Golden Binding of "The Gospels of Charlemagne," with Jewels.and Enamels, Hth or 12th Century. [Froiitisyiece. iO ,. . THE BOOK ITS HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT CYRIL DAVENPORT, V.D. F.S.A. 17 a / & ILLUSTRA'JED NEW YORK D. VAN NOSTRAND COMPANY 23 MURRAY AND 27 WARREN STREETS 1907 TABLE OF CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. EARLY RECORDS. Eock inscriptions — Marks on wood — Quipus — Wampum— Modern ideographs — Indian palm -leaf books — Ideographs and alphabets — Diptychs . . p. I CHAPTER II. -^ ROLLS, BOOKS AXD BOOKBIXDIXGS. Papyrus and vellum rolls — Quaternions — The sewing of books — Head- bands — The rounding and backing of books — Mediaeval books — Irish cumdachs — Byzantine bindings — Oriental books — Modern methods of sewing and binding . . . . . . p. 26 CHAPTER III. PAPER. Paper — Watermarks and quiring jj. 62 'f CHAPTER lY. PRIXTIXG. Assyrian bricks with printed inscriptions — Oiron ware — Chinese types — Block books — Costeriana — -Tyjies and stereotypes — Printing presses . . . . . . . . • . p. So CHAPTEEV. ILLUSTRATIONS. Wood engraving — Line engraving — Etching — Stipple — Mezzotint — Aquatint— Lithography— Photography . . . . p. 102 vi TABLE OF CONTENTS. CHAPTER VI. MISCELLANEA. Book edges and their decoration — Embroidered books — Cloth bindings — Account books — End papers — Small metal-bound books — Books bound in tortoiseshell — Chained books — Horn books . 2'- l^^^ CHAPTER VII . LEATHERS. ' Vellum — Calf — Pig skin — Sheep skin — Goat skin — Seal skin, etc. p. 169 CHAPTER VIII. THE ORNAMENTATION OF LEATHER BOOKBINDINGS WITHOUT GOLD. Blind tooling and stamping — Panel stamps — Cut leather — Stained calf — Cut vellum — Transparent vellum . . . . . ^i. ISl CHAPTER IX. THE ORNAMENTATION OF LEATHER BOOKBINDINGS WITH GOLD. Gold tooling in leather introduced from the East to Venice — Early Italian gold tooled work — The spread of gold tooling in Earope — Modern work — Gold tooling in leather — Early Venetian gold tooled bindings — The work of Thos. Berthelet, John Day, John Gibson, Marj' Collet, Samuel Alearne, Suckerman, Eliot and Chapman, Roger Payne, Richard Wier, Charles Hering, Kalthoeber, Staggemeier, Walther, Charles Lewis, T. J. Cobden-Sanderson, Sir Edw. Sullivan, Douglas Cockerell, E. M. MacColl, S. Prideaux, Adams, Woolrich, Etienne Roffet, Geoffrey Tory, Nicholas and Clovis Eve, Le Gascon, Florimond Badier, Mace Ruette, L. A. Boyet, Padeloup le Jeuue, J. le Monnier, Derome le Jeune, Cape, Duru, Thouvenin, Bauzonnet, Trautz, Lortic . . • p- 205 INDEX 2J. 245 LIST OF PLATES. 1. GOLDEN BINDING OF "THE GOSPELS OF CHARLEMAGNE," WITH JEWELS AND ENAMELS, llXH OR 12tH CENTURY. {See p. 54) ....... Frontispiece 2. PAGE FROM WILLIAM CASLON's " SPECIMEN OF PRINTING TYPES." (LONDON, 1766) .... To face p. 98 3. P.\GE FROM THE " HYPNEROTOMACHIA POLIPHILI." (VENICE, 1499) To face p. 104 4. PAGE FROM C.iXTON's " MYRROUR OF THE WORLDE." (LONDON, 1481) To face p. 108 5. " THE PEACOCK." WOOD ENGRAVING BY THOS. BEWICK, FROM THE "HISTORY OF BRITISH BIRDS." (NEWCASTLE, 1797-1804) To face p. 110 6. TITLE - PAGE OF GRIMM's " GERMAN POPULAR STORIES." (LONDON, 1824) To face p. 124 7. FRENCH SEVENTEENTH CENTURY BINDING BY LE GASCON. RED MOROCCO, INLAID WITH OLIVE AND CITRON MOROCCO AND GOLD TOOLED IN THE POINTILLE MANNER . TofaCCf. 238 THE BOOK: ITS HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT. CHAPTER I. ^ EAELY RECORDS. Eock inscrii^tions — Marks on wood — Quijius — Wampum — Modern ideograplis — Indian palm leaf books — Ideograplis and alphabets— Diptychs. The idea of making records by means of marks cut on stone or wood did not originate in any one place, for signs of it are i(S^mf^ more or less all over the world wherever jjrimitive man has existed. It was not until a comparatively late period that the various kinds of record keeping were united after a fashion and true writing evolved itself out of the chaos. There are some forms of record keeping that have been largely used by the human race which, as far as we can at present tell, have not influenced our present form of book except negatively ; but indirectly they may still have done so in some manner that we cannot distinguish. Mankind is naturally imitative, and among his early efforts in this direction are the scratchings on bones and antlers. They comprise outlines of deer, mammoths, reindeer, T.B. B 2 THE BOOK: ITS IIISTOKY AND DEVELOPMENT. seals, bears, horses and other animals. Several instances of these early drawings have been found in the caves of the ' Dordogne in France. These, however, are not records, they are only pictures of what the artist saw, and a large proportion of rock and stone markings come into the same category. But there is no doubt that many of the latter are intended to commemorate certain events ; they show groupings of marks, animals and men in positions and attitudes which are clearly intended to mean something, and now and then it has been possible to make a good guess at their interpretation. The earliest marks made by man that still exist are to be found among the rock markings or carvings, as these are often in protected places where the weather has not worn them away. Prehistoric caves and tombs are prolific in such treasures, and the marks, ideograj)hs or hieroglyphics are always of the greatest interest. There seems to be some analogy between the great megalithic temples like that on Salisbury Plain and many of the rock inscriptions, but little is at present known on this point. Cup and ring markings on rocks or stones are among the most remarkable of rock inscriptions because they are not isolated as to their design. From Ireland to India these marks are found possessing the same radical forms, and it is impossible to avoid the conclusion that they have been made by tribes of men who had some thought or idea in tally of wood. ^^^^ ^^e most usual, have a flat pierced handle so that they can be suspended by a loop. They were commonly kept in churches. Details of several well known examples of clog almanacks will be found figured in The Reliquary for January, 1865, in illustration of an excellent article on the subject by Mr. John Harland. Exchequer and other wooden tallies were common in England in the 14th century, and in modern days a certain survival of them exists in the form of hop-tallies. These are two strips of wood which fit closely together with a tongue, and when in contact notches are made across the two edges in apposition, so that when the two pieces are aj^art, neither party can falsify the notches without it being at once apparent when the slips are finally brought together. The principle is exactly the same as that utilised in the old legal " indentures," EAELY EECOEDS. 9 by virtue of wliieli a piece of vellum was cut iii two by an indentured, or toothed line, and if these did not exactly fit whenever they were brought together it became evident that they had been tampered with. In parts of France tallies like these are still used by bakers. Wooden tallies are also found among the inhabitants of Torres Straits, where they use them made of short sticks tied together at their tops. Curious inscriptions, as yet undecipherable, have been found at Easter Island ; they are cut in thick slabs of wood and are ideographic. Bones have been from very early times. the recipients of men's marks ; the earliest of these, however, were only copies of things seen. But inscriptions and symbols were presently scratched on them, and the blade bones of buffaloes in North America as well as the shoulder blades of sheep used by the Arabs are equally convenient for writing upon. In Sumatra inscriptions are commonly cut in flat pieces of bone. Instances of inscriptions in ivory are very numerous, and the finest examples of these occur in the case of the Eoman consular dij)tychs which are described a little further on. Information as to direction is still often given by means of marks or " blazes " on trees, a survival of a primitive method, and American lumbermen or " loggers " cut hieroglyphic marks of ownership on their logs when they send them down stream. In times of trouble it often happens that primitive methods of communication are resorted to, like that received by a Cavalier from his lady love who heard that the Pioundheads were after him — she sent him a feather, and he flew away and escaped. 10 THE BOOK: ITS HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT. Fig. 6. Such symbolical messages are common enough among savage tribes, but without some key it is almost impossible to interpret them. They are so various in their composition that no useful analysis of them can be made. On one such message from West Africa, strung on a string of fiat fibre knotted at each end, are a bit of shell, a bit of fur, a bean, a cylindrical stick, a piece of leather, a mass of frog's eggs or something like it, a fiat piece of bark, a feather, a tooth and a shell. In another are two pieces of fiat glass kept together with red thread, and two teeth on each side of it, all strung on fibre, and so on. The Battas of Sumatra use different and probably more elaborate messages, as they consist of carefully cut strips of wood, resembling the old spillikins with which our child- hood's days were made happy. These strips of thin wood, about three inches in length, are cut into various shapes which have no obvious col- lective meaning. In one of them is a capital model of a little broom, accompanied apparently by a series of little clubs and spikes. Such a message might have been sent by an absent brave to his squaw at home, and may have Fig. EAELY EECOEDS. 11 meant that if she didn't sweep up the Nvigwam before his arrival she would experience the efi'ect of one or other of the clubs. The Incas of Peru had a regular system of keeping records by means of coloured pieces of string knotted in a peculiar way. These knotted records, or Quipus, had special keepers -Peruvian Quipu. who held office in the provinces, and the results of their energy were forwarded annually to the capital city for examination and preservation. The provincial keei^ers were called " Quipu Camayas," and the records they kept were mainly statistics concerning the people of their districts. The knots were arranged either on a strong piece of cord or upon a stick, and formed a sort of fringe ; the word " Quipu " means a knot. According to the posi- tion of the knot a certain number was probably indicated, and the class of person referred to is shown by the colour of the bit of string which represents it. But it is also likely that more elaborate interpretations 12 TlIE ]?OOTv: ITS HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT. could be made by skilled interpreters of Quipus. Little is really known as to that, but it is suggested by competent ol)servers that, for instance, red meant war, yellow meant gold, white meant peace, and silver. But this is proljably guess work. The same idea has been utilised in the case of a rare Chinese book, the leaves of which were of differently coloured silks. Each colour was supposed to convey a certain emotion to the student, and when he had exhaustect the emotion caused by one colour, he turned over the leaf so as to experience the effect of another. The use of knots as reminders is not quite obsolete, as it is common enough even now to make a knot in one's hand- kerchief, if anything easy is to be remembered. It is curious if this custom is really a survival of the Peruvian Quipu ! A form of knotted record is used among several of the tribes in the Pacific Islands, and the Jewish " Taleth," or scarf, has fringes which imply certain facts. The ordinary rosary with its ten beads for Ave Maria's and single ones for Pater Nosters has also something in common with knots, and possibly the abacus of the Greeks and the Chinese may have a similar origin. But probably these last are only used as aids in mathematical calculations. Something analogous to the Peruvian knots is to be EiG. 9. — Cardinal's hat. J EAELY EECOKDS. 13 found in the tasselled and knotted fringes which adorn the ceremonial hats of dignitaries in the Eomish church. The hats themselves are alwaj^s of the same shape, round shallow crowns with broad brims. The fringes, however, differ in size and colour according to the rank of the wearer. The master cord is drawn through the brim of the hat at its inner edge, at a point over each ear, and kept in place by a large ornamental knot on the outside. The tassels start from one, and from this two others depend, and from these three, and so on, one more in each row. An abbot wears a black hat with six green tassels on each side ; a bishop wears a green hat with six green tassels on each side on a gold cord ; an archbishop has a violet hat with ten violet tassels on each side on a gold cord, and a cardinal has a red hat with fifteen red tassels on a gold cord, depending on each side. The wampum belts of North America, were primarily used as money, but they were also made sometimes in such a way that they formed historical records. The true " Six Nation " wampum belts were made of little white and purple cylinders of shell very laboriously cut, and the purple ones very difficult to get. " Wampum " means white, and there is generally a preponderance of this colour. The short beads are strung upon long threads or Fig. 10. -Portion of Xorth American wampum belt. 14 THE BOOK: ITS HISTORY AND DEVELOl'MENT. strips of leather, iind the design shows sometimes in purple on a white ground and sometimes in white on a purple ground. The designs are sometimes easy to decipher, like the helt which typifies the Iroquois League, showing the one heart of the ruling nation in the centre, and the allied nations, each shown by a square, united together in one bond. A very fine and interesting wampum belt was given as a record of friendship to William Penn at the Great Treaty in 1682, by the Sachems of the Lenni Lenape. It is now pre- served by the Historical Society at Philadelphia. It is made of eighteen rows of white and purple cylindrical shell beads, the ground white and the designs in purple. The beads are laced upon nineteen parallel " horizontal " strips of leather by means of thinner strips running vertically across them and brought twice through each bead, one running being above the horizontal strip and the other below it. It is a curious way of stringing beads, and was practised in England some sixty or seventy years ago in the making of small bead ribbons. In the centre of the belt is a conventional figure of Penn shaking hands with the chief Sachem. Many of the wampum belts seem to have only geome- trical designs upon them, but doubtless, without exception, these fine white and purple shell belts, cut with infinite patience and skill, and put together with the greatest care, always have some meaning. The Iroquois could, until recentl}', interpret them at once, but now they are less able to understand the work of their ancestors. There are plenty of imitation wampum belts, usually made of small shells or ordinary l)eads. The genuine belts EAELY EECOEDS. 15 are flat and strong, and the little shell cylmders nearly all of the same size. The imitations are much more irregularly and carelessly made, and they are often without any colour but wliite. A common form of book in Oriental countries consists of long narrow strips of palm leaf, kept together by two strings run through holes near each end. The writing upon the leaves is carried right along the length of each leaf in successive lines, and is scratched in, and usually strengthened by means of lamp black rubbed over it so as to stick in the scratches. This form of book rests by itself. Apparently it has never altered materially, neither has it in any way affected the pro- duction of the book as we know it. The palm leaves are brittle, they are troublesome to turn Fig. U. — Oriental palm-leaf over, and are likely to split and break where the cord touches them. But the leaves are frequently made of stronger materials than palm leaf, some of them being of gold, silver, or gilded copj)er, and in these cases the lettering is engraved or punched. Others are written on plates of ivory, the letters being gilded, others again on plates of lacquer with letters inlaid with mother-of-pearl ; indeed, the variety is large. The leaves are always enclosed between two covers of stronger make hut of the same shape, and these covers are often very elaborately ornamented. Some of them have exquisite carved work and inlaid work and others are painted. In the case of Indian examples they are often messed over with red stains. When this is found the u; THE BOOK: ITS HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT. manuscript has belonged to some shrine, and worshippers have daubed it with rice and red paint as a sort of peace offering. The strings with which the leaves are 1>ound together are also sometimes handsomely ornamented. Ancient rock inscriptions, tallies, quipus and wampums are all more or less ideographic, and among trade signs there are still many ideographs in common use, some of them of considerable antiquity. There are the three golden balls of the pawnbroker, which mean that money can be borrowed there. They are derived from the coat of arms of the Medici of Lombard}^ The Lomliards were mediaeval bankers and money lenders, and for their badge they took three of the golden balls, or pills, out of the Medici coat. These balls varied in number and colour, they were some- times red, and sometimes blue, and three blue balls upon a white ground was one of the mediaeval signs used by money lenders, but the three golden balls have proved more lasting. Another old ideograph is the white barber's pole, with its red spiral, the image of the red bandage used to tie up an arm which had just been bled. It was originally the mark of a barber surgeon, but the barber still uses it although he no longer bleeds his clients. An old sign for a barber is also a shaving dish. This is oftener seen on the continent than it is here. The embowed arm holding a hammer is an old sign of a gold beater, and is generally itself gilded. It is clearly an ideograph, as is also the fishing rod with a golden fish, which is a usual sign over a fishing tackle maker's shop, A modern instance of the same kind is a gilded ham which is not uncommonly seen over provision shops, quite a modern EAELY EECORDS. 17 sign. The rapidly disappearing Highlander taking snuff is another modern ideograph. There are plenty more of such signs, most of which tell their story directly and simpl}^ while others, the older ones particularly, may at first seem arbitrary, but often a little examination will reveal a simple origin. The curious hieroglyphics still used by gypsies are no doubt derived from Egyptian hieroglyphics, and although most of them have changed considerably, a certain resem- blance in some of the forms can still be traced. Ideograms are still used in North America in out of the way places. A common mark for a cheese is a circle, and this sign was found oj)posite a farmer's name, but he had never had one. He did, however, owe for a grindstone, and the draughtsman clerk had forgotten to put in the centre dot which would have marked the difference between the stone and the edible. In common use more or less all over the civilised world is the pointing hand, meaning either " Look there " or " This way." Some signs are also ideographic in character ; among these are certain of the deaf and dumb signs, and also some of the arm signals used in the navy. In the army some of the bugle calls imitate as far as possible the sounds to which they refer. For instance, the " prepare for cavalry " h^ some resemblance to horses galloping. Ideographs used in written languages soon change in character. Xo longer do they mean simply what they portray, but the sound of its name, and then by degrees they repre- sented the first syllable, and eventually only the first letter of its name. These changes of meaning are accompanied by T.B. c IS THE BOOK: ITS HISTOEY AND DEVELOPMENT. changes of form, and it is very curious to trace how an apparently arbitrary letter form is really only the survival of the main lines of an ancient ideogram. There are several most interesting instances of these changes given by Dr. Isaac Taylor in his classic " History of the Alphabet," as well as by other writers on the subject, particularly Sir E. Maunde Thompson and Mr. Falconer Madan. Egyptian inscriptions show both ideofiraphs, hieroglyphics and alphabetic signs, as there is usually a word spelt out in syllables or letters, and at the end of it the complete word shown as a little picture. The hieroglyphics altered into a style of writing which was not so pictorial about the nineteenth century e.g., and although alphabetical symbols were actually used as early as 4,000 b.c, yet it was very many years later than this that they became of general use. The earliest piece of hieroglyphic known is cut upon stone on a tablet now preserved in the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford. It is supposed to have been made about 4,000 e.g., and on it the name of King Send is written alphabetically. Our present alphabetic writing is by no means final, as it is even now undergoing a remarkable change, in which neither ideograph, hieroglyphic, nor alphabet plays any part. Shorthand will in time supersede our comparatively cumbrous process, and it is purely phonetic. Chinese writing is still in the syllabic state, but the Japanese, which is formed from it, has advanced many steps towards the alphabetical stage. The earliest handwriting known is that on the Paj)yrus Prisse, now in Paris. It is in Egyptian hieratic writing, and is supposed to date perhaps from about 4,000 e.g. EAELY EECOEDS. 19 The hieratic is a cursive form of hieroglyphic, and was used particularly by priests. We derive our present letters " longo intervallo " from Egyptian hieroglyphics, and the history of their evolution is full of interest. It may be well here to review rapidly how it is that we have acquired an alphabet for printing purposes which is clear, though not beautiful. Our present type shows two alphabets ; one, the capital letters, are of Roman origin, the other, the small letters, are a modification of what are » called Carolingian minuscules, and both alphabets have reached us through the Latin, Greek, Phoenician and Semitic. Up. to the seventh or eighth centuries in Europe the various styles of writing were in a mixed condition, but about that time the different forms of letters began to arrange themselves, and to follow distinctive lines of development in different countries. Charlemagne interested himself in the matter, and saw that the time had arrived when something could be done towards clearing away the many difficulties which croj^ped up by reason of the different forms of letters which then existed. He caused careful studies to be made of existing stj^les so that some sort of common ground could be found. At Tours the Emperor set up a sort of Royal Commission to enquire into the matter, and at the head of it he placed a learned Englishman, Alcuin of York, who was known as a great student and was himself a calligraphist. Alcuin was trained in the beautiful Hiberno-Saxon hand, of which so many magnificent examples still remain — the Book of Kells, the Gospels of Lindisfarne, and several more. c2 20 THE BOOK: ITS HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT. At Tours tlie Carolingian minuscules, which are the direct ancestors of our small, or lower-case letters, were developed. Our capital letters have developed themselves on different lines. They are like the ancient Eoman types, which in the twelfth century had modified themselves somewhat and become very clear, and these forms commended themselves to the scribes of the Eenaissance period, and underwent still more improvement in details. The early type cutters who formed their letters directly after the shapes of letters written by hand, soon saw that these capitals were not only easy to cut but were in every waj^ the best they could find to copy. During some excavations at Pompeii in 1875 a large collection of small wax writing tablets or Pugil- laria was found. These tablets re- semble small slates ; they are of wood, and one side is slightly hollowed out so as to receive a filling of blackened wax. Generally two of the tablets were hinged together, hence their name of diptychs, but sometimes they were in threes or even more, like a tail or " Caudex," from which it is said we derive our word Codex. Diptychs are the direct prototypes of our modern books. The writing was marked on the wax by means of a style in the same way that writing was formerly done in Eng- land on the curious sand tables. These styles are usually of iron, sometimes inlaid with brass, but they were also made of bronze, brass, wood or bone. They always have Fig. 12. — Eoman diiitycli. EAELY EECOEDS. 21 one end pointed to write with and the other flat to erase with. A space was often left in the thickness of the wooden edge of a diptych to keep the style in. The erasing in the case of the diptych was effected by rubbing the flat end of the style over it, and in the case of the sand writing-tablet by a plasterer's level or a good shake. Sand tablets have been used up to quite recent times in elementary schools. But the sand writing was always temporary, w^hereas the wax writing is very lasting, one of those found at Pompeii bearing the date a.d, 55. It records a payment to Umbricia Januaria, and is the earliest Latin manuscript known. Diptychs of similar form were widely used. They have / Fig. 13.— Eoman diptych stylus. been found in Egypt, and in England — remains of the Roman occupation — together with numbers of the stvles used for writing with. Diptychs were kept together at the back by means of metal rings or thongs of leather, run through holes made in the wood, so that they are true i^rototypes of our modern books both as to form and manner of keeping together, the " stabbed " form of binding, that is to say, threads or bands or wires run through holes pierced along the back edge of the sections of a book, having been in continual use ever since rolls were first turned into books. ^\hen the diptychs were used as private letters they were further fastened wdth a tie or clasp in front, and this 22 THE BOOK: ITS HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT. tie was often sealed with the sender's signet in wax or clay. The Pompeian and all the other small wooden diptychs are unornamented, hut at a later period, particularly from the second to the seventh century, Eoman diptychs became of much import- ance and were often decoratively treated, being made of ivory and elaborately carved. Labarte, Gori, Westwood and Maskell have all written valuable works concerning these ornamental diptychs, and specimens of more or less excellence can be found in most museums that have any collection of carvings in ivory. The earlier examples are the best ; later speci- mens rapidly decline in art value, although they are always of great historical interest. One leaf of one of the finest dip- tychs in existence is fortunately in the British Museum ; it shows a fuU- FiG. 14.-Byzantine dip- j^^ w^ f^ ^f ^^^ archangel with tych 01 ivory. o o o ^ globe, cross and long-staff, and is supposed to have been made in the third or fourth century. A curious point about this leaf is its unusual size, about IG by inches, and it is said that such a piece could not be cut from any known elephant tusk. It is possibly mammoth ivory. EAELY RECOEDS. 23 For a long time the supreme power at Eome was vested in the consuls who held office for one year. Naturally anyone elected to this high position was anxious to inform everyone holding any high place or office of his accession to the dignity, and the usual way of doing this was to send round diptychs of ivory an- nouncing the event, as well as subsequent ones concerning any other important matters which might occur during the consulate. Not only was the communi- cation inscribed upon the wax, all of which is now gone, but the outside ivory was carved with invaluable portraits, scenes and inscriptions. By examining these carvings we can frequently ascertain who was the consul that issued them, and often enough we can find his portrait carefully drawn. In one of the many excavations made in the Forum at Piome,, tablets containing a list of Eoman consuls were found, and these serve as an official check upon our interpretation of the records existing upon the consular diptychs. Consular diptychs were generally larger than the wooden pugillaria, which were always small. Ivory Wi \ J \ \\\ M '^'^WH ' |i,_jlL-ilJd_^ll f/j,llLIMu\ 'I V- g[ p ' ft i 1 i' Is ' 11! 11 i 11 il \ 1 I j < 1 f w "t rwr^m^}) 1 mi,\ \\ 1 \v> T ' V \ W Fig. 15. — Ivory diptycli of the consul Yaleutinian, a.d. 380. 24 THE BOOK: ITS HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT. diptychs are rarely less than six or seven inches in length. The privilege of giving away finely carved ivory diptychs was highly esteemed, and in the fourth century the Emperor Theodosius issued an edict forhidding any but one of tlie tw^o consuls, one at Rome and the other at Constan- tinople, to issue them. In the matter of consular and official costume thelloman carved ivory diptychs are of great importance. Figures often appear on coins or gems, but they are always very small. On the diptychs, however, tiiey are sufficientl}'' large to show full details. The subjects depicted on them are various. There are games, combats in the circus, scenes from the Passion, boys emptying sacks of prizes, figures of Saints, Adam and Eve, busts and portraits of consuls both in medallions and full length. The best collections of consular diptychs are to be found at Eome, Milan, Monza, Paris, Munich, Berlin, Liverpool and London. Besides the consular there are also ecclesiastical diptychs, the majority of which were probably only diverted from their original intention and altered and adapted to a new use. The original wax was removed and new inscriptions engraved on the ivory, mostly lists of martyrs or benefactors to the particular church which had posses- sion of the diptych. There is one at Liege on which the names of the bishops of Tongres are written, and there is another similar one at Novara. It is probable that the liking for ivory carvings on books arose from the lead given by the ivory diptychs. Indeed in several instances the EAELY RECORDS. 25 sides of ivory diptjchs are actually inlaid in late bindings of MSS. WORKS TO CONSULT. Aglio, a. — Autiquities of Mexico. London, 1830-4S. (Yol. 4, at end.) (Quipiis.) Berger. — Histoire de I'ecriture dans I'antiquite. Paris, 1891. GoRT, A. F. — Thesaurus reterum diiitychorum consularium et ecclesiasticorimi. Florentiae, 1759. Harland, J. — The Beh'(juury, Jan., ISfJo. (Clog almanacks.) L.VBARTE, J. — Histoire des Arts ludustrielles au uioyen age. (Diptj-chs.) Paris, l.S(54-()G. Lacroix, p. — Les arts au moyen age. (Diptyclis.) Paris, 1809. Lubbock, Sm J. — Prehistoric Times. London, 1865. Madan, F. — Books in Manuscript. London, 1893. Maskell, W. — Ivories Ancient and Mediaeval. London, 1875. Maskell, a. — Ivories. London, 1904. Plott, E. — Natural History of Staffordshire. (Clog almanacks.) Oxford, 1(J8G. Prescott, TV. H.— History of the Conquest of Peru. (Qiiipus.) London. Eeln'aud. — (Description des monumens Musulmanes du cabinet de M. le Due de Blacas.) (Indian amulets.) Paris, 182S. Em;TT-CARXAC, J. H. — Prehistoric Kemains in Central India. Calcutta. Eivett-Carnac, J. H. — Ancient Eock Sculptures in Kamaon. Calcutta, 1877. Simpson, Sir J. Y.— Archaic Sculpturings. Edinburgh, 18(37. Smithsoxiax Eeport, 1879, p. 389. (Wampum.) Taverxier, J. B.— Yoyages. Paris, 1810. Taylor, I.— The Alphabet. London, 1883. Thompsox, Sir E. M.— Handbook of Greek and Eoman Palaeo- graphy. London, 1893. Westwood, J. O.— Cat. of Fictile Ivories. London, 187G. CHAPTEE 11. ROLLS, BOOKS AND BOOKBINDINGS. Eolls of papjTus and vellum — Quaternions — The sewing of books — Headbands — The rounding and backing of books — Mediaeval books — Irish cumdachs — Byzantine bindings — Oriental books — Modern methods of sewing and binding. The length of ancient rolls of vellum has often puzzled bibliophiles. Eolls of narrow breadth are found 16 or 17 feet or more in length. A learned scholar on being asked how he accounted for this extraordinary length was quite puzzled, never having realised that the roll was in one piece. The neck of the giraffe seemed the onl}^ possible solution. The writer however Fig. 16. — Egyptian papyrus roll, with consulted a clever mud seals. i j.i i n leather worker and gave him a skin measuring about 3 feet by 2, suggesting certain ways of cutting it. He produced eventually, by wetting, pulling and pinning, a beautiful roll of nearl}^ 4 inches in breadth and 16 feet 9 inches in length. Mediaeval leather w'orkers were no doubt more skilled and practised in this particular art than anyone now is, and the experiment showed that there is really nothing out of the way in the very long rolls which at first sight seem so surprising. Eolls were written upon in three ^ways. In the EOLLS, BOOKS AND BOOKBINDINGS. 27 oldest rolls the usual way was to write lines across the breadth of the roll, which was held uj)right before the reader, and unrolled from the top downwards. A rare form of writing upon rolls is that found in the prayers written on the strips which are rolled up inside Buddhist prayer wheels. Such praj^ers, however, are never read, but are counted as being read through on each revolution of the wheel. Each line of manu- script runs along the entire length of the roll, which is unrolled sideways. The prayer wheels vary immensely in size, the best known being the little hand ones chiefly used in Thibet ; they are variously ornamented. The form of writing in rolls that is of most interest so far as books is concerned is a modification of tlie Thibetan form. In- stead of each line running the whole length of the roll, a space limit is now fixed, and the lines of writing follow under each other, so that the page form is at once apparent. This form, a late one, can be seen in the case of the Jewish scrolls of the law. The roll is un- rolled sideways, and the rollers at each end are often very handsomely decorated. But writing of this last kind on rolls has suggested another arrangement in which the reading is more easy, and the re-rolling of the roll itself avoided. Pig. 17.— Eoll written upon across its shorter diameter. :? Fig. 18.^ — Eoll written iipon longitudinally. 28 THE BOOK: ITS HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT. It will be seen that a blank space is left between each ot the written "pages." Now if the vellum, bark, or paper be folded across these vacant spaces, one after the other, backwards and forwards, like accordion pleating, we shall find that we get a form of book well known in the East and also among primitive nations. Curious examples of such converted rolls can be seen in most museums, and they are generally kept flat by means of two boards front and back, but not otherwise fastened. The Chinese and Japanese have taken this particular form of evolution from the roll to the book a step further, and by help of the ancient device of "stabbing" the flattened roll along one of its sides, they produce a form called an " Orihon," easy to consult, strong, and the blank back of the roll so hidden up that its existence is frequently not realised. But if some of the leaves of an Orihon are cut, its real structure becomes at once evi- dent, and a book will be produced with letter- press and blank paper alternately in pairs. A similar kind of alter- nation shows now and then in the case of MS. rolls that have been cut up, but they are oftener arranged letterpress and blank alternately. Without realising it we still preserve this blank and Jetterpress sequence, found in the converted roll, in official Fig. 19.— Thi- betan prayer wheel. ^^F^^ Fig. 20. -Eoll written upon in page form. EOLLS, BOOKS AND BOOKBINDINGS. 29 and legal manuscripts as well as in those intended for the printer. When the printing press took the place of the scribe, the blank leaves had no further raisoti cVctre, so they dropped out for good. Following the rule that the forms of binding have always followed tolerably closely the forms of the manuscript they have covered, we find that rolls were kept in cylindrical boxes, called " scrinia." Eacli roll was usually provided Fig. 21. -Siimatran bark book in the form of a folded roll. Fig. 22.— Orrhoii. with a little tag, so that if there were several of them in one box they could easily be distinguished. The same sort of tags are used to-day in the case of rolled maps kept on shelves. Until a late period the term parchment must be undei"-^ stood to mean vellum. Now we call sheep skin "parchment " and calf skin " vellum," and they are prepared in the same way with lime, so that not being tanned they are not strictly " leather." The finest vellum is prepared from the very youngest and smallest calves, and it is the most beautiful and suitable material for writing or printing upon that has 30 THE BOOK: ITS HISTOEY AND DEVELOPMENT. ever yet been found. The surface is singularly even and offers little or no resistance to a pen, so that every sort of Handwriting, square or round, is put upon it with equal- ease. Vellum has one fault alone, particularly when l)ound in book form as distinct from a roll, and this is that the edges are apt to cockle, and by so doing they not only make the pages look ugly, but they also admit the dust. Often and often magnificent vellum books, especially at the top, show large Vandykes of dust-stained spaces due to this cockling, and all such books should be provided with a close fitting cardboard cap, to be kept upon them whenever they are not in use. Parchment and vellum were both well-known to the ancients, but their value as materials for writing upon does not seem to have been fully acknowledged until the second century b.c, until which period papyrus had held undis- puted pre-eminence for that purpose. At that time fpr some reason the supply of papyrus from Egypt ran short, and Eumenes II., King of Pergamum, successfully intro- duced parchment in its stead. Parchment is so called because it was first produced at Pergamum. --jUntil about the fifth century a.d., vellum MSS. were in the roll form, but then came a change to the book form as we now know it. This change was probably due to the fact that stabbed binding, the only sort then used, was not suited to vellum. The few papyri that exist in book form were stabbed, that is to say, the rectangular pages were kept in position by a binding cord laced through holes pierced sideways right through the entire thickness of the l)ack of the book. The marks of these holes can often be seen along the inner margins of ancient papyri, and they EOLLS, BOOKS AND BOOKBINDINGS. 81 also show in many instances of rebound copies of our early Englisli printed books. To-day plenty of examples of this form of sewing can be seen in the Chinese and Japanese books, "Orihons," which are really links between the roll and the book form. It is also largely used for thin books of little value, and a modification of it can be seen in numbers of magazines, books of advertisements,' and the like, which are kept together by abominable little clamps of wire attached on the same principle. When such books have to be properly bound the little clamps have to be carefully removed, and it is generally found that they have made an indelible stain of rust on the paper, even if they have not also torn it considerably. In mediaeval libraries or monasteries when a book was to be made, vellum leaves were cut into the required size and folded once across the middle. The folded leaves were then fitted inside each other in groups of four (quaternions) or five (quinternions), or what- ever other number seemed good to the bookmaker. The leaves were then marked in some slight way so that their order might not be lost, and sent to the scribe to be written upon. The books count as folios because each original sheet only forms two pages ; the fact of their being arranged in groups is accidental, and does not theoretically alter the size of the book. For this the original skin of vellum would have to be folded with certain further divisions, and in the case of early manuscripts this was' never done. Yellum shows a different surface on the flesh side to that Fig. 23.- Stabbed binding:. 32 THE BOOK: ITS HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT. on tlie hair side, and the scribe usually made his rule marks with a blunt style to guide his writing on the hair side, so that on this side the ruled lines are slightly indented, whereas on the flesh side they show as little ridges. This point is apparently trivial, but if, as seems likely, both Greek and Latin scribes were really very particular and consistent in the way they alternated the two sides of the vellum, then the matter becomes one of much critical importance. Ind^eed, it has already been of the utmost value in deciding questions as to whether new pages had been added or not to an old book. When the scribe had made his rulings he then doubled up his sheets once, and arranged them as he desired with regard to the hair or flesh sides. When a section of four sheets were fitted into each other, so that when pressed together they made a solid gathering, such a gathering is called a " Quaternion," from which term we derive our word " Quire." This is a normal state of things, but it is obvious that abnormal arrangements might easily be made, from the insertion of a single leaf to that of an entirely additional section. Now the question arose of how best to fasten the quater- nions together, not only as to themselves but also as to the other (piaternions, which togetlier formed the entire book. As to the quaternion itself, it must have been evident at Fig. 2-1. — Quaternion threaded together. EOLLS, BOOKS AND BOOKBINDINGS. 33 once that a stitch of thread or fibre run from the innermost fold right through to the outermost would hold the leaves firmly together. It is likely enough that this was done separately at first, and then the binder would have looked at a small heap of such gatherings wondering how best to keep them together, and it would soon occur to any con- structive mind to knot the loose ends of the threads together, or else to supply a supplementary cord or cords laid at right angles to the back of the sections on which the projecting ends of the threads might be tied or sewn. This, in fact, was done, and very shortly the best way of Fig. 25. — Four threaded quaternions ready to be tied together. Fig. 26. — Four threaded quaternions tied on to transverse bands. fastening the sections on to such cords or threads was hit upon — a method indeed that we have never bettered, and which can still be found in the work of many of our best modern binders. At first this fastening together of the sections of a book was no doubt done uncomfortably and roughly by hand, but it soon became evident that some simple device in the form of a skeleton frame might be contrived which would render the operations of sewing and binding much easier. Not only easier to execute but also giving a more regular and workmanlike result, ^'he earliest known sewing frames were the same as are T.B D :m the BOOK: ITS IIISToHY AM) DIIVKLOI'MKNT used now. There are two Ktroiig coluiiins of wood fixed on a broad platform, with a slot between their bases. From capital to capital extends a Ijar, and the strips of leather, vellum, or hempen cords which are to form the bands of the book are looped upon it, and are kept taut by means of metal kc3'S attached to the other end, which lock into the slot at tlie bottom. The bands can be (piite easily adjusted to any space the worker desires. The book, ready for sewing and in proper order of sections, is laid near the worker's hand, and he, or she, lakes it up by sections, one at a time. The section to be worked upon is laid downwards on the little platform, with its back close against the bands, and the worker's left hand keeps the section open in the middle, while with the right hand a thread is drawn through the back fold, from the inside to the outside, round the band, and then back from the outside to the inside, and so on until all the bands have been caught round. Then to end up, the thread is passed through near the extreme end of the fold and knotted, forming what is called a " kettle stitch," and from this point the whole operation is repeated, back- wards, with the next section. It sounds complicated, but is not so really, and several sections could have been sewn fogetlier in the time that it has taken me to describe the sewing of one of them. Fig. -Motlern haud-sewing i)i-ess. EOLLS, BOOKS AND BOOKBINDINGS. 35 Now comes an interesting i)oint, and that is the exact way in which the threads are passed over the hands. We will lirst see that if the thread is drawn through the hack fold of the section, round a hand and hack again through another hole, that there is a weak construction, inasmuch as the thread will have a strong tendency to cut through the paper at a and h, because there is in each case a side strain. It therefore seemed necessary that ^ ,ci:)\ ^ the thread should i.,„ .,o ^^,„^. , , riG. zb. — faulty sewing over a baud. make its return jour- ney hy the same hole through which it emerged, hut if simply done, this did not mend matters much, as the strain still tended to pull this hole open wider. A line of exit and entrance without any side pull was needed, and this was found hy means of a very clever device. A broad band of leather or vellum was cut through lengthways, leaving a solid piece at each end. Now when the sewer came to this band he ran the thread straight through the slot, then (^^y^ brought it round the entire band, under it, between it and Fig. i29.-Medi;Teval sewing the back of the book, and down roviiid double band. • i i i agani, back through the slot, and in at the same point from which it emerged. The result of this is that there is no strain at all on the needle hole through which the thread passes, as the pull is quite straight both coming and going. This is undoubtedly the best form of sewing a book on bands, and a book so treated is said to be sewn on "double bands." But our recent work is not always true, although from the outside it aj^pears D 2 ■■Ui I'lll': r.OoK: ITS IIIS'IOKN' .\\l» I )|;VI;L( »I'MKNT. correct, hecaiise in imnihftrs of CiiKes kucIi douMe l>an(lH are Kim])ly f^'Ined on tlie oiitKide of the ])ack, the real Kewin<^, of a very inferioi' kind, poHsiMy (;veii done hy machinery, heing hidden underneath the leather. Few great hinders excei)t Charles Lewis iiave ever used sham hands. Flexihle sewn hooks can Ix; iiad now if wanted, hiit the sewing on the hands is not quite the same as the fine medi.Tval douhle l)and8 I have descrihed. It is, however, l)ractically nearly as good, and the hands themselves can he made smaller. The modern method is to hring the needle and thread through the hack of the section as (Q_ usual, then give it one turn onwards over the band and hack again through Fl(i. 30. — ^Eodeni sew- , i i tj. -n i l\ i. in" round sin-le band. ^'^^ same hole. Jt will he seen that this is a thoroughly sound principle, and brings no strain upon the back of the section. The ends of the hands of limp vellum books have always been treated in the same way ; they are drawn straight through the vellum at the joint and then back again and fastened inside by means of the end paper. The manner of drawing the bands of a " limp " vellum bound book through the limp vellum cover is of much interest, and it survives in man}' instances where boards are used. In principle it is the same process as is described further on with regard to boarded books, but in the case of the limp vellum bindings the ends of the bands are normally visible for a short length, but in the case of boarded books they are always covered up with the exception of some EOLLS, BOOKS AKB BOOKBIXDIXGS. 37 vellum-covered boarded books in which the limp vellum peculiarity is preserved. Another small point of interest about the old limp vellum bindings is that the head and tail bands are made of the same sort of thin veUum strip as the main l)ands and carefully drawn diagonally through the vellum at the corners and fastened inside. Dealt with in this way the head band becomes of real structural value, much of which is lost if it is cut off short as is done in the large majority s. of cases. William Morris liked limp vellum bindings and often used them, but without head bands. Instead of the short strips of vellum used for bands in old books Morris used specially prepared silk tapes, and brought them through the vellum at the joint in the old-fashioned way. Instead of being cut short and pasted down as the old limp vellum bands were, Morris continued his tapes and brought them out again near the front edge of the vellum, where they could be tied. This is an excellent arrangement and keeps such a book together in an admirable and effective way. Vellum bindings required tlat backs because the material would not yield sufficiently to be tucked round the projecting bands of a normal flexible bound book, in which the leather back is lirmly fixed over the bands. Nevertheless in several instances old vellum books, in boards, which have been sewn on raised bands show traces of these bands in low I'elief across the back. In such cases it is common to find that some padding has been put in the spaces between the bunds so as to level the back up. Books treated in this way are usually stilT to open and uncomfortaljle to consult. ;is TIIl'^ 1U)()K: ITS HISTOID AND I »KVHLOPMKXT. The Hat back, which was iieceKsary for the Hanie reanon m the case of l)Ooks l)Oun(l at a hxter date in velvet, cloth, silk or canvas, necessitated some modification of the thick projecting' hands of Ihc ordinary hook, and the requisite flatness was attained hy usin^ strips of vellum or tape instead of cords of hemp. Then it was found that it was not necessary to fasten the hack of the cover to the back of the sections, so the "hollow back" came iiUo existence. The majority of modern books are bound with hollow backs ; it can be recognised by oi)ening a book to the full and seeing if the back is sepa- rate, and it has one real virtue Fig. yi. — Book bound witli n i • t* "opon" or "hollow" back, ^^ ^'^^^ ^« Several vices. If a and modern headband, cut off book should happen tO be at each end. prnited too far ])ack, a hollow back binding will enable it to " throw up," and show the printing right down to the inner edge of the paper, whereas a flexible binding always tends to open less freely, especially in the middle. For books that are likely to be much used hollow backs are unadvisable as they are sooner worn out, but for small light books there is no doubt much to be said in their favour. Among English binders of note I think Charles Lewis was the first to use hollow backs extensively. But for fine books there is no doubt that the old-fashioned flexible sewing on raised bands is the best in the long run. Books bound with hollow backs often have the bands " sawn in," that is to say, a trench is cut for ROLLS, BOOKS AXD BOOKBINDINGS. lid each band across the back of the sections. In these trenches the bands are laid, and the sewing is of a simpler and quicker sort than it is when the thread is brought round each band as it is in the flexible style. Moreover, there is a weak point where the thread touches the edge of the saw cut, and at this place the paper is always apt to give. It is obvious that to cut away paper from the back of a section must always be not only a barbarism but also structurally wrong. Such a method of sewing a book can only be excused on the score of cheapness, and it may be urged that in this case it does not matter. ^\4^owards the end of the fifteenth century it was found that the extreme tops and bottoms of tbe l)acks of the sections of bound ])Ooks not only looked untidy and unfinished, but also that they tended to gape, in fact they were weak points both structurally and artistically. AVhen it was once realised it. was soon rectified, and a small additional band was made of a strip of leather or vellum, to lit along the outer edge of the top and bottom at the back. This slip was then sewn on by means of thread and button-hole stitching, being caught in at intervals by a long stitch drawn through the centre of one or other of the sections of tiie l)Ook. The loose ends of the headband itself were drawn in to the boards, forming in fact an additional band. The head- band is a point in the forwarding of a l)Ook whicli Fi(i. o'2. — Back of book prepared witli cut trenches to hold the bands. 40 Till-] r,OOIv: ITS HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT. has not received much notice as yet, but it is of some importance, as there is no doubt that much attention has been paid by binders to the ornamentation of lieadbands Fig. 33. — French sixteenth ceuturv headband. Fig. 34. — Italian fifteenth century headband. Fig. 35. — German fifteenth century headband. Fig. 36. — English .seventeenth century headband. Fig. 37. — English eighteenth century headband, by Roger Payne. Fig. 38. — English nineteenth century headband, by Charles Lewis. from mediseval times until now, and it is the first point in the binding of a book in which ornament is considered. Some of the early headbands are sewn over with strips of soft leather, and at a later time they are cut in distinctive ways, liat or round, and sewn over with silks of particular colours or combinations of colours. Of late years the vice of cutting off the ends of the HOLLS, BOOKS AND BOOKBINDINGS. 41 Fig. 39.— What a book may do if the buck is not projierly rounded. headband has come into being ; these ends ought to be drawn properly into the boards, as Mr. Donglas Cockerell has indeed done for me in several instances. But no words can adequately condemn the miserable ready-made coloured slii3s which are often found simply stuck on in the proper place. Vellum books were the first to be properly bound. The papyri which were stabbed are so rare that they may be passed bj'. As I have already said, vellum is apt to be curly ; for this reason the boards used for binding in early days were made of thick wood, the heaviness of which, even when unaided by clasps, tended to keep the vellum flat. Beech wood was largely used for these old covers, and from the German word " Buch," meaning beech, we derive our word " book." Beechen boards were liglit, decorative, and very carefully dried and seasoned. It is remarkable how flat such old boards are, and they were no doubt very highly valued as they often have upon them the stamp of the monastery in which they were used. The edges of the boards are sometimes bevelled, from the upper side in English or French books, and from the under side in German books — but such a distinction must not be taken as invariable. Boards often show signs of having been used more than once, and it is rarely that any decoration shows on the ^vood. In a few cases of German Fig. 40. -B«(jk with back. flat I/' 42 THE BOOK: ITS lllSTOllY AND DEVELOPMENT. Fig. 41.— Book with flat back falling in. books may be found outline drawings of an beraldic nature. The first bound books were made with flat backs, and the boards fitted close upon the outer sheets of vellum, papyrus or paper. In this formation, how- ever, it was found that there was a strong liability for the back to fall in and the foredge to project outwards. As early as the fifteenth century, in the case of printed books on paper, this fault of the back falling in led some few binders to neutrahse it by giving the back of the book a rounded form by means of hammering, and this quite prevented the falling in of the back. The exact extent of the rounding can easily be seen by looking at the front edge of a book, because the curves of the back and front correspond. The boards, however, remained in their first position, flat on the outer sheets. But another trouble was appa- rent in both these cases, namely, that when such books were opened, the joint between the boards and the back showed a tendency to pull up the few pages next adjacent, became torn and injured, and constructively there was some- thing wrong with the principle of attachment. Paper is soft, and when a "rounded" book was fitted with hard boards and strongly pressed there would be a certain tendency for the boards to sink into the mass of the Fig. 42.— Book with rounded back. In time these pages nOLLS, BOOKS .\ND BOOKBINDIXGS. 43 Fig. 43. — Book with back rounded and backed. paper and to throw up a small ridge along the edge of the back. Such a small accidental ridge is often found on old paper books. But there is no doubt that the actual process of making an intentional groove for the boards to fit in was practised by a few fifteenth centur}' binders in Eng- land. This groove is made by an extension of the process of round- ing the back, and it is produced by hammering the back over two hard boards carefully placed in the proper position. The shape of a back thus treated is theoretically as shown in Fig. 44, and it will be seen that the actual joint now falls away from the body of the book and is removed to the artificial line along the outer edge of the groove, and from this line the projecting bands are drawn in to the boards. If this operation of " backing " is properly done it is almost impossible for the back of a book to fall in. It will always open easily and return to its original form, and if the bands are properly attached to the boards, the latter will never fall off. Although the principle of backing was known at the early time mentioned, it was not universally understood and practised until quite recent times. Now, however, it is fully recognised as one of the most important processes in the binding of books, especially large ones. Fig. 44. — Book rounded and backed, before the boards are put on. •11 Tin-: IJOOK: ITS HISTORY AND DEVELOPMKXT. We have seen that the hook howh in leather bands has the ends of these hands left loose, projecting in the ease of a large hook some two or three inches. Holes were now carefully cut along the hack edge of the hoard to fit the ends of the hiiiids, sloping upwards, and some little way in other slots were cut from the ui)per surface of the hoard to meet them. Into these holes the ends of the bands were drawn, and when in proi)er position they were pegged down with one or more small wooden pegs. Sometimes the bands were drawn right through the boards and fastened inside. Numbers and numbers of in- stances of this work exist and are quite sound to-diiy. ]jut such boolcs do not open satisfactorily, as there is a disagree- able pull upon the outer sections when the book is opened. In fact, the junc- tion l)etween the bands and the boards is not scientifically correct, because the backs are not rounded. The vulneral)le part of the binding w'ill now be seen to be the soft threads which cover the bands where they adjoin the back of the sections of the book, and to protect these delicate threads a strip of leather was cut, damped and pressed over the bands so as to fit quite closely, and fastened on with glue, projecting a short wa}^ over on to the board itself so as to cover up the holes used for the bands. This is called a " half-binding." On the leather of such half-bindings there is usually some blind tooling, lines or rolls or even small cameo stamps. Mediaeval bindings are commonly provided with clasps. The original reason of this was to help to keep the velUim Fig. 45.— Half- bound book. EOLLS, BOOKS AND BOOKBIXDINGS. 45 leaves flat, but of course artistic binders saw that clasps might be made very ornamental, and so many of them are. They have survived as ornamental adjuncts to a binding until the present day, although there is no necessity for them. Bosses in the centre and at the corners of mediaeval bindings were of structural use, as they protected the actual boards of the book from wear. In early days books were kept upon their sides and pro- l)ably had flat boards between each volume. So the bosses took the wear and preserved the books. Many of the mediaeval bosses and corners have ornamental settings; they are generally of brass, but sometimes of silver or wood. The titles of such books were sometimes written on the front edges and some- times on a slip of paper fastened under horn on the upper board, and in the late fifteenth century they were sometimes lettered in gold or blind, also on the boards. It happened that the art of Byzantium was in its prime just about the same time that vellum began to be arranged in sections — in book form — in contradistinction to the roll form. So we find some of the finest examples of Byzantine art on bookbindings. Of course it must be understood that these richly worked covers are only ornamentally added to the true binding underneath, and the actual work of the binding is more or less as I have already described it. But the decorative art in these cases is so Fig. 46. — Mediaeval book with bosses, comer pieces aud clasps. 4(i THE r.ooK: ITS HISTORY AXD DF.VELOPMENT. predominant that they are generically known as "Byzantine" bindings. The large majority of the known specimens of this kind are no longer in company with their original manuscripts. Many of them are preserved simply as loose covers, and alien manuscripts have been inserted in others. I expect that there are still considerable numbers of these bindings preserved in remote churches and monasteries in Central Europe, and some day perhaps some traveller with sufficient knowledge and time at his command will make search for them. But for the pre- sent fine and genuine examples of Byzantine bindings are of great rarit3\ It is said that there are not more than about three hundred of them known. The life history of many of these is well known, and so are many of the additions and ^'of ^aw'Vhrel'evenJS alterations to which they have been century, with cabochou subjected during their long life. Luckily some of the finest are now safely housed in our London museums, and others are, or are likely to be, safe in a great local museum. To be able to judge whether these bindings are genuine, a librarian must be an antiquary, a goldsmith and silver- smith, skilled both in repousse work, engraving and cast work, a gem cutter, an enameller, a skilled bookbinder, and an artist, and if he fails in one of these knowledges his judgment cannot be relied on. An ordinary art critic who possesses "Flaire" can pick up a certain amount of EOLLS, BOOKS AND BOOKBINDINGS. 47 knowledge by reason of having made many mistakes and profited by them, and if he has been fortunately able to associate himself only with true and known fine examples for a long time, he may eventually be a good giiesser. But no true judgment can be given without actual technical knowledge. The result of all this is, that collectors of such bindings have been freely victimised. It is not really diflticult to copy or to imitate a Byzantine binding — it is not nearly so difficult as to counter- feit a fine Le Gascon or a fine Roger Payne. It does not so much concern the binder as the metal worker, and in metal a little skill goes a long way, and so it does in the cloisonne enamel work which alone is found in these bindings. The present market price of a very fine Byzantine binding — a known one — will run into five figures, so it is little to be wondered at that it pays the cleyei' faussaires of the Continent to direct their attention to covers of this kind. They need not even take the trouble to provide manuscripts for the inside; loose covers will hell with equal readiness. Ivory carving played an important part on early bindings. Apart from diptychs, the earliest known decorative binding consists of plaques of ivory carved with Biblical scenes, and having in the centre a lamb within a wreath of cloisonne work, with inlays of coloured glass. It is now Fig. 48. — French Liiitling of the thirteenth cen- tury with enamels. 48 THE BOOK: ITS HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT. kept in the cathedral treasury at Milan, and is without its original inside; it is attributed to the iifth century. / Early Irish manuscripts were usually l)ound in quiti; simple limp leather covers, hut these were kept in hook Fig. 49. — The upper cover of the Cumdach of the Stowe Missal. boxes or " Cumdachs," all of which still existing are of the greatest interest. One of the finest is that of the Stowe Missal, dating from about the eleventh century. It belonged originally to the monastery of Lorrha in Tipperary, whence it was taken to EOLLS, BOOKS AND BOOKBIXDIXGS. 49 the Irish monastery of Eatisbon. In 1784 it was found by Mr. John Grace in Austria, and afterwards belonged to the Stowe Library, and Lord Ashburnham, from whom it was purchased by the nation in 1883 with the rest of his library, and then deposited in the museum of the Royal Irish Academy. The lid is ornamented with a large cross set with pearls and metal bosses, having in the centre a large oval crystal over a pink ground, and enclosed with recent enamels, no doul)t replacing old ones. At each end of the cross is a large jewel. The spaces between the arms of the cross contain silver gilt plates engraved with figures of Saints, and on the silver edge plates is an inscription in Irish inviting the reader to " Pray for Dunchad descendant of Taccan of the family of Cluan who made this." This may therefore be called the earliest signed binding in the world, if a cumdach can be considered a binding. No doubt much of the work now on this lid, as well as some of the jewels and their settings, have been added since the original work was made. The base of the box has a similar ornamentation upon it, but the jewels and enamels are all gone, the spaces between the arms of the cross being filled with silver plates cut into an open pattern set over bronze gilt. The sides of the box are much destroyed, but they have fortunately not been restored. The ornamentation consists of enamelled bosses or curious castings in the centre of each side, tianked by panels of open designs cut out of thin silver over gilt, and corner ornaments of cast work. There are small bosses of blue enamel. The remarkable open work over gilt bronze occurs again T.B. E 50 THE BOOK: ITS HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT. in ilie base of the cumdacli containing Molaise gospels, it also belongs to the eleventh century, and this sort of orna- mentation seems to be characteristic of Irish work of that time. The lid of the box is ornamented in a modification of the same idea, but in this case the bronze showing through the silver is beautifully worked. The main idea is a cross, and between the arms are the evangelistic emblems, and with their names, Leo, Aquila, Homo, Taurus. An inscrii)tion asks us to " Pray for Cenn, for the successor of Molaise for whom this case was made by Gillabailhain the artisan." It is possible that this may be a little earlier than the Stowe cumdach. A few more cumdachs are known, about ten of them altogether, and others are recorded only. There is that of Dimma's book, of the Cathach of the O'Donnell's, and several others, some of which are quite plain. Other book cases were made of beautifully worked leather. The satchel of the Book of Armagh is one of these, and leather cases or " Forels " were made of cuirbouilli in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, particularly in Italy. These forels were in the shape now known as " slip off " cases, and they generally had attachments for a strap. They are always charmingly chased, and often bear heraldic ornamentation. Cuirbouilli was calf or hide, worked with knife, style, or hammer, and then probably boiled in oil, but the exact process that was used is now unknown. It is very strong, and its value was known in England, where it was used to make wrist guards for archery, but as far as I know it was never used here for bindings or covers for bindings. I EOLLS, BOOKS AND BOOKBINDINGS. 51 have heard the calf or sheep hin dings of the early sixteenth century, bearing panel stamps, described as cuirbouilli, but they are not so. The earliest cover still containing its original manuscript is probably that given with other treasure to Theodelinda, Queen of the Lombards, by Pope Gregory the Great, in the seventh century. It is now kept in the cathedral treasury at Monza. The manuscript is described in a contemporary document as being " theca persica inclusam," and, so far, its cover resembles the Irish cumdachs. The case is of gold, orna- mented with a large cross, outlined with lines of small tiat garnets, with sapphires and emeralds, set in cloisons. The body of the cross is richly jewelled with cabochon cut stones and pearls, and at the extremity of each arm is a curious glass bead of milletiori glass, green with a little red iiower in the centre. Between the arms of the cross are four gamma shaped ornaments, each set with small flat jewels. Across the sides are bands of gold on which are engraved the words De Donis Dei offerit Theodelenda reg. gloriosissima SANCTO JOANNI BaPTISTE IN BaSILICA QUEM IPSA FUNDAVIT IN MoDiciA prope palatium suum. a handsome border with flat garnets enclosed the whole, and the four cameos set near the gammas are a recent addition. Byzantine art is generally considered as a decadent form of Pioman art, but in this particular instance there is much Greek feeling, and it is in all respects, excepting perhaps the inscription, a magnificent piece of work. The binding of the Gospels of Lindau has now two sides of different dates, each of whicli has been repaired e 2 THE BOOK: ITS IIISTOEY ^IND DEVELOPMENT, and added to in recent times. The earlier of the two, far the finer, is probably contemporary with the manuscript, having been made about the later half of the ninth century, as the Abbey of the Noble Canonesses at Lindau was founded by the Emperor Lewis the Pious in a.d. 834. A large golden cross pattee is the chief motive of this beautiful piece of work, and it is ornamented with rare enamels showing bust figures wearing stoles, and jewels in great variety, the borderings being inlaid with small fiat pieces of garnet. The spaces between the arms of the cross are tilled with bronze plaques elaborately ornamented with Celtic interlacings in chiselled work. The workman- ship is probably Irish, and was most likely done abroad, possibly enough at Lindau itself, by some EiG. oO.-The bindiug of ^^'i^^^ ^^'^^ists who had emigrated. the Gospels of Lindau, the Irish jewellers and enamellers of older side. . , . -, ,• • ,^ i this early tmie were justly cele- brated, and their services were secured whenever possible. The later side of the binding is one of the finest existing specimens of Carlovingian art. It is radically different from the earlier side and was probably added about the eleventh or twelfth century. In the centre is a large cross on which is a gilt figure of our Lord in the attitude of the crucifixion. The cross is outlined by a structure of open work of gold ornamented with filagree work and thickly set with jewels. Between EOLLS, BOOKS AND BOOKBINDINGS. 53 the arms of the cross are angels worked m repousse, and rich bosses of gold and jewels, raised on arcades of open work. The border is of great richness, and is thickly sown with large jewels cut " en cabochon," many of them pierced longitudinally, betraying in all probability an Oriental provenance. No doubt this was originally made for some valuable manuscript now lost, and it was used to replace the original simple lower cover of the Gospels of Lindau at i^ome unknown time. The book was formerly in the possession of the Earl of Ash- burnham, but now it is gone to America. Beautiful Byzantine work of the twelfth century is to l)e seen upon the carved and jewelled binding of the Psalter of Melissenda, daughter of Baldwin IT., King of Jerusalem, and wife of Fulk, his successor. The ivory covers measure eight by six inches, and are elaborately carved in has relief with Biblical scenes. On each side are six circles, and in each circle a little figure group, on one side representing episodes in the life of David and on the other works of mercy. There is lettering run in with red, giving the names of each of the personages shown, and their eyes are set with tiny rubies or emeralds cut " en cabochon " like coloured grains of sand. The spaces between the. circles are filled with other Biblical or s^'mbolical figures, scrolls and animals, and a beautiful l-'iG. 51.— The binding of the Gospels of Liudau, the more recent side. 54 THE BOOK: ITS HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT. interlacing border encloses the whole, set with turquoises and rubies. The carver's name, " Herodius," is cut in tbe lower cover. The workmanship on these ivories is extremely fine, and there is no doubt they were made to be used as a binding. The majority of ivory carvings found on mediaeval bookbindings appear to have been simply added, having been originally made for some other purpose. But there are notable exceptions, particularly in the Bibliotheque Nationale at Paris. The shape in which the plaque of ivory is cut will often give a valuable indication in this matter. The finest Byzantine binding now in England is probably that known as the Gospels of Charlemagne, now in the Victoria and Albert Museum. It is nearly square, and the upper side is overlaid with gilt metal, enamels and gems. In the centre is a seated figure of Our Lord in the attitude of Benediction, in repousse work. Round this is a band of white and green enamelled lettering, restored, on which are two hexameter lines : " Mathevs et Marcvs Lvcas SCSQ JOHANE VOX HORV QVATVOR REBOAT TE XPE PiEDEMPTOR." The outer border is made up of rectangular plaques of enamels, gold work and jewels. The work here is also largely restored, but it is, as a rule, admirabl}^ done, and where the old w'ork remains, especially in the gold, it is of a high excellence. The jewels have, for the most part, been restored. As the book is now it is a splendid and dignified example of its kind ; the under side is simply covered with strong red leather, with a cross marked by small studs. Like many of these splendid altar books, this one is said to have served as a Pax. EOLLS, BOOKS AND BOOKBINDINGS. 55 The manuscript itself is of the tenth century, and be- longed to the Abbey Church of St. Maurice d'Agaune, and from here it was stolen in the fourteenth century. It afterwards found a home at Sion, and was purchased for the Victoria and Albert Museum at the Spitzer sale in 1893. No doubt examples of rich monastic bindings did exist in England, but none of them are now known. It is likely enough that their value condemned them, and that they were entirely destroyed in the earlier half of the six- teenth century to swell the revenues of the king. The manuscripts belonging to these destroyed covers have, luckily, been kept, and numbers of them came to the British Museum by gift of George II. Two ornamental bindings only of English origin now remain ; these are both simple, they are the St. Cuthbert's Gospels and the English coronation book of Henry I. These are described in Chapter VIII. There were plenty of leather bindings ornamented with blind tooling or cut leather work in mediaeval times, and these also are described later on. The idea of ornamenting bindings with sunk panels is of Arab origin. The fashion came to Europe by way of Venice, and the Venetians themselves quickly saw that the possi- bihties of decorating bindings were largely increased by this device. It is done by means of two boards, the upper of which is pierced, then the whole is covered with leather and ornamented with painted work or stamped work as the case may be. In inferior bindings of this sort, the sunk panels are sometimes produced simply by hard pressure, but the state of the edges of the panels will soon show how 50 THE BOOK: IT8 HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT. they are made. If they are steep there are the double boards, if very sloping- there may only be one. Queen Elizabeth had some of these Venetian sunk bindings presented to her and she liked them. Conse- quently there were a few examples of it made in England in the sixteenth century. At a later time Charles Lewis bound several large books with double boards in this way> and I think he w\as the only important English binder who has ever done so to any great extent. The double boards have left a trace of their existence in the form of a trench which is frequently found along the edges of the boards of sixteenth century bindings of English, Italian, and French workmanship. The trench, however, is merel}^ a survival and does not necessarily imply the actual existence of double boards. It is a distant tribute to our indebtedness to the East. In some of the double-board books bound for Queen Elizabeth, with sunk panels, the headband is curiously produced away from its normal finishing point and is carried right round the entire edge of the boards in the trench between the boards. It is a decorative and curious peculiarity, and I have never met with it in any foreign books. Wooden boards were used for bindings until about the end of the fifteenth century, when the idea of using several layers of paper pasted together— paste boards — was thought of. In fact, paste boards may be considered to have been introduced about the same time as printing, and waste printed matter was often used for making them with. There are many instances in which valuable printed matter has been found hidden up in binder's boards, and EOLLS, BOOKS AND BOOKBINDINGS. ;^€:L<^g^g^g^grgg) g>€^ g^gy^^g Fig. 52. — Painted Persian binding (Nadii' Shah, at the battle of Karnul). 58 THE BOOK: ITS IIISTOEY AND DEVELOPMENT. as these can generally be soaked apart and cleaned, we already owe the preservation of several unique fragments to the fact of their having been used for bindings. Persian manuscripts of the seventeenth to the nineteenth centuries are often ornamented in a maimer which is of considerable interest. They are bound in paste boards like all other Oriental bindings known to me, and are covered with some sort of gesso applied in a thin layer. On this gesso are paintings of varied merit; some of them, especially the historical and hunting scenes, are extremely well done, and others, mostly floral, are of a commonplace character. The boards are sometimes painted inside and out. The painting is done in water-colours, and is of the same sort as is found with the manuscript inside, but generally by an inferior artist. When finished the painting was thickl}^ varnished, and this varnish has darkened by time into a mellow golden colour which improves the appearance of the colour work underneath. The darkening of this varnish has, however, had a remarkable result : the photographic ray cannot pierce it except here and there — in fact, the painting is covered by a non-actinic curtain. A photograph will only show the surface of the varnish with here and there a patch where the blue colour underneath succeeds in making itself felt. Ornamental though these painted and varnished bindings are, there is unfortunately a great and inherent delicacy about them, and it is that the varnished surface is badly given to chipping off. It is difficult to say what the best remedy for this chij)ping or flaking off is ; it is probably due to the discrepancy in hardness between the hard varnish and the soft boards ; it seems to be radical. EOLLS, BOOKS AXD BOOKBINDINGS. 59 Experiments are needed in this matter, but owners of fine specimens, even if chipped, are naturally chary of allowing experiments which may do harm as well as good. I should say that probably much good might be done by dropping a little collodion so as to make it run down between the loosened surfaces ; it will act as a cement and strengthen as well as fasten them together. It is also likely that thin glue applied several times might also do good used in the same way, but I believe collodion is better and penetrates weak places more readil}*. The same styles of ornamentation are used on mirror cases and other small objects, so that although many l)indings are so treated, yet the method is not one exclusively used for such purpose. But no doubt the finest work was put on bindings, some of which are large. Another Persian manner is that of using large metal stamps impressed with elaborate arabesques. The impres- sions from these stamps of course give a design in relief. The whole impression is generally gilded in various tints, and the small desigii itself is often picked out with a little colour. Many of these arabesque panel stamps are of wonderful beauty. Arabic and other Oriental bindings have a curious tlap projecting from one of the boards, which covers and protects the front edges. The flaps are ornamented in the same way as the rest of the binding. The sewing and the paper of all these books is weak and light, but there is always work of much interest on the bindings. The backs are flat and the paste boards are thin and covered with very thin leather. They are usually ornamented inside and outside with blind and gilt work, (50 TIII<] ]500K: ITS HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT. stamped and cut work, and hand paiiitinj^s in much variety. The open work cut with a knife from thin leather is remarkahle for its extraordinary precision and delicacy; it is usually in arabesques with small ilowers, and often coloured by hand. It is always set on a background of colour, either painted or a bit of coloured paper. But the work is very frail, and panels of it are rarely found perfect. Oriental bindings are altogether -weak, and they Avill not stand hard wear. Now we have, chiefly from America, ma- chines that wall do almost every one of the hand-operations for binding a book. There are sewing machines that only want to be fed with thread and the books to be sewn ; there are casing machines of wonderful speed and accuracy, backing machines and binding machines. The only one thing that cannot yet be done by a machine is the pasting down the ends of the bands or tapes inside the boards. I rather think that many of these machines strain the paper badly, and also they require setting elaborately to a certain size. They are very useful for large, cheaj) editions, but little use for good miscellaneous work. Nothing is really so good as the old-fashioned sewdng on raised bands by hand. Fig. 5o. — Oriental binding with flap E0LL8, BOOKS AND BOOKBINDINGS. 61 BOOKS TO CONSULT. CocKEKELL, D. Bookbinding. London, 1901. Davenport, C. Cantor Lectures on Decorative Bookbinding. London, 1898. Davenport, C. (Encyc. Brit. Article Bookbinding). London, 1902. Du SoMMERARD, A. Les arts au Moyen Age. Pan's, 1S38 — ^40. GoRl, A. F. Thesaurus vet. Diptychorum. Florentice, 1759. Labarte, J. Hist, des Arts au Moyen Age. Paris, 1864. LiBRi, Count G. Catalogue. Pan's, 1857. Madan, F. Books in Manuscript. London, \S9'3. CHAPTER III. PAPER. Paper — Watermarks — Quiring. Although we get our word " paper " from " papyrus," this latter was not a paper at all. The essential charac- teristic of a true paper is the matting or felting together of small fibreSj-whether these be of wood, linen, or other sub- stance. Pap3'rus was the inwer bark of a beautiful reed, which grows along the banks of the Nile, and from a very remote period strips of this bark were laid over each other at right angles, fixed together with gum, or perhaps a little Nile mud, and used for writing upon with a soft pen. The right-angular lines of the two layers of papyrus bark can easily be seen on any papyrus MS. Papyrus is not a good substance for writing upon ; it is at first too soft, and then it gets brittle and is apt to crumble away. By sticking successive strips of pajDyrus to each other ancient scribes produced long rolls of manu- script, and from these rolls we derive many of the book terms which are still in use. The most obvious is " volume," which is from " volvere," " to roll up " ; and " Bible " comes from the Greek " jSvjBXol," meaning the inner bark of papyrus. In China the possibility of making thin feltings with silk fibre was probabl}' known at a very remote period, and PAPER. 63 it is likely enough that from some such unsatisfactory pro- duction the better and usable kinds made of vegetable fibres evolved itself. We cannot no^Y say when the possi- bility of felting together fibres of wood or grass first became known to the Chinese, but it was certainly well understood in the fifth or sixth centuries, because specimens of it still exist. In the middle of the eighth century, in 751 a.d., there were certain tribal disturbances on the Chinese frontier of Persia, and one of the combatants called in the help of the Chinese. These, however, suffered defeat at the hands of the Arab governor of Samarkand, who brought bacU some Chinese prisoners to his town. These men were acquainted with the Chinese methods of making paper. From these Chinese prisoners the Arabs and their friends the Persians learnt the art of paper-making with vegetable fibres, but the supply in this particular very soon gave out, ^d because enough suital)le fibres were difficult to get they mixed them with pulped rags. Eventually the Samarkand paper-makers used rags only, and these they easily got in sufiicient quantities frojn old linen clothes, and also the mummy wrappings from Egypt were made use of in the same way. From_ihe Ara,bs the knowledge of paper-making passed rapidly to Europe, and by the middle of the tenth century it had entirely superseded the use of papyrus. The researches of Dr. J. Wiesner and Dr. J. Karabacek, both professors of the University of Vienna, have been of incalculable value as regards the composition and history of ancient paper, and they were fortunate enough to have the opportunity of examining the papers in the collection of the (M TIIH I'.OOK: ITS IIlSTOliY AND JiKVKLOi'MENT. Archduke Rainer, among which are specimens of very early work. The professors have examined these and other old papers microscoi)ically and chemically, and found that from the heginning it was considered necessary to lo^id papers with some hinding or lilliiig suhstance ; tHey found starch, starch flour, probahly from rice, and among the Chinese papers a dressing of powdered gypsum. Without some such dressing the papers would have resembled our blotting paper, and it would have been almost impossible to write upon them. Professor Wiesner found that Chinese papers of the eighth century were really mixed i^apers ; they contained fibres of mulberry bark, hemp and rags. Eags of fishing nets them- selves would contain fibres of flax, hemp, and China grass. But the main constituent of ancient Chinese paper is fibre of mulberry-bark, and I believe it is so still, although China grass fibre is also much used. Specimens of Chinese papers from the eighth century onwards can be seen at the British Museum. They are soft, but have lasted fairly well, and do not appear to show any wire marks. The colour of these papers is much the same as Chinese papers made now, but in some instances they have certainly darkened as modern wood pulp papers also do. One of the later specimens, a bank note issued during the reign of the Emperor Hung-wu, a.d. 1368-1399, is made of a darkened pulp, probably due to admixture with a little lamp black, and on it are lighter impressions from large stamps bearing the square seal letters. It is just possible that these marks may be of the nature of watermarks, and were impressed while the pulp was soft and wet, but it is not PAPEE. 65 possible now to take the bank note up from the cardboard on which it has been pasted, as to do so would probably cause it to fall to pieces, so it cannot, for the moment, be jiroperly examined. Corean and Japanese papers were the same as Chinese, and they all look as if there are no wire marks or water- marks upon them, with the one exception I have mentioned, l)ut Dr. Wiesner says that by the ninth century marks show in many instances which prove that papers were made in moulds or sieves with network bottoms, the impres- sion of which remains like our " chains " or laid marks. In the King's Library at the British Museum is shown a piece of Oriental paper, an official letter in Coptic, dated a.d. 1048. It does not look so strong or good as the Chinese paper, but resembles thin blotting paper, and shows no wire mark. An early example of European paper is preserved in the Eecord Office in London. It is a letter from the Count of Toulouse to Henry III., and is dated a.d. 1216. In France, however, by this time, the making of paper had been understood for some time, as it was made there in 1189. In Belgium it was not made until 1551, in which year a paper mill was set up at Tourneppe by Henri de Nevere. By the end of the fifteenth century paper-making in Europe was perfectly understood, and the papers of that date, and for some time after it, are frequently excellent in everyway, and as sound, strong, and good now as they were when first made. T.B. F Fig. 54. — Water- mark used by John Tute iu 1495. GO TiiE BOOK: ITS 11I8T0KY AND DEVELOPMENT. The first English book printed on English paper is Bur- tholoniaeus, l)e Propiictatihns Iteiiim, published 1495-6. The paper is of high quality, it shows a fine wire mark, and a watermark of a double circle enclosing an eight-pointed star. The paper was made at Hertford by John Tate, who was afterwards Lord Mayor of London ; the title page is cut in wood, and the book is illustrated with outline wood-cuts. At the end are some verses, and among these occur the lines : — " And Jolin Tate the younger Joye mote he broke, Which late hath in Enghind doo make this jKiper thyiine, That now in our Eiiglysch this boke is prynted Iniie." It is paper to be proud of, and John Tate the younger would unquestionably look upon the large majority of our modern papers with the utmost scorn, and he would be perfectly justified in doing so. The early method of making paper was to allow the pulp to settle at the bottom of a trough like a sieve, with a wire bottom, in which the wires were arranged in a certain -way, thick and thin, the trade mark of the maker also being outlined in wire. The faint marks these wires cause in the paper are called watermarks, and although at first they were makers' marks, they eventually denoted the size of the sheet of paper on ^Yhich they were shown. The present method of making paper from rags is to pulp them thoroughl}' in water, and let the white particles become so thoroughly dift'used that the liquid in which they float looks like thin milk. This tliin mixture, however, if left quiet, very quickly resolves itself into a sediment of white fibres with clear water PAPER. 67 above them. If uow the superambient water can be drawn off, and the sediment pressed flat, paper is the result. But it is not so easily done as said. In order to catch the sediment ill the most satisfactory wa}', the milky tluid containing the rag fibres is allowed to flow in a thin stream over a long, shallow trough, which is kept moving onwards and is also so arranged that it has a sideways tremble, backwards and forwards as well. The eftect of this is that wlien the further end of the trough is reached, on its floor there is a thin continuous film of slightly matted fibres, the water from wliich has flowed away along the sides of the trough. Now another device comes into play ; a thin light roller of wire presses lightly on the wet film, and by this pressure the little fibres are pressed upon each other so that they mat, interlace, and cohere together. The paper in this state is of course very delicate, but by reason of a quick drying and carrying off on light rollers it soon acquires the strength necessary to enable it to hold together until it is quite dry. Then it goes through several other stages, the most impor- tant of which is pressing. The various processes can obviously be modified easily enough so as to make a thin paper or a thick one. Paper made in this way with a vibratory trough is culled " machine made," and by reason of its fibres laying more or less in a uniform direction the resulting paper is more easily torn in one direction than in the other. If a circular piece be cut out of such pulp and laid on water it will tend to fold up two of its opposite sides. But ancient paper was made in a trough held by hands and given a lateral movement, then pressed and dried in some simple way. By sucli a procedure the fibres are thoroughly mixed, and do not lie in one direction more than f2 (W Til 10 HOOK: IT8 IIISTOEY AND DEVELOPMENT. in another, so that if a circular bit of such paper be laid in water it will turn upwards at the edge evenly all round, and look like a little saucer. I have mentioned a light wire roller which presses the wet film more or less into shape just before it leaves the long trough to be dried. As long ago as the thirteenth century in Europe the fact that devices could be impressed upon the undried film by thinning it and making it more transparent where touched appears to have been known, and from about that time onwards " watermarks " have fortu- nately been applied in the same manner, namely, so as to come in the middle of the first leaf of the pair forming a folio. It is also fortunate that the " chains " or wires forming the rollers have always been laid in the same way; it is certainly the obvious one, but obvious ways are not always adopted. The result is that by observing the direc- tion of the strong chain marks and the fine "laid " marks between them much information concerning the folding of the original sheets can be obtained. In very early papers these rules cannot be safely followed, because early chain marks as well as early watermarks were not produced in the same reliable way. The paper being made in moulds with wire netting at the bottom, the' impression came below the paper instead of above it as in the case of the roller, and also the sizes of the sheets were more likely to difi'er. Watermarks are the semi-transparent devices which show on certain pages of a printed book. They are to be seen on most papers of the fourteenth to the eighteenth centm*ies, and there has been a good deal written alioat them, especi- ally abroad. The devices were outlined in wire and set in PAPER. 69 the bottom of the trough or on the wire roller I have just decribed, so that the lines are impressed upon the pulp just when it is in its most sensitive condition. The pressure from the wire device thins the pulp wherever it is touched, and so when dry the device shows lighter than the rest of the paper. These marks should be called wire marks rather than watermarks, and the French word for them, " Filigranes," is more correct than ours. The difference in tint between a watermark and the rest of the paper is so distinct that a photographic negative placed under one will render a capital photograph of it, far better than any drawing, but it needs a long exposure. Watermarks are already of considerable value to Biblio- graphers, and it is likely that in the near future they will be much more noticed, especially in English books. Many frauds have already been detected by reason of the water- marks, as it is a point that faussaires have so far paid little attention to. The marks are, however, not to be relied on after about 1750, as they do not run reliably in machine made or wove papers. Armorial devices have been largely used as watermarks. Many of the earlier marks show the arms of towns, esj^eci- ally continental ones, and among others there are the arms of France, Portugal, William and Mary and Queen Anne, shown in full heraldic outlines. The Holl)ein family of Ravensburg bore a bull's head as their armorial badge, and they were i3aj)er makers, so the bull's head shows on their paper as a watermark. It was afterwards much copied, and during the fifteenth and six- teenth centuries it became a favourite mark on German 70 THE BOOK: TTS TITSTOEY AND DEVELOPMENT. Fig. 55. — Englisli "hand" water- mark, 1512. papers. There does not seem to luive been any strict copy- right in any of the devices used as watermarks. They were freely used by any one who cared to do so, but the copies were never very care- fully made, they were always variants of the original. They were moreover gene- rally accompanied by another mark, that of the maker, on another part of the paper. The same privilege of using a " maker's " mark was also allowed to the silversmiths in addition to the official hall mark. To some slight extent watermarks on paper made for particular books have followed the subjects of those books, and in accordance with a loyal feeling there are instances of a crown watermark being used on paper prepared for special copies of books intended for pre- sentation to reigning sovereigns. On papers used for early English prmted books we find the favourite German bull's head, bunches of grapes, unicorns, dogs, hands with stars, and shears. These appear in several sizes, and show many varieties and modifications of their original designs. In the sixteenth and seven- teenth centuries a greater variety occur ; on Enghsh paper there is found the post horn and the fool's cap, sometimes showing as a cap only and sometimes as a fool's head with cap and bells. A Fig. 5(5. — Englisli "crown" watermark, 1745. PAPER. 71 similar design was largely' used abroad. In the time of Charles I. a crown was a usual watermark on official folio paper, but the Eump Parliament ordered that the foolscap should be in future substituted for it, which was done. "Double foolscap" is still used as a designation for a certain size of printing paper, so also is " double-crown." Fjg. 57. — Euglish "fools- cap" watermark, 1661. Fig. 58. — English " Britannia watermark, 1907. The foolscap itself shortly gave way to a figure of Britannia or a lion rampant. The post horn was another common watermark here ; it gave its name to its paper about 1670, when the mail carrier was accustomed to announce his approach by a blast from his horn. The name "Post" still designates a certain size of printing paper. The smallest folio paper of the seventeenth century 72 THE BOOK: ITS HISTORY AND DEVICI.OPMENT. was marked with a watermark of a " pot," and hence the name. For specially printed hooks it is a i)retty fancy to have a coat-of-arms set as a watermark, and it is now and then done, hut 1 fear few readers notice it. Many papers are now made without watermarks, and it is likely enough that, except for trade terminology, they will gradually die out altogether as heing unnecessary. The possihilities of artistic watermarking have not yet Fig. 59.— English " post " Fig. 60.— English "pot" watermark, 1679. watermark, 1640. been fully realised. At the St. Louis Exhibition in 1904 there was a German exhibit which showed the remarkable effect which could be made by imiDressing paper pulp by means of a photographic jDlate in relief. The papers which had been so treated were set up in a frame with a light behind them, and they looked like most delicate paintings in monotone. Those exhibited w^ere portraits of celebrities, and they were not only excellent but possessed the quality of permanence in a remarkable degree. PAPEE. 73 Printing papers are generally white, but sometimes they have been used in colour, green, pink, blue or yellow. Such papers are now and then found in Italian, German, and English books, more rarely in French. Silk and satin have both been used for printing on in England from the seventeenth to the nineteenth century. Vellum has also been largely used for special copies of fine printed books. A recent French book of praj-ers is entirely woven in white and black silk. It looks like a beautifully printed book with monotone borders. An original sheet of paper can of course be made and cut to any size, and the terms folio, quarto, octavo, and duodecimo do not indicate any actual size except in bookbinders' specifications. The terms only indicate the number of times the original sheet has been folded, and this obviously is a matter which is subject to as much variation as the printers choose. But fortunately such foldings do not vary much, and so we may safely mention those that are most commonly used. There are several ways of finding this out, the most obvious being to count the leaves which follow any one letter in the white line at tlje bottom of the leaf. This letter is called the "signature." If there is an A or A 1 at the bottom of the first leaf, and when eight leaves have been turned over a B or B 1 appears, then the book is an octavo, and so on. Another way of determining the same thing is by means of the direction taken by the chain or wire marks all over the paper, and Fig. 61. — '• Chain Hues " thick, and "laid lines" thin, on paper. 74 THE BOOK: ITS IIISTOEY AND D]':VELOPMENT. Fig. 62.— Fol. yet another is to be found l)y studying the position of the waternuirk. But neither of these tests are conclusive, and often enough there are neither chain marks nor watermarks to be found at all, and the sheets are not always rightly or carefully cut, which brings the watermark all wrong, so the following notes are onl}' what may be expected in normal Ijooks. If a piece of paper or page of a book printed before 1750, aVid possibly in later work, be held up to the light, certain lines may be sej^n all over it in a lighter tint than the rest of the page. These appear as long thick lines crossed at right angles by short ihin ones. The long thicjver lines are known as " chain " lines, and the shorter^nes " laid " lines, and they are of some value when fTfey exist for helping to determine the " size " of the book. — Fol. If the original sheet is folded once it is called a folio, and in this case the chain marks are perpendicular and the watermark is in the middle of the first leaf. In a folio there is one fold, two leaves or four pages, and nothing to cut. Most of Caxton's books are folios although they are quite small. — 4° in size. If the once folded sheet be folded again across the other way we get a gathering with four leaves, or eight pages, called a quarto. The chain lines are Fi-. 63. PAPER. 75 horizontal, and the watermark in the middle of the hack of pp. 4 and 5 ; there are two foldings and two tops of leaves to be cut. — 8°. If the quarto be again folded we get a gathering of eight leaves, or 16 pp., called an octavo, which is the commonest size for English books. In an octavo there are three foldings, the chain lines are perpendicular, the watermark is quartered at the tops of pp. 3, 4, 11 and 12, and there are two tops and two fronts to be cut. Fig. 64.— S°. Fig. 65.-12° The further foldings of 16°, 32°, and 64° are the same operations carried further, but although such sizes do exist they are so uncommon that a further description of them is not necessary. — 12°. In the case of a duodecimo a difterent initial folding is followed. The original sheet instead of being folded once across the middle, as in the case of a folio, is now folded into three equal divisions. The parallelogram thus formed is folded across its shorter diameter, and this again along its longer diameter. There is now a gathering 7(i TlIM I'.ooK: ITS IIIS'LTmY AXD DEVELOPMENT. of twelve leiives, or 'li [>[)., with four ffjldings, the chain marks pGrpeiidiciilai-, the watermark lialved at the tops of j)[). 3 and 1), and there are two tops and four fronts to be cut. It is tlie commonest size of the smaller Frencli books. As to sizes, folios run from the great Atlas of Charles II., measuring five feet nine inches and a half by three feet two inches and a half, and requiring eight skins of morocco for its binding, to the tiny Galileo a Maddiiic Crist iiiadeLnmia, 1G15, " imprim6 en 1897," measuring one half by one quarter of an inch. A folio cannot be recognised by its shape. The sizes of quartos and octavos are also very varied, but, roughly speaking, they can be recognised by their shapes, especially in the case of modern books. A quarto is generally squarish in outline, nearly as broad as it is long ; an octavo is an elongated rectangle, its breadth con- siderably less than its length. A duodecimo is always much longer than its breadth. As curiosities, books have been made in many forms, circular, heart-shaped, octagonal, flower or animal forms, but they are of small importance, and have been chiefly made as Christmas cards, valentines, and such ej)hemeral publications. The rules as to quiring of books jDrinted on paper do not apply to books printed on vellum. Such books are always folios, and they are generally quired in gatherings of ten leaves, following the fashion used in the ancient manu- scripts, but, of course, they can equally well be gathered together in any even number that maybe preferred. There is no rule. In Europe, until the nineteenth century, paper was PAPER. 77 always made from triturated rags, but the demand for cheap hterature ^Yllich has become so urgent in recent years has compelled paper manufacturers to find some commoner material from which to make their paper. It is possible that the way out of the difficulty was suggested by an analysis of Japanese paper. This has been known here for some time. It is strong, soft, and valuable for many reasons, and is cheaply made of fibres from plants of the mulberry tree species. Japanese paper is hand made and has a certain amount of dressing, its surface is dull, but takes impressions from engraved plates or type easily. It appears to last fairly well, but would probably not stand much wear at the joints. The idea of using pulped vegetable matter for paper was, however, not new, even to the Japanese, as there was such a thing as paper made from papyrus, but it does not seem to have been much employed, because it was not necessary in view of the fact that the paj)yrus did quite well by itself without any further manipulation. For reliable papers, the Committee on the Deterioration of Paper appointed by the Society of Arts in 1898 give in their report a statement that 70 per cent, should consist of fibres of cotton, flax, or hemp, but about the middle of the nineteenth century it was found that passable paper could be very cheaply made from straw and from esparto grass, and this paved the way for the disastrous use of mechanical wood pulp for cheaj) newspapers and books. Many sorts of wood pulps are now made for this purpose, and there is no doubt that the industry of breaking up wood for the purpose of paper making is a large and increasing one. In Norway there are several large estab- 78 THE BOOK: ITS IIISTOHY AND UEVELOl'MENT. lishments already workiiif,' at this output. The fibres of spruce, pine, lurch, poplar, jute, and nianilla are all extensively used. The wood is cut up into small pieces and triturated until it is in a state of fine dissemination, a mass of small iibres, in which condition it is mixed in certain proportions with the other materials of which the paper is to be composed. In spite of the warnings of the Society of Arts Committee, there is no doubt that the use of "mechanical " wood pulp for paper is increasing, and this regardless of the fact that there is no lasting quality in such material, for the fibres of the wood are invariably brittle, and they also darken rapidly under the influence of light. The dressing of such papers with resin or gelatine effects a certain improvement; gelatine particularly adds to the life of a paper and increases the elasticity of the wood fibres, but this good e&ett tends to die out in time. Eesin is of less use. One particularly troublesome result of having to deal with wood pulp papers is that it will not hold the threads used in ordinary binding; the thread cuts right through the paper because of the shortness or brittleness of the fibres, and if a book printed on such paper has to be bound, the only safe w^ay to do it is to frame each page in a border of sound rag paper, and then have it sewn as usual. Wood paper will not stand bending, but breaks off short if there is anything like a joint or fold in it, and the framing or mounting prevents this. The process of mounting every leaf of a book is, however, a very expensive one ; a couple of pounds may well 1)6 spent on a comparatively small book for this operation alone, so that the prospect before PAPER. 79 owners of libraries wlio wish to keep their books in good order is not brilHant. Xo amount of dressing can make such paper really strong, as it is the fibres themselves that are in fault. But there is another form in which the use of wood is not so harmful, and in this case the fibres are no longer there to be found fault with. " Chemical " wood pulp is a form of cellulose, and it is likely that it is destined to play an im])ortant part in the paper of the future, in conjunction with fibres of various sorts. Chemical wood pulp is prepared from the wood fibres by "digesting" with caustic soda or bisulphide of lime, as reducing agents. The process is one of much interest, and moreover a good deal of wood has to be used to make a comparatively small amount of wood cellulose. Esparto and straw celluloses are not so good as wood cellulose. The invention of the " half-tone " process, by which a dotted block can be produced from a toned drawing, print, or photograph, can be made, is responsible for much dangerous procedure with regard to the paper upon which the prints from the dotted blocks are to be made. In itself the invention of the half-tone process is a wonderful and beautiful one, but it has done more to ruin the already decadent modern paper than anything else, be- cause it has made the dressing of the paper of greater importance than the paper itself. Incidentally, the half-tone block has given the death- blow to the old and beautiful art of wood engraving, which is now only found in quite exceptional instances. But the lialf-tone Ijlock has, nevertheless, provided some small solace for the dispossessed wood engravers, because the 80 THE BOOK: ITS HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT. soft metal blocks ^o wrong in light places and themselves need careful revision with a graver. This touching-up is so general, and so much technical skill is required for its proper execution, that it has already become a recognised profession, and the engraver's name is often enough recog- nised in the lettering of the prints made from such blocks, especially in American publications. The dots of half-tone blocks were at first of an easil}^ visible size, but as the method of production became better understood it was found that they could be made so small that they were no longer visible as separate dots to the unaided vision, but that the effect produced was really that of a tone- wash. But the very finely grained blocks were difficult to print from, the ink stuck too readily between the dots, where it was not wanted, and the surface of the paper was not even enough to give a clear impression, even if it was calendered and super-calendered. So something had to be done to give the paper a more level surface, and the . needed material was found in china clay mixed more or less with barytes. It is laid down in the Societi/ of Arts Report that the amount of this dressing should in no case exceed 10 per cent, in any paper, but modern " art " papers have for a long time much exceeded this fair proportion. From the beginning some kind of dressing has always been found necessary in the manufacture of paper, but nothing so dangerous as china clay has ever been used. The net result is that almost all modern editions-de-luxe, and fine illustrated books generally, either having half-tone plates oi" colour plates done by the three colour process, consist of little else l)ut thin sheets of china clay supported PAPER. 81 by the smallest possible skeleton of wood or other cheap fibres. It must be at once granted that the impressions from delicate half-tone blocks made on clay paper are admirable, and it is also true that the printing ink makes the clay insoluble in water wherever it touches it. But the clay has a certain affinity for damp, and books printed on clay paper yery readily show damp stains, and if left for any time in a really damp place they are liable to become solid bricks of white mud, quite impossible to repair. If very dry the non-cohesive clay will turn to a white powder. Moreover, this clay-laden paper will not hold binding threads, so again it has to be jDresei'ved. A book printed on such material has to be treated in the same way as I have described in the case of wood pulp paper. There is, however, a plan of preserving prints on clay, and this is to fasten down the printed portion on a piece of sound paper from the beginning. This is already done to some extent, and it should be universal in the case of isolated plates, but when a book is all printed on clay paper, as many fine and valuable books unfortunately are, it is difficult to say what is best to be done. The only real remedy seems to be a refusal on the part of purchasers to buy such books. But purchasers do not always know when tliey are buj'ing clay instead of paper. It is, however, n.ot difficult to tell, as the claj^-laden paper feels very smooth and soft to the touch of a dry finger. This pecuharity can be easily detected in one or other of the American maga- zines, Harper's or Scribner's, and the difference between the feel of a page holding an impression from a fine half- tone block, and that having only text, will at once be evident. T.B. G 82 THE BOOK: ITS HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT. If a mark may be made on a suspected sheet, a drop of water should be put upon one corner, left a second or two, and then dried off with l>lotting-paper. Now a light scrape with a knife over the damped place will remove a layer of white clay if it is there. There is no doul)t that the lar^e majority of our modern books will not he in readable condition in about a hundred years' time from the date of their publishing. BOOKS TO CONSULT. Paper. Arts, Society of. — Eeport on the Deterioration of Paper. Lavdnn, 1898. Blades, W. — {Athenaum, March ;i()th, 1889, p. 409. Paper on Watermarks) . Blanchet, a. — Essai sui- I'histoire des Papier. Fan's, 1890. Breitkopf. — Yersuch die Einfuhruug des Leinenpapieres. Leijiziy, 1784-1801. Briquet, C. M. —La Legende Paleographique du Papier de Coton. Geneve, 1884. Briquet, C. M. — Eecherches sur les Papiers du x*^ au XIY^ siecles. Paris, 1886. Campredon, E. — Le Papier. Paris, 1901. Charpextier, p. — Le Papier. 1890. (Fremy, E.) DuxBAE, J. — Notes on the Manufacture of Wood Pulj) Paj^ers Leith, 1892. Erfurt, J. — The Dyeing of Paper Pulp. London, 1901. Evans, L. — Ancient Paper Making. London, 1896. GiRARD, A.— Le Papier. LiUe, 1892. GooDCHiLD, G. F., and Twexey, C. F. — A Technological and Scientific Dictionary. London. Griffik, E. B., and Little, A. D.— The Chemistry of Paper Making. New York, 1894. Herring, E. — Paper and Paper Making. London, 1855. HoERNLE, A. F. B. — Who was the inventor of Eag Paper ? [Royal Asiatic Society Journal, October, 1903). PAPER. 83 HOYER, E. — Die fabrikation des Papiers, 1886. (Bolley, P. A.) Karabacek, J. — Mittheilungen aus der Sammlung der Papjrus Erz. Rainer. Bd. II., III., 1887. K\Y, J.— Paper. London, 189.3. Klemm, p. — Handbuch der Papierkunde. T.cljiziii, 190-1. Lloyd, E. — Account of a sort of Paper made of Linum A.sbestimim found in Wales. (Phil. Trans., Abr. III., p. 105, 1684). MiERZlNSKi, S. — Handbuch der Praktischen Papier Fabrikation. Wien, 1886. Payex, a. — La fabrication du Papier. Paris, 1873. PlOT, G. J. C, and PiN'cn.VRT, A. — Specimens des Papiers recueillis dans les diverses coll. de documents qui composent les archives generales du Royaume de Belgique. BrnxelJes, 1872. Sartori, L. — L'Industria del3a Carta. Milano, 1897. ScHAEFER, J. C. — Attempts towards making Paper from Plants and Wood. (German.) Il>'(/eii.'iiiir(/, 1765. Stonhill, W. J.— Paper Pulp from Wood and other fibres. 1885. (Eattray, J.) Valenta, E.— Das Papier. Ilal/e, 1904. Watt, A.— The Art of Paper Making. London, 1890. WiESXER, J. — Mikroskopischc untersuchung alter ostturkestanischer und anderer asiatischer Papiere. ]Vieii, 1902. Watermarks. Briquet, C. M. — De la valeur des Filigranes du Papier comme Moyen de determiner I'age de documents. Geneve, 1892. Briquet, C. M. — Papiers et Filigranes des archives de Geves 1154 a 1700. Genere, 1888. Briquet, C. M. — Les FiUgranes. Diet. Hist, des Marques du Papier. 4 vols. Fan's, 1907. Castax, a. — Catalogue des Incunables. Besau^on, 1893. Del Marmol, F. — Dictionnaire des Filigranes. Paris, 1900. Dexxe, S. — Observations on Paper Marks, 1796. {Arclueologia, XII., p. 114). Heitz, p. — Les Filigranes avec la crosse de Bale. Strashanrf/, 1904. Heitz, P. — Les FiHgranes des Papiers contenus dans les archives de la ville de Strasbourg. Strasbour;/, 1902-04. G 2 HI TIIK IJOOK: ITS HISTOllY AND DEVELOPMENT. Heit/, p. — Los I'^ilif^raneH des ]'a])i('is do l:i I'ililiotlioquo do Rtriis])()urf». Sfnishonr;/, 190;}. Lkmon, p.— Collection of Wutor ISrarks. IS'U. MiDoux, E., and Mattox, A. — Etudes sur les Fili{i;ranoH doK Pupiers ciujiloyes en France an XIV*" et XV" sieclos. I'nrin, ISGS. PiOT, G. J. C, and Pixciiaut, A. — Specimens de.s Papiers recueillis dans les divorsos coll. dos documents qui com])O80nt les archives ^cncrales du Royaumo do Polf;i(iuo. Jlrnnl/rM, lH't2. Sekma Saxtaxdkk, ('. A. do.— Supi)l('iMont au ("atalof^ue -des livres do la Bibliotlio(iue do M. C. de .Senna Santander. lirnxi'Uvs, 1803. SoTHEBY, S. L. — Principia Typoprraphica (with examples of foreign watermarks). Luinloii, IHoS. SoTiiKBY. S. L. — Typography of the fifteenth centurj- (with examples of watermarks). London, 1845. CHAPTER IV. PRINTING. Assyrian bricks, with printed insci-iptions — Oiron ware — Chinese types — Block books — Costeriana— Types and stereotypes — Print- ing presses. There are numbers of instances of impressions from small devices, cyphers and letlerinj^'s cut on blocks of wood or soft metal and made on pieces of pottery. These stamps are the forerunners of the types with which our modern books are printed. Among these impressions those which are made on the tablets or cylinders of baked clay, many of which have been found among the ruins of Babylon and Nineveh, are by far the earliest. They are covered with inscriptions printed in cuneiform characters, and contain records of sales of slaves, loans of money, sales of land and the like, and on the larger bricks and cylinders are longer inscriptions of greater interest, among them stories of the Flood. Many of these records are contained within an outer shell of the same shape, in which is either a short title with seal or even a duplicate inscription. These outer cases are the earliest examples of anything in tlie Fig. 00.— Assyrian tablet of clay, impressed with cuneiform inscrip- tion. With outer case. 80 THE V,()()K: TTS HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT. shape of a cover or Inndinj:,' over written or printed matter. Some of the cuneiform liricks are said to date from the third thousand years ji.c, and many of tlie later exami)les helonged to the lihraries of Sennacliniih and Ashurhani- I'al, Kings of Assyria. Similar hricks, impressed with inscriptions, have been found in North America. Tiie h-tters on tliese bricks, tablets, or cylinders were printed letter by letter by hand upon the clay when it was wet and soft, without ink, then the brick was dried either in an oven or in the sun, so that this earliest method of printing is diametrically oppo- site to the modern process, in which case the letters are inked and kept rigid, while the paper or other substance on which the impression is to come is lightly pressed upon them. In the eleventh century the Chinese made types of clay or porcelain, and set them up in a frame and printed from them, and afterwards they cut the original types in wood and made impressions, or stereotypes from them in por- cehiin, and when this had been baked they cast leaden types from it. Chinese and Japanese letters are always most decorative, whether in the cursive or square seal characters. Babylonian and Assyrian taldets, cylinders, and cones of baked clay impressed with cuneiform inscriptions have proved themselves to be the most permanent and reliable form of record that has yet been invented by mankind. The hammer alone seems to be able to destroy' them. The most precious faience in the world is that variously known as " Oiron," " Henri Deux," " Diane de Poictiers," or '• Faience de Saint Porchaire," There are fewer than PRINTING. 87 seventy pieces of this ware known, and each example is a masterpiece, no two being ahke. It is said to consist mainly of clay found at Saint Por- cliaire, a village in Poiton, and not far from Oiron, and at one of these places it was probably made. The pieces are often ornamented with armorials and devices of Francis I., Henri II., and Diane de Poictiers, Fig. 07. — Ituliuu book stuinps improssed upon the faience de St. I'urchiiire. as well as those of meml)ers of the French nobility of about the middle of the sixteenth century. There are jugs, covered cups, biberons, dishes, salts, flower vases, and candlesticks, all curioiisl}- put together in sections, and ornamented with impressions from binders' stamps run in with differently coloured clays. This use of binders' stamps is unique, and has been made with the utmost skill and taste. Sometimes casts have been made from the stamps so that the impression shows in reversed colours. The ornamentation is like a book- finisher's work, and several of the same stamps and rolls show on contemporary Italian bookbindings. At that time there was a strong Itahan influence both in French as well as in English decorative bookbindinus. 88 THE HOOK: ITS HISTORY AND DEVPZLOPMENT. It has already been supposed that the ware may liave been sent as a present to Henri 11. from the family of Catherine de Medici, and M. H. Uelange even goes so far as to credit Gii'olamo della Piobbia with the work. He, as well as many other Florentine craftsmen, worked in France for Francis I. It is not now likely that any defhiitc knowledge as to the maker of the Saint Porchaire Faience will evt-r be obtained, but it will always be a notable example of the high decora- tive importance of binders' stamps, which are designed upon certain principles, especially with regard to their combination in groups or lines of groups. Attempts to imitate this ware have often been made, but so far they have failed ; the original seems to possess qualities and peculiarities that are impossible to imitate closely. Art forgeries are now so common and so excellent that there are really very few things that cannot be copied so exactly that it is difficult to distinguish between the original and the copy, but the Saint Porchaire ware is so far one of the very few things that completely baffle the cleverest artist, and this is largely due to the curious use of the binders' stamps. Engraved wooden blocks were used in China, Corea, and Japan as early as the sixth century, and quite lilcely long before. These blocks were cut in the same manner as the European block books, except that type and illustrations were not shown on the same block. In Thibet similar blocks were cut and charms were jDrinted from them. The use of separately engraved types which could be arranged as desired seems to have been known in these countries at about the same time, but it was not so suitable PRINTING. 89 to their then requirements, and so it made no headway. They soon reverted to the simple block en -graving as better. No doubt the reason of this was that the number of separate letters that might be required was so great that it was practically prohibitive. The letters both in China and Japan are still mainly in the syllabic stage, and so there are a great number of them. The alphabetical stage is, however, giadually being reached, especially in Japan. It is very likely that the European idea of cutting block books was borrowed from China, and here from the later half of the fifteenth century until the earlier half of the sixteenth century such books were produced })lentifully in Germany, Holland, and England, and more rarely in France. Single-sheet pictures were made at first, the earliest dated example known being the " St. Christopher " of 1423, now in the Rylands Library in Manchester. From being cut on wood these curious prints are generally known as xylo- graphs. Criticism and comparison of them is a very difficult matter, as they were designed and cut on such broad and easy lines that they were easily copied almost exactly, but now all the important and very early specimens are so well known and have been so carefully listed and described by competent bibliographers like Mr. Gordon Duff, Sir Martin Conway, Hain, Ottley, Bradshaw, Hessels, Proctor, and others, that there is little risk of fraudulent imitation remaining long unrecognised. The block book proper 'however, shows text as well as illustrations, the text gradually becoming more and more important. Block books are printed in pale coloured ink, so that they may take colour as well as possible, and are no TUK BOOK: ITS HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT. usually coloured more or less, sometimes by hand and some- times by means of stencil plates, or perhaps a combination of both methods. Many of them are astronomical, but as a rule the subjects are more or less religious, such as the "Ars Moriendi" or " Biblia Pauperum " ; the illustrations, and the text being variously arranged. Each page is cut on one block, sometimes printed page by page, sometimes two p.iges at a time, and always on one side of the paper only. Now and then, as in the case of the " Speculum Humanae Salvationis," the text is separately cut; this remarkalde book is supposed to have been printed at Utrecht about 1470-72. Block books are always printed on paper of excellent quality. Printing from moveable types in Europe is considered by many authorities to have been invented by Laurens Janszoon Coster, of Haarlem, during the earlier half of the fifteenth century. Actual proofs are wanting, but there exist several books and fragments of books, many of which have been recovered from the boards of old bindings, which certainly are not the work of Gutenberg. These fragments were printed in Holland, and are known as " Costeriana " ; several of the letters used correspond to the Dutch manuscript letters of the time, and many of them are copies of the school books known as " Donatus'." Some of the letters look much as if they had been cut in wood. At Avignon it is recorded that in 1444 experiments with printing types were made. The Coster legend appears to have been started by Adrianus Junius, who in his Batavia, published at Ant- werp in 1588, speaking of Haarlem, says: " Redeo ad urbem nostram cui primam inventae ist hic artis typogra- phical gloriam deberi." PRINTING. 91 There is no doubt that the Costeriana have a family likeness between them, and the types used in them have been carefully compared by Mr. Hessels with those found in tlie edition of xElius Donatus' grammars, and in the Doctrinale of Alex, de Villa Dei, and in his opinion they have the same origin. Whether the rival claims of Avignon, Haarlem, or Mainz, for the honour of having been the first town in which printing from moveable types w^as done in Europe will ever be finally settled, is questionable. But there is no doubt that Joliann Gutenberg was the first printer in Europe who made printing with moveable type of real usefulness. In 1472, Fichet wrote that Gutenberg, who worked in Mayence, was the first inventor of the art of printing by means of moveable types. Curiously enough the work credited to him shows no amateur feeling whatever. Both the Indulgences of 1454, which wvAy be his, and the Mazarin Bible of about 1455, which certainly is, are as finely and perfectly printed as any books ever have been since. It must be noted here that certain authorities still main- tain that this Bible was printed by Fust and Schofter, but the weight of expert opinion is nevertheless strongly in favour of Gutenberg. But however this may be, in the case of the beautiful Mainz Psalter, we are on absolutely safe ground. In this book appears the date 1457, and also the names of the printers Johann Fust and Peter Schofter. It is in every way a magnificent specimen of typography, and the letters are very large. It is also a fine example of colour printing, as the initial letters are cut in wood and printed in red and blue. Peter Schofter was originally an illuminator of 02 THE HOOK: ITS IIISTOllY AND UEVHLOPMKNT. manuscripts, and no doubt we owe the splendid initials of the Mainz Psalter to his liking for colour. The first printed date in a Dutch book is 1473, when books were printed both at Utrecht and Alost. The moment separate letters were cut in wood \<)v the purpose of printing, it must have been obvious to any work- man interested in the matter that it would be far better to use them as models only, and that for actual use casts in soft metal would be more economical. In J. E. Hodgkin's " Rarioni " "there is an excellent detailed account of the manner in which types are cast. At first the method of casting type was i)robably much the same as it is now, except that it was done slowly by hand instead of quickly by machines. The matrix was set at the bottom of a short funnel in a little hand press. This press was held in the left hand, funnel upwards, then a little melted metal was run in from a ladle held in the right hand. The metal set almost immediately, and the little letter was jerked out, to be trimmed by hand. "What the earliest metal used for types was cannot now be known for certain, but it was probaljl}' much the same as is now used, lead with tin and antimonj', and perhaps a little copper — a composition which expands in cooling. By this hand pro- cess a good workman could produce two or three thousand letters in a day. Now things are managed differently, and there are several automatic machines which not only save the handwork of a type caster, but do the work equally well and at a much greater speed. For the casting of separate letters the Wick Rotary type casting machine is perhaps one of the most ingenious. It PRINTING. 93 consists of a horizontal wheel with radiating channels in which the matrices of the various letters are set. The wheel revolves, and as the opening of each little channel reaches a certain point a jet of type metal is driven into it and forms a letter. A little more revolution and the letter is automatically ejected and caught on an endless chain. This machine is capahle of producing 50,000 letters in an hour. The monotype is, however, even a cleverer invention hecause it only casts the particular letter that is wanted. An operator translates the manuscript, hy means of a key- board, into a series of holes on a strip of paper. This strip then moves on to the monotype machine, which not only casts the letter indicated by each hole, but puts it in its proper place, and jerks it forward until one line is com- plete. On the completion of a line the machine has a spasm, and the line is driven l)odily upwards, leaving a space for the next line. This is probably the printing machine of the future, as it only requires the one operator, who translates the manuscript into dots. The methods used in the Linotype and the Monoline are somewhat similar, and effected by the use of a key-board, but instead of casting each letter, like the monotype, they cast complete lines, which are more troublesome to correct if any mistake creeps in. When the printing press was first used is not known, but the printing of the block books would no doubt have suggested some sort of board press long before types were used in Europe. A Ijlock book might be printed by hand only, but it would be a troublesome and laborious process, and the use of a flat padded board to put over the whole block !)4 THE BOOK: ITS HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT. and press upon it seems obvious enough, and the screw press evolved itself out of some such expedient. The familiar napkin press with a large wooden screw and cross handle is the type of the earliest printing presses of which we possess any record, the screw presently giving way before the more effective lever handles, and it should not be forgotten that excellent results can be obtained from these old presses acting with a direct downward pressure. They are, however, very slow in action, and that is not consistent with modern requirements. The Dutch were the pioneers in improvements in these presses, and W. J. Blaew, of Amsterdam, a clever engraver, printe]", and mechanician of the seventeenth century, made several improvements in many of the details, especially as regards the box, table, or forme, in which the type was set. But until Charles, third Earl Stanhope, invented the iron printing press with levers, in 1800, they were always made of wood, with screw handles. Lord Stanhope was a most remarkable man. He was not only an ardent politician but also a notable man of science and an inventor. Among other things we owe to him the Stanhope lens ; a system of logotypes, which was not Fig. 68. — Printing of about 1600. Stradanus. press From FEINTING. 95 received by the printing trade with much sympath}-, because it lessened the need for hand labour, improvements in stereotyping, and above all the Stanhope press, which would have made a fortune for its inventor if he had wanted it. Lord Stanhope, however, gave his press to the Clarendon Press at Oxford, in exchange for a pension to his assistant. This press with its levers was for a long time the model for all printing presses used in this country. But before the Stanhope press was invented, W. Nicholson, of London, had patented, in 1790, a de\'ice which was destined to supersede Lord Stanhope's lever press and all others like it. This was the use of a revolving iron cyUnder driven by steam to carry the paper over the inked surface of the type. Nicholson's invention fell flat so long as it remained in his hands, but in about 1807 it was taken up by Koenig, of London, improved, and put upon the market, and it attracted the attention of Mr. Walter, of The Times. In the issue of this paper on the 20th of November, 1814, readers were informed that it was printed by steam machinery driving the C3'linders holding the paper. By cylinder presses upwards of 9,600 impressions can be made in an hour. Minor improvements since that time have been legion, and it may safely be said that no more wonderful sight is to be seen in the whole of London than the printing of one of our great daily papers. Newspapers are usually printed from stereotypes fixed on cylinders ; but books are always printed from Jiat formes, the paper being applied by cylinders. Paper can now be printed on both sides simultaneously. In Rotary machines both the printing as well as the receiving surfaces are arranged on cylinders. or. Till-: r.ooK: ri's iiis'i'okv wn i»i:\'i:loi'mknt. 'J'lic locking' u\) of tyi><' in iIh' cas(; ol Ion;,' hooliK was soon loiiiid to 1)(! ii ^r(;at inconvenience, and the idea of niaKiii;^; a cast of such type in the form of a hlock, so as to set tlie ori^^'iiial type free, was an ohvioiis one. It was not, however, imt into piaclical fctrni until tlu* eai'ly part of the nineteenth cent my, when someone unknown made casts from l)ook types in plaster of Paris. Ijord Stanhope made several improvements in this, and it is possihle that the use of softened paper i)ulp — tlon^' — for this purpose was his inven- tion. ^Vht■tll(•r this is true or not, pajier was certainly used for stereotyping' in France ahout 1850, and it has heen universally used in this important connection ever since. The paper pulp is hammered on to the type by means of a hard brush, in exactly the same way that antiquaries make impressions from incised rock sculptures. The antiquaries, however, make their casts from the paper moulds in plaster oi Paris, hut the printer makes his in soft metal. When the paper mould is properly dry and hard the melted metal is poured over it, and makes a perfect cast. Such casts can either be used flat for book printing, or curved to tix on cylinders for newspaper printing. The metal used is practically the same as tvpe metal. It sets very quickly, and the heat necessary to melt it is so low, that several casts can be made from one paper mould. Another way of making a harder printing plate is by means of a galvanic battery. In this case the mould from the type is made in wax, either impregnated or carefully dusted %Yitb black lead, and these moulds, w hen correct, are put into a galvanic bath, where a strong metallic deposit is PRINTING. 97 laid all over them, the deposit being afterwards backed up with alloy. Good types have always been ditlicult to design. The types used in block books, and in early printed books gene- rally, were simply copies of the handwriting of the periods to which they belonged. Even in later and in modern times certain founts have been designed on the lines of cheirographic writing, for example, the " caracteres de civilite," much likt-d l»y French printers, imitated the graceful calligraphy of the eighteenth century. But a certain ditl'erentiation in the direction of square- ness soon became apparent, as we have already noticed in the case of rock inscriptions ; it was found easier to cut S(puirely-shai)ed letters than rounded or cursive forms. So letters cut for the purpose of being printed tt-iided gradually to ditTerentiate themselves from their written analogues, and a new kind of designing came into exist- ence. It was, however, always necessary to preserve as much of the original form of tiie letters as possil)le, other- wise they might fail to be recognised. Printers have always liked to show their types, and from the catalogue printed by Sclu')ti'er about 14G9 to Caslon's eighteenth century specimens, there have been numbers of them made and issued. A short study of these specimens will show, firstly, how very much they are copied one from another, and secondly, that no designer of genius seems ever to have ai)peared. All that can be said is that some are uglier than others. It has not been for want of trying, as Geoffrey Tory shows in his Champjieiirji, but, except as to Greek types, in which Robert Procter has, b}' his XL;. n !).s 'I'lii: r.ooK: I'i's iiis'i'()i{^- ANi> i»i;\i:i.ni'.Mi;N'i'. counsel, met with iiiiicli success, there is no douht tliat ^ood types foi" |)iiiiliii;^' are rare. In tlie eifTht(!enth century P. E. Fourjiier caused much iiiiprovenient in French types, hoth hy his example and his wrilinj^'s. lie was the son of a typefounder, and hej,'an as a wood eiij^Miivei', hut eventually followed in his father's footsteps and hecanie a typefoinider himself. Fournier puhlished a tahle of types in 1787, with supjj^estions for d('si<;nin«^' them, hut his most important wiirtijilii(iiif, wliieh is an important work on the suhject, and had widespread influence. In the matter of facsimiles of early printed hooks, it may he well here to say a word or two of warning,'. Thotoj^raphy has revolutionised many tliin;:;s, it has destroyed some of the minor arts, hut in hook production it has had far- reachinjj; etVect, much of which is f,'Ood. It has also oi)eued up several new industries, and now photo-lithographs, collotypes, half-tone hlocks, and prints from line hlocks made hy the swelled gelatine or other processes, can he so wonderfulh* like the original, that a page of old printing made hy one or other of these methods will often deceive an ordinary purchaser. There are many such facsimiles in the market, and the best advice I can give as to them is that very great attention should be given to the paper on which they are done, as this will often give the secret away. The texture and appearance of old pa])er is worthy of careful study, because nearly all the photo- mechanical processes need a paper which is radically differe]it to the thick good rag-made papers which were used before cheap modern papers were thought of. Type founding in England was first carried on in the Two Lines Great Primer. Ououfque tandem abutere Catilina, p ^luoujque tandem a- butere^ Catilina^pa- Two Lines Englifh. Quoufque tandem abu- tere, Catilina, patientia noftra? quamdiu nos e- ^oiifque tandem abutere Catilina^ patientia nojira? Two Lines Pica. Quoulque tandem abutere, Catilina, patientia noftra ? qu ^oufque tandem abutere^ Ca- tilina^ patientia no/tra? quam- Page from William Caslon's •' Si)ecimen of Printing Types." {London, 1766.) [To face p. 98. PRINTING. 99 sixteenth century, when John Day made some Anglo-Saxon types for Archbishop Parker. Moxon, who wrote the " Mechanics of Printing " in 1698, issued the first Enghsh specimen sheet of types in 1(509, and in 177(3 WiUiam Caslon, " Letter-founder of London," issued a specimen of his printing types. John Baskerville, who lived and worked about the same l)eriod, was also a very eminent typefounder, but Basker- ville's types were too thin in the up-strokes to be considered equal to Caslon's. Since that time such sheets of types have become common. Late in the nineteenth century William Morris revived several of the old English block-letter t^^pes, and called them by the old names, " Chaucer," " Golden," '* Troy." WORKS TO CONSULT. Ameuicax Aut Review, I. — 18no, jij). TJ-so. Iii>s(i>ii. Berlax, F. — La invenzione deUa staiuim u tijiu mobile fuso rivendicata all'Italia. Firenze, 1882. Blades, W. — "Who was the iuventor of Printing? Loiahm, 1.S87. BouciioT, II.— Le Livre. y'a//«,J88(j. BoucHOT, H.— L'G^uvre de Gutenberg. Pariti, 1888. Breitkopf, J. G. L. — Yersuch die einfuhrung des Leinenpapieres, &c. Leipziij, 1784-1801. BuciiER, B. — Die Faiencen von Oiron. ]Vieii, 1879. Degeorge, L. — L'luiprimerie en Europe aux XV« ot XVL' siecles. Pari."!, 1892. Lelanqe, H. & C — Recueil de . . .la Faience dite de lienri II. Paris, 1861. Delox, C. — Gutenberg et I'invention de I'lmprimerie. Paris, 1881. DuPOXT, p. — Histoire de I'lmprimerie. Paris, 1883. H 2 100 THl-: l'.()(»l>:: IIS IIISTOKV A M > 1 >i:Vi:L( H'MIINT. Encycloivkuia IJuiTAXNicA. — Typogriii)hy :iii(l Pnnting. ]ij' John Soutiinvaud. Entschedk, C. — L. J. ("obUt do uitvindcr van dc bockdrukkuuKt. JIaarlcm. 1904. Faui.mann, ('. — Tlluslrirtt! j,'eschichti- d*r Hiichdnickorkiinht. ir»>//, INSl. l''lLl/)X, H. lii's Faiences d'Oiron. I'mis, lH(>li. l'\)Ui!NlKi;, 1'. S. — Manuel typofijiajilncjue. I'lirix, ITOl-OO. GoEHEL, T. — Vr. Koenig und dio Erfindun^ der Schndlpresse. StiiH., 1883. , IIessels, J. H. — Gutenberg. Lnnilui,, 1882. Hessels, J. II.— Ilaarlcni tlje birtlijilace of Printing. Linidmi, 1887. IIODGKIX, J. E.— Kariora. /.dudiot, 190'J. Julien. — I/Iniiiriiuerie en ehine au .sixieme siccle de notre ere. Paris, 1850. Junius, A.— IJatavia. Aniircr/i, 1.j88. LiNDE, A. V. D. — Geschichte der Erfindung der Buchdruckerkunst. Berlin, 1886. Maittaire, !Nr. — Annales Typographical. Ilat/ae, 1719. Malinkeot, 15. A. — Do ortu artis Typogi-aphical, Col. J(/rij)ji, 1639. Mahtens, W. J. — Gutenberg und die Erfindung der Buchdrucker- kunst. KdrJsriiJie, 1900. Middleton-Wake, C. H. — The Invention of Printing. London, 1897. MouET. — Les machines et appareils Typogi'aphiques. Paris, 1879. MoxNOYER, C. — Eecherches sur les origines de I'lmprimerie avant Gutenberg. Le Alcnis, 1888. Noble. — Machine Printing. Londan, 1883. Pollaed, a. "W. — Titlepages and Colophons. Eenault, E. — Debuts de I'lmprimerie. Qitebn; 1905. ScHAAFER, J. C. — Attempts towards making Paper from Plants and Wood. (German.) Reyensburg, 1765. Singer. — Eesearches into the History of Playing Cards. Smith, G. — Assyrian Discoveries. London, 1875. Solon, H. L. — History of old French Faience. (Saint Porchaire.) London, 1903. Tainturier, a. — Les Faiences dites de Henri II. Paris, 1860. ViTU, A. C. — Histoire de la Typographic. Paris, 1886. FEINTING. 101 WOLFIUS, J. C. — ^fonuineuta Typographica. Humbimj, 1740. WiLSOX, F. J. F. — Typographic Printing Machines. Loiulun, lf^3. WiLSOX, F. J. F.— Stereotyping and Electrotyping. Ldndoii, 1880. N.B. — There are a large number of works on this subject, both general and concerning Printing in particular countries. ciiaitet: V 1 LMSTIIATIONS, Wood oiigi-aviiifj: — Line fni;vi;l<)|*mhnt. print from a wood block, the St. Christopher, of 1-1'28, which moreover was not a hook ilhistration. Chinese, JaiJaiiese, Jind Korean wood cuts are always in outline, thickened here and there, but quite different in character and far better in drawing and execution than early European work of the same sort. Most of the blocks from wliicli these prints an; made are of soft wood, not box, and are cut willi a short knife of j)eculiur form set in a handle. The drawings are made on thin paper and stuck down- wards on the blocks ; then the knife is carefully run along the edges of the various lines, cutting outwards, the inter- linear spaces being cut away with a gouge and hammer. The wood cutting was often done by women. The method of work is probably tiie same as was used in Europe in the case of early blocks. Besides the design block, always printed in dark neutral tint or black, during the eighteenth and succeeding centuries, the Chinese and Japanese cut accessory blocks which were inked in various colours. The registering of the various colour blocks was managed either by pegs or notches, and the colours were mixed with water or rice paste. Most of the European colour processes of printing require oil colours, Init water colours on the Japanese principle have been used with admirable effect in some of the illustrations to Henry Shaw's books on Mediaeval Dresses and Decorative Arts, and notabl}' by Edmund Evans and his successors in more recent times. From the earliest illustration, mentioned above, until the present da}', the style of Chinese and Japanese wood illustrations has not altered. There have been several CamoroUdcorati^Iicaldamcntifopralcnmafuflfraginecufnuau aperaone.rcuinai ftriclamenteconfibuUn cucorigietrajoflate per Icfi- bulcdoro^&altramcntecilanfulctrcdi corqua aurei cum cxquifitainno datura comcndau". Etouccrailconfincdillacircunftanriadillc fimbrie, diincxcogitabiJccordellaturaornaccDalcmoderatcaurcipulfclcrotua dc&clcphandnegambcfpcfTc fiatcalquamo manifcflarc EllcdunqucduncanimaducTTcndoalhora.il Nymphcogradoaffcr" mando ftctcron.uacabondcdalfuodolce canto, rcpcntinamcntc inua- fcdaqucftanouitatcdimcinqiicllolocoaducnticio. Etmutuamcte m2 raucgliannTc&curiofctacitamptccxplorantime,infol(mtcgliapparuc& inufitato.TnqucIlacclcbrcpatriahomoalicno&cxtranociifiacafocflc rcpuenuto. Pcrlaqualccagioncpcr unopocodirpatioflcterontracfTc unaallalfracumfccrctomurmunllo.&moltcfiatcarimirarmc fcrutaric icIinantiTe.Qijalcnphantafmaftatoioriifrc.Omciomcfcntiuain quel puno tuttcIcuirccrequanarcQualefogliedi Accoriuibrateadglt im pctuofi ucnri.Impochcapcnaraflicurato effendodil crebro dido fpaue to.chcimmeuiite&mcnfamcccarbitridoinfehauerc.olcralacoditionc ruana.altronoronofcedo.diUadiuinauifioedubitaichcallaancrea.Sc melcappuc.Dalla (Imalata forma di Beroe Epidauradccepta.Hcu me da caporcomrciaiditrcptdare.piunmidodiuenuto.chelipauidi hymnuli lafulua Lceiudi famerugif ce ucdcdo.Tramccotedetcfead terra fuppli- Page from the " llypneiotouiacliiu Poliphili." {Venice, 1499.) [To face p. 104. ILLUSTRATIONS. lOo engravers of great skill iu both countries, but I think the Japanese colour prints are best known to us. The blocks are frequently signed with tlie names of the designers, particular!}* in later times, and many names are already well known to collectors. In the seventeenth century Korin was one of the best of the .Japanese illustrators ; in the eighteenth century there is admirable work signed by Hokusai and Iliroshige, and among the many skilled designers of the nineteenth century the work of Kitigawa I'lamaro is perhaps the best known. The first Italian book in which wood engravings were used is, as far as is now known, the " Meditations " of Turrecremata, printed at Rome in 1467, by Ihich Jiahn. Tlie iihistrations are of a simple character in outline. Then came instances in books printed at Naples, Rome, Verona, and especially at Venice, where Erhard Ratdolt produced several with beautiful initials, borders, and pictures. Numbers of the books i)ublished at Venice in the later part of the fifteenth century are illustrated with exquisite wood cuts ; among them the most celebrated and the most beautiful is the Ili/jmerotomadiia PuUphili, printed in 1499. This celebrated book was written by Francesco Colonna, whose name is curiously shown by the initials of the chapters, which read " Poliani Frater Franciscus Columna peramavit," " Brother Franciscus Columna loved Polia very much." Polia has been presumably identified with Lucretia Lelio, who was a native of Treviso, the place of Polifilo's dream. The many engravings are in outline, and several of them uie full page. 106 THE BOOK: ITS HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT. Italians lyive alwaj^s excelled in wood cutting, but although there have l)een numbers of illustrated books issued in the si>:teonth and later centuries, those of the iifteenth centufy still remain pre-eminent. Dr. Paul century siui remani pre-ennneni. ur. raui Kristeller l/as, Moreover, shown that the Italian printers devices ar^well worthy of attention, and many of them are very ime both in design and execution. ]Mock books, Japanese wood blocks, and all very early wood cuts, were cut by a knife, and sticli outline work, not too small, is easiep* to execute with a properly shaped knife than with anything else. But as soon as wood cutters began to be more skilled, and compared their work with line engraving,' they found that a knife was not so useful as an engraver's burin, and so wood ejigraimg, as distinct from. ciittiii;i, came into being. The cuts in the Nuremberg Chronicle of 1493 show some sort of a transitional stage ; there are hatchings and shadowings which would have been much more easily done with a graver than with a knife, but I believe, nevertheless, they are all knife work. Eoughly speaking, it is easier to cut a broad outline drawing with a knife than with a graver, and it is easier to cut a small detail drawing with a graver than with a knife. At the same time we must remember that a skilled engraver could execute either sort of engraving in the wrong way, just as William Harvey cut his well known wood blocks of the Death of Dentatus in such a way as to show every technical peculiarity, except one, of an engraving on metal. Both wood blocks and metal blocks intended to illustrate printed books were always made of the same depth as the type, so that they could all be printed together, and that is ILLUSTRATIONS. 107 done to-day in the case of process or half-tone blocks, which are actually wooden blocks faced with the soft metal bearing the design. There is always some interest in the question as to whether a certain print has been cut on a wood block or on a metal block, and if the print is in perfect condition it is a very difficult matter to decide. But it is rarely that some small defect or peculiarity does not appear by help of which a tolerably certain judgment can be arrived at. Early engraved blocks were often used again and again until they became quite old, and at last they were got at by insects who ate small holes in them. If therefore a print shows little white circular marks ui^on it there is no doubt that it was made from a wood block. Instances are by no means unknown in which experts have decided that a certain block had been cut on metal, and a later impression has turned up icitlt iroDit liolen in it .' The grain of wood will sometimes show on an old print, or a broken edge will show a sharp fracture indicating wood, in contradistinction to a rounded one, indicating metal. The blacks on prints from an engraved metal plate always show very even spaces, and there are usually plenty of them, often broken, however, by small white dots, the presence of which denotes the stjde known as Pointille, the finest examples of which can be found among the French Horte printed for Pigouchet in the fifteenth century. The metal used was probably a sort of pewter, lead and tin, very easy to engrave upon, and strong enough to bear many printings. But in many instances these little blocks seem to have been roughly treated and have fallen about, and the result is that outer lines which show perfectly straight in early copies, show as slightly rounded lines on late ones. This 108 THE BOOK: ITS HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT. is taken as a decided proof that the original block was made of soft metal, although I am by no means certain that it is impossible for a straight edge on wood to warp into a curved line. Prints from old wood cuts in outlines were frequently added to early printed books and painted over thickly with opaque colour so as to produce a different design. The original outline has only been used as a slight guide. Instances of these curious changes can be found in numbers of the fine vellum books illustrated in colour which were printed for Antoine Gerard at Paris in the fifteenth century. In other cases, particularly in Italy and France, orna- mental printed borders and illustrations have been very carefully painted by hand just as if they belonged to ordinary illuminated manuscripts. But the art work in all these cases is not good. The true illamiiiatores were obsolescent. A few instances of attempts at colour printing either by means of blocks or stencil plates were made by Erhard Eatdolt at Venice, and a few others. There are two distinct schools of wood engraving, and they are easily recognised from each other whenever either of them is exclusively new, but the large majority of the more recent book illustrations cut on wood show traces of both styles. These styles are firstly that of the black line, the type of which may be found in Caxton's Myrrour of the Woiide printed in 1481, and secondly that of the white line, the best type of which may be found in the Histori/ of British Birds, illustrated with engravings by Thomas Bewick in 1797. In judging whether an illustration in a book is printed y court of 6jn; gcoof p:tnce0 ant)^ of Cbwno come ^ f20oe^ ofQ^cdSojjpquC/ Of t^iefctcn? cc tBcw flB^ fotcS e§e fc^cc of (5«t0)j^uc/ ^ f^tb Kno® t^ tpij?^ ^ e^ tStonjG/ffw fo %o SStonge uc "^ of go^ 6»«5 «« i r 'glS?ewf ttpzo; I fcj^a 10 — . mffc^ a«fm«(n Page from Caxton's " Myrrour of the Worlde." {London, 1481.) [To face p. 108. TLLUSTRATTOXS. 109 from a block cut and printed in the manner of a wood block, the first thiiir,' to observe is whether the black lines are pressed into the paper or not. The amount of the depres- sion of the black lines may be very slight, but it must always be looked for because although the necessary pressure for printing from type and block is slight, still there is always some of it, and before the introduction of the modern clay-laden papers, the paper used for printing upon was always softened by damp, and consequently very susceptible to pressure. If the depression of the black lines can be recognised, the print is made from a block of some sort, and printed with a slight pressure. William Blake's curious illustrated poems are exceptions to any rule. He was very poor and unable to af!brd to have his writings properl}' published, so he wrote and drew them out himself on copper, and then etched away the ground very strongly so as to leave his lines in relief. The plates were then printed as relief blocks. As curiosities they are of great interest, and they preserve the individual touch of the artist to just about the same extent as an etching does. The process is exactly" analogous to the manner in which names or designs are etched on sword blades, key rings, knife blades and the like, only Blake allowed the acid to work a little more strongly so as to get a slightly higher relief. The first English printed book that is illustrated is Caxton's Mt/rrour of the Worhle, j)rinted in 1481 ; the cuts are quite elementary in character, like all the wood cuts in English books for a long time. Ornamental borders are found in Caxton's Fifteen Oes., printed about 1490. Early English books were not freely illustrated, and it no TIIK I'.(M»K': ITS IIISToKV AN!) DKVKLOPMKNT. must be Hupposftd thai wood cuttciH were scarce. Many of the cuts used are of foreign origin. One early hook is cliiirniiiigly ilhistratcd in colour; DiUiic JuMana 13erneK' so-called liitoLiij' St. Alliiutx, printed in 1 lH(i, has a long series of coats-of-anns priiiicil from wood hlocks. The colour has heen added cilhcr fioiii other hlocks separately inked or elsi) hy means of stencil plates. In the sixteenth century wood illustrations hecanie more numerous, but many of them were still of foreign workmanship. Borders and designs by Holbein were used by Pynson, and these had a renaissance feeling which was quite foreign to the existing style. The mixed style which consequently made its appearance is very curious. It shows well in the semi-classical device of Lucretia used by Thomas lierthelet, royal printer to Henry VHI. Towards the end of the century there were several large volumes of chronicles published in England, Halle, Grafton and Holinshed, and these and similar volumes are all well illustrated with wood cuts. Foxe's " Book of Martyrs," pub- lished in 15(38 b}- John Day, is also an example of a well illustrated and popular book, the cuts in which were all probably made here. "Wood engra\-ings in England gave way gradually in the seventeenth and the earlier half of the eighteenth centuries before the advancing tide of line engraving, but in the latter half of the eighteenth century Thomas Bewick came to give it a new^ impetus. Bewick's style was quite original, and although his particular " white line " style, good as it was, does not ever seem to have retained any hold upon the mass of engravers, yet somehow or other we find that the ''-^^^t^^is^'-^^' The Peaccjck.'' Wood engraving by Thos. Bewick, from the "History of British Birds." {Ntiocnstlf, 1797-1804.) [To face p. 110. ILLUSTRATIONS. Ill revival of wood cutting, both here and abroad, is generally put down to his influence. Bewick worked on an entirely ditl'erent principle to that of any of his predecessors. He gave up imitating the black line of the metal engraver and used the while line to gain his effects. No doubt this is the true theory of wood engraving. Bewick took several apprentices, many of whom afterwards became famous, but, curiously enough, none of them kept long to their master's style. In modern days Timothy Cole has revived the use of the white line ; his work is most excellent and learned in every way. I have never found a wrong line in it, and if Bewick had not sliown the way, and therefore put Mr. Cole in the position of a follower, tbe latter would have ranked as the greatest master wlio has ever worked on wood on the white line principle. William Harvey was one of Bewick's apprentices; he did an immense quantit}' of work, wliicli is always excellent. He soon gave up Bewick's " white line," and most of his wood engravings are like line engravings on copper. The engraving of the Death of Dentatus, after B. R. Haydon, is Harvey's most celebrated piece of work. It shows every appearance and characteristic of a line engraving, but the black marks are in intaglio. It is a tour dc force, and cannot but be considered as a waste of energy. It was engraved upon several blocks clamped together by an iron band, and prints of it cnn now and then be picked up at printsellers for two or three shillings, as it is seldom recognised as a wood engraving. Luke Clennell also worked with and helped Bewick, and much of his early work is like that of his master. But, 1T2 Tin-: r.ooK: ITS iiisToKv AND I)i:vi:loi>mi:n't. like Harvey, Clennell Boon evolved a Mtyle of liis own. He cut some of tlie beautiful little cuts, after Stotliard, in Kogers' " rieasures of Memory." No douht the Bewick training liad iiiui-li iiilluciice for g(j()d over ClenneirH maiuifr. Cliarlloti Xcsltjl followed Bewick closely for a tim«', and then, like his fellow api)rentices, he worked out his own style. His work is very good and true, and he was particularly successful ill his illustrations to Northcote's Fables and liinahlo and Ariiiidti. John Thompson was quite one of our greatest wood engravers. He w'orked well into the nineteenth century, and did an immense quantity of work. He engraved a celebrated set of illustrations to the J'ivar of Wakefield, after Mulready, and was also very successful with those to Tasso's La Gerusalemme Liheiata in 182(). His work is quite different from that of Bewick. The nineteenth century in England was rich in numbers of excellent wood engravers, and a list of their names alone would be a long one. A proof of the high estimation in which the work of many of these artists was held is to be found in the fact that their services as engravers were freely sought by continental publishers of finelj' illustrated books. J. B. Jackson, who introduced tone colour-printing, actuallj' worked with J. M. Papillon in France in the eighteenth century. Then there were the Landells, Gray, Whimper, "Wright, Folkard, and Green, and, quite late in the century, J. W. Whymper, Horace Harral, James Cooper, "W. J. Linton, the Dalziels, and Swain. These two last have signed an immense quantity of excellent work, but ILLUSTRATIONS. 113 they were large firms, and the greater part of their work was done hy their workmen. ^laiiy of the artists of this time did most excellent work as designers for wood engravings, especially Sir John Millais, D. G. Rossetti, Fred. Walker, Fred. Sandys, Lord Lei^diton, Birket Foster, Sir I'], Burne-Jones, G. dii Maiirier, and Cecil Lawson. J. M. Papill()n,who worked dm'ing the earlier half of the eighteenth century, helonged to a French family of wood engravers, and wrote a treatise about wood-cutting with the knife, which is of great interest. His work is small and excellent. Pajiillon makes mention of a foreigner who worked with him and used tlii! '/((/ of the wood to work upon, and that he used a graver. This foreigner is supposed to 1 .- have been the English artist ^- ' — J. B. Jackson, who was eminent Fig. Gt).— Kuife for cugrav- , , , ini? on soft wood. here not only as an engraver, but also as the pioneer hi the matter of colour-printing from wood blocks. No doubt up to about the beginning of the eighteenth century wood cuts had been made on planed pieces of pear or other soft wood cut lengthways. The grain upon such a piece of wood necessitating the use of a knife to cut it, the knife may be a single blade or a double l)lade of the kind known as a " scrive," but it cannot be cut with a solid graver. It is i^ossible enough that to Jackson we owe the idea of making engravings on the cross-cut of a piece of wood, and if so he is entitled to great honour, as all wood work since his time has been done in that way. The graver had long been used on metal, but until the device of cutting blocks T.I5. I Ill TIIK HOOK: ITS HlSTOJ;V AKD DKVKLOl'MKNT. across the grain of a hard wood was thouglit (jf it could not he used on wood. Hard wood was now wanted with as little grain as possible, and hex is the ideal. In the nineteenth century much excellent wood engraving was done in France, Indeed, after a period of prac- tical non-existence the art once more became one of great importance, and a school of wood engraving grew up that was not only very large, but the work done was of very high quality. Bewick's style is not there, although it seems likely that the revival was really due to his influence ; the old black line, resembling the engraved metal line, holds undisputed sway. Moreover, the French nineteenth centur}^ revival owes much directly to the work and influence of another great English wood engraver, J. Thompson, and with him worked an equally great French engraver, H. L. Breviere. These two men were highly gifted, and their work is always of a high order, and they met with much powerful support from contemporary engravers, follow-ers of their own, the excellence of whose work in many instances ran their own very close. Among the many engravers of this time whose work is always pleasant to meet with and admire we may particu- larly note Thiebault, S. Soyer, Sears, Porret, Pioux, La Coste and both his sons, Eouget, and Nivet. The work of many of our contemporary English engravers was also much liked in France, and they often helped to illustrate fine French books. Among the more notable of these engravers we find the names of Orrin Smith, Thomas, Samuel, and Mary Ann Williams, and A. Best. It must be noted that the work of the artists whose work ILLUSTRAT10^'S. 115 was interpreted by this school of highly-skilled engravers was admirably fitted for small book vignettes, especially the military designs so profusely issued b}' Meissonier, Horace Vernet, and Kafifet, and, for larger work, the charming figures of Gavarni. Augsburg in the fifteenth century was a great centre of wood engraving. A Bible with small woodcuts was issued there about 1470 by Jodoc Ptlauzmann. These cuts were meant to be coloured by hand. Several other books illustrated with woodcuts w'ere issued by Gunther Zainer and Johan Bamler. Then notable illustrated books were published at Ulm and Lubeck, and from Nuremberg we have the great " Nuremberg Chronicle," full of woodcuts, the best of which are cut by Wilhelm Pleydenwurff and Michael Wohlge- muth. The work in this book gets away from the mere outline, and we find much clever hatching and shading, but there is much coarseness. From Basle came Seb. Brant's celebrated " Narrenschiff,'' one of the most popular books ever written, and illustrated with most amusing cuts of the various follies of the various sorts of fools described. Albrecht Diirer did a few illustrations for books towards the end of the fifteenth and beginning of the sixteenth centuries. Several more illustrated wood books were issued from Nuremberg, Basle and Zurich, and some of the printers' devices were designed b}" Holbein. During the seventeenth centur}^ a lull occurred in the production of German books illustrated with woodcuts; Ivat the art has always been popular in Germany, and it never quite died out. I 2 ik; Till", r.ooK: ri"s iiisrouv and dkvkloi'Mkxt. Tho very dcconitivo " Triinnpli ot the Eiupeior Muxi- iniliau," with large woodcuts, designed by Hans Burgkmeier of Augsburg in the early sixteenth century, was published in 1790. German wood engraving for books revived in the nineteenth century, and became of high excellence. German wood engravings have had a certain strength and vigour all their own from the time of the "Nuremberg Chronicle" until modern times. Artists, moreover, have not been wanting ; the quite delightful vignettes of A. Schrodter, L. Eichter, G. Osterwald, E. Jordan and otbers, have received adequate and sympathetic treatment at the hands of engravers who are second to none. Nuzeluiann, E. Kretschmar, A. Vogel, Beneworth, Joch, and the Leipzig firms of Allanson and Sears, Nicholls and Bosse, and Peupin, some of whom were foreigners. Line engraving on a small scale plays an important part in book illustration. It is the simplest, and yet requires the most technical skill of all the methods of marking metal surfaces for the purpose of making prints. The engraver cuts out a thread of metal, producing a little track on the surface, and to do this properly requires the utmost skill. It has been held for a long time that prints from engraved metal plates owe their existence to the proofs in sulphur which were taken from time to time from engravings intended to be filled with niello. In the museum at Berlin there is a print on paper from an engraved metal plate, representing the Flagellation of Christ. It is German work and dated 1446. The lettering ILLUSTEATIONS. 117 shows rightly on the print, so the engraving was made with the intent that prints should be made from it. There is in the Bargello Museum at Florence a beautiful Pax with a nielloed plate attributed to Maso Finiguerra, the date of which is put at 1452. From this plate, before it was nielloed, prints on paper were taken, and one of them is at Paris. But the letterings on this engraving read rightly on the metal, so it was not engraved with the intent that prints should be made from it ; indeed, the}', as well as the impressions in sulphur, were only made to help in the working. So that it is only safe to say that the possibility of making prints on paper from engraved metal plates was known about the middle of the fifteenth century both in Germany and in Italy. i/To make a jDrint from an engraved plate requires great pressure, as the paper lias to be forced down into every mark, and the resulting mark on the paper is consequently always in relief. ; The principle of a print made from an engraved wood block is that the projecting parts are covered with a thin film of ink, and when the paper is lightly pressed down upon these lines it picks up the ink from the surface wherever it touches it. In the case of an engraved metal plate, the lines on which are cut in the same way and with a similar graver to that used for white line engraving on wood, the inking and printing is quite different. Now it is the incised lines which print black, and in order to ensure this the whole plate is well rubbed over with ink so as to fill up all the incised lines, and then the unengraved polished surface is carefully wiped clean so as to leave the lis 'I'lIK I'.OOK: ITS niSTOKV WD DKVKLoi'M KNT. ink sticking in all tlie dots, lines and curves. Now dami)ed paper is very strongly pi'cssed upon the inked j)late, so as to be S(jueez{Hl right down into every dot, linc^ and curve. The paper consequently is in relief wherever it has been pressed into a depression, and as there was ink there waiting for it, it will he found to have picked up and absorbed all the ink, so that the print shows black lines in low relief. It will be easily realised that a print from an engraved metal i)late cannot be printed with ordinary' type at the same operation a wood-block can, so that whenever a book occurs in which such engravings show on the same page with type, there must have been two printings, one strong for the engraving and one light for the type. We Ihid, therefore, that in several instances where engraved illustrations have been used for a book which is for the most i)art i)rinte(l from type, that the small piece of text which comes on the same page as the engraving, is also engraved. Not only this, but from time to time entire books have been engraved, illustrations as well as text. The finest English example of such work is to be found in tlie beautiful edition of the works of Horace, plentifully illustrated and engraved through- out on copper by John Pine. It was published in 1733-7. John Sturt, who engraved numbers of book frontispieces, also produced a Book of Common Prayer, engraved throughout on silver, in 1717. He also engraved many of John Ayres' calligraphic works. Abroad, especially in France and German}', small books have been engraved, in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, bv P. Moreau, ILLUSTKATIONS. 119 F. Miizot, J)niet, and others, but none of them are as important as the En<^lish. Music books are engraved, and so are numbers of calligraphic books of small interest. The first line engravings illustrating any book appear in Bettini's " Monte Santo di Deo," printed in 1477. They are said to be after designs by Botticelli. Some of the prints are full page and others are printed on the same paper as the text. They are not very good. Tlie same kind of illustration appears in Dante's " Divina Commedia," printed in 1481. Some of these prints are, however, pasted in, but a few are on the same paper as the text. The great excellence of Italian book illustrators on wood seems to have eclipsed all other kinds. Italian line engravers have excelled in large plates, but in books there is little of this kind of work that is at all good. Examples of small work of the kind were done in the eighteenth century by Grandi, Schedl, Pomarade, I. Fre}^ and C. Gregori. In English books line engravings do not appear until 1521, when an edition of Galen published at Cambridge possesses an engraved border. Eaynald's " Byrthe of Mankind," published in 1540, has engraved plates. From this time engravmgs appear at intervals until towards the end of the sixteenth century, when frontispieces and portraits, always printed on separate paper and inserted as extra leaves, became common. In the seventeenth century the same style prevailed, en- graved portraits an^l frontispieces, but gradually small pic- tures came into use. The plates are often signed, and we Ihid the name of Eenold Elstrack, who worked also in the iL") Tiir; I'.noK: ris iiis'i'(»i:v .\\h i)i:\i;i,()i'\ii:\r. precc^liiij^' cfnilmy, ^Mar.sliiill, Ifdlc, Cecil, (iiovcr, hikI olliers of less niorit. J 11 till! eighteenth centiiiv iiutivf eiif^mvers Keeiu lo huvc given way to foreigners, aiid the Kiinie tiling happened (hiring the early nineteenth ceiituiy. We iiiid niany heautiful engravings in English hooks signed Ijy J)u Jiosc, Grignion, Scotin, ])e Launay, and others. Later, in the niiieleeiith (•ciiliiry, our English liiu; engravers rallied, and we owe nnich heautiful work to them. Many of their names are widely known, and their work will he more highly ai>preciated as time goes on, especially as this small line engraving is practically a lost art. Tlif Keepsake, puhlished hy Charles Heath, 1827 — 57, started the fasliion in England of small hooks illustrated with delicate engravings on steel, hut it must he noted that although there is engraved work in tluiin, the greater jjart of the work is really etched. Exquisite work in this style was done hy W. Einden, D. Allen, C. Eolls, T. C. Lewis, J. H. Rohinson, E. Goodall, H. and E. Wallis, W. R. and I). Smith, W. Humphreys, John Pye, T. S. and F. C. Engleheart, F. and J. Good- 3^ear, and these engravers were supplied with heautiful suhjects hy several of the eminent contemporary artists, J. M. "\V. Turner, Stothard, Samuel Prout, and numbers more. Among the best examples of tineh' illustrated l»ooks of this period the two volumes of Rogers' Itali/ and Poems may safely be noted. They were published in London in 1830, and the very best results were aimed at in their production. They are uniform, and usually bound in red watered silk. ILLUSTKATIOXS. 121 Large numbers of small books illustrateil profusely with line engravinj^'s were published about the middle of the nineteenth century. They often have engraved title-pages, with little i^ictures in them, the full page illustration being inserted throughout. The names of both artist and engraver are usually added at the lower edge of the print. There are Oriental Annuals, Landscape Annuals, Xen- Year's Gifts, Frien(lslii]>'s Oji'rrintis, Cmnic OferiiKjn, Janitile Foniet-me-nots, and a host of similar periodicals, and good work is to be found in all of them. They were either bound in thin panel stamped leather or else in watered silk, and in either case the binding is of interest, and wherever it exists it should be carefully preserved. A quaint little woodcut often appears in these books, printed with the text. Besides the engravers whose names I have already men- tioned, there are many others whose work appears more particularly in small periodical publications; among these may be noted J. C. Aruiytage, Geo. Corbould, Charles and J. Heath, James Mitan, John Sharpe, R. J. Baker, W. Greatbach, J. C. Edwards, W. Fry, W. Chevalier, S. Daven])ort, H. Eobins, C. Warren, T. J. Williams, J. Cousins, W. Miller, 8. Sangstei-, K. Rhodes, F. Bacon, B. J. and E. Portbur\ , T. Willmore, R. Brandard, J. H. Kernot, W. D. Taylor, and G. Mollis. After about 1850 small line engravings in books began to disappear, and now they are rarely if ever done. In fact, line engraving has been killed by mezzotint and photo- graphy, and now takes refuge in its original goldsmiths' use, or in book plates. Line engraving in France did not appeal to popular 122 'I'll!-; I'.OOK: ITS TTTSTOKY AND I)i:\ I ;i>< U'M IINT. taste until a comparatively late period. The block engravings in the "Horae''of the fifteenth century, although they were line engravings, were cut in the manner of wood blocks, and the method of printing from them was different to that used in the case of ordinary metal engravings. In the seven- teenth century there were several beautiful books illustrated by line engravings by Sebastian Leclerc, L. Gaultier, J. Saun6, F. Chauveau, Le Mire and H. J. Diiclos. In the eighteenth century in France the graceful designs of Ch. Eisen and J. H. Fragonard found many worthy inter- preters. La Fontaine's fables and stories provided a suitable literature for these illustrations, and among them may perhaps be found the high water mark of small line engraving. Indeed, the work is all so good that any choice becomes almost invidious; but quite beautiful work was done by J. B. Patas, Chofifard, N. Le Mire, De Longueil, L. Bosse, Delvaux, Johannot, Leroux, Lefebre, Ficquet, Mottet, Prevost, J. B. Tillard, J. L. Delignon, C. L. Lingee, Dupreel; and then come L. Halbon, J. Aliamet, J. Dambrun, J. B. Simonnet, P. Triere, C. S. Gaucher, and many more, some of whom worked also in the next century. In the nineteenth century the French level of small en- graved illustrations remained exceptionally high, especially in the earlier half, but many of the plates have much etching mixed up with line work ; this may very likely mean that the work was done on steel, which will admit of the production of large editions ; but steel is very difiScult to engrave, although it is quite easy to etch. Among the line engravers who used accessory etching I have noted Pauquet, Aze, P. Choffard, and De Yilliers. The engravers whose work mav be safelv considered of ILLUSTRATIONS. 123 high qiialiW are R. De Launay, Bertonnier, Yillerey, P. Savart, H. Dupont, Girardet, J. P. Marillien, L. Petit, J. F. Piibault, ChilHart, and V. Foulquier. To^yards the end of the century photography came and gradually crowded out the small line engravers. / An etching is a drawing done with a needle point upon a sheet of metal protected by a thin impervious coat of soft varnish. The lines made by the etching needle pierce the varnish or " ground," and reach down to the metal, usually copper, exposing it in those places. When the drawing is complete the plate is put into a bath of strong water, usually dilute nitric acid, and wherever the surface is not protected by the ground the acid will eat away the metal. When now the ground is cleaned oil' with the help of turpentine, the original design will be seen transferred to the surface of the copper in the form of dull lines, shallow if the acid has only been allowed to act for a short time, but broad, deep ai:^i irregular if the " biting " has been long. So that an etching alwaj^s has a little more " effect" than was put into the original work. It is not necessary here to enter into the mysteries of " stopping out," and several other variations of procedure, but it is sufficient to say that variations of tone and texture can be obtained ; but, in fact, so far as book illustrations go, the etchings I know of are always simple, and the best of them are those l)y George Cruickshank. //The printing of etchings is analogous to that of line engravings, and a similar ink is used. A strong press is required, the paper is damped, and the impression is in slight relief. Line engravings are always printed in the 121 Till': I '.()() K' : rrs history and l)l;\■|;T/)T»^rI•:\T. saiiK! way as a visiting card, llui untouched parts are clean, and print white, hut in tlio case of etchinj^s more ink is usually left, so that the untouched surfaces often show grey, none of the ink having l)een allowed to remain upon the plate. Tlie French call this " retroussage," and printers can produce strange effects l)y its use. A had etching can be made to look like a good one ; a good etching can be made to look weak and wretched. In fact, a clever artist printer can produce a capital picture from a plate which has nothing at all on it but the ink. Etchings first appeared in English hooks about the end of the seventeenth century, but they are seldom signed, neither are they good. There is an etched frontispiece to Latroo's " Englisli Koque," IGC)"), and another to " /Esop's Fables," published in the same year. Wenceslaus Hollar, a Bohemian who worked in London, illustrated a few English books with etchings in the seven- teenth century. Soft ground etchings printed in red and black appear in Pennant's " Account of London," printed in 1795. In the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries William Blake made a few etchings for book illustrations. In the nineteenth century came Aiken's etchings of animals, usually coloured, Samuel Hewitt, Doyle, and especially the excellent work of George Cruickshank, which was very much admired by John Euskin. Combined with line engraving a number of small illustra- tions were published in the nineteenth century. They were etched on steel, and carefully finished with small line work, with ruled skies. They are generally classed as engravings, but should, I think, rather be called etchings. Etching has not played a very important part in French ^' 6 v) troin Oral TniHir if,,, ', S f'^t^tAfUC. 4." itle- hi/>rt.\/i,;r hy C.Bahfwyn . \i\Y,/,i!r .Unvf. Ji(^>'DO.V, of Grimm's " German Popular Stories." {Londot,, 1824.) Illustrated with etchings by George Cruickshank. [To face p. 124. i ILLUSTRATIONS. 125 books any more than it has in English. There are the amusing sketches of Callot, good work by Abraham Bosse and Sebastian Leclerc, and in quite recent times the beautiful etchings by Jules Jacquemart of works of art, in their way unsurpassed, and marvels of technical skill. I have already mentioned a few French etchers who com- bined that work with small line engraving, probably on steel ; of these probably Choffard is best known and most highly appreciated. Engraving by dots has been for a long time practised, as by its means a graduated tone can be more easily obtained than it can by the use of line alone, and stipple is the same idea carried out by the etching needle instead of the graver. Stipple is done by means of small bunches of needles, with which irregular dots are made in the etching ground and then bitten by acid, as usual. In most cases a few small finishing dots are put on the copper by hand after- wards. Stipple is excellent for faces, and is best known in the work of Bartolozzi, who excelled in it. It is said to have been invented by Jacob Bylaert, a Dutchman, in 1760. In England stipple engraving was largely used in the early nineteenth century for book illustrations. It is found chiefly in faces, and is generally supported by line engrav- ing or etching. The best stipple engravers did nut illus- trate books, but the work of W. Finden, C. Knight, J. Parker, C. Marr, and W. Holl is always good, though, of course, very small. Besides these there were numbers of lesser stipple engravers, whose work is fair — Jenkinson, Dean, H. Cook, C. Wagstaffe, H. Piobinson, and many more. The same sort of usefulness was found for stipple abroad. 12G 'J'HE 15<)()K: Tl'S HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT. for faces particularly, iuicl it was successfully practised by Pfeiffer, Vangelisty, and others, but it never took the same hold upon the Continent that it did here, either in the case of small book illustrations or in the more important matter of large stipple engravings. Mezzotints are not satisfactory if they are on a small scale. Delicate and minute work cannot be done well by the mezzotint process alone, but require supijlementary line or etched work. So we find that mezzotints have not been mucli used for book illustration. The process of mezzotinting was invented by Ludwig von Siegen, an ofTficer in the Hessian Army, about 1642, and at first it was practised chiefly by foreigners, but it soon became the favourite method of engraving upon metal in England ; indeed, the competition of the mezzotint eventually ruined the slower and more costly process of line engraving. Some books concerning mezzotints have explanatory plates in them, beginning with Le Blon's " Coloritto," written about 1721, but these can hardly be considered as fair instances of ordinary book illustrations. A copper plate is prepared for mezzotint engraving by being uniformly roughened all over, so that if it were inked and a print made from it, the print would show a uniform velvety black. The art of the " scraper " consists in so skilfully cutting away or burnishing down the roughened surface of the copper that when a print is made a picture appears. The scraper works from black to white whenever the surface is scraped or burnished awa}', so in exact correspondence the print will show grey or white. It is quick work, and eas}- work up to a point, but to make a ILLUSTRATIONS. 127 first-rate mezzotint is a great art, and only a fe^v engravers have succeeded in doing it. Among the first students of the art was Prince Rupert, who was an excellent artist and an accomplished workman all round. He engraved a large plate after Spagnoletto, called " The Great Executioner," and when John Evelyn wrote a little book called " Sculptura," which was published in 1602, and included in it a short description of tlie new art, the Prince mezzotinted a plate for him, showing only the head of the great executioner. This head, the first mezzotint done for a book, is a finer piece of work than the head in the larger plate. There were several anatomical pUites, mostly printed in coloured inks, which were mezzotinted about the same time, but they are not important ; then Faber's portraits of founders of the Colleges of Oxford and Cambridge were used as illustrations to Rolfs " Lives of the Reformers," published in 1759. These plates bear Houston's name as mezzotinter, but this is only one of a immber of such re-letterings which occur in the history of mezzotints. Robert Dunkarton engraved several book illustrations, mostly portraits, and he also helped in the mezzotinting of some of the plates in Turner's " Liber Studiorum." He was a portrait painter, and his mezzotints are better than Faber's. John Young was an eminent mezzotinter, and in 1815 he issued a large book of portraits of the Emperors of Turkey printed in colours. They are not particularly good, but are interesting as being the first set of mezzotints to be issued in colour as book illustrations. The book is rare and, if the colour is strong, of considerable value. Turner's "Liber Studiorum" was issued l)etween 1807 12S THE BOOK: ITS HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT. and 1811), and many niezzotinters helped in the work — F. C. Lewis, Charles Turner, W. Say, R, Dunkarton, G. Clint, J. C. Eastling, T. Hodgetts, W. Ann is, II. Dawe, T. Lipton, and S. W. Reynolds. The plates were not pure mezzotint, but were strongly etched as well wiLli some aquatinting ; the first etching was done by J. M. W. Turner, and some of the mezzotinting. I think he prob- ably worked finally upon all the plates in various ways with burin, scraper and roulette. Several books of landscaj^es are illustrated with mezzo- tints, done on copper or steel, by T. G. Lupton, many of them after Turner, and John Constable's landscapes liave been admirably mezzotinted by David Lucas ; perliaps the best known is "English Landscape Scenery," published in 1855. In all mezzotints, large or small, it should be noted that the conditioji of the print is important. The blacks should be deep and velvety ; if they show greyish or spotted, the print is from an old plate. Mezzotints on steel last better than if they are on copper. I know of no foreign books illustrated with mezzotints. There are several ways of making aquatints, but the best is the oldest. It was invented by a Frenchman, J. B. Le Prince, towards the end of the eighteenth century, and although of foreign origin, the art has been most extensively and successfully practised in England. Le Prince allowed powdered resin to settle evenly on a copper plate, fixed the minute grains by heat, and then treated the plate with acid as if it were an etching. When the plate was cleaned the acid is found to have bitten a little line round each grain of resin, so that an aquatint made by ILLUSTRA.TIONS. 129 this method consists of a series of small rings more or less thick. The different thicknesses are produced by stopping out some portions and re-biting others. The general effect of aquatint is delicate and pleasing, and it can be strengthened where necessary with a little etching. Aquatint helps its followers considerably, and a good aquatint made from a drawing or painting will often have luminous effects that are wanting in the original. There is one other method of aquatinting that must be mentioned, but there are more which are too numerous and too unimportant to require explanation here. It is a modern invention, and consists of coating tlie plate with resin dis- solved in alcohol ; when this dries it breaks up into little pieces, and the acid can penetrate between these pieces as in Le Prince's method. But the resulting prints do not show Le Prince's little circles, but small irregular polygons. Le Prince sold his secret to Charles Greville, and he passed it on to Paul Sandby, who not only became an eminent aquatinter but published a book in 1775 called Twelve Views in Aquatinta. This drew much atten- tion to the beautiful new art, and it rapidly became very popular in England. English aquatinter s, like English wood and stipple engravers, always liked colour, whether added by hand or printed in ink, and so we find that the large majority of English aquatinters enjoy the added beauty of colour. The pubhshers Ackermann and Boydell both deserve much honour for their consistent patronage of aquatints, and no doubt our splendid record in that art is largely due to their enterprise. Towards the latter part of the eighteenth century we T.B. K 130 THE BOOK: ITS HISTOEY AND DEVELOPMENT. already find several fine books with hand-coloured aqua- tint illustrations published in England, among these are W. Hodge's Select Vieivs in India, 1786 ; T. Hassell's Picturesque Guide to Bath, 1793 ; Combes' History of the River Thames, with aquatints by J. C. Stadler ; E. Orme's Ttvelve Vieivs of Places in the Kingdom of Mysore, with aquatints by J. W. Edy ; and H. Eepton's amusing Sketches of LandscaiJc Gardening, with moveable plates to show how good his suggested improvements were, all pub- lished in 1794, and from this time for the next thirty years were numbers of books issued with coloured aquatints con- cerning domestic architecture. Early in the nineteenth century there are still numbers of books with aquatint views in them : J. Webber's Views ill the South Seas, published in 1808, and Boydell's Picturesque Scenery of Norway, with aquatints by J. W. Edy, in 1820, and several more. Then Rowlandson, the caricaturist, aquatinted the illustra- tions for Goldsmith's Vicar of Wakefield in 1817, and the inimitable Tour of Dr. Syntax, by Combe, in 1820, thereby setting the fashion for caricature in aquatint, which had a considerable vogue. In Pyne's History oj the Royal Residences, the out-door views are printed in coloured inks, blue for the skies and brown for the foregrounds. They have additional hand- colouring. It is an important book, and was published in 1819 ; the aquatints are engraved by T. Sutherland, W. F. Bennett, E. Eeeve, and others. Then came a series of fine books on Indian scenery, mostly engraved by T. IMedland, Hassell and Ellis, and many books of English views, mostly engraved by ILLUSTRATIONS. 131 D. Havell, T. Sutherland, T. H. Fielding, J. Baily, or T. Cartwright. Of less importance, but now becoming more esteemed, are the numbers of graceful costume and fashion plates which were done in aquatint and coloured b}^ hand from about 1790 to 1840. These books are already much sought after, and will probably be more and more so in time ; the plates are generally anonymous. William Daniell illustrated Ayrton's Voyage Round Great Britain with beautiful coloured aquatints ; it was published in 1825. There are many cases in which several kinds of work apj)ear on the same plate ; there may be aquatint and etching, mezzotint with etching, engraving or aquatint, so it is very important to be able to judge from the aspect of a line or dot or a point by which method it has been produced. The magnificent account of the Coronation, of George IV., published in 18'25, under the care of Sir George Nayler, Garter King of Arms, is illustrated with mixed engravings, stipple, etching, line, aquatint and mezzotint, by S. W. Keynolds and other engravers, chiefly after designs by F. and J. Stephanoff. The plates are coloured by hand, and several of the special copies have much extra artistic work added. It is said to be the most expensive book ever published, and it never repaid its cost, but received a grant in aid from the Government of the day. The majority of the figures are careful portraits, and it is the highest authority for the State costume of the time. Lithography is the art of drawing upon stone in such a way that prints can be made from the drawing. The K 2 132 THE BOOK: ITS HISTOEY AND DEVELOPMENT. drawing has to be done upon a particular sort of stone either directly or by means of transfer from lithographic paper, and it can be done either with a point of solid litho- graphic ink resembling black chalk, or by a liquid ink, in which case the drawing is called a lithotint. J. M. Whistler was remarkably successful in this latter manner, but it had been used long before by Hullmandel and Cattermole. The discovery of lithography was due to the experiments of Aloys Senefelder, a native of Prague, who was born late in the eighteenth century. He accidentally found that some writing he bad put on one of the stones he used for sharpen- ing his tools upon came off easily on to paper or linen. Then he tried what effect acid would have, and found that it would eat away the stone wherever the ink did not pre- vent it, so he got a block in low reHef. The protective ink is made essentially of wax, tallow, soap, shellac, and lamj) black, and the acid renders this insoluble, so that when acid is applied to the stone the parts drawn upon remain unaffected. The drawing ink is now removed, and when printing ink is applied by means of a roller, it sticks only where the drawn lines are, and from this inked stone a print can be obtained. The surface of a lithograph is quite smooth, and the process will not help an artist in the least — as the drawing is so will the lithograph from it be ; the only difference is in the power of reproduction. Senefelder was unfortunate ; he introduced an art to the world which has been very largely followed, but his own efforts were failures from a business point of view. He came to London early in the nineteenth century, and his ILLUSTRATIONS. 133 methods soon found votaries, but he shortly returned to Munich, where his brother had assisted him in setting up a Uthographic estabhshment, and this j^ractically faiUng, it was taken over by the Bavarian Government and put under the management of H. J. Mitterer, a professor of drawing. But it was in France that lithography made most rapid progress. The clever French draughtsmen that happened to exist about that time very quickly mastered the process, and between them they established a school of lithography that is unequalled. Many of the greatest French artists worked in it, and some of them specialised in it. Lasteyrie introduced it, and it w'as quickly taken up by Horace Yernet, Pierre Guerin, Charlet, and manv others for small book illustrations, and about 1830 there are large numbers of caricatures done in this quick and easy way. Then Gericault, Henri Monnier, Eugene Delacroix, and J. B. Isabey swelled the list of French lithographers, most of the book illustrations being of small size ; and a little later there is notable work done by Honore Daumier, Achille Deveria, Eaffet, Jean Gigoux and Gavarni, several of them specialising in military subjects. Towards the end of the century we find a new set of artists, many of whom use colour as w^ell as monotint, Fautin-Latour, Cheret, 0. Redon, Gandara and Willett. The social side of French life is perhaps the most illustrated in lithography. In England lithography received its first impetus from Senefelder himself, who came and worked in London, where in 1819 his Complete Course of Lithography was published. VM THE HOOK: ITS HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT. C. J. Hullmandel and J. I). Harding were friends and co-workers in the new art, and they were both adepts at it ; Hunmandel drew several of the beautiful plates of birds for John Gould, and they were afterwards coloured by hand. From the beginning colour has been much liked by English lithographers, either added by hand or produced by means of " chromo-lithography," that is, several plates inked in different colours and then printed over each other on one piece of paper. Eoberts' Holy Land is magnificently illustrated with lithographic plates by Louis Haghe, a left-handed Belgian, who worked here, and these plates were afterwards coloured by hand. Clarkson Stanfield and Cattermole both worked in lithography, and Nash's Mansions of England in the Olden Time, 1839-49, are familiar to most of us. Nash coloured several copies by hand. Owen Jones' Plans of the Alhamhra, published 1842-5, are excellent chromo-lithographs. In quite modern times the old tradition is worthily upheld by William Griggs, whose colour plates of Illuminated MSS. in the British Museum are in every way excellent — indeed, for truth and fidelity to their originals the}^ have never been equalled. Munich was a sort of headquarters of lithography in the early part of the nineteenth century, when H. J. Mitterer succeeded to Senefelder's establishment there. Among the first lithographers in Germany were J. M. Mittenleiter, who also invented the art of engraving on stone, and Joseph Hauber. Most of the German lithographers contented themselves with making copies of existing pictures, and one of the finest examples of this kind of lithography is to be found ILLUSTRATIONS. 135 in the Gcmdlde Galerie des K. Museums in Berlin, pub- lished in 1842, and containing excellent work by Fr. Jentzen, C. Fischer, and others. Adolf Menzel did some notable lithographic work about the middle of the century, and Mouilleron, Eybl, and Eitter were all excellent workmen. Belgian lithographers have nearly always been very good ; besides Haghe, who worked in England, there were, with others, Tuerlinckoe, Van der Meulen, and Yan Loo. Although there have been lithographic workshops set up at Rome, Florence, Turin, Milan, and other towns, the art has never flourished much in Italy : it never appealed to the sensitive artistic Italian nature. Such examples as do exist are mostl}^ portraits. Lithography has been popular in Spain, and Spanish artists have done excellent work in this manner. In 1824 J. de Madrazo published the most important Spanish work illustrated with photographs ; it is called Collec- tion lithographica de euadros del Rey . . . Fernando VII,, lithographiada por habiles artistas, among whom are named J. Jollivet, P. Blanchard and A. Guerrero. The work of all of these is excellent. Lithographic work in Spain, so far as books are concerned, has been mostly of an archaeological character — views of old buildings or old pictures particularly. F. Goya, however, worked largely in this manner. All these methods of illustrating books worked by hand have now been superseded by one or other of the wonderful processes made possible by the invention of photography. Some of these are expensive, but generally they are cheap. The most elaborate, and when well done the most won- derful, of these processes is that known as heliogravure. By i;j(; THE BOOK: ITS HISTORY AND DHVKLOPMRNT. means of this method reproductions of line engravings can be made so perfectly that detection is almost impossible. A metal plate is so treated by help of a photographic negative that tlie lines of the engraving are deposited in an insoluble form upon the plate, which is otherwise clean, then a thin film of metal is deposited on all the clean places by means of electrotyping, so that when the lines are dissolved out, they are in intaglio, just as they were in the original engraved plate. From this artificial plate prints can be made as if from an engraved plate. For the mezzotint another method is adopted, known as photogravure, and this is also a wonderful invention. A metal plate is slightly roughed — if it could be more roughed it would be better — and then a photographic relief in gelatine is put upon it and etched. The result is a plate resembling a fine grain mezzotint, but the prints made from it are always deficient in the blacks. To remedy this and other defects which at present seem to be inherent, an engraver generally goes over the plate with roulette and burnisher. The Photogravure has ruined the Mezzotint. The coating of the copper-plates with steel largely adds to their life. Then we come to the wood engravings, which are all perfectly imitated by the zinc block, made directly from the original drawing, and set on a wood block so as to range exactly with type in height. "Wash drawings are closely copied by the half-tone process, which is also used with blocks that can be printed with type. The drawing to be copied is photographed through a glass screen very finely etched with minute lines crossing each other, so that the pic- ture is ultimately represented by a series of little squares, black or white according to the tones of the original. But the ILLUSTRATIONS. 137 whites are never quite satisfactory, the dots of the screen always show a httle, so the dispossessed wood engraver has to he called in after all to touch them up with a graver. In America, where the half-tone process has reached a very high degree of excellence, the names of these helpful engravers are frequently added. A curious "shot-silk" effect is often seen in half-tone illustrations where the lines of the screen fall at a particular angle with the lines on the original. The same peculiarity sometimes shows in the ruled sky lines in the small nineteenth century line engravings. The three-colour process consists of half-tone blocks printed in colours one over the other, but although they look well they are not particularly true to their originals. The reason of this is that each block is a little wrongly inked, as the tint of the pigment put upon it depends entirely upon the printer. He has of course a carefully coloured key given him to match for each block, but he never quite succeeds in doing more than get near it. There are line keys and colour blocks, and half-tone and colour blocks, and many other varieties of combinations of processes. The half-tone process is certainly responsible for much charming and valuable work, but it has done one very great harm not only to itself but even to literature, it has been the chief cause of the introduction of clay-laden paper (see Chap. III.). The beauty of photographic illustrations can be best seen in some of the recent French illustrated books in colour published by the Societe des Amis des Livres. Other exquisite illustrations are to be found in Octave Uzanne's books, many of them from the drawings of Paul i;3S THE BOOK: ITS TITSTORY AND DEVP]LOPMENT. Avril. The Wiiy in which many of the.se iUustratioiis are made to show over the printed page is often quite charming. BOOKS TO CONSULT. Baer, Ij. — L)ie lUustrirten Ilistoiienbucher des l.J Juhihunderts. Strassburfj, 1903. Bayard, E.— Illustrations et les lUustrateurs. Paris, 1898. Blackburn, H.— The Art of Illustration. London, 1896 — 1901. Bonnet, G. — Manuel do Phototypie. Paris, 1889. Bonnet, G. — Manuel d'llcliogravure et de Photogravure en relief. Paris, 1890. BoucHOT, H. — Le Livre, L'lUustration. Faris, 1886. BouCHOT, H. —Les Livres a vignettes. Paris. Brivois, J. — Bibliographie des livres a gravures sur bois du XIX" siecle. Paris, 1883. BR0t:Gn, W. S.— Book Illustration. Leek, 1891. Bullock, J. M.— Art of Extra Illustration. 1903. Crane, W. — Of the Decorative Illustration of Books. Loudon, 1901. Davenport, Cyril. — Mezzotints. London, 1904. DoBSON, A. — (Chapter on Illustrated Books in Lang's "The Library.") London, 1881. DoBSON, H. A. — Bewick and his Pupils. London, 1884. DucHOCHOis, P. C. — Photographic Reproduction Processes. London, 1892. Farquhak, H. D. — Grammar of Photo-engraving. London, 1895. Gerring, C. Notes on Book Illustration. Nottingham, 1898. Geymet, T. — Traite de Gravui-e en demi-teint i^ar I'invention du cliche photographique. Paris, 1888 Geymet, T. — Traite de Gravui-e et impression sur zinc. Paris, 1887. Geymet, T. — Traite de Photogravure. Paris, 1886. Geymet, T. — Traite de Photo-lithographie. Paris, 1888. Gkolier Club, New York. — Catalogue of Engraved Titles and Frontisj)ieces published in England during the sixteenth and seven- teenth centui-ies. New York, 1898. Hardie, M.— English Coloured Books. London, 1906. Henrich, M. — Iconographie de las ediciones del Quijote de M. de Cervantes Saavedra. Barcelona, 1905. ILLUSTRATIONS. 139 HiNTON, A. H. — Handbook of Illustratioii. London, 1N95 — 1905. HODSON, J. S. — Guide to Art Illustration. London, 1884. HUSON, T. — Photo- Aquatint. London, 189". Jackson, J. B. — An essay on engraving in Chiaro Oscuro. London, 1754. KlEKBRIDGE, J. — Engraving for Illustrations. London, 19().3. Keisteller, p. — Earlj' Florentine Woodcuts. London, 1897. Kristeller, p. — Die Strassburgher Bucher-illustration im XV. und XVI. Jahrbunderts. Leipzuj, 1888. Lietze, E. — Modern Heliographic Processes. New York, 1888. Linton, W. J.— The Masters of Wood Engraving. New Haven, Conn., 1889. Linton, W. J. — Wood Engraving in America. London, 1881. Madrazo, J. DE. — Collection lithografica cuadros del Eey . . . Fernando VII. 1824. Martineau, R.—The Mainz Psalter of 1457 (Bibliographica, Vol. I.). Massena, a. p. V. — Etudes sur I'art de la gravure sur bois a Venise. Paris, 1895 — 6. Morin, L. — French Illustrators. New York, 1893. MuTHER, E. — Die deutsche Bucherillustration. Leipzig, 1884. Papillon, J. B. M.— Traite de la gravure en bois. Paris, 1766. Pennell, J. — The Illustration of Books. London, 1896. Pexnell, J. — Modern Illustration. London, 1895. Pennell, J., and E. E. — Lithography and Lithographers. London, 1898. Pingrenox, E. — Les livres ornes et illustres en couleur dejjuis le XV^ Siecle en France et en Angleterre. Pollard, A. W.— Early Illustrated Books. London, 1893. Pollard, A. W.— Italian Book Illustrations. London, 1894. Eoux, V. — Traite de gravure hiiliographique en taille douce. Paris, 1886. SCHNAUSS, J.— Collotype and Photo-lithography. London, 1889. Senefelder. — Complete Course of Lithography. London, 1879. Singer, H. W., and Str.vng, W.— Etching, Engraving, etc. London, 1897. Sketchley, E. E. D.— English Book Illustration of To-day. London, 1903. Smith, F. H.— American Illustrators. New Yorh, 1893. Strange, E. F. — Japanese Illustration. London, 1897. Verfasser, J.— The Half-tone Process. London, 1904. 11(1 TIIK I'.ooK': TTS HISTORY AND DHVKLOP^rKNT. ViDAL, L. Triiit6 rrati(iuo do J'liolo-litliof^riqiliic J'uris, iJSfi.'J. Villon, A. M. — Traitc! Pratique do Photogravure. Paria, 1891. White, J. W. G.— P:ngli«h Illufstration, "The Sixties." Wed- mrnsier, 1897. WiESBACii, W. — Die Baseler Bucliillustration des XV. Jahrhunderts. I.eipzUj, 1896. WiLKiNsox, W. T. — Photo-mechajiical Processes. L