose that the old Rostra were exactly in the middle of the open

^'^ . Rostra.

area of the Forum, but only that they were nearly in the centre of one of
the four sides of the Forum. This is shown by the statement of Appian, that INIarius's
head was placed by Sylla in the middle of the Forum before the Rostra.^ The shows
of gladiators could be best surveyed from thence, and therefore the place must have
commanded a view of the widest part of the Forum.* Further, an orator speaking from
them could turn either to the Comitium or to the Forum as he chose, and they were
therefore placed between the two, as has been already remarked, and not far from the
Curia Hostilia.

The origin of their name is well known. At the end of the great Latin war in B.C. 338
the power of the Latin League was completely destroyed, and their fleet at Antium, which
town had taken the lead in the war, fell into the hands of the Romans, who appropriated
some of the ships, and burnt others, and decorated the orators' platform with their
beaks {rostra)?

Upon the Arch of Constantine there is still extant a bas-relief, which represents an
orator addressing the people from the Rostra, and a rude picture of them is also given
upon a denarius of the Gens Lollia.^*' These representations refer to the later or Julian
Rostra, but it is probable that the shape of the old Rostra was similar. Hence it
appears that they consisted of a curved platform raised on arches, with a surrounding
parapet, and that they somewhat resembled the ambones, or reading-desks, still
to be seen in ancient churches, as in S. Clemente and S. Lorenzo at Rome and
elsewhere.

A great number of statues were placed near the Rostra. Among these are mentioned
by name those of the three Sib)-ls, the earliest bronze statues at Rome, of Camillus and

1 Li\y, xx.xix. 46 ; Festus. p. 290. ^ Dion Cass, xliii. 49 = «" /'*'<^S» "^"^ '"')* ciyopar.

' Dionys. vi. 67 ; vii. 17 ; xi. 39 ; ii. 50. ' App. B. C. i. 94. ' Cic. Phil. ix. 7.

' Plut. Rom. OuiEst. 47 ; Cal. Cap. x. Kal. Sept. " Livy, viii. 14; Plin. Nat. Hist, xxxiv. S, 11 ;

* Livy, x.xxix. 56 ; .\1. 19; ix. 46. Mommsen, Rom. Hist. vol. i. pp. 368, 464.

' Plut. Rom. 24; Plin. Nat. Hist. xvi. 44. See '° See Smith's Diet. Ant. s.v. Rostra; Spanheim,

above, p. 83. GcU, iv. 5 ; Fcstus, p. 290. De Usu Numism. ii. p. 191.

S6 'The Forum Romamim before Julius Ccrsar.

Mienius, of four ambassadors who were killed by the Fidenates in the discharge of
their duty, of Cnsus Octavius, who lost his life as ambassador to King Antiochus/
and of Pompey and Sylla.'- The Fosdus Latinum and the Duodecim Tabula were also
placed there on a brazen column.^ The curved ridge of brickwork near the Arch of
Septimius was, when first found, supposed to be the old Rostra, but it is probably of a
later date. Becker thinks that it may prove to be the substructure of the Temple of
the Genius of the Roman people mentioned by Dion Cassius.*

On the Comitium, at least in the early times of the Republic, stood the Praetor's
Tribunal.^ This must not be conceived of as a fixed building, but as a moveable
wooden platform and chair. A dictator or consul sometimes also placed
Tnbunaha. ^^.^ ^j^_^.^ ^^ judgment OH the Comitium, as at the trial of M. Manlius,«
and the petition of the Locrensian envoys." The phrase "to ascend the tribunal"
shows that it was a raised dais on which the magistrate's chair was placed f and Cicero
speaks of the steps of the Aurelian tribunal, which perhaps was a tribunal erected by
Aurelius Cotta, Consul in B.C. 74."-' A great variety of lawsuits were tried in the
Forum, and there were several tribunals in different parts in the time of Cicero. He
speaks of a bridge made by Vatinius from the Rostra to the Forum, by piling up the
wooden platforms and benches and chairs of the numerous tribunals, along which Vatinius
carried off the unfortunate Consul Bibulus, and also mentions the violent ejection by
the same demagogue of the magistrates from their tribunals.^** The body of Clodius
was burnt on a pile made partly of these wooden tribunals, and in the remarkable scene
described by Suetonius, at the funeral of Ca;sar, among other combustibles which the
mob collected in order to burn his body in the Forum were the wooden tribunals and
benches.^^

There were apparently two Putealia or well-mouths in the Forum. One was opposite
to the Curia Hostilia, and on the Comitium, near the statue of the augur Attus Navius,^^
and the other, the Puteal of Libo, was near the Arch of Fabius at the
eastern end.^^ Originally the enclosure of a well, puteal came afterwards to
signify any enclosure in the shape of a well-mouth, enclosing a spot held to be sacred
according to the augural superstitions. Several ancient putealia are preserved in the
Italian museums.

The most celebrated Temple of Janus, for there were several others in Rome, stood in
front of the Curia." It was probably a very small, old-fashioned temple, and did not

' Plin. Nat. Hist, xxxiv. 5, 1 1 ; Cic. Phil. ix. 2. " Livy, vi. 15.

Procop. i. 25 mentions ra Tpi'a t^ara, which maymean " Ibid. xxix. 16.

the Sibyls ; and Anastasius, Vit. Honor, i. p. 121, and » Cic. in Vat. § 34 ; Livy, xxviii. 26 ; Mart. xi. 98,

Vit. Hadrian, i. p. 254, speaks of the churches of S. 17.

Adriano, S. Cosma e Damiano, and S. Martina, as " Cic. Pro Cluent. § 93. See also Pro Flacco, §

" in tribus fatis." Part of the Forum was after- 66 ; Pro Sestio, § 34.

wards, in the eighth century, called "tria fata." See '" Cic. in Vat. ix. § 21 ; ch. xiv. § 34.

Bunsen's Beschreibung, iii. 2, 124; also Cyprian, " Suet. Jul. Cxs. 84 ; Dion Cass. xl. 49 ; Asc. Arg.

Epist. xxi. 3, " ad tria fata ascetidisse." in Mil. 34.

2 Dion Cass. xlii. 18, xliii. 49 ; Suet. Caes. 75 ; i" Cic. De Div. i. 17 ; Plin. Nat. Hist, xxxiv. 5, II ;

App. B. C. i. 97. Livy, i. 36 ; Dionys. iii. 71.

^ Diod. Sic. xii. 26 ; Cic. Pro Balb. xxiii. 53. " Hor. Ep. i. 19, 18 ; Sat. ii. 6, 35 ; Pers. iv. 49.

* Dion Cass, xlvii. 2. 1^ Dion Cass. Ixxiii. 13, 14 ; Ov. Fast. i. 257 ;

* Gell. XX. I, §§ 1 1, 47 : "Ad prffitorem in comitium." Procop. Goth. i. 25 ; Niebuhr, vol. i. p. 292.

The Forum Roviamirn be/ore Julius Casar. 87

occupj- much space. The double head of this god's image was significant of his pccuHar

province as god of opening, the most ancient gateways being constructed

with two arches and a chamber between them, and the shape of his temple Temple of

' Janus.

was probably that of a gateway chamber open at both ends. Hence the
word janiis was applied generally in Latin to all archways, and therefore Horace speaks
of the highest, central, and lowest jaui in the Forum, offices under archways, at which the
financial business of the day was carried on.^ Over some of these archways were
chambers occupied by merchants and men of business. The well-known custom of
keeping the doors of Janus's Temple open during war, and shut during peace, was usually
explained by the storj' of a repulse inflicted on the Sabines by the god's interference.- A
deeper meaning may be found in the idea that Janus was the power who presided
over the beginning of every act, and who gave his blessing to the troops marching out
through the city gate to war. This ceremony of opening the Temple of Janus is recorded
for the last time when Gordian HI. marched against the Persian army which had
invaded Syria.^

During the later times of the Republican government at Rome, in the second century
before the Christian era, after the drain upon the population caused by the great wars had
ceased, and wealth and commerce had begun to increase rapidh',* the want of more com-
modious public buildings for the transaction of business must have been felt, and we
find Cato the Censor, in B.C. 184, applying some of the public funds in purchasing the
courts of two private houses belonging to Msenius and Titus, situated in the district of the
Lautumise, and also four shops adjoining. Upon this site he built the Basilica
Porcia.^ The north side of the Forum was perhaps selected in accordance
with the opinion mentioned by Vitruvius,'' that a basilica should be in the warmest
situation for the convenience of merchants in cold weather. As many of them were open
buildings, without side walls or central roof, this caution was not without considerable
meaning. The name of these buildings indicates that their design came from Greece,'
and it is plain from Cicero's letters that some of the celebrated architects in the sixth and
seventh centuries of the city were Greeks. The shape of a basilica may be best learnt
from the churches which were built upon the model of basilicae, of which many remain
at Rome and Ravenna.* A central nave divided by pillars from two side aisles, over
which galleries were built, constituted the main part of these public buildings. At one
or both ends was a circular apse used for legal trials. The central nave was sometimes
covered with a roof, and sometimes open to the air. They were frequented by loiterers
as well as by business men, and to take a turn in the basilica with an)' one to whom you
might wish to show a little attention was considered at Rome equivalent to a morning
call." Cato's Basilica was placed near the Curia Hostilia, and close to the edge of the
Forum, as is shown by the express statement of Plutarch, and also by the fact mcn-

' Hor. Ep. i. I, 54; Sat. ii. 3, 19; Cic. De Offic. « Vitruv. v. r.

ii. 25 ; Phil. vi. 5. - Ov. Fast. i. 269. " ^acnXtK^ (ttoi]. See the description of Constan-

^ Gibbon, ch. vii. ; Jul. Capit. in Gord. iii. ; Aur. tine's Basilica in chap. viii.

Vict. Cecs. xxvii. ; Oros. vii. 19. » The Basilicas of S. Lorenzo and S. Agnese at

* On the enormous increase in wealth at this time, Rome, and S. Apollinarc in Classe at Ravenna, arc-
see Mommsen, vol. ii. p. 382. perhaps the best examples.

' Liv)', xx.xi.x 44. " Cic. Pro Mura;na, ch. xxxiv. 70.

88 The Fonim Romanutn before Julitis Ccesar.

tioned b}' the Scholiast on Cicero, who says that Msenius, when his house was removed
to make room for the basiHca, reserved to himself the right of erecting a balcony over
one of the columns, from whence he might view the gladiatorial combats in the Forum.'
In the riot over Clodius's corpse, in which the Curia was burnt, the Basilica Porcia, which
was close by, also sufiered much damage, and seems never to have been restored under
the same name.-

On the same side of the Forum with the Basilica Porcia stood the Basilica Fulvia et
Emilia. It was first built in the year B.C. 179, by M. Fulvius Nobilior the Censor,

and was placed behind the new silversmiths' shops on the north side of the
BasiUm Fulvia pQ^um.'' The colleague of Fulvius in the Censorship was M. ^milius

Lepidus, and a descendant of his a century afterwards, when Consul, deco-
rated the basilica with the busts or profiles in relief of his ancestors represented on
circular shields, a mode of commemoration often adopted at Rome.^ These were
probably placed, like the portraits of the Popes in S. Paolo Fuori le Mura, along the
entablature between the upper and lower columns of the sides of the building. A
restoration of this basilica took place in B.C. 54, when L. ^milius Paullus was yEdile. He
was anxious to gain popularity in order to secure his election to the prjetorship and consul-
ship, and among other public works he undertook to beautify and restore the basilica
built by his ancestors. At the same time, as appears from a letter of Cicero, he laid out
a still larger sum of money upon another basilica, the name of which is not known,
but which may have been distinguished from the Basilica Fulvia et Emilia as the
Basilica Paulli.^ The words of Cicero seem to indicate that the old Basilica Fulvia et
/Emilia was in the middle of the north-eastern side of the Forum ; between the Church
of S. Adriano and the Temple of Antoninus and Faustina. The new Basilica PauUi was

possibly an addition to the old one on the south-eastern side. When it

was burnt in B.C. 14, the fire endangered the Temple of Vesta, and it was
therefore not far from the south-eastern end of the Forum, otherwise the distance from
the Temple of Vesta would be too great to justify the language used by Dion Cassius about
the conflagration." Again in A.D. 22 this building was restored and decorated by another
Paullus /Emilius Lepidus," and its magnificence is afterwards spoken of by Pliny, who

1 Pint. Cat. Maj. 19 ; Cat. Min. 5 ; Asc. ad Cic. = Cic. ad Att. iv. 16, § 14. Four great public

Div. in Caec. 16, Pro Mil. Arg. 3. Plaut. Capt. iv. 2, works are here alluded to by Cicero, (i) The

23 (S15), Curculio, iv. I, II (472), mentions the fish- Basilica yEmilia et Fulvia in the Forum. (2)

market as behind a basilica. But both these pas- The Basilica Paulli. (3) The enlargement of the

sages arc interpolations of a later date than Plautus, Forum towards the Ouirinal. (4) The Septa Julia,

who died in B.C. 183 (Cic. Brutus, xv. § 60), the year Becker is mistaken in supposing that the money

after Cato"s censorship, and Livy says (xxvi. 27) that given to Paullus by Caesar as a bribe is alluded to by

there were no basilicffi before Cato's time. The Cicero, for Cicero's letter was written three years

interpolated lines may therefore refer to one of the before the consulship of Paullus, during which he

other basilicffi subsequently built. received the bribe. (Plut. C. Ca;s. 29 ; App. B. C. ii.

^ Ascon. Introd. ad Cic. pro Mil. § 3. 26.) Cicero is speaking of Paullus as at this time an

5 Livy, xl. 51 ; Varro, L. L. vi. § 4; Cic. Acad. ii. enemy of Cassar. It was said that Paullus afterwards,

22. \ 70 ; Stat. Silv. i. 30. when Consul, spent a sum received from Cssar as

■1 Plin. Nat. Hist. xxxv. 3, 4. A shield of silver, the price of reconciliation on the Basilica Paulli.

with a picture or profile of Hasdrubal Barca. was " Ingenti merccde," says Suet. Jul. 29. Cic. ad

taken in Spain from the Carthaginians, and deposited Att. vi. 3, 2.

in the Capitol. (Livy, xxv. 39. See also Tac. Ann. ii. « Dion Cass. liv. 24.

83 ; Sil. Ital. xvii. 398.) " Tac. .A.nn. iii. 72.

The For/till Roviaint7ii before yiilius Ctcsar. 89

especially mentions its columns of Phrygian marble, and classes it with the Circus
Maximus, the Forum of Augustus, and the Temple of Peace, as one of the most beautiful
buildings in the world.'

Another basilica is mentioned by Varro as having stood above the Grscostasis.- He
calls it the Basilica Opimia, and connects it with the celebrated Temple
of Concord, built by L. Opimius B.C. 121, after the death of C. Gracchus '^""'^

... Opimm.

and the triumph of the aristocratical part}*.^ This basilica therefore stood

near the still remaining foundations of the Temple of Concord, and probably on the

north side of them, where the present street ascends to the Ara Cceli.

In the same part of the Forum, but nearer to the Comitium, stood the statue or
shrine of Venus Cloacina, mentioned by Pliny as situated on the spot where the Romans
and Sabines were reconciled.'' Plautus speaks of the shrine of Cloacina

,, , , . , ._, , . , -,,.... -r • Vcntis Cloaciiui.

as a well-known place in the honmi, and m the story of Virgmia m Livy
it is placed near the New Shops on the north side of the Forum.'' In Becker's
" Handbook of Roman Antiquities " a coin is figured ^\•hich is supposed to represent
this shrine."

A column, called the ]\Ia.'nian Column, in honour of C. Msnius the Dictator, who in
B.C. 338 had finally put an end to the Latin league by his victories, stood at this end of
the Forum." It was when the sun had passed this column and was sinking
towards the Career Mamertinus, that the crier in ancient times used to "'"'""'

Micma.

proclaim the last hour of the day, when business was supposed to close.
This proclamation was made in the Comitium,* and therefore the column stood on the
western side of the Comitium. It was also apparently a place of meeting for persons
engaged in lawsuits, who wished to secure the aid of counsel.^

Near the Arch of Severus was found the base of the famous column adorned with the
beaks of some Carthaginian ships taken bj- Duilius, at Mylae, in B.C. 260. The inscription
on it, and a restoration of the column itself by Michael Angelo, is still to
be seen in the court of the Palace of the Conservators on the Capitol.'" As j)',',"!,'!"
this column was certainly near the Rostra and Comitium,'' the discovery of
its pedestal near the Arch of Severus confirms the opinion that they were situated in this
part of the Forum.

Along the north-eastern side of the Forum ran a row of shops called the New Shops.
They were in the early times occupied by butchers and schoolmasters, as
the story of Virginia shows, but afterAvards by silversmiths.'- 1 hey stood
in front of the Basilica Fulvia et Emilia when it was first built, but were removed

' Plin. Nat. Hist, xxxvi. 15, 24; Varro, L. L. vi. § 4. ' PHn. Nat. Hist, .\xxiv. 5, 11 ; Livy, viii. 13;

' Varro, L. L. v. § 156; Marini atli dei Frat. Arv. Mommsen, Rom. Hist. vol. i. p. 368. Livy speaks of

p. 212 ; Cic. Pro Sest. 67. an equestrian statue, and not of a column.

' App. B. C. i. 26 ; Plut. C. Gracch. 17 ; Aug. De » Plin. Nat. Hist. vii. 60 ; Varro, L. L. vi. § 5.

Civ. Dei, iii. 25. Becker thinks it possible that the » Cic. Div. in Ca;c. 16; Pro -Sest. 58.

line in Plaut. Cure. iv. i, 24, " Dites damnosos ^^ Canina, For. Rom. p. 301, note,

maritos apud Leucadiam Oppiam," may be amended, " Plin. Nat. Hist, xxxix. 5, 11 ; Sil. Ital. vi. 663,

" apud Concordiam Opimiam."' ni7'ea tiioUs, of white marble. Quint. Inst. Or. i. 7,

■• Plin. Nat. Hist. xv. 29, 36, § 119. "in Rostris." Serv. Ad Georg. iii. 29.

° Livy, iii. 4S. ^- See the Rhaiiisihcs Museum for 1S37, pp. 215—

' Becker, Rom. Alt.. Thcil i. Tab. 5, No. 4. 223 : Varro, ap. Non. p. 532 ; Livy, iii. 44, 48.

90 The Foriivi RomaJtuiii bcfojx Julius Ccesar.

in Livy's time. On high festival days the gilded shields which had been taken from the
Samnites were exhibited in these shops.^ A similar row of shops, called the
T^h^" Old Shops, bordered the south-western side of the Forum area.- They were

under arcades, somewhat similar to those of Bologna, Turin, many of the
modern Italian towns, and the Rows at Chester. Over the arcades were open balconies,
called Ma;niana, projecting beyond the pillars of the arcades, from which
the games and gladiatorial spectacles could be conveniently viewed ; and these
balconies were painted with various devices.^ The whole of the balconies on the south-
west were painted by Serapion, a famous scene-painter/ and a story seems to have been
Current at Rome about Crassus, the celebrated advocate, who was one day cross-examining
a witness at one of the tribunals in the Forum, near the Old Shops. The witness became
impatient, and exclaimed, " What you do take me for, sir .' " and Crassus, pointing to
the picture, on the wall of the Old Shops, of an idiotic-looking Gaul with his tongue
lolling out, replied, "I take you for just such a fellow as that.""" Cicero relates a similar
joke of his own upon an opponent, and adds that the picture he pointed to was that of a
Gaul with a hideously-distorted expression, flabby cheeks, and a protruded tongue, painted
upon a shield, hung up by Marius after his Cimbric campaign." The modern counter-
parts of these pictures are to be seen on the walls in some of the towns of the Southern
Tyrol and Italy, but they now generally take the form of saints and angels instead of
conquerors and captives. Some incendiary fires caused by petty spite are recorded
by Livy as having, in B.C. 210, burnt down parts of the Forum called the Seven Shops,
afterwards called the Five Shops, the silversmiths' shops, afterwards called the New
Shops, some private houses, part of the Lautumian district, the fish-market, and the
Royal Court. The Royal Court {Atriitui Regiinn) stood in front of the Temple of Vesta,
which was saved from this fire with difficulty by the courage of thirteen slaves." The
restoration of the shops by the Censors, at the public expense, is recorded in B.C. 209, and
it may hence be concluded that the shops were State property.*

At the upper or north-western end of the Forum, besides the Basilica Opiniia, which has

been already mentioned, and which stood back behind the area called the Senaculum,

,, ,, , there were built before the time of Julius Ctesar two of the most celebrated

End. temples in Rome — the Temple of Concord and the Temple of Saturn. The

Temple of situation of the former is described by Plutarch as overlooking the Forum

and Comitium, by Festus as between the Capitol and Forum, and by Dion

Cassius as near the prison. Livy also connects the area of Concord with the Vulcanal,

which was here as we have seen.'-' These descriptions have been fully confirmed by the

1 Livy, .\.\vi. 1 1 ; ix. 40. (Ibid. x.\vi. 27). Those on the south side were first

- Cic. Acad. ii. 22, § 70. rebuilt in a. u.C. 543 (Ibid. ,\xvii. 11) ; those on the

" Paul. Uiac. p. 135 ; Vitruv. v. i, J^maTpa. north side were rebuilt about A. U.C. 560 (Festus, p.

■* Plin. Nat. Hist. xx.\v. 10, § 113. 230), (Uriichs. Rhein. Mus. v. 157.) After that time

^ Ibid. XXXV. 4, 8. they began to be called V'eteres and Novse, from the

" Cic. De Orat. ii. 66. dates of their respective restorations (Ritschl, Opusc.

' Livy, xxvi. 27. ii. 387). The butchers' shops were removed into the

* Ibid. -xxvii. II. The shops were at first butchers' back streets (Livy, xlv. 16).

shops (Livy, iii. 48). They were then changed into " Plut. Cam. 42 ; Fest. p. 347 ; Dion Cass. Iviii.

goldsmiths' shops at some time before A. U.C. 444 11 ; Livy, xl. 19, xxxix. 56 ; Julius Obseq. 59, 60. See

(Ibid. i.\. 40}. They were all burnt in A.U.c. 542 also Aug. De Civ. Dei. iii. 25 ; Statius, Silv., i. i, 31.

The Fonon Rivnanum before Julius Casar. gx

excavations conducted in 1S17, 1830, and 1835, \\hen the foundations of a temple were
uncovered standing behind the Arch of Severus, and separated from it by a street.
Inscriptions were discovered on the spot which proved beyond a doubt tliat this was the
ground-plan of the Temple of Concord.^ This temple was founded by Camillus in
B.C. 367, on the memorable occasion when tiie Senate, after a long and anxious debate,
wisely determined to throw open the consulate to the plebeian order.' It was placed
above the old meeting-place of the privileged families {geiitcs), as if constantly to remind
them that the newly-established concord of the community was under the special sanction
of the gods.

We do not distinctly hear of any restoration of this temple until Tiberius rebuilt it
in honour of his German campaign of A.D. 6 and 7, and dedicated it in A.D. 10 in the
name of his brother and of himself^ A considerable enlargement of the temple took
place, either at this time or at some other time after the Tabularium was built, since the
wall of the temple, the foundations of which are now left, comes quite close to the
Tabularium, and would render the ornamentation on its walls quite invisible. The
ornamental architecture of the Tabularium was therefore erected before the temple was
enlarged. It seems impossible that the restoration by Tiberius could have been the
first, and we may with reason conclude that when the Consul Opimius, on the death
of C. Gracchus, was ordered by the Senate to build a temple to Concord, he restored
and enlarged the old Temple of Camillus.^

This temple seems to have been a kind of Pantheon, or museum, for it was decorated
with a great number of statues of various gods, among which were those of Apollo and
Juno by Baton, of Latona by Euphranor, of .^sculapius and Hygsea by Niceratus, and
of Mars and Mercury by Piston, and with pictures of the god Liber by Nicias, an Athenian
artist, and of Marsyas by Zeuxis. The sacristan also exhibited as curiosities four
elephants cut in obsidian, presented by Augustus, and the veritable sardonyx which
had been set in the ring of Polycrates.^ On the left-hand side of the remaining foundations
of the cclla of the temple are two huge pedestals, which probabI\- supported two of the
above-mentioned statues.

The form of the latest restoration of the Temple of Concord can be traced from its
foundations, and presents a singular deviation from the usual plan of a Roman temple.
'Y\\Q pronaos is smaller than the cclla, and forms a kind of porch to it, and the cella has
greater breadth than depth ; the former measuring 82 feet in breadth and 45 in depth,
and the latter 147 feet in width b\- 78 in depth. The lower part was apparently
built with rubble, and faced on the outside with travertine and hard tufa stone, which

' Canina, Indie, p. 285. A coin of 'Jiberius re- on the Arx, and supposes that Opimius was the

presenting this temple and a fragment of the Capi- first founder of the sub-Capitoline temple. But

toline plan are also mentioned by Reber among the he appears to strain the meaning of aTroTrror and

proofs of its identity. (Rcber, p. 77.) I have not prospiccre too much. The site near the Forum and

seen these. Curia, where the quarrels took place, was most

^ Plut. Cam. 42 ; Livy, vi. 42 ; Ov. Fast. i. 641. appropriate to the temple commemorating their

' Ov Fast. loc. cit. ; Dion Cass. Iv. 8 ; Suet. Tib. happy termination. (See .Mcrkel on Ov. Fast.

20 ; Verrius in Fast. Praenest. p. cxxv.)

* .'\pp. B. C. i. 26; Plut. C. Grace. 17; Aug. De ^ Plin. Nat. Hist, xxxiv. 8. 19, §§ 73, 78, 80, 89;

Civ. Dei, iii. 25. Dr Dyer, in his article " Roma," xxxv. 10, 36. §5 66, 131 ; .xxxvi. 26, j 196 ; xxxvii. i, ,

in Smith's Diet. Ant., places the Temple of Camillus § 4.

X 2

92 The Foniiu Roj/iannm befoi'e yulius Ccssar.

again were covered with slabs of marble. As the temple stood out from the slope of
the Capitoline, this basement is of considerable height in front, and the temple was
approached by a flight of steps, the ruins of which remain.^ Portions of the variegated
marbles with which the interior was lined, and in particular the enormous threshold
stone of African marble, are still to be seen. The style of the temple was Corinthian,
as is shown by a coin of Tiberius which represents it, and had six columns in front,
and three figures embracing, as a symbol of concord, at the top. One of the bases of
the columns, very richly carved, is preserved in the Capitoline Museum. Canina, with
immense labour and pains, fitted together a number of small fragments found on the
spot, and thus restored a portion of the frieze, which shows the decorative work to have
been of extraordinary beauty. This is now in the corridor of the Tabularium.-

The manuscript of the anonymous traveller preserved in the library at Einsiedlen
gives the inscription, which was still in situ in the ninth century. It is as follows : —
" S.P.Q.R. (.') AEDEM CONCORDIAE VETUSTATE CONLAPSAM IN MELIOREM FACIEM OPERE
ET CULTU SPLENDIDIORE RESTITUERUNT." ^ The temple is also mentioned as still
standing in the " Ordo Romanus," a procession route-book of the twelfth century.* The
stones were probably carried away for building purposes in the time of Nicholas V.-''
Even before its magnificent restoration by Tiberius, this temple must have been of
considerable size, as we find the Senate frequently assembling in it. The most celebrated
debates which took place here were those at the time of the Catilinarian conspiracy, and
the third Catilinarian oration was probably delivered from the steps of this temple to the
assembled people after the most exciting of these debates. Sejanus was here sentenced to
death by the Senate, and his body thrown down the steps to the rabble in the Forum.
Meetings of the Senate continued to be held here down to a late period of the Empire,
in the times of Alexander, Severus, and Probus.'' It was used not only for the convenience
of its situation in criminal cases, as being close to the prison, but also from the pacific
political reminiscences and the religious feelings connected with it.

Dionysius mentions that there was in his time an old altar dedicated to Cronos at

the foot of the hill, on the ascent from the Forum to the Capitol, and that the legend

as told by the poet Euxenus and other Italian mythographers was, that the

empeof Epeans from Pisa in Elis, who came over with Hercules to Itahs had

Saturn. ^ _

founded it." This seems, however, to be an attempt to connect the old
Italian deity Saturnus with the Hellenic Cronos, and to have arisen in the Philo-Hellenic
age of Rome from the same source as the other Hellenic m)-ths in Italy- — the desire of
proving that all Italian civilization proceeded from Hellas. Dionysius aftenvards men-
tions the altar again on occasion of the dedication of the temple. The temple, he says,
was dedicated in the consulship of A. Sempronius Atratinus and M. Minucius, B.C. 497,
though some writers referred its foundation to Titus Lartius, the Consul of the previous

' Cicero speaks of these steps as " gradtis con- Mommsen and others from Sata., as the god of

cordiae." (Phil. vii. ch. viii.) sowing. (Rom. Hist. vol. i. p. 173. See Festus, p.

" Reber, Ruinen Roms, p. 76. 325 ; Plut. O. R. 42 : " Saturnus a sationibus.") The

5 Mabillon, Vet. Analect. vol. iv. p. 506. falx with which he was represented seems to confirm

^ Ibid. Mus. Ital. ii. p. 143. this, but the quantity of the first syllable makes it

^ Reber, Ruinen Roms, p. 80. doubtful. A fig-tree and a statue of Silvanus stood

" Hist. Aug. p. 115 E, and p. 165 E. ed. Salmas. before the Temple of Saturn. (Plin. Nat. Hist. xv.

' Dionysius, i. 34. "Saturnus" is derived by 18,20.)

The Forum Romamifn before yulius Cccsar.

year, others to King Tarquin tlie Proud, and others to Tullus Hostilius, after his victory
over the Albans and Sabines.' The hill above the temple was called Saturnius before
it received the names of Tarpeius and Capitolinus, and the epithet Saturnia is often
applied to the whole of Italy. Saturn was one of the most ancient and venerable native
gods of the Italian nation, and his fcsti\al, the Saturnalia, in December, was always one
of the most honoured.- Festus and Macrobius also speak of an altar of Saturn as existing
together with the temple, and Macrobius places it in front of the Senaculum.''

TEMI'Lt OF SATIRS' .\NI) TEMPLE OF VESPASIAN.
North-east End oj Palatine Hill. ■ Clivus Capitolinus.

The situation of the Temple of Saturn is further determined by other writers. Servius
places it in front of the Clivus Capitolinus, Festus at the foot of the Clivus Capitolinus,
\'arro at the entrance {in faucihus) of the Capitol, Aurelius Victor under the Clivus
Capitolinus, and the inscription of Ancyra places the Basilica Julia between it and the
Temple of Castor.'' Clearly, however, as the indications of its situation here seem to

' Dionys. vi. I ; Livy, ii. 21 ; Macrob. Sat.

- Livy, xxii. I.

' Festus p. 322 ; Macrob. Sat. i. 8.

* Serv. .Ad/En. ii. 1 16; Festus, loc. cit. ; Varro. L. L.
V. 7 ; Zumpt. Mon. Anc. Tab. iv. ; Aur. A'ict., Uc
Orig. G. R. c. 3. Nissen, Das Templum (Berlin, 1S69),

94 The Forum Romamim before yulius Casar.

point out the eight columns now standing as the remains of this temple, yet this con-
clusion has been impugned. Three arguments are adduced against it. First, Servius
speaks of the Temple of Saturn as near {jitxtd) the Temple of Concord ; ^ and, secondly,
in the ancient catalogues of the Regionarii, this temple stands next in order of enume-
ration to the Temple of Concord. The third argument is drawn from three inscriptions
which are quoted by the writer of the anonymous manuscript of Einsiedlen, who copied
them from the buildings themselves, as follow : —

" S.P.Q.R. INCENDIO CONSUMPTUM RESTITUIT DIVO VESPASIANO AUGUSTO."
" S.P.Q.R. IMPP. CAES. SEVERUS ET ANTONINUS PII FELICES AUGG. RE.STITUERUNT."
" S.P.Q.R. AEDEM CONCORDIAE VETUSTATE CONLAPSAM IN MELIOREM FACIEM
OPERE ET CULTU SPLENDIDIORE RESTITUERUNT."

These inscriptions doubtless belong to the three temples, the ruins of which have been
excavated on the slope of the Capitol towards the Forum. The first part of them, as far
as the word "restituit," is still seen upon the temple of which eight pillars remain, and which
the passages of classical writers above quoted would lead us to pronounce the Temple of
Saturn. Upon the three columns belonging to the temple which stands further up the
slope of the hill are the letters " estituer," which plainly belong to the second inscription,
and there can be no doubt that the third inscription belongs to the Temple of Concord
just described. But what are we to do with the words "divo Vespasiano Augusto " .'
Becker would place them at the end of the first inscription, and thus make the temple
of the eight pillars the Temple of Vespasian. But there are great difficulties in holding
this opinion, for there is an overwhelming weight of authority against it, and scarcely any,
except that of Servius and the Notitia, both of which may be explained otherwise,
in favour of it. Further, there is no room upon the front of the temple for the words,
and Becker is forced to separate them from the first part of the inscription, and place
them at the back of the temple, which seems ridiculous. Canina has, therefore, .assigned
the words "divo V^espasiano Augusto " to the second inscription. And this is in accord-
ance with the usual order of the words in dedicatory inscriptions, in which the name
of the deity in honour of whom the temple is built almost invariably comes first. A
fragment of the Capitoline plan, plainly belonging to the north-western end of Basilica
Julia, which was close to the temple of the eight pillars, has the letters "vrni" upon it,
which hardly leave a doubt that the building designated b}" them was the ^-Edes
Saturni.- A further confirmation of this opinion, that the temple of the three pillars
is the Temple of Vespasian, is found in the fact that the doorway leading down from
the Tabularium, which stands behind, is blocked up b\- it, and the temple must, there-
fore, have been built after the Tabularium. But it is certain that the Temple of Saturn
was, originally at least, built long before the Tabularium.^ It must be allow ed, however,

endeavours to show from the orientation of the tern- vius, iv. 5, gives express directions about the orien-

ples that the eight columns belong to the Temple of tation of temples. They are, he says, to look, if

Vespasian and the three to the Temple of Saturn, possible, towards the west and setting sun. If not,

But the theor)' of orientation which he announces is they should face the public roads, that the passers-by

so ill-pro\-ed, and is so inapplicable in some cases, as may salute the gods.

in the case of Janus Quadrifrons, that it cannot be ' Serv. Ad. /En. ii. 116.

accepted as satisfactory evidence in the teeth of the - Canina, Pianta Topografica, fig. xlv.

numerous documentary proofs given above. Vitru- ' Ibid. Bull. delV Inst. 1841. This doonvay

The Fonivi Romamim before Jnlins Ccesar. n-

that it is possible, though improbable, that the Temple of Saturn may have been enlarged
at a later period, so as to block up this entrance to the Tabularium.

Several later restorations of the Temple of Saturn are recorded. Gellius the Annalist
mentions one in the militar>- tribuneship of L. Furius. As there were several militarv
tribunes of this name, the date cannot be determined.^ In the reign of Augustus it
was again restored by Munatius Plancus,'- and the present building appears to belong to
a restoration of the time of the later Empire, after the transfer of the seat of Government
to Constantinople and the public recognition of the Christian religion. There is, there-
fore, no mention of the god Saturnus or of the Emperor in the inscription. It was the
only one of the old pagan temples rebuilt at that time, probably on account of its use
as the public treasury. As early as the time of Valerius Publicola, B.C. 500, it was used
as the State treasury and as repository-room for State documents.^ The Signa
militaria were also kept there, and the temple was under the control of the officers of
the Exchequer, the Quaestors.* Up to the fifteenth century in the Middle Ages it had
the name of the Mint (Cecha or Zecca), but was afterwards, by a mistake, called
Concordia." Some of the vaults which served as treasuries still exist under the
basement.

The breadth of the basement of this temple, which was laid bare in 1820, is 72 feet,
and the length about 130 feet. Part of it is now covered by the modern road leading
up to the Piazza del Campidoglio from the Forum. The facing of travertine still
remains on the front towards the arch of Septimius Severus, and openings for the
narrow stairs which led up to the entrance can be seen between the two central
columns. Si.x columns which compose the front and the next to these on each side
are now standing. The shafts of the two side columns are of grey, and those of the
front columns of red granite. The capitals of these columns, and also of the entabla-
ture, architrave, and frieze surmounting them, are of a late and debased Ionic style, and
they have been pieced together in the last restoration of the temple with extraordinary
negligence. Unequal spaces are left between the columns, and some are set upon
plinths, while others are without them. One of the side columns has been so badly
restored that the stones are misplaced, and consequently the diameter of the upper
portion is the same as that of the lower. The restored carving on the inner frieze is
of the roughest description, and a want of taste and a carelessness are apparent, which
show that, whenever the temjile was last restored, ail regard to architectural beautj- was
entirely neglected, and the fragments were collected, hurriedly pieced together, and
patched with the rudest imitation work.

Some steps led up from the Clivus Capitolinus just above the Temple of Saturn to
a narrow passage, on the left of which was a row of small chambers called the Schola
Xantha. Each of these was isolated from the rest, and had its separate
entrance. Three of them were found entire in the first half of the sixteenth
centur>' with a great part of their ornamental fronts, consisting of marble facing with

may have been the entrance by which the Vitellian Orig. Gent. Rom. 3: Tac. .A.nn. iii. 51 ; Suet. Jul.

soldiers entered the Capitol. (Tac. Hist. iii. 71.) Ca;s. 28, Oct. 94; Livy, .\x\i.\. | ; Scrv. Ad Gcorg.

' Macrob. .Sat. i. 8. ii. 502.

• Suet. Aug. 29 ; Grut, Inscr. 439, 8 ; Orell. 590, ■* Livy, iii. 69.

^ Plut. Publ. 12, (2uajst. Rom. 42 ; Aur. Vict., '" See Rebcr, Ruincn Roms, p. 95, note.

q6 The Forum Rovianunt before J itliiis Casar.

Doric pilasters.! On the architrave were two inscriptions, which, with the marble facings,
were removed soon after their discovery, but found again near the Arch of Titus. The
originals have now disappeared entirely, but copies are preser\'ed in Gruter's " Inscrip-
tions " and in Marliani's " Topographia.'"- They record the restoration of the chamber
by A. Licinius Troisius, the curator of the building ; Bebryx, a freedman of Drusus ; and
A. Fabius Xanthus, who also placed there a brazen tablet, supported by a cornice and
seven silver imao-es of gods. The building is called Schola in the " Inscriptions," and
it is stated that the chambers were used as offices for the secretaries, clerks, and
heralds of the Curule yEdiles. The name Schola Xantha was taken from the spurious
cataloo-ue of buildings in the eighth region bearing the name of Sextus Rufus, and has
no real authority except the mention of Xanthus's name in the inscriptions. A passage
of Cicero, in which he speaks of the clerks of the Capitoline ascent, who kept the register
of Roman burgesses, has been supposed to refer to these offices.^

After their discover^' in the sixteenth century, these chambers seem to have been

used as graves during the plagues so frequent in those times. They have

Area of the Dit ^^^^, been restored as far as possible, together with the terrace above them,

Conseittes. t~.- /^

which is called the area of the Dn Consentes.

This area filled up the corner which the bend of the Clivus Capitolinus here made ;
and alonn- the two sides of it which lay under the Tabularium and the street forming
the Clivus was a row of twelve recessed chambers standing behind a portico. Three
of these, which stand parallel to the front of the Tabularium, and five others forming
an obtuse angle with them, have been excavated ; the remaining four are covered by
the modem Via del Campidoglio. The height of each is about fifteen feet, the depth about
ten feet, and the doorways are nearly as broad as the interior, but only nine feet high.
The walls are chiefly built of brickwork, apparently of the second or third century, but
the back wall, which supported the ascent to the Capitol, is of hard tufa stone. The
interiors were faced with marble, traces of which are still left. In the year 1835 ten
of the bases of the columns which supported the portico were found, and fragments of
the entablature and architrave, containing part of an inscription. These have been now
put together, and supplemented with modern restorations. Some of the ancient shafts
of the columns were also found ornamented with a peculiar fluting, and also some of the
semi-Corinthian capitals, bearing trophies, the helmets of which are of Phrj'gian style.

From the inscription* found on the architrave, it appears that Vettius Praetextatus,
a prefect of the city in A.D. 367, restored the statues of the Dii Consentes which had
stood here from ancient times. Varro mentions the twelve gilded statues of the Gods of
the Council as near the Forum, and also speaks of their temple.^ The portico and
chambers, however, of which we are speaking cannot have been a temple, but were
plainly clerks' offices, similar to those in the Schola Xantha below, and we must

1 Marliani, lib. ii. c. lo, in Gra^vius, Thes. iii. " ad Vortumnisignum ;'' Varro, L. L.viii. 70, 71. The

p. 90. Dii Consentes farmed the Senate of Heaven (Seneca,

- Ibid. loc. cit. See Note A at the end of this N. Q. ii. 42), and were Juno, \'esta, Ceres, Diana,

chapter. Minerva, Venus, Mars, Mercurius, Jupiter, Neptune,

' Cic. Phil. ii. 7. Vulcan, Apollo. Varro says that the form " Con-

■* See Note B at the end of this chapter. sentum" was usual in his time, while in the inscrip-

" Varro, R. R. i. i. 4, " ad Forum ;" Liv)-, xliv. 16, tion " Consentium " is written.

The Font III Roma till III before Julius Cccsar. o-j

suppose that the statues of the twelve gods were placed in the portico, one opposite to
each office.

Vettius Prc-etextatus was noted for his opposition to the Christian religion, and for his
zeal in restoring the ancient heathen cultiis. He held several ecclesiastical offices, and the
Proconsulship of Achaia under Julian, and probably recommended himself to that
Emperor by his attachment to heathenism.^

In the neighbourhood of the portico of the Dii Consentes there was a narrow allej-,
at the end of which was a place for the reception of the dirt which was
annually, on the 15th of June, swept out of the Temple of Vesta. The ^ ^'^^

Stcrcararm.

receptacle was closed by a door called the Porta Stercoraria.-

The Tabularium, or public record office, is joined by Virgil with the Forum,' and seems
to have more connexion with it than v>ith the Capitoline Hill, and therefore, although
strictly speaking the Tabularium stood on the Capitol, it will be convenient
to describe it as forming a part of the north-western end of the Forum.
There are no veiy distinct traces of a public record office having existed before B.C. 83
on the spot where the Palace of the Senator now stands. Cicero speaks in several places
of the burning of a record office, but gives no clue to the situation of it* Poljbius and
Livy mention Tabularia in the Temple of the Capitoline Jupiter, the Hall of Liberty, the
Temple of Ceres, Liber, and Libera, and especially in the Temple of Saturn.^ There
was doubtless a Tabularium in most of the large public buildings and temples at Rome.
In B.C. 83, at Sulla's return to Rome, the Capitol was much injured by fire,* and had to be
rebuilt. At the same time, L. Lutatius Catulus undertook the erection of a public record
office, under a decree of the Senate, and two inscriptions recording its dedication in the
year of his consulate, B.C. "jZ, are still preserved.^ A record of its having been repaired
by the Emperor Claudius is preserved in an inscription copied by the author of the
Einsiedlen MS., and also printed in Gruter's "Inscriptions."'*

When the Capitol was burnt by the Vitellian soldiers in A.D. 70, the Tabularium
probably suffered considerably, for Suetonius mentions the care which Vespasian took to
have copies of the contents of 3,000 bronze tablets, which had been destroyed, procured
from various quarters and replaced." In the thirteenth centurj' the very name of the
building had been forgotten ; and the Palace of the Senator was erected over it, to which
Boniface IX. in 1389 added the tower and fortifications. In the time of Nicholas V. it was
used as a salt warehouse, and the stone suft'ercd much corrosion from the stores of salt
kept there. The old corridor is now put to a worthier use — that of preserving the
fragments of the entablatures of the Temples of Vespasian and Concord, which have been
most ingeniously fitted together by Canina. Only the lower part of the building is now
preserved underneath the Palace of the Senator. A considerable part of the side towards
the Forum, measuring about 220 feet in breadth and 50 feet in height, is still standing,

' Amm. Marc. x.\ii. 7, xxvii. 9 ; Zosimus, iv. 3 ; ° Polyb. iii. 26 ; Livy, xliii. 16, iii. 55.

(;rut. Insc. 1602, 1603. ° Dion Cass. Frag. 106, 3, Dekker.

- Varro, L. L. vi. § 32 ; Festus, p. 344 : Paul. ^ See the Inscriptions in Criiter, Insc. p. clxx. 6 ;

Diac. 259. Nardini, in Graev. Thcs. iv. p. 12 19, iii. p. 77.

' Georg. ii. 502 : " Insanumquc forum aut populi " Anon. Einsied. in Mabillon Vet. An. vol. iv. p.

tabularia.' 506 ; Gruter, p. ccxxxvii. 8.

* Cic. De Nat. Deor. iii. 30 ; Pro Rabir. 3. ' Tac. Hist. iii. 71 ; Suet. \'esp. 8.

g8 The Fonim Romanum before Juliits Cccsar.

and forms one of the most interesting ruins of Rome, being one of the very few relics of
the RepubHcan times. The large entrance in the Via del Campidoglio was opened in
the Middle Ages, probably in the place of a smaller door, and as the wall has been cut
through for this purpose, the structure of the building can be best observed here. On
the inner side red tufa has been used, and on the outer gre\' peperino, and the method of
construction is the same as in the Servian walls, the blocks being laid alternately length-
wise and crosswise with the greatest regularity. A great mass of masonr\- of this kind,
without cement, forms the substruction of the building. Above it runs along the front
an arcade, the arches of which were formerly open towards the Forum, and which ser\-ed
as a passage from one summit of the Capitol to the other. A pavement of basaltic lava
has been discovered in this, showing that it was probably a public passage. Nicolas V.
walled up these arches, and used the building as a fortress, and it has not been found
safe to remove the masonry from them on account of the great superincumbent weight
of buildings. The architecture is Doric, and the capitals and cornice are of a different
stone (travertine) from the rest of the building. It is probable, though not certain,
that a second open arcade surmounted the one now remaining.^ Towards the Career the
end of the arcade has been destroyed. The foundations of two more arches were dis-
covered in this direction in 185 1, under the Via di S. Pietro in Carcere.-

The ground-plan of the whole building was in the shape of a trapezium, the longest
side of which faced the Forum. The principal entrance lay probably towards the hill,
but there were also other entrances from the corridor, at the east end of which a ruined
staircase still remains, leading into a large vaulted chamber. Some steps also led from the
back of the Temple of Vespasian under the corridor into the inner part of the building
to some large chambers.

In the Tabularium were preserved not only decrees of the Senate and State treaties
and public deeds, but also records of private transactions. These were cut upon wooden
or bronze tablets, the number of which in the later times of the Republic and the early
Empire must have become enormous.

Near to the Temple of Saturn, on the south-western side of the Forum, ran the Vicus

Jugarius, which led round the foot of the Capitol to the Porta Carmentalis. ■ Between the

The Vicus Jugarius, where it entered the Forum, and the \'icus Tuscus, which

South-western entered the Forum further towards its south-eastern end, stood the

Side.

„ Basilica Sempronia. Livy gives a very clear description of its position.

Vicus Jugarius. '■ jo

Basilica ^^ ^^X^ ^'^'^ "^ ^■*'' ^^9 Titus Scmpronius, one of the Censors, employed
Sempronia. a large Sum of money, placed in his hands b\- the Quaestors, in buying
the house of P. Africanus behind the Old Shops near the statue of Vertumnus, and the
butchers' stalls and shops which adjoined it, and caused a basilica to be erected, which
was afterwards called the Basilica Sempronia.* Now the statue of Vertumnus stood in
the Tuscan Street, within sight of the Forum,^ and the position of the Old Shops on
the south-western side is well ascertained.^ As the new basilica stood behind these, it

' Du Pcrac. Vest, dell" Ant. di Rom. tav. i. » Asc. in Cic. Verr. i. 59 : Propert. iv. 2.

* Ann. delV Inst. vol. xxiii. p. 268. ^ Cic. Acad. ii. 22, ^ 70, tixes the position of the

' Livy, xx.xv. 21 ; Fest. p. 290 ; Livy, xxvii. 37. Veteres Tabernse on the south side of the Forum.

■* Livy, xhv. 16. See above, notes on p. 90.

The Fontni Rottamim bcfoi-c Jiiliits Ca-sar.

must have adjoined the Forum, and probabh- covered a part of the ground afterwards
occupied by the Basih'ca Juh'a. Accordingly we find no further notice of this building after
the erection of the Basihca Juha.

At the entrance of the Vicus Jugarius into the Forum was the Servilian Well (Lacus
Scr\ilius), on the spot \\here ]\I. Agrippa afterwards placed the statue of a Hydra,'
There was possibly a tribunal usually placed near it, for we find that during
the proscriptions of Sylla ; the proscribed senators were killed here,- and
their heads exhibited; whence Seneca calls it the "Spoliarium proscription is Sullans."

I^cus Seniilms.

COI.IMN OF PHOCAS AND TEMPLE OF SATURN.
Capitoliuc Hill, South-west Height. Area of Dii Coiiseiiles. Tabulartum . Temple of I'espasiaii.

Column of Phoeas.

This was probably the lacus spoken of by Plautus in the " Curculio," as the place
where audacious and malignant characters were to be found, for he places it next to
the Old Shops.^

The Lacus Curtius was probably in the middle of the Forum,' and was marked by a
pntcal or well-mouth, surrounded bj- a low circular wall.' Two of the legends relating to

' Festus, p. 290.

' Cic. Pro Rose. Am. .\xxii. 89.

' Seneca, Dc Prov. iii. 7.

■• Plaut. Cure. iv. i.
'' Suet. Aug. 57.

lOO The Forum Romamim before yulius Ccrsar.

this laciis have already been alhided to.^ and a third is spoken of by Varro, to the effect
tliat the place was struck with lightning, and consecrated by the Consul
Curtius ni B.C. 446. A fig-tree, a vuie, and an olive, are also mentioned by
Pliny as having grown there, and an altar stood there.-

Next to the Basilica Sempronia, and between it and the Temple of Vesta, on the south-
western side of the Forum, was the Temple of Castor and Pollux. The site is sufficiently
determined. Ovid, Valerius Maximus, Martial, and Dionysius place it near
Taupe of ^^^ fountain of Tuturna (where the twin brothers made their horses drink

Castor.

after the battle of the Lake Regillus) and the Temple of Vesta ; ^ and
Suetonius relates that Caligula broke a passage through the back of the cclla of this
temple, and made it communicate \\\\\\ the palace on the northern angle of the Palatine,
and used to show himself to the Senate between the statues of the twin gods."* The
temple was first begun in B.C. 494, by the Dictator Aulus Postumius, who vowed it at
the battle of the Lake Regillus in the Latin war, and was dedicated by his son in
B.C. 484." Two restorations are mentioned ; the first by L. Metellus Dalmaticus, Consul
in B.C. iig," the second by Drusus and Tiberius in A.D. 61 Verres, among the other
iniquitous proceedings with which he is charged by Cicero, is said to have cheated a
minor, P. Junius, who was chargeable with the repairs of this temple, by estimating the
dilapidations at an extravagant price ; ^ and it appears from Cicero's account of tlie temple
that it was small in his time, for the expense of repairs is estimated by him as very
trifling. The Temple of Castor was frequently used for meetings of the Senate, and
also for holding courts of law, and harangues were also delivered from its steps to
the people in the Forum.^ Money was also deposited here, as in most other temples,^"
and a register kept of the changes in the value of the Roman coinage, which were so
frequent during the sixth and seventh centuries of the city." \\\ the time of Plautus
the most notorious money-lenders' offices were at the back of this temple.^^

Since the time when the excavations on the south-west side of the Forum were carried
beyond the Basilica Julia, and laid bare the foundations of the temple to which the three
Corinthian columns still standing belong, little doubt has been felt among antiquarians
that the columns appertained to the Temple of Castor. The substructions of this temple are
separated from the Basilica Julia by the breadth of a street only, and there is no room for
another building between them. As the Momunentiun Ancyranum ^^ places the Basilica
Julia between the Temple of Saturn and the Temple of Castor, and the sites of the two
first are sufficiently determined, there can be no doubt about the identity of the last with
the temple whose substructions lie south-east of the Basilica. This situation agrees perfectly

' Chap. ii. p. 21. in Verr. i. 59

- Varro, L. L. v. 14S ; Plin. Nat. Hist. xv. 18, 20; ' Ov. Fast. i. 705 ; Pont. ii. 2, 85 ; Dion Cass. Iv.

()v. Fast. vi. 397. 8, 27 ; Suet. Tib. 20.

•' Ov. Fast. i. 707 ; Val. Max. i. 8, i ; Dionys. vi. * Cic. in Verr. i. 49, seqq.

13 ; Plut. Cor. 3 ; Mart. i. 70, 3. The legend shows " Ibid. i. 49, § 129 ; Dion Cass, xxxviii. 6 ; Cic.

the early influence of Greece on Roman history. Pro .Sest. 15, Pro Dom. 21 ; Gibbon, ch. vii. The

Compare Cic. De Nat. Dcor. ii. 2 ; Mommscn, Rom. election of the Gordians took place here by a " Sena-

Hist. vol. i. p. 457. tus consultum taciturn.'' (Jul. Cap. Gord. 12.;

* Suet. Cal. 22 ; Dion Cass. lix. 28, Ix. 6. '° Juv. xiv. 260.

' Livy, ii. 20, 42. " Cic. Pro Quint. 4.

* Cic. Pro Scaur. 46. Scaurus's father married '= Plaut. Cure. iv. i, 12.

Ciccilia, daughter of L. Metellus Dalmaticus. Cic. " Monuni. Ancyr. tab. iv. ed. Zumpt.

The Forum Romniiioii before yulius Ca-sar.

lOI

\\ ith the passages previously quoted, which place the Temple of Castor near the fountain of
Juturna and the Temple of Vesta. On the three sides of the substructions which ha\e
been hitherto excavated (the eastern still remaining buried) is found the usual poly-

ri.NUM.E OK CASTOK.

i^onal basaltic pavement. The pavement in front belonged to the part of the Forum called
Sub Veteribus, and the street at the back was probably the Via Nova.*

' Rebcr, Riiincn Roms, p. 141, makes the Nova foro est," in order to extract this intcrprctalicm. .Si.e
\'ia enter the Forum here. He perhaps strains the above, chap. vi. p. 79.
words of Ovid, "qua N'ov:i Romano nunc Via juncta

I02 The Foniui Roniannni before yulius Cccsar.

The height of the basement upon which the temple stood was considerable,' and
the flight of steps which led up to it, a part of which is still visible, afforded a convenient
place for the delivery of harangues {condones) to the crowds in the Forum. Bibulus,
when he tried to oppose Caesar, who was speaking here, was thrown down the steps by
the mob, and escaped with difficulty. On account of the height to which the basement
of the temple was raised, it commanded the Forum, and was frequently occupied by
troops or bodies of insurgents during the Gracchian and Clodian riots. Its position,
nearly opposite to the Comitium and Senate House, made it a favourite place from which
to annoy the senators. Cicero, in several places, mentions the attacks of Clodius's mob
directed against this temple, which they occupied, and tried to convert into a fortress
by pulling down the steps.'-

The length and breadth of the basement were also very considerable, the former
measurincT about sixly-five and the latter thirty-five yards. The sides of the basement
are built of hard tufa and travertine, and were faced with marble and supported with
buttresses. The three columns now standing belonged to the central part of the south-
eastern side. They are of the most elegant shape conceivable, and the capitals, architrave,
and frieze which surmount them are ornamented with decorations of the very best period
of GrjEco-Roman architecture. The work on the entablature is most delicate and perfect,
even in the parts which are not easily seen, and well repays a minute examination with a
glass. The designs of the cornice and corbels are very chaste,''' and besides the usual
ornamentation there is along the upper edge a row of beautiful lions' heads, through
which the rain-water ran off.

On the south-west side of the Temple of Castor, after the reign of Domitian, stood

the Temple of Miner\'a, which, as belonging to the later Forum, will be mentioned

below. Its site, in the times of the Republic, was probably occupied

Temple of t^ private buildings. In the corner of the Forum, where the Sacred

Vesta. •' '

Way entered by the Arch of Fabius, stood, as has been before mentioned,*
the Temple of Vesta and the Regia. The neighbourhood of the Temple of Vesta
to that of Castor has been already shown. A further proof that this was the site
of the buildings dedicated to Vesta is, that in the sixteenth century, as recorded by
Andreas Fulvius and Lucius Faunus,-'' near the Church of S. Maria Liberatrice (for-
merly called S. Silvestro in Lago, with reference to the Lacus Juturna;,) twelve grave-
stones, with inscriptions showing them to have been placed on the graves of Vestal
virgins, were discovered. It was near the same spot that the fragments of the Fasti
Capitolini, which contain a list of the Consuls, Dictators, Masters of the Horse, and
Censors, engraved on marble slabs, were found. These are now preserved in the Palace
of the Conservators on the Capitol. They appear, so far as can be discovered from their
fragmentary state, to have contained a complete list of these State officers from the

1 Twenty-three feet. Reber, Ruincn Roms, ■'' Hirt remarks, however, that the cornice offends

p. 137. ai;ainst the rule laid down by \'itruvius against the

" Dion Cass, xxxviii. 6; Cic. Pro Sest. 15, Pro introduction of both niodillions and dentelles (\'itruv.

Dom. 21 ; in C. Pison. 5, where Cicero calls it " arx iv. 2). * .See p. 77.

civiumperditorum, castellum forensislatrocinii ;''and ' Andr. Fulv. Antiq. Urb. lib. iii. p. 96; Lucius

in Pro Sest. 39 , " Captum erat forum jede Castoris Faunus, Ue Antiq. L'rb. Rom. lib. ii. cap. ix. \'enet.

tanquam arce aliqua a fugitivis occupata." 1549.

The For ton Romamim befoi'c Jidms Ccesar. 103

foundation of the city to the time of the death of Augustus.^ That these Fasti were
kept in the Regia is not clearly ascertained, but has been thought probable.'- If this
were so, it would furnish another proof of the position of the Regia and the Temple of
Vesta here. Search was made again in 1S16 and 1817 and 1853 for the remaining
fragments of the Fasti, but without much success.^

The Temple of Vesta was a round building, and was built, according to the Roman
antiquarians, in this shape by Numa, in imitation of the spherical shape of the earth,
which \'esta was supposed to personify.* The round form of construction was also the
most natural form for the altar of Vesta as the hearth of the community, and was pecu-
liarly Italian. The Temple of Vesta was not an inaugurated spot, though it was of course
consecrated ; and it appears that it could not, therefore, be called strictly a Templum,
and that decrees of the Senate could not be legally passed in it. This curious distinction
between a Templum and an /Edes is preserved by Gellius among other directions given by
Varro to Cn. Pompeius, for the avoiding of informality in holding meetings of the Senate,
curiously illustrating the network of superstitious forms and ceremonies which the Roman
ecclesiastical aristocracy used when they wished to impede obnoxious measures."

The exact position of the Regia, which was also called the Atrium Regium, the Atrium
Vest^," or the Regia Numae, with respect to the Temple of \'esta is not very clear.
Prof Reber places it in front of the temple, because the Regia and not the
temple itself is generally mentioned as standing on the Sacra Via ; and Becker
comes to the same conclusion, from the fact that when the Atrium Regium was burnt in
the fire of B.C. 210, which spread from the end of the Forum under the Capitol, the Temple
remained uninjured." Now the Regia could not have been between the Temple of Vesta
and that of Castor, or it would be mentioned instead of the temple in the passages which
speak of the two temples as adjoining,* and it must, therefore, have been in front in
order to have caught fire when the Forum was burnt. That the Regia or some part
of it lay in the Forum is shown by the account of the burning of Caesar's body by the
mob, who, when prevented from taking it into the Temple on the Capitol, are said by
Appian to have carried it again to the part of the Forum near the Regia, where they
burnt it' Two statues, said to have formerly served as supports of the tent of Alex-
ander the Great, stood in front of the Regia in Pliny's time.^" It has been shown above
that the Regia was the official residence of the Pontife.x Maximus, who had the control
of the College of Vestals,'^ and that the house of the Vestal virgins was close to the
Regia until Augustus gave up the Regia itself for their use.^^ In the great fire of Nero,
A.D. 65, both the Regia and the Temple of Vesta were burnt.'" The name of Atrium
seems to have been given to the Regia because it stood to the Temple of Vesta and

1 See Fea, Frammenti di Fasti, p. 12 : Roma, 1S20. '" Plin. Nat. Hist, xxxiv. 8, 18, § 48.

' See Reber, p. 135. " See above, p. 78. '= Uion Cass. liv. 27.

' Annali dcW Inst. 1853, pp. 227 — 250. " Tac. Ann. xv. 41. The first burning of the Regia

■• Festus, p. 262 ; Ov. Fasti, vi. 265 ; Plut. Num. 11. of which we have any account was in B.C. 2 10 (see

•^ Gell. xiv. 7. " Ov. Fasti, vi. 264. note ' ). Yet Roman historians have frequently as-

' Li\y, XXVI. 27 ; xxvii. 11. sumcd that it was burnt in the Gallic contlaj;iation,

' Mart. i. 70, 3 ; Dionys. vi. 13. and that the Annales Maximi kept in it were dc-

' App. Bell. Civ. ii. 148. See also Serv. .\d /En. stroyed at that time. See Lewis, Credibility of Farly

viii. 363. Roman History, vol. i. p. 15S.

104 The Foi iiiu RoniainiDi before yuliris Ccesar.

the House of the Vestals in the same relation as the atriiiui or entrance hall to the

inner parts of a private house, or because it formed the front court of the ancient palace
of the kings. There was another building forming a part of the Regia called
the Sacranum, m which the sacred spears oi Mars were kept, and where the

Goddess Ops Consiva, the wife of Saturn, was worshipped. It was probabh- a small

chapel attached to the Regia.^

The south-eastern end of the Forum was narrowed by the convergence of the sides to a

breadth of about thirty-five yards, and therefore it afforded but little room for public buildings.
The Sacra Via, as has been mentioned above, entered it at the south-western

llie

South-eastern comer, and passed under the Arch of Fabius, near the Regia.- The passage
'^■"'^' of Cicero quoted above ^ probably means that this arch stood over the Sacred

Arch oj Fabius. \Y^y_ gyj; still Cicero need not be supposed to indicate by the words "ad
Fabium fornicem " anything more definite than the corner of the Forum near the Arch
of Fabius, where the crowd pressing out of the Forum would naturally converge. Another
passage of Cicero is more to the point, where he speaks of descending into the Forum
through the Arch of Fabius, for this would imply that it stood on the Sacra Via, which
formed the usual approach to the Forum at this end. De Rossi, in an able paper in
the Roman Arcluvologkal Joiirmil, concludes that upon the whole the evidence is in
favour of placing the site of Fabius's Arch in the corner of the Forum near the Temple
of Vesta and the Regia.'* One of the scholiasts on Cicero also places the Fabian Arch
at the place where after passing the Temple of Castor the Sacra Via was first reached.*
The Fabian Arch was erected by O. Fabius Maximus Allobrogicus, Consul in B.C. 121,
from the spoils of the Allobroges and Arverni." The victory then won completed the
subjection of Southern Gaul to the Romans. It was restored by his grandson, who
erected statues in front of it, one of himself, and two in honour respectively of O. .-^imilius
Paullus and Scipio Africanus." A number of other statues of the Fabii stood upon it.

It only remains to notice some objects on the area of the Forum, or on the surrounding
buildings, of which no mention has been made above.

A pillar at the corner of one of the arcades containing shops was called the Pila Horatia,
in memory of the battle of the Horatii and Curiatii in tlie Alban war. Upon it, according
to Dionysius, had been fixed the armour taken by the surviving Horatius
from the vanquished Curiatii.* The word pila may either mean the column
of the arcade upon which the armour was fixed, or the weapons themselves, and the Latin
writers seem to understand it as referring to the latter,^ while Dionysius translates it by
(TTvXk. It is most probable that the ambiguity of the expression was intentional, for on

' Varro, L. L. vi. § 21 ; Gell. iv. 6 ; Festus, p. 1S6. across the Forum so as to block it up. This seems

^ The Arch of Fabius is placed opposite the impossible.
Temple of Antoninus and Faustina by the ancient ■■ Cic. De Or. ii. 66 ;.'///«. (/<7/V//j-/. vol. xxxi. p. 324.

Italian topographers, but none of them say whether ^ Schol. ad Cic. in Verr. i. 7,ed. Gronov. pp.393,399.

it was on the north or south side of the Forum. ° Ibid. i. 7 ; Livy, Ep. Ivi. ; Vel. Pat. ii. 10 ; Plin.

(Marliano, p. 42.) It was built of travertine. Nat. Hist. vii. 50 ; Juv. Sat. viii. 13 ; Mommsen, vol.

^ Cic. Pro Plane. 7, § 17. See above, p. 78. iii, p. 169.
Mommsen thinks that Cic. Cont. Vat. ii. 28, alludes ' Smetius, Inscr. ii. 17; Gruter, 184, 4; An/i.

to the Fabian arch {Atiii. deW Inst. xxx. p. 176). In dclT Inst. vol. xxxi. p. 313 ; Schol. ad Cic. in Verr.

this paper, among other speculations, Mommsen sug- 7, 19, ed. Orell. 393. ' Dionys. iii. 22.

gests that the Arch of Fabius may have extended ^ See Livy, i. 26 ; I'ropert. iii. 3, 7.

The Fonim Roniatntm before J n Hits Cersar. 105

tlie one hand the columns of the arcades in tlie Forum were certainly called Pilfc,' and on
the other the words pila and spolia are joined by Livy as if referring to the same thing.

Besides the statues already mentioned as standing on the Comitium and near the
Rostra,- Cicero mentions a gilt statue of L. Antonius, brother of the Triumvir, and an
equestrian statue of O. Marcius Tremulus, the conqueror of the Hernici, both
of which were in front of the Temple of Castor. ■' A statue of Marsyas, the " " ""'
presumptuous rival of Apollo, stood near the Rostra, and was a common place of rendezvous
for advocates and other public characters ; * and a statue of Curtius, crowned with oak, is
mentioned by Statius as placed near the Lacus Curtius.^

Three or more jani stood at various points along the north-east side of the Forum.
Becker supposes that these were similar to the Janus Ouadrifrons, which still stands in the
Forum Boarium, constructed of four archways, joined in a square, with an
attica or a chamber above them. He thinks that the bankers spoken of ""

by Horace and Cicero as having their offices in the jaiii, transacted business partly in
these chambers, and partly below under the archways." Domitian erected so many jani
with qnadrigcB and triumphal insignia upon them, that a wag at last wrote upon one of
the new arches, upKeV

One of these arches is said by the scholiast on Horace to have stood in front of the
Basilica Emilia, and the foundations of an arch which Labacco mentions as having been
found between S. Adriano and the Temple of Antoninus and Faustina may have belonfred
to the Janus Medius.* Plautus, however, it must be observed, places the offices of the
financiers and money-lenders on the south side, near the Old Shops." There may of course
have been some of these offices on both sides.

Down the middle of the area of the Forum ran a gutter [cnnalis] to carry off the water,
and Plautus points out this gutter as the place where persons who wished to advertise
themselves used to walk. It appears to have been a custom at Rome for
those experts who were willing to be consulted and to give advice in matters
of business or law to walk up and down in the Forum. The men of established character
and self-respect did not show themselves in the middle, but paced up and down at the
lower end, while the empty-headed coxcombs paraded b}^ the side of the gutter in the
centre, where all could see them.^" Here also were to be found the mudlarkers of Rome
icatialicolcE), who picked up the scraps thrown into the gutter."

It has been already mentioned that in the early times of Rome the hour of noon was
proclaimed by the Consul's marshal from the front of the Curia when he could see the sun
between the Gra^costasis and Rostra, and the hour of sunset when the sun
was sinking and had passed the Columna Msenia towards the Career.^- This
barbarous method of measuring time was first improved upon by the dial erected near

' Catull. x.\xvii. 2 ; Hor. Sat. i. 4, 71. ° Hor. Ep. i. I, 54 ; Sat. ii. 3, 18 ; Cic. De Off. ii.

- See above, pp. 82, 83. 25, § 90 ; Phil. vi. 5, j 15.

•' Cic. Phil. vi. 5 ; Livy, ix. 43 ; Plin. Nat. Hist. ' Suet. Dom. 13. * Canina, Indicaziop.e, p. 2.J5.

xxxiv. 6. " Plaut. Cure. iv. i.

* Hor. Sat. i. 6, 120 ; Juv Sat. ix. 2 ; Scrv. Ad '" Cic. De Orat. iii. 33; Plaut. loc. cit.

Kn. iv. 58 ; .Mart. ii. 64. 7 : Senec. De Ben. vi. 32; " Paul. Diac. p. 45 ; Tertull. De Pall. 5.

Plin. Nat. Hist. xxi. 3. '- See above, page 89, and compare the Laws of the

=> Stat. Silv. i. I. 70. Twelve Tables, Tab. i. lines 6, 7, 8.

io6 The Forum Romammi before Jidius Cccsar.

the Temple of Ouiriiuis by Papirius Cursor, twelve years before the war with Pyrrhus
B.C. 292, and about that time the Greek hours probably came into use at Rome.*
There were two sun-dials in the Forum, one upon the Basilica Fulvia et yEmilia,-
and another upon a column behind the Rostra. The latter had been brought from
Catana in Sicih-, after the capture of that town in the Second Punic War, by M.
Valerius Messalla, B.C. 263. This dial being intended for the latitude of Catana,
measured the time at Rome very incorrectly : but, notwithstanding this, the Roman public
were contented with it for ninety-nine years, until O. IMarcius Philippus, in his Censorship
in B.C. 164, put up another more carefully drawn by the side of it, a service most gratefully
appreciated by his fellow-citizens. For five years longer, however, the hour could not be
told on a cloudy day. Scipio Nasica, Censor with M. Popillius Ljenas in B.C. 159, first
erected a waterclock under a roof, and divided the hours equally between day and
nio-ht.-^ The ancient Roman sun-dials were of various designs, some of which are
described bv Vitruvius.* That upon the Basilica /Emilia was probably drawn upon
a plane surface {discus in planitic), while that near the Rostra was drawn upon a
concave spherical surface.

1 Plin. Xat. Hist. vii. 60. ' Plin. Nat. Hist. vii. 60.

- Varro, L. L. vi. § 4. * Vitruv. ix. 8.

Note A, p. 96. — Inscriptiox:; ox the Architrave of the Schola Xantha.

C. AVILIUS LICIXIUS TROISIUS CURATOR SCHOLAM DE SCO FECIT. BEBRVX. AUC. L. DRUSl.iX'US
A. FABIUS XANTHUS CL'R. SCRIBIS LIBRARHS ET PRAECOXIBUS AED. CUR. SCHOLAM AB IXCHO.\TO
REFECERUNT MARMORIBUS ORXAVERUXT VICTORIAM AUGUSTAM ET SEDES AEXEAS ET CETERA ORXA-
MENTA DE SUA PECUXIA FECERUNT.

BEBRYX. AUG. L. DRUSTAXUS A. FABIUS XANTHUS CUR. IMAGINES ARGENTEAS DEORUM SEPTEM
POST DEDICATIONEM SCHOLAE ET MUTUI-OS CUM TABELLA AEXEA DE SUA PECUNIA DEDERUXT.

Note B, p. 96.— Ixscriptiox ox the Area of the Dii Coxsentes, as restored nv Caxixa.

DEUM COXSEXTIUM SACROSAXCTA SIMULACRA CUM OMXl LO . . . XE CULTU IXI . . . VeITIUS
PRAl.TEXT.ATUS V. C. PRAE. URBI CURANTE LOXGEIO CONSUL.

»-^

CHAPTER VI.

PART 11.

THE FORUM ROMANUM AFTER THE TIME
OF JULIUS CyESAR.

TEMPLUM FELICITATIS — CURIA JULIA — CHALCIDICUM— SECRETARIUM SE.NATUS — ROSTRA NOVA, OR JULIA— HEROON

OF JULIUS C^SAR — BASILICA PAULLI— TEMPLE OF ANTONINUS AND FAUSTINA — B.WILICA JULIA ^THREE

PEDESTALS — ARCH OF TIBERIUS — COLUMN OF PHOCAS — TEMPLE OF MINERVA — TEMPLE OF VESPASIAN ARCH

OK SEVERUS— GR.-ECOSTADIUM — MILLIARIUM AUREUM — ROSTRA OF THE LATER EMPIRE— CHAPEL OF FAUSTINA
— ARCH OF AUGUSTUS— EQUESTRIAN STATUE OF DOMITIAN.

" Vix jam videtur locus esse qui tantos acervos pecuniae capiat. Augent, addunt, aecumulant."

Cic. Leg. Agr. ii. 22.

/^NE of the devices by which an absohite Government seeks to divert the attention of
^-^ its subjects, and to make them acquiesce in the loss of their Hberty, is the under-
taking of great pubHc improvements for their accommodation and enjoyment. Such oreat
works not only flatter the national vanity, since every one conceives that he shares in the
credit due to their execution, but also serve to obliterate or throw into the shade the
monuments of past ages of freedom. A splendid and conspicuous building, dedicated
to national purposes, makes a great impression on the masses of the people, and serves
in some degree to reconcile them to political and social disabilities. Partly with this view,
and partly also from the wish to perpetuate the memory of their magnificence and
power, the earlier Roman Emperors began to project considerable alterations and. enlarge-
ments of the Forum. In the time of Cicero, popularity was already sought by these
means, and he mentions a grand scheme for relieving the overcrowding of the Forum,
which Julius C.-Esar had suggested and was beginning to make arrangements for as early
as B.C. 54,1 ten }-ears before his death. The designs of Julius Ca;sar were, however, left
incomplete at his death, and were carried out by Augustus. They included the erection
of a verj' spacious basilica on the south-western side of the Forum Romanum, the
rebuilding of the Curia, and the construction of a new Forum at the back of the Curia.

The Forum Romanum was neglected by .some of the subsequent Emperors, who wished
to divert the attention of the Romans from the old historical reminiscences connected with
it, and new Fora were built, which in the time of Hadrian, at the beginning of the .second

' Cic. Ad Att. iv. 16.
r 2

io8 The Fonnn Romaimm after the Time of juliiis Ctrsar.

century, far surpassed the old one in size and magnificence. But the Empire soon became
so firmly established, that there seemed to be no danger in reviving the old associations
by attain drawing the eyes of the nation towards the Forum Romanum, and thus the
buildings of the later Caesars returned again to the Republican site. With what reverence
the Romans still regarded this site, is shown by the fact that during the later Empire
the Forum Romanum obtained the name of the Great Forum, and gave its name to the
eitrhth Ret^ion, though far inferior in size and splendour to that of Trajan.^ Before
proceeding to the description of the Imperial Fora, we shall mention the later alterations
made in the Forum Romanum, adopting the same topographical divisions as in the
previous part of this chapter.

The first stroke which Julius Cjesar aimed at the memory of the old senatorial party
was naturall}- directed against the Curia, which was the representative building of the

Senate. He pulled down the Curia Hostilia, which had been restored by

Side ' ai'idSmiih- Sulla and his son Faustus, with the avowed intention of building a Temple

eastern End. of Felicitas upon the site, but in reality in order to abolish this monument of

Templmn (-j;,g hated name of Sj-lla, and to rebuild it under a different name. The

proposed Temple of Felicitas was accordingly begun and fini.shed by Lepidus,
when Master of the Horse in B.C. 45, and stood upon the place of the Curia Hostilia,
Whether it occupied the whole site or not is not known, as the only knowledge of this
building we have is derived from one passage of Dion Cassius.^

The sittings of the Senate were thus removed from the Forum, and were held for some
time in the Curia of Pompey, on the Campus Martins, and there Caesar was murdered in
the year after the erection of the Temple of Felicitas, after which the Curia of Pompey
was closed, and never again used as a Senate-house. A pestilence, and other unusual
calamities which happened in the next year, were ascribed to the destruction of the old

Curia, and it was resolved to build a new one.^ This was done by Augustus,^

and the new building, called the Curia Julia, was placed on the Comitium,'"
to the north-west of the lately-finished Temple of Felicitas, and probably partly on the
site of the Curia Hostilia.

That the new Curia was not exacth' upon the site of the old is shown b}' a passage of
Gellius, in which he states that it was necessary to inaugurate the ground upon which it
stood, in order that the decrees of the Senate made in it might be legal ; a ceremony
which would not have been required if, as had been the case with the Curia of Sulla, it had
been placed exactly upon the old site, which was already inaugurated." It seems tolerably
evident, from the excavations which ha\'e uncovered nearly the whole of the south-western
.-side and the north-western end of the Forum, that the new Curia was not there ; and as
it was near the Comitium,^ it could not be at the south-eastern end. We must therefore
place it on the north-eastern side of the Forum ; and as it is mentioned by man}- writers as

^ Dion Cass, xliii. 22. ^ A. Gellius, xiv. 7, 7. Mommsen, ,-/««. n<V/' Inst.

- Ibid. xliv. 5 ; Zonaras. x. 12 ; Cic. Philipp. xiii. 4. xvi. p. 304. places the Curia Julia at the Lacus Ser-

3 Dion Cass. xliv. 5, xlv. 17. vilius, quoting Prop, (iv.) v. 4, 13. But Propcrtius"

■• Men. Ancyr. ed. Zumpt ; Dion Cass. li. 22. description is too vague to counterbalance the argu-

' Plin. Nat. Hist. xxxv. 4, 10, 27 ; Dion Cass. ments adduced in the text,

xlvii. ig. '' Tcapa rm KOfiiTm, Dion Cass. xl\ ii. 19; "in

comitio," Plin. Nat. Hist. xxxv. 27.

The Forum Romanum after the Time of yuliiis Casar.

109

standing near the Temple of Janus,' we may in all probability place it next to the Temple
of Felicitas, and partly on the site of the old Curia, partly on that of the Basilica Porcia,
which was burnt down in B.C. 54, and apparently never restored.^ Some topographers
think that the Basilica Argentaria, mentioned in the list called the Ciiriosiiin as situated
in the eighth Region, was the name of a restoration of the Porcian Basilica, but there
is nothing to confirm this supposition.

THE FOKLM KOMAMM, LIIOKI.NG TO\V.\RDS THE CAPITOLINE HILL.

Porticus of the Dii CoiuciiUs. Tabularium. Column of Phocas. Ara Cccli.

Temple of Saturn. Temple of Vespasian. Arch 0/ Septimius Sefenn

Floor of Julian Basilica.

Augustus placed a trophy of Egyptian spoils and an altar and statue of Victory in the
Curia Julia. The statue was brought from Tarentum, and was therefore probably the
work of a Greek artist,^ and was highly venerated by the Emperor, for at his death this
statue was carried in his funeral procession.* The altar afterwards became famous on
account of the disputes in the time of \'alentinian II. antl Theotlosius, between Amlirose

' Dion Cass. Ixxiii. 13 ; Procop. Bell. Goth.
Jul. Cap. Pert. 4 ; Orcll. In.scr. 28.

» Asc. Introd. to Cic. Pio Mil. p. 34 ; Orcil.

' Uion Cuss. li. 22 ; Claiitl. do \1. Cons. Hmi

597-
■" Suet. Au;4. 100.

I lo Tlic Forum Roma mini after tJic Time of Juluis Cccsar.

and Symmachus, about the restoration of the worship of the heathen gods.^ HeHogabalus,
in his fanatical conceit, ordered a statue of himself to be placed over the head of the
statue of Victory, in order that he might receive the adoration of the Senate, customary
before they proceeded to vote.- The Curia therefore existed down to the later times of
the Empire, and it is reasonable to believe that, had it stood upon the south-western
side of the Forum, as Becker and Mommsen suppose, its foundations would have been
discovered. It still remains to be seen whether they will be found when the north-eastern
side of the Forum is disinterred. A fire in the reign of Titus destroyed the Curia Julia
of Augustus, and it was rebuilt by Domitian.^ That it had not been burnt in the Neronian
fire, as Reber supposes, seems to be proved by the fact that Pliny the elder speaks of the
pictures painted on its walls by Augustus as extant in his time.* The Temple of Felicitas
had been destroyed by the Neronian fire, and this new Senate-house of Domitian ma}'
therefore have been built nearer to the old site of the Curia Hostilia. Other fires in
the time of Carinus and Numerianus destroyed it again, and it was rebuilt by Diocletian
and Maximian. The modern Church of S. Adriano occupies pretty nearly the spot on
which these buildings stood.

Some further arguments are advanced by Urlichs"' to support the opinion that the
Curia Julia was in this part of the Forum. In the first place, after the death of Commodus
a statue of Liberty was erected by the Senate in front of the Curia," and the inscription
probably belonging to this statue was found in the Church of S. Martina, which stands
very near that of S. Adriano. Further, in two passages of Vopiscus' the Curia is called
Pompiliana, an appellation evidently connected with the Temple of Janus, founded by
Numa, which stood in this neighbourhood, may possibly have been identical with the Curia
Julia or Pompiliana.* The Templum Fatale, a building which stood near the churches
of S. Martina and S. Adriano in the Middle Ages. Lastly, the description of the eighth
Region, which begins from the boundary of the fourth Region, and proceeds northwards
along the edge of the Forum, mentions the Senatus — i.e. Domitian's Curia — in the third
place, and therefore not far from the middle of the north-eastern side of the Forum.

Attached to the Curia Julia of Augustus was an annexe called the Chalcidicum.*' the

exact nature of which has occasioned a great deal of discussion. By some writers it has

been identified with the Temple of Minerva on the south-western side of

Clialcidiaim. , x- , , /-^i i

the rorum, because the chronologers mention a Miner\'a Chalcidica among
Domitian's buildings.^** But this idea was suggested by those topographers who place the
Comitium and Curia Julia on the south side of the Fonmi, in order to support their
peculiar views, and is directly contradicted by the Monumentum Ancyranum, which
mentions the Chalcidicum as adjoining {contiiicns) the Curia Julia."

A passage of Dion Cassius, where he mentions the Athenitum Chalcidicum apparentl)'

1 See Gibbon, Decline and Fall, ch. xxviii. init. ; ■' .\femorit' dell' lust. vol. ii. p. Si.

Prudent, lib. ii. init. ; Lardner, Heathen Test. vol. iv. "^ Herodian, i. 14, 9.

p. 372. " Vopisc. Aurel. 41, p. 222, E. ; Tacit. 3, p. 227 B.

- Herodian, v. 5. See Amm. Marc. xiv. 6. "Pompiliana securitas.'

= Cassiod. Chron. t. ii. p. 197 ; Hieron. t. i. p. 443. '^ .See p. 86, note '.

where it is called " Senatus." 9 Mon. Ancyr. Tab. iv. ed. Zumpt.

* Plin. Nat. Hist. xxxv. 4, 10, See also Suet. Tit. '" Euseb. 01. 217 ; Cat. Imp. Vienn. t. ii. p. 243.

I I ; Lamprid. Alex. Sev. 14. Rone. " Mon. Ancyr. loc. cit.

The Forum Romamim after the Time of Jnlms Ccesar. 1 1 1

as a separate building from the Curia Julia, is more difficult to explain. Urlichs supposes
that there was a statue of Minerva in the Chalcidicum, and that it was identical with the
Atrium Minerv.-e which is placed by the Ctiriosiim next to the Curia Julia in the eighth
Region.^ If so, the words of Dion may refer to the Chalcidicum adjoining the Curia Julia,
but it is quite possible that they refer to an entirely different building— the Temple of
Minen'a on the Aventine, or that near the Porta Capena.

A chalcidicum is explained by Vitruvius and the " Glossarium " of Isidorus to be a
cloistered court attached as a wing to another building to increase its accommodation,
and various inscriptions mention chalcidica both as annexes to other buildings and as
separate buildings.- In the inscription upon the edifice at Pompeii called by the name
of Eumachia, the name of Chalcidicum seems to be applied to the whole building, which
is of the nature of a basilica, or exchange.^ The name also occurs in connexion with
a building at Capua, and hence it has been conjectured by Urlichs that the name is
derived from the fact that this kind of building was introduced into Itah- by the Chal-
cidic colonists of Cumre in Campania. Urlichs further endeavours to show that the
Chalcidicum of Augustus was an enclosed court with cloisters round it, standing on the
left of the Curia Julia, nearly on the spot now occupied by the Church of S. Martina.*

Connected with the Chalcidicum is another building, the Secretarium Senatus, named
on an inscription which once stood upon the apse of S. Martina's church and recorded the
building of the Secretarium bj- Flavianus in A.D. 399, its destruction by fire
(perhaps in the sack of the city by Alaric), and its restoration by Epifanius, ■'^<^<-n-taniim

Seitatiis.

Prjefect of the city."" This Secretariuin was perhaps an addition to the
Chalcidicum or Curia, intended for the sittings of the council of five senators constituted
after A.D. 376 to assist the Pr.-efect of the city in legal business." The place where the
above inscription was found certainly affords additional reason for supposing that the
Curia Julia stood in this locality, as the Secretarium Senatus would naturally be close
to the Senate-house itself

Cesar's intention to destroy the memory of the old oligarch}- b}- changing the
appearance of the Forum, was further carried out by the erection of new Rostra, at the
south-eastern end of the Forum." He thus separated the Rostra from their
former connexion with the Senate and Comitia, and indicated that henceforth ^'^'i" ^'"''■"

or Julia.

appeal must be made to the public opinion of the masses, and not to the
wishes of a privileged class. The new Rostra were made in the year of Cfesar's death,
but the other alterations which he planned were not carried out till Augustus had esta-
blished his imperial power. It does not appear why he chose the south-eastern end of
the Forum, for previously in his disputes with Bibulus he had been accustomed to
address the populace from the steps of the Temple of Castor on the south side of the

' Dion Cass. li. 22. Tiekker reads with Zmiipt, " V'itruv. v. i, 4 ; Gloss. Isidor. ap. Auct. Ling.

T.', Te .K6r]\'aiov ti) XaXiciSiicof. The common reading Lat. cd. Gotliofred. ii. 1622, App. p. 7 ; Orelli, Insc.

is TOT€ Adr/vaiov Ka'i Tii XoAiciStico'i'. Rcbcr sup- '303, 3287, &c. ; Paul. Diac. p. 32.

poses the Atrium Mincrv;e to be the north-west ^ Dyer's Pompeii, p. 117.

part of Nerva's Forum, the ruins of which are still ■* Nuove Mcmoric, vol. ii. pp. 84, 85.

visible in the \'ia della Croce Bianca. There is no ° Gruter, Insc. cl.w. 5.

proof of this given, and it must be taken as a mere " Urlichs, Nuove Memorie, loc. cit.

conjecture. " Dion Cass. .\Iiii. 49.

I 1 2 The fonini Romanum after tlie Time of f ii/ius Caesar.

Forum. ^ Nor were the old Rostra destroyed, for Suetonius and Dion Cassius mention
that after Augustus's death funeral orations were spoken both from the old and new
Rostra.- The situation of the Julian Rostra is shown by the account given of the
burning of Cjesar's body. Appian says that this was done near the Regia, where the
temple and altar were afterwards erected to his memory, and Livy adds that it was in
front of the Rostra.^ Now this cannot refer to the old Rostra, which were not near the
Regia, and Livy must therefore mean the Julian Rostra. Augustus, when he afterwards
built the Heroon or small Temple of Cssar on this spot, arranged that the steps of the
temple should form the Rostra, and ornamented them with the beaks of the
Hereon of ^^ taken at Actium.* If the fact that the Heroon stood in front of the

'Julius Cicsar. '

Regia did not sufficienth- prove that it was at the south-eastern end of the
Forum, a strong corroboration might be derived from the words of Ovid, who speaks
of the deified Julius as sur\'eying from his temple the Forum and the Capitol, and as a
near neighbour of the twin brothers Castor and Pollux.-'' It may also be inferred from its
neighbourhood to the Temple of Castor, that it stood not on the edge, but upon the open
area of the Forum. The Heroon was built in the style called by Vitruvius Peripterus
Pycnostylus, with six columns at each end, and eleven at each side, reckoning in those
at the corners, having spaces between them equal to a diameter and a half of one of
these columns.*"

An altar and a column of Numidian marble, twenty feet high, were erected at first on
the spot where Caesar's body was burnt, but these seem to have been pulled down by
Dolabella afterwards ; for we find Cicero and Brutus mentioning their destruction in
their letters, in one of which Brutus and Cassius ask M. Antonius whether it is safe for
them to return to Rome, as they hear that it is proposed to restore the altar, — " An act
which," they say, " can hardly be approved of by any one who wishes us to be safe and to
retain the respect of the Romans." Sacrifices were offered, vows made, and oaths sworn
for the decision of disputed matters at this Heroon for a long period after Cssar's death.^

Returning from the Heroon of Ca;sar, which we have mentioned in this place in order
to combine in one view the alterations made by Julius CjEsar and Augustus in the group
of buildings attached to the Curia, we have to consider the eastern half of the north-
eastern side of the F'orum. To the east of the spot where the modern Church of
S. Adriano stands, a street opened out of the Forum, which led through the centre of
Nerva's Forum. To the right of this street the buildings belonged to the fourth Region,
named from the Via Sacra, and the most conspicuous of them was the

Basilica Paulli, ,, .,. T^ ,,- , • i i ■ i r ■ ■ i \

Basilica Paulli, already mentioned, which, alter its restoration by Augustus,
was reckoned one of the finest buildings in Rome. It remained standing till the latest
Imperial age, but no vestige of it has been brought to light in modern times, nor are
any other public buildings known to have existed in this part of the Forum until we
come to the extreme north-eastern corner.

1 Dion Cass, xxxviii. 6. s Qv. Met. xv. 841 ; Ep. Pont. ii. 2. S3 : " Fra-

- Suet. Aug. icx) ; Dion Cass. hi. 34. tribus assimilis quos prcvima templa tenentcs divus

^ App. B. C. ii. 148, iii. 2 ; Dion Cass. xliv. 51, xlvii. ab excelsa Julius aede videt."

18 ; Livy, Epit. cxvi. See also Frontinus. Dc '' Vitruv. iii. 3.

Aquasd. f 129. " Suet. Ca;s. 85 : Cic. Phil. i. 2. Ad .\tt. \iv. 15.

■• Dion Cass. Ii. 19. Ad. Div. xi. 2.

Tlu- Forum Romanum after the Time of yuliiis Cccsar.

113

At this corner stood the Temple of Antoninus and Faustina, the portico of which is
still partially preserved, consisting of six magnificent columns of cipollino or j. ,
Car>-stian marble,^ with two columns and a pilaster, besides the corner column, Aniommis' ami
on each side. The shafts of these columns are fifty-five feet high, and J^""siiiia.
they are ornamented with Attic bases and Corinthian capitals of white marble. The

lEMl-LE (Jb AMloNlisUb AND KAU3IINA.

remains of the steps leading up to the temple were excavated in 1813, and show that it
must, when built, have stood at some height above the level of the Forum, although it is
now a considerable depth (sixteen feet) below the level of the surrounding ground. Upon
the plain architrave and frieze in the front of the temple the following inscription is cut : —

' The "undosa car>'stos " of Stat. -Silv. i. 5, 34, from the \vav7 Hnes upon it, which resemble the ripple
of water.

1 1 4 The Forum Romatmui after the Time of Julms Cersar.

" DIVO ANTONINO ET DIVAE FAUSTINAE EX. S. C." It is evident, from the difiterent size and
appearance of the letters, that the first three words of this inscription were not cut at
tlie same time as the latter part, and it is supposed that they were added after the death
of the Emperor, the temple having been at first dedicated to Faustina alone. At the sides
the frieze is ornamented with a bold and finely-executed relief, representing griffins, with
upraised wings, between which elaborately-designed candelabra and vases are car\'ed.
A considerable part of the side-walls, built of grey peperino blocks, which were formerly
faced with marble, is still standing. The name of Antoninus was deservedly held in great
reverence to the latest times of the Empire, and afterwards may have preserved this temple
from the destruction to which so many others fell a prey. It is also known that the
temple was consecrated as the Church of S. Lorenzo at a very early epoch. Palladio
states that there was an oblong court in front of this temple, in the centre of which the
bronze equestrian statue of M. Aurelius, now standing in the Piazza del Campidoglio. was
found. ^ This is, however, contradicted by the report of the excavators of 1813, and also
by the most trustworthy account of the place where the equestrian statue was found,- and
it is probable that Palladio mistook the foundations of the Heroon of Julius Caesar,
or of some other building, for a court in front of this temple.

The old Church of S. Lorenzo was pulled down in the first part of the sixteenth
centuiy, on occasion of the return of the Emperor Charles V. from Tunis, and a great
quantity of valuable relics were then disinterred here. The church lay in ruins for half
a century or more, and in 1602 the guild of the Apothecaries, to whom it belonged,
restored it, and erected the present building, which forms a strange contrast in the
meanness of its style and proportions to the massive grandeur of the grey old ruin which
embraces it.^

Considerable difficulty has been found, notwithstanding the inscription, in determining
the persons to whom this temple was dedicated : for both the elder and the younger
Faustina died and were deified and had temples erected to them before their husbands
the Emperors Antoninus Pius and ^Marcus Aurelius Antoninus.* But there are several
arguments in favour of the common opinion that the temple was dedicated to Antoninus
Pius and his Empress. In the first place, M. Aurelius would have been described by name
more exactly, as is the case in an inscription given by Gruter.-' It is also related that
Heliogabalus appropriated the Temple of M. Aurelius,^ and it would therefore either have
been destroyed after his death, or, if it were preserved, would have retained some traces
of his name. Further, a Temple of Antoninus (probably M. Aurelius) is mentioned by
the Curiositm, in the ninth Region, where his column also stands. Xor does there appear
to be anything to lead us to assign this temple to AI. Aurelius, except the passage of
Palladio above quoted, which is plainly a mistake. An inscription found near the spot,
belonging to a votive tablet erected to M. Aurelius, may in all likelihood have been put
up in his mother's temple, and is no proof of the existence of a temple here dedicated
to himself

1 Palladio, Arch. vi. 9, 30 ; \'en. i 570. ■* Hist. Aug. Ant. Pius, 6 : Ant. Phil. 26.

- See Fca, MisccU. pp. Ixii. 18. ^ Gruter, Inscr. p. 259.

~ See Rcber, Ruinen Roms, p. 132. " Hist. Aug. ; Ant. Phil. 26.

The Forum Romanum after the Time of Julius Ccesar.

I I

On the south-western side of the Forum, between the Temple of Castor and the
\'icus Jugarius, lay the Basilica Julia. The ground-plan of this basilica was laid bare

SITE OF BASILICA JUI.IA.

Col IS aw I.
Temple of Antoninus and Faustina.

Arc/i of Til us. Temple of Castor.

b>- a scries of excavations from 1817 to 1849, and has, more than any other discover)-,
helped to determine the topography of the Forum Romanum. The front ^^^.^.^^ ^^^^.^
measures more than 300 feet in length, and has been entirely cleared, but
the breadth is not ascertained, only 60 feet having been as yet uncovered. It may.

1 i6

The ForiDH Romanum after the Time of J itlhis Ceesar.

however, be safelj^ concluded that the longer side faced the Forum. The street in front
of this building, a continuation of that which in the Imperial times ran in front of the
Regia and Temple of Castor, has been also cleared, and is paved with basaltic lava,
the travertine pavement of the Forum being separated from it by a slightly raised edge.
The marble steps and the drain along the side of the street can be traced, and the
brickwork bases of the columns are tolerably easy to distinguish, whence it may be seen
that a flight of five or six steps formed the approach, and that the surrounding portico
contained three rows of columns.

The pavement is wonderfully perfect, and is composed of angular pieces of red,
j-ellow (giallo antico), and grey marble, arranged in regular rows. The preservation
of these valuable marbles shows that they must have been buried beneath the ruins
of the basilica before the times when the ancient buildings were plundered to build
modern Rome.

The proofs that these ruins belong to the Basilica Julia are very strong, and amount
almost to certaint}-. First, the Moiiiiiiicutinn Ancyramim^ places the Basilica Julia

FK.'VGMENTS OK THE CM'ITOLINE PI.A.N.

between the Temple of Saturn and that of Castor ; a description which, it will be seen,
corresponds exactly to the spot occupied by the foundations in question. A second proof
is derived from two inscriptions found during the excavations, one of which records the
repair of the Basilica Julia, and the erection of a statue in it b_\- Gabinius Vettius Probianus,
Prrefect of the city in 377 A.D. ;^ and another the rebuilding of the Basilica Julia under
Maximian, after the fire which destroyed it in the reign of Carinus and Numerian.-*
Besides these proofs, another has been drawn from two fragments of the Capitoline plan
of the cit)% figured above, which answer prett\" accurately to the ground-plan so far as
tliscovered by the excavations, and represent the two ends of the basilica adjoining the
Temples of Saturn and Castor. The combination of these two fragments is, however,
rendered uncertain bv a want of correspondence in size between the letters of the
inscription upon them.''

' Zurnpt. Monum. .Aiicx r.
' firutcr's Insci". clxxi. 7.

Tab.

line 12.

■■ Cat. Imp. Meiin. Roncalli. vol. ii. p. 247.

* On the Capitoline plan see below, chap. viii. Note A.

The Forum Romaimtn afta' the Tune of Jiilhis Casar.

I I

Whether there was a semicircular apse at the south side of the basiHca or not remains
uncertain until the excavations are completed. A good deal of legal business was
transacted here, as maj' be seen from the frequent mention of it in Pliny's Epistles.*
There were four tribunals, and four trials could be carried on at the same time • but
it does not follow from this that there must have been four apses in the building nor
are there any visible upon the fragments of the Capitoline plan.-

Of the history of this basilica little is known, except what can be learnt from the
Momimciituvi Aiicyrauuni and the inscriptions found on the spot. A late authority places
the dedication as early as B.C. 4G, iu the third consulship of Julius Csesar, when he
returned from Numidia, celebrated his four triumphs over Gaul, Egypt, Pharnaces, and
Africa, gave the most magnificent entertainments to the Roman people, and dedicated
the Forum Julium, the Temple of Venus, and this basilica.* The erection of these
splendid buildings was a part of the policy b}- which he was endeavouring to inaugurate
the new era of Imperialism at Rome ; and the new basilica occupied the site of, and
supplanted, a relic of the old oligarchical government, the Basilica Sempronia. Augustus
completed the Basilica Julia, but it was afterwards, during his lifetime, burnt down, and
then restored and enlarged by him, and dedicated in the names of his grandsons Caius
and Lucius.* The inscriptions above quoted show that it was burnt down a second time
about A.I). 2S3, and restored by Maximian, and that a third restoration took place under
Valens, Yalentinian, and Gratian in A.D. 377. One of Caligula's amusements, we are
told by Suetonius, was to stand upon the roof of this basilica and throw money to the
mob to scramble for in the Forum."

In front of the Basilica Julia three large brick pedestals have been brought to light
by the excavators, which, from the st\'le of their masonry, are judged to belong to the
time of Constantine, or at least to the later Imperial times. They are built
strongly, as if to support hca\-\- masses of stone, and fragments of enormous '

granite columns have been found near them. We can only conjecture that they ser\'ed as
the bases of dedicator}' pillars similar to that of Phocas.

The excavations have also uncovered the substructions of an ancient triumphal arch,
which seems to have spanned the street in front of the Basilica Julia just at the point
where the Vicus Jugarius and the street leading past the Temple of Saturn
to the Clivus Capitolinus diverge. This arch has with much probability ^rc/i 0/

'Jiberttis.

been identified with the arch mentioned by Tacitus® as having been erected
B.C. 16, close to the Temple of Saturn, in honour of the recovery of the Roman standards
lost by Varus, and retaken by Germanicus under the auspices of Tiberius. A represen-
tation of it is supposed to be given in a bas-relief upon the Arch of Constantine, showing
the Rostra of the later Empire, with an arch at the side.

Close to the above-mentioned three pedestals which have lost their surmounting
pillars, stands the Column of Phocas, a fluted .shaft of white marble with Column 0/
a Corinthian capital. It is raised ui)on a pyramidal base with twelve steps, Phocas.

composed of fragments taken from other buildings, and has a marble pedestal, upon

' I'lin. Ep. ii. 14, v. 9, \i. 33. Cass, xliii. 22.

- Quint. Inst. Or. xii. 5, 6. ■* Suet. .Aug. 29 ; Mon. Anc\ r. Tab. iv.

' Roncalli, Chron. vol. i. p. 399; < il. 183, 5 ; Dion ' Suet. Cal. 37. " Tac. Ann. ii. 41.

I 1 8 The Forum Romanum after the Time of fu/iiis Ccesar.

which the inscription is cut, showing that it was erected by Smaraedus, proclaimed
for the eleventh time Exarch of Italy. The name of the Emperor in whose honour

lEMl'I.E OF VJSI'ASIAN.

Area of Dh Con.vnlcs.

Tahiilaiiuin.

it was erected is cut out by accident or by the spite of an enemy; but, as we know
that Sniaragdus was Exarch of Italy for five years under Mauritius, A.D. 583— 58S,
and seven years under Phocas, A.D. 602—609, it follows that the eleventh year of his

The Fornm Romamim after Ihc Time of fulius Ccesar. \ \ 9

exarchate, A.D. 608, fell in the reign of Pliocas, and there can be no doubt that the name
of Phocas must be restored to the inscription. What irony of Fate has preserved this
monument, erected by a cringing courtier to a brutal and effete Emperor,^ to obtrude
itself with its miserable patchwork on the sacred ground of the Roman Forum, while the
statues and memorials of heroes which once worthily occupied so world-famous a site
are buried and lost in oblivion ?

Between the Temple of Castor and the Regia, on the south-western side of the Forum,
the Catalogue of the Curiostun mentions a Temple of ]\Iiner\'a. Bunsen identifies it with
the chalcidicum spoken of above, and fills up the lacuna in the Monmncntum Aiicyranum^
after nd circuin curiam cum with the words cJialcidico MinervcE. The insertion of the word
Mincrvce is, however, unnecessary if we take the right view of the situation
of the Curia, and Bunsen plainly imagined it for the sake of supporting j^f^fj-fa
his untenable view of that question. It is possible that the Temple of
Minerva in question may have been built by Domitian, who, as appears from Dion
Cassius,^ had a great enthusiasm for the worship of that goddess, but nothing is known
about it further than the mere mention of the name in the Curiosum.

The situation of the Temple of Vespasian, to which the three Corinthian columns
still standing under the Tabularium belong, has been already described.

° . Temple of

It stood with its front towards the ascent to the Capitol.^ The remams of Vespasian.
the substructions which have been laid bare since 1830 show that it occupied The North-

. 11/- western End.

a space of 107 feet in length, and 71 in breadth, and was approached from
the street leading up to the Capitol by a flight of steps, the uppermost of which were
placed between the columns, and have been partially restored. The temple was in form,
according to the nomenclature of Vitruvius,-'^ a " prostylus hexastylus," having six columns
in front of the portico and one at each side, but none along the sides of the cclla or
at the back. The three corner columns on the right-hand side of the portico are the
three which now remain. They have fluted shafts and Corinthian capitals, and still
support a portion of the entablature, upon the front of which the letters ESTITVER are
legible, evidently forming a part of the word " restituerunt." The letters were of metal,
according to the common custom, and the holes of the rivets which fastened them are
still visible. The architrave and cornice, especially on tlie side towards the Temple of
Concord, are ornamented ver)- richly with the usual mouldings, and there are some most
interesting reliefs upon the frieze, representing sacrificial implements and the skulls of
oxen. A horse-tail for sprinkling, and a sacrificial knife, with a vase, a patera, an axe,
and the mitre (ape.x) of a high priest {flamcn), are plainly distinguishable. Another
portion of this entablature may be seen in the corridor of the Tabularium, among the
fragments restored by Canina. The walls of the cclla were built of blocks of travertine
faced with marble. Against the back wall stands a large pedestal, wliich supported the
statue of the deified Emperor.

' Gibbon, ch. xlvi. vias publicas crunt icdificia Deoruni, ita constitiian-

= Zunipt, Mon. Ancyr. Tab. vi. line 34. Ziiinpt tiir uli pra;tcrcuntcs possint rcspicere et in conspcctu

reads, '• Curiam cum Clialcidico, forum Augustum salutationcs facerc." This fully explains tlie diffi-

basilicam Juliam." " Dion Cass. Ixvii. i. cully which Nissen, Das Temphnii, pp. 205—214,

* The front was turned towards the street in ac- finds in the orientation of the temple,

cordance with the rule of V'itruv. iv. 5 : " .Si circum '■" V'itruv. lib. iii. cap. 2.

I20 The Forum Rojnantwi after the Time of Jnlms Ccrsar

We have seen before/ in discussing the locality of the Temple of Saturn, that the
inscription which was placed upon the Temple of Vespasian, as preserved by the anony-
mous writer of Ensiedlen, was as follows : —

"DIVO. VESPASIANO. AUGUSTO. S.P.Q.R.
IMPP. CAESS. SEVERUS ET ANTONINUS PII FELICES AUG. RESTITUERUNT."

The upper line is the original inscription, and the lower records a restoration by Severus
and Caracalla.

To the arguments in favour of this mode of dividing the three inscriptions given by
the anonymous writer, it may be added that, according to Bunsen and Becker's mode
of division, we should have for the temple of the three columns the extraordinary
inscription " S.P.Q.R. IMPP. CAESS. SEV. ET ANTON. PII FEE. AUG. RESTITUERUNT," where
the prefix of "S.P.Q.R." to the Emperors' names is very unusual.

Further, the word " restituerunt " stands at the lower edge of the frieze, showing
that there was another line above that in which it stood. This upper line was " DIVO.
VESP. AUG. S.P.Q.R.," and referred to the original building of the temple, while the
lower was "IMPP. CAESS. SEV. ET ANT. PII EEL. AUGG. RESTITUERUNT," and referred
to the restoration by Severus and Caracalla.

Lastly, we know that the Temple of Saturn was the treasury. Now, the temple of
the three columns is too small to have contained the treasures and the archives of the
Roman Empire, nor has it, as the temple of the eight columns has, any subterranean
vaults in which treasure or records could be stored.

The facts known about the history of the Temple of Vespasian are as follow.

It was built by Domitian in the Consulship of Asprenas and Clemens, apparently
in .\.D. 94,^ in honour of Vespasian, with whom Titus was afterwards associated ; for.
though we do not find his name in the inscription, yet the temple is called after him
as -well as Vespasian in the Catalogue of buildings.^

A restoration of the temple by Severus and Caracalla is recorded in the second line of
the inscription ; but the name of Caracalla's unfortunate brother Geta has probably been
erased, and the words " pii felices " inserted instead : for Caracalla, after murdering his
brother, caused his name to be cut out of all the inscriptions which bore it, in order
to banish the memory of his foul deed.* On the Triumphal Arch of Severus and the
Arch of the Goldsmiths in the Velabrum, the blank space has not been so skilfully
filled up. Much care had evidently been taken in the case of this temple to change
the inscription so as to conceal the insertion of fresh words.

In front of the ruins of the Temple of Concord stands the Triumphal Arch of Septimius

Severus, composed of three archways of Pentelic marble. It now forms one of the most

conspicuous objects in the Forum, and has been excavated completely to

its base. As the ground on the side towards the Capitol is higher than

on the side of the Forum, a flight of steps leads up to the two side arches ; and it has

' See above, p. 94. ■* Hist. Aug. Ant. Carac. 2 ; Ant. Get. 7 ; Dion Cass.

* Cassiod. Chron. Domit. ix. lx.\vii. 12 ; Eiye tw iypw^eTo opo/ia to tow TtTa fiovov

' Curiosum Reg. ix. fj fijre fiovov (v6vs amoXero.

The Fonnu Romanmn after the Time of Julius Casar.

121

been ascertained by the Italian antiquary, Fea, that this was also the case with the central
archway, so that, unless some temporary mode of levelling the road which passed through
it was adopted for each occasion, the triumphal processions must have passed through
on foot. The side archwajs are connected with the central archway by small openings
in the intervening walls, and the arched interiors of all three are ornamented by square
coffers with rosette decorations.

On each side stand four columns of Proconnesian marble with composite capitals,
on the pedestals of which are bas-reliefs representing barbarians clothed in breeches and

ARCH OF SEl'lIMlLi StVEKLS (.NuRTH MDE/.

with the chlamys and Phrygian cap, led as captives bj' Roman soldiers wearing the
lacerna.^ Between each pair of outer and inner pillars there are large bas-reliefs, executed
in a ver}' confused and tasteless style. The four lower and narrower compartments
represent the goddess Roma receiving the homage of the East, which is personified by
a woman wearing a tiara. Behind her, in a long train of carts and carriages, come the
spoils of the various nations conquered by Severus. Above this bas-relief, which run
round the bottom of the four compartments, over the side arches, are four larger bas-

' See above, chap. ii. p. 27.
R

122

TJie Fornin Roniamnii after tlic Time of J ulhis Ccesar.

reliefs, representing the sieges and victories of Severus in Parthia, Osrhoenc, Adiabene,
and Arabia. The following interpretation of these bas-reliefs is perhaps as nearly right
as can be expected, though the exact correctness of the explanations cannot be relied
upon, as the monotony and want of distinctness in the execution render it difficult always
to distinguish the meaning of the scenes portrayed.

The compartment on the left of the observer, looking from the Forum, contains a
representation of the raising of the Parthian siege of Nisibis, in Northern Mesopotamia,
by Severus, after he had crushed his rivals ^-Emilianus and Pescennius Niger in Pontus
and Syria (A.D. 195). The taking of the town of Carra;, west of Nisibis, and the march
from thence against the Osrhoenians and Adiabenians, are also here represented.

The compartment on the right hand, looking from the Forum, contains the surrender
of Abagarus, the king of Osrhoene, to Severus, and the siege of the town of Hatra
on the Tigris.

On the other side, towards the Capitol, the second campaign of Severus in the East
is portrayed. The right-hand compartment contains the flight of the Parthians from
Babylon, the undisturbed entry of the Romans into that city, and a second siege of
Hatra (A.D. 199). On the left is the wresting of the towns of Seleucia and Ctesiphon
from the Parthians, the flight of their king Artabanus, and the surrender of the Arabians,
who had joined the Parthian side' (A.D. 201, 202). Over the central arch are four
winged figures of Victory bearing trophies, and underneath them the genii of the four
seasons, — Spring with flowers. Summer w ith sickle and ears of corn. Autumn with grapes,
and Winter wrapped up in a cloak. The figures over the smaller arches represent the
river-gods of the Euphrates and Tigris, and their tributaries, on which lay the towns of
Nisibis and Carrae.

The entablature which surmounts these arches is badly proportioned, and the
projections over the capitals of the columns are too heavy. Upon the entablature rises
an attica, containing four small chambers, to one of which stairs lead from the small
entrance door visible at some height above the ground, on the side towards the Temple
of Saturn. In the corner pilasters of the attica there are the traces of nails which have
fastened some bronze ornaments to the wall ; and from the shape in which these nails
are arranged, it has been conjectured that the objects fixed here were Roman military
ensigns. The whole middle .space of the attica is occupied by an inscription repeated
on both sides. The latter, as appears from rivets still left, was inlaid, like that of the
Temple of Vespasian, with metal. A coin of Severus,'' upon which a representation of this
arch appears, gives us the further information that a brazen chariot with six horses
originally stood upon the top. In the chariot were the figures of Severus, and Victory
crowning him, and the two sons of the Emperor, Caracalla and Geta, walked one on each
side. Upon the four corners of the attica stood four equestrian statues. The inscription is
as follows : —

' Reber, p. 103. The outlines of the history will - Herodian, iii. 9, 10, 11 ; Hist. Aug. \'\K. Scv.

be found in the Scriptorcs Historiae Augustas, 9, 16, 17.
Ammianus Marccllinus, and Herodian. ^ Eckhel. part ii. vol. vii. p. 185.

The Forum Romannin after the Time of yulins Ca-sar. 123

IMP. CAES. LUCIO. SEPTI.MIO M. FIL. SF.VERO. PIO. PKKIINACI. AVG. PATRI. rATRIAE. PARTHICO. ARABICO. EI'

PARTHICO. ADIABENICO. PONTIFIC. MAXIMO. TRIBUNIC. POTEST. XI IMP. XI. COS. Ill PROCOS. ET

IMP. CAES. .M. AURELIO. L. FIL. ANTONINO. AUG. PIO. FELICI. TRIBUNIC. POTEST. VI COS. PROCOS. P. P.

OPTIMIS FORTISSIMISQUE PRIXCIPIBUS

OB REMPUBLICAM RESTITUTAM I.MPERIUMQUE POPULI ROMANI PROI'AGATL .M

INSIGNIBUS VIRTUTIBUS EORUM DOMI FORISyUE. S.P.(^).R.

From the inscription we find that the arch was built in the eleventh year of the reign
of Severus, and the sixth consulship of Caracalla, here called M. Aurelius Antoninus ;
that is to say, in A.l). 203. The repetition of the title Parthicus twice points to the two
campaigns of Severus against the Parthians.^ In the fourth line the name of Geta and
his titles have been erased, and the words " optimis fortissimisque principibus" inserted
in their place. A similar erasion was also made in the inscription on the Goldsmiths'
Arch in the Velabrum and on the Temple of Vespasian. In the Aliddle Ages the
tower of the Church of S. Sergio e Bacco was built upon the top of this arch, but was
removed on occasion of the entry of Charles V. in 1536, by command of the Pope
Paul III. The columns of the arch were replaced and restored to a considerable extent
at the end of the seventeenth century, and the rubbish has been gradually cleared away
from the base.

Between the Arch of Septimius Severus just described, and the substructions which
we have assigned to the Arch of Tiberius, the ruins of a cur\-ed platform or terrace about
thirty-two yards long, with the convexity of the curve towards the Forum,
have been discovered. The level of this terrace is about nine and a half
feet above the Forum. It seems to have been surrounded with a marble edge with
bronze railings, the holes for which are still to be seen in the stones. The greater part is,
however, now covered bj- the modern road, and invisible. Now the Catalogue contained
in the Cnriosum mentions a place in the eighth Region, between the Vicus Jugarius and
the Basilica Julia, called the Grjecostadium, and the situation of this terrace corresponds
sufficiently to this description, if by the Vicus Jugarius we understand the continuation of
that street past the Temple of Saturn. It is plain that we cannot place the Gra;co-
stadium, as it is placed in many plans of the Forum, between the Vicus Jugarius and the
north-western end of the Basilica, for the excavations show that there is no room left
between them, and it therefore seems likely that we must recognise in these ruins the
remains of the Grzecostadium catalogued in the Cnriosuin. The name Graecostadium
may be taken as identical with Grsecostasis, but it cannot be supposed that this is the
old Grsecostasis, which, as we have seen, stood near the Curia Hostilia, on the north-
eastern side of the Forum. We are therefore naturally led to the conclusion that this is
the Graecostasis built after the destruction of the old Curia and the erection of the new
Rostra by Julius Ca;sar. Pliny the elder speaks of the Graecostasis as having foniurh
stood on the Comitium,- whence we may conclude that it had been removed before his
time ; and as Julius Ca;sar altered the arrangements of the Forum so completely in other
respects, it seems most probable that the Graecostasis was placed here by him. TIk

* Mist. .'\ug. Vit. Scv. 9, 16. ' riin. Nat. Hist, xxxiii. i, 6.

K 2

1 24 The Fomiu RoniaiiiDii after the Time of J iilius Ccpsar.

GrEECostadiuiu is also mentioned among the buildings of the Forum as having suffered
by a fire in the reign of Carinus and Numerianus.^

At the northern end of the terrace which has been identified with the Grjecostasis
of the Imperial times, and close to the Arch of Septimius Severus, stands a round

brickwork pedestal. This has been considered with great probability to be
Milhanum j ^ ^ ^j^^ Milliariuni Aurcum, a milestone erected by Augustus

B.C. 28, bearing a bronze-gilt tablet, where the distances to which the various
Roman roads of Italy reached from the metropolis were recorded."^ The Milliariuni is
mentioned b)- Pliny as standing at the head of the Forum,^ and Tacitus and Suetonius
both describe it as near the Temple of Saturn. Otho chose it as the spot where he
appointed a meeting with the soldiers who were to proclaim him Emperor and dethrone
Galba, probably because it was the most public place on the road between the palace and
the PrEtorian camp.* In the Catalogue of the Citriosiiin it is mentioned in the eighth
Region in connexion with the Graecostadium and the Temples of Concord, Vespasian,
and Saturn; and in the list of places given in the anonymous MS. of Einsiedlen it
is called the Umbilicus Roms, and placed near the Church of S. Sergio e Bacco, which,
as we have seen, stood upon the Arch of Septimius Severus. There can be little doubt,
therefore, that the Milliariuni Aureuni was in this spot, or not far from it; and that this
round pedestal belonged to it is rendered likely from the fact that the masonry is evidently
not intended to support any great weight, such as that of a memorial column or statue,
but some smaller and lighter object. The pedestals which supported columns have always
been found to contain a massive base of blocks of travertine, while this is entircl}^ com-
posed of brickwork.-^ A c)-lindrical piece of marble found near this spot has been supposed
to be a fragment of the milestone itself. It has holes in it drilled for the metal rivets of
a tablet, which may have contained the inscription. I have already mentioned '' that
the miles along the Roman road were measured from the gates of the Ser\-ian Wall, and
not from this Milliariuni Aureum, so that the inscription did not record the length of the
roads from the milestone, but from the gates. It is probable that the bronze tablet was
removed before the time of the writer of the Einsiedlen MS., who visited Rome in the
ninth century ; and this may account for the change of name, as given by him, into
Umbilicus Roms, instead of Milliariuni Aureuni. A somewhat similar round pedestal
stands at the other end of the terrace, and a piece of the marble facing of this may be
seen in the archwa\- under the modern road near the Temple of Saturn, but it is not
known what this latter pedestal supported.

In front of the curved platform supposed to be the Graecostadium, some substructions

have been discovered, assigned by Bunsen to the Milliarium Aureum, but by Reber, with

greater probability, to the Rostra of the later Empire." They consist of a

T'V'f.-l'. row of blocks of peperino, about fifteen feet broad, lying along the edge of the

Graecostadium, and it does not appear likely that they can be, as is commonly

supposed, the remains of a projection in front of the Gra;costasis intended for statues. To

' Roncalli, Script. Vet. Chron. vol. ii. p. 247. s Above, chap. iv. p. 49. .See GrKv. Thes. Ant.

- Dion Cass. liv. 8. '■> Plin. Nat. Hist. iii. 5, 9, § 66. Rom. vol. iv. p. 1805.

■" Tac. Hist. i. 27; Suet. Otho, 6 ; Pint. Galba, 24. " Bunsen, Beschreibung, vol. iii. p. loi ; Reber,

^ Reber, Ruinen Roms, p. 101. Ruinen Roms, p. 98.

The Font))! Roiiianain aflcr the Time oj Jitlius C(csar.

12!

what building, then, can thc\- be most probably assigned ? Rcber makes tlic following
conjecture. Tiie Catalogue of the Cnriosinii names three Rostra in the Forum, and we
have as yet only discovered two, — the Rostra Vetera on the north side, and the Rostra
Julia at the eastern end. The third Rostra must then be of later date, and may be
supposed to hav-e stood in this part of the Forum, as there is no room for them else-
where. This view receives confirmation from a bas-relief on the side of the Arch of
Constantine towards the Coliseum, which represents Constantine, surrounded by his
court, addressing the people from the Rostra. At the sides of the Rostra are two
sitting statues, and in front a lattice-work railing, supported by posts shaped like the
common statues of Hermes. The three arches on the right may be supposed to be the
Triumphal Arch of Septimius Severus, and the single arch on the left that of Tiberius, to
the left of which the Basilica Julia is seen. Behind the Rostra are represented five statues
mounted on high pedestals. It was possibly upon these Rostra that Aurelian placed his
golden statue of the Genius of the Roman people,^ for in Dion Cassius the shrine of the
Genius is placed near the Temple of Concord, and in the Cnriosuui it is mentioned
next to the Rostra, in the eighth Region. -

At the further end of the narrow space between the foundations of the Temple of
Concord and that of the Temple of Vespasian, close under the Tabularium, a small brick
chapel was discovered in 1S29, with an inscription upon a small pedestal re-
cording its erection in honour of Faustina, the deified Empress. To which of C/iapd 0/

Faustina.

the two Faustinas it was dedicated, whether to the Empress of Antoninus
Pius or of Marcus Aurelius, is not known. The builder was a bailiff {viator), employed by
the treasurer of the Empress. The chapel is extremely small, the breadth of the whole
being only 8 feet, and the depth 13 feet. It appears from the remains that the walls were
covered with plaster and painted, and the approach to it was paved with flat paving-stones
of travertine.

A triumphal arch in honour of Augustus is spoken of by Dion Cassius as having been
placed in the Forum b\- command of the Senate, after the victory at Actium;^ and an
anonymous interpreter of Virgil, published by Mai from a \'erona palimpsest,
mentions an arch built bv Augustus, near the Temple of Julius Caesar, in the 'Z*^' "-^

*= r- J Angus Ills.

Forum, in commemoration of the recovery of the Roman standards lost by
Crassus from the Parthians.'' These two can hardly be identical unless the erection of the
arch spoken of b\' Dion was delayed till after the Parthian war. It is well known from
the first poem in Statins' Silvce, that an equestrian statue of Domitian stood ^ , •
at the north-western end of the Forum looking towards the other end. It Statue of
was a triumphal statue erected in honour of Domitian's campaigns against Domitmn.
the Catti and Daci.-' The poet describes its position very accurately, mentioning the
Heroon of Julius Csesar which faced it, the Basilica Julia on the right, the Basilica Paulli
on the left, and the Temples of Vespasian and Concord behind. He also alludes to some
other principal objects in the Forum, the Temple of Vesta, the Temple of Castor, and the
statue of Curtius, and concludes with prophesying that time will be unable to injure so

' Roncalli, Vet. Chron. p. 246. ' Dion Cass. li. 19.

= Dion Cass, xlvii. i, 2, 8 ; Curiosum Reg. viii. ap. ■* Lion. Intcrp. ad \'irg. vol. ii. p. 319.

Becker, Handbuch, voL i. p. 712. ' Suet. Dom. 6, 15.

126 The Forum Romanum after the Time of fu/ius Ccrsar.

noble a statue, and tliat it will outlast the Eternal City itself. Unfortunately this prophecj-
has not been fulfilled. No vestige even of the yEterna crepido now remains, much less
of the horse or its Imperial rider, which were probably melted down by the Goths and
Vandals centuries ago. The lines of Statius are so important and exact a description of
the north-western end of the Forum, and so beautiful in themselves, that I give them
at length : —

" An te PalladijB taleni, Germanice, nobis
Effinxere manus, qualem modo frena tenentem
Rhenus et attoniti vidit domus ardua Daci.
Par operi sedes, hinc obvia limina pandit
Oui fessus bellis adscita; muncre prolis.
Primus iter nostris ostendit in asthera Divis.
At laterum passus hinc Julia tecta tuentur,
mine belligeri sublimis regia Paulli.
Terga pater, blandoque videt Concordia vultu.
Ipse autem puro celsum caput aere saeptus
Tcmpla superfulges, et prospectare videris
An nova contemptis surgant palatia ilammis
Pulchrius, an tacita vigilet face Troicus ignis,
Atque exploratas jam laudet Vesta ministras.
At sonipes, habitus animosque imitatus equestre;
Acrius attollit vultus, cursumque minatur,
Hunc pavet aspicicns Ledsus ab ffide propinqua
Cyllarus, hie doniini nunquam mutabit habenas
Perpetuus frenis, atque uni serviet astro.
Cedat equus Latiae qui contra templa Diones
Caesarei stat sede fori, vix lumine fesso
Explores, quam longus in hunc despectus ab illo.
Non hoc imbriferas hiemes opus, aut Jovis ignem
Tergeminum, ^Eolii non agmina carceris horret
Annorumque moras, stabit dum terra polusquc
Dum Romana dies."^

Stat. Silv. i. I, 5—7, 22—24, 29—36, 46, 47, 53—55, 84— 88, 91-94.

^,J^g&^

w. ta

R om

f>ir^WeUer, tafv.

Extant rzuns
Probable sCtas

'-! : -' 'J D n o Q

Edf^WtUerialv.

Cnmhridoe. Deiiihron . BkU ^P C

•

CHAPTER VII.
THE FORA OF THE EMPERORS.

INXREASE OF PUBLIC BUSINESS AT ROME REQUIRED LARGER PUBLIC BUILDINGS — CHARACTERISTICS OF IMl'KRIAL
FORA — SITE OF THE FORUM OF JULIUS CESAR — TEMPLE OF VENUS GENETRIX — FORUM OF AUGUSTUS ANH
TEMPLE OF MARS ULTOR — EXTERIOR WALL — ARCO DEI PANTANI — STATUES IN THE FORUM AUGUSTI — FORUM
OF NERVA — COLONNACCE — TEMPLE OF MINERVA — TEMPLE OF JANUS — HISTORY uF TEMPLE OF MINERVA — FORUM
OF VESPASIAN — TEMPLUM PACKS — CONTAINED A LARGE COLLECTION OF WORKS OF ART — LIBRARY — FIRE IN
THE TIME OF COMMODUS— FORUM OF TRAJAN — FURUM PROPER — TRIUMPHAL ARCH — BASILICA ULPIA — GREEK
AND LATIN LIBRARIES — COLUMN OF TRAJAN — DESCRIPTION OF THE BAS-RELIEKS — TEMPLE OF TRAJAN — LATER
HISTORY OF THE FORUM TRAJANUM — REMAINS FOUND ON THE SITE — INSCRIPTIONS.

" Percensere labor densis decora alta tropha;is
Ut si quis Stellas peinumerare velit.
Confunduntque vagos delubra micantia visus
Ipsos crediderim sic habitasse Deos."

RUTILIUS NUMANTIUSj Itiu. i.

' Circumsciiptione-s furta, fraudes, iiifitiationes quibus trina non sufficiunt Fora." — Seneca, De Ini, ii. 9, 4.

Necessmy
extension of

ROME had possessed until the end of the civil war few public buildings, except the
temples of the gods. The Tabularium at the nortli-western end of the Forum, and
beneath it the offices of the notaries, the Basilicae of Cato, Sempronius, and
yEmilius, were almost the only edifices which could be used for secular busi-
ness. But with the re-oriranization of the government, the settlement of con- public build-
flicting claims, and the changes in financial arrangements which began with '"•?"'
the Sullan constitution, an immense tide of public business must have set in, which
required far more space than the small area of the Forum Romanum, with its anne.xetl
basilicae, could possibly accommodate. Fortunes were rapidly made, and splendid private
houses, such as those of Crassus ' and Lucullus, Servilius and Sallust, rose in various parts
of the cit)'. The Campagna and coasts uf the ^lediterranean were covered with vast and
luxurious country seats.- These would have indicated, even had history been silent, tlic
concentration of wealth and power in the hand's of an oligarchy, who cared little to establish
a systematic national government, who crushed all national organization, and whose chief
care was to satisfy the hungry mob by distributions of grain or magnificent festivals. The
aspect of Rome reflected this state of her affairs very faithful!}'. The most magnificent

' The house of Crassus was valued at 6,000,000 - Lucullus paid 2.3V600/. for a villa .it Misenum.

sesterces, 61,500/. (Monimscn, vol. iii. p. 416.; (Moinuxsen, voL iiiup. 416.)

128 TJie For a of the Emperors.

buildings in the first century before the Christian era were not those which belonged to the
nation, but the houses of the rich nobles. Even the temples of the gods had been neg-
lected, and their statues blackened with the smoke of frequent conflagrations.^ The Forum
Romanum had remained within its original limits ; the Temples of Saturn, Castor, and
Vesta, the Career and the Curia, had been almost unchanged since the time of the kings ;
and though separate market-places for cattle, vegetables, and fish had been established in
the Forum Boarium, Olitorium, and Piscarium,^ yet the vast and complicated business of the
Empire had to be conducted in a ridiculously narrow space, and in a few confined buildings.
But with the change from an oligarchy to an Imperial government, a corresponding change
necessarily began to show itself in the buildings of Rome. An Emperor could not with
safety neglect the regular administration of public business, or allow the national religion
to decay. Sulla and Pompey, who were in reality if not in name the first Emperors of
Rome, felt this, and began the work by the restoration of the Curia and the Temple of
Jupiter, and by erecting the Pompeian theatre, and the public buildings of the Campus,
lulius Ca;sar, as we have already seen, partly from political motives, and partly from
personal ambition, altered the arrangement of the Forum, and laid the plan of a basilica
on a far more extensive scale than had hitherto been contemplated. But he was not con-
tent with this. His favourite scheme, which he did not, however, live to see accomplished,
was the opening of a new Forum on the north-east of the Forum Romanum. Augustus
not only carried out this design of his uncle, but added to it another similar group of public
buildings, and the subsequent Emperors vied with each other in the costly splendour of
their Fora. Vespasian, Domitian, and Nerva successively covered nearly the whole space
between the Forum Romanum and the Subura with cloistered courts and stately temples ;
and Trajan and Hadrian, those mighty masters in the art of combining colossal size with
beauty of proportion, crowned this series of marvellous buildings with a group which
became the wonder and envy of their successors.

Although these buildings of the Emperors were called Fora, yet they were in no
respect similar in their arrangement to the old Forum. Each had its temple in the centre

of a walled court surrounded with porticoes, and resembled a Greek temple

features of the '^^'ith its sacred enclosure, more than an open market-place with buildings

Imperial of different kinds standing round it. The Piazza of St. Peter at Rome, the

Piazza of St. Mark at Venice, and the Largo del Palazzo at Naples, resemble
in some respects the Imperial Fora. In all we have the central temple and the lateral
arcades ; and in the Piazza of St. Peter's and the Largo at Naples, also a similarity to the
Forum Augusti in shape. The best ancient example still extant of such a group of
buildings is the Forum at Pompeii, though the Temple of Jupiter there does not cover so
much of the area as the temples of the Roman Fora did. The arrangement of these Fora
may perhaps be traced partly to the influences of Greek architects, and partly to a politic
wish on the part of the Emperors to maintain the old Roman custom of conducting
public business under the sanction and in the immediate presence of the gods.

The tribunals were placed, and the courts of justice held, either in the temples or in
the semicircular apses which, if we may conjecture from the remains of the Forum Augusti,

' Hor. Carm. iii. 6. - See Jordan in Hermes, ii. p. 93.

The Fora of the Emperors. i tq

projected from the outer wall ; and the offices of business for bankers, notaries
Government officials, or merchants, were under the arcades which ran round the
court. There was but little open space, for the central temple with its basement filled
the ijreater part of the area. Nor was it desirable in a hot sunny climate like that of
Rome to have an open square in which to transact business. Shade and coolness were
wanted, and well provided for in the arcades and temple-porticoes of the Imperial Fora.

The Forum of Trajan differed from the others in this respect. It was not merely the
court of a temple, but was surrounded with various public buildings arranged in .symme-
trical order, and contained a basilica, two libraries, and the column which still bears his
name. Hadrian added to this a colossal temple with a court dedicated to his deified
predecessor. The whole area of these noble buildings of the early Emperors extended
over a space nearly three times the size of the Forum Romanum, even if we include in
that expression the tabularium, the basilica:^ and the adjacent temples, and occupied
the whole of the valley included by the Capitoline, Quirinal, and I'alatine Hills, and by a
line drawn across from the Arco del Pantani to tl>e Basilica of Constantine.

The ancient authorities which enable us to determine the position of the Forum of
Julius Caesar are unfortunately very scanty. Much praise is lavished upon its beauty, and
the rare treasures of art which it contained, but the only passage which can
be said to fix its site at all definitely is the curious account given by Pliny of ^o'""' "J

Julius Ca-sar.

a lotos-tree which grew on the Vulcanal, and the roots of which extended to

° Jts position.

the P'orum Julium.^ As it is tolerably certain that the Vulcanal was on the
north-eastern side of the Forum at the part nearest the Capitol, we must conclude that the
Forum Julium adjoined the buildings of this part of the Forum Romanum. Again, Ovid
speaks of the Temple of Janus as "juncta duobus foris,"- and we have seen that the Temple
of Janus was near the Curia. It is probable, therefore, tliat by the two fora Ovid means
the Forum Romanum and the Forum Julium ; and the expression, if taken in this sense,
confirms the notice of Pliny with respect to the site of the Forum Julium.

The order in which the name of this P'orum occurs in the Catalogue of the Cnriosnm
is also in favour of this supposition.^ It is there placed between the Atrium Mincr\-je,
or Chalcidicum, which probably adjoined the Curia, and the Forum Augusti, which
is known to have been between the Arco dei Pantani and the P'orum Romanum.

The ruins of two portions only of the Forum Julium have been discovered in modern
times. The first is a considerable part of the outer wall, standing in the court of the house
No. 1 8, in the \'ia del Ghetarello, a small street which opens out of the Via di .Marforio,
near the Career and the Church of SS. Martina e Luca. This ruined wall has three arches
built into it, composed of large blocks of peperino and travertine skilfull}- cut, and joined
without mortar, and underbuilt by another arch, as if in order to enable the wall to bear a
great weight. The length of the fragment of wall is about 50 feet, and the highest point
about 30 feet. More fragments of massive walls of the same construction are to be seen
in the adjoining cellars.* The other relic of Caesar's Forum is now no longer \-isible. We

1 Plin. Nat. Hist. xvi. 44, 86. - Ov. Kast. i. 257. Parker to the dungeons of the Career Mamcrtinus

' Curiosum Reg. viii. ; Becker, Handbuch, vol. i. and to the wall of Servius Tullius. 15ut there is not

p. 713. sufficient proof of this to justify an abandonment of

* These walls have been lately assigned by Mr. the usual opinion about them.

1 30 TIic Fora of tlic Emperors.

obtain our information about it from Palladio, the architect, who relates that about the
middle of the sixteenth century, while he was at Rome, the ground-plan of a temple
was uncovered in digging the foundations of a house between the Salita di Marforio and
the Temple of Mars Ultor, a description which points plainly to the block of houses behind
SS. Martina e Luca.^ There was a peculiarity in the intercolumniations of this temple
which Palladio particularly remarked. The distance between the columns, he says, was
the eleventh part of the diameter of a column less than a diameter and a half

This description agrees exactly with Vitruvius' account of the Temple of Venus

Genetrix, which stood in the Forum Julium.- It was of the style called pycnostylos, with

the spaces between the columns equal to a diameter and a half of a column ;

empeof cmis ^^^ ^^ ^j^j^ style was rare in temples of the Ionic and Corinthian orders,

Genetrix. ^ ^

and it is not likely that there should have been two in this style so near
together, it seems tolerably certain that Palladio is describing the foundations of the
Temple of Venus. The position, moreover, of these foundations corresponds to that
of the wall above mentioned in the Via del Ghetarello, if we suppose that wall to have
formed a part of the outer enclosure of the- temple court, and there is no mention of
any other temple of such size and importance in this neighbourhood.

Fragments of the ornamental work with which the temple was decorated were found
at the time of the excavation of its foundations; They contained representations of
dolphins and tridents, and Palladio therefore assumed that the temple was dedicated to
Neptune. But these ornaments are sufficiently accounted for by an allusion found in Ovid
to some artificial waterworks near the Temple of Venus in the Forum Julium.'^

Julius Ca;sar bought the site of the Forum Julium \\\\.\\ the money produced by the
sale of the spoils in the Gallic wars, and he began to clear the ground and to build in
B.C. 49. The price of the site according to Suetonius and Pliny was a hundred million
sesterces,* and doubtless it was to this vast expenditure that POmpey chiefly alluded when
he said that Ca;sar was obliged to create a civil war in order to pay for his public works.
Pompey had chosen a much cheaper site for his public buildings in the Campus Martius.
At the battle of Pharsalus, in 48- B.C., Caesar made a vow to build a temple to the goddess
patroness of his family, Venus Genetrix, and after his victory he proceeded to fulfil this
vow in the most magnificent manner.^' His original intention had probably been to leave
the central area of the Forum open like that of the Forum Ronianum, but he now filled
the greater part of the open space with the new temple. The erection of this must have
been very much hastened, for he celebrated the dedication of it two j'ears afterwards, in
B.C. 46, at the time of his triumphal entry into Rome. The temple was at that time
scarcely completed, and in particular ^\■e are told that the statue of the goddess which
was to be executed by Arcesilaus, the best sculptor of the day, was not finished, and
that the clay model only was placed in the temple for the occasion. By the side of this
statue was afterwards placed another of Cleopatra.** On the last day of the triumphal
festival Cssar entered the Forum, says Dion Cassius, after dinner, crowned with a wreath

Palladio, Architettura, Venet. 1642, lib. iv. p. aqueduct, placed round the fountain.
128. ''■ Vitruv. iii. 3. * Suet. Cces. 26; Plin. Nat. Hist, xxxvi. 15, 26

3 Ov. .An Am. lib. i. 81, iii. 451 ; Rem. Am. 660. § 103. '■> Appian, B. C. ii. 102.

The Appiades are statues of nymphs of the Appian « Plin. Nat. Hist. xxxv. 12, 45, § 156.

The Fora of the Emperors. , - ,

of various flowers, and with slippers on his feet, and he was thence escorted home bv
nearly the whole population of Rome, the procession being lighted by a number of
elephants carrying torches.^

It was also in this temple that Cresar gave the deepest offence to the Roman nobility
by a slight they never forgave, and for which he atoned by his death. He was sitting in
the portico while a meeting of the Senate was being held, that he might not seem to
exercise any undue control over them ; and when the Senators came to announce tu him
the extravagant decrees which they had just passed in his honour, he received them
without rising from his seat.- Though his friends tried to excuse him on the ground of
indisposition, yet their efforts were in vain, and from that moment his enemies had an easy
task before them, the whole nation being disgusted with his overweening pride.

The Forum or Tefi€vo<: of the temple was designed for /i^a/ business especially, and
not for merchants. The whole work was not quite completed at Caesar's death, and
Augustus finished it.' The temple was sometimes used for meetings of the Senate, and
was adorned with works of art, man}' of which became celebrated at Rome. In jiarticalar,
Pliny speaks of the pictures of Medea and Ajax, by Timomachus, for which C?esar gave
eighty talents.* Other curiosities were also shown there — a cuirass ornamented with
British pearls, esteemed, not for their beaut)% for they are small and discoloured, but
for their rarity in those times, and six cabinets of gems dedicated by Julius Caesar.'
The strange story of Caesar's horse with human feet, which is repeated by Suetonius and
Pliny, may have originated from the fact that its statue, which was placed in front of
the Temple of Venus, had griffon or sphinx-like fore-feet.*' Statins mentions the
tradition that this statue was originally made by Lysippus to represent Bucephalus,
the war-horse of Alexander, but this must be a poetical fiction, or Pliny would hardh-
have omitted to mention it. The statue was apparentl}' gilt.'

Of the subsequent history of the temple and forum but little is known. In the "reat
fire at the time of Carinus this part of the city suffered considerabl}', and was after-
wards restored by Diocletian.* In the twelfth century the route of a procession from
St. Peter's to the Lateran passes through the Arch of Severus and then turns to the north-
east between the Temple of Concord and the Temple of the Fates," and passes between
the Forum Julium and the Forum of Trajan, after which it goes on to the Forum Nerva?.
This notice affords additional evidence that the site which has been here assigned to
the Forum Julium is the right one.

The almost universal opinion of Roman topographers now is, that the tiiree Corinthian
columns on the left-hand side of the Via Bonella, and the massive arch which leads from it
into the \'ia di Tor di Conti, are the remains of the Temple of Mars Ultor,

rorum of

which Augustus built in his Forum, and of the north-eastern portion of the Augustus.
enclosing wall. This opinion was already held by Palladio in the sixteenth TempUo/Mar
century,^" but the Italian antiquaries since his time have adopted the most ""^'

various hypotheses on the subject. There is, it is true, no actual proof that this was

' App. loc. cit. ; Uion Cass, xliii. 22. ' Plin. Xat. Hisl. i.\. 35, § 116; x.vxvii. i, 5. § 11.

' Dion Cass. xliv. 8; Plut. Cass. 60; Suet. Jul. 78. ^ Suet. Caes. 61 ; Plin. Nat. Hist. viii. 42, 5 155.

' .See Monum. Ancyr. Tab. iv. prim, a dcxt. " Stat. Silv. i. i, 86.

* Tac. Ann. xvi. 27 ; Plin. Nat. Hist. vii. \ 126, ' Roncalli, vol. ii. p. 247.

XXXV. 4, § 26. ' See above, ch. vi. '" I'alladio, Arch. iv. p. 1 5.

S 2

1-52 The Fora of tJic Emperors.

the Temple of Mars Ultor, but tliere is strong presumptive evidence that it was so.
The Catalogue of tlie Citriosum places that temple next to the Forum Julium in the
Ei^i-hth Region. Now, the Eighth Region was bounded on the east in this neighbourhood
bv the Via del Sole, or a street a little to the east of it, behind the Temple of Antoninus
and Faustina, and we are tolerably sure that the Forum Transitorium filled up a great

TEMI'I.E OK MARS ri.TDR AND ARCO DEI PANTANI.

space between the Temple of Mars Ultor and the above-mentioned street, and that
the Forum Julium intervened between that temple and the Forum Romanuni, while
the Forum Trajani limits the space to the north-westward within which we can suppose
have been. Thus the only space left in the Eighth Region within

the Forum Augusti to

The Fora oj Ihc Emperors. i ^ -.

which the Forum of Augustus can be supposed to have been contained is bounded by
the Via della Croce Bianca, the Via del Priorato, and the Via di Tor di Conti.

The ruins of the temple consist of three lofty fluted Corinthian columns and a pilaster
of white Carrara marble, a part of the surmounting architrave, and the corresponding
wall of the cella of the temple. Antiquarians are of opinion that the purity of style
and elegance of these columns and their ornamentation forms a strong proof that they
were designed and executed in the best times of Roman architectural art, and cannot
belong to a period later than that of Augustus. The richest decorative work is to be
seen under the roof of the portico between the columns and the wall of the ccl/a.

These three columns stood at the left side of the temple, which abutted on the
exterior wall of the Forum, as the ruins show. A large portion of this wall

-I! 1* I'l r ^ \ I'T^ • r^t Exterior Wall.

IS still standmg on each side of the Arco dei Pantani. The arch itself is

built of travertine, the wall of peperino blocks laid alternately with the Arco dd

longer and shorter sides outwards, as in the masonry of the Tabularium. In

the Middle Ages a door was fitted to this archway and a portion of the stone cut away

on the west side, which has injured its architectural beauty very much. It has also been

stripped of the marble facing with which it was probably cased ; and, being n[)w half

buried in the rubbish of ages, it presents a somewhat mean and rough appearance.

This archway formed one of the entrances to the Forum August! from the east. The
wall of the enclosure can be traced for a considerable distance on each side of it, but
there are no other archways now open. The monotonous appearance of so high a wall
is relieved by rustic-work, so that each block stands out separatel}-, and the lower
part of the wall is divided into two stages and its upper into three stages by projecting
rims of travertine.

It is said that the blocks of stone in this masonry are fastened with wooden bolts
made in the shape of double swallow-tails, and that some of these have been found
completely petrified.^ When the Forum was first designed Augustus encountered great
opposition from the owners of private house property, and through fear of the unpopularity
which wholesale evictions might have caused, he accommodated the shape of the external
walls to tliat of the ground he could occupy.- Hence arose the irregular line of the
exterior, \\liich was, however, reduced to a symmetrical form inside by secondary walls.
The general shape of the interior area of the enclosure was that of a broad oblong piazza,
with two large semicircular side extensions or wings (somewhat like those in the Piazza
S. Pietro), opposite to and corresponding to each other. The area was large, for the
horse-races and games in honour of Mars were held here once when the Tiber had
overflowed the circus.^ The temple stood at the northern end, between these two side
extensions, and occupied about one-sixth of the whole space. Tribunals were placed in
the hemicycles, and courts of law held there. Some portions of these semicircular recesses
are still extant, by which their plan may be traced, but the outer wall is in no part
preser\ed entire except at the back and sides of the temple. Its height at the back
of the temple is 120 feet, and over the Arco dei Pantani lOO feet, which we must suppose

• Flam. Vacca, in Fca's Misccll. p. 91, No. 89: = Suet. Aug. 56 : '• F-'orum angustius fecit, non ausus

•■ Spranghc cli legno da ogni banda fatte a coda di extorquere posscssoribus donios.'' Zuinpt. .Mon.
rondine." Ancvr. Tab. iv. ^ Dion Cass. hi. 27.

1 34 The Fora of the Etnperors.

to have been the normal height of the rest of the enclosure. These enormous walls served
as a defence against fire, not less than to exclude the traffic and noise of the streets.^
Although it is possible that Augustus may have entertained the design of erecting a new
group of public buildings as a means of gaining distinction and popularity before the
battle of Philippi, which established his power, yet, so far as we know, the Temple of
Mars Ultor and the Forum Augusti owed their existence to a vow made by the Emperor
immediately before the decisive battle of Philippi, B.C. 42, to build, if victorious, a temple
to Mars, as the avenger of his adopted father.^ The dedication of the temple took place
in B.C. 2, accompanied with most magnificent shows of gladiators and splendid sham
sea-fights.^ The Forum had been previously opened to public business, and separate
parts of it had been assigned by the Emperor for the process of selecting juries by
lot, and for the session of the courts.* The Emperor himself sat here sometimes in the
tribunal."

The growing complications of legal business and the increase of the population of
Rome had rendered it imperatively necessary to open this third Forum as soon as possible,
but it was delayed from time to time, in consequence of more pressing business, for so long
that Augustus grew verj^ impatient, and is said to have facetiously remarked, that he
wished that Cassius, an unsuccessful accuser, the objects of whose attacks were always
acquitted {absoluti), would accuse his Forum {ut absolvcrctur)^

The Temple and Forum of Augustus, the Basilica Paulli, and the Temple of Peace
were considered the finest buildings in Rome in Pliny's time.' In the porticoes which sur-
rounded the piazza were placed the statues, in triumphal robes and standing
Statins m the -^^ chariots, of all the Roman generals who had enlarged the territory of

Forum Augusti. ...

the Empire, beginning from yEneas and Romulus down to triumphal heroes
of the day, including Augustus himself, with inscriptions recording their victories and
titles. Among these Scipio /Emilianus is particularly mentioned by Pliny. A statue
of Nero was ordered by the Senate to be placed in the temple in the first year of his
reign, of the same size as that of the god Mars himself^ It has been supposed that the
names and inscriptions of these statues may have furnished the basis of the lives of illus-
trious Romans written by Aurelius Victor,^ and Bunsen endeavours to show that the number
of niches in the semicircular wings of the Forum answers to the number of triiimpltatores
in that work. In the temple itself a statue of Venus was placed, as well as that of Mars
Ultor.^" The other works of art of which we have especial mention as contained in Augustus'
forum are an ivory statue of Apollo," some iron bowls,!^ two pictures painted by Apelles
(one representing Castor and Pollux with Victory and Alexander the Great, and the other
War personified, with his hands bound, riding in a triumphal chariot with Alexander i^).

1 Tac. Ann. xv. 38. a Suet. Aug. 31 : Plin. Nat. Hist. .-exii. 6 ; Dion

' .Suet. Aug. 29 ; Ov. Fast. v. 569. The temple Cass. Iv. 10 ; Gell. ix. 11; Veil. Paterc. ii. 39 ; Ov.

mentioned in Dion Cass. liv. 8 and Ov. Fast. v. 579 Fast. v. 549, seq. ; Hist. Aug. Alex. Sev. 28 ; Tac.

is a different one, built after the recovery of the Ann. xiii. 8.

Roman standards from the Parthian king Phraates, " Niebuhr, Hist. Rom. vol. iii. p. 68, note 122;

and was placed on the Capitol. Zumpt, in Mon. Ancyr. Becker, Handbuch, vol. i. p. 56 ; Bunsen. Beschreib-

Tab. iv. ' Veil. Paterc. ii. 100, 2. ung, vol. iii. 2, p. 151. " Ov. Fast. ii. 295.

■" l\Iart. vii. 51 ; Suet. Aug. 29. " Plin. Nat. Hist. vii. 53, § 183.

' Dion Cass. Ixviii. 10. « Macrob. Sat. ii. 4. '= Ibid, xxxiv. 14, 40, § 141.

' Plin. Nat. Hist, xxxvi. 15, 24. " Ibid. xxxv. 10, 36, § 93 ; xx.xv. 4, 10, § 27.

The For a of the E7>iperors. 13c

Claudius afterwards had the face of Augustus substituted for that of Alexander in these
pictures. There were also two statues in front of the temple which are said to have served
as supports to the tent of Alexander the Great, and to have been fellows to those placed
before the Regia.^ On each side of the temple, where the Forum opened out
into semicircular wings, Tiberius afterwards placed two triumphal arches. Statues in
with statues of Drusus and Germanicus.- Augustus laid down with great Atigusti.
care the uses to which this temple was to be put. The Imperial princes
were to celebrate their coming of age here (togam virilein stimcrc) ; the governors of
provinces were to make their formal departure from Rome hence ; the Senate were to
assemble here when they discussed the question of granting triumphal honours, that they
might be reminded by the surrounding statues not to make the honour too cheap ;
tlie triumphant generals were to dedicate their crowns and sceptres here to Mars ; all
standards recovered from an enemy were to be laid up here ; the nails marking the years
were to be driven here by the Censors ; and, as in the case of the Temples of Apollo
and the Capitoline Jupiter, senators were to be allowed to contract for the repairs of the
temple, and the supply of horses for the equestrian games in honour of the god.^

The Forum was restored by Hadrian,'* but nothing more is known of its subsequent
fate until, at the end of the fifth or beginning of the sixth centur>% the Church of S. Basil
was built by Pope Symmachus I. upon the ruins of the temple, and out of its materials,^
and the bell tower of the adjoining monastery of the Annunziata was afterwards erected
on the three remaining columns. This rubbish was cleared away from the wall and
columns in 1820.

The space to the south-east of the Forum of Augustus now traversed by the Via della
Croce Bianca was occupied in the Imperial period by the Forum of Nerva, also called the
Forum Transitorium and Pervium, because it was built in order to unite the
Forum of Augustus with the Forum Pacis of Vespasian which lay to the \r^^a
south-east of it, and also because the road from the Forum Romanum to the
Subura passed through it." The catalogue called the Cnriostim Urbis Roiiice Rcgionum
places it in the Fourth Region, between the Basilica .Emilia, the Temple of Faustina, and
the Subura ;" and ^Martial speaks of it under the name of Palladium Forum, as near the
Forum Pacis.* The name Palladium was, as we shall see, given to it on account of the
Temple of Minerva which it contained. The Ordo Roiiianus, also, a ritual book of the
twelfth century, in describing the route of an Easter procession from St. Peter's to the
Lateran, makes it pass between the Forum Julium and Forum Trajani, and thence through
the Arch of Nervia, between the temple of that goddess and the Temple of Janus, and
thence along the Sacred Way to the Temple of Romulus (S. Cosma e Damiano).* According
to this somewhat obscure description, the Forum of Ner\-a plainly lay to the east of the
Forum Augusti, and between it and the Church of S. Cosma e Damiano. The Temple
of Nervia seems to be a confusion between the Forum of Nerva and the Temple of

1 Plin. Xat. Hist, xxxiv. 8, i8, § 48. » Lamprid. Hist. Aug. Alex. Sev. 28; Aur. Vict.

^ Tac. Ann. ii. 64. Cass. 12 ; Eutrop. vii. 23.

' Dion Cass. Iv. 10. ♦ Spart Had. 19. ' Curiosum Reg. iv. ; Becker, Handbuch, vol. i.

' Mabillon, Mus. Ital. ii. p. 143; Blond. Flav. p. 713.

Rom. Inst. lib. iii. § 61 ; Donat. De Urb. ii. 23, in ' Mart. lib. i. 2, 8.

Graev. Thes. vol iii. » Mabillon, Mus. Ital. ii. p. 143.

136

The Fora of the Emperors.

Minerva, and it will be shown that there was a Temple of Janus in the Forum of Nerva,
to which the Ordo Roinanus here alludes.

From the above notices we are led to place the Forum Nerva: in the district through
wliich the Via della Croce Bianca passes, and to connect it with the ruin commonly called

PORTION OF THE PERIBOLUS OF NERVA'S FoRUM : COLONNACCE.

the Temple of Minerva, still standing on the right-hand side of that street, \\here it is
crossed by the Via Alessandrina. Two columns are there to be seen, now called the
Colonnaccc, half buried in the earth, surmounted by an entablature and an attica.

The Fora of the Emperors. i ■. -,

The wall behind the columns is built of blocks of pcperino of unequal size, and is in
a style of masonry inferior to the walls of the Forum of Augustus. In it mav be seen
the traces of an arch which has been filled up with the same stone as that of which the
wall is built. The columns, which are of fluted marble, stand out in front of the wall •
but, as in the Arch of Severus, the entablature does not lie between them, but projects
from the wall over the capitals, and unites them with the wall. The edt^es of the
architrave are richly decorated, and the frieze contains an elaborately carved bas-relief,
which, though unfortunately much disfigured, can be partially understood by the help
of old engravings taken before it was reduced to its present lamentable state.

From these it appears that the figures represent various attributes of Minerva as the
patroness of household management. Some of them are drawing water, others weavin<r
or spinning, and others dyeing, washing, holding scales and purses, as if bargaining. The
design is incomplete, and was probably carried round the rest of the frieze of the enclosure.
On the cornices, both upper and lower, the ornamentation is very rich, but not so chaste
as the work of the Augustan period. In the centre of the attica stands a figure of Minerva
in alto relievo, with spear, helmet, and shield.

That this beautiful ruin, which is one of the most picturesque in Rome, belonged to the
outer wall of Nen-a's Forum, is rendered certain by the old views of the sixteenth century,'
which represent it as part of the inner side of the wall enclosing a splendid
temple which stood to the north-west of it. Seven of the columns of this 1}"'pl'<>f

Minerva.

temple were still standing in the fifteenth century, belonging to the left-hand
side of the portico, and a considerable part also of the walls of the cella, with the pilasters
of the portico. The cella of the temple adjoined the semicircular part of Augustus's
Forum on one side, and, as will be seen by the plan, the wall of the enclosure met it on
the other, so that only the portico of the temple projected into the open space of the
Forum. On the front were the words — probably the last line of a longer inscription —
"Imp. Nerva, Caesar, Aug. Font. Maxim. Trib. pot. II. Imp. II. Procos.," showing that the
temple was dedicated by Nerva.-

There can be but little doubt that this was the Temple of ^linerva begun, together with
the Forum, by Domitian, and finished by Nerva.^ It is true that there is no actual mention
in any of the ancient writers of a Temple of Minerva here, but the assertion of Dion Cassius
that Domitian had a particular reverence for Minerva and Janus,* and the character of
the designs and statue of Minerva found upon the ruined part of the enclosure already
described, leave little doubt on the subject. The name of Palladium, given to the F"orum
by Martial, also agrees vv^ith this supposition."

A Temple of Janus also stood in this Forum. It is mentioned in the above-quoted
passage of the Ordo Romanus, and also in Johannes Lydus and Servius,
who describe it as having four arches (qiiadifrons)^ The fact that it difi"cred '^■^'■iploj

" . Janus.

from the old Temple of Janus, which was in the shape of a single arch, while

this new one, built by Domitian, had four arches, is alluded to by Martial, who, speaking

■ Alexandro Donato, De Urb. Rom. ii. 23, in ' .Suet. Dom. 5. • * Dion Cass. Ixvii. 1.

Grsev. Thes. vol. ill. ; Du Pcrac, Vestigj di Roma. ' Mart. Ep. i. 2, 8.

* Lucio Fauno, Antichita di Roma, lib. ii. p. 72 ; ' Mabillon, Mus. Ital. vol. ii. p. 143 ; Joh. Lydus,

Gamucci, Ant. lib. i. p. 52 ; Roma, 1569. De Mtnsibus, iv. 1 ; .Scrv. Ad .En. vii. 607.

J 38

' The Fora of tlic Emperors.

of the four Fora of the day, congratulates Janus on having now as many faces as there are
Fora.^ It is at once evident that this Temple of Janus Quadrifrons had reference to the
fact that the Forum formed a passage {transitoriinn) in one direction between the Forum
Romanum and the Subura, and, in the other, between the Forum Augusti and the Forum
Pacis. An explanation is thus also given of the Catalogue contained in the Curiosum,
which mentions the Forum Nervje in the eighth region, and a Forum Transitorium in the
fourth. For the important street corresponding to the modern Via della Croce Bianca,
which passed through this Forum from the Forum Romanum to the Subura, formed the
boundary line of the two regions ; and thus half of the Forum was in one region and half

FUKUM OK NERVA, AS IT APPEARED IN THE SIXTEENTH CENTURY.
{From Du Psrac.)

m the otJier. The reason why the arch near the Temple of Minerva is represented in
Uu Perac's views as so large, is that one of the chief thoroughfares of Rome passed
through it.-

The breadth of the streets, which crossed each other at right angles at the Temple of
Janus, and the colossal statues, some of them equestrian, which Alexander Severus placed
in the Forum in honour of his canonized predecessors, attaching to them brazen columns, in
imitation of those upon the statues in the Forum of Augustus, upon which were recorded
the deeds of each Emperor,^ must have left but little space for shops or offices ; so that this
I orum was not so much a place of business as a connecting link between the important
centres of Roman life in the adjoining districts.

In the twelfth century, the Ordo Romanus, as we have seen, mentions the Temple of
linus and the Temple of Minerva as still standing. The former seems to have been known

Mart. X.. 28, 6. See also Stalius (Silv. iv. 3, g),
wlio distinctly attributes the commencement of the
Forum icoronat, in the present tense) to Domitian.

- Mommsen, Ann. dcir Inst. vol. xvi. p. 314.
^ Lamprid. Hist, Aug. Alex Sev. 28.

The Fora of the Emperors.

139

in the Middle Ages as Noah's Ark,' a name which, in the ignorance of those times, mio-ht
be given to any old building of unusual shape, such as this Temple of Janus.

A complete description of a square temple, the ruins of which are said to have been
found between S. Adriano and the Temple of Antoninus, is given by Labacco in his wor'
on Architecture.-

It seems, however, that, as Reber suggests, Labacco's description is an instance of c.\
pede Herculem, for the actual remains appear to have been but small. Nevertheless the
fact that the temple discovered was square in form, and that its position corresponded to
the south-western end of Ner\-a's Forum, where we should, according to the authorities,
place the Temple of Janus, cannot be doubted. The ruins were not near enough to the
Forum Romanum to identify them, as Becker does, with one of the Jani of the Forum :
nor can they be supposed to have belonged to the' old Temple of Janus, which was to the
north-west of the Church of S. Adriano. The fate of the Temple of IMinerva
is better known than that of most of the ancient temples in Rome. In the History of tlu
time of Pope Pius V. (1566 — 1572) the building of a new quarter of the city ofMiiLrva
was begun in this district. The streets Via Alessandrina and Via Bonella
were laid out, and as the new quarter grew the ruins of the old temple became an impedi-
ment to its progress, for which reason Paul V, in the beginning of the seventeenth centarj-,
ordered them to be removed and to be applied to the construction of the Chapel of St.
Paul in the Basilica of Santa Maria Maggiore and the Fontana Paolo, upon the Janiculuin.
The great gateway which stood at the end of the Via della Croce Bianca was suffered
to remain for a century longer, but is now quite gone.

With the exception of some ruins of a wall of peperino now standing in the court
of the Franciscan Monastery behind the Church of S. Cosma e Damiano, not a stone is
left of the Forum of Vespasian. Its position is, however, tolerably certain.
Martial, in the passage already quoted, speaks of it, under the name of Fonim oj
Forum Pacis, as near the Forum of Nerva f and Suetonius says that it FonrnPacis
adjoined the Forum Romanum.* In Ronc'alli's collection of ancient chrono-
logical works, the warehouses of Eastern spice are spoken of as near the Forum Pacis and
the Basilica of Constantine, the ruins of the latter of which buildings are well known :'
so that we may conclude that these two buildings v/ere close together.

The site must, therefore, be placed in the district between the ruin called the Colonacce,
the Church of S. Cosma e Damiano, and the Basilica of Constantine. Strictly speaking,
this group of buildings could hardly be called a Forum. We have no reason for thinking
that it was used for legal business, though the mention of spice warehouses seems to
show that trade was carried on there.^ The temple was the central and principal part
of the group of buildings, and the name of Forum seems to have been given to tiie
enclosure surrounding it from the resemblance it bore to the other Imperial Fora.

Vespasian dedicated the temple in a.d. 75, four years after the triumph he celebrated

' Lucio Fauno, Antichita di Roma, p. 72 ; Ga- Polonus and the Mirabilia Romas also place the

mucci, lib. i. p. 52. Tcmplum Pacis behind S. Cosma e Damiano, but very

- Antonio Labacco, Libro appartenente a I'.Archi- little weight can be allowed to the maunderings of

tettura. Roma, 1558, pp. 17, 18. these wretched mediaeval scribblers. .Montfaucon,

' Mart. i. 2, 8. ■■ .Suet. Vesp. 9. Diar. Ital. p. 294.

° Roncalli, \'et. Chron. vol. ii. p. 243. Martinus " Uion Cass. lx.xii. 24.

T 2

140 The Fora of the Empei'ors.

ill commemoration of the capture of Jerusalem, on which occasion the building had

been begun.^ Josephus gives a detailed account of the triumphal procession, and

adds that the temple surpassed all expectation in magnificence. Money

Tcmplum ^^.^,5 lavished without stint upon it, and it was adorned with the finest

contahu-dii ancient works of art. All the wonders for the sake of seeing which men

large colUctioii formerly travelled into distant lands might here be viewed in one building.

of works of a,i, ^j |jg|^ ^able of shewbread, weighing many talents, and the golden

and trophies. » o o ^ > o

candlestick from the Temple at Jerusalem were deposited in it."'
This description of Josephus may seem extravagant, but it is corroborated by
riiny and Herodian. Pliny ranks this Temple of Peace with the Basilica Paulli
and the Forum of Augustus, as the three most splendid buildings in the world
before the Forum of Trajan was built ; and Herodian calls it the greatest and most
beautiful ornament of Rome, and the richest of all temples.^ We have, unfortunately,
but little information about the particular works of art here collected. A recumbent
statue of the river-god Nilus, made of lapis basanites, a very hard Egyptian stone
of ferruginous colour, was among the most celebrated, and is the more interesting
because the description of it given by Pliny exactly answers to the statue which was
discovered in the time of Leo X. (15 13 — 1522), and is now placed in the Braccio Nuovo
of the Vatican Museum. The Nile is represented as a colossal recumbent figure, holding
a cornucopia, and surrounded by sixteen children (said by Pliny to represent the sixteen
cubits height to w-hich the Nile rose in the highest inundation ever known), and by a
crocodile, ichneumon, and hippopotamus.^ The Nile group discovered in the sixteenth
century is an ancient copy in marble of this older group in basanites, and was found in the
ruins of a Temple of Isis, the Egyptian goddess, near Sta. Maria Sopra Minerva. The
modern copy in the Garden of the Tuileries at Paris is well known. A statue of Gany-
mede in this temple seems also to have been famous in Juvenal's time as a place for
assignations i"" and a statue of Cheimon, an Argive wrestler, and victor in the Olympian
games, the work of the sculptor Naucydes of Argos, was much admired.-'

The Temple of Peace also contained a fine collection of pictures, among which " The
Hero," by Timanthes, was considered to be the most perfect model of a manl)- figure.
The clicf-d' ccuvre of Protogenes, his picture of Tal\Tus, the Rhodian hero, was also here,
during the execution of which the artist is said to have lived on boiled beans, in order that
the delicacy of his sense of beauty might not be impaired by rich food. Pliny states that
Protogenes painted this picture with four coats of paint, in order that it might last the
longer, and that one of the most curious parts of the picture was an exquisite repre-
sentation of foam at the mouth of a dog, accidentally produced by dabbing the sponge
upon the place in despair, after many fruitless attempts.'^

A picture of Scylla, by Nicomachus, is also mentioned as kept in this temple.*
There was a library there, and literary discussions were held in it. A curious instance of

' Dion Cass. Ixvi. 15. " Juvcn.1l, .Sat. ix. 22.

= Joseph. Bell. Jud. vii. 5, 7. " Pausanias, vi. g, 3 ; Plin. Nat. Hist. x.\xiv. 8,

■■' Plin. Nat. Hist. xx.\vi. 15, § 102 ; Herodian, i. 14. § 19.
.See also Amm. Marc. xvi. 10. " Plin. Nat. Hist. xxxv. 10. § 102.

" Plin. Nat. Hist, .x.xxvi. 7, \ 58. ^ Ibid. xxxv. 10, j 109.

Tlw Fora of tJic Emperors. I_4I

the influence of the critics of the Temple of Peace has been preserved by Trebellius Pollio
the biographer, who lived in the time of Constantine. In his " Lives of the Emperors,"
popularly called the Thirt\- T\-rants, he makes an apology at the end of his book for having
included two queens among the number, Zenobia and Victoria ; and in order to avoid,
as he says, the severe remarks which would be made upon him in the Temple of Peace
for having done so, he begs to be allowed to introduce two tyrants from a different
period, Titus and Censorinus, to make up the number.' The public library is also
mentioned by Gellius, who speaks of searching for books there-
in the time of Commodiis a great fire injured this temple and the adjoining spice
warehouses.* Herodian and Galen both speak as if it had burnt the whole group of
buildings down ;'' but the library, as we have seen, was extant in the time of Constantine,
since it is mentioned by Trebellius Pollio, in the passage abo\e quoted, and the Forum
is spoken of as retaining its grandeur at the time of the visit of Constantius to Rome:''"
so that we must suppose that the injury done b}- the fire was not very serious.

During the regency of Amalasontha, the daughter of Theodoric the Great (522 — 534^,
the Temple of Peace is mentioned as lying in ruins, having been struck by lightning.
There were still at that time a large number of statues by the greatest of Greek sculptors,
Phidias and Lysippus, remaining in the adjoining Forum, among which was that of the
bull standing over a fountain, said to have been mistaken for a real animal by a passing
bullock, and the heifer of i\Ij-son, one of the most celebrated of ancient sculptures."

The name Forum Pacis appears to have been applied to the ruins till the beginning
of the sixth century, and the name Forum Vespasiani at a still later period ;" but,
though some of the ruins must have survived the Middle Ages, we do not find any
mention or description of them.

The immense group of public buildings which, under the name of the Forum of Trajan,
filled the whole space between the Capitolinc and Ouirinal Hills from the
modern Via del Priorato to the southern end of the Piazza di SS. Apostoli, ^l''"'" "-^
comprehended not only a spacious open Forum adjoining the Forum of
Augustus, but also a basilica, a cloistered court surrounding the celebrated column which
bears Trajan's name, two libraries, and a splendid temple with its enclosure.

The Forum Proper, which Gellius calls the Area Fori,* and Ammianus the Atrium,"
was a large rectangular court, surrounded with porticoes, having a double row of columns,
and occupying the space between the Capitoline and Ouirinal Hills where they approach
each other most nearly. On the sides which lay under the Capitoline and Quirinal Hills
respectively it had enormous semicircular extensions, similar to those already described in
the Forum of Augustus. One of these is fortunately still preserved so far uninjured that
we can plainly trace its plan and extent. The name commonly given to it is the Baths of
Paullus ^milius, and from this mistaken idea the street which adjoins it is called the Via
Magnanapoli (Balnea Paulli or Magnanimi Paulli).

By entering the court of the house Xo. 6, in the Via della Salita del Grillo, the ruins of

' Treb. Poll. Hist. Aug. Tyr. Trig. 31. » Amm. Marc. xvi. 10.

- Cell. V. 21, 9; xvi. 8, 2. « Procop. Goth. iv. 21 ; Auson. Epig. 58.

' Dion Cass. Ixxii. 24. ' Procop. loc. cit. ; Koncalli, vol. ii. pp. 243, 277.

* Herodian, i. 14 ; Galen, De Coiiip. Med. i. 1. ' Gell. .\iii. 25, 2. " Amm. Marc. xvi. 10.

142

The Fon-i of the Empcn

:rors.

^H01•^ IN TRAJAN's FORL-Jl.

onci

nallv. The pavement was apparent!)- compos

sed of the usual polygonal blocks of

basalt, and the buildings which remain are

of brick, with the exception of the jambs of the

doors, the bases and cajiitals of the pilasters,

ind a low basement, all of which are made

The Ford of llic Eiiipii-ors.

of travertine. Upon this basement a brick building of two stories rises, containin<T in the
lower story small rooms, measuring about ten feet square, probably shops or offices for
notaries and lawyer's clerks. The interior of three of the rooms is covered with plaster,
and painted roughly with red and yellow stripes. The floors were covered with mosaic
pavement of a common description, a good deal of which is still remaininf' iit situ. In the
upper story above these rooms, which is reached by three staircases, runs a corridor with
arched windows, at the back of which a row of large and high chambers opens, resting not
on any lower story, but upon the natural tufa of the Ouirinal Hill,- which rises behind.
These were probably the rooms in which the shopkeepers or notaries lived. The front of
this upper story is ornamented with brick pilasters, standing on a basement of travertine.
The entablature over them is also of brick, and the style of the whole is that mixture of
Doric and Ionic so often seen in Roman buildings of the Imperial age. These buildings
were laid open by excavations in 1824 and 1825. The older engravings of the front
of the ruins show that there formerly were pediments over the windows, alternately of
truncated, triangular, and circular forms in the Roman-Greek style,^ On the opposite
side of the Forum there was probabl}- a similar semicircular range of buildings, but
this is now entirely covered by the block of houses between the Via de Chiavi d'Oro
and the Via di Marforio. Canina gives an account in the Aiinali dcir Institnto of some
traces supposed to belong to this western hemicycle which were found in the cellars
of that district.- The south-eastern side of the Forum is also completely hidden under
the houses of the modern town. If we may suppose that the Forum of Augustus adjoined
it, then the \'ia del Priorato will limit its extent, and the principal entrance may be
placed in the centre of that side.

It is probable that over the entrance stood the Triumphal Arch of Trajan, mentioned
by Dion Cassius and represented on the coin No. 12 in the plate at the end of Becker's
Handbook.^ This arch had only one passage through it, on either side of
which stood six columns. Between the shafts are four niches for statues, Trajan's
and between the capitals four medallions. The attica is divided into seven "T.'^j'"
compartments ; the central one intended for an inscription, and the six side
ones probably for reliefs. On the top stands a triumphal chariot with six horses, and six-
statues of warriors.*

From this arch the medallions and some of the reliefs now to be seen upon the Arch
of Constantine were taken, an act of \'andalism which bears most striking testimony to
the rapid decline of art which took place during the two hundred years which inter\-ened
between Trajan and Constantine. If the latter Emperor had wished to triumph over the
downfall of the art of sculpture, he could not have done it in a more striking way than by
placing as he did these beautifully-executed reliefs, robbed from Trajan's Arch, side by
side with the miserable productions of his own age.

The porticoes which ran round the sides of the Forum Trajanum must have contained
offices, and perhaps shops of various kinds. Upon the entablature which surmounted

1 See Desgodetz, Edifices Antiques de Rome, p. Roma, p. 152.

138; Dureaii de la Malle in Mdni. de I'Acad. des = Qax\'\nA. .liiii. tAir Inst. w'm. 1851, p. 131.

I nscript. t. xii. p. 285, where plans and elevations of * Becker, Handbook, vol. i. plate 5, No. 12;

these ruins are given ; V'enuti, Antichita di Koma, Uion Cass, l.wiii. 29.

vol. i. p. loo ; Du Perac. Vestigj; Gamucci, Ant. di * See Pellegrini, in Ihilletiiio itell' Inst. 1S63, p. 78.

144 The Fora of the Emperors.

them, and the pediments of the surrounding buildings, stood gilded statues of horses and
military ensigns.^

In the centre of the area stood the equestrian statute of Trajan, which gave rise to
the often-repeated story told by Ammianus of the Emperor Constantius, who, on his
visit to Rome, after expressing his unbounded astonishment at the magnificence of the
city, and in particular of the colossal buildings in Trajan's Forum, declared his despair of
ever being able to rival them, and added that the only thing he saw which he thought he
could and would imitate was the equestrian statue of Trajan. Thereupon the Persian
Prince Hormisda, who was attending him, exclaimed, " Your Majesty must first build, if
you can, a stable like this, in which to stall the horse you propose to make, if he is to be
properly lodged." ^ Other statues in great numbers of triumphatores and other celebrities
stood in different parts of the Forum. Marcus Antoninus Philosophus erected here statues
of all the officers of noble birth who had fallen in the Marcomannic war.^

The north-western side of the Forum was formed by a splendid basilica, to the sides
of which the two double rows of columns standing upon the bases now to be seen in
the Piazza Trajana belonged. Canina has most ingeniously restored the
ground plan of this basilica from two fragments of the Capitoline plan, one
of which contains the letters BASIL, and the other VLPIA.* The basilica was called
Ulpia, from the family name of Trajan, and this name is given to it on several ancient
medals ; but it also bore the name Trajani.^ According to the Capitoline plan, then, as
restored by Canina, and the excavated foundations, the building was divided into a central
nave and four side aisles by rows of columns, and had at each end a tribune or apse of the
usual semicircular shape. One of these tribunes bears upon the Capitoline plan the name
LIBERTATIS, and Canina, in order to explain this, has not without probabilit)' adduced the
fact that the ceremony of manumission was performed in one of the tribunals of the
Basilica Ulpia.'^ He further suggests that this part of the basilica may have been built
upon the site of the former Libertatis Atrium, mentioned by Cicero as the point to which
it was originally intended to extend the Forum Julium."

A great part of the central area of this basilica is now uncovered, and numerous frag-
ments of columns and pavement which have been there discovered show the costly
character of the work. The columns dividing the nave were probably of the richest
marbles, such as pavonazetto and giallo antico, of which many fragments have been
found, and the floor was of variously coloured marbles, while the outer columns, exposed
to the air, were of grey granite. A mistake has been made in setting up these granite
columns on the bases of the columns of the interior of the basilica, to which they do not
answer in size.^

' .Sidon. ApoU. Carm. viii. 8 ; Gdl. xiii. 25, i. entitle such an objection to the weight it would

- Amm. Marc. xvi. 10. otherwise ha\ e.

' Jul. Cap. in Hist. Aug. M. Ant. Phil. 22. '' Lamprid. Coram. Hist. Aug. p. 46 B.

* Canina, Indie, p. 259. The only objection I can " Claud, in Eutrop. i. 310 ; Sidon. ApoU. Carm. ii.

see to this restoration of Canina's is the apparent 54; ; Claud. De Sext. Cons. Honor. 646.

difference between the arrangement of the columns at " Cic. Ad. Att. iv. 16, § 14.

the corner of the Forum next to the basilica as shown " It is very unlikely that the granite columns now

upon the plan, and as shown by the excavated founda- placed upon the bases stood there originally. They

tions. But the plan of the excavated foundations has probably belonged to the external pillars only and

not been clearly enough made out at this point to the interior columns were of marble.

The Fora of Ike Empa'ors.

'45

Two medals arc extant, one of which is figured in Becker's Handbook/ representing- the
outside of this basihca. In one of them, which appears to belong to the side frontin"- the
Forum, three projecting porticoes with columns are seen, which formed the grand entrance.

TRAJAN S COLL-MN, Willi lllE LAal.s ' '1- lllK COLUMNS dl- THE BASILICA ULI'IA

AND THE CHURCH OF NOME DI MAKIA.

[The rising ground on tlie right is a part of tlie Quirinal Hill.]

and on the roof of the attica above them are statues of men and horses. The excavations
show that there were three doors on the side towards the Forum, but only one on the north
side. The roof appears to have been of bronze, for Pausanias, in enumerating the buildings

' Becker, Plate S, No. 13. Some of the details of restored in the Monitiiiinti delT Jits/. Arch. vol. v.
the decorative architecture of this basilica have been tav. 39. See Ann. dell' Inst. 1S51, p. 131.

146 The For a of tJic Emperors.

of Trajan, speaks of the Forum built at Rome by that Emperor, which was remarkable
especially for its roof of bronze. Now this roof must have belonged to the basilica, for the
Forum was of course open to the air.^

It is to be observed that, upon the fragment of the Capitolinc plan which contains the
outline of the Basilica Ulpia, another rectangular building is represented as standing to the
north of the eastern tribune, with a row of columns round the interior. Now although
indisputable authority cannot be claimed for this portion of the Capitoline plan, because it
is evidently one of the later restorations ;- yet as it exactly agrees with the
i,rcch and Latin ]^(,g usuallv assigned to a part of the Ulpian library, we have here a con-

Itbrarks. f - ■=

firmation of the general opinion of topographers, that the library was placed
in two buildings situated on either side of the court in which the column stood. One
of the two library buildings was devoted to Latin and another to Greek books.^ Gellius
speaks of reading the edicts of the ancient pr^tors there, so that State papers must have
been included among the documents.'' The books were at one time removed to the
baths of Diocletian,-'' but appear to have been replaced again, for at the end of the seventh
century we still find the library used for literary discussions and poetical recitations.''

The great pillar, with its well-known spiral bas-reliefs, perhaps the most interesting and
instructive monument of antiquity in Rome, was surrounded, when the buildings round it

were complete, with a narrow court not more than forty feet square. The
Laiumnoj gouth sidc of this was formed by the basilica, the eastern and western by the

Ti-jjaii.

libraries, and on the north there was probably an open colonnade, the line of

\\hich can be traced to the enclosure beyond, in which stood the temple dedicated to Trajan.

Thus we discover a fact, which seems at first somewhat surprising, that the pillar could not

be viewed in its full height from any side, and that the upper part of it alone was visible

from the Forum over the roof of the basilica. That it was intentionally thus enclosed is

evident, for had the Greek architect Apollodorus of Damascus," who designed the Forum,

wished it to be where the full colossal proportions could be seen, there was the open space

of the Forum close at hand, in the centre of which it might have been placed. But it is not

unlikely that the sight of a column was almost inseparable, in the Greek architectural ideas,

from an entablature and pediment. The Greeks did not place their statues on the tops of

columns,^ and probably had this reason for it, that a single column cannot form a whole

by itself, and wears a forsaken and deserted aspect when viewed from a distance. An

obelisk conveys a different meaning, and the use of a single column cannot be justified by

it. The obelisk tapers upwards and completes itself, but a column instantly conveys the

idea of something heavy to be supported. Obelisks, moreover, were never used singly by

the Egyptians, but always placed in pairs at the gateways of their temples. The intention

of the architect was not that the column should be viewed, as we now view it, as a whole,

but that the colossal statue of the Emperor should be raised on high above his splendid

1 PausaniaSjV. 12,6 ; x. 5, 11 ; Roncalli,Vct. Cliron. '" Vopisc. Hist. Aug. Prob. 2.

p. 204. * Venant. Fort. lib. iii. 23, 7 ; Sidon. Apoll. loc. cit.

'^ See note on the Capitoline plan at the end of quoted by Nibby, Roma nell' Anno 1S38.

chap. viii. " Dion Cass. Ixix. 4.

2 Sidon. Apoll. Ep. ix. 16 ; Carni. xxvii. seq. ; Dion * The passage quoted by Merivale, vol. vii. p. 246.
Cass. Ixviii. 16. from Plin. xxxiv. 6, 12, relates to statues only, and

* Gell. xi. 17, I. not to columns with statues upon them.

The Fora of the Emperors

'4:

group of buildings, and also that tlic bas-reliefs should be conveniently viewed from the

surrounding galleries.*

The height of the column is 124 feet from the pavement to the foot of the statue.-
It is usually considered to belong to the Tuscan order of architecture as described by
Vitruvius, and to be, with the exception of its sister column in the Piazza Colonna, the
only specimen of that order in Rome. It stands upon a pedestal of marble 18 feet high.

BASE of TRAJAN S COLLM.N.

ornamented on three sides with highly interesting bas-reliefs, representing trophies of
Roman and Dacian armour of various kinds, the Roman labarum and the Daciaii
dragon, coats of mail made of scale or chain armour, helmets, curved and straight swords,
axes, clubs, bows, quivers, arrows, lances, trumpets, and several kinds of military tools.
C)n the fourth side two genii bear the tablet, on which is the inscription : — SENAT\S

' Sec Fcrgusson's Principles of .-Vrt, p. 494. feet high, intUisive of base and capital. Annali

- See chap. ^iii. Tlie shaft is exactly 100 Koman dell' Inst. 1S52. p. 255.

U 2

1 48 The Fora of the Emperors.

rOPVLVSQVE ROMANVS IMP. CAESARI DIVI NERVAE F. XERVAE TRAJANO AVG. GERM.
DACICO PONTIF. MAXIMO TRIB. POT. Soi IMP VI PP AD DECLARANDUM QUAXTAE
ALTITVDINIS MONS ET LOCUS TANT[is operi] BUS SIT EGESTVS.

The last words of this inscription are iUustrated by a passage of Dion Cassius, who says
that Trajan placed a colossal pillar in his Forum to be his own tomb, and also to show the
amount of labour expended upon the Forum, the slope of the hill which previously
occupied the site having been dug away so as to afford a level space for the Forum.^
There is no need to interpret this, as some writers have done, to mean that the ground on
the spot where the column stands had previously been as high as the top of the column.
Such an interpretation seems highly improbable. The view taken by Becker and Brocchi,
as mentioned above, is more tenable, that the words allude to the cutting away of the
Ouirinal hill, which was steep and inaccessible before, but was sloped away to a point on
the side of the hill as high as the top of the column. Brocchi's geological obser\'ations
have made it almost certain that the ground has not been cut away to any great depth
between these two hills.-

In the base of the column the ashes of Trajan were deposited in a golden urn.'*
Sixtus V. had the chamber in which this urn was deposited opened, but found it empty,
and it has now been walled up.*

Above the pedestal are two flat stones ornamented with garlands of oak leaves, and
upon them rests a round base carved in the shape of a laurel wreath. The shaft, which
stands immediately upon this, is composed of twenty-three cylindrical blocks of marble,
on the outside of which a spiral band of beautifully-executed bas-reliefs winds from bottom
to top, covering the whole shaft. The capital is a single ring of egg-shaped ornaments,
with arrow-heads between them, and a simple border below. On a pedestal above it stood
originally the colossal bronze-gilt statue of Trajan. This statue and pedestal were pro-
bably carried off during the robberies committed at Rome by the Byzantine Emperors
.A..!). 663.' Sixtus V. replaced it by a modern cylindrical pedestal and a statue of St. Peter.
The ancient winding staircase, hewn in the solid blocks of marble and lighted by narrow
openings, still leads to the top. From thence it may be seen how difficult it is to suppose
that the ground ever rose to such a height between the Capitol and Ouirinal as has been
imagined by many historians and topographers.*'

The magnificent wreath of bas-reliefs which winds round the shaft may be best studied

by means of the model to be seen in the French Academy on the Pincian hill. It contains

the history of two campaigns against the Dacians, and has been ingeniously

Bas-reliefs re- . . . , , .

freseiitiii'T scenes ^"d mmutely interpreted by several writers. A complete account of this
intheDacian marble history of the Dacian wars, with a discussion of all the historical and
antiquarian points connected with it, would occupy several volumes, and we

wars.

' Dion Cass. Ixviii. 16. '.he Quirinal.

- Becker, Handbuch note 737 ; Brocchi, Suolo di ^ Dion Cass. Ixviii. 16, Ixix. 2 ; Aur. Vict. Epit. ii.

Roma, p. 133. The top of the column is only six Eutrop. viii. 5.

feet lower than the level of the Villa Aldobrandini on * Becker, Handbuch, p. 384.

the top of the Ouirinal, and two feet hi'ghfr \.\\a.T\ the ° Anastas. Vit. Pont. vol. i. p. 132.

Piazza di Ara Cceli. If, therefore, at any time the ^ Merivale's expressions (vol. i. p. 2, and vol. vii.

ground on the site of Trajan's Forum was as high p. 243) seem to me much too strong. He allows

as the column, it must have formed a ridge higher however, in his note, that the common interpreta-

than the Capitoline and very nearly as high as tion of the inscription is very hard to accept.

The For a of the Emperors. i .g

must therefore content ourselves with noticing the general character of the work, and some
few of the more interesting portions.

Two campaigns are represented. The first of these took place in the year loi, and
during it Trajan's army passed down the river Save, and crossed the Danube in two
divisions, — at Kastoiatz and at the confluence of the Tjerna. The two divisions
effected a junction at the pass of the Bistra, called the Iron Gate, which Trajan's first
they forced, and then attacked and took the royal city Zermizegethusa. "^"'"^^^ '"
Trajan was not satisfied with this success, but pushed on into the heart
of the enemy's country, and gained a great victory at Tapae, after which Decebalus, the
Dacian king, sued for peace.

The bas-relief begins at the base by a representation of the banks of the Save, down
which the Roman army passed, and shows military storehouses, piles of wood, stacks
of hay, and wooden huts. Then follow forts w-ith soldiers on guard, and boats carrying
barrels of provisions.

The river-god Danube then appears, and looks on with astonishment at the bridge
of boats over which the Roman army is passing.^ The baggage of the soldiers on the
march, tied to the top of the vallum or palisade which they carry, and the different military-
standards, are ver>' distinctly shown. Many of the men are without covering on their
heads, but some wear lions' skins.- The Emperor and his staff are then introduced. He
is sitting upon a suggestus, or platform, and Lucius, the Praetorian Prefect, sits beside him.^
The Suovetaurilia, a grand sacrificial celebration, is the next scene, with priests in the
cinctus gabinus, and trumpeters.* After this the Emperor is seen making an harangue
to the troops ; and a little further on the building of a stone encampment enclosing huts
is being carried on with great vigour, and bridges are being thrown across a ri\-er, over
which cavalry are crossing."

A battle seems then to take place, and the heads of two enemies are being brought
to the Emperor. The Dacian army, with the dragon ensign and the Dacian cap, the
symbol of superior rank, seen upon the statues of the Dacian prisoners on the Arch of
Constantine, appears;'' Jupiter gives the victor}- to the Romans, the Dacian camp is
burnt, and the Dacians fly."

Numerous representations of forts, boats, different kinds of troops, skirmishes, and
sieges follow, ending with the surrender of Decebalus, and the return of Trajan to Rome,
where a great festival is celebrated. The arrival at Rome, and the crowds of Romans
going to meet the great conqueror, are very vividly drawn. An immense number of bulls
for sacrifice, altars, camilli, and half-naked popae are introduced into the triumphal
rejoicings, and the first campaign ends with the figure of Trajan offering incense at the
altar of Jupiter Capitolinus.*

A somewhat similar series of scenes is represented in the sculptures which depict the
second campaign. Perhaps the most interesting is that of the great bridge over the Danube,'^

' Fabrctti, Colonna Trajana, No. 40. ' Dion Cass, l.wiii. 9.

- Ibid. No. 43. ^ Ibid. No. 65. " Fabretti, Nos. 131, 132-13S.

* Ibid. Nos. /S — So. Compare the bas-reliefs ' Ibid. Nos. 221, 237, 242.

now on the Arch of Constantine taken from Trajan's " Ibid. No. 260. The bridge is described in Dion

arch. Cass. Ixviii. 13; Merivale, vol. vii. p. 235 ; Francke,

' Fabretti, Nos. 87—120. Gesch. Trajans, pp. 128, 129.

I JO The Fora of the Empo-ors.

made of wood, supported on stone piers, the foundations of which may still be seen in

the bed of the river. Apollodorus, Trajan's architect, designed this immense work, which

crossed the Danube at a spot where it is not less than 1,300 yards wide,

Trajan's s.roiid j^^g^^ ^j^g viUan-e of Gieli.'' A permanent road into Dacia and secure com-

"""ihicfa'" munication with his basis of operations having thus been secured, Trajan
"gradually advanced from post to post, driving the Dacians into the
mountainous parts of the country. The sculptures represent a number of skirmishes and
assaults upon fortified places, but no regular pitched battle. At last the ghastly spectacle
of the head and hands of Decebalus severed from his body is exhibited on a board by two
soldiers in front of the Praetorium. This disgusting scene is followed by a representation of
the stormino- of the last strongholds of the enemy in the mountains ; and a mournful pro-
cession of fugitives, carrying away their goods and driving their cattle into exile, forms
the close of the sculptured history of the Dacian campaigns of Trajan.'

In these curious bas-reliefs we have a treasury of information on the religion, the mili-
tary science, the habits, and dress of the Romans of the Empire far more valuable than
ten thousand pages of descriptive writing. The lover of Roman antiquities will learn
more by studying Fabretti's engravings of these reliefs, or the casts at the French Academy
at Rome, than by endless book-labour. The descriptions of Livy and Polybius, Caesar
and Tacitus, receive life and movement and interest as we look at the actual figures
{ocnlis subjccta fiddihis) of the general and his staff, the Preetorian guards marked by their
belts over the left shoulder, the fierce-looking standard-bearers and centurions, with their
heads covered with wolves' skins and the shaggy manes of lions streaming down their
backs, the rank and file carrying enormous stakes, the master-masons, sappers, and
pioneers, with their axes and crowbars, the lancers, heavy and light cavalrj-, and royal
chargers, the Sarmatian horsemen, clothed, riders and steeds, in complete scale armour,
and the Moorish cavalry, riding without reins.

Bridges being constructed, Roman causeways laid, forts attacked with all kinds of
military engines, the charge of cavalry, the rout and confusion of a defeated army, are all
most vividly depicted. Trajan in person traverses the ranks on foot, or mounts the
suggestus and harangues his men, or receives with simple dignity the submission of the
enemy, or marches, with all the pomp of a Roman procession, under the triumphal arch.
The soldier-like simplicity and bonhomie of the great military Emperor are strikingly
portrayed. There is no silken tent, or richly-decorated chariot, or throne or canopy
of state to be seen. His colonel of the guards sits beside him as an equal on the

suggestus ; in the midst of a battle the Emperor tears up his robe to bind the wounds of
his soldiers ; ' he is present everywhere, wearing a sword and fighting in person. Nothing
could be more illustrative of the state of Roman affairs in that iron age when, as in the
olden times, rough and unlettered warriors, fresh from the camp, swayed the destinies of
the Empire.

In this vast spiral relief there are said to be more than 2,500 sculptured figures of men,

and the higher they are placed on the column the larger are their dimensions, showing the

care that was taken to counteract the effects of the increased distance from the eye. The

whole of the carving, from base to summit, is executed with equally minute care, though the

' Procop. /-Edif. iv. 6. - Fabrctti, Nos. 313, 320. ' Dion Cass. Ixviii. S.

The Fora of the Emperors.

isr

upper part can never have been easily visible except from the windows or roofs of the
basilica and the libraries, which, as we have seen, were placed very near. The opinion
which prevailed for some time, that the figures had been coloured,' is incorrect, as the more
minute examination since made has proved that the colours thought to be artificial are
the natural results of the decay of the stone and oxidization of the metallic parts of the
structure under the effects of the rain, sun, and dust.-

Close to the Greek and Latin libraries lay the temple which Hadrian dedicated to
his predecessor. We have no description of this temple left us, but its mention in
conjunction with the column by Gellius, Spartianus, and the Catalogue
called Curiosum shows beyond a doubt that it was placed to the north of ""'""^

the small court surrounding the column.^ This is the only place in which it
could have been situated without destroying the symmetry of the plan of Trajan's Forum.
A considerable number of granite columns, supposed to have belonged to this building,
have been found in digging the foundations of houses to the north-west of the Piazza
of Trajan, and from the colossal size of these it may be concluded that the temple was
of very large dimensions.

A medal figured in Becker has been supposed to represent the front of this temple,
but Reber has shown* that the date borne by it (103 .\.D.), fourteen years before Trajan's
death, renders this supposition impossible, and that it probably represents a temple dedi-
cated to Ner\'a by Trajan himself.'' The only difficulty is contained in the title, " Optimo
principi," on the medal, which has generally been considered as given to Trajan alone
among the Roman Emperors. In the absence of positive proof, all that can be said is,
that Nerva, of all the other Emperors who preceded Trajan, would be most likely to have
received this title.

Thus the whole group of buildings called b}- the name of Trajan's Forum extended
from the \'ia del Priorato to the Piazza dei SS. Apostoli, and at the northern end adjoined
some of the great public buildings of the Campus Martius.

Of the subsequent history of this magnificent monument of Trajan's reign a few
notices may be gleaned here and there. At the end of the fifth century the
library seems still to have been a place of literary resort, for the statue of j^f^ ustory

-' ^ ' of the honim

Sidonius Apollinaris, the poet, was placed there, as he himself mentions, in Trahmim.
the piazza between the two libraries.®

In the time of Charlemagne, five centuries after the Dacian victories, Paulus Diaconus,
in his " Life of St. Gregory the Great," speaks of the still remaining beauty of the
Forum of Trajan, having occasion to mention it in relating the wonderful delivery of
the soul of "the best of Emperors" from purgatorj'." Rome had, however, before this
time been robbed by the Byzantine Emperors of all the bronze and other metals which her
public buildings contained, and the roof of Trajan's basilica had doubtless suffered with

J Mcrivale speaks of the column as " shining in ' Gell. xi. 17, I ; .Spart. Hist. Aug. Hadr. 19 ;

every volute and moulding with gold and pigments," Curios. Reg. viii.

vol. vii. p. 246. Considering that it is a simple Tus- * Becker, Handbuch, p. 3S1, and PI. 5, No. 11 ;

can column without volutes or mouldings of any Reber, Ruinen Roms, p. 191. ' Plin. Panegr. 10.

marked kind, and that it never was painted or gilt, ^ .Sid. ApoU. lib. ix. 16 ; Cami. 25.

this description is far too poetical. ' Paul. Diac. in Vit. Greg. 17; Mcrivale, vol. vii.

Bull deli Inst. 1836, p. 39. p. 230.

152 The Fora of the Emperors.

the rest.i It is a significant fact, that, of all the bronze-gilt statues and ornaments which
this Forum is known to have contained, not a single one has been dug up in the course of
the extensive excavations which have been made. In the terrible convulsions which tore
Rome to pieces in the tenth century during the riots between the Burgundians, Alberic,
and Pope John XII.,- the Forum of Trajan was probably destroyed, for we find a garden
growing round the great pillar in the year 1003, and the Church of S. Nicolas was already
built there in 1032.^ In the succeeding centuries of ignorance and misery the names of
Campus Kaloleonis and Palatium Hadriani were given to the ruins, and the Forum of
Nerva was wrongly supposed to be the Forum of Trajan.* The preservation of the column
itself is probably due to an order issued in the twelfth century, forbidding any one to injure
it on pain of death.^ Gradually the ruins around it became levelled, gardens were made
there, and then the city began to grow again in this direction, until, as has been above
mentioned, the new streets, the Via Alessandrina and the Via Bonella, were laid out by
Pius V. A small piazza was built round the column, but Sixtus V. caused this to be
cleared away, and the base of the pedestal to be laid bare, ^\■hen lie placed the statue of
St. Peter upon the summit. But the greatest credit is due to the French, who, when they
occupied Rome in 18 12, excavated, under the orders of Napoleon I., the greater part of the
ruins of the basilica and part of the Forum.

A vast number of fragments of columns, of inscriptions, and of architectural orna-
ments have been dug up at various times on the site of Trajan's P'orum. The
great granite columns which now lie near the base of the pillar were
Re.uains found ^ ^^^^ j^^ j^ .^^ ^j^^ foundations of the Church of S. Maria di Loreto, by

on the Slit: , .

the architect, the elder San Gallo, and are mentioned as lying near that
church in the middle of the sixteenth century .•" The equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius
in the Piazza del Campidoglio stands upon a pedestal made by Michael Angelo out of
an immense fragment of entablature found on the site of Trajan's Forum. The following
account is given by Flaminio Vacca, in his " Memorie " (1594), of a discovery of a number
of bas-reliefs and sculptures : —

" I remember that near the Pillar of Trajan, at the spot called Spolia Christi (so called
from a picture in the Church of S. Salvadore, representing the stripping of our Saviour),
the remains of a triumphal arch were found, with many pieces of historical sculpture,
which are now in the house of Signor Frospero Boccapadullo, who was then Inspector
of Roads. Among these was one of Trajan, mounted on a horse and crossing a river, and
some statues of prisoners similar to those now standing on the arch called by Constantine's
name. I observed these very carefully, and am certain that they are in the same style
and by the same master-hand as those upon the Pillar." "

In 1765, in digging the foundations of a house near the Church of S. Maria di
Loreto, six columns of grey granite were found, eight palms and a half in diameter ;
but they remained in situ, because no one could be found to bear the expense of
removing them. An enormous portion of the cornice of a portico was also found

' Anastas. Vit. Pont. vol. i. p. 132. See below, ° Galletti, Primicero, p. 232 seq. quoted by Nibby,

chap. xiii. - Gibbon, chap. xlix. Roma nelF Anno 1838, parte ii. Antica, p. 213.

^ See Rcber, p. 193, note 4. « Reber, p. 194. Nibby, loc. cit.

•> Mabillon, Mus. Ital. vol. ii. pp. 132, 143, 161. " Flaminio Vacca, Memorie, 9.

The Fora of the Emperors.

'03

there, which Cardinal Alessandro Albani removed, and placed in his villa outside the
Porta Salaria.'

The statues of prisoners mentioned by Flaminio Vacca were undoubtedly the fellows
to the statues of Dacian prisoners which arc now to be seen in front of the attica of
Constantine's Arch. More statues of the same design, but smaller dimensions, were found
by the P'rench excavators in 1813, in the middle of the ruins of the basilica.- These
probably belonged to a different part of the buildings from the larger ones mentioned
by Flaminio Vacca. The granite columns found near S. Maria were possibly a part of
the Temple of Trajan or its enclosure. Besides these, there have been found in various
excavations on the site a number of pedestals of statues, with inscriptions ranging from
the time of Trajan to the end of the Empire.

The antiquary Pea mentions three pedestals discovered in 1813 which had supported
statues of Trajan, all having the same inscription, stating that they were erected in his
sixth consulship, which answers to the year .\.D. 112, and commemorating his services
to the State both at home and abroad.^

Another inscription, which is now built into the wall on the north of the pillar,
commemorates the remission of all debts to the Emperor's private purse {fiscns) h\
Hadrian, a fact which we find also mentioned in Dion Cassius and Spartianus. The latter
writer adds that it was in the Forum of Trajan that Hadrian publicly burnt the list of
debtors, and the inscription was no doubt intended to mark the spot of this act of
liberality or bribery.* A large number of statues were erected in the Ulpian Forum
by M. Aurelius during the course of his German campaigns, in memory of the Roman
nobles who fell in those wars.-''

Pedestals have also been found with inscriptions in honour of the Praetorian Prefects
Eugenius, who lived in the time of Constans, and Merobaudus, a noted general of
Celtic extraction, and a literary character in Gratian's time, some of whose works arc
still extant. The absurdly verbose and bombastic style of these inscriptions of the later
Empire contrasts strongly with the laconic simplicity of those of an earlier date. The
virtues of one Nicomachus Flavius, of the time of Theodosius and Valentinian, are cele-
brated in language which can only find a parallel in some of the Engli.sh epitaphs of the
last century, or in the modern Papal encyclicals." The statue of Sidonius Apollinaris has
already been mentioned, and another poet, Claudian, also had the honour of a place
in this Forum. The inscription belonging to his statue was found in the fifteenth centur\-
in the house of Pomponius Lstus." Besides these, we find in Gruter's "Inscriptions"
the following mentioned to whom statues were erected in this Forum : — Fl. Anicius
Petronius Maximus, Prefect of the city in the year 420 ; Anicius Anchemius Bassus,
Prefect in 383 ; L. Aurelius Avianus Symmachus, Prefect in the year 377 ; Anicius
Paulinus, Consul in 334; and Bassseus Rufus and M. Pontius Latianus Larcius Sabinu.s,
contemporary with M. Aurelius.^

' Fea, Misc. pp. 56, 57, note c. •■> Hist. Aug. M. Ant. Phil. 22.

= Ibid. Inscrizioni di iMonumcnti ; Roma, 1S13, s See Ue ^o%%\,\r\ Ann. dell' Inst. \q\. .\xi.; Fea,

P- 13- Inscrizioni, p. 10.

' Ibid. p. 12. " Claud. Bell. Get. pr^f. 7 ; Gibbon, chap. xx.\. ;

■* Gruter, p. x. No. 6 : Dion Cass. lxi.\. S : Spart. Gruter, Inscr. ccclxxv. i.
Hist. .Kwg. Hadr. ch. 7. " Gruter. Inscr. cccclvii. 3 : cccliii. 4 ; ccclxx. 3.

CHAPTER VIII.

PART I.

THE PALATINE, GERMALUS, AND VELIA.

NATURAL FEATURES OF THE HILL— NAME PALATIUM — GERMALUS — LUPERCAL — CASA ROMULI — FICUS RUMI.NAI.IS —
SCAL^ CACI — CORNUS SACRA — RUINS AT THE NORTH-WEST CORNER — TEMPLE OF MAGNA MATER — TEMPLE OK
JUNO SOSPITA— AUGURATORIUM — DOMUS TIBERIANA — DOMUS CALIGUL^«t-TEMPLE OF AUGUSTUS — GATEWAY
AT NORTH-EAST CORNER — TEMPLE OF VICTORY— HOUSES OF WEALTHY ROMANS — CICERO's HOUSE — HOUSE OF
CATULUS — HOUSE OF CLODIUS — SPLENDOUR OF PALATINE HOUSES — PORTA MUGIONIS — TEMPLE OF JUPITER
STATOR — PALACE OF TARQUINIUS AND ANCUS — ^ SACELLUM LARUM — VELIA — ^DES PENATIUM — HOUSES OF
TUI.LUS AND PUBLICOLA — MARBLE PLAN OF THE CITY — NERONIAN FIRE — DOMUS AUREA — COLOSSUS OF NERO —
TEMPLE OF PEACE— BASILICA OF CONSTANTINE — ARCH OF TITUS — TEMPLE OF VENUS AND ROME — META SUDANS
— ARCH OF CONSTANTINE — SUBSTRUCTIONS ON THE SOUTH-EAST SIDE OF THE HILL — PALACE OF AUGUSTUS —
TEMPLE OF VESTA — TEMPLE OF APOLLO— LIBRARY — ROMA QUADRATA IN AREA APOLLINIS— ^DES PUBLIC/E —
ATRIUM — LARARIUM — BASILICA — PERISTYLIUM — TRICLINIUM — NYMPHiEUM — PORTICO — LIBRARY — ACADEMIA —
TEMPLE OF JUPITER VICTOR — PALACE OF THE C.^SARS — TERRACE— AQUEDUCT — STADIUM — SEPTIZONIUM —
TEMPLE OF HELIOGABALUS — ALEXANDER SEVERU9 — BATHS OF MAXENTIUS — TEMPLE OF VICTORIA — FORTUNA
RESPICIENS— CURIA SALIORUM — ARA FEBRIS — SACELLUM DE^ VIRIPLACyE — DOMUS FLAMINIS DIALIS — TEMPLE
OF BACCHUS — 'A^poSlfflOJ/ — TEMPLE OF JUPITER PROPUGNATOR — DOMUS GERMANtCI — DOMUS GELOTIANA.

" Non alium certe decuit rectoribus orbis
Esse larem, nuUoque magis se colle poteslas
.4istiraat, et siimmi scntit fastigia juris."

Claudiax, Dc VI. Cons. Hon. J9.

*" I ^HE natural features of the Palatine hill have been so thoroughly altered and obscured

-■- by the successive buildings piled upon it during more than a thousand years, that

it is impossible at the present time to give an accurate account of its original

Nahtral shape and dimensions. The rubbish which covers it is in some parts more

features of _

the hill. than thirty feet thick, and of the most chaotic description. It is, however,
tolerably certain that the hill itself consists of the same stone as the Capito-
line and most of the other hills of Rome. The original rock can be seen at the back of
the new Russian excavations at the north-western angle, and its character has also been
ascertained by Brocchi from observations in a subtewrayean vault of the Villa Mills, in the
centre of the hill.^ Hence it appears that the great'mass is composed of granular and,^
hard tufa. I am not aware that any fresh-water ^veL deposits or travertine have beer^'
found upon it. The nature of the soil has in some degre|Spbscured its FiM-Cry ; for, hacfe^
it consisted of large masses of hard travertine rock, we^^ight have felt more certai^^
that they had remained ajjchanged from the earliest timesf^f Rome. The present shape':

- % ■\.

' liiocchi, Suolo di Roma, p.;l49. % \

i \

==^

"Si* '

: Til^™i ''•»»™ "LBf^ : : i -

° Butilica CoDSUntim

a D □

The Palatine and Velia.

d, Vlll

The Palatine, Germalus, and Velia.

[55

of the hill is that of an irregular four-sided figure, having the "shortest side towards tlie
Capitoline and the longest towards the valley of the Circus Maximus.

The highest part of the hill, near the Church of S. Bonaventura, is 160 feet high
according to the measurement of Calandrelli ;i but no part of the hill now rises much
above the rest. Whether this is the result of artificial levelling or of the natural tendency
of rubbish to collect in the hollows is not known, nor can it be ascertained whether
the hill was originally flat-topped. If Cav. Rosa's supposition, mentioned in a previous
chapter,- be true, a considerable difference of level must have existed between the
different parts of the hill, and enormous substructions must have been built across the
centre, completely filling up the depression which he believes to have formerly extended
from the middle of the south-west to the middle of the north-east side.

The south-western and north-western sides of the hill are steep and inaccessible.
They have doubtless been cut away and made steeper for purposes of defence, and they
are supported in most places by huge brick walls and arches constructed at various times.
The other two sides, looking towards the Caelian and the Forum valley, are much less
precipitous, and present for the most part gradual terraced slopes. The longer axis of
the hill, from S. Maria Liberatrice to the point where the Via dei Cerchi and the
Via di S. Gregorio meet, is about 700 yards in length, and the .shorter, from the Church
of S. Anastasia to the Arch of Constantine, is about 550 yards.-'

The name Palatium has furnished a fruitful subject of speculation to etymologists.
It has been derived from the Pallantes, who are said to have come with
Evander from Arcadia ; from the town of Palatium, in the district of Reate ; „ iat''iim
from Palanto, the mother of Latinus ; from the bleating [ha/atiis) of the sheep
once fed upon its pastures, or from their wandering habits {palari) ; and from the sepulchre
of Pallas, son of Evander.^ Xone of these derivations seems so probable as that which
would connect Palatium with the shepherd-deity Pales.' The oldest traditions represented
the Palatine as covered with thickets and pasturage ; and, although but little weight
can be assigned to these traditions, yet the Romans were undoubtedly, as their ancient
festivals, the Palilia, the Lupercalia, and the Faunalia show, originally a pastoral as well as
an agricultural and commercial community."

Tw'o outlying parts of the Palatine were called Germalus and Velia. Varro says
expressly that these two, together with the Palatine itself, formed the fourth region of
the city at the time when the Argeian chapels were first built. We must,

Germalus.

therefore, as has been said above, consider them as separate from the
Palatine itself. The only clue we have to the position of the Germalus is the state-
ment of Varro," that it derived its name from the (Germani) twin brothers, Romulus
and Remus, who were found deposited there by the flooded waters of the Tiber. It is,
therefore, hinted by Varro that the slope of the Germalus came down to some point

' Brocclii, p. 21 1. . ■ See chap. iii. p 33. ^ Merkel, Ad Ov. Fast. p. 20S.

' rFor a furtlier description of the i'alatinc hill see " Schwegler, Rom. Gesch. i, S. 457, An. 17;

chap, iii., anjl for an account of tlic substructions see Mommsen, Rom. Hist. vol. i. pp. 47, 51, 176, Eng.

Ann. iMl' Itist. 1852," p. 324; .VIoiimuiili, vol. v. trans.; " PecorosaPalatia," I'ropert. v. 9, 3; " Hcr-

tav. xxxvi. - / bosa Palatia," Tib. ii. 5, 25 ; Ov. Met. xiv. 438 ;

* A'arro, L. L. v. \ 54; Servi Ad .lEn. viii. 51 ; Fast. iv. 815.

Fcstii';, p. 220 : Dionys. i. 32. ii. i.^ " Varro, L. L. v. § 54, 55.

X 2

156 The Palatine, Genua ins, ami I'eiia.

in the valley whicli could be reached by the waters of the Tiber during an inundation.
The part of the hill most exposed to floods is the western corner ; and here, therefore,
most writers on Roman topography have placed the Gernialus. In Festus the word
appears under the form Cermalus.^ Nor was this a name used only by antiquarians,
for we find Cicero employing it to indicate the situation of Milo's house, so that it
must have been a well-known district of Rome in his time.^ Another indication of
the situation of the Germalus is given by a quotation from Ouintus Fabius Pictor,
preserved by Dionysius. According to Fabius, the Lupercal, a cavern in
iiptiia. ^yhich the she-wolf was suckling the twins when the shepherds drove her
away, was on or near the Germalus. Now the Lupercal is plainly stated to have been
upon the road leading to the Circus Maximus. The road in question was most probably
that leading from the Forum and Capitol through the Velabrum to the Circus ; and
we may, therefore, assume that the Germalus was the part of the Palatine overhanging
this road. Dionysius describes the Lupercal as having once been a large grotto, shaded
with thick bushes and large trees, and containing a copious spring of water. His usual
Hellenizing spirit leads him to identify the worship of Lupercus with that of the Arcadian
Pan.^ Lupercus was, however, most probably a genuine Latin pastoral deity, whose
worship was naturally similar to, but not necessarily identical with, the Greek Pan.'* The
grotto was not easily identified in the time of Dionysius, who speaks of it as hidden
by the numerous buildings erected on and near the spot ; but the altar or shrine, with
the peculiar festival of the deity Lupercus on the 15th of February, were still much
honoured in the time of Augustus, for we find the Lupercal mentioned in the inscription of
Ancyra as having been restored by that Emperor.'^

Another proof that the position of the Germalus and Lupercal must be sought at the
western end of the Palatine is derived from the distinct assertion of Dionysius in speaking
of the Casa Romuli. He says that the hut of Romulus lay in a hollow on
the side of the Palatine which looks towards the Circus Maximus, and
Plutarch places it on the descent from the Palatine to the Circus." Now the Catalogue of
the tenth region begins with the Casa Romuli, and ends with the Lupercal, apparently
proceeding round the hill in an easterly direction from the western corner. Hence, as
Schwegler remarks, the Lupercal must be placed nearer to the Circus than the Casa
Romuli.' This latter was a hut made of wood and covered with reeds, representing the
original habitation of the founder of Rome. It must have stood nearly at the western
corner of the hill. A chapel of Romulus also stood on the Germalus.^

Near the Lupercal and hut of Romulus was the Ruminal Fig-tree,° so called, according

1 Festus, pp. 55, 340, 348 ; MuUer, in Yarr. loc. aqueduct may have been mistaken for it. See the

cit., thinks Cermalus the right form. Athenceum newspaper. No. 2,068, June 15, 1867.

■ Cic. Ad Att. iv. 3. Livy describes a wolf which ^ Mon. Ancyr. tab. iv. ; Virg. ^n. viii. 343.

happened to enter the city by the Esquihne gate as Gibbon, chap, xxxvi., says that the Lupercaha were

running through the Vicus Tuscus and the GermaUis celebrated as late as the fifth century A.D.

to the Porta Capena (Livy, xxxiii. 26). " Dionys. i. 79 ; Plut. Rom. 20.

3 Dionys. i. 32, 79 ; Plutarch, Cees. 61 ; sec Paus. ' Schwegler, Rom. Gesch. S. 391, An. 3.

viii. 38, 5. * Merkel, Ad Ov. Fast. iii. 184; Solin. i. 18;

•* The grotto of the Lupercal has lately, it is sup- Varro, L. L. v. § 54.

posed, been discovered near the Church of S. Anas- " Varro, L. L. v. 54 ; Plut. Rom. iii. ; MiiUer, Ad

tasia. It is, however, possible that the reservoir of an Fest. p. 400.

The Palatine, Germa/us, and Velia. 157

to Festus. from riiinis, the teat of the she-wolf which suckled the twins, or from rmninari,
on account of the cattle which were fed there. This fig-tree was supposed to have stood on
the spot where the children were first cast ashore. In the year B.C. 296 the
/Ediles Cna^us and Ouintus Ojjulnius dedicated on this spot a bronze statue „ ^"^"^

~ Rmninalis.

of the she-wolf giving suck to Romulus and Remus ; ' and it seems not
improbable, from the style of workmanship and the place where it was found, that this
bronze figure mentioned by Livy is actually the same with that now preserved in the
Palace of the Conser\ators on the Capitol.- Another fig-tree on the Comitium has the
same name given to it by later historians, and a legend is related by Pliny of its having
been transplanted from the Palatine to the Comitium by a miracle of Attus Navius. But it
is probable that the real name of this latter fig-tree was the Ficus Navia, and that after the
disappearance of the original Ficus Ruminalis the name was transferred to it, as standing
on one of the most ancient localities in Rome.^ Rumina or Rumia was the ancient goddess
who presided over the suckling and rearing of children, and is connected by Varro with
Cunina, the deity of the cradle.'' The fig-tree, as the symbol of fertility, was planted near
her chapel, and hence obtained the name of Ruminalis.^

In the same neighbourhood were also the steps leading down from the Palatine, called
by Plutarch the Shore of Cacus, by Solinus the Steps of Cacus," and the sacred
cornel-tree, supposed to have grown out of the lance of Romulus, which he

/-!."■ r 1 ^ • rr-t Comtis Sacra.

threw across the valley of the Circus from the Aventme. This tree lasted
longer than the fig-tree, for we find it mentioned as late as the time of Caligula. In
his reign the Stairs of Cacus were repaired, and so much damage done to the roots of the
sacred cornel-tree that it died.'

All traces of the above-mentioned sacred spots have now long been obliterated, and the
Lupercal is the only one of them which may possibly be discovered by excavation. We
know from an epistle of Pope Gelasius that the Lupercalia were celebrated as late as the
year A.D. 496, and it is probable that the grotto and altar were still in exi.stence at that
time, and possibly for some time afterwards.** Since the year 1846 considerable excava-
tions have been carried on at this corner of the Palatine, in the Vigna Nussiner,
between the foot of the hill and the Church of S. Anastasia, but no light has R'nnsattlu
been thrown by them upon the more ancient sites of which I have been conter.

treating. The buildings discovered belong to the Imperial period, and were
most probably inhabited by freedmen and other dependents attached to the Emperor's
Court. They have been carefully described by Reber, and are also mentioned in the
" Transactions " of the Roman Archaeological Institute." They consist of little more than
the remains of a narrow court, with a corridor and seven small chambers on one side, a
bath at one end, and offices of various kinds at the other. The florid ornamentation of
the carved capitals and cornices which have been found here, and the style of the brick-

' Livy, X. 23 ; Dionys. loc. cit. Rom. p. 20, kukou or kokIus dicr^r. Solin. i. iS ; Pro-

- Rheinisches Museum, 1846, p. 519. pert. v. i, 9. " Plut. loc. cit. ; Serv. Mn. iii. 46.

' See chap. vi. p. 79 ; Festus, p. 169 ; Miiller, Ad ' Gibbon, chap, xxxvi.

Fest. p. 400 ; Tac. Ann. xiii. 58. " Reber, Ruinen Roms, p. 376 ; Bi/U. </<•//' Ins/.

* Varro, Ap. Non. p. 167 ; Plut. Quaest. Rom. 57 ; 1846, 1847. At the point where these chambers are

Rom. 4. ^ See Schwcglcr, Rom. Gesch.S. 324,422. situated there was a communication with the upper

' Plut. Rom. 20, where read with Zinzow, De Sacr. part of the hill.

158 The Palatine, Germ a I us, and J'eiia.

work, points to the age of Domitian. or a little later, and the graffiti upon the walls contain
many Greek names, probably of Imperial freedmen. In one of these chambers was found
the celebrated sketch (now in the Kircherian Museum at the Collegio Romano) of a
crucified figure, with an inscription, which has been usually interpreted as drawn by a
pagan in derision of a Christian fellow-slave ;^ and near the entrance to the excavations
stands an altar, with an inscription, similar to that criticized by St. Paul at Athens, to
an Unknown God. It was as follows : " SEI. (sivc) DEO. .SEI. (sive) DEIVAE. SAC. C.
SEXTIVS. C. F. CALVINVS FR. DE SENATI SENTENTIA RESTITVIT." -

Other excavations under the Church of S. Anastasia, which stands close by, have
resulted in the discovery of a portion of the ancient roadway which ran between the Circus
Maximus and the outlj-ing parts of the building just described. This roadwa}- runs from
north-west to south-east, nearly parallel to the Via dei Cerchi, and may be taken as the
eastern boundary-line of the buildings attached to the Circus.^

The whole north-western side of the Palatine is now rendered steep and inaccessible by
enormous walls, which must have served as substructions to the Palace of Tiberius. These
walls are of various materials, some of brick, others of squared stones of tufa, laid alter-
nately as headers and stretchers. The long piece of tufa-work nearest to the western corner
of the hill has been supposed to be a part of the wall of Roma Ouadrata, and is described
in a note to a former chapter.*

The building mentioned next to the Casa Romuli in the Catalogue of the tenth

region is the Temple of the Magna Mater Idffia, and as the enumeration appears to

proceed along the- north-western side of the hill, we may assume that this

Magna Mater, temple stood not far from the western angle. WHiether it stood upon the top

Temple of ov at the foot is not known. The worship of this goddess was brought to

Jmio Sos/i/a. Rome from Asia Minor by P. Cornelius Nasica in the year B.C. 205, and the

temple was consecrated thirteen years later.-'' It is possible that Martial may allude

to this temple when he speaks of the Dome of Cybele, and Ovid also mentions

that one of the Metelli restored it after a fire.'' The first destruction by fire took place

in B.C. Ill, and the second in A.D. i. Augustus rebuilt it after the second destruction."

A Temple of Juno Sospita stood not far from it, perhaps in the neighbourhood of the

modern Church of S. Teodoro.^

At the western corner of the Palatine, near the point called by Solinus the Supercilium

Scalarum Caci, are the ruins of a building of volcanic tufa, in the shape of a rectangular

basement, which have generally been supposed to have formed the founda-

Aiignratorium.

tions of a temple. The recent excavations conducted by Signor Rosa have,
however, shown that they were not intended to support the columns of a temple, and
that their real shape is that of " a high terraced mound of masonry, closed in entirely

' This fiijiirc is, however, interpreted by Mr. C. W. * Chap. iii. p. 40 ; Ann. dcH' Inst. 1S52, p. 324.

King, Gnosticism, p. 90, to be the Gnostic Anubis- ^ Livy, xxix. 14, x.xxvi. 35 ; Cic. De Har. Rasp.

Christos. The mscription is 'AAe^a/iCfoj ai^irai 12 ; Dion Cass. xlvi. 43. The worship of Cybele was

6iov. very popular at Rome. Mommsen, vol. iii. p. 437.

'' Gellius, ii. 28, explains the principle upon which " Mart. i. 71, 10 ; Merkel, Ad Ov. Fasti, p. 129.

such altars were erected, " Non esse compertum cui " Jul. Obs. 99 ; Mon. Ancyr. tab. 1 ; Val. Max. i.

deo rem divinam fieri oporteat cum terra movet." S, 1 1.

3 Bull. (MP Inst. Arch. 1863, p. 113. « Ov. Fast. ii. 55 ; Cic. De Div. i. § 4, 99.

Tlic Palatine, Germaliis, and Vclia. 1 59

on the north side by a more elevated terrace of less breadth, in the centre of the south
side of which stands a square projecting ambo or pulpit. The two longer sides of the
basement project in front, and form two wings, enclosing a staircase occupying the whole
breadth of the lower part of the terraced mound." ^ The building faces the south, and
commands an extensive prospect over the Aventine and the Tiber valley. Now the
ancient catalogues of the places situated in the tenth region, which contains the Palatine,
place the Auguratorium near the rest of the sacred spots of the most ancient part of
Rome, which we know to have been in this locality. Cavalierc Rosa has therefore con-
jectured that these are the ruins of the ancient Auguratorium, whence Romulus, as the
legend runs, took the auspices when founding his city. He supposes that the raised
square platform was the Augurale or augural seat, whence the augur took his observations,
and that an altar stood upon the lower part of the terrace, on which sacrifices were offered
before that solemn ceremony.^

At the back of this ruin we find a long row of chambers running across the hill from
north-west to south-east, which have vaulted roofs, and are similar in construction to the
chambers in the Vigna Nussiner. They seem to have formed a part of the
back of the Palace of Tiberius, which occupied the large space now called the „.,"'""■'
Jardins Superieurs, and were possibly the stables and offices of the Emperor's
domestics.^ They are far too small and roughly-plastered to have formed any part of the
Imperial suite of apartments. A number of curious inscriptions and scribblings are to be
seen upon their walls, consisting chiefly of Greek and Latin names, rough sketches of ships,
combats of gladiators, and soldiers under arms.

Several passages of the Roman historians lead us to the conclusion that the Palace of
Tiberius was situated on this part of the Palatine. It was from the Tiberiana Domus that
Vitellius surveyed the conflagration of the Temple of Capitoline Jupiter, and the engage-
ment between his adherents and the Flavian party under Sabinus.* The palace must,
therefore, have stood upon the north-western part of the hill towards the Capitoline. The
same conclusion may be drawn from the description given by Tacitus, Plutarch, and
Suetonius of the movements of Otho, when, after joining Galba at the morning sacrifice in
the Temple of Apollo on the Palatine, he is said to have descended through the back of
the Palace of Tiberius into the Velabrum, and thence to the Miliarium Aureum,^ where
the conspirators were awaiting his arrival. It seems possible that the Palace of Tiberius
may have stood upon the site previously occupied by the house of his father Claudius
Nero. During the reign of Augustus Tiberius lived first in Pompey's house in the Carina-,
and afterwards in the gardens of Maecenas on the Esquiline." The Tiberian Palace on
the Palatine was in later times the favourite residence of Antoninus Pius and Marcus
Aurelius, and it was probably during their reigns that the library \\hich \vc find mentioned
by Gellius was established thcre.^

> Ann. diW Inst. 1S65, p. 362. I do not suppose that he went through the Porta

- A restoration of the Auguratorium is coniine- Romanula, but through a postern gate at the

niorated in an inscription of Hadrian's time. Orclli, north-western corner, near the Auguratorium.
No. 2,286. 8 Suet. Tib. 15.

' Bull, deir Inst. 1S62, p. 233; Ann. dell' Imt. ' Hist. Aug. Ant. Pius, cap. 10; .Ant. I'hil. 6;

1865, p. 365. ■* .Suet. V'it. 15. V'erus, 2; Cell. .\iii. 20: Vopisc. Prob. 2; Josepli.

' Tac. Hist. i. 27; Suet. 0th. 6; Plut. Galb. 24. .Ant. xix. 1. 15.

i6o The Palatine, Gcrniahis, and Vclia.

The northern corner of the hill is occupied by immense masses of brickwork, which

formed the substructions of Caligula's Palace. He is said to have extended his additions

to the palace as far as the Forum and the Temple of Castor. In his insane

, ",""", conceit this bloodv monster caused the back wall of the Temple of Castor

Caligula. • _ ^

to be broken through, in order that he might appear between the statues of
the twin gods to receive the worship of those who visited the temple. He also joined this
corner of the Palatine with the Capitoline by a huge viaduct, passing above the roofs of

the Temple of Augustus and the Basilica Julia, in order that thus he might
Temple of ^i^j^e himself the coHtubcniaUs of Jupiter. During his sleepless nights, says

Augustus. I. o J

Suetonius, he used to walk up and down through the endless porticoes and
halls of the palace, crying aloud, and praying for the return of daylight.^ A great part of
Caligula's colossal substructions has lately been excavated, and a number of galleries and
chambers cle;ired. The most interesting discovery made by the clearance is that of an

ancient gateway, supposed to be one of the principal entrances to the Pala-

Gatnuay at {.jj^g jj- stands under the enormous brickwork pillars of Caligula's palace,

^„,.n^,. and leading from it is a road paved in the ancient style with basalt, which

passes along the north-eastern slope of the hill. The archway of this gate
is still perfect. It has been mentioned in a former chapter that Cav. Rosa supposes
the Clivus Victorije to have led from this gate to the upper part of the Palatine.- Festus
expressly mentions the connexion between the Clivus Victorias and the Porta Romana,
adding that it was called Romana by the Sabines, because it was the gate by which they
entered from their town on the Ouirinal.^ In the neighbourhood of the Clivus Victoriae we

must look for the Temple of Victory, whence it derived its name. Dionysius
empeof places this temple upon the top of the hill, but this is the only hint we have

I ictory. '^ 1 1 i J

of its e.xact position, and all traces of it seem to disappear in the later ages
i)f Rome. It was founded, according to the legend, by the Arcadian followers of Evander,
and was therefore one of the most venerable relics of Ante-Romulean Rome.*

Following the slope of the Palatine from the northern corner, in a direction parallel to

the Forum, we come to that part of the hill where the houses of many of the rich

Romans were built in the later Republican days, when the foreign empire of

Houses of Rome had so largely increased the wealth of proconsuls and successful

Romans. generals. Among these were C. Gracchus,^ Cn. Octavius, conqueror of

Perseus, O. Catulus, conqueror of the Cimbri, Crassus," Cicero," Clodius,*

Scaurus," Hortensius," Drusus," M. Antonius,^- the fathers of Augustus and Tiberius,

C. Octavius and Ti. Claudius Nero,^'^ and others.

' Suet. Cal. 21, 22, 50 : Dion. Cass. lix. 7, 28, Ix. 6 ; ' Festus, p. 262, ed. Mullen

Tac. Ann. vi. 45. Nothing further is known of this ■* Dionys. i. 32 ; Livy, x. 33, xxix. 14, xxxv. 9.

Temple of Augustus. Caligula celebrated magnificent '■• Plut. C. Gracch. 12.

games at its dedication. (See Merivale, Hist, of the ^ Cic. De Off. i. 39 ; Plin. Nat. Hist. xvii. i.

Romans, vol. v. p. 378; Dion. Cass. loc. cit.) The " Cic. Pro Dom. § 116 ; De Har. Resp. § 16.

Church of S. Teodoro has been identified with this ^ Ibid. De Har. Resp. .xv. § 33

temple, but without good reason. (.See chap, xii.) " Ibid. De Off. i. 39.

- See chap. iii. p. 35. This conclusion is not, '" Suet. Aug. 72. " Veil. Pat. ii. 14.

however, supported by any strong arguments, and '" Dion Cass. liii. 27.

it is not impossible that the road which led through '^ Suet. .A.ug. 5 ; Tib. 5.
this gate was the Via Nova.

The Palatine, Germalus, and I'elia. 161

Among these we can only arrive approximately at the situations of a few. Cicero's
house overlooked the cit)-, and was in a conspicuous place, and was therefore probably on
the side towards the Forum.^ The only passage in the whole of Cicero's
extant works which seems to throw any light on the situation of his Palatine '"^"^ """'
residence, is an epistle to Atticus, where he says that Vettius, who was supposed to be
aware of a conspiracy against Caesar's life, had abstained from accusing Cicero by name,
but had said that an eloquent consular, a neighbour of Caesar's, had expressed a wish that
some Brutus or Ahala could be found equal to the occasion.^ Now Cassar lived at that
time in the Regla, and we must therefore place Cicero's house somewhere on the slope of
the Palatine at the back of the Regia. This house underwent many changes of ownership
during the first century B.C. It passed from the possession of Drusus^ the tribune, killed
in the year 91, into the hands of one of the Crassi (not Crassus the orator), who sold
it to Cicero.^ It was demolished during his exile, and a Temple of Liberty built upon
the site,^ but restored on his return at the public cost.® After his death it was inhabited
by Censorinus and Statilius Sisenna, partisans of Augustus.^

Near Cicero's house was that of Catulus, if we may infer so much as this from the
fact that the Porticus Catuli, which was adorned with the spoils of the

'^ House of

Cimbric war, was next to Cicero's house. The site of this Porticus Catuli Caiulus.
had been previously occupied by the house of Flaccus.^ The house of House oj
Clodius, previously owned by Scaurus, stood behind that of Cicero, for the
orator threatens in one of his invectives to raise the roof of his house in order to prevent
Clodius from looking down upon the city which he had wished to destroy.''

The splendour of these Palatine houses was a subject of remark even in Pliny's time,
when luxury and wealth had become common at Rome. He notices the costly pillars of
Hymettian marble, which Crassus imported to adorn the court of his house,
but adds that the house of O. Catulus surpassed even that of Crassus in spjendour oj

~ ^ . Palatine houses.

magnificence.^*' The mansion of Scaurus contained, says Pliny, an immense
number of columns of foreign marble, which had been originally brought to Rome for a
temporary theatre, erected by him as yEdile. Some of these were thirty-eight feet in
height, and such was their weight that the contractor for the repairs of the sewers
compelled Scaurus to indemnify him for the damages caused by their transport along the
streets to the Palatine." Clodius gave the enormous sum of fourteen million eight
hundred thousand sesterces for this house.^"

Proceeding along the side of the hill towards the Arch of Titus, we come to the spot
at which the Nova Via and Sacra Via met, in the neighbourhood of which, as has been
before mentioned, several most interesting buildings stood. Ne.Kt to the north-western
angle of the Palatine, the Summa Sacra Via and the immediate locality around it were

' Cic. Pro Dom. 37. = Ibid. Ad Alt. ii. 24. w Plin. Nat. Hist. .wii. 1,2; .\.\.\vi. 3, 7.

■• Veil. Pat. ii. 14, 3. n Ibid, xxxvi. 2, 6. Rebcr's Ruincn Roms, p. 364.

' Ep. ad Fam. v. 6 ; Plin. Nat. Hist xvii. i, § 4. misinterprets this passage of Pliny, the purport of

'- Plut. Cic. 33 ; Pro Dom. 44. &c. which is that it was a shame that such marbles

» In Pis. 22 ; Har. Resp. 6, 8. 15; .\A Att. iv. i, 2. should be used to decorate a private house, white

Veil. I at. loc. cit. the images of the gods were made of no better

* Val. Max. vi. 3, i j Cic. Pro Dom. 43. material than plaster.

' Cic. Har. Resp. xv. § 33. « Plin. Nat. Hist. 5 xxxxi. 103.

1 62 The Palatine, Gei'mabis, and Vclia.

perhaps the most intimately connected with the early history of the city. The Porta

Mugionis or Porta Vetus Palatii, one of the gates of the original Romulean fortress,

probably stood here, and its foundations, with those of the Temple of

^f"^'" . Jupiter Stator, are among those which Cavaliere Rosa claims to have

Miigtoms. ■' '^ ' °

discovered.

The so-called remains of the gate stand about sixty yards from the Arch of Titus, on

the right of the road leading up towards the Convent of S. Bonaventura. The basaltic

stones with which the road leading through it is paved are larger than those found in any

other ancient street in Rome, and the style of workmanship points to an early date.

Close to the gate are the foundations of a building, which Rosa marks in his plan as the

Temple of Jupiter Stator.^ These foundations are divided into three

Tiinphof rectangular portions, the whole forming a rectangular basement of about

Jupiter Stator. & r o o

fifty yards long by twenty-five wide. They have not the appearance of
belonging to a temple, and the application of the name Jupiter Stator to them is very
doubtful. The temple must, however, have stood very near the Porta Mugionis. The
history of this temple is well known. It was vowed by Romulus in the Sabine war, and
stood on the spot where the Roman army was rallied when on the point of being defeated
by the Sabines.^ An altar only was at first erected, and the temple added by M. Atilius
Regulus in the first Samnite war. The Neronian fire consumed it, but it was rebuilt,
and remained standing till the time of Constantine. The situation is determined by
several passages of Livy, Plutarch, and Ovid, which place it close by the chief gate of

the Palatine, at the junction of the Sacra Via with the Nova Via.* Near

T„njlhiLfanJ ^^^^^ g^^e of the Palatine, and looking out over the Nova Via, was the Palace

Ana/s. of Tarquinius Priscus. Livy tells us that Tanaquil addressed the crowd from

Sacellum the windows of this house after the assassination of her husband.'* Ancus

Larum. Martius also is said to have lived here. It is most probable that in both

cases the Regia is meant, which, as we have seen, stood near this spot.= The position

of the Sacellum Larum, which also stood upon the Summa Sacra Via, has been previously

mentioned.''

It is at this point, where the Arch of Titus now stands, and where the ancient principal
entrance to the Palatine palace was, that the hill, which on the northern and western sides
is steep, runs out in a gradually sloping ridge towards the Esquiline. On one side of this
ridge the ground sinks towards the Forum, and on the other towards the valley of the
Coliseum. The level of the pavement under the Arch of Titus is fifty-three feet above
the ancient pavement of the Forum. It seems most probable that this outl}-ing part

of the Palatine was that to which the name Velia was appropriated. F"or

Dionysius says that the shrine of the Penates was not far from the Forum,
and stood upon the shorter road by which the Carinse was reached from thence." Now
we know that the Carins adjoined the Subura,^ and was a district on the slope of
the Esquiline.

1 Atm. dell' Inst. 1862, p. 225 ; 1S65, p. 348. de.xtram " (from the Via Sacra) : "porta est ait ista

- Livy, i. 12, 41, X. 36 ; Tac. Ann. x. 41 ; Re- Palati. Hie Stator, hoc primum condita Roma loco

gionar. x. est." Ov. Trist. iii. i. 31. ■* Livy, i. 41.

' Li\7, i. 41 ; Plut. Cic. 16 ; Ov. Fast. vi. 793 ; = Chap, vi p. 99. ^ Chap. iii. p. 32.

Schwegler, Rom. Gesch. i. p. 463. " Inde petens ' Dionys. i. 68. * \'arro, L. L. v. S.

The Palatine, Gertnabis, and Velia. i6

The road from the Forum to the Carinae must therefore have crossed the raised ground
in question, and it is upon this raised ground that we must place the Chapel of the
Penates. Dionysius adds that the place where the chapel stood was called
HypeL-ea, a name which points probably to the Velia. But we have also the ^j^

most direct evidence that the Chapel of the Penates was on the Velia, for Ptnniium.
Varro, Livy, Solinus, and the Monumentum Ancyranum all place it there.^

Further, the Velia was separate from the Palatine, for Varro places it in the fourth
region of Servius, as an appendage of the Palatine, which it could not be called if it were,
as the oldest and also the most recent topographers suppose, an integral part of that hill.-
A difficulty has been found in the assumption that this was the position of the Chapel of
the Penates, from the fact that Solinus identifies the spot on which the chapel stood with
the house of Tullus Hostilius, while Cicero says that the house of Publicola
was built on the place where the house of Tullus had stood, and adds that it Houses of
overlooked the Forum, which it could hardly be said to have done if situate on PubUcoia.
the Velia.* It is evident that either some confusion must have crept in here,
which in the case of a writer like Solinus is not surprising, or that an exact topographical
accuracy must not be expected. At all events, this difficulty is not sufficient to counter-
balance the proof as to the position of the Velia drawn from the passages previously quoted.
The vestibule of the Church of S. Cosma e Damiano, next to the Temple of Anto-
ninus and Faustina, is identified by most recent topographers with the Chapel of the
Penates. It is a round building, the ancient door of which was turned more towards the
Forum than the present. The exterior ornamental work of the temple has disappeared,
and only the brickwork of the walls, and perhaps the bronze doors and the door-frame,
which are very beautifully executed, formed a part of the ancient edifice. The position of
this building answers tolerably well to the description given by Dionysius of the situation
of the Chapel of the Penates, for it lies exactly upon the line which a road direct from the
Forum to the Carinse must have taken. It seems somewhat doubtful, however, whether
the situation thus assigned to the temple be not too near the Forum. The old designation,
" Temple of Romulus," applied by most Italian topographers to this temple, is certainly
mistaken, and probably refers to some restoration of the temple by Romulus, son of
Maxentius, a record of which may have been preserved in an inscription, and have given
rise to the error of supposing that the temple was dedicated to Romulus.*

In the Church of S. Cosma e Damiano were found the fragments of the marble
plan of the city of Rome, which are now fixed upon the walls of the staircase in the
Capitoline Museum. The fragments of this plan had been used in the repair
of the walls, and were discovered in the time of Pope Pius IV., about ' "r epanoj

' '- the city.

1560, in the possession of a person named Torquato, who lived behind the
basilica. A copy of them was drawn by Dosio, an architect, and a hundred years after-
wards a description of them was first published in 1673 ^Y Bcllori ; but it is doubtful
whether he had all the actual fragments which he de.scribes, or took in some cases the
authority of others who had previously made drawings of them. Certain it is that, during

' Varro, L. L. v. 8, § 54 ; Livy, xlv. 16 ; Solin. i. ■* See Reber's Ruinen Roms, pp. 389, 390. Nibby,

22 ; .Mon. Ancyr. tab. iv. Roma nell' .Anno 1838, parte ii. Antica, p. 710, quotes

2 Varro, L. L. v. 8. a Vatican -MS. of the sixteenth century assigning the

» .Solin. i. 22 ; Cic. Dc Rep. ii. 31; Livy, ii. 7. erection of this temple tQ Constantine.

V 2

164 The Palatine, Gerniahis, and Velia.

their transfer from one place to another, too many of the original pieces of this precious
marble plan were lost. The fragments on the Capitoline staircase which have been lost
and are restored from Bellori's description are distinguished from the original pieces by
asterisks.^ The plan was not found in the round temple, but near it or behind it, and was
probably brought there from the neighbouring Temple of Venus and Rome. In the
verification of the sites of the Basilica Julia, the Basilica Ulpia, and the Theatres of Pompey
and Marcellus the importance of this plan has been very great, and a more accurate inves-
tigation might perhaps deduce other results from it. We have no knowledge of any
other buildings which stood upon the Velia previous to Nero's time.

A statue of a female figure on horseback is mentioned by Pliny as having been placed
near the Temple of Jupiter Stator, but whether it represented Cljelia, the preserver of the
hostages in the Etruscan war, or Valeria, daughter of Publicola, is uncertain.- Nero's
enormous extension of the Palatine buildings must have occupied a great part of the
Velia. He united the gardens of Maecenas upon the Esquiline with the palace of the
Palatine by a colossal range of porticoes and halls called the Domus Transitoria, which
occupied not only the southern slope of the Velia, but also the site of the Coliseum and its
surroundings. This was burnt down in the great Neronian fire in A.D. 65,^
which began in the valley of the Circus, and devastated the whole of that
valley, and the adjoining slopes of the Palatine, Cffilian, Aventine, and Capitoline hills.
It then spread along the sides of the Palatine to the Velia, and was only stopped on
the sixth day, when it had reached the Esquiline, by the demolition of great masses of
buildings. Three whole regions of the city were completely devastated, and seven more
out of the fourteen were considerably injured.'' The Temple of Jupiter Stator, the Regia,
the Temple of Vesta, and the Chapel of the Penates, besides the Domus Transitoria,
were all destroyed in this fire.

Nero took advantage of the wide and open gap made by the fire to enlarge his

domains, and upon the slopes of the Palatine, Velia, Caelian, and Esquiline he built

the celebrated Golden Palace, a residence, says Tacitus, not so wonderful for

Domus Aitrca. . , 1 , , • , , - • 1 1 • 1 i 1 r

the precious stones and gold lavished upon it, with which the luxury of
the times had become familiar, as for the amount of open unoccupied space, the parks,
and lakes, and. woods, which it comprehended.^ The ground plan of this Golden Palace
of Nero cannot be laid down with any accuracy, since the Flavian Emperors, Vespasian
and Titus, swept the whole away, and replaced it with a totally different set of buildings,
the ruins of which now occupy the ground. We can only conjecture that the entrance
court was upon the Velia, with its front towards the Forum, and that it covered the

ground where the foundations of the Temple of Venus and Rome and the
j^'^^^ Convent of S. Francesca Romana now stand ; and that the celebrated Colossus

of Nero stood originally upon or near the Conventual Church.

^ Fea, Miscell. i. p. 3 ; Gamucci, Antichita, p. 33. S. Cosma c Damiano. Sec papers rc.^d by Mr.

See Monatsbericht der preussischen Akademie, Parker at the Archseol. Society's meeting at Lan-

Berlin, 1867, p. 526, and Note A at the end of Part II. caster, 1868, and Archseologia of London Soc. of

of this chapter. Dosio's drawings are in the Vatican Antiq. vol. xlii. part i, p. 11.

Library, Cod. 3439. They came from the library - Plin. Nat. Hist, xx.xiv. 6, 13 ; Dionys. v. 35.

of Fulvio Orsino. Some fragments are said to have ^ Suet. Nero, 31 ; Tac. Ann. xv. 39.

been lately discovered (Aug. 186S) by the monks of * Tac. Ann. xv. 40. '" Ibid. xv. 42.

The Palatine, Gerftiahis, and I'elia. 16^

This colossal statue was placed in the vestibule of Nero's palace. It was 120 feet
high, according to Suetonius, and represented Nero himself^ The material was bronze,
and the artist was one Zenodorus, who had become famous in Gaul by makin" a
_ colossal statue of Mercury for the Arvernians. Pliny states that the likeness to Nero
was very wonderful, but deplores the loss of the taste for bronze statuary which it
exhibited, since the artist sought to produce an effect by the addition of gold and silver
ornamentation.^ Vespasian moved the enormous mass, probably at the time when he built
his Temple of Peace, and placed it on the Sacred Way;^ and Hadrian again removed
it to make room for the Temple of Venus and Rome, and placed it to the north of
the Coliseum, where the pedestal still remains, a massive block of brickwork about three
feet high, doubtless formerly cased with marble.* That it actually stood upon this
pedestal is proved by a coin of Alexander Severus, representing the Coliseum with the
Colossus close to it.° After Nero's death it had been changed into a statue of the Sun,
and the head adorned with a diadem of rays each twenty-two feet in length." Commodus
took the head off, and replaced it by a representation of his own in the character of
Hercules, at the same time putting a club into the statue's hand and bronze lions at
its feet. After his death it was restored to its previous state, and continued standing till
the sixth century, when it was probably destroyed by the Goths under Totila, A.D. S46."

The vestibule in which this tower-like statue at first stood was the entrance-hall to an
enormous series of buildings and gardens, comprehending, according to Suetonius, three
cloisters of a mile in length, a lake of great extent, surrounded with buildings intended to
imitate cities, tracts of land covered with crops, vineyards, pastures, and groves, and filled
with cattle and wild game of various kinds. Gold and gems were lavished in the decora-
tions of the interior, and the banqueting-halls were so contrived that flowers and perfumes
could be sprinkled on the guests as they reclined at table. The principal hall was hemi-
spherical, and its walls revolved, representing day and night, like the heavens. Baths
provided with mineral and sea water were also built.^

After the fall of Nero subsequent Emperors cleared the Velia and the adjoining valley
of the Coliseum, and made them the sites of those magnificent structures which are among
the most wonderful relics of antiquity. Of these the first was the Forum and Temple
of Peace, built by Vespasian after the conquest of Jerusalem, when he celebrated his
grand triumph, and when his empire was firmly established. The position and contents
of this forum and temple have been already described," and we may therefore
pass on to the building which stood immediately to the south of it, the 7<^'»pleo/

Peace.

Basilica of Constantine. The ruins of this basilica form the most conspicuous

object in the neighbourhood of the Forum, and were long mistaken for the "■" "^^ y

J ° > & Constantine.

remains of the Temple of Peace. Their shape, however, is such as suffi-
ciently to refute the opinion that they belonged to the temple. The proof that they are
a part of Constantine's basilica, which was first given by Nibby, is as follows. The plan of

' Suet. Nero, 31. - Plin. Nat. Hist, xxxiv. 7, 18. " Dion Cass. Ixxii. 22; Hist. Aug. Comm. 17;

' Dion Cass. \s.\\. 15 ; Hier. Chron. Rone. i. 439 ; Herodian i. 15 ; Chron. Rone. 465, 205.

Suet. Vesp. 18. ■* Hist. Aug. Hadr. 19. * Suet. Nero, 81. The CKnatio rotunda was splieri-

° Eckhel, N. V. par. ii. torn. vii. p. 271 ; Mart. De cal, and the floor divided it into two equal hemi-

Spect. ii. 3. spheres. The walls then revolved by machinery,

^ Cur. Urb. Reg. iv. ; Plin. xx.xiv. 7, 18 ; Mart. i. so as to present a different appearance every hour.

70, 6. " Chap. \ ii. p. 139.

1 66

The Palatine, Germahis, and Velia.

the foundations which have been excavated is that of a basihca, and not of a temple, and
the brickwork,, which resembles the masonry of the Baths of Diocletian, plainly belongs
to a later date than that of Vespasian. The marble carving also, and the ornamentation
of the few corbels which remain, bear indications of the decline of art which we know
to have taken place at the era of Constantine. Further, a coin was found in 1828, sticking
in a fragment of the ruin which had lately fallen, with the head and name of Maxentius
upon it. The building therefore, unless this coin was found in a repaired part, which
is not at all probable, cannot be earlier than Maxentius, the rival of Constantine.^ Now
the basilica called by the name of Constantine was begun by Maxentius and finished by

.iSILICL OF CONbTANTIiNE.

Constantine,- and we learn with regard to its position that it was next to the Temple of
Antoninus and Faustina,^ and on the site of the spice warehouses built by Domitian.*
Dion Cassius, in describing the progress of the fire in the reign of Commodus, which
destroyed these warehouses, says that it spread from the Forum Pacis across to the
Palatine.' Hence it may be inferred that the warehouses lay between the Forum Pacis
and the Palatine, and therefore upon the Velia.

The three gigantic arches now standing formed the roof of the eastern aisle of the
basilica, which consisted, as the foundations clearly show, of a central nave and two side
aisles. The arches are 80 feet high and 68 feet in breadth. Their interior is ornamented
with octagonal coffers, containing central rosettes, and the interspaces are relieved by
rhomboidal panel-work. The two side arches have their backs walled up, with six arched

1 Nibby. Roma nell' .-Xrino 1S3S. parte ii. Antica,
pp. 246—249.

- Aur. Vict. Ca;s. 40, 26.
■" Rone. Chron. p. 243.

' Curios. Reg. iv.

^ Dion Cass, l.xxii. 24.

Tlic Palatine, Gcni/ahts, and Vclia. 167

windows in cacli wall. At the back of tlic central arch is a semicircular tribune, with
niches for statues, and a central pedestal. Some of the marble ornaments of this tribune
are still left, and show in their rude execution evidence of the decline of art under
Constantine. The tribune seems not to have been open towards the interior of the
building, as the remains of two piers of brickwork can be plainh' seen in a line with
the back walls of the side arches, showing that a screen separated it from the space
immediately beneath the arch.

In front of the three great arches can be plainly seen the spring of the enormous
vaulted roof which covered the central nave of the building. The nave must have been
at least 80 feet wide and 1 1 5 feet high. The southern aisle was of the same size and
construction as the northern, but in place of the tribune it had a grand entrance on the
side towards the Palatine. A flight of steps, and a portico with porphyry columns,
two of which were found on the spot and are now in the Conservators' Palace, formed the
approach to the entrance.

At the western end of the central nave was a tribune, the ruins of which are now
occupied by a warehouse, and at the eastern end an entrance in three divisions opened
into the road which ran at the back of the Temple of Venus and Rome. In front
of this entrance the foundations show' that there was a kind of verandah or vestibule
similar to that found in many Christian basilicas, as at S. Maria Maggiore and S. Giovanni
in Laterano. It has been supposed that this is the part of a basilica to which Vitruvius
has gi\-en the name of chalcidicum. It certainly answers to the rule he gives for the
introduction of chalcidica, when he says that " if the space to be occupied be too long for
the basilica, chalcidica can be added at the end." ^ A w^hite marble column, the onh'
relic of the former magnificence of the basilica, was left standing at the beginning of the
.seventeenth century in the central na\e, but was removed by Paul \'., and placed in
front of S. Maria Maggiore.-

On the summit of the rising ground of the Velia, and marking the spot called the
Summa Sacra Via, stands the Arch of Titus, small in comparison with the huge relics of
the Basilica of Constantine, but preserving more of historical and artistic

Aixh of Tittts.

niterest than any other relic of Imperial Rome. Only the central part of
the original building, which was built of pentelic marble, remains, and the restorations are
easily distinguishable from it, as they are executed in travertine. The height is 49 feet
and the breadth 42 feet.

Originall}' there were two Corinthian fluted columns on each side of both faces of the
arch, the two inner of which are now left, the outer being modern. Over the arch are two
bas-reliefs of Victory, which, though much injured, are still remarkable for the beauty of
their execution. On the keystone of the side towards the Coliseum is the figure of Rome,
and on the other side Fortune with a cornucopia. The most interesting parts of the arch
have fortunately been preserved by their position in the interior. On each side is a
magnificent alto-relievo, representing the triumphal procession of Titus after the capture
of Jerusalem. That on the south side shows a number of persons carrying the spoils of
t!ie Jewish Temple in triumph. The golden candlestick and the golden table for shcw-
bread, with two tru'npets, are clearly recognisable, and arc all the more valuable from the

' Vitriiv. V.I. - Xibby, Roma nell' Anno 183S, parte ii. .Niilica, p. 240.

i68

TJic Palatine, Gcriualiis, and J 'clia.

testimony of Joscphus that these, among the other utensils of the Temple, were deposited
in Vespasian's Temple of Peace.^ The procession is represented as just about to march
under a triumphal arch.

ARCH OF TITUS. (Triumphal Car and Procession.

On the north side the relief represents the Emperor in his triumphal car drawn h)'
four horses, and surrounded by his guards and suite. Victory is holding a crown over his
head, and the goddess Roma guiding the reins.

' Jos. Ecll. Jiid. vii. 5, 7.

Tlic Pirliifiiic\ Gcrmahts, and I 'clia.

169

The interior of the arch is ornamented with richly-car\-ed rosettes and coffers; and
upon the crown is a representation of the apotheosis of the Emperor, who is being
carried up to heaven astride, in a rather undignified way, upon an eagle's back. A small
part only of the original entablature on the side towards the Coliseum is left. On the
frieze the remains of a bas-relief may be traced, apparently representing a sacrificial
procession. Over this the attica, with the exception of the inscription, is modern. We
learn from the title " Divus " given to Titus in the inscription, as well as from the apotheosis
represented under the archway, that the arch was erected after the Emperor's death ; and
it has been with much probability assigned to the first year of Domitian's reign, when the
decree for the deification of the late Emperor would most naturally be passed.

We learn from an inscription preserved by the anonymous traveller of Einsiedlen, and
printed in Gruter, and also in Orelli's collection,^ that another arch had been previously
erected in the Circus in honour of Titus's triumph over the Jews. The date of this arch is
shown by the inscription to have been A.D. 80, ten years after the capture of Jerusalem,
when Titus celebrated the completion of the Coliseum and of his baths by a great festival.

The arch on the Velia was restored to its present condition in 1822. It had been made
use of during the Middle Ages by the Frangipani, for purposes of fortification, like so many
other ancient buildings in Rome. A tower had been built upon it, and much damage done
to the masonry, so that an entire rebuilding was necessary.

Almost the whole of the southern slope of the Velia towards the Coliseum was occu-
pied by the spacious temple, with its court, built by Hadrian in honour of Venus and Roma.
Though great part of the site is now occupied by the Church of S. Francesca
Romana, enough remains outside its walls to show the shape and characteristics Tempk of

,,.,,. I'cniis and

of the temple very plainly. The substructions, of which the mner core only, /',„«</.
consisting of rubble work, is left, were originally cased with travertine blocks.
They form an enormous terrace, 180 yards long and no broad, round which a portico
with grey granite columns ran. The temple itself stood on a basement raised four or five
feet higher, and was of a somewhat peculiar construction, having a double cella, of which
the principal part is still standing. It appears from the ruins that there were semi-
circular apses at the end of each cella, which stood back to back, the entrance of one cella
facing towards the Forum, and that of the other towards the Coliseum.'- The roofs of the
tribunes are ornamented with large square coffers, and were probably originally gilded;
the side walls of the cellar have niches for statues in them, and the marble casing which
covered them was of the richest kind.'*

That these substructions belonged to the Temple of Venus and Roma is certain from
the description given by Dion Cassius, who speaks of it as near the Sacra \'ia and close to
the Coliseum/ and also from the assertion of Spartianus, that it stood upon the place
formerly occupied by the Colossus of Nero, in the vestibule of the Domus Aurea.* On the
bricks of part of the original building have been found the stamps of the Consulships of
Apronianus and P.-etinus, 123 a.d. and Ser\'ianus III. and Varus, 134, A.D." According to

I Gruter, p. ccxliv. 6 ; OrcUi, vol. i. 759. I'art II. of this chapter.

' Prudent. Contr. Symm. i. 214; Claud, dc Laud. ■■ iJion Cass, l.xix. 4. '■• Spart. Hadr. ig.

Stil. ii. 227. " Nibby. Roma nell' Anno 1838, part ii. pp. 725,

' Fea, Miscell. p. 85, and Note A at the end of 732.

170

The Palatine, Gcrnialus, and I'clia.

the chronologers it was built in A.D. 135.^ Dion connects it with the fate of the celebrated
architect of Trajan's Forum, Apollodorus of Damascus, to whom Hadrian, proud of his
new design, sent a sketch of the intended temple. Apollodorus, so far from admiring,
criticised the plans most severely, remarking that the temple was not sufficiently lofty, that
it was only fit to serve as a machine-room for the mechanical contrivances used in the
Coliseum, and that if the colossal images of the goddesses, which Hadrian had placed in a
sitting position in the cellx, wished to stand up and go out, they would not find the build-
ing high enough. Hadrian was so enraged at the architect's remarks, that he immediately
ordered him to be put to death. -

RUI.NS OF THE TE.MI'LE l)F VEXL'S AND ROMA, AM) META SUDAN'S.

The completion and dedication of the temple were probably not accomplished before
the time of Antoninus Pius.^ It was afterwards adorned by the Senate with two silver
statues of Marcus Aurelius and Faustina, and an altar, upon which every newly-married
pair in Rome were expected to offer sacrifice.* The subsequent history of this temple can
be traced with more certainty than that of most others. In the reign of Ma.xcntius it was
burnt down, and was restored and dedicated by Constintine, to which restoration the

1 Chron. Rone. i. 455 ; ii. 201. temple for the machines used in the Coliseum. He

- Braun, in the Ann. dclT Inst. 1854, p. 70, conjee- remarl:s that the temple is placed e.xactly on the line

turcs that the Emperor followed the hint of Apol- of the longer a.xis of the Coliseum.

lodorus, and made vaults under the terrace of the * Nardini, vol. i. 296 ,seq

The Palatine, Germalus, and l^c/ia. i - \

extant ruins of the walls, the stucco work, and fragments of carved work belong.' In the
reign of Constantine, A.D. 356, it was pointed out as one of the greatest buildings in Rome,
and seems at that time to have been called the Temple of the City.- Pope Honorius I.
stripped the bronze tiles from the roof, in order to place them on the Basilica of St. Peter,
whence they were taken in 846 b\' the Saracens.-' Its final destruction was brought about,
as in so many other cases, by the plundering hands of the Romans themselves, who, in
the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, set up limekilns near the Arch of Titus, and, after
burning the marbles into lime, stripped off the travertine and peperino from the basement,
and left it a bare and unsightly core of rough masonry.*

Close to the south-west corner of this mass of substructions is to be seen a conical
column of brickwork, about thirty feet high, now called the Meta Sudans.^ A large breach
en the side towards the Coliseum shows that the centre was pierced with a
perpendicular pipe, and the exterior exhibits traces 01 having been di\'idcd
into three stages or ledges. This conical building stood in the centre of a circular basin,
the rim of which has been distinctly traced and restored. The shape would of itself point
to the purpose which the building served, even if this were not rendered certain by the
discovery of a conduit, which descends to it from the neighbouring height of the Esquiline.''
The name Meta Sudans is derived partly from the conical shape, resembling the mcta of a
circus, and partly from the water which trickled down its sides. The earliest mention
w'e have of the Meta Sudans is in Seneca," and it must therefore have been built by Nero
in his pleasure grounds. It seems to have been subsequently destroyed, as it does not
appear upon the coins of Titus which represent the Coliseum ; but the chronologers
record that it was rebuilt by Domitian in the year 95, and a representation of it is
found upon the coins of Alexander Severus.*

At the entrance of the \'ia di S. Gregorio, close to the Mcta Sudans, stands the Arch of
Constantine, the most completely preserved of all ancient Roman buildings. The name of
Constantine, revered by subsequent ages as the first nominally Christian
Emperor, seems to have defended the archway from the barbarous spoliation „ 'V"!- ■
which other monuments of ancient Rome have undergone. Perhaps the most
remarkable feature of this arch is the proof it gives of the decline of art in the fourth
century. A large proportion of the reliefs with which it is ornamented have been
removed from some older building, probably the arch which formed the entrance to
Trajan's Forum,'' and those which are of Constantine's date show a coarse and harsh st}'le
of execution, in lamentable contrast with tlie flowing and delicate lines of the more
ancient work.

Among the sculptures which belong to the earlier and better period are the large reliefs
under the central arch, and those which are placed on either end of the attica. These
four were originally parts of a larger relief, which has been sawn into four equal pieces for
the purpose of adorning Constantine's Arch. The order in which they stood in the original
design has been pointed out by Bellori.'" The first part is that now placed on the inside

' Chron. Rone. p. 248 ; .Aur. \'ict. Cas. 26. 4a ^ Seneca, Ep. lib. vi. Ep. 4 (56).

' Amm. Marccll. xvi. 10. * Eckhcl, Vet. Num. P. ii. vol. vi. p. 357, vol. vii.

' .Anast. \'it. Hon. p. 46 ; Muratori, Rer. It. Scr. i. p. 270 ; Chron. Rone. ii. 197, 243.
p. ii. p. 390. * See Nardini, Inc. cit. " Gibbon, chap. xi\-. ; sec ch. vii. p. 143.

° Curios. L'rb.Reg. iv. " Fca, Misc. p. 160, No.Si. '" Bcllori, \'et. Arc. Aug. pi. 42—45.

Z 2

1J2 riw Palatine, Genual us, and I'clia.

of the middle archway towards the CoHseum, the second stands on the side of the attica
towards the C;tHan, the third on the inside of the middle archway towards the Palatine,
and the fourth upon the side of tlie attica towards the Palatine. When united they repre-
sented Trajan crowned by Victory, with the goddess Roma standing near, and a battle
between Dacians and Romans ending in the defeat and submission of the barbarian army.
The dress of the Roman soldiers and of the Dacians is similar to that represented on
Trajan's Column, and quite diflercnt from the Roman military habit in the age of Con-

.\RCH OF CONSTANTINE, SOUTH SIDK.

stantine. Besides these four rectangular reliefs, the eight circular sculptures which stand
over the smaller archways belong to the time of Trajan. They represent hunting scenes
and sacrificial ceremonies. One of them, the second from the left upon the side towards
the Coliseum, has a remarkable figure of the Emperor, with a nimbus encircling his head,
exactly similar to those round the heads of modern saints.

The eight large reliefs upon the attica over the side archways are also of the work-
manship of Trajan's time, and commemorate some of the exploits of that Emperor, among
which mav be mentioned the construction of a road through the Pontine marshes, repre-

The Palatine, Germahis, and Telia. ij3

sented upon the second relief from the left on the side of the attica towards the Coliseum.'
The other rehefs upon the sides of the attica represent interviews of Trajan with the
barbarian princes, and the usual sacrifice of the Suovetaurilia, so frequently depicted
on the reliefs of the column of that Emperor.

The remainder of the sculptures belong to the Constantinian era, and contain, viewed
as works of art, nothing worth attention. One of them on the side next to the Coliseum is,
however, of great interest to the antiquarian, as it represents the Rostra of the later Empire,
and the northern end of the Forum with the Arches of Severus and Tiberius, and the facade
of the Basilica Julia ;' and another on the side towards the Via di S. Gregorio, representing
the victory of Constantine over Maxentius at the Mihian bridge, is historically valuable.

The figures which stand in front of the attica wear the Dacian costume, and have
been remo\-ed from some one of Trajan's buildings.^ Upon the sides of the central
archway can be still seen the traces of nails which fastened some Roman ensigns to the
stones. Similar traces of nails are to be seen upon the Arch of Severus.*

The inscriptions over the smaller arches refer to the Decennalia, or Vicennalia, a festival
celebrated, after the time of Augustus, every tenth year of an Emperor's reign, when he
was supposed to have the Imperium conferred upon him afresh." The meaning of the
expressions, " Votis X, Votis XX," seems to be, that these inscriptions were put up on
the vota, or day when vows were made for the Emperor's safety, at the beginning of the
tenth and twentieth years of his reign. This is not an uncommon signification of the
word 7'ota in later Latin. The day which was usually called vofa was cither the first or
third of January, and the custom of offering these vows was retained long after Christianity
had been nominally made the State religion, so that it is not surprising to find it alluded
to on Constantine's Arch." The words on the other side of the arch, " SIC X Sic XX,"
may be interpreted as the form of words used in making vows for the Emperor, " Sic X
annos regnet. Sic XX annos regnet."

The longer inscription, which is cut upon the attica on both sides, shows that the arch
was erected in honour of the victory of Constantine over Maxentius, and the union of the
Empire under one sovereign. It is not, however, certain that the arch was built in the
first year of Constantine's sole reign, for not only do the words instiuctu Divinitatis —
" by inspiration of the Deity " — seem to indicate a more decided leaning to Christianity
than Constantine showed at the beginning of his reign, but the title of Maximus, which
is found in the inscription, does not occur on the coins of Constantine before the tenth
year of his reign.

The solid contents of this arch, as may be seen by ascending the staircase, which is
entered by a door at some height from the ground at the end nearest the Palatine hill,
are mainly composed of pieces of marble taken from other buildings ; " and it has even
been suspected that the plan itself of the arch, which in beauty of proportion exceeds
the Arch of Severus, was borrowed, together with the materials, from Trajan's Arch or
some older building now destroyed.

' Dion Cass. Xiph. Ixviii. 15. A reclining figure ■" See chap. vi. p. 120.

with a wheel represents the road, and other figures " Dion Cass. liii. 13 ; Hist. Aug. 184, 6.

the surveyors, one of which is perhaps Apollodorus, ° See Cas.iubon's note on Spartian. Hist. Aug.

the famous Greek architect of D.iinascus. p. 40, b, c.

- Seechap. vi. p. 1 15. ^ See chap. vii. pp. 143, 149. " Beschrcibung Roms, vol. iii. part i. p. 314.

I 74 The Palatine, Gennahis, and I elia.

Returning now to the north-eastern part of the Palatine, which adjoins the Velia, we

find a long row of arched substructions running along the edge of the hill parallel to

the Sacra Via. These may have belonged to the Domus Aurea of Nero,

Substructions ]-,^,(. tjigre is not the least indication of their age or destination. There

on the south- -i i i i i i i

east side of hill. Seem to be three different levels, or terraces, both here and along the south-
eastern side of the hill : one nearly level with the modern road, a second
about thirty feet higher, and a third on the crown of the hill. From the Arch of Titus a
narrow road now leads to the Church of S. Sebastian and the Convent of S. Bonaventura,
and on the left of this are some small brick chambers, which belonged to the same part
of the palace as the substructions just mentioned.

The road also leads to the Villa Mills, now a French nunnery, and therefore inaccessible
to antiquarian researches. The ruins upon which the villa stands were explored in 1777
by the then owner, a Frenchman named Rancoureil, and some plans and a few sketches
taken. From these it may be gathered that the shape of the ruins is that of a court
surrounded with buildings of two stories, and with a portico. Unfortiyiately, the greater
part of these remains have been again covered with rubbish, and made the foundation
of the present villa.^ Cav. Rosa and other topographers place the palace

Pa/ace of ^^ Augustus here, inferring from the similarity of the brickwork of these ruins

Augustus. a o ^

in the Villa Mills to that of the Pantheon that these must belong to the era
of Augustus. But this argument, in the absence of all other proof, is not by any means
conclusive, as the evidence of style in masonry is vague, and cannot be trusted to define
the date of a building with even tolerable exactness. Reber opposes to the testimony
of the brickwork that of the catalogue given by the Notitia, in which the Palace of
Augustus is placed between the Casa Romuli and the Temple of Jupiter Stator, and
therefore on the side of the hill towards the Capitol. But as no topographical order is
uniformly followed by the Notitia, this also fails to giv^e us any real indication.

A passage of Suetonius, in which it is related that Augustus used to sur\-ey the
games in the Circus from the apartments of his friends and freedmen, is often quoted to
show that the palace could not have been on the site of the Villa Mills, since Augustus
might then have seen the races from his own windows.- This is, however, a very negative
indication at the best, and it is not at all certain that the ccenacula mentioned in this
passage may not have been actually rooms built at the edge of the Circus itself for the
express purpose of seeing the games. We are absolutely without any means of deter-
mining the position of Augustus's palace with any accuracy. It is known from Suetonius
and Dion Cassius that he first lived at a place near the Forum, called Scalae Anulariae,
that he afterwards occupied the house which was before in the possession of Hortensius,
and that when it was struck by lightning, he consecrated the spot to Apollo, and bought
some neighbouring buildings for his residence. At a subsequent time he gave this
residence to the nation for the transaction of public business.' It seems probable,
therefore, that the house was near the Forum, or his donation would not have been of
much value ; and it may possibly have been where Becker places it, upon that side of the

' Guattani, Monumenti, pp. I — 7, 83—87, &c. See ^ Suet. Aug. 72 ; Veil. Pat. ii. 81 ; Dion Cass. xlix.

Note B at the end of Part II. of this chapter. 15, liv. 27, Iv. 12.

= Suet. Aug. 4;.

The Palatine, Gennalus, and I'elia. i - r

hill which slopes towards the Forum. The words of Ovid, in his " Tristia," where his
book is conducted to the Palace of Augustus, seem certainly to imply that it was not
far from the old gate of the Palatine, which, as we know, stood near the Arch of Titus
and the Temple of Vesta.' It is not, therefore, improbable that it stood upon the site
afterwards occupied by the atrium of the larger palace, the ground plan of which has
been lately discovered by the French e.xca\ators.

At the same time, and as a part of his palace, Augustus built a new Temple of Vesta.
This temple must have been separate from the older temple on the side of the Forum.
It was dedicated, according to the "Fasti Prasnestini," in the year 12 li.c.'
But the building attached to the new palace which attracted most attention T^'"'pl':of

^ . ^ Vata.

was the Temple of Apollo.^ This was either first built or very much
enlarged after the battle of Actium, in pursuance of a vow made to Apollo jT//,
by Augustus on that occasion. It was dedicated in the \-ear 28 B.C., four
years after the battle.* Hence we find Apollo called Actius, Actiacus, and Navalis, by the
Augustan poets.-^ The stone used in this temple, which was built with great magnificence,
was the marble of Luna" (Carrara), and it was surrounded, like the temples of the Imperial
Fora, and the Temple of Venus and Roma, with a cloister. A statue of Apollo stood
in it, between those of Latona and Diana ; and it contained also statues of Augustus
himself, and of the Muses ; and on the summit was a group representing the Sun-god
in his chariot." Other treasures of art mentioned by Pliny as contained in this temple
were a collection of gems presented by Marcellus, the nephew of Augustus, and a magni-
ficent stand for lamps in the shape of a bronze tree, from the branches of which the
lamps were hung. The Sibylline books were also kept therc.^

The cloisters which surrounded the temple united it with the famous Greek and Latin
Librar)-. The Senate was frequently summoned to meet in the temple precincts. Ovid
describes these as being behind the palace to any one coming from the
Porta Palatii, and they must therefore probably have been about the middle
of the hill.'-" The magnificence of the interior of the colonnades has been described by
the poets and historians of the time with great admiration. Pillars of giallo antico
supported the roof, and between them stood hundreds of statues. Tacitus mentions
those of the famous orators of Rome, Ovid and Propcrtius speak of statues of the
fifty Danaides and fifty sons of .^gyptus, while Pliny mentions a colossal statue of
Apollo in bronze, the work of a Tuscan artist, placed in the Library.'" The memory of
some of the officials connected with this library has been preserved in inscriptions, and
from them we may gather that it had a regularly-organized staff of transcribers and
curators."

' Ov. Trist. iii. i. ' Plin. Nat. Hist, xxxiv. 3, 8. 14, xx.wii. t. 5, 11 ;

' Ov. Fast. iv. 949 ; Met. xv. 864 ; Fast. Pran. iv. .Suet. Aug. 31 ; Amm. Marc, xxiii. 3.

Kal. Mai., Merkel ; ( )v. Fast. xlix. » Dion Cass. liii. i ; Tac. Ann. ii. 37 ; Hon Ep. i.

^ Suet. Aug. 29 ; Mon. Ancyr. Tab. iv. Zumpt. 3, l^ ; Juv. i. 128 ; Ov. Trist. iii. i, 61.

* Dion. Cass. liii. i. 10 Propert. ii. 31, 3 ; Ov. Trist. loc. cit. ; Ars. Am. i.

• .€n. viii. 704; Propert. v. 6, 67, v. i, 3 ; Ov. Met. 73 ; Amor. ii. 2, 4 ; Scliol. ad Pcrs. ii. 56 ; Tac. loc.
^'■i- 7^-^ ° Serv. Ad ^n, viii. 720. cit. ; Plin. Nat. Hist. vii. § 210, xxxiv. 7, 18.

' Propert. iii. 29; Plin. Nat. Hist, xxxiv. 7, J8; • " See Gr;tv. Thcs. vol. iii. p. 305; Gruter, Inscr.
Juv. vii. 37 ; Mart. xii. 3, 9 ; Schol. ad Hor. Ep. i. 3, 576, 9, 577, 8, 578, 5 ; Orell. 40. 41.
17 ; Serv. Ad Eel. iv. 10.

1 76 The Palatine, Germabis, and Velia.

The Mundus, or Roma Ouadrata, which commemorated the ceremonies observed at
the definition of tJie pomoerium, was near the Temple of Apollo, and stood

Roma Ouadrata. . , , , » , , - . . ,11 1 • . 1

At^Tn '" ^ ^P^*- '^^^^^'^ Area Apolhms, probably an open space nearly m the centre

of the Palatine hill.i
The whole of this central part of the hill is buried in ruins thirty or forty feet
deep, and the excavations hitherto carried on have not been sufficient to reveal to
us the original shape of the hill, or to disentangle the different strata of rubbish
belonging to more or less remote eras which lie one above the other in confused masses.
The most important result of the latest researches, conducted at the expense of the
Emperor Napoleon III., is the further exploration of the ground plan of an extensive
and magnificent range of buildings, reaching from the point at which we have placed the
old gate of the Palatine across the hill in a direction nearly south-west to the edge of
the hill over the Circus Maximus.- These buildings show by their perfect symmetry and
correspondence in all parts that they were planned and erected at the same time without
deviation or subsequent addition.^ Cav. Rosa has shown strong reasons for assigning
them to the era of the Flavian Emperors. The style of the brickwork is that of the
Flavian period ; the stamps of some of the bricks contain the name of Domitian, and
we know from Plutarch, Martial, and Statius that a splendid palace for public use was
finished in Domitian's reign.*

No separate name was attached to this edifice, but, in allusion to its purpose, it seems

to have been called .Edes Publics,^ .'Edes Aulicae, yEdes Imperatorije." and

is probably indicated by the expression " Sedes Imperii Romani " in the

Catalogues of the Regionarii.^ These names were given from motives of policy similar

to those which induced Augustus to throw open his palace.*

The palace of Augustus had probably been burnt, or at least much damaged, by the
fire in Nero's reign, and it is not unlikely that these public halls were built to replace
it, and as a pledge that the government of Augustus was to be restored, and the Emperor
once more to live as the father of his country. No more convenient position could be
fixed upon, nor any which would appeal more strongly to the feelings of the nation than
this. It adjoined the Forum and Amphitheatre, and stood close to the most venerated
temples of Rome, within the most ancient pomoerium. The arrangement of the different
halls is similar to that of an ordinary Roman mansion on a large scale. At the same
time there is apparently no provision for domestic life, and all the parts of the building
seem to have been public audience or banqueting chambers. The first of
these, which we enter from the back of the substructions now said to belong to
the Temple of Jupiter Stator, corresponds in its arrangements to the atrium of a Roman

1 Festus, p. 258. See chap. iii. p. 34. in the Cambridge Journal of Philology, 1869, vol. ii.

- The principal outUnes of these halls were traced p. 82.

by Bianchini in 1726 (Rovine del Palazzo dei Cesari, ■* Plut. Publ. 15 : Mart. viii. 36; Stat. Silv. iv. 2,

\'erona, 173S) ; but Cav. Rosa has explored them iii. 4, 47. Domitian had the cloisters cased with

more accurately. The statues of Hercules by Lysip- Cappadocian stone, which when polished acted as a

pus now in the Pitti at Florence, of Bacchus and a mirror. Suet. Dom. 14.

youthful Hercules now at Naples, were found here. ^ Plin. Panegyr. 47.

Fea, Misc. i. p. 87. * Hist. Aug. Lamprid. Heliog. 3, 8.

^ Sec Ann. delT Inst. 1865, p. 346, and an article " Reg. x. * Suet. Aug. 57 : Dion Cass. Iv. 12.

The Palatine, Geniiahis, and I 'elia ^ ~ -

house.' It measures fifty paces in length and forty in breadth, and has a tribune at
the further end, where doubtless the Emperor sat when meetings of the Senate or other
public bodies were held here. Portions of the pa\'ement and the wall decorations, con-
sisting of the most costly marbles, are still remaining.

On the north-west side of this atrium is a basilica, with a tribune and podium for
a court of judges, two rows of columns disposed in the usual manner, and
some remains of a white marble railing used for fencing off one part of
the court from the other. It is possible that this may be the Basilica Jovis mentioned
as the place where S. Lorenzo and S. Silvestro were tried and sentenced to
martyrdom. On the opposite side of the atriam is a Laranuni or shnnc of
the gods of the house, where the sacrifices were offered before the meetings of the Senate
or other solemn occasions.-

Next to the atrium we find the peristylium, a very large court, seventy-seven paces
by seventy, surrounded by a cloister, of which only about a third part has
been excavated. The cloister pillars, fragments of which remain, were of the ' '
richest marbles, and the pavement and decorations of this splendid quadrangle were most
superb. On the north-west side of it are a number of rooms, intended to serve as waitin<T-
rooms and offices of various kinds in connexion with the basilica and peristylium.^

Beyond the peristylium are found the foundations of the room called the triclinium in
Roman houses, and used as a dining-room.* In addition to the two usual spaces for tables,
this must have contained a third in the semicircular apse at the south-western
end, possibly intended for the Emperor's use. The remains of columns o{ '^ '"''""""•■
granite and a very elegantly-designed floor in porphyry and other costly stones have been
found here, and this may be the very room which Statius describes with such enthusiasm in
the account of his dinner with the Emperor.-' At the side of this triclinium was a Nvm-
phajum or viridarium, consisting of an elliptical basin and fountain of marble,
with niches for statues and bas-reliefs, and ledges for ornamental flowers and ■ y"'f ''"'"'■
plants ; and close to it stands a large octagonal building, with four large doors and four
corresponding niches, which seems to have been a kind of entrance-hall or lobb\-.

Along the whole north-west side of the halls just described ran a lonw portico, which
seems to have formed one side of the large central court of the Palatine, on the opposite
side of which was the Palace of Tiberius. Gellius describes himself as waitin"- liere to
attend the Emperor's levee, and conversing with his literary friends."

Behind the apse of the triclinium are the remains of a large portico, built upon deep
substructions of an earlier period, and some rooms now below the level of
the ground ornamented with paintings and stucco work. These show \-ery ""'"^""

plainly the enormous changes in the level of the hill which had taken place even before

' Vitruv. vi. 3, 5 ; Festus, pp. 356, 357. Becker's Pert. 2. Pertinax was murdered here. Piranesi, De

Callus, Th. ii. S. 172. Cav. Rosa thinks that this Rom. Magn. tab. xiv. xv. .\ix. gives some drawings ol

may be the " solium augustale" where Hcraclius was the elaborately-carved marbles found here,
crowned. Muratori, Epit. Chron. Cassin. K. It. Scr. ■* Vitruv vi. 5. Cav. Rosa thinks that this is ihe

tom. ii. p. I. "Jovis ccenatio" mentioned by Jul. Cap. Perl. 2. .See

' Lamprid. Sev. Alex. 29, 31 : Jul. Cap. Ant. Phil. 3. also Xardini, vol. iii. p. 176.

' Cav. Rosa applies the name Sicilia, found in ' Stat. .Silv. iv. 2. Suet. Vesp. 19 says of Vespasian.

Julius Capitolinus, to this room. Hist. Aug. Jul. Cap. " Convivabaiur assidue." "■ Cell \. A. xx. 1. 2

A .\

1 ^8 The Palatine, Gcniialus, and J 'clia.

the time of the Flavian Emperors. Behind them, on the edge of the hill overlooking the

Circus, are two rooms, from the renains of which it may be conjectured that the one nearer

to the triclinium served as a library, while the other seems to have been fitted

Lihrarv. ... r ^ i 1 t '

up as a Iccturc-room, with semicircular ranges of scats and a lecturers
platform. Here may have taken place the recitations and discussions

mentioned b)- Pliny as constantly kept up in the Imperial palace.^

Almost close to the abo\'c-mentioned N}^mph£eum, or viridarium, the foundations of a

temple have been discovered, which Cav. Rosa assigns to the ancient Temple of Jupiter
Victor. Livy relates that O. Fabius Rullianus vowed this temple in the first

■•Y ^'l it \ Samnite war, B.C. 295 ; and Ovid speaks of it as havin"- been dedicated on

Jupiter I iclor. ^ ^ j i i t,

the Ides of April. It is also mentioned in the Notitia in connexion with
the Area Palatina, or Great Court of the Palatine.^ From this last mention of the temple
we know that it must have been one of those ancient edifices which the Emperors
spared in their wholesale evictions. The style of building in the foundations belongs
to a date not later than the fifth century of Rome, and is probably much more ancient,
consisting of squared masses of volcanic tufa, which, as we have seen, were used in most
of the older buildings in Rome. The front of the building was turned to the south,
overlooking the Circus Maximus and the Aventine, and the arrangement is precisely that
of a temple raised on a basement, with high flights of steps alternating with terraces
in front. These steps and terraces, or landings, ascended the side of the hill towards
the Circus, just as in the Temples of Hercules Victor at Tibur, and Castor and Pollux
at Tusculum, we find high flights of steps ascending to the front of the temple.'^

The southern end of the Palatine hill, h'ing between the Convent of S. Bonaventura,

the grounds of the Villa Mills, and the angle formed by the Via dei Cerchi and the Via di

S. Gregorio, is occupied by the Vineyard of the Collegio Inglese, in which

aaceoj stand the ruins commonly called the Palace of the Caesars. Such a scene

the Ltesars. ^

of chaotic desolation as they present is hardly to be met with elsewhere ;
and when to the picturesque grandeur of the vast masses of masonr\' piled up in shapeless
wreck is added the recollection of the power and magnificence once enthroned here,
perhaps no sight in the whole world can be more deeply interesting to the student of
ancient Roman history. ILven the higher portions of many of these buildings have been
left standing, and we can trace the second floor in some of them ; but scarcely a vestige of
ornamentation or a fragment of inscription remains to tell the tale of their construction.
In the absence of all proof, the conjecture has been hazarded that they belong to the
Antonine era. It is known that Septimius Severus rebuilt a part of the Imperial residence
after the fire in the time of Commodus, and that Heliogabalus and Alexander Severus
enlarged and improved it.''

On the edge of the hill overlooking the Circus stands a curved terrace, along which

apparently there ran a portico commanding a fine view over the southern

TcKfctce.

part of Rome and the Trastevere district. No further indication is dis-

■ Plin. Ep. i. 13. 1S70, S. 71.

- Livy, X. 29; Ov. Fast. iv. 621 ; Notitia Reg. x. ■■ Dion Cass. Ixxii. 24; Hist. Aug. Sept. Sev. 19,

See also Dion Cass, xlvii. 40 ; Ix- 35. 24 ; Alex. Sev. 24, 25 ; Heliog. 3, S, 24. Bricks with

•^ Attn. liclP Inst. 1865, p. 363. See also Romische the stamp of Commodus ha\e been lately found here.

Ausgrabungen im Ictzen decennium, Hildburghausen, Bull, dell' Inst. 1S66, p. 162.

The Palatine, Germalus, and Velia. i rg

covcrable of the purpose which this served, and it ma\- possibly have been one of tlie
porticoes in which the Emperors used to walk for exercise.' Near the southern end
of this is a round tower, probably of mediaeval construction, at the back of which arc
the ruins of a semicircular corridor running round one end of a space now a vegetable
garden, enclosed by walls on all sides, and presenting the exact shape of a
stadium, about i8o yards long and 6o wide. This was possibly the private
racecourse of the Emperor's palace. At one side of it is a semicircular ruin, apparentl\-

lALACE ul- rilK (;.4:sARS, WITH THL llAIHS ill- C^AKACAI.LA IN THt B.\CKGKOlM).

(Tlie valley on the right is the Circus valley, and the Monastery on the hill to the riyht is ,S. Balbina on the

pseudo-Aventine. )

part of a stand from which the games in the stadium might be seen ; - and at the foot of

the hill towards the Ca;lian are four arches of an aqueduct by which water

was brought from the Claudian aqueduct for the supply of the baths in the

palace.-' I'urther to the south, and near the entrance stairs, are two enormous halls of

arched brickwork.^

' Suet. Cal. 50; DoiTi. 14. ' Frontin. 20.

• It is now established by excavations in the centre * Some of the ruins of this pan of the imperial

ot" this area that it was not a stadium, but a part of palace have lately (1S69) been partially cleared of

the palace occupied by rooms on the second floor. rubbishby the Papal Government, but I cannot learn

/.'////. d,tr Inst. July 1866, p. 163. that any valuable discoveries have been made.

A A 2

i8o The Palatine Gcr?iialiis, and Vclia.

Septimius Severus bestowed more pains than most of tlie other Emperors after Xcro
upon this part of the Palatine residence, and until the sixteenth century,
Septizomum. ^^.^^^^^ Sixtus V. iHillcd it down, and used the stone in building the Vatican,
a structure called the Septizonium stood at the angle of the hill, pictures of which
are to be found in the older books of views of Rome by Du Perac and Gamucci.'
Spartianus, in his " Life of Severus," says that Severus bestowed particular pains on this
part of the hill, in order to make it the chief entrance to the Imperial palace, and that his
reason for doing so was to produce an impression of his magnificence upon his African
countrj-men, who, when visiting Rome, would naturally enter by the Porta Capena.-
What was the purpose of the building, beyond that of mere ornament, is not at all
apparent, as the pictures of it represent merely three terraces, or floors, supported by
columns, forming a kind of triple balcony. The name appears to have been applied to
other buildings in Rome, as we find Suetonius mentioning a septizonium near which Titus
was born,"' and the anonymous MS. of Einsiedlen contains a copy of a sepulchral inscrip-
tion from a septizonium on the Appian Road, relating, ajiparenth-, to a brother of Com-
modus, whose name is not known, but who may be supposed to have been the Antoninus
who, as Lampridius relates, died in his fourth year.* The epithet " Uivus " attached to the
name of Commodus in this inscription shows that it could not have been put up till after
his death, and Reber suggests that the tomb where it was found, near the Porta Capena,
was the family tomb of the Antonines, which may have been rebuilt and beautified
bv Severus.^ In the sixteenth century a fragmentary inscription was still left upon
the Palatine Septizonium, containing the words " fortunatissimus nobilissimusque," which
are to be found on other inscriptions applic'd to Severus and his sons ; as, for instance,
on the arch in the Forum.'^ That "septizonium" was the term given to a particular
kind of building is the most probable solution of the difficulties which beset the name,
and seems to be indicated by the words of Spartianus, who relates that (ieta was buried
in the tomb of his ancestors, which Severus had beautified during his lifetime, situated on
the right of the Appian road on approaching the gate (Porta Capena), and constructed
in the shape of a septizonium."

The Temple of Heliogabalus may have been .somewhere in this part of the hill, for the

iniblic baths which he built were for the convenience of obtaining water probably placed

near the acjueduct. This fanatical voluptuary endeavoured to remove the

icmpleof i^-iost holv relics of ancient Rome, the Ancilia and Palladium, into his temple,

Ildiiy^iihalus.

and caused himself to be worshipped there as the -Sun-god, with Astarte,
the Svrian goddess, as his contnbcnialis. The public baths during his reign were dens
of the foulest immoralitj' and debauchery, and he squandered the public revenues in
decorating the palace of the Antonines with costly pavements of serpentine and porph}r\-.'*

His successor, Alexander Severus, had a rage for expensive mosaics and
"V^"""' pavements of serpentine and porphyry, and from this peculiar taste of his

the name " Opus Alexandrinum " was applied in the Middle Ages to pave-

1 (lamucci, l.ibri qiiatlro dell' .\ntichit^, p. 82 ; ■• Laniprid. Comm. i. KiiinLii Ronis, p. 370

Du Pcrac, VcsiIl;], tab. 13 ; Marliaiii, in GrA*v. Thcs. ' Marliaiii, Top. iv. x. ' Spart. Gtta, 7.

toni. iii. p. 137. " Aur. Vict. Caes. 23 ; Lamprid. Hcliog. 3, 8, 24 ;

■ Hist. Aug. -Severus. 19, 24. " -Sucton. Titus 1. Chr. Rone. 471, 208 ; Hcrodian, v. 5 ; Gibbon, ch. \ i.

The Palatini, licrnialus. and ]\lia. i.Sr

nients of two kind- of marble' He also built apaitnicnls of the kind called dicetce for
liis mother upon the Palatine. The last buildint,^ attributed to an emperor liaths or
on this hill is the Therm;e of Maxentius mentioned by the chronologers, Maxentius.
which was possibly only a restoration of the building- of Ileliogabalus i^ and the last
notice we have of tiie use of the palace by an emperor is at the coronation of Heraclius
in 629.^

We know from various passages of ancient writers that the following buildings were
situated on the Palatine, but their exact situation remains undetermined : —

The Temple of Victoria, which, according to Dionysius, was founded by the Arcadians
under Hvander, and afterwards restored b\- L. Postumius, ma}" most probably be placed
on the north-western part of the hill, near the other most ancient localities.''
The Notitia mentions a place called Fortuna Respiciens, between the Curias Remamiiit:

I 1 f ■ ■ 1 1 - 1 1 1 • 1 • • r \ I'ltihlmgs oil the

Veteres and the heptizonmm ; but there is absolutely no mdication of the i\,Uithic
sites of the Curia Saliorum,-' where the Ancilia were kept, of the Ara Febris,''
the Sacellum Ue£e Viriplaca;,^ the Domus I'laminis Dialis,** the Temple of Bacchus,' the
'AffipoBlaioi'}" the Temple of Jupiter Propugnator,'' the Domus Germanici,*^ or the Domus
Gelotiana. Tlie last-mentioned was possibly an outlying part of the palace on the side
of the Circus valley, for Caligula viewed the preparations for the games from it.^''

' Hist. Alls;. Lumprid. Alex. Sev. 24 Nat. Hist. ii. 7, 6 ; V'al. Max. ii. 5, 6.

- Chron. Rone. ii. 24S. " Val. Max. ii. i, 6.

' Muratori, K It Scr. torn ii. p. i. " Dion Cass. liv. 24.

* Dionys. i. 32 ; Livy. .x. 33, \xi.x. 14. xxxv g. " Mart. i. 70, 9.

' Cic. I)e Uiv. i. 17; Dionys. Frag. xiv. 5: "• Dion Cass. Ixxiv. 3. " Orelli. Inscr. 42.

Mommsen, vol. i. p. 52. '- Joseph. Ant. xix. 1,15.

' Cic. De Nat. Deor. iii. 25. De Legg. ii. 11 ; I'lin. '' Suet. Cal. t8 ; ("irut. Inscr. 59S. 7.

CHAPTER VIII.

PART II.

THE CAPirOLINE HILL.

N'ATIIR.-VI. FEATURES — SURTERRANEAN CH.\.\IBER.S — WELI^ — FAVIS.'E — HISTORY OF SETTLEME.NTS — NAMES OF THE
HILL — SITUATION OF THE TEMPLE OF JUP1TJ:R — BRIDGE OF CALIGULA — ST.\TUE OF JUPITER — NU.MBER OK
SANCTUARIES ON THE C.\PITOL— CURIA CAI.ABR.V — ROSTR.\ — TEMPLE OF JUPITER CUSTOS — ATT-ACKS UPON .\NIJ
CAPTURES OF THE CAPITOL — STORY OF HERDONIUS — STORY OF COMINIUS AND THE G.\ULS — THE VITELLIANS —
SUBSTRUCTIONS OF THE TEMPLE — MODERN EXCAVATIONS — ARGUMENT FROM RECEIVED IDEAS — HISTORY AND
ARCHITECTURE OF TEMPLE "OF JUPITER — FOUNDATIONS — CAPITOLINE ER.A — CELLvB OF TEMPLE— ARRANGE-
MENT OF COLUMNS — RESTORATIONS BY SYLLA, VESPASIAN, AND DOMITIAN — L.ATER HISTORY — LEGEND OF BELLS
— CORSI PALACE AND CASTLE— S. SALVATORE IN MAXIMIS — ^JUPITER FERETRIUS— JUPITER TONANS — MARS ULTOR
— TEMPLES OF FIDES, MENS, VENUS ERYCINA, CAPITOLINA, VICTRIX, AND OPS — C1I.\PELS OF JUPITER — TEMPLE
OF HONOUR AND VIRTUE — FORTUSA PRIMIGEXIA — BENEFICIUM— STATUES, ETC. — TEMPLE OF JUNO MONETA —
CHAPEL OF CONCORD— VERBEN.E — NONALI.\ — AUGURACULUM — TER.MINUS OF S.\CRA VIA — .\SYLUM — TEMPLE OF
VEJUPITER — TARPEIAN ROCK — CLIVUS CAPITOLINUS — CLIVUS ARGENTARIUS — TOMB OF BIBULUS — ARCUS
MANUS CARNE.'E — VIA PUBLICA — .^QUIMyELIUM — ELEPHANTUS HERBARIUS — PORTICUS CRINORUM — CENTUM
r.RADUS — TROPHIES OF MARIUS.

'■ Hinc ad Tarpeiam sedem et Capitolia ducit
.\urea nunc, oliin silvestiibus horrida dumis."

yEii. vii. 347.

THE natural features of the Capitoline hill could hardly have been more conipleteh-
concealed than they are by the present situation of the buildings upon it, even if
those buildings had been erected with the express purpose of changing the
'" "'" appearance of the hill. For the Convent of Ara Caili and the Palazzo

features. ' '

Caffarelli, which occupy respectively the north-eastern and south-western
summits of the hill, are comjjarativeh" low and unconspicuou.s, while the Tabularium, and
above it the Palace of the -Senator, compose a lofty pile which nearly fills up the depression
between these two heights. To the .spectator looking at the Capitoline hill from the Forum
the higher part of the hill appears to lie nearly in the centre, whereas in rcalit_\- the shape is
that of a double hill rising at each end. The north-eastern end is somewhat curved round
towards the north, while the south-western approaches within 300 paces of the river. The
whole core of the hill is formed of the harder volcanic tufa, a section of which may be
plainl}' seen, forming the face of the low precipice now shown as the Tarpeian Rock in
the Caffarelli Gardens, and also in a courtyard surrounded by cottages, near the spot called
Palazzaccio.' This tufa was, as has been frequently mentioned, used as a building stone

' Niebuhr, Kng. trans, vol. i. p. 230.

JElepfianULS
Berhariujs

I^ohaMe sites
Eodxmi/ Anjdent rwbxs

The Capitolium and The Arx
ch.VlU. Part 2.

fA^^iVtOfr jtth

The CAPiTOLruM and The Arx.

di.VIH. Part 2.

Bvbahlf sites p o

Jurtant Aruxatt rrnna p a j □ □ a

Camin'/fye. Di^i^hwn . liirli ti C

The Capitoliiic Hill. 18

in the earl\- ages of Rome, before the Lapis (iabiiius or Albanus (pcperind) or the Lapis
Tiburtinus (travertino) had been introduced.

Hence it was extensively quarried in various parts of Rome, and large subterranean
chambers excavated in the hills. There are many of them still extant in the Capitoline
hill. Some of the largest pointed out bv Brocchi are in the cellars of the

' 1 11 Ti 1 SnbUrrancan

houses No. 8, Vicolo della Bufala, and No. 10, Via della Pedacchia, and ,i,ambers.
Donati speaks of some as having been open caves in his time.*

Besides these ca\'ities the hill was also penetrated with wells of great depth, some of
which reached down to the level of the surrounding low ground, and Mere connected by-
arched conduits. They were used to supply water before the Aqua Tepula
was carried to the Capitol in the year A.U.C. 628. The subterranean
chambers seem to ha\e been used as prisons, and also as cellars, where the treasures of
the temples, under which they were, might be deposited. Thus Gcllius says that the
Favisae Capitolinae were used for the purpose of storing away the worn-out
statues of the gods, and the disused vessels and utensils employed in the
temple ser\-ice, and that many of these hollows were so near the surface of the ground
that O. Catulus, when he restored the Capitoline temple, was afraid to lower the level
of the Area Capitolina as he had wished to do in order to make the approach more
imposing.- Xiebuhr visited one of these, and relates a curious legend which he heard from
some of the guides, how the fair Tarpeia still sits in the heart of the hill, covered with
gold and jewels, and bound by a spell. ^

Besides the great masses of hard tufa composing the hill, on the side towards the Pala-
tine there are some beds of granular tufa, and in the vaults under the Hospital of S. Maria
della Consolazione Brocchi found a stratum of marine limestone, underlying the hard tufa
and composing the lower base of the hill.^ This was the onh" spot where he succeeded in
reaching the marine formations which most probably underlie all the volcanic rock of Rome.

The depression between the two summits of the hill offers a curious proof of the high
level at which the water of the Tiber, or of a lake through ^hich it ran, must have stood
in very remote times. l"or the ground under the equestrian statue of M. Aurelius is
composed of fluviatile or lacustrine sediment, containing shells of fresh-water bivalves
and univalves, showing that fresh water probably once rose as high as the present level
of the Piazza del Campidoglio.

Great alterations have been made in the shape of the Capitoline hill, not only on the
side towards the Forum, but also on that towards the Campus. In its original state as a
fortress, it was an isolated hill, cut ofi' by walls or precipices on all sides except that
towards the Forum, and neither the approach w hich leads up to the Piazza del Campidoglio
nor that which passes up to the Palace of the Conservators existed, but the whole side
towards the Campus Martius was closed by the city wall, which ran along the edge of
the cliff.

Historically the Capitoline does not come into prominence so earl\- as the Ouirinal.

' Brocchi, p. 151 ; Donati, Roma Vetus, ii. 19. which the Temple «.^s built u;is probably taken.

= Paul. Diac. p. 88 ; Gellius, \'. A. ii. 10. Under These cavities extend under the whole eastern pan

the north-e:ibtcrn part of Jerusalem are enormous of the city. ' Niebuhr, Eng. trans, vol i. p. 230.

subterranean chambers, from wlience the stone with ■* Brocchi, p. 155.

i84

The Capitolinc Hill.

For it was not till after the two settlements had coexisted for some time upon the Palatine

and Ouirinal that the Capitoline was taken within the pomoerium.^ It is

sMUmeiiis difficult to determine when the Capitoline was formally added to the city on

the Palatine. Tacitus ascribes its enclosure to Titus Tatius,'- and we are

certain that it was included within the walls of Servius, though it is not mentioned in the

Varronian account of the four Servian regions.^ But on the other hand, in the enumeration

CArillll.lNE Hll.l. KKciM 'IHE MARMORATA, LOOKING iNoKlIIWAKUS IP I HE STRKAM.

(The lofty tower in the centre of the view stamis on the Intermontium of the Capitol, and the buildings on the

left of it are upon the CalTarelli height.)

at the Argeian chapels, no mention is made of any as situated on the Capitoline hill. The
most ancient name of the hill was Saturnius, and a legend was connected with

''in'c'hiU ''^ ^° '^^^'-' ^^^^"^ '^'^^^ ^"^"^ sod Saturn had founded a city upon the hill in the

golden age. An altar was dedicated to him, and afterwards the famous temple
built at the foot of the Clivus Capitolinus.' Another name applied to the whole hill
was Tarpeius, in allusion to the vestal \'irgin Tarpeia, whose fate has been immortalized
by Propertius.^ Occasionally we have also the name Arx applied to the whole hill,
and not restricted to the fortress alone.**

1 Tac. Ann. xii. 24. - Ibid. xii. 24.

^ Varro, L. L. v. § 45. .See chap. iv. p. 39.
* Ibid. V. 42, 45 ; Festus, p. 322 ; Dionys. i. 34 ;
\'irg. .'En, viii. 357 ; Ov. Fasti, vi. 31.

' \'arro, L. L. v. 41 ; Propcrt. (iv.) v. 4. ■' Inter

duos lucos" does not appear to have been a name,
but merely a descriptive expression. Livy, i. 8 ;
Dionys. ii. 15. "Intermontium" is first found in
And. Fulvius, Ue Urb. Ant. p. 85, and is not a clas-
sical expression. '' Cic. De Rep. ii. 6 ; Livy, i. 11.

The Capitoluie Hill. jg_

But tliough a few passages may undoubtedly be quoted in which the names Capitolium,
Arx, and Mons Tarpeius are used, espcciall}- by the poets, to denote the whole hill,» yet
there can be no question that the more usual practice of the best prose writers is to
separate the Capitolium, Arx, and Rupes Tarpeia, and to assign these names to different
parts of the hill. Thus in speaking of the Asylum both Strabo and Dionysius describe it
as situated between the Arx and Capitolium, and Festus restricts the Saxum Tarpeium to
one part of the hill.- In most passages of Cicero and Livy the whole hill is desio-nated
by its two parts, Capitolium and Arx. When the summit on which the temple stood is
spoken of, they use the name Capitolium ; when the fortress is particularly meant, they
call it the Arx.'* Tarpeius appears to be chiefly used by the poets either as being a more
convenient word for versification, or as connected with an ancient and romantic len-end, and
therefore more poetical.

With these few preliminary remarks, we proceed at once to make some observations
upon the question as to the respective positions of the Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus
and the Arx. After the summary which has been given of the usage followed
by the classical writers in speaking of the Capitolium and Arx, it will at SHuathn of the
once be seen that great care is needed before appealing to their authorltj^, ^"t\:
because in some passages the name Capitolium, and in others tlie name
Arx, is clearly used to denote the whole hill. Were it not so, the matter could be decided
in a few words, for, as Preller remarks, Livy distinctly asserts that a large block of stone
fell in B.C. 192 from the Capitol into the Vicus Jugarius.^ Now the Vicus Jugarius beyond
all doubt was under the south-western part of the hill, and therefore, if Capitolium were
here used in the restricted sense, we should have a clear proof of the situation of the
temple. But it is not at all certain that Livy is not here speaking of the whole hill under
the name Capitolium, and thus the argument fails. Topographers have therefore cast
about for indications of the sites of the temple and Arx not liable to this objection, and
have collected a great mass of information bearing on the subject. Their aro-uments are
for the most part, from the nature of the case, indecisive, and the same passages of
ancient writers have frequently been adduced as evidence on both sides of the question.
There are some iew, however, which have never been fairly discussed, and these appear
to point so plainly to the conclusion that the Capitoline temple must have been upon the
south-western height, that it seems surprising to find the contrarj^ any longer maintained.

I. In the first place the evidence derived from the Bridge of Caligula, mentioned by
Suetonius, seems decisive as to the situation of the Temple of Jupiter.
Suetonius says that Caligula in his madness imagined that lie held con- JJ>^cisive
versations with the Capitoline Jupiter, and used to whisper in his ear and
appl\' his own ear to the lips of the statue for the answer. He is said to ^"f^'f

Caligula.

have threatened to expel Jupiter from the Capitol unless he listened to his

advances, and the monarch of gods was at last obliged to appease the Emperor's anger bj-

inviting him to share his temple." Caligula then, in order to connect his palace with the

' Such arc Vairo, L. L. v. 41 : Tac. Ann. .\ii. 24 ; * Livy, xxxv. 21 ; I'rcllcr, Philologus, 1S46, p. 70.

Livy, i. 10, ii. 10. Sec also Vii- ^n.viii. 652— 658. = Suet. Cal. 22. It was plainly the Temple of

- Strabo, v. 3; Dionys. ii. 15; Festus, p. 343; Capitoline Jupiter to which Cahgula made his

Livy, vi. 20 : Cell. v. 12. bridge, and Dr. Dyer is mistaken in contradiotino

' Sec the passages quoted by Becker, Xote 744. Becker. Diet. Ant. vol. ii. p. 7O6.

B B

1 86 TJic Capitolinc Hill.

temple, built a bridge across the intervening valley over the Temple of Augustus. Now it
is allowed on all hands that this bridge could not have been thrown across to the height of
Ara Creli, as it would then have passed over a part of the Forum, and no alternative is
therefore left us but to conclude that it was carried from the northern corner of the
Palatine to the Caffarelli height, and that the Temple of Jupiter stood upon that height.

II. A second argument, which appears strongly to support the same conclusion, may

be drawn from Cicero's account of the statue of Jupiter Capitolinus. The Capitol had been

struck by lightning, and the statues and other works of art, especially that

Statue of ^j- ^^ Capitoline Jupiter, placed on a column, had been much injured.

Jupiter. r J L •.

The Haruspices, when consulted as to the means to be taken in order to
avert the calamities thus portended, advised that a larger statue of Jupiter should be made
and placed on a higher pedestal, and that the face should be turned towards the East,^ " in
the hope that if the statue which yon see before yon," says Cicero, addressing the people in
the Forum from the Rostra, "should overlook the Forum and Curia, the designs of traitors
ao'ainst the State \\ouId be brought to light and discovered." The alteration, he adds,
had only just been completed during his own consulship, and on the same day the
Catilinarian conspiracy had been detected.^

If we place the statue on the Ara Cash height, and draw a line eastwards from it, the
line will not pass through any part of the Forum, whereas, if turned to the south, it would
have overlooked at least that angle of the Forum where the Temple of Saturn stands.
But by placing the statue on the Caffarelli height, with its face eastwards, it is at once
seen that the Forum and Curia would lie nearly in a direct line opposite to it, and Cicero's
words became at once intelligible.^ That the alteration of position was scientifically
and carefully made cannot be doubted, as it was done under the inspection of the
Haruspices, and in consequence of a general consultation among the most learned members
of that body, and there is no reason whatever for supposing, as Preller does, that the
orientation of the statue was not accurate.'' Dion Cassius, a careful and critical writer,
crives exactly the same account of the change of position made in the statue. It was made
" to face the East," he says, " and the Forum, in order that the conspiracies then causing so
much agitation in Rome might be detected." ^

III. A third most important proof that the temple was situated on the south-western

heio'ht is derived from the number of less prominent sanctuaries which we know to have

stood there, and for which the space upon the Ara C?eli height aftbrds no

Number of room. Not only was the Temple of Jupiter itself of large size, but it stood

sniictuaries , ^ r . • i ^i r. ] ■ r c -^

tl ' Catitol upon a basement, nearly square, ol 200 leet ui length , and m front of it

was an area large enough to allow of meetings and elections, and even of

horse-races." It is probable that the Curia Calabra, where the Pontifices announced

' Dion Cass, xxxvii. 9 : Tm Aii ay«X^a fieifoj/ Trpuj re surveyed the ground several times, and have found

T(!s (ii/aroXas itai Trpor T>)f ayopav ^Xenov idpvBfjvni «\|'i)- my opinion in every way confirmed as to the position

(plaauTo. of the temple and Arx. Bunscn, who held the German

- In Catil. iii. 8, § 20. The whole context shows view, lived for some time upon the hill itself,

that the statue of Jupiter Capitolinus is intended. ■* Schneidewin's Philologus, 1846, p. 87.

.Sec also De Div. i. 12, § 20, 21. ^ Dion Cass, xxxvii. 9.

' Dr. Dyer, who supports the Italian opinion as to " Dionys. iv. 61.

the Arx and Capitol, appeals to a personal inspection ' Livy, xxv. 3 ; xxxiv. 53 ; Plut. .'Em I'auU. 30, 31 ;

as conclusive. 1 can only slate that 1 have carefully .\pp. B. C. I, 15 ; Flin. Nat. Hist, xxvii. 7, 45.

The Capiiolinc Hill. jgy

the day on which the Nones would fall in each month,' and the Rostra, of which Cicero
speaks in one of his letters to Brutus, were here.'- When we add to the space required for
these the sites of at least five or six temples, amonsf which those of Fides ,. • ^

•^ tuna Caliiliia.

and Mens were large enough for meetings of the Senate,-' and that of Jupiter jPoj^,,,
Custos, built by Domitian, was called a "huge" temple by Tacitus,^ it will Temtkof
be seen that the area of the northern height is not sufficiently extensive to 7''/''''- Cusios.
contain them all. The advocates of the opposite hypothesis have had recourse to verv
unsatisfactory arguments in order to weaken the force of this proof that the temple stood
on the Caffarelli height. Canina undertakes to show tliat some of the temples were
small chapels, and converts the Templum Ingens of Domitian into a piccolo saccllo, while
he transplants the Temple of Fides to the Palatine.''

Dr. Dyer avoids the difficulty by an argument which has been also forcibly stated by
Preller in Schneidewin's " Philologus." In order to gain room for the additional temples, he
thinks that the Area Capitolina in which the meetings were held, and on which the other
temples stood, was on the intermontium where the present Piazza del Campidoglio is
situated, and that the temple stood above on the Ara Cseli. But though there is much
plausibility in this supposition, yet it is shown to be unlikely by the statements of Pliny
and Solinus, who assert that a chariot could be driven round the temple,'^ so that the area
can hardly be supposed to have been so far below the level of the temple as the inter-
montium is below the Ara CjeH, and would seem to have been a space extending all round
the temple, but on the same level, and wider in front.

The above arguments in favour of the south-western summit have never yet been satis-
factorily answered, while all the rest, numerous as they are, appear to be capable of
being so handled as to suit either hypothesis.

I. Thus, for example, the descriptions of the various attacks and captures of the Capitol
and Arx given by Roman historians, the seizure of the fortress by Herdonius,'^ the bold
adventure of Cominius,^ the famous night attack of the Gauls repulsed by
Manlius,** and the storming of the Capitol by the Vitellians,!" have been ^'"*^'>«''-

argunieiits.

claimed as proving that the temple lay on the south-western height by Niebuhr,
Bunsen, Becker, Preller, Bunbury, and Reber ; while Nardini, Canina, Nibby, ^ '"y "■( •''
Gottling, Braun, and Dyer, have made use of them in support of the oppo-
site view. It is in fact quite possible, if we grant, as we must, a certain laxit\- in the use
of the terms Capitolium, Arx, and Mons Tarpeius, to explain these passages
so as to suit either hypothesis. Dionysius renders his description unintelligible Attacks upon

. , and captures of

to us by the strange statement that the gate which was always left open on the ^/,^. capiiol.
Capitol was called the Carmentine gate, whereas all the information wc have
goes to show that the Carmentine or Carmental gate was the gate of the Servian wall,
which stood between the Tiber and the Capitoline hill. He also introduces the ambiguous
word ((>povpcov, which may apply to either summit of the hill or to an outwork at its foot."

' Varro, L. L. vi. 27; Macr. Sat. i. 13. .See " Canin.i, Iiidicazionc, p. 306 ; Tac. Hist. loc. cit.

Becker, note 796. In Martial viii. 80, .-En. viii. 654, " Plin. Nat. Hist. vili. 42, 161 ; Solin. 45, 15, p. 195,

the Curia Calabra is probably alliided to. ed. Mommscn. ' Dionys. x. 14 ; Li\y, iii. 15.

' Cic. Ad I'.rut. i. 3. ^ ^pp. B. C. i. 16. » Livy, v. 46. » Ibid. v. 47.

■* Tac. Hist. iii. 74 ; Suet. Dom. 5. '" Tac. Hist. iii. 71. " Dionys. .\. 14.

h \i 2

1 88 The Cap i hi line Hill.

Livy also, in relating the adventures of Cominius and of the Gauls, uses the

ambiguous terms Capitolium and Rupes Tarpeia, which leave us doubtful whether

the summit nearest to the river, which Cominius and the Gauls climbed,

Story of Coiui- ^ , , , , . r \ -

uitisandthe '^^'^ t"^ temple height or the fortress, ho, also, m the history of the

Gauls. storming of the Capitol by the Vitellian party, the words of Tacitus

The Vitdlians. leave it uncertain whether the first attack was made upon the Arx or

the temple, because the historian uses the ambiguous terms Capitolina Arx

and Capitolium.

II. Nor has the description by Dionysius of the substructions of the temple aftbrded

any surer ground upon which to found an argument than the above-

II istniciions of ^lentioned historical narratives.^ Dionysius makes use of general terms,

the reiiiple. °

which will apply to either portion of the hill, and cannot with any certainty,
in the present state at least of our knowledge of the original shape of the .hill, be
adduced in favour of either hypothesis. The remains which have been at various times
laid bare by excavation have only served to perplex the question still more. Founda-
tions and fragments of buildings have been found on both summits, but no clue to
their identification has been yet discovered. While Nibby and Casimiro on the one hand
describe the ruins of substructions on the Ara Cteli, extensive and ancient enough to
answer to the statements of Dionysius,- Fabretti on the other hand gives an account
of certain foundations brought to light in the Caffarelli Gardens, from which he draws
the following conclusion in favour of the Caffarelli height:^ — "Thus from Dionysius's
accurate description of the locality, which agrees exactly with the position of these ruins,
we can now without further trouble decide the controversy between Alexander Donati
and Famiano Nardini about the site of the Temple of Jupiter." Fabretti's assertions
are confirmed by Bartoli in Fea's " Miscellanea," and by Bunsen in the " Beschreibung
Roms," both of whom speak as eye-witnesses of very extensive substructions having been
laid open upon the Caffarelli height.''

The latest excavations on this spot have brought to light the ground plan of a

building, the foundations of which consist of tufa blocks fitted together without mortar,

and in an irregular manner, forming a rectangular basement of about 120

Modem ^^^^ ^^, g^ f^.^.)-.''' From the size of the basement it is clear that this

excavations.

cannot be the Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus. The front of the building
appears to face the south-west, and looks over the Tiber and Janiculum. This informa-
tion is, however, based upon a necessarily imperfect and partial excavation on the spot,
the o-reater part being covered by the Caffarelli Palace and Gardens ; and therefore
satisfactory conclusions can hardly be drawn from it. Whether the foundations thus
described be those of Domitian's Temple of Jupiter Custos, or must be ascribed to the
more ancient Temple of Fides, cannot be at present decided.''

> Dionys. iii. 69. ' Ami. ddP Inst, x.x.xvi. p. 382.

"- Nibby, Koma, i. 557, 571 ; and Casimiro, iMemorie " Nissen, Das Templum, p. 143, is obliged, in order

Istorichc 1736. t" support his theory that in every ancient city the

3 Fabretti, De Col. Trajani. Addenda. Forum always formed the peribolus of the Temple

•* Fea, Misc. i. 253 and 81; Bunsen, iii. i. 23. of Jupiter, to place the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus

Bunsen lived for years in the Caffarelli Palace. See on the Ara Ca^li. He assumes that if the Arx were on

" Memoirs of Baion Bunsen," vol. i. chap. iv. the Caffarelli height, the Temple of Jupiter on the

I JOTTjAaasno^ ,^ qzzh

The Capitoline Hill. igg

III. Among the arguments which cannot be called decisive we may place that
drawn from the received ideas as to the proper position of the principal
temple of a city. \'itruvius lays down the rule that the temple of the ^''S>">'"<t from

• received ideas.

tutelary deity ought to be placed on the highest point, whence the widest
view of the walls could be obtained.^ Now in this respect there does not seem to be
much difference between the two summits of the Capitoline hill. The difference in
height is about fifteen feet only in favour of the Ara Caeli ; and the view from
the latter is very much the same as that obtained from the former, thoucrh I
should be inclined to think that, from its proximity to the Ouirinal, the view from
Ara Caeli was the less extensive. In the same way the statement of Dionysius, that the
temple faced the south, may be made to favour either side of the question. For if the
temple was upon the Ara Cxli, it then looked towards the Forum and the Palatine ;
and if it was upon the Caffarelli height, it still looked down upon the Forum Boarium,
the Ara Maxima, the Circus Ma.ximus, and the Germalus, — places which at the time of
the foundation of the temple by Tarquinius had the greatest importance in Rome. Rules
about the orientation and arrangement of buildings must always be considered as sub-
ordinate to the exigencies of the site. St. Peter's Basilica at Rome and many other
churches are instances of the neglect of such rules ; and doubtless in cases where the_\-
proved inconvenient the ancient augurs had many ways of evading them.

Before we proceed to speak of the inference which may be drawn from the later
history of the temple and the mediaeval traditions concerning its situation
it will be most convenient to collect the various facts known about its J^isiory and

. . . architecture of

history and architecture. It was originally begun in consequence of Temple of
a vow made by Tarquinius Priscus in the Sabine War, and that king Jupiter.
prepared the foundations.- Servius Tullius and Tarquinius Superbus Foundations.
carried on the work, but it was not finished until after the expulsion
of the latter and the establishment of the Republic.^ Horatius Pulvillus, in his
second consulship, dedicated it on the Ides of September, B.C. 509, and a nail
was then driven into the right hand wall of the temple to mark the beginning
of a new era. A similar nail was afterwards fixed here yearly by the

, 1,1 Capitoline era.

praetor on the Ides of September, and thus every year was marked and
remembered ; and the era so reckoned from the dedication of the Temple of Jupiter
was used at Rome in ritual matters for more than two hundred years at least.* The
temple was placed upon an elevated platform 800 feet in circumference, and was itself
nearly as broad as its length. The great breadth was caused by the admission of
the goddesses Juno and Minerva to share the temple with Jupiter.'' In

• 1 1 -1 • 1 1 - 1 1 Cellic of Temple.

order to accommodate tlic trio, three ceilae were built side by side, thus

giving a triple breadth to the front. The cclla of Minerva was on the right, and that

.\ra Csli would be to the left of it. i.e. on the aiispi- important parts of Rome.

cious side. But this is a mistake, for the Temple of " Cic. De Rep. ii. 20, 24 ; Livy, i. 38; Dionys. iv.

Jupiter, if placed on the Ara Ca:li, would be behind 59. ' Tac. Mist. iii. 72.

the Arx, and not on the left of it. '' Liv)', vii. 3; Niebuhr, Rom. Hist. vol. i. p. 266.

■ Vitruv. .Arch. i. 7. It must particularly be borne 280 : Plin. Nat. Hist, xxxiii. ig.

in mind that the temple was founded when the '■' Dionys. iv. 61. The same trio were worshipped

Palatine and the Circus Maximus were the most at the Capitolium Vctus on the Quirinal.

I go The Cap i toil ne Hill.

of Juno on the left of the central one occupied by Jupiter. The same proportions
were retained from religious scruples in every subsequent restoration, and the only
difference in the later structures arose from the more costly nature of the materials.
In front there were three rows of pillars, and along the sides a double row. The
whole was crowned, notwithstanding its breadth, with one pediment and a single
roof This singular arrangement, which impaired the general effect of the temple by
making the breadth out of proportion to the height and length, was according to the
Etruscan rule, which forbade the consecration of the same temple to more than one
god. In the representations of the temple which we have upon coins it is
iianguiient of jjgj,^g(-yig ^j^,)- J,-, ^ basso-rilievo taken from an arch of M. Aurelius

columns. ^ '

tetrastyle only. Canina thinks that it was hexastyle — i.e. that it had only
six columns — in front, but that the side rows of columns were double, according to the
description of Dionysius, for a part of the distance along the sides.^ The lateral cellae
of Juno and ^Iiner\-a stood farther back than the central cella of Jupiter, and the
porticoes along their sides consisted of a single row of pillars.

As marble was entirely unknown in Roman buildings at the time of the first
erection of this temple, it must have been built of peperino or travertine, and the
interior covered with plaster. The statues of the deities were of terra-cotta, and so
also was the famous Quadriga, which stood upon the summit. They were the work of
Etruscan artists at Veii.- The style of architecture in which the temple was built
was Italian Doric, which approaches to the Tuscan order of Vitruvius. The immense
breadth of the spaces between the pillars, nearly thirty feet, must have required a
wooden architrave, and the cornice must have projected very considerably more than
in a Greek temple, in order to shelter the beams and the ornamental plaster-work.
Thus the aspect of the temple would be heavy and low, the breadth being excessive,
and the spaces between the columns out of proportion to the size of the whole.

The original temple stood for four hundred and twenty-five years, and it was then

consumed by fire, in A.U.C. 670, and rebuilt by Sylla, who brought the

Restoration ly ^Qi^^nns of the Temple of Zeus Olympius from Athens to adorn it.^

Sylla. ^ ^ '■

These columns were Corinthian, and we must therefore suppose that the
architecture was altered to suit them, and remodelled in agreement with most Roman
buildings of that period. Sylla did not live to complete the temple, and it was
dedicated by Q. Lutatius Catulus.

In this restoration marble was substituted for stone and stucco, and bronze for terra-
cotta. Cicero praises the exquisite proportions of the pediment and roof, and we may
infer from his words that the proportions of this part were somewhat changed, though
the area remained the same as before. Catulus's restorations lasted until the desperate

attack of the Vitellians, in A.D. 70, again caused the destruction of the
Restoration oy |-gjj^pjg v,y 5,.g [^ {hg same year as the destruction of the Temple at

Vespasian. ^ ■'

Jerusalem. Vespasian undertook to rebuild it.^ The Emperor himself

1 Canina, Arch. Ant. torn. ix. p. T 97. See a resto- xxxv. 12, 45.

ration of the front in Monumenti deW Inst. v. tav. ^ Appian, B. C. i. 83 ; Tac. Hist. iii. 72 ; Plin.

xxxvi. ; Annali, 1851, p. 289. Nat. Hist, .xxxvi. 25.

= Plut. Popl. 13; Phn. Nat. Hist, xxviii. 2, 4; •" Dion Cass. Ixvi. 10; -Suet. Vesp.8; Tac.Hist. iv. 53.

The Capitoline Hill.

191

with his own hands was the first to commence the work of removino- the rubbish and to
carry some of it away on his shoulders. Tacitus says that in the restoration by Vespasian
the reUgious scruples of the priests only allowed an enlargement of the temple in height
and this must have been effected by elevating the level and heightening the columns
since, as we have seen in the case of Catulus, the subterranean chambers prevented
any lowering of the base.

At Vespasian's death the temple was again burnt, and restored by Domitian with still
greater magnificence. The columns erected by him were of pentelic marble
brought from Athens, and the gilding of the temple alone cost 2,500,000/.^ Restoration hy

, . , , . , . Domitian.

Martial jocularly saj-s, m speakmg of the enormous expenditure, that if

Domitian were to call in his debts Jupiter himself, even if he were to put up Olympus to

auction, would not have been able to pay a shilling in the pound. -

The columns brought by Domitian from Athens were recut at Rome, and Plutarch
thinks that they did not gain so much in beauty of polish as they lost in symmetry of
proportion. Canina has recognised in this criticism of Plutarch a confirmation of the
representations on coins of the temple as hexastyle. He thinks that the width of the
intercolumniations gave rise to Plutarch's notion that the columns were too slender.^

But few notices of the later history of the temple can be gathered from various sources.
After its restoration by Domitian it seems to have retained its splendour. The fire in the
Capitol during the reign of Commodus'' may have injured it, but as it was
still one of the most splendid sights in Rome in the time of Constantine the ""^ "story.
injury- cannot have been considerable.* Stilicho about .\.D. 390 took off the gold plates
from the doors of the temple," and Genseric the Vandal removed one half of the wilt
bronze tiles from the roof^ Hieronymus at this time speaks of the decay and neglect into
which the temple and its ceremonies had fallen, but Cassiodorus, in the following century,
still finds enough of its former grandeur left to excite his astonishment.* The remaining
half of the bronze gilt tiles is said to have been removed in 630 by Pope Honorius, who
used them for the roof of the Basilica of St. Peter, then in course of construction.'-'

In the eighth century the famous legend seems to have been invented, in which it was
related how, in the Capitol at Rome, statues representing each nation in the Empire were
placed, and bells hung from their hands ; and how, whenever any commotion
or rebellion took place among the subject nations, the statue of that nation ^"'
immediately rang its bell, and gave the alarm to the central government."' This story is to
be found in most of the absurd collections of strange wonders written in these times under
the name of Mirabilia. Louis the Second, the grandson of Charlemagne, was crowned in
the Capitol by Pope Adrian II. in the year 850, and thenceforward throughout the Middle
Ages the Capitol became the seat of the civil government at Rome. It was in the ninth
century that the anonymous writer of the Einsiedlen MS. visited Rome, and he mentions
on the road from the Circus Flaminius, passing between the Capitoline hill and the
Tiber, a theatre, undoubtedly that of Marcellus, on the right, and a Temple of Jupiter.

' Flut. Publ. i;. - Martial, ix. 4- " Procop. Uc Bell. \'nnd. i, 5.

' Canina, .Arch. .Ant. torn. iii. p. 203. * Hieron. adv. Jovin. lib. ii. cxtr. ; Cassiod. \'ar.

' Rone. Chron. p. 465 ; Oros. vii. 16. lib. vii. 6. » Marliani, Topog. ii. 1.

'- .Amm. Marc. xvi. 10. 14. » Zosim. v. 38. '" Mai. Spicileg. Rom. torn. ii. p. 221.

192 The Capitoli)ic Hill.

probably the Capitoline, on the left. In the eleventh and twelfth centuries the powerful

family of the Corsi held the south-western part of the hill, and, as was so common at that

period, converted the ancient buildings into fortresses and defensible towers.

J ^ '' , These strongholds were taken and retaken, demolished and rebuilt arain

and Castle. ° ' =»

and again during those dark and turbulent ages ; and thus the Capitoline
Temple, like other great edifices in Rome, disappeared stone by stone. Yet the mention
in a Bull of Anacletus II. about the year 1134,^ and in the " Mirabilia Urbis," a work
of the twelfth century, of a Temple of Jupiter on the western height, seems to show
that the ruins at least were recognisable as late as the tw-elfth century. The last remains
we hear of are those mentioned by Poggio and Flavio Blondo, who speak of a huge

portion of a gateway and some columns near the Church of S. Salvatore in
S. Salvaiore in j^f^^imis.- The site of this cliurch is well known, as it was not demolished

Alaxwns.

till 1587. It stood at the upper edge of the Caffarelli height, near a road
leading from the hill to the Velabrum, probably the Via di Monte Caprino. The
testimony of the ancient Italian topographers is almost unanimous in identifying this
church with the temple, and the name "in IMaximis" seems to be derived from the title
of Jupiter Optimus Maximus.^

With the exception of the Temples of Fides and of Honour and Virtue, the utmost

uncertainty prevails about the position of most of the minor temples situated on the

Capitoline hill, in consequence of the unfortunate ambiguity of the names Capitolium,

Arx, and Mens Tarpeius. The most ancient of all was the small Chapel of

jKpucr Jupiter Feretrius, founded by Romulus on occasion of his having slain with

Fcrctrius. ■' '^ ^ _

his own hand the king of the Ca:ninenses.* Dionysius states that the base of
the chapel, which was still extant in his time, was not more than fifteen feet in length.^
But though this building is always said to be " in Capitolio," we cannot feel sure that it was
upon the south-western height.'^

The same may be said of the Temple of Jupiter Tonans, built by Augustus in gratitude
for his preservation, when a servant carrying a torch before his litter in Spain was struck

down by lightning.'^ This temple was certainly upon the same part of the
jiipi er oitaiis. ^^.^^ ^^ ^^^^ Temple of Jupiter, and not far distant from it, for Augustus, in
consequence of a dream, placed a bell upon the top of it, meaning to signif}' that Jupiter

Tonans was intended to act as porter at the gate of Jupiter Optimus
J ats 01. j^j^^^ii^iygS Augustus appears also to have built a small chapel to Mars
Ultor on the Capitol, besides that in his Forum, in commemoration of the recapture of the
military eagles lost b}^ Crassus.^

The Temple of Fides is one of the larger and most frequently mentioned temples of
the Capitol. It was first built by Numa, and then restored in the First Punic War by

' See Prellcr, in Sclineid. Philologus, 1846. p. 104. of the hill in his time : " Alle radici del Carapidoglio,

2 Pooo-jo, DeVar. Urb. Rom. ; Flav. Blondus, lust. ove hora si vede la Chiesa di .San Salvador in

Rom. i. 74, in Grasv. Thesaurus. Gamucci, the second Massimi."

edition of whose book, " Antichita di Roma," was pub- ^ Albertini, De Mirab. Rom. lib. ii. ; Marl. ii. 4.

lished in 1569, says : " II Tempio di Giove Ottimo ■» Livy, i. 10, 33 ; iv. 20. = Dionys. ii. 34.

Massimo edificato da Tarquinio Superbo, era dalla ^ Monum. Ancyr. tab. iv.

parte del Campidoglio che risguarda la piazza mon- " Suet. Oct. 29 ; Mon. Anc. iv ; Plin. .\xxvi. 6, 8 ;

tanara" [S.W. summit]. He also mentions the Dion Cass. liv. 4. " Suet. Oct. 91.

church of S. Salvatore in Maximis as at the S.W. end " Dion Cass. liv. 8 ; Ov. Fast. v. 579.

The Capitoline Hill.

19-

Atilius Calatinus and /Emilius Scaurus.^ Meetings of the Senate could be held in it,
and it was here tiiat, during the Gracchan tumults, the sitting was held when, gradually
excited by vehement denunciatory speeches, the Senators at last rushed out,
headed by Scipio Nasica, and murdered Tiberius Gracchus, near the statues of ^"'"^'"'■f^"'"-
the seven kings, which stood at the door of the temple.- Canina, seeing that the existence
of this large temple on the Capitol near the Temple of Jupiter was fatal to the hypothesis
that the latter temple was on the Ara Csli, has made an attempt to transplant it to the
Palatine, but without any success. The passages of Cicero and Appian, which vouch for
its situation, are too distinct to be explained away. With this Temple of ^ , .

■' ^ Timplcs oj

Fides Cicero mentions also a Temple of Mens as restored by Scaurus.^ Mens, Venus
L. Otacilius Crassus, Praetor in B.C. 217, had vowed this temple, and it was -^7"""' ^"P'-

tolina, Vtetrix,

built close to another sacred to Venus lirycina, vowed at the same time by and Ops.
O. Fabius Maximus after the battle of Trasimenus.* Chapels of Venus ^, , ^

' Cliapels of

Capitolina, Venus Victrix, and Ops are also mentioned as having been built Jupiter.
on the Capitol, and two Chapels of Jupiter without further titles.^

The Temple of Honour and Virtue, dedicated by Marius, must also have stood upon
the south-western summit, for Festus says that Marius was obliged to build it of rather
low dimensions, lest the augurs should order its demolition if it obscured the
view from the Auguraculum.*^ Now, as the augurs always faced the south or Temple of

... . Honour and

east m takmg the auspices, this temple could not well have stood in their Virtue.
way if it had been on the northern part of the hill, even if we place the
Auguraculum as far north as possible. It was also of considerable size, for one of the
decrees respecting Cicero's return was passed in it by the Senate.'^ The building is
mentioned by Vitruvius, and also in two inscriptions, as the work of ]\Iarius.^ He had
erected two trophies at Rome, one in commemoration of his Jugurthinc, the other of his
Cimbric victories ; ^ and it is probable that the Jugurthine trophy stood near or in the
Temple of Honour and Virtue on the Capitol, and the other on the Esquiline, for we find
that Propertius and Dion Cassius, speaking of Cleopatra's ambition to preside in the
Capitoline law-courts, connect these with the statues and arms of Marius, evidently alluding
to a trophy.^"

The principal Temple of Fortune was upon the Ouirinal, but there was also a Temple
of Fortuna Primigenia on the Capitol, near the Porta Stercoraria, if we are to accept
Nibby's ingenious conjecture, that Clemens Alexandrinus alludes to this Fortmw.
temple when he says that the Romans thought a dunghill the proper Primigenia.
place for the fickle goddess." The Temple of Jupiter Custos, erected by Batefidum.
Domitian, has been previously mentioned ; and there was also a Temple of Beneficium,
built by Marcus Aurelius on the Capitol.^- When to all these temples and chapels of

' Plut. Num. 16; Livy, i. 21 ; Cic. De Nat. Deor. * Vitruv. Prxf. vii. 17, iii. 2. 5 ; Orclli, Inscr.

ii. 23. - Appian, 15. C. i. 16 ; Val. Max. iii. 2, 17. 543 ; Nardini. Rom. .Ant. iii. p. 138.

' Cicero, loc. cit. ; Plut. De Fort. Rom. 10. " Val. Max. vi. 9, 14.

■* Liv')', xxii. 10, xxiii. 31 ; Ov. Fast. vi. 241. '" Dion Cass. I.4 ; Piopcrt. iii. (iv.) 11,45 ; Mcrivale.

'" Suet. Cal. 7; Galb. 18; Fast. Amit. viii. Id. Hist, of Romans, vol. ii. p. 114.

Oct. ; Livy, xx.\ix. 32 ; xxx-v. 41. * Festus, p. 322. " Livy, xxix. 36 ; Plut. De Fort. Rom. 10 ; Nibby.

' Cic. Pro .Sest. 54 ; Dc Div. i. 28; Val. Max. i. 7, Foro Romano, p. 145 ; Clem. Alex. Protrcpt. iv. 51,

5. Valerius confounds the Temple of Jupiter with p. 56, cd. Dindorf.

this temple. '- Dion Cass. Ixxi. 34.

C C

194 The Capitoline Hill.

the gods, glittering with gold and marble, we add a countless host of statues, monuments,

and trophies, commemorating all the principal persons and events of Roman history,

the space of the Ara CjbH seems far too small for their reception. Servius

Statues, &=c.

says that the statues of all the gods were placed in the Capitol. Ihe seven
kings of Rome were commemorated in like manner,- and the colossal figures of Jupiter
and Apollo, the former of which was visible from the Alban mount, towered above the rest.'*
It is to be observed that all these are spoken of as situated " in Capitolio," and none
of them " in Arce ;" and though it must be acknowledged that the words " in Capitolio " are
sometimes ambiguous, yet it seems more natural that these various minor buildings and
monuments should cluster immediately round the great national temple than that they
should be placed in the citadel. It \\xa\ be, at all events, fairly concluded from the
evidence before us, that the number of buildings immediately surrounding the Temple
of Jupiter was far greater than that of those in the Arx, and that the larger summit
of the hill ought therefore to be assigned to the former.

Only two temples are known to have stood upon the north-eastern height, the Temple
of Juno Moneta and a small Chapel of Concord. Of these the former was originally vowed
v' .7 /- .V 'by Camillus, and built on the site of the house of Titus Tatius and Manlius,

Temple of Juno ■' ' '

Moneta. the preserver of the Capitol.* The latter was vowed by L. Manlius, Praetor
Chapel of i^ Gaul in I!.C. 215, on occasion of a mutiny among his troops, and was
built two years afterwards in the citadel. •" This Chapel of Concord was,
so far as we can judge from the brief mention of it by Livy, a different building from the
much more important Temple of Concord on the slope of the hill near the I-'orum, the
ruins of which have been described above." It is to this latter and larger temple that Ovid
alludes in the well-known passage of his " Fasti," where he describes its restoration, and
adds the most important fact, that it stood under the Temple of Juno Moneta.' Such at
least seems to be the natural interpretation of the passage, and thus understood it furnishes
us with a valuable confirmatory proof that the Ar.x was upon the Ara C^eli height. For
we know, by the positive testimony of Livy and Ovid,^ that the Temple of Juno Moneta
was on the Ar.K, and the site of the Temple of Concord at the head of the Forum and
its connexion with Camillus are not open to any reasonable doubt. It is only in order
to meet the exigencies of the untenable h)'pothesis that the Arx was on the Caffarelli
height, that the groundless assumption has been made that there were two considerable
Temples of Concord, the one upon the Arx, the other at the head of the Forum ; for there
is positively no evidence for placing the Temple of Concord built by Camillus upon the
Ar.x, and separating it from the temple at the head of the Forum. The importance of
the occasion which it commemorated, and the suitability of a situation near the old
meeting-place (Comitium) of the Gentes, seem to confirm the opinion that it was identical
with the temple the ruins of which have been found behind the Arch of Severus.
The steps mentioned by Ovid led up from this spot, past the Career and the Basilica

' Serv. Ad ^n. ii. 319. ° App. B. C. i. 16. .\I. 51 ; Suet. Cal. 34. .See Propert. iv. 11, 46: "Jura

' Plin. Nat. Hist, xx.xiv. 7, 18. A statue of Scipio dare et statuas inter et arma Mari."

Asiaticus in Greek dress stood on the Capitol (Momm- * Livy, vi. 20; Plut. Cam. 36 ; Ov. Fasti, vi. 1S3.

sen, book ii. chap. ix. p. 494), and a triumphal arch ^ Livy, xxii. 33. '' Chap. vi. p. 90.

of Nero (Tac. Ann. XV. 18). Occasional clearances were ' Ov. Fasti, i. 637.

made, and some of the statues, &c. removed. Livy, * Livy, vi. 20; Ovid, Fasti, vi. 183.

The Capita line Hill. lo?

Opimia, to the Temple of Juno Moneta on the Ara Ca:H height. The title "Moneta"
appears to be a translation ol the Greek '\\\'i)yi,oavvr]} The temple became in later times
the Mint of Romc.-

The above-mentioned temples are the only buildings on the Arx of which we have
positive information. There were also some consecrated localities there, the exact situation
of which cannot be determined. Li\ y mentions the custom observed by the
Fetiales when concluding a treaty of taking consecrated boughs {va-baice)
from the Arx ; and doubtless there were some trees set apart for this purpose, and enclosed.^
There was also a place where the Rex sacrificulus, at the feast, of the Nonalia
on tlie nones of the month, proclaimed the feast days to be observed in the
following month.-* But the most sacred spot upon the Arx was the Auguraculum, whence
from the days of T. Tatius or of Numa the augurs were accustomed to
observe the heavens for signs of the Divine will.'' This was probably a lofty ' •^ "
platform or pulpit of stone, raised above the surrounding buildings so as to afford a wide
prospect, where the augur, looking generally towards the south, marked out his tcmplum and
took his observations. An argument not without weight has been drawn from this position
of the Auguraculum in favour of the opinion that the Arx was upon the Caffarelli hei"-ht.
For, it is urged, the view from the Ara Ca;li would be seriously interfered with by the
temples upon the other height, which lies nearly due south. There is not, however,
much reality in this objection. The Ara Caeli height is about fifteen feet higher than
the Caffarelli, and as the Temple of Jupiter upon the latter is known to have been a
comparatively low structure, perhaps partly in order not to obstruct tlie view from the
opposite height, and the Auguraculum was most likeh* raised upon a tower, the augurs
may easily have been able to see over the temple roof" Even if this be not admitted, is
there any impossibility in the supposition that the Temple of Jupiter enjoyed an exemption
from the rules applied to ordinary temples and houses .' Marius, it is true, was obliged
to make his Temple of Honour and Virtue of low proportions, in order not to obscure
the view of the augurs ; and the case of Claudius Centumalus, who was ordered by the
augurs to lower his house on the Crelian, is well known." But it is probable that in the
case of Marius, at least, their jealousy of a parvenu induced the aristocratic College of
Augurs to raise the objection.

The Sacra Via is said by Varro to have had one termination in the Arx, while the
other was at the Chapel of Strenia, near the Coliseum, whence tlie sacred
boughs were brought on New Year's Day, originally to Titus Tatius, at his "^"""""^"f

° ° J a J I Sacra Via.

house in the Arx. Hence afterwards the annual custom of the arignrinin

salutis and the New Year's gifts to the Emperor arose, which was then extended to

private life, and survives in the French ctrcnncs {stirnia)^ Augustus, who gradually

' Cic. Do Div. i. 45, loi ; Dc Nat. Deor. iii. iS. west. He would thus have the Temple of Jupiter on

' Livy, vi. 20 ; Suidas in voc. tlie left, which was the lucky side. Hcckcr, Handb.

' Livy, i. 24 ; x.\x. 43. iv. S.357. This explains Nissen's difficulty. See

* Varro, L. L. vi. 28. '•" Paul. Diac. p. 18. Das Templum, § 143, 21 1.

« See Becker, Handb. Rom. Ant. Th. ii. i, S. 313, ' Festus, p. 322 ; Cic. De Off. iii. 16, 66; Val.

Note. The Auguraculum was the place from which Max. viii. 2, i.

the limits of the city were defined, and according to * Varro, v. 47 ; Synimach. l-^p. x. 35 ; Cicero,

the Etruscan riles the augur in so doing faced to the Lcgg. ii. 8 ; Tac. Ann. xii. 23 ; Suet. Tib. 34, iS.c.

C C 2

196 The Capitolinc Hill.

united in himself all priestly as well as political functions, seems to have transferred
the Auguraculum to the Palatine (possibly to the ancient site whence Romulus was
said to have seen the vultures in his contest with Remus for the supremacy), for we
find it mentioned in the Catalogues of the Regionarii as situated on the Palatine.^ This
removal of the Auguraculum, as Preller remarks, was one cause of the disuse of the
name "Arx" in later times, and the application of the name " Capitolium " to the
whole hill.

Between the two summits of the hill was a space enclosed with a wall, supposed to be

the site of the Asylum opened by Romulus, whatever that ma}' have been.*

It was possibly a temple of refuge, the safety of which Romulus undertook
to guarantee. At all events there was a temple near the same place, according to

Dionysius and Livy, but the name of the god to whom it was dedicated was
Asylum. not known even in their time.^ Besides this temple of an unkno'.vn deity,

there stood also in the depression between the two summits the Temple

Teiiiplf of

VejiipUcr. of Vcjupiter, with a very ancient statue of that god made of cypress
wood.*

The Tarpeian Rock, whence criminals were hurled, was, according to the older
Italian topographers, down to the time of Nardini, placed at the western edge of
the hill towards the Tiber, where the Piazza Montanara now is. But
Tarpeian Rock, j^^^.^^^^^^ j^ j^ Mallc, in the "Memoircs de 1' Academic" for 18 19, pointed
out that this was inconsistent with the statements of Dionysius, who says that it was over
the Forum, and that the executions took place in full view of all the people/' This would
seem to place it on the south-east side towards the Palatine, near S. Maria dclla Conso-
lazione. Becker's objection that the hill is less steep there than at the western edge may
be met by the fact that several large masses of rock are recorded to have fallen down from
this spot, and therefore the face of the cliff is entirely changed." The further objection,
that the criminals would have fallen into the Vicus Jugarius, instead of which they ought,
according to custom, to have been cast over the city walls, seems to rest on the assumption
that criminals were always thrown over the walls, no proof of which has been adduced.
Tradition is equally divided between the two localities, and therefore the passages of
Dionysius above quoted must be held at present decisive in favour of the side towards the
Palatine and Forum.

Some of the streets and localities in the immediate neighbourhood of the hill can be

partially identified. The Clivus Capitolinus began to ascend the hill near the Temple

of Saturn, which is now proved to be the ruin with eight columns still

Clwus standinsr.^ Ascending along the northern side of the temple, the road, after

Capitolinus. '^ a. a

joining the street which led up from the Vicus Jugarius, turned to the right,
and wound up to the Capitol, passing over a part of the Intermontium. The outer gates
of the Capitol were possibly near the corner of the Tabularium, where the modern road
ascends to the Piazza del Campidoglio.

1 .See above, chap. viii. p. 158. " Vitruv.iv. 8,4 ; Cell. v. 12 ; Plin. N. H. xvi. 40, 79.

' .See Classical Museum, vol. iii. p. 190 ; Livy, i. 8 ; ^ Dionys. viii. 78 ; vii. 35.

Dion Cass, xlvii. ig ; Veil. i. 8, 6. '^ Livy, xxxv. 21 ; Flav. Blond. Inst. Rom. ii. 58.

» Dionys. ii. 15 ; Livy, ii. i. '' Serv. Ad /En. ii. 116, viii. 319 ; Festus, p. 322.

The Capitolinc Hill. jq-

On the other side of the Tabularium, and near the Career and Temple of Concord
there was a block of houses called the Insula Argentaria ;* and hence a street led over the
shoulder of the hill, called the Clivus Argentarius, nearly corresponding to Clhus
the present Salita di j\Iarforio. It ran past the Tomb of Bibulus and the ^rgeniarius.
Arcus Manus Carncae, into the main street called the Via Lata, which was '^^".'^,"^

' Bibulus.

nearly identical in direction with the modern Corse. The Tomb of Bibulus Arms Manm
and the other anonymous tomb near it, situated in the line of this ancient Cameic.
street, are only interesting as marking the former limits of the city. Both tombs were
probably outside the ancient walls, not far from the Porta Ratumena. On this road,
opposite to the Career, stood, according to the " Mirabilia," the reclining statue of the
river-god now in the Capitoline Museum. It was called " Marforio," a corruption of
" Mars in Foro," and gave the name to the street.-

The Tomb of Bibulus stands close by the junction of the modern streets of Macel
de' Corvi and Marforio. The front of it only can be seen, as the rest is built into
the wall of a house. The inscription is as follows : —

C. POPLICIO. L. F. BIBVLO. AEU. PL. HONORIS

VIRTVTISQVE CAVSS.\ SENATVS

COXSVLTO POPVLJQVE JVSSV LOCVS

MONVMENTO QVO IPSE POSTEREIQVE

EJVS INFERRENTVR PVBLICE DATVS EST.

The same inscription was also placed on the side of the tomb, where the beginning of
it may still be seen. It must not be inferred that the privilege of being buried within the
walls was granted to Bibulus contrary to the regulations of the Twelve Tables, which
forbade any corpse to be buried or burnt within the city walls. Had this been the case,
the exemption would have been expressly mentioned in the inscription ; and besides this,
the course of the Servian wall, which crossed the depression between the Ouirinal and
Capitoline, would naturally exclude the tomb. An /Edile, of the name C. Bibulus, is
mentioned in the "Annals " of Tacitus in the reign of Tiberius, A.D. 22,^ and the mixed
Italo-Grecian style of the tomb agrees tolerably well with this date. The whole is built of
travertine, and the basement is of the simplest description possible. Four Doric pilasters,
with Attic bases, surmounted by an Ionic entablature ornamented with wreaths of fruit
and ox-skulls, form the whole decoration of the front.

From the Via Argentaria, which passed o\er the eastern shoulder of the hill, another
street branched off near the Tomb of Bibulus, nearly in the direction of the Via Pedacchia,
and passed under the northern side of the hill. This is called in a Bull gf Anacletus the
" Via Publica qu;u ducit sub Capitolium." Many of the houses on the side
of the Via Pedacchia next to the hill have portions of walls of great antic[uity
about them, and chambers excavated in the tufa of the hill behind thcni to a great depth,
showing that the direction of the ancient street was not far from th;it of the modern

' Ordo Benedicti, § 51, in >rabilIon, iMus. Ital. «in's Philologus, 1S46, p. 104.
torn. ii. p. 143 ; Mir.ibili.a Roma-, cd. Parthcy, Berlin, = iMirabilia Roma-, ed. Panhcy. p. 20.

1869, p. 19 ; Bulla Anacleti, ap. Prcller, in Schncidc- ^ Tac. Ann. ill. 52.

1 98 The CapitoUne Hill.

Via Pedacchia.^ The Clivus Asyli possibly led up to the Intermontium from this street
The same street was probably continued along the north-eastern foot of the hill until, near
the Tordi Specchi, it met the principal road which entered the city from the Circus Flaminius
passing through the Carmcntal gate. Xcar this gate, which must be placed between the
Theatrum Marcelli and the hill, was the open space of the yEqnima;lium,
where a lamb-market was held for the supply of sacrificial victims to the
numerous temples in the neighbourhood.- It occupied the site of the house of Sp. Mselius,
which had been razed to the ground for his political offences.* From the yEquima;lium the
Vicus Jugarius passed along the southern foot of the hill to the Arch of Tiberius.

In the neic^hbourhood of the /Equimxlium stood the Elephantus Herbarius, mentioned

by the " Regionarii " and the anonymous writer of Einsicdlen, and some other mediaeval

writers. The Bull of Anacletus above quoted describes a large temple as

EUfhcntus s(-3f,(jj|-)cr just above this statue of an Elephant on the hill, a notice which has

Herbarius. ^ '

been supposed by Freller to point to the ruins of the Temple of Jupiter Capito-

linus.* Not far from the ^quimc-elium, and somewhere near the modern Piazza Montanara,

Portkus ^''^^ "^ cloister or portico bordering the street, called Porticus Crinorum. We

Crimriim. have a Basilica Jovis mentioned in the " Ordo Benedict! " near this, but whether

there is here any allusion to the Temple of the Capitoline Jupiter is very uncertain.''

The position of the Centum Gradus spoken of by Tacitus in his account of the attack
of the Vitellians is quite uncertain. I should be inclined -to place them somewhere on
Trophies of the southern slope of the hill near the Via di Monte Tarpeio, since Tacitus
Marms. connects them \\'ith the Tarpeian Rock.''

1 Bunsen, Beschr. Rom. iii. r, 43 ; Preller, loc. cit. ; ^ Preller, Note 102. Miiabilia Romic, cd. Parthey,

Reber, Ruinen Roms, p. 201. p. 18. An account of the various treatises which are

'^ Cic. De Div. ii. 17, 38; Livy, xx.Kviii. 28, "in comprised under the name of " Mirabilia" will be

Capitolio." found in Dr. J. G. Th. Grasse's " Beitrage zur

* Varro, L. L. v. 157 ; Livy, \\\ 16. Literatur und Sage des ]MittelaIters."

■* Preller, loc. cit. p. 102. " Tac. Hist. iii. 71.

Note A, pp. 164, 169. — The Capitoline Plan.

Panvinius, in Mai's " Spicilegium," viii. 654, in the introduction to his "Imago Antiquse Urbis,"
1558, gives the following account of the discovery of the Pianta Capitolina : — "Severi Imperatoris
principatu ut ex marmorea inscriptione liquet lapideis tabulis accuratam totius urbis ichnographiam
inciderunt, quae portico Templi Urbis Romselongo tempore affixa cum imperii et urbis interitu ignis vi
conscissa corruit Cujus infinitapoene marmorea frustula, et aliquot tabulas triennio ante /// caiiipo qui
basilim SS. CosmcB et Damiani adjacet, quam Urbis Templum fuisse praeter scriptonim auctoritatem
eo etiam testimonio confirmari potest, ruderibus alte egesris, casu aliquot fossores terrje viscera lucri
causa perscrutantes invenere. Ea fragmenta a Torquato comite, ejus campi possessore, Alexandre
Cardinal! Farnesio dono data, in ejus sedibus me custode diligenter asservantur."

1 See Becker, Handb. i. S. xii. and 74; Jordan, in Canina, Indicazione, Prcf. p. 25 ; Archasologia of the
Monatsbericht der Preussisch. Akad. 1867, p. 526; London Soc. of Ant. vol. .\lii. pt. i. p. 11.

The Capitoliiie Hill. loo

Gamucci, in his " Antichith di Roma," p. 33, says of the Pianta : — " S' e ritrovato nei tempi nostri
per Vl. Giovanni Antonio Dosi da San Geniiniano, giovane virtuoso, architetto ed antiquario di non
poca espettazione liaitro al detto tempio (S. Cosma e Damiano) una facciata nella quale era il disegno
della citth di Roma con parte dcgli edifizi pili antichi di quei tempi." Flaminio Vacca, " Meraorie,"
No. I (Nardini's "' Roma Antica," vol. iv.) says : — " Mi ricordaaver veduto cavare dietro alia Chiesa de'
SS. Cosma e Damiano e vi fu trovata la pianta di Roma profilata in marmo, e delta pianta serviva per
incrostatura al muro ; certa cosa e die detto tempio fosse edificato ad onore di Romolo e Remo
fabbricatori di Roma : ed al presente delta pianta si ritrova nell' antiquario del Cardinal Famese."

It is to be observed that Panvinius speaks of the plan as found near the church, Gamucci in the
church, and Vacca behind the church on a wall. Jordan thinks that the plan was lying about near
the place where the church was to be built, in fragments, the most considerable of which were used
to cover part of the walls when the church was built.

The date of this discovery is fixed to the interval between i558and 1565. It is not mentioned by
Panvinius in his edition of 1558, but he speaks of it in his second edition as having been discovered
" triennio ante." Gamucci, whose book was published 1565, mentions the discover)', as we have seen.

The plan was first published by Bellori in 1673. He says that the fragments were kept in the
Famese palace, but that Fiilvius Orsinus had a copy on paper of them, which aftervvards was placed
in the Vatican librar)\ Jordan gives an account of this MS. (Cod. Vat. 3439). Some parts of it
were apparently lost in binding up the sheets on which the plan was sketched. Seventy-four out of
the 167 fragments given by Bellori are wanting. There can be no doubt that Bellori copied the MS.
of Fulvius Ursinus, and it seems strange that he does not mention the large number of portions which
are wanting. The architect Dosi, mentioned by Gamucci, may possibly have made the original
plan, soon after the discovery, at the desire of Torquato or Cardinal Alex. Farnese.

Bellori's copy is reproduced in Graevius' Thesaurus, tome iv. 1732. The fragments were placed
by Benedict XIV. in 1742 on the walls of the staircase of the Capitoline Museum in twenty-six
groups. Engravings of them have since been published at the Calcografia Camerale.

The inscription by Piranesi at the Capitoline Museum speaks of some fragments, published by
Bellori, having been lost since his time. These are restored from his book, and marked with an
asterisk in the Capitoline collection. Six groups are placed there which are not contained in Bellori's
copy or in the Vatican MS. These six must therefore have been lost before the plan in the Vatican
library was made, and have now been found by accident or by further search. Piranesi gives the
whole twenty-six groups in his first volume of "Antiquities," Rome, 1756.

The six groups of fragments mentioned in the inscription at the Capitoline Museum as not
contained in Bellori were engraved for the Calcografia Camerale in 1764 by Canale. The twenty
groups of Bellori are published by Canina on the margin of his map of Rome on a reduced scale.

Unfortunately Bellori's copy of the Vatican drawing is not always accurate. Jordan has pointed
out several instances in which he has made unwarranted assumptions or omitted jjarts of the original.
The restorations on the Capitoline staircase partake of course of this uncertainty. (Monatsbericht
der preussisch. Akad. 1867, p. 540.)

The marble used in the plan is an inferior kind of white Carrara, with bluish veins. The
average thickness of the plates can hardly be determined with accuracy. There is no trace of any
border or division into sections, so that M. Jordan thinks that it cannot have been fastened upon
the wall like Agrippa's map of the world or the Fasti Consulares, but was more probably used as a
pavement.

The size of the whole can only be approximately ascertained. The twenty-six large frames which
now contain the fragments, but are not quite filled by them, occupy an area of about 162 square feet.
The radius of the Rotunda of SS. Cosma e Damiano is about twenty-three feet, so that it is
large enough to have contained a plan three times the size. The plan included all the fourteen
regions, fragments of all except the second, sixth, and seventh are still remaining, and the scale was
about (Canina, "Indicaz." p. 29) -i^'Ca. of the actual size of the localities represented. Buildings and

200 Tlic Capitolinc Hill.

streets of all kinds, and not only the principal buildings of the city, are represented. We possess but
a small part of the whole. M. Jordan thinks that it was probably placed oq the pavement of the
courtyard of the Templum Pacis or that of ^^enus and Rome, and protected by a railing.

Canina's opinion was that it formed the pa\ement of the round temple, now the porch of SS.
Cosma e Damiano.

Becker has shown that in all probability the orientation of the Capitoline plan was arranged mth
reference to the division of the horizon as a templum in the art of augury. The augur looked towards
the south, and from a comparison of the extant ruins of the Theatre of Marcellus, the Theatre of
Pompey, the Hecatostylon, and the Porticus Octavite with the plan, we find that in each case the
names are placed so as to be read by a person looking towards the southern point of the plan. This
has been confirmed by an observation of Jordan's on the fragment (Tab. xi.) containing the words
" mutatorium " on the left, and " area radicaria " on the right. The first of these places was in the
first region, and the second in the twelfth. As the twelfth region lies to the west of the first, the
spectator looking towards the south has the t^velfth, in which the Area radicaria lay, to the right, and
the first to the left. Canina also confirms Becker's opinion. (Indicazione, p. 30.)

The inscription on the plan which fixes the date is upon a fragment representing the Clivus
Victorije, and runs as follows: "Severi at Antonini (Caracalla) Augg. N.N. (nostrorum)." The city
had been surveyed in the reign of Vespasian (Plin. Nat. Hist. iii. 66), and this survey was probably used
for the plan of Severus. That Emperor and Caracalla rebuilt nearly all the edifices in the neighbour-
hood of the Clivus Victorias, which had been destroyed by fire in the reign of Commodus, and their
names were probably placed on that part of the plan to indicate this fact. Spart. Sept. Sev. c. 23 says
that Severus did not place his own name on the buildings he restored, but this would not pre\-ent him
from placing it on the plan. A special monument, the inscriptions on which are partially preser\'ed
(see Canina, "Indicaz." p. 27), was erected in commemoration of the restorations of tliese Emperors.

Two fragments of the Pianta Capitolina were discovered in 1867, during an excavation under-
taken by the monks of SS. Cosma e Damiano. They represent the ground plan of the Porticus
Livia;, an oblong space surrounded by double colonnades. Mr. J. H. Parker (Archsologia of the
London Soc. of Antiq. xlii. pt. i. p. 11) seeks to identify this ground plan with the great platform
between the Velia and Coliseum, commonly supposed to be the platform of the Temple of Venus
and Rome. It is, however, quite a sufficient refutation of his view to point out that the remains
of the central building now existing on the platfonn differ entirely from the plan represented on
the new fragments. It is stated that the new fragments were discovered in a pit dug in a court-
yard behind the Church and Monastery of SS. Cosma e Damiano, at the foot of a long lofty wall
of brick, on which numerous small bronze hooks, such as were used for securing a facing of
marble slabs, were found. These hooks do not necessarily indicate, as Mr. Parker thinks, that the
marble plan of Rome was attached to the wall by means of them, for such hooks or rivets were
frequently used to attach ordinary marble facing to brick walls.

Note B, p. 174. — Pal.\tine Excavations on the Site of the Villa Spada or Mills.

See Guattani's " Monumenti Antichi inediti ovvero Notizie sulle Antichita e belle arti di Roma
per I'anni 1784, 1785, 1786, 1787, 1788, 1789, dedicati alia santita di uostro signore Papa Pio VI.
felicemente regnante. In Roma nella stamperia Pagliarini 1784 — 1788." Tom. I. 1785, p. 30.
Avanzi Palatini.

Flaminio Vacca, in his " Memorie," mentions some discoveries made in his time which fomied
the basis of the plan of the Palatine ruins published by Bufalini, in the time of Julius III. Onofrius
Panvinius published a more complete plan. After his time excavations on the Palatine were under-

The Capitoliiic Hill.

20I

taken by Biancliini in 1725 (Bianchini, Palazzo dei Cffisari, Opera postuma). About 1775 Signer Abate
Rancoureil undertook some excavations on his property at the eastern end of the Palatine in the wardens
formerly called Orti Magnani. The ground had been pre\nously excavated by the Spada" family
who found many of the sculptures (now in their palace) there. Sig. Rancoureil discovered many
more fragments of architecture and sculpture, a great quantity of marble, two statues of Leda one
of which was taken to England, (where it now is ?) the Apollo Sauroktonos of the \'atican, and
others. Piranesi took the pains to send persons at night to explore these excavations, in spite
of a fierce mastiff which the owner had chained there. They took baskets of meat and bread with
them to quiet the mastiff. Two plans are given by Barberi, one of the surveyors who ex])lored these
excavations, of an upper and lower series of buildings. The upjier series was marked by walls above
the level of the soil ; the lower was buried under the soil. Guattani thinks that the building called
Siracusa in Augustus's time was here. The upper tier was a cavrediun:, with columns (peristylium)
and a number of large rooms and salons, and eight smaller annexes. The lower part belonged
to the under part of the same peristylium. with tvvo wings towards the east and west.

D 1)

CHAPTER IX.

PART I.

THE AV EN TINE AND CyELIAN HILLS.

AVKN'TINE : NATURAT, FEATURES — EXTENT— SEAT OF THE MONTANI — SEAT OF THE PLEES — ALTARS OF EVANDER,
JUPITER INVENTOR, JUPITER ELICIUS, AND CONSUS— CAVE OF CACUS — REMURIA, LAURETUM, ARMILUSTRIUM
— TEMPLE OF DIANA — TEMPLE OF JUNO REGINA — CLIVUS PUBLICIUS — TEMPLE OF MINERVA — TEMPLES OF
LIBERTAS, BONA DEA SUBSAXANA, VORTUMNUS, AND LUNA — THERMyE SURAN^, DECIAN^, AND VARIANT —
MAGAZINES — PORTICUS vEMILIA, TUCCIA, AND JUNIA — HORREA GALBES ET ANICIANA — EMPORIUM — MONTE
TESTACCIO — PYRAMID OF CESTIUS — THERMjB ANTONINIAN/E.

CyBLIAN : NATURAL FEATURES — NAME C^LIUS — TOMB OF SCIPIOS — COLUMBARIA — ARCH OF DRUSUS — VALLEV OF
EGERIA — AQUA MERCURII — FOSSA QUIRITIUM — SESSORIUM — AMPHITHEATRUM CASTRENSE — NERONIAN AQUEDUCT
— LATERAN PALACE— CAMPUS MARTIALIS^S. STEFANO ROTONDO — MACELLUM MAGNUM — TEMPLE OF CLAUDIUS
— /EDES VECTILIAN/E — ARCH OF DOLABELLA AND CLIVUS SCAURI — DEA CARNA — MINERVA CAPTA— ISIUM
METELLINUM — CASTRA PEREGRINA — CAPUT AFRIC^E — MICA AUREA— JUPITER R£DUX — NAVICELLA — HOUSES OF
CENTUMALUS, MAMURRA, VERUS, AND TETRICUS.

" Hkc duo prseterea disjectis culniina muris

Reliquias veterumque vides monumenta virorum."

^'''- viii. 355.

HE Aventine hill is for the most part composed of volcanic granular tufa similar

to that of the Palatine, with a bed of harder tufa occupying the central part

of the hill round S. Sabina. But it also differs from the other hills in having

aa a along its western edge a series of fluviatile deposits, which are remarkable

on account of the height at which they now stand above the level of the

river. These deposits are described as follows by Brocchi : — -

" The lowest consists of a very friable greyish tufa, compounded of fine volcanic
sand with small grains of pyroxtne and vitreous amphighie, scarcely discernible bj' the
naked eye. Above this lies a second bed of siliceo-argillaceous sand, of a yellowish hue,
one foot and a half in depth, and hardly separable by any distinct line from the tufa
below. This seems to indicate that they were deposited at the same time. There is
clear proof that the tufa was deposited in water, for in the cave commonly called the
Cave of Cacus it is divided into strata, each of which has its surface covered with scales
of mica, showing by their position that they have settled down after suspension in a
fluid. Above the siliceo-argillaceous sand lies a very large accumulation of tufaceous
matter, consisting of granular tufa mixed with fragments of lava, nodules of lime, and
of harder tufa. This tufaceous bed is covered b)- a series of beds of calcareous sand
and travertine, which rise to the upper edge of the hill above the Tiber.

The Avetdinc and Cceliaii Hills. 20 ''

"There is a good deal of difference in the structure of these various beds of
travertine, some being compact, others celhilar, and a third kind nodular. In some
parts they are rich in fossils, and contain numerous impressions of imbedded reeds,
leaves, and branches.

"They rise to the height of ninet}^ feet above the present bed of the Tiber, showing
the immense alteration of level which has taken place either by the subsidence of the
water or by the elevation of the land, and extend along the edge of the hill from the
Arco di Salara to the Bastione di Paolo, a space of nearly half a mile.' There are
many points along the public road passing between the river and the Aventine from
which this immense mass of travertine may be viewed. Near the Arco di Salara it assumes
the character of a less compact stone, and is penetrated with numerous cylindrical holes,
the remains of vegetable stalks round which the stone has formed itself"

The highest point of the Aventine, at the Church of S. Alessio, is 146 feet above
the level of the sea. The side towards the Tiber, where the great bed
of travertine lies, is precipitous, but on the south the hill slopes more
gradually down to tlie Via di Porta S. Paolo, which passes along the valley separating the
Aventine proper from the hill on which S. Saba and S. Balbina stand. That this latter hill,
which is nearly half as large as and quite distinctly separate from the hill of S. Alessio and
S. Prisca, was not included in ancient times under the name Aventine, seems to be shown
by the fact that the gates of the Servian wall, the Porta Naevia and the Porta Rau-
dusculana, which stood on or near this hill, belonged to the twelfth region, called Piscina
Publica, and not to the thirteenth, which was named after the Aventine.^

Nor does the hill of S. Saba and S. Balbina appear to have had an\- distinctive appel-
lation ; and it therefore seems doubtful whether it should be included within the Servian
walls or not. The question might be set at rest hy a thorough in\-estigation of the
remains of the Servian walls between the two hills ; but until this has been done we
must be content to remain in uncertainty. The inference to be derived from the
absence of all mention of this hill seems to point to its exclusion ; while the remains of
an ancient wall upon the height itself near S. Balbina, and the direction of the ruins
found in the vineyard of the Collegio Romano, would lead us to include it.^

The Aventine was not enclosed within the pomcerium until the time of Claudius.
It was a subject' of discussion even in the time of the Antonine Emperors whence
this exclusion arose. Both Sylla and Julius Caesar, when they extended the pomceriuni
of the city, had deliberately excluded the Aventine. The explanation may possibly be
that the Aventine was considered an unlucky hill, because Remus, the rival of the
national hero, had chosen it as his station to observe the auspices, and had failed to
obtain a favourable omen.*

Other historical peculiarities besides that of the exclusion from the pomoerium have
been observed in this hill, which seem to distinguish it from the rest of
the hills of Rome. In the first place, in conjunction with the Capitoline, ^''<'' "/ ""-■

MoiiUiiii.

it was at an early period separated from the rest of the hills for strictlj-

' See above, chap. ii. p. 20. which would exclude the hill of S. Saba and Baf-

' Grut. Inscr. p. ccxlix. 8 ; Orell. Inscr. 5. Dionys. bina.
X. 31, gives the circumfrence at twel.'e stadia only, ^ .See chap. iv. p. 50. 4 Qg]| ^jj; ,^

D D 2

:;o4 The Aveiitinc and Ccrlian Hills.

urban purposes, such as the distribution of water from the aqueducts. Local matters of

this kind were settled by the division before mentioned of the citizens into Montani

and Pagani. The IMontani were the inhabitants of the Palatine district and the four

local tribes of Servius, while the Pagani were those who lived upon the Capitol and

Aventinc.' Mommsen has therefore conjectured that a second fortified height existed

upon the Aventine similar to that upon the Capitoline, forming a guild or separate

parish for all local arrangements.- Cicero certainly speaks of the Pagani and Montani,

the Mercuriales, and the Capitolini as local boards for the administration of the affairs of

different districts,^ but the further inference which Mommsen seems to draw as to the

existence of a citadel on the Aventine is without reasonable evidence to support it.

A second characteristic of the Aventine was its connexion with the plebeian order

in the Roman state. The legend represented it as connected with the

Seat of the indigenous Latin tribes, and derived its name Aventinus from a king of

Plebs. ° . , .

the Alban dynasty, whereas it had been in more remote times called
JMurcius. Most of the plebeian families were derived from the Latin section of the
Roman people, and the connexion thus begun was maintained through the long struggles
between the two orders. The Aventine always remained the hill of the opposition
party, from the time when Servius Tullius built upon it the Temple of Diana,'' the
sanctuary of the Latin League. The inhabitants established upon it by Ancus Marcius
from the captured towns of Politorium, Tellena, and Ficana do not appear to have
remained there," for in the year B.C. 456 it had become again public property, and
was distributed among the poorer plebeian families b\- the Icilian law.^ After the
murder of Virginia the plebs occupied the Aventine, and forced the Decemvirate
to resicrn • and from that time to the age of the Gracchan disturbances it remained the
strono-hold of the liberal party. The Gracchi themselves lived here, and Tiberius
Gracchus, evidently in allusion to his political principles, founded a Temple of Liberty
upon it. His brother's melancholy fate is also connected with this hill, for it was on
the Aventine that Caius and his friend Flaccus endeavoured to organize their unsuccessful
resistance to the Consul Opimius, which ended in the death of both the leaders and
the annihilation of the hopes of the popular part\-."

The plebeian character of the Aventine was doubtless one reason why its topography is

so little noticed in history, since the buildings upon it slAred the obscurity

Altars of Evan- ^j- jj.^ inhabitants. Another more serious reason was the late date at which

der, Jupiter . , r i • /^ • ^i i

Inventor it became an integral part of the city. Owing to these causes we scarcely

Jupiter Eliehis, know the sitc of a single temple or building of any kind upon it. The

earliest sanctuaries planted here were the Altars of Evander,** Jupiter

Inventor, Elicius, and Consus," near the northern point of the hill. The so-called Cave

1 The origin of the name Aventinus is unknown. Festus, p. 340. * Livy, i. 45.
Varro, L. L. v. § 43 ; Livy, i. 3 ; Paul. Diac. p. 19 ; = Livy, i. 33 ; Dionys. iii. 44.

Hier. ap. Rone. p. 265. See also Virgil, M.n. vii. 656. " Ibid. iii. 31 ; Ibid. x. 31.

Varro suggests a number of derivations, none of '' Bunsen adds the fact that Cola di Rienzi

which seem vei-y probable. Livy, Paulus Diaconus, assembled his friends and supporters on this hill,

and Hieronymus trace it to one of the Alban kings Beschreibung, vol. iii. part i. p. 39S ; Mommsen,

who is said to have been buried here. book iv. chap. iii. * Dionys. i. 32.

■ Mommsen, book i. chap. vii. " Dionys. i. 39 ; Ov. Fasti, iii. 327 ; Varro, vi. §

2 Cic. Ad O. Fratrem, ii. 5 ; Pro Dom. xxviii. 74 ; 94 ; Fast. Capr. xii. Kal. Sep.

The Aventinc and Ccrlian Hills.

20:

of Cacus* was also on the northern side : and with it as equally mythical may be mentioned
the Reniuria,- where Remus is said to have seen the \ultures, and afterwards to have been
buried, and the Lauretum, a district apparently named from an ancient ^

Lave of Caciis.

laurel-wood.^ Plutarch names a place called the Armilustrium on the Remuiia.
Aventine, where he says that Tatius, the Sabine king, was buried. \'arro, Armiiusirinm.
on the other hand, identifies the Armilustrium with the Circus Maxmuis, and .says that
Tatius was buried in the Lauretum.* Unfortunately we have no means of tracing the
sites of these most ancient localities b_\- which the Aventine was connected with the
oldest traditions of Rome.

The most famous of all the buildings on the Aventine was the Temple of Diana,
built by Servius from the contributions of the Latin states as a common temple for the
Latin League.^ The temple seems to have been intended by Servius to
prevent the rival sanctuary upon the Alban hill from becoming the natural Tc-mpUof
centre of the League, and to secure the hegemony to Rome. Whether, as
Dionysius and Livy relate, the structure of the temple itself, as well as the organization
of the League, resembled that of the lonians at Ephesus is a matter of doubt.** Becker
rejects the idea as a mere fanc\' of the historians, while Mommsen finds in it a trustworthv
instance of transplanted worship.^ Some confirmation of the statement is certainly to be
found in the fact mentioned by Strabo, that the wooden statue of Diana in the Romano-
Latin Federal Temple of Diana was a copy of the Alassiliot statue of Artemis, for there
can be no doubt that the statue at Massilia was similar to the Ephesian statue. The
connexion of the two is plainly shown b\- the great reverence paid by the Phocitan
]\Iassiliots to the Ephesian Artemis, as stated by Strabo.*

From a passage of ?ilartial we learn that the temple stood near the house of Licinius
Sura, and that this commanded a good view of the Circus f whence it may naturally be
inferred that the Temple of Diana stood in the neighbourhood of the modern S. Prisca.
Martial also informs us that the festival of Diana was held on the Ides of August ;^'' and,
from his mention of it as one of the principal festivals, we may conclude that, long after
the entire absorption of the Latin confederacy in the Roman Empire, the worship of
Diana retained its celebrity. In the time of Augustus the original terms of the Latin
League, engraved in Greek letters on bronze pillars, and also the Lex Icilia de Aventino
publicando, were seen in this temple by Dionysius." About the same time L. Cornificius
seems to have restored the building,'- and it was still standing in the later times of the
Empire, for we find it mentioned in the " Curiosum."'^

Second in importance among the Aventine temples was that of the Veientine goddess
Juno Regina, dedicated by Camillus after the conquest of Veil." Livy
gives an account of certain ceremonies performed in honour of this goddess, '^^"'P'^ »/ 7">>'>
by order of the haruspices, on account of her temple having been struck by
lightning. The matrons on this occasion made a public collection among themselves,

^ Solin. i. 8 ; Virg. /En. viii. 190; Ov. Fast. i. 551. " Becker, Handb. vol. i. p.451 ; Mommsen, book i.

- Paul. Uiac. p. 276 ; Dionys. i. 85-87. chap. vii. » Strabo, iv. 1,4, 5, pp. 179, igo.

^ Varro, L. L. v. § 152 ; Plin. N'at. Hist. .\v. 30,40; ' Mart. vi. 64, 12. '» Ibid. .\ii. 67.

Dionys. iii. 43. ■■ Plut. Rom. 23 ; Varro, v. 153. " Dionys. iv. 26, x. 32. '= Suet. Aug. 29.

° Hence the Aventine is called Collis Dianae by » Curios. Reg. xiii. ; Becker, Handb. p. 715.
Martial, vii. 73, xii. 18. '^ Livy. i. 45 ; Dionys. iv. 26. " Livy, v. 22, 23, 31, xxi. 62 ; Plut. Cam. 6.

2o6 The Aventinc and Ccrlian Hills.

and presented the goddess with a golden basin, which was solemnly offered at the
Aventine Temple. A processional hymn in honour of Juno Regina was also performed by
seven and twenty virgins, the account of which, as it gives important information about
the streets of the city, is here translated at length : — " Two white heifers were led at
the head of the procession from the Temple of Apollo through the Carmental gate ;
behind them two cypress-wood statues of Juno were carried ; then seven and twenty
virgins, clothed in long robes, marched singing a hymn in honour of Juno Regina. The
line of virgins was followed by the Decemvirs, crowned with laurel and wearing the
striped gown. They went from the gate along the Vicus Jugarius into the Forum, where
the procession halted, and a choral ode was performed by the virgins. Thence they
passed by way of the \'icus Tuscus and the Velabrum into the Forum Boarium, and then
ascended the Clivus Publicius to the Temple of Juno Regina." ^ The Temple of Juno
was one of those restored and beautified by Augustus,- and the Clivus Publicius here
mentioned can be placed without doubt near the Porta Trigemina, the situation of

which has already been determined.^ It was so called from the ^Fldiles L.
Pub/kins. ^"'l ^I- Publicius Malleolus, who had widened and paved it, and made it

the chief approach to the Aventine.^
Near the Temple of Diana there stood a Temple of Miner\'a, in which, according to
some authors, Caius Gracchus took refuge immediately before his flight and death."

Its restoration by Augustus, together with the Temple of Juno Regina, is
finpfoj recorded in the " Monumentum Ancvranum."'' Canina has ingeniously con-

jectured that a fragment of the Capitoline plan belongs to this temple, which
contains the ground plan of a temple with the inscription " Minervae," and a portico near
it with the name " Cornifici," perhaps alluding to some portico erected by Cornificius in
commemoration of his labour in restoring the Temple of Diana. ^ The guild of poets
and actors of Rome had a part of this temple assigned to them for their common worship,
a privilege granted to them by the Roman state in gratitude for the service rendered by
the poet Livius Andronicus in composing a thanksgiving ode after the fortunate turn
taken by the Hannibalian war B.C. 272.*

The notices we have of the Temples of Liberty, of the Bona Dea Subsaxana, and of
Vortumnus are almost more scanty even than those which relate to the above-mentioned.

The first was founded by Tib. Gracchus, and contained a painting which was

Temples of ......

Libertas Bona placed in it bj' his SOU. There is a doubt whether it is identical or not with
Dea Subsaxana, ti^e Atrium Libertatis mentioned in Livy and Cicero ; but the most probable
conclusion seems to be that it was not, and that the Atrium Libertatis was
on the site afterwards occupied by a part of Trajan's Forum.^ The second of the above-
mentioned temples is placed by Ovid near the Sacrum Saxum, where Remus took the
auspices ; and as it was in accordance with religious rules that he should look towards
the south in so doing, we may conclude that it was on the south-eastern side near

1 Livy, x.wii 37. ^ Mon. Ancyr. tab. iv.

-- Monum. Ancyr. tab. iv. " Canina, Indie. Top. p. 532.

3 Chap. iv. p. 51 ; Frontin. De Aquaed. 5. •* Festus, loc. cit.

■> Festus. p. 231 ; Varro, v. p. 15S ; Fasti, v. 2S7. " Livy,xxiv. 16 ; Suet. Aug. 29 ; Paul. Diac. pp. 121,

^ Festus, pp. 257, 333 ; Ov. Fasti, vi. 727 ; Momm- 241 ; Mon. Ancyr. ; Livy, xxv. 7, xxxiv. 44 ; Cic. Ad

sen. vol. iii. p. 129. .4tt. iv. 16 ; Pro Mil. 22. See above, chap. vii. p. 144.

The Aventine and Cccliaii Hills. 207

S. Prisca. This is confirmed b\- the " Notitia," which places it in the twelfth region.' The
third temple, together \\ith a Temple of Jupiter, is only mentioned by the " Monumentum
Ancyranum " and the " Fasti Amiterni."

A Temple of Luna on the Aventine is mentioned by Livy, and as the " Notitia" includes
this temple in the region called Circus jMaximus, we may suppose it to have
been near the northern corner. Caius Gracchus in his flight leaped down Temple of
from the walls of this temple, in order to reach the Sublician bridge and
escape across the Tiber ; whence it seems probable that the Sublician bridge was north
of the Porta Trigemina.- Considerable damage was done to the buildino-s on the
Aventine by a fire in the time of Tiberius, and in the Neronian fire the Temple of Luna
was destroyed.^

Besides these temples we find public therma: mentioned as situated in the Aventine
region. One of them was built by L. Sura, a friend of Trajan, who also
had a splendid house on the hill. Elagabalus seems to have enlarged and """"

beautified the thermae, and they were afterwards called after his familj- Variaua;
name, the Varian Baths.* Decius also built thermae here.^ It is likely Decimur.
that such buildings would be placed on the lower part of the Aventine refion, for con-
venience of obtaining water.

Along the strip of ground between the hill and the river were also a great number of
warehouses and magazines, especially for storing corn, among which we have especial
mention in the " Notitia " of the Horrea Galbes et Aniciana, and in Livy of
the Porticus ^Emilia and Porticus Tuccia et Junia." The valley between the ^^^"g"'""^'-
Aventine proper and the hill of SS. Saba and Balbina belonged to the ^^'"'''•''' ^"^'"•^

° d Antciana.

twelfth region. This appears as well from what has previously been men-
tioned with respect to the position of the gates and of the Temple of P'""''""

.'Emilia, Tuccia,

the Bona Dea in the twelfth region, as also from the account given by andjunia.
Ammianus Marcellinus, of the carriage of an obelisk from the Porta
Ostiensis to the Circus Maximus through the twelfth region ; for no other road between
those two points could be taken except the road lying along this vallej." The twelfth
region also contained all the wide district, in which the Baths of Caracalla lie, extending
south-west of the Via Appia to the walls of Aurelian. The IVIonte Testaccio and the
district along the river-bank appear on the other hand to have belonged to the
thirteenth region.

The '.'Notitia" mentions, besides the Horrea Galbes et Aniciana, thirty-five other public
storehouses in the Aventine district. The ruins of a part of these are still to be seen near
the Via della Marmorata, where some brickwork chambers are still used as storehouses.
Other ruins of the same kind may be found in the Vigna Cesarini, further down the river.
The pillars of these are still standing, and though they are now choked \\ itli rubbish, \ct
it is plain that they formerly belonged to one of the goods sheds which were ranged along

' Ov. Fast. V. 148; Cic. Pro Dom. 63; Span. * Mart. vi. 64, 12; Dion Cass. Ixviii. 15; Canina,

Hadr. 19 ; Propert. v. 9 ; Macrob. Sat. i. 12. Indie. Top. p. 583 ; Curios. Reg. xiii.

' Livy, xl. 2 ; Aur. Vict. Vir. 111. 65 ; Ov. Fasti. » Eutrop. ix. 4 ; Rone. Chron. ii. 212.

iii- 883. 6 Curios. Reg. xiii. ; Livy, xxxv. 10, 41.

" Tac. Ann. vi. 45, xv. 41. ' Amni. .Marcell. xvii. 4.

208

The Aventinc and Carlian Hills.

Entponurn,

the qua}'. The passages of Livy just quoted, with respect to the Porticus /Emilia and
Porticus Tuccia et Junia, authorize us in giving the name of Emporium to
this quarter ; and the same historian further informs us that the Censors in

174 B.C., O. P"ulvius Flaccus and A. Postumius Albinus, improved the Emporium and

constructed additional warehouses for goods.'

Nearly in the centre of the vineyards which occupy the ground between these ruins of
a part of the ancient Emporium and the city walls stands the hill called
Monte Testaccio, from its being composed almost entirely of potsherds

mixed with rubbish. The hill is 150 feet high, and one third of a mile in circumference.

Many conjectures have been hazarded about its origin, which still, however, remains a

Monte Testaccio.

THE TIBER .VND THE MARMOR.'VT.'V, WITH THE C.^PITOLINE HILI. IN THE DIST.^NCE,
.\ND THE .4VE.\TINE OX THE RIGHT.

mystery. The hypothesis which has gained most credit rests upon a passage in Tacitus, in
which that historian, after giving an account of the Neronian fire, proceeds to say that
Nero intended to have the rubbish carried to the Ostian marshes, and therefore gave
orders that the corn ships, after discharging their freight at the Emporium, should take a
load of rubbish on their return to Ostia.- This explanation appears .satisfactory until the
peculiar composition of the hill is examined. Nearly the whole mass consists of pieces
of broken earthenware, and is not such as we should expect the rubbish left after a fire to
be. The absence of bricks may perhaps be explained by the supposition that they were
saved in order to be used a second time, but the immense quantity of potsherds still

1 Livy, xli. 27. Bunscn's Besclireibung, vol. iii. p. 432. Se Note A at the end of Part I. of this chapter.

'- Tac. .^iin. \v. 43.

Tlu- Avcntinc and Ctclian Hills. 20Q

remains to be accounted for. Further, it is said that a coin of Gallienus has been found in
such a position on the smaller portion of the hill as to leave no doubt that the accumula-
tion of that part could not have been anterior to Gallienus. A medal of Constantine
has also been found in the interior of the larger portion.^ The same objections apply to
Bunsen's explanation, that the hill is composed of the rubbish cleared away by Honorius
when he restored the walls of Aurclian, and to other ingenious hypotheses of the same
kind, none of which account for the peculiar composition of the hill.

M. Reifferscheid, in a paper communicated to the Roman Arclueological Institute, has
propounded the most natural and proper solution of the problem.- He observes that it is
not necessary to go further than the magazines of the neighbouring Emporium for an
explanation of this immense mass of potsherds. Every kind of provisions brought to
Rome in ancient times was stored in earthenware jars ; not onl\- wine, but corn, oil, and
other articles of commerce. A fire, therefore, which consumed any part of the Emporium,
would leave rubbish composed in great part of fragments of earthen jars {dolia); and since
many such fires must have happened in the course of ages, and immense quantities of
earthen jars must have been broken in the process 01 unloading, it does not seem at all
impossible that so large an accumulation of matter should have taken place.

At Alexandria and at Cairo similar heaps of potsherds are to be seen outside the walls.
and their extent, though less, as might be expected, than at Rome, is such as to create
the greatest astonishment in the traveller's mind when he sees them for the first time. An
attempt has been made by I\I. Reifferscheid to determine the earliest date at which we can
suppose this gradual deposition of potsherds to have taken place, but the data upon which
he builds his conclusion that the accumulations forming the Monte Testaccio first beo-an to
be deposited in the time of the decay of the Empire, about the third century, are not
by any means such as to produce conviction."

Near the Monte Testaccio, and close to the Porta S. Paolo, stands a pyramidal monu-
ment, measuring about 97 feet on each side at the base, and 120 feet in height. It is placed
upon a square basement of travertine, and the rest of the buildino- is of
rubble, with a casing of white marble. It is built into the Aurclian wall Pyramid of

, . , , ..... , . , , ' Cestins.

no pams havmg been taken to avoid the mjur\' which this might cause to
the pyramid. It has, however, suftered but little from this, except in appearance. The
ancient entrance, which was probably on the north-east side, has been walled up. No
trace is now to be seen of it, and the present entrance on the north-west was made in 1663.
The interior consists of a small plastered chamber, 16 feet long by 13, aiul 12 feet
high, the corners of which are ornam.ented with paintings ot winged genii.'* No coffin
or sarcophagus was found when the tomb was opened, but an inscription on the outside
gives the name of C. Cestius, the son of L. Cestius, of the Publilian tribe, as the person
who was buried in it. It further appears that this C. Cestius had been Pra;tor and Tribune
of the Commons, and one of the seven Epulones who superintended the sacrificial banquets
to the gods. The date of his burial has been discovered by means of two marble

• Huf/f/i'/io i/e//' f/is/. \\\: pp. S^, 116. Roman pavement next bencnth the actual pavino-

' Ibid. x.\.\vii. p. 235. stones always consisted of a nucleus (Vitruv. vii. i)

' It is possible that the potsherds may have been of pounded potsherds mixed with lime,
placed in a heap as a store for making the founda- ■* Falconicri, Piramide di C. Cestio, Roma, 1704,

tions of pavements and roads. The upper layer or a p. 564, in Nardinis Koina Antica.

E E

2IO

The Aventine and Ccelian Hills.

pedestals containing inscriptions, which were found near the pyramid. On one of these
the foot of a colossal bronze statue is still fixed. They show that C. Cestius' death took
place in the time of M. Agrippa, and therefore during the reign of Augustus, and that the
statues were erected from the proceeds of the sale of some costly robes of cloth of gold
(attalica) ^ which Cestius had by his will ordered to be buried with him. Such burial
being forbidden by law, the robes were sold, and the statues erected from the proceeds
by order of his heirs.- They probably stood at the corners of the pyramid. Two fluted
Doric pillars, the fragments of which were found near the spot, have now been placed at
these corners. Cestius may possibly have been the same person who is mentioned as
a Roman knight by Cicero.^

PYRAMID OF CESTIUS AND PORTA S. PAuLO.

To the south-east of the hill of S. Saba and S. Balbina, between the Aurelian walls
and the Via Appia, lie the most colossal ruins in Rome, covering a space each side of
which measures more than a thousand feet. It is certain from the arrangement of these
buildings that they were destined for public baths ; and as tradition and
the Catalogue of the twelfth region both assign the name of the Thermae
AntoninianiE to them, and the style of the masonrj- is that of the Antonine
era, we may feel satisfied that they belonged to the baths mentioned by Cassiodorus and
Hieronymus as already partially built by Caracalla in the year A.D. 216,'' and finished by
Heliogabalus and Alexander Severus.*

Therm(r
Ant&nijtiatif€.

1 Plin. Nat. Hist. viii. 196.
'-■ Cic. Ue Legg. ii. 24, § 60.
^ Cic. Pro Flacc. xiii. ; Ad Att. v. 13.

* Rone. Chron. i. 472, ii. 23S ; Hist. Aug.
Carac. 9.
' Lampr. Hel. 17 ; Alc.x. Sev. 25.

The Aventinc and Ceelian Hills.

21 I

This enormous mass of building consisted of a central oblong block containing all the
halls and chambers appropriated more immediately to the baths, and a surrounding court,
the sides of which were formed by gymnasia and other places of amusement, and the
area of which was laid out in gardens, with shrubberies, ornamental colonnades (xysti,
■7repiSpo/j.iSai), and fountains. A similar arrangement is found in the Thcrm.-e of Titus
and Diocletian.

The central block of buildings contained four immense halls and a rotunda, around
which numerous smaller rooms were grouped. The first of these large halls (a) was
entered from the north-eastern side by two wide doorways. Rows of niches for sculpture
broke the broad inner surfaces of its walls, and it communicated with the chambers on
each side by open passages filled with columns of splendid marble and granite. The floor
formed an immense basin-shaped hollow, showing that the purpose for which it was used
was that of a cold swimming-bath {frigidarium or nataiio). The steps by which the
bathers descended into it have been found at the two shorter sides, and on both sides
are chambers for dressing and undressing {apodyteria).

In the centre of the group of buildings is another hall (3), of nearly the same dimen-
sions as the cold bath, with large recesses at both ends, and a pavement of the richest
varieties of marble. The four lateral circular recesses formed hot baths, and were fitted
with steps and seats of various kinds for bathers. In the recesses at the ends stood two
enormous porphyry basins, one of which is now preserved in the Museum at Naples.
This hall was probably the tepidariiim, and had a very lofty roof supported bv eio-ht
granite pillars of colossal size, and by an ingeniously contrived network of brazen or
copper rods.^ One of these pillars was given to Duke Cosmo I. by Pius IV., and stands
in the Piazza di Trinita in Florence. The smaller chambers (c, d, c) at the western and
southern angles of the tepidarium contained the apparatus for heating water.

Three chambers, the purpose of which is unknown, separate the tepidarium from the
rotunda (/). The position of this latter and its shape would seem to indicate that it was
a laconicum, or hot-air room,- but the state of the ruins is at present such as to preclude
any positive assertion as to its purpose.

On each side of the above-mentioned three chambers is a similar range of halls. The
south-eastern wing {g) being the most perfect, serves as the best guide to the arrano-e-
ment of this part of the building. We pass through two chambers (//, /) containing fine
mosaic pavement, and then reach a large long hall {g), which apparently consisted of three
aisles and two semicircular tribunes, divided from each other by rows of columns, somewhat
in the manner of a basilica. A considerable portion of the mosaics on the floor of this
hall has been laid bare, and may be seen amongst the heaps of ruined fragments of the
roof and upper part. In the larger tribune was discovered the great mosaic pavement
of the Athletes, now preserved in the Lateran Museum ; whence it has been inferred that
this side hall, as well as the corresponding one on the north-west side, were used as
gymnasia, or ball-courts (splicer istcr id), with galleries for spectators. The purpose of the
rooms situated on each side of the rotunda is not known, but it has been conjectured
that they were additional tepidaria, since even the magnificent central tepidarium is hardly

' Sec Hist. .^ug. Carac. 9. • \'itriiv. v. 10.

E K 2

2 12

The Aveidinc and Cceiian Hills.

large enough to furnish the accommodation spoken of by Oiympiodorus, who states tliat
there were i,6oo marble seats for bathers in the Antonine baths.'

There were numerous chambers in the upper stories in and about these large halls,
to which several lofty staircases led, one of which has been restored. These were perhaps
used as libraries, picture galleries, and museums of curiosities.

The whole north-eastern side of the court which surrounds these central halls consists
of ranges of rooms built of brick, and opening outwards. Many of these are still standing,
and the traces of an upper story are to be seen over some of them {j, J). Different

B.\THS OF CARACALLA.
(Arches of the Tepijarium.)

opinions have been held as to their use. Some writers think that they were offices and
rooms for the slaves belonging to the establishment, others that they were separate baths
for women.- The principal entrance to the enclosure was in the centre of the northern
side of the court.

On the north-western side of the court the remains can be traced of a large shallow
tribune, in the shape of a segment of a circle, and surrounded by a vaulted corridor, or
cloister {k). Within this were three large apartments, possibly used as lecture and con-
versation rooms. The rest of this side has entirely disappeared, as has also the opposite
south-eastern side, with the exception of one of the large apartments. These two sides

' Olymp. ap. Phot. Bibl. 80. p. 63, Bckkcr. - Reber, Ruincn Roms, p. 449.

The Avcntijic and Ccchan Hills. 21 "

of the court probabl)' corresponded in tlie same way as the win^s of the central
building.

The fourth side of the court was occupied by an immense reservoir of water, divided
into numerous compartments (/), in front of which was the cavca of a stadium (w), and
on each side two large halls, jirobably used as dressing-rooms and gymnasia («, ;/)
(apodyteria, elaoiltcsid). The reservoir was supplied with water Ijy a branch aqueduct
from the Aqua Marcia.

The numerous magnificent works 01 art, sculpture, bronzes, lamps, cameos, and coins,
which ha\e from time to time been discovered in these ruins, are now dispersed through
the museums of Italy. Some of the larger sculptures, including the Hercules of Glykon
and the group called the Toro Farnese, are in the Naples Museum ; and two large porphyry
fountain basins are in the Piazza Farnese at Rome.*

With the Ca.'lian hill itself may be conveniently included the district immediately
surrounding it bounded by the Appian Road, the Via di S. Gregorio, the Via Labicana,
and the Aurelian walls, and comprising the first, second, and part of the

'■ CrcUaii hill.

tenth Augustan regions. The shape of the hill thus defined is very irregular, Natural
its larger axis, which extends from the Septizonium to the Porta Maggiore, features.
being nearly a mile and a quarter in length, while the average breadth is about 600 }-ards.
The Caslian may be said to be isolated on all sides, though the slope on the side near
S. Giovanni in Laterano is scarcely perceptible. The core of the hill is composed of hard
tufa, similar to that of the Palatine and Capitoline, and on its flanks are beds of granular
and redeposited tufa, and also fresh-water drift and gravel. The hard tufa comes to the
surface near S. Giovanni e Paolo, and also near S. Giovanni in Laterano ; but the "reater
part of the surface is covered with granular tufa. A considerable depression runs up from
the valley of the Coliseum, and divides the hill into two portions, the western crowned b\-
S. Giovanni e Paolo, and the eastern by SS. Ouattro Coronati. The lieight of the floor of
the Basilica of S. Giovanni in Laterano is about 150 feet above the sea-level. Only that
part of the hill which lies to the east of the Via della Ferratella was included within the
Servian walls.

Tacitus informs us that the ancient name of the Caelian was Ouerquetulanus, from thc
oak grove which grew upon it, and that the name Ceelius was derived from Cc-eles Vibcnna,
an Etruscan general of Volsinii, who brought an army to the aid of Tarquinius
Priscus, and receixcd in return this hill as a settlement. Other accounts carry ^'"

• 11 -ir/^iT'-i r 1- r ^ name Cirlhu.

back the arrival ol Csles Vibenna as iar as the time of Romulus; and bv
some writers the first settlements on the Ca:lian are ascribed to Tullus, who placed the
inhabitants of Alba there after the destruction of their city. On the other hand Cicero
and Strabo mention Ancus Martins as the first king who included the Ca-lian within the
city of Rome.'^

1 Museo Borbonico,vol. iii. pp. 23, 24 ; Plin.xxxvi. 'Ihermas. Nothing' is known of the history of th

5, 5 34; Miillcr, Arch, der Kunst. 5§ 129, 157, 160; house, but various conjectures have been hazarded

Vitruv. V. 10 ; Becker, Callus. Exc. zur. vii. scene, taken from the catalogues of the Re^ionarics.

p. 68. Some excavations have been lately (1867) Archceol. Journal, xxiv. p. 346.
made in the Vi^'na Guidi. a part of the south-east side = Tac. Ann. iv. 65 ; Mommsen, Rom. Hist, book

of the court of the Therm;!.-. The ruins of a large i, chap. i.\. ; Schwegler, vol. i. p. 574, notes i 2, -

house have been found, nhich had been demolished where most of the passages are quoted • Dyer' Hist"

and covered with earth to make room for the of Kings of Roine, ]). 94.

211 The Avcntinc and Ccelian Hills.

To collect anything like the truth from these conflicting accounts is almost impossible.
Niebuhr has conjectured that the original settlement upon the Ca^lian was called Lucerum,
and that, as in the Servian redistribution of the old local tribes of Rome, the Palatine
region answered to the old tribe of the Ramnes and the Colline region to the Titles, so
the Suburana Regio, of which the Caelian formed a great part, answered to the tribe of
the Luceres.i Niebuhr thinks that most credit must be given to that version of the story
which ascribes the first peophng of the hill to Tullus Hostilms. His canon, that tribes
were always local and not genealogical divisions, led him to find a settlement for the
Luceres on the Cselian, of which there seems to be no historical evidence.

After a o-reat fire had ravaged the Caelian hill in the time of Tiberius, it was proposed
that the name of the hill should be changed to Augustus ; but this name does

Caliolus. 1 ^1 r ^- o

not seem to have lasted for any length ot time.-
The irregular shape of the Cselian renders it easily intelligible that different names
should have been o-iven to different parts of the hill ; and we have one of these mentioned
by Varro, the Ca^liolus, called by Cicero Caeliculus, and by Martial Caelius Minor.^ It
seems necessary to suppose that this part of the hill was inside the Servian walls, since a
part of the Etruscans, who, according to Varro, came with Cseles Vibenna, were allowed
to occupy it when the rest of their number were removed to the Vicus Tuscus. In later
times it was united with the Cselian district. These two facts seem to exclude the sup-
position that the name Cffiliolus belonged either to the lengthened eastern arm which
runs out to S. Giovanni in Laterano, or to the hill near the Porta Latina, now called
Monte d'Oro, both of which were outside the Servian walls, and to point rather to the part
of the Cffilian eastward of the depression along which the Via della Navicella runs.

The district under consideration may be conveniently divided into four portions :
first the triangular space called Monte d'Oro, enclosed by the Appian and Latin roads
and the Aurelian wall ; secondly, the Lateran hill, extending from the Porta Maggiore
to the Ospedale di S. Giovanni ; thirdly, the Caeliolus, on which stand the churches
of SS. Ouattro Coronati and Stefano Rotondo ; and, fourthly, the Cxlian proper, cut
off bv the Via della Navicella from the rest of the hill.

I. The Moxte d'Oro.

The first of these portions was mainly occupied in historical times by burial-places, and
formed the commencement of that vast necropolis of Rome which stretched along both
sides of the Appian Road from the Porta Capena nearly as far as the Alban hills.

Conspicuous among these burial-places is the tomb which remained in possession of the
o-reat famih- of the Cornelian Scipios for nearly four centuries.* The entrance to this is
near the gate of one of the vineyards. No. 13, on the north-east side of the
Tomb of Scipios. ^j^ppj^j^ Y.0^^, about 250 yards from the Porta S. Sebastiano. The tomb
itself consists of a number of passages roughly hewn in the tufa stone, as the Catacombs
arc, without any apparent plan of arrangement. Unfortunately, as may be seen from a

1 Niebuhr. Rom. Hist. Eng. trans, vol. i. p. 297. Asins were excluded from this catacomb, as they

"- Suet Tib. 48 • Tac. Ann. iv. 64. had separated from the Cornehan Scipios about the

3 Varro, L. L. v. § 46 ; Cic. De Har. Resp. xv. ; middle of the sixth century. Mommsen, Corp. Insc.

Mart.'xii.iS. ' vol. i. p. 12.
* Mommsen thinks that the Scipiones Nasicaeand

The A veil tine and Ca~lian Hills. 211;

comparison of the sketch given in Nibby with that in Reber's " Ruincn Ronis," ' the oric^inal
state of the catacomb has been so altered by the substructions which have been found
necessary to support the roof, that it can hardly be recognised at the present day ; and the
sarcophagi and inscriptions have been removed, and placed for greater security in the
Vatican Museum. Those now seen in situ are modern copies. Anciently there were two
entrances, one from the Via Appia, and the other from the road which here unites the Via
Appia and Via Latina. The present entrance has been cut for the convenience of access
from the Appian road.

By far the most interesting relic found here was the sarcophagus of Scipio Barbatus,
now standing in the Rotunda of the Torso Belvedere in the Vatican. It is made of grey
peperino {lapis Albanus), and the lower part is ornamented with Doric triglyphs and
metopes, containing rosettes of various patterns, surmounted by an Ionic cornice and the
spirals of an Ionic capital. The name painted with vermilion upon the lid, and the
inscription in saturnian verse engraved on the body of the sarcophagus, are among the
most precious relics of ancient Latin orthography. Scipio Barbatus was consul in the year
298 B.C., and is mentioned by Livy as having then conducted a campaign against the
Etruscans ; ^ but not a word is said in any ancient historian about the towns of Taurasia and
Cisauna, the capture of which is recorded in the inscription. Scipio was possibly the lieu-
tenant of L. Papirius Cursor, consul in 293 B.C., when he took these towns, or of O. Fabius
Maximus in 297.'

A second most interesting inscription was found here in 1616, and is preserv^ed in the
Barberini Library. It commemorates the son of the above-mentioned Scipio Barbatus,
who was consul in 259 B.C., and became famous as the conqueror of Aleria, on the east
coast of Corsica, and who built the temple near the Porta Capena to the Tempests, in
acknowledgment of the narrow escape of his flee! from shipwreck.*

Other inscriptions relate to the son of Scipio Africanus Major, who adopted the
younger Scipio Africanus ;^ to the wife of Cn. Cornelius Scipio Hi.spallus, consul in 176 B.C.;
to the uncle and son of Scipio Asiaticus ; to Cn. Cornelius Scipio Hispanus, son of the
conqueror of Spain, who expelled the astrologers and Jewish worshippers of Jupiter
Sabazius from Rome;** to his brother L. Cornelius Scipio, who died at the age of twenty ;
to Cornelia Gaetulica," daughter of Cornelius Cossus Lcntulus, consul A.D. 25; and to
M. Junius Silanus Lutatius Catulus, adopted into the family of the Cossi and the
gens Cornelia.*

The inscriptions commemorating the last eight members of the gens Cornelia are to be
seen in the Vatican Museum, Nos. 18, 19, 21, 22, 23, 24, 32, and with them a number of
inscriptions relating to the freedmen of the house who were buried near the catacomb
which contained their masters' bones.

' Xibby, Roma ncU' Anno 1838, Pane ii. Tav. a discrepancy between the epitaph and the annals

x.\ii. p. 563 ; Kcbcr, p. 456. which Livy followed here. Moninisen, Rom. Hist.

' Livy, X. 12, 13. All the inscriptions arc given Eng. trans, book ii. chap. viii. pp. 469, 478.
and discussed in Mommsens Corp. Inscr. Lat. vol. i. < Florus, ii. 2, 15, 16; Ov. Kast. vi. 193. Tltis

p. il,seqq. See also Visconti. Opere Variced. Labus inscription is No. 17 in the Vatican Museum.
Mediolani, 1827, vol. i. pp. i — 70 ; Mommsen, Rom. ' Cic. Cat. Maj. 11.

Hist, book ii. chap. i.K. vol. i. pp. 487, 493, Lng. trans. " Val. Max. i. 3, § 2. ed. Kempf.

' Livy, X. 14,40; xl. 38. .Mommsen, however, finds " Tac. Ann. iv. 46. ' Ibid. iii. 24.

2i6 The Avciitinc and Ccrlian Hills.

The absence of the tomb of Scipio Africanus Major from the family catacomb confirms
Livy's assertion that he was buried on his estate at Liternum. In the same passage Li\'y
also mentions tliat there were three statues in or near the catacomb of the Scipios, two
representing PubHus and Lucius Scipio, and a tliird the poet Ennius.^

Some of the inscriptions written in saturnian verse are of considerable poetical merit,
especially that in honour of the son of Scipio Africanus INIajor. (Mus. Vat. No. 22.)
Niebuhr supposes that they contained fragments of the iiciiicr, or funeral anthems, sung at
the burial of distinguished men.^ One is in elegiac metre. (Mus. Vat. No. 24.) The
tombs of the Servilii and Metelli were not far from that of the Scipiones.^

The catacomb of the Scipios differs from most of the other burial-places which
surround it, on account of the retention by the gens Cornelia of the old Latin custom of
burying in coffins instead of burning the corpses of the deceased. The other burying-
places on the Monte d'Oro are arranged in the manner called a colnmbariitm by the
Romans,'' from the resemblance of the niches in it to the holes in a pigeon-
house, r our of these columbaria have been excavated m the \ igna Codmi,
near the Porta S. Sebastiano, and are now to be seen in almost perfect preservation. They
consist of a square pit, roofed over and entered by a descending staircase. The roof is
supported by a massive square central column, and the whole of the sides of the pit and
of the central column are pierced with semicircular niches, containing earthenware jars
filled with ashes. In one of the columbaria in theVigna Codini there is room for 909 jars.*
Most of the names, which are inscribed above each niche upon a marble tablet, are those
of Imperial freedmen, or servants of great families or public officers, and other persons of
the middle class of life, and are therefore of little historical interest. The ashes of some
few of a somewhat higher grade are placed in small marble sarcophagi or urns ; but no
persons of distinguished rank appear to have been buried in this way. There are, however,
few places in Rome where the ordinary manners and customs of the ancient Romans are
more vividly placed before the eye than here, and the very insignificance of some of the
details exhibited has in it somewhat striking. In one corner we find the ashes of the
lady's maid of one of the Imperial princesses, in another those of the royal barber, and
in another a favourite lapdog has been admitted to take his place among his mistress's
other faithful servants.''

Not far from these columbaria, and close to the Porta S. Sebastiano, the Via Appia

StiMomi '® spanned by a half-ruinous archway, of which little but the core remains,

Arch of the marble casing having long been torn off It was probably originally

Dntsus. ornamented with eight columns, two only of which now remain standing

on the side next the gate. These have shafts of Numidian marble {giallo aiitico) and

composite capitals, with Corinthian bases. Upon the top of this arch is a brick ruin,

apparently belonging to the Middle Ages, as the st)-le of building is similar to that

called "Opera Saraccncsca" by the Italians. It was probably part of a fortified tower

placed upon the arch, resembling that which formerly surmounted the Arch of Titus.

• Livy, xxxviii. 53, 56. Caes. ; Florentix, 1727.

' Niebuhr, Eng. trans, vol. i. p. 257. ^ Other columbaria have been excavated in the

' Cic. Pro .-^rchia, ix. 22. grounds of the Villa JMagnani, near the Porta Mag-

* Marini, Frat. Arv. p. 674. giore, which belonged to the Auruntian family.
' See Gori, Columbarium Lib. et Serv. Liv. .'\ug. et Rebcr, p. 487.

Tlie Avcntinc and Ciclian Hills.

1 1

t)n each side of the arch are some remains of the branch aqueduct which brou'dit
water from the Aqua Marcia to the Haths of Caracalla, and it is natural to conclude
that this arch carried the aqueduct over the Via Appia, and was built by Caracalla
for that purpose. The costly nature of the materials used has, however, induced most

ARCH OF DRfSUS.

topographers to reject this explanation, and to assume that the arch is one of the three
mentioned by the Xotitia in the first region as built in honour respectivelj- of Drusus,
Trajan, and V'crus. The composite capitals seem to point to the earliest date of these
three, and, as the building bears a resemblance to a representation of the Arch of

1' 1-

2i8 The Avcnthic and dclian Hills.

Drusus which has been discovered upon a coin, the arch has been thought identical
with that erected to Drusus the father of Claudius, mentioned by Suetonius.^

The depression between the Monte d'Oro and the Ca;lian proper is rightly fixed

upon by Canina and the other modern topographers as the Valley of Egeria.

ValUy of Yi is plain from the well-known passage of Juvenal at the beginning of

Egerta. ^ i. c j o o

his third satire, that the fountain and temple of the Camena; were not
far from the Porta Capena, and that they were also near the road which led out of that
gate.^ The Cafifarella valley, outside the Porta S. Sebastiano, commonly supposed to
be the Valley of Egeria, is too far from the Porta Capena to correspond with Juvenal's
description, and was probably fixed upon before the site of the Porta Capena had been
discovered. The Church of S. Sisto now stands at the opening of the Valley of Egeria.
The worship of Egeria was probably indigenous to the grove of Diana at Aricia,
where we find that there were a shrine and fountain of Egeria;^ whence it may have
been transferred by Numa to the valley and fountain outside the Porta Capena. The
exact spot was indicated by the fabled fall of the ancilc or sacred shield from heaven
upon it.'' From the connexion of the worship of Egeria with Aricia, it has been
supposed by Becker that the Clivus Aricinus, known as a resort of Roman beggars,
was near the Porta Capena.''

Another fountain which was near the Porta Capena was called the Aqua Mercurii.

It is alluded to by Ovid, but no other mention of it is to be found in the
. qua . t i II. j,]^ggj^j^[ writers, nor can we determine whether it was inside or outside the
Servian \\alls. Brocchi, following medieval accounts of a fountain in this neigh-
bourhood, would place it at the foot of the Aventine, near the south-eastern end of the
Circus Maxiraus.''

The Fossa Ouiritium mentioned by Livy as the work of Ancus is identified by

Niebuhr with the course of the Crabra Marrana brook, which enters the
■^'!"" Aurelian walls at the corner between the Monte d'Oro and Lateran hills,

Qiimtiitiit.

and flows through the Valley of Egeria and the Murcian valle\" into the
Tiber near the Bocca della Verita."

2. The Lateran Hill.

Two ruins standing near the Basilica of S. Croce in Gerusalemme may be reckoned

as belonging to the Lateran hill. They are called by the topographers

Sessoriitm. the Sessorium and the Amphitheatrum Castrense. The first of these

consists of a ruin built of brick, containing a large semicircular apse with round-headed

1 Eckhel, Num. Vet. ii. vi. p. 176 ; Suet. CLiud. i. ^ I'lut. Num. xiii.

Fabretti, De AquKd. p. 29, considers that the aque- = Juv. Sat. iv. 117 ; Mart. ii. 19. x. 5, 3, xii. 32, 10.

duct was the branch of the Anio Vetus mentioned by It is most hkely, however, that the Chvus Aricinus

Frontinus, § 21. was at the dip of the Appian Road into the valley

= Juv. Sat. iii. II seq. 31;, 316 ; Livy, i. 21. The below Aricia. Zte. Monumciiti dcW Inst. Arch. \%li„

same is also shown by the stateinent that the Lucus p. 107, with Canina's Tavola Nona della Via .Appia.
Egeria; was near the Temples of Honour and Virtue. " Ov. Fast. v. 673 ; Brocchi, Suolo di Roma, p. 41.

Symmach. Ep. i. 21. See chap. iv. p. 49. " Livy, i. 33. Merivale, Hist, of Romans, vol. i.

3 Ov. Fast. iii. 263. 273 ; Met. xv. 482, 547 ; Virg. p. 2, calls this by mistake the agger Quiritium. See

/En. vii. 762. Niebuhr, Hist, of Rome, vol. i. p. 353, Eng. trans.

The Aventiiic and Calian Hills. 219

windows, from which two walls project. No excavations having been made in order to
ascertain the further extent of the buildings, any opinions formed as to their purpose must
necessarily be highly uncertain. The mo.st probable conjecture which has been made is that
they are the ruins of a tribunal called the Se.ssorium. Such a court of justice is mentioned
by the Scholiast on Horace as situated on the Esquiline near the place where criminals
and paupers were buried.' Further notices of the same name as applied to an edifice
in the neighbourhood of the Basilica of S. Croce are to be found in Anastasius's life
of St. Silvester, and in a fragmentary history of certain passages in the life of Theo-
doric printed at the end of the w-ork of Ammianus Marcellinus. Theodoric is there
said to have ordered a criminal to be beheaded in palatio quod appellatitr Sessoriuitvi,
using the same phrase which Anastasius also employs.'-

The authors of the " Beschreibung Roms " supposed that this ruin was the Nympha^um
Alexandri of the Notitia ; but this has been disproved by Becker, who shows that the
Nymphjeum was near the Villa Altieri.^

The opinion that the building in question was that called Spes Vetus, which Frontlnus
places near the commencement of the branch aqueduct of Nero, is more likely to be correct :
but the shape of the building, so far as it is at present known, does not agree with such a
supposition.^ The ruins are commonl}- known by the name of the Temple of \^enus and
Cupid, a name which was given to them from the discovery of a statue near them repre-
senting a female figure. But it is a fatal objection to this that the name of the Roman
matron (Sallustia), whose statue was supposed to be that of Venus, has been discovered to
be engraved upon the pedestal. The statue may be seen in the Museo Pio Clementino.

On the other side of the basilica, and forming a part of the Aurelian wall, is a portion
of an amphitheatre. The interior, now used as a garden, may be seen by entering
the door on the right hand of the basilica. The larger axis of the amphitheatre
was apparently about no yards, and the shorter 85, or thereabouts. It is AmphMmtnim
entirely constructed of brick, even to the Corinthian capitals which ornament Casirense.
the exterior, and the workmanship shows it to belong to the best age of Roman archi-
tectural art. The second tier of arches has almost entirely disappeared, and of the lowest
tier only those are left w'hich are built into the city wall. To suppose, as Becker docs, that
this building was not an amphitheatre, but the vivarium where the w-ild beasts used in the
games were kept, seems out of the question. The only difficulty is to determine what the
special history and purpose of the building, manifestly an amphitheatre, placed so far from
the populous parts of the city, were. The Notitia comes to our aid, for it records the
existence of an Amphitheatrum Castrense in the fifth region ; and there can be littlc
doubt that we have here the remains of the amphitheatre built for the entertainment of
the Pra;torian troops quartered in the fortified camp beyond the Porta S. Lorenzo.
Aurelian made use of the outer side of the building as a part of his walls, and it is most

' Schol. Cruq. ad Hor. Epod. v. lOO ; Sat. i. 8, 1 1. < Frontin. De Aquxd. §§ 5, 20, 21, 65. Mr. J. H.

Becker would read a^awpiov for a-r]m(fiTtoi> in I'lut. Parker, Archaeologia, vol. .\Iii. pt. i. p. II, thinks that

(jalb. 28. we should read in all the four passages of Frontlnus

- Anastas. Vit. .Silv. p. 45: .\nim. Marcell. cd. speciim ior spem. The accus. j/<r///// occurs in Suet.

Ernesti, p. 55S ; Nibby, Roma neil' Anno 1838, pt.i. Nero. 48, and specus is fern, in Front. 17. But

Moderna, 194, pt. ii. .\ntica, 370. it seems impos<;iblc \.\\M spent could have been em-

^ Becker, Handb. pp. 547, 548. ployed as an abbreviation for spciuin in the MS.

!•• F 2

2 20 The Avcntinc and C(clian Hills.

jinibable that when Constantine pulled down the inner portions of the Praetorian camp,
he also destro\-ed the greater part of this amphitheatre.

Not far from the Sessorium, and springing out of the angle of the wall close to the
I'orta Maggiore, a series of lofty arches begins, which extends throughout the whole length

of the Cselian hill. They carry a branch aqueduct of the Aqua Claudia,
L aiuMii 5yi]t- bv Nero to supply the C;ielian and Aventine hills at a higher level than

the Aqua Marcia and Aqua Julia, on which the}- had previously depended
for their supply.^ It passed over the road leading from the Porta Maggiore to the Basilica
of S. Croce, and thence ran along the higher ground through the vineyards to the Scala
Santa, whence it skirted the Via di S. Stefano, and at the Arch of Dolabella was divided
into three branches, one of which crossed the valley to the Palatine,- a second ran towards
the edge of the hill over the Coliseum, and a third towards the Porta Capena.

It is generally believed, but it does not seem to be very distinctly proved, that the
present magnificent Lateran Palace and Basilica stand upon the site of the splendid house

of Plautius Lateranus, the victim of Nero's cruelty.^ Bunsen remarks that,

although it is probable that the house given by Severus to his friend
Lateranus,^ consul in 197, was the same house which was afterwards presented by Con-
stantine to the Bishop of Rome,-'' yet this Lateranus did not belong to the famil\- of
the Plautii to which the Plautius Lateranus of Nero's time belonged. There is. how-
ever, sufficient proof that the house of the Plautii Laterani stood upon the C;tlian,
since Julius Capitolinus, in his life of M. Antoninus Philosophus, says that that Emperor
was born and educated in the house of his grandfather Verus, on the Caelian, near the
house of Lateranus.'"'

The Lateran Piazza was called in the Middle Ages Campus Lateranensis,"
(;<;/H/«.i ^|.|j jj. j^ supposed by some topographers that this name was a relic of the

older name Campus Martialis, where the Equiria were held when the Campus
Martius w-as flooded.''

3. The C.ei.iolus.

The C;eliolus is separated from the Ca;Iius proper by a depression which corresponds
to the line of the Via and Piazza della Na\-icella. In Martial's time it seems to have been
a part of the fashionable quarter of Rome, since he speaks of his friend Juvenal as
making a round of morning calls at his powerful patrons' houses on the Ca;lius and Cslius
Minor, or Csliolus." There were probably but few public buildings of any importance
upon it, and the only ruins now left are those of S. Stefano Rotondo and a portion
of the Neronian aqueduct already described.

The Church of S. Stefano Rotondo, standing upon the eastern side of the Piazza
della Navicella, was consecrated in 468 by Pope Simplicius.^" The shape is so entirely

' Front. Dc Aquoed. 20. 76, 87. " Ov. Fast. iii. 519 ; P;uil. Diac. p. 131.

- See chap. viii. p. 179. " Mart, xii 6.

■' Juv. Sat. .\. 18 ; Tac. Ann. xv. 60. '" Anastas. Vit. Sinipl. ; Nibby, Roma nell' Anno

■* Aur. Vict. Epit. 20. 1838, pt. i. Moderna, p. 728. The older topographers,

' Bunsen, Reschreibung, iii. 505. Biondo, Fuhio, Marliani, and Fauno, all say that

" lul. Cap. in Hist. Aug. M. Ant. Phil. i. this church was formerly a Temple of Faunus, but

' See Nibby on Nardini. Rom. Ant. i. p. 207. they give no authority for their statement.

The Aventiiic and Ccclian Hills.

12 I

different from that of any other church built in the same ccnturv, tiiat it seems ahiiost
necessary to assume that the materials and plan were borrowed from a
building pre\iously existing upon the same site. The only available method "^' •'^''^""''
of ascertammg the ancient name of this buiidmg is by referring to the
Catalogue of the Notitia, and considering whether any of the names there mentioned can
be applied with an\- probability to it. Now the Xotitia mentions a flesh-
market, called the Macellum Magnum, as existing in the second region ; ' and ■'^t""ll"">
the form of S. Stefano Rotondo, which consists of a loft\- rotunda raised
upon pillars and arches, surrounded by a lower corridor of a similar kind, supported upon
a second circle of pillars, seems adapted to tlie purposes of a market-place. We find
also. upon a coin of Nero, engraved in Eckhel, a representation of a similar rotunda, with
the inscription " Macellum Augusti ;" - and Varro mentions the circular form as not uncom-
monly used for market-places.^

4. The C-i:li.\x Proper.

Passing now to the Cx-lian proper, which lies between the Via della Navicella, the \'ia di
S. Gregorio, and the Via Appia, we find scarcely any localities which can be determined \\ith
certainty. As in the case of the Csliolus, the buildings consisted chiefl}' of private houses
of the nobility, and these have entirely perished. Our only guides in the determination of
the few places of interest here are the remains of the Aqueduct of Nero. Frontinus tells
us that the end of the aqueduct, that is the Castellum, or principal reservoir, whence the
water was distributed to the C?elian, Aventine, and Palatine hills, stood near the Temple of
Claudius.* Now the end of the principal aqueduct would be plainly upon the higher part
of the hill, near the \'illa Mattel, for it was on the site of the older Castellum of the
Aqua Marcia, which stood near the Porta Capena.^ The Temple of Claudius
must therefore have stood not far from the Villa Mattel, on, or near, the ^'"'^['"■^

Claudius.

site of S. Maria in Domnica. This temple was begun, according to
Suetonius, by Agrippina, nearly destroyed b\' Nero, and rebuilt b}- Vespasian.** Of its
shape and size we know nothing, and none of the substructions or foundations have been
discovered. The immense substructions which underlie the garden of the monaster}- o{
SS. Giovanni e Paolo have been commonly supposed to belong to the Temple of Claudius,
and are so designated in some maps of the ancient city. But the area they inclose is far
too large to allow us to suppose that it belonged to a single temple. Even the court
which surrounded the Temple of Venus and Rome, the largest in Rome, was much smaller
than the area of this garden.' It seems much more probable that, as Bunsen has con-
jectured, the Vectilian palace in which Commodus lived occupied this part of the Ca;lian.*
The ruins consist of arches of tra\ertine, forming a rectangular space upon the northern
end of the hill. They are massively constructed, so as to bear a great superincumbent
weight, and would be in ever}' way suitable for the terraces of a large imperial villa, such

' Curios. Urb. Reg. ii.

- Eckhel, part ii. vol. vi. p. 273.

' \'arro, ap. Non. vi. 2.

* Frontin. L)e Aquacd. 20.

° PVontin. 76, compared with 19.

" Suet. \"esp. 9.

" See chap. viii. p. 169.

" Beschrcib. vol. iii. p. 476 ; Notitia Region, ii.

222

The Avcntinc and Ccclian Hills.

as Commodus may have built when, as Lampridius tells us, he removed from the Palatine,
.Edcs where he found himself unable to sleep, to the house of Vectilius on the C?elian.

ecti laniv. j^^ ^^.^^ afterwards murdered there.' The position may have pleased him

from its immediate vicinity to the Coliseum, where he was so fond of superintending

ARCH OF DOLABELLA.

the exhibitions and displaying his own skill in killing wild animals. The stor}- that he
had an underground passage made from this villa to the Coliseum is also a strong
confirmation of the conjecture of Bunsen ; - and some additional probability is given to

1 See Gibbon, ch. iv.

' Hist. Aug. Comm. i6, Pert. 5.

TIic Aventinc and Ca-lian Hills. 2 2-'

it b\- the course of the branch aqueduct, which leads from the Arch of Dolabella iy
the direction of this garden, and would certainly be required to supply the luxuries of
a large Roman palace.

The aqueduct here alluded to branches oft" from another portion of the Neronian
aqueduct at the arch called the Arch of Dolabella, which stands a little to
the north-west of the Piazza della Navicella, and spans the road leading bJla'afidaivut
down from thence into the valley between the Cfelian and Palatine, formerly Scauri.

called the Clivus Scauri.^ The archway consists of a single arch of travertine without
any ornamentation, but carrj-ing an inscription to the effect that Publius Cornelius Dolabella
when consul, and Caius Junius Silanus when Flamen martialis, erected the arch by order
of the Senate. The consulship of this Dolabella falls in the reign of Augustus, .\.D. lo ;-
and therefore the arch can originally have had no connexion with the Neronian aqueduct.
It is possible, however, as Becker and Reber suggest, that the arch may have been
originally built to carr)- the Aqua Marcia and Julia, which, as we know from Frontinus,
supplied the Caelian before the building of the Neronian branch of the Aqua Claudia.'^
On one side the Arch of Dolabella is still completely hidden by the brickwork of the
Neronian arches, and the other side was probabh' covered in a similar manner until after
1670, as we find no mention of this arch in Donatus, who could not have omitted to
notice it in his description of the Neronian aqueduct had it been visible in his time.

Two temples are alluded to in Ovid's " Fasti " as situated on the Caelian, the sites
of which are entirely unknown. These are the Sacellum of Dea Carna,^ the
goddess of door-hinges, said by Macrobius to have been dedicated, on the

^ & > .? Miner-c'aCapt,!.

kalends of June, by Junius Rrutus, the first consul,* and the Temple of

Miner\a Capta, perhaps near the Via della Navicella, and identical with the Minervium

of Varro, on the slope of the hill.''

The Temple of Isis, on the Ca:lian, is mentioned onl}- in a suspected passage of
Trebellius Pollio as the Isium Metellinum, near the house of Tetricus, and
between two groves." Nor can the position of the Castra Peregrina be deter-

tmm.

mined, which is mentioned by Ammianus Marcellinus as upon the Cxlian, Castm

and is included in the Catalogue of the Notitia as a place of some importance.* Peregrina.
Equally enigmatical to us are the Caput Africa; of the Notitia (possibly a street ,

^ . ^ . ^^fica Anna.

near the Septizonium, having some allusion to the African origin of Septi-

mius Severus) and the Mica Aurea (possibly the sign of a banqueting-house, having a

prospect of the Imperial palace on the Palatine'').

The situation of the Temple of Jupiter Redu.x may be conjectured from an inscription
found upon a votive tablet near the Church of S. Maria in Domnica,'" and jupucr RcIilx.
from the marble navicelhe which have been found near the same spot. A'avu-ella.

' .S. Gregor. Epist. vii. 13. ii. ; Inscr. Grutcr, xxii. 3 ; Orell. 1256. See Prellcr,

= Kal. Prcnest. in Orell. Insc. ii. pp. 383, 409, com- Rcgionen. p. 99, who thinks that this camp was near S.

pared with Dion Cass. Ivi. 25. .Stefano Rotondo, and was built by .Septim. Severus to

^ Frontin. De Aquaed. 76. act as a counterpoise to the power of the Prectorians.

■* Ov. Fasti, vi. 101. ^ Macrob. Sat. i. 12, 31. '■> Notitia Reg. ii. ; Martial, ii. 59.

* Ov. Fasti, iii. 837 ; Varro, L. L. v. § 47. '" See Becker, Handb. p. 504. '' Domitius Bassus

" Hist. Aug. Trebellius Pollio de Tetrico Juniorc, pr. agens vice principis peregrinorum teniplum Jovis

ch. iv. reducis c. p. [castris peregrinorum] omni cultu de

" Amm. Max. xvi. 12, p. 98, Krnesti ; Notitia Reg. suo ornavit." Orell. Insc. 1256.

224 '^^^^ Avcntinc and Ccrlian Hills.

marble representations of ships, one of which stands now in the Piazza della NaviceUa,
and gives its name to the place, were probably votive ofierings to Jupiter Redux ;
and there may be some connexion between them and the Castra Peregrinorum, as having
perhaps been the place where the troops employed on foreign service were quartered. The
inscription quoted in the note seems to allude to this connexion between the temple
and camp.

In the lime of the Empire, man)- palaces of the richer classes stood upon the Cslian.

Among these we have distinct mention of the houses of Claudius Ccntumalus

oustsof (which was visible from the Arx), of Alamurra, and of Annius Verus (in

Matmo-ra, which Alarcus Aurelius was born).^ Tctricus also, the unsuccessful rival of

Venis, and Aurelian, built a magnificent residence on the C;elian, in which, on his

Tdnciis.

rcadmission to the Kmperor's favour, he entertained Aurelian.-

' \'.il. Max. \iii. 2, \ : I'lin. Nat. Hist, xxxvi. 6, 7 ; Catull. xxix. 3 ; Hi=t. Aug. Jul. Cap. \'it. Marc. .\nt. i.

- Gibbon, cliap. xi.

Note A, p. 208. — On the Eaiporiu.m.

The ruins of the Emporium consist of a large quadrangle open on the side towards the river,
and occupied on the other three sides with warehouses. Several of the quays in connexion with this
building have been lately (1868) excavated, and a vast number of valuable marble blocks of great
size exhumed from the silt with which the river had covered them. These quays are mainly of
brick, faced with oJ>i/s- reticiilatuin. Mr. J. H. Parker thinks that the reticulated work is of the
first century. He considers that the newly-excavated quays were intended to replace some older
ones, and were then found to be placed at too low a level, and conseciuently abandoned. But
why then were the marble blocks left there? It seems more probable that they were neglected,
and gradually silted up In successive floods during some continued period of great i)olitical and
social distress.

CHAPTER IX.

PART II.

THE ESQUILINE HILL AND COLISEUM.

CAMPUS ESQUILINUS: PLACE OF BURIAL AND EXECUTION— SESSORIUM — AMPHITHEATRUM CASTRENSE— GARDENS

OF M.ICENAS — HORTI LAMIANI ET PALLANTIANI — HOUSES OF VIRGIL, PROPERTIUS, PLINY, AND PEDO PALACE

OF GORDIAN — TROPHIES OF MARIUS — NYMPH/EUM OF ALEXANDER SEVERUS — ARCH OF GALLIENUS COLUM-
BARIA — MINERVA MEDICA OR GALUZZE — HERCULES SYLLANUS — FORUM ESQUILINUM — MACELLUM LIVIANUM.

OPPIUS: CARIN.B — DOMUS POMPEIANA, DOMUS Q. CICERONIS — TIGILLUM SORORIUM— SACELLUM STHENIC— TEMPLE

OF TELLUS — VICUS CYPRIUS ET SCELERATUS — CLIVUS URBIUS, AFRICUS, ET PULLIUS — FORTUNA SEIA VICUS

SANDALIARIUS — DOMUS AUREA NERONIS — SETTE SALE — THERMAE TIT! ET TR.\JANI. COLISEUM : SITE, ARCHI-
TECT, DATE — HISTORY — -ANTONINUS PIUS — COMMODUS — MACRINUS — HELIOGABALUS — ALEX. SEVERUS LAM-

PRIDIUS — BASILIUS — FRANGIPANI — HENRY VIL — BULL-FIGHT IN I332 — HOSPITAL IN I415 STONES USED FOR

PALACES — PASSIONSPIELEN — SALTPETRE STORES — BENEDICT XIV. — DESCRIPTION AND PLAN OF COLISEUM.

CISPIUS : VICUS PATRICIUS — HOUSE OF C^SONIUS — jEDES MEFITIS — TEMPLE OF DIAN.A — ^JUNO LUCINA LUCUS

PvETELIUS, MEFITIS, FAGUTALIS, LARUM, LIBITIN.* — QUERQUETULANUM SACELLUM — ARA MAL/E FORTUN,«

ARA FEBRIS — CASTR..\ MISENATIUM — CURIA NOVA.

" Duraret hodie miserabilis fades prostrate Urbis, nisi in hortoram vinetorumque amcenitatem Roma
resurre-xisset, ut perpetua viriditate contegeret vulnera et ruinas suas." — DoNATUS, Roiiiti Vdiis ac Recais.

" Omnis Cajsareo cedit labor Amphitheatro
Unum pro cunctis fama loquetur opus. " — Mart. Df Spec. i.

npHE hills which have hitherto been described are isolated masses of rock separated
-L by valleys more or less deep from the surrounding ground. But the remaining hills,
the Esquiline, Viminal, Ouirinal, Pincian, Vatican, and the Janiculum, are more properly
to be described as projecting tongues of ground running out into the valley of the Tiber
than as distinct eminences.

The first of these, the Esquiline,^ is the most extensive of all the hills of Rome, and
the space comprehended by it is so broken into minor eminences and depressions, formerly
designated by local names, that it presents considerable difficulties to the topographer.
There are no less than four distinctly-marked tongues, or promontories, projecting from
the general level of the Campagna, which may be reckoned as belonging to the Esquiline.
These, beginning from the eastern side of the city near the Porta Maggiore, are, first, the

' The name Esquiline has been derived from cnv)- pertius, iv. 8, i, " Disce quid Esquilias hac nocte

liitns, as Inquilinus from incolo, Mommscn, Rom. fiigarit aquosas," calls the Esquiline aguosa-, on ac-

Hist. vol. i. p. 54; from cxcubia, Ovid, Fasti, iii. count of the number of aqueducts which entered the

245 ; from esadetum, an oak grove, in allusion to the city at the back of the Esquiline.
Fagutal, Miiller on Varro, Ling. Lat. v. § 49. Pro-

G G

2 26 The Esquiline Hill and Coliseum.

rising ground on which the Villa Altieri stands ; secondly, that on which the Villa Palom-
bara stands ; thirdly, the hill occupied by the ruins of the Baths of Titus and the Church
of S. Pietro in Mncoli ; and fourthly, the hill crowned by S. Maria Maggiore. The common
ground which unites all these at the back of the hill was called the Campus Esquilinus.

The geological structure of this district is precisely similar to that of the other hills
of Rome. It consists of a mass of granular tufa, more or less hard, of marine origin,
flanked by fresh-water deposits of re-deposited tufa and beds of sand and clay, which run
up into the depressions between the various projecting spurs. It will be most convenient
to divide the whole district, for the purpose of topographical description, into three
portions : i, the Campus Esquilinus, including the Villas Altieri and Palombara, and
bounded on the west by the Via Merulana ; 2, the Oppius, upon which stand the ruins
of the Baths of Titus ; and, 3, the Cispius, occupied by S. Maria Maggiore, and enclosed
by the Via di .S. Lucia in Selci and the Via Urbana. The height of the floor of the
Basilica of S. Maria Maggiore, which stands on one of the highest points, is 177 feet
above the sea level ; but the greater part of the hill is much lower than this, and seldom
rises above a maximum of 120 feet.

I. The Campus Esquilinus.

In the time of Servius Tullius it is evident that the Campus Esquilinus was not an

inhabited part of the city, for it was entirely excluded from the walls built by that king.^

Even in the Republican age a large portion of it was principally noted as an

Campus extensive burial-place for the lowest class of people, and a place of execution

Esquilinus. ^ i i i

for criminals, and, according to Horace, was rendered pestilential by the
Place of burial frequent exposure of dead bodies, and became the haunt of foul birds and
and execution, beasts of prey.^ The stink of the rotting carcases is alluded to in the word
" puticuli," which is explained by Varro and Paulus Diaconus to refer to the pits used as
graves on the Esquiline.^ It cannot, however, be asserted that paupers and criminals only
were interred here, for Cicero, in his Ninth Philippic, proposes that, as a mark of honour to
the patriotic devotion of Servius Sulpicius, a special burj'ing-place of thirty feet square

should be assigned to him in the Campus Esquilinus.* It has been previously

mentioned that the Sessorium near the Porta Maggiore was probably a
criminal court of justice, and we find several instances of executions having taken place
here. Suetonius and Tacitus both distinctly mention the Campus Esquilinus as a place of

execution ; and in other passages of classical authors executions outside the
Ampitheatrnm ^-^Xc must be understood in the same manner as referring to the field outside

the old Esquiline gate, near the Arch of Gallienus.^ The Amphitheatrum
Gar ens of Castrense, which adjoins the Sessorium, has been described in a previous

Mcecenas. '

chapter.'' In the Imperial times the Campus Esquilinus became the site of the
pleasure-gardens of Msecenas. In defiance of the anonymous benefactor who had granted
the burial-ground to the poor with the provision that it should not descend to his heirs

' See above, chap. iv. p. 49. ■• Cic. Phil. ix. 7.

- Hor. Sat. i. 8, 8, ii. 6, 33 ; Epod. v. 99. The area ^ Suet. Claud. 25 ; Tac. Ann. ii. 32, xv. 60 ; Plaut.

was, according to Horace, 1,000 x 300 feet. Mil. Glor. ii. 4, 6. See p. 52, Note B.

^ Varro, L. L. v. 25 ; Paul. Diac. p. 216. " See chap. v. p. 67, and chap. ix. p. 219.

The Esquiline Hill atid Coliseum. 2 -> 7

(Jieredes mouimmtnvi nc scqricrctnr), but remain a public burial-ground for ever Mfccenas
expelled the vultures and jackals, and appropriated a part of it for a new park. Tiberius
afterwards made this his residence.^ The gardens must have reached quite across the
hill, from the Campus Esquilinus to the Baths of Titus, for Nero aftenvards united them
with the buildings of the Palatine hill, and made one continuous palace of the whole.'-
He surveyed the conflagration of Rome from one of the towers of M.xcenas which
from its situation would naturally command an extensive view over Rome.^

In the later Imperial times it is said that the Baths of Trajan and the house of
Crescentia, an unknown personage, were here.* Another large pleasure-garden, called
the Horti Lamiani, belonging to the rich and powerful family of the Lamise,^
would seem to have been near the gardens of Maecenas: for Valerius "' '"""""■
Maximus connects the family seat of the Lamis with the Monumentum Marii, which,
as we shall see, was near S. Eusebio ; and Philo Judffius, during the reign of Caligula,
mentions the Horti Lamiani as near the Horti Mzecenatis.^ Adjoining these two gardens
were the Horti Pallantiani, which probably belonged to Pallas the famous
freedman of Claudius. A stone commemorative of the flattery heaped upon ^^'"'''

him by the Senate was placed near the city on the Tiburtine road, which " ""'"""•
passed over the Campus Esquilinus ; and this stone may have stood at the entrance of the
Horti. There is, however, a more accurate determination of their position in a passao-e
of Frontinus, in which he places them near the commencement of the Neronian branch
aqueduct, and therefore not far from the Porta Maggiore."

The aspect of this part of the hill must therefore have been totally chan"-ed in
the Imperial times, and have become a fashionable quarter. Virgil seems

,,,, , , ,rT,,r .- Houses of Virgil,

to have had a house here, near the gardens of Mc-ecenas, if we may believe Propertius,

Donatus ; and Propertius and Pliny the younger also lived here in the PHny, and
house of Pedo.* Besides these houses and gardens a palace of the Gordian

family, of great magnificence, is mentioned by Julius Capitolinus as situated P^^'t^of

^ ^ .< 1 Gordian.

upon the Prenestine road ;' and Fulvius and the anonymous writer of the
Einsiedlen manuscript speak of an arch dedicated to the third Gordian which stood
upon the Via di S. Bibiana, and probably spanned the approach to the Gordian palace."'
The ruin called the Trophies of Marius stands at the corner of the Via di Bibiana
just mentioned. It con.sists in its lower part of a number of small and
curiously-shaped compartments of brickwork, with openings at seven or 'J/ar"J''^
eight dift'erent points. Underneath these, and now hidden under the level

' Suet. Tib. 15. The warm swimming-bath of Parker's conjecture that Pallantiani = Palatini can

Maecenas may have been here. Dion Cass. Iv. 7. hardly be admitted as possible. Arc/i. Joitni. .\xiv.

2 Tac. Ann. xv. 39 ; Suet. Nero, 31. p. 345. From Frontin. 19, 20, 21, and 5, 65, it seems

' Suet. Nero, 38 ; Hor. Od.iii.29callsit "molcm pro- to follow that Spes Vetus was the name of the district

pinquam nubibus arduis ; " and in allusion to the wide near the Porta Maggiore, where the Neronian arches

prospectaffordedoverRomesaysto.Ma:cenas,"Omitte of the Aqua Claudia leave the main aqueduct,

mirari beatae fumum et opes strepitumque Romae." Dionysius, ix. 24, mentions a U^mv 'EXmSos there.

* Schol. ad Hor. Sat. i. 8, 8. See below p. 233. J. H. Parker, Archa-ol. Journ. xxiv. p. 345, thinks

'- Hor. Od. i. 26, iii. 17. that spes = specits. But sec note on p. 219.

« Val. Max. iv. 48 ; Phil. Jud. De Leg. ad Caium, « Don. Vit. Virg. 6; Mart. x. 19, 10; Plin. Ep. iii. 21.

vol. vi. p. 143, § 44, Leipsic ed. Caligula n-as buried » Jul. Cap. in Hist. Aug. Gord. iii. 32.

here, Suet. Cal. 59 ; and the poet Horace, Suet. Vit. i" Fulvius, De Ant. Urb. p. 127 ; Anon. Einsied. ;

Hor. 20. Becker, S. 74.

' Frontin. de Aq. 19, 20 ; Plin. Ep. vii. 29. Mr.

G G 2

2 28 The Esqiiiline Hill and Coliseum.

of the ground, is a large basin or tank, and above them the upper part of the
building is formed by the remains of three niches, in which stood the marble
trophies now placed upon the balustrade of the steps of the Capitol. They were
removed to the Capitol by Sixtus V. in the year 1585. The name Trophies of Marius
is an attempt to explain the more ancient name of Cimbrum, which we find attached
to the ruin in the Middle Ages, by identifying the trophies with the Tropaea Marii
mentioned by Suetonius as having been pulled down by Sylla and restored by Julius Cassar.^
But although we must allow that there is some probability in the supposition that the
Marian Trophies may have occupied these niches,- yet it is certain that the building
itself was intended to serve another purpose, that of the castellum or principal reservoir
of an aqueduct, with a public fountain in the form of a cascade in front. The basin
which has been discovered under the building and the peculiar shape of the complicated
interior structure can be best explained thus, and the remains of some part of the
aqueduct itself may be seen at the back. It was at one time supposed that the Aqua
Julia ended here, but it is now generally acknowledged that the castellum belonged to
the Aqua Alexandrina, and that the name Nympheeum Alexandri found in
Nymphaum of ^ Catalogues of the fifth region must be assigned to it.^ The Alexan-
drine aqueduct was built by Alexander Severus, in the year A.D. 225.*
Water was brought to Rome by means of it from a spot near the Lake Regillus, and a
portion of the arcade along which it was carried is still visible on the left hand of the Via
Labicana, about two miles from Rome.

The level of this aqueduct corresponds exactly with the building in question, and the
style of brickwork and architecture are such as might belong to the third century. It is
possible, as Reber remarks, that Alexander Severus may have found the exact spot where
the trophies of Marius had been placed by Julius Cicsar convenient for the castellum of his
aqueduct, and have used the trophies to ornament the new building which he erected.^

Close to the Church of S. Vito, and spanning the Via di S. Vito, stands an

archway erected by M. Aurelius Victor, Prefect of Rome in A.D. 262, in honour of the

Emperor Gallienus and Empress Salonina. It is constructed of travertine,

„ !/.' "' and the ornamental work upon it is extremely simple, consisting only of

pilasters, crowned by roughly-worked Corinthian capitals, and surmounted

by an entablature of the commonest kind. A sketch by San Gallo taken in the fifteenth

century shows that a pediment stood above the entablature, and two smaller archways on

each side.'^ Part of the basement is now buried under the level of the soil.

The inscription, which is now hardly legible, is cut upon the architrave, and contains
the following flattering description of one of the most singularly accomplished and yet
incapable emperors of Rome:^ — "GALLIENO CLEMENTISSIMO PRINCIPI, CUJU.S INVICTA

' Suet. Jul. ii.; Mabill. INIus. It. ii. p. 141 ; Propert. ■' Rebcr, Ruinen Roms, p. 485. See also for con-

iv. 1 1, 46. firmation of this view the Bull. dclP Inst. 1844, p. 93.

- Valerius Max. ii. 5, 6, places an Ara Febris in " Bellori, Vet. Arc. Aug. tab. 22.

Area Marianorum Monumentorum ; and this agrees ' See Gibbon, ch. x. : " Galhenus was a master of

with the place usually assigned to the Ara Febris. several curious but useless sciences, a ready orator

He also mentions the house of the /Elii (Horti Lami- and elegant poet, a skilful gardener, an excellent

ani?) as in the same place, iv. 4, 8. cook, and most contemptible prince." Hist. Aug.

^ Curios. Reg. v. ^ Hist. Aug. Alex. Sev. 25. Treb. Poll. Gallien. 16.

The Esquiline Hill and Colisenm. 229

VIRTUS SOLA riETATE SUPERATA EST, ET SALOMNAE SANCTISSIMAE AUGUSTAE M.
AURELIUS VICTOR DEDICATISSIMUS NUMINI MAJESTATIQUE EORUM."

In the grounds of the Villa Magnani, which arc reached from the Via di S. Bibiana,
are two small Columbaria, one of which formerly contained inscriptions
relating to the family of the Arruntii ; and in the same gardens, not far
to the north-west of the Porta Maggiore, stands a lofty and picturesque ruin, com-
prising a central decagonal hall, surrounded by four other apartments, the ground-plan
of which has been preserved by San Gallo. The central hall contains nine deep
niches, and the entrance is on the tenth side. Over the niches and the entrance archway
are round-headed windows, and the roof is of vaulted brickwork. Traces still remain
of stucco-work and cement on the inner walls ; from which it appears that they were
covered with ornamental work, and in some parts with marble. Remains of the pavement.
which was of porphyry, have also been found; and in the neighbourhood of the ruin a
number of sculptures have been at various times discovered, among which are statues
of Pomona, /Esculapius, Adonis, Venus, Hercules, Antinous, some Luperci, and a Faun.^
The old topographers, Blondus Flavius and Lucius Faunus, give the name of " Terme
di Galluccio" or "Galuzze" to the ruin, and this name has been ingeniously
explained as referring to the Therms or Basilica of Caius and Lucius.' But there is no
good foundation for this conjecture, or for the commonly received identifica-
tion of the building- with the Temple of Minerva Medica mentioned in the Galuzze, or

, r , , ,- , r Minerva

Notitia. The latter name was derived from the supposed discovery here of MedUa.
the Pallas Giustiniani now in the Braccio Xuovo of the Vatican. But another
and more ancient account asserts that this statue of Pallas was found near S. Maria sopra
Minerva,^ and therefore the name of Minerva Medica cannot with any certainty be
applied here.

Canina has proposed another explanation of the name Galuzze. He thinks that the
ruins belonged to the Palatium Licinianum, which is mentioned by Anastasius, in his life of
Simplicius, as near the Church of S. Bibiana.* Gallienus bore the name of Licinius, and
Canina thinks that this is a part of the palace and pleasure gardens in which, according to
Trebellius Pollio, he used to bathe and banquet with his courtiers.^ The name Galuzze is
therefore, according to Canina, a corruption of Gallieni Liciniana ; and the building may be
supposed to have formed a part of the baths in Gallienus' pleasure-grounds, resembling as
it does in its construction the great rotunda of the Baths of Caracalla." The position of
the Arch of Gallienus adds probability to this conjecture. The basin now standing in the
ruin is not ancient, and therefore cannot be held to support Canina's view; but the brick-
work and style of architecture are said by competent judges to be such as might have
been erected in the time of the later Empire. The buikling called Mincr\'a Medica in the
ancient Catalogues may have been near this spot, as some inscriptions here discovered show ;
but it most probably consisted only of a chapel, of no great extent, standing near the \"\a
Prenestina.

' Fea, Mem. di Flam. Vacca, p. 61. occurs at an earlier date also. Sec note i, p. 230.

' Suet. Vit. Aug. 29. ° Canina, Indicazionc, pp. 161, 162. Later excava-

' Fea, Misc. i. p. 254. tions are said to have confirmed this view of the

■• Anast. Vit. Simpl. p. 29. purpose of the building erroneously called Minerva

' Hist. Aug. p. 182. The name Atria Licinia Medica.

230 The Esquiline Hill and Colisewn.

The Notitia also mentions a temple of Hercules Syllanus in the neighbourhood of the
Horti Pallantiani and the Amphitheatrum. It may possibly have stood not

Hercules . ^ -,

Syllamis. far from the Galuzze, and have taken its name from the victory of hylla

Fonim gained near this spot over the Marian faction. The most desperate struggle

Esqitihnum. between the combatants on this occasion happened near a place called the

Macellum Forum Esquilinum, the exact situation of which ^\■e cannot, however, deter-

mine. The Macellum Livianum was near this Forum, and not far from the

Arch of Gallienus.^

2. The Oppius.

As the hill called Oppius is identified by Festus with the Carina:,- it is necessar}-, in

order to prove that the name Oppius belonged to the south-western spur of

the Esquiline, to show that the Carinae were situated on this spur. Perhaps

this is most clearly indicated by the words of Varro, who, in speaking of the district called

the Carinje, says that it lay on the part of the Esquiline next to the C^elian.^ This evidently

shows that the Carinje was a name applied to some part of the southern side of the

Esquiline. But Varro further mentions that the Subura was thought to be so named {quia

sucairrit Carinis) because it runs up under the edge of the Carinje ; and as the position of

the Subura is well known to have been in the hollow between the Ouirinal and Esquiline,

this leads us to place the Carinse upon the western end of the Esquiline, overlooking the

depression in which the Church of S. Pantaleone stands. That the Carinse included a part of

the hill, and did not lie entirely in the valley, seems to be shown by a passage in Dionysius,

where he places the Tigillum Sororium in the street leading dozvn from the

igi iim Carinse to the Vicus Cyprius.'' But how far the Carina extended into the

valley of the Coliseum is doubtful. The Sacred Way had its commencement

ace urn -^^ ^j^^ CarinjE, near the Chapel of Strenia;^ and Livy describes Fulvius

StrenuT. _ * ^

Flaccus as leading his troops from the Porta Capena through the Carinas to
the Esquiline." Hence the name Carina; would seem to have included some part of the
depression between the C^elian and Esquiline as well as the hill of S. Pietro in Vincoli ;
and the most probable supposition with respect to the relation between the Oppius and
Carinse is that the name Carinse was given to a part of the district previously called
Oppius. We know from Gellius that the name Oppius had become obsolete in the

' Appian, Bell. Civ. i. 58 ; Mommsen, Rom. Hist. side of the Oppian hill, between the Convent of the

vol. iii. p. 265 ; Nibby, Roma nell' Anno 1838, vol. Maronites, the Via del Colosseo, and the Via della

ii. p. 25. See Cic. Pro Quint. 6 : " Ipse suos neces- Polveriera. See Ann. dclP Inst. 1861, p. 408.

sarios ab atriis Liciniis etfaucibus Macelli corrogat." - Festus, p. 348. The word (9///V/J- is derived by

The fragment of the Pianta Capitolina lately (1867) Varro from a Tusculan hero's name, by Detlefsen

discovered contains the ground-plan of the Porticus from oppidiiin. See Ann. dclV Inst. 1861, p. 58.

Livis, which was connected with the Macellum. Its ^ Varro, L. L. v. § 47.

shape was not asllrlichs imagined, that of a straight ^ Dionys. iii. 22. The Tigillum Sororium was a

colonnade leading from the subura to the macellum, crossbeam erected in memory of Horatius having

but of a double portico surrounding a quadrilateral been sent under the yoke for the murder of his sister,

court. If, as has been mentioned above, the Pianta Livy, i. 26 ; Festus, pp. 297, 307 ; Aur. Vict. Vir. 111.

Capitolina was so arranged as to be read from the 4I9-

north side, then this new fragment shows that the ^ Varro, L. L. v. § 47.

Porticus Liviffi had its entrance towards the north- " Li\y, xxvi. 10. The situation of the " ISIurus

east and extended towards the south-west. And this terreus Carinarum" mentioned by Varro, v. 48, is

would agree with the site assigned to the Porticus ^^*-^ indetermmable.
Liviffi by Fea (Miscell. i. pp. 120-7), on the western

The Esqjiilinc Hill and Coliseum.

2\\

classical age of Rome, and \\as only known to antiquarians/ while the Carina; is frequently
mentioned. But the Oppius may reasonably be supposed to have been more extensive
than the Carina;, and to have included the whole triangular hill contained within the
Via :\Ierulana, the Via di S. Lucia in Selci, and the valley of the Coliseum. That the
Carinje was only a part of this district is shown by the fact that it was included in the
first Servian region.- It is plain that this first region did not extend over the whole
eastern part of the Esquiline, because there would then be no space left within the walls
of Servius for the second region ; and therefore the Carin^e forming the eastern limit of the
first region could have occupied only a part of the eastern Esquiline.

In the later times of the Republic the Carinae began to be inhabited by nobles and
wealthy people. Hence Virgil speaks of the luxurious (Imttcv) Carina;, and
Suetonius mentions that the palace of the Pompeian family, ornamented with Domus

Pompeiana.

paintings and naval trophies, was in the Carinae. This palace was, after the n ,

death of Pompey the Great, seized by Marc Antony, and on his death (?■ Ckeronis.
became by confiscation an Imperial property. The Emperor Trajan probably Temple of
sold it to Gordianus, the great-grandfather of the Emperor Gordian.^ The
house of Ouintus Cicero was also in the Carina;.'* Close to the palace of Pompey in
the Carinse was the Temple of Tellus, frequently used as a place of meeting for the
Senate when Antony lived in the neighbouring palace.^ This temple stood on part
of the site of the confiscated house of Spurius Cassius.^

The names of several of the neighbouring streets and clivi are known. Amon"- these
the Vicus Cyprius was notorious for the murder of Servius Tullius, and the highest point of
it, the Summus Cyprius Vicus, was, after that horrible parricide, called the Sceleratus
Vicus. Servius was probably going home from the Curia to his house on
the Oppius, and, after ascending the Cyprius Vicus, was about to turn to the ^"'" Oi*"'"

tj)id Scelefdtiis,

right by the Clivus Urbius, when he was attacked and assassinated." Two cih-us Urbms
other clivi on the edge of the Esquiline were called the Clivus Pullius and ^i/rkus, and
the Clivus Africus, but their situation cannot be determined.^ A notice Portuna Seia
of a street called the Vicus Sandaliarius is found in an inscription, which Vkus Sanda-
connects it, or the statue of Apollo which was erected in it by Augustus, ""■""•

with the Chapel of Fortuna Seia, and this last we know from Pliny was included in
the Aurea Domus of Nero.^ The Vicus Sandaliarius is mentioned by Gellius as a
booksellers' quarter of the city.^"

But the great glory of the Oppian hill was the Aurea Domus of Nero, \\\1\\ its
surrounding park and pleasure grounds, built, partly at least, upon the site ^^^^ ,
which Maecenas had occupied with his gardens, but also extending over the Neronis.

I Gell. XV. I, 2. Nardini,vol. i. p. 325 ; Cic. Pro Dom. xx.wiii. § loi ;

^ Varro, L. L. v. §§ 47, 49. Servius, on ^n. viii. Val. Max. vi. 3, 11.

361, derives Carinas from the houses built in the ' Varro, L. L. v. § 159 ; Livy, i. 44, 48 ; Dicnys.

shape of keels round the Temple of Tellus. iv. 13, 39 ; Ov. Fast. vi. 601, 609 ; Festus, p 333.

3 Suet. De 111. Gram. 15 ; Vit. Tib. xv. ; Hist. Aug. * Solin. i. 25 ; Varro, L. L. v. 15S.

Gordian. ill. 3 ; Min. Panegyr. chap. 1. ; Gibbon, chap. ' Graev. Thes. iii. p. 28S ; Suet. Aug. 57; Plin.

vii.; Dion Cass, xlviii. 38. * Cic. Ad Quint, ii. 3. .x-xxvi. 22, 46.

' Suet. loc. cit. ; App. Bell. Civ. ii. 126; Cic. '° Gell. xviii. 4; BcUori, Piant. Cap. tab. iv. P.ut

Phil. i. xiii. § 31 ; Dion Cass. xliv. 22. see Moitatsbericht dir Pmissisi/i. Akad. 1867, p.

' Livy, ii. 41 ; Dionys. viii. 79. The district in the 542, where the letters are interpreted as " Bublarius "

neighbourhood was afterwards called in tellure. instead of " Sandaliarius.''

232 The Esqiiiline Hill and Coliseum.

whole of the Carinje, and reaching over the slopes of the hill as far as the Via di
S. Clemeiite. The ruins of some part of the Aurea Domus are now to be found under-
neath those of the Baths of Titus, which, as Suetonius and Martial tell us, he built near
the Coliseum, on the site of part of Nero's palace.^

So far as we can draw any conclusion from the fragmentarj^ and confused piles of ruin
now left, and from the plan which Palladio sketched at a time when the remains of the
palace had not so completely disappeared, it seems that this part of Nero's palace consisted
of a long straight facade of buildings, extending along the slope of the Oppian from east
to west, in the direction marked on the plan {a, b). In front of this there seems to have
been a spacious court, surrounded by small chambers {c, d). A few of these still remain
at the western end, and are used as a dwelling-house for the custode. Behind the above-
mentioned fagade were numerous rooms of various kinds, and courts surrounded with
colonnades. One of these courts or yards, with its adjacent corridors and apartments,
is now partly accessible {e, f), but the greater part were filled in with rubbish when the
Baths of Titus were built over them, and have never been entirely cleared. In the centre
of this court the remains of a fountain-basin and a pedestal may be seen. The area is
now traversed by parallel walls, built by Titus to serve as substructions to his thermae.
These are indicated on the plan by the dotted lines in black.

All the rooms in this part which are now accessible have vaulted roofs, and are covered
with decorative paintings.- Fortunately a great number of these have been presented to
us by artists who copied them before they were destroyed by damp and the soot of the
cicerone's torch.* At the present time (1866) enough remains to show the beauty and
delicacy of the designs which were so much admired by Raphael that he adopted the same
style of ornamentation in the loggie of the Vatican. The rooms now shown, which contain
a bath and other household apparatus, apparently belong to a private house, and may either
have formed a part of the Aurea Domus, or of some house built at the time immediately
following Nero's death, after the demolition of the Aurea Domus and before the erection of
the Therma; of Titus. The eleven rooms (/) which occupied the north side of the court {c)
contain traces of wooden staircases leading to an upper story. The decorations and fittings
of these appear to have been so inferior to those of the other rooms that we must suppose
them to have been occupied by the Imperial slaves, or by. the household troops. At the
northern end of this row of chambers is a room with mosaic pavement, at a considerably
lower level than those surrounding it, and which must therefore have belonged to some
building earlier in date than the Domus Aurea. It is sometimes called a part of the house
of Maecenas, but there is no authority for this, and it is more probable that the house
of Maecenas stood to the east of this, nearer to the agger of Servius.

Another portion of the Aurea Domus is still visible in the Sette Sale, a large brick
building lying in a vineyard to the left of the Via delle Sette Sale. The purpose of this
was plainly to serve as a reservoir for water, and it is shown to have belonged to the Domus

1 Suet. Tit. 7 ; Mart. De Spec. 2. and are common figures on the \valls of Pompeii.

- The best-preser\ed paintings are in the long ■* Bellori et Caussei, Pict. Ant. dehneatas a Bartoli,

north corridor. Two snakes are painted in a comer Rom. 173S ; Mirri e Carletti, Terme di Tito, 1776;

of this, iUustrating Persius, Sat. i. 113 :" Pinge duos De Romanis, Terme de Tito, 1822; Cameron's

angues, pueri sacer est locus, extra meiite." The Roman Therma:, London, 1775.
two snakes were symbolic of the Lares Compitales,

,;.:'^mm<^

-rt

^^I

i;?

Q-

^^mM,^.^<

Wilitt

'^"m\\w

The Esquiline Hill and Coliscttm , ^ .

Aurca, and not to the Thcrma: of Titus, by the correspondence of its position with the
ground-plan of tlie former. It ma}- have been afterwards used in connexion with
the thermpe, and was possibly preserved with that view, while the rest of the ^"''' ^'''^''■^■
palace was destroyed or buried. The peculiar construction of the interior, w^hich is divided
into nine compartments, communicating with each other by openings not placed opposite to
each other, but in a slanting direction across the building, is said to have been so arranged in
order to lessen the pressure of the mass of water on the sides of the buildino-.i Beyond
this reservoir (which has now been found to consist of nine, and not of seven compartments
as its name would imply) the parklike grounds of Nero's great palace stretched away as
far as the Servian agger.

After Nero's death, Otho, according to Suetonius,^ intended to spend fifty millions of
sesterces in the completion of the Aurea Domus, and Vitellius professed himself dissatisfied
with it ; but their designs were left unexecuted fromi want of time. Vespasian, on his
accession, demolished the vestibule, and began to build the Coliseum upon the site of the
great lake. Becker says that he also gave up that part of the palace which stood upon
the Esquiline to the public ; but there is apparently no proof that this was the case
though it is rendered not improbable by the existence of a common street paintino- of two
snakes in the north corridor.^

Titus busied himself first in the completion of the grand amphitheatre begun b\- his
father, and then hastened to erect his thermje, which were finished in a ^,

J liei-mtE Till et

remarkably short space of time {velocia inuncra), and stood upon the ruins Trajani.
of the Aurea Domus.''

These thermze were connected with the Coliseum by a portico, traces of which can
still be seen on the north side of the amphitheatre. The arrangement of the building
corresponded in some degree to that of the Baths of Caracalla, consisting apparentlj- of
a large square court surrounded by various offices and places for recreation, in the centre
of which stood a vast mass of building containing the bath rooms. ■'^ The sides of this
court were not parallel to an}- lines of building in the Aurea Uomus, and therefore, in order
to form a level area, many new substructions had to be erected. This is plainly the case
with the theatre (a), which occupied the centre of the side towards the Coliseum. In
order to raise this to the level of the rest of the area, the nine huge arched chambers
which are now a most conspicuous part of the ruins were erected, and one of the court-
yards of the Aurea Domus was filled, as we have seen, with parallel w-alls of brickwork.
On each side of the theatre there were probably gymnasia, libraries, or ball courts {b, b).
The central building was occupied with the frigidarium and tepidarium, and the other
usual adjuncts of a large Roman bath (c, c, c).

The Catalogue called the " Curiosuni Urbis Rom^ " mentions not only the Baths of
Titus, but also those of Trajan, in the third region. The anonymous MS. of Einsiedlen

' The group of the Laocoon was found in one '- See Palladio's and Canina's plans. Although

of the vineyards near the Sette Sale. It is supposed these are conjectural in many points, yet Palladio

that the palace built by Titus near his therma; may must have seen much more of the original walls

have contained this group of statuary. than can now be discovered ; and Canina takes his

- Suet. Otho, 7 ; Dion Cass. Ixv. 4. See above, plan mainly from a fragment of the Capitoline map.

p. 164. 3 Sec note on p. 232. On the entertainments provided in these therms.

' Suet, and Mart. loc. cit. ; Curios. Urb. Reg. iii. sec Note A at the end of this chapter.

11 11

2 3^. The Esqitiline Hill and Coliseum.

places Trajan's baths near the Church of S. Pietro in Vincoh, and Anastasius, in his Hfe
of Symmachus, aUudes to them as near the Church of S. Martino.^ It is therefore abun-
dantly proved that the Thermae of Trajan stood at the back of the Baths of Titus, and
it is here that we find them placed in the plan of Palladio. That they were distinct
buildings seems clear from an inscription in which they are separately mentioned.- A
satisfactory explanation of the apparently strange fact that Trajan erected new and smaller
therma; near those of Titus is given by one of the chronologers of the period, who speaks
of the Baths of Trajan as intended for women, for whom there was no separate accom-
modation provided in those of Titus.^

In the valley between the Esquiline and Ca^Iian, and immediately adjoining the ruins
of the Baths of Titus, stands the huge pile of the Coliseum, or Flavian Amphitheatre, " a
noble wreck, in ruinous perfection." While the other great work of Vespasian,
the Temple of Peace, has totally disappeared, enough remains of his amphi-
theatre to give us some idea of the stupendous designs in which the world-wide, power
of the Roman Emperors found an outward realization.* The Coliseum is not, however,
like other colossal monuments of antiquity, the expression of a selfish ambition. The
Pyramids and the Taj Mahal of Agra, its rivals in massive grandeur, were built for the
sole glorification of individual despots. But the Coliseum was intended to serve political
and national ends, and bears testimony to Vespasian's public spirit. Since the time of
Augustus the Emperors had shown no truly Imperial policy ; their attention had been
solely devoted to themselves and their personal indulgences. They had covered the
Palatine with their palaces, and were now encroaching upon the neighbouring hills.
Scarcely any public buildings had been erected in the city itself by Tiberius, Caligula,
or Claudius, with the exception of the aqueducts of the Aqua Claudia and the Anio
Novus, plans for which had probably been laid in the time of Augustus. Nero, had it been
possible, would have absorbed the whole of Rome into his private pleasure-grounds and
palaces,'' and Galba and Vitellius had no opportunity of designing any public works.
Vespasian first attempted to revive the Augustan policy, and erect buildings of public
utility. By his choice of the site for his great building, nearly in the centre
of Imperial Rome, he wished at once to abolish the monuments of Nero's
hateful and selfish encroachments, and also to consult the tastes of the people, and gain a
popularity which no rival could venture to emulate.

Nero's artificial lake had been surrounded with houses, presenting the appearance of a
city. These had to be levelled, and the lake itself drained and filled up, before the founda-
tions of the great amphitheatre could be laid. Traces of Nero's buildings are said to have
been discovered during the process of clearing the base of the Coliseum, and exploring
the subterranean passages and chambers which underlie the arena. The water also which

' Curios. Reg. iii. ; .\iiast. Vit. Pont. Symmach. of the original building now remains.

"- Orelli, Inscr. No. 2,591, quoted in Note A. ^ Mart. Dc Spec. ii. 4: '" Unaque jam tola stabat in

^ Roncalli, ton^ ii. col. 243. urbe domus." In the time of Nero the Vatican,

■• The name Coliseum first occurs in the CoUec- Pincian, and a great part of the Ouirinal hills were

tanea Beda;, torn. iii. p. 482, in the famous prophecy covered with immense Imperial pleasure-grounds,

of the Saxon pilgrims in the eighth century, and therma:, and palaces. The gardens of Lucullus and

is generally supposed to refer to the gigantic size of Sallust had long been appropriated to the Em-

of the amphitheatre. Gibbon, chap. lx.\i. and Du peror's use. Thus nearly the whole of the northern

Cange, Glossar. Med. ct Inf. Lat. About one-third part of the present city was an Imperial domain.

The Esquiline Hill and Coliseum. 2 "5

even now partially fills these is probably derived from some source which supplied the
ancient lake;^ and in order to get rid of this, and lay a firm foundation, considerable
drainage must have been necessar}-. The name of Vespasian's architect has
not been preserved to us ; for although the traditions of the Church of Rome ' "^ "'''"''■
ascribe the credit of designing the workto a Christian named Gaudentius, yet there is
great reason to doubt the truth of this statement.^

Whoever the architect was, he must have been a man of consummate practical
skill to erect a perpendicular wall, such as that of the Coliseum, which could stand on
swampy ground unshaken for so many centuries. Not only the name of the architect,
but all the particulars of the sums of money and the time consumed in the erection
of the building have been lost. Lipsius asserts, upon the authority of a coin, that
the building was begun in the eighth consulship of Vespasian, i.e. A.D. J J ; but this
coin is said by Bellori to belong to the time of Domitian, and the date given by it can
hardly-relate to the commencement of the work.* The account of Suetonius would induce
us to place the commencement of the building earlier, since he speaks of it
at the beginning of Vespasian's reign, together with the Temple of Peace,
which was finished and dedicated in A.D. y-, ; and also tells us that the amphitheatre was
finished and opened in A.D. 81, which would leave, if we are to suppose that it was
begun in A.D. jy, barely four years for its erection, an incredibly short space of time.*

Titus seems, however, only to have completed the main framework of the building, so
far as was necessary to make it possible to hold games in it, and Domitian afterwards
added the last story and the ornamental work.^

But few substantial alterations were made by subsequent Emperors. Antoninus Pius
is said bv Capitolinus to have restored the building, but to what extent we are

History:

ignorant.*' Commodus, who was madly addicted to the sports of the arena, a ntouinm Phu,
constructed a subterranean passage leading from the Cslian to the Imperial Commodm,
suggestum. He was attacked on one occasion when traversing this passage by an
assassin named Claudius Pompeianus, and narrowly escaped with his life." The passage
was discovered at the beginning of this century, and was at that time still decorated with
beautiful stucco ornaments, which Thorivaldsen saw and copied, but ^\•hich

J\facrinuSf

are now nearly destroyed by the damp. In tne tmie of Macrinus a fire iMiogabaiin,
caused by lightning destroyed the upper part of the amphitheatre, which was ''*''''^' '^'^'<^'"'
repaired by Heliogabalus and Alexander Severus ;* and after the terrible earthquake of
A.D. 442 the arena and podium seem to have been rebuilt by a praefect of the city named

^ Ann. ikW Inst. 1854, p. 70; Rcber, Ruinen faced with brick. There has evidently been an in-

Roms, p. 422. teiTuption in the work for some \cars, and some parts

= Venuti, Roma Antica, vol. i. p. 39. Venuti gives begun in stone are finished in brick, so that before tlic

an inscription found in S. Martino as the evidence. Coliseum was completed brick had become the usual

The inscription probably, however, relates to the facing of walls not faced with marble."— Parker".s

martyrdom of Gaudentius in the amphitheatre. Lecture bvfore Archaol. .'society at Rome p. 14.

' Lips. De .Vmph. p. 22 ; Bellori, Numis. p. 63, No. " Hist. Aug. Ant. Pius, 8.

30. See also Fontana, De Amph. Flav. lib. iii. " Dion Cass. k.\ii. 4, 17 ; Hcrodian, i. 15, 16 •

cap. 2. ■• Suet. Vesp. 9 ; Tit. 7. Hist. Aug. Commod. 11 : "pugnasse dic'itur septin-

^ Cassiod. ap. Rone. ii. 196. "The Coliseum is faced genties tricies quinquics."

on the exterior with cut stone (travertine), though the ' Dion Cass, bcxviii. 25 ; Hist. Aug. Helio". 17 ;

main structure is of concrete, and the inner walls are Alex. Sev. 24.

11 II 2

236 The Esquilinc Hill and Coliseum.

Lampridius/ The gladiatorial games had been finally discontinued in A.D. 403, after the

Lampridhis, memorable martyrdom of Telcmachus.- Again in 580 the podium and

Bastlius. arena were destroyed by an earthquake, and rebuilt by Marius Venantius

Basilius, as recorded in an inscription found in the arena in 1810, and now placed at the

side of the north-west entrance.

These inscriptions seem to show that the part of the building most exposed to injury
from earthquakes was the podium, and Braun has therefore ingeniously suggested that the
elaborate substructions of the arena, besides the other purpose they served as entrances to
the arena, were also intended to support the podium, and resist the pressure exerted upon
it by the upper masses of the building.^

Some parts of the later history of the Coliseum seem worth mentioning. During a

part of the eleventh and twelfth centuries it was used as a castle by the powerful family of

the Frangipani, and afterwards belonged to the Annibaldi. Hcnrv VH. first

Frangipani.

„,r prevented its further occupation as a castle, and it was used for a erand

Henry VII. .

Biill-fi^'/it in bull-fight in 1332, so that the seats and staircases must have then been

1332. tolerably perfect.'' But fifty years after this we find that a great part of the

Hospital m building had been carted away by the Roman nobles as buildincf-stone, and
1450. . ^ ■' _ s '

during the fifteenth century further robberies were committed, so that Poggio

declares in 1450 that the greater jjart had been carried away. Part of the building was

at this time turned into a hospital in connexion with that of S. Giovanni in Latcrano.-'

At the end of the fifteenth and the beginning of the sixteenth centuries, various

palaces were built with travertine blocks taken from the Coliseum, .\mong

otics usee jci (.j^ggg were the Palazzo di Venezia, the Palazzo della Cancellcria, and the

palaces.

Palazzo Farnese.''
During another period of its eventful history, in the seventeenth centurj-, the amphi-
theatre was used for the exhibition of Passionspielen, or representations of the events of the

Gospel histories, such as were common in the Middle Ages. A relic of these

is still to be seen in the second corridor of the western entrance, where a plan
of Jerusalem is rudely sketched upon the wall over an arch. The last indignity inflicted
upon the grand old building was perhaps the worst, when Clement XI. in 1700 walled up

the archways and established a saltpetre manufactory in the corridors for the
Saltpetre. ^ supply of his neighbouring powder-mills. Benedict XIV. has the credit of

having first conceived the idea of preserving it as a ruin.'' He consecrated
the arena to the memory of the martyrs whose blood was shed there, and planted the
cross in the centre, and arranged the usual fourteen stations around the podium.

^ See the inscription in Nibby, Roma nell' Anno then Another opinion is that they were the holes in

1838, parte i. Antica, p. 408. which the beams of the buildings which clustered

- See Gibbon, chap. xxx. round the Coliseum in the Middle Ages were fixed.

^ Ann. dcir Inst. 1854, p. 70. See the treatise of Suaresius, " De Foraminibus Lapi-

■* Muratori, R. I. Scr. quoted by Reber, p. 420, and dum," in Sallengre's Thesaurus, vol. i. p. 313.
( jibbon, chap. Ixxi. vol. ii. p. 622. ' The architect Carlo Fontana actually drew plans

'" Poggio Flor. de fut. Var. Urb. Rom. in Sallen- in 1725 for building a large church at one end of the

gre's Thesaurus, vol. i. p. 506. arena, with a lofty dome and a statue of the Pope on

" The holes which are so conspicuous in the tra- the summit. The design was, however, fortunately

vertine blocks of the exterior were probably made in never carried out. C. Fontana, L'Anfiteatro Flavio,

the Middle Ages for the purpose of extracting the Roma, 1725.
iron clamps by which the stones were fastened toge-

The Esquiline Hill and Coliseum. 2^7

Since the beginning of the present cenlur)-, every possible care has been taken to
preserve what remains of the ruin ; its base has been carefully laid bare, its walls
propped with buttresses, and its breaches perhaps only too carefully repaired. Thus
although two-thirds at least of the pile have disappeared under the shameful treatment
to which the barbarians of the ^liddle Ages subjected it, j-et enough remains to show
the arrangement of the building, with the exception of some few points on which
antiquarians differ.

The plan of the whole may be best described as consisting of three principal massive
concentric oval arcades.* The intervals between each of these are filled DcfcHpticn.
in with arched work forming corridors and staircases, and between the innermost

THE COLlbKl M, tKu.M THE PALATINE HILL.

On the left is the top of the Arch of Titus and the ruins of the Temple of Venus and Rome, witli the Mct.-i Sud.nns • on
the right the Lateran Palace and Basilica : and in the bacl<ijround tlie hills of Tusculum on the riylit, and of Pr^neste
on the left.

of the three principal arcades and the wall surrounding the arena is a triple system of
substructions supporting the lower part of the seats of the amphitheatre.

The longer diameter of this huge building from one outside wall to the other measures
602 feet, the shorter 507. The principal outer wall is 157 feet in height, and is divided

' Why the oval shape was chosen in preference to
the circular does not appear. It may have been
imitated from the elongated shape of the Circus or
Forum, or perhaps more prob.ibly from the .Xmphi-
theatro of Curio, which was composed of two seg-

ments of circles, each greaterthan a semicircle. Hirt,
Gesch. der Baukunst. iii. p. 159; Plin. Nat. Hist.
x.\xvi. § 117. The stone used throughout is traver-
tine, with the e.vception of some vaultings of pumice
stone and interior work of brick and concrete.

2 18 Tlic Esquilinc Hill and Coliseum.

into four stories.^ Of these the lowest stands on a substruction of two steps, and
consists of a row of eighty arches, between whicli stand . half-columns of the Doric
order. Upon these rests a very simple entablature, without any of the usual peculiarities
of the Doric style, and rather belonging to the Ionic, a mixture of stj-les not very rare
in Rome."- The arches are all numbered, with the exception of the four which stand at
the ends of the major and minor axes. The numbers were probably intended to
correspond to those upon the entrance tickets, in order that the spectators might find
their proper seats with ease.^ There is a staircase and a vomitorium, or entrance to the
seats from the corridors, corresponding to every four arches ; and the vomitoria, as well as
the entrance arches, were all numbered to prevent confusion. Of the four unnumbered
entrance arches, those which stood at the extremities of the shorter diameter were the ap-
proaches to the Imperial pavilions. They were ornamented with marble columns and carved
work on the exterior, and led in the interior to a large withdrawing-Toom, from which there
was a separate passage to the Emperor's throne {piihinar) on the podium. On the
Esquiline side the Imperial entrance may still be recognised by a slight projection in the
substruction, and by the pillars of white marble which originally stood on each side

lying near it.

The same arrangement was doubtless made on the CcTelian side, where, as we have
seen, Commodus made himself an underground approach. The other two principal
entrances at the extremities of the major axis lead directly into the arena, and were
probably used for the entrj^ of processions or marching bodies of gladiators, or machines
of various kinds.

The entablature of the first story is surmounted by an attica, with projections
corresponding to the columns below. Upon these stand the arches of the second story,
between which half-columns of the Ionic order are placed. The details of the archi-
tecture here are in a very meagre style, for the spiral lines on the volutes are omitted
entirely, and also the usual toothed ornaments of the entablature.* The same remark
applies to the third story, the half-columns of which have Corinthian capitals yciXh. the
acanthus foliage very roughly worked.

The fourth story has no arches, but consists of a wall pierced with larger and
smaller square windows placed alternately, and is decorated with pilasters of the Com-
posite order. Between each pair of pilasters three consoles project from the wall, and
above these are corresponding niches in the entablature. The purpose of these was
to support the masts upon which the awnings were stretched.

The two inner principal concentric walls contain arches corresponding to those in the
outer wall. Corridors (ambulacra) run between these concentric walls ; and on the first and

1 The size of the great amphitheatre at El-Djemm been found. It bears the inscription " Cun. \n. in x.

in Tunis is 480 feet by 420, and 102 feet in height ; of \\\V'—i.e. Cunei sexti inferioris decimo gradu octavus

that at Pola in I stria, 437 by 346 feet, and 97 in height, locus. Mommsen inBer. Sachs Gesell. 1849, S. 286.

Sha»''s Travels,!, p. 220; Attn, dell' Inst. 1852; Becker, Hdb. Th. iv. S. 559.

Allason's Pola. ■* See Desgodetz, Les Edifices antiques de Rome,

- See Introduction. The tomb of Scipio Barbatus Paris, 1779, chap. xxi. A similar neglect of the de-
is a curious instance of the mixture of Doric and tails of the capitals is found in the great amphitheatre
Ionic decorative forms. of El-Djemm Thysdnis. Auct. Bell. Afr. 26). Ann.

'■' A ticket for the amphitheatre at Frosinone has delP Inst. 1852, p. 246.

The Esqidiinc Hill and Coliseum. 239

second floors of the outer ring and the first floor of the inner ring these corridors afford
a completely unobstructed passage all round. The rest are blocked up in parts by various
staircases leading to the upper rows of seats.

Within the third principal concentric arcade the supports of the building take the
form of massive walls radiating from the centre of the whole mass, and pierced by three
ranges of corresponding arches. Between these substructions and in the corridors arc the
steps and passages leading to the lower seats of the amphitheatre. The actual seats,
which were of marble, have been all pilfered for the benefit of the Roman palaces and
churches of the feudal ages, but we can still make out with tolerable certainty the five
principal divisions into which they were separated. The lowest of these, called the
podium, was a platform raised twelve or fifteen feet above the arena, upon which were
placed the chairs of the higher magistrates and dignitaries. This Avas protected by
railings and nets full of spikes, and sometimes also by trenches called euripi, and
also by horizontal bars of wood or iron, which turned freely round, and thus afforded
no hold to the paws of a wild animal.^

Above the podium were four diftcrent orders of seats, divided by prsecinctiones or
baltei from each other. The first of these consisted of about twenty rows of seats, and
was appropriated to the knights and tribunes and other state officers. The upper row
of this set was probably at a height of about ten feet above the top of the arches of
the lowest storj". The next ranges of seats, between the second and third preecinctio, were
appropriated to Roman citizens in general, and held the greatest number of spectators.

The wall dividing these seats from the next set was very high, and contained,
besides the vomitoria, a number of windows for the purpose of lighting the corridors and
passages behind. A considerable part of this wall is still extant upon the side towards the
Esquiline. Above it rose the third division of seats, occupied by the unenfranchised classes
of the people ; and above this again, and separated from it by a very low wall without
vomitoria, was the fourth group of seats, immediately under the windows of the upper-
most stor)-, and covered bj- a portico, which ran round the whole top of the building. -
The traces of this uppermost row of seats and of the colonnade which supported the
portico may still be seen on the side towards the Esquiline hill.

The seats in this part seem to have been partly appropriated to women, partly to
the lower classes {pullati)? On the roof of the portico stood the workmen whose
business it was to manage the awnings, and to move them as the sun or rain required.
The number of seats in the whole amphitheatre is said to have been 87,000 ;* and a
considerable number of spectators in addition to these could stand in the baltei, at the
entrances of the vomitoria, and in other vacant places ; so that the whole number which
the building when crammed from top to bottom could hold was probably not less than
90,000.

The exterior wall of the building diminishes in thickness towards the top, in order
to render it the more firm ; and while the Doric and Ionic columns of the first and

1 See Lipslus, De Amph. p. 38, cap. xii. ; Plin. Nat. Alexander Sevcrus. The remains of a similar portico

Hist. viii. 7, 7; Calpurn. vii. 51 — 56: " Tereti qui exist in tlie amphitlie;\tre at Thysdrus (El-Djemm in

lubricus axe impositos subita vcrtigine fallcrct ungues Tunis). -See Canina in the Ann. dell' Inst. 1852, tav.

excuteretque fcras." d'agg. U. ' Calpurn. Eel. vii. 26.

- This portico is shown in the medals of Titus and ■• Cur. Urb. Reg. iii.

240 The Esqiiilinc Hill and Coliseum.

second stories stand out from the wall b}' nearly three-quarters of their circumference,
the third row of Corinthian columns stand out onlj- by a half, and the uppermost row-
are merely pilasters.^

Much discussion has been raised on the question of the awnings or velaria required
for so large a space. It is impossible, of course, in the absence of any distinct con-
temporaneous description, to discover the exact mode of suspension adopted. Venuti
supposes that a net of cords, constructed like a spider's web, with both radiating and
concentric ropes, was suspended over the amphitheatre, and that by pulleys arranged
over this the vela were drawn across any part which happened to be exposed to the
sun.- By means of pulleys attached to this network of ropes, the little bo\-s mentioned
b>' Juvenal as " ad velaria rapti " may have been drawn up.^ The ropes and pulleys, we
are told by Lampridius, were managed by sailors.* In rough and windy weather the
awnino-s could not always be set, and umbrellas, coloured according to the favourite's
colours, or large broad-brimmed hats called causia; or birri, were then used.-''

Martial has written some amusing epigrams, showing how jealously the seats appro-
priated to any particularly privileged order were reserved. He gives the names of Lectius
or Leitus and Oceanus to the boxkeepers of his time.

" Ouadringenta tibi non sunt, Chaerestrate, surge,

Lectius ecce venit, sta, fuge, curre, late.'"'

And he describes with great humour the attempts of a certain Nanneius to smuggle
himself into a better place than he was entitled to : —

•' Sedere primo solitus in gradu semper.
Tunc cum liceret occupare Nanneius.
Bis excitatus terque transtulit castra :
Et inter ipsas psne tertius sellas
Post Gaiumque Luciumque consedit.
mine cucullo prospicit caput tectus,
Oculoque ludos spectat indecens uno.
Et hinc miser dejectus in viam transit.
Subsellioque semifultus extreme,
Et male receptus altcro genu, jactat
Equiti sedere, Leitoque se stare.'''

■ The pickpockets of Martial's time also frequented this amphitheatre. He says of
Hermogenes, the greatest adept at napkin-stealing of the day ;

" Qu.amvis non medico caleant spectacula sole.
Vela reducuntur, cum venit Hermogenes."'*

The anxiety of the public to attend the shows was so great that they occupied the free
seats in the amphitheatre before dawn in the morning, and ga\-e fees to the locarii and
designatores to keep places for them, when any favourite gladiator or bestiarius was

' Venuti, vol. i. p. 30. Castra Miscnatium adjoining. See Note B at the

■!. Venuti, Roma Antica, vol. i. p. 41. The vela or end of this chapter.

velaria were of different colours and materials : as ^ Hist. Aug. Carinus, 20 ; Mart. xiv. 28, 29, xi. 21,

purple, Dion Cass. Ixiii. 6 ; silk, ib. xliii. 24 ; yellow, 6 ; Juv. ix. 50.

red, or blue, Lucret. iv. 75, vi. 109 ; Propert. iv. 1,15. ° Martial, v. 25, i, iii. 95, 9, v. 23, 4, vi. 9, v. 8. ;

■* Juv. iv. 122, Suet. Aug. 14.

■* Lamprid, Comm. 15. Stationed possibly in the ' Mart. v. 14. '* Ibid. xii. 29, 15.

The Esquilinc Hill and Colisaim,. 241

announced as about to perform.' The shows lasted whole days, and hence various con-
trivances for keeping the spectators in good humour, and filling up the intervals between
the combats. Seneca tells us of the mcridiani, a class of slaves who were kept on purpose
to fill up the midday leisure hours with sham battles, and ludicrous pranks played upon
the bodies of those killed or half killed in the previous fights.- The air was cooled with
immense jets of water projected from the centre of the arena, or from holes in the
statues, and scented with fragrant essences, among which extract of saffron mixed with
wine seems to have been the most popular.*

The arena of the Coliseum was originally about 250 feet in length, and 150 feet in
breadth. It is now much larger, on account of the removal of the wall of the podium.
The substructions under the arena are of the same oval shape as the arena itself, but are
crossed by longitudinal walls, apparently for the sake of strengthening them. The vaults
thus constructed might be used for various purposes — to keep the arena dry in wet weather,
or to introduce wild beasts in cages,* or to remove the dead bodies of the slain, when the
Spoliarium, or dead-house, was full.* They were covered with a floor of planks, so that
openings could easily be made whenever required.

Perhaps no building of ancient Rome is so strikingly characteristic of the builder,
and the age in which he lived, as the Flavian Amphitheatre. Vespasian is described b\^
historians, and represented on coins and in extant sculptures, as a thick-set, square-
shouldered man, with a short neck, small eyes, strongly marked but coarse features,
wearing an expression of effort.^ He cared little for the elegances of life, and was plebeian
in his tastes and regardless of appearances, but set a high value on manliness and obstinate
unflinching endurance. During his reign the prevalent feeling in the Roman nation was
that of a weary and repentant prodigal. Sick of the frivolity and wanton debauchery of the
Neronian age, yet unable to return to the ascetic simplicity of primitive times, men adored,
for want of a better idol, the blunt honesty and coarse strength of the Flavians. What if

their emperor wished that his courtiers should smell of garlic rather than of perfumery, if,

in his contempt for speculative genius, he dubbed the agitating philosophers of his day
" barking curs .' " '' — yet he stood before them as a proof that the stern old vigour of the
national character was not yet extinct, and that the profligate effeminacy of the previous
generation had not yet rotted the Roman character to its core. The same massive power
of endurance, yet ponderous and vulgar character, belongs to the architecture of the
Coliseum. It exhibits a neglect, almost a contempt, for elegance of proportion. The
upper tiers are nearly as heavy and compact as the lower. Its arcades are solid, practical,
built to last for ages. The elaborate details of the Ionic and Corinthian orders, in w hich
an artistic eye usually finds so much pleasure, are merely hinted at as superfluous.

Doubtless, as we now see it, the ruin is far more eff"ective than the complete buildiiv

' Suet. Cal. 26; Plaut. Poen. Prol. 19 ; Mart. v. 24, 9. ■* The substructions are represented in Taylor and

- Suet. Claud. 34 ; Senec. Ep. i. 7 : " Intermissum Crecy's work, PI. cxv. ; and in Xibby, de Foro Rom.

est spectaculum, interim jugulentur homines ne nihil cap. iii. Calpumius says, Eel. vii. 70 : " Ruptaque

agatur." voragine terra: emersisse feras." See Becker's Handb.

' Senec. Ep. xiv. 2, 15 ; N. Q. ii. 9 ; Mart. ix. 39, 'I'hcil. iv. S. 557.

V. 25 ; Spect. 3 ; Lucan, ix. 806 ; Plin. Nat. Hist. « The Spoharium was probably near the Oelian

xxi. 6, 17 : " Crocum vino mire congruit, tritum ad gate of the Coliseum.

theatra replenda." Ov. A. .\. i. 104. * Suet. Vesp. 20^ " Ibid. 8, 13.

I I

24'2 The Esqiiiliiic Hill and Colisciiiu.

can ever have been; for when complete the appearance of the CoUseum must have been
heavy and oppressive. The enormous unreHeved flat surface of the upper wall must have
seemed ready to topple over, or to crush the arcades below. But now that earthquakes
and barbarous hands have made such ghastly rents in its sides, the outline has become
more varied, and the base more proportioned to the superstructure ; so that, although we
can still recognise the flavour of a somewhat vulgar and material age, yet all that would
have offended the eye has been removed, and the historic memories which cluster round its
walls, of mighty emperors and bloodthirstj- mobs, of screams of death or triumph, of
gorgeous pageants and heroic martyrdoms, combine to render the Coliseum, in its decay,
the most imposing ruin in the whole world.

In the immediate neighbourhood of the Coliseum there must have been many buildings
for keeping wild beasts, and supplying the amphitheatre with all the various apparatus
necessary for shows. Thus we have, in the lists of the Regionarii, the Summum
Choragium placed near the amphitheatre. Some of the schools in which gladiators were
trained were not far oft". The Ludus Magnus and Dacicus are mentioned in the Catalogue
of the third region, and the Ludus Matutinus and Gallicus in that of the second.^

3. — The Cisrus.

We have shown that the larger tongue of the Esquiline hill was called Oppius, and
from thence it follows that the name Cispius, applied by Varro to the other
' portion of the hill,^ must belong to the projecting spur which runs out from
the Piazza di S. Maria Maggiore, and is included between the Via Urbana and \'ia di
S. Pudenziana on the north-west, and the Via di S. Lucia in Selci on the south. That
this was the Mons Cispius of Varro is further shown by a passage of Festus, whicii
]'iais connects the Cispius with the Vicus Patricius.^ Now the Vicus Patricius,

Pairiniis. according to the anonymous MS. of Einsiedlen and Anastasius, was the
district in which the Church of S. Pudenziana is situated, and this church lies between the
Viminal and Esquiline.* The house of Csesonius Maximus, spoken of by Martial as com-
manding a view of the Capitolium Vetus on the Ouirinal, was in the Vicus

House of ° ^ ~ '

Casonius. Patricius.^ These instances show that the \'icus Patricius was on the side of

Temple of the Esquiline adjoining the Viminal, and therefore that the Cispius Mons was

Diami. j-j^g northern spur of the Esquiline. A Temple of Diana is mentioned by

I.iieiisPatelms. Y\vX2.xc\\ as situated in the Vicus Patricius,'^ and the Lucus Pcttelius was in

this neighbourhood, as we learn from the fragments about the Argeian chapels preserved

by Varro."

If any conclusion can be drawn from the order in which Varro mentions the places
JEdes Mefitis, upon the Esquiline which he names, his enumeration probably begins from
Lucus Aefitis, ^.j^^ eastern side, and proceeds towards the west. For we find the yEdes

jtinonisLucuia:^

Fagittaiis, Mefitis placed by Festus near the Vicus Patricius, and the .^des Junonis
Laium, Lucina; on the Cispius; and in Varro the Lucus Mefitis and Lucus Junonis

1 Cat. Reg. ii. iii. 2 Varro, L. L. v. § 49. ' Mart. vii. 73. '' Pint, (hiaest. Rom. 3.

' Festus, p. 348. ' Anast. Vit. Pii I. p. 14, Bl. ■ Varro, L. L. v. § 50.

The Esquilinc II ill and Colisaini. 24^

Lucin.x stand last in the list.' These two hist-mentioned places, therefore, Qtitrijueiulanum
stood upon the Cispius ; and we may place the other three mentioned by Sacelbim.
Varro. the Lucus Fagutalis, the Lucus Lamm, and the Ouerquetulanum Sacellum, upon
the Oppius. The Lucus Junonis Lucinrt surrounded a temple of the same deity, built in
the year 375 B.c.'

A {q.w other places are mentioned in ancient writers as situated on the Esquiline,
the exact topography of which cannot be determined. These are the Lucus ^«'w l.Mtiiuf,
Libitinre,-' the Ara Mali? Fortuna; ^ and the Ara Febris,-' the Castra -•'/;" ^'^"/"-

/■orlumc,

-Misenatium, or station of tlie Classiarii, probably between the Coliseum Am Fehis,
and the Thermal Titi," and the Curix Novs. The only reason for placing Cuira

the last of these on the Esquiline is, that in the Middle Ages the neigh- Curhv Xo-m.
bourhood of S. Pietro in Vincoli bore the name of Curia Vetus.'

Note A, p. 233.

The following inscription shows the kind of entertainment with which the Romans were amused
at the therma; (Orclli's Inscriptions, No. 2591) : —

" Ursus Togatus vitrea qui primus pila
Lusi decenter cum meis lusoribus
Laudante populo maximis clamoribus
Thermis Trajani, Thermis Agrippa; et Tit!
Multum et Ncronis, si tamen mihi creditis,
Ego sum. Ovantes convenite pilicrcpi
Statuamque amici floribus violis rosis
Folioque multo adque unguento marcido
Onerate amantes, et merum profundite
Nigrum Falernum aut -Sctinum aut Cascubum
Vivo ac volenti de apotlicca dominica,
Ursumque canite voce concordi senem
Hilarem jocosum pilicrepum scholasticum,
Qui vicit omnes antccessores sues
Sensu, decore, atque arte subtilissima.
Nunc vera versu verba dicamus senes.
Sum victus ipse fateor a tcr consule
Vero patrono, nee semel sed ssepius
Cujus libcnter dicor e.\odiarius."

(Jrelli quotes Niceph. Gregor. Hist. Byz. tom. i. edit. Paris, p. 215 : "Erf^jos Se li vi\i>v rnjxnpti)' 'ixwv
avut irpos ui^os ipitrrc, KoX Kariovijav tvv fiiy (I'l-pw t<5 t);; x^'fos ol'v^^l i8i)(iT0, vvv ii rw uinaQiu uKpio tuZ
dytcwvoc. fvi' c uWuii; kiu (IAXuc. He thinks that Verus, who is mentioned as the patron of this won-
derful performer, was L. .Viirelius Verus, usually called Commodus, who was Consul HI. in 167 a. d.
Julius Capitolinus says of him, that he was "omnibus deliciis, ludis, jocis, decenter aptissimus."

' Varro, L. L. v. § 49. 50 ; Festus, p. 351. I'hit. De fort. Rom. 10.

= I'lin. Nat. Hist. .wi. 44, 85 ; Ov. Fast. ii. 433, = Val. Max. ii. 5,6.

i'i- 245. " Curios. Reg. iii. ; Aim. diW Inst. vol. xxxiv. p. Co.

■' Dionys. iv. 15. 7 Festus, p. 174; liloiidus Flavius, Rom. Inst. lib.

' Cic. De Nat. Dcor. iii. 25 ; De Legg. ii. 11; ii. 32.

I I 2

244 Th^ Esqnilinc Hill and Coliscinn.

Note B, p. 240.

The seventh Eclogue of Calpurnius gives us an apparently contemporaneous account of the
Roman amphitheatrical performances. It seems, however, very doubtful whether this poem, as is
commonly supposed, refers to the Flavian Amphitheatre ; indeed, the expression in the twenty-third
line, " tralnbus spectacula textis," seems to point rather to the wooden amphitheatre of Nero.^ The
general arrangements of the Coliseum were, however, probably the same; and I have therefore
ventured to quote Calpurnius in speaking of the Flavian amphitheatre. Seneca, in his seventh
Epistle to Lucilius, makes some interesting remarks upon the savage and bloodthirsty sights to be
witnessed in the arena. The populace, he says, are not satisfied by sham fights, even during the
intervals of the regular gladiatorial combats, but demand the blood of criminals with loud cries of
•' Occide, verbera, ure, quare tarn timide incurrit in ferrum ? Quare parum audacter occidit ? Quare
parum libenter moritur ? " The word " ure " refers to the barbarous custom of applying a hot iron to
ascertain whether the victim was deadornot.^ See Tertull. De Spectaculis ; Augustinus, Confessiones,
lib. vi. cap. 8. Theodoret, lib. v. cap. 26, tells the famous story of the monk Telemachus. The
most trustworthy representations of gladiators are the bas-reliefs in the tomb of Scaurus at Pompeii,
copied and published by Millin and^ Mazori. The most complete accounts of gladiatorial and other
public shows at Rome are in Lipsius, Saturnalium Sermonum libri duo, and De Amphitheatro liber ;
and in Rhein. Mus. N. F. x. S. 544.

^ Suet. Nero, 12. " Christianos ad leonem," is given in Tcrtullian's

^ Sen. Ep. vii. 96. The famous cry of the Arena, Apology, p. 40.

CHAPTER X.
THE VIMINAL, QUIRINAL, AND PI NCI AN HILLS.

GENERAL FEATURES AMD GEOLOGY — COLLES — SABINE SETTLEMENTS — HISTORY OF ADDITION TO CITY — COLLINI —
SEPTIMOXTIUM.

VIXIMALIS : DERIVATION OF NAME — PATRICIAN RESIDENTS — SIZE OF HILL AND HEIGHT — MODERN STREETS —
HOUSE OF C. AQUILIUS — LAVACRUM AGRIPPIN.* — THERM,* OLYMPIADIS — THERM.* NOV ATI.

QUIRINALIS : PECULIAR SHAPE — ONE OF THE OLDEST PARTS OF ROME — NAME AGONUS OR AGONALIS — NIEBUHR'S
QUIRIUM — NUMa'S house — FORTIFICATIONS OF TARQUINII AND SERVIUS — GATES — HOUSES OF MARTIAL AND
ATTICUS — LITERARY QUARTER OF ROME — TEMPLE OF QUIRINUS — SACELLUM QUIRINI — CLIVUS MAMURRI —
TEMPLE OF SEMO SANCUS OR DIUS FIDIUS — TEMPLE OF FLORA — FICELL* — AD PYRUM — CAPITOLIUM VETUS,
OR TEMPLE OF JUPITER, JUNO, AND MINERVA — TEMPLES OF S^aJlUS, SERAPIS, AND FORTUNA PUBLICA AND
PRIMIGENIA — SACELLUM PUDICITIyE — VICUS LONGUS — TEMPLUM FEBRIS — CAMPUS SCELERATUS — TEMPLE OF
VENUS ERYCINA — HORTI SALLUSTIANl — MALUM PUNICUM — HEROUM OF FLAVIAN GENS — TEMPLUM SOLIS —
THERM.* CONSTANTINI — THERM.* DIOCLETIANI — SENACULUM MULIERUM.

PINCIUS : EXTENT, SHAPE, AND NAME — HORTI LUCULLIANI — SEPULCHRUM DOMITIANUM — HORTI POMPEIANI — MURO
TORTO — THERM.* NERONIS.

"Tertiie regionis coUes quinque ab Deorum fanis appellati, e quis nobiles duo colles Viminalis, Quirinalis."

Varro, Z. L. v. § 51.

THE natural features of the Viminal, Ouirinal, and Pincian hills are almost identical
with those of the Esquiline. Like the Esquiline, these are all projecting tongues of
land, running out into the valley of the Tiber, from the tableland of the
Campagna. Their geological composition is also the same. All alike consist "'"j /.'i l"^"
of a core of solid tufa of submarine formation, flanked by beds of fresh-water
deposits of sand, clay, redeposited tufa, scorije, and pumice. These fresh-water beds are
found in the Pincian hill, at an extraordinary height above the present level of the Tiber.
Brocchi asserts that they can be traced upon the highest points of the hill in the calcareous
substances found there, which must have been the product of fresh water. On the side of
the Pincian near the Porta del Popolo, when the hill was being cut away to make the car-
riage road leading to the public promenade, considerable quantities of tubular concretions
of travertine, called by the Romans " Confetti di Tivoli," and beds of pumice were found ;
and on the sides of the Quirinal and Viminal the fresh-water deposits apjiear to be chiefly
composed in the same way of alternating beds of calcareous sand and argillaceous matter,
mixed with numerous concretionary lumps of travertine.^

Physically, therefore, these hills belong to the same category as the Esquiline.
But the Viminal and Ouirinal were historically distinguished from the other hills as

' lirocchi, Suolo di Roma, p. 121, scq.

246 TIic I'uiiinal, Quirinal, and Pincian Hills.

in ancient times tlie seat of the Collini, and were called Colles, and not Montes.^

It is evident that the term Colles could not have been applied to them as being of less

altitude than the Alontes, for neither the Viminal or the Ouirinal are at all inferior in

height to the other hills.- Whether it may have been given on account of

Colles. , . , . ,,.,.,, ^

their later occupation, we cannot pretend to decide in the absence ot any
positive evidence. Upon the whole, the most likely explanation of the terms Collini and
Montani seems to be that the distinction was a national one between the Sabine and Latin
elements of the early population of Rome. An objection has been raised to this supposi-
tion, on the ground that then the Capitoline also ought to have been called a Collis as

having been originally Sabine. But the Capitoline, if indeed it was originally
.Ww/d- Sabine, became at a very early period the fortress of the Latin part of the

sdtleiiicids.

community, and thus passed into the possession of the Montani. Mommsen,
while discarding the notion of a Sabine community settled on the Ouirinal, yet admits that
the Palatine and Ouirinal communities were clearly distinguished in a great variety of
cases, and that a diversity of race may have lain at the foundation of this distinction
between them.-' The name Colles shows itself not only in the very ancient account of
the Argeian chapels quoted by Varro,* but also in the names of the Porta Collina, the Salii

Collini,^ and the Tribus Collina of Servius, and the fact of the separation of

. St-pt'wiontiitm. . . . , .,,.,.

the Vimmal and Ouirinal Irom the rest ol the hills is also attested by their
exclusion from the ancient Septimontium.''

The Viminal is the smallest of all the Roman hills, and was not marked in ancient times
by any building of great consequence. It was, however, in spite of the immediate neigh-
bourhood of the low district of the Subura, a fashionable quarter of Rome where the great
and wealthy lived." The name of the street which runs along the valley separating it from
the Esquiline, the Vicus Patricius, seems to point to the patrician character of the residents ;
and Juvenal tells us that the adventurers who came to Rome as hangers-on
„ . . ' of the nobility, betook themselves to this quarter of the city. The house of

Patrician ■' '■ _ ^

residents. C. Aquilius, a Roman knight, which was situated here, is mentioned by Pliny

House of C. as one of the most celebrated in the days of the later Republic for its

qui lus. luxurious splendour. The name Viminalis was derived either from the willow

beds which formerly grew here, or from the altar of Jupiter Viminus, which stood on the hill.^

The limits of the Viminal hill are marked by the modern streets of the Via di

S. Pudenziana, the Via di S. Lorenzo in Panisperna, the Via dei Serpenti, the Via di

S. Vitale, and the Piazza dei Termini. Within this space, the nunnery and church of

' See above, chap. iii. p. 37 ; \'ano, L. L. v. § 51. 38 ; Varro, L. L. v. § 41. Varro enumerates five

- The Viminal is 160 feet high at S. Lorenzo in Colles, which are named, he says, from five tem-

Pane e Perna. pies ; the Colles Viminalis, Ouirinalis, Salutaris,

■i Mommsen's refusal to accept the evidence oftered Martialis, Latiaris. These three last minor and

by Schwegler and others of the Sabine origin of the ancient divisions were afterwards united under the

Collini is a strange instance of perversity. His own name Ouirinalis.

account of the matter is, as Dr. Dyer justly observes, " juv. iii. 71. The \'icus Patricius corresponded to

quite unsupported by evidence. Mommsen, Rom. the modern \'ia di S. Pudenziana. Above, chap. i.\.

Gesch. i. 4, sub fin. ; Dyer, Hist, of the Kings of p. 242.

Rome, p. 84. * Plin. Nat. Hist. xvii. 1,2; Varro, L. L. v. 51 ;

* Varro, L. L. \-. 46. Festus, p. 376 ; Juv. loc. cit. Marliani, cap. 91, also

' Livy, i. 27; Varro, L. L. vi. § 14. places the houses of Crassus and Catulus on the

'■ Plin. xviii. 3, 3. See above, chap. iii. pp. 37, Viminal, but he has mistaken Pliny's meaning.

The I'iminal, Qiiirinal, and Pincian Hills. 247

S. Lorenzo in Panispcrna ■ form the principal modern group of buildings. They stand

upon the highest part of the hill, at an elevation of 160 feet above the level of the

Tiber, and are said to be built upon the site of the Therma: Olvmpiadis, ',

^ - r > Tnerm<c

in which St. Laurence suffered martyrdom.- The Thermae Novati are Olvmpia./is.

also mentioned by Anastasius as near the Church of S. Pudenziana, in Tiicrm<e.\o-;u,.
the valley between the Esquilinc and Viminal. ^

The only other building of which we have any notice, as situated upon the Viminal, is
the Lavacruni Agrippina;. The evidence for the position of this is derived

from the inscription "IN L.WACRO AGRIPPINAE," found upon two statues of >'•"•"'-'•'""
Bacchus, which were discovered behind the Church of S. Lorenzo."* Within

THE ciriRINAL HII.I. ■■kS SEEN FROM THE PALATI.VE.

Pincian Hill. Torre delU- Miiizic. Quirinul Palace.

Temple 0/ Anion in us ami Faustina. Church of S. Cosma e Damiano (.'Edes Penaliiim).

Velia.

the last few years a new street has been opened here, and some foundations uncovered,
which are commonly ascribed to the Lavacrum Agrippin^e.

The Ouirinal derives its name from the Sabine god Quirinus, who.se temple stood
upon the side of the hill towards the Viminal.''' Another and a more ancient name which
belonged to it was Agonalis, or the Hill of Sacrifices, according to Paulus Diaconus,

• The name Panisperna or Palispema, corrupted
into Pane e perna, is said to be derived from Pcr-
penna Quadratianus, who, according to an inscription
found here ((Iruter, No. cl.xxvii. 7}, made improve-
ments in the Haths of Constantine. Bunsen, Bc-

schreibung, vol. iii. 2, p. 34S.

- Blond. Flav. Rom. Inst. ii. 20; Nardini, ii. p. 47.

3 Anast. Vit. Pii V. p. 14.

4 Marliani, Urb. Rom. Top. cap. xci. ; Lucio
I-auno, iv. 6, p. 1 13. ' See below, p. 249.

248 The Viminal, Quirinal, and Pincian Hills.

an appellation which seems to point to its having been a religious centre at an early

period. The Salii Agonales were the priests of the rites of Ouirinus.i

The Quirinal was the principal of the Colles, forming the greater part of

orAomlis ^^ Servian region Collina, and was sometimes called CoUis, without further

description.^ It has a very peculiar shape, curving round to the south-east

Peculiar shape. . ,-if-i ••

like a bent finger, and enclosmg the hollow of the Subura m its curve. In

very ancient times it was subdivided into four minor eminences, upon which stood four

Argeian chapels. Varro gives the names of these minor Colles as Quirinalis, Salutaris,

Martialis, and Latiaris. The first became the most important, and gave the subsequent

name to the hill. Niebuht- imagined an ancient settlement called Ouirium,

Xielmlu's -which he placed upon this hill before the Romulean times.'' He also

Qitiriitni.

hazarded a conjecture which has been followed by nearly all writers since
his history appeared, that the settlement on the Quirinal included the Capitoline hill.
This is based upon a mistaken view of the meaning of the inscription on the Column of
Trajan; which has been noticed in a previous chapter.* There is no good evidence to show
that the Quirinal and Capitoline were ever joined by a ridge or even that the valley
between them has been deepened to any extent. On the contrary, Brocchi, a skilled
geologist, affirms that his examination of the ground positively negatives such a
supposition.-'" The height of the floor of Sta. Maria degli Angeli, one of the highest
points on the Quirinal, is 170 feet, that of the floor of the Ara Cceli church is 150 feet,
while the height of the Column of Trajan is 124 feet above the level of the sea; so
that if the valley between the Capitol and Quirinal had ever been filled up to the
height of 124 feet, the dip between the two eminences would have been too slight to
entitle them ever to be spoken of as separate hills, as they commonly were long before
Trajan's reign.^

Numa is said to have first added the Quirinal settlement to the city, at the same
time fortifying it and building himself a residence there, and identifying-

Nimids house. _ . . , . . . _

^ Ouinnus the Sabine deity with Romulus the deified Roman king.' The

Fortifications of ~_ "^ °

Tarqtitnhis and difficulty of fortifying the back of the Quirinal was very considerable.

Scn'ius. According to the common history, Tarquinius Priscus laid the plan of

" '^' the great agger by which the city was first protected in this direction.

Servius Tullius carried out the greater part of his design, and Tarquinius Superbus

completed the whole.^ This magnificent work, and the gates which stood upon this hill,

have already been described in the chapter on the Servian walls and gates.^ We cannot

discover whether the quarter of the city which occupied the Quirinal belonged.

Houses of

Martial ^^ ^^'^^ commonly the case with the other districts of Rome, to any peculiar
and Atticus. class of the communit}'. But from hints given by Martial, whose house

• Dionys. iL 37, 70 ; Varro, L. L. vi. § 14 ; Xie- gave its name to the sixth region of Augustus, Alta

buhr, vol. i. p. 289 ; Festus, p. 254 Paul. Diac. p. 10, Semita. When the Porta Pia replaced the Xomen-

ed. MiiUer. tana in 1564, the new road Strada di Porta Pia was

2 Mommsen, vol. i. p. 56, Eng. trans. laid down nearly parallel to the old course of the

^ Niebuhr, vol. i. p. 289. ■• Chap. vii. p. 148. Alta Semita.

^ Suolo di Roma, p. 133. " Dionys. ii. 62, 63 ; Ov. Fast. ii. 509 ; Plut. Num.

^ Preller, Rcgjonen, p. 133. Along the whole 14; Solin. i. 21.

length of the OuirinaJ hill, from the Porta Xomen- * Dionys. iv. 54 ; Plin. Nat. Hist. iii. 5, 9, 67.

tana, ran one of the principal streets of Rome, which " Chap. iv. p. 48.

The Vhninal, Qnirinal, and Pincian Hills. '>4q

lay upon the western slope looking towards the Porticus Agripps/ and from the fact that
Atticus li\cd here,- and that the booksellers' shops were situated in the Argiletum
just below it, and the Library of Trajan at its foot, we may perhaps not
be far wrong in calling the Quirinal and its neighbourhood the literary ^''^'o/RomT'"^
quarter of Rome.

The earliest sanctuary built in honour of the patron god of the Ouirinal must have
been the Argive chapel on the Collis Ouirinalis in its older and more restricted sense.-'
There is no evidence by which we can determine the position of this chapel. It probably
stood upon the same site with the Sacellum Quirini mentioned by Festus,*
and with the temple subsequently built by Xuma.5 The followino- inferences Tcmpkof
have been drawn as to the position of the later Temple of Ouirinus, upon Sacdlum
which, however, little reliance can be placed. The Notitia enumerates it next Quirini.
to the Clivus Mamurri, which was apparently near the Church of S. Vitale.*' C//j7«

Accordingly S. Andrea has been fixed upon as formerly the site of the ^^'"""'^•'•■
Temple of Ouirinus. This, however, does not agree with the passages where it is men-
tioned in Livy and Paulas Diaconus, which would lead us to place it nearer the Porta
Collina, at the fountain of Termini or S. Maria della Vittoria. The Senate met there, savs
Livy, when the Porta Collina was threatened by the Fidenates and Veientes." Another
notice by Vitruvius is no less vague.^ He sa\-s that there were some manufactories of
minium between the Temples of Flora and Ouirinus ; and the Temple of Flora is placed
by the Notitia next to the Temple o'f Salus, which was near the Porta Salutaris. The
Temple of Quirinus was restored by L. Papirius Cursor, in 293 B.C. ; and he erected a
sun-dial there, the first ever seen in Rome.^ This dial was set up when the old
Roman year of ten months was exchanged for the astronomical year of twelve months,
and " perhaps with a sly innuendo on the part of its dedicator was placed in front of the
Temple of Ouirinus or Romulus, who was reputed to have established the year of ten
months."'" Dion Cassias tells us that the temple was burnt in 49 B.C. ;" but it must have
been restored again before 46 B.C., for in that year Cicero mentions a statue of Julias
Csesar as having been placed there, and calls Ca;sar Quirini Contubernalis and avwao^
Quirino.i- Again in B.C. 16 it was restored by Augustus ; and it is this last restoration
which is described by Vitruvius and Dion Cassius.^^ The latter writer says that it had
seventy-si.x: columns, a number corresponding to the age of Augustus at the time of the
restoration. The inner row contained six at each end and thirteen on each side, while the
outer colonnade consisted of eight at each end and fifteen on each side. Li front of the
temple stood two myrtle-trees, one called Patricia and the other Plebeia. A mysterious
sympathy was supposed to exist between these trees and the fortunes of the Patrician and
Plebeian orders."

' Martial, i. 108 ; i. 117,6, " Longum est si velit ad 8 v'itruv. vii. 4.

Pirum venire." Ad Pimm seems to be the name of a » pijn. vii. 60, 213 : Livv, x. 46 ; Ov. Fast. vi. 796

street, as .Malum Punicum in Suet. Dom. i. ; Mart. w ^^.5^^ (-jj^. ^f j^^,,^^^ Introd. p. Ivii.

V. 22, vi. 27. II Dion Cass. xli. [4.

= Cic. Ad Att. iv. I : " tute vicma Salutis." i» Dion Cass, xliii. 45 ; Cic. Ad Att. xiii. 28, xii.

' Varro, L. L. v. 51. •* Festus, p. 255. 45 ; De Legg. i. i.

' Uionys. ii. 63 ; Ov. Fast. ii. 509. la Vitruv. iii. 2, 7 : Dion Cass. liv. 19.

" Anast. Innoc. I. p. 64 ; Ov. Fast. iii. 389. h pjjp ^v. 29 36.

" Paul. Diac. p. 255 ; Livy, iv. 2i.

K K

250 The J'iniiiial, Quiriiial, and Pincian Hills.

Another of the most ancient temples in Rome, that of Semo Sancus or Dins Fidius,
stood upon the Ouirinal.^ Sancus seems to have been considered by all Roman anti-
quarians as peculiarly a Sabine deity, and the evidence proving this point is
t-mp e of Scnw ^^ strong- that Mommsen can hardly be riffht in thinking that he was also a

oa/tcus or Dms ° j o o

Fidius. Latin god originally. The fact of another temple having been erected in

his honour upon the Insula Tiberina can only show that his worship was

adopted, as we should naturally expect, by the Romans, after the amalgamation of the

Roman and Sabine nations.^ Varro, Propertius, Ovid, and Silius Italicus all distinctly

attribute the introduction of the worship of Sancus to the Sabines.*

The site of the temple is determined by that of the Porta Sanqualis, called after it.-*
In the list of gates along this portion of the wall the Porta Sanqualis is placed third
from the Porta CoUina, and next after the Collis Salutaris and Porta Salutaris. We may
therefore, with some probability, assume that the temple and gate stood on the western
edge of the hill, near the spot where the Via della Dataria enters the Piazza di Monte
Cavallo. The first founder of the temple, which is called a sacelliiin by Livy, and which
was probably a small hypjethral chapel,'' is said to have been the Sabine king Tatius. Tar-
quinius Superbus restored it, and it was afterwards dedicated afresh by Sp. Postuniius
in B.C. 286."

In the Temple of Sancus, besides the relics of Tanaquil, her sandals, spindle, distaff,
and bust," one of the most interesting monuments of early Roman history was preserved,
a memorandum of the treaty between Tarquin the Proud and the city of Gabii. This
most venerable document was still extant in the time of Augustus, when Dionysius gives
the following account of it: — "A monument of this treaty is deposited in Rome, in the
Temple of Fidius, whom the Romans call Sanctus, consisting of a wooden shield covered
with the skin of one of the oxen sacrificed at the time of making the treaty, upon
which the terms of the treaty are written in archaic characters." Horace appears to
allude to this document as an object of veneration to antiquarians in his day.* The
fact is of the greatest importance to the historian of early Rome, as showing conclusively
the existence of written documents in the time of the kings.

The Temple of Salus is placed on the Ouirinal in the Catalogue of the sixth region.
It is evident that the Porta Salutaris was named from this temple, and we must

Temple of Saliis.

therefore probably place the temple about half-way between the Porta CoUina
and the Porta Sanqualis, on the western edge of the hill, near the Palazzo Barberini.
The Temple of Salus was dedicated in B.C. 304 by C. Junius Bubulcus ; but before that
time there was probably an older temple on the same spot, from which the gate took its

1 " Hunc igitur veteres donarunt cede Sabini Inque ^ Varro, L. L. v. § 66 ; Prop. v. (iv.) 9, 73 ; Ov.

Ouirinali constituere jugo," Ov. Fast. vi. 217; tVi toi' loc. cit. ; Sil. Ital. viii. 421. Sancus corresponds to

'EmaXiou Xo0ot), Dionys. ix. 60. Fidius as the enforcer (sanctor) of oaths and trusts

- Mommsen, Rom. Hist. vol. i. p. 57, note, Eng. (tides).

trans. The authorities on which Mommsen grounds ■• Paul. Diac. p. 345.

his statement are, I suppose, Gruter, Insc. xcvi. 5, ^ Livy, viii. 20; Varro, L. L. v. § 66.

and the Church tradition that Simon Magus was ^ Tertull. Ad Nat. ii. 9 ; Dionys. ix. 60.

worshipped on the Tiber island. (Justin Mart. Apol. " Phn. Nat. Hist. viii. 48, 74; Plut. Ouajst. Rom.

2 : Eus. Hist. Eccl. ii. 12). But here, as elsewhere xxx.

in Mommsen's entertaining history, authorities are * Dionys. iv. 58; Hor. Ep. ii. i, 25; " Fo^dera

dispensed with. See below, p. 265. regum cum Gabiis."

The Viviinal, Qitirinal, and Pincian Hills.

2;i

Temple of
Scrapis.

Tcmpk of Flora.

Capitoliitm

Vetits, or

Temple of

yiipiler, fiino.

and Minerz'a.

name.' The agnomen of Pictor, wliich belonged to the Fabian gens, was first "iven to
O. Fabius Pictor, who painted the walls of this temple with frescoes at the time of its
dedication. Pliny says that these fresco-paintings lasted for more than three hundred
}-ears, until the time of Claudius, when the temple was burnt.- Cicero speaks of the
house of Atticus as being between the Temples of Salus and Ouirinus, but nearer to
that of Salus.*

The Temple of Scrapis is named in the Curiosum Urbis with this Temple of Salus
but nothing further is known about its site.^ Next to the Temple of Salus
in the same Catalogue are placed the Temple of Flora and the Capitolium
Vetus. These two are also mentioned as near each other by Martial and
Varro.* The former of them is also said by Vitruvius to be not far from the
Temple of Ouirinus.'* These indications must, however, be interpreted with
some latitude, for the position of Martial's house," as previously determined,
would seem to point to S. Silvester or the Colonna Gardens as the
probable site of the Temple of Flora. Near the Temple of Flora was
a district or street called FicelijE.* The Capitolium Vetus was a temple dedicated to
Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva, the same trio of divinities who were worshipped on the
Capitoline. Varro claims a higher antiquity for their joint worship here than he attributes
to that of the Capitoline Temple. His words also seem to imply that the Capitolium
Vetus stood upon the slope of the hill under the Temple of Flora.''

There appear to have been three Temples of Fortune upon the Ouirinal.
all near the Porta CoUina.'" One was dedicated to Fortuna Publica," and
another to Fortuna Primigenia,'^ under which appellation Fortune was also
worshipped on the Capitoline. ^* Fortune was a deity peculiarlj^ venerated
at Rome, and a great number of altars, chapels, and temples were dedicated
to her in various parts of the city." The Campus Sceleratus, where the vestal
virgins who had violated their vows were buried alive, must have been near
these temples, for Dionysius places it just inside the walls near the CoUine
Gate.i' Near the same gate was also the Temple of Venus Erycina, afterwards included
in the Horti Sallustiani.^*

The Via di S. Vitale, running along the valley between the Viminal and Ouirinal, was in

ancient times called the Vicus Longus. This appears from a passage in the anonymous

MS. preserved at Einsiedlen, in which the Basilica of S. Vitale is mentioned as

standing in the Vicus Longus, and also from an account of the benefactions

given to this basilica, among which a house in the Vicus Longus near the basilica is

mentioned.'" In this street stood the Sacellum Pudicitiai Plebei.e, founded in H.C. 296 by

1 Livy, i.\. 43, X. i ; Varro, L. L. v. § 52. '■■' See chap. viii. p. 193.

- Plin. Nat. Hist, x.xxv. 4, 7 ; V'al. Max. viii. 14, 6. " Plut. dc Fort. Rom. chap. x.. who places an altar

^ Cicero, Ue Legg. i. I ; Ad Att. iv. I, xii. 45. of Ivxq E'fXTrif in the /laKpos oreKuTrdr (Vicus

They were

Temples of

Fortuna

Fiiblica an.l

Primigenia.

Campus

Sceleratus.

Temple of
lenus Frveina.

1 ieus Lon«us.

* Cur. Urb. Reg. vi. ; Gruter, Insc. Ixxxv. 6.
•■* Mart. V. 22 ; Varro, L. L. v. § 158.
" V'itruv. vii. 9, 4. " Mart. iii. 27. See page 248.
" Mart vi. 27, 2. '■> Varro, L. L. v. § 158.

'" Vitruv. iii. 2.

11 Ov. Fast. V. 729, iv. 375 ; Fast. Pncn. Non. Apr.
'- Fast. Exquil. viii. Kal. Jan.: Livy. xliii. 13,
xxxiv. 53.

Longus) on the Quinnal.

" Uionys. ii. 67, and iii. 67 ; Plut. Num. 10 ;
Festus, p. 333 ; Scrv. ad ^n. xi. 206 ; Livy, viii. 1 5 :
Propert. v. 5, 11.

'" Ov. Fast. iv. S71 ; Ov. Rem. Am. 549; Livy,
XXX. 38 ; Gruter, Inscr. xxxix. 4, cii. i.

'" Anon. Eins. Route from St. Peter's to St. Lucia
in Orphea (now Selci) ; Anast. \'it. Innoc. L p. 64.

K K 2

Horii
Sa/iitsiiaui.

252 The Vhniiial, QuirinaL ii'id Piiuian Hills.

Virginia, the patrician wife of the plebeian Consul L. Volumnius. Its foundation was due
to the exclusion of Virginia, on account of her marriage with a plebeian, from the rites of

Temphim the Temple of Pudicitia Patricia in the Forum Boarium, and was a monu-
Febris. ment of patrician exclusiveness which must have had considerable effect in
embittering the feelings of the two orders.^ Valerius Maximus mentions a Tempkim
Febris " in Vico Longo," of which however we have no further notices.'-

The narrow valley between the Ouirinal and Pincian hills, where the grounds of the
Villas Massimi and Barberini now arc, and the whole space between the Via di Porta Pia
and the Via di Porta Salaria were occupied by the pleasure-grounds of Sallust, the historian,
embellished by him with the riches gained in the administration of Numidia.^ The
name Sallustricum was still given to this district in the sixteenth century, and
a place near the Church of S. Susanna was called Foro di Sallustio.^ The
Notitia places the Horti Sallustiani in the sixth region, and the anonj-mous
writer of the Einsiedlen MS. speaks of the Thermae Sallustianae as situated behind
S. Susanna/' Procopius also mentions the Domus Sallustiana as near the Porta Salaria ;
and Tacitus, in relating the nocturnal excesses of Nero, and the battle between the troops
of Vespasian and Vitellius, describes the Horti Sallustiani as situated between the Porta
Flaminia and the Porta Collina.® Becker finds a difficulty in the account of this
battle where there is none whatever. The description of Tacitus is perfectly clear, and
runs thus : —

The army of Vespasian was separated into three divisions ; one of which advanced along
the bank of the Tiber, another along the Flaminian road, and the third along the Salarian
road. The division moving along the Flaminian road had only to continue its march straight
to the front, while the troops which advanced by the Tiber bank had to incline to their right,
and those who advanced by the Salarian road to their left. It was on!}- this last division
which met with any resistance. They had to advance by narrow and difficult lanes towards
the Gardens of Sallust, in which the Vitellian troops kept them at bay till evening, when
their cavalry entered the walls by the Colline Gate, and thus turned tlie flank of the
Vitellians. It is plain that the Colline Gate was in the rear or on the right flank of the
Vitellian troops posted in the Gardens of Sallust. and that there is no need to suppose, as
Becker does, that the troops of Vespasian marched round to the Porta \'iminalis. The
vfords Jlcctere ad sinistra iirbis refer to the original movement, when the army was separated
into three divisions, and not to any subsequent inclination to the left.

The extent of these grounds was very great. We hear of a covered portico a thousand
paces long, in which Aurelian, who liked to live here better than on the Palatine, used to
take horse exercise." It is probable that large additions were made to the grounds by the
limperors, for as early as Nero's time there was an Imperial palace here,' and the property

1 The spot was not chosen, as Becker supposes, Fauno, Ant. di Roma, iv. 10, p. 120, ed. 154S ; Do-

from any connexion with the two myrtle-trees men- natus, De Urb. p. 55, who quotes Baronius' history

tioned by Phny (Nat. Hist. xv. 29, 36), but, as Livy of S. Susanna, torn, ii.; Annal. anno Sal. 294, 295.
plainly says, because Virginia gave a site there near '■> Curios. Urb. Reg. vi.; Anon. Einsied. in Mabil-

her own house. Livy, x. 23. Ion ; Vet. Anal. Paris, 1723, fol. p. 359.

= Val. Max. ii. 5, 6. " Procop. Bell. Vand. i. 2 ; Tac. Ann. xiii. 47, Hist.

3 Pseudo- Cicero, Resp. in C. Gall. 7. iii. 82.

■" A. Fulv. l)e Urb. Ant. p. 1 10, ed. 158S ; Lucio " Hist. Aug. .Aur. 49. s 'fac. Ann. xiii. 47.

The J liiiinal, Ouirinal, and Pincian Hills. 2 s "

had possibly passed into the liands of the Emperors in the time of Tiberius, after the death
of Sallustius Crispus, the historian's heir.' Vespasian U\ed there for some time, and Nerva
died there.-

There is no evidence to guide us as to the exact position of the palace, or the tlierm;i;,
or the porticus which have been mentioned. Nor does there appear to be anv "round for
supposing that a regularh- built circus, with seats and spina, ever existed, as has been
inferred from Livy's statement that it was once intended to hold the Ludi Apollinares here,
when the circus was flooded in a wet season.^

The ruins now left are not sufficient to give us any general idea of the plan upon which
the Horti were laid out. They consist of lines of substructions with arches and buttresses
running along both sides of the valley between the Ouirinal and Pincian. On the south
side of the grounds of the Villa Massimi there are eighteen arched chambers, the purpose
of which cannot be determined with any certainty, and at the north end of the grounds
there is a rotunda, with an octagonal cupola and niches for statues, and the remains of
marble ornamental work.^ The rest of the ruins consist of fragments of walls of ancient
brickwork and opus rciiailatnin. Amongst these a few columns and some mosaic pave-
ments have been found and removed. The rotunda is thought, from the leaden pipes
found near it, to have been a part of the therma; ; but no further evidence has been
discovered as to the plan or purpose of these ruins.-'

This part of the city was burnt by Alaric when he entered the cit}- by the Porta
Salaria in 410."

Between the Horti Sallustiani and the Thermae Diocletianse we have, in the Catalo"-ue
of the Curiosum, the strange title " Gentem Plabiam." This appears to refer
to the temple mentioned by Suetonius as the place where Domitian was born," p,""'"
in the street called Malum Punicum, where he built a Templum Gentis Hcroum of
Flavise, and where he was buried. ]\Iartial seems to allude to it as near to ^^'^'''""' ^^'"■
his own house, which, as we have seen, was on the western side of the Ouirinal.*

It has been conclusively proved bj- Becker that Aurelian's Temple of the Sun, which
was commonly supposed to have occupied the Colonna Gardens, and to which the huo-e
fragments which lie there were formerl}^ thought to have belonged, was not
here, but in the Campus Agrippse, on the Campus Warrius. For the Xotitia ''"'""" ''"•
and the chronologers both place it in the seventh region or Via Lata, which occupied the
eastern side of this Campus, and mention castra as attached to it." Further, Vopiscus,
when describing a drive in which he accompanied Junius Tiberianus, the Prefect of the cit\-,
seems to place the Temple of the Sun at a much greater distance from the Palatine than
the Colonna Gardens are.'"

The ruin with which it was identified, formerly called Turris Mscenatis, or Frt>nti-
spicium Neronis, has now been pulled down ; but some fragments of it, and especiallj-

• Tac. Ann. iii. 30. « Procop. Rdl. Vand. i. 2.

= Dion Cass. Ixvi. 10 ; Hicron. p. 445, Rone. "Suet. Dom. i. 5. 15, 17; Merivale, Hist, of

■' Livy, xx.x. 38. Romans, vol. vii. p. 76, chap. Ixi.

■* This ruin is usually called the Temple of \xnus, » Mart. v. 64, 5, ix. 35, 7, 2, S ; Stat. Silv. iv. 3, iS.

but there is no reason why it should be so called, " Curios. Reg. vii. ; Cat. Imp. Vienn. p. 246, Rone,

and it was veiy possibly the laconicum of the See chap. xiii.

thermar. ° See Reber, Ruinen Roms, p. 507. Hist. Aug. .Aur. i.

254

The J'iniiiial, Ouirinal, and Pincian Hills.

two huge masses of carved marble, remain in the Colonna Gardens. Representations of
the Frontispicium Neronis, as it was before its destruction, may be seen in Donatus and
the older topographers.' The fragments of stonework are now thought to have belonged
to the entrance of the Thcrma; Constantini.'

^S.

_.:icrior itmplutiuoii ^oUT)co/htrfiiatut/ Imp-
didicmtit, mjiiytrdlio Qjtinnalif montif. fiodie (aballi
niinaipati. e reqioiic Thermamm ^/j/JflwC/nr' /ot».

FRONTEsriZIO DI NERONE. (From Dll P.rac. 1674.)

The site of these therma;, which are placed by the Notitia next to the Capitolium

-Vntiquum, is tolerably well defined by the notices in the anonymous MS. at Einsiedlcn,

Thcrma "^""^ ^^ ''" inscription found during the construction of the Ouirinal Palace

Constaiitiiii. recording their restoration b\- Petronius Perpenna, probably in the year 443. ■'

1 Donatus, Rom. Vet. p. 359; Du Perac, tav. 31 ; crum Constantinianum," Amm. Marc, xxvii. 3 ; Griiter,
Camucci, p. 123. ^ Reber, Ruinen Roms, p. 497. clxxvii. No. 7 ; Poggio, De Var. Fort. Urb. R. in Sal-

^ These therm;!; are called by Ammianus " Lava- lengre's Thesaurus, vol. i. p. 506.

The ]lminal, Ouirinal, and Pincian HUls.

■00

Both of these point out the Palazzo Rospligiosi as standing upon the ground once occupied
by the central building of the thermae. The anonymous MS. mentions the thernije on
the road between the Church of S. Agata and that of S. Vitale. Poggio, Albertini,
Fulvio, L. Fauno, and Gamucci all agree in confirming this evidence. Lar^re portions
of the ruins were still standing in their time ; and in Du Perac's views, published in
the seventeenth century, the central part of the building is represented.' Another part
of the ruins was found during the construction of the Ouirinal Palace in the time of
Paul v.- There can be no doubt that these thermal, which were of great extent,
reached nearly across the Ouirinal hill, occupying the sites of the present Palazzo
Rospligiosi, part of the Colonna Gardens, and the Ouirinal Palace. Three statues were
found in the ruins, representing Constantine and two of his sons. These are supposed to
have stood near the grand entrance of the therm.-e. The first is now in the portico of the
Lateran Basilica; the two others were placed by Paul III. on the balustrade of the Piazza
Capitolina. The famous pair of the Dioscuri and their horses, which now ornament the
Piazza di Monte Cavallo, were also discovered on this site.^ The history of these well-
known sculptures cannot be traced further back than the time of Constantine, whose
thermae they adorned. The old tradition which states that they were a present from
Tiridates to Nero is in some degree supported by the mention of the Equi Tiridatis in
the Notitia, but is not confirmed by any other evidence.* That they are now rightly
supposed to represent the Dioscuri can hardly be doubted, but the inscriptions which
ascribe them to the chisels of Phidias and Praxiteles respectively are erroneous. For not
to mention that the exact reproduction of nature in its highest type of symmetry, peculiar
to the style of the best Greek art, is absent, and that we find instead the conventional
mode of representation characteristic of the revival of art under the Emperors, it seems
hardly possible that Praxiteles, who lived more than half a century after Phidias, should
have occupied himself in imitating and completing a group begun by his predecessor.

These colossal figures, and the statues of Constantine and his sons, mentioned above,
probably stood in the grand court of the thermae. There are now no traces left of
the outer enclosure of this court, but the plan of the central block of buildings has
been preserved by Palladio, in whose time there was doubtless a sufficient portion left
to enable him to reconstruct the whole.* It is somewhat different from the plan of
most of the other thermae, having a large semicircular court on one side, surrounded
with arcades, the purpose of which has not been discovered. The other halls and
apartments are of the usual size and shape, with the exception of the exedrae, which
are rectangular. At one side of the enclosing court, apparently the north side, there
was a large theatre similar to that at the Baths of Titus. Some of the older topo-
graphers had long ago conjectured that the ruins in the Colonna Gardens, (wrongly,
as has been shown, ascribed to Aurelian's Temple of the Sun,") and also the massive
substructions and stairs which have been found behind the stables of the Ouirinal

' Poggio, loc. cit. ; A. Fulv. p. 121 ; L. Fauno, Ant. in 1589, and he named them Alexander and Bucc-

fol. 117; (iamucci, Ant. di Roma, p. 121 ; Du Pcrac, phalus. .See Von Keumont, Gcsch. der Stadt Rom.

tav. 32. See woodcut on p. 254. iii. s. 455, 950. ■* Notitia, Reg. vii.

- Venuti, vol. i. p. iii. ' Palladio, Tcrme dei Roman i, tav. xiv. xv.; Came-

' In Bufalini's map (1551) they are placed on the ron's Roman Therniie, pi. xxiv.
site of the therma;. They were removed by Si.xtus \ . • \'enuti, vol. i. p. 1 10.

■5^

The J'iminal, Oiiiri/ial, ami Pincian Hills.

Palace, on the west slope of the hill, belonged to the Therma; of Constantine. This
coniecture has been revived and ingeniously supported by Prof. Reber, who remarks
that the outer court of the therma;, to judge by the extent of that of the Baths of
Diocletian or of Caracalla, may very well have reached across the whole breadth of the
hill from east to west;i and further, that the approach to the thermse would naturally be
placed on the west side, where the Imperial fora lay. If so, the building called the
Frontispiece of Nero stood exactly in the position at the summit of the colossal flight of
stairs now hidden under the Papal stables, which would answer to the entrance portico of
the thermae. The fragments of this building are somewhat similar to those of the
portico of Octavia, which was also the entrance to a grand enclosure.- They consist

FRAGMENTS IX THE COLONNA GARDENS.

(Formerly parts of the Thermae of Constantine.)

Ill the distance is the top of the medieval tower, the Torre delle MiUzie.

principally of two huge blocks of marble, the largest of which is seventeen feet in length,
ornamented with mouldings of the usual Corinthian character, and with a frieze beautifully
decorated with festoons of fcliage enclosing birds and genii. The style is of a late epoch,
and might very probably have belonged to the Constantinian age.^

•" .Aurcl. ^■ictor, De Cssaribus, xl., says of the
Thorm;e of Constantino, " Opus ad lavandum insti-
tutum ceteris haud multo dispar."

- Reber, Riiinen Roms, p. 497.
^ See Desgodetz, Edifices antiques de Rome,
chap. xiii. ; Du Frontispice de Ncron.

S .Mkria delta Tittorift,^

Therm/e Diocletian/e .( Palladio.
Ch.X. p. 2 57.

ZVj*- 7"«rf Zinef: mark- tlw conjectMral/ restoraJbiorts ■

Eib,^nWjr.hA-

Cambridgc, Beighton . BM & C?

The Viwiiial. OnirinaL and Pincian Hills. ->--

The broad flat space between the Viminal and Quirinal liills and the Servian a^-^er and
wall was occupied by tJie Therma: of Diocletian.' This enormous group of building's was
the most extensive of all the t^igantic edifices of the Empire, and the ground-plan is not
difficult to trace by the aid of the existing ruins. " Some idea of their dimensions will be
given by remarking that the grand court enclosed the space now occupied by
the church, monaster}-, and spacious garden of the monks of St. Bernard, the Therms
great church and monastery of the Carthusians, two very large piazzas, the
huge granaries of the Papal Government, part of the grounds of the Villa Montalto Negroni,
and some vineyards and houses besides."- The north-eastern side of this grand court is
now only marked by the remains of two semicircular tribunes (H H), and a small rectangular
chamber standing on the line of the street which connects the Via di Maccao with the
piazza in front of the railway station. The rest of the foundations of this side are hidden
under the great cloister of the Carthusian monaster}-, and in the vineyards beyond. The
principal entrance was on this side. The south-eastern side (g c;) is now occupied by the
buildings of the railway station, at the back of which, and near the Senian agger, have
been discovered the ruins of a large reservoir (K) in the shape of a right-angled triano-le.
The peculiar form of this building seems to have been nece.ssitated by the course of a
public road of some importance confining it on the south side, and it has been supposed,
not without reason, that this was the principal road leading out of the citv at the Porta
Viminalis. The interior was filled with pillars like those which still stand in the ancient
reservoirs at Misenum and Constantinople.

Of the south-western side of the court there are considerable remains. In the o-ardens
of the monastery of S. Bernardo part of the area of a theatre (A), with a radius of about
seventy yards, may be traced, not unlike that in the Therms of Titus. The seats of this
are gone, but parts of the back wall, with niches, remain. On each side of this are traces
of rectangular chambers, and at the corners stand two round buildings (B B), one of which is
nearly perfect, and has been converted into the Church of S. Bernardo. The ancient domed
roof, with its octagonal coffer work, is still standing. Part of the other rotunda at the southern
corner is also left, and has been built into the prison at the end of the Via Strozzi.*

The north-western side of the court ran parallel to the Via di Porta Pia from the
Church of S. Bernardo. It contained, according to Palladio's plan, two semicircular
exedrae (L L) for philosophical conversation or disputation, and some other rooms, the
purpose of which is not known. ^ In the centre of this spacious court stood a great pile
of buildings, the centre of which was occupied by a vast hall (U), now the Church of
S. Maria degli Angeli. The pavement of this was raised above the ancient level of the
ground by nearly eight feet when Michael Angelo undertook to convert the ancient buildino-
into a church ; and thus the bases of the columns remain buried, and new bases of stucco
work have been placed round them. The roof must therefore have been in ancient times

' .See Palladio par Scamozzi, V'icence, 1785, and ^ xhe whole dome of the Church of St. Bernard is

Uesgodetz, Ed. .Ant. de Rome ; Cameron's Roman covered with lead obtained from ancient waterpipes.

Thermae, London, 1775. Reber, pp. 503, 506.

- Venuti, Roma Antica, vol. i. p. 123. There were ■* The Llpian Libraries are said to have been

marble scats for 3.200 bathers, do\ible the number transferred to these baths from the Fonim Trajani.

which the Baths of Caracalla could accommodate. Hist Aug. Prob. 2.
Olympiod. ap. Plut. Bibl. 80, p. 63, Bckker.

L L

258 The I'iminaL Omrinal. and Pincian Hills.

considerably more lofty than at present.^ In the modern church the transept corresponds
to the longer axis of the ancient hall, and the nave to the shorter. Vanvitelli, who altered
the arrangement of the church in 1749, threw out an apse for the choir on the north-east
side, and made the circular laconicum (C) of the old thermae serve as an entrance porch.

Antiquarians are not agreed as to the purpose of the great central hall. Scamozzi,
in his edition of Palladio, calls it a xystus for athletic exercises, but, following the
analogy of the Therms of Caracalla, the baths at Pompeii, and some of the other great
thermae, we should rather suppose it to have been the tepidarium. This view is confirmed
when we notice that the laconicum or sudarium (C) is on one side, and the natatio (F) for the
cold baths on the other, between which the tepidarium was kept at a mean temperature.

The two wings of the central building were occupied by large perist)-lia, with cold
piscina; in the centre of each (E E). Round these peristylia were built various rooms for
athletic exercises, conisteria, sphaeristeria, and gymnasia. The left wing is now partly an
armor}- and partly a corn and oil warehouse, while the right wing is occupied by the
Carthusian monastery. The style of brick building used in these thermae recalls that of
the Basilica of Constantine in the Forum, where we see the bricks irregularly and hastily
laid, and the whole of the architectural details which have been preserved seem to point
to the same period. • Positive evidence of the date and the builder is not, however,
wanting. An inscription which was still to be seen two hundred years ago in the
thermae, and which has been partially preserved to us, when compared with three others
which were found in the neighbourhood,- shows that Maximianus gave orders for building
these therms when he was absent in Africa during his Mauritanian campaigns, and
intended them to be dedicated to the honour of his brother Diocletian. The dedication
took place after the abdication of Diocletian and Maximianus, when their successors
Constantius Chlorus and Galerius Maximianus had begun their reign, 305 .\.D., but before
the death of Constantius in 10,6. The old chronologers place the date of the commence-
ment of the buildings in 302, which agrees very well with the date of the Mauritanian
campaigns of Maximian.

Baronius accounts for the preser\'ation of so large a part of these thermae by the
statement that they were considered to be a monument of the Diocletian persecution.
There was a tradition, he says, that Diocletian, after dismissing some thousands of his
soldiers, because they held the Christian faith, compelled them to work as slaves in the
erection of his therms, and ordered them to be martyred when they had finished the
building.^ " Superfuit ergo," says Donati, " post tot sscula ilia moles ut demum a Pio IV.
Pont. Max. Virgini angelorum Dominae iterum consecraretur jam ante tanto sanctorum
sudore ac sanguine consecrata."* It has also been said that the bricks are in some cases
marked with a cross ; but this is not well authenticated.

At the end of the fifth centurj- the baths are mentioned by Sidonius Apollinaris as
still used, but at the time of the visit of the anonymous writer of the Einsiedlen MS.,
probably about 850, they were evidently in ruins.^ Among the ruins have been found

' The ancient roof was 120 feet high, and roofed - Gruter, p. clxxviii.

as now with an intersecting vault in three compart- ^ Baronius. torn. li. anno 298 ; Dioclet. 15.

ments, supported by the eight colossal granite ■* Donati, Roma Vetus et Recens, p. 415.

pillars. ^ Sidon. .Apoll. ad Consent. 459.

The Viminal, Ouirinal, and Pincian Hills. 259

from time to time a number of busts of the Emperors Diocletian, Maximian, Galcrius, and
Constantius, and also the well-known busts of philosophers now in the Farnese
collection at Naples. The site of the building erected upon the Ouirinal by ^^"""•l""'

,„ ,Ti- ui 1111.- 1 Till- Miilieium.

the mad Emperor Heliogabalus, and called Senaculum Mulierum, in which he
assembled the Roman matrons for consultation about the laws of fashion, is not known.'

The Pincian hill, like the Vimina! and Ouirinal, is not a detached hill, but a projectincr
tongue of land, running out from the background of the Campagna. Its shape is as
peculiar as that of the Ouirinal, resembling a bent finger turned towards
the north. The greater part of the hill is now, as it probably always was, ^'"""s.
occupied by gardens and vineyards ; whence its name Collis Hortulorum ^■'''^"'' '''"P''

' and name.

Of these the Villa Ludovisi extends over most of the eastern surface of the
hill ; on the north-western end, near the Porta del Popolo, public promenades have been
laid out ; while the central part of the hill between the Via del Babuino and the Aurelian hill
is the site of the Convent of Trinita di Monte, and of the French Academy of the fine arts.

The geological formation of the rocks composing the Pincian is mainly the same as
that of the other hills of Rome, but fresh-water deposits are found at a greater height upon
it than upon the other hills, showing that it has been exposed to less denudation. The
height of the Pincian is greater than that of any other hill on the left bank, with the
exception of the Ser\^ian agger on the Ouirinal. It contains two distinct terraces or levels,
upon the higher of which the Villa Ludovisi stands, at an elevation of about 200 feet.
and upon the lower the public promenade and the French Academy, about fort\-five feet
below. The Servian walls did not enclose the Pincian hill, but at the time of building
the Aurelian walls it was considered too important a part of the city to be e.xcluded, and
it is obvious that after the occupation of the Campus Martius the natural line of defence
would be carried to the river along its north-eastern edge.

Of the two names, that of Collis Hortorum or Hortulorum is the older, the name
Pincian having been given to the hill in the time of the later Empire, perhaps after its
enclosure within the Aurelian walls, apparently from the existence of a Domus Pinciana,
mentioned by Cassiodorus, in which Belisarius lived during his defence of Rome.' But
whether the Domus Pinciana was an Imperial palace or a house which had belonged to the
family of the Pincii is not known, nor indeed is it at all certain whether the Domus took
its name from the hill, or the hill from the Domus.^

The site of the Gardens of Lucullus, the conqueror of Mithridates, and the most
wealthy and luxurious of the Roman Republican nobles, must be determined by the
statement of Frontinus, that the arches of the Aqua Virgo began there.'*
The following extract from Venuti will show that the situation of the wardens Gardnts of
was on the slope of the Pincian, between the Via di Capo le Case and the Via
di Propaganda on the side towards the Campus, and the French Academy and the
Villa Ludovisi towards the north-east : — " The archway of the ancient conduit of the
Acqua Virgine begins at the large mansion opposite to the Angelo Custode, and exactly

1 Hist. Aug. Heliog. 4. The Roman matrons seem 104, 106; \'it. Ben. iii. p. 401.

to have held public meetings in Republican times. ^ Procop., Bell. Goth. ii. 8, 9, calls it Palatium ; and

See Livj', v. 25, \. 23, xxvii. 37. there was a church there called S. Felice in I'incis

- Cassiodorus, Var. iii. 10 ; .Anast. Vit. .Silvest. pp .Vnast. Vit. Hadr. p. 253. * Front. De Aqua;d. 22.

L L 2

26d

The ViiniiiaL OmrinaL and Pincian Hills.

under the CoUegio Nazzareno. The arches are of admirable construction, and high
enough to allow a man on horseback to pass underneath them. The continuation of
these ancient arches may be seen above the court next to the palace of the Marchese del
Bufalo, and they pass thence through the Palazzo Pamhli to the Fontana Trevi, where the
water is now discharged. This archway, which is now entirely buried with the exception
of the frieze and cornice, was restored by Claudius after it had been injured by Caligula,
as appears from an inscription upon the frieze of one of the arches."^

In the reign of Claudius the gardens of Lucullus passed into the possession of

.MUKu lOKlo.

Messalina, who coveted them, and murdered Valerius Asiatlcus, the owner, in order to

obtain them. She afterwards celebrated her iniquitous man iige with Silius here, and she

was put to death here by the Emperor's order.- They then passed into

DoinitMiii the possession of the Emperor.-' The family monument of the Domitii was

^ upon the Pincian hill, and Nero was buried there.'' Asconius, in his Com-

ompLtain. ^-^^^■^^xy on Ciccro, speaks of some " Horti Pompeii superiores ; "•' and from the

epithet sii/>cr lores it has been inferred by Becker that these Horti could not have been on

the Campus Martins, where the rest of Pompey's public works were situated, but must have

been upon the Pincian hill. These gardens afterwards fell into Antony's hands, and then

Muro 'foiio. probably became Imperial property." All that is known about the Muro Torto

T/icniicc at the corner of this hill has been already discussed in a former chapter.'

iViroiiis. The Therma; Neronis are by some supposed to ha\'c been on the site of the

Church of S. Louis un the Pincian. but they were more probably in the Campus Martins.*'

1 Vcnuti, vol. ii. p. 76.

■^ Tac. \nn. xi. 32, 37 : Jiiv. x. 334.

•• Pint. Lucull. 39. ■■ .Sucl. Nero, 50.

■■' Ascon. ill Cic. Pro Mil. p. 37 : (Jrcll.; Plut. Pomp.
" Cic. Phil. ii. 27 ; Plin. Paneg. 50. [44.

■■ Chap. V. p. 59. ' .Sec chap. xiii. p. 341.

CHAPTER XI.

THE JAXICI'LUM AXP THE VATIC AX HILL.

IWICrLUM: WHEN ADDED TO CITY — NAMK— WALLS— NATURAL FEATURES, HEIGHT — GEOLOGY — HISTORY— IMIV-
BITANTS — LUCUS FURIN/E — BRIDGES ACROSS THE TIBER: SUBLICIAN, BRIDGE OF PROBUS, PONS /EMILH S
— INSULA TIBERINA — TEMPLES OF .BSCULAPIUS, FAUNUS, JUPITER, SEMO SANCUS OR DIUS FIDIUS — STATUE
OF JULIUS C.BSAR— PONTES : FABRICIUS, CESTIUS OR GR.\TIANI, AURELIUS, JANICULARIS, ANTONINIANUS, NERo-
NIANUS OR VATICANUS, ^LIUS, TRIUMPHALIS — AR,-EFONTIS — TEMPLE OF FORS FORTUNA — PRAIA MUCIA
— CODETA — HORTI C.^ESARIS — NEMUS C.ESARU.M.

VATICAN: NAME — HISTORY — NATURAL FEATURES— CIVITAS LEONINA — PRATA QUINCTIA — HORTI AGRIPPIN.-E —
HORTI DOMITI.S OR NERONIS— OBELISK — CIRCUS CAII ET NEROMS — SEPUI.CHRUM ROMULI — TEMPLE OF APOLLO
OR MITHRAS — CIRCUS OF HADRIAN — MAISOLEUM OF HADRIAN.

" Ipse solum colui, cujus placidissima laivum
Radit arenosi Tibrklis unda latus.
Ar.\ mea collis erat quern cultri.\ nomine nostro
Nuncupat ha:c a:tas Janiculumque voc.it."

Ovid, Fast. i. 241 — 246.

THE Transtiberine district, according to the strict definition of tlic terms Roma and
Urbs, was considered a part of Rome as a city, but was not legally included in the
Urbs, or ring-wall of the town. During the regal period, in the reign of Ancus, the first
attempt was made by the Romans to occupy the western bank of the Tiber.
Anciis, according to Livy's account, built a fort on the highest point of the
Janiculum, in order to prevent the Etruscans from occupying it and annoying Rome from
tlience. Dionysius differs slightly in his statement of the object Ancus had in view. He
says that the fort was built to protect the shipping on the river from the Etruscan robbers."
The fort was probably placed on the highest point of the Janiculum, now

. yaitkuluni.

occupied by S. Pietro in Montono, and communicated with the city by means
of the .Sublician bridge, which was built at the same time. It has been shown in a previous
chapter that there is no reason to suppose that any walls connecting the Janiculum with
the other part of the city were erected before Aurelian's reign, l-^ven then the walls
enclosed but a small part of the present Trastevere quarter. -

The geological formations on this side of the river differ entirely in character from
those on the eastern bank. Both the Janiculum and the Vatican hills are chiefly com-

1 l.ivy. i.33 ; Dionys. iii. 4; ; I'rocop. Hell. Goth. i. derived from Janus (.En. viii. 35S : Ov. Fast. i. 245).

19. Tlie form of the nominative Janiculus is not .-Xnother name was .\ntipolis, I'lin. Nat. Hist. iii.

found, though there is reason to suppose that Jani- 5, 9, 68.

culum was origin.iUy applied to the fort only, and not - Chap. iv. p. 51 ; chap. v. pp. 59, 69; Nicbuhr,

to the rest of the hill. The name is tr.ulitionally vol. i. p. 327, Eng. trans.

262 The Jaiiiciilum and the Vatican Hill.

posed of tertiary marine strata of sandstone and marl.^ At the same time, it must not
be supposed that fresh-water and volcanic deposits similar to that on the left bank are

totally absent. Brocchi states that he found beds of fluviatile deposits on
" the side of the Janiculum, in the streets which ascend from the Via Lungara

to the Plospital of S. Spirito, and that fresh-water fossil shells can be discovered in the
calcareous sand under the walls of the Vatican. Beds of tufa superimposed upon the
marine strata are also to be found on the top of the Janiculum to the right of the Porta
S. Pancrazio, and in a few other places. The great bulk of the hills, however, appears to
consist of marine sandstones and clays.'

The Janiculum is connected with some of the most striking scenes in Roman history.

The army of Porsena was marshalled along its slopes, according to the

legend, when Horatius "kept the bridge ;"■'' and by an old custom, begun in
the times when Rome feared the incursions of the Etruscans, the Janiculum was always
occupied by a detachment of troops at the time of the Comitia Centuriata.'' In B.C. 287
the plebeian order, after long disturbances caused by the unsatisfactor}' state of the law of
debtor and creditor, marched across the river and occupied the Janiculan fort during the

settlement of their claims by the Dictator Hortensius ; * and it was in the
GrmYof Grove of Furina, on the Janiculum, that Caius Gracchus, the champion of the

Funna.

plebs, was murdered by the adherents of the aristocratical party."
The population of the Transtiberine quarter aj^parently consisted chiefly of fishermen,
tanners, old curiosity shopkeepers, and in Imperial times, especially under Augustus, Jews
of the lowest class.'^ They may therefore have been very probably, from the earliest occu-
pation, principally plebeian in their sympathies. But there were also some houses in which
the upper classes lived, for Martial praises the agreeable residences of his friends Gallus and
Julius Martialis in this quarter.*

The importance attributed even in the earliest times to the bridges uniting the Trans-
tiberine region with the city is seen in the word Pontifex, the bridge-maker,
and in the religious scruples which attached to their construction.^ It was
considered a breach of religious duty, Pliny tells us, to make a bridge with beams fastened
into their places, so as to prevent their easy removal in case of a sudden emergency.
The Pons Sublicius, after the attack of Porsena, was constructed with move-

Pons Sithlirius.

able beams. All traces of this, the most ancient of the bridges over the
Tiber, have disappeared, as we might expect Even in the time of the Empire it was still
constructed of wood,'" and the idea that it was replaced by a stone bridge seems to have

1 See chap. ii. pp. 14,15. The height of the Jani- " Ov. Fast. vi. 237; Fast. pp. 210, 238 ; Juv. xiv. 202 ;
culum behind S. Pietro in Montorio is 297 feet, that Mart. vi. 93, 4, i. 42, 3 ; Phil. De Virt. ad Caium, p.
of the Servian agger on the Ouirinal 236, Martial, 568 in. The Castra Ravennatium, a camp of the
iv. 64, praises the view from the Janiculum. marines from Ravenna, is said to have been near the

2 Brocchi, Suolo di Roma, pp. 164 — 168, Church of St. Maria in this district (Region iii.),
^ Livy, i. 10; Phn. xx.wi. 15, 100. and the whole Trastevere was sometimes called
* Dion Cass, xxxvii. 26 ; Macrob. i. 16 ; Cell xv. from it Urbs Ravennatium. Preller, Region, p. 100.

27 ; Livy, xxxix. 15. 8 Mart. i. 109, 2, iv. 64.

^ Livy, Epit. xi. ; Plin. .xvi. 10, 15 ; Mommsen, " Varro, L. L. v. § 83 ; Plin. Nat. Hist, xx.wi. 15,

Rom. Hist. Eng. trans, vol. i. p. 31 1. 100 ; Dionys. iii. 45.

« Aur. Vict. Vir. 111. 65 ; Plut. C. Cracch. 17; '» Varro, loc. cit. ; Ov. Fasti, v. 622; Dionys. loc.

App. B. C. i. 26 ; Cic. De Nat. Deor. iii. 18 ; Varro, cit. ; Plin. loc. cit. : Tac. Hist. i. 86 ; Jul. Cap. Ant.

L. L. vi. § 19. . p. 8.

The yaiiiculum and the I 'atican Hill. 26 ■"

arisen from a misapprehension of a passage in Plutarch, where he is contrastino- the new
Pons Lapideus with the old Sublicius.^ That they were in different places is plainly
shown by the fact that the Notitia mentions both separately, and by the considera-
tion that, if the Pons /Emilius occupied, as is supposed, the place of the Sublicius, Rome
must have been left for some years without any bridge at all ; for the Pons ^-Emilius, though
b^un in 179, was not finished till 142.-

It has been commonly assumed by the authors of many of the maps of Rome that the
stone piers now visible in the bed of the river near the foot of the Aventine beloncred to
the Sublician bridge. But this seems very unlikely, since, as we have seen, the Sublician
bridge was always, probabl}- from religious scruples, constructed of wood and supported
on piles ; and further, because it must have stood between the two points at which the
Servian walls reached the river bank, whereas the ruined piers would have been outside
these walls. The most probable account which can be given of these ruined
piers is that thev belonged to the bridge of Probus, mentioned by the Bndge oj

Probus.

Catalogue of the Curiosum last in order of the eight bridges. The " Mira-

bilia Romse " places the Pons Valentinianus in the last place ; and if this be the samt? as

the Pons Probi, we must suppose that it was restored by Valentinian.-'

The bridge next above the ruined piers just mentioned is nov/ called the Ponte Rotto,
from its broken condition. The remaining arches are not ancient, but probably stand upon
the site of an ancient bridge, which was called the Pons /Emilias.* Livy

IT. T- .1. 1 ^ 1 • 1 1 •! -r-i Pons .Htnilins.

mentions the Pons A^milius as the first stone bridge built over the liber, and
states that it was begun in 179 B.C. by M. Fulvius Nobilior and M. .Emilius Lepidus
the Censor, whose name is given to the Basilica ^Emilia, and that it was finished
in 142 B.C. by the Censors Publius Scipio Africanus and L. Mummius.* The bridge was
named after M. .^milius Lepidus as Pontifex Maximus, and as a more popular statesman
than Fulvius. The bridge afterwards bore the name Pons Lapideus, from being the first
.stone bridge built over the Tiber, and in contradistinction to the Pons Sublicius.''

There is abundant evidence as to the position of this bridge, for the Fasti Capranici
place it "ad Theatrum Marcelli," and the Cosmographia of /Ethicus "ad Forum Boarium,"
both of which indications point to the Ponte Rotto."

A short distance above the yEmilian bridge is the Island of the Tiber. According
to the legend, this island was formed by the corn belonging to the Tarquins grown on the
Campus Martius, which, after their expulsion, was consecrated to Mars. After , ,

Is'and of the

consecration, the corn could not be used for food, and was therefore cut and Tiber.
thrown into the Tiber ; and from this corn, when collected into heaps by the

' Phit. Numa, 9 ; Serv. ad ^n. viii. 646, where the genuine text of the Notitia, but is an invention of

words "qui mode lapideus dicitur" are considered the Regionarii.

to be an interpolation by Lion. '^ Livy, xl. 51. = Livy, xl. 51; Juv. vi. 32. The name Pons

' Curios. Urb. Pontes viii. ; ^Elius, ^milius, Aure- Lepidi (yEth. Cosmotjr. in append, ad Gronovii Pomp,

lius, Milvius, Sublicius, Fabricius, Cestius, et Probi. Mel. 1722) quoted by Becker, De Rom. V'et. Mur.

Mirab. Rom.TE : Milvius, Adrianus, N'eronianus, .-Xnto- p. 80, note, is probably a confusion with Pons

ninus, Gratiani, Senatorius, .\Larmoreus, Thcodosii, Lapideus.

Valentianus. Mirab. ed. Parthey, 1869. See woodcut " Piale, Dcgli .-Xntichi Ponti, Atli della Pont,

on p. 184, and below, pp. 264—267. Accad. 1S31 ; Becker, Ue Ronvi; Vet. Muris atqiic

* The name Palatinus, commonly given by the Portis, p. 78.

Italian topographers to this bridge, is not found in the ' Fast Cap. xvi. Kal. Sept. /Eth. Cosni. loc. cit.

:64

The Janiciihiin and the J 'at icon Hill.

stream, the island was said to have been formed. ^ Until the fifth century of the city, the

island remained consecrated and uninhabited, but in B.C. 292 a Temple of yEsculapius was

built upon it, in consequence, as the story went, of the holy snake brought

Temphof ^^.^^^^ Epidaurus havincT swum to shore there.'' The island was probably at

ALsculapms. r =

this time also protected with stone embankments, and the two bridges were
built, whence the name "Inter duos Pontes" was given to it. A fragment of this ancient
stone embankment, which was in the shape of a ship, may still be seen in the garden of
the Franciscan monks of S. Bartolommeo, on the eastern side of that end of the island
which is next to the Ponte Rotto, representing part of the prow of a ship with a head of
.•Esculapius, a snake twisted round a stick, and the head of an ox carved in relief upon it."

(On the site of the Pons ^Emilius or Lapiileus.'

Four other temples also stood upon the island; but all traces of them, with the exception
of a number of detached columns which have been used in the Church of S. Bartolommeo,
have long since disappeared. The Temple of Jupiter was vowed by the

Temples of

Jupiter and

Faunits.

Prc-Etor L. Furius in the Gallic wars of 202 B.C., and dedicated six j-ears
afterwards, together with a Temple of Faunas.''

1 Livy, ii. 5.

- Ibid. ii. 5, Epit. xi. ; Dionys. v. 13.

■■ Jordan in the Preussiche Moiiatsbericht, Berlin,
1S67, p. 535, on Tab. xvi. of the Capitohne plan ; and
in Ann. dell' Inst. 1867, p. 389, on the Isola Tiberina.
I'uaneri, Ant. Rom. iv. tav. 15. Two or three courses
(if stone are also perceptible on the western side of

the island. Piraneri, Campo Marzo. tav. xi. : I'hit.
Popl. viii.; Macrob. Sat. ii. 12. See also on the story
of the snake, Ov. Met xv. 739; Fast. i. 291 ; Paul.
Diac. p. Iio ; Val. Max. i. 8, 2 ; Plin. Nat. Hist. xxix.
4, 22 ; Suet. Claud. 25 ; Sidon. Apoll. Ep. i. 7.

* Livy, XXXIV. 53 ; xxxiii. 42 ; Vitruv. iii. 2 ; Ov.
Fast. i. 291, ii. 193.

The JaniculiiDi ami the ]'atican Hill

26s

Tiberinus was also worshipped here, and a Temple of Scmo Sancus is mentioned.
The statue of the latter god, with the inscription, " Semoni Sanco Deo," was still to
be seen, " inter duos Pontes," in the time of the early Fathers of the
Christian Church, and gave rise to the strange idea that Simon Magus sem" s,uL,s
had been worshipped here by the pagans.^ A statue of Julius Cssar is or Dins Fidius.
mentioned by Tacitus, Suetonius, and Plutarch, as standing "in Insula Tibe- Sta'.ue of Julius
rina." - The two bridges uniting the island to either bank were probabl)', Cesar.

as has been said, first erected in or about the fifth century of the city, but the existing
bridges, though ancient, must be considered as restorations of the older fabrics. The

INSULA TIEfcRINA.

Pl'iis fiibricius.

bridge on the side towards the Campus Wartius was built by L. I'abricius in 62

B.C., as the inscription still extant on it shows. In accordance with this

we find Dion Cassius giving it the name of Pons Fabricius, and a coin

with the title L. Fabricius gives on the other side a bridge with a snake, plainly alluding

to the island of the Tiber.-' Another inscription, also still remaining upon the bridge,

states that it was examined and found in good repair by O. Lepidus and M. Lollius,

Consuls in 21 .B.C.

1 Euscb. Hist. Eccl. ii. 12; Gr^ev. Thcs. Ant.
Rom. iv. p. 1554 ; Gruter, Inscr. p. xcvi. No. 5 ; Just.
Mart. Ap. 2.

2 Tac. Hist. i. 86 : .Suet. Vesp. 5 ; Plut. Oth. 4.
^ Dion Cass. .\.\xvili. 45 ; Eckkel, Num. \'ct. torn.
V. p. 210.

M M

2 66 The y aniciihvVi and the Vatican Hill.

This bridge is the oldest now standing on the Tiber, and the masonry is of admirable
solidity and workmanship. It was called in the Middle Ages Pons Judseus, from its
proximity to the Jews' quarter of the city, and now bears the name Ouattro Capi, from the
Jani Ouadrifrontes which stand upon it.^ These Jani were formerly the posts which
supported the railings of the bridge, as may be seen by the holes bored in them for the
ancient bronze bars.

The twin-bridge, on the Janiculan side of the river, dates from the Imperial era, and
probably, like the Pons Fabricius, replaced a much older bridge of the same age as the
Temple of yEsculapius.

Two inscriptions are still legible on this bridge, from which we learn that it was

finished in the year 370 A.D., and dedicated to the use of the Roman people, in the name

of the Emperor Gratianus, by Valentinianus, Valens, and Gratianus. These

Pons Cestius or j^scriptions must be understood as referring to the rebuilding of the bridge,

Gratiaiii. ^ ^00

though they are so worded as to claim the credit of its first erection. That
there was an older bridge is clear, not only from the fact that the island was called " Inter
duos Pontes " before the time of Gratian, but also from the name Pons Cestius, which occurs
in the Notitia, and undoubtedly belongs to this bridge.^ It is not clear who Cestius was,
but it is generally supposed that a Praefectus Urbi of that name, in B.C. 46, is the person
after whom the bridge was named ; and this agrees with the statement of Dion Cassius
about the building of the Fabrician bridge.^

The bridge now called Ponte S. Sisto stands on the site of an ancient bridge, which was
Pons most probably the one named Pons Aurelius in the Notitia.^ There is no

Aurelius. conclusive proof that this was the Pons Aurelius ; but the situations of none
of the other bridges seem to suit this name, while it is peculiarly applicable to the bridge
in question, because it was the principal passage over the Tiber to the Porta Aurelia and
the Aurelian road along the coast to Civita Vecchia.''

The name frequently given to it by topographers. Pons Janicularis, appears to be a
mere invention, as it is not found in any trustworthy authority ; and another

Pons

Janicularis. name. Pons Antoninianus, by which we find it called in the Middle Ages,^
Pons seems to have arisen from the mistaken name, Theatrum Antonini, formerly

Antoniiaanus. ^j^.^^^ ^^ ^j^^ Theatrum Balbi, which is not far distant," and also from the
well-known fondness of Severus and Caracalla for the Transtiberine pleasure-grounds.**
Marliani gives an inscription which is said to have existed formerly upon this bridge
commemorating its restoration, under Hadrian, by Messius Rusticus, the Conservator of
the Tiber.^ The bridge must therefore have been originally built before Hadrian's time,
and cannot be a work of the Antonines.

When the water of the Tiber is low, the ruins of a bridge may be seen at the bend of
the river just below the Ponte S. Angelo. It is not known whether these ruins are ancient

' See Reber, Ruinen Roms, p. 316. " Mirabilia Romas, § 4 ; Anast. Vit. Hadriani, p.

" Curios. Urb. Pontes. 120.

3 Coins with the name L. Cestius have been found. " Mabillon, IVlus. Ital. torn. ii. p. 126 ; Ordo Rom.

Dion Cass, xxxvii. 45. 1143.

* Curios. Urb. Pontes. » Hist. Aug. Sept. Sev. 4; Curios. Reg. xiv.

* Westphal. Romischc Kampagnc, p. 162. ^ Marliani, cap. cxxi. ed. 1627.

The yanicuhim and the Vatican Hill. 267

or medicxval,' but if they mark the site of an ancient bridge, it can scarcely have been

any other than the bridge built by Caligula or Nero, leading to the Horti Agrippina;

and Horti Domitiae in the \'atican quarter. Procopius's account of the attack by the

Goths at this point of the city would lead us to suppose that this bridge had been

broken up before his time ; and accordingly the Notitia omits it.- There is

a bridge mentioned in the " Mirabilia Roma; " under the name Neronianus, j^"'"

which mav possibly be identical with 'this bridge.^ Albertini states that -^'"y"'"""' "^

Pope Julius II. intended to have the Pons Neronianus restored, and that it

was called after him Pons Julius for some time in consequence of this intention. The

name Vaticanus is also given to it by some of the older topographers.*

The Bridge of S. Angelo (Pons yElius), which crosses the river close to the Mausoleum
of Hadrian, was built by that Emperor at the same time with the mausoleum.'* The
anonymous writer of the Einsiedlen MS. gives an inscription which in his

Pons jEliiis.

time remained upon the bridge, assignmg its erection to the nineteenth
tribune.ship and third consulship of Hadrian, which indicates the year 135 A.D. ; and in
confirmation of this Nardini gives a medal of Hadrian, which dates from his third
consulship, and has on the obverse a representation of this bridge." The name Pons
.^lius, given to it by Dion Cassius in his account of Hadrian's funeral, was probablj-
derived either from Hadrian's praenomen /Elius, or from the name of his .son ^-Elius
Caesar, whose burial was the first which took place in the mausoleum."

Above the Pons /Elius another bridge, called the Pons Triumphalis, is supposed by
Bunsen and some of the older Italian topographers to have crossed the river in the
direction of Monte Mario. Some ruins, apparently belonging to the pier of
a bridge, have been found behind the Teatro Tordinone, or Apollo, and _ ^""^^ ,.

=5 ' ' Triumphalis.

identified with the Pons Triumphalis, by which the Via Triumphalis is sup-
posed to have crossed the Tiber.^ But it is not improbable that before the Pons y^lius
was built the Via Triumphalis crossed the river at the Pons Vaticanus, which was
sometimes called Triumphalis.^

The Janiculan hill and the level district between its slopes and the Tiber contain no
ancient remains of important buildings, nor is there any reason to suppose that before the
Imperial times any such existed. The site of Numa's tomb, said to have

T^ . , . . . , , . , . , Burial-place of

been near a place called Ara; Fontis in this region, is not clearly indicated Numa.

by any good evidence,^" while the Prata Mucia, an estate given to Mucius Anr Fontis.

Scasvola for his pubhc services,^' and the Temple of Fors Fortuna, built by Tonph- of Fors
Servius Tullius, commonlv included in the district of the Janiculum, were "'"'"''

Minor Codila.

most probably outside the walls.'- A district called the Minor Codeta,

' Venuti, Part ii. p. 173, note. * Bunsen. Bcschrcibun^, Band ii. Abth. i. S. 6.

- See chap. v. p. 59; Notitin, Pontes, p. 263, =' Albertini, loc.cit.; Flav. Blond, i. 41 ; Venuti. vol.

note 3. ii. p. 173, note.

' Mir. Rom. ed. Parthey, p. 4. p. 263, note 3. '" cic. De Legg. ii. 22 ; Li%y. .\1. 29 ; Dionys. ii.

* Albertini, Mirab. p. 5. '■" Hist. Aug. Hadr. 19. 76; Plut. Xum. 22; Val. Max. i. 1, 12; Festus. p.

" Anon. Einsied. ap. Mabillon. Vet. An. p. 359, 173.
fol. Paris. 1723. Nardini, ap. Gracv. Tlies. iv. p. 1445. " Livj', ii. 13 ; Dionys. v. 35 ; Paul. Diac. p. 144.

" Dion Cass. l.\ix. 23, irpoj t^ ytf-vpa ry Al\ia. The >'- Varro, L. L. vi. § 17 ; Donatus, Ad Ter. Phorm.

mediaeval history is given in Nibby, Roma nell' v. 6, i; Ov. Fast. \t. 765, 784. On the guardhouse

anno 1838, Parte i. Ant. p. 159. of the Vigiles see addenda at the end of ch. xiv.

M M 2

268 TIic Jaiiicnlitni ami the Vatican Hill.

named from the plant {Eqnisetum arvcnse) which grew there in great quantities,

was situated in the Transtiberine quarter ; and this was the spot in which the great

lake was dug where Julius C?esar exhibited the first sham naval engage-

Horu Casans. j^^g,-,(. ^^^^ ^^ Rome.^ The Horti Cassaris, given by the great dictator as a

Nemiis

Ctcsarinn. legacy to the Roman people, contained this lake.- Augustus afterwards
improved the lake by bringing the Aqua Alsictina to supply it,-' and planted
round it,'' or according to some accounts replaced it by, a large wood called Nemus
Cffisarum.' In the latter case this wood cannot have remained there long, as the Emperors
Nero and Titus appear to have exhibited naval combats in the same place.'' Domitian
is also said to have exhibited naval combats in the Transtiberine district, but whether in
the old Naumachia of Julius Caesar or not is uncertain.' As the amusement became
popular, many of these Naumachise were constructed by the Emperors. The Notitia
enumerates no less than five of them in the Regio Transtiberina.

The name Vatican was applied by the writers of the Augustan age to the whole range
of hills extending along the western bank of the Tiber, including the Janiculum and the
Monte Mario. Cicero mentions in one of his letters a conversation he held
'atuaii. ^\<^ Q Capito, about Caesar's plan for increasing the area of the city by
cuttin"- a channel for the Tiber under the Montes Vaticani, and uniting the Campus
Vaticanus with the Campus Martins. He appears to have been disappointed by this
plan in a design he had of purchasing the Horti Scapulani, which lay in the Campus
Vaticanus.* The hills which Cicero calls the Montes Vaticani were plainly the range
of Monte Mario and the Monte della Creta, and the new cut for the river was to
have taken the direction of the Strada di Porta Castello. Horace, speaking of the
applause with which Maecenas was received in the Theatre of Pompeius in the Campus
Martins, opposite to the Janiculum, evidently gives the name of Mons Vaticanus to the
Janiculum."

But the name Vaticanus has now been restricted to the small hill standing behind the
Basilica of St. Peter's, upon which the Vatican Museum and the Papal Gardens are situated.
This hill is a small projecting portion of the range which includes the Janiculum and
Monte Mario, and it is separated from the Janiculum by a depression, along which the
street of the Borgo S. Spirito runs. The derivation of the name Vatican is
' '"^' lost. Gellius has preserved a quotation from Varro, in which the word is
said to be derived from a deity Vaticanus, the presiding god of the first rudiments of
speech {vagirc, vagitanus). Paulus Diaconus gives a different explanation, founded on the
supposed expulsion of the PLtruscans in fulfilment of an oracle {vatuin response expjilsis
Etrnscis) ; ^^ and from this Niebuhr and Bunsen, following him, have supposed that an
Etruscan city existed here in ancient times. There appears to be no sufficient evidence

1 Suet. Jul. 39. The Major Codcta was probably " Dion Cass. Ixi. 20, Ixvi. 25 ; Suet. Tit. 7.
in the Campus. See Dion Cass, xliii. 23 ; Phn. xxvi. ' Suet. Dom. 4.

13, xviii. 28, 259. ** Cic. Ad Att. xiii. 33.

2 Hor. Sat. i. 9, 18 ; Suet. CiES. 83 ; Tac. Ann. ii. " Hon Od. i. 20, 7. Martial, Epig. iv. 64, seems to
I ; Cic. Phil. ii. 42. apply ^^ name Janiculum to the Monte Mario.

^ Frontin. De .\qucEd. i. 1 1 ; Ov. Art. i. 171. See line 23 : " Cum sit tam prope Milvius."

^ Tac. Ann. xiv. 15 ; Suet. Aug. 43. " Cell. xvi. 17 ; Aug. De Civ. Dei, iv. 8, 11 ; Paul.

■' Monument. Ancyr. ; Suet. Tib. 72. Diac. p. 379 ; Miiller.

The yaiticuliim and the J'a/ieau Hill. 269

of such a settlement, nor arc we warranted in assuming ;ui\-thing beyond tlie fact that
the Etruscans anciently claimed this part of the western bank of the Tiber.

" The mass of the hill is composed of siliceo-calcarcous sand, of a yellowish colour,'
similar to that which is found so widely extended throughout Italy at the foot of the
Apennine chain of mountains, forming a series of hills, which can be traced
with more or less interruption to the extreme point of the peninsula near ^'^'"'"'■al

failures,

Reggie. This sand may be easily recognised in the Belvedere Gardens of
the Vatican, or outside the Porta Angelica, m going round outside the walls to the left,
where deposits of calcareous gravel are mixed with it. It is generally incoherent and
crumbling, but sometimes conglomerated into sandstone of moderate solidity.-' As in
other parts of Italy, so in the Vatican district, underlying masses of bluish marl
are found. This marl may be seen behind the Sacristy of St. Peter's, where it appears
regularly stratified, and includes lamin;ij and crystals of sclenite, small fragments of
fossils belonging to the genera Dcntalis, Tellina, Lcpas, and Balanits, and other marine
remains. The outlines also of plants belonging to the Fiici are not rare in this for-
mation. The marl is still used for coarse pottery, as it was in the days of Martial
and Ju\-enal.''^"

Neither the Vatican hill nor the Campus Vaticanus, which lay between it and the
river, were included within the Aurelian walls. It was considered an unhealthy district,
and the land barren and unsuitable for agriculture.'' Martial denounces the wine grown
there as vinegar and poison : —

" Cslatus tibi cum sit, Ammiane,
Serpens in patera Myronis arte ;
Vaticana bibis : bibis venenum."''

The Basilica of St. Peter's was still outside the walls in the time of Leo III., but
a suburb had gradually grown up under its attraction upon the flat ground between it and
the Mausoleum of Hadrian, which increased in importance every year, and
was continually enlarged by the permanent settlement of pilgrims from all ■ '

parts of the world round the shrine of the great Apostle. These settlements were called
the Schools of the Greeks, Goths, Lombards, Saxons, and other nations. <> The design of
protecting them from the attacks of the Saracens, Arabs, and Moors, who, in the first half
of the ninth century, constantly harassed the shores of Italy, had been entertained b}-
Leo III. ; but the work had been delayed, and the building materials already collected had
been seized and carried awa)-. But Leo IV., after the great victory gained by the Christian
fleet over the Moslems at Ostia, determined to postpone so necessary a defence no longer,
and employed, says Anastasius, the captive Saracens and others in large numbers in building
walls round the Vatican district. The walls were finished in four years, .v. I). 849 — 853 ;
and the newly-enclosed suburb was called Civitas Leonina.'^

' Brocchi, p. 164. * Anast. In Vita Pontificis, Pasch. i.

-' See above, chap. ii. p. 15. ' See Gibbon's Decline and Fall, chap. lii. ;

^ Mart. i. 18, xii. 48, 14 ; Juv. vi. 343. Donatus, Roma Vetus ac Rccens, pp. 474, 475; Anast.

■■ Tac. Hist. ii. 93 ; Cic. Dc Leg. Agr. ii. 35. In Vita Lconis IV. The name coinmonly given to

'' Mart. vi. 92, x. 45 ; '' Vaticana bibas, si delectaris the Civitas Leonina is Borgo, or " the Borough.''
aceto."

270 Tlic Janiciiluiu and titc Vatican Hill.

In the times of the RepubHc, with the exception of the fact that the Prata Ouinctia,

given to Cincinnatus in recognition of his services, were here/ we hear

nothing of this quarter, which was then considered a part of the Campagna.

The Emperors first began its occupation by laying out pleasure-grounds there, and the

whole Ager Vaticanus was covered with two large parks, called the Horti Ncronis;'^ one

of which, the north-eastern, v/as named after the elder Agrippina, and the

Horti Ncronis, r -kt i 1 t^ • • t-i

Agrippina Other, the south-western, after one of Nero s aunts, the Domitiae. 1 he position

^' of the latter is fixed by the Mausoleum of Hadrian, which was built " in

omi la. f^ortis Domitire ; " '' and by this name these pleasure-grounds appear to

have been known till the time of Aurelian, who made them one of his favourite

residences.''

The other park, the Horti Agrippinse, lay nearer to the Vatican hill itself, in the

situation now occupied by the Piazza and Basilica of St. Peter's. Its position is determined

by that of the Circus in it built by Caligula, enlarged and constantly used by

, .'''' Nero, where he at first indulged his passion for the games of the Circus in

AgrippllKT. ' o JT a

private, or before a select circle, but afterwards before a promiscuous crowd of
spectators.^ A passage in Seneca, where he describes Caligula as walking in these gardens,
in a colonnade which separated the cloisters from the river-bank, would lead us to suspect
that the Horti Agrippinae reached down to the bank at the bend of the Tiber below the
Pons ^lius;" and Philo Judaeus also, speaking of his embassy on behalf of the Jews to
Caligula, says that the Emperor met the deputation on the level ground near the Tiber, as
he was coming out of his mother's pleasure-grounds." It is certain, however, that, whether
some part of the grounds reached as far as the river or not, the Circus of Caligula itself
stood nearly upon the site of the present Basilica of St. Peter's. For the
'^L ,"!""' obelisk which now stands in the centre of the piazza, in front of the basilica,

Obelisk. ^ '

was, as we learn from Pliny, brought by Caligula from Egypt, to adorn the
spina of his Circus, and dedicated to the memory of Augustus and Tiberius;* and this
obelisk is represented in drawings of the sixteenth century as then still standing in its
original place on the south side of St. Peter's." In digging the foundations for the new
front of the basilica erected by Paul V. in 1616, the foundation walls were brought to light
which doubtless belonged to Caligula's Circus. Canccllieri, who was an eye-witness, gives
the following account of these substructions -.^^ — " In the year 1616, while the steps of the
old Basilica of St. Peter's were being removed, some massive ancient reticulated walls were
discovered, which seemed to have belonged to the ruined turrets of a circus. A brass coin
of Agrippina was found there. While the foundations of the additional part of the Vatican
Church were being laid, it was seen that the length of this circus had been 720 Roman
palms (about 165 yards), its breadth 150 (35 yards), and the area where the games were

' Livy, iii. 26, places the Prata (Ouinctia opposite ^ Seneca, De Ira, iii. 18. Caligula built this circus

to the Navalia of the Campus Martius. Val. Max. iv. for the especial benefit of the Green faction, which

4, 7 ; Paul. Diac. sv. Ouinctia. he patronised : Suet. Calig. 55 ; Uion. lix. 14.

- Tac. Ann. xv. 39, 44. ' Philo Judanis, De Leg. ad Caium, p. 572.

' Hist. Aug. Anton. Pius. chap. v. * Plin. Nat. Hist. xvi. 39, 201, xxxvi. 11, 74.

■" Hist. Aug. Aur. 49. " Gamucci, p. 195, and others quoted by Reber,

° Tac. Ann, xiv. 14. Plin. Nat. Hist. xvi. 39, 201, Ruinen Roms, p. 310.

xxxvi. II, 74, calls it "Circus Caii et Neronis;" Suet. '" See Venuti, vol. ii. 175, who qnotes Canccllieri,

Claud. 21. De Secretariis. torn. ii. p. 026.

The yaniculuiii and the Vatiean Hill.

2-:i

held 230 palms (55 yards) wide} One end was near the lowest steps of the basilica, and
the other, where the Church of S. Martha now stands, on the western side behind the apse.
There was an obelisk in the centre, which was behind the choir chapel. The end wall
of the basilica and the double columns of the chapels of the Crucifix and S. Andrew were
built upon two massive walls of the above-mentioned Circus of Calit^ula and Nero. It was
similar to the Circus of Ma.xentius, now existing, and was surrounded with high walls on
each side ; three on one side, over which were built the naves of the chapels of the
Crucifix and S. Andrew, and three on the other side, where the cemetery of the Campo
Santo now is. These walls were of brick, and supported arches, over which were the seats
for the spectators. Between the walls there was a space of forty-two feet." He adds that
he measured one of these ruined walls, which was 31 palms high and 14 in width, and that
some huge marble slabs were found, on one of which roses were carved, and on the other
the letters " CVMSPECULATOR," which may have indicated the seats of the spcailatorcsr

There is no doubt that this circus and the surrounding pleasure-grounds were the
scene of those horrible tortures inflicted by Nero upon the Christians, when, as Tacitus
relates, they were clothed in the skins of wild beasts, and worried to death by dogs, or
nailed to crosses, or sentenced to be smeared with pitch, bound to stakes, and burnt to
light up the nocturnal revels of the barbarous tyrant.^ Thus a striking though accidental
historical contrast has been produced ; for upon the very spot where this first and most
bloody persecution was enacted now stands the greatest and the most magnificent of
Christian churches.

The subsequent history of the Circus of Caligula and Nero is lost ; but it is plain that
it must have soon fallen into ruins, since the Basilica of St. Peter was erected on the site
by Constantine in the first half of the fourth century, and in the early part of the Middle
Ages the remaining ruins were so far dismantled that they are called Palatium Neronis in
the " Mirabilia Romas." ^

In the immediate neighbourhood of the Circus of Nero stood the Temple of Apollo or
Mithras, the Sun-god, mentioned not only by the mediaeval writers, but also in some
inscriptions which have been preserved ; but of its exact site nothing is
known. The inscriptions commemorate Taurobolia, or sacrifices of bulls, in Temple of

i- . Apollo,

honour of Cybele, and reach down to the age of Theodosius. They seem to „^ jMUhras.
show that, even after the building of Constantine's basilica, the heathen
worship of Mithras and Cybele was maintained on the spot where the Temple of Apollo
or Mithras had stood, a curious instance of the strange mixture of heathenism and Chris-
tianity which then prevailed. In the same way, a century and a half before the time of
Theodosius, Alexander Severus had placed in the same lararimn the images of Apollo-
nius, of Christ, of Abraham, and of Orpheus.^ In this quarter was also a large pyramidal

1 A palm is eight inches; therefore these measure- - Venuti, vol. ii. p. 175: i.e. locum speculaloriitii.

ments are too small to be true. The Circus Ma.\i- ^ Juv. i. 155 ; Tac. Ann. ,xv. 44. The expression

mus was at least 600 yards long, and the distance "tunica molcsta" in Juvenal and Martial refers to

from S. Martha's Church to the lowest step of St. this mode of execution : Juv. viii. 235 ; Mart. x. 25.

Peter's is nearly 400 yards. St. Peter's itself is * MirabiHa ; Montfaucon, Diar. Ital. p. 284.

862 palms long. The Circus of Maxentius on the " Montfaucon, Diar. Ital. p. 290; Anast. \"it. Sil-

Appian Road, which can be accurately measured, is vestr. ; OreUi, Inscr. 2,322, 2,335, 2,340, et seq. ; Hist.

526 yards long. Aug. Alex. Sev. 29.

272 The Janicuhini and the Vatican Hi!!.

tomb, of greater size than that of Cestius, known hi the Middle Ages as the tomb of

Romulus or Remus, and no less absurdly called by a scholiast on Horace

Scp,ih-hn,m ^j^^ ^Qj^^^ Qj- scipio Africanus. This was destroyed at the end of the

Romiili.

fifteenth century, in building the Borgo Nuovo.^

The o-round-plan of another circus to the north of the Mausoleum of Hadrian was exca-
vated in 1743 ; but there are now no traces left.- This circus was probably

Circus of Uyjij \^y Hadrian, for the celebration of funeral games whenever a burial took

Hadrian. ^ ^

place in the mausoleum. Of the numerous porticoes and colonnades which
must have filled the Imperial pleasure-grounds between the Vatican hill and the Tiber not
a vestige is now left. The foundations of some of these may be buried below the level of
the present streets ; but by far the greater part of the ruins were probably used in 849 in
building the houses and walls of the Leonine city.

The sole survivor of this utter annihilation of all the contemporary buildings is the

hu"-e mass of the Mausoleum of Hadrian, which owes its preservation entirely to the

peculiar fitness of its site and shape for the purposes of a fortress, which it

Mausoleum of j^^^ served since the time of Belisarius.^ Had it not been thus made servicc-

Jladrian.

able to the turbulent spirit of the mediaeval Romans, the same hands which
stripped the great pile of its marble facing, and, after hurling the statues with which it was
adorned into the moat, allowed them to lie there in oblivion, would have torn asunder and
carried away the whole mass, to furnish materials for the palaces and stables of their
ferocious and ignorant nobles.

The original form of this colossal mausoleum is now entirely changed by the modern
buildings which have been piled upon it, by the addition of the corbels round its upper
part, and by the loss of the exterior facing of marble, so that the ancient appearance
can be only conjecturally restored. The remaining ancient part consists of a square base-
ment of concrete and travertine blocks, the sides of which measure 95 }-ards, surmounted
b\- an enormous c}-lindrical structure of travertine, 70 yards in diameter and 75 feet high.
Procopius tells us that this was cased in Parian marble, and that upon the summit stood a
number of splendid marble statues of men and horses.^ Several other tombs in Italy are
still extant, constructed on the same plan, with a c}-lindrical tower placed upon a square
base. Two of these, the celebrated tomb of Caecilia Metella and that of the Servilii, are
upon the Appian road, about three miles from Rome, and belong to the Republican era.
Two others, the tomb of the Plautii at Ponte Lugano, near Tivoli, and the beautiful
monument of j\Iunatius Plancus, near Gaeta, are of the Augustan age. Hadrian's design
was not, therefore, by any means a new one, as we might have expected in the case of an
Emperor who was himself an architect, and proud of his artistic designs.^

It is plain from the description of Procopius that the statues of men and horses which he
mentions were upon the top of the building, for the defenders of the mausoleum against
the army of Vitiges, being hard pressed by the approach of the Goths under shelter of a
testudo, in their despair seized these statues, and hurled them upon the heads of their
assailants, thus breaking down the testudo, and repelling the attack.'' Of the exact way

' Mabillon, Mus. Ital. ii. p. 143 ; Montfaucon, Diar. ^ Gibbon, chap. xli.

Ital. p. 291 ; .Acron. ad Hon Epod. ix. 25. ■" Procop. Bell. Goth. i. 22.

- Canina, in the Atti della Pont. Acad. x. 1S39, ^ See chap. viii. p. 170.

quoted by Rebcr, p. 313. " Procop. Bell. Goth. i. 22.

The yaniculum and tJic J 'aticaii II Hi.

-/J

in which tlie\' were arranged we have no evidence. Tradition asserts tliat the twenty-four
Corinthian columns destroyed by fire in the Basilica of St. Paul in 1823 formerly belonged
to the Mausoleum of Hadrian, and that they were removed by Honorius.^ A comparison
of this tradition with a passage of Herodian, in which he says that the ashes of Septimius

CO.NE FROM THE TOP OF H.\DRI.\N S M.^ISOLEIM.

Severus were buried in the temple where rest the bones of the Antonini, has led to the
conjecture that the columns formed the colonnade of a round temple on the top of the
mausoleum in which Hadrian's colossal statue stood, and that the bronze fir-cone found
here, which is now placed in the Vatican Garden, ornamented the summit. Round this
temple, and upon the level top of the c\-lindrical tower, may have been arranged the
various statues of which Procopius speaks.-

The colossal head of Hadrian's statue found here is still to be seen in the Museo I'io

Bunscn's Memoirs, vol. i. p. 208.

lint. Gcscli. ilcr Baukunst, ii. p. '),'i.

2 74 '^^^'^ Janicnhtin and t/ic I'atican Hill.

Clementino, the bronze-gilt peacocks in the Giardino della Pigna ; and the famous Barberini
Faun now at Munich, and the Dancing Faun at Florence, were amongst the ornaments of
the upper part of the tomb. Another conjecture as to the shape of the upper part of the
building is that it was surmounted by a smaller cylindrical tower, with a roof in the
form of a truncated cone, upon the top of which stood the colossal statue of Hadrian.^
There is not sufficient evidence to give any degree of certainty to either of these
conjectural restorations.

The interior of the building, according to the latest discoveries, consists of a large
central rectangular chamber {16 by 30 feet and 54 feet high), approached by an ascending
spiral corridor leading from the lower chamber, which communicated immediately with the
principal entrance. The entrance was a high arch in the cylindrical tower immediately
opposite the bridge. It is now walled up, and the lower chamber into which it leads can
only be approached from above.

In the central chamber there are four niches, in which formerly stood the urns and cippi
of the illustrious persons buried here. A large sarcophagus of porphyry found here was
used for the tomb of Pope Innocent II. in the Lateran, and the lid may still be seen in the
Baptisterium of St. Peter, where it is used as a font. The chamber was lighted and venti-
lated by square passages cut through the walls in a slanting direction, and the rain-water
was carried off" by channels, which conveyed it into cloacae at the foot of the building.
It does not appear to be certainly known whether other chambers may not exist in the
interior which have not been yet discovered. Piranesi gives a number of additional chambers
besides the two above mentioned ; but his statements are probably conjectural.-

After the burial of Nerva no more room was left in the Mausoleum of Augustus for the
interment of the Imperial ashes.^ Trajan's remains were deposited, as has been mentioned,
under the column in the Forum bearing his name ; but Hadrian .gladly seized the oppor-
tunity of adding another to the many colossal structures he had already reared. The
Mausoleum was begun at the same time with the ^-Elian bridge, in the year .\.D. 135.*
The bricks, of which part of the building consists, are stamped with various years of
Hadrian's reign, and show that the greater part of the building was erected by him, though
Antoninus Pius probably completed it.'' Hadrian's son ^-Elius, who died before his father,
was the first Caesar whose ashes were placed in this tomb." After him Hadrian himself
was buried here," and then the Emperor Antoninus Pius and his wife, the elder Faustina ;
three of their sons, Fulvius Antoninus, M. Galerius Aurelius Antoninus, and L. Aurelius
Verus, the colleague of M. Aurelius in the Empire ; and a daughter, Aurelia Fadilla.

No record has been preser\'ed of the burial of M. Aurelius, but it seems probable that
his ashes were deposited here, as the Mausoleum of Hadrian continued to be the tomb of
the Antonines till the time of Severus, who built a third Imperial monument, the Septi-
zonium, on the Appian road.* Four children of M. Aurelius were buried here, named

1 Reber, p. 301. Verus, chap. 11 ; Comm. 17.

- Piranesi, Ant. Rom. iv. tav. vii. * Hist. Aug. Sept. Sev. 19,24; Geta, 7; Herodian,

■■^ Dion Cass. lxi.x. 23. iv. i, 4 ; Dion Cass. Ixxvi. 15, Ixxviii. 9, 24 Becker,

■* Hist. Aug. Hadr. 19. See above, p. 267. however, thinks that the words in Spartianus are a

'" Hist. Aug. Ant. Pius, 8. mere gloss, and that the Mausoleum of Hadrian is

8 Hist. Aug. /El. chap. 6. meant in Herodian.

' Dion Cass. Kix. 23 ; Hist. Aug. Ant. Phil. chap. 7;

The yaniculiwi and the Vatican Hill.

-'/o

Aurelius Antoninus, T. ^-Elius Aurelius, and Domitia Faustina, who died during their father'?
life, and also his miserable son and successor the Emperor Commodus. The inscriptions
recording all these burials, except those of Hadrian and M. Aurelius, were copied by
the anonymous writer of Einsiedlen in the ninth century, when they were apparently
still legible upon the south wall of the square basement. The inscriptions recording
Hadrian and M. Aurelius may have been placed upon the upper part of the tomb, like
those on the Plautian tomb and the tomb of Caecilia Metella, and may, therefore, either
have escaped the notice of the anonymous traveller, or have been stripped off with
the marble casing of the exterior.

After the burial of M. Aurelius, the tomb was closed until the sack of Rome by Alaric
in 410 A.D., when his barbarian soldiers probablj' broke it open in search of treasure, and
scattered the ashes of the Antonines to the winds.^ From this time, for a hundred years,
the tomb was turned into a fortress, the possession of \vhich became the object of many
struggles in the wars of the Goths under Vitiges (537 A.D.) and Totilas (killed 552).- From
the end of the sixth century, when Gregory the Great saw on its summit a vision of
St. Michael sheathing his sw^ord, in token that the prayers of the Romans for the preserva-
tion from the plague were heard, the Mausoleum of Hadrian was considered as a consecrated
building, under the name of " S. Angelus inter Nubes," " Usque ad Ccelos," or " Inter Coelos,"
until it was seized in 923 A.D. by Alberic, Count of Tusculum, and the infamous Marozia,
and again became the scene of the fierce struggles between Popes, Emperors, and reckless
adventurers which marked those miserable times.^ The last injuries appear to have been
inflicted upon the building in the contest between the French Pope Clemens VII. and the
Italian Pope Urban \TII. The exterior was then finally dismantled and stripped. Partial
additions and restorations soon began to take place. Boniface IX., in the beginning of the
fifteenth century, erected new battlements and fortifications on and around the building ; and
since his time it has remained in the possession of the Papal Government. The strange
medley of Papal reception rooms, dungeons, and military magazines, which now encumbers
the top, was chiefly built by Paul III. The corridor connecting it with the \'atican dates from
the time of Alexander Borgia (1494 A.D.), and the bronze statue of St. Michael on the
summit, which replaced an older marble statue, from the reign of Benedict XIV.*

' Gibbon, chap. x.\xi. ^ A full account of the mediEeval histor)- of the

' Procop. Bell. Goth. i. 22 ; iii. 36 ; iv. 33. Castle of .S. Angelo will be found in Donati's Roma

' Gregor)' of Tours, .\. 1. See Donati, p. 477 ; Luit- Vetus ac Recens, 1665, pp.476 et seq. ; or in Muratori"s

prand,iii. 13 ; Gibbon, chap. xlix. The bastard son, the Annali dTtalia. Nibby, Roma nell' anno _i83S,

grandson,andthegreat-grandsonof Marozia(aRoman Parte II. Ant. pp. 488 — 518.

courtesan;, were seated in the chair of St. Peter.

N N 2

CHAPTER XII.

THE VELA BRUM, VICCS TUSCUS, FORUM BOARIUM, AND

CIRCUS MAXIMUS.

GENERAL HISTORY, NATURAL FEATURES, AND BOUNDARIES OF THE DISTRICTS — VICUS TUSCUS — VICUS JUGARIUS —
.•EQUIM.ELIUM — ALTARS OF JUNO JUGA, CERES, AND OPS AUGUSTA — LACUS SERVILIUS — VIA NOVA — ALTAR OF AIUS
LOCjUENS — CHAPEL OF VOI.UPIA — TOMB OF ACCA LARENTIA — S. TEODORO — TEMPLES OF AUGUSTUS AND
ROMULUS — LIMITS OF VICUS TUSCUS AND VELABRUM — LIMITS OF VELABRUM AND FORUM BOARIUM — FORUM
BOARIUM — CLOACA MAXIMA — CLOACy« OF THE FORUM, OF THE AVENTINE, OF THE CAMPUS MARTIUS —
ARCUS ARGENTARIORUM — JANUS QUADKIFRONS — DOI.IOLA — TEMPLES OF FORTUNE, MATER MATUTA, PUDI-
CITIA PATRICIA, HERCULES (VESTA) — CIRCUS MAXIMUS, OR MURCIAN VALLEY — S. MARIA IN COSMEDIN —
TEMPLE OF CERES, LIBER, AND LIBERA — COURTYARD OF CARCERES — ARA CONSI — ARA MAXIMA AND TEMPLE
OF HERCULES VICTOR — TEMPLES OF SUN, MOON, MERCURY', MAGNA MATER, JUPITER, VENUS, FLORA, SUMMANUS,
AND JUVENTUS.

Antiquitas recepit fabulas fictas etiam nonnunquam incondite, lia;c a?tas autem jam exculta piresertim eludens
omne quod fieri non potest respuit. " — Cicero, aj>. Aug. De Civitatc Dei, xxii. 6.

THE history of the Transtiberine district belongs almost entirely to the Imperial age
of Rome. When we return from surveying it to the left bank of the river, and
traverse the low ground between the Tiber, Capitoline, Palatine, and
iisory, ^ygj^(-j,^g ^y^ ^j-g again carried back to Regal and Republican Rome. The

natural fia- ' t> & i-

tiires, and Velabrum, the Forum Boarium, the Vicus Tuscus, and the Circus Maximus
boundaries of ^^^ names rich in reminiscences of the romantic youth and warlike manhood

t/te distritts.

of the Roman people. The earliest dawn of Roman history begins with
the union of the Capitoline and Palatine hills into one city. In those far-di.stant times,
however, no population was settled in the Velabrum or Circus valley ; for, as we have
seen, until the drainage was permanently provided for by the cloacje, these districts
were uninhabited swamps ; and the name Velabrum itself is said to have been derived
from the boats used in crossing from one hill to the other.^ Perhaps such may not
have been the case with the Forum Boarium, which lay between the Velabrum and
the river, or with the Vicus Tuscus, which bounded the Velabrum on the side towards
the Forum Romanum. These were possibly habitable ground at the time of the founda-
tion of the city.

The respective limits of these three districts will be roughly indicated by dividing
tlie valley between the Palatine and Capitoline into three portions, by lines drawn across

' See chap. ii. p. 21.

'flic J'cladriitit and J'l'ais 7^usc7ts.

■" 1 1

it from S. Teodoro to S. Maria dclla Consolazione, and a^Min from the Janus Ouadrifrons
to the Piazza Montanara. There is no evidence tiiat the district on the river bank, the
Forum Boarium, was inliabited before the \'elabrum was drained, except the fact that it
contained some very ancient temples ; but the other district, which adjoins the
Forum, the Vicus Tuscus, was so named from a very early settlement of a body '"" '"''"'
of Etruscans in it a long time before the Cloaca Maxima was constructed.' This settlement
was apparently followed by several others in the time of the Tarquins and of the earl\-
Republic- That the Vicus Tuscus adjoined the Forum is shown by the order in which
Livy mentions the three (Vicus Tuscus, Velabrum, Forum Boarium) in describing the route
of a procession from the Forum to the Temple of Juno on the Aventine," and by the fact
that the statue of Vertumnus, which stood in tlie Vicus Tuscus, is said to have been within
sight of the Roman Forum.* The expression "Vicus Tuscus" seems to have denoted
a single street with groups of houses on both sides ; and therefore we find it described
as running through the Velabrum to the Circus Maximus.*^ The rest of the space between
the Palatine and Capitoline was included under the names \'icus Jugarius and
Via Nova, the former of which ran under the slope of the Capitoline, and the ykus Jugarius.
latter under that of the Palatine.^ Three altars dedicated to Juno Juga, Altars of Juiw
Ceres, and Ops Augusta stood in the Vicus Jugarius ; and at the point nf'i "^T'

'^ " J & > r ops Augusta.

where it entered the Forum stood the notorious Lacus Servilius, where the Lams Sei-ri/iii<
heads of the unfortunate victims of the SuUan proscriptions were exhibited
in public. Afterwards, not perhaps without allusion to these barbarities, M. Agrippa
caused the head of a hydra to be fixed there.^ In the Vicus Jugarius there was also a spot
called the yEquimjelium, a name said to be derived from the levelling of the
house of Sp. Mselius.* It lay close under the Capitol, since a part of the
Capitoline substructions rested upon it," and was probabl}- no more than a slighth-
widened part of the Vicus Jugarius. A lamb market was sometimes held there.^" The
Vicus Tuscus entered the Forum between the Basilica Sempronia, afterwards called Julia,
and the Temple of Castor. It contained no public buildings of any importance, and
seems to have been chiefly occupied by spice and silk merchants' shops." Hence its
later name of Vicus Turarius. Like the Subura, the character of its inhabitants was the
reverse of respectable. Horace calls them " Tusci turba impia Vici," and Plautus,
describing the various kinds of characters to be found in and about the Forum, says,
" In Tusco \'ico ibi sunt homines qui ipsi sese venditant. " '-

The Nova Via ran at the back of the temples which formed the south-west side of the
Forum, and it seems not impossible that the street lateh- excavated by Cav. Rosa, leading

' Varro, L. L. v. § 46. " See chap. vi. p. 99. Festus, p. 290 : Cic. Pro

- Tac. Ann. iv. 65 ; Dionys. v. 36 ; Livy, ii. 14 ; Rose, xxxii. 89 ; Seneca, De Prov. ii. 7 ; Fast. Ami-
Paul. Diac. p. 355 ; Miiller. tern, et Capr. iv. Id. Aug. ; Curios. Urb. Reg. viii.

' Livy, xxvii. 37. * Livy, iv. 16; Varro, L. L. v. § 157; \"al. Max.

* Propert. iv. (v.) 2, 6. vi. 3, i ; Cic. Pro I)om. 38.

' Dionys. v. 26. » Livy, xxxviii. 28. '" Cic. De Div. ii. 17.

" See above, chap. vi. part i. pp. 79. gS. Livy, " Hor. Ep. ii. i, 269, is supposed to allude to this

xxvii. 37; XXXV. 21. These two passages clearly street as " vendens tus et odores;" Mart. xi. 27, 1 1.

mark the position of the Vicus Jugarius under the '- Schol. ad Hor. Sat. ii. 3. 228 ; Plant. Cure.

Capitol. iv. I, 21.

278 The Vclabnint, Vicus Tuscns,

under an archway at the north-east end of the Palatine, may have been a part of this
street. Caligula, in his extension of the Imperial palace, may very possibly
have built over it the archway and chambers which have been lately un-
covered,^ The Nova Via turned round the corner of the Palatine, and ran parallel to the
Vicus Tuscus for a short distance. The altar of Aius Loquens stood in
Altar of Aiiis j^. behind the Temple of Vesta, at a point where it was called " infima Nova

LOiJKt'tlS. *

Chapel of Vol II- Via," as being at the foot of the slight descent from the Arch of Titus

pia. tov/ards the Capitol.^ In it were also the Sacellum Volupiae, close to the

TomhofAcca porta Romanula, and the traditional tomb of Acca Larentia, near the spot

LaiLiitia.

where it entered the Velabrum.''
The boundary line between the quarter called Velabrum and the Vicus Tuscus cannot
,. . , ... be very precisely determined. As has already been said, a line drawn

Limits of I iciis J r J j <

Tuscus and between the Church of S. Teodoro and that of S. Maria della Consolazione
Velabrum. ,^yould roughly represent it. On the other side, however, towards the river,
the limit of the Velabrum is marked by the Arcus Argentariorum, which formed an
entrance to the Forum Boarium, and by the Church of S. Giorgio in Velabro. The
principal inhabitants of the Velabrum seem to have been tradesmen, and there were few if
any public buildings of importance situated in it. Among the trades carried on there
we find the sale of oil and of luxuries for the table mentioned. Plautus accuses the oilmen of
the Velabrum of a conspiracy to keep up their prices ; and Horace represents the luxurious
spendthrift as sending to the tradesmen of the Velabrum to come to his house for orders.*

The round church of S. Teodoro in the Velabrum has been supposed to be built upon

the ruins of an ancient temple, and various conjectures have been hazarded about it. The

form has induced some topographers to call it the Temple of Vesta, while

others have given the names of the Temple of Vulcan and of the Penates

to it.'"* There is little probability in any of these identifications ; but the brickwork of

which it is constructed appears to be ancient, and may very possibly belong to the Imperial

ao^e. The Temple of Augustus, over which the bridge of Caligula, uniting the Palatine

with the Capitoline, was built, has also been identified with this church. But

Temples of jf l^^s been shown" that the position of the bridge was nearer to the Forum,

Augustus and . . , , , 1 -i •, •. 1 ^ 1

Komulus ^^'^ ^"^ representations of Augustus temple exhibit it as a hexastyle rect-
angular building.^ A Temple of Romulus, mentioned by Varro as situated
on the Germalus,* may possibly have stood here ; but there is no other evidence to prove
its identity with the Church of S. Teodoro.

The limits of the Forum Boarium can be clearly defined. It was separated from the
V^elabrum at the Arch of the Goldsmiths ; for that arch, as may be inferred from the
inscription, stood in the Forum, or at least on its verge, while the Church of S. Giorgio in

1 See above, chap. viii. p. 160. statue (probably) of Hercules Olivarius is placed in

= Cic. De Div. i. 45, 101; Gell. xvi. 17. See this region. \'arro, L. L. v. § 156. The situations of

chap. vi. p. 102. the Velabrum minus and Lautuls are quite unde-

^ Varro, L. L. v. § 164, vi. § 24; Cic. Brut. 15 ; tcrniined.

Macrob. Sat. i. 10. '" Fulvio, Ant. Urb. : Canina, Indie, top. p. 461.

■* Plaut. Capt. iii. I, 29 : " Omnes compacto rem * Chap. viii. p. 160.

agunt quasi in Velabro olearii ;" Hor. Sat. ii. 3, 229 : ' Eckhel, vol. vi. p. 219.

" Cum Velabro omne macellum." In the Notitia, a ' \'arro, L. L. v. 5 54-

Forjivi Boariuiii, and Circus Maximus. 2'JC)

Velabro, situated a little to the north-west, was, as its name shows, included in the
Velabrum. On the south-eastern side the Carceres of the Circus, and the
adjoining Temple on the site of S. Maria in Cosmcdin, bounded the district,' Vdabnonimi
on the western the Tiber,- and on the north-western the wall of Servius, the Forum

course of which has already been described.' The immediate neighbourhood <"•'■"""■

of the river, the Forum, the Campus Martins, and the Palace of the Casars would
naturally render this quarter one of the most crowded thoroughfares of Rome. A con-
stant traffic of porters and trucks carrying goods from the boats to the warehouses and
shops of the Vicus Tuscus and the Forum Romanum ; crowds of eager spectators throng-
ing to the games in the Circus ; troops of lounging slaves attached to the Palace ; and not
unfrequenth' the immediate neighbourhood of large bodies of troops waiting before the
celebration of a triumph, encamped outside the Porta Carmentalis in the Campus
Flaminius, may well have caused a bustle and pressure in the streets of this quarter such
as could hardly be met with elsewhere in Rome. Its temples and public buildings of
various kinds were numerous, and belonged to the most different epochs. They had not
sprung up at one wave of a Caesar's hand, like the colossal temples or the spacious colon-
nades and halls of the Imperial Fora, but had risen gradually one by one, and had been
founded from time to time by the statesmen or generals of the Republic. The Forum
itself, which gave the name to the district, was probably an open space surrounded by
shops and public buildings, like the Forum Romanum,'' but on a smaller scale. In the
centre stood the bronze figure of a bull brought from ^-Egina,^ either as a symbol of the
trade in cattle, to which the place owed its name, or, as Tacitus observes, to mark the
supposed spot whence the plough of Romulus, drawn by a bull and a cow, first started in
tracing out the Palatine pomcerium.^ Ovid can hardly be right in deriving the name of the
Forum from this figure of a bull, since this name was given long before the Romans were
likely to have had dealings with yEgina, and was, as Varro remarks, of the same class with
that of the Forum Olitorium and the Forum Piscatorium.'

The oldest monument of Roman masonry within the Forum Boarium is the remaining
portion of a cloaca, commonly identified with the Cloaca Ma.xima of Liv}-, which reaches
from a spot close to the Church of S. Giorgio in Velabro and the Janus Ouad-
rifrons to the Tiber bank, near the Ponte Rotto. At the above-mentioned spot, Clo,ua

IT /^ I •/• 1 • , . Maxima.

near the Janus (Juadnfrons, seven cloaca unite and pour their waters mto the
still extant portion of the so-called Cloaca Maxima, so that a large stream is constantly
flowing through it. These branch sewers are built with solid brick arches, but the main
archway, though fronted with modern brickwork, consists of massive blocks of tufa, and at
short intervals of every few yards has an arch of travertine introduced to add to its solidity

^ Dionys. i. 40: ^oaplas dynpiis v'Kt'aiov. niercibus.'' See also Mommscn, Rom. Hist. vol. ii.

' Ov. Fast. vi. 471 : " Pontibus juncta." P- 399- ^ Pliny, Nat. Hist. x.\.\iv. 2, 5.

' Chap. iv. pp. 45, 46. « Tac. Ann. .\ii. 24 : " Quia id genus animaliuni

* The first gladiatorial show was given in the aratro subditur." Varro, L. L. v. § 143.
Forum Boarium ; Val. Ma.\. ii. 4, 7. The awful rites ' Ov. Fast. vi. 478 : "Area quEe posito dc bove

when a man and woman of a foreign nation were nomen habet." Paul. Diac. p. 30 ; Varro, L. L. v.

buried alive took place here; Livy, xxii. 57. Dion § 146; Propert. v. 9, 19. See the story in Livy, xxi.

Cass. Frag. 47 ; Bekker, Pliny, xxviii. 2, 3. Livy, 62, of the cow which climbed up to the third story of

XXXV. 40, mentions "taberna; cum magni prctii a house in the cattle-market.

2 8o

The I'eladnoii, J'iais Tiiscns.

eind strength.^ The original size of the archway, one-third of which is now choked up by
mud, was \2 feet 4 inches high, and 10 feet 8 inches wide.- Strabo and PHny say that a
cart loaded with hay could pass through some of the Roman sewers ; and certainly in
the case of the Cloaca Maxima this would not be impossible were it cleared of mud.^
M. Agrippa, the Hausmann of Rome, is said when yEdile to have traversed the main
sewer in a boat.* The whole length of this remaining portion is at least three hundred and

'J jE*lTi ii.i5c.

THE CLO.\C.\ M.\XIM.\.

(Upper end, near the Janus Quadrifrons. )

forty yards, and it makes several bends, following probably the direction of the ancient
streets. The mouth is still visible when the Tiber is not high at a spot called the Pulchrum
Littus, near the round Temple of Hercules, usually called the Temple of Vesta. For a
distance of about forty feet from the mouth the cloaca is constructed of a triple arch of

1 Piranesi, De Rom. Magn. tab. ii. iii. Abeken,
however, denies this ; Mittelitalien, S. 171.

" These measurements are taken from Bunsen's
Heschreibung, vol. i. p. 30. See also Brocchi, Suolo
di Roma, p. 1 12. 3 Strabo, v. 3, 8, p. 235.

^ Plin. Nat. Hist, xxxvi. 15, 104; Dion Cass. xli.\.
43, T . The immense size is due to the fact that it was

not only a sewer for refuse, but a drain for the marsh
of the Velabruni, and the many land-springs of the
Forum, and must be classed with the Emissarium of
the Alban lake and other gigantic undertakings of
the kind, such as the Cuniculus at Veii, executed
about B.C. 395, and the canal of the Marta in Tuscany.
See Dennis, Etruria, vol. i. p. 393.

Forum Boarhan, and Cirats Maxhmis. 281

peperino (Lapis Gabinus) mixed with some blocks of tufa, but throughout the rest of its
course it consists of a single arch of tufa with occasional bands of travertine.' The
masonry along the embankment of the shore on each side is partly of peperino and partly
of travertine blocks, laid along and across alternately.

Livy gives the early history of this extraordinary work in his first book. He
there ascribes the commencement of the undertaking of draining the Velabrum and
Forum to Tarquinius Priscus, and says that Tarquinius Superbus completed the
Cloaca Maxima as a receptacle for the refuse of the whole city. Dionysius agrees in
giving the same account of the origin of the system of cloace,- and Pliny enumerates
the cloacae among the wonders of the great metropolis, and expressly mentions
Tarquinius Priscus as entitled to the credit of having first originated this great work
of public utility. His words are: "Seven streams, after traversing the city, are united,
and their waters so compressed into one channel as to sweep everything along with
them like a torrent ; and when a great body of rain-water is added, the very walls
are shaken by the agitated waters ; and sometimes the Tiber rises and beats back into
them, and vast opposing masses of water meet and struggle ; yet their solid masonr)-
resists and stands firm. Huge weights are carried over them, whole buildings, under-
mined by fire or by some accident, fall upon them, earthquakes shake the very ground
around them ; yet the}- have lasted for seven hundred years, from the time of Tarquinius
Priscus, almost uninjured, a monument of antiquity which ought to be the more care-
fully obser\'ed since it has been passed over in silence by some of our most celebrated
historians."^ The Tarquins are said to have compelled the Roman people to work at
these huge structures, just as the kings of Egypt and Assyria exacted task-work from
their subjects ; but, in palliation of the cruelties alleged against them by the historians, it
must be noted that in the one case buildings of permanent public service were built,
while in the other onl\- the vanity of a despot was flattered.* The passages just cited
show that all the extant historians of Rome agree in assigning the plan at least of
these vast works to the Regal era, and that Livy expressly names the Cloaca Maxima as
the work of Tarquinius Superbus. Niebuhr and even Bunsen, the disciple of Niebuhr,
and the inheritor of his historical scepticism, seem to think that the evidence in favour
of this fact is almost irresistible.^ Yet some of the modern historians of Rome have
ventured to question the possibility of the construction of such a work as the Cloaca
Maxima by the Tarquins; and, as we shall see, there are some reasons for their doubts.
Hirt, in his " Hi.story of Ancient Architecture," and Mommsen, in his " Roman History,"
both maintain that the present Cloaca Maxima was built either when, in B.C. 184, a

See Venuti. vol. i. p. 72. The peperino portion sewers is now left. It must be observed that Plin.

was possibly built at a later time, to render the docs not n.ention the Cloaca Maxima by name and

embouchure more durable. uses the plural number. ■• Aur. Vict. Vir. lUu'st. 8.

= Livy, 1. 38. 56 ; Dionys. iii. 67, iv. 44. It is to ' Bunsen, Beschreibung Roms. vol. i. p 153-

be observed lliat Livy is the only author who men- Niebuhr, Hist, of Rome. vol. i. p. 391, Eng. trans •

tions one Cloaca Maxima: the other authorities Lectures, vol i. p. 52. Niebuhr accepts Livy's

speak of a system of sewers. The existing archway statement, that the Cloaca Maxima was built bv

has long been called Cloaca Maxima. See the in- Tarquinius Superbus. but thinks that a long interv;'

scription quoted in Caiiina, Indicaz. p. 340, note. elapsed between Ancus and the time of the Tarquins.

= Phn. Nat. Hist, xxxvi. 15, 24. This passage during which the Roman Empire increased cnoi-
shows how- small a portion of the ancient system of mouslv.

O O

282 The Vclabnun, liens Tiiscits,

complete cleansing and repairing of the sewers was carried out, or at the time of some
one of the other restorations of the cloacae in the age of the Republic. They support
this view by remarking, first, that the cloaca is constructed of travertine, a stone not used
till the Republican era, and secondly, that the principle of the arch was not known even
to the Greeks until the time of Democritus, about B.C. 406 — 357, and therefore could
not be known to the Romans.^

Now, so far as regards historical evidence, it is to be observed that all the passages
of ancient writers which speak of works carried on in connexion with the cloacae in
the Republican times seem to speak only of the cleansing and restoration of the old
sewers, and not of the building of anything so considerable as the Cloaca Maxima.
The grand cleansing and repairing, of which Dionysius speaks as costing a thousand
talents, is probably the same as that mentioned by Livy in the censorship of Cato,
when new sewers were laid down, where there had been none before, in the neigh-
bourhood of the Aventine.- Caius Acilius, whose authority is quoted by Dionysius,
lived at that time (B.C. 184), and may therefore have been an eye-witness of these
repairs. The sum mentioned, a thousand talents, seems very large to have been laid
out on sewers, and indicates some very extensive work ; but it is not more perhaps
than would be necessary for repairing the old sewers and laying down new ones in the
Aventine quarter. The repairs and extensions undertaken by Agrippa were probably
little more than additions to the old sewers and the construction of some new ones in
the Campus Martius. Pliny's panegyric on the work of the Tarquins would be quite
unmeaning if the great sewers had been originally built by Agrippa. And certainly if
the earlier enlargements mentioned by the historians amounted to a reconstruction of the
larger sewers, we should have expected a fuller account, since after the destruction of
Rome by the Gauls the streets were rebuilt without reference to the course of the sewers,
and the labour of such an undertaking would have involved the removal and re-erection
of a great part of the city.^

The importance of the argument derived from the kind of stone used has been
exaggerated by Mommsen, who speaks as if the whole cloaca were constructed of
travertine.'' But this is not the case. The greater part is built of the tufa commonly
used in the architecture of the Regal period, and travertine is only used at intervals
to strengthen the archwa\-. This partial use of travertine, even at so early a date,
does not appear unlikely, when we consider the large masses of it to be found in
Rome itself on the flank of the Aventine ; nor is there any reason to suppose that it
was brought from Tibur, as has been assumed. The triple arches of peperino at the
mouth may well have been built at a later date than the rest, in consequence of the
decay of the most exposed part.

' Mommsen, vol. i. pp. 1 17, 490 ; Seneca, Ep. go, with the Cloaca Maxima. See Fea, Miscell. p. clix.

§32. " Dionys. iii. 67 ; Livy, xxxix. 44. No. 80: " Nell' anno 1742 sotto le fabbriche del Fenili

* Livy, V. 55 ad fin. si Irovo il chiavicone maestro, alto e largo incavato

* Momnxsen's assertion is probably derived from in pietra tiburtina." This statement refers to the
Hirt, Gesch. der Baukunst, vol. ii. p. 188, who makes upper part of the Forum sewer near the Via dei
the same mistake. Both these writers have confused Fenili. See Cambridge Journal of Philology, vol. i.
the upper yj^Ti of the sewer, which was of travertine, p. 121.

Foriitii Boarium, and Circus Maxhnus.

283

Another argument against the extreme antiquity of the cloaca lias been drawn from
the supposed inability of the Roman State, at so early a period, to carry out such colossal
works.' But the extent of the Roman Empire at that time is probably misrepresented
by Livy, and the gigantic proportions of the building themselves seem to point to a
time of despotic power, when a tyrant reigning over a considerable extent of territorj-
could accomplish, by compulsory and unremunerated slave labour, works which would be

MOUTH OF THE CLOACA MAXIMA AND TEMPLE OF HERCULES (VESTA).
(In the background are the Villa Mills, the Palatine Hill, and the campanile of S. Maria in Cosmedin. )

impracticable under a free Republic. The frugal fathers of the Republic were in general
opposed to great works like the Capitoline Temple, the Circus, and the Cloaca Maxima.-

On the other hand, there is some reason for placing the date of the Cloaca Maxima
somewhat later, on account of the difficulty of proving that the art of constructing arches
was known at Rome in the time of Tarquinius Superbus (B.C. 532). Seneca quotes the
authority of Posidonius, Cicero's tutor, for the fact that the arch was not known in Greek
architecture till the time of Democritus, about one hundred and fifty years after Tarquin's
reign.^ This assertion of Posidonius does not, however, seem to have been believed by
Seneca, who ascribes an earlier date to the invention of the arch. His remarks on the

' See Hope's Essay on Architecture, vol. \. chap. fornicem. Hoc dicam falsum esse, necesse est enim
viii. p. 50. " See Mommscn, vol. i. p. 463. ante Democritum et pontes et portas fuisse, quaruni

' Seneca, loc. cit.: "Uemocritus invenissc dicitur fere summa cur\antur."

002

284 The Velabruni, Vicus Tuscus,

subject are ridiculously inconclusive, but he probably expressed an opinion for which
better reasons might have been given.^ At the same time, it is somewhat difficult to
suppose that, if the Greeks of Pericles' time had known the principle of the arch, they
would not have taken advantage of such an invention in the interior construction of
their numerous buildings. And if we assume that the Italians learnt their engineering
skill from the Greeks, which is not, however, very probable, it seems possible that Livy
and Pliny and Dionysius were mistaken as to the date of the arched sewers at Rome,
and that they may have been built after 300 B.C.

Some drains of great size and extent were undoubtedly constructed by the Tarquins ;
and if we deny the knowledge of the principle of the arch to their times, the question
immediately arises : How were these cloacae constructed } Were they covered with
flat slabs of stone ; or were they built like the old Mamertine Prison, and many of
the older Etruscan tombs, with overlapping blocks of stone ; or were they open drains .'
The last hypothesis seems at present to be the most easy to accept. The Tarquins may
have constructed massive open stone channels for the exit of the waters of the \'clabrum,
and these may have been arched over at successive intervals after the discovery of the
principle of the arch. The difference in the kind of stone used in different parts of the
extant cloacae seems rather to point to their construction at different periods ; and the
advantages of covering up the old open drains, and affording additional space and
convenience of access between the parts of the city, would be obvious. In the absence,
however, of any positive testimony to the existence of such open drains at Rome, I
can hardly adopt this solution of the difficulty, and am more inclined to think that the
principle of the round arch was known in very early times to the inhabitants of the
Italian coast, as it certainly was to the Egyptians and Assyrians.-

Of the series of sewers connected with the Cloaca Maxima, we can now trace only a

few, but the nature of the ground shows us that all the various Fora, the Subura, and

the slopes of the Palatine, Capitoline, Ouirinal, Viminal, Esquiline, and Velia must have

been drained into it. The direction of the main sewer which drained the

ooLaoj le Yorwm. was discovered by some excavations in 1742; and it was then traced
from the Fenili, at the spot where the arch of the Cloaca Maxima is now
visible, across the Forum to the Church of S. Adriano, near the Arch of Septimius
Severus. Ficoroni, who was present at and made notes of the excavations, declares
distinctly that this cloaca is of travertine. He does not give the dimensions, but speaks
generally of its size and width as showing the grand scale of the ancient Roman works,
and remarks that it lay at a depth of thirty feet below the present surface.^

1 See Hirt, Geschichte der Baukunst, vol. ii. p. iSS, the history of a powerful dynasty which reigned over

who assigns the Cloaca Maxima to a later date, a wide empire at Rome is utterly lost. But this does

B. C. 184. Hirt is mistaken about the kind of stone not explain the historical difficulty of the use of the

with which the cloaca is built, but rests his conclu- arch. There is a strange tale in Lactantius, to the

sion chiefly on the date of the invention of the arch. effect that Tatius found an image of Cloacina in

Dennis, litruria, vol. i. Ixiv., 56, 206; ii. 47, 150, the Cloaca Maxima; Lactant. lib. i. chap. xx. In

thinks that the Romans derived the arch from the London, the old Fleet Ditch was uncovered until

Etruscans ; in which case the Cloaca Maxima may quite lately,

date from the time of Tarquinius Supcrbus. ^ Fea, Miscell. p. clix. Nicbuhr, Hist. Rom.

' See further in the Introduction on the date of the vol. i. p. 392, thinks that it passed from S. Adriano.

arch. Niebuhr, Lectures, vol. i. p. 53, Lect. 5, solves under the Arco dei Pantani, to the Subura. Juv. v.

tliis problem by supposing that, after Ancus Martius, 106, " cr>'pta Subura;."

Fonim Boarium, and Circus J/eLvimus.

2S;

The use of travertine alone tliroui^liout this portion of the sewers shows them to
have been of a hiter ai^e than the Cloaca Maxima. They probably replaced older
cloac^K, since tlie Forum could not have been made habitable without drainage of some

AKCUS ARl'.ENTARIORUM.

kind ; but we have no means of determining to which of the later reconstructions ol
the system of sewers they belonged. Very possibly they may have formed a i)art of
the great works carried on in B.C. 184. But the principal object of those works chu.c >/ iiu
was the drainage of the Aventine, and the ancient cloaca now conveying A-.enttn,.
the water of the Marrana into the Tiber, the mouth of which is still visible from the

2 86 TIic Vclabruni, Vicus Tiisciis,

I'onte Rotto, at a point lower down the river than the Cloaca Maxima, was probabh-
executed at that time.^

Another system of cloacae must have drained the Campus Martius, and a part of
one of these has been discovered near the Pantheon, from which point it runs across
the Corso towards the Ouirinal. The dimensions are given by Donati as nine feet
in height and eleven in breadth.- The connexion of this sewer with the Thermae of
Agrippa and the Aqua Virgo is evident. An enormous extension of the sewerage of
Rome must have been rendered necessary by the numerous aqueducts and therms
built in the Imperial times, when the quantity of water constantly poured into the city
was of itself .sufficient to supply a river of moderate dimensions.

Opposite to the narrow allej^ which leads down to the arch of the Cloaca Maxima

stands a stone ornamental doorway, now partly built into the wall of the Church of

S. Giorgio in Velabro. It is constructed of brickwork with marble facings,

Arcus ^j^j consists of two square piers decorated with pilasters of the Compo-

Argentarwnim. ' ' '

site or Roman order at the corners, and surmounted by a horizontal entabla-
ture of rich carved work. There is no trace of an attica above. The inscription, still
well preserved, shows that it was erected by the mone}--changers or bankers and other
merchants of the Forum Boarium, in honour of Septimius Severus, his wife Julia, and his
son Antoninus (Caracalla). As in the case of the Arch of Septimius in the Forum, so
here, the words " iii. pp. procos. fortissimo felicissimoque principi," and also " Parthici
Ma.ximi Britannic! Maximi," were inserted by Caracalla, in place of the name and titles of
his murdered brother Geta.^ Spartianus says of Caracalla, " Mirum sane omnibus vide-
batur quod mortem Getas totiens etiam ipse fleret quotiens nominis ejus mentio fieret,
quotiens imago videretur aut statua ; " * and not only in the inscriptions of the time of
.Septimius Severus, but even in the reliefs, we everywhere find Geta's figure erased.
On the shafts of the pilasters are representations of military ensigns, which bear upon
their circular tablets and above the eagles likenesses in relief of two Ca;sars, Severus
and Caracalla. The third likeness, that of Geta, has been erased in every instance. In
each of the spaces between the pilasters are four panels with sculptures in relief The
lowest of these represents the merchants of the Forum Boarium bringing cattle as victims
to the altar. The compartment above these exhibits various instruments used in sacrifice
similar to those found upon the Temple of Vespasian.^ Upon the larger central panel
are the figures of the Imperial family engaged in sacrificing; and it can easily be seen that
from some of these the figure of Geta has been carefully chiselled away. In one of these
large panels is the figure of a barbarian captive with the Phrygian cap so common upon
the sculptures of the triumphal arches. The upper compartments contain festooned
ornamental work, and a few figures of men. The front of the architrave and frieze is
almost entirely occupied by the inscription, and is not highly ornamented ; but the cornice,
which is divided into seven ledges, is overladen with various decorative patterns, without
purity of design or excellence of execution.

The date of the erection of this monument is stated in the inscription to be the twelfth

1 Livy, xxxix. 44. ^ .See Bull. dciP lust. 1867, p. 217.

- Donati, Ue I'rbe Roma, 1665, p. 434 ; Plin. Nat. * Hist. Aug. Geta, 7. See above, chap. vi. p. 123.

Hist, xxxvi. 15, 24. ° See chap. vi. p. 119.

forum Boarinm, and Circus Maximus.

287

year of the Tribunitia potestas of Severus and the seventh of Caracalla, which corresponds
to A.D. 204. Reber thinks it possible that the merchants of the Forum Boarium intended
it as a testimonial of gratitude to Severus for having built the neighbouring Janu^;
Ouadrifrons to ornament their quarter of the city.'

Close to this gateway of Septimius Severus stands the building supposed with much
probability to be one of the quadruple archways called by the Romans Jani Ouadrifrontes.'-'
It is a massive square building of white marble, with four piers supporting
as many arches, which are united in the centre by a vaulted roof. Each pier ,-, j"f

^ ^ r Qiiadri/rons.

has on the exterior twelve niches in two rows, with semicircular shell-shaped

JANUS QlAURll'RONS.

crowns. These two rows of niches were formerly separated by a projecting cornice,
which is now nearly destroyed except in the interior. The niches nearest to the corners
on the north and south sides are not hollowed out, but only traced on the exterior surface,
in order not to endanger the solidity of the angles. The present height of the building is
thirty-eight feet, but it probably had an attica originally upon the top, to which

Reber, Ruincn Roms, p. 344. He mentions the Janiis with fmir arches, ext.int in

* Servius, ad /En. vii. 607, speaks of Janus Quad- his time, in the Forum Transitorium. See chap.vii.
rifrons as the god of the four seasons of the year. pp. 137, 138 ; Aug. De Civ. Dei, vii. 4.

288 The I'clabrjtm, J'iais Tusciis,

the staircase, still extant, led, and in which were some small rooms for the transaction of
business. Upon the keystones of the arches two figures can be still recognised, one of
Rome and the other of the patroness of trade, Minerva. The exterior surface was
doubtless decorated with rows of Corinthian columns between the niches, a large quantity
of remains of such columns having been found in clearing the base ; and in the niches
themselves stood the statues of various deities.

The purpose of this arch was probably solely ornamental, and it stood by itself in
some part of the Forum Boarium. The rooms in the attica may have been used for the
accommodation of some of the officials of the cattle market. Its builder and date are
alike unknown. From the style of its architecture and sculptures, it has been pronounced
dccidedlv later than the age of Domitian, to whom, from his fondness for building Jani.
it mio-ht be attributed.^ Platner and Becker suggest that it is identical with the Arcus
Constantini of the eleventh region ; but a comparison of the style of the remnants of
sculpture upon it with those on the existing Arch of Constantine does not confirm this

conjecture.'-

Near the Cloaca Maxima was a spot called Doliola, in which, at the time of the
Gallic invasion of 387, the sacred s}-mbols from the Temple of Vesta were
buried for safety in small casks {doliola). The house of the Flamen Quirinalis
was near this spot.*

Close to the Pons /Emilius stands a small temple, now converted into the Church of
S. Maria Egiziaca, which presents an unsolved problem in Roman topo-

cmpesoj graphy. The substruction of this temple, which has been laid bare, consists
of tufa cased with travertine. The form of the temple is that called
" tetrastylos " by Vitruvius, having four Ionic columns in front and seven at the sides.
The four front columns and two on each side forming the pronaos originally stood
clear, but are now enclosed within the wall of the church. The remaining five on each
side, with those at the back, were half-columns set against the wall of the cella. The
shafts of the half-columns are of tufa, but the bases and capitals, with the entablature
and the columns of the pronaos, are of travertine. On the frieze and cornice are the
remains of ornamental work, which is now rendered almost invisible by the stucco with
which the walls have been covered.*

This buiiding has usually been supposed to be the temple dedicated by Servius
Tullius to Fortuna Virilis, and situated on the bank of the Tiber. The passage of Dio-
nysius upon which this supposition rests is as follows : — " Servius Tullius built two temples
to Fortune, one in the Forum Boarium, and the other upon the bank of the Tiber, to
which he gave the name \\i'Bpela ; and by this name it is still known to the Romans." *

The inference commonly drawn from these words of Dionysius assumes that both
the temples mentioned were in the Forum Boarium. But it is more likely that Dio-
nx'sius meant to imply that the second temple, that of Ti'^^i? \\v^peia, was not in the
Forum Boarium, since he appears to assign a different situation to it, viz. on the banks

' Suet. Doiii. 13. * See Introduction. Tlie corner capitals of this

- Platner, Besclireibung Roms, iii. A. S. 337 ; temple have the later position of the Ionic volutes,

Becker, Handbuch. S. 494 ; Reber, S. 344. while the side capitals have the usual position.

■> Varro, L. L. v. 5 '57 ; L'^>% v. 40; Paul. Diac. ' Dionys. iv. 27.

p. 69.

Forum Boariiaii, and Circus JMaximiis.

289

of the Tiber. And, as uc know from other sources,' that Scrvius built a temple to
Kors Fortuna on the west bank, at some distance further clown the ri\er, it seems not
improbable that Dionysius, being a Greek, misunderstood the Latin expression "Tcmi)lum

SO-CALLEU TEMPI E OF FORTUNA VIRIEIS.

Fortis FortuncTe," and translated it into vao<i Tu;^?;? az/Spei'a?, confounding it with the Latin
Fortuna Virilis. This is confirmed by the fact that Plutarch, also a Greek writer, makes
the same mistake. He says : " Tj}^ 8e tt/jo? tw iroTufim 'Yv-)(riv (popriv KaXoOaiv. o—ep earw

' Varro, L. L. vi. § 17, "extra urbem ;" Donat. Ad Kal. Jul. nd mill. prim, ct sext.: Ow I'ast. vi. 773 el
Tcr. Phorm. v. 6, l, "trans Tibcrim ;" Fast. Amit. viii. scq. ; iML-rkcl, Prolog, ad Ov. Fast. p. cxlii.

V V

290 The Vclabrum, J'iciis Tusciis,

Icryvpav fj apiarevTiKTjv r/ dvSpeiav. Kal tov ye vaov avTi]<; ev toi? i'tto Yi.a[aapoii Tfo Bijfirp
KaTa\ei(ji6elcn «:f;7rot9 wKoS6fi7]aav." ^ This mistake of Plutarch and Dionysius was first
pointed out by Bunsen.- There were three temples of Fors Fortuna at Rome, all on
the western bank of the river : the one just mentioned built by Servius, at the sixth
milestone; a second, dedicated by Spurius Carviiius Maximus, which stood near it;^
and a third, in the Gardens of Cresar, at the first milestone.^

Besides these there were a Temple of Fortuna Muliebris, at the fourth milestone on the

Via Latina,^ and the above-mentioned Temple of Fortuna ascribed to Servius in the Forum

Boarium. Lastly, there was also a temple of Fortuna Virilis, mentioned by Ovid, which

Plutarch calls vao'i Tuxv^ appevo<;.^ Thus it is evident that the only Temple of Fortuna Virilis

which can be identified with the Church of S. Maria Egiziaca is that mentioned by Ovid.

But his account of the site is far too vague to justify any such identification. It is more

probable, as Reber suggests, that we have here the Temple of Servius dedicated to

Fortuna without any special title. Dionysius, as we have seen, places this in the Forum

Boarium, and Livy describes it as " intra portarn Carmentalem," and mentions it in

tracing the course of a conflagration between the Salinte near the Porta Trigemina and

the Porta Carmentalis.' But there was another temple, that of Mater Matuta,* which

stood close to the Temple of Fortune ; and there is no evidence showing to which

of the two the ruin in question belongs. Both were founded by Servius,

Mater Matuta ^"^ reckoned among the most venerable relics of ancient Rome. Becker

and Pudicitia urges the claims of the sanctuary of Pudicitia Patricia, which Livy places

in the Forum Boarium, near the round Temple of Hercules, to this site.

But this was merely a small shrine, containing a statue, and not a templum.-' So far

as an opinion can be formed of the date of the building from the materials and style

of architecture, it seems to belong to the later Republic.

On the Piazza della Bocca della Verita, at a short distance from the temple we have just

been considerin'^, stand the remains of a small round temple, commonly known as the

Temple of Vesta. Perhaps of all the ruins of Rome this is the most familiar

So-called to the eye of the traveller. A considerable part of the cella is still standing,

Vsta ornamented with a simple and elegant cornice. Round this stand nineteen

o-raceful Corinthian columns of white marble. The entablature is unfor-

tunately destroyed, and the rude modern tiled roof with which the building has been

capped completely spoils the picturesque effect of the ruin.

The name now given to it rests on no other evidence than its circular shape ; and
as we have no mention of a Temple of Vesta in the P^orum Boarium, it must be at once
condemned as a misnomer.^" The building has also been called the Temple of the Sibyl
or the Temple of Cybele,^^ without better reason. The most probable conjecture as to its

1 Plutarch, De Fortuna Roin. 5. p- i93i and chap. x. p. 251.

' Beschreibung Roms, iii. 1,665. ' Livy, x. 46. " Chap. iv. p. 51; Canina, Indie, p. 503; Livy,

* Plut. loc. cit.; Tac. Ann. ii. 41; Plut. Brut. 20; xxv. 7, xxiv. 47.

Fasti Amit. viii. Kal. Tul. ad mill. prim, et sext. ' Livy, loc. cit., v. 19, 23, xli. 28.

' Festus, p. 242 ; Bull, dell' Inst. 1854, p. 59. ' Ibid., x. 23 ; Festus, 242.

6 Ov. Fast. iv. 145 ; Plin. Nat. Hist. viii. 48, § 197 ; '° The passage of Horace commonly quoted, Od.

Plut. De Fortuna Rom. 10, Qusst. Rom. 74- Plu- '• -^ '5. cannot refer to this temple, but to the temple

tarch enumerates seven other designations under near the Regia in the Forum,

which T.'x-) was worshipped. See also chap. viii. " Mabillon, Mus. Ital. n. p. 125.

Forum Boarinm and Circus Maxhnus.

291

name is that first suggested by Piale, that it is the round Temple of Hercules
in the Forum Boarium mentioned in the tenth book of Livy, and alluded
to by Festus as the .Emilian Temple of Hercules.^ The appellation 'ji'mpi""/
"/Emiliana" certainly seems to point to the neighbourhood of the ,'Emilian H'raiUs.
bridge. The style of its architecture indicates a restoration in the latter half of the
first century A.D. Formerly it was called the Church of Madonna del Sole, from a
favourite image of the Virgin in it ; at an earlier period S. Stefano delle Carozze,
from the discovery of a marble model of a chariot in its neighbourhood; but in 1810
it was cleared out and restored, and since then has not been used as a church, but
contains a small collection of marble fragments.

ROU.ND TEMPLE OK HERCri.ES, USUALLY CALLED THE TEMPLE OE VESTA.

The oldest name of the valley between the Palatine and Aventine was Vallis Murcia,
from a very ancient altar dedicated to Dea Murcia, a title given to Venus,
and supposed by Varro and Pliny to be derived from the myrtle bushes in Cmus

which the valley formerly abounded.- It is traversed by a stream called the HiurdanValln:
Aqua Crabra or Marrana, which enters the city near the old Porta Metronia,
and runs through the whole length of the valley, entering the Tiber through a cloaca
which carries it under the Forum lioarium.

' Livy, X. 23 ; Festus, p. 242 : " ubi ^miliaria aedes
est Herculis."

- Varro, L. L. v. § 154; Plin. Nat. Hist. xv. 29,
36 ; Livy, i. 33 ; Plut. Qusst. Rom. 20. Other ex-
planations of the name will be found in Aug. Civ.

Dei, iv. 16 ; Paul. Diac. p. 148; Serv. ad J^.n. viii.
626 ; Claud. De Laud. Stil. ii. 404. The Circus was
also called Armilustrium, from the military nature of
the processions which took place there. Varro, L. L.
V- § IS3-

I> V 2

292 TJic Vclahnnn, Viciis Tiisciis,

At the entrance of the valley of the Circus Maximus, and on the south side of the
Piazza della Bocca della Verita, stands the Church of S. Maria in Cosmedin, which is built

upon the ruins of an ancient temple. Ten columns still remain in their
S Maria in Q^[a\n2.\ places, scven of which stand in a line parallel to the entrance, and

three others in the left-hand side wall of the church. Some of the columns
are built into the walls of the sacristies on the right of the entrance, and reach through the
roofs to the upper story. The material of which they are made is white marble, and their
capitals are of the Roman or Composite order. Parts of the wall of the cclla may still
be seen in the sacristy, built of tufa, which was originally faced with marble. The design
of the capitals and chiselling of the ornamental work upon them are of the best period of
art, and some of them may be conveniently examined in the room over the sacraria and in
the organ loft.^ Behind the apse of the church are some large chambers built of massive
blocks of travertine, which were probably attached to the carceres of the Circus as stables
or offices of some kind ; and the position of these compels us to assume that the front of
the temple faced towards the Velabrum, and that the seven columns parallel to the
facade of the present church belonged to the side of the temple, while the three in the
left-hand wall formed a part of the front. Otherwise the travertine chambers at the
back must have formed some part of the temple ; and it is .difficult to see how this could
have been the case, as they are evidently not the walls of the cella, and cannot be
brought into any symmetrical position with the rows of columns.

The temples of Pudicitia Patricia, of Mater Matuta, and of Fortune have been severally
identified with these ruins by the writers of Roman topography. But it has been shown
already that the first of these was probably a mere chapel, and that the other two must be
placed nearer to the Carmental Gate ; - and therefore the conjecture of Canina,^ that the

Church of S- Maria in Cosmedin was formerly the Temple of Ceres, Liber, and

Templeof Ceres, Libera, appears much more likely to be true. That temple is included in the

^Libera eleventh region by the Curiosum and Xotitia, and is placed by \'itru\ius,

Tacitu.s, and Pliny close to the Circus iMaximus, while Dion}sius expressly
says that it stood [vizlp uvtck; to? d(pe(Tet.(;) just over the barriers of the Circus Maximus.*
The account of Vitruvius answers to the ruins which still remain. For he says that the
temple was of the description called " araeostyle," ?.e. with wide intercolunmar intervals ; and
it will be found that the intervals between the columns now standing are nearly four times
heir diameter. Vitruvius also says that it was of the Tuscan order of architecture, and in
this seems to contradict Pliny, who, quoting Varro's authority, speaks of it as the first
temple at Rome which had Greek ornamental work.^ Their statements may be reconciled
by observing that Pliny is speaking of the decorations of the temple by Damophilus and
Gorgasus, and not of the style of architecture. The arsostyle arrangement of the columns
was probably preserved even after the complete restoration by Tiberius,'' at which time, as
Pliny relates, the old Greek frescoes were cut out and framed, and the terra-cotta statues
removed from the roof

' Reber, p. 341. ° P. 290, notes 8, 9. 17, 94. See also Cicero, De Nat. Deor. ii. 24.

••' Canina, Indie, p. 498. ' Plin. xxxv. 12, 154.

■* Curios. Reg. xi. ; Vitruv. iii. 3, 5 ; Plin. xxxv. 4, " Tac. loc. cit.

24; 10, 19; 12. 154; Tac. Ann. ii. 49; Dionys. vi.

For 111)1 Boa rill 111, and Circus Maximus.

293

The temple was first vowed b\' A. I'ostuniius, the Dictator in the Latin war ol 497 \\x ,
on account of the great scarcity of provisions which then prevailed. It was dedicated three
years afterwards by the Consul Spurius Cassius, a statesman who showed a disposition to

S. MARIA -. M l.lilN.

(Formerly the Temple of Ceres, Liber, and Libera )

imitate the great architectural works of the Regal period, contrary to the generall\- frugal
spirit of the early Republican fathers.^ In the year 31 B.C. a destructive fire which raged

^ Dionys. vi. 17, 94.

294 '^^'■^ Velabriim, Viciis Tuscns,

between the Circus and the Forum OHtorium destroyed the temple/ and with it some of
the most valuable treasures of Greek art which it contained. Among these, besides the
frescoes of Damophilus and Gorgasus above mentioned, was the famous picture of Dionysius
by Aristides, for which Attalus bid sixteen talents, a price which excited the attention of
Mummius, and induced him, although unable himself to appreciate the merits of such
works of art, to suspect its value, and carry it to Rome in spite of the remonstrances
of Attalus.- The restoration was undertaken by Augustus, and finished bj- Tiberius in
A.D. 17.^ This temple was the record office and treasury of the plebeian sdiles, as the
Temple of Saturn was of the quaestors ; and it was enacted that the decrees of the Senate
should be delivered over to the sediles there, an enactment which seems never to have been
carried out."* The mediaeval names of the church, "in Cosmedin" and " in Schola Gra;ca,"^
seem to point to the possession of the church by Greek monks after the division of the
Empire ; and the piazza in which it stands is called Bocca della Verita, from the strange
ficrure of a head under the modern portico of the church, in the mouth of which it is said
that persons ^\•hose veracity la\- under suspicion were required to place their hand while
makino- oath, in the belief that the mouth would close upon it if the oath taken was
a false one. Immediately behind the church are the arched buildings of travertine
blocks, which have already been mentioned as belonging to the carceres of the Circus.
The largest of these is now used as a store-room of articles of church
Courtyard 0/ fy^^j^yre, and stands on the right side of the tribune of the church. They

the Carceres. .

are perhaps situated too far towards the river to be portions of the actual
carceres from which the chariots started, but they may have formed one side of a
courtyard behind the carceres, in which the harnessing and preparation for the races
took place.**

The natural configuration of the Circus valley would, without any artificial construc-
tions, afiford a suitable space for contests of chariots and for horse races.^ Romulus made
use of it for the Consualia, at which the seizure of the Sabine women was effected ;* and the

Altar of Consus was one of the most ancient and venerated spots included

Ara Cotisi. . . ^ . , , ... . .

withni it.- This altar seems to have stood on the central fine or spma of the
Circus, and was at a lower level than the other shrines, either from the raising of the level
of the ground, or from a superstition which required that it should be concealed under the
earth. At the time of the games it was always uncovered and exhibited to the view of
the spectators. ■'*' The expression used by Tertullian ("ad primas metas ") probably means
that it was not far from the met?e of the Circus where the chariots first turned, and we may
therefore, as will appear from the description of the Circus, place it near the south-eastern
end of the valley. Tacitus mentions this altar as one of the points near which the line
of the Romulean pomcerium ran, and uses it to mark roughly the southern angle of
the Palatine settlement."

1 Dion Cass. 1. 10. ^ See Canina, Indie, p. 496, who mentions the dis-

- Strabo, vui. 23, p. 3S1 ; PHn. Nat. Hist. .\xxv. covery of another side of this courtyard.

4, 24. ^ Tac. Ann. ii. 49. ' See Bianconi, Descrizioni dei Circi.

■" Livy, iii. 55 ; Mommsen, vol. i. p. 284. ' Livy, i. 9.

° Ann. Einsicd. ; MirabiUa ; Anast. Vit. Hadr. i. ° Varro, L. L. vi. f 20.

One of the churches of tlie sixth century at Ravenna " Plut. Rom. 14 ; Tertull. De Spect. v. 8.

has the same name. " See above, chap. iii. p. 32 ; Tac. Ann. xii. 24.

Font))! Boariu))!, and Circus Maxi))uts.

^95

The legendary tales of the city cany us: back to a period before that of Romulus, and
relate a visit of Hercules to the valley of the Circus, and the foundation by
him or by Evander of a still older altar than the Ara Consi — the Ara and TemfU of
Maxima. The position of this and of the Temple of Hercules Victor have ''''-"'"'"'''^ Victor.
already been pointed out as near the back of S. Maria in Cosmedin, and at the western
corner of the Circus.^

After the Romulean era, the valley began to be used for the Ludi Circenses, and the
spectators were accommodated upon wooden temporary stages.- Tarquinius Priscus is
said to have first built permanent seats on the occasion of the games given by him after
the capture of Apiolae, a Latin town, and to have assigned a certain space to each of the
thirty Curis.^ From this time the shape of the Circus became fixed, and it was probably
similar to that of a Greek stadium in most points, but was adapted more especially to
horse and chariot races than foot races.* The length of the whole was about 600 yards,
and it was divided into two parallel courses by a ^\■all running down the centre, called the
"spina." At one end were the barriers whence the chariots started, and the other end
was semicircular. Remains of the semicircular part, where the chariots turned, are still
traceable at the south-eastern end of the valley ; and therefore the carceres must have
been at the other end, between S. Maria in Cosmedin and the modern gas works.''

The front line of the carceres was not a straight line at right angles to the spina, but
was cur\-ed in the shape of a segment of a circle described from a point midway between
the nearer end of the spina and the side wall of the circus, so as to prevent the chariots
which started in the centre from having an unfair advantage." • The metse also were so
placed as to give a wider course to the chariots just after turning round them than when
on the point of turning. The carceres were arched vaults, closed in front by folding
doors, each capable of containing one chariot. The spectators' seats were, according
to Dionysius, roofed with some kind of covering.' The Tarquinii appear to have
expended a large amount of labour and money upon this work, for both Livy and
Dionysi^ s rank it with the other great edifices of the kings, the Capitoline Temple
and the Cloaca Maxima, and dwell upon the sufferings of the workmen compelled to
labour in building it.'

Little improvement or alteration seems to have been made in the Circus during the

' Chap, iii p. 32, and note on p. 40 ; Moninisen, said that a rope was stretched in front of the car-
Rom. Hist, book i. chap. xii. p. 174, Eng. trans. ceres ; but this would have destroyed the effect in-

- Dionys. iii. 68. tended to be produced by the curved line of their

' Dionys. loc. cit. ; Livy, i. 35. front. The rope was a Greek device, but not a Roman ;

* Mommscn, Fom. Hist, book i. chap. xv. p. 235, see Paus. vi. 20, 7. The carceres were also called

and book ii. chap. ix. p. 472, Eng. trans., derives the Oppidum, from the turrets and pinnacles over them.

Ludi Maximi from a Greek source. Varro, L. L. v. § 153. They were divided into twelve

'" Among the fragments of the Plan of Rome en- cells, six on each side of the principal gate. (Cassiod.

graved on marble plates now preserved in the Capitol \'ar. iii. 51.) The six factions of the Circus could thus

may be seen the semicircular end of a circus, which is be divided conveniently for starting in the different

referred by Can-na, Indie, p. 495, to the Circus Maxi- heats. The fullest account of the Ludi Circenses is

mus. Three l.irge stands for spectators arc there in Panvinius, De Circensibus.

represented, which may have been the "mceniana" ' Dionys. iii. 68. Livy, i. 35, 56, calls them fori.

of Suet. Cal. 18. " decks " or "gangways."

" This arrangement may be seen in the Circus of » Liv. i. 56 ; Dionys. iv. 44.
Maxentius, on the Appian road. It is commonly

2g6 The Vclabi'iini, I 'iiiis Tiisats,

times of the Republic,' and it was not until five centuries had elapsed since the expulsion
of Tarquin the Proud that Julius Caesar undertook to repair, or more probably to rebuild,
the whole on a more convenient and extensive plan.-

As arranged by Cjesar, the Circus Maximus was 700 yards in length and 200 in
breadth, and contained seats for at least twice as many spectators as the Coliseum.' The
upper seats were of wood resting upon stone substructions, and the lower tier were of
stone. Round the edge of the arena Caesar found it necessary to dig a trench seven feet
deep and seven feet wide, called an " euripus," in order to prevent the elephants, ^\hich were
often baited in the Circus, from reaching the spectators, as the iron railings alone had been
sometimes found an insufficient protection against their weight and strength.* Further
improvements and additions were made in the Circus by Augustus after a great fire in
31 B.C. which burnt down the upper tier of seats. ^ He built a pavilion for his own private
use,® and probably at the same time erected the obelisk, which now stands in the Piazza
del Popolo, in the centre of the spina. ^ The south-west side of the Circus under the
Aventine was again destroyed by fire in 36 A.D., from which we learn that the upper seats
were still built of wood. Claudius then restored them, and at the same time set up gilded
marble metx and marble carceres in place of the old ones, which were constructed of
tufa and wood. He also set apart seats for the Senate.^

The buildings of the Circus itself do not seem to have suffered much in the great fire of
Nero's time, for we find him appearing there almost immediately afterwards at a festival,
and placing all the wreaths he had won in chariot races, to the number of 1,808, upon the
Obelisk of Augustus. Nero filled up the euripus, and placed seats for the Equites as well
as the Senate.'' The great conflagration in the reign of Titus was confined to the Campus
Martius,'" but the Circus again suffered from fire in Domitian's reign, and we find that he
rebuilt the whole with stone taken from his Naumachia, for the express purpose of pre-
venting future accidents of the kind.'' Twenty years afterwards Trajan boasted that he had
at length rendered the Circus worthy of the grandeur of the Roman nation ("digna populo
victore gentium sedes").'- A terrible catastrophe happened to the spectators in the time of
Antoninus Pius, which shows the great popularity of the exhibitions in the Circus during
the second century. The pillars supporting the roof of one of the rows of seats gave way,
and more than a thousand persons were crushed in the ruins.'^

During the later Empire the Circus was one of the most magnificent groups of buildings
at Rome. A succession of splendour-loving Emperors had decorated the spina with

' Liv. viii. 20. xli. 27. ' Caligula once viewed the preparations for races

- Suet. CiES. 39; Plin. .\.\.\vi. § 102 ; Dionys. iii. 68. from the Domus Gelotiana, probably a part of the

^ Dionys. iii. 68 gives the number as 150,000, palace. Suet. Cal. 18.
Plin. Nat. Hist, xxxvi. § 102 as 250,000, and the " Mon. Ancyr. tab. iv. ed. Zumpt; Plin. xxxvi. § 71 ;

Regionarii as 385,000. Amm. Marcel!, xvii. 4.

■* Plin. Nat. Hist. viii. § 21 ; Suet. Caes. 39. In " Tac. Ann. vi. 45 ; Dion Cass. Iviii. 26 ; Suet,

the time of Augustus 3,500 elephants were killed in Claud 21.

the Circus games, Mon. Anc. tab. iv. Caligula gave " Tac. Ann. xv. 38; Dion Cass, l.xiii. 21; Phn.

innumerable shows, which lasted from morning to Nat. Hist. viii. 21.
night, and on one occasion had the course strewed " Dion Cass. Ixvi. 24.
with minium and chrysocolla, and the chariots driven " Suet. Dom. 5.

by persons of senatorial rank. Suet. Cal. 18 ; Plin. '" Dion Cass. Ixviii. 7 ; Plin. Pan. 5I.
xxxiii. 27. ° Dion Cass. I. 10. " Chron. Vet. Rone. vol. ii. col. 244.

Forum Boarium, and Circus Maximiis -.o-

pillars, obelisks, trophies, statues, altars, and slirincs, so that it presented a rich and
stately appearance. " Constantine spent much labour on these decorations and in
beautifying the building ; and his son Constantius brought the obelisk which now
stands in the piazza of the Lateran from Alexandria, and placed it on the spina as a rival
to the famous obelisk of Augustus. Ammianus Marcellinus gives a full account of
the labour which it cost to bring this obelisk from Heliopolis to Alexandria, and thence
to Rome, and to erect it in the Circus. A brazen sphere, plated with "old, was at
first placed on the top ; but this having been destroyed by lightning, a o-ilded torch
was substituted for it, as a symbol of the light and heat of the Sun-god, to whom it was
dedicated. " ^

A most interesting bas-relief in the Vatican Museum, representing a chariot-race, gives
also a rude sketch of the decorations of the spina as it existed in the Imperial times. At
each end are seen the meta;, three marble pillars in the shape of truncated cones, sur-
mounted by ornamental fir-cones. Between these, along the line of the spina, there stand
the following objects : — a statue of Apollo Arcitenens, or Sol ; another of Cybele, with a
lion ; - a Victory, raised on the top of a column ; a chapel, or shrine, with a quadriga ; an
obelisk; a triumphal arch;^ two columns supporting an entablature, upon which are the
figures of seven dolphins ; * and two similar columns, supporting seven egg-shaped balls.^

The dolphins were dedicated to Neptune, and spouted water from their mouths into
a basin below ; and the egg-shaped balls alluded to the mythical birth of Castor, the patron
of horsemanship. These latter were also used to show the spectators the number of laps
which had been run at any period of the race, by taking them away or putting them up
one at a time." The number of laps was usually seven, but was sometimes diminished to
five. The medals of Trajan represent the sides of the Circus, and the semicircular end, as
constructed on the model of an amphitheatre, with exterior porticoes and tiers of columns •
and in the interior a podium, and rows of receding seats, surmounted by a gallery. The
Imperial pulvinar was on the left of the carceres, whence the signal for starting was given.

x\nother most valuable source of information about the games of the Circus, besides the
Vatican bas-relief, is to be found in the Epistles of Cassiodorus, the celebrated minister of
Odoacer and Theodoric at the beginning of the sixth century ; ** and from these it appears
that the Circensian Games were still celebrated in his time. The Circus is mentioned in
the ninth century by the anonymous writer of Einsiedlen : but it was then probably fallin"-
into decay. In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, like many of the other ruins of Rome,
it became a public stone-quarry, from which the Popes and the nobility of Rome helpetl
themselves freely; and consequently all traces of the magnificent buildings which sur-
rounded it have disappeared, with the exception of a small part of the substructions at the
semicircular end of the course.

1 Aur. Vict. Caes. 40 ; Amm. Marc. xvii. 4, who Pollentia is also mentioned by Li\ y, xxxix. 7 ; Varro.

gives an interpretation of the hieroglyphics cut upon Ue Re Rust. i. 2, § 1 1.

the obelisk. See (jibbon, chap. xix. " Dion Cassius, xlix. 43, says tliat M. Aoripp.i

■ Tertull. De Spec. 8. first put up these dolphins and eggs, and that the

^ The Anon. Kinsied. mentions an arch erected in dolphins were also intended to show the number of
the Circus in honour of Titus at the games given laps run. An egg is preserved in the garden of tin-
after the capture of Jerusalem. \'illa Pamfili. Ampi;re, vol. iv. p. ij.

* Juv. vi. 590. 7 Prop. iii. 19, 26 ; .Suet. Dom. 4.

'' Livy, xli. 27; Cassiod. Var. iii. 51. .\ statue of " Cassiodor. Var. Kp. 51.

2g8 Circjis Maxim us.

The rubbish is now 25 or 30 feet thick, and the level of the arena is but little lower than
the surrounding ground. The present road called Via dei Cerchi runs nearly along the line
formerly occupied by the higher tiers of seats ; the greater part of the arena is occupied by
cabbage-gardens ; and the dirty brook of the Marrana, half-choked by weeds, crawls along
the line of the spina.

It is not surprising to find in the neighbourhood of the Circus Maximus, which was one

of the most frequented parts of Rome, and connected with the oldest traditions of Roman

history, a number of names of temples which have now entirely disappeared, and whose

sites are undiscoverable. A Temple of the Sun is mentioned in the Catalogue

Timplcs of the ^j- ^^ buildings in the eleventh region; and from a passage in TertuUian,^

.S«« and Moon. ° , . i i

who places it " in medio spatio, compared with the description given of it

by Tacitus,- as " apud Circum," we may conjecture that it stood on the flank of the

Aventine, near the central part of the Circus. The Templum Lunae, also included in the

eleventh reo-ion, may have been in the same neighbourhood.^ There was also a Temple of

Mercury in the eleventh region, which overlooked the Circus.* It was dedicated in 493 B.C.,

by M. Lstorius, a centurion.'' Traces of this temple are said to have been

Mercury found between the Aventine and the Circus, at a spot where a caduceus

Temples of and an altar were dug up; but the indication thus given is too uncertain

Magna Mater y^ ^e of any importance." Temples of the Magna Mater" and of Jupiter

iind Jupiter. , . , , , • s

also Stood m the eleventh region.*

A Temple of V^enus, of which Livy tells us that it was built with the fines levied on

the Roman matrons by O. Fabius Gurges," stood at some distance from the Forum

Boarium,^" along the Circus valley ; but we have no more exact clue as to its

Veims Flora, position,^' There may have been some connexion between this temple and

Jiiventits, and the ancient name of the valley, Murcia or Myrtea. Our information as to

. nmmanus. ^^ ^.^^^ ^j. ^^ Temples of Flora,^^ of Juventus,^^ and of Summanus" is

equally scant)'. We only know that they stood near the Circus Maximus.

' Tertull. De Spec. 8. - Tac. Ann. .xv. 74. * Curiosum Reg. xi.

■' Curiosum Urbis Reg. xi. There were also a;di- •' Livy, x. 31. \« Ibid, xxix. 37.
cula; dedicated to these deities on the spina, Cassiod. " Festus, p. 265 ; Kal. Capr. xiv. Kal. Sept.

Var. iii. 51. '- Tac. Ann. ii. 49. '^ Livy, xxxvi. 36.

" Ov. Fast. V. 669. ° Livy, ii. 21, 27. u Ov. Fast. vi. 725; Kal. Amit. xii. Kal. Jul.;

" Naidini, Rom. Ant. 245. Merke!, Proleg. ad Ov. Fast. pp. cxlii. ccvii. ; Plin.

" Tertull. Dc Spec. S. Nat. Hist. xxix. 4, \ 57.

i'*.-? Wilier, bxh

Cambridge. Beighton . Bell d C9

CHAPTER XIII.

PART I.

THE CIRCUS FLAMINIUS.

SITE OF MODERN CITV— CAUSES OF CHANGE OF SITE TO THE CAMPUS MARTIUS— HISTORY OF CAMPUS MARTIUS—
PALUS CAPREA—STAGNA TERENTI— ACER TARQUINIUS— BUILDINGS OF CAMPUS MARTIUS— DIVISIONS OF CAMPUS
MARTIUS: CIRCUS FLAMINIUS, CAMPUS MARTIUS, VIA LATA — LIMITS OF THE THREE DIVISIONS — CIRCUS
FI.AMINIUS— THEATRE OF MARCELLUS— TEMPLES OF PIETAS, SPES, JUNO SOSPITA— FORUM OLITORIUM— TEMPLE
OF JANUS— S. NICOLA IN CARCERE— PORTICOES OF OCTAVIA AND OCTAVIUS — TEMPLES OF JUNO AND JUPITER
STATOR — PORTICUS METELLI — BIBLIOTHECA, CURIA, AND SCHOLA OCTAVIA — .-EDES HERCULIS MUSARUM —
PORTICUS PHILIPPI— THEATRE OF BALBUS— CRYPTA BALBI — CIRCUS FLAMINIUS — CAMPUS FLAMINIUS — PRATA
FLAMINIA— TEMPLES OF DELPHIC APOLLO, BELLONA, HERCULES CUSTOS, BONUS EVENTUS, FORTUNA EgUESTRlS,
MARS, niANA, JUNO REGINA, NEPTUNUS, DIOSCURI, VULCANUS— PORTICUS MINUCIA ET FRUMENTARIA — THEATRE,
PORTICUS, AND CURIA OF POMPEIUS- DOMUS HECATOSTYLON — TEMPLE OF VENUS VICTRIX.

TouTdji' Se Ta TrKfiaTO. o McipTins E^f' "ia-nos irpos r-fi (piaei irpoaKa^av Ka\ tw e(c ttJs Trpovoiai Knanoy. Kal yap to
fxiyf^os TQu ircSi'ou OavuafTroy aua K2I raj dp^arodpofiias Koi TrfV 6.Wi]v Injrao-iai' a.KtLKvroi' irapfx^^ ''"^ Totrouro? n^ridft
T^v a<paiptl KoX Kp'iKW (cat iraXaifrTpa yufxi/a^ofi-efcitv. — StrABO, book V. p. 236.

IT is a curious question, and one which the student of Roman history and topography
cannot fail to ask himself, why the modern Romans have so completely migrated from
the site of ancient Rome, and settled themselves upon the Campus Martins.
While the seven hills, with the exception of the Capitol and Ouirinal, are Siu oj Mo,ler,i

^ ^ ~ , ,. City. Causes

almost uninhabited, and chiefly occupied by vineyards, gardens, and solitary of change of
monasteries, the flat tract betvveen the Pincian, Ouirinal, and Capitoline hills siuiot/u,

1-11 ''^ /- 1 1 r Campus

and the Tiber is now covered with a dense mass of houses and a network ot Martins.
crooked and narrow streets. The causes which led to this complete change
in the situation of the city are to be traced partly to the occupation of the hills and public
buildings of ancient Rome, in the Middle Ages, by a swarm of oppressive and barbarous
nobles, who repelled the mass of the people from the neighbourhood of their strongholds ;
and partly to the importance, at a later time, of the Vatican and the Castle of St. Angelo,
the residence and the fortress of those great Popes who, in the fifteenth century, raised
Rome from the ruins in which centuries of barbarism and terrorism had laid her. The reigns
of Julius the Second, Leo the Tenth, and Sixtus the Fifth, in the sixteenth century, during
which the great masters of Italian art and architecture flourished, made the Vatican and St.
Peter's the central points of the city, towards which the population was naturally attracted.
Another cause of the change in the situation of Rome may be found in the fact that all
great towns have a constant tendency to spread themselves in the direction of their most

QQ 2

300 The Circus Flaviinins.

active intercourse with other centres of population.^ With the loss of her foreign empire
Rome lost her interest in the Tiber and the Appian road, those great avenues of com-
munication with the western and eastern provinces of Europe. But the importance of the
great northern roads, the Flaminian and Aurelian, was maintained by the constant inter-
course kept up in the Middle Ages between Rome, Ravenna, and the great cities of Tuscany
and Lombardy. Hence the tendency of the city to extend itself northwards along the
great northern routes. A further cause of the change of situation which gradually came
into play was the difficulty of carrying on traffic with wheeled vehicles in the hilly parts of
the city. The ancient Romans did not generally use carriages in the streets, but walked
from place to place, or were carried in litters. When carriages became common, the steep
streets of the ancient site presented impediments which made it more convenient to live on
level ground, and rendered the Campus Martins a more favourite site for the houses of the
wealthier citizens."

The history of the Campus Martius presents us with a series of striking contrasts.

It has been covered in successive ages, first by the cornfields of the Tarquinian dynasty,

then by the parade-ground of the great military Republic, next by a forest of

Historyof Cam- ^yy^^\^\Q colonnades and porticoes, and, lastlv, by a confused mass of mean

pus Martins. ^ < < . ' j

and filthy streets, clustering round vast mansions, and innumerable churches
of every size and description. If we ascend to a still earlier point of its history, and
question the soil itself as to the geological changes through which it has passed, we
find it entirely composed, even to a considerable height on the flanks of the surround-
ing hills, of fluviatile deposits, showing that the Tiber once spread itself across the
whole width of the valley between the Ouirinal and the Vatican hills, and was a
much wider and more stately river than the present rushing, turbid stream.^ The
mass of the original soil, now buried under twenty or thirty feet of rubbish, has been
proved by the investigations of Brocchi to consist of beds of marl and sand, with patches
of gravel here and there. He found clear indications of the freshwater origin of these
formations, and also of the partially stagnant state of the water during long ages of
past time.'

Two indications of this former state of the Tiber valley remained to a later time in

the names Palus Caprea and Stagna Terenti, which were applied to certain places in the

Campus Martius. Nardini and Brocchi think that the former was in the

neighbourhood of S. Andrea della Valle, and that it was along the channel

formerly occupied by it that Agrippa conducted his main sewer to the I iber.''

This depression of the ground seems to run from the bank of the river, between the Ponte

S. Sisto and Ponte Ouattro Capi, towards S. Carlo a Catinari, S. Andrea della Valle, and

the Piazza Navona. It was the scene of the legendary apotheosis of Romulus, who was

said to have been carried up to heaven in a thunderstorm while reviewing his army on

its banks ; '■" and it was also on the banks of this marsh, and between it and the sharp bend

' Most towns now extend themselves, so far as the ' Brocchi, pp. 87 — 93. See above, chap. ii. pp. 18

mass of population is concerned, towards the railway — 20.

stations, and along the lines of railway. ■" See above, chap. xii. p. 2S6 ; Brocchi, p. 19.

- See Brocchi, who gives from 130 to 140 feet as * Livy, i. 16 ; Ov. Fast. ii. 489 ; Solin. i. 20 ; \\\\.

the alteration of level which has taken place. Vict. Vir. 111. 2.

The Circus Flaniinins.

.".oi

of the river below the Ponte S. Angelo, that he is said to have instituted the Equiria
in honour of Mars.'

The latter of these two marshes, the Vada or Stagna Terenti, was, according to Festus
and Zosimus, at the extremity of the Campus Martius, where it is narrowest.- This must
mean the northern edge, near the Via di Tor di Nona and the Apollo theatre ; or perhaps
still further north, near the Mausoleum of Augustus. The Ludi Ssculares were held here
on the bank of the Tiber ;^ altars of Dis and Proserpine stood there, in whose honour the
games were celebrated.* The worship of these infernal deities seems to have originated
in the neighbourhood of a hot spring, or some other indications of subterranean fire.^

In the time of the later Roman kings we find the Campus spoken of as arable land.
The Tarquins held it either as freehold or as domain land, and cultivated
corn upon it, or perhaps only upon part of it,'' for previous to their time, as we „ ^^.'' .
have seen, both Romulus and Servius fixed upon it as the place of assembly
for the general meetings of the Roman people, and for reviews of the national army.
Parts of it seem also to have been private property ; as, for instance, the lands of the
Vestal Taracia, which were given by their owner to the Roman people."

During the time of the Republic the whole Campus seems to have been considered
State property, and was used as a military and athletic exercise-ground and a place of
meeting for the Comitia Centuriata. No buildings of any importance were erected upon
it. We only hear of two altars dedicated to Mars,** the above-mentioned altars of Dis
Pater and Proserpine,^ a few temples, the Temple of Apollo, built in 428 B.C.,'" the
Temple of Bellona, in 296 B.C.,'' and several others, all near the Porta Carmentalis.

In the latest years of the Republic the public buildings gradually occupied that part of
the plain which lies immediately under the Capitol, and before the death of Augustus
some were built as far north as the Church of S. Carlo and the Piazza di Spagna. The
buildings of Agrippa on the Campus were perhaps the most extensive and most celebrated
of the Augustan age. It has been previously mentioned that Julius Csesar entertained a
colossal scheme for diverting the course of the Tiber from the Milvian bridge and cutting
a channel for it under the Monte Mario and Vatican, so as to add the Campus Vaticanus
and the Prata Quinctia to the Campus Martius,'^ From this it may be seen that even in
the earlier times of the Empire the need of space for the e.xpansion of the city was felt ;
and after the Augustan age the difficulty of buying large tracts of land, such as were
required for the colossal schemes of the great Roman builders, must have become almost
insuperable. The extensions of the Imperial Palace on the Palatine, by Nero and
Caligula, were probably effected by forcible evictions, and contributed largch- to the
hatred with which those Emperors were regarded. By the fire in Nero's reign, and also by
the appropriation of his immense pleasure-grounds on the Esquiline, a space was cleared

' Ov. Fast. ii. 857, iii. 519 ; Festus, p. 8r. * Livy, ii. 5 ; Dionys. v. 13. Sec chap. xi. p. 263.

' Festus, pp. 329, 350; Zosimus, ii. 1,4; Ov. Fast. " Pliny, Nat. Hist, .\xxiv. 6, 11, § 25 ; Gel), vii. 7.

i. 501. It is possible that this may refer to theTranstiberine

' Serv. Ad /En. viii. 63 ; Martial, iv. 1,8; x. 63, 3 ; Campus Tiberinus.

Auson. Id. xi. 34. * Livy, xl. 45.

* Livy, Epit. xlix. ; Stat. Silv. iv. I, 38. " Val. Ma.x. loc. cit. ; Festus, p. 329.

° Val. Max. ii. 4,5. The name is variously written '" Livy, iv. 25, 29, vii. 20. " Ibid. x. 19.

—Terentum, Terentus, and Tarentum. • '- Cic. Ad Att. xiii. 33, ch. xi. p. 268.

30-

Thc Circus Flaviinins.

for the Flavian Emperors to build the Cohseum and Baths of Titus, and the tide of
buildincr was for a time diverted from the Campus Martins ; but in the age of the

THEATRE OK MARCELLUS.
(About a thivd part of the lower arcade is below the level of the present street.)

Antonines it again returned, and during their long reigns they covered a large space in
its centre with temples and colonnades. The last great building of the Ca;sars in the

The Circus Flamiiihis. •^o-'

Campus Martius was the Thermre of Alexander Sevcrus ; and the same Emperor also
restored the Stadium in the Piazza Navona. Distinctive names were given to various
parts of the Campus Martins, and especially to three extensive districts — the Circus
Flaminius, the Campus Martius proper, and the Via Lata. So far as we can ascertain,
their limits were not strictlj- defined.

The first of these, the quarter called Circus Flaminius, lay just outside the Carmentai
gate, and was occupied by buildings long before the rest of the adjoining
plain. It appears to have extended northwards nearly to the theatre of Flaminius.
Pompeius, and eastwards to the Septa and Villa Publica, and the boundary Campus
line, so far as it may be said to have had a defined limit, between it and the ^^">'t"'^ propa-.
Campus Martius proper was probably near the line of the modern Via di S. Marco and
Via delle Botteghe Oscure. Thus the Campus Martius, in the narrower sense, included
the whole northern part of the plain. Strabo, in describing the Campus Martius, mentions
two Ttkhia} whence a Campus Major and Campus Minor have been assumed by topo-
graphers ; and a passage of Catullus,'- in which he speaks of a Campus Minor, has been
quoted in support of this view. But the passage of Catullus seems more probably to
refer to the Martialis Campus, which was near the Circus Maximus, and it is likelv that
Strabo meant to denote by aXKo TTeSiov the Campus Agrippa;, a name given sometimes to
the central part of the Campus Martius.^

The name Via Lata appears in the Catalogue of the Curiosum as belonging to the
-Street which in ancient Rome occupied the southern end of the Corso, and
the flat ground to the east of that street.^ The same name occurs also in '" "'"'

the description of the sites of several ancient churches in Anastasius' " Lives of
the Popes ; "' and it was still current during the sixteenth century, in the time of
Lucio Fauno, the topographer." The district comprised under this name may perhaps
be supposed to have extended along both sides of the Corso as far as the Palazzo
Fiano.

The ruins of the theatre of Marcellus, which are still standing in the Piazza Montanara,
afford us a fi.xed point from which to begin our survey of the region of the
Circus Flaminius. For it appears certain that the ancient half columns Theatre of

,,,..,, . ' Marcellus.

arches, and other rums, evidently parts of a semicircular theatre, which
are now covered by the Palazzo Orsini Savelli, belonged to the theatre of Marcellus.
Suetonius distinctly places this theatre under the Tarpeian hill,^ and of the other two
stone theatres at Rome we know that the Pompeian lay further north, and that the theatre
of Balbus was near the Ponte Sisto.**

The masonry and architectural details of this building, though corresponding in many
respects with the Coli.scum, are more carefully worked, and show an earlier and better
period of art. There had previously been a stone scena built near the spot by ^Emilius

' Strabo, v. 3, 8. " Lucio Fauno, Am. di Rom. p. 130, cd. 1548. The

- Catull. liii. <lv.) 3 : "Te quicsivimus in Minorc Church of S. Maria in \ia Lata still bears the name.

Campo, te in Circo," &c. ■ .Suet. Ocs. 44.

' Chap. i.>c. p. 220 ; Dion Cass. Iv. 8 : wt'Sioi- "AypiV- * Sec below, pp. 312, 316. Auson. Sept. Sap.

'f"""- * Curios. Urb. Rc^. vii. Prolog. 22: "Cuneata crevit ha;c thcatri immanitas.

■' Anast. Vit. Greg. iv. p. 339; Hadr. p. 266; Pompeius banc et Halbus et Cassar dedit Octavianiis

Benid. iii. p. 401. conccrtartes sumptibus."

304 TJie Circus Fiaminiiis.

Lepidus.i which was perhaps used b}' Julius C?Esar, who first began to build this theatre.
It was not finished until the year 13 B.C., when Augustus opened it, and named it after his
nephew Marcellus, son of Octavia.-

In the time of the Flavii the scena was rebuilt, having perhaps suffered from the fire
which burnt the Porticus Octavise f and it seems to have again required repairs in the time
of Alexander Severus, who is said to have wished to restore it.*

The Curiosum mentions it as if still in use, and states that the number of spec-
tators it would contain was 30,000. In the Middle Ages it was, like all the other great
buildings of Rome, turned into a castle by Pietro Leone ; a nobleman of great power in
the time of Urban II. and Pascal II., and celebrated for his factious violence. The shape
of the building was thus completely altered. The great family of the Savelli came into
possession of it in the twelfth century, following Pietro Leone ; and after them the Orsini,
whose property it now is.^ The lower stories are now occupied by workshops, small wine
vaults, and rag and bone warehouses, frequented by the rustics of the Campagna, who
are usually to be seen in considerable numbers crowding the Piazza Montanara in front
of the ruin.

From the piazza two rows of the exterior arcades are visible, each containing twelve
arches and thirteen columns of travertine. The lower arcade is now buried to the depth
of one-third of its height below the level of the present ground. Its half-columns
are of the Doric order, with a Doric entablature and triglyphs, and are surmounted
by a low attica with projecting bases for the half-columns of the upper arcade. The
height of this upper arcade was originally somewhat less than that of the lower. It
has half-columns of the Ionic order, carrying a simple entablature with an archi-
trave of three projecting ledges, a plain frieze, and a cornice with toothed mouldings.
No actual remains of a third arcade above these two are now to be found, but it can
hardly be doubted that one existed originally, and that it was decorated with half-columns
of the Corinthian order. Some parts of the substructions of the seats are said to be
still extant in the cellars of the Savelli residence, consisting of diverging walls, similar to
those still to be seen in the Coliseum. By means of these the ground plan of the cavea
of the theatre can be completely restored.'' As there are no remains of the scena, recourse
has been had to the Capitoline plan of the city, upon one of the fragments of which, partly
restored, the name Theatrum Marcelli is legible. There seems, however, to be some
doubt as to the genuineness of this fragment, because the inscription is turned towards
the opposite side of the plan to that towards which the inscription of the Basilica
Julia and other names are turned, so that to a person looking at the plan from the
western side, from which the other inscriptions are intended to be read, this one would
appear upside down.'

To make room for the theatre of ]\Iarcellus the Temple of Pietas was removed," which

1 Livy, xl. 51," ad ApoUinis." Seepp. 306, 308, 314. toin. iii. part i.

- Suet. Oct. 29; Mon. Ancyr. tab. iv. 20, ed. '^ (Juattani, Roma Descritta, 1805, part i. pp.81

Zumpt ; Uionys. xliii. 49. — 83.

' Suet. Vesp. 19 ; Dionys. l.wi. 24. ' See Canina's Map, Frag, x.xx., and Note .\ on

■• Hist. Aug. Alex. Sev. 44. chap. viii. part ii. p. 198.

* Nibby, Roma nell' Anno 1838, Parte ii. Antica, * Plin. Nat. Hist. vii. § 121 ; Dionys. xliii. 49.
p. 595 ; Pandulpho Pisano, in Muratori, Rer. It. Scr.

The Circus Flaminiiis. ->o;

stood in the Forum Olitorium ; ' and as tlic tl-eatre belonged to the ninth re<'-iuii,
which was outside the wall, it is plain that the Forum Olitorium was
just outside the Servian walls, between the Capitol and the river. The "pieils'

Temple of Pietas was built by IM. Acilius Glabrio in the year is.c. i8o, and Fomm

Olitoi

lum .

iias been marked by the chroniclers of Roman art as having contained the
first gilt statue ever introduced into a Roman temple.- Near it and also in the Forum
Olitorium were the Temples of Spes and Juno Sospita.^ The former of
these was built by M. Atilius Calatinus, just outside the Carmental gate, and TempUs of spa
was twice burnt down and restored, first in 213 B.C.,* and again in A.D. \-jp ""'^oshiia'
The latter was built by C. Cornelius Cethegus in 196 B.C., and must not be
confounded with the Temple of Juno Matuta or Mater Matuta inside the Carmental
gate." The Temple of Spes stood nearer to the gate than this temple, as may be in-
ferred from the fact that the fire which in 213 B.C. raged from the Salinae across the
Forum Roarium reached the Temple of Spes, but not the other neighbouring temples."

Besides the above, a Temple of Janus stood in the Forum Olitorium.
Servius confounds this with the ancient Temple of Janus, built bv Numa in Tempu nj

JaiDis.

the Argiletum ; but the express statements of Tacitus and Festus leave no
doubt as to its situation.*

The Church' of S. Nicola in Carcere, which stands in the Via della Bocca della Verita,
close to the Piazza Montanara, contains the remains of two or perhaps of cimr h
three temples, which may with much probability be identified with some of .V. Kicola in
the above-mentioned." Three fluted columns of travertine with Ionic Carcere.
capitals stand in the facade of the Church of S. Nicola. Above them is a part of
the ancient entablature, and in the room to the left of the portico of the church are
two more columns built into the wall. In the nave of the church on the left hand are
remains of the cella of the temple to the pronaos of which the five columns belonged.
The walls of the cella were, as has been discovered by excavations, constructed of
travertine blocks. At the end of this left hand wall of the cella there stood, before
the last restoration of the church, the remains of a pilaster of the Doric order with an
Attic base, and opposite to this pilaster another column. The position of the above-
mentioned six columns shows that the temple was of the form called peripteros, i.e.
surrounded by a continuous colonnade.

In the right hand side aisle of the church are fi\e other columns built into the
wall, and a pilaster, which evidentlj- belonged to a second temple, standing side by side
with the first. These columns are not so high as those of the first temple described,

' Varro, L. L. v. 5 146 ; Li\y, xl. 34, The legend * Li\y calls it Juno Sospita in xxxii. 30. but Ma-

of the daughter supporting her father with her tuta in Foro Olitorio in xxxiv. 53. The term Forum

milk belongs to this temple. Pliny, vii. § 121 ; Festus. Olitorium is probably used somewhat vaguely in the

p. 2og. Livy, however, gives a different account latter passage.

of its origin. Another temple or shrine of Pietas ' Livy, .xxiv. 47, xxv. 7.

was in the Circus Flaminius itself. Jul. Obs. 114. ' Tac. Ann. ii. 49. Festus, p. 285. Serv. Ad .-tn.

- Val. Max. ii. 5, i. ^ Livy, xxi. 62. vii. 607. See on this passage of Servius, Jordan's

* Cic. De Leg. ii. 11, 28 ; Livy, xxiv. 47, xxv. 7. remarks in Hermes, vol. iv. p. 233 ; and Donati. De

^ Tac. Ann. ii. 49; Dion Cass. 1. 10. Cic. De Urbe Roma, 1665, p. 212.

Nat. Deor. ii. 23, calls it the Temple of Fides, " See Canina in the Ann. dell' Inst. 1850,0.347;

probably by a clerical er'or Monumcnti, vol. v. tav. xxiv.

K R

2o6 The Circus Flaviiniiis.

and their style and the intervals between them are different. A portion of the entabla-
ture, which is of a simple character, still surmounts them. Two more columns of this
temple are to be seen in the wall of the bouse which stands to the right of the church.
It was surrounded with colonnades on three sides, but the back of the cella was
ornamented with pilasters only.

On the left hand side of the church are six more half-exposed columns, and some
remains of an entablature, which may have either belonged to a third and smaller temple,
standing bj' the side of the first, or may have been merely a portion of some other
building.

The materials of which these buildings consist are chiefly travertine and peperino, and
their different style shows them to have been erected at different times, probably during
the age of the Republic. It is commonly assumed, from their position near the Theatre of
Marcellus, that they are to be identified with the above-mentioned temples of Spes and
Juno Sospita. As the Temple of Pietas was removed to make room for the theatre, we
cannot suppose that we have here any part of it, and the Temple of Janus would probably
have been built in a different form.^

It is recorded by Livy, that M. Acilius Glabrio erected an equestrian statue near the
Temple of Pietas.^ During some excavations made in 1808, by the architect Valadier, the
pedestal of an equestrian statue was found in the small piazza opposite to the Church of
S. Nicola.^ It appears possible that, when the Temple of Pietas was removed to make
way for the theatre, this statue maj' have been preserved, and set up here as near as
possible to the original site.

In the street called the Via di Pescaria, which runs north-westwards from the Theatre

of Marcellus, stand four fluted Corinthian columns, two on each side of the street. These

formed part of the principal entrance to a colonnade or portico ; some of the

lottuooj other columns of which can be traced at intervals in the walls of the houses

Octavia.

further on in the Via di Pescaria, along which the line of the colonnade ran.
The entrance or gateway faced towards the south-west, and over the arch looking into the
little Piazza di Pescaria will be seen an inscription recording its restoration after a fire by
Septimius Severus and Caracalla (M. Aurelius Antoninus), in the year 203 A.D., the eleventh
year of the tribunitian power of Severus. No traces can be found of the erasure of Geta's
name, which Caracalla, as we have seen, caused to be effaced after his death from all the
inscriptions containing it.* There is no doubt, however, that it was originally placed here
after the name of Caracalla, since Severus was careful to pay equal honours to both of his
sons in all respects. The whole inscription may have been replaced by a new one, or the
fourth line may have been completely effaced and altered. As it now stands the inscription
has been restored as follows : — Imp. Caes. L. Septimius. Severus. Pius. Pertinax.
Aug. Arabic. Adiabenic. Parthic. Maximus. Trie. Potest, xi. Imp. xi. Co-s. hi. P. P.
ET Imp. Caes. M. Aurelius. Antoninus. Pius. Felix. Aug. Trib. Potest, vl Cos.
Procos. porticum incendio consumptam restituerunt.

' The tliird temple may have been the y^ides ^ Reber, p. 209, who quotes Guattani's Memorie.

ApolUnis Medici mentioned by Livy, xl. 51, as "post Roma, 1816.

Spei ad Tiberim." ■* See above, chap. xii. p. 286.

- Livy, xl. 34.

S.Nicola in Carcere (canina)
cli.AllI. p. 306.

Fi-agnu;rits of Uie Capitolrne Plan.

Theatre of Marcellus (Stage) and Porticus Octavi/e.

ch. XIU. Part 1. p. 306.

' '-"i'l-XLu; iah

Cambridge.. Dciffhton . BeH ^ C

The Circus Flaviinius.

307

The pediment and tympanum over the inscription are still preserved, but two of the
columns below have been replaced by a high brickwork arch, probably built in the fifth
century to repair the damage done by the earthquake of A.D. 442 ;' and this arch now
supports the inscriptions and pediment. Passing round again into the street Via di Pescaria,
we find ourselves in the interior of the gateway. It consisted of four columns, placed on
each side between two antce or projecting piers, ornamented with pilasters, and was of
larger dimensions than the colonnades to which it formed the entrance. The brickwork of
the antae was originally faced with marble, and they supported arches w hich led into the
colonnade along the line of the street. The bases of the columns are now buried in
rubbish, but parts of the architrave, frieze, and cornice, which are of a simple description,
may be still traced over the front. The inner side of the gateway, with the exception of
the two columns and the pier which .stand at the entrance of the \'ia di S. Ancrelo in
Pescaria, has been removed to make room for the Church of S. Michaele Archan<Telo.-

PLAN' OF TEMPLES IN THE PORTICO OF OCTAVIA.

If we enter the street last mentioned, the capital of a column may be seen on the right
hand, over the wall of the yard belonging to No. 12, and in the yard itself stand thtce
others, with a portion of the architrave above them. Their position shows that they formed
the corner of a temple.

There is ample proof that we have in the ruins just described the entrance gateway of
the Porticus Octavia: and the corner of the Temple of Juno Regina. For Festus states
that there were two Octavian porticoes, one built in honour of Octavia, the sister of
Augustus, near the Theatre of Marcellus, and a second close to the Theatre of Pompeius,

' Nibby, Roma nell' Anno 1838 : Parte ii. Antica, 2 The Church of -S. Michaele has lately (186S) been

p. r>04. Muratori, R. I. S. torn. i. part i. p. 96 : "Tam restored, and the two other columns have bc.n

ternbili terra; motu Roma concussa est, ut plurin.a:' found built up into the wall of the church ind

a;des ejus et aedificia corruerint.' See the woodcut also large substructions of tufa. Ann dew'hul

°" P' 309- ,868, p. 108.

R R 2

;o8

The Circus Flauiuiius.

built by Cn. Octavius, the conqueror of Perses.' The site upon which the former was
PortUoof built had been previously occupied by the Porticus Metelli, built by
Ociaviiis. Q Metellus Macedonicus, propraetor in 146 B.C., and the portico of Octavia

was a complete restoration of this b)- Augustus.-

1 >kl IL I CI \W I

Pliny also mentions two statues ol Apollo near the Porticus Octavias, which probably
stootl in the Temple cf Apollo, known to have been situated outside the Porta Carmentalis,

Fcstiis, 1). 178. Miill.

V'cUciiis, i. II, 3, ii. 1, 2 ; Li\y, Kpit. 5:; ; \'.il. Mlix. vii i, 1.

The Ciinis Flaniinms. ^09

between the Forum Olitorium and the Circus Flamhiius.' But the principal evidence is
derived from the plan of Rome, now on the staircase of the Capitoline Museum, where the
whole design of this portico is laid down, and the temples whicJi it enclosed are named. -
We learn from the plan that the portico was in form an oblong space enclosed with colon-
nades, and that the ruins now remaining constituted the principal entrance to this court and
to the Temples of Juno Regina and Jupiter Stator, which it encloseo. The line of the Via
di Pescaria corresponds to one of the shorter sides of the court, and in the centre of this
side the gateway stood. In two points only the Capitoline map fails to correspond with
the actually existing ruins. The antai of the gateway are not represented, and the corner
column of the Temple of Juno is omitted. The former of these two omissions may be
explained by supposing that the plan was probably made before the restoration of the
portico by Severus took place, and that the antae were then for the first time added to the
portico. A fragment of the plan itself contains the names of Severus and Antoninus
(Caracalla) as the reigning emperors at the time of its execution. The omission of the
corner column of the Temple of Juno is more difficult to explain, as the corner columns
would be the most important in the whole building, and this omission must be considered
as probably a mistake made by the carelessness of the artist who executed the plan.^

By the side of the Temple of Juno is given the ground-plan of a Temple of Jupiter
Stator, the same probabh' with that mentioned by Vitruvius as the work of
Hermodorus.* Pliny, however, names two Laconian Greeks, Sauras and T<:i"pl<:sojyi,iw

atid jfitpiUr

Batrachus, as the builders, and tells a popular legend to the effect that these stator.

two Greeks, who were wealthy men, had spent a large sum upon the temples,
in hopes of being allowed to inscribe their names upon them. As they could not obtain
permission to do this, they carved, in allusion to their names, symbolical figures of lizards
and frogs, which might be seen in Pliny's time, upon the bases of the columns.* The
absence of inscriptions in these two temples is noticed by another writer, Velleius Pater-
culus ; and in this fact, coupled with the strange hieroglyphics on the bases of the columns,
we may look for the origin of Pliny's legend, which can hardly be regarded as historical.

There are no traces of such figures upon the bases of the columns now extant ; but, as
Pliny distinctly affirms that they were to be seen in his time, we must suppose that none
of the bases which bore them are left ; and this is not at all improbable, as the Temple of
Jupiter has completely disappeared, and the Church of S. Maria in Campitelli stands upcm

' Pliny, N';U. Hist, xxxvi. 5, 4, § 34; Ascon. ad Lorenzo with frogs and lizards in the volutes was

Cic. in toga cand. p. 90, Orell. A fragment of an supposed by Winckehnann (<Kuvrcs, ii. p. 589) to have

ancient calendar preserved by Fabretti, Insc.p. 455, belonged to this temple. But Pliny distinctly says that

gives the following names : Apollini Latonie ad in the Temple of Jupiter Stator the frogs and lizards

theatrum Marcelli, Felicitati in Campo Martio, Jovi were upon the bases (spira;). Pea, in his notes on

Statori Junoni Regin.-E ad circum Flaminium. Winckelmann, gives it as his opinion that the column

- See chap. viii. part ii. Note A, p. 198. in S. Lorenzo is of a date later than Augustus, and

' See Jordan's article in the Monatsberieht der cites the opinions of other architects to the same

l»eussischen Akademie, Berlin, 1867, p. 538. Jordan effect. In the Church of S. Maria in Porticu, which

gives other instances of defective execution, espe- adjoins the Portico of Octavia there were in Btl-

cially in the orthography of names. lori's time a number of Ionic columns, which pro-

' Vitruv. iii. 2, 5, cd. Schneider. bably belonged forn\erly to some part of the

■^ Plin. xxxvi. 5, § 42 ; Veil. Pat. i. 11, 3. The temples or portico. UcUori, ciuotcd bv Winckelmann

capital commonly shown in the Basilica of S. loc. cit.

3IO The Circus Flaviinitis.

its site. Pliny goes on to remark that all the paintings and ornaments in the Temple
of Jupiter were appropriate to a goddess and not to a god ; and explains this by
another legend, that when the two statues wers first set up in the temples, a mistake
was made by the porters who brought them, so that Jupiter's statue was carried into
Juno's temple, and Juno's into Jupiter's, and that the mistake was not corrected because
the deities were thought to have thus chosen their future abodes for themselves.'
It may be concluded from this that the two temples were both consecrated at the
same time, in the year i8o r,.C. M. .^milius Lepidus built that of Juno in fulfilment
of a vow made by him in the Ligurian wars, but it is not known what was the origin
of the Temple of Jupiter.-'

A Temple of Jupiter was built by O. Cfficilius Mctellus, which was celebrated as the
first marble temple ever seen in Rome.^ But this cannot be identified with the temple
enclosed within the porticoes ; for Pliny clearly distinguishes the ivory statue of the god by
Pasiteles, in the Temple of Metellus, from the statue executed by Polycles and Dionysius,
which stood in the temple where the interchange of statues took place.'' Besides this,
Pliny's account of the paintings and the interchange of statues is difficult to reconcile
with any complete restoration of the temple in the time of Metellus. It is therefore
more likely that the Temple of Jupiter built by Metellus was situated else-
where, and that when Metellus, in the year B.C. 146, built the original Porticus
Metelli,^ enclosing the two previously existing Temples of Jupiter and Juno, these temples
were not at the same time restored. But, however this may have been, Augustus replaced
the Porticus Metelli by a new one built of marble, and named it, after his wife and sister,
the Porticus Livise et OctavijE." He also restored or faced the two temples with marble
and the whole work was called Opera Octaviai." In the Capitoline plan
Bibliothcca, ^^,q fi,i(j at the back of the temples the outline of some additional
mm, an ]-,^,il^]||1cvs ; and these have been conjectured, not without probability, to
be the ground-plans of the library, public hall, and notaries' offices, men-
tioned by Plutarch, Suetonius, Dion Cassius, and Plin\- under the names Bibliotheca,
Curia, and Schola OctavijE.^

Few of the most magnificent buildings in Rome were so rich as the Porticus Octavix
and its twin temples in masterworks of sculpture and painting. The Temple of Jupiter
contained a celebrated statue of the god from the chisel of Polycles and Dionysius ; that
of Juno an ^sculapius, and also a Diana by Cephisodotus, the son of Praxiteles, who
inherited his father's talent." One of the most elaborate groups of Lysippus, which had
been executed by him under the orders of Alexander, containing the equestrian statues of

' Plin. xxxvi. 5, § 42. for Vitruvius, who calls it Porticus Metelli, wrote

- Livy, xxxix. 2, xl. 52. after the assumption of the title Augustus by Octa-

•' Veil. Paterc. i. 1 1, 5. Mommsen, vol. iii. p. 476, vian in 29 B.C. Dion Cassius places it in B.C. 33 (xlix.

Eng. trans, book iv. chap, xiii., is mistaken in placing 43I But the library was certainly not dedicated till

the marble temple in the Porticus. after the death of Marcellus. B c. 23. Plut. IVIarc. 30.

■* Plin. Nal. Hist, xxxvi. 5, j 35, 40. * Plut. Marc. 30 ; Suet. 111. Gr. 2 1 ; Dion Cass. xli.\.

^ Velleius, i. 11, 3, ii. i, 2. 43, l.wi. 24; Plin. xxxvi. 5, § 28, xxxv. 10, § 114,

" Suet. Aug. 29 ; Ov. Art. iii. 391. i. 6g. xxxvi. 5, § 22, 29. See Note A at the end of this

" Plin. xxxiv. 6, § 31, xxxvi. 5, § 15. Augustus chapter.

most probably built the Porticus Octaviee after B.C. 29,

The Circus Flaminius.

,1 1

twenty-five Macedonian companions of the great conqueror who fell at the battle of the
Granicus, was brought b\- Metellus from Dium and placed in front of the temples.' Upon
the Capitoline plan two pedestals are marked in front of the temples within the en-
closure, and two larger ones outside the gateway. It is most probable that so lan^e a
group was placed upon the latter pair of pedestals, as the former appear to have supported
single statues only. Besides these, a Venus of Phidias and a seated statue of Cornelia arc
mentioned as " in Operibus Octavi;i;."- In the Curia of Octavia was a noted statue by an
unknown sculptor, of Cupid holding a thunderbolt ; ^ and in the Schola, besides a number
of much admired works by unknown sculptors, was a large group of Satyrs, one carrying
the god Liber upon his shoulders, another the goddess Libera, while a third was endea-
vouring to soothe the cries of the child-god, and a fourth presenting a bowl of drink to
his companion. Here were also two Aur<-E spreading their robes like sails to the wind,''
and above all the famous Thespian Cupid of Praxiteles, — "propter quem," as Cicero says,
" Thespiae visebantur, nam alia visendi causa nulla est." ^ The Schola was also orna-
mented with paintings by Antiphilus, the rival of Apelles, among which was his
Hesione and the group of Alexander and Philip with Minerva.*

In A.D. So the celebrated meeting of the Senate to receive Vespasian and Titus on
their return from the capture of Jerusalem took place in the Curia OctavijE ; and not
long afterwards the whole of this splendid enclosure was burnt to the ground," and
remained in ruins for 123 years, till the time of Septimius Severus, who, as we have
before mentioned, rebuilt it. The famous Medicean Venus, now in the Tribune of the
Uffizi gallerj- at Florence, is said by Pietro Santi Bartoli to have been found here ;**
but another account states that it was found ;it the villa of Hadrian. The "orbis
pictus " designed by Agrippa was also probably kept here." In the Middle Ages the
ruins were known by the names Porticus Severini, Templum Severianum, Porticus
^dis Mercurii, and Porticus Junonis ad Viam Triumphalem.'*' The anonymous wTiter
of Einsiedlen omits all mention of them.

The Capitoline plan fixes the site of another temple in this quarter, the /Edes Herculis
Musarum, built by ]\I. Fulvius Nobilior, probably after his triumph over the
yCtolians in 187 B.C.^' Fulvius was not only a .soldier but also a patron of ^^'^ herculis

1 /- • 1 /- I T^ Musarum.

literature and art, and a friend of the poet Ennius.'- He brought a number

of works of art from his Grecian campaigns, and among them some famous terra-cotta

1 Arrian, Anab. i. 16, 4; Vdl. i. n, 3; Plin. " Joseph. Bell. Jud. vii. 5, Dindorf; Dion Cass. Ixvi.

xxxiv. 8, §64. Canina— in Bull, dell' Inst. 1S49, p. 34. See above, chap. iv. p. 46.

161 ; 1850, p. 108 — thinks that the bronze horse and ' Fea, Miscell. p. ccliii. No. 109.

human leg and foot found in the \'icolo dcUe Palme ' Plin. iii. 2, § 17, and Ritschl, Rhein. Mus. 1842,

in the Trastcvcre, and now preserved in the Capitoline i. p. 506.

Museum, belonged to this group. The Library " See the Ordo Romanus, the Mirabilia, Poggio,

seems to have been divided like the Bibhotheca and Palladio.

Ulpia, into two compartments, Greek and Latin. " Livy, xxxix. 1-5; Plin. xxxv. 10, § 66; Macrob.

Fabretti, Inscr. p. 337, No. 506; Orelli, 6270-73. Sat. i. 12; Plut. Q. R. 59; .Serv. Ad y4in. i. 12:

- Plin. xxxvi. 5, § 15, xxxiv. 6, § 31. Pianta Capit. tab. ii. ; Canina, Pianta di Roma, No.

' Plin. xxxiv. 6, § 28. xxix. See Jordan, Monatsbcriilit dcr prcussischen

' Ibid. § 29. Ai-ml 1867, p. 538.

■' Ibid. § 22 ; Cic. In Verrem, II. lib. iv. § 4, 135. " Cic. Pro Archia, xi. § 27. The Greek name was

■• Plin. Nat. Hist. x.\.\v. 10, § 114. Hercules .Musagetes.

312 The Circus Flajuinijis.

statues of the Muses by Zeuxis, and one of Hercules playing on the lyre, from which the
temple derived its name.^

The temple was restored by L. Marcius Philippus, the stepfather of Augustus,- and
was surrounded by him with a court and cloisters like those of the Porticus

Po'-ticxs Octaviae,^ and probably closely united with that building. On the Capitoline

Phnippi. ' 1 ^ '

plan the name given to the whole enclosure, including the two porticoes, is
Porticus Octavife et Philippi.'' The statues of Liber Pater, Alexander as a boy, and Hip-
polytus terrified by the bull, works of the great sculptor Antiphilus, stood in court.-'^

The Theatre of Balbus, which was placed so near the river that when the w^ater was
high it could only be approached in boats, probably stood at a short distance to the north-
west of the Temple of Hercules Musagetes, in the neighbourhood of the
Theatre of modern Piazza Cenci." For although we have no more distinct notice in

Balbiis.

classical writers of the situation of this theatre, which was built in B.C. 13 by
Cornelius Balbus, the friend of Augustus,^ than the above-mentioned fact that it was not
far from the river-bank, yet by the help of mediaeval allusions, and the traces of a large
mass of buildings near the Piazza Cenci, sulificicnt evidence ma}- be collected to show
approximately where it was placed. The Regionarii mention it in the Catalogue of the
ninth region ; and the Ordo Romanus, in the twelfth century, describes a theatre through
which the Papal processions passed in turning from the Via di Cacaberis (Craticula) into
the Via della Regola (Avcnulje).^ The name of Theatrum Antonini is there given to the
theatre ; and the same name, with the further indication that it stood near the Pons
Antoninus, or Ponte S. Sisto, is applied to a theatre in this quarter by the author of the
Mirabilia Romae.*' Now of the three principal theatres at Rome, the Pompeian, the Marcel-
line, and that of Balbus, the site of the second is well ascertained, and the ruins of the two
others have been discovered to be, the one near S. Andrea della Valle, and the other at the
Palazzo Cenci. It is not, therefore, a rash assumption to suppose that the one nearest to the
river of the two last is the Theatrum Balbi. The name Antonine may have been given to
it on account of an inscription recording its restoration by Severus and Caracalla, after
the great fire of A.D. 80 in which it was destroyed,^" as was the case with the Porticus
Octavia:, which is called Porticus Severini in the medireval writers. Or perhaps it may be
so called from the Pons Antonini ; or the name may be merely an ignorant misnomer, such
as abound in the farrago of names collected by the authors of the Mirabilia and Ordo.

Near the Palazzo Cenci, in the Via di S. Maria in Cacaberis, No. 23, there are two Doric
columns of travertine half buried in the ground, with a portion of entablature above them.

1 I'lin. XXV. 10, § 66; Ov. Fast. vi. 812. plan. See Jordan, Monatsbericht dcr preussischcn

■ Suet. Aug. 29 ; Ov. Fast. vi. 799. Alcad. 1867, p. 538. ^ Plin. xxxv. 10, § 114.

' Mart. V. 49, 12 : "Vites, censeo, porticum Phi- * Dion Cass. liv. 25 ; Venuti, Roma Antica, vol.

lippi ; Si te viderit Hercules, peristi." Ov. Art. iii. 167 : ii. p. 154 ; Canina, Indie, p. 367.

•■ Femina procedit densissimacrinibus emptis, proqiie ' Suet. Aug. 29 ; Plin. xxxvi. 7, \ 60; Dion Cass.

suis alios efflcit aere suos. Nee rubor est emisse loc. cit.

palam, venire videmus Herculis ante oculos virginc- * Ord. Rom. in Mabillon, Mus. Ital. ii. p. 126.

umque chorum." Chignons, the poet, means, were ° See above, chap. xi. p. 266. Mirabilia RoniK, ed.

sold near the Temple of Hercules and the Muses. Parthey, 1869, pp. 8, 9.

^ Pianta Capit. tab. ii. ; Canina, xxi.x. Canina and " Dion Cass. Ixvi. 24. The Curiosum estimate

Rcbcr both give an imperfect representation of the the number of scats as 1 1,5 10, the Notitia 30,085.

1 lie Cirais Flaniinhis. -> i -.

and between them an ancient brick arcli, forming the entrance to a stable. In the interior
of the stable are two other similar arches and columns, and above these there are indica-
tions of an upper story. Other ruins of the same description are built into the next house
(No. 22), and into several other houses near.' In the sixteenth ccnturj-, the Bolognesc
architect Serlio saw more ruins here, and he represents in his sketch an upper storv- \\\x\\
Corinthian pillars. The name Crypta Balbi, which is found in the cataloo-ue
of places in the ninth region, has been given \\ith much probability to these '^^^''^ ^''""'
ruins. A crj^pta, or cryptoporticus, according to Pliny, was a covered corridor with
windows which could be shut or opened at pleasure.- Such a building was used for
exercise in wet or hot weather. Some were open on one side, others closed on both sides
A cryptoporticus of the latter kind is to be seen in the ruins of Nero's Domus Aurea
under the Baths of Titus.^ The building in the Via di Cacaberis appears to ha\e had open
arches at the sides. This crj^ptoporticus was probably attached to the Theatre of Balbus
as the Porticus Pompeii was to the Theatrum Pompeii ; and Venuti thinks that it extended
along the back of the scena, and that it was intended as a place of shelter for the spec-
tators, in case of the sudden showers of rain peculiar to the Roman climate.*

A considerable number of buildings in this quarter were grouped round the Circus
Flaminius, and it will be necessary, before attempting to define their situa-
tions, to fix as far as possible the position of the circus itself Unfortunateh-, Cirms

Flaminius.

the notices we have about it in classical writers are very scanty, and afford us

but little assistance. Before the Second Punic War, the Censor C. Flaminius Nepos, who

fell at the battle of Trasimenus, in the year 220 B.C., constructed a circus, and also the

great northern road, both named after him the Flaminian.' The circus was in the Prata

Flaminia, also called the Campus Flaminius, a spot which had been frequently before used

for the Ludi Taurii and ApoUinares, and also for assemblies of the people and of the Senate

when it was necessarj^ (as in the case of a Consul holding the imperium) to

convene them outside the walls.*" It is probable, therefore, that the site of the Flaminia or

circus must be sought for in the district which lies between the southern part Campus

c -t r- \T X 1-1 1 r 1 1 1 T^i . • Flaminius.

o\ the Corso, or Via Lata, which was the commencement oi the old rlaminian
road, and the Tiber. The space within which we have to seek is narrowed on the west by
the known positions of the Porticus of Octavia and Philip, the Theatre of Balbus, and the
Theatre of Pompe}-, which leave no room for the circus in that part of the district which
lies along the bank of the river, and immediately under the Capitol. On the eastern side,
the space near S. Marco and the Piazza Venezia was occupied, as we shall sec, by the

' See Reber, Ruinen Roms, pp. 220, 221 ; Wutin, the sudden showers of the Roman climate, see

vol. ii. p. 154; Canina, Indie, p. 367. Story's Roba di Roma, vol. i. p. 235. The scene

2 Plin. Ep. ii. 17, 16 ; v. 6, 27 ; vii. 21, 2 ; ix. 3, 3. there described was doubtless often enacted at the

Suet. Cal. 58. Caligula was assassinated in a crypta theatre and crypta of Balbus. \'itruvius, v. g, says :

leading from the palace to the circus. " Post sccnam porticus sunt constituenda-, uti cum

^ Chap. ix. p. 232. imbrcsrepeiitini ludosinterpellavcrint habcat populus

■* V'enuti, vol. ii. p. 154. The name of the street quo sc recipiat ex thcatro ; choragiaque la.\amentuin

Cacaberis or Caccavari has been derived from Cryp- habeant ad comparandum."

ticula. The Mirabilia calls these ruins " tcmplum ' Livy, Epit. xx.

Craticule ;' .Mirab. Romie, cd. Parthey, p. 25, ''Ad « Livy, iii. 54, 63 : \'arro, L. L. v. § 154.
Caccavarios templum Craticule.'' For an instance of

S S

1^]^ The Circus Flaiuiiiiits.

Septa and Villa Publica, and no room left for the circus in that direction. We should,
therefore, expect to find it in the quarter traversed by the Via della Botteghe Oscure, and
in the neighbourhood of the Palazzo Mattel. The circus was destroyed before the ninth
century,! and there are no traces of it left to guide us ; but before the erection, in the
fifteenth century, of the larger houses in this quarter, some few ruins appear to have been
visible in the neighbourhood of the Palazzo Mattel. These are described by Andrea Fulvio
and Ligorio as having belonged to the Circus Flaminius ; and, according to their account,
the length of the circus lay in a direction from west to east, and reached from the Palazzo
Mattel, where the semicircular end was situated, to the Piazza Margana, where the carceres
lay.^ A tower now called the Torre Citrangole was once called the Torre Metangole, and
marked the spot where the meta; of the circus stood.^

One of the oldest sites near the Circus Flaminius was that of the Temple of the Delphic

Apollo, called in early times the Apollinare,* and probably connected with

Temple of ^ Ludi Apollioares held in the circus. This temple was vowed in the year

Delphic ApoUo. ^ ■'

430 B.C., dedicated two years afterwards by C. Julius, and restored in B.C. 350,
a sino'ular proof of the very early influence of the Greek religion and culture upon the
Roman people.-' Asconius describes the situation of the temple as outside the Carmental
o-ate, between the Forum Olitorium and the Circus Flaminius, and Pliny places it
near the Porticus Octavias.'^ We may therefore, with some probability, suppose that
it stood a short distance north of the Theatre of Marcellus. Many important assem-
blies of the Senate were held in this temple, and it was, apparently from its antiquity,
rec^arded with great veneration.^ The procession in honour of Juno Regina began its
course from thence ; and a curious statue of Apollo, made of cedar-wood, was placed
there in the time of the first triumvirate, by Sosius, prefect of Syria and Cilicia.* A
restoration by Constantius is recorded by an inscription in Grutcr's collection.'' The
statues of the children of Niobe, which were ascribed to the hand of Scopas or Praxiteles,
stood in this temple.^"

In the neighbourhood of the Circus Flaminius were also the Temples of Bellona and

of Hercules Custos ; and it has been inferred from Ovid's description that they
Temples of stood at Opposite ends of the circus. We are told that the Temple of Bellona

Bellona and ... . , , ^7.,, n 1 i- i • 1 r , , ,

Hercules Custos. was withm hearmg of the Septa and Villa Publica, and it therefore probably

stood to the north-east of the Temple of the Delphic Apollo, and near the

carceres of the circus ; while that of Hercules Custos was at the semicircular end, in or near

1 The Anon. MS. of Einsied. misplaces it in the vol. i. p. 452.

Piazza Navona. See theNciieJa/irbucherfiirPhilo- " Ascon. in Cic. in tog. cand. p. go ; Plin. xx.wi. 5,

logic iind Pcrdagogik, 1837, Bd. v. Hft. i, S. 132, 134. § 34.

- See Nibby's edition of Nardini, Roma Antica, ' Livy, xxxiv. 43, xxxvii. 58, xxxix. 4, xli. 17 ;

vol. iii. p. 21, where Fulvio and Ligorio are quoted Cic. Ad Quint, ii. 3, 3.

at full length. Jordan, in Hermes, ii. p. 412, quotes ' Livy, xxvii. 37.

Grimaldi in Cod. Vat. 6437, as a confirmation of " Plin. xiii. 5, 28, xxxvi. 5, § 53; (jiuter Inscr.

Nibby's statement : " Ibique " (near the Church of S. xxxviii. 6.

Lucia) " ccrnuntur magni lapides quadrati cinericii '" Plin. xxxvi. 5, § 28. The group of Niobe and

quod peperinum dicitur forte e minis dicti circi." her children, now in the Uffizi Gallery at Florence

' Canina, Indicaz. p. 360. was found near the Porta S. Paolo, and cannot with

* Livy, iii. 63. any probability be identified as the group spoken

^ Ibid. iv. 25. 29, vii. 20 ; Mommsen, Rom. Hist. of by Pliny.

The Cirais Flaviinins. , , -

the Piazza Paganica.^ According to Livy, the former temple was vowed by Appius Claudius
C.-ECUS in B.C. 296. Pliny, however, assigns it to the older Claudius Regillensis.- This was the
usual place outside the pomoerium for meetings of the Senate, and was therefore sometimes
called a senaculum.^ Behind it was the Colunma Bellica, whence the Fetialis threw the
spear when war was declared, a ceremony kept up until the time of Marcus Aurelius *

The name of the Temple of Hercules Custos has been often given to some ruins in
a Carmelite monastery at No. 56, Piazza di S. Xicolo a Cesarini, where the plan of a round
temple has been discovered. It is, however, evident that, if the above approximate deter-
mination of the site of this temple be correct, the Piazza di S. Nicolo lies too far north
From the appearance of the ruins, which consist of four fluted Corinthian columns of
tufa covered with stucco, and some portions of others belonging to a round temple
the ground-plan of which may be traced, they must probably be assigned to
a small and unimportant building of a late date. Reber conjectures that T^i'ipl^of
they belonged to the Temple of Bonus Eventus, which was situated near the
Therma; of Agrippa, and gave its name to the adjoining Porticus Boni Eventus, built b\-
the prefect of the city, Claudius, in the reign of Valentinian I.^ As there
are many remains of the Porticus in the Via della Ciambella, a short distance ^

Temple of

to the north of the ruins of the round temple, this seems not unlikely. Forttma
The Temple of Fortuna Equestris, dedicated in 177 B.C. b\- Fulvius Flaccus, Equestris.
which stood near " the stone theatre," had been destroyed already in A.D. 22."

Another temple also in the neighbourhood of the Circus Flaminius was the Temple of
Mars, built by the Greek architect Hermodorus for Junius Brutus Callaicus, consul in
B.C. 1 38. This temple contained a colossal statue of Mars by Scopas, and a
Venus by the same celebrated artist/ Canina and Urlichs have identified a ""/ ''7- ■'"'■■'•
ruined temple at the corner of the Via di S. Salvatori in Campo and the Via deo-li Speechi
with this Temple of IMars. The ruins are not of much importance, consisting onh' of six
broken columns, five of which stand in a line, and the sixth at a distance of a dozen yards
from them, and they are much injured by violence and the waste of time. Whether thev
stand on their original site may be doubted. At all events the conjunction of fluted
columns with Tuscan bases would seem to show that the building is in a late and degraded
style of architecture.'* When first discovered these columns were supposed to have
belonged to the Porticus Octavii, which Cn. Octavius, the conqueror of Perses, the last
king of ]\Iacedonia in B.C. 167, built near the Theatre of Pompeius." Pliny speaks as if the
peculiar capitals of Corinthian brass which it contained had been removed or replaced
before his time ; and this may have been done by Augustus, ^\ ho rebuilt the \\hole as
recorded in the Monumcntum Ancyranum.'"

' Ov. Fasti, vi. 203—210. See also Seneca, Dc ' Amm. Marcell. xxix. 6 ad fin. ; Reber, p. 227.

Clem. i. 12 ; Livy, Ep. Ixxxviii. ; Lucan, Phars. ii. " Vitruv. iii. 2 (3 Schncid.) ; Tac. Ann. iii. 71.

197 ; Val. Max. ix. 2, i ; Mommsen, Rom. Hist. vol. " Plin. Nat. Hist, x.xxvi. 5, § 26 ; Dion Cass Ivi

iii. P- 341- 24, Ix. 5, 3 ; Ov. Fast. ii. 860.

- Livy, X. 19; Plin. xx.w. 3, § 12 ; Fast. Wn. iii. 8 Canina, Indicaz. p. 385.

Non. Jun. Livy, xlv. 42 ; Festus, p. 178; Veil. ii. i See

' See Becker's Handb. Note No. 1280 : Festus, above, p. 308.

P- 347- " Plin. x.\xiv. 3, § 13 ; Mon. Ancyr. tab. iv.

* Ov. Fast. vi. 205 ; Dion Cass. I. 4, Ixxi. 33.

S S 2

1 6 The Circus Flaniiiiiiis.

There are, however, strong reasons against the identification of these columns with the
Porticus Octavii. It is hardly possible that the columns of a portico should have been
placed so close together as these, since Vitruvius expressly says that the columns of a
portico were always to be separated by wide intervals.^ Besides this, it can hardly be
supposed that the hybrid architectural style was the product of the Augustan age.

The other hypothesis, that the ruins belonged to the Temple of Mars, is sufficiently
refuted by the above-mentioned fact, that the Temple of Mars was near the Circus
Flaminius ; and the same reason is fatal to the claims of the Temple of Bellona, which have
also been urged. There are several other temples named in classical authors as situated in
the district of the Circus Flaminius.

Livy mentions the Temples of Diana and Juno Regina, the latter of which must be

j^-mfhsof distinguished from the temple of the same deity in the Porticus Octaviae;-

Diana, Jnno and a Temple of Neptune is named in an inscription and in a passage of

Rcgnui, piinv.-'' A Temple of the Dioscuri,* some baths called Balnese Pallacin;e, and

Nepliine, ^

Dioscuri, ciiid a Temple of Vulcan were also in this district." There is no evidence in the

Villain. j^^gg Qf ^,.,y qC ti-iese to enable us to fix their sites more exactly, nor can the

Mhiiicia ft locality of the Porticus Minucia et Frumentaria, placed by the Curiosum in

Friimcutaiia. the Circus Flaminius, be accurately determined. The last-mentioned building
was possibly the place where the doles of corn were distributed."

Passing now to the second division of the Campus Martius, which was called Campus

Martius in the narrower sense, we find upon the boundary line between it and the Campus

Flaminius the ruins of a vast range of buildings, the Theatre, Porticus, Curia,

p'mttdiis ■ '^"'^ Domus Pompeii. That these ruins, which are situated at the back of the

Porticus, Curia, Churcli of S. Andrea della Valle, and arc plainly those of a theatre, belonged

am omus. ^^ ^^ Theatre of Pompey, is clear, if the proofs already given of the situation
of the other two theatres in ancient Rome be admitted as sufficient. The place was so
familiar to the Romans that we hardly ever find its locality indicated even in any such
general terms as "in Campo Martio" or "juxta Tiberim," expressions commonly applied to
other buildings of less note in the Campus Martius. A passage of Pliny clearly shows that
it was in the Campus Martius, but whether the name is here used in the wide or the more
restricted sense is doubtful. '^ It seems probable that the Theatre of Pompey stood just
upon the boundary between the districts of the Circus Flaminius and the Campus Martius
proper. For, as Becker has shown,'' the Villa Publica, which must be placed near the
Palazzo Venezia, is mentioned by Varro as situated on the edge of the Campus Martius ;^
and taking this as our starting-point, if we draw the probable boundary line from thence
to the river, it will pass nearly through the ruins of the Theatre and Portico of Pompey.
And further, the gardens and a house of Pompey, besides the one he had in the Carina;,
were attached to the theatre ; and these can hardly have been built upon the Campus
Martius in the time of the later Republic.

1 Vitruv. V. 9. of this chapter.

* Livy, xl. 52 ; Jul. Obs. 75 ; Fast. Amit. Id. Aug. « Livy, iv. 12 ; Veil. ii. 8, 3 ; Cic. Phil. ii. § 84.

» Grut. Inscr. 318, 5 ; Plin. xx.wi. 5, § 26. " Plin. xxxiv. 7, 18.

^ Vitruv. iv. 8, 4 ; Fast. Am. Id. Aug. » Handbuch, pp. 624, 625.

5 Fast. Cap. x. Kal. Sept. See Note B at the end » Varro, R. R. iii. 2.

H
<

■s.
o
<
q:

I 5

O 2

The Circus Flaniinius. ^ i 7

The remains wliich are now loft of these celebrated buildings are to be seen in the
small Piazza of S. Maria di Grotta Pinta, behind the Church of S. Andrea della Valle.
They consist of ranges of travertine walls converging to a centre, similar to those still
visible in the interior of the Theatre of Marcellus and in the Coliseum, and arc plainly the
remains of the substructions supporting the cavea of a theatre.

Further remains of piers and converging archways of peperino are visible in the cellars
of the adjoining Palazzo Pio ; and during some excavations made in 1837 a part of the
outer walls of the theatre was discovered, with Doric half-columns and a Doric cornice.
Most fortunately, the ground-plan, not only of the theatre, but also of the whole adjoining
portico, is given upon some fragments of the Capitoline plan.

There are three of these fragments,^ one of which represents the cavea, and the other
two give plans of some parts of the annexed porticoes. The two which are marked with
asterisks belong to a later restoration of the plan,- but agree sufficiently well with the
older fragment, upon which the word " hecatostylon " partially remains, to show that
they refer to the same building. On the plan the scena of the theatre is represented
as ornamented with a number of columns, and the porticoes communicate with it at the
back by a central door or janus. This door leads into a large space occupied b\-
several parallel colonnades, with gardens and avenues of trees between them. In the
centre of all was a clear open space, on each side of which was a broad covered
portico, open on both sides. This was again enclosed by another extensive double
colonnade ornamented with niches, in which the statues of the fourteen nations con-
quered by Pompey may have stood ; whence it was sometimes called " ad Nationes." ^

The first idea of building such a theatre seems to have been suggested to Pompey by
his visit to the theatre at Mitylene, whither he went after the Mithridatic war, to be present
at a contest of rival poets held in his honour. Only one attempt had before been made to
build a permanent theatre in Rome.* The Censor C. Cassius Longinus, in the year B.C. 154,"'
had entered into a contract for the construction of a stone theatre, near the Lupercal ; but
the Senate, by the advice of Scipio Nasica, a rigid puritan of the old Roman school, and
jealous of the introduction of Greek luxury, ordered it, when half finished, to be demolished,
and the materials sold. The same decree inflicted penalties on any one who should either
in the city, or within a mile of its walls, venture to place any seats for spectators at the
games, or sit down while looking on at them." Tacitus states that even in Pompey's time
the conservative Romans retained the same dread lest indolence and lu.xury should be
promoted by the construction of permanent theatres ; " and TertuUian declares that Pompc\-
was obliged to conceal his design under the pretext of building a temple to Venus Victri.x,
the steps of which he so contrived as to form the cavea of his Victri.x in or behind tlie

' Nos. 12, 15, 16, on the Capitoline staircase wall. theatre of Scauriis, uliich contained So,ooo seats.

'' See chap. viii. part 2, Note A; Becker's Handbuch, .See Plin. Nat. Hist, xxxvi. 15, \J 113 — 120.

vol. i. pi. 4. * Livy, Epit. 48 ; Veil. i. 15 : Orosius, iv. 21 ; .App.

^ Plin. x.\xvi. 5, § 41 ; Suet. Nero, 46. Bell. Civ. i. 28 ; Aug. De Civ. i. 31.

* There had been some enormous wooden theatres ^ Val. Max. ii. 4, 2. The " theatrum et proscenium

before this time. That of Curio is well known, ad ApoUinis" mentioned above, p. 304, was probably

which was double, and turned on hinges so as to form only a stone scena. Livy, xl. 51.

an amphitheatre. But the most huge was the wooden ' Tac. .-Vnn. xiv. 20.

3 1 8 ' The Circus Flaviiniiis.

theatre.* This seems hardly probable; but that there was a Temple of Venus cavea is
certain. Another account, which is ascribed to Tiro, Cicero's freedman and
Templeof Venus gg^^gt^ ^.j^Hg j^ ^hg Temple of Victoria ; - but had this been true, Plutarch's
stor\' of Pompey's dream, in which he thought he saw the Temple of \'enus in
his theatre decorated with trophies in honour of C?Esar, the descendant of Venus, would be
without meaning.^ A slab of marble was found near the Church of S. Maria di Grotta
Pinta in the sixteenth century, with the inscription "Veneris Victricis." ■* There were also
chapels or altars of other deities ^\■ithin the theatre, or close to it. Suetonius speaks of
more than one temple raised above the cavea,^ and the Fasti mention expressly those of
Honor, Virtus, and Felicitas in the Marble Theatre,*^ a name which Vitruvius gives to
this theatre as the first built of that material."

The exact position of this Temple of Venus Victrix with respect to the theatre is difficult
to determine. No traces of it appear in the Capitoline plan, for the double row of columns
which is there traced at the back of the cavea belonged to a porticus, and not to any part
of a temple. It was most probably a small temple or shrine, and was placed in the
orchestra, where the thymele of the Mytilenaean theatre would have stood.

Pompey opened the theatre for the first time in his second consulate, 55 B.C. f but it was
not quite completed at that time, for we find that a grammatical controversy arose as to
the wording of the inscription, whether it ought to be written " consul tertio " or " consul
tertium," and that Cicero cut the knot by recommending that Pompey should write the
numeral abbreviated, " tert." ^ The third consulship of Pompey was in B.C. 52, so that three
years probably elapsed between the first opening and the completion. A grand entertain-
ment was given on the occasion, including gymnastic and literary contests, and \\ild beast
shows, at which five hundred lions were killed, and some elephants were hunted, — "a most
astounding spectacle," says Plutarch.*" In carrjnng out this grand design, Pompey was
assisted by his freedman Demetrius, who had amassed immense riches during his master's
campaigns, and took this opportunity of pa}-ing his acknowledgments to the author of his
wealth.** The capabilities of the theatre must have been very great, nor need we be sur-
prised to hear that it contained 40,000 seats,*- for the remaining fragments show that it
comprehended the whole space between the Via de' Chia\ari (which corresponds nearly to
the line of the scena), the Via di Giubbonari, the Campo di Fiore, and the Via del Paradise.
Eastwards from the Via de' Chiavari .stretched the long ranges of colonnades of w hich the
Capitoline plan gives the outline, and beyond them the Curia and a temple, with a variety
of offices and shops, as far as the Via di Torre Argentina, including the modern Teatro
Argentina within their compass.

The principal entrance to the colonnades from the theatre was by the door called the
Regia, in the centre of the scena, which led under a marble janus or archway, represented

1 TertiiU. De Spcct. 10 ; Plin. viii. 7, 7, § 20. " \'itn.iv. iii. 2 (3 Schneid.).

2 Gell. X. I, 7. <* Dion Cass. xx.\ix. 38 ; Plutarch, Pomp. 52 ; Veil.
^ Plutarch, Pomp. 68. ii. 48.

■• Canina, Indic. p. 370 ; Fauno, Ant. di Roma, " Gell. x. i, 7. See below on the Pantheon, p. 327.

1548, p. 141. '" Plut. Pomp. 52.

5 Suet. Claud. 21. n Dion Cass, xxxix. 38.

" Fast. Amit. Piid. Id. Aug. '- Plin. Nat. Hist, x.vxvi. 24.

The Circus Flaminius. ■< i g

in the Capitoline plan by two curved lines. Over this janus the statue of Pompc\-, w hich
previously stood in the Curia, was placed by Augustus.^ The rectangular court into which
this led was divided into three long parterres by two porticoes, and these parterres were
planted with avenues of plane-trees, among which a number of fountains cooled the air and
bronze or marble figures of wild animals were tastefully arranged.- As in the case of the
Crypta Balbi before mentioned, the colonnades served as a place of shelter in case of rain
and were useful for marshalling the long processions which sometimes marched across the
Roman stage.* Round the sides of the rectangular court were other colonnades with
niches and statues, but no distinctly separate annex can be traced to which the name
Hecatostylon, found in the Capitoline plan upon the north side of the
Porticus, can be assigned. It seems most probable that this name, ^^'-'•^'^'"^'yl""-
alluded to by Martial, and quoted by Hieronymus,* was applied to the whole series
of colonnades comprised in the Pompeian buildings, and that it was synonymous with
Porticus Pompeii.

The Curia Pompeii, rendered famous in the world's history for the assassination of
Cjesar,^ was in the immediate neighbourhood of the Porticus, and probably upon the south
side, for the fragments of the Capitoline plan show that it did not stand upon the north
side, while at the eastern end the ruins of the round temple in the Piazza di S. Nicolo
hardly afford room for so large a building.*' The Curia was of the form called an Exedra,
or hall furnished with seats, and was decorated with pictures of Cadmus and Europa bv
Antiphilus, and with a large piece by Pausias, representing a sacrifice of oxen, and with the
statue of Pompey, at the foot of which C^sar fell."

After Cffisar's death the Curia was burnt, the spot declared to be a " locus sceleratus,"
and the statue removed by Augustus, who placed it abo\-e the janus of the Porticus, as
previously mentioned.*' At a short distance from the Porticus was the house of Pompey,
which was of no great size or splendour, and but little better than his former residence
in the Carinae ; so that, says Plutarch, the next ov.ner who succeeded him, on taking-
possession, inquired in astonishment, "where the great Pompey could have dined."''

Augustus restored the theatre at great cost, and took credit to himself for not havin"-
replaced Pompey's name by his own in the dedicatory inscription.^" In the reign of
Tiberius it was destroyed by fire; but that emperor, who had no taste for building, restored
the scena only, and Caligula afterwards completed the undertaking.'^ Claudius, we are
told, replaced the name of Pompey, which Caligula had removed, in the inscription, and,

I Suet. Oct. 31. The name Regia given to the " See above, p. 315.

central door of the theatre has strangely puzzled the ' Plut. Brut. 14 ; Plin. .\.\xv. 10, § 1 14, 1 1, § 126 ;

commentators on Suetonius, who think that it refers Cic. De Div. ii. 9, 5 23.

to a basilica not mentioned elsewhere. ' App. B. C. ii. 147 ; Suet. Ca;s. 88, .Aus;. 31.

■ Mart. iii. 19, ii. 14, 9, 10, v. 10. 5 ; Propert. iii. 30, The statue of Pompey now in tlie Palazzo Spada was

II et seq.; Ov. Art. i. 67. Cf. Mart. .\i. 47, 3. This found in the Palazzo della Cancellaria, close to the

avenue was frequently used as a promenade, Cic. De Campo di Fiori. See Fea, p. Ixviii. 57, who gives an

Fato, c. 4. amusing account of the discovery. Dion Cassius says

3 Vitruv. V. 9. They contained paintings. Sec of the Curia: lOTfpoi/^r (i^oSoK^eTeaKeuaa-av, xlvii. 19.

Plin. XXXV. 9, § 59. " Plut. Pomp. 40.

* Mart. ii. 14, iii. 19 ; Hieron. Chron. od. Roncalli, '" Mon. Ancyr. iv. ed. Zumpt.

i. 475- " Tac. Ann. iii. 72, vi. 45 ; Suet. C;il. 21.

■• Plut. C;es. 66 ; Ov. Met. xv. So2.

320 TJic CircJis Flaiuiiihts.

with the pedantry for which he was noted, erased the word "tert." and inserted "iii." in
its place.^

It was in this theatre that Nero gave the grand entertainment to Tiridates, called his
"golden day," on which occasion not only the scena, but the whole interior of the theatre
and its furniture was covered with gilding, and a purple velarium stretched over it, upon
which Nero himself was represented driving his chariot, in the character of the Sun-god,
with golden stars glittering around him.'- The scena was burnt in the great fire in A.D. 8o,
but restored again by Vespasian.^ Two other conflagrations and restorations are recorded
in the first half of the third century, one in the reign of Philippus in 249 A.D., and a second
in that of Diocletian.* An inscription was found in the Via de' Chiavari in 155 i, which
commemorates the restoration of one of the colonnades under the name of Jovius, a title
which Diocletian often assumed, and in the time of Ammianus Marcellinus the theatre
could still be reckoned among the mirabilia urbisJ" Another inscription, given by the
anonymous writer of the Einsiedlen MS., records a rebuilding by Arcadius and Honorius,
about A.D. 395.'^ At the time the Notitia was compiled, the number of seats had diminished
from 40,000, as given by Pliny, to 27,580, or even less; and the theatre was, therefore,
probably in a ruinous state when the last-mentioned restoration took place.

The building naturally suffered much in the Gothic wars, and we find that it was again
restored by Symmachus in the time of Theodoric,'' after which it is mentioned under the
right name of Theatrum Pompeii, by the anonymous writer of Einsiedlen, in the ninth,
and the Ordo Romanus in the twelfth centuries ; but in the thirteenth the Orsini family had
occupied it, and so changed the building that at the beginning of the fourteenth century it
is called in the Mirabilia Palatium Pompeii.'^ The Florentine Poggio saw the ruins of the
outer wall still standing in the Campo di Fiore in the fifteenth century; but the name of
Pompey was then no longer connected with them, until Marliani, Fulvio, and Fauno, the
topographers of the sixteenth century, revived the right designation.^ Canina, in his work
on ancient architecture, has taken the greatest pains to give a full description of the ruins
now left, and it is from him that most of our information is derived.'"

' Dion Cass. Ix. 6; Gell. x. 1,9. Mommsen, Ep. An. 14; Berichte der K. S. Gesell.

'- Dion Cass. Ixiii. 6 : Plin. Nat. Hist, .xxxiii. 3, § 54. 1S50, S. 307.

■^ Dion Cass. Ixvi. 24 ; Suet. Vesp. 8. " Cassiod. Var. iv. 51 ; Donati, p. 293.

■1 Hier. Chron. ed. Roncalli, i. 475, ii. 247 ; Hist. ** Mirabilia Roma;, ed. Parthey, p. 5.

Aug. Carinus, 19. ' Fauno, Ant. di Roma, 1548, p. 140 ; Fulvio, Ant.

.1 Grut. Inscr. p. cxi. 6 ; Aur. Victor Os. 39, iS, 33, di Roma, 15S8, p. 117; Gamucci, Ant. di Roma,

40, I ; Amm. Marc. xvi. 10. 1569. hb- "'• P- HS-

" Mabillon, Vet. An. vol. iv. p. 497, Paris, 16S5 ; '■" Canina, L'Architettura Antica, Sez. iii. Parte ii.

Hanel in Archiv fiir Phil, iind Pird. 1S37, Bd. v. Hft. cap. 6, p. 341.
I, S. 126. The inscription has been restored by Th.

The Circus Flaniinms.

Note A, p. 310. — Portico of Octavia.

The excavations carried on in 1861 by Pellegrini and Contigliozzi established the following limits
for the Portico of Octavia (see Annali dcW Tnstituto, 1868, p. 108) : —

1. The southern corner of the rectangle was occupied by a quadrifrontal archway (Janus
Quadrifrons), and this was situated near No. 4 in the Via della Catena, di Pescheria. From this, the
south-western side of the portico ran nearly along the line of tlie street till it reached the gateway
to which tlie present ruins belong near the Oratory of S. Angelo. The western corner of the
portico was also formed by a quadrifrontal archway.

The north-western side passed through the Church of S. Ambrogio, a little below the high altar,
and then skirted the Palazzo Righetti near the Piazza di S. Caterina de' Funari, where it joined the
north-eastern and shorter side. In this side there was a pediment supported by pilasters cor-
responding to the gateway on the opposite side, but not containing a real entrance. This stood
near the angle of the Palazzo Cavaletti, in the Via de' Delphini. The eastern angle was near the
Palazzo Capizucchi, and the south-eastern side passed close to the convent of monks of the order
of Madre di Dio, attached to the Church of S. Maria in Portico in the Piazza di Campitelli.

2. The three composite columns of marble which still stand in the house No. 11 in the Via di
S. .Angelo, in Pescheria, belonged to the Temple of Juno, and stood at the western angle of that
temple.

3. The remains of the Temple of Jupiter are hidden under the Church of S. Maria in Portico,
and the street which is now called Via della Tribuna di Campitelli occupies the line of the interval
between the two temples. A part of one of the side walls of the Temple of Jupiter rises a little
above the ground at the corner of the Church of S. Maria in Portico.

4. The School or Academy of Augustus was behind the temples, and stood near the centre of
the Via della Tribuna di Campitelli. The back of this formed a part of the northern side of the
Portico. The Curia stood behind the Schola, and on each side of it were placed the libraries of
Greek and Latin books.

Note B, p. 316. — The Balne.e Pallacin/e.

Cic, Pro Roscio Am. vii. 18, has "occiditur ad Baliieas Pallacinm de cena rediens S. Roscius.''
The topographers have altered this to " Palatinas," but without authority.

" Vicus Pallacinae " occurs in a fragment of the same oration (p. 436, Orelli), and in an inscription
(De Rossi, Insc. Christ, i. p. 62), and in the name of the Convent S. Lorenzo in Pallacinis
(Martinelli, Roma Sacra, p. 364). This convent can be proved, by passages in the " Liber Pontifi-
calis," to have been between S. Marco and the Ghetto (Lib. Pontificalis, Hadr. i. c. 94; Benedict III.
c. 23). It was replaced by S. Caterina ai Funari (Bunsen, Beschr. iii. 3, p. 516), near the Palazzo
Mattel and the Piazza Serlupi, or, as Zangemeister thinks, near the Piazza del Gesii. The name
" Vicus Pallacinae " must be a corrupt mediaeval Latin expression for Vicus Pallacinarum, like Vicus
Caput AfricK for Vicus Capitis .Africie (Nuove Mem. S. 231). See Jordan in Hermes, ii. pj).
76, 413, and Zangemeister, id. p. 470.

T T

CHAPTER XIII.

PART II.
THE CAMPUS MARTIUS AND THE VIA LATA.

CAMFUS MARTIUS PROPER: THE SEPTA — ARCH OF CLAUDIUS — VILLA PUBLICA — TEMPLES OF ISIS AND SERAPIS —
TEMPLE OF MINERVA CH.\LCIDICA — THERMAE AGRIPPTE — THE P.\NTHEON — CAMPUS AGRlPPyE— PORTICUS POLj« —
PORTICUS EUROP/E — PORTICUS VIPSANIA — DIRIBITORIUM — POSIDONIUM, OR PORTICUS NEPTUNI^BASILICA
NEPTUNI — RUIN IN THE PIAZZA DI PIETRA — TEMPLES OF MARCIANA AND HADRIAN— PORTICUS MELEAGRI —
BASILICA MATIDI/E — BASILICA MARCIAN/E — GNOMON OBELISK — PILLAR OF ANTONINUS PIUS — TEMPLE AND
PILLAR OF M. AURELIUS— ARCH OF M. AURELIUS — STADIUM ALEXANDRINUM (PIAZZA NAVONA) — ODEUM —
THERM.* NERONIAN.-E — THERM.* ALEXANDRIN.*— ARCH OF TIBERIUS — STABULA FACTIONU.M — TEMPLES OF
LARES PERMARINI AND JUTURNA — VIA TECTA— PORTICUS FLAMINIA — ALTARS OF FORTUNA REDU.X AND PAX
— AMPHITHEATRE OF ST.VflLIUS — PR.EDIA /EMILIANA — MAUSOLEUM OF AUGUSTUS — USTRINA C.F.SARUM. VIA
LATA: NAME OF VIA L.\TA — ALTAR OF MARS — ARCHES OF -\QUA VIRGO — TOMB OF BIBULUS — TEMPLE OF SOL.

" Profecto"iiicendia pmiiunt luxiim, nee tamen effici potest ut mores aliquid ipso lioniine moitalius esse iiitellegant."

Pliny, Nat. Hist, xxxvi. 15, § no.

^T^HE Theatre of Pompey and the adjoining pubUc buildings stood, as \vc have seen,

upon the verge of the Campus Martins proper. Upon the description of that part

of the Campus we now enter. It is separated from the region of the Via

LampKs Lata on the east by the long straight street of the Corso, and extends

Marlins proper. ■' 00

northwards to the Piazza del Popolo, where the Pincian approaches the bank
of the Tiber. Several great and complex masses of buildings, all belonging to the Imperial
age, were spread over this quarter, and covered at least three-fourths of its surface.
In the south-eastern part, near the Piazza of S. Marco, a large space was occupied by the
Septa and Villa Publica. Beyond these to the north-west, and occupying nearly the whole
central portion of the district, were the colossal buildings of Agrippa, grouped round the
Pantheon. On the west of these stood the Stadium Ale.xandrinum, now the Piazza
Navona, and on the north-east the colossal pillar of Marcus Aurelius formed the central
point of a great group of buildings erected by the Antonines. At the northern end stood
the Mausoleum of Augustus, and near it the Ustrina Ccesarum. Accordingly, a .small
]:)ortion only of the Campus between the Piazza Navona and the Tiber was still left in
Imperial times as open ground for the military and gymnastic exercises of the Roman
youth, which were patronized by the Emperors, following the e.xample of Augustus,

The Campus Martins and the Via Lata. 323

long after the inhabitants of the great city had devolved their real militar>- duties on
foreign legionaries.*

The site of the Septa is determined b\- a most valuable notice in Frontinus, who states
that the arches of the Aqua Virgo ended near the front of the Septa. This
aqueduct now ends at the Fontana Trevi, but was formerly carried across the
Via Lata to supply the Therms of Agrippa near the Pantheon.^ We should therefore
expect to find the foundations of the arches by which it was carried over the Via Lata
somewhere on the line between the Fontana Trevi and the Pantheon. And exactlj- in
this direction a discovery of part of the aqueduct itself was made in the middle of the
seventeenth century, during some excavations opened in front of the Church of S. Ignazio.
The ruins then found belonged to an archway including three arches, a larger between
two smaller ones, which were plainly intended to carry the aqueduct over a street parallel
to the Via Lata or Corso. At the same time some of the huge leaden pipes for conveying
the water were found.^

In the same line between the Fontana Trevi and the Pantheon another arch
was also found at the same time (about 1650) near the corner of the Palazzo Sciarra,
exactly where the aqueduct must have passed over the Via Lata. The inscription
which was found upon this arch has been restored as follows : — " Ti. Claudio Drusi F.
Caisari Augusto Germanico Pontifici Max. Trib. Pot. XI. Cos. V. Imperatori XXIIII. P. P.
Senatus Populusque Romanus quod Reges Britanniai perduelles sine ulla jactura suorum
domuerit, gentesque barbaras ultra Oceanum primus in dicionem populi R. redegerit." *
The arch therefore was a triumphal arch, and erected in commemoration of
Claudius's triumph after his return from Britain in .\.D. 4;;5 and this agrees ~'^",.

' Tj ) to Claudius.

very well with the fact related by Suetonius, that Claudius restored the arches
of the Aqua Virgo, which had been broken down by Caligula to make room for his
intended amphitheatre near the Septa. *' Claudius may very possibly, as in the cases
of the Arch of Drusus and the Porta Capena, have made use of his triumphal arch
for the conveyance of the Aqua Virgo. In the time of Pius IV. a great quantity of
fragments of marble belonging to this arch were found near the Palazzo Sciarra, and
Flaminio Vacca, who relates the discovery, says that he bought a hundred and thirty-
six cart-loads of them, and that among them were many historical reliefs, containing
likenesses of Claudius."

Another triumphal arch seems to have spanned the Via Lata at a point nearly
opposite the Church of S. Maria in Via Lata. This was discovered about twenty
years before the last-mentioned. It stood too far south along the Corso to have
belonged to the aqueduct of the Aqua Virgo.* We must therefore look for the Septa
somewhere in the vicinity of the Church of S. Ignazio. That the building was not
to the north of this is shown by the facts that both the Septa and \'illa Publica are

' See Hor. Od. i. 8, iii. 7, 25, iv. i, 39 ; .Sat. ii. 6, ^ Donati, Roma Vctiis ac Rccens, p. 400, gives a

49, t. 6, 126; Ep. i. 7, 59, i. 11,4; Ars Poet. 162. sketch of the arch and the pipes.
Cic. Pro Cielio, xv. J 36, speaks of swimmin<; baths : ■■ Donati, p. 385.

Mart. ii. 14, iv. 8; Hist. Aug. Chiudius, 13; Mcri- '' .Suet. Claud. 17. « lb. Cal. 21.

vale. Hist, of Romans, vol. vii. p. 556. " Klamm. Vacc. ap. Fca, Misc. p. 67.

= Frontin. De Aquxd. i. 22. » L. Fauno, Ant. di Roma, 154S, p. 130.

T T 2

324 Tlie Campus Martins and the J'ia Lata.

mentioned as situated near the Circus Flaminius, but upon the Campus Martius, and
not far from the Temple of Beilona/ and that they were injured in the fire of A.D. 80,
which only affected the buildings in the southern part of the Campus Martius.^
They are also said to have been near the Temple of Isis, which precludes the pos-
sibility of their having been on the eastern side of the Via Lata, for the Temple of Isis
was close to the Therms of Agrippa.^ The space, therefore, within which we must
look for any remains of the Septa, includes only the Church of S. Ignazio, the CoUegio
Romano, the Palazzo Boncampagni, the Church of S. Maria in Via Lata, and the Palazzo
Doria. Now under the two last-mentioned buildings some ruins of a very peculiar cha-
racter are situated. They consist of ancient piers of travertine about 39 inches square,
standing in rows at distances of five or six yards, and evidently belonging to the remains
of a portico. There are three rows of these, each containing eight piers, under the
Palazzo Doria, and five rows under the Church of S. Maria in Via Lata, containing each
five piers. It is plain that they were originally faced with marble, as the exterior surface
of the travertine is rough hewn. The situation of these pillars agrees well with the locality
in which the Septa are placed by classical writers; and a further proof that they certainly
formed a part of that building is given by the Capitoline plan, upon which we find a large
tract occupied by a building resting upon piers arranged in regular rows, exactly corre-
sponding to the piers under the Church of S. Maria and the Palazzo Doria.* Upon these
fragments the letters S.liPT and LIA are legible, which appear to belong to the words S.EPT.a.
JULIA. The shape of the building is very peculiar. It must have reached along the side
of the Via Lata from the Piazza di S. Marco to the Church of S. Maria in Via Lata, and
consisted of a long cloister supported by parallel rows of eight marble piers. This cannot
have been the arrangement of the place in the Republican or early Imperial times, for a
design less adapted for the orderly meeting of a large body of people can hardly be con-
ceived. It is much more probable that in the present ruins we have the remains of
Hadrian's Septa, ^' built when the original purpose of the building, the reception and
division of the centuries when they voted, had become an affair of the past.

The design of these spacious covered cloisters seems to have been to afford a sheltered
place for various classes of the Roman populace. Already in Domitian's time the Septa
had become the common resort of slave vendors,** dealers in fancy goods,'' flaneurs and
loungers,^ and the new arcades were intended possibly for the express accommodation of
such persons. The wide court in which the great assemblies of the centuries had previously
been held was partly filled up by these new buildings, and partly occupied by private
houses, as the Capitoline plan shows. When that plan was prepared, in the time of
Septimius Severus, the old Septa had entirely lost their form and original use, and the
name only remained attached to the spacious colonnades of Hadrian.

In the early times of the Republic the Septa were simply an enclosed place on the
Campus Martius, partitioned off into a number of diflerent plots by means of ropes or

' Cic. Ad Att. iv. 16; Plut. Sylla, 30 ; .Sen. De ■* Fragm. vest. Vet. Rom. Bellori, ap. Gra-v. Thcs.

Clem. i. 12 ; Liv. Ep. Ixxxviii. ; Val. Max. ix. 2. 1 ; torn. iv. tab. x.
Lucan, Phars. ii. 191 ; Strabo, v. 4, 11. '■" Hist. Aug. Hadr. 19, 10.

■■^ Dion Cass, l.xvi. 24. ^ Mart. ix. 60. " Ibid. x. So.

' Juven. vi. 52S et seq. ; Mart. ii. 14. 7. ** Ibid. ii. 14. 5 ; 57. 2.

The Campus Marlins and the ['/a Lata. 325

slight railings, in each of which one century assembled, and whence the presidents passed
one by one over the pontes to deliver the vote of their respective century.' Hence
arose the nickname of oinlia, which was gi\cn to the Septa on account of their similarity to
a sheep-fold.- Julius Cjesar first entertained the idea of setting up marble enclosures for
the Comitia Centuriata, and surrounding them with a magnificent portico.^ The whole
formed a spacious cloistered court, decorated with works of art, and closely connected with
the Villa Publica.* Cc-esar's design \\as completed after his death by Agrippa in IJ.C. 27,
and he gave the building the name Septa Julia.^ A rostrum was erected in it ;'' and such
was the extent of the space enclosed, that gladiatorial shows and sometimes naumachi.-e
v.-ere held there."

The \'illa Publica, built in 431 B.C., was situated, according to Varro, at the verge of
the Campus Martins ; and we must therefore place it at the southern end of

, — . o-iT ST, 1 11.111,., , . ' "''" PiMica.

the iiepta, near b. Marco.* It was a large public hall, which served not only
the purpose of holding the census and conducting the business of levying troops, but also
for the entertainment of foreign ambassadors." Whether Caesar's plan, mentioned by
Cicero, for building a new Villa Publica together with his new Septa, was ever carried out
is not known.'" It is possible that Josephus may allude to this new building under the
name of ^acrlXeia}^

A horrible massacre was committed in the year 82 B.C. by Sulla in this building, when,
after defeating the Samnites and democrats before the Colline gate, he collected the
prisoners, to the number of between 3,000 and 4,000, including the generals Pontius of
Telesia, Carrinas, and L. Junius Brutus Damasippus, in the Villa Publica, and cut them
down to the last man, so that the cries of the wounded and dying could be distinctly heard
in the neighbouring Temple of Bellona, where a meeting of the Senate was being held.'-

Westwards from the Septa, and nearly upon the sites now occupied by the Church of
S. Stefano del Cacco, the little Via di Pie di Marmo, and a part of the Church of S. Maria
sopra I\Iinerva, stood the Temples of Isis, Serapis, and Alincrva Chalcidica.'^
The names of these three temples are given in the Catalogue of the Curiosum s<rapis, an/
in the ninth region, and the sites of the two first, the Iseum and Serapeum, Mincna
have been sufficiently traced by the numerous Egyptian antiquities which
have been found near the Church of S. Maria sopra Minerva. Of these the most remarkable
are the two obelisks, one of which now stands in the Piazza della Rotonda in front of the

Pantheon, and the other in the Piazza della Minerva. The latter of these was found
between the Church of S. Ignazio and that of S. Maria in the time of Alexander VII. in

1665, and the former had stood, previously to its erection on the present pedestal, in the

' Thus Dinnysius says of the Comitia Tributa * A'arro, R. R. iii. 2 ; Livy, iv. 22, .\.\.xiv. 44.

in the Forum, x""/"" TrepiiT^oivifravTft ; Dion. vii. " Livy, x.\.\. 21, xx.\iii. 24.

59. Appian, B. C. iii. 30. '" Cic. Ad Att. iv. 16. See Sachsc's Rom. ii. p. 65.

- Serv. Ad Kcl. i. 34 ; Juv. vi. 528. 'i Joseph. Bell. Jud. vii. 5, 4.

^ Cic. .Ad .Vtt. iv. 16, sub fin. '-' Seneca, De Clem. i. 12 ; Lucan, ii. 197 ; Lny,

* Cic. loc. cit. ; VV\n. Nat. Hist, xvi, ^\ ;oi, xxxvi. 5, Epit. Ixxxviii. App. B. C. i. 93.

j 29. 1^ Juv. vi. 529: '■-'Edes Isidis antique qua' proxima

•'' Dion Cass. liii. 23. surgit Ovili." Marching from the Flaminian road

" Ibid. Ivi. 1. to the Portico of Octavia and Porta Triumphahs,

■ Ibid. Iv. 8. 10, \\\. \o : Suet. .Aug. 43. Cai. iS. the army of Vespasian is said by Josephus to have

Claud. 21, Nero, 12. passed ni.ar the btuni : Bell. Jud. vii. 5,4.

26 The Campus iMartius and the Via Lata.

little Piazza di S. Macuto, whence it was removed by Clement XI. The antiquarian
Fea, in his " Miscellanea," gives an account of various other Egyptian relics found on
the south-east side of the Church of S. Maria sopra Minerva, which undoubtedly belonged
to the Iseum and Serapeum.

Amono- these were the statue of Isis now in the hall of the Dying Gladiator in the
Capitol, the two Egyptian lions now at the foot of the steps of the Capitol, the famous
group of the Nile now in the Braccio Nuovo of the Vatican, and two fragments of an altar
with Egyptian reliefs and the inscription " Isidi sacrum." 1 Further traces of the same
Egyptian worship were found by Canina in the year 1852, of which he has given an
account in the Annali dclV Insiiiuto for that year. The Emperors Commodus and
Caracalla were particularly given to the worship of Egyptian deities, and the Emperor
Alexander Severus is said to have bestowed additional decorations upon these temples.^

The third temple, that of IMinen'a Chalcidica, which was restored by Domitian together
with the Iseum and Serapeum after the fire in A.D. 80,^ stood nearer to the Pantheon,* and
probably occupied the site of the present church called S. Maria sopra Miner\'a. The
statue of Minerva, formed}- in the Giustiniani Palace, and now placed in the Braccio Nuovo
of the Vatican, was found here." Some few remains of pilasters which are built into the
foundations of the houses between the Via della Minerva and the Via di Pie di ]\Iarmo may
have belonged to this temple.

Immediately to the west of these temples a vast space of ground extending from the
Via della Minerva to the Piazza Navona was covered with the buildings belonging to the
Thermse of Agrippa and the Thermas of Nero, afterwards rebuilt by Alexander Severus
and called the Thermae Alexandrine.''

For the determination of the site of the Thermae of Agrippa we have the conclusive
evidence of the above-mentioned arches of the Aqua Virgo, which supplied them with
water. The castellum or reservoir of the aqueduct is placed by Canina at the north-west
corner of the Church of S. Ignazio, whence the water was conveyed in pipes underground
to the back of the Pantheon, where the great court of the Thermae was probably situated.
Agrippa brought the Aqua Virgo into the city in B.C. 23, and two years afterwards he
opened his public baths, the first ever constructed in Rome.' The Roman poets speak of
them as one of the most popular resorts of the citizens, and the water enjoyed the
reputation of being the coldest and freshest in the whole city.^

The halls and colonnades of this great building were decorated with the most costh-
paintings, with numbers of marble and bronze statues, and with artistic designs in stucco
and encaustic tiles.® Among these was the Apoxyomenos of Lysippus, which Augustus
coveted so much that he had it removed to his palace and a copy substituted, but was
obliged by the indignation expressed against such appropriation to restore it to the

' Fca, Misc. pp. lx\'i. 26, cxxv. 17, ccvii. 8, ccliv. ^ Fea, Misc. p. ccliv. 112. ^ See below, p. 341.

112. " Hist. Aug. Carac. 9 ; Alex. Sev. 26. " Front, i. 10, 22 ; Dion Cass. liv. 11.

' Dion Cass, l.xvi. 24 ; Roncalli, Cat. Imp. ^'ienn. ' Sen. Ep. Ixxxiii. 5 ; Stat. Sylv. i. 5, 25 ; Ov. De

toni. ii. p. 243. Art. Am. iii. 3S5, "gclidissima Virgo;" Mart. vi.

* See Urlichs, Memorie Nuove dell" Inst. i. p. 42, i8,"rruda Virgine,'' the "hard" waterof the Aqua

SS et seq. ; Mirabilia, ap. Montf. Diar. Ital. p. 292 ; Virgo; vii. 32, 11, "niveas undas," "snow-cold;"'

.\non. Eins. in the Archiv fiir Phil, uiul Peed. 1837. Phn. xxxi. 3, § 42, "Virgo tactu pra;stat."

I'.d. V. Hft. I, S. 133, 134. ° Plin. xxxv. 4. § 26 ; xxxvi. 25, § 189.

The Catiipus Martins and the Via Lata. 327

baths.^ After his death Agrippa munificentl\- bequeathed the Thermae and his pleasure-
grounds to the pubHc- They were much injured in the great fire of A.D. 80, but were
restored partly by Domitian and again by Hadrian.^ The remains which are still left are
not sufficient to enable us to trace out the ground- plan of the Thermje. They consist
of the ruins of a semicircular building (exedra), and a few piers of brickwork on the
north side of the Via della Palombella, and in the Via della Ciambella at the back of
the Pantheon.* The brickwork here is apparently of the third century, and belonc^s to a
restoration by one of the later Emperors, of which we have no mention in history.

At the end of the fifth century these baths were still in use.^ The anonymous writer
of Einsiedlen calls them the Thermae Commodiana;, probably misled by some inscription
recording a partial restoration by Commodus, while the Mirabilia of the twelfth century
gives the right name, and Albertini, who wrote in the fifteenth centur}-, speaks of the
ruins of the baths of Agrippa as situated in the locality called Ciambella, whence the
modern street takes its name.*

At the same time with his Thermae, Agrippa built the famous dome, called by Plinv
and Dion Cassius, and in the inscription of Severus on the architrave of the building itself
the Pantheon," and still retaining that name, though now consecrated as a
Christian church under the name of S. Maria ad ]\Iartyres or della Rotonda.*
This consecration, together with the colossal thickness of the walls, has secured the
building against the attacks of time, and the still more destructive attacks of the barons
of the ^liddle Ages, who destroyed most of the other great edifices of Imperial Rome, by
either making them their strongholds or pulling them down for building materials.

The pronaos rests upon sixteen granite columns with marble Corinthian capitals. It
was formerly approached by six steps, but two only are now above the level of the
surrounding ground. The architrave and frieze are plain, and on the latter stands
the inscription, which formerly, as may be seen by the holes for nails, was formed by
metallic letters :—M. AGRIPPA. L. F. COS. TERTIUM. FECIT.^ Another inscription in smaller
characters stands under this upon the two upper ledges of the architrave, commemorating
the restoration of the building by Severus and Caracalla. ■ The pediment, as may be seen
by the holes of the metal fastenings, formerly contained a bronze relief representino-
Jupiter hurling thunderbolts upon the giants.'"

The roof of the pronaos was originally arched, but the vaulting has been replaced by
strong beams, and on the outside the gilded bronze tiles have been replaced by sheets
of lead. In the interior of the pronaos, on each side of the entrance, are two huge niches,
which formerly contained the statues of Augustus and Agrippa,'^ but are now empty.

' Plin. xxxiv. 8, \ 62. the shape of the cake called Ciambella. See Venuti.

= Dion Cass. liv. 29. vol. ii. p. 134; Fea, Misc. p. Ixxvi. 53 ; Arch iv fur

' Roncalli, Cat. Imp. Vienn. p. 243; Hist. Aug. Phil, tind Fad. 1837, Bd. v. Hft. i, S. 133, 134.

Hadr. 19. ' Plin. x.x.xvi. 5, j 38 ; Dion Cass. liii. 27, l.wi. 24.

' Fea, Miscell. p. Ixxvi. 53, 54, 55, mentions a ' Anastas. Bibl. \\x. Font. p. 52.

number of fragments as dug up here. ' The grammatical controversy of which Gclhus

' Sid. Ap. ad Consent, v. 460. speaks (x. i, 7), as to the correctness of the forms

" Montfaucon. Diar. Ital. p. 286; Mirab. Rom. ed. tcrtio a.r\i\ tti/iiim, seems to be here decided in favour

Parthey, p. 8 ; Albertini, Dc Mirab. p. 13, " in loco ai tcrtiiim. See above, p. 318.

qui vulgo Ciambella dicitur." The street was called •" Hirt, Gcsch. der liaukunst, vol. ii. p. 283.

Ciambella from the discovery of a crown there in " Dion Cass. liii. 27.

;28

TIic Campus Martins and the J'ia Lata.

The pronaos is connected with the rotunda by two massive projections of masonry,
ornamented at the sides with marble pilasters and exquisitely-worked reliefs in pentelic
marble, representing candelabra and sacrificial implements entwined with wreaths. These
connecting walls originally rose to an equal height with the walls of the rotunda, but are
now hidden by the bell-towers, erected by Bernini in the time of Urban VHI.^

The doorway is of magnificently-carved marble slabs, and the folding doors, moving on
massive hinges fixed in two projecting pilasters, are of bronze.-

I'ANTUEO.N.

The rotunda rests on a rectangular base, similar to those which support the cylindrical
parts of the mausoleum of Hadrian and the tomb of Cscilia Metella. In the parts where
the thickness of the wall is not lessened by niches in the interior it has the amazing
breadth of nineteen feet in solid brickwork. In addition to this it is strengthened with

1 Uonati, p, 389, gives a view of the P.intheon
without the bell-towers.

- Vcnuti, Antich. di Roma, vol. ii. p. 118, and
Nardini, Roma Antica, vol iiL p. 50, think that
the original bronze doors were carried away bv
Genseric. But Nibby, in his N.otes on Nardini, and
■VVinckelraann (Sur I'Arch. vol. ii. p. 606) ha\e

shown that the present doors are probably ancient,
though the method of hanging them may have been
altered. The grating above the door is similar to
one represented in a fresco at Herculaneum. Pitt.

d'Ercol. torn. i. tav.
loc. cit.

13, p. 73 ; Nibby on Nardini,

The Ca»ipits JM art ins and the Via Lata. "29

numerous arches built into the wall. Three cornices run round the exterior of the rotunda
and divide it into three rings, the lowest of which was faced with marble, and the two
upper with stucco. The dome springs from the second cornice, and consists first of a ring
of masonry seven feet high, and then of six concentric rings, presenting on the exterior
the appearance of six steps. The top is flat, and is pierced in the centre with a large round
opening twenty-seven feet in diameter. Round the opening is a ring of ornamental gilded
bronze, which is the only part of the old bronze-gilt roof now remaining. The masonry of
the dome is of wedge-shaped pumice stones, chosen for this purpose on account of their
lightness. The same kind of stone is used in several other buildings in Rome, where
lightness combined with moderate strength is required.'

The exterior of the dome is flat and heavy, and impressive only from its stern and
massive solidity. The proportions of the interior are altogether different, and have been
universally admired for their elegance, and the exquisitely simple taste with which thev
are decorated. The lower part contains eight deep niches, alternately semicircular and
square, in one of which the entrance doors are placed, while the others were filled with
statues of deities, now replaced by altars. The niches are decorated with pilasters, and
two Corinthian columns stand in front of each, supporting the entablature, which runs
round the whole interior. Between the eight principal niches are eight smaller ones, now
used as altars, faced with jedicula;, consisting of two small columns with entablature and
pediment. The two ring cornices in the interior answer in position to the two lower
exterior cornices. Above the upper cornice, which runs quite round the building, there
were originally twelve niches, surrounded with elegant marbles and stucco work. These
were altered in 1747, and their efi"ect injured b\' the introduction of hea\y pediments, and
by the removal of the marbles and stucco work. The interior of the roof is relieved by
well-designed rectangular coffer-work, decreasing in size towards the apex of the dome, so
as to give the impression of height and space. The floor is laid with slabs of Phrygian
and Nuinidian marbles, porplu'ry, and grey granite, in alternate squares and circles, set in
reticulated work. In the centre it has a depression pierced with small holes to carry oft
the rain-water from the aperture above. This drain probably communicated with the
great cloaca built by Agrippa to drain the Campus Martins.^

The proportions of the interior of the dome are admirably adjusted, so that no part
of the building has an undue prominence, contrasting favourably in this respect with
St. Peter's, where the immense size of the piers on which the dome is supported dwarf the
upper part too much. The Pantheon will always be reckoned among the masterpieces of
architecture for solid durability combined with beauty of interior cftect.

The Romans prided themselves greatly upon it as one of the wonders of their great
capital, and no other dome of antiquity could rival its colossal dimensions.^ The height
from the pavement to the crown of the dome is 143 feet, half of which is occupied by the
cylindrical wall and half hy the dome. This height is insignificant when compared with

• As in the vaulted arches of the Coliseum. See ■'' Amm. Marc. xvi. 10: "Pantheon speciosa eel-
Parker's Lecture before the Archaological Society of situdine fornicatum ; " Seneca, De Ben. iii. 32 :
Rome. "Agrippa, qui tot in urbe ma.\ima opera excitavit,

2 See above, chap. xii. p. 286 ; Plin. Nat. Hist. quas et prioreni magnificentiam vincerent et nulla

xxxvi. 15, 24 ; V'cnuii, Roma Antica, vol. ii. p. 121. postea vinccrentur."

U U

330 Tlic Campus Mar/ins and tlic I 'la Lata.

St. Peter's, the dome of which is 405 feet from the pavement to the base of the lantern,
and the exterior appearance of St. Peter's is far finer ; but the diameter of the Pantheon is
tlie greater, and the proportions of the interior more harmonious.

The inscription assigns its completion to the year A.D. 27, the third Consulship of
Agrippa. For a long time the mistaken notion prevailed that the building was dedicated
to Mars Ultor,' a misapprehension arising from a corrupt reading in a passage of Pliny,
where the words " Jovis Ultoris" had been inserted instead of " Diribitori." ^ The original
name Pantheon, taken in connexion with the numerous niches for statues of the gods in
the interior, seems to contradict the idea that it was dedicated to any peculiar deity or class
of deities. The seven principal niches may have been intended for the seven superior deities,
and the eight jediculcTe for the next in dignity, while the twelve niches in the upper ring
were occupied by the inferior inhabitants of Olympus. Dion hints at this explanation when
he suo-crests that the name was taken from the resemblance of the dome to the vault
of heaven.'

Oritrinallv, to all appearance, the Pantheon was not intended for a temple, but for a
part of Agrippa's Thermae. Its shape corresponds very closely with the description given
by Vitruvius of the laconicum or sudatio attached to all Roman thermre.* He recom-
mends for this part of the therma; a dome-shaped building with a round opening,
like that of the Pantheon, at the crown, which can be opened or closed at pleasure,
so as to lower or raise the temperature, by the removal or application of a lid (clypeum)
moved by chains. And on an examination of the pronaos it will be found that the
stones in its upper part, which abut on the central building, are not bonded into it, but
are only placed against it, showing that the pronaos was an afterthought, and was
not erected till the rotunda had been finished. It follows that Agrippa must have
chan"-ed the design of the building after the completion of the dome ; and perhaps
because he found it too vast for the purposes of a \'apour-bath, or because he thought
it too splendid a building to be employed for such a purpose, have determined to
dedicate it to the gods of heathendom. ° The bronze-gilt statuary, the work of Diogenes
of Athens, with which the temple was decorated, was much admired by the Roman con-
noisseurs, and in particular the group upon the pediment and the caryatides. The statue
of Venus was adorned with the two divided halves of the famous pearl of Cleopatra,
fellow to the one which she is said to have dissolved in vinegar in order to win the wager
that she could spend ten million sesterces in one dinner.^

In the fire of A.D. 80 the Pantheon suffered with the rest of the buildings in this part of
the Campus Martins," but from the solidity of its construction the injuiy done was not
(Treat, and was repaired soon afterwards by Domitian.* It was damaged by lightning in

1 Hirt, Gesch. der Baukunst, vol. ii. p. 283. the TTvpiariipiof or sudatio was identical with the

5 Plin. xxxvi. 15, § 102. Pantheon.

s Dion Cass. liii. 27. Becker, from the fact that ^ It is to be obser\-ed that Phny, xxxvi. 5, 38, and

Mars and Venus are particularly mentioned, thinks Macrobius, Sat. ii. 13 (iii. 17), distinctly call it a tem-

that the Pantheon was dedicated to the gods of the plum. Hadrian afterwards built a pantheon at

Julian gens. But there is no evidence to support this Athens; Paus. Attica, 18, 9.

conjecture. ^ Plin. loc. cit. ; Macrob. loc. cit.

■> Vitruv. V. 10 ; Dion Cass. liii. 27. It seems pos- " Dion Cass. Ixvi. 24.

sible in this passage of Dion Cass, to suppose that * Roncalli, Chron. ii. col. 197, 243.

Tlie Catnpus Martins and the Via Lata. -> -> i

the reign of Trajan, but restored by Hadrian, who used it frequently as a court of justice.'
A hundred years after this the restoration by Septimius Severus, recorded in the present
inscription, took place. Honorius closed this temple with the other temples of Rome in
399 A.D., but it was not consecrated as a Christian church until two hundred years after-
wards, when Boniface IV. dedicated it to All Saints, in allusion to the Pa"-an name of
Pantheon, giving the name of S. Maria ad Martyres.- Two acts of plunder perpetrated
upon the building deserve mention. In the middle of the seventh century Constans II,
took off the gilded bronze tiles of the roof, and was carrying them to Constantinople with
the plunder of the Forum of Trajan, when he was intercepted at Syracuse by the Saracens
and killed.^ His act of plunder was imitated by Urban VIII., who in 1632 took away the
bronze girders which supported the roof of the pronaos, and had them melted down and
used, partly for the pillars of the baldacchino in St. Peter's and partly for the cannon of
the castle of S. Angelo.'' At the same time we must not deny him the credit of having
restored one of the corners of the pronaos, where on the capital of a column may be seen
the crest of the Barberini family, the bee.

The district adjoining the Thermae Agrippinse and the Pantheon is generally spoken of
by Roman topographers as the Campus Agrippas, but there is no classical
authority for this appellation. The Notitia, however, mentions the Campus Campus

Agnppci.

Agrippse in the seventh region, the Via Lata, next to theTemplum Solis; and

Dion speaks of a portico in the Campus Agrippas as having been " built by Pola,

Agrippa's sister,* who also decorated the Circus." Now, this Porticus Poke,

Becker thinks, was identical with the Porticus Europae, often mentioned by PotUau PoU-,

Martial as a place decorated with a fresco of Europa and the bull," where Vipsania

Roman loungers congregated, and which was exposed to the rays of the

evening sun under the slope of the Ouirinal or Pincian. The name Porticus Vipsania,

which we find mentioned as a barrack for the legions, may also possibly have belonged to

this colonnade,'' for the building so called seems to have been within sight of Martial's

house on the Quirinal.** Martial places it near one of the arches on the Via Lata, over

which an aqueduct passed, perhaps the above-mentioned Arch of Claudius."

Another great building of Agrippa in this district and near the Septa was the Diribi-
torium, a colossal hall, of which Dion says that it was the largest building

■ I r 1 1 ■ 1 ■ • r 1 1 , Diribitorium.

ev^er erected under a smgle roof, and that m his tmie the roof had been pulled
down, being too large and heavy to be safe.'" The Diribitorium was intended, as its name
implies, for sorting and dividing the votes at the Comitia, but it was probably used for
many other public purposes. Caligula gave theatrical representations in it, and perhaps
also gladiatorial combats."

1 Orosius, vi. 12 ; Roncalli, Chron. i. col. 450; " Tac. Hist. i. 31 ; Plut. Galb. 25. Hence possibly

Dion Cass. L\ix. 7 ; Hist. Aug. Hadr. 19. called castra in the Notitia.

■ Anastas. Bibl. Vit. Pont. p. 52. Sec Uonati, « Mart. i. 108, 3.

p. 468. 3 See above, chap. vii. p. 151. " Ibid. iv. 18. See above, p. 323.

* Hence the famous epigram : " Quod non feccre " Dion Cass. Iv. 8 ; Plin. Nat. Hist, xxxvi. 1 5, § 102,

Barbari, fecere Barberini." See Donati, p. 3S8 ; xvi. § 2or. Pliny gives the length of one of the beams

Venuti, Roma Antica, vol. ii. pp. 114— 133, who used in the roof as 100 feet. Hence it has been

gives in page 121 the names of the principal writers somewhat hastily inferred that this was the width of

on the Pantheon. ' Dion Cass. Iv. 8. the roof, and that it was constructed of timber.

Mart. ii. 14, 3, 15 ; iii. 20, 12 ; vii. 33, 12. " Dion Cass. lix. 7 ; Suet. Cal. iS.

XT U 2

232 The Campus Martins and the I 'ia Lata.

In the same neighbourhood must also be placed the Posidonium or Porticos Neptuni
built by Agrippa. This porticus was built in commemoration of Agrippa's naval
victories, and adorned with frescoes representing the voyage and adventures of the
Argonauts.! Spartianus, in his Life of Hadrian, calls it Basilica Neptuni,- and it may
possibly have been connected with a basilica. Some topographers have identified
the ruin in the Piazza di Pietra. now the Dogana, with this basilica or
Posidomnm pQgidonium ; but, unless that building be a later restoration after the fire

or Portuus

Neptuni. of A.D. So, which is possible enough, the style is not such as to allow us to

Basilica assign it to the Augustan age. It has eleven fluted Corinthian marble

Neptuni. columns, supporting a tolerably well preserved entablature, and plainly

jRuin in Piazza helonffiniT to the longer side of a basilica or temple. The architrave, frieze,

""^''' and cornice have a heavy and unimpressive appearance, though some of the

details of the work are rich and carefully executed. In the courtyard of the building a

portion of the wall of the cella and the spring of the arches of the vaulted roof can be

seen now incorporated into the modern building. Various conjectures have been made

as to the name and history of this building.

Some of the older topographers thought that it was the Temple of ]\I. Aurelius, which
seems howev'er to have been nearer to the column of that Emperor than the ruin in question
is.'* Nor does the position of this ruin allow us to suppose that it formed any part of a
series of buildings placed symmetrically round the column. Palladio gives an elaborate
ground-plan, with all the details, and calls it the Temple of Mars ; but there does not appear
to be any evidence in favour of this supposition, nor is it known how much of Palladio's
design is taken from what remained of the ruin in his times, and how much is merely
conjectural restoration. The conjecture of Urlichs, that the Temple of Marci-
Tempeof Traian's sister, stood here, rests on no evidence but that of the Notitia,

Marciana. ' ■> '

and is rendered very improbable by the great size of the building, and by
the fact that the expression in the Notitia is "Basilica Marciani" and not " Templum Mar-
cianae." Another hypothesis, which Professor Reber maintains, has more to recommend it.^
Antoninus Pius is said to have erected a temple in honour of his adopted father Hadrian.®
This temple could not have stood in the Forum of Trajan, where there was no room left for
such a building, and would most probably be placed near the rest of the Antonine buildings,
not far from the Column of M. Aurelius. In the Mirabilia the Temple of
Temple of Hadrian is placed near the Church of S. Maria in Aquiro,^ which corresponded

Hadrian. ^

to the modern Chiesa degli Orfanelli ; and part of a temple precinct built of
travertine has been discovered in the Palazzo Cini, and is perhaps a relic of this temple.
A medal of the year 151 A.D. contains a representation of the Temple of Hadrian, which
corresponds tolerably well with the extant ruins,* and in the neighbourhood of the Piazza
di Pietra several statues and fragments of inscriptions bearing the names of Antoninus
Pius have been found at different times." When it is added that the style of building and

> Dion Cass. liii. 27, bcvi. 24 ; Mart. iii. 20. that they stood together.

- Spart. Hadr. 19. * Reber, Ruinen Roms, p. 260.

' Canina, Indie, p. 406 ; Nibby, Roma nelF Anno " Hist. Aug. Ant. Pius, cap. viii. ; Verus,cap. iii.

1S38, Parte ii., Antica, p. 681. ' Mirabiha Romae, ed. Parthey, 1869, p. 16.

■■ The Curiosum gives in the ninth region "Tem- * Eckhel, ii. 7, 22.

plum Antonini et Columnam cochlidem," implying " Fea, MiscelJ. pp. b;iii. 21, ccxiii. 78, cclv. 115.

The Campus Martins and the Via Lata. 333

execution of the ornamental work belong to the Antonine era, it will be seen that, although
there is nothing more than probable evidence in favour of the above supposition, yet it has
more in its favour than any of the other conjectures mentioned.

The present building was erected by Innocent XII. at the end of the seventeenth
century, in order to prevent the fall of the columns, which had become dangerously
disjointed. The entablature has been restored in many parts, and a kind of attica
erected over it, which gives the ruin the appearance of being in better preservation
than it really is.

So far as we have any means of ascertaining their sites, the Porticus Meleagri and the
BasilioE of Matidia and Marciana, the sister and niece of Trajan, mentioned
in the Notitia, must have stood near the Piazza di Pietra.^ A fragment of a Porticus
leaden pipe, in connection with the Aqua Virgo, was found near the Church of ' ' '^"'
S. Ignazio, bearing the inscription " Templo Matidije," - and the columns of Basilias
cipollino which are to be seen in the Vicolo della Spada d'Orlando and in Mardams
the Piazza Capranica^ may very possibly have belonged to one or the other of
these edifices.

North of the Piazza Capranica, in the open space called the Piazza di Monte Citorio, is a
large obelisk of red syenite. This is the Gnomon Obelisk, of which Pliny gives
an Interesting account in his Natural History.* It was brought by Augustus obdisk
from Egypt, with that which is now in the Piazza del Popolo, and was erected
on the Campus i\Iartius, under the directions of the mathematician Facundus Novus, to
serve as a sundial, by which not only the hour of the day but also the day of the month
might be shown. For this purpose the pavement of the piazza in which it stood -was
marked out with a complicated system of lines in bronze, and, to prevent any disturbances
caused by the settlement of the foundations, they were laid as deep below the ground as
the height of the obelisk itself Pliny remarks that when he wrote the Gnomon had ceased
for thirty years to mark the time rightly, and he ascribes this inaccuracy to some displace-
ment of the obelisk due to natural causes, such as earthquakes or inundations. It is
more probable that the inaccuracy of the Julian Calendar gradually produced the change.
Ammianus Marcellinus, the Notitia, and the anonymous writer of the Einsiedlen ]\IS.,
all mention this obelisk as still standing on the place where Augustus placed it. It was
then, after the ninth century, lost for a time, but discovered again in 1463, with a part of
the figures of the dial. Marliani, in the first half of the sixteenth century, mentions a part
of the obelisk as lying neglected in a cellar near S. Lorenzo in Lucina, and it was not
erected upon the present site until 1792.

To the east and north of the Monte Citorio lay the great buildings of the Antonine
era, of which we still have some remains in the base of the Pillar of Antoninus Pius now in
the Giardino della Pigna of the Vatican, the magnificent Pillar of M. Aurelius in the Piazza
Colonna, and the remains of the arch of the latter Emperor, now in the Palace of the
Conservators on the Capitol.

The first of these, the Pillar of Antoninus Pius,^ was a monolith of red syenite, resting

1 Hist. Aug. Hadr. 5. ■* Plin. Nat. Hist, xx.wi. 9, § 71, 72.

" Donati, Roma Vetus ac Recens, pp. 401, 402. ' An account is given of the histor>' of this pillar

^ Reber, Ruinen Roms, p. 262. by Vignoli, Diss, de Col. Imp. Ant. 1'. Rom. 1705.

334

The Campus Martins and tlic Via Lata.

upon a pedestal of the same stone, ornamented with reliefs. These remained upon their

original site in the garden of the Casa della Missione, near the Monte

■l> tmhuisPiKs Citorio, until the time of Benedict XIV., when the pedestal was removed and

placed in the Piazza di Monte Citorio, near the Gnomon Obelisk, but the

monolith was found to be so damaged as not to be worth the expense of re-erection.

Pius VI., when he placed the Gnomon Obelisk in the Piazza di Monte Citorio, removed
this pedestal and took it to the Vatican Gardens, and it was finally placed in the Giardino
della Pigna by Gregory XVI., who caused it to be carefully restored by De Fabris.

BAS-RELIEF ON I'EDEST.^L OF ANTOMXE COLU.M.N : GROUPS OF
CAV.\LRY AND INF,\NTRV.

On one side is an inscription recording its dedication to Antoninus Pius, and on the
other sides are reliefs, the principal of which represents the apotheosis of Antoninus
and Faustina. The Emperor and his wife are seen ascending through the air on the
shoulder of a Genius, and accompanied by a pair of eagles. Below is a seated figure of
Roma, surrounded with numerous trophies of arms, and another Genius grasping an
obelisk in his left hand. The reliefs upon the other two sides represent groups of cavalry
and infantry. The style of these sculptures is not unlike that of the reliefs upon the Arch
of Severus, and they have a stiftness in the execution which lowers them as works of art far
below the level of the sculptures of Trajan's time.

The Canipns Martins and the Via Lata.

ojO

The shaft of the column is now lost, as it was sawn up into pieces by Pius VI., and used
in the repairs of the Gnomon Obelisk and in the decorations of the Vatican Librarj-. One
fragment, which is now placed upon the pedestal, contains a Greek inscription,

AlOCKOYPOY
Ae TPAIANOY
AYO ANA nOAEC N
AP12TEIA0Y APXITEKTOY,

showing that the stone of which the column was formed was originall}- cut in the ninth
year of Trajan, under the directions of Dioskurus and Aristides the architect, and was
subsequently made use of, after Ij'ing for a long time in the Imperial stoneyard, to form
the Column of Antoninus.'

The second of the great Antonine monuments, the Column of M. Aurelius, still stands
upon its original site, in the Piazza Colonna. Formerly the centre point of a
group of massive temples and colossal halls, which have entirely perished, it is „ \i"^"i ,
now surrounded by houses of modern construction, and, surmounted by a
statue of St. Paul, looks like a grey veteran, clothed in the dress of a later generation,
in which he feels self-conscious and ill at ease. The only remains of the colonnades which
once enclosed the court in which it stood are to be found on the east side of the piazza in
the palace of the Prince of Piombino. They consist of a portion of a triple portico of
brickwork, probably faced in ancient times with marble. The Temple of
M. Aurelius, which stood, like that of Trajan, in front of the column, was ,/ Aurdius.
probably upon the western side towards the Piazza di Monte Citorio ;^ and it
was from the ruins of this temple, and not of the Amphitheatre of Statilius, as is commonly
supposed, that the mound of ruins called Monte Citorio was formed. But no traces of
the substructions, or of the walls or columns, have been found.

The column itself, which is a close imitation of that of Trajan, described in a previous
chapter,^ stands upon a pedestal, which was so altered by the repairs of Fontana from its
original shape as to present a totally different appearance. The ancient pedestal was
much less massive, and better proportioned to the upper part of the monument. Its
base stood at a level thirteen feet lower than the present pavement of the square, and it
consisted of a basement of solid stonework, about sixteen feet in height, resting on three
steps. Nearly the whole of this basement is now under the level of the surrounding
ground. On the east side was the door by which the spiral staircase in the interior was
reached. Upon the basement stood a large square flat stone, ornamented with genii and
triumphal and military reliefs,* and above this the pedestal, upon which, before the re-
storations by Fontana, only the words CONSECRATIO and D. ANTONIXI. AUG. PII were
legible. The original shape and inscription of this lower part are onl_\^ known to us from

' Ai'o ava iroSfs v is explained by Sarti to mean Temple of M. Aurelius.

" two columns each of fifty feet in length :'' ava ■nuca^ " Whether the buildings approached the column as

is a solecism for avA 7ro'8ar. closely as in the Forum of Trajan is not known. See

■ See All)!, dell' Inst. 1S52, p. 338; yfonumt-itli chap. vii. p. 146.

dell' Inst. vol. v. tav. xl. A bas-relief in the \illa ■* See the woodcut in Gamucci, Ant. di Roma,

Medici is supposed to represent the front of the 1569. lib. iii. p. 156.

6 77/t' Campus Martins and the Via Lata.

old prints and antiquarian notes in Gamucci, Du Perac, and Piranesi's works. It became
necessary for the safety of the pillar in 1589 to restore the base, and the whole was
cased in marble and repaired by Fontana, under the orders of Sixtus V., who at the
same time placed the statue of St. Paul upon the top. From a want of accurate historical
information, however, the old inscription was supposed to refer to the elder of the Anto-
nines, Antoninus Pius, and the new inscription accordingly speaks of the monument as
dedicated to him. The error was discovered by a narrower inspection of the reliefs upon
the shaft, which clearly relate to the exploits of M. Aurelius.

The plinth is quite simple, and the base of the shaft is formed, like the Column of
Trajan, in the shape of a laurel crown. The whole of the shaft is occupied by a spiral
series of reliefs, and only a small ring of fluted mouldings separates them from the capital,
which is of the Romano-Doric order. The whole pillar measures 122 feet in height, being
two feet lower than that of Trajan. The shafts of the two are exactly of the same height
(100 Roman feet), and are formed in the same way of solid cylinders of marble, in the centre
of which the spiral staircase which leads to the top is hewn.i The great winding wreath of
bas-reliefs, which twines round the colunm, contains scenes from the history of the German
wars, in the years from 167 — 179 A.D., in which a number of the tribes north of the
Danube, the Marcomanni, Ouadi, Suevi, Hermonduri, Jazyges, Vandali, Sarmati, Alani,
and Roxolani, with many others took part.= The representations begin with an army on
the march crossing a river (the Danube) ; then follow, as on the Pillar of Trajan, scenes in
which the general harangues his troops, the enemy's encampments are seen, and a great
victory is won, accompanied with the usual thank-offerings.

The most remarkable part of the whole series is a scene which plainly corresponds
to the account given by Dion Cassius of the sudden and, as it seemed, supernatural relief
afibrded by a thunderstorm to the Roman army, when hard pressed by the Ouadi, who had
surrounded them, and succeeded in preventing all their efforts to escape. " The Roman
army," says Dion,^ "were in the greatest distress from fatigue; many of them were wounded;
and they were hemmed in by the enemy, without water, under a burning sun. They could
neither fight nor retreat, and would have been compelled to stand in their ranks and die
under the scorching heat, had not some thick clouds suddenly gathered and a heavy rain
fallen, which refreshed them and afforded them drink. This did not happen without the
intervention of the gods {ovk affeei), for it is said that one Arnuphis, an Egyptian magician,
was with Marcus Aurelius, and that he, by invoking the aid of Hermes, the god of the air,
and some other deities, by means of incantations, drew down the rain." Xiphilinus, how-
ever, from whose abridgment of Dion we have the above account, declares that "Dion has
purposely falsified the circumstances, for he must have known that the ' Legio Fulminata'
obtained its name from the incident, the true history of which was as follows. There was
a legion in the army of Marcus Aurelius consisting entirely of Christians. The Emperor,
being told that their prayers in such an emergency never remained unanswered, requested
them to pray for help to their God. When they had prayed, God immediately smote the

1 See chap. vii. p. 147. From the fact that the by Canina to be 1482-275 metres. See Aa/i. ddl'

shafts of those columns, including the bases and Inst. 1852, p. 255.

capitals, are each exactly 100 Roman feet in height, ^ Dion Cass. ap. Xiphilin. Ixxi. S — 20.

the length of the Roman mile has been determined ^ Ibid. l.\xi. 8.

The Campus Martins and the Via Lata. 337

enemy with lightning, but refreshed the Roman army by a copious rain ; upon which
Marcus pubUshcd a decree, in which he compHmentcd the Christian legion, and bestowed
the name Fulminata upon it."

Historj', however, does not bear out this wonderful tale of Xiphilinus, for the name
Fulminata is known from inscriptions to have been given to the twelfth legion as early as
the reign of Augustus.^ Upon the pillar the scene is represented by the figure of Jupiter
Pluvius dripping with rain, which the soldiers are eagerly catching in their shields.

The drought is followed by an inundation, in which man\- of the Germans are drowned.
A grand battle takes place, followed by the burning of the enemy's huts and the seizure of
numerous captives. The figure of Marcus Aurelius on horseback accompanying a long
train of spoil taken from the German tribes, and a long series of battles, conflagrations
of villages and towns, and conferences with the enemy's generals follow ; and the end
of the first campaign at a point nearly half way up the column is represented by a pro-
fusion of trophies and spoils of war, in the midst of which a figure of Victor}- inscribes
the triumph on a shield.

Over this figure of Victory begins the history of the second campaign, in -which four
battles are represented, and various military scenes, as the crossing of the Danube in boats,
the thanksgiving sacrifices after victory, the Emperor addressing his army, captures of
women and children, and, finally, a long train of captives and spoils led off in triumph.
This great marble history is a close imitation of the design of that on Trajan's Column.
The style of e.xecution is, however, somewhat different, the figures stand out much more
from the surface, are more roughly cut, and have a heavier and stiffer look, resemblin<T
that of the reliefs upon the Arch of Severus and the base of the Pillar of Antoninus Pius.
The column is called in all ancient writings Columna Antonini, which may apply to either
of the Antonines. But it is perfectly evident from the spiral reliefs representing the
frequent crossings of the Danube, and especially from the incident of the sudden storm
which extricated the Roman army from their difficulties, that the German wars of Marcus
Aurelius are the subject commemorated. Aurelius Victor and Julius Capitolinus state
that temples, cohintns, and priesthoods were dedicated to this Emperor after his death ;^
and some inscriptions discovered in 1777 in the Piazza Colonna complete!}- establish
the conclusion that this pillar was erected in his honour. These inscriptions, now in the
Gallery of Inscriptions in the Vatican, contain a petition from Adrastus, a freedman of
Septimius Severus, and custodian of the Pillar of Marcus Aurelius, addressed to the
Emperor Severus, requesting leave to have the miserable hut {cannaba)'" in which he livetl
changed into a habitable house (solariuvi) for himself and his heirs. The}' also contain
the decree of the Emperor giving the permission and assigning materials and a site. The
petition was presented immediately on the accession of Severus, and the decree is dated
in the consulship of Falco and Clarus, A.D. 193, two months after that Emperor had taken
possession of the palace.*

' Dion Cassius, Iv. 23; Orelli, Inscr. 517, 5447,6497, Romans, vol. vii. p. 585, and note.
6522, 6777. See Bocking-'s note on the Notitia ^ Aur. Vict. Cxs. 16 ; Hist. Aug. M. Aur. iS.

Dignitatum, vol. i. p. 422, and Becker's Handbuch, ' See Gruter, Inscr. 466-7.

Theil ii. Abth. 2, S. 353 ; Merivale's History of the * Fea, Krammenii di Fast. Cons. p. 77.

X X

The Campus Ufa rf ins and tlie Via Lata.

In this inscription tlic pillar is called the Coliimna Centenaria, and exact measurements
of the shaft have shown that it is just lOO Roman feet in height, including the base and
capital.

The bronze statue of Marcus Aurelius which stood on the summit was probably carried
off by the Byzantine Emperor Constans II. to Syracuse, and was there taken by the

.\I. AURELIUS ON HOR.SEB.ACK.

Saracens from him and conveyed to Alexandria, with the rest of the plunder he had
stripped from the buildings of Rome.' To distinguish this column from the above-
mentioned pillar of Antoninus Pius it is called in some of the legal documents of
the tenth century " Columpna major Antonina." - As recorded in the inscription on

' See above, p. 331, and chap. vii. p. 151. - See Nibby, Roma nell' Anno 183S, parte ii. p. 640.

The Campus Martins and the Via Lata. 339

the modern base it was much injured by lightning in tlie fourteenth century, and
restored by Sixtus V.

At the corner where the Strada della Vite crosses the Corso is a tablet recording the
improvements made by Alexander VII. in the Corso at that point, whence he removed the
ruins of an ancient triumphal arch which impeded the thoroughfare. A view of this is
given by Donati, who calls it the Arcus Domitiani.i But Nardini and all topographers
since his time are agreed that the arch which stood here till 1662 must have been erected
at a later time in honour of JVI. Aurelius.'- When it was pulled down " publico commoditati
at ornamento," as the inscription has it, there were still four columns of verde antico stand-
ing, two of which are now used to adorn the principal altar in the Church of S. A^rnese
in Piazza Navona, and two are in the Corsini Chapel in the Lateran Basilica.
The keystone of the arch is preserved in the Collegio della Sapienza. ^"'1 o/M.

■' ' fo r- AiDfhus.

On each side of the arch there were two reliefs, now placed in the Palace of
the Conservators on the Capitol, on the landing-places at the top of the stairs. One of
these represents M. Aurelius standing on a suggestum to deliver an harangue, and the
other the apotheosis of the younger Faustina his wife, who is being carried up to heaven by
a Genius, while the Emperor is seated below, and at his feet the Genius of Halala, a town
at the foot of Mount Taurus, where Faustina died.^

These two reliefs were removed into the Palace of the Conservators in order that they
might be placed near four other reliefs, supposed to belong to the same arch, which had
been found in the sixteenth century in the Church of S. Martina near the Capitol. A fifth,
also found in the same church, is now in the Palazzo Torlonia in the Piazza di Venezia.
The earlier history of the removal of these last five reliefs is not known, but it seems
certain, from their style and subjects, that they belonged to the Arch of M. Aurelius.
The four which are now in the Conservators' Palace represent Marcus Aurelius on horse-
back with his army and a group of barbarians kneeling before him ; the goddess Roma
receiving the Emperor, who comes on foot to the gates, and presenting him with the
globe, the symbol of empire ; the triumphal procession of M. Aurelius in a quadriga
crowned by Victory ; and his thanksgiving sacrifice in the Capitol. The fifth relief,
which is now in the Palazzo Torlonia, represents either M. Aurelius or his brother Lucius
Verus in conference with some barbarians, who kneel as suppliants before him. Even
supposing that the last-mentioned five reliefs do not belong to this arch, yet the two
first, which are known to have stood upon it, are quite sufificient to prove that it was
the Arch of M. Aurelius. The similarity between the representation of the apotheosis
of Faustina the younger and that of Antoninus Pius and the elder Faustina is too
evident to be overlooked, and the whole style of sculpture and architecture point to
the Antonine age.

A variety of absurd and unmeaning names were given to this arch in the Middle Ages.
It was called " Triopoli " or " Tripoli " from a fragment of the inscription upon wliich three
cities were mentioned, " Tres fascicela; " from the torches carried by the genii of the reliefs,
"Retrofoli" or "Triphali" or " Tropholi " from the trophies represented upon it, and at a

' Donati, p. 378. - Nardini, Rom. .Ant. lib. vi. cap. 9.

■■' Hist. Au^'. M. Aur. 26.

X X 2

340 The Campus Martins and the Via Lata.

later time " Arco di Portogallo" from the residence of the Portuguese ambassador at
the neighbouring Palazzo Fiano.^

Passing now from the Antonine group of buildings to the western side of the great

group of Agrippa's Thermse, we find in the spacious Piazza Navona the scanty relics of an

ancient stadium. The northern end of the piazza is semicircular, the longer

Stadium ^i^^g ^j.^ parallel, and the southern end is a straight line at right angles to

them. Remains of the substructions of the seats have been found under the

Church of S. Agnese, and at various other points round the piazza.-

The Notitia mentions a stadium in the ninth region capable of holding 30,088 specta-
tors, and from the earliest times the Campus Martins, and probably this particular part of
it, where the river makes a sudden bend, was the scene of races and g}-mnastic sports.'
Romulus had celebrated the Equiria here in honour of Mars.'' But after the Circus
Flaminius was built the horse-races were transferred to it, and Caesar erected a temporary
wooden stadium for the athletic sports, which had previously been held upon the
open held." Augustus also built a wooden platform for the spectators of the sports."
But both these were only temporar)% and were pulled down at the conclusion of the
exhibitions, and Domitian first erected a permanent stadium, which was probably upon
the spot previously used by Csesar and Augustus." Alexander Severus appears to have
restored this stadium, which lay near his Thermje ; ^ and it was called after him, in the
twelfth century. Circus Alexandrinus, by a confusion between circus and stadium, easily
arising from their somewhat similar shape.' Another name applied to this piazza in the
Middle Ages was Campus Agonis, probably in allusion to the Agon Capitolinus of
Domitian.^" Hence arose the common modern name Circus Agonalis, which is entirely
inapplicable, since the place was not a circus, nor were the games held in a circus ever
Called Agonalia.

But the strongest -evidence we have in favour of the hypothesis that the Piazza
Navona was anciently a stadium and not a circus rests on the shape of the piazza
and of the ruins. One of the essential parts of a circus, the spina, is entirely wanting,
and the end from which the runners started is at right angles to the longer sides,
while in a circus, as has been shown in the case of the Circus Maximus, the carceres
always stood in a slanting direction across the course, in order to equalize the distances
round the spina."

The obelisk, which now stands in the centre of the piazza, was brought by Innocent V.

1 -See Poggio, De Fortun. van : L. Fauno, DcU' Aichiv fiir P]nl.undPad.\%y],'QA.\.Y{{\.. \,%.i-^i.
Ant. di Roma, 154S, p. 126; Anast. Vit. Hadr. i. ; The Circus Flaminius stands here for the Piazza
Fea, Misc. p. lix. 1 1 ; Donati, p. 378, &c. Xavona by a mistake of the worthy monk.

2 Fea, Misc. p. 68, note c. ^ See the Ordo Romanus and A. Fuhio's Ant.

* Ov. Fast. iii. 519. Urbis Romae, 1548, p. 135.

* Fcstus, p. 131. " Xibby, Roma neir .-^nno 1S3S, parte i. pp. 599,
■' Suet. Ca;s. 39. 600 ; Suet. Dom. 4 ; Ov. Fast. i. 31S sq.

^ Dion Cass. liii. i, oroSiou titos Iv rm d/3f i'm 77f 8i'(m " See Krause, Die Gymnastik der Hcllenen, p.

KaTixrTKivaadivToi. The Gymnasium of Nero may also 131, § 14, and above, p. 295. Excavations are now

have been on this spot. See Tac. Ann. xiv. 47 ; Suet. (Feb. 1870) being carried on in the Piazza Navona,

Ner. 12. which are said to have brought to light the substruc-

T Suet. Dom. ; ; Chron. ap. Rone. ii. 197, 243. tions of the ancient seats and one of the interior

' Hist. .Aug. .Alex. Sev. 24 ; Anon. Eins. in the gates.

The Cainpus Martins and tJic Via Lata. "41

from the Circus of Maxentius on the Appian road. The Circus of Maxentius was not,
however, its original site, for the hieroglyphics are of Roman execution, and contain the
name of Domitian.^

Canina places the Odeum at the southern end of the Piazza Navona. Its exact site is
altogether uncertain, and the existence of a permanent building of this kind,
a small roofed theatre for musical performances, is only known to us by the """'

statement of Suetonius, that it was built by Domitian after the fire of A.D. 80 in the
Campus Martins.- Ammianus Marcellinus mentions it among the great buildings of Rome*
and the Curiosum states that it contained 10,600 seats.

In the same neighbourhood, between the Piazza Navona and the Pantheon, were
the Thermae Neronians,* which were afterwards restored and enlarged bv t;
Alexander Severus, and named after him Thermae Alexandrinje.^ These Neroniana.
are mentioned several times by the anonj-mous writer of Einsiedlen -as Thenna

standing between the Piazza Navona, (which he calls the Circus Flaminius,) Alexandrine.
and the Pantheon. Becker conjectures that the stadium in the Piazza Navona was
originally the building called Gymnasium Neronis by Tacitus," which was in connection
with the Thermae of Nero, and that Alexander Severus afterwards enlarged the area of
the TherniEe, so that they reached to the Piazza Madama and S. Luigi dei Francesi.
The Latin poets, Martial and Statius, are loud in their praises of the elegance and
excellence of the Baths of Nero ;" but subsequently to the enlargement by Alexander
Severus the name Neronianje was lost, and they were always called Alexandrine.

A few other buildings and localities must be mentioned, which were probably situated
in this part of the Campus Martius, though we know nothing which enables
us to determine their exact position. A marble arch was erected by Claudius Arch of

Tiberius.

in memory of Tiberius in the neighbourhood of Pompey's Theatre.^ This
arch had probably been previously decreed by the Senate to be erected at the time
when Tiberius restored the Theatre of Pompey, but the intention was not carried out
at the time."

The stables of the factiones of the Circus are mentioned by the Notitia as in the
ninth region. These may be the stables alluded to by Suetonius and Dion,
when, in relating the mad passion of Caligula for horse-races, they state that Stabuia

F'^etiomim.

he used to live for whole days m the stables.^" Vitellius is said by Tacitus to

have squandered money in building stables for the factions, so that the extent of these

stables may have been considerable, and their architecture costly.'^

' See Overbeke, Reliquije Urb. Romae, vol. ii. p. Neronians on the Pincian. See Mcrivale, vol. vi. p.

3'- 177, note ; Ampere, Hist. Rom. a Rome, iii.

- Suet. Dom. 5 ; Chron. ap. Rone. p. 197. » Suet. Claud. 11. ' lb. Tib. 47.

» Amm. Marcell. xvi. 10. w Ibid. Cal. 55 ; Dion Cass. lix. 14.

* Suet. Nero, 12; Aur. Vict. Epit. 5 ; Chron. ap. " tac. Hist. ii. 94. Becker thinks that the words
Rone. 433. of the Xotitia, " Stabula iiii. factionum vi." are to be

* Cassiod. ap. Rone. ii. 194, 209, 245, 473 ; Hist. interpreted as meaning that there were si.\ stables
Aug. Alex. Sev. 25 ; Aur. Viet. Cajs. 24. belonging to the four factions ; the two factions

* Tac. Ann. xiv. 47 ; Becker, Handbuch, p. 685. added by Domitian having died out. See Handbuch,
' Mart. ii. 48, 8, iii. 25, vii. 34, 5, xii. 83, 5 ; Stat. p. 714, note.

Silv. i. 5, 62. Another account places the Therma;

342 The Caiiip7ts Marfhis and the Via Lata.

A temple dedicated to the Lares Permarini is mentioned by Livy and Macrobius as

Temple of Lares situated in the Campus Martius. It was dedicated by M. ^mihus when

Pennarini. Ccnsor, in B.C. 1 79, having been vowed by O. jEmilius Regillus eleven

Temple of years before, in the great naval battle against the fleet of Antiochus

Juturna. at Myonnesus on the coast of Asia Minor.^ A temple of the nymph

Juturna seems to have stood near the arches of the Aqua Virgo. Ovid says, very

distinctly marking the locality: —

" Te quoque lux eadem, Turni soror, rede recepit
Hie ubi virginea Campus obitur aqua."''

But as the Aqua Virgo was carried through a considerable distance across the Campus
from the Pincian hill to the Thermae of Agrippa, we are still left in ignorance of the
exact position of this temple.^

The Via Tecta, a colonnade closed in on both sides, seems to have been near the

Terentum and Altar of Dis, and not far from the Mausoleum of Augustus

and the Ustrina of the Caesars, for Seneca describes Claudius as descending

" ad inferos " at a spot between the Tiber and the Via Tecta.* There was also a Porticus

Flaminia, extending along the Via Flaminia." The position of the Ara For-

Poriiiits tunse Reducis and the temple dedicated to the same goddess by Domitian

Flanuiua. _ o j

depends upon the site of the Porta Triumphalis. If with Becker we conclude

that the Porta Triumphalis stood between the Temple of Isis and the Porticus Octaviae,

then we must place the altar and Temple of Fortuna Redux there, for

Altar of Martial plainly unites the two, and it was natural enough that the generals

Fortuna Kednx.

on their return should sacrifice to Fortuna Redux before entering the

Altars of Pax. '^

city in triumph.'' There were also several altars dedicated to Pax in the
Campus Martius, which possibly stood near the Porta Triumphalis.'

Of the stone amphitheatre of Statilius Taurus, built in the Campus Martius in the

fourth consulship of Augustus, we know nothing more than the bare mention
Aniphithcatreof ^ -^^ name.^ Some topographers have conjectured that the heaps of ruin

Statilius. r b r j r

which formed the Monte Citorio were the remains of this building, and others
have conjectured the same of Monte Giordano, but no evidence has been produced in
confirmation of either supposition.

Tacitus mentions a place called the Praedia i?imiliana, where the fire in Nero's reign
Pra:dia broke out a second time, and Suetonius seems to hint that this was near the
Mmiiiana. Septa and the Diribitorium. But we know nothing further about the
situation of the district.^

' Livy, xl. 52 ; Macr. Sat. i. 10, 10. See Momm- Dion Cass. liv. 10 ; Fast. Amit. iii. Non. Oct. xviii.

sen, vol. ii. p. 268, Eng. trans. Jan. Kal.

2 Ov. Fast. i. 463. See pp. 259, 323, 326. '' Fast. Am. iv. Non. Jul. Fast. Prsn. iii. Kal. Feb.;

2 Serv. ^n. xii. 139; Cic. Pro Cluent. 36. Dion Cass. liv. 25, 35 ; Ov. Fast. i. 709, iii. 1S2.

•> Seneca, Ludus de Morte Claudii, xiii. I ; Livy, * Dion Cass. ii. 23, Ixii. iS ; Suet. Aug. 29.

xxii. 36, calls it Via fornicata ; Mart. iii. 5, viii. 75. " Tac. Ann. xv. 40 ; Suet. Claud. iS ; Vano, R. R.

' Hist. Aug. Gallien. 18. iii. 2, 6 ; Gruter, Insc. 176, 2.

" Mart. viii. 65 ; Claud. De VI. Cons. Hon. i. i ;

The Campus Martins and the Via Lata.

o4j

The northern part of the Campus Martins contained only one great building of whicli
we have any knowledge. This was the Mausoleum of Augustus, the ruins of
which are now buried under the Teatro Correa, and are approached bv a ^^''""'''""" "f
narrow entry leading out of the Via dei Pontefici. All that can now be seen
of the shapeless mass which this once stately building presents is a small part of the
cylindrical brickwork basement on the left of the entrance to the Teatro Correa, and
another fragment of the same at the back of the Church of S. Rocco. The proofs that
these are the remains of the Mausoleum of Augustus are quite indisputable. Suetonius
places it between the Tiber and the Flaminian road, and Strabo speaks of it as standino-
near the bank of the river, descriptions which, though they are not very definite, ap-ree with
the site of the Teatro Correa sufficiently.^ Complete certainty is, however, afforded by the
inscriptions which have been found on the site of the Ustrina Csesarum, where the bodies
were burnt before burial. These were found near the Corso, between the Via de^li Otto
Cantoni and the Via dei Pontefici, a spot answering to Strabo's notice of the site of the
Ustrina as standing (eV /ieVfi) tm -rrehiat) in the middle of the Campus, which is here
narrowed by the approach of the Pincian hill towards the river.-

Augustus had built this magnificent tomb in his sixth consulship (28 B.C.). At that
time the course of the Flaminian road through the Campus was lined with the tombs of
many eminent Roman statesmen and public characters, which have all, with the excep-
tion of the insignificant tomb of Bibulus, totally disappeared. The modern city has
entirely effaced all traces of these, but we may in all probability suppose that the Fla-
minian presented no less striking a spectacle in the days of Augustus than the Appian,
which we are accustomed to regard as the great burying-place of Rome.'

The name " mausoleum " was apparently given to this tomb, if not immediately yet soon
after its completion, not from any resemblance in the plan of the building to the famous
monument of the Halicarnassian queen, which differed entirely in shape and design, but
because the expression "mausoleum" had already become a name used to designate any
tomb of colossal proportions.^ The Mausoleum of Halicarnassus was a rectangular build-
ing, surrounded with a colonnade,^ while the tomb of Augustus was cylindrical, and orna-
mented with deep niches. Strabo gives the following description of the latter monument :
" The most remarkable of all the tombs in the Campus is that called the Mausoleum,
which consists of a huge mound of earth, raised upon a lofty base of white marble near the
river bank, and planted to the summit with evergreen trees. Upon the top is a bronze
statue of Csesar Augustus, and under the mound are the burial-places of Augustus and his
family and friends, while behind it is a spacious wood, containing admirably designed
walks. In the middle of the Campus is the enclosure Augustus made for burning the
corpses {Kavarpa), also of white marble, surrounded by an iron railing, and planted with
poplar trees." ®

The mound of earth here described by Strabo was probably of a conical shape, and the
trees were planted on terraced ledges. The mass of the building was cylindrical, like the

' Suet. Oct. 100 ; Strabo, v. 3, 8, p. 236. * It is called Tumulus Casarum in Tac. .Ann. iti. 9.

' Strabo, loc. cit. ° See Hirt, Geachichteder Baukunst, vol. ii. p. 69,

' Ibid. ; Juv. i. 171 : " Experiar quid conccdatur \ 35.

in illos quorum Flaminia tcgitur cinis atquc Latina." * » Strabo, loc. cit.

344 The Campus Martins and the J 'ia Lata.

central portions of Hadrian's Mausoleum, and of the tombs of Plautius at Tivoli and Csecilia
Metella on the Appian road, and was supported upon a square basement, which is now
entirely buried beneath the level of the ground. The exterior of the cylindrical part was
relieved by large niches, which doubtless contained statues, and broke the otherwise heavy
uniformity of the surface. At the entrance were the bronze pillars which Augustus had
ordered to be erected after his death, on which was engraved a catalogue of the acts of
his reign.^ We now possess a fragment of a copy of this interesting document in the
famous Monumentuni Ancyranum, found at Ancyra, in the vestibule of the Temple of
Augustus.- Besides these pillars, two obelisks stood in front of the entrance door, one of
which is now placed in the Piazza of S. Maria Maggiore, while the other stands between
the statues of the Dioscuri on the Ouirinal. These obelisks were not, however, placed
there at the time when the tomb was first built, but at a later period of the Empire.^
The entrance fronted towards the city, i.e. to the south, near the apse of the Church
of S. Rocco, and appears to have had a portico with columns, the traces of which are
still left.

The interior was formed by massive concentric walls, the spaces between which were
vaulted, and divided into cells for the deposit of the urns containing the ashes of the
illustrious dead.* A great alabaster vase, found near the mausoleum in 1777, and now
placed in the Vatican Museum, was probably one of these. We know from the \'arious
passages of Roman authors that the first burial which took place here was that of the
young Marcellus, the favourite nephew of Augustus, who died at Baias in B.C. 23 ; ^ and the
last that of the Emperor Nerva in A.D. 138.* The Mausoleum of Hadrian then became the
Imperial tomb. During the 160 years which preceded, the ashes of Agrippa, Octavia the
mother of Marcellus, Drusus, Caius and Lucius, Augustus himself and Livia, Germanicus,
Drusus, son of Tiberius, the elder Agrippina, Tiberius, Antonia, (wife of L. Domitius),
Claudius, and Britannicus, were deposited here. Besides these there must have been a
great number of other friends and relations of the Imperial family buried here. Only
one of all the inscriptions recording these burials is now extant. It is engraved on a
pedestal which bore the urn where the ashes of the celebrated Agrippina, the wife of
Germanicus and mother of Caligula, lay. In the inscription Caligula is called Augustus,
showing that the burial took place after his accession, in accordance with the account of
Agrippina's banishment by Tiberius. '^ The pedestal was hollowed out, and used in
the Middle Ages as a measure for corn, and is still inscribed with the words " Rugitella cli
Grano." It may now be seen in the courtyard of the Conservators' Palace on the Capitol.

At the same time, and at a spot between the mausoleum and the Corso, were found
six cippi of travertine, recording the burning of the bodies of four of the children of
Germanicus, Tiberius Caesar, Caius Ca;sar, Livilla, and one whose name is erased. The
remaining two cippi record the burning of the bodies of a son of Drusus, and of one of

' Suet. Aug. loi ; Dion. Ivi. 33. ■* See Preller, Rcgionen, p. 222, note.

- Hamilton's Asia Minor, vol. i. p. 420. SeeZumpt's ^ Dion Cass. liii. 32, liv. 26. ' Ibid, l.xix. 23.

Introduction to his Commentary on the Mon. Anc. ' Suet. Tib. 53, 54 ; Cal. 15. The inscription is as

' Amm. Marc. .wii. 4, p. 108, ed. Eniesti. Zoega follows : — " Ossa Agrippinas M. Agrippje filia;, Divi

in his work, De Obeliscis, thinks that they were Aug. Neptis, U.Noris Germanici Cassaris, Matris

erected by the Flavii. C. Cassaris Aug. Germanici Principis."

The Ca?np2ts Martins and the Via Lata. 345

the Flavian family. It is evident that these cippi belonged to the Ustrina CiEsarum, a

place described by Strabo, as quoted above, where the corpses of the dead

were burnt, and the formal ceremony of collecting the bones took place.^ U^t"""

. Ctcsarum.

The cippi may still be seen in the Vatican Museum.

The mausoleum remained closed after Nerva's burial, until the capture of Rome by
Alaric in 509 A.D., when the Goths broke it open in their search for treasure, and scattered
the ashes of the Cassars to the winds. It was then probably that the alabaster vase,
mentioned above, was removed from the mausoleum, and carried to the Ustrina, where it
was found. In the twelfth centur}-, the mausoleum suffered the fate of all the other great
buildings of Rome. It became a castle of the Colonna family, and bore the name
Augusta. The mound of earth was then probably removed, and a stone or brick tower
built in its place. Previously to this, the statue of Augustus, with the bronze decora-
tions of the Pantheon and Forum of Trajan, had probably been carried to S\"racuse by
Constans, and thence to Alexandria by the Saracens.-

The building might, however, still, like the tomb of Hadrian, have long defied the
attacks of time, had not the Romans themselves in the commotions of 1167 demolished
the Colonna castle, and with it the greater part of the walls upon which it was built. Two
hundred jears later, the body of the last of the tribunes. Cola di Rienzi, was burned
before the mausoleum. At that time the spot was called Campo d'Austa, from the ancient
site of the Ustrina. The interior chambers seem to have been entirely demoli-shed in the
fifteenth century, and only the exterior wall left. Poggio the Florentine describes the
building as used in his time (1440) for a vineyard, and before that date its shape was com-
pletely changed by the falling-in of the vaulting of the interior, so that it presented the
appearance of an amphitheatre instead of a lofty conical building. In Donati's book (i638'>
it is represented as a funnel-shaped ruin, with a garden in the sloping sides of the
interior.^ Much information might doubtless be gained by well-directed excavations,
which have apparently never been undertaken on account of the present occupation of
the ruin as a circus in winter and a theatre (the Teatro Correa) in summer.*

The third division of the Campus Martins lay to the east of the Corso, and occupied
the space between that street which corresponds to the old Via Flaminia, and the Pincian
and Quirinal hills. The name Via Lata is not found in any document of an
earlier date than the Notitia. It is now quite obsolete, but was current * <""'■'/ '"^

' Lain.

in the time of Anastasius, and is used in his Lives of the Popes. ■'" Lucio
Fauno, who lived about 1540, mentions the name as still extant in his time.'' The northern
part of the Corso always retained the name of Via Flaminia, and it was only south of the
Arch of M. Aurelius that the street was called Via Lata.

In the region so named there were but few buildings or localities of importance. From
the Porta Fontinalis on the Ouirinal a covered way or porticos reached to

II- , T^. ., • ■ ~ -^, ,. . Altar of Mars.

the bepta and Dinbitonum. 1 he censors, accordmg to ancient custom.

' Suet. Aug. 100. Via Lata. Anast. Vit. Greg. iv. p. 339 ; Hadr. p.

- See above, p. 151. ^ Donati, p. 375. 266 ; Bened. iii. p. 401.

* See Story's Roba di Roma, vol. i. pp. 233 — 240. " L. Fauno. Ant. di Roma, 154S, p. 130.

' The name Via Lata is preserved in S. ^L-lria in

Y V

346 Tlic Campus MartiJts ajid tJic Via Lata.

used to take their seats after the conclusion of the Comitia at the altar of Mars near
this portico.^

Further to the north the arches of the Aqua Virgo projected from the side of the

Pincian hill and crossed the Via Lata.' Some remains of these arches are

Arches 0/ A<jua g^-jjj ^^ ^^ ^^^^ jj^ (.j^g yjg^ ^g| Nazarene (No. 12), at the back of the Foun-

tain of Trevi. They bear an inscription which was copied in the ninth
century by the anonymous chronicler of Einsiedlen, recording the restoration of the arches
by Claudius after they had been partially destroyed by Caligula, who intended to build an
amphitheatre in this neighbourhood.^ The arches are now entirely covered with rubbish,
and the conduit of the aqueduct itself, which formerly was raised upon them, is con-
sequently now upon the level of the ground. The inscription stands on the side of the
conduit, and was formerly at the spot where some principal street passed under the
aqueduct. A simple cornice, and an architrave, with the upper part of some Doric
pilasters, appear above the surface of the water, which is here tapped to afford a
washing-trough to the laundresses of the neighbourhood. The masonry is of solid
travertine blocks carefully cut and fitted.

The tomb of Bibulus and the nameless tomb, which stand in this region just outside
the Porta Ratumena, under the Capitol, have already been described.* It

I^!", "^ has also been shown that Aurelian's great Temple of the Sun was in this

Bibulus. ^

T M fSl P^""*- °'^ '■'^^ Campus Martins, and not upon the Ouirinal.^ But the exact
site of this latter building cannot now be determined. Every stone has
disappeared under the encroachments of the modern city, nor is there a trace left of
the many tombstones which from the tomb of I^ibulus to the Porta del Popolo must
have fringed the Flaminian way. In fact, no space of equal extent within the Aurelian
walls is now so devoid of archeeological interest as this district ; for besides the few
places above mentioned there is nothing of historical or topographical importance to
record or trace.

' Livy, XXXV. 10, -xl. 45. * See chap. x. p. 254 ; Vopisc. Aur. 10 ; Eutrop. ix.

- See above, chapter x. p. 259, and chapter xiii. 15 ; Zosimus, hb. i. p. 56. Eight porphyry columns

p. 326. of Aurehan's great temple are supposed to have been

' Suet. Cal. 21. Anon. Einsiedl. in the ..4rf/«'wya/- carried by Justinian to Constantinople, and there

Phil, nnd Parci. Bd. v. Hft. i, S. 120. placed in the Church, nsvv Mosque, of St. Sophia.

■" See chap. viii. p. 197. Winckehnann, Sur I'Arch. Anc. torn. ii. p. 630.

Cha-pJOV: p. 347.

<arseo7i

- <j Auioria

^t.

A € R I

O M A m II

Tab u l a

ANCIENT ROMAN MILES.

A G R 1

^^ '© If A H 1

TABU L A

CHAPTER XIV.
THE ROMAN CAMPAGNA.

BOUNDARIES OF LATIUM ANTIQIISSIMIM. — PART I. PHYSICAL GEOGR..\PHY : GEOLOGICAL FORJfATIONS — TLFACEOUS
BEDS — TERTIARY MARINE STRATA — APENNINE LIMESTONE — HILLS OF THE CAMPAGNA — VOLCANIC CRATERS —
PEPERINO — BASALTIC LAVA — MONTI UI DECIMA — SILVA OSTIENSIS — HILLS ON LEFT BANK OF ANIO : MONS
SACER ; MONTES CRUSTUMERINI ET CORNICULANI — LAKES AND BROOKS: RIO DI TURNO, RIO TORTO
(NUMICIUS), FOUNTAIN AND BROOK OF ANNA PERENNA — LAGUNES AND MARSHES : STAGNO 1)1 OSTIA, SALINyt
— LAGO DI NEMI — LAGO D'aLBANO OR DI CASTELLO ; ITS EMISSARIUM — RIO DI MALAFEDE — AQUA FERENTINA—
AQUA CRjVBRA — PETRONIA — ALMO — ALLIA — ANIO — AQU/E ALBUL.* — TUTIA — RIVUS ULMANUS— LAKE REGILLUS.

PART II. PERIOD OK CITIES : — (l) LAURENS TRACTUS AND CAMPUS SOLONIUS : LAURENTUM ; LAURO-LAVINIUM
TROJ.\ NOVA ; LAVINIUM ; APHRODISIUM ; FIC.4NA ; POLITORIUM ; TELLEN^ ; APIOUE ; BOVILL/E ; ARDEA ;
CASTRU.M INUI ; OSTIA; PORTUS TRAJAN I — (2) ALBAN AND TUSCULAN HILLS: LANUVIUM ; ARICIA ; NEMI,
DIANIUM ; ALBA LONGA, MONS ALBANUS ; FABIA ; CASTRIMONIUM, AQUA FERENTINA ; TUSCULUM (CITADEL,
CITY, THE.\TRE, G.\TE AND WALLS, PISCINA, AMPHITHE.^TRE) ; CORBIO — (3) PILSNESTE AND LEFT BANK
OF ANIO: LABICUM ; GABU ; PR>ENESTE (CITADEL, TEMPLE OF FORTUNE); VITELLIA ; TOLERIUM ; PEDUM;
BOL.\; SCAPTI.\ ; ORTON.\ ; QUERQUETULA ; COLLATIA ; C.'ENINA ; ANTEMNjE — (4) CITIES ON THE RIGHT BANK
OF THE ANIO: FIDEN/E ; CRUSTUMERIUM ; NOMENTUM ; FICULEA ; CORNICULUM ; CAMERIA; AMERIOLA ;
MEDULLIA — (5) TIBUR AND ITS NEIGHBOURHOOD: TIBUR ; EMPULU.M ; S.^SSULA ; SISOLENSES ; yEFULA.

PART HI. PERIOD OF LATIFUNDIA, VILLAS, ROADS, AND AQUEDUCTS — CITIES ON THE ETRUSCAN AND SABINE FRONTIERS
AND ALBAN CITIES FIRST DESTROYED — THE LATIN LE.\GUE : — (A.) LATIFUNDIA; GRADU.\L MONOPOLY OF LANDED
PROPERTY — (B.) VILLAS : (l) TUSCULAN VILLAS — CICERO's TUSCULANUM ; VILLA OF CABINIUS, OF LUCULLUS, OF
CATO JUNIOR; (2) .4LBAN VILLAS — VILLA OF CLODIUS, OF POMPEY ; ALBANUM CBSARUM ; (3) L.\URENTINE VILLAS
— PLIN\''S LAURENTINUM ; VILLA OF COMMODUS .\T TORRE P.\TERNO ; VILLA OF HORTENSIUS; (4) SUBURBAN
VILLAS NEAR ROME— SUBURBANUM ,COMMODI ; SUBURBANUM HADRIANI ; SUBURBANUM GORDIANORUM ; SUBUR-
BANUM LIVI.«; SUBURBANUM PHAONTIS ; (S) TIBURTINE VILLAS — TIBURTINUM HADRIANI (GRAND ENTRANCE,
PAL.tSTRA, PCECILE, BARRACKS, LIBRARY, IMPERIAL PALACE, STADIUM, THERM.^, CANOPUS, ACADEMIA,
INFERI, LYCEUM, PRYT.VNEUM) ; TIBDRTINUM ZENOBI.E ; TIBURTINUM CASSII ; TIBURTINUM SALLUSTII ;
SABINUM HORATII — (C.) ROADS: APPIAN R0.4.D — DEUS REDICULUS ; GROTTO OF EGERIA; TEMPLE OK
BACCHUS OR HONOS ; CIRCUS OF MAXENTIUS AND TEMPLE OF ROMULUS ; TOMB OF CECILIA METELLA ;
ROM.*. VECCHIA; villa of SENECA; TOMB OF ATTICUS ; USTRINA ; TOMB OF GENS AURELIA ; TEMPLES OK
HERCULES AND SYLVANUS ; VILLA OF PERSIUS ; TOMB OF GALLIENUS; BOVILL/E: LATIN ROAD — TOMBS;
TORRE FISCALE; TEMPLE OF FORTUNA MULIEBRIS : VIA PR.<ENESTINA AND VIA LABICANA — TORRE PIGNATTARA :
VIA VALERI.\ — PONTE LUCANO ; TOMB OF PLAUTII : VIA NOMENTANA : VIA SALARA : VIA FLAMINIA AND VIA
CASSIA: VIA AURELIA, ^^A TRIUMPHALIS : VIA OSTIENSIS AND VIA LAURENTINA : VIA TUSCULANA, VIA
COLI..\TIN.-V, VL\ ARDEATINA, AND VIA AMERINA — (D.) .•\QUEDUCTS.

PART IV. PERIOD OF DEPOrUL.\TION AND DEVASTATION : DESTRUCTION OF HADRIANS TIBURTINUM ; BARBARIAN
INVASIONS.

NOTE ON THE NAME CAMPAGNA, OR CAMPANIA.

"Tunc omne I.alinum
Fa1)u]a nomen crit : Gabios, Veiosque, Coramque,
Pulvere vix tectx poterunt nionstrare ruina:,
Albanosque I-arcs, Laurcntinosque Penalcs
Rus vacuum, quod non liabitet nisi nocte coacta
Invilus, queslusque Numam jussisse, senator."

I.UCAN, Phars. vii. 392—397.

HE name Campagna, as applied to the district near Rome, i.s of comparatively modern i

and somewhat indefinite application, and it tlicreforc becomes necessary, at tlic '

Y \ 2

348 TJie Roman Caiupagna.

beginning of this chapter, to define accurately the hmits within which it is proposed to
confine our survey of the neighbourhood of Rome.^ The first Italian region of Augustus,
which included not only Latium south of the Anio, but also Campania and a part of
Samnium and Etruria, is plainly too extensive to be conveniently described within such
narrow space as we can allow ourselves. Two other divisions are mentioned by Pliny
as having prevailed at different times. He calls one of these Latium antiquum, and the
other Latium adjectum.^ The former name was applied to the territory of the ancient
Latins alone, while the latter also included that of the yEquians, the Hernicans, the
Volscians, and the Ausonians. For our present purpose it will be m.ost
Bmnidarks of convenient to restrict our survey within the boundaries of Latium
mtu'iiissiniiiin antiquum, and to narrow the field still further by excluding from it the
tract between the Alban hills and the sea, which was occupied in the
earliest times by the Rutulians.^ The boundaries of this district, which may be termed
Latium antiquissimum, have been investigated with great erudition by Dr. Bormann, in his
work on the chorography and ancient history of the Latin cities.* The Tiber forms the
boundary line on the side of Etruria, and the district is separated from the Sabine territory
on the north by an imaginary line drawn from Tibur to Nomentum, and thence by Monte
Rotondo to the river Tiber, thus including a considerable tract to the north of the Anio.
On the /Equian frontier the boundary line followed the foot of the y^Equian hills from
Tibur to Prasneste, and then passed between Bola (Zagarolo or Lugnano) and Labicum
(Colonna) to the Tusculan hills. The Volscian frontier line passed from Tusculum,
between Monte Cavo and Monte Ariano, to Lanuvium (Civita Lavigna), and then,
excluding Corioli (Monte Giove), to Sugareto and the Numicius (Rio Torto), which
separated Latin from Rutulian ground.

Part I. — Phy.sical Geography.

The geological formations of this tract of country correspond to those already

described in the immediate neighbourhood of Rome. We find throughout'

Geological covering the surface of the ground, great tufaceous deposits ejected from

formations. ^ _, . , _ . . ., 1 r 1 1 -n r

^ , , J the volcanoes of Etruria and Latium, similar to those oi the hills ot

lufact'ons ocas.

Rome. The peculiar physical features of these deposits have had no little
influence in determining the mode in which the population was grouped in ancient-
times. Everyvv'here we find the hills of Rome reproduced on a smaller scale.
Low, isolated, flat-topped hills irregularly divided by deeply cut watercourses, and
edged with steep rocky cliffs, afford numerous sites for the settlement of limited inde-
pendent communities. Such are the hills on which Laurentum, Lavinium, Fidense,

' Sec note at end of chapter. The term Campagna Servius, Ad J'c.-n. vii. 38, prefer to use the terms vetus

is now generally understood to be co-extensive with and novum as legally correct.

the Comarca, or province of Rome which extends ^ Pliny includes the Rutulian territory in his Latium

along the coast from Civita Vecchia to Nettuno, and antiquum by making Circeii its limit on the coast. '
inland as far as S. Oreste and Subiaco. ' Altlatinischc Chorographie und "Stadtegeschichte.

- Plin. N. H. iii. §§ 56, 59. Tacitus, Ann. iv. 5, and A. Bormann. Halle, 1852.

The Roman Caynpagna. -iaq

Antemn.-E, Ficulea, Crustumerium, and Gabii stood ; and similar places abound in
many parts of the district. These hills afforded suitable sites for the small fortified camps
with which ancient Latium was thickly studded. Their sides can be easily scarped so
as to afford a natural line of defence, and they are in general fairly supplied with water
from numerous land springs.

Thus, although the general aspect of the Campagna is that of a plain country,
yet the main level of its surface is broken by numerous deep gullies and <Troups of
hillocks.

The tertiary marine strata, which have been already described as formin<T the
Janiculum and other hills upon the right bank of the Tiber, do not rise to

I r ■ t r~ I n , ^ , »^ Tertiary marine

the surface m the Lampagna, except on the flanks of the ^quian and strata.

Sabine hills. These hills themselves consist of great masses of Apennine Apenniue
limestone, jutting out here and there into the spurs upon which some '""^^tone.
of the more considerable cities of the Latin confederacy stood, as Tibur, PnTeneste,
Bola, and Cameria.

The Alban hills form a totally distinct group, consisting of two principal extinct
volcanic craters, somewhat resembling in their relations to each other the
great Neapolitan craters of Vesuvius and Somma. One of them lies within Htlb of the

. . .,.,,^ Campagna.

the embrace of the other, lust as \ esuvius lies half enclosed bv IMonte r- , •

^ J l olcanic craters.

Somma. The walls of the outer Alban crater are of peperino, while those

of the inner are basaltic. Both are broken away on the northern side towards Grotta

Ferrata and Marino, but on the southern side they are tolerably perfect.

The outer crescent-shaped crater beginning from Frascati extends to Monte Porzio
and Rocca Priora, and then curves round by Monte Algido, Monte Ariano, and Monte
Artemisio.

The inner crescent includes the height of Monte Cavo, and surrounds the flat meadows
known by the name of Campo d'Annibale.^ Besides these two principal craters, the
ages of which are probably as distinct as those of Vesuvius and Somma, there are traces
of at least four others to be found in the lakes of Castel Gandolfo, commonly called
the Alban lake, and ot Nemi, and in the two small cliff-encircled valleys of the Vallis
Ariciha and Larghetto.-

Some of the lakes now drained, lying between the Alban and Sabine hills, were also
probably formed in the hollows of small outlying craters, as the Lago di Castiglione, and
those near Pantano and Cornufelle.

The peperino of the Alban hills is quite distinct from the tufa of the Campagna.
The latter has a mouldering earthy character, and its component parts have
been reduced to powder or to small fragments before cohesion ; while the
Alban peperino is bright and fresh when broken, and contains large pieces of basalt
and of limestone. It does not, however, necessarily follow from this that the Roman

1 The name Campo d'Annibale cannot be any- explanation seems impossible. MiiJier, Campagna,

thing more than a popular misnomer. Miillcr under- ii. p. 128.

stood it as denoting the site of the Roman camp - See Westphal, Die romische Kampagnc, p. iv.

formed to resist Hannibal (Livy, xxvi. 9). Such an

250 The Roman Canipagna.

tufa is not the product of the Alban volcanoes. The.peperino may have been produced
by a different outburst of volcanic power from the same volcanic centre as the tufa,
since it is a well-known fact that the same volcano ejects matter of a totally different
description at different times of eruption.

Little is known of the streams of lava which issued from the Alban volcanoes. Most
of them are hidden deep under the tufaceous beds of the Campagna, and only one
remarkable stream can still be traced throughout its course. This begins to
Basatic ava. ^^ vjgibie about a mile from Fratocchie, towards Rome, on the Appian road,
and ends near the tomb of Caecilia Metella on the same road. The line of the Appian road
is carried across the Campagna along the top of this bank of lava, which has sometimes a
steep and broken edge, and sometimes slopes gradually to the level of the surrounding
country. Here and there can be found the ancient quarries from which the Romans cut
their paving stones. The depth of the bed is about seventy feet near Fratocchie, but as it
approaches Rome it becomes much shallower, and near the tomb of Caecilia Metella it is
not more than twenty feet in thickness. The tufa through and over which it passes may
be seen to have been more or less altered by the heat in proportion to the distance at any
point from the origin of the lava.^

Another stream of lava has been found at some depth below the surface of the
tufaceous strata near Aqua Acetosa, on the Via Ardeatina, but its limits are not known.-
Beds of lava are also mentioned by geologists as existing in the neighbourhood of Monte
Porzio, Colonna, Frascati, and Tusculum.

With the exception of the great masses of the Alban hills, there are
not man}' hills in the Campagna worth special notice. Some few deserve
attention, but more on account of their historical than their phy.sical importance.

Of these the most extensive and continuous is the chain of hills called Monti di

Monti Decima. This range has no ancient name, and derives its present appel-

diDecima. lation from the station called Ad Decimum at the tenth milestone on the
Via Laurentina. With some interruptions these hills extend from the left bank of the
Tiber near Dragoncello, where they cause the river to make a bend to the north,^ in a
slanting direction towards the sea-coast, which they reach at Porto d'Anzo. Their
highest points rise to the altitude of 400 feet above the sea ; but this height fs not
apparent, because the general level of the adjoining countr)' is at least 300 feet above the
sea. They resemble the hills of Rome in their formation, being irregularly shaped
masses of tufa, with a few small beds of lava here and there. In prehistoric times they
may have formed the coast-line of Latium, and Nibb)^ thinks that the mouth of the
Tiber was once at Dragoncello.* Here, therefore, the scenes described in the Seventh
^neid may be supposed to have taken place. The principal points in the northern part
of this range of hills, besides Dragoncello and Decima, are Porcigliano, Capocotta,
Monte di Leva, and Petronella. About a mile from this last place rises the little hill

^ Westphal, Rom. Kamp. p. vi. locum putat Labeo dici ubi fuerit Ficana via

"^ Gell, Top. Rom. p. 2. Ostiensi ad lapidem undecimum."

^ The Puilia saxa mentioned by Festus, p. 250, were ■* Nibby, -Analisi, ii. p. 41. See Bonstetten, Voyage

probably at this point: "Puilia saxa esse ad portum dans le Latium, p. 18.

qui sit secundum Tiberim ait Fabius Pictor : quern

The Roman Cavipa^na.

OD'

of Pratica (Lavinium), and between this and Ardea the chain of hills is broken through
by the Rio Torto (Numicius).

The tract between the Monti di Decima and the sea is occupied in great part by
the Forest of Ostia, which consists of a wild wooded district, three or four miles wide,
clothed with brushwood and occasional clumps of pines. Nearer to the sea lie sand-
dunes, covered with oleander, myrtle, and other shrubs ; and these are succeeded by
lagunes and salt-marshes. Virgil represents the mouth of the Tiber as
surrounded by a thick forest in the time of ^neas, and if we suppose,
as Xibby does, that at that remote date the hills of Decima formed the coast-line, his
description of the river breaking out suddenly through a dense forest into the sea,
"vorticibus rapidis," may not be entirely imaginary.^ Three several old coast- lines can
be traced between the line of the hills of Decima and the present beacli.'-

The range of hills of which the Monti di Decima form the principal part is continued
along the left bank of the Tiber as far as the Church of S. Paolo fuori le Mura, where the
hills make a bend and enclose the Prati di S. Paolo. The eastern side of the Via Ostiensis
is skirted by these low tufaceous hills up to the walls of Rome, where they sink at length
into the level ground near the Aventine. The hills of Rome itself may be considered
as a further continuation of the same range.

That part of the Campagna which lies between the hills of Frascati and the Anio
is without any considerable natural hills. The IVlonte di Grano four miles,
from Rome on the Frascati road, is artificial. But there are several deep and ^'''^ "" "'"^ ^'^'

bank of Anio.

narrow ravines over which the Via Prsenestina has to be carried on viaducts,
and occasionally hills are passed by cuttings in the tufa, and the whole of the country rises
gradually as the .^quian hills are approached, so that at the twenty-fourth milestone from
Rome a height of 850 feet above the sea-level is reached.^ The brooks which descend from
the watershed between Palestrina (Prffineste) and Colonna (Labicum) divide the tract lyinn-
at the foot of the /Equian and Tusculan hills into a number of parallel, deep watercourses,
and here and there form isolated masses of tufa, on which several of the old Latin cities
were placed. The sites of Ouerquetula, Scaptia, Pedum, and Gabii must be sought among
these. The .^quian mountains themselves present on this side steep cliffs of solid lime-
stone, but traces of volcanic action arc found in the immediate neighbourhood of Tibur,
where a mountain called Monte Spaccato has been split asunder to a depth of 470 feet by
an earthquake, and a stream of lava has been poured out on the right bank of the Anio
near Ampiglione.

The watershed between the Tiber and the Anio begins at the Ponte Nomentano with
the hills of Casale dei Pazzi, one of which, at the junction of the Ulmano
with the Anio, is the famous Mons Sacer.^ It rises gradually along the IlUlsbet-Men
course of the Via Nomentana, becoming more and more broken into isolated ' ^,„-^
hills until it reaches the considerable elevations of Monte della Creta (Ficulea),
Monte Gentile, and Mentana (Nomentum). On the left bank of the Tiber the tufa hill

' /En. vii. 31. by Livy, ii. 32, " Trans Anieneni tria ab urbe millia,"

' See Canina's Map of the Campagna. and iii. 52, "Via Nomentana." Festus, p. 318 : "Trans

■* Bormann, p. 55. Aniencm jiaulo ultra tcrtium milliarium.'' Cic. Brut.

■* The position of the Mons Sacer is definitely fixed 14: '• Prope ripam Anienis ad tcrtium milliarium."

jo-

Tlie Roman Caiupagna.

of Castel Giubileo (Fidenoe) is the most remarkable. The range, if it can be so called, of

Mons Saccr. which it forms the principal point, continues to skirt the Tiber northwards as

Castel GiiMleo. far as Monte Rotondo (Crustumerium), a distance of fourteen miles. The hills

Monks ^j- ]yjQj.,,-g Rotondo, Mentana, and S. An^elo (Montes Crustumerini etCornicu-

Cnistumcnm o ^

et Coyiiiculain. lani) are considered by Bormann as forming the limit of Latium antiquissimum.

The soil of the Campagna being entirely formed of decomposed volcanic deposits, is to

an extraordinary degree absorbent and retentive of moisture. This is said to

Lakes and |-,g q^^ gf ^\^q principal causes of the singular fertility of some districts in the

Campagna! early part of the }ear. The spring vegetation of the country round Rome

is marvellously luxuriant, while in the autumn the ground becomes parched

and brown. The same cause renders the brooks of the Campagna, which run into the

sea, the Tiber, and the Anio, small and scanty. On the sea-coast we find only three

brooks of any importance. The first of these is formed by the confluence of two rivulets

which descend from the Monti di Decima. It empties itself into the sea about seven

miles from Ostia. Another of a similar kind, six miles further south, bears

the name of Rio di Turno, and has been connected by some of the

topographers of the Campagna with the spring and rivulet of the nymph Juturna, who

is addressed in the JEne'id as the queen of lakes and loud-voiced rivers.^ But this is

contrary to the statement of Ovid, who makes Juturna one of the Tiberinides, and

therefore the fountain and stream of Juturna must be looked for among those which

rise near the Alban hills and run into the Tiber.^

A few miles further along the coast is the mouth of a more considerable stream, the
Rio Torto, forming a large morass on the coast at its mouth. The whole
winding course of this stream among the tufa hills of S. Palomba and
Sugareto is at least sixteen miles in length. It deserves particular attention, since in
the opinion of the best authorities — Nibby, Gell, and Bormann — it has
the best claim to be considered the Numicius of Virgil and Ovid.^ There
are only two other streams which can dispute this claim with it, the Rio di Nemi and
the above-mentioned Rio di Turno. As regards the former of these, which flows close
to Ardea, it forms the artificial outlet of the lake of Nemi ; and we can therefore hardly
imagine that the poets could have made a river-god its tutelary deity. Besides this,
Silius makes the Numicius rise from a small spring, and his words, "parvo descendens
fonte," could not have been intended to apply to the lake of Nemi."" Dionysius also
clearly indicates that the Numicius must be looked for not so much in the neighbour-
hood of Ardea as of Lavinium ; and it cannot therefore be the river on which Ardea stands.^
As little does the Rio di Turno answer the description of the Numicius ; for the battle
between the Rutulians and Trojans on the Numicius, during which zEneas was said to have
been lost, supposes the Numicius to ha\e been a considerable stream flowing between the
camp of /Eneas at Lavinium (Pratica) and the territory of the Rutulians.® The Rio di
Turno is therefore on the wrong side of Lavinium. On these grounds it is tolerably certain

1 yEn. xii. 139 ; " Stagnisqu.xfliimiiiibusiiuesonoris 3 Virg. yEn. vii. 150, 242, 797; Ov. Met. xiv. 398.

prssidet.' ■• Sil. Ital. viii. 170.

- Cv. Fast. ii. 585. * Dionys. i. 64. » Dionys. loc. cit.

The Roma u Campagna. -.r-.

that the Nuniicius is to be recognised in the Rio Torto. And the descriptions given by
the poets correspond to the present aspect of the river. Ovid in Met. .\iv. 598 says :—

" Litus adit Laurens, ubi tectus arundine serpit
In freta flumincis vicina Numicius undis."

And in the Fasti, iii. 647 : " Placidi sum Nympha Numici."

And SiHus, Punic, viii. 179 : —

" Haud procul hinc parvo descendens fonte Numicus
Labitur et leni per valles volvitur amne."

Both speak of it as a slow, winding stream covered with reeds.

The spring of Anna Perenna discharged its waters into the Numicius. For, although
Silius speaks of it as near the Stagna Laurentia,^ it must be remembered that the whole
of this part of the coast was often comprehended under the name of Ager Laurens, and
that Virgil applies the epithet Laurens even to the neighbourhood of Minturnae.- Accord-
ing to the legend, Anna, the sister of Dido, comes from Lavinium to the Numicius, and
the brook dedicated to her must therefore be looked for on the right bank of the Numicius.
As there is only one, the Sugareto, which fulfils this condition, it may be concluded that
the Sugareto was the stream flowing from the spring of Anna Perenna.^

The numerous lagunes and marshy spots upon the coast need no mention, since they
are generally dried up in the summer, and their situations and extent vary
from time to time. The great salt lake near Ostia is, however, never dried Lagunes ami
up, as it lies at a lower level than the sea, and is connected with the sea by ^ ,. ' .

^ ^ ilagno dt Oslia.

a channel. In a part of it on the north side of the road from Rome to .w/,,^.

Ostia, which here passes over a bridge across the lake, are numerous salt-pits,
where salt is procured by the evaporation of sea-water. In the time of the Etruscan
kingdom there were also other salt-pits on the right bank of the Tiber, which came
into the possession of the Romans after the capture of Veii.''

The Rio di Nemi and the Rio di Lanuvio, which run into the sea south of the Rio
Torto, do not come within our limits, as they belonged partly to the Volscian
and partly to the Rutulian territor>^ The Rio di Nemi conveys the water " ' ""''
from the outlet of the lake of Nemi, which occupies, as has already been mentioned
one of the ancient craters of the Alban hills. The name of this lake, and of the village
on its margin, is derived from, the great grove of Diana (Nemus Dianje), whose temple
probably stood on the site of the present \illage of Nemi." The wooded cliffs which
surround the crater are steep, and descend immediately into the water, except on the
side near Genzano, where they slope more gently, and are planted with vines. Their
average height is 300 feet. In the Latin poets frequent mention is made of this lake as
one of the principal ornaments of the neighbourhood of Rome, and in connection with the
widely celebrated Temple of Diana. Hence it was called Speculum Diana;, Lacus Tri\-ias,
and Stagnum Dians." W'hcther the name Lacus Aricinus^ also belonged to this lake

1 Silius, Punic, viii. 39. ' See below on Aricia, p. 374.

- Virg. yEn. vii. 47. '' Propert. iv. 22, 25 ; V'irg. /En. vii. 516, and Ser-

= The story of Anna Perenna is related in Ovid, vius ad loc. ; Ov. Fast. iii. 261.
Fast. iii. 647, and in Silius, Punic, viii. 39 et scq. " Ov. Fast. iii. 262, where locus may possibly be

< Livy, vii. 17. See Nibby, .'\nalisi, vol. i. p. 375. the right reading, for the reason given in the text.

z z

354

The RiiiiMi Caiiipagna.

is doubtful, for Pliny speaks of a lake which formerly occupied the valley of Aricia, and the
water in the valley of Aricia was certainly called Lacus Aricinus in the Middle Ages.^

The water of the lake is supplied, partially at least, from a small spring near the
road from Genzano to Nemi, and also from the copious stream which turns the mills of
the village of Nemi. The latter is probably alluded to by Strabo, when he says that the
sources Avhence the lake is filled are visible, and are near the Temple of Diana."'

Nibby gives the following account of the lake of Nemi, and of the investigations carried
on in his time for the purpose of discovering the real nature of the curious wooden
fabrics said to have been found at the bottom of the lake :^—

" The situation of Nemi is picturesque, and the view from it of the crater and of the
lake which resembles an enormous mirror spread below, is magnificent. But, beyond the
historical reminiscences of the Temple of Diana, it presents nothing worth particular
mention. The baronial castle near it has all the appearance of a feudal fortress. It was
built hv the famous Colonna family, once the lords of the estate, who also built the
round tower or keep which surmounts it. By ascending the side of the mountain which
rises above it a splendid panoramic view of the coast of Latium, and of the adjacent
Rutulian and Volscian territory, may be enjoj-ed. The eye ranges along the whole
coast-line of the Tyrrhenian Sea, from the Circsean promontory to the mouths of the
Tiber, and the situations of Antium, Ardea, Lavinium, Laurentum, Ostia, and Porto
are clearly distinguishable, together with many other points.

" The crater is surrounded in parts by rocks of the hardest basaltic la\'a, in others
by conglomerated cinders and scoriae, and in some places by banks of tufa. Its circum-
ference is about five miles, and the level of the water higher than that of the Alban lake.
The storv of the ship discovered at the bottom of this lake, and said by some authors to
have belonged to the time of Tiberius, by others to that of Trajan, is well known.
Biondo, Leon Battista Alberti, and particularly Francesco Marchi, a celebrated architect
and military engineer of the sixteenth century, who went down into the lake himself, have
spoken of it.* Fresh investigations have been carried on of late, at which I was present,
and saw and examined everything which was brought to the surface, and inquired of
those who went down what they saw there. I consider myself in a position to assert
that the pretended ship was nothing more than the wooden piles and timbers used in the
foundations of a building. The beams are of fir and larch, and are joined by metal nails
of various sizes. The pavement, or at least the lowest stratum of the remains, is formed
of large tiles placed upon a kind of grating of iron, on which the name Caisar in ancient
letters is marked. Some of these tiles and nails and gratings are now kept in the
Vatican library.

"The name Caisar seems to explain the histor_\' of the building. For Suetonius, in
his life of Julius Caesar,^ as an illustration of the Dictator's extravagance, asserts, that
after having built a villa on the lake of Nemi at an enormous expense, he had the
whole destroyed because it did not quite suit his taste. It is m\' belief that the pretended
ship was nothing else than the piles and wooden framework upon which this \-illa was

* Plin. xix. 141 ; Bormann, p. 63. * See their accounts in Fea. Miscellanea, pp.

2 Strabo, V. p. 239. cclxvii., cclxxiv.

5 Nibby, Analisi, ii. p. 395. ' Suet. Ca-s. 46.

Tlic Roman Caiiipagna.

033

supported, and that after the upper part was destroyed the foundation under the water
still remained, partly covered by the fragments of the demolished building above."

The mention of paving tiles, marbles, and leaden pipes,^ as among the objects raised
from the bottom of the lake, render the notion that they belonged to a ship improbable,
and Xibby's conjecture that a Roman villa, partly built out into the water, stood here,
seems much more likely, though his application of the passage of Suetonius is ver\-
doubtful.

Another lake of considerable size must ha\-e existed at .^ome distant time in the valle\-
below the modern Aricia. riin\', in a passage above quoted, mentions this
lake. He says : " Specimens of the kind of cabbage called lacu turris, with " ''' '^'""'
enormous heads, were found growing not long ago in the valley of Aricia, where there was
formerly a lake and a tower, the latter of which is still standing." - It is evident that before
the channel which now drains the valley at its lowest point was made, the whole space must
have been filled with water from the emissaria of the lake of Nemi. Rormann states, on

.\LBAN LAKE FROM THE CAPICHIN CO.NVENT OF PALAZZULO, LDOKI.NG TOW.-VRDS M.VKINO A.ND TISLLLU.M.

the authorit}- of Lucidi's history of Aricia, that once in the Middle Ages the valle}- of Aricia
became filled with water again from the choking up of the lower emissarium.-'

The largerneighbouring lake, Lago d'Albano, or Lago di Castcllo, belongs '''■^'''. ;' "'""
to the water system of the Tiber, and has most of its outlets on the western
side. It has been supposed that a subterranean communication exists between the two
lakes ; but Nibby asserts that this is impossible, as the level of the lake of Nemi is higher
than the Alban lake.^ The circumference of this sheet of water is said to be more than six
miles, and it is nearly elliptical in shape. Its volcanic origin has been spoken of alread}-.
The story of the sudden rise of its waters, in the sixth year of the siege of Veil, is well

' Gel), p. 325. - Plin. xix. 141. ' Nibby, .Anal. p. 101. .Sec Canina's Monumcn'i,

' IJormann, p. 64. .Sec ."Xbeken's Mittclitalien, tav. clx.\vi.
p. 168.

V.7.1

356 The Roman Campagna.

known, and the response of the Delphic oracle, as given in Livy, " Romane, aquam
Albanam cave lacu contineri, cave in mare manare suo flumine sinas, emissam per agros
rigabis, dissipatamque rivis extingues. Turn tu audax insiste hostium muris."^

Whether the swelling of the lake was due to volcanic causes or not is of course
unascertainable now, but it has been observed that the preceding winter was marked by
extreme cold and heavy falls of snow, and that the sudden thawing of a great mass
of snow upon Monte Cavo may have caused the inundation.- Nibby thinks that it appears
from the words of the oracle that the principal natural outlet which the lake had formed
for itself was at the edge of the crater near Albano, and that the water originally discharged
itself into the valley under Castel Savelli, and thence by the Rio Torto (Numicius) or the
Rio di Nemi into the sea.^ Had it flowed over the western rim of the crater near
Monte Cuccu, between Castel Gandolfo and Marino, it must have discharged itself into
the Tiber by the Aqua Acetosa or the Rio di Decima, and then the words of the oracle,
" in mare," would have been without meaning.

The edge of the crater is, it is true, lowest at this point, but the large quarries of
peperino which were worked there in ancient times have probably caused the artificial cutting
which is described in Gell's Topography. But it must be noted that the response of the oracle
forbids two things : i. Allowing the water to remain in the lake ; 2. Allowing it to reach the
sea at all in a visible stream. The Romans are ordered to make an artificial channel
and to dispose of it in irrigation. These conditions would not have been fulfilled if
the water had reached the sea in a visible stream. Besides this, the stream issuing from
the valley near Castel Savelli does not reach the sea "suo flumine," but enters the Rio
Torto (Numicius) or the Rio di Nemi.

Cicero gives a more distinct account of the matter. "We are told," he saj-s in the
Annals, "that during the siege of Veil, when the Alban lake had risen to an unusual height,
a Veientine noble fled to Rome as a deserter, and declared that it was written in the books
of fate which were kept at Veil, that Veil could not be taken so long as the lake was
overflowing its banks, and that if the lake were tapped, and flowed into the sea by its own
channel and stream, it would be fatal to the Roman nation, but that if the water were so
discharged as to make it impossible for it to reach the sea, then the Romans would be
victorious. In consequence of this our ancestors contrived that admirable plan for drawing
off and dispersing the water of the lake." *

From this passage it would seem likely that the real object of the drainage of the
lake was to obtain a constant supply of water for the irrigation of the Campagna. In
another passage Cicero states his opinion still more clearly that the work was really
undertaken for the benefit of suburban agriculture. "The Veientine prophecy, that, if
the water of the Alban lake rose above its margin and flowed into the sea, Rome would

1 Livy, V. 16 ; Dionys. xii. 16. which formed the small lake between Castel Savelli

= B.C. 400. Dionys. .xii. 8; Livy, v. 13; Nibby, and Monte Crescenzio, now drained dry; a second

Analisi, p. 102 ; Plutarch, Cam. 3 ; Val. Max. i. 6. at the spring under Monte Cuccii, which waters the

Gell mistranslates the words of Dionysius, i. 66. valley of Apiote ; a third at the spring called Fosse

The historian, in using the present tenses, ianv and dei Monaci, forming the Fosso della Cornachiola :

iSn-oSfxcTa', alludes to the state of the lake in his and a fourth under Grotta Ferrata, from which the

own times. Gcll, Top. Rom. p. 26. Aqua Ferentina is supplied.
* There appear to be four natural outlets ; one "* Cic. De Div. i. 44.

The Reman Caiupa^na.

.53/

perish, but that if it were checked Veii would be taken, in consequence of which tlic
Alban water was div'crted, was intended to benefit the suburban farms and not to secure the
safety of Rome." ^ What appears strange is, that it should have been necessary to appeal
to a superstitious motive in the case of a people evidcntl}- so far advanced in civilization
as to be capable of carrying out an engineering work of such difficulty in a single year.

The tunnel, which still carries off the superfluous water of the lake, is cut through
solid peperino and occasional masses of still harder basaltic lava. It is more
than a mile and a half in length, from seven to ten feet in height, and never ^"''"""""' <;/
less than four leet m breadth. 1 he height of the edge of the lake above
the level of its water, at the part which is pierced by the tunnel, is 430 feet. Three
vertical shafts are still discoverable, by which a draft of air was created and the rubbish
was removed, and one slanting shaft for the entrance and exit of the miners.- The
rock was cut with a chisel an inch wide, as maj- be seen from the marks left upon the sides
of the tunnel.

At the points where the water enters and leaves the tunnel considerable pains ha\c
been taken to regulate the flow. The cliannel of stonework at the mouth is placed in a
slanting direction, so as to break the force of the rush of water. At the end of this first
channel is a cross wall, with openings protected by gratings to catch the leaves and
floating rubbish. Behind this is a reservoir, similar to the piscinjE in use in the Roman
aqueducts, for allowing the mud to settle before the water entered the tunnel. Next to
the tunnel itself there is a closed building to protect the canal from the fall of rocks
and stones, and the actual entrance into the rock is faced with a massive portal of
wedge-shaped blocks of stone. The water in this enclosure is now used by the fisliermen of
the lake as a receptacle for keeping fish, and is for this purpose provided with sluices.^

The point where the tunnel emerges from the mountain on the west of Castel Savelli,
nearly a mile from Albano, is called Le ^lole. The water was there received in a
long trough-like reservoir arched over with a stone-vaulted roof From this it ran through
five smaller openings into five separate channels, and was so dispersed into the fields
for irrigation. At the present time the whole stream is united, and after passing the
road to Anzio, thirteen miles from Rome, takes the name of Rio d'Albano, receives the
brook from the valley of Apiolae, and joining the Aqua Acetosa and Cornacciola,
crosses the Ostian way near Tor di \'alle, three miles and a half from Rome, and then
discharges itself into the Tiber.

It is the opinion of some archaeologists that the Romans brought engineers from
Greece* to superintend the Alban tunnel. This supposition, however, is not necessary ; for
if the Italian engineers could construct the Cloaca Maxima, they would be fully equal
to the task of tapping the Alban lake. The physical conformation of Central Italy
compelled its inhabitants to turn their attention at an early period to the construc-
tion of drains and other hydraulic works. It has been mentioned before that con-
siderable artificial channels were rendered necessar\- in order to regulate the flow of

' Cic. De Div. ii. 32. mouth are vcr)' ancient (Gesch. der Arch. ii. p. loS).

' Canina, Arch. Rom. Part III. cap. xi., Monum. Others ascribe them to the Imperial era. Sec Intro-

tav. clxxvi. ; Cell, Top. p. 22. duction.

^ Hirt thinks that these arrangements at the * See Herodotus, iii. 60; Ar. Pol. v. 11.

358 1 he Roman Caiiipagiia.

the Arno and Tiber in the neighbourhood of Chiu.si. In Southern Etruria especially, the
district now known as the pestilent Maremma could only have been rendered healthy by
systematic artificial drainage. The sites of Populonia, Saturnia, Cosa, Veii, and Csere
were thus rendered habitable and fertile, and a great part of Latium maritunnim, the
Pomptine marshes, and the tract about Suessa Pomctia must have been artificially and
skilfully drained at the time of their greatest prosperity.i

Many of the ancient cities of Central Italy had underneath their streets cuniculi,
which served as thoroughfares connecting the different parts of the city, or as secret
passages leading out into the countr)% Such cuniculi are found at Pra;nestc and Alba
Fucensis. At Prpeneste the following account of the attempted escape of Marius by
means of the cuniculi is given by Velleius : " Turn demum desperatis rebus suis C.
Marius adolescens, per cuniculos qui miro opere fabricati in diversas agrorum partes
fuerunt conatus erumpere, cum foramine e terra emersisset a dispositis in id ipsum
iiiteremptus est."" The catacombs show that the same genius for tunnelling operations
existed at a later time among the Italians of the Empire.

The course of the Rio d'Albano, which drains the Alban lake, has already been
described. Several other streams traverse the Campagna from the Alban
aajt c. j^.jj^ ^^ ^j^^ Tiber. One of these drains the valley under the Castel Savelli,
formerly itself a crater, and then a lake, but now completely dried up. The name
given to this brook, which, after receiving many other small streams, falls into the Tiber
near Dragoncello, is the Rio di Malafede or Rio di Decima. The lake of which it
was formerly the outlet is sometinies called the Lago di Turno or di Giuturna, and
may possibly have been the ancient fountain of the Tiberine nymph Juturna above
alluded to.^

The Aqua Ferentina, celebrated as the meeting-place of the Latin League,* was

probably the spring which rises at the foot of the Alban hills immediately

q.ta trtii ma. ^j^jgj. M^rino, and commonly bears the name Ferentina. Gell places

it further up the deep rocky valley behind Marino, towards Rocca di Papa, at the

church of S. Rocca ; and as there are several considerable springs, it is impossible to

determine the true site of the Latin meeting-place.

A little further along the flank of the Alban hills, between Marino and Grotta Ferrata,
we find the stream of the Aqua Crabra. It rises in the \allcy behind the
Tusculan hills called the Vallis Albana, and we find its possession claimed
by the inhabitants of Tusculum and retained for their use at the time when the Julian
aqueduct was made." Cicero had to pay an acknowledgment for its use to the city of
Tusculum.'' This stream, after emerging from the Vallis Albana, turns round the hill by
Morrena, and flows into the Anio five miles from Rome. But at the Casale di Morrena,
near the railway junction, the greater part of its water is diverted, and flows by a subter-

I See .-^beken, Mittelitalien, p. 164, who quotes L. L v. 71 ; Ov. Fast. ii. 585.

" Fr. Inghiramid elle idrauliche opemzioni praticate 4 Livy, 1. 50, 52, vii. 25 ; Gell, Top. Rom. p. go.

dagli antichi Toscani ;" Atti deW Acad, di Georgo- Sec below, p. 377.

fill, vol. xi. 5 Frontin. Dc .\<\. 9.

- Veil. Pat. ii. 27, quoted by Abekcn. '■ Cic. Cont. Rull. iii. 2 ; Pro lialb. 20 ; Epp. ad

•' Virgil, .Kn. xii. 134. and .Servius ad loc. ; Varro. Fam. \\i. iS.

1 III Roman Cavipagna. ■< -q

ranoan canal under the name of tlie Mariana or Morrena to Rome, where it traverses
the valley of the Circus Maximus, between the Aventine and Palatine, and falls into
the Tiber near the Cloaca Maxima. Niebuhr was mistaken in thinking that the Aqua
Crabra was an artificial cut made to drain the Vallis Albana, for it bears no marks of
being other than a natural stream in the upper part of its course. It is now made use
of in its course through the Campagna for watering cattle and sheep.

A small brook called the Acque Salvie, which falls into the Tiber at Tre Fontane,
two and a half miles below Rome, has been with some probability supposed to be the
Petronia which, as Festus sa}'s, was formed b}- the Fons Cati,' and ran into
the Tiber. It was associated with the taking of the auspices by Roman '■'■""'"•
magistrates on their way to transact business in the Campagna.i

The Almo, so frequently mentioned by the Latin poets in connection with the custom
of bathing the statue of Cybele in its waters on the 29th of March,- is
thought by Bormann to be the short stream which takes its rise at the
so-called grotto of Egeria, in the Caffarelle valley near the Appian road. He thinks
that Nibby's attempt to trace it beyond this grotto is mistaken, for Ovid expressly calls
it " brevissimus Almo,"^ and the nympha;um and statue of the presiding god of the
streams would, he thinks, be naturally placed at its source, and not at a point half wa\-
along its course. It joins the Aqua Ferentina, and crosses the Appian and Ostian roads
about half a mile outside the walls of Rome, and then falls into the Tiber. At this point
the ceremony of washing the image of Cybele was performed annua!!}- on tlie spot
where it had first been landed on its arri\-al from Pessinus.

'• Est locus in Tiberim qua lubricus influit Ahiio
Et nomen inagno perdit in amne minor.
Illic purpurea canus cum veste sacerdos
Almonis domiiiam sacraque lavit aquis."-*

Virgil, in the seventh book of the ^-Eneid, has personified this river among several other
well-known names of Italian localities, as Aventinus, Tiburtus, Marica, Galresu.s, Silvia,
and Calybe."

The last tributary of the Tiber which must be noticed before we pass to the Anio
and its basin is the Allia. Livy says distinctly that it runs down from the
Crustuminian hills in a deep channel, and enters the Tiber at the eleventh
milestone on the Via Salaria." Contrar_\^ to this express statement, Xibby and others
have selected the Fosso di Malpasso, which is only five miles from Rome. But it has
been more reasonably supposed that a small brook running at the bottom of a deep
ravine which crosses the Via Salara, just eleven miles from Rome, answers best to
Livy's de.scription." Sir William Gcll, who bestowed much pains on tlie question of the
Allia, agrees with this conclusion. The name of the brook is now Scolo del Casale.
It is a mere ditch where it crosses the road near Fonte di Papa, but runs through a

' Kcstus, p. 250, ed. Muller. viii. 363.

' Amm. Marc, .xxiii. 3, § 7. " /En. vii. 531, 575, 657, 671. 47, 535, 486, 419.

' Ov. Met. .\iv. 329. ' Livy, v. 137 ; \ir;T. /En. vii. 717.

* Ov. Fast. iv. 335. .See also Luc. Phars. i. 600 ; ' Westphal, Campagna, p. 127; Bormann, p. 71.
^L^rt. iii. 47, 2 ; Val. Flacc. Arg. viii. 239 ; Sil. It.

360 The Roman Campagna.

valley which is very defensible. Gell thinks that, in the battle at the Allia, the front
of the Gauls under Brennus occupied the whole space from Ficulea (Torre Lupara) to
Forno Nuovo at the eleventh milestone, a distance of about three miles. There is a
tumulus at a place called Scholia, and another near Forno Nuovo, which may possibly
be mounds raised by the Gauls over the slain. The Via Salaria Antiqua passes exactly
through the centre of the position occupied by the Gauls.

"The Roman army was drawn up with extended flanks, that it might not be sur-
rounded ; though this did happen to it, on account of the superior number of the Gauls."
A Roman corps of reserve was posted to the north of Ficulea, on Monte dei Soldati ;
and this was so far advanced in front of the Roman line that Brennus imagined it was
iotended to fall upon his rear in the action. He therefore attacked it with his left wing,
which gave the rest of the Roman army time to escape to the Tiber, "where," says Livy,
"the Roman left wing threw down their arms and plunged into the river to escape to
Veii. The right wing, which was posted at a distance from the river towards the hills,
fled to Rome."i

We now pass on to the Anio and its tributary streams.- The Anio itself rises
near Treba in the Simbrivian hills, and flows through the territories of
the yEquians till it reaches Tibur, where it frees itself from the mountains
through a deep gorge between Monte Ripoli and Monte Catillo. During the long
struggles which the river made to burst through the intricate barriers offered by these
hills it built up those wonderful rocks of travertine upon which a great part of the town
of Tivoli stands. Some sudden catastrophes must have opened a way for its waters
between the two hills, and it has since continued to bore cavities in the rocks formed
previously by its own waters, and to change its channel from time to time.

As it winds through the Campagna it receives on its left bank the streams of the

Acqua Rossa and the Osa, and on its right those of the Albule, Magugliano, and

Ulmano. Silius describes its water by the epithet " sulphureus," probably in allusion to

the sulphuretted hydrogen emitted by the springs which pour their water into it near

the Lago di Tartaro : —

" Sulfureis gelidus qua serpit leniter undis
Ad genitorem Anio labens sine murniure Tybrini." '^

" Anciently," says Nibby, " the Anio was navigable from the Ponte Lucano to its
mouth. Strabo mentions that the blocks of travertine from the quarries near Tibur,
and of Gabine stone from Gabii, were brought to Rome by means of it.'' But in the
dark ages the channel was neglected and the navigation interrupted and abandoned."

The affluents on the left bank of the river are numerous, but few have any importance.
They flow in large parallel ravines from the neighbourhood of Prasneste, and unite in
two principal channels, which join the Anio a little below the ruins of Hadrian's great

' Gell, Topogr. p. 47 ; Livy, v. 38. I have ventured hist., that the old name was Parensius, and that the

to correct the mistakes which Gell has made in trans- name Anio was derived from an Etruscan king,

lating Livy. The modern name Teverone is derived from Tibur,

'' The name is written Anien in Stat. Silv. i. 3, Tiberone.
20 ; 5, 25 : i\vla>v in Pans. iv. 35, 6. Nibby says, on '' Sil. It. xii. 539.

the authority of .\ristidcs Milcsius and Alex. Poly- ■" Strab. v. § ii. pp. c. 238. So also Plin. iii. § 54.

The Roman Canipagna. "61

\illa. It has been supposed that one of these, the Fossa di Acqua Rossa, corresponds
to the ancient Veresis of Strabo, but there is no evidence to confirm the conjecture.'
The ancient name of the Osa, which is the most considerable confluent on the left
bank, is not known, nor is the lake from which it is fed near Gabii mentioned in anj-
writer before the fifth century.- Nearer to Rome the Acqua Crabra coming from
the Tusculan hills joins the Anio.

On the right bank, besides the Lago dei Tartari, formerly a considerable lake, the
water of which had a petrifying power, there are three small lakes called the
Aquae AlbuUt in ancient times, and celebrated for the healing properties ''""^'
of their water. They were connected with the Anio in Strabo's time by a subterranean
canal called the Albula, which was stopped up in the course of ages by the deposits of
sulphur in its bed, and the present channel was cut in 1549 by Cardinal d'Este. One
of the lakes, which is about 500 feet in length, has islands formed of matted weeds
floating on its surface, and is thence called Lago Delle Isole Natanti. The other two
lakes are called Lago di S. Giovanni and Lago delle Colonelle. The volcanic nature of
the ground is abundantly evident from the sulphureous stench and the warmth of the water
which traverses the canal leading to the Anio.^ Two inscriptions quoted by Nibby show
that there was a temple of Cybele here, and that the waters themselves were the object
of a cult, and were invoked under the appellation of Albulx or Aquje Albulae Sanctissima;.*

Next to the Albula we find a small brook runninsj into the Anio
between Prato Lungo and Osteria del Forno, which had the name of Tuzia
in the Middle Ages, and has hence been supposed to be the Tutia of Livy, upon the
banks of which Hannibal encamped when he approached Rome.'''

The Magliano, which rises near S. Angelo in Capoccia, and flows into the Anio
near Prato Lungo, has not been identified with any ancient stream of celebrity. Miiller
gives it the ancient name of Manliana ; but, as there is no authority for this, it seems
to be a mere conjecture of his."

Three miles from Rome, at the foot of the Mons Sacer, a small brook called the
Rio Ulmano falls into the Anio. It rises at a distance of about seven miles
from the Mons Sacer, and skirts the watershed between the Tiber and
Anio. An inscription found near Ficulea seems to show that it was called Rivus
Ulmanus in ancient times.'^

The Lake Regillus must not be considered as belonging to the water system of the
Anio. Only one of the passages where this lake is mentioned gives us any

T'- 1- IT-' Lake Regillus.

hint of its situation. Livy, m relatnig the great battle between the Latnis

and the Romans, says that it was "in agro Tusculano."'^ There is, however, no lake at

' Nibby, Anal. iii. p. 466. " Livy, xxvi. 10 : "Ad Tutiam fluvium castraretulit

'- Bormann conjectures that this lake is the place sex millia passuum ab urbe." Sil. It. xiii. 4 : "Castra

where the Gabinian baths mentioned by Juv. vii. locat nulla tedens ubi gramina ripa Tutia deducit

4 and Hor. Ep. i. 15, 9, were situated. tenuem sine nomine rivum, et tacite Tuscis inglorius

^ Strabo, however, calls the w.iter "cold." Pliny affluit undis." " Tusca; unda;" is probably used

uses the ambiguous term " cgelidK." Suet. Aug. 82, vaguely by Silius of" the Anio.

Nero, 31, "calida:;" and Martial, i. 13, "Canaqucsul- " MuUcr, Rom. Canipagna, p. 158.

fureis Albula fumat aquis." .See V'itruv. viii. 3. ' Bormann, p. 73.

* Nibby, Analisi, vol. i. p. 6. ' Livy, ii. 19.

3 A

362 The Roman Campagna.

present existing in that district, and we are therefore compelled to adopt Nibby's
hypothesis, that the lake must have been dried up by artificial or natural drainage.
Nibby thought that he had discovered the site in the Pantano Secco, a hollow basin
about two miles from Monte Porzio, and the same distance from Frascati. This hollow
was evidently once a volcanic crater, as the lava and scoria; strewed about it show.
Its shape is, roughly speaking, hexagonal rather than circular, and its breadth about
half a mile. At the bottom are the traces of drainage works connected with an
emissarium by which it was tapped in very ancient times.^ The account given by
Dionysius of the famous battle is hardly to be looked upon as accurate, and any
attempt to assign the stations of the two armies must be imaginary. On the south side
of the lake Nibby found the ruins of a large villa, which he thinks may have been the
villa of the Cornificii.- The name of the neighbourhood, Cornufelle, seems to have sug-
gested this to the learned antiquary, for he gives no other reason for his conjecture. Gell
thinks that the villa may have belonged to Passienus, the friend of Pliny, whose strange
passion for one of the trees in the Grove of Diana at Corne, a hill in the neighbourhood
of Tusculum, is described in Pliny's Natural History.*

Part II. — Period of Cities.

From the legendary times when Latinus, Evander, yEneas, and the rest of Virgil's

heroes are supposed to have occupied the great plain of Latium, down to
cf Campagna. the final Settlement of the district by its subjection to Rome in 338 B.C., the

Roman Campagna was peopled by communities chiefly living in towns.
Etruria on one side of Rome, and Latium on the other, contained confederacies of inde-
pendent cities, with one or other of which the Romans were constantly at war. Etruria
gave way first, and after the fall of Veii in 395 B.C. the Roman dominion extended
northwards as far as the Lago Bracciano and Civita Castcllana.* At that time the great
confederacy of Latium, though Alba was destroyed, still existed under the hegemony of
Rome as the successor of Alba, and numbered Tibur, Prseneste, Tusculum, Aricia, Antium,
Lanuvium, Velitrae, Pedum, and Nomentuni among its members. But after the victories
gained by the Consuls of the year 33S B.C.^ the absorption of the Latin cities made

rapid progress, and the character of the population of the Campagna began
^afid'Al'^iuts' t° ^^ completely changed. In this, the second period of its history, the

towns were gradually reduced to mere villages, the small farms disappeared,
and the land was occupied by the immense estates (latifundia) of rich proprietors, culti-
vated by hordes of slaves. Such is the condition in which we find the Campagna in
the time of Cicero.^ The great villas which strew the ground with their ruins everywhere

' Nibby. Anal. ii. p. 167. N. H. iii. § 68, xxxiv. 2, gives a list of 20 cities and

- Ibid, iii. p. 6. 32 cantons which had entirely disappeared in his

' Plin. N. H. xvi. § 242. ■ time. Rutilius, De Red. 224, thus expresses the change

* Livy, V. 20; Arnold, Hist. Rome, chap, xviii. from cities to villas in Latium : " Nunc villa: grandes

» The Mosnian column and the Rostra were then oppida parva prius," evidently translating Strabo, v.

first erected. Plin. N. H. xxxiv. §20; Livy, viii. 13; p. 230, Tort fievTroXi^wn, vCrSe icm/iat, (o-rfo-fisiSioTfflc.

Diodor. xvii. 2. See Mommsen, vol. i. p. 368. Pliny, « Cic. Pro Plane. 9, De Leg. Agr. ii. 35.

The Roman Cainpagna. 363

in the neighbourhood of Rome were then constructed, and the colossal aqueducts,
which served not only to supply Rome with water, but also to irrigate the farms and
countrj' seats of the Campagna. There seems to have been a constant tendency durin"
the later Republic and early Empire to reduce the amount of arable land, and to
increase the extent of pasturage.^ Thus the country was rendered less and less
healthy, and Rome became gradually more dependent than ever on forei'ni countries
for her supply of corn.

The third and last phase of the history of the Roman Campagna is the most melan-
choly.' The aqueducts were more or less injured by the Gothic army at
the siege of Rome under Vitiges, in A.D. 537 ; and the great country seats ^"'"'^ "^

_ ° ■' a isolation.

of the Roman nobles and princes must have been ruined by the successive
devastations of Roman territorj- during the fifth and sixth centuries, in which the
Lombards were the principal actors.^ Agriculture ceased, and the few villao-es and
country houses which remained soon became uninhabitable during a great part of the
year in consequence of the increase of malarious exhalations arising from the uncultivated
state of the soil, or v.'ere rendered unsafe by the lawless bands of rufSan marauders who
infested the open country. Such is, in the main, the condition of the Roman Campagna
at the present day — for the most part a waste of ragged pastures without human habi-
tations, and wild jungles tenanted only by foxes, bears, and other wild animals. In
fact, after the year 33S B.C., the Campagna became deprived of all historical interest,
except as the summer residence of the great Roman proprietors. Its history beIon"-s
almost entirely to the early times of the Roman Republic.

The tract on the coast between the Tiber, the Numicius (Rio Torto), and the Via Latina,
the physical features of which have been already described, contained, in (^-^-^^ . ^^^_,
the days of the Latin League, the following ancient cities, members of Campagna.
that league: — On the sea coast, Laurentum and Lavinium ; on the Campus *'-^

Lann-ttsTractns

Solonius, Ficana, Politorium, Tellena;, Apiolje, Bovillse, and Ardea. Ostia, „„,/ campus
which must be included in this district, was a colony from Rome, and Solonim.
therefore never possessed any political independence. Ardea, though it was properly
a Rutulian, and not a Latin town, can hardly be separated from Lavinium and
Laurentum.

All traces of the town of Laurentum have now so completely disappeared that
its site is a matter of dispute among topographers. Cluverius placed it

T^ , , , .... Laurentitm.

at Torre St. Lorenzo on the coast below Ardea, but his opinion seems
to have been formed on the very deceptive evidence of the similarity of the name.
A positive proof that Laurentum must be looked for on the north of the Numicius is
given by the order in which Pliny enumerates the Latin towns on the coast. He
begins from the Tiber mouth and proceeding southwards enumerates Ostia, Laurentum,

' This is partly explained by the fact that hay " Gibbon, chaps, xli., xlv.; Procop. Bell. Goth. i.

was the most profitable crop. Gell, Top. of Rome, 19. " Vitigis did not stop the aqueducts to deprive

p. 143. This is inevitable in the neighbourhood of the Romans of water, as the Tiber afforded a plcn-

a large town. tiful supply, but in order to interrupt manufactures

- " Dcpopulati sunt agri, nullus in agris incola." and to stop the water-mills." Nibby's Anal. vol. i.

Gregory the Great, quoted by Gell, Rom. Top. p. 145. p. 18.

3 A 2

364 The Roman Campagna.

the grove of Jupiter Indiges, and then the Numicius in order.^ The same order is
observed by Strabo and Mela. The other sites which have been fixed upon are Torre
Paterno ciose to the sea-shore, and Capo Cotta further inland,- and it is between these
that we must make a choice. The distance from Rome to Laurentum, as given by the
Itinerarium Antonini and the Peutingerian Tables, was sixteen miles. This seems to
exclude Torre Paterno, which is more than seventeen Roman miles from the city ; and
Nibby was therefore inclined to select Capo Cotta instead. Bormann, however, thinks that
the distances in the Itinerarium and Tables are plainly wrong in other cases, and that
some mistake in copying the figures has probably been made here. The only genuine
figure given, he thinks, is that which makes the distance from Laurentum to Lavinium,
which was certainly at Pratica, six miles ; and this suits Torre Paterno better than
Capo Cotta.^ But the most decisive argument against Capo Cotta is that it lies too
far from the sea-coast. Laurentum is placed on the coast by Pliny and also by
Pomponius Mela : and it was one of the cities included in the commercial treaty with
Carthage. ** Virgil, it is true, makes no mention of the sea as being close to the walls
of Laurentum ; but he of course describes the place as it was in his time, when at least
half a mile intervened between the site and the actual margin of the sea, and when
there was no harbour there. There are no ruins at all near Capo Cotta, as Nibby himself
allows ; while at Torre Paterno there are considerable vestiges of a villa and of an
aqueduct belonging to the Imperial age. Nor are there any traces of a marsh, the
" vasta palus " of Virgil,^ at Capo Cotta ; but at Torre Paterno there are several
large depressions indicated on Cell's map which are filled with morasses. Martial men-
tions the frogs of the Laurentine coast, but perhaps his allusion must be taken in a wider
sense as applying to the whole tract called Laurens Littus.^ The evidence seems to be
upon the whole in favour of Torre Paterno, though Nibby's conviction as an eye-
witness after traversing the whole neighbourhood, that Capo Cotta was a more likely
site, is certainly not to be rejected hastily. Cav. Rosa agrees with Nibby in selecting
Capo Cotta.'

The neighbourhood of Laurentum and Lavinium is thus described by Nibby, who
visited it many times : —

" This tract of country when seen from an elevation presents the appearance of
a vast flat plain covered along the sea-shore with woods, but without any trees further
inland except a few thickets, and the plantations near some country seats. Upon
actually traversing the ground, it is found to present a succession of hills, sometimes
rising gradually, sometimes steeply, usually bare, but not unfrequently clothed with
bushes, and intersected in various directions by brooks and torrents forming ravines of
varied extent and picturesque appearance. Nearer to the sea-coast the hills terminate
in a bar or ridge of sand dunes, which on approaching the mouth of the Tiber grow

' Plin. N. H. iii. § 57. the distance of Capo Cotta from Lavinium.

- Fabretti, Inscr. p. 752, and Cell, R. Top. p. 294, ■• Plin. loc. cit. ; Mela, ii. 4 ; Polyb. iii. 22. Ardea is

declare for the former, and Nibby, Abeken, and reckoned as a maritime town on account of its port.
Forbiger for the latter position. * J^.^a. x. 709.

■' Nibby, on the other hand, finds an error in the " Mart. Ep. x. 37, 5.

figure vi., and wishes to alter it to ii. in order to suit ' Ann. del/' Inst. 1S59, p. 1S9.

The Roman Canipagna. ^g-

more and more extensive, and take the shape of parallel lines of sand-hills. Those-
lines were formed by the retreat which the sea has at intervals been forced to make
from the land, by reason of the alluvial deposits of the Tiber. And it is remarkable
to observe how these sands, at first utterly sterile, have gradually become clothed
with vegetation, and how this new vegetation varies according to their distance from
the sea. At their inner edge, where in the course of ages and by the decomposition
of vegetable matter the soil has become fertile and deep, forest trees, oaks, pines, ashes,
elms, and others, rise to a gigantic height, such as Virgil has spoken of as composing
the Laurentine woods."

" Bis senos pepigere dies et pace sequestra
Per sylvas Teucri mi.xtique impune Latini
Erravere jugis ; ferro sonat acta bipenni
Fraxinus : evertunt actas ad sidera pinus,
Robora nee cuneis et olentem scindere cedrum
Nee plaustris cessant veetare gementibus ornos."'

"The middle belt is covered with low brushwood, and the outer edge next to the sea
with prickly weeds and grass only."

Laurentum is better known from the immortal poetry of Virgil than from the pages of
Latin historians. After the fall of Alba Longa it remained nominally independent, but
really like the other Latin towns under the somewhat tyrannical hegemony of Rome. The
Laurentines harboured the Tarquins, and are especially mentioned as ranged in opposition
to Rome at the battle of Regillus ; but after that time they seem to have been less bitter
foes of the Romans than the other Latin cities. They gradually dwindled away in
consequence of the neighbourhood of the colony of Ostia and the more powerful
Lavinium, till in the year B.C. 189 they were so insignificant as to be forgotten in the
festival rites of the Latins. The civil wars, and the Samnite ravages under Telesinu.s,
completed the desolation of Laurentum. Augustus established a colony there, but in
Pliny's time we find Laurentum called a mere vicus, and one of the early emperors
united it with Lavinium under the title of Lauro-Lavinium. What were
the effects of this union is not clear. Laurentum apparently still existed Lauro-

. Lavinium.

in the time of Servm.s, the commentator on Virgil, at the end of the fourth
centurj^ but as a very insignificant place, and hence the puzzling confusion in the Virgilian
commentary' of Servius, who is naturally at a loss how to account for Virgil's mention of
two considerable towns — Laurentum and Lavinium — whereas he only knew of one town
named Lauro-Lavinium. Hence the strange comment on the words, " Lavinaque venit
litora," where Servius remarks, " H.-ec civitas tria habuit nomina."-

With Laurentum must be mentioned the spot at the mouth of the Tiber where tlu
legend relates that .^neas landed and established his camp —

" Ipse humili designat mcenia fossa,
Moliturque locum, primasc|ue in litore sedes
Castrorum in morem pinnis atque aggerc cingit."

' Mxi. xi. 133. Lavinium, see Zumpt, De Lavinio et Laurentibus

" On the connexion between Lavinium and Lauro- Lavinatibus : Berlin, 1845. ' ^n. vii. 159.

366 The Roman Campagna.

The name of Troja Nova seems to have been generally given to this encampment.^
Virgil evidently imagined it as close to the Tiber, for he speaks of the

roja ova. ^^^^.^ where the river water surrounded it. (^-En. ix. 790-815.)

Difficulties have been raised by Klausen, Abeken, and others as to the site of Eneas'
landing. Considering that the whole story must be understood with due allowances for
poetical licence in matters of topography, and that Virgil could not possibly have deter-
mined historically, had he wished to do so, the exact spot of ^Eneas' landing, it seems
hardly worth while to discuss this question. It may be remarked, however, that many
places in the neighbourhood, as was natural, bore the name of Troja. Cicero had a
prjedium Trojanum near Lanuvium," and Ardea, or the port of Ardea, was called
at one time Troja.^

The Peutingerian Tables and Itinerarium Antonini place Lavinium at a distance of
seventeen and sixteen miles respectively from Rome, and six from Lau-
rentum. Dionysius, after relating the legend of the sow with her thirty
youno" pigs, which guided yEneas to the spot, says that Lavinium was twenty-four
stadia (about two and a half miles) from the sea ; and Strabo places it not far from Ardea.
All these measurements agree with the position of the little town of Pratica, \\hich is
situated on a hill, about a mile in circumference, seventeen miles from Rome, three from
the sea, and about five from Ardea. The above evidence is confirmed, and the conclusion
to which it leads is placed beyond doubt, by the ruins and remains of a city, and by the
inscriptions found on the spot.'* The hill of Pratica is one of the many places in the
Campagna admirably adapted for the site of a small town with a citadel, affording as it
does a limited area defensible nearly on all sides. It is said to be composed of grey sand-
stone, covered with rolled fragments of volcanic origin, and with sea sand, rubbish, and
humus. Its height above the sea-level is 310 feet, but it only rises 150 feet above the
surrounding country. The shape is nearly elliptical, and the sides are precipitous on
the north, south, and west. Artificial means have plainly been employed to increase
the strength of the natural position by scarping the rocks, and the ruins of numerous
buildings, with fragments of columns and inscriptions, remain on the flat top of the
hill and in the surrounding fields.* Nothing of importance can now be discovered as
to the nature of the buildings to which these ruins belonged. It has been thought that
the traces of a theatre are visible on the south side of the hill, but even this is not
clear. Gell conjectured that the citadel and the Temple of the Penates stood on the
western edge. The worship of the Penates was observed with great solemnity here,
and the consuls and praetors, on assuming or leaving office, went to sacrifice at the
Lavinian shrine.® In the market-place stood brazen figures of the legendary sow and
her pigs, and a group representing the wolf, eagle, and fox.'

1 Servius, on^En. vii. 158, quotesCatoand Li\y, i. I. ^ One of the inscriptions, quoted by Bormann, is
See R.n. ix. 644 : " Nee te Troja capit." remarkable : " Silvius /Eneas ^ncic et Lavinise filius."

2 Cic. Ad Att. ix. 9, 4 ; 13, 6. Probably this was on the base of a commemorative
' Steph. Byz. s. v. Tpoia. statue or bust.

* Cav. Rosa has traced the old Via Lavinate in a ^ Macrob. Sat. iii. 4; Luc. Phars. ix. 991.

direct line from the ancient Porta Lavernahs to ' Dionys. i. 56 ; Varro, R. R. ii. 4.

Pratica. Attn, ddl' Just. 1S59, p. 186.

The Roman Campagna. 367

The Temple of Venus (Aphrodisium), which is mentioned by Strabo as one of tlic
common sanctuaries of the Latin League, was at the twentieth milestone from
Rome, and therefore three miles from Lavinium.^ It is placed by the P "''»"""'"■
topographers at Torre del Vajanico, in the Campo Jemini. In the year 1794 some
interesting excavations were carried on here at the expense of the Duke of Sussex,
of which the antiquary Fea has preserved an account- The site of the excavations
was at a place half a mile from Torre del Vajanico, towards Ardea. In cutting down
a wood there, traces of statuary were discovered, and on prosecuting the search a
number of fragments of sculpture were dug up, the principal of which v.as a statue of
Venus, of Greek marble, resembling that in the Capitoline ]Museum. This statue was
carried to England. Fea thinks that both it and the statue of the Capitol were copies
of some more famous Greek original, perhaps of the Chigi Venus, which was the work
of Menophantes. The statues were found in the ruins of a hall belonging to an ancient
villa, and not in the Temple of Venus.

The legendary history of Lavinium is familiar to all readers of Virgil and Livy. Most
Roman historians give it the name of the metropolis of the Latins, and the Romans, in
dealing with the Latin cities, seem to have shown particular partiality for Lavinium.^

The district adjoining the Laurens Tractus was called Campus Solonius. This name
seems to have been given to a very wide extent of country reaching .across
from Lanuvium to the Tiber. The Monti di Decima appear to have formed '',".'

the boundary between it and the Laurens Tractus, and Festus mentions it as
includintj the twelfth milestone on the Ostian road, while Cicero soeaks of a farm near

o ' J.

Lanuvium as situated " in Campo Solonio." *

The site of Ficana was fixed by Labeo, quoted in Festus, at a point where the range of
hills called Monti di Decima approaches the Tiber at the eleventh milestone.

Ficana.

The rocks overhanging the river there were called " saxa Puilia." ^ The
modern name of the place is Tenuta di Dragoncello. Virgil does not mention Ficana,
and it was therefore probably entirely lost in his time. Ancus Martins is said to have
removed the inhabitants and settled them in the Aventine. The Latins recolonized
the place, upon which Ancus again carried the inhabitants to Rome and totally
destroyed it." Pliny enumerates Ficana among the lost cities of Latium."

The same fate befell Folitorium, which is coupled with Ficana by Livy and Dionysius.
It is said by Cato to have been founded and to have derived its name

Politormm.

from Polites, a son of Priam, whose son founded it.* The site is altogether
unknown, and we can only suppose that it was not very far from Ficana.'

' Strabo, v. p. 232 ; Muratori, .\nt. Med. ^v. v. secundum Tiberim ait Fabius Pictor, quern locum

p. 835. putat Labeo dici ubi fuerit Ficana Via Ostiensi ad

' Fea, Viaggio ad Ostia, p. 73. lapidcm undecimum."

» Liv>', viii. 11. The Laurentes in Livy include La- '° Livy, i. 33 ; Dionys. iii. 38.

vinium. For the history of Laurentum and Lavinium, ' Plin. N. H. iii. 68.

see Zumpt's treatise De Lavinio et Laurentibus ' Serv. ad .4in. v. 564, ii. 526.

Lavinatibus : Berlin, I S45. ° Various conjectures are hazarded by Gell, who

* Livy, viii. 12 ; Festus, p. 250 ; Plut. Mar. p. 425 ; places it at La Giostra ; Nibby, who thinks it lay

Cic. De Div. i. 36, ii. 31. between La Giostra and Dragoncello ; and Abekt-n,

' Festus, p. 250 : "Puilia saxa esse ad portum qui sit who selects Aqua Acetosa as the site.

36S The Roman Campagna.

The inhabitants of Tellense suffered the same treatment at the hands of Ancus,
but the city survived for a longer period. Dionysius speaks of it as still
existing in his time, and Strabo also appears to intimate the same by the way
in which he mentions the city. Plin)- places it among the extinct cities ; but he may,
as in the case of Fidenae, mean only that it was reduced to an insignificant size.^
Nibby places Tellense at the hill of La Giostra, two miles from Castel di Leva,
where he found some walls of tufa blocks six feet in length, arranged in a hexagonal
shape. Besides these, however, he discovered no remains of a city, except a well with
peperino blocks surrounding the mouth. Strabo, speaking of the Hernici, says vaguely
enouo-h that "they inhabited the district near Lavinium, Alba, and Rome, and that Aricia,
Tellenae, and Antium were not far from their frontier." The mention of Rome destroys
all confidence in the accuracy of this description, otherwise it would seem to show
that Tellenje lay between Aricia and Antium. -

The evidence of classical writers about the site of Apiolie is conflicting. Strabo
calls it a Volscian frontier town ; while Valerius Antias, as quoted by

""'■ Plin)-, and also Livy and Dionysius, assert that it was a Latin town.^ From
this it may be supposed that Apiolae lay on the Volscian frontier ; and Bormann would
place it near Corioli. Gell selects a spot near the Osteria delle Fratocchie, on the right
of the Appian road near the tenth milestone ; and Nibby places it at Porte delle Streghe,
on a cross road leading from the ninth milestone on the Appian road to the Via
Ardeatina. The position indicated by Gell lies on the right bank of the Rivus Albanus,
while that advocated by Nibby is on the left. The ruins at the site which Gell has
selected are described by Dr. Reber as follows : " The town lay on a long ridge, and the
course of the road as it ascends this ridge from the Appian can be traced. There are
the remains of two tombs near it. On the top the foundation of a temple can be recog-
nised, with the remains of a Doric portico, and a large enclosure with massive walls.
Further on the ridge is narrower, and here the arx seems to have been placed. The
ruins of a villa built of concrete lie close by, and a round tank more than six metres
in diameter. The most remarkable relic, which has only lately been discovered, is a
fragment of the wall of the city, built of great tufa blocks, resembling the masonry
of the Servian walls." *

The Peutingerian Tables prove that Bovillae lay on the Appian road. It is generally
assumed that the distance is rightly given in these Tables, but a passage
of Plutarch, and the distinct assertion of a scholiast on Persius, lead us to
doubt this. The Tables give ten miles as the distance from Rome, while Plutarch gives
twelve, and the scholiast eleven.^ Dionysius says that Bovillae was situated where
the hill first begins to be steep, and this answers to the position of the modern Osteria
delle Fratocchie. The ruins which are now generally held to be those of Bovilla; lie
on the cross road called Strada di Nettuno, a little way above Fratocchie. They
consist of a small theatre, built of brickwork and opus reticulatum, and a somewhat

1 The expression Tries Tellenae found in Varro,Ap. ' Livy, i. 35 ; Plin. N. H. iii. 9; Dionys. iii. 49.

Non. i. 26, and Arnob. Adv. Gent. v. 176, alludes to ■» Reber, Ruinen Roms, p. 605.

some story now completely lost. ' Plut. Cor. 29 ; Schol. ad Pers. vi. 55.

- Strabo, v. 4, p. 231.

The Roman Cainpagna. ^(5q

larger circus, the enclosure of which and the carceres are still pretty well preserved.*
The town did not lie close to the road, as the Peutingcrian Tables and the Itincrariuni
Hierosolymitanuni, which mention the mutatio or post-house only, mitrht be taken to
imply. It was founded by a colony from Alba Longa, and was a flourishing place
until Coriolanus destroyed it. For centuries afterwards we find but little notice taken
of it. In Cicero's time it was a very insignificant village, and had it not been immor-
talized by the assassination of Clodius there, which led to such important results,
it could hardly have e.xcited an\- interest in later times.- The honour of being the native
place of the Gens Julia gave it some artificial importance in the Imperial times. We
find Tiberius erecting a sacrarium of the Julian family and a statue of Augustus there,
and founding Circensian games in honour of the Gens Julia.^ Some inscriptions found
on this spot show that the town still existed in the second century A.D. It is now
occupied by plots of land laid out as gardens.

Ardea does not properly come within our limits, but being so intimately connected
in the ancient legends of Latium with the cities above described, its site
and history must be briefly noticed.

There is no difficulty in fixing the site of this ancient capital of the Rutulians, as
it retains the ancient name, and the walls of the ancient city are still, though very
partially, traceable. They are built in the usual style of the more ancient Latin walls,
with tufa blocks of very different size roughly worked together.* The cliffs were
scarped to render them more defensible, and a cutting was made for the approach of
the ancient road. At the foot of the hill, which is about two miles in circumference,
three brooks descending from the Alban hills unite and form the Rio d'Incastro, which
enters the sea at a point generally supposed to be the ancient Castrum Inui.
The name Troja was sometimes given, as has been before mentioned, to
the city and neighbourhood of Ardea ; and the prjedium Trojanum alluded to b\- Cicero
probably lay near Ardea in the direction of Lanuvium.^ Ardea became dependent on
Rome after the dissolution of the Latin League, and lost its importance. In the
Imperial times it is seldom mentioned ; yet it seems never to have been quite de-
serted. The present village occupies only a small part of the ancient site, and numbers
about 200 inhabitants. In the Temple of Juno Regina at Ardea were preserved, in Pliny's
time, some ancient paintings by a Greek, Marcus Plautius Cleaetas, which were probably
executed after the colonization of the city by the Romans in 442 B.C. Abeken thinks
that the style of these paintings was similar to that of the monochromatic designs found
in the Etruscan tombs.^ No traces of the Temple of Juno have been discovered.

Ostia owed its foundation to the destruction of the cities we have just been describing.
It belonged to the Roman and not to the Latin dominion in Latium, and •

was in fact a suburb of Rome, having no separate or independent existence.
The inhabitants of Ostia were Roman citizen.s, possessed from the first of the full rights
of the Roman franchise. When Politorium, Tellenae, and Ficana had fallen, and after

' See Ann. JelP Inst. 1853, 1854; Mon. dell' Inst. = Tac. Ann. ii. 47, .\v. 23 ; Hist. iv. 2.

vol. V. tav. Ixx. ■* Abeken, p. 140. ' Cic. Ad Att. ix. 13, 5.

- Cic. Pro Plunc. g ; Propert. iv. i, 33. " Plin. N. H. xxxv. 115 ; Abeken, p. 323.

3 B

j/^

The Roman Campagna.

the great battle at Medullia, by which Ancus Marcius inflicted a stunning blow on the
Latin confederacy, the Roman dominion was extended along the bank of the Tiber to
the sea coast. In order to secure the command of the river, Ancus settled the colony of
Ostia at its mouth, on the left bank, and established salt-pits there, from which he
seems to have derived a part of his revenue.^ After the mention of its foundation we
find scarcely any notices of Ostia till the year 217 B.C., when it appears as the station of a
large Roman fleet,^ and soon afterwards as the possessor of peculiar exemptions on
account of its importance to Rome." It was taken and plundered by Marius, but
restored by Sulla, and enjoyed the favour and patronage of all the early emperors.-*
The gradual silting up of the Tiber mouth threatened Rome in Caesar's time with the
loss of her harbour ; ^ and Strabo, writing in the reign of Augustus, complains that
all large ships had to remain outside the harbour and transfer their cargoes into barges
in order to be conveyed up the river." This became a very serious injury to the
city, which obtained all its supplies of corn from Egypt and Sicily by sea, and Claudius
undertook at last the enormous task of constructing a new harbour on the shore, two miles
to the north of Ostia, and connecting it with the river by an artificial channel. The
port of Claudius consisted not only of an excavated basin, but also of two moles
running out into the sea and protected by a breakwater. Nero finished this great public
work, and it was known by the name of Portus Augusti." The Portus Trajani, which was
added by Trajan, was an extension of the works of Claudius, by the construction of an
inner basin of a hexagonal shape, and an enlargement of the canal which communicated
with the Tiber. The formation of the new harbour proved, as was natural, a deadly
injury to Ostia, which ceased to be the emporium of Rome. It maintained however,
as a watering-place for wealthy Romans, a considerable amount of prosperity until
the time of Constantine,* after which it gradually declined,^ until the eighth century,
when the frequent descents of the Saracens on the coast rendered it uninhabitable, and
the place was entirely abandoned for a time. The Portus Trajani was an important
place during the Gothic wars, when it was twice stormed by the Goths. At the end
of the Gothic wars it disappears from history, and in the time of the Exarchate it was
probably neglected, and the basin of Trajan became silted up. The passage for ships,
however, continued to be by the canal of Claudius until the twelfth century, when it
was again restored to the old channel by Ostia. Gregory IV., in 827 A.D., had built a
fortress there called Gregoriopolis, and for four centuries this became again the port
of Rome. The dangerous navigation caused Paul V. in 1612 to employ the celebrated
architect Fontana in dredging and repairing the canal of Claudius and making a small port
on the coast, now called Fiumicino, since which time the traffic has been carried on by
the right hand channel, now little more than a narrow canal, in which two barges can
scarcely pass each other. The ruins of the ancient city are now at least two miles
from the sea shore, and the hamlet of fifty inhabitants which represents Ostia is about

1 Cic. Rep. ii. 3, 18 ; Livy, i. 33 ; Plin. N. H. xx.xi. See Canina, Monum. tav. civii.

§ 89. '- Livy, xxii. 11. * See Hist. Aug. Ant. Pius, 8; Aurel. 45 ; Tac. 10.

^ Livy, xxvii. 38. ^ App. B. C. i. 67. ■ " See Rutil. Itin. 180: " Lasvus inaccessis fluvius

^ Plut Cics. 58. ' Strabo, v. p. 231. vitatur arenis liospitis ^Enese gloria sola manet."

" Dion Cass. Ix. 1 1 ; Suet. Claud. 20 ; Juv. xii. 75-Si. This was about 412 A.D. Procop. B. G. i. 26.

The Rowan Caivpagjia.

half a mile further inland. The course of the river has also apparently been com-
pletely changed since the time when Ostia ' was a flourishing city, for the old bed
approaches close to the modern village, and then makes a bend at a right angle, joining
the present channel near the ruins of the ancient town. This is perhaps the bend of
the river to which 0\id alludes in the legend of Claudia : —

-»^

" Fluminis ad floxum veniunt, Tiberina priorcs
Ostia di.xerunt unde sinister abit.'"

Besides this considerable change in the channel of the river the alluvium brought down
by the Tiber has formed, between Ostia and Fiumicino, a large tract of ground called
Isola Sacra. -

The site of the old town is plainly discernible by the hillocks of rubbish with which
it is covered, and the ruined brick walls which protrude here and there. On approaching
from the modern village we pass between lines of tombs on each side of the road
similar to those which have been excavated at Pompeii. The tombs are very closely
packed together, and of different sizes and shapes. On the left hand side two
sarcophagi remain, with the names of Sex. Carminius Parthenopasus Eq. and T. Flavius
Verus Eq., and a terra-cotta inscription on the tomb of Flavia C.-Ecilia, priestess of Isis at
Ostia.^ At the end of this street of tombs the gate of the city has been laid bare, and its
foundations can be easily traced, together with those of a guard-house on the left hand
side, with a rude tabula lusoria marked on the pavement where the soldiers whiled
away their time at some game resembling skittles. The street which is then entered
passes between the ruins of private houses, without anything more remarkable about
them than a fevv' common mosaic pavements and two fountains. The principal public
buildings which have been excavated arc: —

I. The house of the priests of Mithras, in which a well-preserved altar still stands, uith
the inscription —

"C CAELIVS • HER^^AEROS
ANTISTES • HVIVS • LOCI
FECIT."

II. The thermre, consisting of a large court and several smaller side rooms for vapour
baths, with mosaic pavements of various designs.*

III. A large rectangular brick edifice, with three windows on each side. In the
interior are the remains of ornamental niches, Corinthian capitals, and a marble cornice.
The walls have rivets upon them, by which it appears that they were covered with a
marble casing, and the magnificent block of African marble which sen,'es as the
threshold shows that the building was of a costly description. Traces have been found
of a hexastyle pronaos with a portico of grey granite columns. Whether this was
a temple or not is uncertain, but it has been shown that the arrangements in the

'• Ov. Fast. iv. 330. See Canin.i, Monuni. tav. clviii. * These baths may possibly be the lavacrum Os-

- The Tiber is said to add twelve feet annually to tiensc of Antoninus Pius. Sec Hist. Aug. Ant. Pius.

the shore of the Isola Sacra. cap. viii. The stamps on the bricks arc said to be of

' For a description of these tombs see Moiiumciiti the Antonine era. A plan is given in Canina's Monu-

ddV Inst. vi. tav. \\.;Ann. deirinst. 1857. pp. 281,340. mcnti, tav. civ.

3 1! 2

.■)/■

Tlic Roman Cavipagna.

interior are such as would agree with such a supposition. The masonry is assigned to
the age of Trajan or Hadrian. ^

IV. The ruins of a theatre, supposed by Nibby to be that mentioned in the Acta
Martyrum, near which S. Quiriacus, and S. Maximus, and S. Archelaus, and a number
of others, were martyred. It is built partly of yellow and red brickwork and partly of
opus reticulatum, and apparently belongs to the restorations and additions made by
Hadrian to the city.

V. The ruins of an extensive building on the bank of the river near Torre Bovacciano.
In this place a great number of works of art were discovered by Fagan in 1797, showing
the magnificent sculpture with which the building was ornamented ; and several inscrip-
tions found here, containing the names of Severus and Caracalla, are given by Nibby.-

The site of the ancient Portus Trajani, on the right branch of the Tiber, is now
occupied by the town of Porto, mainly consisting of the Cathedral, the Villa
lajaiu. Y^\\2,y\cm\, and some farm buildings. Fiumicino, at the present mouth of the
river, is two miles distant from Porto, and its site was entirely covered by the sea at the
time when Claudius constructed his new port. The large marshy tract to the north of
Porto marks the site of the port of Claudius. The hexagonal basin of Trajan lies between
this marsh and the town of Porto.

It is not at all clear when the right arm of the Tiber, or rather the canal which now
serves for communication between the sea and the Tiber proper, assumed its present
shape. Inundations and occasional repairs and alterations have changed its course, and
the constant retreat of the sea must have lengthened it considerably. Nibby 's opinion
is that, besides the large harbour, Claudius constructed an inner basin between the harbour
and the old course of the river. Into this basin he cut a canal from the bend of the river
near modern Ostia, and thus allowed the superfluous water of the Tiber to escape through
the harbour, and at the same time gained a supply of water for his docks. The inscription
found in 1837, and now placed by the roadside near the Villa Pallavicini, alludes to
this canal : — " Ti. Claudius. Drusi. F. Cjcsar. Aug. Germ. Pont. Max. Trib. Potest. VI.
Cos. III. Design. IIII. Imp. XII. P.P. Fossis ductis a Tiberi operis portus caussa emissisque
in mare urbem inundationis periculo liberavit." The words "operis portus caussa" seem
to show that the primary object of the fossjE was to supply the port with water, and
that the advantage of preventing inundations at Rome was only subordinate. Trajan
probably enlarged and reconstructed the inner basin of Claudius, and surrounded it with
the massive quays and warehouses, the ruins of which still remain." This iimer basin is
referred to by Juvenal in the lines: —

" Sed trunca puppe magister
Interiora petit Baianje pervia cymbae
Tuti stagna sinus." ■*

At the same time the canal was probably enlarged, and it is to this enlargement that
Pliny alludes by the name of " fossa quam providentissimus im.perator fecit." *

' See Nibby, Analisi, ii. p. 460. representing this hexagonal port on the obverse.

'■ Ibid. p. 468. Analisi, ii. p. 615. See Eckhel, N. V. vi. 4:6.

' A medal of Trajan is mentioned by Nibby as ■* Juv. xii. 79 ; Schol. ad loc. ' Plin. tp. viii. 17.

The Roman Campagna.

o/ J

1-Vom the cities of tlie Campus Solonius we pass to those on the neighbouring slopes
of the Alban hills. The nearest of these, at the extreme southern border of
the Campus Solonius, was Lanuvium.^ Livy places it on the Appian road, (2.)

and in Appian's Historv- of the Civil War the distance from Rome is eiveii ^''''" "'■"^// '^"'

J. ™, , . -> 51v1.11 Alban hills.

as 150 stadia. Ihe actual station or post-house on the road was callpH

. v,ain.u Lanuvium.

bublanuvium, and was at the eighteenth milestone from Rome. From this
point, a little beyond the modern Genzano, a branch road leads off to the right, along
a ridge of the Alban hills which projects towards the sea coast.- This ridge is about a mile
in length, and terminates in a steep descent into the plain of the Campus Solonius. The
distance of the ridge from Rome corresponds to the measurement given by Appian, and
the identity of the village of Civita Lavigna with the ancient Lanuvium has been proved
beyond a doubt by two inscriptions found there, now placed on the wall of the principal
church. Silius describes the site in the line :—

'• Quos celso deve.xa jugo Junonia sedes
Lanuvium misit.''^

His expressions accurately represent the sudden dip of the hill into the plain of Latium.
The ruins of the ancient town have entirely disappeared, with the exception of a small
theatre, a few columns, and two sarcophagi now used as water-troughs, showino- that
the existence of actual ruins is not always necessary in order to identify the site of such
ancient places. The present walls, with the exception of a few fragments on the western
side, are not ancient, but mainly mediaeval, as is also the tower, to a ring in which
the modern Lanuvines assert that .tineas fastened his ship. No conclusion can be
arrived at with regard to the site of the great temple of Juno Sospita, which Li\\-,
Varro, and Cicero mention, though it was restored as late as the Antonine era.*
The legend of the Lanuvine snake, told in Propertius and y^Elian, relates to the grove
of this Temple of Juno,^ and the ager Lanuvinus seems to have been celebrated for the
number of snakes found there.* Why Horace should connect wolves with the Lanuvine
district, unless it was on account of the numerous woods in the neighbourhood, is
not clear.^

Lanuvium is first mentioned in history as taking part in the Latin League against
Rome, after the expulsion of the Tarquins. It was admitted to the rights of a municipium
at an early period, and considered generally as a firm ally of Rome. Jlarius attacked and
destroyed the city, and we hear little about it afterwards during the Imperial times, till the
closing of the Temple of Juno by Theodosius completed its ruin.

' The name is frequently confounded in MS.S. ■* Livy, .\xi. 62, xxiv. 10; \arro, L. L. v. § 162;

with Lavinium, and is sometimes speh Lanivium in Cic. De Div. i. 44, Dc Nat. Deor. i. 29 ; Hist. Auj;.

Inscrs. : see Casaub. Ad Capit. Ant. Pius, i; Orell. Ant. Pius, 8. Pliny, N. H. xxxv. 17, mentions a

Inscr. The modem name Civita Lavigna shows the verv- ancient Greek painting here. See above, p.

same confusion. 369. Klausen, .^neas, pp. 1 1. 58; Bormann, A'.tlat.

^ Livy, xxvi. 8, " Quum Hannibalem Latina via Chor. S. 126.

iturum satis comperisset, ipse per Appiic municipia, ° Prop. El. iv. 8 : /El. Hist. .Vn. \i. 16.

quajque propter eam viam sunt, Seiiani, Coram, « Cic. Ue Div. ii. 31, i. 36. See above, p. 367.

Lanuvium, pra::misit, ut commcatusparatoshaberent.' ' Carm. iii. 27, 3. Aricia is called " nemoralis ' in

App. B. C. ii. 20. ' Sil. Punic, viii. 362. Mar. xiii. 19. See Ov. Fast. iii. 263.

■^ j^ T//C Roman Caiiipagna.

Two miles nearer Rome, on the Appian road, was Aricia. Its position is fixed
by the distance given in the Itineraries, and in Dionysius and Philo-
"'"'' stratus, who agree in placing Aricia fifteen miles from Rome on the

Appian road.^

The old Appian way crossed the valley below Aricia, while the modern road winds
alonn- the top of the hills. It was upon the descent from Aricia, called by Persius Clivus
Virbi, that the beggars in the time of Juvenal and Martial posted themselves ;'- for, though
the slope was considerably lessened by the colossal viaduct, the ruins of which are still
visible, yet carriages could not pass at a rapid pace. The arx of Aricia was on the
site of the present Lariccia, and the rest of the town extended into the valley of Lariccia
as Strabo says, and as may be seen by the numerous remains of buildings there.^ The
most remarkable of these is a fragment of so-called "Pelasgian" work, near the spring
which bursts out at the foot of the hill. This spring is sometimes called the mouth of an
emissarium, but it is most probably a natural spring brought down from a higher point
in the hill by means of a tunnel. Another ruin at Aricia belongs to a temple, the cella
of which is in part still used as a modern house. Like the Temple of Juno at Gabii, it was
built of squared peperino blocks, and stood against the back wall of the enclosing
temenos.* This may probably have been the Temple of Jupiter mentioned by Livy,*
but cannot, as Gell supposes, have been the Artemisium of Strabo,** for Strabo distinctly
says that the lake near the Artemisium was much smaller than the Alban lake ; and
a lake filling the valley of Lariccia, which Gell supposes to be meant, would not have
been vmch smaller than the Alban lake.

Whether there ever was a town at Nemi in ancient times, or merely a temple and
a consecrated grove, is not quite certain. Appian says that " Caesar borrowed
""'' money from the temples of the Roman Capitol, and of Antium, Lanuvium,
Nemus and Tibur, in which cities there still are rich treasures." ' Strabo, on the other hand,
speaks of the Artemisium as situated in a grove and not in a city,^ and the place is
o-enerally called Nemus Dianje or Nemus Triviae or Egeriae. The words of Ovid, " Unde
Nemus nullis illud aditur equis," seem also to show that Nemus was only a sacred grove,
and not a town ; " and, since the word is never used as a proper name but always
as an appellative, we must, I think, conclude that there was no city connected with the
famous Dianium.

After describing the district on the right hand of the Appian road, Strabo passes

to the left hand side of the road and continues : — " The Temple of

tamum. ^j-temis which they call Nemus is on the left side of the road which

ascends from Aricia (towards Lanuvium). The temple lies in a wood, and in front

of it is a larce lake ; and both this and the temple lying in a hollow are enclosed by an

1 Strabo, v. 239, gives 160 stadia as the distance of pp. iii. 106.

Aricia from Rome, but there must be some mistake '- Livy, xxiv. 44.

in the text there. " Gell, p. 105. Kibby thinks that this temple

^ Pers. vi. 56 ; Juv. Sat. iv. 117 ; Mart. ii. 19, x. 68, was a smaller one built on the model of the great

xii. 32 ; Virgil, yEn. vii. 761; Westphal, Kamp. p. 28. Dianium. See Vitruv. iv. 7.

5 Strabo, loc. cit. ' App. B. C. v. 24. » Strabo, loc. cit.

* Annali ddV Inst. 1839; Mon. ed Ann. 1854, :' Fast. iii. 266. Cf. Virg. ^n. vii. 778.

The Roman Caiiipagna. "-js

unbroken circular ridge of steep rocks."' There can be little doubt that this passage

of Strabo points to the shore of the lake as the site of the Artcmisium ; but whether

the temple was immediately under Genzano or at the present villac^e of Nemi is

difficult to decide. Cav. Rosa, who examined the neighbourhood of Nemi and

Genzano with a special view to the solution of the question of this site, has given a

careful account both of the ruins under Genzano and those to the west of Nemi. The

former he pronounces undoubtedly to have belonged to a villa, the latter he thinks belonged

to a temple with a large court in front, and to an ancient road leading to it from the

western side of the lake. These ruins are just above the lower road leading from the

Capuccini convent at Genzano to Nemi, at the point where a cross road leads to the

left, and joins the higher road to Nemi not far from the place called Le Mole.-

\'irgirs expressions certainly would lead us to place the Dianium on the ed<Te of

the lake :—

" Eductum Egeriee lucis humentia circum
Litora, pinguis ubi et placabilis ara Dianae."

The town of Albano occupies the site of the Imperial villa called Albanum Ca;saris,
and will therefore be described among the ancient villas of the Campagna.*
It is connected with the ancient Alba Longa by name only. The early ' '"'^"'

destruction of that city so famous in Roman legendary lore has completely deprived
us of the means of tracing its site by the discovery of any remains of the walls or
buildings which it contained. It was razed to the ground by Tullus Hostilius in
B.C. 667 and never rebuilt.^ Dionysius thus describes the site : — " The city was
built close to the mountain and lake, upon a site between the two. They serve as
defences to it, and make it almost impregnable, for the mountain is very steep and
lofty and the lake deep and wide." Li\y says that the city was named " Longa "
because it extended along a ridge of the Alban hills.^ The words of Dionysius seem
to imply that Alba stood immediately between Monte Cavo and the lake, near the
site of the Convent of Palazzolo, and Cav. Rosa, the highest modern authority on
the topography of the Campagna, who has made the neighbourhood of Albano and
Nemi the subject of special study, holds this opinion. Nibby thought that the whole
edge of the crater from Palazzolo nearly to Marino, a distance of more than two miles,
was occupied by the city of Alba.** Sir William Gell discovered an ancient road
running along the edge of the crater above Monte Cuccu, and a few blocks of stone
on the top of the precipice bordering the lake further eastwards, which he thinks must
have belonged to the gate of Alba. He ascertained, he says, " that a long pointed
extremity of the city had extended over a remarkable knoll further to the north.

1 Bormann translates this passage, " a ridge which of Genzano says : " Genzano un castcllo o piutosto

separates the temple from the lake," which seems to una ragguardevole terra di modcrna data, la di ciii

me to be a sense the words will not bear. He thinks prima origine non sale piu indictro del secolo xiii."'

that the vy^rrfKfi u<f)pvs is the lower ridge on which Bormann, p. 140, note 303.

Nemi stands. ^ Castel Gandolfo is c median-al origin.

- Moniiiiiiiitiiii Annalidcll' hist. 1856, p. 5, tav. ii. * Livy, i. 27. ' Dion_\ s. i. 66 ; Livy, i. 3.

Genzano is of mediaeval origin. Ratti in his history « Nibby, .-Vnalisi, vol. i. p. 63.

cT^i Tlic Roman Caiupagna.

Tlie buildings of tlie town stretched along the lip of the crater for more than a mile,
and being founded on a "precipice of grey rocks, the place in all probability obtained its
name Alba from this circumstance, though the white sow has been given by some authors
as the origin of the name." The knoll on the north, or left of the gate, on which Gell
supposes that the citadel of Alba stood, may be approached, he says, from the old post
road between Marino and Palazzolo, along what may now be termed the isthmus connect-
ing the ridge above described with Monte Albano. " It is surrounded by a barrier of
loose and rough modern walls, but nothing ancient is visible. The rock on the
summit is perfectly bare, and is of so perishable a nature that it is not surprising
that almost every vestige of antiquity has disappeared."'

The triumphal route by which the processions from Rome ascended the Alban
Mount diverged from the Appian road at the ninth milestone.^ It probably
passed by Marino to Palazzolo, and thence ascended to the summit by
a series of zigzags. The stones which mark its course have the letters N V (Xuminis
Via) cut upon them. On the summit stood the temple of Jupiter Latiaris, the ancient
sanctuary of the Latin League. The sole remains of tliis famous building are now
built into the wall of the water-tank of the Convent of Palazzolo. They consist of two
fragments only, a part of a cornice and a broken column, and convey no information
as to the size or style of the temple.

Most of the stones employed by Cardinal York, in 1783, in the erection of the
Convent of Palazzolo and the Church of the Trinity, which now occupies the site of
the temple, were taken from the ruins ; but nothing can be learnt from them regarding
the ancient buildings.^ The summit of the hill is not broad enough to have supported
any large building ; and we may therefore conclude that the temple was of small size,
and that the great festival games at the Ferise Latina: were held in the Campo
d'Annibale.

The name Rocca di Papa, which now belongs to the little town occupying so

conspicuous a situation on the side of Monte Cavo over the Campo

d'Annibale, has been ingeniously connected by Nibby with the Fabienses

whom Pliny mentions as living on the Alban Mount.* Fabia, he thinks, has been

corrupted into Fapia, and then, in consequence of the residence of the Antipope John

there in A.D. 1190, the name became changed into Rocca di Papa.^

In Pliny's enumeration of the colonies in Latium we find the Castrimonienses mentioned,

with the Fabienses ; and the author of the treatise De Coloniis, commonly

"' """""""'■ ascribed to Frontinus, speaks of Castrimonium as a town fortified by Sulla,

and states that the territor_\- belonging to it was in Nero's time assigned to some

military officers and soldiers.'' The existence of such a town is further confirmed by

two inscriptions, which show that it was a municipium, with a mayor and common

1 Gell, p. 18. Alexander VII. ascended it in his carriage.

- Sometimes the hill is called simply Alba. Lucan, ' The inscriptions on some of these stones are not

rhars. iii. 87 : " Quaque iter est Latiis ad summam ancient, but merely the freaks of modern stonemasons,

fascibus Albam.'"" Plut. Ces. 60 : " Kara.'Sa.'i'o./Tor e| < Pliny, N. H. iii. 5, 5 64 ; Nibby, Anal. iii. p. 19 :

-SX&m Kn.Vapot." The triumphal road was cleared Cell, p. 373 ; Abeken, Mittelitalien, p. 63.

of rubbish in the seventeenth century, and Pope •' Pliny, loc. cit. ; Frontin. De Col. p. 85.

The Roviaii CaDipagna -.y^

council, down to the time of Antoninus Pius.' These inscriptions were found at Marino •-
and as the site of Marino, which stands upon a prominent spur of the Alban hills,
agrees with the usual position of ancient Latin towuis, there can be little doubt that
Marino occupies the site of the ancient Castrimonium.

Between the ridge on which Marino stands and the edge of the Lao^o d'Albano a
lonely wooded valley intervenes, called Parco di Colonna, with a spring-
rising at its head, and forming a small brook, which issues into the ■^'l'"'^"''"''""-
Campagna and joins the stream called Marrana dei Orti. The picturesque and solemn
character of this wooded valley and stream, and their position under the Alban Mount
have given rise to the conjecture that here were the " caput aqua; Ferentinse " and
the Lucus Ferentin^ well known to the readers of Livy and Dionysius as the meetin<'-
place of the Latin League after the destruction of Alba,^ and the spot where Turnus
Herdonius was drowned/ There is, however, no further evidence than the above-
quoted passage of Dionysius to show that the Parco di Colonna is the site of the Lucus
Ferentinas, and therefore it must be considered as extremely doubtful whether Nibby's
conjecture is correct. There are several springs in the vallej', one of which rises
at the rock immediately under the town of Marino, and another higher up the
valle\- towards Rocca di Papa. Gell considers that the higher fountain was the original
Aqua Fercntina, where Herdonius was drowned by having a hurdle with heavy stones
placed over him.^

Since the excavations carried out by Lucien Bonaparte at the beginning cf this
centur)-, there has been no doubt left as to the site of the ancient city
of Tusculum. Its ruins lie from about a mile and a half to two miles
above Frascati, upon the ridge which has been previously described as forming the edo-e
of the most ancient crater of the Alban hills. Between this ridge, which bore the name
of Tusculani colles, and the hills upon which Marino and Rocca di Papa stand, the
great Latin road ran along the valley called Vallis Albana. Tusculum stands just over
this road, and was approached from it by a steep path ascending the northern side of the
valley.* The main road (Via Tusculana) entered the city on the other side from the
direction of Frascati and Rufinella, leaving the Via Latina at the tenth milestone
between Morena and Ciampino. The ancient pavement of this road can be clearly
traced on the slope of the hill above Frascati, and it leads us along the top of the hill,
through what has plainly been the main street of the town, to the citadel which stood
at the eastern extremity.

The site of the citadel is a platform nearly square, and 2,700 feet in circuit, standing
about two hundred feet above the level of the surrounding parts of the
hill. Its walls were completely demolished by the Romans in 1172, and
not a vestige of them, is left. Sir William Gell thought, however, that he could

' Gruter, p. 397, 3 ; Fabrctti, p. 6S8. deinde diruta usque ad P. Deciiim Murem cos.

- The name Marino is mediaeval. In ilie tenth populos Latinos ad caput Ferentina; quod est sub

and eleventh centuries the district between the Appian Monte Albano consulere solitos."

and Latin roads near the Alban hills was called ^ Dionys. iii 34, iv. 45 ; Livy, i. 50, 52, ii. 38, vii. 25.

Moreni. Nibby, Anal. ii. p. 316. '- Above, p. 358.

' Cincius ap. Festum, p. 241 ; Miiller : "Alba ° See Cell, p. 426.

% C

378 The Roman Cavipagna.

discover the traces of four ancient gates, one towards the town on the west, another on
the side of the Alban valley, a third on the eastern side, and, not far from this last, a
postern communicating with a steep and rocky path which descended to the Alban
valley.' Most of the ruins now visible belong to the mediaeval fortress of the
Dukes of Tusculum, and a few only of the quadrilateral blocks of the ancient enclosure
are visible.

In the ^■Equian and Volscian wars this citadel must have played an important
part. We find it seized by the /Equians in B.C. 457, and only recovered after a siege
of some months by the starvation of the garrison.'- Again, in 374 B.C., when
the Tusculan citizens had taken refuge in it, they could not be dislodged by the Latin
army, who were in possession of the town.' The citadel must, therefore, have been a
fortress of considerable .strength from very early times. Dionysius describes it as a
very strong position, requiring but a small garrison to hold it, and adds that the whole
country as far as the gates of Rome is plainly visible from it, so that the defenders could
see the Roman forces issuing from the Porta Latina.*

The city itself lay on the ridge of the hill westwards from the citadel. The area
which it occupied is an oblong strip of ground about 3,000 feet long,
and from 500 to 1,000 feet in width. On the north and south sides
the limits of the city are clearly marked by the edges of the hill, but on the
west they are not so easily defined. Nibby thought that the wall of the city on
this side stood near the place where two ancient roads diverge, at about 750 feet to
the east of the amphitheatre, and that the principal gate at which the road from Rome
entered was a little to the east of this spot. If we accept this conclusion, the circumference
of the oppidum, exclusive of the arx, mu.st have been about a mile, and its shape
approximately triangular.''

With the addition of the citadel, the whole circuit may have been a mile and a half
in extent." At the foot of the descent from the citadel are the ruins
of a large w-ater-tank of an oblong shape, divided into four compartments
by three rows of piers ; and immediately under this tank is a small theatre, built of
peperino, which was excavated by the dowager Queen of Sardinia, Maria Christina, in
1839 and 1840. This, with the exception of the Pompeian theatres, is the most perfectly
preserved in Italy. The walls of the scena are unfortunately destroyed, but the ground-
plan of it can still be traced. The stage, which abuts closely on the westward side of the
semicircular cavea, is no feet in length, and 20 feet in depth. It has the three usual
entrances from the back, and one at each end. These open into a corridor, and
communicate with two chambers, probably used as dressing-rooms by the actors. Nearly
the whole of the fifteen rows of seats in the lower pr^cinctio are .still preserved unbroken,
but the upper part, which contained, to judge by the height of the outer walls still
remaining, about nine rows of seats, is entirely destroyed.

' Gell, p. 439 ; Nibby, Analisi, vol. iii. p. 326. " Prof. Reber thinks with some probabihty that

- Livy, iii. 23. See also iii. 7, 18, 29, 31, 41, 42, 60, the city is too small as thus limited, and he would

61 ; iv. 45. include in it also a part of the northern side of the

5 Ibid. vi. 33. ^ Dionys. x. 20. hill. (Ruincn Roms, p. 576.)
^ Nibby, Analisi, vol. iii. p. 327.

The Roman Caiiipagna. -yj^

The curved walls on the northern side of the theatre were supposed by Nibby to have
belonged to another theatre, but are now generally believed to have been
part of a fountain connected with the above-mentioned reservoir. AlontT '" '"""'
the northern side of the reservoir are two parallel walls, which apparently enclosed the
street leading to the citadel. The roadway must have been here carried by an arched
corridor under the side of the theatre. Near the ancient road from the theatre westwards
is a mass of ruins, the plan of which cannot be determined, and beyond these, not far
from the point where the road divides, and on its right hand branch, is one
of the gates of the city, marked by two fragments of ancient fluted columns,
which perhaps formed a part of its architecture. Near this are the remains of the ancient
north wall of the city, consisting of blocks of peperino of great size, more or less regularly
laid, and restored here and there in reticulated work, partly of the later Republic,
and partly of more modern times. The pavement of the street is here perfectly pre-
served, and near the gateway there is a wide space left, probably as a turning-place for
carts or carriages.

In the wall near this point is a stone doorway leading into a piscina, v.ith a pointed
roof formed by ov-erlapping stones on the same principle as the roof of the
Mamertine prison at Rome, the gate of Arpinum.^ and the treasuries of Mycenje
and Orchomenos. The doorway is about ten feet high and five wide, and the piscina of
the same dimensions. In the interior arc three basins for water, and at the back
an aqueduct enters, by means of which the water was supplied. At the side of this
piscina there is a small ancient fountain under the wall, which was supplied from the
piscina by a leaden pipe. An inscription on the fountain records that it was made by the
-(Ediles Ouintus Coelius Latinus, son of Quintus, and Marcus Decumo, by command of the
Senate of Tusculum.-

Not far from the fountain the fifteenth milestone from Rome was found.'*

On the road to F"rascati, near the point where the two roads meet, and the western
gate of the city is supposed to have stood, the remains of an amphi-
theatre can be discovered. The seats are entirely destroyed, and it is
only by the oval shape and by the position of the substructions that the ruins can be
recognised as those of an amphitheatre. A round tomb stands a little above the amphi-
theatre, and further on the ruins of a large villa, called Scuola di Cicerone, cover the side
of the hill towards the Alban valley.*

The legend which ascribes the foundation of Tusculum to Telegonus, the son of Circe
and Ulysses, is familiar to all readers of the Latin poets.'' It is remarkable, however, that
Virgil, who mentions most of the towns of Latium, has entirely omitted to notice
Tusculum. This may be mere accident, or it may be attributable to a grudge similar

' -See chap. vi. \>. 8i. Fast.iii.91. "CircaeoTuscuIadorsomceniar' Sil. Ital.

- O. Coel. Q. F. Latin. M. Decumo ^d. dc S. S. vii.692. "Tclegoni pulsatosarietcmuros;' ib. .\ii. 535.

' Uionys., .\. 20. gives the distance from Rome as " Vitrea; juga pcrfida Circes Dulichiis ululata lupis;"

not less than 100 stadia. He is only giving a rough Stat. Silv. i. 3, 83. Propcrt. (iii. 30) ii. 32, 4. "Telegoni

estimate, since fifteen and a half Roman miles arc juga parricida:," Hor. Od. iii. 29, 8; Ep. i. 30. The

equivalent to 120 stadia. * See below, p. 407. great family of the .Mamilii were descended, accord-

^ ■' Factaquc Telegoni moenia celsa maiui ;'' Ov. ing to the legend, from Telegonus. Festus, p. 131.

3 C 2

3o T/zc Roman Cainpagna.

to that which led him, according to Aulus Gellius, to omit Nola from the lines in the
Georgics celebrating the fertility of Campania ; ^ but it certainly cannot be due to the
fear of making an anachronism, as Nibby supposes. In the times of the Latin League,
from the fall of Alba to the battle of the Lake Regillus, Tusculum was the most prominent
town in Latium. It suffered, like the other towns in Latium, a complete eclipse during
the later Republic and the Imperial times ; but in the ninth, tenth, eleventh, and'twelfth
centuries, under the Counts of Tusculum, it became again a place of great importance
and power, no less than seven popes of the house of Tusculum having sat in the chair
of St. Peter. The final destruction of the city is placed by Nibby, following the account
given in the records of the Podesta of Reggio, in 1191, on the 1st of April, in which year
the city was given up to the Romans by the Emperor Henry VI., and, after the with-
drawal of the German garrison, was sacked and razed to the ground. Those of the
inhabitants who escaped collected round the Church of S. Sebastian, at the foot of the
hill, in the district called Frascati,- whence the town of Frascati took its origin and name.
They founded their new town upon the remains of an ancient villa, which stood near the
round tomb .still remaining on the road to the Villa della Rufinella. The name of LucuUus
has been attached to this villa and tomb, from the statement of Plutarch that Lucullus
w-as buried by his brother at his Tusculan villa.^ It is, however, much more probable
that the larger round tomb in the Vigna Angolotti, on the road towards Rome, was
the burial-place of Lucullus.

The extreme eastern point of the Tusculan hills is now occupied by the modern

village of Rocca Priora. It is evident, from the quantity of fragments of

granite and marble columns, and the slabs of peperino which are embedded

in the walls of the houses, that there was at least a villa here in the later Republican age,

and probably a town in the earlier times of Latium. From its position on the road

between Pedum (Gallicano) and Corioli (i\Ionte Giove), Rocca Priora has been fixed

upon by Nibby as the site of the ancient town of Corbio, a place of strength, taken

and retaken often during the earlier times of the Republic in the ^quian, \'olscian,

and Latin wars.^ In the grand effort made by the Latin confederates to replace

Tarquinius on the throne of Rome, their first effort was directed to making themselves

masters of the strong fort of Corbio, whence they expelled the Roman garrison, and then

ravaged the Roman territory on both sides of the place. Now, as it appears that in this

war, terminated by the battle of the Lake Regillus, the Lating did not extend their

operations beyond the Tusculan territory, Rocca Priora is almost the only spot we can

find which answers to the description of Dionysius,' whence marauding excursions

could be made into Roman territorj- on both sides, into the Alban valley on the south and

the district of Gabii on the north.

The most conspicuous outlying hill on the border of the Tusculan district is that of La
Colonna, about three miles below Rocca Priora. It stands apart from the Tusculan

1 Aul. Gell. N. A. vi. fvii.) 20. The line, " Talcm ' Plutarch, Vit. Lucull. 43.

dives arat Capua et vicina Vesevo Nola jugo,' was * Livy, ii. 39. iii. 38, 30 : Dionys. vii. 19, x. 24.

altered, it is said, into " Ora jugo." Georg. ii. 224. » Dionys. vi. 3.

- Anastast. Bibl. ed. Mog. 1602, p. 267.

The Rojuan Campagna. 38 1

range, and is easily seen from Rome. From Strabo's description of the site of Labicum,
there can be but little doubt that this hill must be considered as the place (^)

to which he refers in his account of the Via Labicana. "That road," he Tiu neighbour-
says, " begins at the Esquiline gate, at which the Prxnestine road also quits ''Zdihfi'Jtlank
the city, and leaving both this latter and the Esquiline plain on the left, of the Auio.
proceeds for more than a hundred and twenty stadia (fifteen and a" half Labicum.
Roman miles) till it reaches Labicum, an old dismantled city, lying on a mount. The
road leaves that place and Tusculum on the right, and ends at the station called
Ad Pictas, where it joins the Latin road." ^

It is quite clear from this passage of Strabo that the distance of Labicum from Rome
was a little more than fifteen mile.s, that the road did not pass through it, but near it, that
the town stood on a hill, not far from Tusculum, on the right hand of the road, and before
the road reached the station Ad Pictas, where it joined the Latin road. We know from the
Antonine Itinerarium and the Tabula Peutingeriana that this station was twenty-five
miles from Rome. All these circumstances point distinctly to La Colonna as the site of
Labicum, and show that Cluverius and Kircher, who placed it at Zagarolo, were mistaken
in their opinion.- There are no ancient ruins on the spot. In Strabo's time it was
apparently ruined and deserted,^ and at an earlier date Cicero says that it was difficult
to find an\- inhabitant to represent Labicum at the Feriae Latin?e. It seems possible,
therefore, that it suffered severely in the civil war of Sylla and Marius, and did not
recover itself until the establishment of an imperial villa there gave it some importance.
In common with Corbio and Gabii, this city was a place of great importance in the
/Equian and Volscian wars of the third and fourth centuries of the city.*

Gabii was situated on the edge of the lake called Lago di Pantano, in the district of
Castiglione. Numerous traces of the ancient city are still visible. It occupied a long strip of
ground extending from the sepulchral mound, on the right of the road near the emissarium
of the lake, to the tower of Castiglione. Nibby thinks that this tower stands
on the spot formerly occupied by the citadel of Gabii, originally a strong-
hold founded, according to the legend, by a colonj' from Alba.'^ In the year 1792
extensive excavations were made on the site by Prince Marcantonio Borghese, at the
suggestion of Mr. Hamilton, a Scotch painter, and a quantity of sculptures and inscriptions
now in the Louvre at Paris were discovered.'' The principal ruins now remaining are tho.se
of the cella of a temple built of the famous lapis Gabinus, and some steps in a semi-
circular form, probably the remains of a theatre. The temple is generally supposed to
have been that of Juno alluded to by Virgil."

The form of this temple was almost identical with that at Aricia. The interior of the

1 Strabo, v. p. 237. prolepsis among the allies of Latinus.

- The name is written Labicum in Strabo ; Labici ' Serv. ad Virg. /En. vi. ■j-\ Gabii was, according

in Livy, ii. 39, and Virgil, ^n. vii. 796 ; Labicani in to Dionys. iv. 53. ten stadia = \i\ miles from Rome-

an Inscr.quoted by Fabretti, De Aqused. Ronice, 1680, So also Strabo, v. p. 238, places it half-way between

p. 183. See Itin. Ant. cd. Wess. p. 304. Rome and Pneneste.

' Strabo, loc. cit. ; Cicero, Pro Plane, chap. 9 ; Suet. « See Visconti, .Monumcnti Cabini, ed. Labus :

Jul. 83. Milan, 1835.

• Livy, ii. 39, iii. 25, iv. 45, vi. 21. Dionys., viii. 19, ' " Quique ar\'a Gabinae Junonis . . . colunt." .En.

calls Labicum a colony of .Alba. V'irgil, in the line " Et vii. 6S2.
Sacrana- acics et picti scuta Labici," places it by a

38 2 Tlic Roman Canipagna.

cella was twenty-seven feet wide and forty-five feet long. It had columns of the Doric
order in front and at the sides, but none at the back. The walls of the posticum were
here, as at Aricia, prolonged on each side so as to close the side porticoes at the back.
The surrounding area was about fifty-four feet at the sides, but in front a space of only
eight feet was left open, in consequence of the position of the theatre, which abutted
closely upon the temple. On the eastern side of the ceila are traces of the rooms in
which the priests in charge of the temple lived.

The shape of the P"orum can only partially be made out. From the plan published in
the Monumenti Gabino-Borghesiani it appears that it was a rectangular, quadrilateral space
traversed by the Via Praenestina at the southern end, and that it was surrounded with a
portico of Doric columns, except at the end along which the Via Prsenestina was carried.
It was believed at the time when the excavations were made that the Curia and Augu.steum
could be distinguished among the surrounding buildings, but this seems very doubtful. In
the centre stood the statue of Titus Flavins yElianus, the patronus of the municipium.
The pedestal of this statue with its inscription was found in situ in 1792.^

" The stone of Gabii, quarried near the lake, and the product of its extinct volcano,
is used in many of the Roman buildings, and especially in the tabularium at the head
of the Forum Romanum. It is a hard species of peperino, of a brownish grey colour,
which, when exposed to the air, becomes paler than the common peperino of Albano.
It resists the action of fire, and is, a compound of volcanic ashes mixed with small frag-
ments of black, brown, and reddish lava, amphigene, and pirossene, scales of mica, and
bits of Apennine limestone."^

The city of Gabii lost its independence soon after the beginning of the Republican
era of Rome. It was restored as a colony of veterans by Sylla, but sank into
obscurity, and became almost proverbial for its desolate condition in the Augustan era.-^
It afterwards recovered its prosperity in some degree by means of the celebrity of
its cold baths, ^ and in the time of Hadrian was patronized by the Emperor, who
built an aqueduct and a Curia yElia- there. The inscriptions found on this spot belong
chiefly to the Antonine era, and the busts of Severus and Geta show that in the first
part of the third century Gabii was still a flourishing municipium.''

By far the most important place on the /Equian frontier was the strong fortress-
town of Praeneste, which commands the passage from Latium into the
valley oi the bacco. Praeneste is placed on one 01 the projectmg spurs
of the mountainous district which intervenes between the Anio and the Sacco.
Standing, as the city does, more than 2,100 feet above the sea-level, it forms a very
conspicuous object in the view from the hills of Rome."

' See Visconti, op. cit. " The name Praeneste is derived by Plutarch,

- Xibby, Analisi, vol. ii. p. 87. Par. xli , and Serv. ad Ji-n. vii. 678, from nfAvm, by

■■' Hor. Ep. i. II, 7. "Gabiis desertior;" Propert. Festus from "prsestare montibiis," and by Solinus

V. (iv.) I, 34. " Et qui nunc nulli maxima turba Gabi ;" from the mythical hero Prjenestus, a son of Ulysses

Lucan, Phars. vii. 393, 407. and Circe. Virgil makes Ca?culus the founder, -En.

' Hor. Ep. i. 15, 9; Juv. Sat. vii. 3. vii. 681. Strabo, v. p. 238, gives IloXvaTitpavoi as the

■' The"cinctus Gabinus " is defined and its origin ancient name of Prsneste. The modern name

explained by Serv. ad /En. vii. 612. Palestrina is a corruption of civitas Prsenestina.

The Roman Campag)ia. -S

o-'o

The first historical notice we have of Pricneste is in the war between the Latins
and the Romans, which was fought in support of the claims of Tarquinius, when the
Prsnestines sided with the Latin League. At the battle near the Lake Rcgillus, however,
they separated themselves from the Latin League and joined the Roman cause. In the
Volscian wars, the invasion of Pyrrhus, and the Hannibalian campaigns, Prjeneste played
an important part.' But the most remarkable event in the histoiy of this city is the
siege and capture of the Arx PrKnestina by the Syllan troops in the Civil War, when
the younger Marius,, after vainly seeking to hide himself in the cuniculi or secret
passages with which the rock under the city was honeycombed, was compelled to kill
himself. The victorious S\lla, in revenge for their obstinate resistance, massacred the
whole of the inhabitants in cold blood. -

"Vidit Fortuna colonos
Prsenestina suos cunctos simul ense recisos
Unius populum percuntem tempore mortis." '

The famous Temple of Fortune, the glory of Prjeneste, was afterwards magnificently
restored by Sylla,'' who also rebuilt the town, and placed a colony of veterans there.
In the Augustan age, Pr^eneste was a favourite resort of the Emperor and the court
on account of its healthy situation,* and Tiberius raised the town from the rank of
a colonia to that of a municipium, in recognition of the benefit to his health derived
from the Pra;nestine air. Horace ranks it with Tibur and Baiffi, as a favourite
country residence, and praises the cool temperature, caused by the height at which
the city stands above the plain of Latium.® One of Hadrian's numerous villas
was built there, a record of which is still preserved in the name of the little church,
S. Maria della Villa, near the modern town."^ For a long period the Pr;i;nestinje sortes
made the great Temple of Fortuna Primigenia famous throughout Italy, and the town
derived most of its celebrity and wealth from the concourse of persons who came to
consult the oracle.^ A great blow was given to its prosperity by the decrees of
Constantine and Theodosius, who forbade under strict penalties the consultation of
the Prcenestinre sortes and closed the doors of the Temple of Fortune. Two fearful
disasters completed the ruin of Prjeneste in the thirteenth and fifteenth centuries.
In 1297 the Colonna family, then lords of Prceneste, rose in arms against Pope
Boniface VIII. Their city after an obstinate defence was taken in the following
year, and razed to the ground b\- the Pope's orders.'' The quarrels between the
Colonnas and the Pope again broke out after the death of Martin V. in 143 1, and
six years afterwards the city was again utterly demolished by Cardinal Vitelleschi,
General-in-chief of the Papal army. Notice to quit was given to the inhabitants,

^ Dionys. v. 61 ; Li\y, ii. 19, iii. 8, vi. 22, vii. 12 ; sen liquid* placuere Baia; ;" Ep. i. 2, 2, ''Trojani belli

xxiii. 17. Florus, i. 18. scriptorem Prsneste rclegi."

' Strabo, v. p. 329 ; Livy, Epit. Ix.x.wiii. ; Plutarch, ' Hist. Aug. Mar. .\\\x. 21. .See Nibby, Anal. vol.

.Syll. 30; App. B. C. i. 94. ii. p. 514.

» Lucan, I'hars. ii. 193. * Suet. Tib. 63, I'om. 15 ; Cic. De Div. ii. 41 ;

' Plin. N. H. xxxvi. 44. ' .Suet. Aug. 72. Hist. Aug. Al. Sev. chap. 4.

" GcU. xvi. 13; Juv. iii. 190. Hor. Od. iii. 4, 23: " Petrini, Memorie Prasnestini, p. 419, quoted by

" Seu mihi frigidum Pra.neste, seu Tibur supinum, Nibby, .Xnal. ii. 4S7 ; Rcr. It. .Scrip, torn. ix. 970.

384 The Roman Campagna.

and then the work of destruction was carried on with fire and mattock for fort}-
days. Not even the Cathedral was spared ; Vitelleschi carried away its bell and doors
and relics to his own cathedral at Corneto. In the following year, 1438, the citadel
was also destroyed and levelled with the floor of the principal court contained in it.
For ten years it lay absolutely deserted, but was then rebuilt and fortified by Stefano
Colonna in 1448. The place passed by purchase into the possession of the Barberini-
family in 1630.^

After such a history we can only wonder that it has been found,possible to restore the
ancient plan of the city with such tolerable accuracy as has been done by Nibby and other
archa.-ologists. The modern town, an agglomeration of filthy narrow alleys, occupies little
more than the space on which stood the great Temple of Fortune and its approaches. At

nearly a mile's distance from the temple, on the summit of the hill, stood the

citadel, united with the town by two long walls of pol)'gonal masonry, traces
of which are still to be seen, though they do not rise to any height above the ground.
The site of the citadel is now occupied by a wretched little suburb, called Borgo dl
S. Pietro, and by a ruined mediaeval castle of the Colonnas, built in the style called
''opera Saracenesca." On the side towards the town the citadel walls are still easily
traced, and present admirable examples of polygonal structure, rising in some places to
a considerable height. On the other side, where the steepness of the hill made artificial
defences less necessary, the walls have almost disappeared.

The original fortifications of the city may be followed from the Porta del Sole, where
the ancient polygonal masonry is still visible, in a direct line to the summit of the citadel.
" In this part of the walls are some towers of opus incertum, standing between the Porta
delle Monache and the Porta Portella. Near the latter gate the polygonal wall is about
fifteen feet in height, and on one great block may be read, in very ancient letters, the words,
P E D. XXX. After passing round the summit of the hill of S. Pietro, the wall
descends to the Porta S. Martino, where it was strengthened at the time of the Punic
wars with additions of quadrilateral structure, and where an ancient gate, now closed,
may be seen. From this point the -Hall proceeds in a nearly straight line along the
upper garden of the Barberini palace and the Via de' S. Girolamo towards the Porta del
Sole. This circuit of about three miles in length was intersected at difterent points by at
least three other lines of fortifications above the Contrada dclla Cortina, and hence perhaps
the city bore the name noXixrrf'^ai'oe given to it by Strabo, forming as it were four separate
enclosures, besides the various terraces of the great temple, which could almost be regarded
as so many divisions of the town."^
■ The original foundation of the Temple of F'ortune Primigenia'' at Prsneste is lost in

obscurity ; but the ancient pol3'gonal substructions which support it show
Fo'rfuu- ^^"^^ '*• ^^'^^ ^ ^^'')" l^f&s temple in early times. Cicero, in his description of

the Prajncstinre sortes, speaks of it as a splendid and ancient temple ; and
Valerius Maximus mentions it as the most celebrated oracle of Latium at the end of the
first Punic war.^

' Nibby, Analisijii. p. 494. - Ib'd. p. 496. ^ Cic. De Diw ii. 41. " Fani pukritudo et vetiistas,"

' See Bull, dell' Inst. 1857, p. 70. Val. Max. i. 4. See the anne.\ed plan.

j0rr) ififf. JO jP'.a

ooooooooo
ooooooooo

ooo oooooo
ooooooooo

u
<

cc
en

cc
I-
z
u
o

o o Ooo

<
o
cr

z
<
a:
o

^ii

o
to

LU
X

u.
o

o
<

- n ■

- D ■

- D •

- n ■

^ i

D ■

^- D

LiJ

The Roman Campagiia. "gt;

The original extent of the temple appears to have included only that part of the lower
town which lies between the modern streets of the Corso and the Borgo, and the ancient
city surrounded it, principally Ij'ing on the side towards the citadel. But after Sylla had
rebuilt the temple, its true precincts reached as far downwards as the modern Contrada
degli Arconi, and upwards to the Contrada Scacciato, behind the baronial palace. The
whole of this space was filled with a gradually ascending series of flights of marl'- stairs
and terraces, arranged in a pyramidal form, at the summit of which stood the tholus, or
round temple of the goddess, 450 feet above the lowest terrace. The base of this
p}-ramidal approach was 1275 feet broad, and the upper terraces gradually diminished
in width. The temple faced south, like those of Diana at Aricia, of Juno at Gabii an.'.
Lanuvium, and of Jupiter Capitolinus at Rome. The modes of construction found in the
ruins are referred by Nibby to four different epochs : — the polyhedral stonework of the
primitive temple, which was incorporated in the buildings of the new ; the squared stone-
work of the time of the Punic wars ;^ the structures composed of smaller polj-gonal stones,
erected by Sylla ;- and the brickw-ork of the Imperial times. There were five principal
terraces or platforms rising one above the other.'* Nibby calls these the terrace of the
piscinae, the terrace of the halls, the central terrace, the terrace of the exedrse, and
the terrace of the hemicycle. In front of the lowest terrace there was a large open space,
on which the boundary of the sacred precincts was marked out by cippi, some of which
have been found on the spot. This open area was on the right of the Contrada degli
Arconi, which takes its name from the arches still remaining. The sides of the area were
bounded by two immense reservoirs. One of these is still entirely preserved, but the other
is filled with rubbish. On the side towards the hill were twenty-nine arches, the central
five of which projected, forming a kind of portico, with fountains in niches, while the other
twenty-four completed the sides towards the reservoirs. The style of these arches seems
to indicate that they were built by S>lla, as an addition to the older temple precincts.
One arch on the left hand, and all the twelve on the right, still remain intact. They \\ere
probably used as rooms for slaves employed in the temple.

The two reservoirs, as may be seen by the brickwork of which they consist, were added
after Sylla's time. They served to collect and keep the water which flowed from the
fountains and piscin;e of the upper terraces, and to distribute it to those parts of the city
which lay below the temple. The western reservoir, which can still be seen, is one of the
most remarkable of such edifices now extant. It is 320 feet in length and 100 in depth,
and is divided internally into ten compartments, in the same manner as the Sette Sale
at Rome, each communicating with the ne.xt to it by three apertures, and each lighted
by two openings in the roof covered with circular well-mouths of stone. The interior
walls of this reservoir are covered with the finest cement. On the exterior, to the south
and west, the walls are decorated with niches, one of which, with a square head, was
intended, as Nibby supposes, to contain the inscription, stating the names and titles of the
builder of the reservoir. The style of the brickwork, which is similar to that of the

1 Opus quadratum. See Introduction. restorations, twelve terraces. See Thon and Nibby's

- Opus incertum. Vitruv. ii. 8. Tempio di Fortuna I'renestina, p. 7.

^ Strictly speaking, there were, according to Nibby's

■>. D

3S6 The Roman Campagna.

prjEtorian camp at Rome, and the fact that an inscription dated A.D. iS, when Tiberius was
Consul designate for the third time, has been found on the spot, seem to point to Tiberius as
the builder.! q^ ^j^g western side there are no niches, but a doorway, with a stair leading-
down to the bottom of the reservoir, and ornamented with two brick half-columns of the
Doric order. From the area, between the reservoirs just described, two staircases built by
Sylla ascended to the level of the first principal terrace, 1275 feet in breadth, in which were
sunk two large basins for water of rectangular shape, each 250 feet by 90 in size. They were
intended for the supply of the ceremonial ablutions commanded by the religious rites of
the temple. That on the western side can still be seen in the Barberini garden, though it
is now filled with rubbish. The rim or edging of these basins was of white mosaic.

Above the terrace of the piscina; two flights of stairs conducted to the next principal
terrace, which was of the same length as the first, but narrower. At the back, and
against the side of the hill, stood two magnificent halls, with an open area between them.
The eastern hall is now entirely destroyed, but that on the western side, now serving
as the kitchen of the modern Seminario, is partly preserved. The front, which may
be seen near the Cathedral in the Piazza Tonda, was decorated with Corinthian half-
columns, the capitals of which still remain in their original position. The interior had
seven recesses on each side, separated by half-columns and pilasters, and probably
intended for statues. In front of the recesses ran a low wall or podium, ornamented
with triglyphs like a Doric frieze. These decorations are executed in a style which
Nibby considers equal in design to that of any of the ancient Doric buildings now
extant. At the end of each of the halls there was a large rectangular space with niches
for statues. In the easternmost of these spaces was found the celebrated Prajnestine
mosaic, now in the Barberini Palace at Palestrina.- The rest of the floor was composed
of white mosaic work. Between the fronts of the two halls ran a row of columns, three
of which still stand in their original positions in the wall of one of the chapels near
the Cathedral, and at the back of the area between them was a corridor with nine
windows, some of which may still be seen in the court of the Seminario.

Above the terrace of the halls rose the central grand terrace supported by a great
wall of polygonal masonry, which at the point called the Rifolta still stands at its full
height. This terrace is now occupied by the Contrada del Borgo. On the eastern
side it reached to the waXX of the city, where the ancient gate, now closed, near the
Porta Portella, stands. Two lofty arches, containing fountains and statues, occupied the
ends of the back of this terrace. It was upon this level, according to Nibby, that
the original temple stood, before the alterations made by Sylla.

The \\-hole of the two uppermost terraces were the work of the great Dictator.
The}' were supported by walls of opus incertum, and the lower of them contained
two large semicircular exedra; for the accommodation of the persons who came to
consult the oracle. Hence this may be called the terrace of the exedrae. The eastern
exedra is still remaining under the name of the Grotta Petrelli. It is supported in the
interior by four Corinthian columns, and the roof preserves the traces of decorative

1 Cecconi, Storia di Palestrina, p. 162. See Thon - See Nibby, Analisi, ii. p. 505.

and Nibby, Tempio di Fortuna Prenestina, p. 9.

The Roman Cavipagna. --S-

designs in bronze. It is probable that the recess in the centre between the two excdra;
was the spot where, as Cicero narrates, the mysterious sortes Prasnestina; were originally
discovered by Xumerius Suffucius, and where the statue of Fortune mentioned by
him stood.' On each side of the exedrre were arched chambers, probably appropriated
to the priests of the temple and the interpreters of the sortes.

Above the terrace of the exedrje rose that of the hemicycle. This was divided
into two parts, the lower consisting of a great rectangular Sacrificial court with porti-
coes surrounding it, and the upper of a semicircular recess, somewhat similar to those
which existed in the fora of the Emperors at Rome, having at the back of it a small
raised terrace on which stood the actual eedes or shrine of the goddess. This must
have been the place where, according to the legend as told by Cicero, the olive-tree
which yielded honey grew, from which the casket was made for the sortes Prffinestin.-E.
Fragments of an inscription, which are still visible on the frieze surrounding two
arched recesses under the hemicycle, seem to show that this terrace was rebuilt by the
Decuriones and the municipality, but at what period is not discoverable.- No traces
are now left of this part of the buildings except the ground-plan of the hemicjxle, and
a few columns belonging to the portico of the great square court. These stand in the
public prison and the house of the sacristan of S. Rosalia.^

The ancient town extended to a considerable distance beyond the precincts of the
temple. Outside the Porta S. Francesco of the modern town, at the distance of about
half a mile, are two huge resen,'oirs similar to those described as placed at the
foot of the Temple of Fortune ; and in the Contrada degli Arconi is a castellum aquee.
This with other ruins near it belonged to that part of the town founded by Sylla, which
extended to a distance of a mile and a half from the lowest terrace of the great
temple. The forum of the city lay between the western reservoir of the temple and
the churches of S. Lucia and S. Madonna dell' Aquila. This is inferred from numerous
inscriptions, and some commemorative pillars and altars found there. The Fasti
Praenestini of Verrius Flaccus were found in the Contrada delle Ouadrelle, a mile and
a half from this spot. They may however, as Nibby suggests, have been moved from
the forum, where we should naturally expect them to ha^-e been found.*

In the raid of Coriolanus against the Latin cities -n 489 B.C., together with Corbio
and Labicum, the sites of which we have already J'escribed, the following other towns
are mentioned as having been taken by the Volscian army, — Vitellia, Trebia, Pedum,
Tolerium, and Bola. Of these it is almost certain that the correction of Cluverius, who
identifies the Trebia of Livy with the Tolerium of the list given by Dionysius, is right."

Vitellia is placed by Nibby at Civitella near Subiaco, a site which seems far
too distant from the other towns taken by Coriolanus. The argument drawn from

' Cic. De Div ii. 41. Nibby: Roma, 1825.

- '• Decuriones Populusque Pncnestinus faciundum * See Mommsen in Corp. Inscrip. Lat. vol. i. p. 3 1 1

ctL-raverunt ct signa restituerunt.' ' Livy, ii. 39, gives the towns in the following

■■ The above description of the Temple of Fortune order : Corbio, Vitellia, Trebia, Labicum, Pedum,

follows Thon and Nibby's restorations in ilicir mag- Dionys.,viii. 17, follows a totally different account. He

niticent work. II Tcmpio di Fortuna Prenestina begins with Tolerium and Bola, then Labicum. Pedum,

ristaurato da Costantino Thon e descritto da Antonio Corbio, Corioli. Plutarch, Cor. 28, follows Dionysius.

^1)2

88 The Roman Campagna.

the similarity of the names is absolutely worthless, and there appears to be no other
good reason assigned for Nibby's conjecture.' The Vitellenses are enume-
rated in the alphabetical list given by Pliny as among the fifty-three
peoples of Latium which had perished in his time without leaving a trace of
their existence.' We can therefore hardly expect to find the site of their city at the
present time. Sir W. Gell places Vitellia at Valmontone, where the remains of an
ancient city, especially a number of rock tombs, are to be found. The situation is
remarkably suitable for one of the ancient strongholds of the yEquian border, as it is
surrounded by deep ravines on everj' side.^

Tolerium, the Trebia of Liv>% has also been placed at Valmontone.* But Bormann
thinks that it lay nearer to the Alban hills, and must be looked for at
some point between the Via Latina and the Via Labicana, at about
twenty-four miles from Rome.^

The site of Pedum can be more approximately ascertained. An ancient commentator

on Horace speaks of it as lying between Praeneste and Tibur, and we may

conclude from the passages of Livy and Dionysius, in which the campaign of

Coriolanus is related, that it was not far from Labicum. There are two sites which answer

to this description, namely, Passerano and Gallicano, both evidently occupied in ancient

times by towns.® Of these two, the preference is given by Nibby and Bormann to

Gallicano, as being more distinctly between Tibur and Praeneste than Passerano. The

situation of Gallicano is very similar to that of most other towns of the Campagna.

It stands on a small plateau nineteen miles from Rome, surrounded on all sides by

precipitous cliffs, except where a small isthmus unites it with the neighbouring /Equian

hills. There are traces of ancient roads and also of rock tombs in the neighbourhood.'

Bola is placed by Nibby at Lugnano ; but other topographers prefer to place it at Pola,

further north, and among the ^quian hills.* The arguments assigned for

neither of these positions are sufficient, but there appears more probability in

the opinion which would place it at Lugnano. It appears from Livy that Bola was an

/Equian town whence the /Equians used to attack the district of Labicum ; and this they

plainly could not do from Po'i^ so easily as from Lugnano, since the stronghold of Pedum

intervened between Pola and La Colonna."

The towns of Scaptia, Ortona, an4 Querquetula lay somewhere in this neighbourhood.
Scaptia was one of the cities which conspVed to restore the Tarquins to the Roman throne.
It gave name to one of the tribes at Rome, but in Pliny's time had fallen entirely into ruins.
The site of Passerano has been fixed upon as the representative of Scaptia by most modern
topographers. But this opinion rests upon a false reading in Fe.stus, and must be rejected.'"

1 Nibbv, Analisi, vol. i. p. 473. with Castrum Inui and Cora, both at a considerable

- Plin. N. H. iii. § 69. ^ Gell, p. 436. distance from Pola : " Pometios, Castrumque Inui,

* Nibby, Analisi, p. 370. Bolamque, Coramque." He is not, as may be seen by

* Altlatiuische Chorographie, p. 203. the previous line, " Xomentum, Gabios, urbemque
« Schol. ad Hor. Ep. i. 4, 2. A villa called Fidenam," following any topographical arrangement.

Pedanum is mentioned by Cicero, Ad Att. ix. iS. '° Festus, p. 343, is generally quoted to show that

" Bormann, Alt. Chor. p. 198. Scaptia was near Pedum. Miiller, however, reads

« Nibby. vol. i. p. 301 : Gell, p. 119. Latini for Pedani in that passage. Plin. loc. cit. ; Sil.

•' Livy, iv. 49. Virgil, /En. vi. 776, associates Bola Ital. Pun. viii. 395 ; Dionys. v. 65 ; Livy, viii. 17.

The Roman Campagtia. -.go

Ortona lay on the frontier between the Latins and /Equians, but belono-ed to the Latins.

It seems to have been near Corbio, and on the further side of Mount Algidus.* The

site of Querquetula is entirely unknown. Gelland Xibby place it at Corcolo, arguintr

from the similarity of the name. Corcolo is four miles from Gallicano

and six from Zagarolo, at a point where there is an artificial dyke separatino- Scaptia, Ortona,

a small hill from the neighbouring plateau. there are traces of ancient

roads converging to this spot from Prseneste, Castellaccio, and Gallicano.' The name

Porta Ouerquetulana at Rome cannot have had any reference to this town, but was

derived from the ancient name of the Ccelian hill.-'

Approaching nearer to Rome, across the streams which run into the left side of the
Anio, we come to the probable sites of Collatia, Cjenina, and Antemnse.

It is distinctly stated by Frontinus that the Aqua Virgo, which still supplies Rome
with water, comes from a spring on the Via Collatina, eight miles from
Rome, and that the source of the Aqua Augusta was close to the same
road, at a distance of a mile to the left of the sixth milestone from Rome, on the Via
Prsenestina.* Now, between the third and fourth milestones on the Via Prsenestina, we find
an ancient road branching off to the left, and at a distance of about three-quarters of a mile
from the main road this road approaches the conduit of the Aqua Virgo. After crossing
the Marrana and a few other brooks, it passes close to the source of the Aqua Virgo at the
eighth milestone. One mile beyond this the ancient pavement of the road is again visible.
It then crosses a branch of the Osa and reaches Lunghezza, a place ten miles from Rome.
From thence the road can be traced across the right arm of the Osa to Castellaccio, a rocky
eminence with precipitous sides towards the south and west, on which the remains of
massive ancient walls aVe to be seen. Traces of tombs are found between Lunghezza and
Castellaccio, which indicate the neighbourhood of a town." The distance of Castellaccio
from Rome is a little more than ten miles. The legend of Lucretia, and the beautiful
episode in Ovid's Fasti, relating to the expulsion of the Tarquins, have made Collatia
famous in Roman histor}^ ; ^ but it does not appear to have ever attained the same
importance as its neighbour Gabii. In the time of Cicero it was reduced to a con-
temptible village, and Pliny reckons it among the towns which had disappeared from
Latium without lea\ing a trace."

The site of Csenina has been rightly sought for b}- Bormann between Collatia and
Rome. It cannot have been so far off as Nibby, Westphal, and Gell would
place it, for it is hardly to be supposed that Dionysius would have represented
Romulus as going to Caenina to sacrifice had it not been nearer than ten miles from

' Li\->-, ii. 43, iii. 30 ; Dionys. viii. gij'Opot, .\. 26, of the Praenestine road.

BiprMV It has been suggested by Gell that Artena » Strabo is mistaken in placing Collatia at the

(Livy,iv. 61) was identical with Ortona, and by others same distance as Antemna; and Labicum from

that the Hortenses (Plin. N. H. iii. 69) and the *opTt- Rome. With regard to Labicum he contradicts

vfioi (Dionys. v. 61) were the inhabitants of Ortona. himself in two passages, v. pp. 230 and 237.

^ Plin. loc. cit. ; Dionys. v. 61. " Livy, i. 57 ; Ov. Fast. ii. 722.

' Gell, p. 180 ; and note by Bunbury. " Cic. In Rail. ii. 35 : Plin. .\. H. iii. J 68. Virgil

* Frontin. De Aquaed. v. 10. .See also Plin. N. H. speaks of Collatia as situated on high ground ; J^n.

xx.xi. § 42, who places the source of the -Aqua Virgo vi. 774. Silius calls it "altrix casti Collatia Bruti :"

eight miles from Rome and two miles along a branch Pun. viii. 361.

393 The Roman Campagna.

Rome.' Csenina is classed with Antemna; and Crustumerium by Livy, as having com-
bined with those towns to avenge the rape of the Sabine women, and the people of Csenina
were the first who encountered the Romans in the subsequent war, in which Romulus killed
their king Acron with his own hand.^ This legend seems to point to a site near Rome in
the direction of the Sabine territory, and suits the position assigned by Bormann to this
town on the left of the Via Prsenestina, at about six or seven miles from Rome.^

Further down the Anio, and in the angle formed by its junction with the Tiber,*
we come to the site of Antemnae, one of the towns absorbed by Rome at
a very early period." It was placed between the Via Salaria and the point of
junction of the two rivers, at about three miles from Rome, where there is a flat-topped
hill nearly a mile in circumference. This hill can be approached at four points — one
on the north, two on the- north-west, and one on the south ; and at these it is supposed
that the ancient gates of the city stood. The highest point near the Via Salaria was
probably the citadel.

It has been assumed by some writers, following a loose statement of Pliny's, that the

Anio in its lower course from Tibur was the boundary between the Latin and Sabine

territory, and that the cities of Fidenre, Crustumerium, Nomentum, and

(4-)

Cities on Others on the right bank of the Anio were therefore Sabine.''' This has

"'"theAni'J"''^ ^^^" shown by Bormann to be an error, for Pliny distinctly states in

another passage that the Fidenates and the Nomentani belonged to

Latium,^ and Cato, as quoted by Dionysius and Strabo,* places the boundary of the

Sabine territory at thirty miles' distance from the T)-rrhenian Sea, which would fix

it at Nomentum, and include Crustumerium, Ficulea, and Fidena: in Latium ; leaving

it doubtful whether Cameria, Corniculum, Medullia, and Ameriola were Latin or Sabine

towns.^ The contradictory statements of Pliny must be explained by the fact that

Augustus, on dividing Itah' into regions, made the Anio the limit of his First Region ; and

hence, as the Augustan boundary line did not agree with the real division of the Sabine

and Latin races, the cities on the right bank are sometimes called Sabine, sometimes Latin.

Of these border cities Fidenae was the most celebrated. This city is noticed by the

Tabula Peutingeriana as the first station on the Via Salaria, and Dionysius

and Eutropius give the distance from Rome as five or six miles.'" It is

rather perplexing that we find no remains of any kind of the ancient Via Salaria beyond

the Ponte Salaro ; but as there are no cuttings through the hills, it must be assumed

that the road followed the bank of the Tiber, and ran along the narrow strip between

the hills and the river. Bormann,'^ following Gell, fixes the site as follows : — " Dionysius

1 Dionys. i. 79. temna;." Varro, loc. cit. '' Consenuit bello male accep-

- Liv\', i. 10; Dionys. ii. 32, 35 ; Propert. v. (iv.) 10; turn." Livy, I. 10 ; Dionys. ii. 32 ; Plutarcli, Rom. 17.

Ov. Fast. ii. 135 : " Te Tatius, parvique Cures, C^ni- It disappears entirely after the defeat of the Tar-

naque sensit." quinian league. Dionys. v. 21 ; Livy, ii. 19.

^ Bormann, Alt. Chor. p. 185. " Pliny, iii. § 54: " Anien qui Latium includit a

* Varro, L. L. v. § 28 : "Oppidum Interamna dictum, tergo." Dionys. v. 37.

quod inter amneis est constitutum ; item Antemna, " Pliny, iii. §§ 64, 69.

quod ante aninis qui Anio influit in Tiberim.'' * Dionys. ii. 49 ; Strabo, v. 228.

'•' Sil. Pun. viii. 365 : "Antemnaque prisco Crus- ' Bormann, Alt. Chor. p. 27.

tumio prior." Virg. ^n. vii. 631 : " Turrigerae An- " Dionys. ii. 53; Eutrop. i. 4. " Bormann, p. 339.

The Roma7i Catnpagna. ^q,

says that the city was situated on the bank of the Tiber at a point where the river winds
very much and its current is very violent ; but this affords a very uncertain evidence as
to the exact spot, since we know that the river in this part of its course runs with great
force towards the right bank, and throws up soil on the left to a considerable extent.
Livy also remarks that the bed of the stream has become wider in this part * A
more important statement is that the town was so high and so well fortified that it
could not be taken by escalade.- If with this description before us we look for the
site of Fidena? in the district indicated, we can hardly fix upon any other place than
Castel Giubileo. The tufa of which this hill is composed answers precisely to the
description given by Pliny and \'itruvius of the stone quarried at Fidena;, as very
soft and perishable.^

"The extent of Castel Giubileo* is however too small for a considerable town
and can only have been the citadel. The rest of the town was probably spread over
the larger hill on the other side of the Via Salaria. The sides of this neiCThbourino-
hill are artificially cut away in order to render it less accessible, and there are some
huge squared stones left upon it which may have belonged to an ancient fortifi-
cation. The circumference of this part of the hill is about three miles, and Castel
Giubileo itself can only be approached from it, an additional reason for thinkino- that
the citadel was placed there. The only ancient remains found there are some
hollows in the rocks on the right of the road, probably rock tombs.'' The town
was thus nearly a square, at the western angle of which the citadel lay on Castel
Giubileo, while the southern and eastern sides were approached by the roads from
Rome and Gabii, and the lower side was bordered b}' a brook which runs down
from Settebagni." *

Fidenae was, according to one legend, founded by the eldest ot three brothers,
leaders of colonies from Alba, but, according to the account of its origin received by
Livy, it was Etruscan." The extent and power of the city were evidently considerable
in the early times of Rome, for we find the Fidenates joining the league against Rome
formed after the rape of the Sabine women, preserving its own independence under Numa,
allied with Veii in the reign of Tullus, and resisting Roman aggression in the wars
of Ancus, the Tarquinii, and the Veientes, until the year 426, when its power was
finally crushed.*

As in the case of Gabii, Labicum, and Collatia, the state of Fidenae in the Republican
times was that of a petty municipal town,'-* and in later times it gradually sank into
the lower style of a mere appanage to a wealthy nobleman's villa.'" Horace and Juvenal
both sneer at its decayed and drearj' condition in their time ; yet a little later we hear
of a crowd of 50,000 persons being injured by the fall of a temporary wooden amphi-

' Livy, iv. 34. = Ibid. 22. circuit of the walls.

' Pliny, X. H. xxxvi. 166 ; Vitruv. ii. 7. * Bontiann, Alt. Chor. p. 239.

* Castel Giubileo was built in the year 1300 by " Virg. yEn. vi. 773 ; Dionys. ii. 53 ; Livy, i. 15, 27.

Hope Boniface VIIL, and named from its first pos- * Li\y, i. 14, 15, 19, 27 ; iv. 17, 18, 19, 22, 31, 34 ;

scssors. Martial, iv. 64, 1 5, " Fidenas veteres brevcsquc

'•' These tombs do not prove that the hill on the Rubras."
side of which they lie was not within the town, for at ° Cic. Contra Rull. ii. 35.

Veii we find tombs distinctly within the ancient " Strabo, v. p. 230.

292 The Roman Campagna.

theatre there.' The games at which this awful catastrophe occurred were a speculation
entered into by a freedman, Atilius, who hoped to make a large sum of money by the
avidity with which the Romans, after Tiberius had retired to Caprea, rushed into their
favourite amusements, from which they had been so long debarred."

Crustumerium is classed with Fidenae by Dionysius as a colony of Alba, and he
places it higher up the river than Fidense.^ This indication of its site is
confirmed by Varro, who states that the ager Crustuminus lay on the
Via Salaria ; by Plinj-, who speaks of the Tiber as beginning to divide the Crustumerian
from the Veientine territory at a point sixteen miles from Rome ; and by Livy, where
he mentions that the Allia flows down from the Crustumerian hills at the eleventh
milestone.'' We must, therefore, look for the site of Crustumerium somewhere between
the eleventh and the sixteenth milestone on the Salarian road. Gell fixed upon
Monte Rotondo as the site, but Nibby has shown that this places it too near
Nomentum. Abeken committed the same error by placing it at Settebagni, only
two miles from Fidense. It is more probable that Cluverius was right in thinking
that the remains found at Marcigliana Vecchia belonged to Crustumerium.^

The fertility of the soil of the ager Crustuminus was celebrated ; and hence the
crreat number of Roman colonists who settled there, and the consequent friendly
relations of the city with Rome, which depended on it for supplies of corn.*' " The
country in this neighbourhood still retains its peculiar suitability for the growth of
pears, noticed by so many ancient writers, for even at the present day the district
around Monte Rotondo is overrun with wild pear-trees. The pears are very small,
but of good flavour, and are most frequent in the direction of Moricone. It is
impossible not to recognise in them the ancient pears of Crustumerium. ' Crustumia
pyra,' says Servius, 'sunt ex parte rubentia ; ' and whoever visits the country in the
month of July will not only be struck by the number and fertility of the trees, but
also with the peculiarity of the redness on one side of the fruit." "

Crustumerium was captured for the third time and finally deprived of its independence
in 499 B.c.^

The Via Nomentana, which led to the ancient city of Nomentum, can now only
be traced for nine miles across the Campagna. There is, however, little
doubt that Nomentum was situated on the same spot as the modern town
of Mentana, a small place, with a castle on a height, just beyond the fourteenth
milestone from Rome. In accordance with this, the Tabula Peutingeriana gives the
distance from Rome as fourteen miles. The name Mentana, by which the place is
still known, can be distinctly traced as a corruption of the old name Nomentum.
It was first called Civitas Nomentana, and then Castrum Numentanum and Lamentanum,
whence Mentana.^ The ancient town seems to have extended into the level ground

1 Hor. Ep. i. 2, 7, " Gabiis dcsertior atque Fidenis Bomiann, p. 247 ; Cluverius, It. Ant. p. 658.
vicus ;" Juvenal, vi. 57, x. 100. s Livy, i. 1 1 ; Dionys. ii. 53 ; Cic. Pro Flacc. 29.

- Tac. Ann. iv. 62 ; Suet. Tib. 40. ' Gell, p.' 191 ; Serv. ad Georg. ii. 88 ; Plin. X. H.

5 Dionys. ii. 53. xv. 53, xxiii. 115.

« Varro, R. R. i. 14; Pliny, N. H. iii. 53 (Sillig reads ' Lixy, ii. 19.

xvi millia for the common reading xiii) ; Livy, v. 37. » Bormann, p. 249, who quotes Muratori, R. L Scr.

s Gell, p. 188 ; Nibby, i. p. 535 ; Abeken, p. 79 ; ii. i, p. 504.

T/ic Roman Campagna. ■>n-i

round the hill. Three approaches led to the citadel, one towards the west from the
Via Salaria, and the others at the north and south from the Via Nomentana. The
neighbouring district, like that of Crustumerium, was noted for its fertility, and especially
for its wine.^ At the peace of 33S it obtained the full civitas Romana, together with
Lanuvium and Aricia ; and there seems to be some reason for supposing- that it
continued to flourish as a municipal town down to a later date than the neichbourino-
cities of Fidense and Crustumerium, for Martial, in several passages, mentions the
place as a quiet country residence frequented by many of those w^ho wished to avoid
the expense and excitement of Baire and other crowded watering-places.'-

The Via Nomentana, according to Liv\-, was once called the Via Ficulensis, which
shows that Ficulea must be placed upon that road.' Dionysius says that the Ficulnei
lived near the Corniculan hills ; but, as we do not know the position of those hills
accurateh', this evidence does not give us any assistance in determinincr the site.'
In \'arro the Ficuleates are mentioned with the Fidenates as a suburban people ; and
it seems likely, therefore, that Ficulea was somewhere between Nomentum
and the Anio, on the Via Nomentana.' Cicero also appears to reckon it
among the suburban places of Latium. He held an interview with Atticus there,
probably at the Villa of Atticus, mentioned above as near Nomentum." From these
hints as to its locality it may be concluded that Ficulea lay on the Via Nomentana,
between Fidenae, Crustumerium, Corniculum, Nomentum, and the Anio. Nibby,
relying on the evidence of two inscriptions found in the Tenuta Csesarini, places
it on a hill in the Tenuta di Casanuova, nine miles from Rome, and one mile
beyond the Casale della Csesarina." This hill is surrounded on three sides by brooks
which afterwards unite and form the Fosso di Casal de' Pazzi. The name commonly
given to it is Monte della Creta.*

The foundation of Ficulea is ascribed by Dionysius to the Aborigines, which may
be interpreted to mean that its origin is lost in obscurity, and that it was not a Latin
colony. Livy calls it Ficulea Vetus. Two important facts only are related of the
early history' of this city. It was taken by Tarquinius Priscus in 614 B.C., and it joined
the Gauls before the battle of AUia.^ In Pliny's time, however, it was still reckoned
among the towns of Latium, perhaps on account of a colony settled there by Cjesar.'"
In the fifth century the two towns of Nomentum and Ficulea were united into one
parish, so that they must liave become insignificant places at that time."

In the campaign of Tarquinius Priscus against the cities in this district of Latium,
Livy relates first the capture of Collatia and then of Corniculum, Ficulea, Cameria,
Crustumerium, Ameriola, MeduUia, and Nomentum. Dionysius sketches the progress

' Columella, iii. 3 ; Pliny, xiv. 23, 48. s Varro, L. L. vi. 18.

"■ Livy, viii. 14 ; Mart. vi. 43, x. 44, xii. 57 ; Corn. « Cic. Ad Att. xii. 34 ; Corn. Xep. Att. loc. cit.

Nepos, Att. i;. See Mommsen, R. H. i. p. 105. " Marini, Atti, p. 42 ; Zoega, Bassoril. 32, 33.

Propertius says "ultima pr;L'da Nomentum," speaking * Nibby, Analisi, vol. ii. p. 46. Cell thinks that

of the time of Cossus ; Propert. v. 10, 26. the citadel was at Torre Lupara, Topogr. p. 24;.

' Liv7, iii. 52. In Mart. vi. 27. 2, Ficeli;t; is more '■' Dionys. i. 16; Livy, i. 38 ; Varro, loc. cit.

probably a place or street on the Quirinal hill at 10 Frontin. De Coloniis, p. 105. ed. Paris, 1614;

Rome than an allusion to Ficulea. See above, p. 251. Nibbv, An. ii. p. 45.
note 8. * Dionys. i, 16. See above, p. 352. " Hoist, ad Cluv. p. 660, 35.

3 E

394 The Roman Campagna.

of the Roman victories from Crustumerium, after which he names Nomentum, CoUatia,
and Cornicidum.' The rest of the cities he speaks of as taken by a
common expedition of the Latins, specifying FidenjE and Cameria, and
designating Ficulea, Ameriola, and MedulUa as "some other small towns and
strongholds." In these enumerations it is plain that Dionysius begins from the Tiber,
while Livy follows no topographical arrangement. The only conclusion which can be
drawn from them is that Corniculum was not far from Collatia ; and this agrees well
enough with the statement that Ficulea lay near the hills of Corniculum.-

These considerations will show that the common opinion, which places the Montes
Corniculani at Monticelli and S. Angelo, cannot be correct, and that we must look for
them much nearer Rome, in the hills near the ninth and tenth milestones from Rome,
on the Via Nomentana.^

Three others of the cities in the list above mentioned — Cameria, Ameriola, and Medullia

present an unsolved question in topography.^ Bormann infers from the account given in

Dion\sius of the march to Cameria by the Consul Virginius from Rome in one night,
that the city was about twenty miles from Rome at the furthest. Most of the writers on
the Campagna place it at Palombara, at the foot of JNIonte Gennaro, and Ameriola at one
of the hills a mile to the north of S. Angelo."

Medullia seems to have been connected with the Sabines more than the other two
towns, for we find it in B.C. 492 leaving the Roman alliance and joining the Sabine
confederation.^ Hence there is perhaps some reason for placing it, as Cell and Nibby
do, upon one of the hills under Monte Gennaro, near S. Angelo di Capoccia." In Gell's
map it is marked at La Marcellina, at the foot of the steep descent from Monte Gennaro.

Ascending the Anio to the point where it issues from a valley dividing the ^Equian

,^ , from the Sabine mountains, we find the river winding round a considerable

Tibiirandits hill, partly clotlied with groves of olive, and rising to the height of 830 feet.^

ndshbourhood. ^^ ^j^^ ,^^^j. ^^ ^j^j^ j^j^ ^j^^ ^.j^^j. j^^g {q^^^^ a passage for itself through the

limestone rocks, which threaten to impede its exit from the upper valley, and falls in a
tremendous cataract, down a precipitous cliff of 326 feet in height, to the lower level. The
water is strongly charged with carbonate of lime, which is constantly being deposited in the
shape of masses of travertine in the channels through which the stream runs, especially
where the water, in consequence of the \iolent agitation caused by its rapid descent, parts
with the carbonic acid gas contained in it. The course of the stream is from time to time
blocked up b}- its own formations of stone, and the water is forced to open new passages for
itself From this cause the city of Tibur, which stands on the hill close to the point where
the river falls to its lowest level, has always been subject to violent and dangerous

I Livy, loc. cit. ; Dionys. i. l6. - Dionys. loc. cit. pician gens : Juv. viii. 3S ; Livy, iii. 31, &c. ; Tac.

= The identification with Monticelli has arisen Ann. xiii. 52. MeduUinus to the Furian; Livy, iv. 25.

from the absurd notion entertained by Kircher and ° Bormann, .Alt. Chor. p. 260.

V'olpi, that Corniculum must be a hill with a horn- ^ Dionys. vi. 34.

shaped point, and also from an inscription found at Nibby, ii. p. 327 ; Gell, p. 313.

Monticelli, which, however, only shows that the error * The epithet "Tibur superbum," in J^x\. vii. 630,

arose at an early period. See Bormann, p. 256. alludes to the pride of the Tiburtines, not to the height

* In Tac. Ann. xi. 24 Camerium. There was of their city, as Bormann thinks. " Supinum," Hor.

another town of the same name in Umbria ; Livy, ix. Od. iii. 4, 23, refers to the sloping part of the hill to-

36. The agnomen Camerinus belonged to the Sul- wards the south-west, where there are no precipices.

Tlie Roman Cavipagna. 395

inundations.' The great inundation of 1S26 proved so formidable, that it was at once
resolved to divert the course of part of the river, and provide it with an artificial outlet.
This was effected by boring two tunnels through Monte Catillo, on the east of the cit\-,
through which any excess of water can be allowed to pass and fall harmlessly into the lower
valle)-. A part of the river water is always allowed to pass through these tunnels, and
forms at their lower end a magnificent cascade. Another part passes under the bridge
called Ponte S. Gregorio, and then rushes through a fantastic grotto of travertine blocks,
called by the local guides Grotta di Nettuno, and joins the stream from the tunnels at
the bottom of the valle\-.

A third portion of the Anio is diverted just above the bridge into canals, apparently
of very ancient date, which, passing completely through the centre of the town, are used as
the motive-power of water-mills and factories of various kinds, and then fall again into the
main stream at various points of the romantic cliffs on the western hillside. These form
the wreaths of " snow-white foam " so celebrated as the cascades of the Anio, and explain
perfectly the expression of Horace : —

" O headlong Anio ! O Tiburnian groves I
And orchards saturate with shifting streams.''

and Ovid's apostrophe to the Anio : —

" Nee te prifitcrco, qui per cava sa,xa volutans
Tiburis .^rgei spumifcr an'a rigas." °-

The history of Tibur pretends to go back much further than that of Rome itself
Dionysius places a colon}' of Siculi or Sicani, and afterwards of Aborigines, on the site even
long before the Argive founders, mentioned by Virgil, the three grandsons of Amphiaraus
and sons of Catillus — Tiburtus or Tiburnus, Corax, and Catillus — drove them out and
established themselves there, and gave their city the name of Tibur.^

In Virgil's account of the war between Turnus and ^-Eneas, we find Tibur taking the
Rutulian side ; and besides the three heroes, sons of Catillus, he mentions two other
Tiburtine chiefs, Vcnulus and Remulus.'' From this time down to the battle at the
Lake Regillus, Tibur does not appear in the Roman legends. The kings of Rome did
not, apparently, carry their conquests so far up the Anio. At the Lake Regillus the
Tiburtincs fought with the Latins against the Romans,^ but they never seem to have
become very prominent members of the Latin League, holding themselves somewhat
aloof For a hundred and fifty years after the defeat of the Tarquins we hear nothing
of Tibur, but at the time of the Gallic invasion of 357 li.C. it again appears as the ally
of the Gauls, and on this account incurred the lasting hatred of the Romans, who forced

' See Pliny, Ep. viii. 17: "Anio magna ex parte Tiburis udi.' Propert. v. 7, Si : " Pomosis Anio qua

nemora quibus inumbratur fregit et rapuit, subruit spumifer incubat arvis.'

monies, et dccidL-ntium mole phiribus locis clausus, 3 Solinus, p. 35, 1. 9, cd. ^lommsen. Dionys. i. 16.

dum amissum iter quierit, impulit tccta ac sc super Hor. Od. i. 18, 2; ii. 6, 5, "Tibur Argco positum

ruinas ejccit atque e.Mulit.' This inundation was in colono." Ov. Fasti, loc. cit. ; Virg. v-En. vii. 672,

the year A. D. 105. "Argiva juventus."

- Ov. Am. iii. 6, 45 ; Hor. Od. i. 17, 13, Coning- ■* /En. vii. 630, viii. 9, compared with xi. 741, 757,

ton's translation. See also Od. iv. 2, 31 ; "Circa and ix. 360. Tibur is called a colonv of .Alba by the

nemus uvidique Tiburis ripas;" Od. iii. 29, 6: Auct. Or. Gen. Rom. 17.

'■ Udum Tibur ;'' Od. iv. 3, 10 : " Quas Tibur aqu;i.' '■• Dionys. v. 61 ; I. ivy, ii. 19.
fertile pracfluunt." Ovid, Fasti, iv. 71: " .Moenia

.^1 Ii 2

396

The Roman Cafupagna.

it to surrender in 351 B.C., and for a long time afterwards declined to admit its citizens
to the full franchise of Rome. ^

C.\SC.\TELLI .\T TIVciLl.

But few traces of the ancient walls of the city are left. Nibby is, however, probably
right in saying that there can be no question about their course along the northern and

1 Cicero, Pro Balbo, xxiii. 53, shows that some
persons were exceptions, proving the rule. The
Prsetor's letter, said to have been found near the
Cathedral at Tivoli, and ascribed by Niebuhr to the
Second Samnite war, is thought by Bormann to
have been a forgery of N'icodemus, Hist. Tib. iii. 2.

Niebuhr, Eng. trans, vol. iii. p. 264 ; Bormann, p.
237 ; Grutcr, p. 499, 12. See Bunsen's Beschreibung,
vol. iii. p. 659 ; Donaldson, Varron. p. 259. But
Mommsen, Corp. Insc. Lat. vol. i. p. 107, entertains

no doubt of its genuineness.

The Roman Campagna. 307

eastern sides of the city, where the brow of the hill is steep, and perfectly adapted for
defence by a wall placed on the edge of the rocky valley of the Anio. The citadel
was probably situated in the quarter called Castro Vetere, where the two temples com-
monly called the temples of the Sibyl and of Drusilla, stand ; for it is plain that some
pains have been taken to isolate this from the remainder of the site. On the western
side, the limit of the ancient walls is marked by the old gate and the fra"-ments of
walls which still exist at the point where the direct road from Rome enters the city by
the modern Porta del Colle. The course of the walls then excludes the Villa d'Este,
and runs across the hill to the Church of the Annunziata and the Porta Santa Croce,
and the citadel built b\- Pius II. on the site of the ancient amphitheatre. P'rom thence
the walls passed in a straight line down to the river, near the Church of S. Bartolommeo.
The ancient town did not extend to the right bank of the Anio.^

The fragments of wall which remain belong to three different epochs. The most ancient
are made of trapezoidal masses of rock, and belong to very early times. Others are
composed of opus incertum, which points to the time of Sjlla. Most of the work near
the Porta del Colle is of this kind, but the gate itself belongs to a third epoch, and
resembles the gates built in Justinian's reign at Rome.- The Porta Barana, or Rarana
of Frontinus, near which the aqueduct of the Anio Vetus had its source, was
probably on the site of the modern Porta S. Giovanni.^ Xibbj- shows that in the tenth
century the neighbourhood of the cathedral still retained the name of the Forum, and
that the corner of the town near the citadel was called Vesta, and the acropolis itself
Castrum Vetus. The right bank of the Anio bore the name of Oriali, now corrupted
into Reali, from Aurelii.

The patron deity of Tibur was Hercules, and the epithet Herculeus is constantly
given to the cicy b}- the Latin poets.* Strabo states that Tibur was famous in his time
for two things — its Herculeum and its waterfall ; and Juvenal classes the Tiburtine
Temple of Hercules with the Praenestine Temple of Fortune.^ With the Temple of
Hercules was united a library, and an extensive portico, in which Augustus used some-
times to hold a court for legal business.*' In the absence of an}- remains of this
temple, there is no method of determining its situation, except by supposing that it
most likely stood where the greater number of inscriptions relating to the cult of
Hercules Victor, the name by which the Tiburtine hero was worshipped, have been
found. This leads us to place the Herculeum near the cathedral and the bishop's
palace, in the south-western quarter of the citj'. At the back of the cathedral
is an old wall of opus reticulatum, which is generally regarded as having belonged
to a part of the temple." There was, besides the Temple of Hercules Victor, a
temple of Hercules Saxanus in Tibur; but its site is not known.*

' Nibby, .'^nalisi, iii. p. 187. '- Ibid. * Cell. xi.\. 5 ; Suet. Aug. 72.

s Frontin. De Aq. 6. ' Nibby places the chief Temple of Hercules at

* Propert. iii. 30, (ii. 32) 5, " Herculeum Tibur." the Villa of Mascenas, and the Temple of Hercules

Mart. i. 12 (13), I, " Itur ad Herculei gelidas qua .Saxanus at the Cathedral. But can the great temple

Tiburis arces." Sil. Punic, iv. 224. have been outside the walls.' IJonnanii is wrong in

' Suet. Aug. 72, Cal. 8 ; Strabo, v. p. 238 ; Juv. xiv. placing the great temple of Hercules on the citadel.

86—90. Statius calls this temple Tiburna domus ; The passage of Juvenal he quotes docs not bear out

Silv. iii. 1,183. Cynthia, the mistress of Propertius, this; Juv. xiv. 86.

lived at Tibur ; Prop. iv. 15 (iii. 16). ' See the Inscription in Bormann, p. 226.

398 TIic Roman CaDipagna.

Two aiicitnt temples are still standing in tolerable preservation at Tibur. The first
of these is a small round temple, perched on the very edge of the precipitous ravine
through which the Anio dashes. It has been protected against the violence of the
furious torrent by massive substructions, which apparently existed in ancient times.

1 lb ICMlIls 01 \ i ■,! \. WD Oi Tin SUIVI., IIVOLI.

and have often been renewed. Ten of the eighteen columns which formcrl\- surrounded
the cella still remain.

The details of this temple are rather peculiar in st}"lc, and show an originality of
invention very rare in Roman architecture. The columns have Attic bases, but the
grooves of the fluting are cut in a style which is neither Doric nor Ionic' They terminate

' Canina, Arcii. Ron', l.'.v. xli.

The Roman Cavipagna. ^no

above in an abrupt horizontal line, and reach at the foot of the column quite down to the
base without any intermediate cylinder. The capitals exhibit a fantastic variety of the
Corinthian order, having the second row of acanthus leaves nearly hidden behind the
first, and a lotus blossom as the decoration of the abacus. The frieze is ornamented with
the skulls of oxen and festoons, in the loops of which are rosettes and patera; placed
alternately. The cella, which is built of opus incertum, is partly destroyed, but the lower
half of the door and a window still remain. From the above description it will be seen
that the architecture of the temple appears to belong to the end of the Republican era,
but the inscription on the architrave gives us no further hint of the exact date, as the
whole of it, with the exception of the words L. CELLIO. L. F., has disappeared. The
most probable conjecture as to the deity to whom it was dedicated is that based upon
the fact that Vesta was worshipped at Tibur, as is shown not only by two inscriptions
found near the spot, but also by the medieval name of this quarter of the town, as above
mentioned.* The form of the temple also confirms such an opinion.

The second temple stands quite close to this round building, and is now consecrated as
the Church of S. Giorgio. Its shape was that of a pseudo-peripteral temple, i.e. with the
side columns half sunk in the walls, raised on a meagre base of tufa blocks. It had
a pronaos with four Ionic columns, one of which still remains, forming a support to the
campanile. An inscription dedicated to DrusiUa, the sister of Caligula, was found here ;
but no inference as to the name of the temple can be drawn from it. A bas-relief, also
found on the spot, represents the Tiburtine Sybil sitting and in the act of delivering
an oracle. Hence it has been thought that we have in the Church of S. Giorgio the
temple of the Sibyl Albunea, mentioned by Horace, Tibullus, and Lactantius ; - and
this seems to be the most probable of the various conjectures which have been hazarded
on the subject.

The grove of Tiburnus, mentioned b\- Horace,^ was probably on the right bank of the
Anio ; but further than this it is impossible to determine its exact position.
There was also a grove dedicated to Diana.* The Mons Catillus, now Monte
Catillo or Monte della Croce, is the height on the right bank of the Anio. The name
is at least as earh' as the time of Servius.^

As may easily be imagined, there are numerous remains of ancient villas scattered
about the immediate neighbourhood of Tibur, and the local guides have, to please
travellers but without the slightest evidence in support of their assertions, dubbed them
the villas of Catullus,^ of Horace, of Ventidius, of Ouintilius Varus, of ]\Iascenas, Sallust,
Piso, Capito, Brutus, Popilius, and other celebrated Romans. The most remarkable
ruins are those to which the name of Maecenas has been attached. The greater part
of these has been now unfortunately concealed by new buildings and by an iron
manufactory, but a fine terrace and parts of the porticoes still remain on the lofty bank

' Grutcr, p. 1089. hood of Laurentum.

' Hor. Od. i. 7, 13, "Domus Albunea; rcsonantis ' Hor. loc. cit. ; Stat. Silv. i. 3, 73.

et praeceps Anio;" Tib. ii. 5, 70; Lact. De fals. * Mart. vii. 28, i. " Serv. ad /En. vii. 672.

Rcl. i. 6. The passage of Virgil, ^n. vii. 83, ' Catull. Carm. 4=- The idea that Msccnas had

" Lucosque sub alta consulit Albunea," appears to a villa here is founded on the mistaken notion that

refer to some sulphureous springs in the neighbour- Hor. Od. iii. 29 refers to a villa at Tibur.

400 TJie Roman Canipagna.

of the Anio. The rest is a mere confused mass of vauhed chambers and archways.
The Via Tecta, or Porta Oscura as it is sometimes called, by which the road passes
underneath these ruins, was built, as we learn from an inscription now in the Vatican
collection, by O. Vitulus and Rustius Flavos. The materials and style show that it
can hardly be of a later date than the first century.^

The Tempio della Tosse, which probably obtains its name from a vulgar interpretation
of the name of the gens Tossia, is a ruin standing in a vineyard at the side of the old
road called the Via Constantina, below the Villa d'Este. It has none of the characteristic
marks of an ancient temple, and the large number of windows it contains forbid us to
suppose it to be a tomb. The interior of the building is round, the exterior octagonal.
It is built of layers of small fragments of tufa intermixed with courses of bricks, materials
which point to the fourth century as the earliest possible date of its erection. On the
walls are the remains of frescoes of the Saviour and the Virgin, dating probably from
the thirteenth centur}-. These show that if it was not originally a Christian church,
it was used as one at the time the frescoes were painted.

The district over which the power of Tibur extended was considerable, though
we are hardly justified in assuming, with Viola, that it was at least forty-five miles
in length. We know, however, that in the time of Nero the ager Tiburtinus reached
as far as the Simbruina Stagna at Subiaco,'' and towards Rome as far as the fifth
milestone from the city.^ On this side, however, it must, as Bormann remarks, have
lain entirely on the right bank of the Anio, as we shall otherwise find no room for the
territories of Gabii and CoUatia.

Two towns are mentioned by Livy as dependencies of Tibur, taken by the Romans
in 351 B.C., Empulum and Sassula.* The ruins which are generally
supposed to -have belonged to the former of these towns are situated
about an eighth of a mile beyond the Osteria di Ampiglione, on the road called
the Strada di Siciliano, which leads from Tibur up the valley of the Fosso degli
Arci.^ They consist of a long wall, which extends for 500 feet along the side of
the road, and is at the highest part at least eight feet in height. The construction
of this wall is of the kind called Pelasgic, but it has this peculiarity, that it is built
of tufa as the material instead of the usual limestone. The largest stones are about
four feet in length and one in breadth, and are arranged so as to form arches, the
openings being filled in with stones of a similar kind. From the fragments of opus incertum
which are found near, it is plain that the ruins have been made use of as the foundation
of some other building of the time of the later Republic. The valley is here narrowed
by two spurs of the hill of Castel Madama which stands above, and Nibby conjectures
that Empulum took its name from being the 7ri;X)) or gate of the pass leading from

^ Nibby pronounces these ruins to be the Temple trum Apollonii. Apollonius was the owner ofa Wi^jj-rt

of Hercules, and Gori considers them to be an imita- or estate here in the sixth century, hence called

tion by Hadrian of the Athenian Propylasa. IVIassa Apollinis or Apollonii. See Chron. Subla-

' Tac. Ann. xiv. 22. cense in Muratori, Ant. Med. ^v. v. 461, iv. 1047.

' Festus, quoted by Bormann, p. 231. The Fosso degli Arci takes its name from the arches

* Livy, vii. 18, 19. of the three aqueducts— the Anio Vetus, the Marcia,

5 The name Ampighone is derived from the me- and the Claudia — which cross it at the point where it

diseval name of the fortress which stood here, Cas- enters the Anio.

The Roman Campagna. «ot

Tibur to the neit,^libourhood of Subiaco. He distinguishes three separate concentric
enclosures in that part of the ruins nearest to the Osteria, and here he supposes that
the citadel of Empulum stood. Inside the central ring there is a square terrace
possibly the remains of some part of the villa which succeeded to the site of Empulum'
The other part of the ruins, further from the Osteria, presents the remains of two
ring enclosures only.

For determining the site of the other town dependent on Tibur, Sassula, we have no
evidence except that of the name Via Sassonica given to the road between
Tibur and Siciliano. This road was formerly one of the most important •^'"■""'■«-
passes connecting Rome with the territory of the Hernicans, and the cause of a serious
war between Tibur and Rome in 359 B.C., when the Tiburtines refused to allow the
Roman Consuls, Sulpicius and Licinius, to return by way of it from their campaign
against the Hernicans.- About two miles from the Osteria di Ampiglione, and six from
Tibur, lie the ruins of some ancient city walls on the side of a three-cornered hill
They are constructed of polygonal blocks of limestone, and bear the marks of great
antiquity. The citadel can be traced on the summit of the hill, and from it two
curtain walls ran down to the base of the hill, and are there closed by a third wall
"The ruins have," says Gell, ''the usual construction found in the smaller cities of
Greece, and are in every respect like an Arcadian city, such as Psophis or Orchomenos."^
In many parts the ancient polygonal walls of Sassula have been restored and
strengthened with brick masonry or opus incertum ; and Nibby thinks that this newer
work is not to be attributed here as in other cases to the superposition of a villa
but to the anxiety of the Romans to strengthen a fortress commanding so important
a pass during the Social \\"ars. The ground in this neighbourhood is so stony that it
plainly gave the name Sassula or Saxuia to the city, which- still survives in the name
Via Sassonica.

About a mile beyond Sassula are the ruins of another ancient city at a place now
called Siciliano. Gell connects the name with the Sisolenscs of Plinj',^
while Miiller refers it to the more ancient Siculi, and Xibb}- with more ""^'"^■f-
probability to a Villa Cseciliana which stood on the site.^

It seems probable that ^fula, which Horace mentions with Tibur and Tusculum,
as one of the most prominent points in the view from Maecenas's tower
on the Esquiline,* was situated on Monte Afrliano Flacco, or S. Angelo,
which lies south of Monte Spaccato, between Tibur and Praeneste, and commands a
magnificent prospect over the valley of the Anio, and the districts of Gabii, Collatia,
and Csenina. On the top of this hill there are the remains of an ancient city, consisting-
of polygonal blocks which formed the foundations of the walls, and the traces of ancient
roads have been discovered leading to the place. The ^Efulana arx is mentioned bj-
Livy as occupied by a Roman garrison in the Hannibalian invasion, and Pliny names
yEfula among the populi Albenses which had been completely lost in his time."

' Nibby, Anal. ii. pp. 10, 11. « Livy, vii. 9. • Suet. Ner. 38; Hor. Od. ill. 29, 6, 7, "yEfute

» Gell, p. 394. * Pliny, N. H. iii. 69. declivc an'um." See above, chap. ix. p. 227, and

° Miiller, Roms Campagna, i p. 273 ; Nibby, Anal. Huebner in the Hcnncs, i. p. 426.

iii. p. 97. ' Livy, xxvi. 9, xxxii 29 ; Plin. iii. 69.

402 The Roman Campagna.

Part III. — Period of Latifunuia, Villas, Roads, and Aqueducts.

The destruction and final disappearance of the cities of the Campagna from the
face of the soil was attended with different circumstances in each case, and occupied a
lonf^er or shorter time according to their natural position, their fortunes in war, and
their more or less proximity to the absorbing influence of Rome. We can only here
point out a few of the most important causes which contributed to their annihilation,
and trace the main chronological epochs at which the changes affecting them as a
whole took place.

The towns nearest to Rome between the Tiber and the Anio were naturally the

first which gave way before the Roman encroachments. Antemns, Fidense,

Cities on the Crustumerium, Ficulea, Corniculum, Cameria, Ameriola, and Medullia were

Etruscan and j.j^g constant object of attack in the earliest times; and the places on

first dc-strovi-ii. the left bank of the Anio, Casnina, CoUatia, and Gabii,^ were conquered

during the Regal period. Nomentijm, as being more distant from Rome,

escaped the fate of its neighbours, and retained its independence much longer. Some

of the cities on the south of the Appian road were destroyed nearly as soon as those

on the Sabine frontier. Apiolse and Politorium, Ficana and Tellenje, perished during

the Reo-al period, while Bovillae, Laurentum, and Lavinium continued to exist till the

great final struggle of the Latins in 340 B.C. Ardea was early reduced to the position

of a colony ; and Ostia having been originally a Roman colony, never possessed an

independent existence.

The early history of the remaining towns of Latium, situated on the Alban hills and

the ^quian frontier, is bound up with that of the Latin League, of whicli they formed

the principal component elements. It is a familiar fact in Roman history that when

Rome first came into collision with Latium, the Latins formed a confe-

r/:i Latin deration of thirty cities, under the presidency of Alba Longa. Tullus

Hostilius is said to have destroyed Alba with the view of making

Rome the head of the Latin League,- and thus began the first Latin war, at the end

of which the Latin cities remained in the position of allies to Rome, but subject tO'

her orders in all respects.^ Servius TuUius, by founding the Temple of Diana on the

Aventine, in place of the former common sanctuary at the Aqua Ferentina, tried to

establish the Roman supremacy still more firmly. " Ea erat confessio," sa}'s Livy,

"caput rerum Romam esse;""' and Cicero states that " Tarquinius Superbus omne

Latium bello devicit." ° Li 493 U.C, however, the Latin cities were so far from

1 Gabii resisted more obstinately than the rest. - Dionys. iii. 31 : 'H /jtV Si) twv 'MiSnvmv Tro'Xir

Hence the cinctus Gabinus (yEh. vii. 612) was sym- ert^ Siaiieivaa-a irevrnKcma Tpiciv iru tois Se'xa biovra

bolic of a state of war, and ager Gabinus of a hostile aird rqs eaxnTrjs nn-oiKi'o-fmr KoBaLpfduira f()';juof ds rdSe

territory. Slrabo, v. 230, speaking of the earliest age )(p6mv biapivti.

of Rome says : KuXXaria 6' v" Kai'P^vTipvai nal <ti.hTfvai ^ Ibid. 54: Eirai (pi\ovs 'Poiptilav k'h avfipuxovi,

Kol .\a/3iKof Kai aWa Toimra, t6t( \xiv iroKix^ia, viv 8e unavra npirTOvras oo-a tiv exfivoi K(\evaai.v.

Kapai, K7iJ(Tfis- iSitormi', I'tn!) Tpii'iKOVTn i) piKpw n^dovoiv * Livy, i. 45-

T^f 'Pa>pi]s araSiav. 5 Cic. De Rep. ii. 24, 44.

The Roman Campagna. 403

acknowledging the supremacy of Rome that by the treaty of Sp. Cassius they obtained
equal private rights (iVoTToXirt/a) with the Romans.^ The Hernicans were admitted to
this league in 486 B.C., and until 389 B.C. nothing occurred to occasion a serious mis-
understanding between Rome and her Latin neighbours. In that year the Latins and
Hernicans joined the Volscians against Rome, and the Volscian war followed ; but in
358 the league with Rome was renewed, and the Latins sided with her against Samnium.
The final dissolution of the league, and consequent destruction of the political
existence of the Latin cities, was caused by the great war of 348 — 338 B.C. Which
of the cities then escaped a total loss of rights is not accurately known. Tibur and
Prseneste seem to have been the only places in the immediate neighbourhood of Rome
which retained the right of coining money, of sheltering exiles, and also certain powers
of self-government.-

Each of the cities above enumerated, with perhaps the single exception of Ostia, must
be supposed to have possessed in the period of their independence a territory corresponding
to the old ager Romanus. In the case of Tibur and Pra;neste, this territory was of consider-
able extent, as we know that both of them exercised a supremacy over several smaller
towns in their neighbourhoods. It was in consequence of the changes in the holding of
these lands caused by the Roman method of dealing with the territories
of conquered states, that in most cases the towns themselves dwindled into , ., \.

Latifunam.

insignificance, and the whole face of the Campagna became occupied in
the sixth and seventh centuries of Rome with vast farms tilled by slave labour (latifundia),
which Pliny denounced as the cause of the ruin of Italy.^ When a town had been
completely conquered by the Romans, they took the whole of its territory and converted
it into domain land, the property of the Roman government (ager publicus). So,
in the case of Collatia, the formula of surrender includes the whole of the lands and the
waters which had belonged to the conquered CoUatines.* It was only when certain
terms had been settled by diplomatic arrangement that less stringent conditions were
accepted; and even then, as may be seen b\- the cases of Ecetra and \'eii,^ a portion of
territory was always appropriated by the Roman state. The land so acquired was
either put into the hands of colonists from Rome, or it was sold by the quaestors for
the benefit of the state, or it was allowed to be occupied on payment of a part of the
produce (vectigal) to the exchequer,'' and could be resumed by the state whenever it
was found convenient. This last was called ager occupatorius or arcifinalis, and could
not become the property of the occupier by any length of tenure (usucaptio).

Such lands, comprising by far the greater part of the conquered territories, fell into
the hands of the patricians in the first instance, principally because the}- were the only
persons possessed of sufficient capital and command of labour to work them at a profit.

' Dionys. vi. 63. ' Siculus Flaccus, p. 136, ed. Ulume and Lach-

- -See Becker's Handbuch, Th. iii. S. 30. mann : " Postquam crj;o majorcs regioncs ex hoste

' Plin. N. H. .wiii. 35 : " Verumque confitentibus captae vacare coeperuiit. alios a^;ros diviserunt, assig-

latifundia pcrdidere Italiam." naverunt, alii ita renianserunt ut tamen populi Roniani

* Livy, i. 38 : " Deditisne vos populumque Conla- essent. Nam sunt populi Romani quorum vectigal

tinum, urbcni, agros, aquain, terminos,'' &c. ad at;rarium pertinet.'

' Ibid. i. 15, ii. 25.

3 1" 2

4C4 The Roman Campagiia.

They took advantage of their pohtical power to refuse the payment of the imposts ; and
thus the exchequer was impoverished, and the unfortunate plebeians found themselves
utterly without the power of reaping any benefit from the acquisitions which the\- had
helped to earn.

Hence the memorable struggles which took place whenever an agrarian law for
the resumption and redivision of the domain land was proposed. The occupier, whose
ancestors had for generations been settled on the land, naturally considered it hard to
be suddenly evicted without compensation. Cicero puts their case in several passages.^
" How can it be equitable," says he, " that in the case of land which has been occupied
for many years, or even ages, the man who is without land should come into possession,
while the occupant is turned out? Why is it to be so ruled, that when I have spent
money in building and fencing you should reap the benefit of my improvements contrary
to my wishes ? " The Senate employed various political manoeuvres to keep the land of
Latiuni, as being near Rome and therefore most valuable, in the hands of patrician
occupiers. The most favourite device was one disliked excessively by the commons,
namely, the planting of a colony of plebeians in some distant spot, in order to get rid of
their interference at home.^

We have the first intimation of the height to which the evil of gradually extended
occupations had grown in the law of C. Licinius, 377 B.C., forbidding any one to occupy
more than 500 jugera of land.^ Evasions of this law were soon practised, and the same
fate befell the other agrarian laws enacted before the time of the Gracchi, so that the
occupation of vast tracts of domain land went on increasing rapidly. As the wealth
of the Romans and their amount of disposable capital grew greater, possessions in land
were easily accumulated by the great capitalists, and in this way the evil was aggravated.
The smaller farmers became unable from various causes to gain a sufficient return for
their outlay, and thus their farms were absorbed by their wealthier neighbours.*

" Tunc largos jungere fines
Agrorum, et quondam duro sulcata Camilli
Vomere, et antiquos Curionim passa ligones
Longa sub ignotis extendere rura colonis.' ^

One of the principal causes of this tendency was the shortsighted policy of the
Roman government, who used to lower the price of corn by the importation of large
quantities of grain at the expense of the state, thus making competition on the part
of the farmers of the Campagna impossible. Another no less important cause was the
constant absence of the farmer from home on foreign service in the arm)-, and the
consequent neglect of his farm, or sometimes its forcible seizure by a powerful neighbour.
In addition to these irresistible circumstances favouring the large possessors of land,

1 Cic. De Off. ii. 22, 79 ; Ue Leg. Agr. ii. 21, 57 : quosinagro Casinati optimos continuavit quum usque

Livy, 11.41. The first lex agraria was that of Sp. eo vicinos proscriberet, quoad oculis confoimando

Cassius, B.C. 486. e.x multis prsdiis unam fundi regionem formamque

- Livy, ii. 48 : "Plebem in agros iturimi, civitatem perficeret, sine uUa cura possidebit."
in Concordia fore." ° Lucan, Phars. i. 167. The park of Lucullus ex-

^ Ibid. vi. 55. tended from Tusculum across the Campagna almost

■* Cic. De Leg. Agr. iii. : " Denique eos fundos to the banks of the Anio. Varro, R. R. i. 13, iii. 3.

The Roman Campagna. 405

they were enabled easily to undersell the smaller proprietors by the emploj-ment of
slave labour.

Lastly, the effect of a glut produced in the corn market was of course to make
all other produce more profitable, and the crown lands of Latium were gradually
changed into pastures, vinejards, or oliveyards.^ Now, as an estate under pasture did
not demand the constant attention of the master, this again favoured the growth
of the latifundia, and more espcciall\- in the case of the domain land, which mio-ht
be resumed by the State at any time, and did not repay improvement as bein^- held
on an insecure tenure."

To these causes must be added the depreciation of a commercial life among the
Romans as unworthy of a gentleman of high birtV and the insecurity of foreign trade,
on account of the ignorance of navigation and the frequencj- of piracy which prevailed
in those times. Cato opens his treatise on agriculture with the following sentences :
" Perhaps the best way of making a fortune is commercial speculation ; but it has the
drawback of being so hazardous. Money-lending again is very profitable, but not very
creditable. For our ancestors held the opinion, and laid it down in the laws of the
country, that while the thief should be condemned to pay double the value of the theft,
an usurer should pay quadruple. And when they wished to give the highest praise to
a man, they called him a good farmer. The merclrant is an effective and energetic money-
maker, but, as I said before, he is too much exposed to risks and losses. On the other
hand, farmers make the bravest and most able soldiers ; their way of getting rich is the
most honourable, the safest, and the least offensive ; and those who follow that occupation
have least occasion to harbour evil thoughts."*

It is not therefore surprising that the immense capital accumulated in Rome during
the three centuries previous to the Christian era should have been mainly employed by
those who had a turn for money-making, as most of the Roman nobles had, in agri-
culture on a vast scale, and that the ownership of land should have been thus placed
beyond the reach of men of moderate means, and monopolized by a few great
speculators.

Cicero states that the tribune Marcius Philippus, when moving an agrarian law in
B.C. 104, asserted that there were not more than two thousand men of large property
in the realm. ^ And the violence of the rich owners became a commonplace among
the rhetoricians of later times. " The land which once maintained numerous citizens,"
says Quintihan, " is now the garden of one millionaire. The rich man's estate, by
gradually pu.shing back the boundaries of his neighbour's land, has spread wider and
wider like an inundation, farmhouses are levelled to the ground, ancestral religious

' Horace hints at this, Ep. i. i6, 2, " Ne perconteris esset haberet. Id satis habiuim ad fnictus ex agris

fundus meus, optime Ouinti, Arvo pascal hcrnm, an vedandos ; quaestus ouinis Patribus indccorus visus

baccis o/z/Avz/c/ olivse, pomisnc an pratis an amicta est." Livy, xxi. 63. See Mommsen, R. Hist. Book iii.

vitibus uhiio.'' Arable land would only just feed its chap. 12.

owner, while olive-orchards would enrich him. * Cato, De R. K. i. i.

- Mommsen, R. Hist. Book iii. chap. 12. • De Off. ii. 3i, 73. A well-known locus classicus

' By the Claudian law, 218 li.c, it was enacted, " Xe on this subject is Appian, ]i. C. i. 7. According to

quis senator, cuive senatorius pater fuisset, mariti- him, the story of .Miab and Xabotli had many paral-

mam navem qua; plusquam trecentarum amphorarum lels in Italy during the later Republic.

4o6 T]ic Roman Campagna.

rites are abolished, the old established tillers of the soil with a last lingering look at
their fathers' home have migrated elsewhere with their wives and children, and a wide
and monotonous solitude prevails over the whole country."^ Notwithstanding the efforts
made from time to time to put a stop to this gradual monopoly of land by a limited class
of capitalists,- the evil went on increasing, till in the time of Cato the Censor, B.C. 234-149,
the same space of ground which had formerly contained, when inhabited by small
holders, from 100 to 150 farmers' families, was as a single estate occupied by one family
and about 50 slaves.^ Within a few years after the death of C. Gracchus in 119 B.C.
a law was passed legalizing the sale of landed propertj- assigned to colonists, a practice
which had been forbidden by the Gracchi ; * and thereafter no further check was put upon
the acquirement and holding of latifundia. The ravages of Sylla in Latium, in which
whole districts and cities, as in the above-mentioned ease of Praeneste, were depopu-
lated, must have had a great effect on the distribution of land. Many towns then lost the
whole of their territory, which was no doubt bought up immediately by capitalists.^ Nor
did the Syllan military colonies bring anj' permanent alleviation of the evil, for the
veterans soon became tired of a country life and sold their allotments, or dying childless
left them to the state or to the market, and thus in a few years they were absorbed
by the latifundia. The last attempt made in the spirit of the Gracchi to revive the
yeoman class in Italy, and to provide for the surplus population collected at Rome,
was the Servilia lex brought forward in 63 B.C. by Rullus. This measure failed entirely,
being thrown out by Cicero's eloquence and the opposition of the aristocracy. Under
the Empire the military colonies were settled on land which was bought from the
municipia or from private owners, and they belonged therefore to a different class of
holdings, which in no way interfered with the large estates.

The greedy covetousness of the great Roman capitalists, which absorbed the pos-
session of land in a few hands, was succeeded by the love of luxury and
'^■' splendour dev^eloped among the rich aristocrats, who were not contented

with the simple accommodation of the old farmhouses (villje rusticae). The
first countr\--seat (villa urbana)** of which we hear is that of Scipio Africanus at Liternum,
where he died in B.C. 185. It is not, however, to be supposed that Scipio, who was
bred in the strict manners of the old Roman school, spent much on the decoration
or on the comfort of his villa. Seneca, spending a night there, writes to Lucilius in
admiration of the simplicity of the bath-room with which Scipio had been contented,
and compares it at length with the costly furniture of such places in his own time.
" What a boor people nowadays would think Scipio for allowing his bath-room to
have narrow windows, for not having a well-lighted place to stew himself down in,
and gradually digest his food. Poor fellow! he did not know what life was I He did

1 Quint. Decl. 13. Pra=nestinum a paucis possideri."'

2 See Becker's Handbuch, Th. iii. 323. ° The villa urbana was so called because it con-
= Mommsen, R. Ci. iii. 1 2. tained all the luxurious arrangements previously con-
* Appian, B. C. i. 27. sidered to be suitable to a town-house only. \'arro,
s Ibid. 96. Florus, iii. 21, 27, "Municipia ItalijE R. R. i. 13, " Vos sapere et solos aio bene vivere,

splendidissima sub hasta venierunt— Spoletium, In- quorum conspicitur nitidis fundata pecunia villis."
teramnium, Pra^neste, Florentia." Cic. De Leg. Agr Hor. Ep. i. 15, 45.
ii. 28, 78, '■ At videmus, ut longinqua mittamus, agrum

The Roman Canipagna. 407

not even wash in filtered water, but often in water that was far from clear ; and when
it rained more heavily than usual, he had to use it almost muddy." 1 Scipio's villa
was, Seneca says, built of squared stone, with a wood surrounding it, and fenced by
a wall with towers like a fortress. The walls of the rooms were not covered with
plaster, but left rough, like those of Cato's farmhouse.-

In Cicero's time the number of country-houses which a wealthy Roman considered it
necessary to possess had evidentl}- become considerable, and the amount Tusc i > -n
spent upon them very great. The orator himself had villas at Tusculum, cicerds Tus
Antium, Formiae, Baise, and Pompeii, besides his town-house on the Pala- culamwt.
tine, and his family seat at Arpinum. The compensation paid for the loss of his Tusculan
villa when demolished by the Clodian mob was 500,000 sesterces (about ;^4,50o), a sum
which he considered very inadequate to replace his loss.^ No doubt the collection of
sculpture which Atticus had made for him, and which was chiefly placed at his
Tusculan and Formian country-houses, was almost priceless in his estimation. The
Tusculanum of Cicero had formerly been in the possession of Sylla, who had caused
a celebrated painting to be executed there, probably upon one of the walls, in
commemoration of his having received a crown of grass in the Alarsic war ^ and
Cicero himself had expended large sums in erecting additional rooms and galleries,
which he called by the Greek names of the Academy and Gymnasium, and used for
conversation and recreation during his vacations.^ The house must therefore have been
of considerable extent ; but, as we have unfortunately no intimation by Cicero of
its exact position, the site is completely lost. The ruins now called Scuola di
Cicerone are near the amphitheatre on the western edge of the hill of Tusculum, and
were certainly outside the gates of the old city, though not far from the western
gate. The villa to which they formerly belonged stood against the side of the hill.
The ground-floor is apparently about 270 feet in length and 100 in depth, but the
upper parts of the buildings have now completely disappeared. The materials were
of brick and reticulated work similar to that now found in the gardens of Sallust at
Rome, and generally considered as belonging to the last age of the Republic or the
early Empire. The ground floor had a cryptoporticus along its whole length, and above
this, on the first floor, was probably an open portico with a colonnade. Eight large
rooms opened out behind the cr\ptoporticus, in the second of which are the remains of
some stairs, and at the back of the eighth a kind of recess.* At the ends of the
cryptoporticus are the remains of some more rooms. There are no signs of decoration
on any of the walls, and therefore this lowest story of the building is supposed to
have been used as a storehouse for corn and farm produce.

There is, however, no evidence whatever to connect these ruins with Cicero's \'illa.
The only indication we have of its site is given b)' the Scholiast on Horace, who speaks

' Senec. Ep. Mor. I.\.\xvi. II. Pliny says that in li is ^ Pliny, \. H. .xxii. 6. Perhaps the word "pictam."

time people had ceased to value the water of the in Cic. Pro Sest. xliii. 93, alludes to this.

Virgo and Marcian aqueducts, and were mad after ^ Cic. Ad. .Att. ii. i, 9, xiii. 29.

the luxurious bathing water to be obtained in vil!ffi « Xibby, vol. iii. p. 333. See Canina, .Monumcnti.

and suburbana. (N. H. xxxi. 42.) tav. ccxli., where a plan and conjectural restoration

■ Gall. xiii. 24. ^ Cic. Ad Att. iv. 2.

are jrivcn.

4o8 The Roman Campagna.

of it as situated near Tusculum, on the upper slopes of the hili.^ This will agree either
with the ruins just described or with those found in 1741 under the modern Villa
Rufinella, which is a little way lower down the western side. We may infer thai
Ciceros Villa was upon the upper part of the hill from his own statement, that it was
so near the house of the Consul Gabinius that, at the time of Cicero's exile, not only
the furniture but the trees in his garden were transferred to the Villa of Gabinius; for
it is certain that this latter villa was upon the upper part of the hill.^
itllaoj Nibbv accordingly places the Villa of Gabinius on the site of the

(jaoinius. ^ o ^ i

modern Villa Falcoiaieri, close to the Rufinella.
Several particulars about his villa are mentioned by Cicero himself It contained
two rooms called g)-mnasia, to the upper of which he gave the name of L}-ceum, and
which contained his librarj'.'' The lower gymnasium was called the Academy, in memory
of Plato, An allusion to these salons was probably intended in the lines —

" inque Academia unibrifera nitidoque Lycseo
Fuderunt claras fecundi pectoris artes."*

The Lyceum seems to have been used in the morning, and the Academia in the after-
noon, as being more sheltered from the heat of the sun.^

The Hermathena, a double-headed bust of Hermes and Athene, mentioned in the
letters to Atticus, was probably placed in the Lyceum, for the phrase Cicero uses there
(Wydov dvddiiiita) seems to refer to Apollo as the patron of the gymnasium in which
it was placed." There were also some Herma; of Pentelic marble, bronze busts, and
Megarian statues placed in the gymnasia, and Atticus had a general commission to
buy up anything which he might think would suit these rooms.' Another part of the
villa was called the atriolum. Nibby has shown, from one of the letters to Ouintus,
that the atriolum of a villa was a small courtyard surrounded with bed-chambers and
offices. The Tusculan atriolum was decorated with stucco reliefs on the walls, probably
similar to those in the tombs on the Latin road, and with two borders for well-mouths
(putealia).* We find also a small portico with exedra; or recesses with seats men-
tioned in a letter to Marcus Fabius Gallus. Here Cicero had a collection of small
pictures in which he took great pleasure. The " tecta ambulatiuncula," of which he
speaks in a letter to Atticus, was a common adjunct to Roman houses, and was
used in very hot or very wet weather for taking exercise.' The indispensable bath-
room was also not \\anting. Cicero writes to his wife to say that he expected a party

' Schol. ad Hor. Epod. i. 29 : '■ Non militabo tecum part of the villa,

ut dilatentur termini agrorum meorum usque ad ■* De Div. i. 13, 22. Nibby places the Academia

Circa^um oppidum Tusculi superni, hoc est in monte at the casino of the Villa Rufinella.

siti, ad ciijiis latera supcriora Cicero suam xnllam " Tusc. Disp. ii. 3, 9, and iii. 3, 7 : " In Acad, nos-

habebat Tusculanam." Nibby concludes, without tram descendimus inclinato jam in postmeridianum

sufficient reason 1 think, that the plural " latera " tempus die."

bhows the villa to have occupied two sides of a spur ^ Ad Att. i. i.

of the hill. I do not think that "ad latera superiora" ' Ibid. i. 8, 9. Pliny mentions, N. H. xxxv. 26,

can mean more than "upon the upper slopes." a complaint of M. Agrippa, that valuable works

- Cic. Pro Dom. xxiv. 62 ; Post Red. in Sen. vii. of art were hidden so frequently from the public in

18, compared with In Pis. xxi. 48. villas.

^ De Div. i. 5, 8 ; ii. 3, 8. Nibby thinks that the * Ad Att. i. 10 ; Ad Quint. Frat. iii. I.

Scuola di Cicerone is perhaps the remains of this ' Ad Fam. vii. 23 ; xiv. 20.

The Roman Campagiia. 409

of friends in October, H.C. 48, and that she was to see tliat there was a proper bath
placed in the bathing-room. In the same year he writes to Tiro about a sun-dial he*
intended to have erected, and asks what is being done about the Aqua Crabra b\-
means of which the villa was supplied with water.'

Close to the Villa of Cicero, and so near that he could go across to fetch books
from the library, was the Villa of LucuUus, noted as having been one of
the most extensive in the neighbourhood.'- When Lucullus was taunted '"'''" "^

with the reckless extravagance displayed m this villa, he rephed that he
had two neighbours — one just above him on the hill, a Roman knight, and the other
below him, a freedman — both of whom possessed magnificent villas, and that he ouo-ht
at least to be allowed to do as his inferiors in rank did.^ The Villa of Gabinius was
probably the upper villa to which he referred ; and hence Nibby concludes that the
seat of Lucullus was on the ground now occupied by Frascati, and that the "reat
reservoirs just below that town and in the Sora Gardens belonged to it, and also the
ruins in many of the neighbouring modern gardens and houses.''

It is possible that the Villa of Cato the younger gave its name to the Monte Porzio,
as that name can be traced far back into antiquity. The ruins extending
along the road between Monte Porzio and Colonna perhaps belonged to ,'i"^

the Porcian villa.-'

Many other Roman villas lay on the Tusculan hills, but we ha\-e no evidence to
determine the sites of any of them. One of the most famous was the Villa of
Scaurus, which he had ornamented with the great works of art previously used in the
decoration of his great temporary theatre at Rome. This villa was burnt down by the
spite of his slaves.''

Turning to the neighbouring Alban hills, we find them also occupied b\- a group
of great country seats, the principal of which was the vast Albanum Csesa-
rum, on the site partly occupied by the modern town of Albano. The
buildings com.prised in this villa are supposed to have occupied a space of nearly si.\;
miles in circumference, between Albano, Castel Gandolfo, Lariccia, and Palazzolo. On
the same spot, previous to the Imperial times, stood two villas, belonging „„ ,
to Clodius and Pompeius Magnus respectively. The Villa of Clodius is
described in Cicero's speech in defence of Milo. It appears to have been at or near
the thirteenth milestone from Rome, close to the left side of ihe Appian road, between
Bovillae and the modern Albano. It was raised on immense substructions, the arches
of which were capable of concealing a thousand men ; and Cicero declares that Clodius
had not respected in his encroachments even the confines of the Temple of Jupiter Latiaris
or the sacred groves of Alba.'' The ruins which lie under Castel Gandolfo, on the left
side of the road towards the Porta Romana of Albano, may have formed part of the
substructions of which Cicero speaks. The estate of Clodius passed, after hi.s death, when

' Cic. Ad Fam. xiii. 29; .xvi. 18. Frontin. De Aq. * Nibby, Anal. iii. p. 345.

9. The horologium in the museum at the Collegio '•' Ibid. ii. 356.

Romano was found there. " Plin. N. H. xxxvi. § 115, Sec above, p. 31S.

■■' Plutarch, Lucull. 39; Cic. De Fin. iii. 2. 7. note 4.

^ Cic. De Legg. iii. 13, 30. " Cic. Pro Mil. ro. 19. 20, 31.

4 T o The Roman Campagna.

the family of the Claudii Pulcri became extinct, into the hands of the Claudii Nerones,
from whom Tiberius inherited it, and tlius it became Imperial property.

The Villa of Pompey was between the villa of Clodius and the town of Aricia, and
therefore occupied the site of the present town of Albano.^ Nibby thinks

Villa of Po)}!pt-Y. '^ 1 -r, ,

that the walls of reticulated work in the Villa Doria belonged to Pompey s
house, and that the great tomb near the Roman gate of Albano was Pompey's burial-
place.'- After the death of the great general the estate became the property of
Dolabella, and subsequently of Antony, who held it till the battle of Actium, when
Auo-ustus took possession of it. After the adoption of Tiberius it was united with the
Clodian grounds, and thus formed the nucleus of the Albanum Ca;sarum.-^

Augustus and some of the early emperors found the Albanum a con-
Alkunim yenient halting-place on their journeys to the south;* but it was in the

Casariim.

time of Domitian that the place was extended so much as to contam a
military camp, enormous reservoirs of water, thermae, a theatre, an amphitheatre, and a
circular temple.'' The plan of the camp can still be traced. It resembles that of the
Praetorian camp at Rome in being a quadrangular space, rounded oft" at the corners.^ The
two lon"-er sides extend from the Church of S. Paolo to the round temple, now the Church
of S. Maria. One of the shorter sides was parallel to the Appian road, and the other
ran near the Church of S. Paolo. There were four terraces or levels in the camp, rising
towards the hill behind. The Porta Decumana was on the north-eastern side, and the
Porta Pr^etoria on the south-western. Great reservoirs for water stand on the northern
side, near S. Paolo, and thermae towards the south-east, on the opposite side of the
Appian road. At the western corner is the round building usually called the Temple of
Minerva, and supposed to be that alluded to by Suetonius as annually visited b\- Domitian."
This round building is in good preservation, and a put of the ancient mosaic pavement
still remains, at a depth of six feet below the present surface; but it has been stripped
of all decorations which would enable us to determine its original purpose. The amphi-
theatre is situated between the Church of S. Paolo and that of the Capuchin convent.
It is principally constructed of opus quadratum, but the interior parts are of mixed
masonry, consisting of bricks and fragments of the local stone. This amphitheatre is
supposed to have been the scene of the feats performed by Domitian in killing with his
own hand hundreds of wild beasts with arrows and javelins, and also of the degradation
of Acilius Glabrio, who was forced by Domitian to join him in these sports.^

" Profuit ergo nihil misero quod comminus ursos
Figcbat Numidas, Albana nudus arena
Venator." "

' Cic. Pro Mil. 19, 20. Consol. 17 (36).

2 Plutarch, Pomp. 53, 80, states that Pompey was '^ It is called arx Albana in Juv. iv. 145 and Tac.

buried at his Alban villa. The well-known tomb with Agric. 45. Mart. ix. 102, 12 ; Dion Cass. Ixvi. 9.

five truncated cones, usually called the tomb of the « See Hist. Aug. Caracall. 2.

Horatii and Curiatii, has also been called the tomb of ^ Suet. Dom. 4.

Pompey. It is more probably an imitation of the old * Ibid. 4, 19 ; Dion Cass. Ixvii. i.

Etruscan tombs executed at a later time. Ann. liclf " Juv. Sat. iv. 99. The mock council held over

Inst. vs.. 55. Dionys. v. 36 ; vii. 5. the gigantic turbot, described in the fourth Satire

' Cic. Phil. xiii. 5, 10. of Juvenal, was at the Albanum. Juv. Sat. iv. 36

■" Suet. Nero, 25 ; Dion Cass. Iviii. 24 ; Sen. De — 149.

^^:.
^

■■<3 -5

The Roman Cmnpagna. 4 1 r

Between Castel Gandolfo and Albano four masjiiificent terraces, rising one above the
other, were traced by Cav. Rosa as forming part of the Albanum Caesarum, and in the
Villa Barberini there is a considerable part of a cryptoporticus ornamented with stucco reliefs,
which probably stand over the old substructions of the Villa Clodii.' On the side towards
the lake there were open balconies for viewing the mock naval engagements, and near the
entrance of the Villa Barberini the ruins of a theatre have been discovered. It appears
probable from the numerous ruins found upon the edge of the lake that the whole of the
shore was surrounded v/ith quays, and tiers of stone seats, and nvmpha;a, making- it
resemble a gigantic natural naumachia. These ruins may possibly, however, ha\-e belonged
to separate private villas, placed at different points round the water.-

To the south of Albano, in the grounds of the Villa Doria, there are the ruins of an
extensive Roman villa. Whether this was a part of the Albanum CfEsarum, or not, is
uncertain. Some of the bricks bear the stamps of Domitian, others those of the third
consulship of Servianus (.A.D. 134), Hadrian's brother-in-law, others of Commodus.^

The Imperial villas, like that of Domitian at Albano, comprising an area of
two or three miles in extent, may be said to have formed an exceptional class
of country residences, which, more even than the great domains of Lucullus and
Scaurus, exemplified the remark of Sallust, that houses and country seats had ben-un
to resemble cities in extent and grandeur.* The most celebrated of these urbcs in
rurc were the palace of Tiberius at Caprea^ and the seats of Trajan at Centumcella-,
of Hadrian at Tibur, of the Antonines at Lorium, of the Gordians on the Via Pra;-
nestina, and of Lucius Verus on the Via Clodia.'' But these were exceptions to
the ordinary villas of Roman gentlemen, with which certain districts of the Campagna
were studded.

We have already spoken of two of these groups of villas — the Tusculan and the
Alban. A third group occupied the shore of the Mediterranean in the
neighbourhood of Laurentum, and of one of these we have a detailed ^""ui"'""
and interesting account given by the owner himself, the younger Pliny. Pliny's

........ (y . ., ,,. Laureutinuni,

He says that he used this villa chieny as a winter residence, and during
the summer removed to his Tuscan house on the high spurs of the Apennines.

The exact site of the Laurentinum of Pliny is now lost ; for the ruins at Torre
Paterno do not correspond in shape to Pliny's description, though the style of brickwork-
may belong to his time; and the aqueduct which evidently conducted a stream of water
to the house at Torre Paterno contradicts his express assertion that his villa was without
running water." That it stood somewhere between Ostia and Laurentum, on the sea-
shore, is all that we can gather ; and there seems to be some reason to suppose that it

' See .ff«//. (/£'//' /«J-/. 1853, p. 3. Osteria di Malpasso. By measuring three milts

- Henzen \ti\.\\c Bull, deir Inst. 1853, p. 10. from this spot, and then turning off to the right

' See Canina in \.\\e Ann. e Mon. dell' Inst. 1854, and proceeding for three miles further towards Castel

p. loi, "Tavola nona della Via Appia." Henzen in Fusano, we arrive approximately at the spot on

Bull. deW Inst. 1853, p. 10. which Pliny's Villa must have stood, nearly midway

* Sallust. CatiL 12. ' Tac. Ann. iv. 67. between Torre Paterno and Castel Fusano. Such a

« See the Hist. Aug. V'erus, 8 ; Ant. Pius, i. position also agrees well with the other measurement

' The eleventh milestone on the Via Laurentina given by Pliny from the Ostian road. Canina in

was found in 1846. It stood near the bridge and Bull, dell' Inst. 1S46, p. 120.

3 G 2

^ I 2 TIic Roman Caiiipagna.

was on the shore half-way between Torre Paterno and Castel Fusano. PHny's letter
describes it as follows : —

" You are surprised that I should be so fond of my Laurentine, or, if you like to
call it so, my Laurens country house. Your surprise will cease when you have learned
how pleasant and convenient the place is, and what a fine sea-coast it commands. The
distance from town is only seventeen miles, so that, after finishing my business, I can
spend a good part of the day quietly here. The place is reached by either of two roads,
the Laurentine or the Ostian ; but you turn off on the Laurentine road, at the fourteenth,
and on the Ostian at the eleventh milestone. The rest of the road in either case is sandy,
and rather heavy and tedious for a carriage, but soft and easy for riding.

" There is some variety in the scenery on the road, for sometimes it is bordered by
the woods, and sometimes there is a wide view across broad meadow tracts, where
numerous flocks of sheep, and herds of cattle, and horses driven down in the winter from
the mountains, grow sleek and fatten on the luxuriant grass and in the spring-like warmth
of the air. The house is large enough for comfort, but not expensive to keep up. The porch
in front {a) is plain, but not mean ;^ and behind this there are cloisters (/;) in the shape of
the letter D, enclosing a small but cheerful little court, an excellent retreat in stormy
weather, as the windows are glazed, and the roof has very wide and overhanging eaves.
Opposite to the centre of this court is a well-lighted inner yard (c),- and then a handsome
dining-room,^ which runs out on the shore {d) ; so that if there is a south-west wind
blowing, the waves, after breaking, just reach it with their extreme margin. It has folding
doors or windows of equal size at the sides and in front, and thus afibrds, as it were, views
of three different seas. At the back, it looks right through the inner yard, the cloistered
court and the porch, to the woods and distant hills. On the left side, but standing further
back, there is a large salon (e), and bej-ond it a smaller one (/), which receives the morning
sun at one window, and by means of another enjoys the evening sun also. From this there
is a good view over the sea, from a safe though a distant point. The angle formed by
the walls of the dining-room and of these rooms makes a snug corner (£-), w^here the
warmest and brightest sunshine is to be enjoyed. This is our favourite seat in winter,
and the exercise-ground of the household. It is sheltered from all winds, except those
which bring clouds, and therefore the place is only useless in bad weather.* Close
to this corner is a room with a domed roof, the windows of which are placed so as
to follow the sun's course all round (/i). Against the wall there are shelves, like those of
a library, containing books not intended for cursory reading, but for real study. From
hence you can go into a sleeping-room (/') through a passage {/) heated from below
by tubes, ^ which convey and circulate a wholesome warmth. The remainder of this
wing of the house is appropriated to the slaves and freedmen ; but most of the rooms
are neat enough for the accommodation of guests, if necessary (/, /).*

' Pliny uses atrium in the sense of I'lStibuluin. terra-cotta flues, like drainage tubes, passing behind

' Cavajdium. the plaster of the walls

' Triclinium. 6 The rooms (///) were probably arranged

* The S.W. wind (Scirocco), which would bring round a yard, through which the light could enter
rain. the N.E. window of f. Their extent has been

* The tubuli here mentioned are constantly to be adapted, in the plan, to the large number of servants
seen in the walls of Roman houses. They consist of who usually attended a wealthy Roman.

rv(^m

P5 k

■ 5 - - 5 S 5

U-

_~_l L^

O OXI O O /^ Ov,

[— -,||1 o J. ° ^1° I

^ J5 _| o o^^ o o

C> n^

IS. i^J

Llil_l_L_l_

I
I

z
o
<

< .

O i3

cr:

The Roman Campagna. a j ^

" In the opposite wing there is a very handsomely decorated room (w), and next to
it another room, which makes a large bedroom or a small parlour, with plenty of sun-
shine, and with a good sea-view (;/). Behind this there is a room (/.) with an ante-
chamber (('), loft)-, so as to be cool in summer, and well sheltered from all winds, so
as to be warm in winter. To this room another also, with an antechamber, is attached
by a party-wall (p,p). Beyond is the wide and spacious cooling-room of the baths {a)^
from the opposite walls of which two curved bathing-places project, sufficiently large, if
j-ou consider how near the sea is.- Next to this is the heated anointing-room ir);' and
then the furnace {s) ;" and adjoining these are two other little rooms, in an elegant but
not costly style (A t).

"Near these is an admirable warm bath, from which swimmers can see the sea (//)•■'■
and not far off is the tennis-court, which faces the hottest sun in the afternoons (^').*'
Here there is a tower {x), which contains two sitting-rooms below and as many above
and, besides, a dining-room with a very extensive prospect of the sea and the coast
with its lovel)- villas." At the other end there is another tower, containin<T a room
which commands both the rising and setting sun {)).

" Below this is a large store-room and granary ; and on the ground-floor a dinincr-room,
where you can only just faintly hear the roaring of the sea, even when rough. This
looks upon the garden and the promenade' which surrounds the garden. The promenade
is edged with box — or rosemary where box will not grow ; for box, when sheltered by the
buildings, grows luxuriantK", but when it is exposed to the wind or when the spray of
the sea reaches it even from a distance, it withers. Round the inner edge of the promenade
runs a shadj^ alley of vines, affording a walk so soft and yielding that you can walk
barefoot upon it. In the garden there are plenty of mulberry-trees and fig-trees, which
this soil suits well, though it is unfavourable to other trees. The dining-room furthest
from the sea looks out into the garden, and so enjoys a view not inferior to the sea-
view. At the back it has two parlours, under the windows of which is the approach to
the house and a kitchen-garden planted with luxuriant vegetables. On the other side
runs a cloister, almost large enough to be a public building (a). It has windows on both
sides ; a double number on the side towards the sea, the alternate windows towards the
garden being omitted.

"When the weather is fine and the air still, these are all thrown open ; but if it blow.s,
those away from the side towards which the wind sets can be left open without incon-
venience. Before the cloister lies a terrace walk' perfumed with beds of violets, and
warmed b}' the sunshine reflected from the cloister, which retains the sun's rays and at
the same time keeps off the north wind, and provides a warm place in front and a cool
place at the back. Similarh- it keeps off the south-west wind, and thus by means of its

' Frigidariiim. * Propnigeon. The adjoining rooms (//) were pro-

= Keil, ed. 1S70, reads marc for the old reading bably apodyteria, or dressing-rooms.

nare. ' Calida piscina, used as a tepidarium.

' The words " unctuarium hypocaustum' are noi to ' Sphaeristerium.

be separated as Keil does, but "unctuarium" is to be ' The rooms in the towers are described from the

taken as an adjective. This room was probably used highest downwards to the ground-floor.

as a calidarium. " Gestatio. " .Xystus.

^14 The Roman Campagna.

different sides breaks and checks all the winds. These are its advantages in the winter,
and in summer they are still greater; for then in the forenoon it keeps the terrace walk
cool by its shadow, and in the afternoon the nearest part of the promenade and garden,
casting a broader or narrower shadow on one side or the other, as the day increases or
decreases. The cloister itself is coolest when the sun is most scorching and falls
directly on the top of the roof Besides, by setting the windows open, it admits a thorough
draught from the west wind, and thus the air in it never becomes close and oppressive.
At the upper end of the terrace there is a building (^) which is my favourite place,
my particular favourite. I had it built under my own eye. It contains a sunny
sittino--room, one side of which looks on the terrace, the other on the sea, both exposed
to the sunshine, and also a bedroom with a door towards the cloister and a window
towards the sea.^ Next to the sea, in the middle of the wall, is a pretty recess (7),
which by means of glass doors and a curtain, can be united with the adjoining room
or separated. It is furnished with a couch and two chairs, and as you lie on your
side you have the sea at your feet, behind you the neighbouring villas, and before you
the woods: all these views may be looked at separately from each window or blended
into one. Attached to this is a sleeping-room, which is proof against the noise of
sei-vants' voices, the roaring of the sea or of storms, and even the glare of lightning
or of broad daylight, if the windows are kept shut (8). This profound quiet is caused
by a passage which separates the wall of the room from the outer wall towards the
warden, and absorbs all noises in the intervening space.^ Annexed to the bedroom is a
small stove, which warms it from underneath by the opening or shutting, as occasion
requires, of a small trap-door.

" Beyond this lies a projecting chamber and antechamber (e), which enjoys the sun from
morning till afternoon, though its rays fall obliquely. When I retire into this set of
rooms I can fancy m}-self at a distance from my own house, and I find it especially
delio-htful during the Saturnalia, when the rest of the house resounds with the unre-
strained mirth of that festive season ; for thus I do not interrupt the amusements of my
household, nor they my studies. There is one defect in this pleasant and convenient
place — the want of running water. But we have wells, or rather springs, for the water
in them is close to the surface. The nature of the soil here is remarkable ; for wherever
you dig you immediately meet with fresh, clear water, not at all brackish, though so
near the sea. The neighbouring woods supply plenty of firewood, and ever}' other
convenience of life may be had from the colony of Ostia. To a homely man, the
village, between which and us there is only one villa, can supply ever}-thing. There
are three public baths in it — a great convenience in case of sudden arrivals, or when
there is no time to heat my own.-' The coast scenery is beautifully varied b}- the con-
tiguous or detached villas, which present the appearance of numerous towns, whether
you look at them from the sea or from the land.

' The description here, as in the towers, appears to Laurentum. It is very singular that Pliny should

begin from above. make no mention of it, which leads to the inference

- Andron (di/S/wJfi. a passage, as in V'itniv. vi. 10. that his villa was much nearer to Ostia than to Lau-

* This can hardly refer to the decayed town of rentum.

The Roman Campagna. , j -

" Sometimes after a long calm the sea is perfectly smooth, but it is more often roughened
by the waves which contrary winds and currents raise. Good fish are scarce in it, but we
get excellent soles and prawns. As to other provisions, we are better off at my villa than
further inland, especially for obtaining milk ; for the cattle collect here from the pastures,
when in search of water or shade. Now have I sufficiently justified my fondness for
living and passing my time in this retreat >. If you do not feel inclined to see it, you arc a
bigoted cockney. How I wish you might feel so inclined, that my little country home
might have the pleasure of your company in addition to its numerous other charms !
Good-bye."^

It is plain from the above description that this Villa of Pliny was one of many
which belonged to a special class of houses used by Roman men of business and
statesmen in the winter, from which they went and returned daily to their offices in
Rome, after the fashion of the men of business of the present daj-. Of the owners of
the other villas mentioned by Pliny as lining the coast we have no knowlcdo-e.

Further inland, at Torre Paterno, there are the ruins of a large villa, which have been
supposed by some to belong to Pliny's Laurentinum. But they are more probably the
relics of an imperial villa mentioned by Herodian as the retreat to which
Commodus withdrew by the advice of his physicians, at the time of the ^'^''^ "-^

. ' Commodus.

great plague m Rome, m the year 187. The neighbourhood of Laurentum
was recommended, says the historian, on account of its being cooler than Rome, and
also because it was shaded with large woods of laurel and bay trees, the strong scent
from which was supposed to counteract the influence of the deadly malaria which was
devastating the capital.^ The present ruins at Torre Paterno consist of brick walls in two
styles, one of which Nibby refers to the age of Nero, and the other to the reign of
Commodus or Severus.^ The central building, which contained the grand suite of rooms, is
the only part where work of the first century, analogous to that of Nero's buildings at Rome,
is to be seen. The rest, says Nibby, is composed of various courtyards, built in the style of
the Antonine era, which have been altered and partly concealed by later modern edifices.
On one side of the ruins are two large piscinae, supplied by an aqueduct which comes from
the Tenimento la Santola. The brickwork of this is apparently contemporaneous with
other works which we know to have belonged to the age of Commodus or Severus, having
very thin bricks and a great quantity of mortar. Near these reservoirs is an enclosed space,
which was probably a courtjard or garden of a rectangular shape. On the north side it
has some ruins constructed in the style called opus mixtum, of the fourth century ; and
on the east is the principal part of the villa, built of large and thick triangular bricks, with
thin layers of mortar beautifully laid, and evidently of an early date. On the west there is
a large triclinium looking towards the sea, like that in Pliny's Laurentinum. Various other
rooms and the foundations of a tower can be traced on the sites occupied by the moderr
guard-house and the chapel of S. Filippo.* The villa was apparently first built at the
beginning of the first century, enlarged towards the end of the second, and supplied with
water by the aqueduct and again restored on the north side in the fourth century.

' Plin. Ep. ii. 17. ' Nibby, Analisi, vol ii. p. -05.

' Herodian, i. 12, 2. ' Ibid, pp. 205, 206.

4 1 6 Tlie Roman Campagna.

Another of the great Laurentine villas belonged to Hortensius the orator, Cicero's
rival. We only know of its existence by Varro's description of the park
Vtllaof attached to it, and by Pliny's statement, derived from Varro, that he left
to his heir 10,000 casks of wine stored in his villas.^ The covers or game-
preserves of Hortensius comprised more than 50 jugera in extent, and were surrounded
with a ring fence. Such preserves were usually called leporaria, but he called his a
67]pLOTpo4)e~Lov, as containing all kinds of wild beasts. In it there was a banqueting-
room built on a hill, so as to command a view all round ; and one of Hortensius's
entertainments at his parties was to have a slave dressed in a bard's costume, with
a harp, like Orpheus, who called immense numbers of stags, boars, and other wild
animals out of the woods to follow him in procession. " The sight," says Varro's
informant, " was as fine as the asdile's shows in the Circus Maximus, or the elephant-
hunts at Rome."

The villas in the immediate neighbourhood of Rome had the distinctive name of

suburhana applied to them, though this term was understood vaguel}', and

Suhurban villas ^,^^ sometimes used with reference to places at least five-and-twenty miles

tieai-Rome.

from Rome.- A large number of these suburban villas can be traced on the
low hills on each side of the great roads leading out of Rome. Some of those built by the
emperors must have been of vast extent, and the ruins still existing of one on the left-
hand side of the Appian road, at the fifth milestone, are worth e.xploring.
Siihurbamim 'pj.jgsg ruins have had the name of Roma Vecchia given to them, derived from

tommodi. ^

the fact that at this spot was the boundary of the oldest ager Romanus, called
Fossa Cluilia by Livy, Dionysius, and Plutarch, Festi by Strabo, and Campus Sacer
Horatiorum by Martial'

The massive ruins scattered about this part of the road consist chiefly of tombs ; and the
spot appears, from their number, to have been a very favourite burial-place. On the left
hand, a little beyond the fifth milestone, the remains of the villa begin, and reach along the
side of the road for at least half a mile, extending also towards the left into the adjoining
fields as far as the edge of the great lava-current on the top of which the Via Appia is here
carried. The whole of this space, nearly two miles in circumference, is strewed ^\■ith
fragments of costly marbles, of sculpture, and bits of mosaic, showing that it was covered
with handsomely decorated buildings. The style of construction, says Nibby, belongs to
three different epochs. The buildings nearest to the Appian road, comprising the great
reservoir, on the foundations of which the farmhouse of S. Maria Nuova is built, are of
brickwork and reticulated work of the time of Hadrian. The great mass of the ruins
which lies towards the new road to Albano exhibits workmanship of the Antonine era, and

1 Varro, R. R. iii. 13; Plin. N. H. .wiii. 96. the Fosso di Fiorano and the Acqua BoUicante, re-

- Plin. N.H. x.xxi. 42 seems to distinguish between spectivcly, on the Appian and Latin roads. Topogr.

tUIce and siiburbanci. In xxvi. 19 he speaks of the p. 243. Coriolanus hahcd here, near the Temple of

Pomptine marshes as suburban. Fortuna Muliebris, and the legendary battle of the

^ Livy, i. 23; Strabo, v. p. 230. The Ambarvalian Horatii and Curiatii took place here ; whence it was

rites were sometimes performed here. Gell thinks called Campus Sacer Horatiorum. Martial, iii, 47

that the Fossa Cluilia was a mound and dyke made Dionys. iii. 4 ; Plutarch, Cor. 30.
to protect the frontier between the deep ravines of

The Roman Campagna. 4 , -

amongst them have been found numerous fragments of sculpture, also belonging to the reigns
of the Antonines. The third style of building is that called opera mixta by the ItaUan
antiquarians, which prevailed in the Constantinian age at the beginning of the fourth
century. The buildings of the Antonines have been repaired and overlaid in many places
by this later work. The stamps of most of the bricks found here belono- to the reif^n of
Antoninus Pius, Marcus Aurelius, and Commodus, and were made chiefly in the Imperial
brickyards. Thus the date of the principal parts of the building is decided, and it is seen
that the villa was most probably an Imperial villa. But all doubt on this point was
completely cleared away by the discovery, in 1828, of a number of large leaden pipes
bearing the inscription, "II. Ouintiliorum Condini et IMaximi," from which it became
evident that the villa was the same place which Vopiscus and Dion Cassius mention as the
property of the Ouintilii, consuls in the year 151, under Antoninus Pius, and victims of the
spite of Commodus in 182.1 Commodus seized their property, and the villa became
one of his favourite residences. The great extent of the ruins explains the circumstance
related by Herodian, that the Emperor, being in the back part of the villa, could not hear
the shouts of the infuriated mob in the Appian road, who were demanding the life of
Cleander.'-

The ruins which extend along the side of the road arc plainly fragments of a kind of
vestibule, or grand entrance to the Imperial villa. They consist of a nymphaeum, or grand
fountain, and a row of chambers intended for slaves' lodgings. The fountain is supplied
with water by an aqueduct, the arches of which can be seen at the seventh milestone,
where it leaves the lava rocks and crosses the country towards Marino at a higher le\'el
than the Aqua Claudia. This nymphaeum and aqueduct are built of opera mixta, which
shows that they probably belong to the Constantinian age.

The principal mass of the villa itself stood nearly half a mile from the old Appian road,
on the edge of the rocks of basaltic lava. The remaining space was occupied by-
gardens and ornamental summer-houses and ponds. Xibby describes the chief ruins as
having belonged to a richly ornamented fountain and a suite of bathing-rooms of
great grandeur. One spacious salon, the walls of which form a picturesque ruin, as seen
from the new post-road to Albano, stands on the edgp of the hill, and commands a
magnificent view of the whole of the Alban and Sabine hills and the cit}- of Rome. Near
this was a small theatre, from which the ^fpollino columns now at the entrance to the
Tordinone Theatre in Rome were taken.

An immense quantity of valuable sculpture, now in the Roman museums and
palaces, was discovered by excavations here in 1787 and 1793. Among these
sculptures was a splendid statue of Euterpe, now in the Galleria dei Candelabri ; a
tiger, now in the Hall of Animals ; and the busts of Lucius Yerus, Diocletian,
Epicurus, Socrates, Isis, and Antinous now in the Vatican, with numerous Sileni,
Fauns, and Xereids.

1 Hist. Aug. Florian, 16; Dion Cass. I.x.xii. 5, 13. of the Ouiatilii at the Fossa Quiliacwitli the ancient

The Quiniilii wrote a treatise Ue Re Rustica. See gens Quintia, one of the Alban families who

Athena;us, lib. .\iv. p. 649 ; Casaubon on Hist. Aug. migrated to Rome. Livy, i. 30; Ann. deW Inst.

Comm.4. Canina ingeniously connects the properly 1852, p. 276. - Herodian, i. 12.

^ II

4i8 The Roman Canipagna.

Connected witli the above villa were probably the ruins now to be seen on the right
Suburhamwi hand of the Via Latina, at a place called Sette Bassi, five miles and a half
Hadriani. from the Porta di S. Giovanni, and near the Osteria del Curato.^

These ruins occupy a space of nearly three-quarters of a mile in circumference, and
appear to have been built at two different epochs. The bricks of which one portion of
them is constructed have the dates 123 and 134 A.D. upon them — the years when Pcetinus
and Apronianus, and Servianus and Juventius, were consuls. The other part of the
building is evidently contemporaneous with the ruins on the Appian road just described,
and belongs to the Antonine era. All the bricks were made at one of the Imperial kilns,
and it has therefore been generally supposed that the villa was an Imperial residence,
forming a part of the Suburbanum Commodi. The marbles found on the spot show that it
was decorated with great magnificence, and a particular kind of breccia, numerous frag-
ments of which have been picked up there, obtains its name, Breccia di Sette Bassi, from
the place.

The plan, according to Nibby,- was that of a large oblong area, the longer sides of
which ran north and south. In the centre there was room for a large pleasure-garden. The
front of the buildings was at the northern end, towards Rome ; and the remains of a portico
can be traced, which supported a terrace on a level v.ith the first-floor rooms of the
mansion. One of these rooms, with three doors and the same number of windows, is
still standing, and here and there in some of the walls the remains may be seen of terra-
cotta pipes for heating the rooms. The ground-floor apartments were without decorations,
and are therefore supposed to have served as store-houses for farm produce.

Behind this front building on the eastern and western sides are long ranges of
buildings ; the eastern consisting of two suites of rooms, probably intended for baths or
for gymnasia, and the western forming a long ambulacrum, terminated by an exedra.
On the south side there is a cryptoporticus and a reservoir for water, \\hich was supplied
by a branch of the Claudian aqueduct. About a quarter of a mile further south, near
the Latin road, there is an outlying building which seems to have been intended to
command a view of that road.^

The site of a third great Ii^perial suburban villa is pointed out by Julius Capitolinus,*

who, in his history of the Gordian family, says that "their country house was

Suburbanum gjj-^jjtgj q,^ thg ^oad to Prjeneste, and was remarkable for the magnificence of

Gordmuorum. °

a portico with four ranges of columns, fifty of which were of Carystian, fifty
of Claudian, fifty of Synnadan, and fifty of Numidian marble. There were also three
basilicas in it, each of a hundred feet in length, and other buildings of corresponding size,
particularly some therms, more magnificent than any others in the world, except those at
Rome." The ruins of this great Imperial villa are on the road to Gabii, about two miles

1 The name Sette Bassi is generally supposed to Vecchia is given to this district, as well as that on

be derived from the name of an owner of the estate, the Appian road.

Septimius Bassus. Whether this was the Septimius - Nibby, Analisi, iii. p. 736.

Bassus who was consul in 317 A.D. is not certain. ' Ibid. iii. p. 737. The railway to Frascati now

The estate is called Fundus Septem Bassi in a bull runs between the Claudian aqueduct and these ruins,

of -Agapetus II., 955 A.D., and Fundus Bassi in ■* Hist. Aug. Gordian, ch. 32. Gordian III. was

Anastast. Vit. Silvest. I. The name of Roma killed in a. D. 244.

The Roman Ciwipagna. 4 1 g

and a half from the Porta Maggiore. They extend for nearly a mile along the road, con-
sisting chiefly of some huge reservoirs for water, two spacious halls belonging to the
thermae, a round temple or Hereon, and a stadium surrounded with arcades. The style
of construction in most of these is the irregular brickwork, with thick layers of mortar, which
is known to be characteristic of the third century.

The great reservoirs are close to the road, two on the left and two on the rio-ht hand
side, beyond the depression in which the stream called Acqua BoUicante runs, where the
ground rises towards the hill of Torre dei Schiavi. Some ol them appear to be of an
earlier date than the reigns of the Gordians, and are referred by Nibby to the Antonine
age. The brickwork of these is more regular, and they contain a good deal of reticu-
lated work and layers of squared tufa stones. The two large halls which belonged to the
thermae are to the east of the reservoirs. One of them was a spacious octagonal buildino-,
with round windows. It was occupied as a fortress or watch-tower in the Middle Ages, and
has been repaired in the style called opera Saracenesca.^ In the walls of this may be seen
the earliest instances of a mode of construction which afterwards became common — the
introduction of jars of terra cotta in the walls to make the work lighter. The interior
is ornamented with niches, alternately square and circular-headed, and retaining some
of their ancient stucco decorations. The other hall of the thermae stands not far off,
and is circular, with a domed roof

The circular temple, of which mention has been made, is similar to that near the
Circus of Maxentius. The diameter of this building is 56 feet, and it was lighted by four
large round windows. The front is turned towards the road, according to the rule laid
down by Vitruvius.- Underneath there is a crypt, supported by a massive round pillar, and
containing six niches. In these Nibby thinks that the ashes of the dead were placed, as
their statues were in the temple above, and that the building was the Hereon of the
reigning family. In the ^liddle Ages this Hereon was used as a church, and some of
the paintings then introduced are still visible on the interior walls.' Not far from the
Hereon are the ruins of the arcades which surrounded the stadium, and bounded the
domain of the villa on the east side.

Another of the Imperial villas, of a much earlier date, was placed on the right bank of
the Tiber, at the ninth milestone on the Via Flaminia, in the Veientine territory. It is not
properly included in the limits which have been laid down for this suho-immim
chapter, but since it is so near Rome, and so many discoveries have Lkuc at Prima
been made there of late years, a short account of its chief features must
be given.*

The Via Flaminia is bordered for a long distance on the left-hand side by tufa rocks
of a reddish hue, whence the district had obtained in Livy's time the name of Saxa
Rubra.* The Cremera, now the V'alca, is one of the streams which enter the Tiber

' These halls are figured as tombs in Piranesi's that the church was dedicated to S. Andrea. Anal.

Antiquities of Rome, tav. 29, 59, 60. iii. p. 71 1.

-Vitruv. iv. 5. See above, page 93, note. Nibby, * Sec Henzen, in the />«//.</<•//' ///j/. i863,pp.72, Si ;

vol. iii. p. 710. Nibby, Analisi, vol. iii. p. 31.

' Nibby,quoting Galletti's Primicerio, p. 214, thinks " Livy, ii. 49- In <-'=• I'hil. ii. 31 ; Tac. Hist. iii. 79.

\ U 2

420 ■ Tlic Roman Campagna.

in this district, and beyond it, where the road turns to the left, and, leaving the valley of
the Tiber, ascends the hill through a cutting, are the stream and hamlet of Prima
Porta. On the right of the road here, and between it and the Tiber, lie the ruins of a
large villa, the various terraces of which, raised one above the other, occupy the whole
of the top of the hill, and command magnificent views of the Sabine and yEquian
highlands.

There can be no doubt that these ruins are the remains of the Villa of Livia,
called Ad Gallinas, mentioned by Pliny and by Suetonius as situated at the ninth
milestone on the Via Flaminia.^ The style of construction in the walls which remain
corresponds to that of the Mausoleum of Augustus in the Campus Martius. The
reticulated work has that peculiar irregularity about it, which indicates the transition
from the opus incertum to the more regularly formed opus leticulatum. Nibby had
pointed out this spot, in 1S37, as one in which a rich harvest might be reaped from
excavatin"-; but it was not till 1863 that the splendid statue of Augustus, now in the
Braccio Nuovo of the Vatican, with other interesting sculptures, was dug up here.

At the same time some rooms .were excavated at a depth of ten feet under the
level of the ancient villa. They had apparently been closed at a very early time,
and filled with earth in order to erect a building over them. The largest of these
was obviously intended as a cool retreat during the summer heats, and it is painted
with trees and birds in- imitation of a rustic bower. These paintings have attracted
great attention, as being some of the most ancient now in existence, and also on
account of their intrinsic beauty, and the wonderful way in which they have preserved
their freshness of colour. The pavement of this painted room was of marble, which
was removed when the earth was thrown in at the time of building the rooms above.
The legend about this villa connects it with the death of Nero, relating that the laurel-
Subitrbannm bushes and the white fowls, for which the villa had been celebrated since
Phaontis. ^^^ days of Livia, withered and died out during Nero's last days.

Another villa, that of Phaon, between the Via Nomentana and the Via
Salaria, is mentioned by Suetonius as the scene of the last hours of Nero's life; and
the site of this can be exactly ascertained, as the two ancient bridges by which the
roads crossed the Anio have not been moved, and we knovv^ from Suetonius that the
villa was near the fourth milestone.- Nibby says that in the farm called the Vigne
Nuove, between the two roads at the above-mentioned distance, he found the remains
uf, a villa built of brick and reticulated work of the time of Nero, and that in one part
of it the plan of a cryptoporticus can be traced. A cross road led to this spot, which

it is mentioned as being at the ninth milestone, Prima Porta, is derived from an ornamental arch,

the first stage on the road to the north. See Itin. which was still standing in the middle of the seven-

Hierosol. p. 612, Wess. It was an important strate- teenth century. Nibby thinks that this was one of the

gical position, and therefore a favourite place of arches alluded to by Claudian, VI. Cons. Hon. 520:

encampment for troops, on account of the cross road " Inde salutato hbatis Tibride lymphis excipiunt

thence which joined the Via Cassia. See Hist. Aug. arcus." The name Ad Gallinas was derived from the

Sever, chap, viii.; Aur. Vict. De Ca:s. xl. 23. Martial legend of the white fowl, with a laurel branch in its

speaks of it as a small knot of houses visible from mouth, having been dropped here into the lap of Livia

the Janiculum ; Martial, iv. 64. by an eagle. Suet. loc. cit.; Dion Cass, xlviii. 52.

1 Suet. Galb. i. ; Plin. xv. 136. The modern name, " Suet. Nero, 47. 48, 49.

The Roman Cavipagna. 42 1

was probably even in Nero's time somewhat lonely and suitable to the purpose of
concealment entertained by Nero in taking refuge there.

The neighbourhood of Tibur, equally with that of Tusculum, was thickly studded
with the country villas of the wealthy Romans in the times of the late
Republic and the Empire. But we have no certain knowledge of the '^'^'"''""'•''l"^-
sites of any one of them, except of that built by Hadrian on the slope
of the Tiburtine hills two miles from Tibur itself. The buildings and U^dnaiCs

,,,..,, TUiiirliiii villa.

pleasure-grounds attached to this villa were even more extensive than

those of the Albanum Ca;sarum or the Suburbanum Commodi, descriptions of which have

been already given.

The Suburbanum Hadriani occupied the slopes of a hill of volcanic tufa, which may
be called an outlying part of Monte Affliano, the ^tfula of Horace, extending for about
three miles in a direction from south-east to north-west. The various levels afforded by the
ground have been formed into terraces adapted to the buildings they were intended to
support, by means of substructions which in some places are of vast solidity and gigantic
height. " From these terraces," says Nibby, " the views are most varied and picturesque.
On one side the horizon is bounded by the pointed heights of the so-called Montes
Corniculani, and by the ridges of the Peschiatore, the Ripoli, and the Affliano ; and
on the other the eye ranges over the gently undulating expanse of the ager Romanus,
from which rise the towers of the Eternal City, while, beyond, the long streak of light
reflected from the waters of the Etruscan and Laurentine sea seems to encircle the
whole with a silver}' zone. The situation of the villa is open to the healthy breezes
of the west wind, but is sheltered by the mountains from the fury of the north wind,
the piercing chills of the north-east, and the unwholesome hot summer blasts of
the south." ^

The high ground on which the villa stands rises between two valleys, which may
be called from their position the north and south valleys. They run down into
the plain through which the Anio cuts its bed. The northern valley has been artificially
altered, with the view of increasing its picturesque appearance, by cutting the sides
so as to form perpendicular cliffs of reddish stone. The tints of these rocks, the
soft verdure of the plants and trees which grow luxuriantly upon them, the bright
colours of the wild flowers scattered here and there, and the lovely hills which
rise as a screen behind them, give this valley such a character of soothing and
enchanting retirement and beauty, that it has been universally regarded as the spot
to which the name of the Vale of Tempe was given by the emperor. The southern
valley is less deep and bold, and from its monotonous and severe aspect it may
perhaps be supposed to have been the place where Hadrian placed his imitation of
the infernal regions.'-

> See Nibby, Analisi, vol. ill. p. 647; Ligorio, Pianta J Hist. Aug. Hadr. 26: '•Tiburtinam villain mire

della Villa Tiburlina di .\driano Cesarc, Koma, 1751 ; cxicdificavit, ita ut in ea et provinciarum et locoiuin

Kircher, Latium, Amsterdam, 1671, p. 145. The celcbcrrima nomina inscribeiet, vclut Lyceum, .Xca-

bcst plan of the grounds is that of I'iranesi, which demiani, Prytancum, Canopum, Poecilem, Tempe

has been followed by Nibby, Dcscrizione della \'illa vocaret, ct ut nihil pra;tcrmitterct etiam Inferos

Adriana, 1S27. fin.xit. '

42 2 The Roman Campagna.

Tlie brook which runs at the bottom of the northern valley (Fosso dell' Acqua Ferrata)
lias received the name of the Peneius from antiquarians ; and that in the southern valley
is called Fosso di Risicoli by the modern inhabitants. These streams are now very
scantily supplied with water; but in ancient times, when the villa was watered by a
constant flow from its aqueducts, they must have been of considerable volume. The
ruins, now overgrown with clumps of cypress and other trees, extend for a space of
seven miles in circumference, and in the Middle Ages were known as Tivoli Vecchio,
from a vague and unfounded idea that the ancient city of Tibur stood here. It has
been remarked that the Coliseum is strikingly characteristic of the emperors who
planned and executed it, and with equal truth it may be said that the Tiburtinum of
Hadrian gives a marvellous picture of the many-sided genius of the great man who
was at once the ruler of the whole known world, and had travelled throughout his
vast domain from Britain to the Euphrates, organizing and controlling everywhere, and
at the same time showing an appreciation of and value for literature, philosophy, and
the fine arts, which was generally foreign to the Roman character.^ Hadrian constructed
in his villa at Tibur a panorama of all the sights which had struck him most on his
world-wide travels, in order that he might, in this realm of enchantment, when no longer
able to travel, have the thoughts in which he had taken such pleasure revived for his
imagination to feed upon.^ Considering the size and magnificence of the place, which
almost resembles a town in its vast extent, but few notices of it are found among the
Roman historians and biographers. Dion Cassius, or rather his epitomizer Xiphilinus,
does not even mention it; and Spartianus and Aurelius Victor pass it over without such
special remark as we should expect. As, however, a great part of the buildings consisted
of the familiar therms, stadia, theatres, and gymnasium, which occurred in every large
Roman villa, they were perhaps not considered to be worth special remark, and only the
peculiarities of the place were recorded. After Hadrian's return to Rome at the end
of his last journey to the East, in 135 A.D., he resigned the cares of empire to Lucius
yElius Verus, and retired to this villa, which had probably been built during his absence,
and was perhaps begun in 125, when he returned to Rome from his first journey, and
finished during the last three years of his life, from 135 to 138.''

This opinion as to the date at which the villa was built is confirmed by the stamps
found on the bricks, which range from the year 123 to the year 137 A.D.;'» and that the
ruins belong to Hadrian's Villa is sufficiently attested by universal tradition and by the

1 Aur. Vict. Epit.xiv.: "Atheniensiumstudia mores- Tertullian calls Hadrian " curiositatum omnium ex-

quehaiisit, potitus non sermone tantum sed et ceteris plorator ;" Apol. 5. "Orbem Romanum circumiit;"

disciplinis canendi, psallcndi, medendique scientia, Eutrop. viii. 7. " Peragratis sane omnibus orbis

musicus, gcometra, pictor, fictorque ex aere vel mar- partibus;" Hist. Aug. Hadr. 23.

more proxime Polycletos ct Euphranoras. Memor ' See Gregorovius, Geschichtc des Rom. Kaisers,

supra quam cuiquam crcdibile est, locos, negotia, Hadrian; Konigsberg, 1S51, p. 212.

militcs absentes quoque nominibus recensere. Im- ^ Hist. Aug. Hadr. 23, 26 ; Aur. Vict. De Ca5S. xiv.,

mensi laboris quippe qui provincias omnes passibus " Deinde, uti solet, tranquillis rebus remissior, rus

circumicrit. Ad specimen Icgionum militarium,fabros, proprium Tibur secessit, permissa Urbe Lucio ^Elio

perpendiculatores, architectos, genusque cunctum Casari. Ipse, uti beatis locupletibus mos, palatia

cxstruendorum mcenium seu decorandorum in co- exstruere, curare cpulas, signa, tabulas pictas."

hortcs centuriavcrat. Varius, multiplex, multiformis." * Nibby, Analisi, iii. p. 651.

The Roman Canipagna. 423

discover>' of numerous statues of Antinous and other works of art unciuestionably
belonging to the reign of Hadrian.

The ruins contain specimens of almost every kind of construction. The most ancient
part is a wall of opus incertum, composed of small polygonal fragments of tufa, which
stands near the Casino Fede. This wall is probably a remnant of some older villa
rustica or farmhouse which occupied the site before Hadrian's time, and may have be-
longed to the gens yElia. It apparently belongs to the first half of the first century B.C.
The most frequently occurring masonry is opus reticulatum, with squares of tawny-
coloured tufa quarried in the valley adjoining, and bonded at the corners with blocks
of the same rock, or with red bricks. In those parts of the buildings which require
great durability, from being exposed to the action of water, brickwork is used through-
out. The Greek Theatre and parts of the Academy are built of small squared blocks
of tufa, or in some cases of irregular fragments of tufa resembling the later opera
Saracenesca. These are sometimes strengthened with bands of reticulated work. In
most cases the outer covering of the walls has been removed, especially where it con-
sisted of marble slabs. Some of the stucco ornaments are still very beautiful and
well preserved.

Each part of the buildings is complete in itself, but they do not seem to have been
arranged on any general plan; and now that the roads which conducted from one part
to another have disappeared, they present a confused mass which requires some careful
attention to unravel. I have followed Nibby throughout in this description of the
Villa of Hadrian, but have been obliged to confine myself to a very general and cur-
sory account of each main feature. To notice every detail would be far beyond the
compass of this book. In Ligorio's plan 334 different parts of the villa are marked
and separately described, and he spent a year in the investigation of the ruins.

Spartianus, in the passage quoted above, gives us the names of the Lyceum, the
Academy, the Prytaneum, the Canopus, the PcEcile, the Tempe, and the Inferi, as the
parts of the villa made by Hadrian in imitation of their foreign originals. To these
Ligorio has added the name Cynosarges, found upon a brick stamp. The sites of the
Canopus, the Pcecile, the Academy, Tempe, and the Inferi may be said to be ascertained
with tolerable certainty; but those of the Lyceum and Prytaneum have not been discovered.

The other names given by antiquaries to the different buildings are generally
founded upon some definite evidence drawn from their shape and situation, and are
probably, upon the whole, fairly applicable. They are the Theatres, the Palastra,
the Nymph.-Eum, the Library, the Imperial Palace, the Hospitals, the Stadium, the Camp,
and the Thermae.

Proceeding from north to south, the ruins may be divided, for the convenience of
description, into twelve grand groups :—((7) The Palaestra, including the Greek and Latin
Theatres, and the Nymphaeum ; (b) the Pcecile; (c) the Guards' Barracks; {d) the
Library; (e) the Imperial Palace; (/) the Stadium; yg] the Therms ; {h) the Canopus ;
(/) the Academy, including the third Theatre or Odeum; {k) the Inferi; (/i the
Lyceum; (w) the Prytaneum.' In giving these general divisions, some attempt is

' Nibby, -Analisi, iii. p. 659.

4^4 TIic Roman Canipagna.

made to represent the parts of the villa as they were in Hadrian's time. The groups
are in such different states of preservation, some being entirely destroyed and the
ground-plan barel)- traceable, while others are almost entire, that their real relative
importance is completely obscured. The modern alleys and walks also create much
confusion, and render the recognition of the ancient arrangement much more difficult.
The ancient grand entrance gateway to the grounds was at the north-western
end of the ruins, on the old road towards Tibur, about a quarter of a mile

Grand cntrjuce. , , , -n t t^ ^ i • / i r , i

beyond the Ponte Lucano. It seems to have consisted of two large
pedestals of white marble, between which the carriage road passed, and which were
pierced with arched passages for the footways on each side. One of these is still traceable
in the Vigna Gentili, and has the remains of a bas-relief upon it, while the other has
been destroyed, and its corresponding bas-relief placed in the Villa Albani at Rome.^

The modern entrance to the ruins is at the gate of the Villa Braschi, and leads through
an avenue of cypress-trees in a direction at right angles to the ancient road of approach.
The avenue runs across a space which was formerly a large quadrilateral court, 350 feet
by 250, surrounded with porticoes attached to the theatre, which stands a little to the left
of the end of the avenue. The ancient road from the Ponte Lucano entered this court
p_^ . , at the northern angle. The porticoes have now nearly disappeared, but

and Greek part of them remained in Ligorio's time. They served the same purposes as

"" ""■ the great colonnades behind the theatres of Pompey and Balbus at Rome.^
The theatre is an oval building, sunk in the slope of the rising ground, the southern side
containing the seats for spectators, and the northern being occupied by the orchestra and
scena, which has a stage in the form of a long and narrow parallelogram. The plan cor-
responds exactly to the description by Vitruvius of a Greek theatre, and has therefore been
called the Greek Theatre by antiquaries.^ Fragments of the travertine substructure of
the scena still remain.

At some distance from this theatre, towards the east, and on the other side of the
stream which runs along the Valley of Tempe, is the Latin Theatre, so

Latin Theatre. ,, j i_

called because its stage is much broader than that of the theatre just
described. Externally, it was surrounded with arched porticoes, decorated, like the
Theatre of Marcellus at Rome, with half-columns. There were, probably, two tiers of these
arches, corresponding to the two prscinctiones of the cavea. At the sides of the scena
there were rooms for the use of the actors and for the machinery ; and behind the scena
are three rooms, probably corresponding to the three doors in the proscenium. The
spectators' seats are turned towards the south, contrary to the rules of Vitruvius.^

Between the two theatres there is a natural rise in the ground, which has been

further heightened by the rubbish heaped upon the spot. The ruins here

occupy a space in the form of a trapezium, the largest side of which lies

towards the north-west, and the shortest towards the south-west. They are now covered

with modern buildings belonging to the Villa Braschi. The northern angle of these ruins

1 This gateway has been imitated by the architect ^ See chap. xiii. pp. 313, 319 ; \'itruv. v. 9.

of the gateway at the old \'illa Borghese. It is erro- ' Vitruv. v. 7. The Greeks had the orchestra

neously called a tomb by Piranesi and Ligorio. See wider, and the actual stage much narrower, than the

Piranesi, Ant. Rom. torn. ii. tav. 39. Latins. ■* Vitruv. v. 3.

The Roman Campagna. 425

shows the remains of a quadrilateral area, surrounded by a cryptoporticus ; and at the
eastern angle there is another smaller court surrounded with a portico, which has a
double row of columns on the south-west side. This court is called the Palaestra by
Ligorio and Piranesi, and it is supposed by them that the double portico was intended
to be used in bad weather, when the athletes could not take their exercise in the
unsheltered part of the court. ^ It has a suite of rooms on the north-west side, intended,
perhaps, for anointing-rooms (ela^othesia), dust-rooms (conisteria), or fives-courts (corycea).-
On the southern side there is a spacious exedra, with niches for statues; and attached
to it are two large halls, in the form of a Greek cross, with small recesses at the sides,
still retaining some marks of their ancient decorations in stucco and paint. The western
angle of these ruins is conjectured to have been the site of the x}'stus, or covered palaestra,
a cloistered court with a small square opening in the centre.

The ruins of the Nymphaeum lie on the south side of the Palaestra, and are connected
with it by some chambers in which the stucco ornaments are still well preserved,
and show what elegance of design and workmanship was bestowed even on the
inferior parts of the villa. The car\-ed basin of the nymphaeum can be traced, though
it is now overgrown with trees, and some of the niches still covered with stucco work
remain. The western side of some of the adjacent rooms, now used as a granary, is
ornamented with niches, and Nibby thinks that this, which was the back of the
nymphaeum, was arranged so as to present a fountain supplied from the main pipe of the
aqueduct. A similar arrangement, he sa\-s, may be seen in the remains of the nymphaeum
at Ampiglione.

The Poecile lies to the south of the n\-mph;T;um. Between them is a reservoir and the
remains of a fountain belonging to some building now entirely destroyed. The
Athenian Poecile, of which this is supposed to be an imitation, was a portico
near the Forum, the walls of which were decorated with the paintings of Polygnotus
and ]Micon. From the description given of it by Pausanias, the Athenian building
appears to have been a portico with three sides at least, on one of which the battle of
CEnoe was represented ; on the second and largest, the war of Theseus against tlie
Amazons, and the council of the Greek chiefs after the capture of Troy ; and on the
third, the battle of Marathon.^ It thus appears that one of the sides was much larger
than the other, and this is the case with the ruin in the Villa of Hadrian, which has three
sides, that on the north being 640 feet in length, and the others on the east and west
each 240 feet in length. In Ligorio's time (1550) a part of the porticoes, which were
of brick, still remained, and some of the paintings corresponding to the Athenian
model. It is not certain whether a similar wall and portico occupied the southern
side. The wall on the northern side, which is the longest, still remains entire. It had
a portico on the exterior, which terminated in two circular buildings, and in the centre
was the principal entrance to the Pcecile. The present entrance is modern. Both the
eastern and western sides are slightly curved. The former contains an exedra in the

' Several statues of athletes, the colossal bust of - See Vitruv. v. 11.
Isis, now in the Museo Chiaromonti, and a statue of » Plin. N. H. x.xxv. 9, 59 ; Taus. Att. i. 15.

Ceres were found here. Nibby, p. 669.

426 The Roman Campagna.

centre, connected with the buildings behind. In the centre was an open reservoir for
water, of the same shape as the buildings surrounding it. On the western
and southern sides the area of the Pcecile is supported by substructions of
masonry, against which are built a number of soldiers' rooms, commonly called the
Cento Camarelle. At the corner, towards the south-west, is a public latrina, the tubes
of which are still in good preservation. .

Attached to the north-eastern corner of the Poscile is a fine building, in

, ., the form of an exedra, with a semicircular niche turned towards the north,

ScholaStokorum- which, from the connexion of the Stoic philosophy with the Stoa Pcecile at

Athens, has been called the Temple, or Diieta, or Schola Stoicorum. It was

possibly a hall for conversation and discussion.

Openin"- from this Schola towards the north-east is a building in the form of two

concentric circles. Between the two circular parts there was an euripus filled

Natatoniau. ^^ .^^^ water. This edifice was probably a swimming-bath. It appears to have

been verv highly ornamented with precious marbles and sculptures, most of which were

taken to Rome by Cardinal Alessandro Farnese, and others to Tivoli by Cardinal Ippolito

d'Este. The ruin commonly goes by the name of Theatrum Maritimum. A little further

to the north-east is a quadrilateral court, 200 feet wide, which was surrounded by a portico

with Corinthian columns. On the north-west side of this court are the build-

Corinihian ings usually Supposed to belong to the Library, and called the Greek and Latin

poiicoan Libraries. They consist of a large number of rooms, more or less preserved,

which may have been anterooms and chambers for the attendants and

librarians. In the centre of the north side of the court is a well-preserved nymphseum,

and on the north-east a long corridor with windows towards the south, possibly a

Heliocaminus, from its resemblance to the place so called by Plin}- at his

ciocaminus. L^y^gj^t:;,.,^ Villa. The ruins to the north-east of these, towards the Valley

of Tempe, are thought by Nibby to be the remains of a suite of rooms belonging to one

wing of the Imperial palace ; but their plan is very imperfectly known.

The great mass of the Imperial apartments were further to the south-east, and were

grouped round three large peristylia of dazzling magnificence. The most

Imperial splendid of these, which afforded spoil for generations of plunderers, is

Palace. ' . , ^ . , .

called by Piranesi, from the richness of its decorative work, the Piazza
d'Oro. Round the peristylia were numberless suites of rooms and several large exedrs,
a basilica, and a great hall called Eco Corintio, supported on vast granite columns, and
cased with slabs of the choicest marbles.

The Stadium lies in a direction at right angles to the southern side of the Pcecile, and

the semicircular end is towards the south. Between the swimming-bath and

'" """' the northern or square end of the Stadium are some bath-rooms for the use

of the athletes, and on the west side stands a temple surrounded by a sacred enclosure

formed by two vast semicircular walls ornamented with niches. On the eastern side

are further suites of rooms, and a magnificent quadrilateral cryptoporticus.

The Thermje stand between the Stadium and the Canopus. Numerous

pipes and conduits for water, and also the arrangement of the various parts of

the buildings, show that they have been rightly placed here. There seem to have been two

The Roman Ca^npapia. 427

distinct sets of bath-rooms, which are generally called the "terme virili " and the "tcrme
mulicbri " by the Italian antiquaries. The northern group of buildings is connected with the
curved end of the Stadium, and contains the usual number of halls, and an elliptical
Laconicum. The Laconicum of the southern wing is circular and is connected with a t^rand
central hail, similar to that in the Baths of Caracalla at Rome.

The place called Canopus lies to the south of the Thermse, and close to a mass of
buildings now utterly destroyed, but in Piranesi's time recognized as the
vestibule of the villa. The Canopus itself consists of an oblong pool of ^"'"'t'"^-
water or euripus excavated in tlic tufa, with a row of buildings on the west side, and a
magnificent nymphsum at the southern end, containing a great number of niches for
statuary, and holes for jets of water. At the back of the nymphreum is a hall called
the Sacrarium, in which it is supposed that the statue of Serapis stood. A passa"-e
of Strabo explains the idea which Hadrian had in forming this canal and nymphreum.
Strabo says that at the grand festival of Serapis, whose temple and oracle were at Canopus,
120 stadia from Alexandria, immense crowds of men and women go down to Canopus
from Alexandria by boats along the canal, on the banks of which are pleasant houses of
entertainment, where the worshippers stop on their way to feast and dance.^ The Ion"-,
broad pool was intended to represent the Canopic canal, and the rooms ranged alon"-
the side the houses of refreshment. The confirmation of this is derived from the
character of the statues found here, almost all being those of Egyptian deities.

To the south-west of the Canopus rise the immense substructions, 1755 feet in
length, which supported the highest terrace on this side of the villa. They
extend as far as the square tower called Rocca Bruna in Ligorio's plan.
This terrace and hill are supposed to have been the imitation of the Athenian Academy
mentioned by Spartianus. There was also a Gymnasium here, the ruins of which are
to be seen in a vineyard at the southern end of the hill, consisting of a large
peristylium, a circular temple, and a spacious exedra. Beyond these there was a large
square block of buildings, supposed by Nibby to have been used for the students and
masters of the school of art maintained by Hadrian ; and beyond this again
was a spacious Odeum or theatre for musical performances. The cavea of
this is now converted into a vineyard, but the proscenium is still well preser\-ed.
There were, as in the Odeum of Catania, two praecinctiones, and at the top of the
central cuneus was a round temple dedicated to the presiding genius of the Odeum,
just as in the Theatre of Pompey the chapel of Victoria stood above the cavea.

Close to this Odeum are some vast subterranean passages, supposed to be the
Inferi which Spartianus mentions." The depth at which these lie is only
fourteen feet ; but they occupy a trapezoidal area, the longest side of which
is about 1050 feet, and the shortest 200 feet. Most of these corridors are excavated like
catacombs in the natural rock. A brick stamped with the name Cynosarges
is said to have been found near the aqueduct which runs to the south of the Cy""'"-sts.

... , , , . Lyceum.

Inferi, but nothing further is known about any building of that name having Prytanaim.
stood in Hadrian's Villa. There are two other names found in Spartianus,
the Lyceum and the Prytaneum. Piranesi identifies the L\ceum with a ruined portico
' Strabo, xvii. p. 8oi. ^ Hist. Aug. Tyr. trig. 30.

'. I 2

^2 8 TJic Roman Campagna.

at a little distance to the south of the Inferi, and the Prytaneum with some more
extensive ruins nearly a mile further to the south-east. Nibby, however, rejects the idea
that these last were ever embraced within the Villa of Hadrian, and thinks that it
terminated near the mineral spring called the Acqua Ferrata. Not far from the Villa
of Hadrian was the estate granted by Aurelian to Zenobia, where she

Zenoha. pj^gggd the latter part of her life as a naturalized Roman matron. The
exact site is, however, quite unknown, and the attempts of Del Re and Volpi to determine
it are idle conjectures.^

The other villas- which are mentioned in classical writers as being in the environs of
Tibur are those of Varus, the friend of Horace ; Catullus, the poet ; Vopiscus, a friend of
Statius; Cetronius; and Martial.^ The names of many other celebrated Romans have been
distributed at will by the local ciceroni among the numerous ruins which cover the neigh-
bourhood, but there appears to be no evidence to prove that Maecenas, Syphax, Ventidius
Bassus, or the rest of those enumerated by Kircher, ever had villas at or near Tibur.

The ruins of a considerable villa lie near the Porta S. Croce of Tivoli, in the estate

called Carciano from the mediaeval name of the Fundus Cassianus, which is

Villa of Cassius. given in a list of the estates belonging to the cathedral at Tivoli as the site

of a Villa of Caius Cassius.'' Part of these ruins consist of a very ancient

structure of polygonal work ; but the rest is pronounced by Nibby to belong to the time of

the later Republic. The casino of the Collegio Greco is now built on the spot ; but the plan

of the ancient villa can be so far traced as to show that it had several terraces, and looked

towards the south-west. In the sixteenth century there were still eighteen large apartments

existing, surrounded with a portico of Doric columns, and also some temples, a theatre,

some fountains, and fish-ponds. The opus reticulatum of these ruins has a peculiar

alternate arrangement of coloured tufa in its square.s. An immense number of works of

art were dug up here, and the nearly complete destruction of what still remained of the

villa in the sixteenth century is probably due to the fact of its having been found to be so

rich a mine of ancient sculptures.

Nibby thinks that the ruins commonly called the Villa of Horace, and situated

at the hermitage of S. Antonio under Monte Catillo, are too extensive to have belonged

to Horace, and that they may have formed a part of the Villa of Sallust,

Villa of Sallust. . tou-m

which IS mentioned by the author of the oration In ballustium attri-
buted to Cicero.

The Sabine Farm of Horace can hardly be passed over, though it is not strictly included

within our limits. There is no evidence to show that the poet ever had a

r ".- "i^ villa at Tibur besides his Sabine farm ; indeed his own words, " satis beatus

Farm of Horace. '

unicis Sabinis," seem expressly to imply the contrary.** The estate he had

» Kircher, Latium, p. 156. *■ Nibby, Analisi, torn. i. p. 397 ; iii. p. 226.

- See above, p. 399. Syphax died at Tibur (Livy, ' Ibid. iii. 222 ; Pseud. Cic. In Sail. cap. vii.

xx.v. 45); but this is no reason why he should have ^ Hon Od. ii. iS, 14. The words ''seu mihi Tibur

possessed a villa there, as Kircher assumes. The supinum" do not necessarily imply that he had a

Rubellii had an estate near Tibur ; Tac. Ann. xiv. house of his own at Tibur, any more than at Pr^neste

22. or Baice. Nor do the other passages, Od. ii. 6, 5,

^ Hor. Carm. i. 18, I ; Catull. Carm. .\lii. ; Stat. "Tibur sit mihi sedes utinam senects," iv. 2,31,

Sylv. i. 3 ; Juv. Sat. xiv. 87 ; Mart. iv. So. "circa nemus uvidique Tiburis ripas," Ep. i. 7, 45,

TJic Roman Campagna.

429

was usuall}- called a Sabinum, not a Tiburtinum, and must therefore be looked for
at some distance from Tibur. Horace mentions two places in the neighbourhood, Varia
and Mandela, the sites of which can be exactly determined.' The Tabula Peutino-eriana
places Varia on the Via Valeria, eight miles beyond Tibur ; and precisely at this distance
are the remains of an ancient town now covered by the modern village of Vico Varo. But
the position of Mandela is more important for ascertaining the site of Horace's Villa,
because, if we can fix upon it, we then can discover to which of the mountain streams which

VICO VARO AND LUCKEIILIS.

flow into the Anio the name Digentia belonged. An inscription dug up in 1757 near the
Church of S. Cosimato, on the Via Valeria, two miles from the village of Rardella, shows
that an estate in the modern district formed by the union of Cantalupo and Eardclla was
called, in the later Imperial times or the early Middle Ages, Massa Mandelana." From this

"mihi vacuum Tibur placet," Ep. i. 8, 12, "Roma;
Tibur amem," counterbalance the evidence of the
passage quoted in the text. Suet. Vit. Hon gives both
the names Sabinum and Tiburtinum to Horace's estate.
Ep. i. 14, 3 : " Quinque bonos solitum (agellum)
Variam dimittere patres." Ep. i. 18, 105 : " Gelidus
Digentia rivus quern Mandela bibit rugosus frigore
pagus."

^ The inscription is given thus by Nibby,
Anal. i. 295 : " Val. .\Ia.\ima Mater domni prcdia V'al.
dulcissima filia que vi.xit annis xxxvi. men. ii. d. xii
in prediis suis masse Mandclane Scprctorum Her-
cules quesqu pace." Orclli, Inscr. 104, compares with
the expression domni pradia^ i. e. domina pncdii, the
compounds domnifunda and domncedius. given in
Marini, .Vtti, ii. p. 644-

430 The Roman Campagna.

it is plain that the Digentia was the torrent now called Maricella, which joins the Anio
between Cantalupo-Bardella and Mco \'aro, descending from near Licenza, a small village
about six miles from Vice Varo. As to the exact spot where the Villa of Horace itself stood in
the \-alley of the Digentia we cannot be quite certain: the ruins usually pointed out are on a
little knoll opposite to the village of Licenza, and on the other side of the stream. These
are possibly situated on the same spot as the villa, if they do not date so far back as the
lifetime of the poet himself They consist only of a mosaic pavement, and of two capitals
and two fragments of Doric columns lying among the bushes. The pavement has been
much disturbed by the planting of a vineyard, and can only be seen on removing the earth
which covers it. The groundwork is white, with a border of animals in black.' "These
are the sole traces now visible (1842) ; but some fifty years ago the mosaic floors of six
chambers were brought to light, but were covered again with earth, as nothing was found
to tempt further excavation. The farm is situated on a rising ground which sinks with
a gentle slope to the stream, leaving a level intervening strip now yellow with the harvest.
In this may be recognised the ' pratum apricum ' of which Horace speaks as liable to inunda-
tion. The ' aprica rura ' were probably then, as now, sown with corn — ' segetis certa fides
meje.' Here it must have been that the poet was wont to repair after his meal to take his
siesta — 'prope rivum somnus in herba ;' and here his personal efforts perhaps to dam out the
stream provoked his neighbours to a smile — ' rident vicini glebas et saxa moventem.""-
The place is surrounded on all sides by hills (" continui colles "), except where the main valley of
the Digentia separates them ("ni dissocientur opaca valle"), running nearly due north and
south ; so that, facing down the valley towards the south, the sun, before mid-day, rests on
the right-hand slopes, and in the afternoon on the left-hand (" ut veniens dextrum latus
aspiciat Sol, Isevum discedens curru fugiente vaporet").*

The other spots mentioned by Horace near his farm are the Fanum Vacunae, the
slopes of Ustica, and the mountain of Lucretilis.* The first of these has been placed
by the Italian topographers at Rocca Giovane, a village perched on a hill on the west
side of the valley, about two miles above Cantalupo-Bardella. The evidence for this
identification is an inscription found at Rocca Giovane stating that Vespasian repaired
the .^des Victoriae there. The scholiast Aero, quoting a lost work of Varro on religious
worship, states that Victoria was identical with the Sabine deity Vacuna, and the inscription
has therefore been assumed to have referred to the "fanum putre Vacunae" of Horace.
Hence an objection has been raised by Cav. Noel des Vergers to the supposed site of the
villa, since it can hardly be said to be behind Rocca Giovane. Dr. Henzen and
Cav. Rosa endorse this opinion, adding that there is no fountain near the site at Licenza,
and that it is not high enough among the hills to anwer to Horace's description. They
would therefore place the villa at Colle del Poetello, behind Rocca Giovane, where there
is a terraced platform among the hills, evidently once occupied by a villa, and containing
scattered remains of brickwork. This spot is sheltered on the east by Monte della Costa,
and on the south by Alonte del Corj-naleto, which Rosa thinks is the Lucretilis of Horace.

1 Gell, Topogr. p. 462. see also Od. iii. 16, 30 ; Ep. i. 14. 35, 39.

' Dennis in JSIilman's Horace, p. loi. " Pratum ' Ep. i. 16, i — 16.

apricum," Ep. i. 14, 30 ; "Aprica rura," Od. iii. 18, 2: ■* Ep. i. 10, 49 ; Od. i. 17,1,11.

The Roman Campagna. a -, ^

A copious spring rises near the spot, and flows down to the Digentian torrent below ;
and, by a singular coincidence, the torrent takes the name of Licenza after receiving the
water of this brook ("fons etiam rivo dare nomen idoneus").i

It may be urged in favour of the old opinion, that the words " post fanum dictabam " have
been generally understood to mean, that Horace composed his letter at some other place
than his villa, as he strolled over the hills and jotted down his thoughts on his tablets ■ and
that the spring of which he speaks was not necessarily close to his house, but only within
the precincts of his estate. I cannot, therefore, feel any more confidence in this new deter-
mination of the site than in the old one. Both appear possible, but there is no positive
evidence in favour of either.

The " Ustica Cubans " of the poet is commonly, with some probability, supposed to be
La Rustica, which lies on the hill close to Licenza, on the eastern side of the valley.

Lucretilis is probably a name applied to the whole range of hills connected with
Monte Gennaro. Cav. Rosa, however, in the article above quoted, places it at Monte del
Corynaleto, just above Rocca Giovane. The name of Fons Bandusis has been ^iven
to most of the springs in this valley by the enthusiastic admirers of Horace, but it is quite
uncertain whether the Fons Bandusiae was in Apulia- or in the Sabine territory.

The era of road-construction in the Campagna must be reckoned as beginning before
the middle of the fifth century of Rome, when Appius Claudius, the Censor, /q.)

laid down the Appian way from Capua, and the Appian aqueduct from the Roads.

seventh milestone on the road to Praeneste ; ^ for Livy speaks of a road to Alba
Longa as already existing in the year 413 of the city: * and the work of Appius Claudius
consisted therefore probably in improving and paving the old road. The Latin road
also may be supposed to have existed in very early times, as the route of communication
between the Tusculan hills and Rome.* But the principal development of the Roman
roads took place after the end of the Punic wars, when the empire of Rome began to
require the means of easy access to the distant provinces.^ And though the new roads
then laid down were principally ultra-Italian, as the Domitian, the Gabinian, and the
Egnatian, yet the Italian roads at the same time had great pains bestowed upon their
improvement and repair. Among the great services rendered by Caius Gracchus to his
countr}-, one of the most important was his care for the proper maintenance and repair of
the roads in Italy." The method of constructing and paving the great roads has been
noticed above, and we have here only space to speak of the most remarkable monu-
ments which marked the commencement of each of the great Roman roads,* the suburban

' Bull, deir Inst. 1857, pp. 31, 107. oZv Iv rpiai to7s ixeyaSoirpeirfaTaTOK KaTa(TKevd(Tfiaai

" See Milman's Horace, p. 108, note. t^s 'Pm^ii/s, to's- tc rdv vtiirav ayoiyas Tidffiai Km tot

^ Livy, ix. 29 ; Front. De Aq. 5. rtov I'Stiv (Trpwaeis, Km ras tuv VTron), lui" tpyaaiai.

* Livy, vii. 39. The Via Gabina is mentioned by Strabo, v. 3, S, p. 235. The technical names of the
Liv)', iii. 6, v. 49, as early as 291 a.u.c. ; and the Via various kinds of roads are best explained in the
Salaria, Livy, vii. 9, in A.U.C. 393 ; but perhapsthis is Schriften dcr romischcn Fcldmesscr, edited by
a historical prolepsis. Blume, Lachmann, and RudoriT: Berlin, 1S52. There

' Livy, ii. 39. is also an excellent article in Nibby's .Analisi, vol. iii.

" Isodorus, Origin, xv. 16, says that the Romans p. 492. The other standard books of reference are

learnt the art of paving from the Carthaginians. Westphal, Die niniischc Kampague, and Bergicr,

' Plutarch, C. Gracch. 7. HisL des grands Chcmins, in Grxv. Thcs. vol. x.

* See Introduction, p. xxxviii. Dionys. iii. 6y,'Eya>y'

432 The Roman Campagna.

\illas already mentioned, the tombs which fringed their sides, the massive viaducts which
conveyed them across the valleys, and the roadside chapels and temples. The number
of monumental tombs especially on the Appian, Latin, and Flaminian roads, was very
considerable. Nibby enumerates two hundred on the Appian road between the ancient
Porta Capena and Albano, a distance of fourteen miles. They were of the most varied and
fantastic shapes and designs, the most common forms being those with square or round bases,
cylindrical superstructure, and conical roof Some were square, with several floors, and
surmounted by a pyramid : others consisted of aediculfe in brick, placed upon a cubical base;
or of sarcophagi in various shapes, mounted upon brick substructions. Many fragmentary
inscriptions have been found which once belonged to these tombs, but not one of any
historical importance. The greater part of them record the names of freedmen and other
obscure people, as the larger and more highly decorated tombs were plundered first, and
their marble covers and inscriptions completely destroyed at an early period. The oldest
fragments which have been saved may be studied in the Berlin Collection of Inscriptions,
where they are learnedly edited by Th. Mommsen.^ There were also many exedrse
and fountains by the sides of the roads, designed as resting-places for travellers.

The first part of the ancient Appian road now lies between the Porta S.
Sebastiano and the site of the old Porta Capena. From this part of the

Appian road. . . ,. , i i r i i tt- a i • - ,

road the Via Latina diverged on the left, and the Via Ardeatina on the right-
Here were the gardens of Terence, the tomb of the Scipios, and the arch of Drusus.- The
Clivus Martis and the Temple of Mars were just outside the Porta S. Sebastiano, on the
left-hand side of the present road. Beyond the Porta S. Sebastiano, the first considerable
monument now visible is a mass of stonework on the left hand, about lOO yards from
the gate. From its form and style of masonry there can be little doubt that it was a
pyramidal tomb, similar to that of Caius Cestius at the Porta S. Paolo, and that it was built
in the Augustan era. A little beyond this ruin the road crosses the Almo, and the remains
of another pyramidal tomb are to be seen on the left. This is sometimes called the tomb
of Priscilla, mentioned by Statius ; but that name more probably belongs to the larger tomb
further on, beyond the Church of Domine quo Vadis. The latter tomb agrees better with
the description of Statius, as it had a cupola and loculi for the reception of unburnt corpses.^

The immense number of ruined tombs and other buildings which crowd the sides of
the road beyond this point makes It necessary to restrict our remarks as much as
possible, and we shall therefore only notice a few of the most prominent ruins upon the
road or in the immediate neighbourhood.

A brick building called the Temple of the Deus Rediculus stands in the valley of the
Almo (Caffarella), half a mile to the left of the road at the second mile-

Dcus Ridiculus. _,,, , ••itt-ih -n

stone. The legend which connects it with Hannibal s march on Rome is
altogether unworthy of credit,'' and it is plain that the building, which is in the form of a

1 Corp. Inscr. 1006, 1090 — 1093. ^ Stat. Sylv. v. i, 222.

- Suet. Vit. Ter. 5. See above, pp. 214, 217. •• The Campus Rediculi is mentioned by Pliny,

Canina, Ann. dclP hist. 1853. p. 144. The best map N. H. x. § 122, as the burial-place of a sacred crow,

of this portion of the Via Appia is in the J/^««/«<«// The Rediculi Fanum is placed by Festus, p. 282,

(/(■//' htstituto di Co?: Arcli. vol. v. tav. 57, 58, 59, 60, " extra portam Capenam, quia Hannibal ex eo loco

and 45, 46, 47, with the description by Canina in the redierit."
/i««(;// for 1851, 1S52, 1853, 1862.

The Roman Campagna. a-i-i

pseudo-peripteros, with Corinthian pilasters, had two stories, and cannot therefore have
been a temple. Prof. Reber considers that it was a chapel tomb, similar to that to be
seen at St. Urbano, near the tomb of Caecilia Metella.

The Grotto of Egeria, aS it is called, lies in the valley of the Almo, about half a
mile above the building just mentioned. It is an arched nympha;um of
brick, at the back of which a plentiful stream of clear water rises. The ^'""^ "/
mutilated statue of the nymph still remains, but no other parts of the decora-
tions. There is little doubt that it was the nymphtxum of some suburban villa.

On the hill above it stands the Church of St. Urbano, probably an ancient tomb in the
shape of an a^icula. It is commonly called the Temple of Bacchus, from ^
the discovery under it of an altar of Dionysu.s, with a Greek inscription. But Hercules or
this altar seems to have been moved here from some other spot. The building ^^o""'-
is in the form called b)' \'itruvius a prostyles tetrastylos, withCorinthian columns and capitals.
These are now built up into the modern wall. The whole, except the entablature and
columns, is of brickwork of the Antonine era, as appears from the stamps of the brick.s.
The triple frieze, forming a kind of attica between the architrave and cornice, seems to
contradict the notion that this was a temple, though the great antiquary Visconti considered
that it was the Temple of Honour, built by Marius outside the Porta Capena.^ The
interior is tolerably well presented, and has a vaulted roof, with coffers and reliefs in the
form of trophies.

On the left of the Appian road, where it dips suddenly into a valley near the Church
of St. Sebastian, lies a group of ruins, the principal of which consist of a

' '^ ' ' r r ^ The Circus

circus, a building enclosed in a large square court, and some remains of of Maxcntius
rooms, apparently belonging to an ancient villa. The walls of the circus are '""^ Temple of

1 -11 1 -I 1 1111 Romulus.

still m such preservation that they can be easily traced round the whole
enclosure, and are in some parts nearly of the original height. They are built of rubble,
mixed with brickwork and with jars of terra-cotta to lighten their weight, as in the
case of the masonry at the Villa Gordianorum, mentioned above, and at the Torre
Pignattara, on the Via Labicana. The towers at each side of the carceres, the
curved line of the carceres themselves, and the spina can be easily traced.- An
inscription in honour of Romulus, son of Maxentius, found here in 1825, seems to
show that the circus was built in honour of that prince, who died before his father,
A.D. 309.^ This is confirmed by a statement in one of the ancient chronicles published by
Roncalli, in which it is said that Maxentius built a circus " ad Catacumbas," cvidentlj-
referring to the neighbouring catacombs of St. Sebastian and others, ' and also by the style
of masonry used in the circus. The adjoining ruined temple, with its enclosing court,
seems to belong to a somewhat earlier style of con.struction ; but Nibby has given some
reasons, derived from the coins of Maxentius and Romulus, for supposing that it was the
temple dedicated to Romulus, after his apotheosis, by his father.^ The ruins are not

1 Visconti, Op. Milan, 1829, vol. ii. p. 387. Visconti » Eckhel, Num. Vet. vol. viii. p. 59.

placed the Temple of Virtue in the ncighbouritiji * Chran. :ip. Roncalli, tarn. ii. col. 248.

ruins. But see above, p. 49. ' Hobler's Roman Coins, p. 821, No. 2055; K.

- See Nibby, Circo di Caracalla, Rom;e, 1825 ; Actern, Memorial. A temple, the body of it square,
Canina, Arch. Rom. ii. p. 447, tav. 137. with a round cupola or domed top ; two doors in front.

3 K

434

The Roman CiDJipagna.

sufficiently preserved to make it certain that the iDuilding was a temple, and there is
nothing to contradict the hypothesis that it was a tomb. Nor is anything whatever known
about the adjoining villa.

On the edge of the hill formed by the great lava-stream which in long-past ages
flowed down from the Alban hills, and along the top of which the Via Appia
"'"mLiiT"" ™"^ '^''°'" '■'^'^ point, stands the conspicuous tomb of Caecilia Metella, the
daughter of Metellus Creticus, and wife of Crassus, — but whether of the
triunivir Crassus, or of the orator, or of some other less well-known Crassus, is uncer-
tain 1 The shape of the tomb is the same as that of the Mausoleum of Hadrian and
the tomb of the Plautii at Tivoli — a cylindrical tower-like edifice, resting on a square

CIRCUS OF MAXENTIUS, WITH THE ARCHES OF THE CLAUDIAM AND MARCIAN AQUEDUCTS,
AND THE HIEl.S NEVR PR.ENESTE AND TU3CULUM.

base of massive blocks of travertine. The upper part has been destroyed, with the
exception of the band of ox-sculls and garlands which surrounds it, and some trophies
carved in relief above the inscription. The roof was probably conical. Media:val battle-
ments, erected by the Caetani family, who held it as a fortress in the thirteenth century,
now crown the upper edge. The remains of the Caetani castle are still visible on each side
of the road beyond the tomb.

After passing the third milestone, the Appian road is fringed with ruins of innumer-
able tombs, and here and there the relics of a suburban villa. Scarcely any of these

The inscription on the tomb is, ''Ca:cili;c O. Cretici Fihae Meteike Crassi."

The Ronia?i Campagna.

435

can have names attached to them with any certainty. The Villa Quintiliana Commodi
has been already noticed as occupying the tract called Roma Vecchia
where the Campus sacer Iloratiorum and the Fossa Cluilia also lay.' ^'"""' ''■'"'""•
The suburban villa in which Seneca committed suicide by opcnino- his veins ''""'/•'"■'""'•
was at the fourth milestone, and near this there was found by Xibby in 1.S31 a marble slab.

ro.Mii oi- c.ixii.iA .Minti.i.A.

inscribed with the name of Granius, a miHtary tribune.- A tribune of this name was
employed by Nero to compel Seneca to kill himself Whether the stone refers to
him or not cannot be ascertained, but the coincidence of names is singular.'

At the fifth milestone, on the right-hand side of the road, is a round mass of ruin^ with

' See p. 416 ; Mart. ill. 47. quartum(|iic ;ipii(l lapidcm siibiirbano rurc siibsli-

' Tac. Ann. xv. 60 : " E.\ Campania remcavcrai tcrat." ' Tac. loc. cit.

3 K -

436 • The Roman Campagna.

a rectangular chamber inside, which has been supposed to be the tomb mentioned by
TombofAuiciis. Cornelius Nepos as the burial-place of Atticus, Cicero's friend. ^ Near this
Ustrian is a great platform of peperino blocks, which are thought to have been used

as a burning-place (ustrina) for the bodies interred in the tombs on the road.

Between the sixth and seventh milestones from the Porta Capena there is a large round
ruin, 300 feet in circumference, now supporting a house and olive-orchard upon the top.
The name Cotta was found on an inscription belonging to this, and
Tomb of Gem i.,g,-,(-e it has been supposed to be the tomb of the gens Aurelia, who
bore the surname of Cotta. On the left are the arches of the aque-
duct which supplied the Villa of Commodus.

At the eighth milestone there was a Temple of Hercules erected by Domitian.

Martial mentions this temple in several passages.- There are considerable

Temples of remains of a tetrastyle temple on the right hand of the road, consisting

eiLiies am columns of Alban peperino; but this, which was once supposed to be

the Temple of Hercules, is now said to have contained an altar to

Silvanus. The villa and farm of Persius the poet are said by his biographer to have

been near the eighth milestone.^'

Tomi of -At the ninth milestone stood the tomb of Gallienus, and perhaps the

Gallienus. ruins there belong to his suburbanum.*
At the tenth milestone the Rivus Albanus, formerly the Aqua Ferentina, is
crossed ; and at the eleventh the road begins to ascend the slope towards Albar.o.
At the twelfth the circuit of the walls of the ancient town of Bovillae is approached,

and the ruins of the circus previously described are passed on the right
Bovilltt:. ^

hand.-'

Aricia. Albano Stands at the fourteenth milestone, and beyond it Aricia.

At the sixteenth milestone, in the valley below the modern town of

Lariccia, is the massive causeway, 700 feet \\\ length and 40 in width, upon which the

old Appian road was raised. It is built of blocks of peperino, and is a solid mass

of masonry, except where three archways give passage to the water which descends

from the Alban hills and the neighbourhood of Nemi."

The modern Porta di S. Giovanni is now the point at which the road to Albano, and

also that to Frascati, leave Rome. Anciently, as we have seen, the roads

Lntiji road. . i-n r^ iit*

diverged after passmg the Porta Capena, and the Latm road had a gate of
its own in the Aurelian wall, called the Porta Latina, now walled up."

1 Corn. Nep. Pomp. Att. 22 : " Scpultus est juxta fama via;. Scxtus ab .Albana qiiem colit arce lapis,"

viam Appiam ad quintuni lapidem in monumento O. i.e. from Domitian's \'illa at Alba.

Caecili avunculi sui." See the Berlin Corp. Inscr. ^ Suet. Vit. Pers.

vol i. No. 1006. ■* Aur. Vict. Epit. 60.

' Mart.iii. 47,3, "Horationimquaviretsacer campus, ° See p. 368 ; Canina, Monumenti dell' Arch. Rom.

et qua pusilli floret Herculis fanum ;" ix. 64, "Her-" tav. 137.

cuhs in magni voltus descendere Caesar dignatus, ^ See Canina, .-Xrch. Rom. torn. viii. p. 674; Monum.

Latiae dat nova templa vis, qua Triviae nemorosa tav. 183.

petit dum regna viator octavum domina marmor ab ' See p. 68. The Via Asinaria, which passed out

urbe legit ;'' i.\. 104, i, " Appia, quam simili veneran- at the Porta Asinaria, was a cross road, uniting the

dus in Hercule Caesar consecrat, Ausonise maxima Via Latina with the Via Appia and Via Ardeatina.

The Roman Cambaojia. , , -

The line of the old Via Latina is unfortunately now almost lost, and can only be traced
by the rows of ruined tombs which mark its former course. After leaving the Porta
Latina it runs alonj^ the edge of the hills which form the ri^ht side of
the Caffarelli \alle\-, and crosses the new road to Albano near the second '^'""'" »" ""
milestone, at a point on the side of the valley almost opposite to the
so-called Fountain of Egeria. Not far from this spot some very interesting tombs were
excavated in i860. A full account of these has been given in the Annali deW Instituto

di Co7-rispondaiza Archcologica for i860, and summaries of this article will be found

in ail the new guide-books. The sarcophagi and stucco ornaments of these tombs

are the most perfect remains of the kind ever found in the neighbourhood of Rome.'
At the fourth milestone from the Porta Capena the Latin road passed under the arches

of the Claudian and Marcian aqueducts, at the tower now called Torre Fiscale.

At this point the two aqueducts cro.ss each other, and present a most magnifi- '"^^^ P<scaU.

cent series of arcades, flanking the side of the old Latin road for more than a mile.

Some of the arches of the Claudian aqueduct are here more than fifty feet in height.
The Temple of Fortuna Muliebris, dedicated in the year 286 A.U.c, on the spot

at which Coriolanus is said to have met his mother, stood at the fourth

I cmpte

milestone, and near it the Suburbanum Hadriani, now called Sette of Fortjina
Bassi, as mentioned above.- The castella of the Aqua Marcia, the -'^f'li'^^f'rts.
Tepula, the Julia, the Claudia, the Anio Vetus, and the Anio Xova lie on the rio-ht
of the old Latin road here, at the sixth milestone, where the arcades make a ri<Tht
angle. The road then runs to the right of the present road to Frascati, nearly on the
line of the modern Strada di Grotta Ferrata, and, ascending the slopes of the Alban
hills, passes behind Tusculanum and Corbio along the -valley which separates the Alban
from the Tusculan group of hills.

The Via Pra;nestina, the Via Labicana, and the Via Valeria or Tiburtina, all issued
from the Porta Esquilina, and separated soon afterwards, but whether at the
point where they now separate or not is quite uncertain.-^ At the third I'ia Prtciusiina
milestone on the Via Prsenestina was the Villa Gordianorum already described, °i^i,ka'na
and at the ninth, where the road crosses a small brook, is a magnificent
monument of ancient Roman architecture, consisting of an arched viaduct built of
peperino and tufa blocks.^ The length of this viaduct is one hundred and five yards, and
some of the arches are about fifty feet in height. The blocks of stone used are in some
cases ten feet in length, and they are firmly fitted together without any kind of cement.
The ancient roadway of polygonal fragments of basalt still remains, but the parapet on
each side has been destro}ed.

Near the Via Labicana, after passing on the left a large piscina of the Anio Vetus,
between the third and fourth milestones stands a large circular brick Torn-

building, now called Torre Pignattara. The masonry appears to belong to the Pisnattam.
times of the later emperors, being full of terra-cotta jars, intermixed with the concrete of

' Ann. dtir Inst. iSto, p. 348; Monum. vol. vi. See p. 418. ' Sec above, pp.49, 64.

tav. 43 ; Fortunati, Relazionedclle Scavi lungola Via ■• See p. 418. Xibby, Analisi, vol. ii. p. 590. A

Latina, 1859 ; Stor>-, Robadi Roma, vol. ii. p. 38. sketch of the Pontc di Nono, aslhis \iaduct is called,

- Dionys. viii. 36, 55 ; Livy, ii. 39 ; Val. Max. i.8, 4. isgivenbyCanina.Monumcnti dcIl'Arch.Ant.tav. 183.

438

The Roman Campagna.

the roof to make it lighter. The common legend taken from Anastasius, which calls
this building the tomb of S. Helena, seems ill-founded, as Eusebius distinctly states that
she was buried at Constantinople.^

Between the fourth and sixth milestones the brick arches of the Aqua Alessandrina
run parallel to the road at a little distance ; but nothing further of interest remains on
either side of the road till La Colonna, the ancient Labicum, is reached.

The Via Valeria, or Tiburtina, now leaves Rome at the Porta S. Lorenzo. Traces
of the polygonal pavement of the old road can be seen at intervals along the
modern road to Tibur, especially between the eighth and ninth milestones,
and here and there the naked core of a tomb ; but nothing of any interest offers itself

77i( Valcna.

PLAUT1.\N TOMB AND I'U.NTK LI CAM

to an archBeologist until the Aquae Albula; are reached. Some few remains of an ancient
building, which may have belonged to the thermae there,- have been discovered : but
these are now built into the walls of a modern farmhouse.

The ancient quarries of travertine, mentioned by Strabo, where the stone of the
Coliseum was cut, lie on the right of the road beyond the Solfatara. The modern
quarries are on the left. The road then crosses the Anio over an ancient bridge still
called the Ponte Lucano, from Marcus Plautius Lucanus, a Tiburtine matristrate, whose

' The name Pignattara is derived from the earthcrn Maxentius and the Villa Gordinnorum. See Intro-
pots used in the masonry of the walls. The same duction, p. xxxiv. Nibby. Analisi, iii. p. 343.
mode of construction may be seen at the Circus of - Mart. i. 13 : .Strabo, v. p. 238.

The Roman Campagna.

439

memory is preserved in an inscription discovered upon the ancient fourteenth milestone
on this road. The bridge was originally composed of three travertine arches, of which
the one next to the left bank remains entire. The central arch has been
restored with masonry of the sixth century, similar to that in the Ponte '""'"' ''•'"'"""■
Nomentano and the Ponte Salario. The arch on the riglit bank was restored in the
fifteenth century, and the whole bridge was repaired again in 1836. This brid'^e
was broken down by Totila when he was encamped at Tibur, and Nibby thinks that
he destro}'ed the middle arch, and that it was then restored by Narses.

rciNTi; NO.Mli.NT.VNO, BY WHICH THE VIA. NOMI.NTA.N A CKOSSES THE ANIO.

Just on the other side of the bridge is the tomb of the gens Plautia, well known
from numerous paintings and photographs. It is very similar in its main features to
that of C.-Ecilia Metella on the Appian road, and to the Mausoleum of ,^ , ,

^' fonib 0/ Pliwtii.

Hadrian. A c}lindrical tower of travertine, based on a stjuare founda-
tion, and capped with a cone, was the original design ; but a ruined mediaeval tower,
standing upon the top, now disfigures it. Two inscriptions placed on a projecting front
with Ionic pilasters record the names of M. Plautius Silvanus, consul with Augustus in
the year 2 li.C, and his son Ti. Plautius Silvanus, pr;efcct of the city in 80 A.U. A tliinl
inscription, which is now destroyed, commemorated a ]'. Phaitius Pulcher.'

1 Crulcr, 352.

_|._|.o The Roman Campagna.

The other principal roads which traverse the Campagna, the Xomentana, the Salara,
the Flaminia, the Cassia, the Aurelia, and the Ostiensiy, offer but httle within the bounds
of ancient Latium which calls for remark.

The Via Nomentana diverged from the Via Salara at the CoUine gate in the Ser\'ian
walls, and passed through the Aurelian wall at a gate which now stands
■ a little to the south of the modern Porta Pia. The present road follows
the line of the ancient Via Nomentana, as may be seen by the ruins of tombs which
fringe it beyond S. Agnese and beyond the Ponte Nomentano.^ The IMons Sacer, as
already mentioned, stands just beyond this bridge, and the Villa of Phaon at the Vigne
Nuove, on a side road which branches off to the right just beyond the bridge.-

The Salara is said to have been so named from the supplies of salt conveyed along
it to the Sabine district at the time when the Romans and Sabines
were confederates.^ The road is first mentioned in history as the scene
of the single combat between Manlius and the gigantic Gaul.'' The ancient road
passed out at the Colline gate, and followed very nearly the same line as the present
road along the left bank of the Tiber, as may be seen by the ruins near Serpen-
tara, and b}' the position of the ancient bridge, the Ponte Salaro, which carries it
over the Anio, close to Antemnae. Beyond this, Fidenae and the Allia are the most
remarkable points of interest upon the road in the neighbourhood of Rome.^ Not
far from Malpasso the ancient road, according to Nibby, diverges to the right, crossing
the railway to Ancona.

The Via Flaminia, after passing through the Porta Ratumena at the tomb of Bibulus,

left the Aurelian fortifications at the Porta Flaminia, which stood a little

Via Fh.vr.nia nearer the slope of Monte Pincio than the present Porta del Popolo.*' It

and Via Casna.

diverged to the right of the present street, and then crossed the Tiber
at the well-known Milvian bridge, whence it turned off to the right along the Tiber
valley, while the Via Cassia ' ascended to the left among the Etruscan hills towards Veii.
The old Flaminian road lay closer to the riv^er than the modern, which is carried through a
cutting in the hills and rejoins it at Tor di Ouinto. There are a few rock-tombs on the
left hand, between the fifth and sixth milestones. One of them has been connected
with the poet Ovid by a mistaken inference drawn from the inscription found upon it,
which bears the name of Q. Nasonius Ambrosius.^

The Via Aurelia left Rome at the Janiculan gate, which corresponded to the Porta S.

Pancrazio, and followed the line of the present road to Civita Vecchia.

Between it and the Via Cassia lay the \la Triumphalis, which, after
passing the Porta Angelica and Monte Mario, joined the Via Cassia at the Osteria Giu-
siniana. On the Via Portuensis, a little beyond the fifth milestone, at a place called
Affoga I'Asino, in the Vigna Ceccarelli, was the grove of the Dea Dia. at which the

The old name of the Via Nomentana was Ficu- Ovid, Pont. i. 8, 44.

ense. Livy, iii. 52. '' See Bellori, Picturae Antique, RomK, 1738, pp. 91

•^ See above, pp. 351,420. —172. Bellori gives the inscription thus: — " D. M. O.

3 Festus, p. 326. ■• Li\y, vii. 9. Nasonius Ambrosias sibi et suis fecit libertis liberta-

■' See pp. 359, 390. ^ See pp. 59, 323. busque Nasonise Urbica; conjugi sua et colhbertis

" The Cassia was sometimes called the Claudia, suis et posterisque (?) eorum."

The Roman Campagna. iij

festival of the Fratres Arvales was held. There is a round building there, which according
to Pellegrini belonged to the Caesareum mentioned so frequently in the inscriptions found
on the spot.*

The Via Ostiensis and Via Laurcntina, leading from the Porta Ostiensis, offer nothing
worth notice which has not been already pointed out.

Besides the above-mentioned roads, the Via Tusculana, the Via Collatina the Via
Ardeatina, and the Via Amefina were well known as leading to the cities whose names
they bear, but are not otherwise in any way worth notice.-

Some account has already been given of the mode of construction, the vast extent
and the general history of the aqueducts of Rome.^ They were of great
importance to the Campagna, as well as to Rome itself, for many of them '^V

^ Ai/iuducli.

were largely used for purposes of irrigation, and had to part with a con-
siderable quantity of their w-ater before reaching the walls of the city. Some of thcni
were also used for the purpose of turning mills, as the Acqua Paola is at the present day.*

All the aqueducts, except the Virgo, the Alsietina, and the Trajana, and perhaps
the Appia, entered the city near the Porta Maggiore, on the Esquiline, tliat being
nearly the highest point in the city walls. Of these four, which were all subterranean,
the course of the Appia is uncertain, the Virgo entered the city on the Pincian hill,
and the Alsietina and Trajana, near the Porta Aurelia, on the Janiculuni.

To trace the course of each aqueduct accurateh' through the Campagna would lead
me into discussions occupying more space than can be afforded within the limits of this
chapter, and I must therefore refer those who are desirous of unravelling the web which
the lines of the great aqueducts weave on the district between Rome and the Tusculan
and ^-Equian hills to the special works which treat of this subject, and to Canina's large
map of the Campagna.

The aqueducts which came from the Anio, between Sublaqueum and Tibur, the Claudia,
the Anio Vetus and Novus, and the IMarcia, passed along the flank of the ^quian hills and
made a considerable bend to the southwards, following the high ground b}- Gallicano
(Pedum), La Colonna (Labicum), and Frascati. They then crossed the Campagna in a
direct line towards Rome, nearly following the course of the Via Latina.

The Aqua Virgo comes from a source at the eighth milestone on the \'ia Collatina
fStrada di Lunghezza), and at the present day discharges its water chiefly at the

1 Ann. ddV Inst. 1858, pp. 47, 54; 1867, p. 225. Novus. Procopius speaks of five others ; but of these

Hermes, 1867. p. 37 ; Pellegrini, Edificio dei Fratelli we only know the names of the Aqua Trajana, Saba-

Arvah, Roma, 1865. tina or Ciminia, and the Aqua Alexandrina. The

- The position of two roads, the Via Campana and names Sevcriana and .Antonia. found in the Notitia,

the Via Patinaria, is doubtful. .Sec Nibby, iii. pp. 59S, and of Jovia or Jobia, in the Anon. Einsied., belonged

636. to branches of the main aqueducts. Jovia was pro-

' The principal works on Roman aqueducts are the baljly so called after the Emperor Diocletian (.Anas-
well-known treatise of Frontinus, overseer of aqiie- tasl. Vit. Hadr. i.). The Antonia, or Antoniniana. is
ducts under Ncrva and Trajan, and among modern perhaps identical with the Jovia, as it passes over
writers, Fabretti, De Aquis et Aqujeductibus, Ronuc, the Porta S. Lorenzo, and may have supplied the
1680 ; Becker, Handb. vol. i. pp. 701— 70S ; Nibby, Thermx of Diocletian. The Aqua Felice is a partial
Analisi, vol. ii. p. 1 5. Frontinus describes nine aque- restoration of the Alc.\andrina by Si.xtus V.
ducts as extant in his time— <hc Appia, Anio Vetus, * Procop. Bell. Goth. 1. 19.
Marcia, Tepula, Julia, Virgo, Alsietina, Claudia, Anio

3 '

^.^2 The Roman Canipagna.

Fontana Trevi. The Aqua Appia rises near the same spot. The Lago di Bracciano
supplied the Acqua Trajana and Alsietina, which are now united under the name of
the Acqua Paola, and discharge their water at the Fontana PaoHna, near the Porta S.
Pancrazio. The Tepula and JuHa come from the slopes of the Alban hills between
Marino and Grotta Ferrata ; the Alexandrina, now the Felice, from a place called La
Rifolta, near the fourteenth milestone on the Via PrEnestina.

•

Part IV. ^Period of Depopul.\tiox and Devastation.

It is evident that residence in the Roman Campagna had become unsafe in the
time of Aurelian (A.D. 270), but the dreaded deluge of barbarian hordes did not sweep
over the neighbourhood of Rome till the reign of Honorius, a century and a half later.
The first fatal blow to the prosperity of Rome and its neighbourhood was struck by
Constantine, wlien he transferred the seat of empire to Byzantium and broke Rome's
ancient prestige —

" Posciache Costantin I'aquila volse
Contra il corso del ciel, ch'ella seguio
Dietro al Antico che Lavina tolse." ^

After this the spacious villas of the Campagna and the palaces of Rome must have
become less and less tenanted by the great nobles of the court, who doubtless found
the lovely shores of the Bosphorus a much more agreeable residence than even the
hills of Tusculum or Tibur.

The gradual decline and destruction of the villas, parks, roads, and aqueducts which
toUowed may be perhaps best illustrated by tracing, so far as possible, the history of

the most splendid of all the Imperial country-seats, the Tiburtine Villa of

Destruction of Hadrian. "It is very probable," says Nibby, "that under Constantine the

of Hadrian villa Suffered a considerable loss of the splendid works of art it contained,

as it is known that he plundered not only Rome but all Italy and the
rest of the empire of their most precious ornaments, in order to decorate his new capital
Byzantium. After his time the villa remained in a desolate state, and was abandoned
to the caprices of the imbecile Caesars who tormented the empire in the fourth and
fifth centuries, and to occasional visits from the plundering hordes of Goths, Vandals,
and Heruli who successively ravaged the neighbouring country. In the Gothic wars of
546 — 556 Totila took Tibur after a siege of some months, and revenged himself for
the resistance of the Isaurian garrison by putting all to the sword, without sparing
even the bishop. At the same time he broke down all the bridges on the Anio.-
During that long siege, the Villa of Hadrian, with its enormous halls, its vast ranges
of rooms, and its advantageous and commanding site at the junction of several roads,
offered convenient quarters to the barbarian king and his host. It may be imagined
what devastation such tenants would inflict upon the place. In the eighth century the
villa fell more and more into ruins. To the disasters of the Gothic wars were added

' Dante, Paradiso, cant. vi. i. - Procop. iii. 10, 24.

The Rotnan Campagna.

443

those incurred during the Lombard wars under Astulf. The Lombards were a more
savage horde than the Goths, and their object was to destroy the Roman empire utterh-,
and to divide Italy into dukedoms. These barbarians attacked Rome many times, and
ravaged the Campagna ; but Astulf distinguished himself above all the rest in these
incursions, massacring -and burning everywhere without distinction. As we hear that
he was encamped near Tivoli, we may conclude that the Villa of Hadrian suffered severely
in or about the year 755."

The wars between Emperors and Popes, and the quarrels between the factions in Rome
itself which followed, injured • Rome perhaps rather more than the cities of the Cam
pagna. But the greatest damage of all was done to the villa by its being made the
quarry whence the churches, the monasteries, and the houses of the wealthy Tiburtines
were decorated with marble columns and costly stonework ; and when these were
filled and could hold no more, innumerable marble sculptures and statues were
condemned to the lime-kiln and converted into mortar. After the revival of letters and
arts in the fifteenth century, the lamentations poured out in the time of Pius II.
(1458 A.D.) over the ruins of the villa are most pathetic. "The lofty vaults of the
temples are still standing, and the wonderful columns of the cloisters and ma"-nificent
porticoes. The swimming-baths and thermje can be traced, where the water of the
Anio once mitigated the summer heats. But the hand of time has defaced all these-
and the walls once draped with embroidered tapestry and cloth of gold are now clad
with ivy; the thorns and briars grow where tribunes sat in purple robes, and serpents
crawl in their kings' chambers."'

In spite of the existence here and there of such love for antiquit}^, the burning of
the Tiburtine marbles into lime continued throughout the sixteenth centurj-, and the
levelling of the ground for cultivation has gone on even to the present time.-

The same fate attended all the other grand monuments of the Campagna. Rutilius
Numatianus, writing probably in 417, in the reign of Honorius, speaks of
the buildings of Rome and the aqueducts of the Campagna as if they were ■"'"''?'"■»«

^ ' . iirvasicns.

still uninjured ;^ but he prefers to return to his native home in Gaul by

sea on account of the bad state of the roads on the coast, caused by the Gothic

devastations.

" Postquam Tuscus ager, postquamque Aurclius agger,
Perpessus Geticas ense vel igne manus,
Non 5ilvas domibus, non flumina ponte coercet,
Incerto satius credere vela mari.''*

The allusion here is probably to the second invasion of Alaric in 409, when the
Gothic army occupied Ostia, and must have devastated the coast of Latium near the
mouth of the Tiber.^ The inhabitants of the Campagna retired at this time in troops
to Africa and the neighbouring islands. Great numbers were concealed in the little
isle of Igilium.^ The subsequent ravages of Genseric, king of the Vandals. Ricimer,

1 Pius II. Comment. Lib. v. p. 138.

- Nibby, Analisi, vol. iii. p. 655.

' See above, p. 127.

' Rutil. Numat. De Red. 39.

■' Gibbon, chap. x.\.>;i.

' Rut. Num. 336 : " Unum, mira fides, vario dis-
crimine portum, tarn prope Romanis. t<ini procul esse
Gctis."

S I. 2

444 The Roman Campagna.

and Odoacer (424 — 530) followed those of Alaric ; but we do not hear of any destruction
of the aqueducts till the invasion of Vitiges (537), who also destroyed the finest monuments
on the Appian road.^

The sixth great invasion was that under Totila, who advanced from the side of Prae-
neste and Tusculum upon Rome, and maintained a siege of several months. His head-
quarters were at the Basilica of S. Paolo fuori le Mura.-

Thus before the middle of the sixth century each district of the Campagna had
suffered. Alaric had plundered the northern parts and the coast of Ostia ; Genseric,
the Campus Solonius and the road to the south ; Ricimer, on his approach, passed
through Civita Castellana and Sutri ; and Totila occupied and reduced Tibur, Praeneste,
and Tusculum, before attacking Rome itself.^

Little wonder need have been felt, if the Roman Campagna had remained a desert
even after these earlier devastations. But far worse followed in the time of the Lombards
(590 — 640). "The Campagna of Rome," says Gibbon, "was then speedily reduced to
the state of a dreary wilderness, in which the land is barren, the waters are impure,
and the air is infectious."*

The work of depopulation and devastation was continued in the following centuries,
from /CO to 1000, by the Saracens, and by terrible inundations in the years 717, 725,
and 79I-' The wars of Robert Guiscard, and the quarrels between the Emperors and
Popes, followed ; and after a century more of sword and fire Rome and its Cam-
pagna were wasted to such a degree, that in 1198 the population of Rome and its
neighbourhood was estimated at only thirtj'-five thousand souls, and we find the Pope
himself (Innocent III.) declaring that it was difficult to find a man of forty at Rome,
almost impossible to find one of sixty years of age.* During the twelfth, thirteenth,
and fourteenth centuries, the Crusades, the enmities of Patriarchs and Popes, the petty
wars between Rome and the neighbouring cities, and the rivalry of the great families of
Rome, especially the Colonna and Orsini, reduced the state of affairs from bad to worse.
The Popes withdrew to Avignon, and took with them a portion of the court ; and
when Pope Gregory XL finally returned in 1377, he found that the population of
the city amounted to seventeen thousand onlv.' This was perhaps the lowest depth
of exhaustion reached ; and in the fifteenth centurj', with the return of civilization,
Rome began to revive. But the Campagna still remains a waste to the present day,
and will remain so, it is to be feared, so long as the land is held in large tracts by the
Roman religious corporations, and by wealthy noblemen to whom its improvement is
of little or no importance.^

1 Procop. B. G. i. 19. The object of Vitiges was " Gibbon, chaps. Ixix. lx\.

to stop the irrigation of the Campagna, and the " See an interesting account of the modern Mer-

manufactories and mills turned by the aqueducts canti di Campagna in Story's Roba di Roma, vol. ii.

at Rome. He also intended perhaps to enter the p. 54, London, 1866. "Nothing," says Lady Morgan,

city through the tunnels of the aqueducts. in 1821, "bearing the stamp of humanity chequers

- Gibbon, ch.xliii.; Chron. ed. Roncalli, vol. ii. 329. this wide waste, save the dreary Casale seen in the

" -See Cassiodorus, Chron. ap. Roncalli, voL ii. pp. distance, a shed for the cattle, where man perishes." —

227 — 230. Italy, by Lady Morgan, vol. ii. p. 169. The efforts made

' Giobon, chap. .\lv. ' Ibid. chap. Hi. to drain the Pomptine marshes, and restore a more

li Sec Miiller, Rom. Camp. vol. i. p. 12. healthy climate, have been noticed in chapter ii. p. 26.

The Roman Campagna. 145

name
Campa^na.

Note on the name Campaona, or Campania.

In the time of Tacitus, the name Campania, was still restricted to the country round Capua
and Naples, and the boundary between it and Latium was at the hundredth milestone,
near Minturnae or Sinuessa, on the Appian road;' for although long before this time History of th<
Augustus had included Campania, with Latium and part of Saranium and Picenum,
in the first of his eleven lulian regions,^ yet the name Campania was not applied
to the whole until the time of Hadrian. That emperor divided Italy into four consular pro-
vinces, one of which probably included the first region of Augustus, with the districts of the
Hirpini and of the whole of Samnium, and. was called Campania.''

Another different division, seems to have been made before the time of Procopius, for we find
that historian and Jornandes, in their accounts of the Gothic invasion under Alaric, speaking of
Campania as distinct from the Roman territor)'.*

This division was probably made by one of the Emperors between Gratian (375 a.d.) and
Theodosius the younger (408 a.d.); for the Notitia and Paulus Diaconus both mention Campania,
as distinct from Tuscany and Samnium, while Servius, who died before the reign of Gratian (375 a.d.)
evidently alludes to Hadrian's division of the Italian provinces.* It is, however, quite uncertain
when this re-arrangement was effected. The important fact is, that Latium ceased to be included
in the province called Campania at or about the end of the fourth century, and that after the
Lombard kings had established themselves in Italy, in 584, the same separation between Campania
and the Roman district was maintained. During the Exarchate, the district attached to Rome
consisted of the tract included between the sea-coast from Civita Vecchia to Terracina and the
Sabine Apennines, and probably corresponded verj' nearly to the present province of the Comarca."

" Thus the name of Campania," says Pellegrini, " which was first applied to the territory of
Capua alone, extended itself by successive rearrangements of the Italian prownces over a great part
of central Italy, and then gradually shrank back again into its birthplace, and at last became
restricted to the Hmits of one city only, Naples, and that one of the least importance in Italy. What
naturally followed was the total disuse of the name, which had at last migrated into a district where
it was not likely to be kept up by historical association, Naples having been no part of the original
Campania, and being generally called the Duchy of Naples, instead of the province of Campania.""

The term Campania, therefore, became obsolete except in the writings of a few mediceval authors,
whose statements created some confusion by their ignorance of the different senses in which it had at
different rimes been used. An impression seems, however, to have prevailed that the district of Capua
had been so named on account of its flat and fertile nature, and hence every similar tract of plain
country came to be called a campagna in the Italian language." The exact time when the name, which

1 Tac. Ann. xiii. 26: " Centesimum ultra lapidem in Campania, vol. i. p. 50. .Servius. nd /En. vii. 612, calls

Oram Campanis." See also Plin. N. H. ii. § 136. Gabii " Campana civitas," in the time of Theodosius

- Piiny, .N. H. iii. §§ 46, 63 ; Strabo, v. p. 231. the elder.

' Jul. Cap. Iladr. 2. The extent is determined by * Procop. i. \\ ; Jornand. De Rob. Get. chap. xxx.

the Itin. Ant. and Hieros., who mention Equus * .Serv. loc. cit. " Gibbon, chap. xlv.

Tuticus (S. Elcutherio I as the boundary on the side '' Pellegrini, Discorsi. vol. i. p. 7.

of Apulia. See Mommsen on the Liber Coloniarum, 8 The district roiiml Pavia and Milan, and other

in the Schriften der Romischen Feldmcsser, vol. ii. similardistricts, arc called Campania- by Otho Frisin-

p. 206. Ostia. Gabii, Praeneste, and Affila are in- gensis. I^ante speaks of the Campagna of Mantua,

eluded, but not Tibur ; Pellegrini, Discorsi della Aries, and Pola : Inferno, ix. iio.

446 The Roman Campagna.

had thus become a mere appellative, was applied to the Roman Campagna is not accurately ascertain-
able, but it seems to have been so applied as early as the time of Pope Agatho, at the end of the
seventh centur)'.^ We may perhaps conclude that it was at some period during the first century
of the Lombard kingdom in Italy that the flat district near Rome became distinguished as the
Roman Campagna.

From the above brief sketch of the history of the word Campagna, it will be seen that the term
Roman Campagna is not a geographical definition of any district or province with clearly fixed
limits, but that it is a name loosely employed in speaking of the tract which lies round the city
of Rome.

1 Baronius, quoted by Pellegrini, vol. i. p. 83. Pellegrini mentions the Campagna of Cordova, of

Rheims, and of several other places.

GENERAL INDEX.

The Index contains lists of Aqueducts, Arches, Basilica, Baths (see Thermje), Bridges (see Pons, Ponte),
Columns, Gates (see Porta), Hills, Piazzas, Porticoes, Roads (see Via), Temples, and Villas. For
details see the independent references.

ACADEMIA on the Palatine, 178.
Academy of Hadrian's villa, 427, 423.
Acca Larentia, 278.

Acilius Glabrio, M., temple of Pietas built by, 305; eques-
trian statue erected by, 306 ; his degradation, 410.
Acqua Acetosa, 20 ; lava near, 350.
Acqua Rossa, Fossa di, 360, 361.
Acque Salvie, supposed to be the Petronia, 359.
Actium, victor)' at, 125, 175'

Actius, Actiacus, Navalis, epithets of Apollo, 175.
Ad Decimum on the Via Laurentina, 350.
Ad Gallinas, ^^lla of Livia so called, 420.
Ad Nationes, a name given to part of the Porlicus

Pompeii, 317, 318.
Adrian 11., 191.

S. Adriano, church on the site of Curia Julia, 88, i :o.
Ad saxa rubra, name of a place on the Via Flaminia, 16.
-Edes distinguished from Templum, 103; Aulic^, 176;
Herculis Musarum, 311 ; Imperatoriae, 176; Junonis
Lucinae, 242 ; Mefitis, 242 ; Penatium, now Church of
S. Cosma e Damiano, 78, 163; Publicse, 176; Vectiliana;,
222.
>-EfuIa (Monte Affliano) the site of Hadrian's villa, 401,

421.
.Egates, battle of, 7.
.-Egina, bronze bull from, 279.
yElian Bridge, 267, 13, 274, Ivii.
^Elius, Hadrian's son, the first interred in the mausoleum,

274.
.•Emilia et Fulvia Basilica, 88, 263, 1.
.•Emilia, Porticus, 207.
^Emilian Bridge, 263, 288 ; the oldest stone bridge at Rome,

Ivii.
^milian temple of Hercules, 290.
.Emilius Lepidus, M., the Censor, 88, 263 ; bridge buill

by, 263, 288 ; temple of Juno Regina built by, 310.
-Emilius PauUus, L., yE<lile, 88.
.'Eneas, site of the landing of, 365, 366.

•Enea, one of the cities said to have been founded by
Romus, 28.

^Equian frontier, Latin towns on, 402 ; territorj', 348 ;
wars, 378.

.Equimaslium, 198, 277.

-Esculapius, temple of, 266 ; statue of, by Cephisodotus,
son of Praxiteles, 310 ; statue of, by Niceratus, 91 ;
temple on the Island of the Tiber, 264.

Affoga I'Asino, grove of the Dea Dia at, 440.

Africanus, P., Bisilica Sempronia on the site cf the house
of, 98.

S. Agata alia Subura, So.

Ager occupatorius or arcifinalis, 403 ; publicus, 403 :
Romanus, 52 ; Tarquinius, 301.

Agger of Ser\'ius, 48, 42 ; height of, 4.

Agonalis, or Quirinalis, 248 ; Porta, 47, 48.

Agonus, 248.

Agrarian laws, 404 — 406.

Agriculture, its effects on climate, 26 ; of the Romans,
405.

Agrigentum, Doric architecture at, xxviii.

Agrippa, Balnea; of, Ixii ; buildings on the Campus Martius
by, 301 ; Campus of, 332 ; fountains constructed by,
Ix ; Horrea of, Ixi ; head of a hydra placed in the
Vicus Jugarius by, 277 ; " orbis pictus " of, 311 ; Pan-
theon built by, 328 ; Thermx of, 2S6, 327 ; supplied by
the Aq. Virgo, 326.

Agrippina, temple of Claudius begtri by, 221 ; wife of
Germanicus, burial of, 344.

Agrippinae Horti, 270.

Aius I.oquens, altar of, 278, 79.

''AlcA.eitrToy T1/A.77, 36.

Alaric, second invasion of, 443 ; capture of Rome by, 253,

275, 345-
Alatri, gateway at, xxiii.
Alatrium, walls at, xxiii.

Alba Fucensis, gateway of, xxiv ; cuniculi at, 358.
Alba Longa, 375, 362, 365, 368, 402 ; population eslab-

Ibhed on the Ccelian, 36.
Alban hills, 19, 349; cities of, 373— 377-
Alban Mount, 376.

448

General Index.

Alban villas, 409.

Albano, site of, II, 432, 436 ; on the site of the Albanum
Caesarum, 375, 409 ; tufa beds at, 17 ; Lago d', 355 ;
emissarium of, 357, Iv, Ivi ; Rio d', 357, 35S.
Albanum Cresarum, 410, 409, 421.
Albula, name of the Tiber, explained, 20; canal, 361.
Albule, affluent of the Anio, 360.
Alcibiades, statue of, 83.
Alemanni, 57.

Alessandrina, Via, 136 ; laid out by Pius V., 152.
S. Alessio, highest point of the Aventine at the church of,

203.
Alexander VI., Porta Septimiana erected by, 69.
Alexander VII., excavations in time of,
Alexandrina, Aqua, 228, 442.
Alexandrinum, Opus, 180.
Algidum, walls at, xxii.
AUia, trihutar)' of the Tiber, 359, 392, 44° ; battle of,

360.
AUobroges and Arvemi, arch of Fabius built from the

spoils of, 104.
Almo, tributary of the Tiber, 359, 432.
Alsietina, Aqua, 71, 268, 441, 442.
Alta Semita, Via, Ixxv, 70.
Altar of Dis, 342.
Anialasontha, 141.
S. Ambrogio, on p.art of the site of the Portico of Octavia,

321.
Ambrose, disputations between Symmachus and, 1 10.
Ambulacra in the Coliseum, 238. -
Amljulatiuncula tecta of Roman houses, 40S.
Ameriola, 390, 393, 394, 402.
Amnion the geometer, 57.
Amphitheatre, ticket for, 238 ; of the Coliseum, 234 ; of

.Statilius Taurus, 342 ; at Tusculum, 379.
Amphitheatres, general description of, Ixiii, Ixiv ; sixty-two
enumerated by Clerisseau as still existing, note, Ixiii ;
note on the amusements of the, 244.
Amphitheatrum Castrense, 67, 72, 219, 226, Ixv.
Ampiglione, lava near, 35 1.
Anacletus, Bull of, 198.
S. Anastasia, church of, 33, 155, 158.
Ancilia, 218 ; attempt of Heliogabalus to remove, 180.
Ancus Martius, the city enlarged by, 36 ; first fortified the
Janiculum, 51, 261 ; settlements on the Aventine by,
204; Coelian hill first included in the city by, 213;
erection of the Career attributed to, 81 ; palace of,
162 ; Ficana destroyed by, 367 ; Ostia settled by, 370.
Ancyra, inscription relating to the temple of Satuni, 93.
S. Andrea, churcli of, on the site of the temple of Quirinus,

249 ; della Valle, theatre of Pompey near, 312, 316.
'Aj-Speio, temple of Fortune so called, 288.
S. Angelo, hill of, 352, 394.
Anicius, Horrea of, Ixi.

Anio, its course formerly navigable, its affluents, 360 ;
inundations of, 394; cities on the right bank of, 390;
left bank of, 381.
Anio Nova, castellum on the Latin road of, 437.
Anio Novus, or Nova, aqueduct, 73 ; specus of, 65 ; height

of the arches, xlvi.
Anio Vetus, aqueduct. 71, 397 ; castellum on the Latin
road of, 437.

Anna Perenna, 353.

Annibaldi, former owners of the Coliseum, 236.

Annius Verus, house of, 224.

Antemnae, 390, 349, 402, 440.

Antepagmenta, Ixxiii.

Antiochus, a Syracusan, ascribes the foundation of Rome
to the Sicels, 28.

Antiphilus, the rival of Apelles, pictures by, 311 ; sculp-
tures, 312; pictures of Cadmus and Europa by, 319.

Antium, 354, 362, 374, 407.

Antonine, baths of, 210.

Antonines, their family tomb near the Porta Capena, 180 ;
mausoleum of Hadrian the tomb of the, 274.

Antonini Theatrum, Theatrum Balbi miscalled, 266.

Antoninianus, Pons, 266.

Antoninus Pius, 1 14 ; Coliseum restored by, 235 ; mauso-
leum of Hadrian completed by, 274 ; pillar of, 333, 334;
Tiberian palace the residence of, 159.

Antoninus and Faustina, temple of, 113, 114, 75, 77, 88 ;
views of, 113, 115; architecture of the temple, xxxiv.

S. Antonio, ruins at the hermitage of, 428.

Antonius, L. , gilt statue of, 105.

Apelles, pictures of, xliii, 134.

Apennine limestone, 349.

Aphrodisium, near Lavinium, 366 ; on the Palatine, iSi.

Apiolae, 36S, 363, 402, xxii.

Apollinare, name given to the temple of the Delphic Apollo,

314-

Apollo, temple in the Campus Martius to, 301 ; temple
and statues near the Porta Carmentalis, 30S ; temple on
the Palatine, 175 ; temple on the Vatican to, 271 ; temple
of the Delphic, 314; statue in cedar, 314; statue by
Baton, in the temple of Concord, 91 ; statue in ivory,
134 ; colossal statue in bronze, 175 ; site of the librarv

of, 5-

ApoUodonis, the Greek architect, Ixxvi ; of Damascus,
architect of Trajan's Forum, 146, 150 ; bridge over the
Danube by, Ivii, 150 ; his criticism on the temple of
Venus and Rome, xxxvii, 170; fate of the architect, 170,
xxxvii.

SS. Apostoli, Piazza dei, 151.

Apoxyomenos of Lysippus, 326.

Appian aqueduct, 51, 71, xxv ; entirely subterranean, Iviii ;
its course uncertain, 441 ; source of, 442.

.^ppian gate, 68, 58.

Appian road, description of, 431 — 436, 3, 11, li (see
also 216, 376) ; partly reconstructed by Domitian, lii ;
fragments still remaining of, liii ; first milestone found,
49; lava on, 17; Lanuvium, 373 ; Aricia, 374; Bovillae,
368.

Appius Claudius, Marius admitted within the Janiculan
gate by, 51.

Aqua Ferentina, 35S, 359, 377, 436.

Aquae Albulje, 361.

Aqueducts, general description of, 441 ; restored by Augus-
tus, 71 ; fourteen in the time of Procopius, Iviii.

Aqueducts (for details sec aslo the separate references) : —
Alexandrina, 72, 228, Iviii, 442 ; Alsietina, 71, 268,
441, 442; Anio Novus, 65, 73, Iviii, 437; Anio Vetus,
71. 397. 437 ; Appia, 51, 71, xxv, Iviii, 441, 442 ;
Augusta, 71, 389 ; Claudia, 179, 220, 24, 65, 66, 72,
73, Iviii, 437 ; Crabra, or Marrana 358, 359, 361, 68,

General Index.

449

218, 291, 409; Felice, 72, 73; Julia, 65, 71, 72, 220,
223,437,442; Marcia, II, 49, 65, 71, 73. 2"3. 217.
220, 223, 437, Iviii ; Mercurii, 218; Neronis, 220, 221 ;
Paola, 442 ; Tepula, 65, 71, 72, 183, 437, 442 ; Trajana,
441, 442; Virgo, 346, 71, 259, 260, 2S6, 323, Iviii, 3S9,
441.

Aqueilucts, Frontinus inspector of, 25 ; stopped by the
Goths under Vitiges, 363.

Aquilius, C, house of, 246.

Ara Cceli, on N.E. of the Capitoline-, 182, 89, 1S6, 189 ;
site of the Arx, 194; substructions on, iSS ; height
above the sea, 24S ; convent of, 182.

Ara Consi, site of, 32, 294 ; Febris, 181, 22S, 243 ; Malae
Fortunae, 243 ; Maxima on the Palatine, 32, 294 ; note
from the Bulldino deW Instituio, 40.

Ars Fontis, 267.

Ara;ost)le arrangement of columns, 292, xxvi.

Arcades of Roman houses, Ixxii.

Arcadius, statue of, 65 ; Pompey's theatre rebuilt by, 320.

Arcesilaus, statue of Venus Genetrix by, 130.

Arch, earliest knowledge of, xxiv, 81, 2S2 — 284, xxxix;
possibly derived from the Tuscans, note, 284 ; well known
to the Assyrians and Egyptians, xliv.

Arches (for ddails set also t/u stparale references) : — Arciis
Argentariorum, 286, 123, xxxiv ; arch of M. Auielius,
341 ; Claudius, 323 ; Constantine, 171, 173, 35, 85,
125, 143, xxxiv, xxxix, xl; Dolabella, 223, 220, 222, xl ;
Drusus, 216, 217, xxxix ; Fabius, 104, 75, 77, 78, xxxix;
Gallienus, 228, 49, 226, xxxix; Goldsmiths, J«"Arcus
Argentariorum ; " Janus Quadrifrons, 287, xxxix ; Nerviee,
135 ; Septimius Severus, 120, 123, 76 — 78, 89, 109,
173; Stertinius, xxxix; Tiberius, 341, 117, 173 ; Titus,

167, 169, 19, 33, 74, 77, 115, 162, 171, 175, XXXV,

xxxix ; Trajan, 143.

Architecture, see Introductoiy Chapter on Romano-
Greek Architecture ; Doric and Ionic styles mingled
in the Coliseum, 238; in the time of the Kings, 2S3;
of Rome modified by ancient Italian tradition, xxviii.

Architects, Ixxvi ; of the temple of Jupiter Stator, 309, 310.

Arco dei Pantani, 133, 129; view of, 132, Ixxviii.

Arco di Portogallo, Arch of M. Aurelius so called, 340.

Arcus Argentarionim, 2S6, 278 ; view of, 2S5 ; Domitiani,
so called, 339 ; Manus Cameoe, 197.

Ardea, 369, 354, 363, 402 ; once called Troja, 366; walls
at, xxii ; ancient and modem population of, 23 ; con-
demned by Martial as unhealthy, 25.

Ardratina. Via, 69 ; commencement of, 432.

Area Apollinis on the Palatine, 175 ; Capitolina, 187;
Concordiae, 85 ; Fori, Atrium, or Forum Proper (Trajani),
141 ; Palat:na, 17S ; Vulcani, 85, 82.

Area of the Dii Consentes, 96 ; inscripticns on, 106 ;
view of, 99.

Are£E Marianonim, altar to the goddess Febris near, 2$.

Arenarite, meaning of the name, 16.

Argean chapels, 39 ; none situated on the Capitoline, 1S4.

Argentaria, Basilica, 109 ; Via, 197.

Argiletum, 79, 249.

Argive chapel on the Quirinal, 249.

Argus, 79.

Aria Cattiva, or Malaria, 22, 26, 27.

Aricia, 374, 436, 362, 393 ; valley of, 355, 354.

Aricinus, Clivus, 218.

Aricinus, Lacus, 353.

Aristides, pictures by, xliii, 293.

Aniiilustrium, 205.

Armour, Roman and Dacian, on Trajan's Column, 147.

Arno, ancient course of, 21 ; Italy south of the, 56.

Arpinum, 407, xxiii.

Arrunlius Stella, residence in the Subura, 80.

Art, works of, in the Templum Pacis, 140 ; decline of,
under the Antonines, 334.

Artemisium at Nemi, 374.

Artena Volsconim, walls at, xxiii.

Artificial hills, 12.

Arx, name applied to the Capitoline, 184, 185, 1S8, 187;
site on the Ara Caeli height, 194; disuse of the name,
196.

Asinaria, Porta, 66, 67 ; Via, 67.

Asinius PoUio, library of, li.

Assisi, temple at, 1.

Asylum, temple of, 196.

Athena;um Chalcidicum, no.

Athenian walls, circuit of, 43.

Athens, early settlers in Latium from, 28.

Athletes, mosaic pavement of the, 211.

Atilius, theatrical exhibitions and disaster at Fidense, 392.

Atilius Calatinus, M., temple of Spes built by, 305.

Atriolum of a villa, 408.

Atrium, description of a Roman, Ixvii ; of the i^ides
Publica?, 176.

Atrium, Forum Proper, or Area Fori Trajani, 141.

Atrium Libertalis, 2o5 ; Minervx, III, 129; Regium,
103 ; Regium, Vestae, or Regia, 78, 80.

Atticus, house of, 248, 251 ; villa at Ficulea, 393; tomb
of, 436.

Attus Navius, statue of, 82, 83, 86.

Auction, Imperial throne put up to, 61.

Auguraculum, 195, 196, 193, xxiv.

Auguratorium on the Palatine, 158, 33.

Augurium sa'utis, 195.

Augurs and Auspices, 193, 195, 200.

Augusta, the mausoleum of Augustus so called, 345.

Augustine (S.) describes the freez:ng of the Tiber, 26.

Augustus, removal of Rome rumoured in tlie lime of, 2 ;
height of houses restricted by, Ixx ; improvements in the
Forum by, 107, 75 ; the dress worn by, 27 : funeral
procession of, 46 ; mausoleum of, 344, 346, 323 ; palace
of, 174, 175, b.irnt in Neronian fire, 176 : arch of, 125 ;
statue found at I'rima Porta, 24 ; temple of, 160, 27S ;
aqueducts in the time of, 71 ; Auguraculum transferred to
the Palatine by, 196 ; canal from Bais made by, Ivi ;
Circus Maximus restored by, Ixv ; Curia Julia built by,
loS ; forum of, 128, 129, 131, 133, 134; Gnomon
obelisk brought from Egypt by, 334; Milliarium Aureum
erected by, 49 ; Nainnacliia of, Ixv ; obelisk in the Piazza
del Popolo erected by, 296 ; Pompey's Iheitre restored
and statue remove:! by. 319 ; Portitus Melelh replaced
by, 310; statue found at the Villa Livia, 420 ; temples
of Juno Regina restored by, 206 ; temple of Jupiter
Tonins founded by, 192 ; temple of Magna Mater rebuilt
by, 158 ; temple of Mars Ullor on the Capitol built by,
192 ; temple of Minerva on ihe Avcniine restored by,
206 ; new temple of Vesta built by, 175.

Aulus Postumius, Icmiile of Castor begun by, loa

3 M

450

General hidex.

Aurelia, Porta, Nova, site of, 59 ; Porta, Vetus, 69 ; Via,
69, 440.

Aurelian gens, tomb of, 436.

Aurelian, golden statue of the Genius of the Roman people
erected by, 125.

Aurelian wall, pjTamid of Cestius in, 209.

Aurelian Walls {see "Walls of Aurelian and Ho-
norius," chapter v. pp. 53 — 73 ; see also pp. 6, 45, 209,
219) : — height of, 62; Praetorian camp part of, 57, 61 ;
in the Trastevere, 69.

Aurelian's temple of the Sun, 253, 255, 346.

Aurelius, M., house in which he was bom, 224 ; Tiberian
palace the residence of, 159 ; no record of the burial of,
274 ; arch of, 339 ; bas-reliefs in the Palace of the
Conservators, 339; ancient site of the statue, 114;
pedestal of the statue, 152 ; silver statues of Faustina and,
170 ; temple of, in Circus Maximus, 335 ; temple of Bene-
ficium built by, 193 ; pillar of, 335— 337> 3^2, 333. xli.

Aurelius, Pons, 266 ; Cotta, tribunal erected by, 86 ;
Victor, M., arch of Gallienus erected by, 228.

Ausonian territorj', 348.

AvENTiNE Hill, chap. ix. part i, pp. 202 — 213, and 5,
36, 39, 42 {see also independent references') : — Altars of
Evander, Jupiter Inventor, Jupiter Elicius, and Consus,
204 ; Armilustrium, 205 ; Cave of Cacus, 205, 21; Cli\'us
Publicius, 206 ; drainage, 285 ; extent, 203 ; Emporium,
208 ; Horrea Galbes et Aniciana, 207 ; Lauretum, 205 ;
magazines, 207 ; Monte Testaccio, 208 ; natural features,
202 ; name, 204 ; Porticus ^Emilia, Tuccia, and Junia,
207 ; pyramid of Cestius, 209 ; Remuria, 205 ; seat of
the Montani, 203 ; seat of the Plebs, 204. Temple of
Bona Dea Subsaxana, 206 ; Diana, 205 ; Juno Regina,
205; Libertas, 206; Luna, 207; Minerva, 206, ill;
Vortumnus, 206. ThemiK Antoniniana:, Decianas, 207 ;
Suranae, 207 ; Varianse, 207 ; walls of Servius, 44, 50, 5 1 .

Bacchus, temple on the Palatine to, 181 ; the Church of
S. Urbano a supposed temple of, 433.

Baiae, 407.

Bakehouses, Pistrina, Ixi.

Balbi, Crypta, 313.

S. Balbina, church of, 4, 49, 50, 203, 210; .Servian walls
on the hill of, 43.

Balbus, theatre of, near the Ponte .Sisto, 303, 266, 312,
313, Ixvi.

Balconies, Ixxiv.

Balnea; distinguished from Thermae, Ixiii ; of Alex. Severus,
Ixii.

Balneae PallacinK, 316 ; note on, 321.

Balneum preserved at Pompeii, Ixiii ; Caesaris, Ixiii.

Barbarian invasions, 443.

Barberini, epigram on the, 331 ; Gardens, remnants of Ser-
vian walls in, 43, 47.

Bardella, 429.

Basaltic lava from the .A.lban volcanoes, 350.

S. Basil, church of, 135.

Basilica {for details see also the separate referettces) : —

. Emilia, see Fulvia ; Argentaria, 109 ; of Constantine,

165 — 167, 139, xlviii, U ; Fulvia et ALmiWa, 88, 89, 75,

106, 263, 1 ; Jovis on the Capitoline, 19S ; Jovis on the

Palatine, 177, 1; Julia, 115 — 117, 75 — 77, 100, 123,
125, 173, 277, 1, li ; S. Lorenzo, 308 ; Marciante, 333 ;
S. Maria Maggiore, 66 ; Matidije, 333 ; Neptuni, 332 ;
Opimia,89, 90; Paulli, 88, 112, 125, 134, xlix; St. Peter's,
270, 271 ; at Pompeii, li ; Porcia, 87, 88, 75, 80, 83,
109; Sempronia, or Julia, 98, 75, 117,169, 277 ; Ulpia,
144, 145, li.

Basilic/E, general description of, xlix, 87 ; none before
Cato's time, note, 88.

Basilius, Marius Venantius, arena of the Coliseum rebuilt
by, 236.

Bas-reliefs on the arch of Titus, 167 ; view of, 168 ; on
the pedestal of the Antonine Column, 334 ; of Aurelian
Column, 336, 337 ; on Trajan's Column, 148— 151.

Bassus, villa of, 428.

Bastione di Sangallo, archway near, 69.

Baths, description of Roman, 211, 233; see Thekm.E :
positions of the sudarium, tepidarium, natatio, 258.

Batrachus and Sauras, architects of the temple of Jupiter
Stator, 310.

Belisarius, walls renewed by, 58 ; gateway restored by, 68 ;
fable of, 70 ; Hadrian's mausoleum made a fortress in the
time of, 59 ; residence on the Pincian, 259.

Bellona, temple of, 84, 301, 314 ; Septa and Villa Publica
near, 324.

Bells in Roman houses, Ixi.

Belvedere Gardens, 15.

Benedict XIV., bronze statue of S. Michael on Hadrian's
mausoleum placed by, 275 ; consecration of the arena of
the Coliseum by, 236.-

Beneficium, temple of, 193.

S. Bernardo, church of, in part of the Thermce Diocletiani,
257 ; remains of theatre in the monastery of, 257.

Bibliotheca, Curia, and Schola Octavice, 310 ; in the Circus
Flaminius, 311.

Bibulus, his disputes with Cresar, 102, iii ; seized bv
Vatinius in the Curia Hostilia, S3 ; tomb of, 197, 47, 346,
xlii.

Birri, hats worn in the amphitheatre, 240.

Boarium, origin of the name of the Forum, 279.

Bocca della Verita, 294.

Bola, 3S8, 347, 387.

Bona Dea Subsaxana, temple of, 206.

S. Bonaventura, convent of, 34 ; highest part of the Pala-
tine near the church, 155.

Bonella, Via, 82 : laid out by Pius V., 152.

Boniface IV., Pantheon consecrated by, 331.

Boniface VIH., Prasneste razed to the ground by, 383 ;
drainage of the Pomptine marshes under, 26.

Boniface IX., Palace of the Senator fortified by, 97 ; forti-
fications on the mausoleum of Hadrian by, 275.

Bonus Eventus, temple and portico of, 315.

Borgia, Alex., 275.

Borgo or Citta Leonina, 58.

Borgo S. Spirito, 268.

Bovillas, 368, 436, 363, 402 ; Clodius murdered at, 369,
409 ; destroyed by Coriolanus, 369.

Breccia di Sette Bassi, 418.

Breislak's interpretation of the story of Cacus, 21.

Bricks, used in Roman architecture, xliv, xlvi, xlvii, Ixxii.

Bridges {j-«?PONS, Ponte), 262 — 267, Ivii; religious scruples
in the construction of, 262 ; list of, in the catalogue of the

General Index.

451

Curiosum, 263 ; list of, in the Mirabilia Rotnae, note, 3,

263.
Brutus Junius, Sacellum of Dea Carna dedicated by, 223 ;

Callaicus, J., temple of Mars built by, 315.
Bubulcus, Junius, temple of Salus built by, 47.
Bufala, subterranean chambers in the Vicolo della,

I S3.
Byrsa, the wall of the, 46.

Cacus, son of Vulcan, stor)' of, 10, 21 ; cave on the Aven-

tine, 41, 51, 202, 205.
Cadmus, picture of, by Antiphilus, 319.
Ca:cilia Metella, tomb of, 434, xliii ; view of, 435 ; Maxen-
tian Circus near the tomb of, IxW ; basaltic lava near the
tomb, 350.
Cascilius Metellus, Q., first marble temple (of Jupiter) built
by, 310; portico of, 310.

Casculus, founder of Prceneste, 22.

C/ELIA.N" Hill, chapter ix. part l, under the following
heads, pp. 213—224, and 5, 36, 49 (stv also indcpcndmt
references): — ^des Vectilianse, 222 ; Amphitheatrum Cas-
trense, 219; Aqua Mercurii, 218; arch of Dolabella,
222, 223; arch of Drusus, 216; Cslian Proper, 221 ;
Ca:liolus, 214 ; Campus Martialis, 220 ; Caput Africse,
223 ; Castra Peregrina, 223 ; Claudian aqueduct, 220 ;
Clivus Scauri, 223 ; Columbaria, 216 ; Dea Carna, 223 ;
Fossa Quiritium, 21S ; Houses of Centumalus, Mamurra,
Verus, and Tetricus, 224 ; Isium Metellinum, 223 ;
Jupiter Redux, 223 ; Lateran palace, 220 ; Macellum
Majjnum, 221 ; Mica Aurea, 223 ; Minerva Capta, 223 ;
name Caelius, 213 ; natural features, 213 ; Navicella,
223; Neronian aqueduct, 220; Sessorium, 218; S.
Stefano Rotondo, 221 ; temple of Claudius, 221 ; tomb
ofScipios, 214; valley of Egeria, 21S.

Caeliculus, Cseliolus, or Caelius Minor, 214, 220.

Caenina, 389, 402.

Caepio, his body exposed at the Scalse Gemoniae, Si.

Ca;re, 358.

Caesar's palace on the Palatine, 1 78 ; view of, 1 79.

Caesonius Maximus, house of, 242.

Caffarella valley, 2iS.

Caffarelli, Palazzo, on S. \V. summit of the Capitoline, 182,
186.

Calatinus, Atilius, temple of Fides restored by, 192.

Caligula, amusements of, 117; his madness, 1S5 ; passion
for horse-races, 342 ; burial-place of, note, 227 ; bridge
uniting the Palatine and Capitoline built by, 185, 35,
36, 160, 27S ; circus on the Vatican built by, 270 ;
Claudian aqueduct begun by, 73 ; evictions on the
Palatine by, 301 ; obelisk brought from Egypt by, 270 ;
palace on the Palatine, 160, 35, 36 ; Pompey's theatre
rebuilt by, 319 ; passage into the temple of Castor made
by, 100, 160.

Camenre, fountain of, 21S.

Cameria, 349, 390, 402.

Camillus, statue of, 85 ; his encomium upon Rome, 7, 25 ;
temple of Concord founded by, 91 ; temple of Juno
Rcgina dedicated by, 205 ; temple of Juno Moneta vowed

by, 194.

C.\MPAGN-A OF Rome, chapter xiv. pp. -^^i^/^f, . ,i,j

Carapagna defined by the term Latium antiquissimum,

34S.

Part I. Physical Geography : Geology, 348 ; hills

of the Campagna, 349—352 ; lakes and brooks, 352

— 362 ; lagunes and marshes, 353.

Part II. History in the period of Cities, 362-401 :

(I) Cities of the Laurens Tractus and Campus Solo-

nius, 363-372 ; (2) Cities of the Alban and Tustu-

lan hills, 373—380 ; (3) Neighbourhood of Pntncste

and the left bank of the Anio, 381—390 ; (4) Cities

on the right bank of the Anio, 390—394 ; {5) Tibnr

and its neighbourhood, 394 — 401.

Part III. History in the period of (A) Latifundia,

403—406. (B) of Villas, 406-431 : (,) Tuscularl

villas, 407—409; (2) Alban villas, 409—411 ; (3)

Laurentine villas, 411—416; (4) Suburban villas,

416—421 ; (5) Tiburtine villas, 421—431. (C) of

Roads, 431—441. (D) of Aqueducts, 441.

Part IV. Period of depopulation and devastation,

441—444-
Note on the name Campagna, or Campania, 445.
Campagna, ancient population of, 23 ; cultivation of, 26 ;
general description of, 3 ; unhealthiness of, 22, 24, 25 ;
depopulation and devastation of, 442 — 444.
Campania, see Campagna,
Campidoglio, Via di, 96.
Campo d'Annibale, 349, 376.

Campus Agonis, name given to the Stadium Alexandrinum,
340; Agrippie, 6, 303, 331 ; Esquilinus, area of, twte,
226.
Campus Martins, Palus Caprea, 300, 22 ; Porta Triumphalis
leading from, 46; Stagna Tereuli, 300, 22; temples of
Apollo and Bellona, 301.
Campus Martius Proper and the Via Lata, chapter
xiii. part 2, pp. 322—346, under the following heads
(see also independent references) : — Altars of Fortuna
Redux and Pax, 343 ; amphitheatre of Stalilius, 343.
Arch of Claudius, 324; M. Aurelius, 340; Tiberius,
342. Basilica Neptuni, 333 ; Matidiae, 334 ; Marciance,
334. Campus Agrippae, 332 ; Martius Proper, 323.
Diribitorium, 332 ; Gnomon obelisk, 334 ; mausoleum
of Augustus, 344 ; Odeum, 342 ; Pantlieon, 328, 332.
Pillar of Antoninus Pius, 335 ; M. Aurelius, 336.
Porticus Europa?, 332 ; Flaminia, 343 ; Meleagri, 334 ;
Neptuni, 333 ; Polae, 332 ; Vipsania, 332. Posidonium,
333 ; Praedia yEmiliana, 343 ; ruin in Piazza di Pietra,
333; Septa, 324; Stabula factionum, 341 ; Sladium
Alexandrinum, 341. Temple of M. Aurelius, 336 ;
Hadrian, 333; Isis, 326; Juturna, 343; Lares Per-
marini, 343 ; Marciana, 333 ; Minerva Chalci<lica, 326 :
Serapis, 326. Therma; Agrippx, 327 ; Alexandrine:,
342 ; Neronianae, 342. Ustrina Caesarum, 323 ; Via
Lata, 346, 347; Via Tecta, 343; Vila I'ublica, 325.
Campus Kaloleonis, name given to Trajan's Forum, 152 ;
Sacer Iloratiorum, 416, 435; Scelcratus, 251. Solonius,
description of, 367; cities on, 363, 367—372 ; plundered
by Genscric, 444. Valicanus, 301 ; Flaniinius, or Prata
Flaminia, 279, 313; Lateranensis, 220; Martialis, 220.
Martius, site of, 4, _•;, 6 ; history of, 300, 22 ; the chief
site of the modern citv, 299, 230 ; Ager Tarquinii, 301 ;
altars of Dis Pater and Proserpine, 301 ; Campus Major

3 M 2

452

General Index.

and Campus Minor, 303 ; Circus Flaininius, 303 ;
mausoleum of Augustus, 46 ; meelings of the Comitia
Centuriaia in, 301.

Canale della Chiana, 8.

Canalicolie, 105.

Canalis in the Foram, 105.

Cancelleria, Palazzo di, built of stones from the Coliseum,
236.

Canoie, meetings of the Senate after the battle of, 49.

Canopus of Hadrian's villa, 423.

Cantalupo, 429.

Capena, Porta, 49, 50, 51, 68, iSo, 21 S ; meeting-place of
the Senate, 84.

Capitol, site of, 5; gates of, 196; the seat of government,
191 ; formerly steeper, 12 ; injured by fire in the time
of Sulla, 97; attacks upon and captures of, 187, 188;
burnt by the Vitellians, 97.

Capitoline Hill, chapter viii. part 2, pp. 182 — 201,
under the following heads (s/e also imipcndeiit re-
ferences) : — ^quinia;Iium, 198 ; Arcus Manus Caniese,
197 ; Asylum, 196 ; attacks upon and captures of the
Capitol, 187; Auguraculum, 195 ; bridges of Caligula,
185; Capitoline era, 189; Centum Gradus, 198; chapel
of Conjord, 194; chapels of Jupiter, 193; Clivus Argen-
larius, 197 ; Clivus Capitolinus, 196 ; Corsi palace and
castle, 192 ; Curia Calabria, 187 ; Elephantus Her-
barius, 19S ; Favis^ie, 183 ; history of settlements on, 184,
and 36, 39,42, 246, 248; legend of bells, 191 ; legendary
city of Saturnia, 29 ; names of the hill, 1S4 ; natural
features, J82 and 53 ; Nonalia, 195 ; Poria Pandana,
36 ; Portions Crinorum, 19S ; Rostra, 187 ; Sacra, Via,
terminus, 195 ; S. Salvatore in Maximis, 192 ; sanctu-
aries on the Capitol, 186; statue of Jupiter, 185 ; statues
of all the gods, &c., 194; story of Cominius and the
Gauls, 18S ; story of HerdonUis, 187 ; subterranean
chambers, 183; Tarpeian rock, 196. Temple of Asylum,
196; Beneficium, 193; Fides, 193; Fortuna Primigenia,

• 193 ; Honour and Virtue, 193 ; Jupiter Capitolinus, 188
— 191; Jupiter Custos, 187; Jupiter Feretrius, 192;
Jupiter Tonans, 192; Mars Ultur, 192; Mens, 193;
Ops, 193 ; Vejupiter, 196 ; Venus Erycina, Capitolina,
Victrix, 193. Tomb of Bibulus, 197; trophies of Marius,
•93; Verbenae, 195; Via Publica, 197; Vitellians, iS8;
views of the Capitoline, 99, 184 ; wall of Servius, 46 ;
wells, I S3.

Capitoline plan, found near the Church of S. Cosma e
Damiano, 198; note on, 198 — 200; fragments of, 116.

Capitolini. 204.

Capitolium Vetus on the Quirinal, 189, 2^1.

Capitolium, Arx, and Kupes Tarpeia distinguished, 1S5,
192, 194.

Capocotta, 350 ; a supposed site of Laurentum, 364.

Capua, amyhitheatre at, Ixiv ; architectural appearance of
Kome compared with, Ixx.

Caput Africae, 223.

Caracalla, his worship of Egyptian deities. 327; his remorse
for the murder of Geta, 2S6 ; edifices rebuilt by, 200 ;
baths of. 210, 71, 207, 217; works of art found in the
baihs of. 213 ; dimensions of the baths of, Ixii ; view of
the baths, 179, 212 ; masonry of the dome of the baths,
xlviii ; supplies for the baths of, 71 ; Porticv.s Octavite
restored by, 306 ; Thermas Autoninianae begun by, 210,

217 ; temple of Vespasian restored by, 120 ; and Geta,

305, 2S6.
Career, 80, 105 ; Mamertinus, 89.
Carceres of the Circus, 279, 294, 295, 340.
Carinje, 77, 162, 230.

Carinus and Numerian, fire in the time of, 116, 131.
Carmentalis, Porta, 36, 45, 46, 98, 187, 19S, 279, 314, 301,

305 ; temples of Juno near, 305 ; temples in the Campus

near, 301 ; temple of the Delphic Apollo outside the, 3 14.
Carmentine gate, 36, 45, 46, 98, 1S7, 198, 279, 314, 301,

305-
Carmentis, mother of Evander, 45.
Carrje, taking of the town depicted on the arch of Severus,

122.
Carriages not commonly used in the streets, Ixxiii.
Carthage, the wall of the Byrsa, 46.
Carthaginian ships, column adorned with beaks of, 89.
Cartliusian monastery, on part of the site of Diocletian's

baths, 257.
Carystian marble or cipollino, 113.
Casa Romuli, 33, xxiv.

Casale dei Pazzi, Mons Sacer among the hills of, 351.
Cassia, Via, 440.
Cassius, villa of, 428.
Cassius, Sp., treaty of, between Latins and Romans, 403;

temple of Ceres dedicated by, 292 ; house of, 231.
Cassius, Longinus, first theatre begun by, 317.
Castel Candolfo, lake of, 349,409; Giubileo, Fldenae, 352,

391 ; Savelli, 356, 357.
Castellaccio, 3S9.

Castello, Lago di, 355 ; emissarium of, 357.
Castor, temple of, 77, 82, 125, 277 ; architecture of the
temple of, xx.xvi ; portico of the temple of, xxxiv ; view
of the temple of, loi, 115; temple broken through by
Caligula, 160.
Castor and l^Uu.x, temple of, 100; temple at Tusculum, 178.
Castra, Ix ; of the Equites Singularii, Ix ; Misenatium,
Ix, 243 ; Peregrina, 223, Ix ; Praetoriana, Ix ; Raven-
natium, Ix.
Castrimonium, Castrimonienses, 376.

Castrum Inui, site of, 369 ; condemned by Martial as un-
healthy, 25.
Catacombs, mostly in granular tufa, 16 ; of S. Valentino,

travertine to be seen in, 20.
Catiline, conspiracy of, 92, 186.
Cato the Censor, Basilica Porcia built by, 80, 87.
Cato Junior, villa of, 409.
Cattle market, 3.
Catularia, Porta, 51.
Catulus, Q., Capitoline temple restored by, 183 ; house of,

iGl ; villa of. 42S.
Causice, hats worn in the amphitheatre, 240.
Cavajdium, or Cavum sedium, Ixviii, Ixxv ; Tuscanicum,

Ixvii.
Cecha or Zecca, name given in the Middle Ages to temple

of Saturn, 95.
Celer, architect, Ixxvi.
Celiolus, or Cseliolus, 4.
Cento Camarelle of Hadrian's villa, 426.
Centum Cellae, harbour at, Ivi.
Centum Gradus spoken of by Tacitus, 198.
Centumalus, CI., house of, on the Cajlian, 224.

General Index.

453

Cephisodotus, sla'ues of yCsculapius and Diana by, 310.

Ceres, altar in the Vicus J;igarius to, 277.

Ceres, Liber, and Libera, temple of, 292 ; a Tuscan temple,

xxvii.
Cermalus or GermaUis, 156.
Ceroliensis, district, 77.

Cervetri, Cxre, 3.

Cestius, bridge of, 13, 266; pyramid of, 69, 209, xlii.

Celroniiis, villa of, 42S.

Chalcidicum, no, in, 129; description of a, 167 ; position
of, xlix.

Changes of level, 12.

Cheimon, statue in llie Templum Pacis, 140.

Chiana, Canale della, 8; diversion of its Course, 21.

Chiavi d'Oro, Via de', 143.

Chiusa, Porta, 62 ; view of, 61.

Choragium Summum, 242.

Christian architect of the Coliseum, 235.

Christians employed on tlie baths of Diocletian, 25S.

Churches : — S. Agata alia Subura, So ; S. Alessio, 203 ;
S. Ambrogio, 321 ; S.Anastasia, 33, 155, 158 ; S.Andrea,
249, 312, 316; S. Balbina, 4, 49, 50, 203, 210 : S. Basil,
135 ; S. Bonaventur.i, 82 ; S. Clementc, 85 ; S. Cosma e
Damiano, 78, 135, 163, 19S, 200, xxx ; S. Francesca
Romana, 169 ; Domine quo Vadis, 432 ; S. Francisco di
Paola, 17 ; S. Giorgio in Velabro, 2S6; S. Giuseppe del
Falegnami, 80 ; S. Helena, 73 ; S. Tgnazio, 324 ; S. John
Lateran, 5 ; S. Lorenzo, 85, 1 14 ; S. Lorenzo in I'anis-
perna, 247 ; S. Louis, 260. S. Maria degli Angeli, 257,
248, xxxvi ; in Cacaberis, 312 ; in Campitelli, 309 ; delia
Conso'.azione, 196; in Ciisme lin, 32, 40, 292, 293, xxvii ;
in Domnica, 221 ; fgiziaca, 28S; di Grotta Pinta, 317;
Liberatrice, 33, 35. 102; di Loreto, 152; Maggiore, 5,
43, 66, 139, 167, 226; ad Martyres, or della Kotonda,
327; sopra Minerva, 140, 326; in Portico, 321 ; del
Popolo, 59 ; in Via Lata, 324 ; della Vittoria, 47, 249.
S. Marco, 313; S. Martina, III; S. Martina e Luca,
179 ; S. Marlino, 234 ; S. Nicola in Carcere. 305 ; S.
Nicolas in Trajan's Forum, 152 ; Nome di Maria, 145 ;
S. Paolo fuori le Mura, 88. S. Pietro in Carcere, 98 ;
in Montorio, 5, 15, 261 ; in Vincoli, 5, So, 226, 234, 243.
S. Prisc.i, 205 ; S. Saba, 4. 43, 50, 51, 203, 2IO, xxi ;
S. Salvatore in Ma.\imis, 192 ; S. Sergio c liacco, 123,
124: S. Silvestro, 47; S. Silvestro in Lago, 21, 102;
S. Stefano kotondo, 220, 221, 43 ; S. Teo loro, 33, 158,
278 ; S. Trinita di Monte, 5, 259 ; S. Vitale, 249.

Cicero's house on the Palatine, 161 ; villas, 407, 408.

Cilo, L. Fabius, Consul, inscription by, 40.

Cimbric tropliy of Marius, 193.

Cimbrum, name given to the trophies of Marius, 228.

Ciminian hills, 11, 18.

Cincinnatus, Prata Quinctia given to, 270.

Cinctus Gabiiius, 31, 149; note, 402.

Cinna and Marius, 8.

Cipollino, or C'arystian marble, 113.

Circi, general description of, l.xv.

Circus, games of the, 297.

Circus Caii et Neronis, 270.

Circus Flamiiiius, 303, 46, 313 ; temple of Vulcan removed
to, 85.

Circus of Hadrian, 272 ; of Maxentius, 433 ; view of,
434-

Circus Maximus, or Murcian valley, 291— 29S, 276, 6, 89 ;
m the time of Tarquinius Priscus, Ixv ; once a marshy
pool, 22; dimensions of, ni,le, 271 ; identified with the
Armilustrium, 205 ; architectural arrangements and re-
storations, Ixv ; as arranged by Cnesar, 295 ; in the times
of Nero, Titus, Domitian. and Trajan, 296 ; Ara Consi
in. 32 ; seen from the Palatine, 181 ; carccres of, 279.
CispiL's MoNS, 241—2.^3, 4, 5, 37. ^Edcs Mefitis, 242:
Ara Malx Fortune, 243; Ara Febris, 243; Castra
Misenatium, 243 ; Curia: Novas, 243 ; house ofCxsonius,
242. Lucus Junonis Lucina;, 242 ; Pjetclius, Mefitis.
Fagutalis, Larum, 242 ; Libiliiii, 242. Querquetulanum
Sacellum, 242 ; temple of Diana, 242; Vicus Patricius, 242.
Cities of the Campagna, 362. 363.
Citizens, number of, at various periods, 23.
Citta Leonina or Borgo, 58.
Civita Castellana, passed by Ricimer in his march to Rome,

444-
Civita Lavinia, the site of Lanuvium, 373.
Civitas Leonina, 269.

Civitella, near Sub aco, a supposed site of Vitellia, 3S7.
Clselia, equestrian statue of, 34, 164.

Claudian aqueduct, 66, 72, 73, 179; begim by Caligula
and finished by Nero, Iviii ; branch on the Crelian hill,
220 ; Specus of the Aqua Claudia, 65 ; view of, 24.
Claudian, statue of the poet, 153.

Claudius, temple of, 221 ; triumphal arch erected after his
return from Britain, 323 ; arch in memory of Tiberius
erected by, 341 ; crchway of the Acqua Viigine restored
by, 260 ; tlie Aventine enclosed within the Pomoerium
by, 203 ; Circus Maximus restored by, Ixv ; new harbour
constructed near Ostia by, 370, Ivi.
Claudius, App., the Censor, the road and aqueduct of,

431 ; temple of Bellona vowed by, 315.
Claudius Cenlumalus, 195.
Claudius, P., loss to the Roman fleet at Drepana occasioned

by, 75-
Claudius Pompeianus, attempted murder of Commodus by,

235-
Claudius Regillensis, temple of Bellona assigned to, 315.
Clexlas, M. Plauiius, a Greek painter, 369.
Clemens VIL, 275.
Clement XL, saltpetre factory established in the Coliseum

by, 236.
S. Clemente, resemblance of the Rostra to the ambones in,

85.
Cleopatra, statue of, 130.
Cleostrata, 52.

Cli.mate (and Geology) of Rome, pp. 22 — 27, also 9, 14 ;
unlicalthiness of the Campagna, 22, 24, 25, 363 ; increase
of malaria in modern times, 22 ; numerous ancient popu-
lation, 23 ; Campagna thought to be unheahhy under the
Empire, 25; once somewhat colder, 26; drainage in
ancient times, 26 ; ancient style of dress more healthy,
27 ; woollen toga given up, 27.
Clivus Africus, 231; Argcn'.arius, 197; Aricinus, note,
218 ; Asyli, 198 ; Capitolinus, 78, 79, 93, 95, 96, 196 ;
Mamurri, 249 ; Martis, 432 ; Publicius, 206 ; i'ullius,
231; Scauri, 2^3 ; Suburanus, 80; L'rbius, 231; Vic-
toria?, 35, 160 ; Virbi, 374.
Clonca Maxima, course, materials, dimensions, 279 — 2S3,
75, 44, Ivi ; history uf, 281 ; view of, 2S3 ; level of 12.

454

General Index.

Cloacae, xxv, Ivi ; of the Fonim, 2S4 ; Campus Martius,
286 ; Aventine, 285.

Cloacina, image of, found by Tatius, 2S4.

Clodius, house of, 161 ; villa of, 409, 411 ; murder of, at
Bovilla:, 369 ; riots on the murder of, 79, 83.

Cnasus Octavius, statue of, 86.

Cocceius, engineer in the time of Tiberius, Iv, Ivi.

Coeles Vibenna, legend of, 36, 213.

Coelian, see Cslian.

Coelimontana, Porta, 49, 46.

Coliseum, architecture of, xxix, xxxi, xxxvii, xxxviii, Ixiv.

Coliseum, site, architect, date, history, 234, 235 ; Alex-
ander Severus, 235 ; Antoninus Pius, 235 ; Basilius,
236 ; Benedict XIV., 236 ; bull -fight in 1332, 236 ;
Commodus, 235 ; Christian architect of, 235 ; description
and plan, 237 ; dimensions, 241 ; Frangipani, 236 ;
Heliogabalus, 235 ; Henry VII., 236 ; Hospital in 1415,
236 ; Lampridius, 236 ; Macrinus, 235 ; Passionspielen,
236 : saltpetre stores in, 236 ; stones used for palaces,
236 ; view from the Palatine, 237 ; view from the Forum,
115.

Collatia, site, legend of Lucretia, decay, 389, 391, 393, 394,
402, 403.

Collatina, Via, sources of the Aq. Augusta and Aq. Virgo
on, 389 ; Porta, 51.

Colle del Poetello, a supposed site of Horace's Sabine farm,

430-
CoUegio Inglese, vineyard of, 1 78 ; Romano, Servian walls

in, 44, 203.
Collegium Pistorum, lix, Ixxi.
CoUes distinguished from Montes, 37 ; CoUini, 246 ;

Quirinalis, Salutaris, Martialis, Latiaris, 248, 246.
Collina, Porta, 48, 68, 246, 440.
Colline, i.e. the Viminal and Quirinal, one of the four

Servian regions, 39.
CoUini and Montani, 37, 38.

Collis Dianje, name given to the Aventine, note, 205.
Collis Hortorum, 70 ; Hortulorum, name given to the

Pincian, 259.
Colonies, military, 55.

Colonna (Labicum), 351 ; statue in the Piazza, 147.
Colonna Gardens, remnants of Servian walls in, 43, 47 ;

ruins in, 253, 255, xlvii ; view of, 256.
Colonnacce, view of, 136.
Colonnades, xliii.
Colossus of Nero, 77, 164, 165 ; removed by Vespasian

and Hadrian, 165.
Columbaria, 216, 229.
Columna Antonini, i.e. M. Aurelii, 337; Bellica, 315;

Centenaria, i.e. M. Aurelii, 33S.
Column of M. Aurelius Antoninus, called Col. Major

Antonini, 335, 337, 338 ; C. Duilius, 89, xli ; C. Maenius,

89, 105 ; Phocas, 117, 118, 12, 99, 109; Trajan, 146 —

151, xli.
Columns, general description, xli, xxxix, xl.
Comarca, 17.

Commercial advantages of the site of Rome, 8.
Cominius, adventures of, 187, 1S8.

Comitia Centuriata, Septa for, 324, 325 ; Janiculum oc-
cupied by troops during, 262.
Comitia Curiata, 83 ; Tributa, 85 ; site of, 75, 81, 82, 89 ;

not separated from the Forum, 83.

Commodus, residence on the Caelian, 221 ; villas of, 415,
416, 435 ; fire in time of, 141 ; the Colossus of Nero
altered by, 165 ; his worship of Egyptian deities, 326;
buried in the mausoleum of Hadrian, 275 ; his passion
for sports, additions to the Coliseum, 235 ; fire in the
reign of, 166.

Compita Larum, 54.

Composite capitals, xxxv, 121.

Concord, temple of, 90 — 92, also 81, 84, 85, 89, 125,
131 ; architecture of the temple of, xxix, xxxvi ; entab-
lature of the temple of, 97 ; inscription on the temple
of, 92 ; meetings of the Senate in the temple of, 92 ;
temple of, built by Camillus, 194 ; chapel of, on the
Capitoline, 194 ; the brazen shrine of, 84.

Confetti di Tivoli, 245.

Constans II., bronze statue of M. Aurelius carried off by,
338.

Constantine, arch of, 171 — 173; architecture of the arch
of, xxxiv, xl ; Greek decoration in the arch of, xxxix ;
bas-relief on the arch of, 85, 125, 143 ; view of the
arch, 35 ; basilica of, 165—167, 139, xlviii, li ; view of,
166; basilica of St. Peter's erected by, 271 ; obelisk
brought by, 69 ; statues of, and of his sons, 255 ; probable
plan of the baths of, Ixii ; fragments in the Colonna
Gardens of the baths of, xlvii ; new capital established
by, 2 ; decline of art in the era of, 166, 171.

Constantini, Thermas, site of, 254, 255.

Constantius, obelisk in the Piazza of the Lateran brought
from Alexandria by, 296 ; restoration of the temple of
the Delphic Apollo by, 134 ; his visit to Rome, 144.

Constantius Chlorus, 258.

Consualia, 294.

Consus, Ara Consi, 32, 294.

Corcolo, supposed site of Ortona, 3S9.

Corinthian order, Roman adoption of, xxxiii ; columns in
the Via Bonella, 131 ; columns of the temple of Mars
Ultor, 131 ; style of the temple of Vespasian, 119.

Coriolanus, 437 ; Latin towns taken by, 387.

Corioli, Monte Giove, 380, 387 ; supposed site of Apiolac
near, 368.

Cornelius Cethegus, C, temple of Juno Sospita built by,

SOS-
Cornelius Nasica, P., worship of Magna Mater brought to

Rome by, 15S.
Corniculum, 394, 390, 393, 402.
Cornificii, villa of the, 362.

Cornificius, L., temple of Diana restored by, 205.
Comus Sacra, 157.
Corsi palace and castle, 192.
Corso, Ixxv ; the eastern boundary of the Campus Martius

Proper, 322 ; or Via Lata, the commencement of the

old Via Flaminia, 313, 345.
Cosa, 358.
S. Cosma e Damiano, church on the site of the temple of

Romulus, 135 ; supposed site of the /Edes Penatium at

the church of, 78, 163; portico of, x.\x; Capitoline plan

found near the church, 198, 200.
Cossutius, architect of the temple of Zeus Olympius at

Athens, Ixxvi.
Cotta, the surname of the gens Aurelia, 436.
Crabra, Aqua, source and course of, 358, 359, 361, 68, 218,

291 ; Cicero's Tusculan villa supplied by, 409.

General Index.

455

Crassus, standards lost by, 125 ; house of, 127, 161 ; tomb
of C. Metella, the wife of, 434.

Crassus, L. Otacilius, temple of Mens vowed by, 193.

Craters, extinct, iS.

Cremera, now the Valca, 419.

Croce Bianca, site of the forum of Nerva on the Via
della, 135.

Cronos, altar to, 92.

Crustumerium, 392, 393, 349, 390, 402.

Crustumia pyra, and ager Crustuminus, 392.

Crypta Balbi, 313: or Ciyptoporticus, described, 313.

Crjptoporticus in tlie Domus Aurea, 314.

Cubicula of a Roman house, bcviii.

CucuUus, a hood attached to the lacema, 27.

Culina of a Roman house, Ixviii.

Cumaean account of early settlement of Rome, 28.

Cuniculi of ancient cities, 35S, 383.

Cunina, 157.

Cupid, sculptures of, 311.

Cures, a Sabine town, 38.

Curia Calabra, 187. Hostilia, site of, 83, 82 ; burning of,
79 ; rebuilt by Sylla, 83 ; pulled down by Julius C;esar,
108 ; Basilica Porcia near, 87. Julia, 108 ; destroyed
by fires and rebuilt, 1 10. Octaviae, ruins called Porticus
/Edis Mercurii and Porticus Severini, 310, 311 ; meeting
of the Senate to receive Vespasian in, 311 ; statuary
in, 311. Pompeii, 316, 108 ; the scene of the assassina-
tion of Caesar, 319; Pompey's statue in, 319 ; Saliorum,
181.

Curiae Novae, 243 ; Veteres, the site undetermined, 32, 33.

Curio, wooden theatre of, Ixiii.

Curius Dentatus, Veline lake drained by, Iv.

Curtius, Lacus, 99; statue of, 105, 125.

Curule ^Ediles, offices at the Schola Xantha, 96.

Cybele, temple near the Aquas Albulae, 361 ; dome of, 158 ;
round temple of Hercules called the temple of, 290 :
statue bathed in the waters of the Almo, 359.

Cyclopean masonry, xxiii.

Cynosarges of Hadrian's villa, 423, 427.

Dacian campaigns depicted on Trajan's Column, 148 —
150; costume, 172, 173; prisoners, statues of, 153.

Damophilus, frescoes by, 292, 293.

Dea Murcia, a title of Venus, 291 ; Carna, Sacellum of,
223 ; Dia, grove of, 440 ; Roma, statue of, 4 ; Viriplaca,
Sacellum of, 181.

December sacrificial horse, 80.

Decennalia, 173.

Decianas, Thermx, 207.

Decumana, Porta, 61.

Demetrius, a freedman of Pompey, 318.

Democrats march to Rome, 48, 55.

Democritus, the v^itolian. So.

Desolation of the Campagna, 368.

Deus kediculus, temple of, 432.

Diana, grove at Come near Tusculum, 362 ; grove and
temple at Nomi, 353, 354, 218; temple near the Circus
Flaminius, 316 ; temple on the Aventine, 205 ; temple

on the Cispius, 242 ; statue of, by Cephisodotus, son of
Praxiteles, 310 ; wooden statue of, 205 ; statues of, at
Ephesus and Massilia, 205.
Dianre, nemus, speculum, lacus, stagnum, 353.
Dianmm at Nemi, 374.
Difeta;, 181.

Diet, more wholesome in ancient times, 27.
Digentia, the torrent now called Maricella, 430.
Dii Consentes, Area of, 96, 99, 1,8; inscription on. 106 ;

statues of, 96 ; view of the Porticus, 109.
Diocletian, his residence and wish to remove Rome, 2 ■
baths of, 257, 258, 64, 72, used in the fifth century,'
258 ; architecture of the baths, xxxiv— xxxvi ; probable
plan of the baths of, Ixii ; Ulpian libraries transferred
to the therma; of, 257 ; Curia Julia rebuilt by, 1 10 ;
palace at Spalatro, xxxviii ; Pompey's theatre restored
by, 320 ; persecution, 258.
Dionysius, picture of, by Aristides, 293.
Dionysius and Polycles, sculptors of the statue of Jupiter

Stator, 310.
Dioscuri, statues of, 255 ; temple near the Circus Flaminius,

316.
Diiibitorium, 331, 342.

Dis Pater, altar to, in the Campus Martins, 301.
Dius Fidius, or Semo Sancus, temple on the Quirinal, 250 ;
relics of Tanaquil in the temple of, 250 ; temple on the
Insula Tiberina, 250, 265.
Dogana in the Piazza di Pietra, 332.
Dolabella, arch of, 222, 223, 220 ; simplicity of the arch of,

xl ; Pompey's villa acquired by, 410. '
Doliola, 288.

Domestic architecture, interior, Ixvii ; exterior, Ixix.
Domine quo Vadis, church of, 432.

Domitian, changes effected by, 128; Appian road partly
reconstructed by, lii ; baths of Agrippa restored by,
327; probable plan of the baths of, Ixii ; Circus Maximus
restored by, Ixv ; Curia Julia rebuilt by, 1 10 ; equestrian
statue of, 125 ; Jani built by, 28S; Meta Sudans rebuilt
by, 171 ; Naumachia of, Ixv ; Odeum erected by, 342 ;
palace on the Palatine finished by, 176; stadium in the
Campus Martius erected by, 341 ; temple of Hercules on
the Appian road erected by, 436 ; temple of Jupiter
Custos built by, 187 ; temple of Vespasian built by, 120 ;
his reverence for Minerva and Janus, 119, 137, 288 :
his villa at Albano, 410, 411 ; his feats in killing wild
beasts in the amphitheatre, 410.
Domitiae Horti, 270.
Domitii, family monument of the, 260.
DomusAureaXeronis, 231 — 233, 164, 174, Ixxiii ; Caliguisc,
160 ; Q. Ciceronis, 231 ; Flaminis Dialis, 181 ; Ger-
manici, iSi ; Pinciana, 259; Pompeii, 316, 231, 320;
Tiberiana, 159 ; Transitoria, 164 ; and insula compared,
Ixx.
Doric style of the Greeks, xxvi — xxviii, 95, 98 ; order, pre-
ferable for amphitheatres, Ixiv ; and Ionic styles mingle*!,
143, 238.
Dragoncello, 350, 358.
Drainage in ancient times, 26 ; of the Forum, 279—286 ;

of the Aventine, 285 ; of the Campus Martius, 286.
Drepana, 75.

Dress, more healthy in ancient than in modem times, 27.
Drusilla, temple of, at Tivoli, 397, 399.

456

General Index.

Drusus, supposed arch of, 216, 217, 432, xxxix.

Diusus" house, subsequently Cicero's, 161.

Drusus, statue of, 135 ; temple of Castor restored by,

100.
Duilius, columna rostrata of, xli, 89.
Duodecim Tabulae, 86.

Ecetra, 403.

Egeria, grotto of, 359, 433 ; valley of, 218 ; worship of, 218.

Eiusiedlen MS., visit of the writer to Rome, $8, 59, 62.

Elephantus Herbarius, 198.

Emporium on the Aventine, 20S, 224; concrete of the,

xlvi.
Empulum, 400.

Engineering skill of the Romans, xliv, Ixxix, 357.
Enlargements of the city, 36.
Ennius, tomb of, 50.

Epeans, founders of the temple of Saturn, 92.
Epidemics, prevalence of, 25.
Equiria, in honour of Mars, 220, 301, 340.
Equites Singularii, Ix.
EsquiliK, 63.

Esquilina, Porta, 46, 49, 68, 437 ; identified with Porta
Metia, 52 ; Via Tiburtina, Via Proenestina, Via Labi-
cana, issue from, 73.
Esquiline, wlien added to the city, 37, 39 ; seen from S.

Pietro in Montorio, 5.
ESQUILINK Hill and Coliseum, chapter ix. part 2, in
three sections:— I. CAMPUS EsQUn.i.MUs ; II. Oppius,
q.v.; III. CiSPIUS, q.v. (see also independent references).
I. Campus Esquilinus, 226, 230; the Esqu'line vne
of the Servian regions, 39 ; altar to goddess Febris,
25 ; Aniphitheatrum Castrense, 226 ; arch of
Gallienus, 228 ; Columbaria, 229; chapel of Strenia,
77; Forum Esquilinum, 230 ; Galuzze, 229 ; gar-
dens of Maecenas, 226, 48, 164 ; grove of Mephitis,
25 ; Hercules Syllanns, 230 ; Horti Lamiani et
Pallantiani, 227 ; houses of Virgil, Propertius, Pliny,
and Pedo, 227 ; Macellum Livianum, 230 ; Minerva
Medica, or Galuzze, 229 ; Nymphseum of Alexander
Severus, 228 ; palace of Gordian, 227 ; place of
burial and execution, 226 ; Sessorium, 226 ; trophies
of Marias, 227.
Etruria, architecture of the tombs, 8t.

Etruscan artists, works of, 190 ; incursions, 51, 261, 262 ;
rites, 31, 34, 190 ; use of brickwork, xlv ; origin of the
name Atrium, txvii ; temples, xxix ; tombs, 81, 369, xlii ;
and Sabine frontier, cities on, 402.
Eugenius, inscription in honour of, I53-
Eumachia at Pompeii, m.
Euripi in the amphitheatre, 239.
Europa, portico of, 331 ; picture by Antiphilus, 319.
Eurysaces, tomb of, 65, 66, 72, xlii, Ixi.
Evander, the legend of, 28, 29, 79 ; altar of, on the
Aventine, 204 ; Carmentis mother of, 45 ; temple ot
Victoria founded by. 181.
Evandreum, Fanum, or Sacellum Evandreum, 40.
Exedra, Curia Pompeii of this form, 319.
Exedrae of a Roman house, Ixix ; of a villa, 408.

Fabia, Fabienses, 376.

Fabius, arch of, 104, 77, 78, 7S, xxxix.

Fabius Maximus, Q., Consul B.C. 297, 215 ; temple to

Venus Erycina vowed by, 193.
Fabius Gurges, Q., temple of Venus built by, 298.
Fabius Pictor on the military population, 23.
Fabius Rullianus, Q. , temple to Jupiter Victor vowed by,

17-
Fabricius, Pons, 265 ; the oldest, 266.
Factionum stabula, 341.
Fagntal, 37.
Fagutalis, Lucus, 242.

Falls of the Anio, formation of travertine, 20, 296.
Fanum Vacunce, 430.
Farness Gardens, ruins of Aurelian walls in, 69 ; palace,

built of stones from the Co'.iseum, 236.
Fasti Capitolini, fragment of, 102.
Fatale, Templum, no.
Fates, temple of the, 131.
Faunalia, 155.

Faunus, temple on the Island of the Tiber, 264.
Faustina, chapel of, 125 ; the elder, buried in the mauso-
leum of Hadrian, 274; the elder and younger, 114, 125.
Faustulus, tombstone of, 83. .
Faustui, the Curia restored by, 84.
Favisae Capitolince, 183.
Favoriss^e, or flaviss^, 41.
Febris, altars to the goddess, 25.
Febris, Tem|)lum, 252.
Felice, Acqia, its source at La Rifolta, 442.
Felicitas, temple to, 108, 84, 318 ; destroyed by the fire of

Nero, 1 10.
Feminal'a, 27.
Fenestella, Porta, 51.
Ferendna, Aqua, 358, 359, 377, 402, 436; meeting-place

of the Latin League, 358.
Ferentina, Porta, 51.
Feientin:e, Lucus, 377.
Festi, or Fossa Cluilia, 416.
Fetiales, customs of, 195, 315-
Fever, in Rome and the Campagna, 25 — 27.
Ficana, 367, 369, 402 ; population settled on the Aventine,

36.
FiceliDe, 251.
Ficulea, 303. 349, 390, 394, 402 ; (Monte della Creta), 351 ;

(Torre Liipara), 360.
Ficus Navia, 82, 157 ; Ruminalis, 157.
Fideiije, the first station on the Via Salaria, 390, 392, 393,

23, 348, 402, 440 ; Castel Giubileo, 352 ; catastrophe in

the theatre at, lii.
Fidenates, statues of ambassadors killed by, 85.
Fides, temple on ihe Capitoline, 187, 192.
Fidius, or .Semo Sancus, a Sabine and Latin god, 38.
Fire in the time of Carinus, 131 ; in the time of Tiberius,

207 ; in the reign of Vespasian, loi.
Fires in time of Commodus, 141, 166, 178, 191 ; at Rome,

in time of Nero, 164, 176, 227, 342 ; in Rome, 326, 327,

330 ; recorded by Li\'y, 90.
Fiumicino, the port made by Fontana under Paul V., 370.
Flaccus, house of, 161.

General Index.

457

riamen Dialis, house of, i8i ; Quirinalis, house of, 288.

Flaminian gate, 58, 59, 440.

Flaminian road, 6, 346, 345, 419 ; the Corso or Via Lata

the commencement of, 313 ; sites on, 440 ; tombs on, 432.
Flaminia, Via, villa of Livia at the ninth milestone of, 24,

420.
Flaminius Xepos, C, circus constructed by, 313, 85 ; Via

Flaminia named from, 313.
FlaWa Crecilia, tomb of, at Ostia, 371.
Flavian Amphitheatre, Coliseum so called, 234.
Flavissos, or favorisscE, 41, 1S3.
Flavins, Cn., shrine of Concord erected by, 84.
Flora, a Sabine and Latin god, 38 ; temple of, 29S ; temple

on the Quirinal, 249, 251.
Flumentana, Porta, 45, 46.
Fluviatile deposits on the Aventine, 202 ; on the Capitoline,

183.
Foedus Latinum, 86.
Fons Bandusiae, 431.
Fontana the architect, 370.
Fontana Paola, 139.
Fontana della Piazza dei Termini, 72.
Fontana Trevi, 323, Ixx.
Fonte di Papa, course of the AUia near, 359.
Fontinalis, Porta, 47.
Fora of the Emperors, chapter vii. pp. 127 — 153, see

FoRlM.
Formiae, 407.
Fomo Nuovo, 360.
Foro di Sallustio, 252.
Fors Fortuna, temple of, 267, 2S9.
Fortifications of Tarquinius Priscus and Servius Tullius,

42, 43-

Fortuna Equestris, temple of, 315; Muliebris, temple of,
on the Latin road, 289, 437 ; Primigenia, temple of, at
Prajneste, 3S4 — 387, 383 ; temple on the Capitoline, 193 ;
temple on the Quirinal to, 25 1 ; Publica, temple on the
Quirinal to, 251 ; Redux, altar of, 342; Respiciens, site
of, 181; Seia, chapel of, 231 ; Virilis, temples of, 288,
289 ; architecture of the temple of, xxxi — xxxiii.

Fortune, temples of, 288 ; principal temple on the Quirinal,
193 : temple at Praeneste, xi.

Forum Romanum, before Julius Caesar, chapter vi. part i,
pp. 74 — 106, also 276, 277, under the following heads {see
also independent references) : — yFdes Vestae, 103 ; arch
of I-'abius, 104 ; Argiletum, 79 ; Basilica Fulvia et
Emilia, 88 ; Opimia, 89 ; Paulli, 88 ; Porcia, 87 ;
Sempronia, 98; Canalis, 105; Career, 80; Columna
Mienia, 89 ; Duilia, 89 ; Comitium, 81 — 83 ; Curia, 83
(far drainage of the Forum, see 279 — 286) ; Dii Con-
sentes, 96 ; districts adjoining, 77 — 79 ; excavations, 77 ;
extent of the Forum, 75 — 77 ; Grjecostasis, 84 ; Jani,
105 ; Lacus Curtius, 100; Lacus .Ser\ilius, 99 ; Lautumia-,
80 ; Mxniana, 90 ; Pila Horatia, 104 ; Porta .Stercoraria,
97; Putealia, 86; Regia, 103 ; Rostra, 85; Sacrarium,
104; ScaUe Gemonia.-, Si; Schola Xantha, 95; Sena-
culum, 84; site of the Forum, 6; Solaria, 105 ; statues,
105 ; Tabemae Xovje, 89 ; Tabemae Vcteres, 90 ; Tabu-
larium, 97. Templum Concordiae, 90 ; Castoris, 93 ;
Jani, 87, 36 ; Satumi, 92 ; Vestae, 102. Tribunalia, 86 ;
Turris Mamili.i, 80; \'cnus Cloacina, 89 ; Vicus Jugarius,
98 ; Vicus Tuscus, 98 ; view of, 76.

Forum Rom.\ni'm, after Julius Caesar, chapter vi. part 2,
pp. 107—126, under the following heads (see also inde-
pendent notices) :— Arch of Augustus, 125 ; Sevenis, 120 ;
Tiberius, 117; Basilica Julia, 115; Paulli, 112. Chaptl
of Faustina, 125 ; Chalcidicum, no ; column of Phocas,
117; Curia Julia, 108; equestrian statue of Domitian,
125 ; Graecostadium, 120 ; Hereon of Julius Cxsar, 112;
Milliarium Aureum, 124; Rostra Nova, or Julia, in ;
Rostra of the later Empire, 124; Secretarium Scnitus,
in. Templeof Antoninus and Faustina, 113 ; Felicitas,
108; Minerva, 119 ; Vespasian, 119. Three pedestals]
117 ; view looking towards the Capitoline, 109.

Forum, north end sculptured on the arch of Constantine,
'73-

Fora of the Emperors, chapter vii. pp. 127 — 153, under

the following heads (see also independent references) :

Characteristics of Imperial Fora, 128; forum of Julius
Caesar, 129; of Augustus, 131 ; statues in, 135 ; exterior
"■all, 133 ; of Xerva, 135 ; of Vespasian, or Forum Pacis,
139; of Trajan, 141; later histor)', 151; remains, 152;
Proper, 141 ; Basilica Ulpia, 144 ; Greek and Latin
Libraries, 146 ; Colonacce, 136; column of Tr.ajan, 146;
bas-relieft on, 148. Temple of Janus, 137 ; Mars Ultor,
131; Minena, 137, 139; Pads, 140; Trajan, 151;
Venus Genetrix, 130 ; triumphal arch of Trajan, 143.

Forum, gladiatorial combats in the, Ixiii ; of Augustus, 131
— 135, 128, 89. Boarium, 279, 6, 128, 276, 32, 46 ;
man and woman buried alive in, 279 ; merchants of
the, 2S6, 287 ; temple of Fortune in, 288 ; round temple
of Llercules Victor, 291. Esquilinum, 230 ; Julium,
82 ; of Julius Caesar, 129 — 132 ; of Xerva, 135, 79, 131 ;
viev.s of, 136, 138 ; temple of Janus in, 136 ; Olitorium,
279. 305 ; Piscatorium, 279 ; Transiiorium, 132, 138 ;
of Trajan, 141 — 153, 6 ; shops in, 142 ; excavations,
152; statues, 153; ancient level of, 12; later history,
151 ; of Vespasian, or Forum Pacis, 139; at Pompeii,
best extant example of a forum, 128.

Fossa Cluilia, 416, 435 ; Quiritium, 218.

Fossils, 15, 17 ; on the Aventine, 203 ; on the Vatican, 269.

Fosso deir Acqua Ferrata, called the Peneus, 422.

Fosso di Malpasso supposed to be the .A.llia, 359.

Fountains, lix, Ix.

S. Francesca Romana, the church on the site of the
Colossus of Xero, 164, 169.

S. Francisco di Paola, vaults of tufa tcrroso, 1 7.

Frangipani family, 236.

Frascati, origin of the town and name, 380 ; supposed site
of the villa of LuculUis, 409 ; lava near, 349, 350 ; re-
mains of the Via Tusculana above, 377.

Fratocchie, basaltic lava near, 350.

Fratres Arvales, festival of, 441.

Fresh-water deposits on the Pincian, 245, 259 ; formations,
18; in the Tiber valley, 14.

Frontinus, architect, Ixxvi ; on the height of the hills, 12 :
on the unhealthiness of Rome, 25.

Frontispicium Neronis, 253 ; view of, 254.

Fucine lake, tunnel of, Ivi.

Fufitius, architect, Ixxvi.

Fulvia et /Emilia, Basilica, 88, 89, 75, 263 ; sun-dial on,
106.

Fulvius Flacciis, Q., Emporium improved by, 208 ; temple
of Fortuna Equestris dedicated by, 315.

3 N'

458

General Index.

Fulvius Nobilior, M., 88, 263 ; ,Edes Herculis Musarum

built by, 311.
Furina, grove of, 262.

Furius, L., restoration of the temple of Saturn by, 95.
Furlo Pass, tumiel on the, Iv.

Gabii, 3S1, 351, 391, 402; lapis Gabinus, 381; temple
of [uno at, 38 1 ; now deserted, 23 ; treaty between Tar-
quinius Superbus and the town of, 250.
Gabinian fashion of wearing the toga, 31.
Gabinius Vettius Probianus, Basilica Julia repaired by, 116.
Gabinius, villa of, 408, 409.
Galba, 124, 159; horrea of, Ixi.
Galerius Maximianus, 258.
Gallicano, a probable site of Pedum, 3S8.
Gallienus, 57 ; arch of, 228,49, 226, xxxix; palace of, 229 ;

tomb of, 436.
Galluccio, Terme di, 229.
Galluzze, or Minerva Medica, 229.
Ganymede, statue in the Templum Pacis, 140.
Gardens of Maecenas, 226.

Gates, see Porta ; three required in a new town by the
Etruscan religion, 34; in the Servian walls, q. v.,
45 — 51 ; in the walls of Aurelian and Honorius, q. v.,
5S-69.
Gateways, ancient, xxiii.

Gaudentius, reputed architect of the Coliseum, 235.
Gauls, approach to tlie city, 360 B.C., 48; effects of the

burning by, 12.
Gelotiana, Domus, 181.

Geology {and Climate, q. v.) of Rome, chapter ii. pp.
14 — 21, under the following heads: — Tertiary marine
formations, 14 ; volcanic fomiations, 15 ; hard tufa, 15 ;
granular tufa, 16 ; ancient volcanoes of Latium, 17 ;
fresh-water formations, 18 ; changes in the Tiber water,
20 ; ancient level of the Tiber, 20 ; primaeval condition
of the country, 21.
Geology of the C.'^mpagna, 348 — 350 ; Janiculum, 262 ;

Palatine, 154; Viminal, Quirinal, and Pincian, 245.
Geology, marine formations, 14, 17, 183 ; fresh-water
deposits, 14, 18, 245, 259 ; fossils, 15, 17, 203, 269 ; see
Tufa, Volcanoes.
Gelasius, Lupercalia celebrated in the time of, 157.
Genius of the Roman people, temple of, 86 ; golden statue

of, 125.
Genseric, ravages of, 443 ; temple of Jupiter plundered by,

191.
" Gentem Flabiam," locality so called, 253.
Genrano, 353, 354.
Germalus, 33 ; origin of the name and site of, 155, },}, \

a suburb of the Palatine, 35.
Germanici, Domus, iSi.
Germanicus, horrea of, Ixi ; standards recovered by, 117 ;

statue of, 135.
Geta, his name and figure erased from public monuments,

120, 123, 2S6 ; burial-place of, 180.
Ghetarello, ruins of the Fonmi Juliura in the Via del, 129.
S. Giorgio in Velabro, Arcus Argentariorum in the wall of,

286.
La Giostra, the ancient Tellena;, 36J-\

S. Giovanni, Porta, 67, 68 ; view of, 66.

SS. Giovanni e Paolo, substructions under the garden of,
221.

S. Giuseppe dei Falegnami, church of, 80.

Gladiatorial combats, Ixiii, 279, 236 ; surveyed from the
Rostra, 85, 88.

Glass used for windows, Ixxiv.

Gnomon obelisk, '^^'^'S-

Golden House of Nero, 231 — 233, 164, 174.

Goldsmiths' Arch, in the Velabrum, 123 ; one of only four
specimens of composite arcliitecture, xxxv.

Gordian, palace of, 227.

Gordians, villa on the Via Prsnestina, 411, 418, 437, 1.

Gordian III., last recorded opening of temple of Janus
under, 87.

Gorgasus, frescoes by, 292, 293.

Goths, devastations by the, 443, 444.

Gracchi, residence on the Aventine of the, 204.

Gracchus, Caius, 89, 91, 206, 207 ; his care for the roads,
431 ; milestones erected by, 49 ; murder of, 262.

Gracchus, Tib., temple of Liberty foimded by, 204 ; mur-
dered by the Senators, 193.

Graffiti found on the Palatine, 158.

Grscostadium, the old and new, 123.

Grrecostasis, 84, 82, 105.

Gratiani, Pons, 266.

Greek architecture, influence of, xxvii ; style in the Pantheon,
xxxvii ; in the Golden House of Nero, xxxviii ; origin of
the name Rome, 28 ; inscriptions on Porta S. Sebastiano,
68 ; religion, its early influence on the Romans, 315.

Gregoriopolis, 370.

Gregory the Great, his vision of S. Michael, 275.

Gregoiy IL, inundations of the Tiber, 59.

Gregory IV., fortress built at Ostia by, 370.

Gregory XVI., 66; pedestal of Antonine Column placed

by, 334-
Grotta Ferrata, 349.
Guiscard, the wars of, 444.
Gymnasium Neronis, 342.

Hadrian, his own architect, Ixxvii ; rage for building under,
xlix ; ApoUodorus the architect put to death by, 1 70 ;
baths of Agrippa restored by, 327 ; changes effected by,
128 ; circus of, 272 ; Colossus of Nero removed by,
165 ; Curia ^Iilia built at Gabii by, 382 ; list of debtors
burnt in Trajan's Forum by, 153 ; mausoleum of, 272 —
275, 46, 267, 270 ; made a fortress, 59 ; Pons /Elius
built by, 267 ; Septa of, 324 ; remains of colossal statue
of, 273 ; temple of, in tlie Campus Martius, 332 ; temple
of Trajan dedicated by, 151 ; temple to the fortune of
the city dedicated by, 10; Tiburtine villa of, 421 — 428,
62, 361, 411 ; unhealthiness of the site, 24 ; Venus de'
Medici found in the villa, 311 ; great extent of the villa,
xlix ; imitations of Greek buildings in the villa of,
425 — 427, xxxviii.

Hadrian's villa plundered by Constantine, the Gotlis, and
Lombards, 442 ; villa at Praeneste, 3S3.

Hadrian I., inundations of the Tiber in the time of, 59.

Hannibal, attacks on the city by, 48, 55 ; camp of, Iv,
349-

General Index.

459

Harbours, Ivi.

Haruspices, rules of, 1 86.

Health of Rome bettered by the improvements of Sixtus V.,
26.

Hecatostylon, synonymous with Porticus Pompeii, 319.

S. Helena, church of, 73 ; supposed tomb of, 438.

Heliocaminus of Hadrian's villa, 426.

Heliogabalui, Coliseum repaired by, 235 ; Palace of the
Caesars enlarged by, 1 78 ; Senaculum Mulierum erected
by, 259; statue of, no; temple of, 180; character of,
iSo.

Hellanodicse, Stoa of, 1.

Hellenes, founders of Rome, 29.

Hellenic Pelasgi, unacquainted with the arch, xxiv ; legends,
28, 29, 92.

Henry VII., Coliseum protected by, 236.

Heraclius, coronation of, 177, 181.

Hercules, tithes vowed to, 32 ; temple at Cora so called,
xxviii ; temple on the Appian road, 436 ; round temple
near the mouth of the Cloaca Maxima, 290, 280, 283 ;
view of, 291.

Hercules Custos, temple of, 314; Musarum, or Musagetes,
temple of, 311, 312; Syllanus, temple of, 230; Victor,
altar of, ad Portam Trigeminam, 41 ; bronze statue of,
40 ; temple of, 295, 40; temple at Tibur, 178, 397.

Hercules of Glykon, 213.

Herculeum at Tibur, 397.

Herculeus, an epithet of Tibur, 397.

Herdonius, story of, 187 ; drowmed in the Aqua Ferentina,

377-

Hermathena of Cicero, 408.

Hermodorus the Ephesian, statue of, 82.

Hermodorus of Salamis, first Greek architect employed at
Rome, Ixxvi ; temple of Jupiter Stator built by, 309 ;
temple of Mars built by, 315.

Hemicans, 401, 403 ; territor)' of, 348.

Heroon near the Circus of Maxentius, 419 ; in the Subur-
banum Gordiani, 419; of Julius Ctesar, 112, 125.

Heroum of Flavian gens, 253.

Hersenius, Marcus < )ctavius, round temple attributed to,
40.

Hesione, picture by Antiphilus, 311.

Hiero, 83.

Hills of Rome, general description, 4 ; the so-called
" Seven," 37. See Aventine, chapter ix. part I, pp. 202
— 213, &c. ; Capitoline, chapter viii. part 2, pp. 182 —
201 ; Csjlian, chapter i.\. part i, pp. 213 — 224, &c. ;
Caehculus or Csliolus, 220; Ciminian, 11, iS ; Cispius,
242 — 244 ; Esquiline, chapter ix. part 2, pp. 226 —
244; Fagutal, 37; Germalus, 155; Janiculum, chapter
xi. pp. 261 — 268; Lateran, 218 — 220, 214; Oppiu-s,
230 — 242 ; Palatine, chapter viii. part i, 154 — 181,
&c. ; Pincian, chapter x. pp. 245, 259, 260, &c. ;
Quirinal, chapter x. pp. 245 — 259 ; Viminal, 245 — 247 ;
Velia, 162; Vatican, chapter xi. pp. 268 — 275.

Hills between the Tiber and the Anio, 351 ; on the left
bank of the Anio, 351 ; of the Campagna, 349; Alban
hills, 349.

Honorius, number of Roman citizens in tlie time of, 23 ;
influx of barbarians in the reign of, 442 ; gateway of, 72 ;
statue of, 65 ; Pompcy's theatre rebuilt liy, 320 ; walls of.
chap. V. p. 58.

Honorius I., bronze tiles of the temple of X'enus and Roma
removed to St. Peter's by, 171.

Honour, temple of, 49, 318; church of S. L'rbano sup-
posed to be Marius's temple of, 433.

Honour and Virtue, temple dedicate*! by Marius to, 193,
192 ; architect of the temple, Ixxvi.

Horace, Sabine farm of, 428 ; burial-place of, note, 227 ;
his dread of the autumnal heats, 25.

Horatia, tomb of, 50.

Horatii and Curiatii, 104 ; tomb of, xlii.

Horatius Codes, 44 ; statue of, 83, 85.

Horatius Pulvillus, temple of Jupiter Capitolinus dedicated
by, 189 ; commencement of the Capitoline era in the
consulship of, 189.

Horrea, Ixi ; Galbes et Aniciana, 207.

Hortensius, dictator, 262 ; villa of, 416.

Horti Agrippinx, 270, 267 ; C^saris, on the Janiculum,
268 ; Domitiani, 260 ; Domitia?, 270, 267 ; Lamiani,
227 ; Neronis, 270 ; Pallantiani, 227 ; Pompeiani, 260 ;
Sallustiani, 252, 251 ; Scapulani, 268.

Hostilius, curia of, x.\iv.

Hygrea, statue by Niceratus, 91.

Hypela;a, 163.

lalysus the Rhodian hero, picture of, by Protogenes, 140.

Icilian law, 36, 204, 205.

S. Ignazio, .'Jie of the Septa near the church of, 324.

Imperial Fora, characteristics of, 12S.

Infen of Hadrian's villa, 423.

Innocent II., tomb in the Lateran, 274.

Innocent V., obelisk of the Circus of Maxentius removed by,
340-

Inscription on the arch of Claudius in the Campus Marlius,
323 ; on the arch of Gallienus, 228 ; on the arch of
Severus, 123 ; on the Arcus Argentariorum, 286 ; on the
Capitoline plan, 200 ; on a fragment of Antonine's
Column, 335 ; on the Pantheon, 328 ; on the Porta S.
Lorenzo, 71 ; on the Portico of Octavia, 306 ; on the
temple of Antoninus and Faustina, 1 14 ; on the temple
of Minerva in the forum of Nen'a, 137 ; on the temple
of Vespasian, 120 ; on the tomb of Bibulus, 197 ; on the
tomb of Eur)'saces, 72 ; on Trajan's Column, 147, 148 ;
to an unknown deity, 158.

Inscriptions on the arch of Constantine, 173; on the Area
of the Dii Consentes, 106 ; relating to the pillar of M.
Aurelius, 337; to members of the gens Cornelia, 215 ;
relating to Hercules Victor, 40; on Porta Maggiorc, 65,
72 ; on the Schola Xantha, 96, 106 ; to various members
of the Scipio family, 215 ; relating to the temple of
Concord, 91, 92 ; relating to the temple of Saturn, 94 ;
found in Trajan's Konim, 153.

Insula Argentaria, 197 : Tiberina, 263 ; view of, 265 ;
temple of Semo Sancus on, 250.

Insulte at Rome, Ixxi.

Intermontium on the Capitol, 79, 184, 196, 198 ; fluvia-
tile deposits on, iS ; on the Palatine and Aventine, 33.

Ionic order, Roman modifications of, xxx.

Iseum, 325.

Isis, temple in the Campus Martius to, 324—326, 342 ;
ruins of a temple near S. .Maria sopra Miner\.i, 140;
temple on the Ca.Iian, 223.

3 ^■ 2

460

General Index.

Isium Metellinum, 223.

Island of the Tiber, 263—265.

Isola Sacra formed by the alluvium of the Tibur, 371.

Jani in the Forum, 105, 87 ; built by Domitian, 288.
Janiculan gate, now the Porta S. Pancrazio, 440 ; com-
mencement of the Via Aurelia, 440.
Janiculan Hill, chapter xi. pp. 261 — 268, under the
following heads {see also independent refci-ences) : — Arae
Fontis, 267 ; bridges, 262 — 267 ; Codeta Minor, 267 ;
Fontana Paola, 139 ; geology, general features, 262, 4,
14, 15: grove of Kurina, 262 ; height, 262 ; history,
name, 261, 262, 28, 29, 51 ; Horti C^saris, 26S ; Insula
Tiberina, 263 ; Nemus Ciesaris, 268 ; Numa's burial-
place, 267. Pons i-Emilius, 263 ; jElius (S. Angelo), 267 ;
Antoninianus, 266 ; Aurelius, 266 ; Cestius, or Gratiani,
266 ; Fabricius, 265 ; Janicularis, 266 ; Neronianus, or
Vaticanus, 267 ; Probi, 263 ; Sublicius, 262 ; Trium-
philis, 267. Prata Mucia, 267 ; statue of Julius Cssar,
265. Temple of .'Esculapius, 264 ; Faunus, 264 ; Fors
Fortuna, 267 ; Jupiter, 264 ; .Semo Sancus, or Dius
Fidius, 265. ^^'alls on, 51 ; in the time of Cicero, 52.
Janicularis, Pons, 266.
Janualis, Porta, 36.

Janus, the power of the god, 87. Temple in tte .-^rgiletum,
305 ; in the Forum, 87, 36, 79, 129, 305, xxivf ; in the
forum of Nerva, 137 ; in the Forum Olitorium, 305, 79.
Of the Porticus Pompeii, 319; Medius, arch of, 105-,
Quadrifrons, 287, xxxix.
Jerasalem, trophies from, in the Templum Pacis, 140.
Jewish spoils depicted on the arch of Titus, 167.
S. John Lateran, basilica, 5.
S. John's gate, the ancient Porta Asinaria, 67.
John XII., 152.
Jovis Cajnatio, note on, 177.
Jugarius, Vicus, 45.
Jugurtha, executed in the Career, 81.
Jugurthine trophy of Marius, 193.
Julian aqueduct, 65, 72, 220; source of, 71, 442.
Julian basilica, 115 — 117, 75, 76, 77, 100, 123, 125, 173,

277, 1, li.
Julian and Sulpicianus, bidders for the Empire, 61.
Julium, Forum, 82, 85.

Julius Caesar, his design of removing Rome, I ; city
enlarged by, 75 ; his design for enlarging the Campus
Martius, 301 ; removal of the tribunal and rostra, 82 ;
residence of, 78, 79 ; his villa on the lake of Nemi, 355 ;
Circus Maximus restored by, Ixv ; alterations in the Forum
by, 107, 108 ; Curia of Sylla pulled down by, 84 ; rostra
built by, 85 ; forum of, 129 — 131 ; marble Septa erected
by, 326 ; temples built by, 90 ; temple to Venus Victri.\
built by, 130 ; temple to Mars Ultor built by, 134; his
pride, 131 ; conspiracy against the life of, 161 ; assas-
sination in the Curia Pompeii, 319 ; funeral of, 86 ;
marble column in the Foiiim in honour of, xli ; statue
of, on the Island of the Tiber, 265.
Julius II., changes under, 299.
Junia, Porticus, 207.
Junius Bubulcus, C, temple of Salus dedicated by, 250.

Junius Bratus Callaicus, temple of Mars built by, 315.

Juno Juga, altar to, in the Vicus Jugarius, 277.

Juno, cella of, in temple of Jupiter Capitohnus, 189 ; statue
in the temple of Concord, by Baton, 91 ; temple at
Gabii, 374, 318; Tuscan plan of the temple in the
Porticus Octavioe, xxix.

Junonis Lucinae, yEdes, and Lucus, 242.

Juno Moneta, temple of, 194.

Juno Regina, temple at Ardea, 369 ; temple in the Porticus
Octavioe, 309 ; view of, 308 ; columns of the temple in
the Via di S. Angelo in Pescheria, 321 ; another temple
near the Circus Flaminius, 316 ; procession in honour of,
314 ; the Veientine goddess, temple on the Aventine to,
205, 206.

Juno Sospita, temple at Lanuvium, 373 ; temple of, in the
Circus Flaminius, 305; on the Palatine, 158.

Jupiter, chapels on the Capitoline, 193 ; temple in the
Foi-um Pompeii, 128 ; temple near the Circus, 298 ;
temple on the Island of the Tiber, 264 ; ruins of a
temple at Aricia, 374.

Jupiter Capitolinus, temple of, 185 — 192, 46, 75 ; temple
of, built on the Tuscan plan, xxvi ; conflagration of the
temple, 1 59 ; restoration of the temple by .Sulla, xxxiv ;
tabularia in the temple of, 97 ; statue of, 1 86.

Jupiter Consus, altar of, 204 ; Custos, temple of, 187, 18S ;
Elicius, altar of, 204 ; Feretrius, chapel of, xxiv, 192 ;
Indiges, grove of, 364; Inventor, altar on the Aventme
to, 204 ; altar dedicated by Hercules to, 41 ; Latiaris,
temple of, 376, 409 ; Propugnator, temple on the Pala-
tine to, 181 ; Redux, temple of, 223 ; Stator, temple of,
on the Palatine, 162, 32, 34, 77, 176, xxiv ; destroyed in
Nero's fire, 164 ; Stator, temple in the Porticus Octaviae,
309, 310 ; Tuscan plan of, xxbc ; Tonans, temple of, 192 ;
Victor, temple on the Palatine, 178, 32.

Jutuma, fountain and stream of, lOO, 352, 358 ; temple of,
342.

Juventus, temple of, 29S.

La Colonna, the site of Labicum, 381, 438.

La Rifolta, source of the Aqueduct Felice at, 442.

La Giostra, the ancient Politorium, walls at, xxii.

Labicana, Porta, 66.

Labicana, Via, 16, 49, 62, 66, 73, 3S1, liv, Iviii ; com-
mencement of, 437.

Labicum, La Colonna, 3S1, 387, 388, 391, 437.

Laconicum, or sudatio, of Roman thermae, 330 ; in the
thermae of Hadrian's villa, 427.

Lacus Curtius, 99 ; Servilius, 277, 99.

Lrelius, his retreat at Laurentuin, 23.

Lago d'Albano, or di Castello, 355 ; emissarium of, 357;
Bracciano, an extinct crater, 18 ; delle Colonelle, 361 ;
S. Giovanni, 361 ; delle Isole Natanti, 361 ; di Nemi,
353 — 355 ; dei Tartari, 361 ; di Tumo, or di Giuturna,

358.
Lagunes and marshes of the Campagna, 353.
Lake Regillus, 361 ; now dried up, 362 ; battle of, 365,

380.
Lakes and brooks of the Campagna, 352 — 362.
Lakes of Gabii, Juturna, and Laurentum absorbed, 22.

Getieral Index.

461

Lami.-e, Lamiani Horti, 227.

Lampridius, arena and podium of the Coliseum rebuilt by,

235-
Lanuvium, 373, 362, 369, 374, 393.
Lapideus, Pons, 263.
Lapis basanites, 140.
Lapis Gabinus, or Albanus, i.e. peperino, 1S3, 2S1, 381,

382.
Lararium of a Roman house, Ixix ; on the Palatine, 1 77.
Lares Pemiarini, temple in the Campus Martius to, 342.
Larghetto, 349.

Largo del Palazzo at Xaples, 128.
Lariccia, 409 ; the site of the arx of the ancient Aricia,

374-
Lartius, Titus, reputed founder of the temple of Saturn,

92.
Latum, Lucus, 242.
La Rustica, supposed to be the " Ustica cubans " of

Horace, 431.

Lata, Via, 345, 346, 197, 303, 31

O'Ji o--> J-J>

Later AN Hill, 21S — 220, 214.

Lateran palace and basilica, site of, 220.

Lateranus, Plautius, house of, 220.

Latiaris, CoUis, 248.

Latifundia, description of, 362, 403 ; villas, roads, and
aqueducts of tlie Campagna, 402 — ^442.

Latin custom of burial, 216 ; deities, 38.

Latin gate, 58 ; view of, 68.

Latin League, 402 ; cities of, 362, 363 ; meeting-place at
the Aqua Ferentina, 358 ; sanctuary of, 204 ; temple of
Diana built by Servius for, 205.

Latin rites derived from the Greeks, 32.

Latin road, 436— 43S, 363, 375, liv, Iv ; its early con-
struction, 431 ; commencement, 432 ; number of tombs
on, 432, 437 ; fragments remaining of, liii, 68.

Latin war, 85.

Latium adjectum, 348 ; antiquum, 348 : antiquissimum,
boundaries of, 348, 352 ; first collision of Rome with,
402 ; lands chiefly occupied by Patricians, 404, 405 ;
fifty-three populations extinct in the time of Plinv,
388.

Latona, statue by Euphranor, 91.

Laurens Tractus, cities of, 363 — 367.

Laurentia, Stagna, 353.

Laurentine villas, 411 — 416.

Laurentinum of Pliny, 411 — 415.

Laurentum, 363 — 365, 348, 354, 402, 411, 415 ; existed at
the end of the fourth centur)% 365 ; the resort of Laelius
and Scipio, 23 ; now deserted, 23, 205.

Lauro-Lavinium, 365.

Lautulae, 79.

Lautumia;, district so called, 80, 87.

Lava, source in the Alban hills, 17.

Lavacrum Agrippinae, 247.

Lavemalis, Porta, 50.

Lavinium (Pratica), 366, 23, 34S, 332, 354, 363, 364,
368, 402, 366.

Legend as to the fotmding of the temple of Saturn, 92 ; of
Tarpeia, 1S3 ; of Romus founding -Enea and Rome, 28 ;
of the apotheosis of Romulus, 300 ; of the Lanuvine
snake, 373 ; concerning the temples of Jupiter Stator
and Juno, 310 ; of Janus occupying tlie Janiculum,

29 ; of Horatius Codes, 44 ; of Hercules' visit to the
Circus valley, 294 ; of Evander and his Arcadians, 28 ■
of Coeles Vibenna, 36 ; of bells in the Capitol, 191 ; of
the sow and pigs at Lavinium, 366 ; of the settlement of
Aneas m Hesperia, 29.
Legends of Satumus founding Satumi.-i, 29 ; of Romu-
lus and Remus, 9,21,29; of the Lacus Curtius, 99-
Hellenic, 28, 29 ; of the foundation of Rome, 28.
Legio Fulminata, the story depicted on the column of

M. Aurelius, 336.
Lentulus, strangled in the Career, 81.
Leo HL, Basilica of St. Peter in the time of, 269.
Leo IV., Civitas Leonina enclosed by, 269 ; the Vatican

fortified by, 58 ; Borgo Leonina, 58.
Leo X., changes under, 299.
Lepidus, temple of Felicitas built by, 108.
Liber, picture of the god by Nicias, 91.
Libertas, temple on the Aventine to, 206.
Libertatis, Atrium, 144.
Libitinse, Lucus, 242.
Libitinensis, Porta, 51.
Libo, Puteal of, 86.
Libraries, lii ; Greek and Latin, in the forum of Trajan,

146, lii, 151.
Library of Hadrian's villa, 426; on the Palatine, 175, 178,
lii ; in the Templum Pacis, 140 ; in the Tiberian palace,
IS9-
Licenza, Horace's Sabine farm near, 430.
Licinianum Palatium, or Galuzze, 229.
Licinius, Consul, 401 ; agrarian law of, 404.
Litemum, villa of Scipio at, 406.
Livia, house of, at Prima Porta, 24.
Livice et Octaviae, Porticus, 306 — 308, 310—312, 46,

200, 342.
Livius Andronicus, the poet, 206.
Locrensian envoys, petition of, 86.
Lolliana, Hoirea, Ixi.
Lollius, M., 266.

Lombards, devastations by the, 443, 444.
S. Lorenzo, church on the site of the temple of .\ntoninus
and Faustina, 1 14 ; scene of the trial of, 177 ; church of,
85, 114 ; in Panispema, convent and church of, 247.
S. Lorenzo, Porta (Tiburtina), 62 — 64, 58, 72 ; simplicity
of the style of, xl; note on, 71; view of, 63; archway
near the Porta, lix ; site of the Prajtorian camp near,
219.
Lorium, villa of the Antonines at, 411.
Lotos-tree on the Vulcanal, 129.
Louis H. crowned in the Capitol, igi.
S. Louis, church on the supposed site of the Thermae

Neronis, 260.
Lucano, Ponte, 438.
Luceres, ancient seat of the, 214.
S. Lucia in .Selce, Via di. So.
Lucius Verus, villa of. 4 1 1 .
Lucretilis, Mons, 430, 431.
Lucrinus, canal from Baia; to, Ivi.
LucuUus, villa of, 409, 127, 380; tomb of, 380; gardens

of, 259.
Lucus Fagutalis, 242 ; Ferentinx, 377 ; Junonis Lucin.-v,
242 ; Lamm, 242 ; Libitina;, 243 ; Mefilis, 24s ; P.alelius,
242.

462

General Iiidi

ex.

Ludi ApoUinares, 253, 313, 315; Circenses, 295; Srecu-
lares, 501 ; Taurii, 313.

Ludus Dacicus, 242 ; Gallicus, 242 ; Matutinus, 242 ;
Magnus, 242.

Lugnano, supposed site of Bola, 388.

Luna, temple of, 207, 175, 298.

Lunghezza, 389.

Lupercal, site of, 156, 157, 33.

Lupercalia, 155 ; celebrated A. D. 496, 157.

Luperci and Salii, the oldest colleges of priests, 38.

Lupercus, the worship of, 156.

Lutatius Catulus, Record Office erected by, 97.

Lutatius Catulus, Q., temple of Jupiter Capitolinus dedi-
cated by, 190.

Lyceum of Hadrian's villa, 427, 423, xxviii.

Lysicrates, form of the choragic monument of, xxx.

Lysippus, sculptures by, 40, 141, 310; Apoxyomenos of,
327 ; statue of C3:sar's horse by, 131.

Macel de' Corvi, tomb of Bibulus near the street of, 197.
Macellum Augusti, 221 ; Livianum, 230 ; Magnum,

221.
Macrinus, Coliseum damaged by lightning in the time of,

235-
Maecenas, gardens of, 226, 48, 231, 232 : the residence of
Tiberius, 159; tower on the Esquiline, 401; villa of,
399. 428.
Maelius, Sp., house of, 198, 277.
Mo^niana, pergula;, or podia, Ixxiv, 90.
Maenius, C, the dictator, 89 ; column in honour of, 89,

105 ; statue of, 86.
Mainius and Titus, Basilica Porcia on the site of the houses

of, 87.
Magazines on the Aventine, 207.

Maggiore, Porta, 58, 62, 66, 73 ; the ancient PraDnestina,
65 ; view of, 65 ; simplicity of the style of, xl ; point
where the aqueducts enter the city, 441, 220 ; tomb of
Eurysaces near, xlii ; archway near, lix.
Magliano, affluent of the Anio, 361.
Magna Mater, temple near the Circus, 298.
Magna Mater Ida^a, temple of, on the Palatine, 158.
Magnanapoli, Via, origin of the name, 141.
Magugliano, affluent of the Anio, 360.
Malaria, 22, 26, 27.

Malarian fevers less deadly in classic times, 24.
Malum Punicum, 253.
Mamertine prison, 80, 81, 89, 253.
Mamertinus, a mediseval name, 81.
Mamia, tomb of, at Pompeii, xlii.
Mamilian tower, 38.
Mamurra, house of, 224.
Mamurri, Clivus, 249..
Manalis lapis, or rainstone, 49.
Mandela, Horace's Sabine farm near, 429.
Manliana, the Magliano conjectured to be the, 361.
Manlius, attack on the Capitol repulsed by, 187 ; scene of

his combat with the Gaul, 440.
Manlius, L., chapel of Concord vowed by, 194.
Manlius, M., trial of, 86.

Manumission, ceremony in the Basilica Ulpia, 144.

Marcellus, theatre of, 303, 304, 191 ; view of, 302 ; theatre

of, the only ruins of the kind in Rome, Ixvi ; architecture

of the theatre, xxix, xxxiii; temples dedicated by, 49;

gems presented to the temple of Apollo by, 175 ; burial

in the mausoleum of Augustus, 344.
Marcian aqueduct, II, 49, 65, 71, 213, 217, 220, 223, 437,

Iviii.
Marciana, basilica of, 333 ; temple in the Campus Martius

to, 332.
Marcigliana Vecchia, supposed site of Crustumerium, 392.
Marcius Philippus, sun-dial erected by, 106 ; agrarian law

moved by, 405.
Marcius Tremulus, equestrian statue of, 105.
S. Marco, Septa and Villa Publica near, 313.
Marcomannic war, statues of officers in, 144.
Maremma district, 358.

Marforio, i.e. Mars in Foro, 197 ; Via di, xlii, 143.
.S. Maria degli Angeli, the central hall of Diocletian's baths,

257, xxxvi ; one of the highest points of the Quirinal,

248.
S. Maria in Cacaberis, Doric columns in the Via di, 312 ;

in Campitelli, on the site of the temple of Jupiter Stator,

309. In Cosmedin, church of, 292 ; view of, 293 ;

columns in the walls of, xxvii ; probable site of Ara

Maxima, 32 ; temple of Hercules Victor near, 40. In

Domnica, site of the temple of Claudius near, 221 ;

in Portico, remains of the temple of Jupiter Stator

under the church of, 321 ; in Via Lata, Septa and Villa

Publica near the church of, 324.
S. Maria della Consolazione, Tarpeian rock near, 196.
S. Maria Egiziaca, formerly the temple of Fortune, 288.
S. Maria di Grotta Pinta, remains of Pompey's buildings

in the Piazza di, 317 ; di Loreto, church in Trajan's

Forum, 1 52.
S. Maria Liberatrice, on the line of the Pomoerium, 33 ;

Clivus Victorian near the church of, 35 ; gravestones of

vestals found near the church, 102.
S. Maria Maggiore, on the highest point of the Esquiline,

226 ; near the Agger of Servius, 43, 5, 66 ; column in

front of, 167 ; chapel of St. Paul in the Basilica, 139;

ruins of the temple of Minerva removed to, 139.
S- Maria ad Martyres or della Rotonda, the Pantheon,

327-
S. Maria sopra Minerva, on the site of the temple of

Minerva Chalcidica, 326 ; ruins of a temple of Isis near,

140.
S. Maria della A^ittoria, ruins of Servian walls near, 47 ;

site of the temple of Quirinus near, 249.
Maricella, the ancient Digentia, 430.
Marine formations, 14, 17, 183.
Marino, the ancient Castrimonimn, 349, 377.
Marius, 84, 85, 51; Ostia taken and plundered by, 370 ;

temple of Honour and Virtue dedicated by, 193 ; trophies

of, 227, 193, Ix ; the younger, suicide at Pra;neste of,

383.
Marius and Cinna, the Tiber blocked up by, 8.
Market-places, 12S.

Marmorata, view of, 208 ; ruins near the Via della, 207.
Marrana, the brook of the, 6, 285, 297 ; dei Orti, 377.
Mars, altar in the Campus Martius to, 301 ; altar of, in the

Via Lata, 345 ; games in honour of, 133 ; sacred spears

General Index.

403

of, 78, 104; statue by Piston, 91 ; statue of, by Scopas,
315 ; temple of, on the Via Appia, 432 ; temple of, near
the Porta Capena, 49 ; temple near the Circus Flaminius
to, 315-
Mars Ultor, chapel on the Capitoline to, 192 ; temple of,
130 — 135 ; view of, 132 ; the Pantheon wrongly suji-
posed to be dedicated to, 330.
Marsyas, statue of, 105 ; picture by Zeuxis, gi.
Martial, house of, 248 ; villa of, 428.
Martialis, Campus, 303 ; CoUis, 248.
Martin V., drainage of the Pomptine marshes under, 26.
S. Martina, church near the site of the Chalcidicum,

III.
SS. Martina e Luca, niins of Forum Julium near the churcli

of, 129.
S. Martino, church of, 234.
Massa Mandelana, 429.
Massiliots, privileges granted to, 84.
Massima, Villa, ruins of Serv'ian walls in, 47.
Mater Matuta, temple of, 290, 292.
Matidia:, Basilica, 333.
Mausoleum of Augustus, 344 — 346, xliii, xliv, 323 ; of

Hadrian, xliii, 59.
Maxentius, baths of, 181 ; circus of, 433, xlvi, xlviii ;

view of, 434 ; basilica of Constantine begun by, 166 ;

sculpture of the victory of Constantine over, 173.
Maximian, baths of Diocletian begun by, 258 ; Curia Julia

rebuilt by, no; his residence and wish to remove

Rome, 2.
Medullia, 390, 393, 394, 402, xxiii ; battle of, 370.
Melitis, Lucus, 242, 25.
Meleager, portico of, 333.
Mens, temple of, 193, 187.
Mentana, the ancient Nomentum, 351, 392.
Mephitis, see Mefitis.
Mercuriales, 204.
Mercury, temple of, near the Circus, 298 ; statue by Piston,

91-

Meridiani, 241.

Merobaudus, inscription in honour of, 153.

Messalina's gardens on the Pincian, 260.

Messana, picture in honour of the victory at, S3.

Meta Sudans, 171; view of, 170; the only fountain re-
maining in situ, lix.

Metas of the Circus Flaminius, site of, 314 ; of the Circus
Maximus, 295, 297.

Metelli, tomb of the, 216.

Metellus, Q. Ciccilius, marble temple of Jupiter built by,
310 ; portico of, 310, 30S.

Metellus Dalmaticus, temple of Castor restored by, 100.

Metia, Porta, 52, 51.

Metronis, or Metrovia, Porta, 67, 58, 291.

Mettus Curtius, scene of the story, 2i.

Mica Aurea, 223.

Michael Angelo, pedestal of the statue of M. .\urelius by,

152-
Micon, paintings in the Pcecile of Hadrian's villa by,

425-
Miles measured from the gates, 124.
.Milestone, Milliarium Aureum, 124.
Military colonies, 55.
Milliarium .\ureum, 124, 49.

^li'o, 79 ; house of, on the Gcrmalus 156.
.Milvian Bridge, 6.

Minerva, temple on the Aventine, 206, ni j temple in the
I-orum to, 119, 102, no, 11 1 ; temple in the forum of
Nerva, 135—138 ; temple of, in the Albanum Ca;sanim,
410; cellaof, in temple of Jupiter Capitolinus, 189.
Minerva Capta, temple of, 223 ; Chalcidica, temple in the
Campus Martins to, 326 ; .Medica, or Galuzze, 229.

Minervium, 223.

Minor Codeta, 267.

MinturnK, 353.

Minucia, Porta, 50.

Mirabilia Urbis, 192; .fi-.-nole '. 198.

Misenates, Ix.

Misenum, resen-oir ,it, hi.

Mithras, or Apollo, temple on the Vatican to, 271 ; house
of the priests of, at Ostia, 371.

Moneta, from l\vi\ij,aaivrt, 195 ; temple of Juno M., 194.

Mons Sacer, 440, 351, 352.

Montalto, tufa beds at, 17.

Montani, seat of, 204 ; and Collini, 37, 38, 42.

Monte Affliano Flac«o, the ancient ^Efula, 401 ; .\ffliano,
the site of Hadrian's villa, 421; Algido, 349 ; Ariano,
349 ; Artemisio, 349 ; Catillo, or Monte della Croce,
395. 399 ; Cavo, 349, 375, 376 ; Citorio, ruins so called,
'2, 335. 342 ; Piazza di, 333 ; del Con-naleto, supposed
to be the Lucretilis of Horace, 430 ; della Creta (Ficulea),
268, 351, 393 ; Cuccii, 375 ; Gennaro, 394 ; Giove,
Corioli, 3S0 ; Giordano, 12, 342 ; di Giustitia, 49 ; di
Grano, artificial, 351 ; di Leva, 350 ; Mario, 6, 14, 26S;
d'Oro, 214 ; Porzio, 349, 350, 409 ; Rotondo, Crustu-
merium, 352, 392; Spaccato, 351 ; Testaccio, 20S, 207,
3. 5. 12. 69.

Montes Crustumerini et Comiculani, 352, 394.

Monti di Decima, 350, 352, 367.

Monticelli, 394.

Montorio, from Monte Aureo, 15.

Monumentum Ancyranum, see List of Books.

Moon, temple of the, 29S.

Morrena, or Marrana, course of, 358.

Mucins Scsevola, .Mucia Prata, 267.

Mugionis, Porta, 162, 34, 35.

Mummius, round temple built by, 40.

Munatius Plancus, temple of Saturn restorc\l by, 95.

Mundus, or Roma Quadrata, 175.

.Murcian valley, or Circus Maxim.is, 291, 6, 41, 298.

Murcius, ancient name of the Aventine, 204.

Muro Torto, 60, 70, xlvi ; view of, 260.

Mutius, C, architect of the temple of Honour and Virtue,
Ixxvi.

Mycena;, gateway at, xxiii.

Myrtle-trees, Patricia and Plebeia, 249.

Myson, statue of a heifer by, 14;.

Nania, Porta, 50, 203.

Napoleon HI., researches on the Palatine by, 176.

Natatorium of Hadrian's villa, 426.

Nar, proposed diversion of, 8 ; described by Virgil,

20.
Naucydes, statue of Chcimon by, I ;.o.

464

General Index.

Naumachia of J. Ccesar, 268.

Naumachire, Ixv.

Naval combats in the Horti Ca:saris, 268.

Navalis, Porta, 51 ; Navalia, 51.

Navicella, in tMe Piazza della N. 224 ; Via and Piazza di,
220.

Nemi, 374 ; Lago di, 353, 349 ; Rio di, 356 ; site of the
Templum and Nemus Diana;, 353.

Nemus Cssarum on the Janiculum, 268.

Neptune, portico of, 332 ; basilica of, 332 ; temple near
the Circus Flaminius, 316.

Nero, extension of the Palatine buildings by, 164; evictions
on the Palatine by, 301 ; fire of, 164, 12, 103 ; Colossus
of, 164, 165, 77 ; statue in the temple of Mars Ultor,
134 ; Golden House of, 231—233, 6, 164, xxxviii, Ixxiii;
Cryptoporticus in the niins of the Domus Aurea, 313 ;
gymnasium of, 341 ; artificial lake of, 233, 234 ; Portus
Augusti finished by, 370 ; temple of Claudius destroyed
by. 221 ; aqueduct on the Cadian built by, 220, 221 ;
thermx of, 341, 260 ; plan of the thermK, Ixii ; his last
hours spent at the Suburbanum Phaontis, 420.

Nero's "golden day," 320 ; gardens ou the Vatican, 270;
tortures of the Christians in, 271.

Neronianus, Pons, 267.

Nerva, changes effected by, 128 ; foram of, 135, 79, 131 ;
architecture of the forum of, xxxiv ; his residence on the
Quirinal, 253 ; question as to the title of Optimus Prin-
ceps being given to, 151 ; burial in the mausoleum of
Augustus, 344,
Nervia, arch and temple of, 135.
S. Nicola in Carcere, remains of temples in the church of,

305-

S. Nicolas, church in Trajan's Forum, 152.

Nicolas v., Tabularium used as a fortress by, 98,

Nicomachus Flavius, absurd inscription to, 153.

Nile, statuary group of the, 327.

Nilus, statue of the river-god, 140.

N'.obe, statues of the children of, by Scopas or Praxiteles,

314-
Nisibis, raising of the siege depicted on the arch 01 Severus,

122.

Nismes, amphitheatre at, Ixiv.

Nome di Maria, view of the church, 145.

Nomentana, Porta, 60, 62, 68, 70.

Nomentana, Via, 16, 392, 394; sites on, 440.

Nomentano, Ponte, Mons Sacer and the villa of Phaon near,

440 ; view of, 439.
Nomentum, now Mentana, 392—394, 351, 362.
Nonalia, 195.
Norba, gateway of, xxiv.
Notitia Romse, 32.
Nova, Via, course of. 79, loi, 277, 27S ; Porta Mugionis

at the junction of tlie Sacra Via and, 34, 35.
Nov£e Tabern^e, 89.
Novati, Thermre, 247.
Numa, the Quirinal added to the city by, 248 ; temple of

Fides first built by, 192; temple of Vesta built by, 103;

temple of Janus in the Argiletum built by, 305 ; house of,

xxiv, 248 ; l)urial-place of, 267.
Numicius, now the Rio Torto, 352, 363, 364.
Nymphseum Alexandri, 219, 228; on the Palatine, 177;

of Hadrian's villa, 423, 425, 426.

Obelisk in the Piazza S. Maria Maggiore, 344 ; on the
Quirinal, 344 ; in the Piazza del Popolo, 296 ; in the
Piazza Navona, 34D ; in the Piazza di Monte Citorio, 333 ;
in the Piazza of St. Peter's, 270 ; in the Piazza della
Rotonda, 325 ; in the Piazza of the Lateran, formerly in
the Circus, 296 ; from Heliopolis, near the Porta S. Paolo,
69.
Obelisks, xliv, 146.

Octaviae, Bibliotheca, Curia, and Schola, 310 ; Opera,
310; Portico, 306, 311, 312, 46, 342; note on, 321 ;
view of, 308 ; architecture of the Portico, xxxiv.
Octavius, Cna;us, statue of, 86; portico of, 308, 315.
Octavius Hersenius, temple of Hercules Victor ascribed to,

40.
October horse, sacrifice of, 38, 80.
Odeum, site of, 341 ; of Hadrian's villa, 427, 423.
Odoacer, ravages of, 443.
CEci of a Roman house, Ixix
Olevano, gateway at, xxiii.
Olitorium, 128.
Olympiadis, Thermje, 247.
Opera Octaviie, 310 ; Saracenesca, 216, 384.
Opimla, Basilica, 89, 90.
Opimlus, L., temple of Concord built by, 89.
Oi'Pius, chapter ix. part 2, section 2, pp. 230 — 242,
also 4, 5, 37, under the following heads [see also indepen-
dent references) : — Carlnre, 230 ; Clivus Urbius, Africus,
and Pullius, 231 ; Coliseum, q. v., 234 — 237. Domus
Aurea Neronis, 231 ; Q. Ciceronis, 231 ; Pompel.ana, 231.
Fortuna Seia, 231 ; Sacellum .Strenlje, 230 ; Sette .Sale,
233 ; temple of Tellus, 231 ; Therma? Titi et Trajani,
233 ; TIglUum Sororium, 230 ; VIcus Cyprius, Sceleratus,
and Sandaliarlus, 231.
Ops, temple on the Capitoline, 193.
Ops Augusta, altar to', in the Vicus Jugarius, 277 ; Conslva,

worship of, 104.
Opus .\lexandrlnum, iSo; incertum, 386, 397, 399, 400,
Ixxll; isodomum, Ixxiil ; pseudlsodomum, Ixxiii; retlcu-
latum, xlvi, Ixxli, note, 59, 397 ; splcatum, Ixxii.
"Orbis pictus" of Agrlppa, 311.
Ordo Romanus, 92.

Orfanelli, temple of Hadrian near the Chiesa di, 332.
Origin of Rome, the modem theory, 30.
Orsini Savelli, Palazzo, 303.
Ortona, 389.

Osa, affluent of the Anio, 360, 361.

Osteria di Amplgllone, 400, 401 ; delle Fratocchle, sup-
posed site of AplolK near, 368.
Ostia, 369 — 372, 23, 354, 402, 411; harbour at, Ivi ; salt
lake near, 353 ; forest of, 351 ; occupied by the Gothic
army in 409, 443.
Ostia, Stagno di, 353 ; Salina;, 353.
Ostlensis, Porta, 69, 58, 65.

Otho, his proclamation as Emperor, 35, 124, 159.
Ovilia, Septa so called, 326.

Pads, Fonnn, Vespasian's Forum so called, 139, 141, 165.

Pads, Templum, 140, 141
140.

works of art and truphies in.

General Index.

46:

I'acuvius, picture by, 40.

Paestum, Doric architeclure at, xxvii.

Pa;telius Lucus, 242.

Pagani, 204.

Palace of the Ca;sars on the Palatine, 178 ; view of, 179 ;
of the Senator, 97, 182.

Paljestra of Hadrian's villa, 424, xxxviii.

Palatii, Porta Vetus, 162.

Palatine, Germalus, and Velia, chapter viii. part i,
pp. 154 — 181, also 4, 5, 12, 33, 39, 200, under the
following heads {see also independent references) : — -
Academia, 178; .^des Penatium, 163; /Edes Publico,
176; Alexander Severus, 180; Ara Maxima, 32; Altar
to the goddess Febris, 25 ; Aqueduct, 179. Arch of
Titus, 167; of Constantine, 171. Area Apollinis, 176;
Atrium, 176; Auguratorium, 158. Basilica of Constan-
tine, 165 ; (Jovis), 177. Baths of Maxentius, 181 ; Casa
Romuli, 156 ; Cicero's house, 161 ; Comus Sacra, 157 ;
Colossus of Nero, 164 ; Curiie Veteres, 33. Domus
Aurea, 164; Caligula. 160; Tiberiana, 159. Excavations,
note on, 200 ; Ficus Ruminalis, 157 ; Fortifications
on, 30 — 32; Gateways, 160, 175; Germalus, 155.
Houses of wealthy Romans, 160 ; of Catulus and Clodius,
161 ; of Tullus and Publicola, 163. Lararium, 177 ;
Libraries, 175, 178; Lupercal, 156; marble plan of
the city, 163; Meta Sudans, 171 ; name Palatiuni,
155; natural features, 154; Xeronian fire, 164;
Xymphceuni, 177. Palace of Augustus, 174; of Tac-
quinius and Ancus, 162; of Cssars, 178. Peristylium,
177 ; Porta Mugionis, 162 ; Portico, 177 ; Roma
Quadrata, 176; ruins at N.W. corner, 157; Sacellum

'-■Lamm, 162; Scala: Caci, 157; Septizonium, 180, 32;
splendour of Palatine houses, 161 ; Stadium, 179; sub-
structions on S.E. side, 174. Temple of Apollo, 17;;
of Augustus, 160; of Heliogabalus, 180; of Juno Sospita,
158 ; of Jupiter Slator, 162; of Jupiter Victor, 178; of
Magna Mater, 158; of Peace, 165; of Venus and Roma,
169; of Vesta, 175; ofVictory, 160. Terrace, 178; Tri-
clinium, 177; Velia, 162; undetermined sites, 181 ;
views of the Palatine, 30, 35, 93.

Palatium, distinguished from the Germalus and Velia, 33 ;
derivation of the name, 10, 28, 155 ; Licinianum, 229.

Palazzaccio, tufa near, 1S2.

Palazzo Cenci, site of the theatre of Balbus, 312 ; Doria,
on the site of the Septa, 324 ; Mattel, near the site of
the Circus Flaminius, 314 ; Rosjjigliosi, 255 ; Venezia,
Villa Publica near, 316.

Palazzola, monastery of, xlii, 375, 376, 409.

Pales, Palilia, 155 ; Palatium and Palatine from, 10, 155.

Palestrina (Praineste), 351.

Palilia, or Parilia, the shepherds' festival, 10.

Pallacinse, Balnex, Note B, 321.

Palladium, attempt of Heliogabalus to remove, 180 ; name
given to the forum of Nerva, 135, 137.

Pallantes, 155.

Pallantiani, Horti, 227.

Pallantium in .\rcadia, a legendary metropolis of Rome,
28.

Pallas, son of Evander, 155; Giusliniani, statue of, 229.

Palus Caprea, 22, 300.

S. Pancrazio, Porta, 6, 59, 69 ; called Porta .\urelia, 59.

Pandana, Porta, 36.

Pantano Secco, 362.

Pantheon, 327—331 ; architecture of, xxxiv, xxxvii, xlviii ;

part of Agrippa'sTherma.>,xxx,33o; plundere<l by Urban,'

69 ; and Constans IL, 331 ; dedicated to All Saints by

Boniface IV., 331.
S. Paolo, Porta, 69, 58, 210.
S. Paolo fuori le Mura, church of, 88 ; occupied by Totila,

444; Alban hills near, 351.
Papirius Cursor, L., consul B.C. 293, 215 ; temple ol

Quirinus restored by, 249 ; sun-dial erected by, 106.
Parco di Colonna, 377.
Parthian campaigns depicted on the arch of Severus,

122.
Pasiteles, ivory statue of Jupiter by, 310.
Passerano, supposed site of Pedum and Scaptia, 388.
Passionspielen in the Coliseum, 236.
Patrician residences on the Viminal, 246.
Paul HL, buildings on the mausoleum of Hadrian by,

275-
Paul v., column removed from Constantine's Basilica by,

167 ; canal of Claudius at Ostia repaired by, 370.
Paulli, Basilica, 112, 88, 125 ; in Pliny's time, 134.
Paullus .Emilius Lepidus, Basilica Paulli restored by, 88.
Paulus Diaconus on the so-called seven hills, 37.
Pausias, picture by, 3 1 9.
Pavement of Rome, liii.
Pax, altar in the Campus Martius to, 343.
Peace, forum of, 139, 141, 165 ; Vespasian's temple of, 79,

140, 141, 165, 234 ; beauty of the temple of, 89 ; works

of art and trophies in the temple of, 140, 16S.
Pedacchia, subterranean chambers in the Via della, 183.
Pedestals in the Forum, 117.
Pedo, house of, 227.
Pedum, 38S, 351, 362, 380, 387.
Pelasgi of the West, acquainted with the arch, xxiv.
Pelasgian walls, 45.
Pela.sgic style, xxiii,
Penates, supposed temple of, 278, x.\x, Ixxiv ; images of, in

a Roman house, Ixvii ; worship and temple at Laviniuru,

366.
Penatium, .(Edes, 163 ; destroyed in the Xeronian fire,

164.
Peperino, or lapis Gabinus or Albanus, I S3, 28 1, 16, 18;

of the Alban hills, 349.
Peregrini, lix.

PerguU«, podia, or mceniana, Ixxiv.
Peripteral style of temples, xxix.
Peristylium of a Roman house, Ixix ; on the Palatine,

177-
Perseus, ships of, laid up at the Campus Martius, 51.
Persius, villa of, 436.

Perlinax, 61 ; scene of the murder of, note on, 177.
Pervium, name given to the fonma of Nerva, 135.
St. Peter's Piazza and Basilica on the site of the gardens of

.Agrippina, 270, 271.
Petronella, 350.

Petronia, tributary of the Tiber, 359.
Petronius Perpenna, Therma; C'onstanlini restored by

254-
Phaon, villa of, near the Ponte Nomentano, 40.
Phidias, statue by, 141,311, 255.
Philippus, Pompey's theatre restored by, 320.

466

General Index.

Philippus, L. Marcius, temple oi Hercules Musarum re-
stored by, 312.

Phocas, column of, 117, iiS, 12, xlii ; view of column, 99,
109.

Pia, Porta, site of P. Nomentana, 60.

Piacularis, Porta, 51.

Pianta Capitolina, 163 ; note on, 198.

Piazza di SS. Apostoli, 47, 151 ; Capitolina, statues on,
255 ; Cenci, 312 ; Colonna, pillar of M. Aureliusin, 333,
335 ; Lateran, 296 ; Margana, site of the earceres of the
Circus Flaminius, 314; S. Mark, 322; S. Mark at Venice,
128; S. Maria di Grotta Pinta, ruins of Pompey's theatre
in, 317; S. Maria Maggiore, 344; Montanara, 19S, 303 ;
Monte Cavallo, 255 ; Monte Citorio, obelisk in, 333 ;
Navicella, 220, 224 ; Navona, formerly the Stadium
Alexandrinum, 303, 322, 340 ; S. Nicolo a Cesarini, plan
of a round temple in, 315 ; d'Oro of Hadrian's villa,
426 ; Pescaria, arch and inscription in, 306 ; St. Peter,
128, 270, 271 ; Pietra, ruin in, 332 ; del Popolo, obelisk
in, 296 ; della Rotonda, 325 ; Trajana, remains of the
Ulpian Basilica in, 144 ; dei Termini, 72 ; Venezia, Septa
and Villa Publica near, 313.

Pictor, agnomen of the Fabian gens, 251.

Pietas, temple of, in Circus Flaminius, 305.

S. Pietro in Carcere. foundations of the Tabularia under the
Via di, 98 ; in Montorio, on the highest point of the
Janiculum, 261 ; view from, 5 ; derivation of name, 15 ;
in Vincoli, 5, 80, 226, 234, 243.

Pietro Leone, theatre of Marcellus fortified by, 304.

Pila Horatia, 104.

PiNCIAN Hill, chapter x. p. 245, and pp. 259, 260, also
4, 5, under the following heads [see also hidc-f^iniciit
references) : — General features, geology, and name, 245,
259, 18 ; Horti Luculliani, 259 ; Horti Pompeiani.
260 ; Muro Torto, 260 ; Sepulchrum Domilianum, 260 ;
Therma; Neronis, 260.

Pincian, not one of the "seven hills," 5 ; French Academy
on, 148 ; fluviatile deposits on, 18.

Pinciana, Porta, 60, 58, 70.

Piscarium, 128.

Piscina Mirabde, Ivi ; Publica, name of the twelfth region,
203 ; at Tusculum, 379.

PisciniE Limariae of the aqueducts, lix.

Pistrina, Ixi.

Pius IV., marble plan found in the time of, 163.

Pius v., ruins of the temple of Minerva removed by, 139 ;
streets laid out by, 152.

Pius VI., drainage under, 26; Gnomon obelisk placed by,

334-
Pius VI. and VII. compel the cultivation of the Campagna,

26.
I'lan of the city in marble, found in the Church of S. Cosma

e Damiano, 1 63.
Plautian gens, tomb of, 438, 439.
Plautii, tomb of the, 438, 439, xliii.
Plautius Lateranus, house of, 220.
Plebs, the A\entine occupied by the, 204.
Pliny, change of dress in his time, 27 ; residence of, 227.
Pliny's Laurentinum, 411 — 415, 23.
Podium in the amphitheatre, 239.
Poecile of Hadrian's villa, 425, 423, xxxviii.
Pola, portico of, 331 ; amphitheatre at, Ixiv.

Poli, supposed site of Bola, 388.

Politorium, now La Giostra, 367, 363, 369, 402 ; walls at,
xxii; population settled on the .\ventine, 36.

Polycles, sculptor of the statue of Jupiter Stator, 310.

Polycrates, sardonyx of, 91.

Polygnotus, paintings in Hadrian's Piecile by, 425.

Polygonal masonry, xxiii.

Polyoenus, story told by, 36.

Pomcerium, 176; of Romulus, 32, 33, 41 ; extended by
Sylla, 53 ; extended round the Aventine, 203.

Pompeii, 407 ; forum at, 128 ; temple of Jupiter at, 128.

Pompey, changes in Rome effected by, 128; Alban villa
of, 409, 410 ; statue of, 86, 319 ; temple of Hercules
built by, 40 ; Theatre, Porticus, Curia, and Uonius of,
316 — 320, Ixvi, 108, 303, 312, 313 ; supposed tomb of,
410.

Pompey's palace, 231 ; house, the residence of Tiberius, 159.

Pompiliana, Curia Julia so called, 1 10.

Pomptine marshes, drainage of, 26, 358.

Po.N'S (for details see also the separate references) : — /Elius,
267, 13, 274, Ivii ; .-Emilius, 263, 288, Ivii ; Antoni-
nianus, 266, 312 ; Aurelius, 266 ; Fabricius, 265, 266 ;
Gratiani, orCestius, 266; Janicularis, or Janicultnsis, 2(ib,
59 ; Judieus, 266 ; Lapideus, 263 ; Xeronianus, or Vati-
canus, 267; Probi, 263; Sublicius, 262, 263, 44, 51,
207 ; Triumphalis, 267 ; Valentinianus, 263.

Ponte Lucano, 438 ; Nomentano, 439, 440, 351 ; di Xono,
Iv ; Quattro Capi, 300, 266 ; Rotto, 263, 264, 2S6 ;
S. Sisto, 266, 59, 300, 312 ; Salario, 39Q, 439, 440.

Pont du Gard near Nisnies, note, lix.

Pontifex, etymology, 262.

Pontifex Maximus, his residence in the Regia, 103 ; house
in the .Sacra Via, 78.

Population, decrease of, 55 ; of Rome and Athens com-
pared, xlv ; of Rome and the Campagna at various
periods, 23 ; of Rome and the Campagna exhausted l>y
the wars of the Middle Ages, 444.

Populonia, 358.

Porcia, Basilica, 75, 80, 83, 87, 88 ; used for bankers'
offices, 83; burnt, 109.

Porcian villa, 409.

Porcigliano, 350.

Porsena, 262.

PoRT.\ Agonalis, 47, 48; Angelica, 15; Appia, 68, 58;
Asinaria, 67, 58, 66 ; Aurelia Nova, 59 ; Aurelia Vetus,
69, 58 ; Barana at Tibur, 397 ; Capena, 49, 50, 51, 68,
84, 180, 218, 432 ; Carmentalis, 45, 36, .).6, 98, 187, 198,
279, 314; Catularia, 51 ; Chiusa, 62, 61 ; Ccelimontana,
49, 46; CoUatina, 51; CoUina, 47, 38, 48, 68, 246,
440 ; Decumana, 61 ; Della Donna (Maggiore), 66 ;
Esquilina, 52, 68, 49, 46, 63, 64, 73, 437 ; Fenestella, 51 ;
Ferentma, 51; Flaminia, 59, 58, 440; Fontinalis, 47,
345 ; Furba, 73, Iviii ; S. Giovanni (.Asinaria), 66 — 68,
Iviii, 436 ; S.Giovanni at Tivoli, 397 : Janiculan (S. Pan-
crazio), 440; Janualis ; I^abicana, 66; Latina, 68, 58, 436;
Lavernalis, 50 ; Libitinensis, 51 ; S. Lorenzo (Tiburtina),
62 — 64, 58, 71 — 73, 219, xl, lix ; Maggiore (Prasnes-
tina), 65, 66, 58, 62, 72. 73, 220, 419, 441, x.\v,
xl, .xlii, lix; Major, i.e. Maggiore, 66; Metia, 52,
51 ; Metronis, or Metrovia, 67, 58, 291 ; Minucia, 50 :
Mugionis, 162, 34, 35; Nsevia, 50, 203; Navalis, 51 ;
Nomentana, Co, 62, 68, 70 ; Xumentana, 58 ; Ostiensis,

Genei'al Index.

467

69, 58, 65 ; S. Pancrazio (Aurelia), 69, 6, 59 ; Panclana,
36; S. Paolo (Ostiensis), 69, 58, 210 ; S. Petri, 58;
Pia, 60; Piacularis, 51; Pinciana, 60, 58, 70; del
Popolo, 59 ; Portese, 6, 59 ; Portucnsis (or Portensis),

69. 58, 65 ; Pnenestina (Maggiore), 66, 58, 68, 73 ;
Principalis Dextra et Sinistra, 61, 64 ; Querquetulana,
49- 389 ; Quirinalis, 47, 48 ; Ratumena, 46, 47, 197,
346, 440 ; Rauduscula, 50, 69, 203 ; Romana, or Ro-
manula, 35, 34, 79, 1 59, 1 60, 278 ; Salaria, 60, 58, 68,

70, 253 ; Salutaris, 47, 250 ; Sanqualis, 47, 250 ; Scele-
rata, 45 ; S. Sebastiano (Appia), 67, 68, 49, 216, 432 ;
Septiraiana, 69; Sessoriana, 66; Stercoraria, 97, 51,
193 ; Taurina, 71 ; Tiburtina, 62, 58, 64, 68 ; Trige-
mina, 51, 41, 207; Triumphalis, 46, 342, 440; Vimi-
nalis, 49, 64, 70.

I'urte delle Streghe, supposed site of Apiolx near, 368.

Portico, su " Porticus."

Porticus, XA\% Mercurii, niins of the Curia Octavije so
called, 311 ; --Emilia, 207 ; Agrippje, 249 ; Boni Eventus,
315 ; Catuli, 161 ; Crinorum, 198 ; of the Dii Consentes,
109 ; Europoe, 33 1 ; Flaminia. 342 ; Junia, 207 ; Junonis
ad Viam Triumphalem, 311 ; Liviae et Octavije, see
Octavije ; Meleagri, 333 ; Metelli, 308 — 310 ; Minucia
et Frumentaria, 316 ; Xeptuni, or Posidonium, 332 :
Octavia?, 306 — 308, 310 — 312, 46, 200, 342; Octavii,
308, 315; on the Palatine, 177, 178; Philippi, 312;
Pols, 331 ; Pompeii, 316 — 320 ; remains of a portico
on the Palatine, 177, 178; Severini, ruins of the Curia
Octavise so called, 311, 312; Tuccia, 207; Vipsania,

33'-
Porto, 354 ; d'Anzo, 350.
Portuensis, Porta, 69, 58, 65 ; Via, 440.
Portus Augusti. begun by Claudius, finished by Xero, 370;

Trajani, 372, 370.
Posidonium, or Porticus Neptuni, 332.
Post-moerium, description of, 31.
Postumius, A., temple of Ceres vowed by, 292 ; Emporium

improved by, 208.
Pottery, clay used in, 15, 79, 269.
I'rxdia .-Emiliana, 342.
Praedium Trojanum of Cicero, 366, 369.
I'raeneste, site and history, 382—384, 349, 351, 362, 11 :
cuniculi at, 358 ; neighbourhood of, 381 ; Ca;culus the
founder of, 22 ; after the dissolution of the Latin League,
403 ; taken by Totila, 444.
I'rsenestina, Porta (Maggiore), 66, 58, 68, 73.
I'raenestina, Via, 62, 63, 351, 3S2, 383, 387 ; commence-
ment of, 437 ; Gordian's villa on. 411.
Praetorian camp, 61, 62, 57, 219.
I'rata Flaminia, or Campus Flaminius, 313, 6; Quinclia,

270, 301, 51.
Pratica, hill of (Lavinium), 351, 352, 366.
I'rato Lungo, affluents of the Anio near, 361.
Praxiteles, statues of Niobe's children ascril)ed to, 314;

Thespian Cupid of, 311.
I'lima Porta, villa of Livia at, 419, 24.
Principalis Dextra, Porta, 61 ; Sinistra, 61, 64.
S. Prisca, site of the temple of Diana near the church of,

205.
I'riscilla, tomb of, 432.

I'robus, 57 ; bridge of, 263 : house of, on the Es*iuilinc,
227.

Proserpine, altar in the Campus Marlius 10, 301.

Prostylos, xxix.

Protogenes, chef cTcrinre of, 140.

Prytaneum of Hadrian's villa. 427, 423.

Pseudo-Aventine, 4.

Pseudo-peripteral, xxix, 433.

Publician hill, 51.

Publicius Malleolus, L. and M., the Clivus P. called from,

206.
Publicola, Valerius, 95 ; house of, 163.
Publius Septimius, architect, Ixxvi.
S. Pudenziana, church of, in the Vicus Patricius, 242,

247.
Pudicitia Patricia, temple of, 290, 292, 252 ; Plebeia,

chapel of, 251.
Pulchrum Littus, mouth of the Cloaca Maxima near, 280,

XXV ; view of, 283.
Pumice, common in Rome and the Ciminian craters, 18;

stones used in vaulted arches, xlviii.
Punic War, state of the city in the first, 75.
Punic Wars, numbers killed in the, 56.
Putealia, sites of, 86.
Puticuli, 226.

Pyrrhus, repulsed by the Latin Confederacy, 55.
Pythagoras, statue of, 83.

Quatro Capi, Ponte, 266.

Querquetula, site of, 351 ; the name of the Porta
Querquetulana not derived from this town, 38.

Querquetulana, Porta, 49, 389.

Querquetulanum Sacellum, 243.

Querquetulanus, ancient name of the C:elian, 213.

Quinctia, Prata, 270, 6.

QriRiNAl. Hill, chapter x. pp. 245—259, under the
follow ing heads (/a- also iudtpenJent references) : —
.•\nti(iuity of this part of Rome, 245, 36 — 39 ; Ago-
nus, or Agonalis, name of the Quirinal, 248 48 ; Ad
Pynnn, 249, note 1 ; altar to the go<idess Febris, 25 ;
Campus Sceleratus, 251 ; Capitolium Vetus, 251 ; Clivus
Mamurri, 249 ; CoUes, 246 ; Ficelice, 251 ; fortifications
of the Tarquins and Seriius, 248 ; gates, 248, 48 ;
general features and geology, 245 ; Heroum of the
Flavian gens. 253 ; Horti Sallustiani, 252 ; houses of
Martial, Atticus, and Num.i, 248 ; literary quarter of
Rome, 249 ; Malum Punicum. 253 ; Niibuhr's Quirium,
24S ; Numa's house, 248 ; Quirinal Palace, 5 ; S.ibine
settlements, 246; Sacellum Pudicitiiv Plebeia", 251 ;
Sacellum Quirini, 249 ; Senaculum Mulierum, 259 ;
Servian walls, 43. Temple of Flora. 251 of Forluna
Publica, 251 ; of Fortuna Primigenia, 251 ; of Febris
252 ; of Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva, 25 1 ; of Quirinus,
249 ; of S.ilus, 250 ; of Senm Sancus, or Dius Fidius,
250 ; of Serapis, 251 ; of .Sol, 252 ; of Venus Erycina,
251. Thermae Constanlini, 254 ; Diocletiani, 257 ;
Vicus Longu-s 251.

Quirinus, 247 ; temple of, 249, 47 ; dial near the temple of,
106.

Quiris, Quirites, Quirinus, 38.

Quirium of Niebuhr, 248.

102

468

General Index.

Rabinius, architect of Domitian, Ixxvi.

Railway station, site of, 47.

Ramnes, ancient seat of the, 214.

Ratumena, Porta, on the Via Flaminia, 46, 47, 197, 346,

440.
Raudusculana, Porta, 50, 69, 203.
Ravennates, Ix.

Reali, corrupted from Aurelii, 397.
Regia, house of Pontifex Maximus, 78, 82 ; destroyed in

the Neronian fire, 164 ; NumK, 103, 102.
Regillus, lake of, absorbed, 22 ; source of the Alexan-
drine Aqueduct near the lake, 228 ; battle of lake, 49,

100, 365, 380, 395.
Regio Transtiberina, 4, 6, 51, 52, 69, 261.
Regions of Servius, 39, 36 ; depicted on the Capitoline

plan, 199.
Regulus, M. Atilius, temple of Jupiter Stator erected by,

162.
Remuria on the Aventine, 205.
Remus, burial-place of, 205.
Rex Sacrificulus, house of, 78.
Ricimer, ravages of, 443.
Rimini, bridge at, Ivii,
Rio di Decima, 35S ; d'Incastro, 369 ; Malafede, 358 ;

di Xemi, 353 ; Torto, the Xumicius, 351, 352, 356, 363;

di Turno, 350. ' '"

Ripetta Ferry, 3, 22.
Rivus Albanus, formerly the Aqua Ferentina, 436; Ulma-

nus, 361.
Roads, lii, see "Via" and the separate references; of

the Campagna, 431 — ^441.
Rocca, Giovane, supposed site of Fanum Vacunae, 430.
Rocca di Papa, Iv, 358 ; conjectures as to the name,

376.

Rocca Priora, the ancient Corbio, 349, 380.

S. Rocca, Aqua Ferentina near the church of, 358.

Rock-tombs, xlii.

Roma, the name from nana, rama, or piiuii, note, 10.

Roma Vecchia, 435, 416 ; Quadrata, or Mundus, 176, 34,
158, xxii, xxiv.

Roma and Venus, temple of, 169 — 171, 77, 167, 170, 175,
221, xxix, xxxvii, Ixxvii.

Romrea, same festival as Palilia, or Parilia, 10.

Romana, or Romanula, Porta, 35, 34, 79, 159, 160, 278.

Romano-Greek style, Ixxviii, 143.

Romulean city, appearance of, xxiv.

Romulus, asylum opened by, 196, 9 ; tlie Aventine, Capi-
toline, and Quirinal added to the city by, 36 ; bronze
statuary dedicated by, 85 ; Equiria celebrated by, 340 ;
house of, 156; league with Tatius, 77; legends relating
to, 21, 22, 28 ; lotus-tree planted by, 85 ; chapel of
Jupiter Feretrius founded by, 192 ; temple to Jupiter
Stator vowed by, 162; temple of, 278, 135; his tomb
on the Vatican, 272 ; tomljstone of, 83.

Romulus, scene of tlie apotheosis, 300.

Romulus and Remus, fig-tree of, 82.

Romulus, son of Maxentius, temple to, 433.

Roofs of Roman houses, Ixxiv.

Rosa, Cav., his researches on the Palatine, 33, 1^8, 174,
176, 178.

Rospigliosi Palace on the site of the baths of Constantine,

255-
Rostra in the Forum, 85, 75, 81, 82, 89, 105 ; on the

CapitoUne, 187 ; of the later Empire, 124, 125, 173.
Rostra Nova, or Julia, III, 125.
Rubicon, passage of, by Cresar, 56.
Rullus, Servilian law proposed by, 406.
Rumina, or Rumia, 157.
Ruminal fig-tree, 157, 82.
Rutulian territory, 348.

S. Saba and S. Balbina, hill of (called Pseudo-Aventine),
4, 203, 50 ; quarry under the monastery of, xxi.

S. Sabina convent, Servian wall under, 43, 51.

Sabine deities, 38 ; hills seen from Rome, 1 1 ; settlements,
246, 38.

Sahine and Latin boundaries, 390.

Sabines, battle with, 34 ; their junction with the Romans,

36-

Sabinus, J., his body exposed at the Scalre Gemoni:!?, 8i.
Sacellum Larum, 162, 34, 77 ; I.arundae, 32 ; Pudicitias

Plebeice, 251 ; Streni.^, 230.
Sacer Clivus, 78.
Sacra, Via, name, limits, summit, 77, 78, 35, 38, 46, 195 ;

Porta Mugionis on, 34 ; terminus, 195.
Sacrani, Rome said to have been founded by, 28.
Sacrarium, 104 ; of Hadrian's villa, 427.
Sacrum Saxum, 206.
Salaria, Porta, 60, 58, 68, 70 ; Alaric entered by the,

253-
Salaria, Via, 60, 68, 70, 253, 359, 360, 390, 392 ; sites on,

440.
Salaro, Ponte, 440.
Salii Agonales, 248 ; Collini, 38, 246.
Salita del GriUo, ruins of the forum of Trajan in Via,

141.
Salonina, arch of Gallienus and, 228, 49, 226, xxxix.
Sallust, house of, 127 ; gardens of, 252, 251.
Sallustia, statue of, 219.
Salus, a Sabine and Latin god, 38 ; temple of, 250, 249,

47-
Salutaris CoUis, 248 ; Porta, 47, 250.
S. Salvatore in Maximis, church near the site of the temple

of Jupiter Capitolinus, 192.
S. Salvatore in Campo, temple of Mars in the \'ia di,

315-
Samnites march to Rome, 48, 55 ; gilded shields taken

from, 90.
Sancus, temple of, 47.
Sanqnalis, Porta, 47, 250.
San Spirito, hospital of, 3.
Saracens, devastations by, 444.
Sassonica, Via, between Tibur and Sassula, 401.
Sassula, 401.

Sata, Saturnus derived from, nob, 92.
Saturn, name derived by some from Sata, nole, 92 ; the

Hellenic Cronos, 92; temple of, 92 — 95, 78; view of. 93,

xxxi ; architecture of the temple of, xxix, xxxii, xxxiii.
Saturnalia in December, 93.
Satuniia, 358.

General Index.

469

Satiirninus, 84.

Satiirnius, previous name' of tlie Tarpeian or Capitoline,

93- iS4-
Sauras and Batrachus, architects o( llie temple of Jupiter

Stator, 309.
Saxa Rubra, 419.
Saxum Quadratum, 16.
Scaloe Amilariae, 174; Caci, },y, Gcmoniana;, bodies of

criminals exposed at. Si.
Scaptia, site of, 389, 351.

Scaunis, mansion of, 161 ; villa of, 409 ; theatre of, 409.
Scaurus, ^-Emilius, temple of Fides restored by, 192.
Scelerata, Porta, 45.
Sceleratus, Vicus, 231.
Schola OctaviK, 310 ; paintings by Antiphilus in, 311 ;

Stoicorum of Hadrian's villa, 426 ; Xamha, 95 ; inscrip-
tions on, 106.
.^cipio .Emilianus, statue in tlie Forum Augusti, 134.
Scipio Africanus, arch erected by, noti\ xxxix ; his villa at

Litemum, 406.
.Scipio Africanus Major, his residence at LaureiUum,' 33 ;

burial-place of, 216.
Scipio Asiaticus, statue of, note at p. 194.
Scipio Barbatus, sarcophagus of, 215, 23S ; architectural

peculiarities of the tomb of, xxix, xlii.
Scipio Nasica, murder of Tib. Gracchus by, 193 ; theatre

of Cassius Longinus demolished by, 317.
Scipios, tomb of the, 214, 50, 432 ; inscriptions to various

members of the family of, 215.
Scolo del Casale, the ancient Allia, 359.
Scopas, colossal statue of Mars and statue of Venus by,

315 ; statues of Xiobe's children ascribed to, 314.
Scuola di Cicerone, 379, 407.
Scylla, picture by Nicomachus, 140.
S. Sebastian, ruins near the church of, 433.
S. Sebastiano, Porta, the old Porta Appia, 68, 49 ; view of,

67 ; Columbaria near, 216.
.Secretarium Senatus, III.
Sejanus, sentenced in the temple of Concord, 92 ; body

exposed at the Scalo? Gemoniae, 81,
.Selinus, Doric architecture at, xxviii.
Semo Sancus, or Dius Fidius, a Sabine and Latin god, 38 •;

Porta Sanqualis called after, 250 ; temples of, 250, 265.
Sempronia, Basilica, 98, 75, 169 ; Basilica Julia on the site

of, 117, 277.
A. Sempronius Atratinus and M. Minucius, 92.
.Senaculum, 84, 90, 93 ; Mulierum, 259.
Senate-house, 75.
Senate, meetings in the temple of .\polIo on the Palatine,

175 ; assemblies in the temples of the Delphic Apollo

and Bellona, 314 ; meetings in the temple of Castor,

100 : meetings in the temple of Concord, 92 ; meetings

in the temple of Fides, 193 ; meetings in the Curia of

I'ompey, loS ; meetings in the temple cf <,)uirinus, 249 ;

the Senaculum the ancient meeting-place, 84 ; meetings

at the Porta Capena, 49 ; meeting to receive \'espa.sian

and Titus, 311 ; decrees not legally passed except in a

teniplum, 103.
Seneca, villa of, 435 ; his description of Sciplo's villa.

406.
Septa, 323-325, 314.
Septimiana, Porta, 69.

Septimontium, 246 j festival of, 37.

Septizonium, 180, 32, l8l, xxxviii ; on the Via Appia,
274-

Serapeum, or temple of Serapis, in the Campus Martius,
251. 325.

Serapion the scene-painter, 90.

S. Sergio e Kacco, the tower of this church built on the
arch of Septimius Severus, 123, 124.

Serpentara, 440.

SERVI.4N Walls, chapter iv. pp. 42—52, under the follow-
ing heads (see also indepauUnt references), and pp. xxii, 37,
39. 53. 184, 197, 203, 259 :— Fortifications begun by
Tarquinius Priscus, 42 ; completed by Servius, 43 ;
method for tracing the Servian walls, 43 ; portions on
the Aventine, 44 ; gates in, 45—51. Porta Flumcntana,

45 ; Carmentalis, 45 ; Triumphalis, 46 ; Ratumena,

46 ; Fontinalis, 47 ; Sanqualis, 47 ; S,ilutaris, 47 ; Col-
lina, Agonalis, or Quirinalis, 47 ; Viminalis, 49 ; Quer-
quetulana, 49 ; Ccelimontana, 49 ; Capena, 49 ; Xa;via,
50; Rauduscula, 50; Lavenialis, 50; Minucia, 50;
Trigemina, 51 ; Xavalis, 51 ; Stercoraria, 51 ; Libi-
tinensis, 51 ; Fenestella, 51 ; Ferentina, 51 ; Pi.acularis,
51: Catularia, 51; Metia, 51. Ruins in the \illa
Massimi and Convent of S. Maria de Vittoria, 47 ;
Agger of Servius, 48 ; temples of Honour and \'irtue,
and of Mars, 49 ; fortifications of the western bank of
the Tiber, 51,

Secvilia lex, 406.

Servilii, tomb of tire, 216.

Servilius, Lacus, 99,

Ser\'ilius, house of, 127.

Servius, Agger of, 48 ; military organization of, 39 ; temple
of Diana built by, 205.

Sen-ius Tullius, fortifications completed by, 43, 24S ; his
object in founding the temple of Diana. 402 ; temples to
Fortune built by, 288 ; enlargement of the city by, 36,
37 ; reforms of, 23 ; four Servian regions, 39, 36 ; scene
of the murder of, 231.

Servius Tullius, Rome before the time of, chapter iii.
pp. 28 — 41, under the following heads (see also iiutepen-
u'enl references) :— Legends of the foundation, national
and Hellenic, 28, 29 ; modern theory of the origin of
Rome, 30 ; Palatine settlement, and reasons for choosing
it, 30, 31 ; Etniscan ceremony of foundation, 31 ; Poma--
rium of Romulus, 32 ; Ara Maxima, 32 ; -A.ra Consi, 32 ;
Curioe Veteres, 32 ; Sacellum Larundoe, 32 ; Cav. Rosa's
views, 33 ; Roma Quadrata, 34 ; Mugionian gate and
temple of Jupiter Stator, 34 ; Porta Rom.-uuila, 35 ;
Germalus, 35 ; Clivus Victoria;, 35 ; Porta Janualis, 36 ;
Porta Pandana, 36 ; successive enlargements, 36 ; .Sep-
timontium, 37 ; so-called seven hills of Rome, 37 ;
October horse, 38 ; the Collini, 38 ; the Servian regions,
39 ; the Argean chapels, 39.

Sessoriana, Porta, 66.

Sessorium, 218, 220 ; on the Esquiline, 226, 66.

Sette Bassi, site of the Suburbanum Hadriani, 437 ; S.ile,
reservoir on the Esquiline, lix, 233.

Seven hills of Rome, 37.

Severus, Alex., aqueduct of, Iviii ; baths of, 303, Ixii ;
Coliseum repaired by. 235 ; images of Christ and heathen
deities erected by, 271 ; St.adium in the Campus .\I.irlius
restored by, 340 ; Palace of the Cxsai-s enlarged by, 178 ;

470

General Index.

his taste for mosaics, i8o ; Thermae Antoninianas finished
by, 2IO ; Therma? Neronianie restored by, 341.
Severus, Septimius, arch of, 120 — 123, 76 — 78, 89,173:
architecture of the arcli nf, xxxv, xxxix : views of the
arch, 109, J2I ; Arcus Argentariorum in honour of, 286 ;
baths erected by, 6g ; Curia Octavi* rebuilt by, 311;
Porticus Octavi:e restored by, 306 ; I'alace of the Cajsars
rebuilt by, 178, 180 ; tomb of, 50.
Severus and Caracalla, edifices restored by, 120. 200.
Severus, architect, Ixxvi.
Sewers, 161.

Shops, set Tabernse. 89, 90.

Sibyl, temple of, at Tivoli, 397 ; view of, 398 : architec-
ture of the temple at Tivoli, xxxiv.
Sibyl Albunca at Tibur, temple of, 399.
Sibylline books kept in the temple of Apollo, 175.
Sibyls, bronze statues of, the earliest at Rome, 85, 83.
Sicani, aborigines of Latium expellol by, 28.
Sicels, said to have founded Rome, 28.
Siciliano, 401.

Sicily, Roman intercourse with. So.
Sicyon, early settlers in Latium from, 28.
Sidonius Apollinaris, statue of, 151, 153.
Sigiia Militaria, 95.
Signia, walls and gateway at, xxiii.
Silanus, C. J., 223.
Silk, worn in the time of Pliny, 27.
Silva Ostiensis, 350.
Silvanus, temple of, 436.
S. Silvestro, scene of the trial of, 177.
S. Silvestro in Lago, now S. Maria Liberatrice, 102,

21.
Simbraina Stagna, 400.
Simplicius, church of S. Stefano Rotondo consecrated by,

220.
Siracusa, the building so called, 201.
Sisolenses, 401.

Site of Rome, pp. i — 13; disadvantages of, i; descrip-
tion of the Campagua, 3 ; course of the river. 3 ; hills of
Rome, 4 : general view, 5 ; valleys of Rome, 6 ; Rome
not naturally adapted for a metropolis, 7; beauty of the
views from Rome, 1 1 ; general form of the ground un-
changed, 12.
Sixtus IV., enacted laws for the cultivation cf the land, 26.
SixtusV., Septizonium pulled down by, 180 ; drainage of
the Pomptme marshes under, 26 ; changes under, 299 :
arch for the Aqua Felice constructed by, Iviii, 72 ;
Trajan's tomb opened by, 14S : statue of St. Peter on
Trajan's Column placed by, 148.
Smaragdus, column of Phocas erected by, 118.
Social War, 55.
Sol, a S.abine and Latin god, 38 ; temples of, 253, 255.

298, 346.
Solaria, 105.
Sole, Via del, 132.
Soracte, site of, II.
Sortes PraenestintE, 383, 387.
Spartacus, 55.
Specularia, note, Ixxiv
Spes Vetus, 219 ; temple of, 305.
Spolia Christi, 152.
SpoUarium, 241.

Stabula Factionum. 34I.

Stadium, difference between Circus and, 340.

Stadium Alexandrinum, now the Piazza Navoua. 322,

34°-
Stadium on the Palatine, 1 79: of Hadrian's villa, 423;

in the Piazza Navona, 303.
.Stagna Terenti, in the Campus Martins, 300, 301.
Stagno di Ostia, 353.
.Stagnum Dianae, 353.
Statilius Taurus, theatre of, 342.
Statue in bronze of the she-wolf suckling Romulus and

Remus, 157; of Cresar's horse, 131.
Statues in the Forum, 105 ; in the Forum Augusti, 134 ;
on the Capitol, 194.

S. Stefano Rotondo, church of, 43, 220, 221.

Stercoraria, Porta, 97, 51, 193.

Stertinius, first triumphal arch recorded is that of, xxxix.

Stilicho, temple of Jupiter Capitolinus plundered by, 191.

Stone used in building, 16.

Strabo, march to Rome, 48.

Strenia, chapel of, 195, 77.

.Strenije (Fr. etnnnes), 195.

Sub Novis, road so called, 83.

Sub Veteribus, part of the Forum so called, loi.

Subiaco, 400, 401.

Sublicius, Pons, 262, 263, 44, 51, 207.

Subucula, a sliirt worn in the time of Augustus, 27.

Subura, site of, 79, 6, 230; character of, 277 ; ALamilian
tower in, 38.

Suburban villas, 416 — 421.

Suburbanum Commodi, 416, 421 ; statuary found in, 417 ;
flordianum, 418 ; Hadriani, 418, 437 ; Livire at Prima
Porta, 419 ; Phaontis, 420.

Snessa Pometia, 358.

Sulla, his march on Rome, 48, 52. 55, 97 ; proscriptions
of, 99, 277 ; ra\'ages in Latium by, 406 : massacre in
the Villa Publica committed by, 326 ; the head of Marius
placed in the p'orum by, 85 ; financial and other changes
effected by, 56, 127, 128 ; Pomoerium extended by, 53 ;
massacre at Pntneste by order of, 383 ; temple of Fortune
at Prseneste rebuilt by, 3S3, xxiii ; columns of the temple
of Zeus at Athens transported by, xxxiv ; Curia Hostilia
rebuilt by, 83 ; statue of, 86 ; temple of Jupiter Capito-
linus rebuilt by, 190; siege of the Arx PrEcnestina by
the troops of 383 ; Ostia restored by, 370 ; Gabii
restored by, 3S2 ; Castrimoninm fortified by, 376 ; civil
wars of, 381.

Sulpicianus and Julian, their bidding for the Empire,
61.

Sulpicius, consul, 401.

Sulpicius, Servius, 226.

Simima Sacra Via, 161, 162, 167.

Sumnianus, temple of the, 298.

Sun, .Aurelian's temple of the, 2-,3, 255, 298.

Sun-dial erected liy L. Papirius Cursor, 249.

Sun-dials, 106, 409.

Suovetaurilia, 173 ; depicted on Trajan's Column, 149.

.Supercilium Scalarum Caci, 158.

Suranae, Thermce, 207.

Sutri, passed by Ricimer in his march to Rome, 444.

Sutrium, elliptical amphitheatre at, Ixiii.

Jiylla, see Sulla.

General hidex.

4/1

Symmachus, Pompey's theatre restored by, 320 ; disputa-
tions with Ambrose, 1 10.
Syphax, villa of, 428.
Syracuse, Doric architecture at, xxvii. ^^

Tabernae Novae, 89 ; Veteres, 90.

Tablinum, Ixviii.

Tabularium in the Forum, 97, 91. 94, 96, 98, iiS ; view

of, 99 ; on the Capitoline, 182, 196, 197.
Tanaquil, 162 ; relics of, 250.
Taracia, lands of the Vestal, 301.
Tarpeia, legend of, 183.
Tarpeian rock, 196, 182, 16.
Tarpeius, ancient name of the Capitoline, 184, 185, 187 ;

the hill formerly called Saturnius, 93.
Tarquinii, introduction of the arch by, xxiv ; Cloaca Maxima

ascribed to the, xxv, 281 ; domain in the Campus Martins

of the, 301 ; expulsion of, 263 ; the town on the river

Marta, xxv.
Tarquinius Priscus, drain.ige of the Forum commenced by,

281 ; fortifications of, 42, 248; Ficulca taken by, 393;

foundations of the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus laid by,

1 89.
Tarquinius Superbus, completion of the Agger of Servius

by, 48 ; treaty with Gabii preserved iu the temple of

Semo Sancus, 250.
Tarquinius, Latin wars in support of, 3S0, 383.
Tarquinius and Ancus, palace of, 162.
latius, his league with Romulus, 77 ; l'>urial-i)lace of, 205.
Taurina, Porta, 71.
Taurobolia, in honour of Cybele, 271.
Teatro Correa, ruins of the mausoleum of Augustus under,

344-
Tecta, Via, 49.

Tectorium, or albarium, Ixxii.
Telegonus, son of Circe and Ulysses, founder of Tuscuhun,

379-

Telemachus, martyrdom in the Coliseum, 236

Tellenae, 368, 369, 363, 402 ; population settled on tlie
Aventine, 36.

Tellus, temple of, 231.

Tempe of Hadrian's villa, 421.

Tempio della Tosse at Tivoli, 400.

Temple distinguished from .ILdes, 103.

Temples: — ^-Esculapius, 264,266: Antoninus and Faus-
tina, 113 — 115, 75, 77, 78. Apollo in the Campus Mar-
tius, 301 ; near Porta Carmentalis, 308 ; on the Palatine,
175 ; on the Vatican, 271 ; Delphicus, 314. Asylum, 196 ;
Augustus, 278, 160; M. Aurelius, 335 ; liacchus, 181 ;
Bacchus on the Via Appia, 433; Bellona, 314, 84, 301 ;
lieneficium, 193; Bona Dea Subsaxana. 206; Bonus
Kventus, 315 ; Castor, 93, 77, 82, 101, 115, 125, iCo,
277, xxiv, xxxvi ; Castor and Pollux, 100, 178; Ceres,
Liber, and Libera, 292, xxvii ; the City, 171 ; Claudius,
221 ; Concord, 89 — 92, 81, 84, 85, 125. 131, 194, xxix,
xxxvi ; Cupid and Venus, 219 ; Cybele, 290 : DeaCarna
(Sacellum), 223 ; Deus Rediculus, 432. Diana on the
Aventine, 205 ; near Aricia, 374 ; near the Circus Fla-
minius, 316 ; on the Cispius, 242 ; at Numi, 353, 354,

374- Dioscuri, 316. Dins Fidius, or Semo Sancus, on
the Janiculum, 265 ; on the Quirinal, 250. Drusilla at
l">»f. 397. 399; Fatale, no; Faunus, 264; Febris.
252; Felicitas, 108, 84, no; Fides, 193, 187, 192:
Flora, 298, 249, 251 ; Fors Fortuna, 267, 28S-290.
Fortuna, 193; Equestris, 315; Mulicbris, 290, 437;
Prnmgenia, 251, 193 ; at Prxneste, 383-387 ; Publica,
251 ; Redux, 342; Seia, chapel of, 231 ; Virilis, 288—
290, xxxi— xxxiii. Fortune of the City, 10 ; Genius of the
Roman people, 86 ; Hadrian, 332 ; Heliogabalus, 180 ;
Heroon, or small temple of Cxsar, 112 ; Hercules on
the \ia Appia, 436. Hercules, yEmilian, or round
temple, 291, 280, 283, 290; Custos, 314; Musarum,
or Musagetes, 311 ; Syllanus, 230; Saxanus, 397:
Victor, 295, 40 ; at Tibur, 397. Honour, 318, 49 ; on the
Appia, 433 ; and Virtue, 193, 192, Ixxvi. Isis, 325, 140,
-23. 324, 326, 342. Janus in the Argiletum, 305 ; in
the Forum, 87, 36, 79, 129, 305, xxiv; in the forum of
Nerva, 137 ; in the Forum Olitorium, 305, 79. Juno at
<jabii, 374, 381 : Luciua (.Ixles), 242 ; Moneta, 194 ;
Regina on the Aventine, 205, 206 ; at Ardea, 369 ; in the
Porticus Octavia;, 309 ; near the Circus Flaminius, 316 ;
Sospita in the Circus Flaminius, 305 ; on the Palatine,
158; at Lanuvium, 373. Jupiter Capitolinus, 185—192,
46, 75- 97, 159. 186, xxvi, xxxiv; Custos, 187, 188;
Feretrius (chapel), 192, xxiv ; Latiaris, 376, 409 ; Pro-
pugnator, 181 ; Redux, 223 ; Stator in Porticu Octavia-,
309. 3'0, 321, xxix; Stator on the Pal.-itine, 162, 164,
32, 34, 77, 176, xxiv; Tonans, 192; Victor, 178, 32 ;
near the Circus, 298 ; on the Janiculum, 264 ; on the
Insula Tiberina, 264; at Pompeii, 128; Juno, and
Mineria, 251. Juturna, 342 ; Juventus, 298 ; Lares Per-
marini, 342 ; Liber, Libera, and Ceres, 292 ; Libertas, 206 :
Luna, 207, 175, 298; Magna Mater, 298; Magna Mater
Ida:a, 158 ; Marciana, 332 ; Ma.-s, 3J5, 49, 192 ; Mars on
the Via Appia, 432 ; Mars Ultor, 130-135, 192, 330;
Mater Matuta, 288 ; Mens, 193, 187 ; Mercury, 29S.
Minena on the Aventine, 206, iii ; in the Fonim, 119,
102, no, ni ; in the forum of Xerva, 135—138 ; Capta,
223 ; Chalcidica, 32 ; in the Albamim Ciesanim, 410.
Mithras, or Apollo, 271 ; the Moon, 298, 207, 175;
Neptune, 316; Ops, 193; Penates, 27S, xxx, Ixxiv ; at
Lavinium, 366 ; Pietas, 305, 306. Pudicitia Patricia, 28S,
252, 290, 292; Pudicitia Plebeia (Sacellum), 251:
Quirinus, 249, 47 ; Roma, 169, see Venus and Roma.
Romulus, 278, 135 ; son of Maxentius, 433. Salus, 250,
47, 249 ; Sancus, 47 ; Saturn, 92—95, 78, xxix, xxxi— xxxiii ;
Semo Sancus, or Dius Fidius, on the Janiculum. 265 ;
on the Quirinal, 250; Serapis, 251, 325; Severianum,
3n ; Sibyl, 290; at Tivoli, xxxiv, 397 -399 ; Silvanus,
436 ; Sol, 253, 255, 296, 346 ; Spes, 305 ; Sumnianus
298; Tellus, 231: Trajan, 151 ; V.ituiia, the Sabine
<leity, 430; Vejupiler, 196; Venus, 298 ; near Lavinium,
366, 367. Venus Capitolin.a, 193 ; Cloacina, 89 ;
Erycina, 193, 251 ; Cenclrix, 130; Victrix, 318, 193,
'30, 3'7 ; ""kI Cupid, 103, 219 ; and Roma, 169-171,
77, '67, 170, 175, 221, xxix, xxxvii, Ixxvii. Vespasian, no,
120, 78, 94, 97, 99, 109, n8, 125, xxix, xxxiv, xxxvi ;
Vesta in the Forum, I02, 77, 78, 88, 97, 125, 164, 175,
288 ; Vesta, round temple so called, 290, 291, 40,
278, 2'-b, 283, xxx, Ixxv ; \'iclori.i, iSl, 160. 31S ;
Victoria, or Vatun.i, 430 ; Virtue, 318, 49; Vohipia,

472

General Index.

chapel uf, 278 ; Vortumnus, 206 ; Vulcan, 316, 85, 27S ;

Winds at Athens, xxx ; Zeus Olynipius at Athens, 190.
Tenuta Coesarini, 393.
Tenuta di Dragoncello, site of Ficana, 367.
S. Teodoro, on the line of the Pomreriura, 33 ; round

church of, 278 ; site of the temple of Juno Sospita near,

158.
Tepulan aqueduct, 65, 71, 72, 183, 437; its source on

the Alban hills, 442.
Terence, gardens of, 432.
Terenti, Vada, Stagna, 300, 301, 22.
Termini, fountain of, 249.
Terra-cotta, used for statues, 190.
Terrace on the Palatine, 1 78.
Tertiary strata, 14, 262 ; marine strata of the Canipagna,

349-

Testnccio, Monte, 20S, 207, 3, 5, 12, 6g.

Tetricus, house of, 224.

Theatre at Aspendus in Asia Minor, Ixvii ; of Balbus, 312 ;
at Fidena?, 391 ; of Marcellus, 303, 304, 191, 312 ; view
of, 302 ; at Orange in S. France, Ixvii ; of Pompey,

316 320, 312 — 314, 427; of Scaurus, 409; at Tus-

culum, 378.

Theatres, general description of, Ixvi, 312, 318, 319 ; in the
baths of Titus and Constantine, 255, 257 ; of Hadrian's
villa, 424.

Theatrum Antonini, or Balbi, 312, 266.

Theodosius, disputes of Ambrose and Symmachus in the
time of, 109; temple of Juno Sospita at Lanuvium closed
by, 373 ; worship of Hercules in the time of, 40.

TherniEe distinguished from Balneoe, Ixiii ; general descrip-
tion of, Ixi ; the first constructed at Rome, 326 ; note on
the entertainments in, 243 ; of Hadrian's villa, 423 ; at the
Sulmrbanum Gordianum, 418; of Agrippa (called Com-
modianse), 286, 326, 327, Ixii ; of Alexander Severus,
341, 303, 326; of Antonine, 210 — 213, 217 ; of Caracalla,
71, 179, 207, 212, 217, xlviii, Ixii; of Constantine,
254, 255, xlvii, Ixii ; of Diocletian, 257, 258, 64, 72, xxxiv,
xxxvi, Ixii ; of Domitian, 327, Ixii ; of Maxentius, 181 ;
of Nero, 260, 326, 341, 342, Ixii ; of Novatus, 247 ; of
Titus, 233, 211, 226, 255, 257, 302, Ixii ; of Trajan, 233,
234, 227.

Thermae Deciance, 207 ; Olympiades, 247 ; Suranae, 207 ;
Varianje, 207.

Thespioe, early settlers in Latiuni from, 28.

Thorax laneus, worn by Augustus, 27.

Tiber, its name Albula explained, 20 ; its course through
Rome, 3 ; blocked up by Marius, 8 ; changes in the
water of the, 20 ; changes in the level of, 13, 18, 19,
21, 22, 183, 203, 300; contemplated diversion of, 8,
301 ; embankment of, 74 ; fortifications of western bank,
51 ; frozen over in the time of St. Augustine, 26 ; inun-
dations of, 21, 45, 59; silting up in the time of Caesar,

370-

Tiberiana, Domus, 159.

Tiberinus, guiding ^Eneas to the site of the future city, 10.

Tiberius, arch of, 341, 117, 173; Circensian games insti-
tuted at Bovilla; by, 369 ; his palace at Caprea, 411 ;
residence on the Esquiline, 227 ; on the Palatine, 159 ;
temple of Castor restored by, 100 ; temple of Concord
rebuilt by, 91.

Tibialia et feniinalia, worn by Augustus, 27.

Tibur and its neighbourhood, 394 — 401, II, 349. 362, 374;
the Anio near, 360; traces of volcanic action near, 351 ;
its privileges reserved after the dissolution of the Latin
League, 403 ; taken by Totila, 444.

Tiburni lucus, 399.

Tiburtina, Porta, 62, 58, 64, 68 ; on the site of Porta S.
Lorenzo, 64.

Tiburtina, Via, 64, 73; note on, 70; fragments remaining
of, liii.

Tiburtine villas, 421 — 431.

Tigilluni Sororium, 230.

Timanthus, pictures of, xliii.

Timomachus, pictures of Medea and Ajax by, 131.

Tiridates, Equi Tiridatis, 255.

Titles, ancient seat of the, 214.

Titus, extent of Rome in the time of, 54 ; arch on the
summit of the Via Sacra, 167 — 169, 33, 74, 77, 162,
175 ; Greek decoration in the arch of, xxxix ; composite
capitals in the arch of, xxxv ; marbles of the arch burnt
for lime, 171 ; view of the arch of, 115 ; another arch
previous to the one now existing, 169 ; therma; of, 233,
211, 226, 302 ; theatre in the therms of, 255, 257 ; pro-
bable plan of the baths of, Ixii ; fire in the reign of, 296.

Titus Tatius, the Capitoline added to the city by, 184.

Tivoli, reputation for salubrity now lost, 24 ; travertine at,
20 ; view of the cascades at, 396.

Tivuli Vecchio, 422.

Toga, materials and fashion* of, 27. ;

Tolenus, battle of, 55.

Tolerium, 38S, 387.

Tomb of the gens Aurelia, 436 ; of the Scipios, 2 14.

Tombs, general description of, xlii.

Tophus, tufa so called, 16.

Tor di Valle, Rio d'Albano near, 357.

Toro Farnese, 213.

Torre Citrangole, once called T. Metangole, the site of the
Metas of the Circus Flaminius, 314; di Cento Celle,
Iviii ; Fiscale, the Claudian and Marcian aqueducts cross
at, 437 ; S. Lorenzo, a supposed site of Laurentum, 363 ;
delle Milizie, 5 ; view of, 256 ; Paterno, 411 ; supposed
siteof Phny's Laurentinum,orthevillaof Commodus, 415;
supposed site of Laurentum, 364. Pignattara, 15, 433 ;
said to be the tomb of S. Helena, 43S. del Vajanico, site
of the Aphrodisium near Lavinium, 367.

Totila, invasion of, 444 ; walls destroyed by, 58.

Trajan, Dacian campaigns of, 14S — 1 50; title of Optimus
Princeps given to, 151 ; changes effected by, 128; rage
for building in the tmie of, xlix ; height of houses
restricted liy, Ixx ; trium.phal arch of, 143 ; breakwater
at Centum Cellx constructed by, Ivii ; bridges built by,
hii ; Circus Maximus restored by, Ixv ; column of, 146 —
151, xli ; views of the column, 145, 147; bas-reliefs
on the column, 148, 151 ; statue of St. Peter on, 14S,
152; forum of, 141 — 153; thermcB of, 233, 227; in-
tended for women, 234 ; equestrian statue of, 144 ;
tomb under the column, 274.

Transitorium, name given to the forum of Nerva, 135.

Transtiberine district, 4, 6, 5 1, 52, 261 ; Aurelian walls in, 69.

Travertine, or lajiis Tiburtinus, 16, 18, 20, 183 ; on the
Avenline, 203 ; near Tibur, 360 ; the material of tlie
Pelasgian walls, 45 ; of the Cloaca:, 2S4 ; quarries of the
Coliseum, 438.

General Index.

\i o

I'reasur)-, in the temple of Satvim, 95.

Treba, source of the Anio near, 360.

Tria Fata, part of the Forum so called, 86.

Tribunalia, 86.

Tribus Collina, 38.

Triclinia of a Roman house, Ixi.x.

Triclinium on the Palatine, 177.

Trigemina, Porta, 51, 207 ; cave of Cacus near, 41.

.S. Trinita dei Monti, church of, 5, 259.

Triopoli, Tripoli, Tropholi, Triphali, mediaeval names of

the arch of M. Aurelius, 339.
Triumphal arches of the Romans, xxxix.
Triumphalis, Pons, 267 ; Porta, 46, 342, 440 ; Via, 267,

440, xliii.
Troja Xova, 366.

Trojan, his country seat at CentumcelL-e. 411.
Trophies of Marius, 227, 72.
Tuccia, Porticus, 207.
Tiixi 'Aj'Speio, 2S8.
Tufa, description of, 15 — 18 ; of the Aventine, xxi, 202 ;

of the Capitoline, 182 ; of the Alban lake, xxi ; of

the CaHan, 113; of the Ser\ian walls and Cloaca

Maxima, 44.
Tufaceous beds of the Campagna, 349.
Tugurium Faustuli, 33.
Tullianum, on the Capitol, the oldest specimen of building,

xxiii, 8l.
TuUus Hostilius, house of, 163; the city enlarged by, 36.
Tunnels near Fanum, and on the road to Puteoli, Iv.
Turris Mamilia, So ; M^cenatis, 253.
Tuscan order, only examples of, 147 ; temples, xxvi, xxvii.
Tuscan and Doric styles compared, xxvi.
Tusco- Doric, xxvii, xxix.
Tusculan villas, 407 — 409.
Tusculum, site and description of, 377 — 379, 11, 362, 401,

407 ; lava near, 350 ; walls at, xxii ; taken by Totila,

444-
Tutia, or Tuzia, affluent of the Anio, 361.
Twelve Tables, rules as to burials, 197.

Ulmano, affluent of the Anio, 360.

Ulpia Basihca, 144, li; view of the site, 145.

Ulpian Forum, area of, xlix ; library, 146 ; transferred to

the Therm.x' Diocletianse, 257.
Umbilicus Rom«, 124.
Urban VIII., his treatment of Hadrian's mausoleum, 275 ;

his treatment of the Pantheon, 331 ; inscriptions removed

by, 58.
S. Urbano, church of, an ancient tomb, 433.
Urbs, as distinguished from Roma, 52.
Ustica, 430.

Ustrina Cajsarum, 345, 322, 342, 343.
Ustrina on the Via Appia, 436.
Usucaptio, 403.

Vacunoe, Fanum, 430.
Vada Terenii, 300, 301, 22.

Valca, the ancient Cremera, 419.

\ alcns, Valentinian, and Gratian, restorations of Basilica
Julia under, 117.

Valentinian I., Porticus Boni Eventus built in the reign of,
3«S-

Valentinian II., disputes between Ambrose andSymmachus
in the time of, 109.

Valentinianus, Pons, 263.

S. Valentino, catacombs, 20.

Valeria, supposed statue of, 164.

Valeria, or Tiburtina, \'ia, commencement of, 437, 438.

Valerian picture, 83.

Valerius Asiaticus murdered by Messalina, 260.

Valerius of Ostia, architect, Ixxvi,

Valerius Messala, M., his victorv over the Carthaeinians
83. . ^ .

Valley of Aricia, 355, 354.

Valleys of Rome, 6.

Vallis Albana, 358, 359 ; Aricina, 349 \ Murcia, ancient
name of the Circus Maximus, 291, 6.

Valmontone the supposed site of Vitellia and Tolerium, 3S8.

Varia, on the Via Valeria, Horace's Sabine farm near,
429.

Varianse, Thermje, 207.

Varro, architect, Ixxn.

Varus, Roman standards lost by, 117; villa of, 428.

Vatican Hill, chapter xi. pp. 268 — 275, under the fol-
lowing heads [sie also indepeiuUnt references): — Name and
history-, 268 ; natural features, 269, and 14, 15 ; Civitas
Leonina, 269 and 58 ; Prata Qumctia, 270 ; Horti
Agrippinas, 270 ; Horti Domitise, or Neronis, 270 ;
obelisk, 270 ; Circus Caii et Neronis, 270 ; Sepulchrum
Romuli, 272 ; temple of Apollo or Mithras, 271 ; circus
of Hadrian, 272 ; mausoleum of Hadrian, 272 — 275 ;
Pons Vaticanus, 267 ; unhealthiness of, 25.

Vatinius, 83, 85.

VectiHus, Vectilian palace, 221.

Veientes, fight with the Fabii, 45.

Veii, 358, 403 ; now deserted, 23 j war with, 51 ; capture
ofj 353 i Camillus dissuades a removal to, 25, 7 ; rising
of the Alban lake during the siege of, 356.

Vejupiter, temple of, 196.

Vel.^brum, Vicus Tuscus, Forum Boarium, and Circus
Maximus, chapter xii. pp. 276 — 298, under the follow-
ing heads : — .Equinijelium, 277 ; altar of Aius Loquens,
27S ; altars of Juno Juga, Ceres, and Ops Augusta, 277 ;
Ara Consi, 294 ; Ara Maxima and temple of Hercules
Victor, 294 ; Arcus Argentariomm, 286 and 123 ; chapel
of Volupia, 278 ; Circus Maximus, or Murcian valley,
291 — 298; Cloaca Maxima, 279—284. Cloacae of the
.Aventine, 285 ; of the Campus Martins 286 ; of the
Forum, 284. Courtyard of the Carceres, 294 ; Doliola,
288 ; Forum Boarium, 279 ; general features, histor)',
and boundaries, 276 ; Janus C,)uadrifrons, 287 ; Lacus
.Ser\ilius, 277 ; limits of Vicus Tuscus and Vclabrum,
278 ; limits of Vektbrum and Forum Boarium, 279 ; .S.
Maria in Cosmedin, 291, 293 ; .'i. Teodoro, 278. Temple
of Augustus, 278 ; of Ceres, l.iber, and Libera, 292 ;
of Flora, 298 ; of Fortune, 2SS ; of Hercules, 288, 294 ;
of Jupiter, 298; of Juventus, 298; of Luna, 298; of
M.agna Mater, 29S ; of Mater Matuta, 2S8 ; of Mercur)-,
298 J of Pudicilia Patricia, 2S8 ; of Romulus, 278 ; oi

3 I'

474

Gefieral Index.

Summanus, 298 ; of Sol, 298 ; of Venus, 29S ; of Vesta,
288. Tomb of Acca Larentia, 278 ; Via Nova, 277 ;
Vicus Jugarius, 277 ; Vicus Tuscus, 277.
Velabrum Minus, scene of the story of Mettus Curtius, 21,

31-

Velaria, awnings used for the Coliseum, 239, 240.

Velia, the, 162, 33, 55, 78, 169 ; origin of the name, 21.

Veline lake, S ; drainage of, Iv.

Velitrs, 362.

Venezia, Palazzo di, built of stones from the Coliseum,
236.

Ventidius, villa of, 42S.

Venus, temple in the Circus valley to, 29S ; statue by
Phidias of, 31: ; statue of, by Scopas, 315 ; statue found
near Torre del Vajanico, 367 ; statue in the temple of
Mars Ultor, 134.

Venus de' Medici, where foimd, 311 ; Capitohna, temple to,
193 ; Cloacina, shrine of, 89 ; Erycina, temples to, 193,
251; Genetrix, temple and statue in the Foram JuUum,
130. Victrix, temples to, 318, 130, 193 ; Pompey's theatre
pretended to be a temple of, 317.

Venus and Cupid, temple of, 219.

Venus and Roma, temple of, 169— 171, 77, 167, 175, 221 ;
temple planned by Hadrian, Ixvii ; view of, 170 ; archi-
tecture of the temple, xxix ; criticism of ApoUodorus,
xxxvii, 1 70.

Venusia, colony of, 55.

Verbenae, 195.

Verde, Monte, 15.

Verona, amphitheatre at, Ixiv.

Vertumnus, sacrifices to, 45 ; statue of, 21, 98, 277.

Vespasian, battle between the troops of Vitellius and,
252 ; storming of the city by, 53 ; extent of the city
under, 54 ; meeting in the Curia Octavije to receive, 312;
changes effected by, 128 ; triumphal procession of, 46 ;
Coliseum built by, 234, 233 ; Colossus of Nero removed
by, 165 ; survey of the city under, 200 ; Pompey's
theatre restored by, 320; temple of, 119, 120, 125, 78,
94 ; entablature of the temple of, 97 ; portico of the tem-
ple of, xxxiv ; architecture of the temple of, xxix, xxxvi ;
views of the temple of, 99, 109, 118; temple and Forum
of Peace built by, 139, 140, 165 ; temple of Claudius
rebuilt by, 221 ; his residence on the Quirinal, 253.

Vesta, temple in the Forum to, 102, 77, 88, 125; site of,
78 ; swept annually, 97 ; sacred symbols of the temple
buried in thej Doliola, 288 ; new temple built by
Augustus, 17s ; temple destroyed in the Neronian fire,
164 ; round rfemple so called, 290, 40, 278, 280, xxx,
Ixxv ; views of, 2S3, 291 ; grove of, 79.

Vestal Taracia, 301.

Vestals, college and house of, 103.

Vestibulum of a Roman house, Ixiii, see note.

Vettius, one of the conspirators against Csesar, 161.

Vetus Prajte.vtatus, his opposition to Christianity, 96, 97.
Via Albana, or Triumphalis, 267, 440, Iv ; Alessandrina,
136, 152 ; Alta Semita, 70, Ixxv ; S. Angelo, 321 ;
Appia, 432—436, 3, II, 17, 49, 216, li, Hi, liii, liv,
368, 373. 374>376. 43' ; Ardeatina, 69, 432; Argentaria,
197 ; Asinaria, 67; Aurelia, 69, 440; Bonella, 82, 131,
152; delle Botteghe Oscure, 314; Campidoglio, 96;
Cassia, 440; Cerchi, 32, 297; Chiari d'Oro, 143; della
Ciambclla, 315; CoUatina, 389; Corso, 303, 313, 322,

323,345, Ixxv; CroceBianca, 135; Dataria, 47; Ferratella,
49; Flaminia, 6, 24, 313, 345, 346, 419, 420, 432, 440;
Fornaci, 59 ; Labicana, 437, 16, 49, 62, 66, 73, 3S1,
433, liv, Iviii ; Lata, 345, 346, 197, 303, 313, 322,
323, Ixxv ; Latina, 436—438, 432, 68, 363, liii— Iv,
377, 431 ; Laurentina, 412; S. Lucia in Selce, So;
Macel de' Corvi, 197 ; Magnanapoli, 141 ; Marforio, 47,
I43i I97> "lii ; della Marmorata, 207 ; Merulana, 43,
49 ; di Navicella, 220 ; del Nazarene, 347 ; Nomentana,
16, 351. 392, 394, 440; J^ova, 79, 277, 278, 34, 35,
loi ; Ostiensis, 351, 357, 367, 412; Pescaria, 306;
Portuensis, 440 ; Pra;nestina, 437, 49, 62, 63, 73,
351, 3S2, 389, 411, 438, 1, Iv ; di Pome S. Sisto,
59 ; della Porta Pia, Iv ; del Priorato, 143, 151 ;
Publica, 197 ; Quattro Fontane, 47 ; Sacra, 77, 78, 34,
35. 3S, 46. 195 ; Salaria, 60, 68, 70, 253, 359, 360,
39°. 392, 440 ; della Salita del Grillo, 141 ; di Salvatori
in Campo, 315; del Sole, 132; degli Speechi, 315;
Sublacensis, 73; Tecta, 342, 49; S. Teodoro, 76;
Tiburtina, 438, 437, 64, 70, 73, liii ; Triumphalis, or
Albana, 267, 440, Iv ; Tusculana, li, 377 ; Valeria,
or Tiburtina, 438, 437.

Vibenna, Ca?les, 36.

Vicennalia, 173.

Vico Varo, new of, 429.

Vicolo di S. Felice, ancient level of, 12.

Mctoria, the Sabine deity of Vacuna, aedes of, 430.

Victory, altar and statue in the Curia Julia, 109 ; temple
on the Palatine, 160, 181.

Vicus Cyprius, 231, 230 ; Jugarius, the site of, 98, 99, 45,
123, 1S5, 196, 198, 206, 277 ; Longus, 251 ; altar of
Febris in, 25 ; Pallacince, 321 ; Patricius, 242, 246 ;
Sandaliarius, 231, Ixi ; Sceleratus, 231 ; Turarius, 277 ;
Tuscus, origin of the name and site of, 277 — 279, 46,
76, 98, 206.

Vigna Ceccarelli, grove of the Dea Dia at, 440 ; Cesarini,
ruins in, 207; Codini, Columbaria in the, 216; del
Gesuiti, 50 ; Naro, milestone found in, 49 ; Nussiner, 41.

Vigne Nuove, the supposed site of the villa of Phaon, 420.

Villas of the .-Vlban hills, 409 ; of the Campagna, 406 —

431. 362-
Villa Altieri, part of the Campus Esquilinus, 226 ; of the
Antonines, 411; Barberini at Albano, 41 1 ; on the site
of the gardens of Sallust, 253 ; of Cassius, 428 ; of
Catullus, 428 ; of Cetronius, 428 ; of Cicero, 407, 40S;
of Clodius, 409, 411 ; of Commodus, 415 ; of Domitian,
410, 411 ; Doria at Albano, 411 ; Falconieri, 408 ; of
Gabinius, 408, 409; of the Gordians, 411, 418, 437,
xxxviii ; of Hadrian {q.v.), 421 — 428, 24, 62, 311, 361,
383, 411, 442, xxxnii, xlix; of Horace, 428, 429; of
Hortensius, 416; of Laurentum, 411 — 416; of Livia,
419 ; of LucuUus, 409 ; Ludovisi on the Pincian,
259 ; Magnani, Columbaria in the gardens of, 229 ; of
Martial, 428 ; Massinii, remains of the Horti Sallustiani
at, 253 ; Mattel, site of the temple of Claudius near, 221 ;
Medici, on the Pincian, 5 ; Negroni, Agger of Servius
near, 48 ; Palombara, part of the Campus Esquilinus,
226; of Phaon, 420; of Pliny, 411 — 415 ; of Pompey,
410 ; Publica, 326, 314, 316, 322, 323 ; of Seneca, 435 ;
of Scipio, 406 ; of Scaurus, 409 ; of Syphax, 42S ; Spada
or Mills, site of the palace of Augustus, 174; excavations
at, 200 ; site of the library of Apollo, 5 ; of Tiberius,

General Index.

475

411 ; villas of Tibur, 421 ; of Trojan, 411 ; villas at
Tusculum, 407 ; of Varus, 42S ; of Ventidius, 428 ; of
Vopiscus, 42S ; of Zenobia, 428.

ViMiXAL' Hill, pp. 245 — 247 ; when added to the city,
37 — 39 ; derivation of the name, 246 ; general features
and geologj', 245 ; Sabine settlements, 246 ; Colles
Cellini, 240 ; house of Aquilius, 246 ; Lavacram
Agrippina:, 247 ; Themise Olympiadis et Novati, 247 ;
patrician residents on, 246 ; modem streets, 246 j railway
station on, 5-

Viminalis, Porta, 49, 64 ; note on, 70,

Vipsania, Porticus, 331.

Virgil, house of, 227.

Virginia, stor)' of, 89, 204 ; wife of L. Volumnius, excluded
from the rites of Pudicitia Patricia, 252.

Virgo, Aqua, 71, 259, 260, 389, 441 ; sixth in chronological
order, Iviii ; arches in the Via del Nazarene, 346 ; sewers
connected with, 2S6 ; arches restored by Claudius,

323-
Viridarium of a Roman house, Ixix ; on the Palatine,

178.
Virtus, temple of, 31S, 49.

S. Vitale, Cli\'us Mamurri near the church of, 249.
Vitellia, Vitelleiises, 387.
Vitellius, suft'erings of his army when encamped on the

Vatican, 23 ; storming of the Capitol by the forces of,

1S7.
Vitellius and Vespasian, battle between the troops of,

252.
Vitiges, siege of Rome by, 363 ; aqueducts and monuments

destroyed by, 444.
Vitruvius the architect and engineer, Ixxvii; basilica at

Fanum built by, li ; rules for pavements, lii.
Vivarium, 64, 66.

Volcanic craters, 349 ; formations, 14, 15.
Volcanoes of Latium, 17.
Volscian hills seen from Rome, 1 1 ; territor)', 34S ; wars,

37S, 383- 387, 403-
Volupia, chapel of, 2 78.
Vomitoria in the Coliseum, 239.
Vopiscus, villa of, 42S.
Vortumnus, temple of, 206.

» Otis X.," " Votis XX., " meaning of these inscriptions,
_I73-
Vulcan, temple near the Circug Flaminius, 316 ; Vulcanal
dedicated to, sacrifices to, 85; supposed temple of,
278.

Vulcanal, 85, 82, 90 ; lotos-tree on, 129.

Walls of At;RELiAN and IIonorii-s, chapter v. pp.
53—73. also 219, under the following heads (see also in-
dependent references) .-—Long internal without new forti-
fications, S3 ; extent of Rome, 54 ; reasons for neglect of
w.alls, 54 ; Aurelian wall built for fear of the N. bar-
barians, 56 ; rebuilt by Honorius, 58 ; gates in the
Aurelian walls, 58 ; course compared with the present
walls, 58. Porta Aurelia Nova, 59 ; Flaminia, 59 ;
Pinciana, 60 ; Salaria, 60 ; Xomentana, 60 ; Chiusa, 62 ;
Tiburtina, 62 ; Pn-enestina, 66 ; Asinaria, 67 ; Metrovia,
67 ; Latina, 68 ; Appia, 68 ; Ostiensis, 69 ; Portuensis,
69 ; Aurelia Vetus, 69 ; Septimiana, 69. Muro Torto,
60 ; Castra Prjetoriana, 61 ; Vivarium, 66 ; Amphi-
theatrum Castrense, 67; coui-se of the walls in the
Trastevere, 69 ; notes on the Porta Viminalis and Via
Tiburtina, &c., 70 — 73.

Walls of Servius, chapter iv. pp. 42 — 52 (see Ser-

VIUS).
Water found at what depths, 15.
Waterclock, first erected, 166. '
Wells on the Capitoline, 183.
Windows in Roman houses, Ixxiv.

Winter of 396 B.C., described by Li\7 and Dionysius, 26.
Wolf, bronze statue in the Capitol, 157.

Xantha Schola, 95,

Zagarolo, a supposed site of Labicum, 381.
Zenobia, estate granted by Aurelian to, 428.
Zenodorus, the artist of the Colossus of Xero, 165.
Zeus Olj-mpius, temple at Athens plundered by Sylla, 190.
Zenxis, pictures of, xliii ; statuary by, 312.

I' 2

INDEX OF. QUOTATIONS FROM ANCIENT AUTHORS.

The larger Roman luDmrals aud the smaller Arabic figures refer to the eiivisions of the authors quoted, the
smaller Roman numerals and larger Arabic ^gures to the pages of the book.

Ammianus Marcellinus.

XIV. 6. ..110, Ixxiii ; XVI, IO...I40, 141, 144, 171, 320,

329, 341, xlviii, Ixxii ; -XVi. 12. ..223; XVIII. 4...

69,207,296,297,344; XXII. 7. ..97; xxiii. 3...

175, 254, 359; XXVII.9...97, bcxvi; XXIX.6...315.

Appianus, Bell. Civ.

I. 7. ..2-3, 405; I. 15. ..186; I. l6...1S7, 193, 194;
I. 26...89, 91, 262; I. 27. ..406; I. 28. ..317; 1.32
...84; I. 58. ..80, 230; I -^T ..370 ; I. 68... 52 ;

I. 83. ..190; I. 93iv.32&.; I. 94... 85,. 383; 11,^0...
373; H. 26.. .88; II. 102. ..130, 131, Ixv ; II. 126
...231; II. 147. ..319; Ii. 148.. .103, 112; in. 2...
112; III. 30.. .325; V. 24. ..374.

Augustinus, De Civitate Dei.

I. 31. ..317 ; III. 17. ..26 ; III. 25. ..89, 90, 91 ; iv. 8...
268; IV. 16. ..77, 291; vil. 4. ..286.
Aurelius Victor, De Ca;saribus.

12. ..135; I3...1ii; 14. ..422; 16. ..337; 23. ..180; 24...
341; 26. ..171; 27..,87 ; 35, 7...56; 39...320, 2 ;
40.. .297.
Epitome.

2. ..148 ; 5. ..341 ; 13...IXX ; I4...1xvii, 422 ; 20. ..220 ;
60... 436.
De Viris lUustribus.

2. ..300 ; 4.. .83 ; 6. ..42, 48 ; 7. ..37 ; 8. ..281 ; 65. ..207,
262; 419. .230.
Cicero, Ep. ad Atticum.

I. I. ..408 ; I. 8, 9. ..408 ; I. 10.. .408 ; Ii. i, 9.. .407 ;

II. 24.. .161; IV. I. .249, 251; iv. i, 2. ..161;
IV. 2..t40/; ; IV. 3. ..156; iv. 15...IV; IV. 16...
107, 206, '324, 325; iv. 16, § 14.. .88, 144; v.
13. ..210; VI. 3, 2. ..88; VI. 5. ..38; IX. 9, 4...
366; IX. 13, 5. ..369; IX. 13, 6. ..366; ix. 18. .
388; X. 3. ..78; XII. I7...1vxxl; XII. 34. ..393;
xii. 45. ..249, 251 ; xiii. 28. ..249 ; xiii. 29. ..407,
Ixsvi; XIII. 33. ..8, 268 ; Xlii. 33. ..301 ; xiv. 3
...Ixxvi; XIV. 15. ..112.

Ep. ad Familiares.

V. 6...161; VII. 23. ..408 ; XI. 2. ..112; XIII. 29. ..409;
XIV. 2. ..83; XIV. 20.. .408; XVI. 18. ..358, 409.
Ep. ad Quintum.

II. 3. ..231, 314 ; II. 5. ..204 ; n. 12. ..26; III. I. ..408;

III. I, 4...1x.xiv.
Brutus.

14.. .351; 15. ..278 ; xv. §6o...88.

Cicero, De Divinatione.

I. § 4, 99. ..158; I. 5, 8... 408 ; l. 12, § 20, 21. ..186 ;

I. 13, 22. ..408; I. 17. ..86, 181; I. 28. ..193; I.
36.. ..367, 373; I. 44.. ..356, 373; i. 45...79 ; i.
45, IOI...195, 273; 11.3, 8.. .408; 11. 9, § 23...
319 ; II. 17. ..277 ; II. 17, 38.. .198 ; II. 31. ..367,
373 ; II. 32. ..79, 357 ; 11. 41. ..383, 384, 387 ; II.
47. S 98. ..10.

Dc Finibus.

III. 2, 7.. .409 ; V. I. ..83 ; v. 2. ..74.
De Harusp. Resp.

I2...158; 15...I6I, 214; 16. ..160; 33. .160, 161.
De Legibus.

I. I. ..249, 251 ; II. 8. ..195 ; 11. 11. ..181, 243 ; II. 11

...305; II. 22. ..267; II. 24.. .210; in. 13. ..409.
De Lege Agraria.

II. 2I...404 ; II. 22. ..107; 11. 28. ..406; 11. 35. ..269,

362; II. 35...IXX; III.. ..404; v. 16. ..52.
De Natura Deorum.

I. 29. ..373; II. 2. ..100; II. 23. ..49, 193, 305; III.

18... 195, 262; in. 25. ..25, 181, 243; in.

30.. .97.
De Officiis.

I. 39. ..160; II. 21. ..405 ; II. 22. ..404; 11. 25...S7 ;

M. 25. .105 ; III. 16. ..195.
De Oratore.

II. 6. ..24 ; II. 66. ..78, 90, 104 ; in. 33. ..105 ; in. 46

....xxxvi.
De Republica.

II. 3, 18.. .870 ; n. 5. ..7 ; 11. 6. ..25, 43, 48, 184 ; 11.

17. ..82, 83; II. 20, 24. ..189; II. 24, 44, .402 ;

II. 31. ..163.
In Catilinam.

III. 8, § 20.. .186.
In Pisonem.

5. ..102 ; 21 ..408 ; 22. ..161 ; 23. ..46.
Contra RuUum.

II. 35. ..389, 391 ; HI. 2. ..358.
In Vatinium.

II. 28. ..104 ; IX. 21. ..83, 86 ; XIV. § 34.. .86.
In Verrem.

I. 22. ..83; I. 49. ..100; iv. §§ 4, 135. ..311.
Philippicte.

I. 2. .112 ; I. 13, § 31. .231 ; II. 7-96 ; II. 27. .260 ;
II. 28. ..Ixxiii ; 11. 31. ..16, 419 ; II. 42 ...268 ; 11.

Index of Quotations from Ancient Authors.

All

§84. .316: VI. 4.. .84; VI. 5. ..87, 105; VI. 5,
§ 15 ..105; VII. ch. VIII.. ..92; IX. 2. ..86; IX. 7...
85, 226 ; Xlll. 5, 10. ..410.
Cicero, Post Red. in Senatu.
VII. 18. ..408.
Pro Archia.

i-x. §22. ..216: XI. § 27. ..311.
Pro Balbo.

2O...35S : xxiii. 53. .396; xxill. 53. ..86.
Pro CceHo.

XV. § 36... 323.
Pro Cluentio.

XIII. 37-16; 36-342; §93. .86.
Pro Domo.
44...I6I ; § 116. ..160; 21. ..100, 102; XXIV. 62...
408; XXVIII. 74.204; 37...161 ; xxxviii. §
IOI...231; 38.. .277; 43 ..161 ; 63.. .207.
Pro Flacco.

13. ..210; 29. ..392; §66.. .86,
Pro Milone.
33...84 ; 22...206 ; 19,20.410: i7...1xxTi: 10,19,
20, 3 1... 409.
Pro Murtena.

Ch. xx.xiv. 70. ..87 ; 70 ..1.
Pro Plancio.

9.. .362, -369, 3S1 ; 7, § 17 .78. 104.
Pro Quintio.

4.. .100 ; 6. .230.
Pro Rabirio.

3. ..97.
Ero Roscio Amerino.
^ 7, 18. .321; xxxii. 89...99, §7/.
Pro Sestio.

15...IOO, 102; §34...86; 35...S3 ; 39-102; .XLIII.
93.. .407; 54.. .193; 58...89 ; 67.. .89.
Pro Scauro.
46... 100.
Academical.

II. 22, § 70.. .88, 90, 98.
Cato Major.
II. ..215.
Divinatio iu Q. Caec.

16.. .89.
Lxlius.

25. ..82.
Tusculana; Dispntationes.

I. 7. ..50 ; II. 3, 9. ..408 ; ni. 3, 7. .468.
Claudianus.

Bell. Get. pnef. 7... 153.
In Eutrop. I. 310.. .144.
Pe I..aud. Stil. II. 227. ..169; II. 404. 291.
De Cons. Stilich. in. 65. .38; 111. 138. ,28.
De Sexto Consulatu Honorii.

I. ,.342; 330 rf Jiy...46; 500.. .Iv; 531 .53; 544 .
Ix.Niv; 597...IO9 ; 646 ..144.
Uiodorus Siculus.

XII. 26 .86 ; XVII. 2. ..362 ; xxiv. I. .75.
Dion Casjius.

II. 23. .342; xxxvil. 9. ..186; xxxvii. 45. ..266;
xxxviii. '6. .100, 102, 112 ; XXXVIII. 45...
265; XXXIX. 38.. .318 ; XL. 49. .84, 86 ; XI..
50.. .84; XLI. 14.. .249; XI.III. 22. ..108, 117,

131; XLIII. 23...268 ; xi.in. 24...24O ; XLiii.

45. ..249; XLIII. 49. ..82, 85, 111 ; XLIV. S...84,

108; XLIV. 8...131 ; xi.iv. 17. ..78; XLiv. 22...

231; XLIV. 51. ..112; XI.V. 17...IO8 ; XLVL 43

...158; XLVII. I, 2, 8...125 ; XLVii. 2. ..86:

XLVIL 18. ..112; XLVIL 19...84, 108,196,319;

XLVII. 40. .178 ; XLViii. 38. ..231 ; XLVIII. 52...

420; XLix. I5...174 ; XLix. 43. ..280, 297, 310:

L. 4. .193, 315 ; L. 10, .293, 296, ;j05 ; LL 19...

112, 125; LL 22. ..84. 108, 109, 111 ; LIII. I...

175,340; LIII. 13. ..173; LIII. 23...325 ; LIII.

27. ..160, 327, 330, 3.32, Ixi ; LIIL 32. ..344 :

Liv. 4.. .192; Liv. 8. ..124, 134, 192; LIV. 10...

342; LIV. II. ..326; Liv. 19...249 ; Liv. 24. ..88,

181; LIV. 25. ..312, 342; Liv. 26.. .344 ; Liv.

27.. .78, Kt3, 174; liv. 29. ..327; liv. 35. ..342;

LV. 7. ..227; Lv. 8.. .91, IdO, 303, 325, :3:31, Ixx ;

LV. 10.. .134, 135, 325; LV. 12. ..174, 176;

Lv. 23...337 ; H'. 27...IOO ; lvl i...:J25 :

LVL 24.. .315; LVL 25. ..223; lvl 27...I33 ;

lvl 33.. .343 ; LVL 34.. .112 ; LVin. 5. ..81 ;

LViii. II...90 ; LViii. 24. ..410; LviH. 26

...296.; Lix. 7. ..331; Lix. 7. ..160, 331; Ll.x.

30.. .325; LIX. 14.. .270, 341; Ll.x. 28. .100,

160; LX. 5, 3. ..315; LX. 6.. .100, 160, 320;

L.x. II. ..370, Ivii ; LX. 35. ..178 ; lxi. 20.. .268 :

LXIL I8...342; LXIIL 6.. .^40, 320 ; LXIIL 21...

296ri-XV. 4...28»;-^xvL 9.. .410; LXVL 10...

190, 253 ; LXVi. 15. ..140, 165 ; Lxvi. 24. ..296.

304, 310, 311, 312, 320, 324, 326, 327, 3:30, 332;

LXVL 25.. .268 ; LXVIL I... .119, 1-37, 410;

LXVIIL 7. ..296, Ixv; LXVIIL S..,150 ; LXVIIL 9 ..

149 ; LXVIIL ID... 134; Lxviii. 13. ..149 ; Lxviil.

1S...207; LXVIIL 16.;. 146, 148; LXIX. 2...148 ;

LXIX. 3, 4...1.tsvii; LXix. 4.. .146, 169, xxxvii;

LXIX. J... 331 ; LXIX. 8.. .153; LXIX. 23. .267,

274, 344; LXXI. 8.'..3.36 ; ,xx.xi. 31. ..170; LXXI.

33. ..315 ; L-X-Xi. 34.. .193 ; Lxxn. 4.. .235 ;

LXxiL 5.. .17; LjcxiL 13...417 ; lxil 17...

235; LXXIL 22...a65 ; Lxxn. 24.. .1.39, 141,

166, 178; LXIIL 2...6I ; LXXIII. 13...IO9 :

LXXIII. 13, 14. .86,; LXXM-. 3. .181 ; Lxxvi. 15

...274 ; LXXVIL .12.. 120; LXXVIII. 9, 24.. .274 ;

Lxxviii. 25. .236.
'Fragmenta.

3.. .29 ; 4, 15. ..34; 47. ..279 ; 106, 3 ..Bekker, 97.
Ap. Xiphilinum.
LXVIIL 15 ...173 : LXXI. 8— 20.. .336.
•Dionysius llalicamasseus.

I. 5. ..29; L 16. .39.3, 394, 395 ; L3I...29; I. 32...

29, 45, 155, 160, 181, 204; I. 32, 79. .156;

L 34...92, 184; L 39...2I, 41, 204; L 40...32,

279; L 56. .366; \. 64... 352 ; \. 66.. .356, 375;

L 68.. .162; L73...28; L 79.. .156, 157, 390;

L 85— 87. ..205; L 87. ..83; L 88.. .30, 31;

L89...29; II. I. ..155; IL 15. ..184, 185, 196:

IL 31. ..29; IL 32. .390; n. 34.. 192, xxiv;

II. 35. ..390; IL 37, 70.. .36, 248; IL 42...21 ;

IL 46.. .77; IL 49.. .390; IL 50. ..34, 76, 82, 85;

IL 53. ..390, 391, 392; IL 62. .248; IL 63. ..248,

249; II. 65. .34, i; IL 66.76,78; 11.67...

251 ; II. 70. .36, 24S ; IL 71. ..82 ; n. 76.. .207 ;

47S

Index of Quotations from Ancient Ant/iors.

II. 79. ..82; in. I. ...36; III. 4. ..410; III. 22...
104, 230; III. 31. ..402; III. 34. ..377 ; III. 36...
36; III. 38. ..367; ni. 43. ..36, 205; in. 44...
8, 204; III. 45. ..51, 261, 262; lil. 49.. .368;
HI. 54.. .402; III. 67. ..42, 251, 281, 431, xxiv ;

III. 68. ..295, 296, Ixv; III. 69..,188 ; III. 71...
82, 86; IV. 3. ..37; IV. 13-43, 44, 54, 231;

IV. 15. ..243; IV. 26. ..205; IV. 27...288 ; iv. 38
...83; IV. 39. ..231; IV. 44— 281, 295, xxiv;
IV. 4S...377 ; IV. S3...3S1 ; iv. 54.. .48, 248;

IV. 58. ..250; IV. 59.. .189; iv. 61. ..186, 189;

V. 13. ..264, 301; v. 21. ..390; V. 23...44 ;
V. 26.. .277 ; V. 35. ..34, 164 ; v. 35. ..267 ;
V. 36.. .277, 410; V. 37. ..390; v. 39...1x.xii ;

V. 61. ..383, 389, 395; v. 65.. 388; VI. I. ..93;

VI. 3. .380; VI. 13. ..100, 103; VI. I7...292 ;

VI. I9..,xv; VI. 34.. .394 ; VI. 63. ..403 ; VI. 67...
85; VI. 94... 292 ; vil. 5. .410; vii. 17...85 ;

VII. 19.380; VII. 35...196 ; vii. 59...325 ;

VIII. 17.. .387; VIII. 19.. 381 ; vm. 36, 55...
437; vm. 78. .196; viii. 79..,231 ; viii. 91...
389; IX. 24. .227; ix. 60... 250 ; ix. 68. ..43,
44, 47—49; X. 14. ..36, 45, 187; X. 20...
378, 379; X. 24...3SO ; X. 26...389 ; x. 32...
205; XI. 39. ..85; XII. 8. ..26, 356; Xil. 16...
356 ; XLIII. 49. ..304.

Eutropius.

I. 4.. .390 ; VII. 23.. .135 ; vm. 5. ..148 ; vm. 7. ..422 ;

IX. 4.. 207 ; IX. 15. ..56, 346.
Flonis.

I. 18. ..383 ; II. 2, 15, 16. ..215 ; iii. 21, 27. ..406.
Gellius, Noctes Atticie.

II. 10. .41, 183; II. 28. ..158; IV. £...83, 85: IV. 6...

78, 104; V. 12. ..185, 196; v. 21, 9.. .141;
VI. (vil.) 20.. .380; VII. 7. ..301; IX. 11. ..134;

X. I, 7. ..318; X. I, 9. ..320; x. 15. ..39; xi. 17,
I. ..146, 150 ; XIII. 14.. .30, 31, 53, 203; XIII. 20
...159; XIII. 24...407 ; XIII. 25, I. ..144; xiii.
25, 2. ..141; XIV. 7, 7... 108 ; XIV. 7. ..103; x^'. i,
2...231,lxxi; XV. 27.. .262; xvi. 5...1x.xiii ; xvi.

8, 2... 141 ; XVI. 13. ..383; xvi. 17.79, 2C8,
278; XVIII. 4.,. 231 ; XIX. 5. .,397; XX. I, 2...
177 ; XX. I, II, 47. ..86.

Herodianus.

I. 12. .,417 ; I. 12, 2. ,,415 ; I. 14. ..140, 141 ; I. 14, g...
110 ; I. 15... 165 ; I. 15, 16.. .235 ; II. 6. ..61 ; III.

9, 10, ,;j|(...122 ; III. 13. ..be ; IT. 1, 4.. 274 ;
V. 5,,,llff(180; VII. I2...]xxiv ; in. 60,. .357.

Scriptores Historiae Augustee, Vita Aureliani.

I...253 ; I0...346 ; 2I...57 ; 35...Ixxyi ; 39. ..56; 41
...110; 45 .370; 49., ,252, 270.
Vita Marci Antonini Philosophi.

I. ..224, 220 ; 3. ..177 ; 7. ..274 ; 6. ..159 ; 22. ..144 ; 22
...153 ; 26.. 114.
Vita Alexandri Severi.

4...3S3 ; 14...IIO ; 24.. .178, 181, 235, 340, xliv ;
25. ..178, 210, 228, 341, xliv, Iviii ; 26, 27.,.
xliv, 328 ; 28,, .134, 135, 138 : 29.. .177, 271 ;
31. ..177; 38...1iiii; 44. ..304.
Vita Antonini Pii.

1...411: 5. .270; 6...114 ; S..235, 370, 373; 8...
274, 262, 371, 332 ; 10.. .159.

Scriptores Historia; Augustce, Vita Caracalte.
2.. .120, 410; 9, ,,210, 211, 326.
Vita Carini.

19. ..320; 20. ..240.
Vita Commodi.

I. ..180; II. ..235; 15...IX ; 15.240: i6.,.51 ; 16,,,
222; 17, ,,165, 274.
Vita Floriani.

16.. ,417.
Vita Gallieni.

16. ..228; 18.. .342.
Vita Getae.

7. ..50, 120, ISO, 274,286; 7. ..50, 180, 286.
Vitas Gordianorum.

3. ..87, 231, 227 ; 12. .,100 ; 32., ,418, 1.
Vita Hadriani.

2. ..445; 5. ..333; 7...153 ; 19. ..165, 135, 151,199,
207, 267, 274, 332, 327, 331 ; 23. ..422 ; 26...
421, xxxviii.
Vita Heliogabali.

3...176; 4...259; 8, ,.176, 178; 17. ..210, 235; 24...
178, ISO.
Vita Sept. Severi.

4...266 ; 8..,420; 9,,,123; 9„,,122; l6...122 ; 17.,,
122; 19, ,,69, 178, 180, 370; 24, ,,178, ISO, 370.
Vita Peitinacis.
2. .,177; 4, .109: 5. ,.222.
Herodotus.

III. 60. ..357.
Momerus, Ilias.

VI. 4i9...xUii. ,

Horatius, Ars Poetica.
63...1vi; 162. ..323.
Epistolae.

I. I, 54. ..87, 105; I. 2, 2. ,.383; I. 2, 7. ..392; I. 3,
17. ..175; I. 7, 5— 15. ..25; I. 7, AS-H^ ; I. 7,
59...323 ; I. 8, I2...429 ; I. 10, 22...1xTiii; i.

10, 49...43O ; I. II, 4. ..323; I. II, 7. ..382; I.
14, 3. .429 ; I. 14, 30.. .430 ; I. 14, 35. 39-130;
I. 15, 9. ..361, 382 ; I. 15, 45. ..406 ; I. 16, 1—6...
430; I. 16, 2. ..405; I. 18, 105... 429 ; I. 19, 18...
86 ; I. 30. ..370 ; II. I, 25. ..250 ; II. I, 269. ..277.

Epodon Liber.

I. 30 ; V. 58.. .79, 80 ; v. 99. ..226 ; v. 100 (Schol. ad),
219; VII. 7. ..71.
Carmina.

I. 2, 1...S; I. 2, 13. .3; I. 2, 15, .290; I. 7, 13...
399; I. 8, 8. ..323; i. 9, I. ..26; I. 17, I, H...
430; I. 17, 13.. .395; I. iS, I. ..428; I. iS, 2...
395; I. 20, 7. .268; I. 25, l...lxxiT; I. 26, 8
...227; II. 6, 5. ..24, 395, 428; 11. 14, 15. ..25;

11. 18, 14, .428 ; III. I, 46...1xviii ; in. 3. ..2 ; in.
4, 23.. .383, 394 ; in. 6, 1...128 ; III. 7, 25. ..323 :
in. 10, 5...1vi; in. 10, 7...26 ; in. 16, 30. ..430;
in. 17, I, .,227 ; in. 18, 2. .430; in. 27, 3. ..373;

III. 29, 10. ..227; III. 29, II. ..399; HI. 29, 6...
395, 401 ; III. 29, 10.. .401 ; ill. 29, 8. ..379 ;

IV. I, 39. .323; IV. 2, 31. ..395, 428; IV. 2, 33
...78 ; IV. 3, 10. ..395.

Satirse.

I. 4, 7. ,.105 ; 1. 6, 120 .,.105 ; I. 6, 126. ..323 ; I. 8, 8
,,,226; I. 8, II. ..66, 219 ; I. S, 14.. .48 ; I. 9, x

Index of Qtiotations from Anciait Authors.

479

...78 ; 1. 9, 1S...26S ; I. 9. 35. /S ; "• 3. iS...105;

It. 3, 19. ..87; II. 3, 229. ..278; 11. 6, 19...25 ;

II. 6, 33-226; II. 6, 35-86; u. 6, 49. ..323;

11. S, 55...1.xvm.
Juvenalis, Satine.

I. 128.. .175; I. 155. ..271; i. 171. ..343; n. 6^ el seq.

...27; III. 5. ..79, 80; III. 11. ,.49, 218 ; III.

20. ..16; III. 71. ..246; III. !66...1x.\i; III. 190

...383, Ixx; III. 270...b:xiT, Lx.k ; IV. 36—149

...410; IV. 56. -.25; IV. 99...4IO ; IV. 117,..

218, 374; iv. 122. . .240 ; IV. 145.. .410; v.

106.. .75, 284; vi. 32. ..263; VI. 57. ..392; VI.

290.. .48 ; VI. 343. ..269 ; VI. 344. ..15 ; VI. 528...

325; VI. 528 ^/.f(y....324 ; VI. 529. ..325; vi. 590

...297; VII. 3...382 ; vii. 4...36I ; vii. 37...

175; VII. I25...1xxui; viii. 13...IO4 ; viii. 38...

894 ; VIII. 235. ..271 ; IX. 2. .105 ; IX. 22. ..140 ;

IX. 50... 240 ; .\. 17...IXX ; X. l8...220 ; X.

100.. .392 ; X. 334. .260 ; XI. 51. ..80 ; XI. I4I...

80 ; XII. 75— 81. ..370 ; XII. 79.. .372 ; XIV. 86...

397 ; XIV. 87.. .428; xiv. 202...262 ; xiv. 260...

100.
Livius.

I. 3. ..204, 375; I. 7. ..21, 32; I. S...184, 196;

I. 9. ..294; I. 10. ..185, 192, 262, 390, xxiv ; i. 11

...184, 392; I. 12. ..21, 34, 76, 162; I. 14. ..391 ;

I. 15. ..391, 403 ; I. 16.. .22, 300 ; I. 19.. .79, 391 ;

I. 21. ..39, 193, 218; I. 23.. .416; 1, 24.. .195 ; I.
26. .16, 50, 104, 230 ; I. 27. ..375, 391 ; I. 30.. .35,
83, 417, xxiv ; I. 33. ..36, 44, 51, 81, 192, 204, 218,
261, 291, 367, 370, -xxiv; I. 35. ..295, 368, xxii ;

*• ' I. 36.. .42, 82, 86; I. 38.. .42, 189, 2S1, 393, 394,

403,xxiT; I. 41. ..34, 78, 162, Lx.xiv; I. 44. ..23, 31,
37, 48, 231 ; l. 45. ..204, 205, 402 ; I. 47. ..77 ; I.
48.. .83, 231; I. 50, 52. ..358, 377; I. 56.. .281,
295, xxiv, l.xv; I. 57. ..389; II. I. .. 196 ; II. 5. ..264,
301; II. 7. ..163; II. 10. .44, 83, 185; II. II...
47, 49, 50; II. 13.. .34, 267; II. 14.. .277; 11. 19
...361, 383, 390, 392, 395 ; II. 20.. .100 ; II. 21...
93, 298; II. 25. ..403; II. 27. ..298; II. 32.. .351 ;

II. 38.. .377 ; II. 39.. .380, 381, 387, 431, 437 ; 11.
41. ..231, 404; II. 42. ..100; II. 43. ..389 ; 11.48
...404; II. 49...I6, 45, 419 ; II. 51. ..51; II. 52...
51; III. 6.. .431; III. 7. ..378; III. 8.. .383; III.
II. ..82; III. 15. ..187; III. 18. ..378; III. 23...
378; III. 25. ..381 ; III. 26. ..51, 270; III. 28...
380; in. 29...378 ; ill. 30.. .380, 389; III. 31...
378, 394 ; HI. 31, 32. .37 ; III. 41, 42. ..378 ; III.
44.. .89 ; III. 48.. .89, 90 ; III. 52. .351, 393, 440 ;

III. 54.. .313; III. 55. ..97, 294; III. 60.. .378 ;
HI. 61. ..378; III. 63. ..313, 314; III. 69. ..95;

IV. 12.. 316; IV. 16.. .51, 198, 277; iv. 17. ..391 ;
IV. 18. ..391; IV. 19...39I ; IV. 20..xii, 192; IV.
21. ..249; IV. 22. ..325, 391 ; IV. 25. ..301, 314 ; IV.
25. ..394; IV. 29.. .301, 314; IV. 31. ..391; IV.
34.. .391; IV. 45. ..37s, 381; IV. 49.. .388; IV. 61
...389; V. 13. .26, 356; V. 15. ..Iv; v. 16...
356; v. 19. ..290; v. 20.. .362; v. 22. ..205; v.
23. ..205, 290; V. 25. ..259; V. 31. ..205; v. 37
...392 ; V. 38. .360; V. 40.. .288 ; v. 46.. .187 ; v.
47. ..187 ; V.49...43I ; V. 51. .2 ; v. 54...?, 25 ; V.
S5...82, 2S2;V. 37 .359 ; vi. 15 ..SO ; VI. 20.. .40,

185, 194, 195; vi. 2I...3S1 ; vi. 22. .383; VI.

32. ..53; VI. 33.. .378; VI. 42...9I ; Vl. 55. .404;

vn. 3.. .189; VII. 9. ..431, 401, 440; VII. 11. .48;

VII. 12. ..383; VII. 17. ..353; vii. 18 . 400; VII.

19.. .400; VII. 20. ..53, 301, 314; Vll. 25. ..358,

377; VII. 39...43I ; vill. 11. ..367; viil. 12...

367; VIII. 13. ..89, 362; viii. 14. ..85, 393; Vlll.

15. ..251; VIII. 17. ..388; Vlll. 20... l.xv, 47, 250,

295; VIII. 33. ..82; l.x. 29... 431 ; I.X. 36. ..394;

LX. 39. .63; IX. 40. ..90; IX. 43. ..105, 251 ; IX.

46.. .49, 82, 85 ; -X. I...251 ; X. 12, 13. ..215 ; X. 14

...215 ; X. 19.. .301, 315 ; X. 23.. .16, 157, 252, 259,

290, liii; .x. 29.. .178; .x. 31. .298; -X. 33. ..160,

181 ; X. 36.. .162 ; X. 40.. .215 ; .X. 46.. .249, 289 ;

XXI. 62.. .205, 279, 305, 373; .xxi. 63.. .405;

xxil. I. .93; .XXII. 10.. .193; .X.XII. II. ..370;

-XXII. 33. ..194; XXII. 36. ..342; XXII. 57. ..279;

XXIII. 17. ..383; X-XIII. 31. ..193; .XXIII. 32. ..49,

84; XXIV. 9...8; .xxiv. 10.. .373; xxiv. 16...

206 ; XXIV. 2l...lxxiv ; xxiv. 44.. .374 ; xxiv. 47

...290, 305; -xxv. 3...I86 ; .x.xv. 7.. .53, 206, 290,

305 ; xxv. 39. ..88 ; XXV. 40. ..49 ; x.xvi. 8. .373 ;

XXVI. 9.. .349, 401 ; .xxvi. 10.. .230, 361 ; .\.xvi.

II. ..90; XXVI. 27. ..80, 88, 90, 103; XXVI. loi

...48; XXVII. 1 1. ..90, 103; XXVII. 25. ..49; XXVII.

37. ..45, 76, 98, 206, 259, 277, 314 ; .x.xvii. 38...

370; x.xviii. 26.. .86; xxix. 14.. .158, 160,181;

xxix. 16...86; ajii.5, 36...193; XXI.X. 37. .298;

XXX. 21. ..825; XXX. 38. ..251, 253; XXX. 43...

195 ; X.X.X. 45. ..428 ; XXXII. 29. ..401 ; XX.XII. 30

...305; xxxni. 24...325 ; x.xxiii. 26...76, 156;

XXXIII. 27...xxvii; .X.XXIII. 42. ..264; .X.xxiv.

43.. .314; XXXIV.44...2O6, 325; xxxiv. 4S..,S2 ;

XX.XIV. 53...IS6, 251, 264, 305; -xxxv. 9.. .45,

160, 181; X.X.XV. 10.. .51, 207, 346; xxxv. 21...

41, 45, 98, 185, 196, 277 ; xxxv. 40... 279 ; x.xxv.

41. ..193, 207; xxxvi. 35. ..158; xxxvi. 36...

298; xxxvii. 3...xxvii, 80; xxxvn. 28...

8; xxxvii. 58. ..314; xxxviii. 28. ..198, 277;

XX.XVIII. 53. ..216 ; -XXXVIII. 56.. .50, 216; xxxix.

I — 5. ..311 ; x.xxi.x. 2. ..310 ; .xxxix. 4.. 95, 314 ;

xxxix. 7. ..297; XXXIX. I4...1ix; XXXIX. 15

...262; xxxi.x. 32. .193; xxxix. 44. ..80, 87,

282, 286; xxxi.X. 46. ..85; XXXIX. 56. .85, 90;

XL. 2. ..207 ; XL. 19. ..85, 90; XL. 29. ..267; XL.

34.. .305; XL. 38.. .215; XL. 45. ..301, 346; XL.

51. ..75, 88, 194, 263, 304, 806, 317, Ivii ; XL. 52

...310, 316, 342; XLL I7...314; XLI. 27.. .84,

208, 295, 297, liii, liv, Ixv ; XLL 28.. .290; XLIIL

13. ..251; XLlll. 16. ..97; XLIV. 16. ..75, 96, 98;

XLV. 16.. .90, 163; XLV. 42.. .315.
Livius, Epitomai.

XI. ..262, 264; .\vi...L\iii ; XIX. .75; XX. .313 ;

XLViii ... 317 ; XLIX...301; LII...8O8; LVI...

104; LXXXVIII...315, 324, 325, 383; C.XVI...112.
Lucanus, Pharsalia.

I. 167. ..404; II. 191.. .524; II. 193.383; II. 19;...

315, 325 ; III. 87. ..376; I. 600. ..359 ; vii. 392—

397. ..347; VII. 393, 40;... 382; IX. S06 ...241 ;

IX. 991. .366 ; IX. 99S...I.
Lunretius, De Rerum Natura.
IV. 75. ..240; VI. 109.. .240.

4S0

Index of Quotations from Ancient AutJiors.

Macrobius, Saturnalia.

I. 5. ..28; I. 8. ..93, 95; I. 10.. .278, 342; I. 12. ..207,

223,311; I. 15. ..187; I. 16.. .38, 262; 11. 4...

134; 11. 12. ..264; II. 13. ..330; III. 4... 366 ; ill.

6. ..40, 41; III. 12. ..40; III. 17. ..330.
Martialis.

I. 2, 5. ..79 ; I. 2, 8. ..135, 137, 139 ; i. 3, I...79 ; I.

12 (13), I. ..397 ; I. C3, 2. ..361, 438 ; i. 18, 2...

15, 269; I. 42, 3... 262 ; I. 70, 3. ..100, 103 ; 1.

70, 5. ..78 ; I. 70, 6. ..165 ; I. 70, 9. ..181 ; I. 71,

10. .158; I. 108, 3. ..249, 331; I. 109, 2...262 ;

I. 117, 6. ..249; I. 117, 8. ..79; il. 14. 3--33' ;

II. 14, 7. ..324; II. 14, 9.. .319, 323; II. 14, 15...
331 ; n. 17, I. ..79 ; II. 19, 3. ..218, 374 ; II. 48.
8. ..341 ; II. 57, 2. ..324; II. 59, 2. ..223; 11. 64.
7. ..105; HI. 5, 5. ..49, 342; III. 19, I. ..319;

III. 20, II. .332; III. 20, 12. ..331 ; 111.25,4...
341 ; III. 47, I. ..49, 416, 435 ; in. 47, 2. ..359 ;
in. 47, 3. ..436 ; III. 95, 9. ..240 ; IV. I, 8.. .301 ;

IV. 8, 5. ..323; IV. 18, 4.. .26, 331; iv. 37, 4. ■
Ixxi; IV. 60, I. ..24, 25; IV. 64, 3, 36. ..5, 262,
268, 420 ; IV. 64, 15. ..16, 391 ; IV. 80, I. ..428;

V. 8, I2...240 ; V. 10, 5. .319; v. 14, i...
240; v. 23, 4. ..240; V. 22, 3. ..249, 251 ; v.
22, 5. .80; V. 25, I. ..240, 241; v. 49, 12...
312; V. 64, 5...253 ; VI. 9, I...240 ; vi. zi,
I. ..80; VI. 27, 2. ..249, 251, 393; VI. 42, 18...
326^. VI. 43, 2...^93,;-A-;, 64, 12. ..205, 207 ; vi.
66, 2. ..79, 80 ; VI. 92, 3. ..15, 269 ; vi. 93, 4...
262 ; VII. 28, I. ..399 ; VII. 31, 12. ..80 ; vii. 32,
II. ..326; vil. 32, 12. ..331; vil. 34, 5...341 ;

VII. 51, 4. ..134 ; VII. 56, l...lxxvi; VII. 61, i...
Ixxvi ; VII. 73, I. ..265, 242; VII. 87, 6...1xxiii ;

VIII. 14, 3...1xxiv; VIII. 36, I. ..176 ; viii. 65,
I. ..342 ; VIII. 75, 2. ..49, 342 ; VIII. 80, 5. ..187 ;
I.\. 4, 7.. .191 ; IX. 39, 5. ..241; IX. 60, I. .324 ;

IX. 65, I. ..436 ; IX. 102, 12, ..410 ; IX. I04, I...
436 ; X. 5, 3. ..218 ; x. 6, 5 ..l.xxiv ; X. 19, 10...
227 ; X. 25, 5. ..271 ; x. 28, 6. ..138 ; x. 37, 5...
364; X. 44, 3.393 ; X. 45, 4. .15, 269 ; x. 63.
3. ..301 ; X. 68, 4. .374 ; X. 71, 3...1xxvi; X. 80,
4. ..324 ; X. 94, 5. ..80 ; XI. 21, 6. ..240 ; xi. 27,
II. ..277; XI. 47, 3. ..319; XI. 61, 3. ..80 ; XI. 98,
17. ..86 ; XII. 3, 9. ..175 ; XII. 3, 9. ..80; XII. 18,
6. ..205, 214; XII. 18, 2... 80 ; XII. 18, 5...27 ;
XII. 29, 15. ..240 ; XII. 32, 10. ..218, 374; XII. 48,
14. ..15, 269 ; XII. 57, I. .393, Ixxvi ; xii. 67, 2...
205 ; xit 83, 5. ..341 ; xiii. 19, I...373 ; xiv. 28,
29... 240.

De Spectaculis.

I. 7. ..225 ; II. I. .232, 233, xxxviii ; II. 3. ..165 ; II. 4
...235; III. 8. ..241.
Ovidius, Amores.

I. 5, 3...1xxiv ; I. 8, 99. ..77 ; 11. 2, 4. ..175 ; in. 6, 45
...395.
.•\rs Amandi.

I. 67. ..319; I. 69...3IO ; I. 73...175 ; I. 81. ..130;

I. 104...24I ; I. 171. ..268 ; II. 265. ..77 ; in.

167. ..312 ; III. 385. .326 ; III. 391. ..310 ; in.

451. .130.

I'asti.

I. 245, ..261; I. 257. ..86, 129; I. 264. .12 ; 1.269...

87 ; I. 291. ..264 ; i. 318.. .340 ; I. 463. ..342 ;
I. 501. ..22, 301 ; I. 551. ..21, 205; I. 581. ..32 ;

I. 599. ..41 ; I. 637. ..194; I. 64I...9I ; I. 705...
100; I. 707. . .100 ; I. 709.. .342; II. 55. ..158;
n. 135...39O ; n. 193...264 ; II. 20I...45 ; n.
295...I34 ; II. 433. . .243 ; 11. 475...38 ; II. 489
...300; II. 509... 248, 249 ; II. 585. ..352, 358 ;

II. 722. ..389 ; II. 857. ..301 ; II. 860.. .315 ; III.
91. ..379; III. 182. .342; III. 245. ..225, 243 ; ill.
261. ..353; III. 263. ..373; in. 273. ..218 ; HI.
266. ..374; III. 327. ..204; III. 389... 249 ; in.
519.. .220, 301, 340 ; in. 647 . . . S.W ; in. 791...
39; in. 837. ..223; in. 883...207 ; iv. 71. ..395;
IV, 145. .290; IV. 330. .371 ; iv. 335. ..359; iv.
375. ..251; IV. 621. ..178; IV.721...IO; IV. 815...
155; IV. 819.31 ; IV. 821. ..34; IV. 871. ..251 ;
IV. 949. ..175 ; V. 148. ..207; v. 287. ..206; v.
S49...134; V. 569. ..134; V. 579. .134, 192; V.
622. ..262 ; V. 669. ..298 ; V. 673. ..218 ; v. 729...
251 ; VI. 31. ..184; VI. IOI...223; vi. 183. ..194;
VI, 191. .49; VI. 193. ..215; VI. 203. ..84, 315;
VI. 205. ..315; VI. 217...25O ; VI. 237...262 ; VI.
241. ..193 ; VI. 263...xxiv, 78 ; vi. 264. ..103 ; VI.
265. ..103; VI. 395. ..79; VI. 397. ..100 ; VI. 401...
21; VI. 471. ..279; VI. 478.. .279 ; vi. 565...55 ;
VI. 572. ..51 ; VI. 601. ..231 ; VI. 609. ..231 ; vi.
677. ..63; VI. 725. ..298; VI. 727. ..206 ; vi. 765

_...267; VI. 773...289; vi. 784...267 ; vi. 791...
77; VI. 793. ..162; vi. 796...249 ; vi. 799...312 ;
VI. 812. ..312.
Metamorphoseon Libri.
X. 595...1xviii ; xni. 714. ..175 ; xiv. 329. ..359 ; xiv.'V^
398. ..352; XIV. 438. ..155; XIV. 448...3 ; XIV.
598. ..353; XV. 482, 547. ..218; xv. 739. ..264;
XV. 802. . .319 ; .XV. S41... 112; xv. 864...
17.5.
Epistolse ex Ponto.

I. 8, 44. ..440; II. 2, 83. ..112; in. 3, 5. ..l.xxiv.
Remedia Amoris.

549... 251.
Tristia.

ni. I, 1.175 ; III. I, 30. .78 ; HI. I, 31 . 34, 162 ;
III. I, 6i...lii.
Pausanias.

I. 15, 1...425 ; I. i8, 9. ..330 ; I. 3, i...xlix ; I. 14, 6
...xlix; IV. 35, 6. .360 ; v. 12, 6 ...146; v. 16, i...
xxra; VI. 9, 3.. 140 ; vi. 20, 7. ..295 ; vi. 24, 2...
1 ; VIII. 38, 5. ..156 ; VIII. 46, s...xliv; x. 5, n...
146.
Persius, Prologus.
8...1xxiii.
Satire.

I. 113 ..232; IV. 49. ..86; v. 32. ..79, 80; v. 56...

374.
Plauliis, Bacchides.

II. 2, 56...1x.xiii.
Captivi.

I. I, 22. ..51; in. I, 29. ..278; iv. 2, 23 (815). ..88.
Casina.

II. 6 ..52 ; II. 6, 2. ..51.
Cistellaria.

in. i8...1xi.

Index of Qiw tat ions frovi Ancient Aut/iors.

481

P:autus, Curculio.

IV. I. ..99, 105; IV. I, II. ..83, 88; IV. i, 20 ...100 ;
IV. I, 21. ..277; IV. I, 24.. .8f.
Miles Gloriosus.

11. 4, 6. ..52, 226 ; 11. 6, 24...IXXV.
Moslellaria.

II. 2, l4...1.x.\iiL
Pseudolus.

I. 3, 96. ..52; I. 3, 97. .51.
Trin ramus.
I. 2, 157...IXXL
C. Plinius Secundus, Panegj'ricus.

10.. .151 ; 47. ..176 ; 50. .231, 260 ; 51. ..296, Lwi.
Epistoloe.
I. 13. ..Hi, 178; n. 14...II7 ; 11. 17. ..23, 415, lx.\iv,
313; III. 21 ...227; IV. 11. ..78; v. 6...1xviii,
313 ; v. 9. ..117; vi. i6...lTi; vi. 3i...lvii; vi.
33. ..117; vil. 21. ..313; vii. 29...227 ; viii. 17
...372, 395; IX. 3.313; x. 46...1x.vvii ; x. 47
...Ixxvii.
Ep. ad Trajanum.
37.. .16.
Plutarchi Vitse, .^Jmilins Paullus.
30. .186; 31. .186.
Brutus.

14. .319 ; 20.. .289.
C. J. Caesar.

29. ..88; 5S...37O; 6o^l3i>376;6l...lotJ ; o6...ai'.i.
Camillus.

3. ..356 ; 6. ..205 ; 36.. .45, 194 ; 42. ..90, 91.
Cato Minor.
■^' 5. ..88; 39.. .51.
Cato Major.

19.. .88.
Cicero.

16. .34, 162; 33. ..161.
Coriolanus.

3. ..100; 2S...3S7 ; 29...368 ; 30.. .416.
Crassus.

2...1xxL
Galba.

24. .124, 159; 25. ..331; 28.. .219.
Caius Gracchus.

5. .82; 7.49, 431, liu; 12. ..160; 17. ..89, 91, 262.
Lucullus.

39. .260, 409; 43. ..380.
Marcellus.

28. ..49; 30. .310.
Marius.

12. ..81 ; 35. ..367.
Numa.
9.. .263; 10.. .251; 11. ..103; 13.. .218: 14...78, 24S;
16.. .193 ; 20. .36; 22. ..267.
Otho.

4... 45, 205.
Pompeius.

40.. .319; 44.. ,260; 52...3I8 ; 53, 80... 410 ; 68.. .318.
Publicola.
8 264 ; 13...I90 ; 12. ..95; 15. ..176, 191; 19 ■■
34.
Romulus.

2.. .31, 34; 3. ..156; 4.. .157; 9.. .34; 12. ..10; 14

...32, 294; 17.. .390; 18.. .21; 19.. .77, 81; 20
...74,82,156,157; 23. ..205; 24.. .51, 85 ; 27...
22.
Plutarchi Vilae, Sulla.
30... 32), 383.
Qua;stiones Roman:B.

3.. .242; 20 ..291 ; 30... 250 ; 42...92 ; 42...95 ; 47
...85; 57. .157; 59-311; 60.. . 41 ; 69.. .37. 38;
74- •290; 97. ..SO.
De Fortuna Romanonim.

5. ..289; 10. .193, 243,251, 290.
Procopius, Bellum Gothicum.

I. 14. .67, 445; I. 15.72; I. 18.. .60, 69; i. 19.. .51,
58, 62, 261, 363, 441, 444, IvUi ; I. 22. ..59, 60,
66, 272, 275; I. 23. ..60, 69, 66; i. 25. ..86, 109;
1.26.. .370; II. 8, 9... 259 ; 11. 9... 59 ; 111.20...
67; III. 22, 24. ..58; HI. 36...69,275 ; IV.2I ...141 ;

IV. 33. ..275.
Bellum Vandalicum.

I. 2. ..252, 253; I. 5. .191.
Propertlus.

II. 24, II. .77; 11.31, 3.. .175, lii; HI. 3, 7. ..104;

III. (IV.) II, 45. ..193; III. 17, 14.. .77; III. 19,
26.. .297 ; III. 29, II. ..175 ; III. 30, 11. ..319 ; III.
30(11. 32), 4.. .379; III. 30(11. 32), 5. ..397 ; iv.
I, 15. ..240; IV. I, 33. ..369 ; IV. 2. ..98 ; IV. 2.
6. .277; IV. 7, I5...1xxi7; iv. 8, I...373 ; iv. .s,
3. ..236; 1A-. ii,.^.»4, 228; IV. rs...3»7 ; iv.
22, 24...1viii; IV. 22, 25. ..353; v. i, 3...175 ;

V. I, 9. ..157; V. I, 19.. .10; VI. 34.. .382; v. 2,
7.. .45 ; V. 2, 10. .21 ; v. 3, 71.. 49 ; (iv.) v. 4,
I. ..184; v. 4, 13. ..108; v. 4, 74.. 10 ; v. 5, 11...
251 ; V. 6, 67.. .175 ; v. 7, 81. ..395 ; v. 9, 25...
207 ; v. 9, 3.. .155 ; v. 9, 5. ..21 ; v. 9, 19. ..279 ;
V. 9, 67.. .32; V. 9, 73. ..250; v. 10, 7. ..390;
V. 10, 26. ..393.

Quintilianus, Institutio Oratoria.
I. 7. ..79, 89; XII. 5. ..117.
Declamaliones.
13. ..406.
Sallustius, Catilina.

12. ..411; 55. ..81.
L. Amicus Seneca, De Beneficiis.

HI. 32. .329 ; VI. 32. ..105 ; VII. 9, 5. ..27.
De Clementia.

I. 1 2... 3 15, 324,325.
De Consolatione.

17 (36)... 410.
De Ira.

II. 9, 4. .127; III. 18.. .270; 111. 35 ..Ixxiii.
De Providentia.

II. 7. ..277; HI. 7. .99.
Ludus.

XIII. I. .342.
Quajstiones Xaturales.

II. 9. .241 ; II. 42. ..96.
Epistolje.

I. 7. ..241 ; VI. 4. ..171 ; VI. 5 ..Iv ; Vil. 96.244 ;
XII. i..:326; xiii. i...x.\xvii, 407 ; xiv. 2.. 27,
Ixxiv, 282, 283; XX. 5...IXXV.
M. .Vnn. Seneca, Controversia;.
IX. 3. ..80.

3 Q

482

Index of Quotations from Ancient Authors.

Silius Italicus, Punica.

IV. 224.. .397 ; VI. 663. ..89 ; VII. 692. ..379 ; Vlll.

39.. .353; VIII. 170. ..352; vill. 179.. .353; viii.

361. ..373, 389 ; VIII. 363. ..359 ; vill. 365...

390 ; vill. 395. ..388 ; VIII. 400. ..20 ; vili. 421

...250; XII. 535...379 ; xii. 539,..360 ; xiii.

4.. .361 ; XVII. 39S...SS.
Solinus, Collectanea.

I. 8. ..51, 205; I. 10.. .40; I. 11.. 41 : I. 13. ..36, 4.5 ; I.

14.. .21, 25; I. 17. ..34; I. :8...156, 157; i. 20

...300; I. 21. ..248; I. 22. ..163 ; I. 23. ..78; i.

24.. .34, 79 ; I. 25. ..37, 231 ; II. 7. .395 ; XLV. 15

...187; XLVi. 6.. .26.
.Statins, Silvas.

I. I, 30. ..88, xli.\ ; I. I, 31 ■•^Li ; i. i, 64.. .38; i.

I, 70.. .105 ; I. I, 86. .131 ; i. 2, 25. ..80 ; i. 3, I

...428 ; I. 3, 20.. .360 ; I. 3. 57...1xxiv ; I. 3, 73...

399 ; I. 3, 83.. .379 ; I. 5, 24...1vi, Iviii ; i. 5.

25. ..326, 360 ; I. 5, 34-113 ; i- 5. 62. ..341 ; in.

I, 183. ..397; III. 4. 47-l'6; iv. I, 38...301 ;

IV. 2, I. ..176, 177, xxxvii; iv. 3, 9. ..138; iv. 3,
18. ..253; IV. 3, 40— 53...1ii, liv ; v. I. 222...
432.

.Stralio.

V. 228. .390 ; v. 229. ..1 ; V. 230.. .362, 3S9, 391, 402,
ill); V. 231. ..368, 370, 445; v. 232...367 ; v.
234.. .36, 37, 47. 54, 64, 70; v. 235...1ii, Ix.x,
280, 303, 431 ; V. 236:^299, _343 ;, v. 237. ..49,
381, 389; *. 238... 360, 381, 382, 397, 438;

V. 239.. .24, 354, 374 ; v. 245. ..Iv ; v. 329...
383 ; VIII. 23, 381. ..294; xvii. 801. ..427.

Suetonii Vitoe, Augustus.

5. ..160; 14.. .240; 29. ..95, 117, 134,175,205,206,
229, 310, 312,342 ; 31. ..134, 175, 319 ; 43. ..268,
325 ; 45. ..174, l.xv ; 56. ..133 ; 57. ..99, 176, 231 ;
72. ..160, 174, 383, 397; 82. ..27, 361; 100.. .109,
112, 345 ; IOI...343.
Julius Cffisar.

II...228; 26...I3O; 28...95; 29. ..88; 39.. .268, 295,
296, 340, IxT ; 44. ..303; 46...8O ; 46...354 ;
61. ..131 ; 78. ..131 ; 79.. .1 ; 83. ..268, 381 ; 84...
86; 85. ..112; 88. ..319.
Caligula.

7. ..193; 8...397 ; I5...344 ; 16...IO ; iS.. .181, 296,
325, 331 ; 21. ..73, 160, 319, 323, 346; 22. ..100,
160, 185; 34.. .194; 37...II7 ; 50.. .160, 179;
55. ..270, 341 ; 58. ..313 ; 59. ..227.
Claudius.

I...218 ; II...341 ; 17 ..323 ; 18. .. 342 ; 20.. .73, 370,
Ivi, Ivii; 21. ..270, 290, 318, 325, Ivi, Ixv ; 25...
226, 264 ; 32. ..Ivi ; 34. ..241.
L)e Illustribus Gramniaticis.

15.. 231 ; 21. ..310.
Domitianus.

I. 5, 15, 17. ..253; I...249, Ixxiii; 2. ..59; 4. .37, 268,
297, 340, 410 ; 5. ..Ixv, 137, 187, 296, 340, 341 ;
6.. .125, 383; 13.. .105, 288 ; 14. ..176, 179 ; 15...
125, 383.
Galba.

I. ..24, 420; 18. ..193.
Horatius.
20. ..227.

Suetonii Vitje, Nero.

12. ..244, 325, 340, 341, l.xi ; 25. ..410; 31. ..164, 165,
227, 361, xxxviii, Ix.xiii ; 38. ..227, 401; 46...
317 ; 47, 48, 49. ..420 ; 50.. .260 ; 81. ..165.
Octavius.

5. ..Ix.xiii; l6...1vi ; 29. ..192, 304; 30...l.\-x; 31...
319; 49. ..Ivi; 89...IXX; 91. ..192; 94. ..95 ; 100
...46, 34.3.
Olho.

6. ..124, 159 ; 7. ..233.
Terentius.
5. ..432.
Tiberius.

5.. .160; 15. ..159, 227; 15. .. 231 ; 20.. .91, 100; 34...
195 ; 37. ..62 ; 40.. .392, Ixiv ; 47. ..341 ; 48. ..214 ;
Si, 54--344; 63. ..383; 72. .268.
Titus.

I.. 180; 2...xliv; 5...265 ; 7. ..232, 235, 268; 8. ..97,
190, 241, 320; 9.. .139, 221, 235; 11. ..110;
13...24I ; 18.. .165; 19...I77, 304 ; 20. .241.
\'itellius.
15. ..159.
Tacitus, Agricola.
2. ..S3; 45. ..410.
Annales.

1. 8.. .46 ; I. 79...8 ; 11. I. ..268 ; II. 32. ..226 ; II. 33...

27; II. 37. ..175 ; II. 41. ..117, 289, 369; 11. 49...

- -. , 292, 2.94, 298, 305, xxvii; II. 64.. .135; II. 83.. .88;

III. 9...343 ; III. 24...2IS; III. ^o... 253; III.
51. ..95; III. 52. ..197 ; III. 71. ..315 ; in. 72...
88, 319 ; IV. I...62 ; IV. 5. ..348 ; iv. 46.. .215 ;

IV. 62...392, l.xiv ; IV. 64. ..214; IV. 65 .49, iX^J' '■
277; IV. 67. ..411 ; iv. 69...IXXV ; VI. 45. ..160, ._

207, 296, 319 ; X. 41. ..162 ; XI. 24. .394 ;
XI. 32, 37. ..260; XII. 23. ..195 ; XII. 24 ...32, 184,
185, 279, 294; xii. 56, 57. ..Ivi; xill. 8.. .134 ;
XIII. 26. ..445; XIII. 47. ..252; xiii. 52...394 ;

XIII. 58.. .82, 157; xiv. 14...270 ; xiv. 15...268 ;

XIV. 20...317 ; XIV. 22. ..400, 428; .xiv. 47...
340, 341, l.xi; xiv. 62. ..Ivi; xv. 18. ..194;

XV. 23. ..369; .XV. 38... 134, 296; XV. 39.. .164,
227; XV. 39, 44... 270 ; XV. 40... 164, 342, Ixx ;
XV. 41. ..40, 103, 207 ; xv. 42...I64 ; xv. 43...

208, Ixxi, Ixxii ; xv. 44... 271 ; xv. 60.. .220, 226,
435; XV. 74. ..298; XVI. 13. ..25; XVI. 27...
131.

Historiae.

I. 27. ..35, 124, 129 ; I. 31. ..331 ; i. 40. ..62 ; I. 86...
8, 262, 265 ; II. 93. ..25, 269 ; II. 94.. 62, 341 ;
III. 71. ..95, 97, 187, 198; III. 72.. .189, 190.
xxxiv; III. 74. ..81, 187; III. 79. ..419, 420;

III. 82. ..53, 252; III. 84...6I ; III. 85...36 ;

IV. 2. ..369; IV. 53. ..190; iv. 70.. .1.x.
Thucydides.

I. 10.. .30; II. 13. ..43; VII. 86, 87. ..80.
TibuUus.

I. 7, 59. ..liv; II. 5, 25. .155; II. 5, 33. ..21 ; 11. 5,
70... 399.
Valerius Flaccus, Argonautica.

VIII. 239. ..359.
Valerius Maximus.

I. I, 12. ..267; I. I, 8. .49; I. 3, I. ..384; 1.3,2... *

Index of Quotations from Ancient Authors.

483

215; I. 6, 3. ..356; I. 7, 5. ..193 ; i. S, 1...IOO;

I. 8, 2. ..264; I. 8,4.. .437; I. 8, 11. ..158;

II. I, 6. ..181 ; II. 2, 6. ..84 ; II. 2, 9. ..49 ; 11. 4,
2. ..317 ; 11. 4. 5. •301 ; II. 4, 7. ..279, Ixiii ; 11. v.
I. ..305; II. 5, 6.. .25, 181, 228, 243, 252; in. 2,
17. ..193; IV. 4, 7. ..270; IV. 4, 8. ..227, 228;
VI. 3, I. ..161, 277; vi. 3, 11, .231; vi. 9, 13...
81; VI. 9. 14 ..193; vii. 1, I...30S ; viii. 2,
I. ..195, 224 ; viil. 8, I. ..24; viu. 14, 6...251 ;
l.\. 2, I. .315, 324.

\'ario. De Lingua Latina.

V. 21. ..29; V. 22...1x.xi; v. 25. ..226; V. 2S...390 ;
V. 32. ..79; V. 41— 54.. .39; V. 41. ..37, 184,
185, 246; V. 42. .29, 36, 93, 184; v. 43...
21, 33, 204; v. 45. ..39, 162, 163, 184; v. 46
...214, 246, 277; v. 47. ..77, 195, 223, 230;
V. 47, 49... 231; v. 48... 79, 230; V. 49..,
25, 49, 225, 242; v. 49, 50. .242; v. 50...
242; V. 51. ..246, 249; v. 52. .47, 251; v. 53
...29; v. 54. .155, 156, 163, 278; v. 54, 55..
155; V. 66. ..250; v. 71. ..358; v. 83. .262
v. 142...3I ; v. 143. ..279; V. 146. ..279, 305
v. 148. ..21, 100; V. 151. ..SO, 81; V. 152. ..205

V. 153. ..205, 291, 295 ; v. 154.. .291, 313 ; v. 155
...81, 83,84; v. 156.. .21, 84, 89, 278; v. 157...
?9, 198, 277, 288; v. 158. ..2u6, 231, 251; v.
159. ..238; V. l6l...lxvii; v. 162. ..373; v. 163 _
...50; V. i64..^34s-35, 278; ■vi:*4-...88; 85,
106J"VI. S...89 ; VI. 14.. .246, 248; VI. 17...
267, 289; VI. 18. ..393; VI. 19. ..262; VI. 20
...32, 294; VI. 21. ..104; VI. 24.. .35, 278;

VI. 27, 1S7 ; VI. 28. ..195 ; VI. 32. ..97 ; vi.
53...3I ; VI. 64. ..37; VI. 94 ..204 ; VIII. 70,
71. ..96.

iJe Ke Kustica.

I. 2.. .16, 77; I. I, 4. ..96; I. 2, II. ..297 ; I. 13. ..404,
406; I. 14. ..392; I. 14, 3...70 ; II. 4.. .366;
III. 2. ..316, 325; III. 2, 6... 342 ; in. 3. ..404;
III. 13. ..416.
W'lleius Paterculus.

I. 8, 6.. .196 ; I. II, 3. ..308, 309, 310, 311 ; I. 11, 5...
310, xxxiii; I. 15...317 ; II. I. ..315; II. I, 2. ..308,
310; II. 8, 3. ..316; II. 10. ..104; II. 14.. .160;

II. 14, 3... 161 ; II. 27. ..358; II. 39.139; 11.48
...318; II. 81. ..174; II. 100, 2 .134.
Veigilius, ^Eneis.

I. 3-7; I. 36. .2; I. 294.. .36; II. 405...1xj(iii ; VI. 549

...54; VI. 773.. .391 ; VI. 774.. .389 ; VI. 776.. .388 ;
VII. 31. ..3, 351; VII. 47. ..353, 359 ; vil. 83...
399 ; VII. 150.. .22, 352 ; VII. 150, 242, 797.. .352 ;
VII. 159. ..365; VII. I77...1xxiii; vii.242...22,357;
VII. 347. ..182 ; VII. 419.. .359 ; VII. 486... 359 ;

VII. 516...353; VII. 517.. .20; VII. 531,535,575
...359; VII. 607. ..36; VII. 6l2.., 402; VII. 630...
394,395; vii. 631...39O; vii. 656...204 ; vii.
657.. .3.59; VII. 671. ..359; VII. 672...395 ; VII.
678. ..22 ; VII. 681 ..382; vii. 682...381 ; Vli.
712.. .Iv; VII. 717. .359; VII. 759. .Ivi ; vil.
761. .,374; VII. 762. ..218; VII. 778.. .374; VII.
796.. .28, 381 ; VII. 797. ..357 ; viii. 9. ..395 ; Vlll.
31. ..10; VIII. 51; VIII. 190.. .205; Viii. 193...
21; VIII. 337. ..45; VIII. 343.. . 156 ; VIII. 348...
12; VIII. 355. ..202; VIII. 357. ..184; VIII. 358
...261; VIII. 485...xxxix; viii. 652— 658. .185 ;

VIII. 654.. .187; VIII. 704. ..175; IX. 360.. .395;
l.x. 644...366; IX. 790— 815...366 ; l.\. 816...3 ;X.
709. ..22, 364 ; XI. 133. ..365 ; xi. 741, 757. ..395 ;
XII. 134. .358 ; XII. 139. ..352.

Georgica.

II. i6i...lvi; II. 224.. .380; 11. 535. .38.
VilruiMiis, Da Ardiiteptrffi^ — .

I. Pitef. ...kxvii ; l. 5, 2...xxiv ; i. 7...189 ; 11. 3...xlvi,
Ix.xii; II. 4, I. ..16; II. 7. ..10, 391 ; II. 8...xlv,
Ixx, 385 ; II. 8, 16.. xlvi ; II. 8, I7...1xxi ;

III. Prfef....l93; III. 2. ..119, 251, 264, 315,318,
xxvi, xxvii; III. 2, 5...309, bcxvi ; III. 2, 7. ..249;
in. 3. ..40, 112, 130; III. 3, 5. ..292, xxvii; IV. 2...
102, xxxiii, xxxvi ; iv. 5. ..119, 419 ; iv. 7. ..374 ;

IV. 8, 4.. .196, 316: V. i,..87, 90, 167, 1; v.
I, 4. .111; V. 3...424; v. 6...1xxiv; v. 7. ..424;

V. 9. ..316, 319, 424; v. 9, i...lxxvi; v. 10.211,
213, 330 ; V. II.. 425 ; vi. 3...1xvii, Ixviii, Ixxv ;

VI. 3, 4. ..Ixviii ; vi. 3, 5. .177, Ixviii ; vi. 5 ..177 ;
vii. Pnef. § I5...1xxvi ; VII. Pntf. 17. ..193; vii.
I. ..209, Hi ; VII. 9, 4.. .249, 251 ; VIII. 3.. .361 ;
VIII. 7...1ix; IX. 8. ..106; x. 2i...lxxiv.

CORRIGENDA ET ADDENDA.

i-cad "Martial, iv. Page

Page Ixxi, nole2, /or "Martial, iv.

37, 4-"
,, Ixxiii, note S, /i"- "Martial, vii. 87," ivcid "Martial,

vii. 87, 6."
28, line \i,for "Argeian," rt<;./ "Argean. "
3$, note 4, add, " and in the Berlin Corpus Inscrip-

tionum, vol. i. p. 205."
39, lines 2, 9, 1 1, 29, and margin, for "Argeian,"

rtW(/"Argean."
41, line 7, for "N. D." read "N. V."
80, note 8,/y/-"xi. 66," read" -a. 61."

88, note ijor "Silv. i. 30," read "Silv. i. I, 30."

89, note 10, add, " The inscription is given in the
Berlin Corpus Inscripl,ionuui, vol. i. p. 37."

91, note 4,/or " Diet. Ant." read "Diet. Geogr."
93, note 4, for " L. L. v. 7," read " L. L. v. 42."

1 10, line 23, the words " may possibly Pompi-

liana" should foUov,- the words "Middle Ages "
in line 25.
131, margin, _/y?- "Mar," read " Mars."
139, line zo, for " Paolo," read " Paola."

139, line 25, after "Vespasian," insert the words,
"which contained the Temple of Peace."

140, line 2,1, for "Talyrus," read "lalysus."
17S, note %for "letzen" read "letzten."

85,
205,
220,

223.

227,
228,
245.
253.
259.
268,

311.
324,
326,

342,

356,
359.
367.

379.
384.
389.
436,

note %for "Diet. Ant." read "Diet. Geogr."
note \o,for "xii. 67," read " xii. 67, 2."
note 9, for "Mart. xii. 6," read "Mart. xii.

18, 6."
line 37, after "the same spot," insert "These."
note 6, for " Max. iv. 48," read " Max. iv. 4, 8. "
note I, for "Jul. ii." read "Jul. 11."
line 5, yi"" " Vinimalis" read " Viminahs."
note 8, /or "7, 2, 8," read "7, ix. 2, 8."
hue 14, for "di Monti," read "de' Monti."
note i,for "Front, i. 11," read "Front, i."
note 5, /)r " § 4, 135," read "^^4, 135."
note T, for "x. So," read "x, 80, 4.

note 7, for "Front,
10,22." ^

Cons. Hon

note 6, for

Hon. I."
note 2, for "i. 6," read "i. 6, 3."
note 6, for " 137," read " 37."
note 4, _/i>r " riut. Mar. p. 425,"

Mar. 35."
note 5,/w "Ep." read "Epod."
note 4, for "i. 4," "read "I. 3, I
note 4, for "v. 10," read " 10."
note 2, for "ix. 64," ?r«(/ "i.x. 65,

:o, 22," read "Front.

i. I," read "Cons.

read " Plut.

THE END.

LONDQii : 1;. I

SJjDi^ :

■kl:. 1 I us, liREAD STKEtT iULI .

1 L ni\ULrJtJll^IllJ±

ROMAE VETERIS

Mctri.

IOC loo J0O

=?=»

Qni iTucr«y,",iY?P'*y °' California
405 HiVn.^H 5^^ REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY
405 Hilgard Avenue, Los Angeles, CA 90024 1388

Return this material to the library
rrom which it was borrowed.

001051992

REC'D lO-U^'t
OCT B199I

SEP 1 £ii@a

SEP 1 2 1994

W0i

D 000 345 393 3

::'i

•'".— ^

• '

.'V'

<■ "

^.? :^

^^1

• I ■ r

,i - .
t ' ■

■' * - :■ ■ ■ -

; >5A^s

X,: '■■- ;■*

.)-,. ■>;