'chn Sv/Gtt 
 
 
 on of 
 Bd on 
 
 common objects and animals, with lessons inculcating duty and honour. 
 In Dictation a large proportion of the matter is shown in Script; while 
 the Exercises appended to these, direct increased attention to the subjects 
 presented, and furnish plenty of school- work. 
 
Oliver and Boyd's New Code Olass-Books. 
 
 In the THIRD STANDARD, as the child will now have acquired 
 considerable fluency in easy reading, a varied selection has been made 
 from authors that have long been favourites with the young. In the 
 Dictation all the difficulties in spelling monosyllables and easy dissyllables 
 have been anticipated, and the Exercises, which are partly in Script, 
 have been constructed so as to foster the habit of observing words and 
 their distinctions. 
 
 11. GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Three little works have been prepared by Mr W. Lawson, F.RG.S., 
 St Mark's College, Chelsea ; Author of " Geography of the British 
 Empire," etc. 
 
 1. The GEOGRAPHICAL PRIMER will be found adapted to the 
 requirements of Standard IV. The meaning of a Map is clearly ex- 
 plained; an outline is given of the Chief Divisions of the World; while 
 the numerous facts have been selected and arranged to suit the age of 
 the pupils. 
 
 2. The GEOGRAPHY OF ENGLAND meets the requirements of 
 Standard V., and is intended to succeed the "Geographical Primer." 
 The style and subject are a little in advance, and there is some attempt 
 to show the dependence of one part of the geography upon another, A 
 Chapter on the principal Railways will be found to meet the increasing 
 desire for information on this subject. 
 
 3. ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. This work has been 
 written as a " Specific Subject," with special reference to the New Code. 
 The language and illustrations are simple, and suited to the capacity of 
 pupils of from ten to fourteen years of age. 
 
 III. ARITHMETIC. 
 
 This subject has been undertaken by Mr Alex. Trotter, Teacher of 
 Mathematics, etc., Edinburgh; Author of "Arithmetic for Advanced 
 Classes," etc. 
 
 Part I. embraces Standards 1 and 2. 
 
 „ II. „ „ 3 and 4. 
 
 Part III. (Jn preparation) will embrace Standards 5 and 6. 
 
 [Continued at end of Booh. 
 
INTEODUCTOKY TEXT-BOOK 
 
 OP 
 
 THE NEW CODE -COUNTIES AND RAILWAYS. 
 
 Enlarged Edition, 180 pages, Is., or with 5 Maps, Is. 3d. 
 
 RUDIMENTS OF MODERN GEOGRAPHY, 
 
 with an Outline of Sacred Geography, and Directions for 
 
 the Construction of Maps. By Alex. Reid, LL.D. 
 
 The Names of Places are accented, and accompanied with 
 short descriptions, and occasionally with the mention of some 
 remarkable event. To the several Countries are appended 
 notices of their Physical Geography, Productions, Government, 
 and Religion. 
 
 This Edition has been tlioroughly revised and enlarged by 36 
 pages of extra information regarding the Counties and Principal 
 Railways o/tlie United Kingdom. 
 
 *,' A Specimen Copy will be sent to Teachers post-free, on receipt 
 of half the retail price in stamps, by Oliver and Boyd, Edinburgh. 
 
 EDINBURGH : OLIVER AND BOYD. 
 LONDON : SIMPKIN, MARSHALL, AND CO. 
 
 N, 
 
 EDINBURGH: 
 OLIVER AND BOYD, TWEEDDALE COURT. 
 
 LONDON : SIMPKIN, MARSHALL, AND CO. 
 
 1872. 
 
 Price Is.; or bound with the Advanced Text-Book, 2s. 6d. 
 
MR DALGLEISH'S SCHOOL BOOKS. 
 
 OUTLINES OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION, 
 
 For Elementary Schools ; with Exercises. 6d. 
 
 INTEODUCTORY TEXT-BOOK OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION; 
 
 Based on Grammatical Synthesis: 
 
 Containing Senteiices, Paragraphs, and Short Essays. Is. 
 
 ADVANCED TEXT-BOOK OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION; 
 
 Treating of Style, Prose Themes, and Versification. 2s. 
 
 *^* Both Boohs hound together, 2s. 6d. 
 
 GRAMMATICAL ANALYSIS, with PROGRESSIVE EXERCISES. 9d. 
 
 OUTLINES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR AND ANALYSIS, 
 
 For Elementary Schools ; with Exircises, 8d. 
 
 PROGRESSIVE ENGLISH GRAMMAR, with EXERCISES. 2s. 
 
 From Dr Joseph Bos worth, Professor of Anglo-Saxon in the University of Oxford; 
 Author of the Anglo-Saxon Dictionary, etc., etc. 
 
 " Quite a practical work, and contains a vast quantity of important information, well 
 arranged, and brought up to the present improved state of philology. I have never 
 seen so much matter hrought together in so short a space." 
 
 EDINBURGH: PRINTED BY OLIVER AND BOYD. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 This Book is intended as a sequel to the ordinary Text-Books 
 on English Grammar and Analysis. It takes up the subject 
 where analysis leaves it; and as its method is synthetical 
 throughout, its processes form the natural and necessary com- 
 plement to those of analysis. 
 
 The process of grammatical Synthesis which forms the funda- 
 mental peculiarity of the work [vide § 55, et seq.), will be found 
 to differ widely from the so-called synthesis hitherto in use. 
 This latter process, which is little else than the conversion of a 
 series of similar simple sentences into one complex or compound 
 sentence, corresponds rather with what in the following pages 
 is termed Contraction (§ 31), — an exercise, which, however useful 
 incidentally, neither requires great skill, nor conduces to much 
 mental exertion. This work, on the contrary, aims at making 
 the building up of sentences by Synthesis, as exact and useful 
 a discipline as the breaking down of sentences by Analysis is 
 now admitted to be. Accordingly, in the following exercises, — 
 especially will this be noticed in those on complex and compound 
 sentences, — each element in the data has a specific function to 
 perform ; so that if the sentence, constructed according to the 
 
 54 I 2 1 5 
 
4 PREFACE. 
 
 given formula, were to be again analyzed, the relations of its 
 clauses and parts would be tbe same as those in the formula. 
 It is in this sense that the Synthesis here proposed forais the 
 exact counterpart of grammatical Analysis. The process, it 
 may be added, is simply that of nature reduced to a system ; 
 for there is no one who, in making a sentence, does not, how- 
 ever unconsciously, go through the same process of considering 
 and combining the items of thought of which it is to be com- 
 posed. It is hoped that, by this method, the teaching of 
 English Composition, — hitherto the least systematic, and when 
 professing to be systematic the least profitable, of school subjects, 
 — may be rendered as valuable an instrument of mental training 
 as English Grammar has of late become. 
 
 A glance at the Table of Contents will show that this 
 synthetic character has been maintained throughout the entire 
 work. It requires Words to be built into Sentences ; sentences 
 into Paragraphs ; and (in the " Advanced '* volume) paragraphs 
 into Themes. While this general outline has been adhered 
 to, the usual details and applications of composition have not 
 been omitted, but have been systematically wrought into the 
 plan of the work. Thus the often meaningless and loose exercise 
 of filling up " elliptical sentences " has, under the head of E?i. 
 largement (§ 33), been employed as a test both of thought and 
 of grammatical knowledge. Transposition has been applied to 
 the change from the Direct to the Indirect form of speech, which 
 in classical schools may, in some measure, prepare the pupils for 
 understanding the difficulties of the " oratio obliqua." Punctuation 
 is treated of in connexion with each kind of sentence, separately. 
 
PREFACE. I O 
 
 In the present Edition (the sixth), Part I., on the Sentence, 
 has been remodelled, and simplified in those particulars in which 
 it was found, from practical experience, to present unusual 
 difficulties. Part II., on the Paragraph, has been entirely re- 
 written. Here also the method of procedure has been very much 
 simplified, especially in the direction of aiding the pupil by 
 supplying outlines of the Exercises which he has to write under 
 each kind of composition. 
 
 In former editions of the work. Reflection was given after 
 Narration and Description, as the third kind of composition. 
 The author has seen cause to abandon this division of the sub- 
 ject as inadequate, especially as it is difficult in practice to 
 separate Reflection from the other two kinds of writing referred 
 to. He has therefore adopted from Professor Bain the term 
 Exposition as more accurately descriptive of that kind of com- 
 position which deals with abstract subjects. 
 
 The author has further transferred to the chapter on Exposition 
 the exercise known as Paraphrasing, believing that, in the case 
 of young pupils, the Expanded Paraphrase is the best and 
 simplest form in which the thought of a writer can be explained 
 and amplified. 
 
 The present volume closes with Summary, or Precis Writing, 
 an exercise which, as implying both analysis and synthesis, stands 
 appropriately between the Paragraph and the Theme. 
 
 The chapter on the Selection of Words has been postponed to 
 the " Advanced " volume, where it is incorporated with a new 
 part treating of Style in its higher aspects. Whatever it is 
 important for pupils to know on this subject at the initiatory 
 
b PREFACE. 
 
 Stage has been retained in the chapters on the " Principles 
 of Construction," applied both to the Sentence and to the 
 Paragraph. 
 
 Though the Theme or Essay is not systematically treated of 
 in the present volume, the exercises in the later chapters, on the 
 Paragraph, are really short Essays, such as are usually prescribed 
 in Schools, and are fully adequate to test the powers of original 
 composition of pupils in all but the most advanced classes. 
 
 Edinburgh, June 1867. 
 
CONTENTS, 
 
 Introduction, 
 
 PAGE 
 
 9 
 
 PART L— STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES. 
 
 Chapter I. — Preliminary Definitions and Processes, . 
 
 10 
 
 1. Expansion, 
 
 13 
 
 2. Contraction, 
 
 14 
 
 3. Enlargement, 
 
 16 
 
 ' 4. Substitution, 
 
 18 
 
 6. Transposition of Prose, .... 
 
 19 
 
 „ of Verse, .... 
 
 20 
 
 „ of Direct and Indirect Speech, 
 
 21 
 
 6. Tunctuation of the Simple Sentence, . 
 
 24 
 
 „ of the Complex Sentence, 
 
 25 
 
 „ of the Compound Sentence, . 
 
 27 
 
 „ II. — Principles of Construction, . . . , . 
 
 28 
 
 „ III.— Synthesis of Simple Sentences, 
 
 33 
 
 „ IV.— Synthesis of Complex Sentences, . . . . 
 
 36 
 
 „ v.— Synthesis of Compound Sentences, , . , . 
 
 40 
 
 „ VI.— Original Sentences, 
 
 44 
 
8 CONTENTS. 
 
 PART II.— THE STRUCTURE OF PARAGRAPHS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Chapter I. — Principles of Cokstructton, 47 
 
 „ IT. — Narration, . 49 
 
 1. Incidental Narration, 51 
 
 2. Letter- Writing, 54 
 
 3. Historical Narration, 57 
 
 4. Biographical Narration, 59 
 
 „ III. — Description, 63 
 
 1. Common Things, 65 
 
 2. Natural History, 66 
 
 3. Physical Appearances, 68 
 
 4. Eemarkable Places, ...... 70 
 
 „ IV. — Exposition, 72 
 
 1. Exposition of Propositions, or Paraphrase, . . 72 
 
 2. Exposition of Terras, . . . , . . 75 
 
 „ V. — Summary, or Precis, 79 
 
INTKODUCTORY TEXT-BOOK 
 
 OP 
 
 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 1. The Art of Composition is regulated by the laws of Rhe- 
 toric, which, in its widest sense, is the science of the Expression 
 of Thought. It will readily be understood that Rhetoric can- 
 not supply us with thoughts : these the mind must originate for 
 itself, or gather from the various sources within its reach, — 
 as observation, reading, reflection. When, however, any one 
 is possessed of information, or convinced of truths, which he 
 wishes to communicate to others, the science of Rhetoric points 
 out to him the best methods of arranging, dressing, and giving 
 out his material. 
 
 2. The most general division of the subject gives us two forms 
 of Composition — 
 
 I. Composition in Prose. 
 II. Composition in Verse. 
 
 3. A complete prose composition is in the following treatise 
 called a Theme. The divisions of a Theme, each of which is 
 devoted to a special part of the subject, are called Paragraphs. 
 And every Paragraph is made up of Sentences. Hence there 
 are three distinct steps in the art, requiring separate treatment : — 
 
 1. How to construct single Sentences^ so as to give the best 
 
 expression to every single thought. 
 
 2. How to combine sentences into Paragraphs, so as to 
 
 give the best expression to a connected series of thoughts. 
 
 3. How to combine paragraphs into a Theme^ so as to give 
 
 the best exposition of a whole subject. 
 
iO COMPOSITION IN PROSE. 
 
 4. Tlie f rst and second of these steps, — 
 
 r. The Structure of Sentences, 
 II. The Structure of Paragraphs, 
 are treated of in tlie present work. 
 
 The Structure of Themes, and Versification, are reserved for the Advanced 
 Text- Book, which forms a sequel to the present volume. 
 
 PART L— THE STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES. 
 Chapter I. — Preliminary Definitions and Processes. 
 
 5. A Sentence is a complete thought expressed in words. 
 
 6. J'he essential terms of a sentence, — that is, the parts with- 
 out which no complete thought can be expressed, — are the 
 Subject and the Predicate. 
 
 7. The Predicate is that part of the sentence which makes a 
 statement (verb) about something. 
 
 8. The Subject names (noun) the thing about which the 
 statement is made. 
 
 9. The essential terms of a sentence may be thus subdivided :— 
 
 Subject. m Predicate. 
 
 Attribute. | Noun. il Verb. | Complement. [ Adverbial. 
 
 10. The Complement includes everything that completes the 
 sense of an Incomplete Verb * 
 
 11. The Complement of Transitive Verbs is called the Object^ 
 because it names the object or receiver of the action expressed 
 by the verb.f 
 
 (a) Some Transitive Verbs require a secondary complement, as well 
 as the direct object ; as, The people made William (obj.) King (comp.). 
 
 12. These terms are of three degrees ; each of them may 
 be, Is^, a Word ; 2<^, a Phrase ; 3c?, a Clause. 
 
 13. A Phrase^ or element of the second degree, is a form of 
 words containing no subject or predicate ; as, Spring returning. 
 
 * See " The Progressive Enqlish Grammar" § 22. 
 f For a fuller exposition of the divisions of the Sentence, see the authoi''s 
 " Grammatical Analysis" 
 
STRUCTURE OP SENTENCES. 11, 
 
 14. Phrases are of three kinds, named according to the func- 
 tions they perform in sentences, viz. : — 
 
 1st, Substantive Phrase = a noun. 
 2d, Attributive Phrase = an adjective. 
 'Sd, Adverbial Phrase = an adverb. 
 
 15. A Clause, or element of the third degree, is a member 
 of a sentence which contains a subject and predicate within 
 itself; as, When spring returns. 
 
 16. A Principal clause contains a leading and independent 
 statement ; that is, expresses by itself a complete thought. 
 
 (a) In tabular analysis, principal clauses are represented by capital 
 letters, A, B, C, D, etc. 
 
 17. A Subordinate clause explains some part of a principal 
 clause. 
 
 (a) It is represented by a small letter corresponding with that of 
 its principal clause, a, &, c, d, etc. The different degrees of subordin- 
 ation are expressed by algebraic indices, a^, o?, a^, etc. ; their order 
 within the same degree by co-eflScients, la}, 2a}-, Za^, etc. 
 
 18. Subordinate clauses, like phrases, are of three kinds, named 
 according to the functions they perform in sentences, viz. : — 
 
 Ist, Substantive Clause = a noun. 
 2c?, Attributive Clause = an adjective. 
 Zd, Adverbial Clause = an adverb. 
 
 19. Sentences are classified, according to the number, and 
 the relations of their predicates, into Simple, Complex, and 
 Compound. 
 
 20. A Simple sentence has only one subject and predicate ; 
 and is indicated by a single letter, A ; as, " At day-break, all 
 fears were dispelled." 
 
 21. A Complex sentence has only one principal predicate, 
 with one or more subordinate clauses. A, a^ ; as, " As soon as 
 morning dawned, all fears were dispelled." 
 
 22. A Compound sentence has more than one principal clause, 
 each of which may have any number of subordinate clauses, 
 A, a^, B, b^, etc. ; as, " As soon as morning dawned, all fears 
 WERE DISPELLED ; and we saw the land, for which we had so 
 eagerly watched, within a few leagues of us." 
 
12 COMPOSITION IN PROSE. 
 
 23. In a compound sentence, a principal clause, with its own 
 subordinates, forms a complex clause ; as A, a}, in the last 
 example. 
 
 24. Co-ordinate clauses are those which are independent of 
 each other, or have a common dependence on a superior clause. 
 
 25. Co-ordination is of four kinds : — 
 
 1. Copulative, . expressed by and, signified by -j~ 
 
 2. Alternative, . ... or, ... — 
 
 3. Antithetical, . ... but, ... X 
 
 . ^ ,. ( ... therefore, ... 
 
 4. Causative, .< ^ 
 
 ' ( ... for, 
 
 26. Fundamental Law : — Every sentence must contain at 
 least one independent Predicate. 
 
 A form of words may contain several subjects and predicates, and yet 
 not be a sentence; as, " That he had frequently visited the city in which 
 he was bom," — which, though containing two distinct predicates, is not 
 a sentence. The connective " that " implies the dependence of the clause 
 it introduces upon some other clause, as ** He said," " I have heard," " It 
 is true." Hence the essential predicate must be independent. 
 
 Exercise 1. 
 
 Complete such of the following expressions as are not 
 sentences : — 
 
 1. A design which has never been completed. 2. The honour of hav- 
 ing been the first to welcome His Royal Highness. 3. The author 
 having suddenly died, and left his work unfinished. 4. No sooner was 
 William seated on the throne, than seeming to have lost all his former 
 popularity. 5. He is taller, stronger, wiser. 6. That the king was 
 ignorant of the real circumstances ; that he had not examined the war- 
 rant which he had signed, and was therefoi-e not responsible for the 
 proceeding. 7. The Prince, when he saw the hopelessness of his cause, 
 turned and fled. 8. The artist being of opinion that a national recog- 
 nition, through intelligible symbols, of the great principles by which 
 the patriot was actuated from first to last, is the only fitting way to do 
 honour to his memory. 9. For which reasons I shall endeavour to en- 
 liven morality with wit, and to temper wit with morality. 10. The 
 most illustrious benefactors of the race being men who, having risen to 
 great truths, have held them as a sacred trust for their kind, and have 
 borne witness to them amidst general darkness. 11. Seeing that the 
 varnish of power hidings forth at once the defects and the beauties of the 
 human portrait. 12, How much less in them that dwell in houses of clay, 
 whose foundation is in the dust 
 
structure of sentences. 13 
 
 1. Expansion. 
 
 27. An element of a sentence is said to be expanded wlien 
 it is changed from a word to a phrase, or from a phrase to a 
 clause, without introducing any new idea ; as, 
 
 1. A. prudent man is respected. \st degree^ word. 
 
 2. A man of prudence do. 2d phrase. 
 
 3. A meinwho is pj'udent do. 3d clause. 
 
 The expansion of an element often necessitates a change in its attribute ; 
 as, A very prudent man = A man of great prudence. 
 
 28. In expansion, each word to be expanded must be changed 
 into its corresponding phrase, or clause; a noun into a Sub- 
 stantive phrase, or clause; an adjective, into an Attributive 
 phrase, or clause ; an adverb into an Adverbial phrase, or 
 clause. 
 
 29. The proper connecting particles to introduce phrases are 
 prepositions; e.g., 
 
 1. Substantive Phrase. — This is generally an Infinitive ; as 
 
 To extend human happiness is the aim of the philan- 
 thropist, = the extension of human happiness. 
 
 2. Attributive Phrase. — He was h man of great learning, z=z 
 
 a very learned man. 
 
 3. Adverbial Phrase. — He acted with judgment, ziz judiciously. 
 
 But many phrases have no connecting particles ; as His being ruined 
 (ruin) was the cause of his death ; Winter approaching (on the approach of 
 winter), he returned to town. 
 
 Exercise 2. 
 
 Expand the words printed in italics in the following sentences 
 into phrases ;— 
 
 1. The girl sang sweetly. 2. Lying is one of the meanest of vices. 
 3. The grateful mind loves to consider the bounties of Providence. 4. 
 Walking is conducive to health. 5. Very brave soldiers fell at Bannock- 
 burn. 6. The husbandman's treasures are renewed yearly. 7. Cromwell 
 acted sternly and decidedly when it was necessary to do so. 8. Error is 
 human; forgiveness, divine. 9. Idleness prevents our true happiness. 
 10. Delay is always dangerous. 11. His indolence was the cause of his 
 ruin. 12. Leonidas fell gloriously at Thermopylae. 
 
14 
 
 COMPOSITION IN PROSE. 
 
 30. The proper conTiectives to introduce clauses are the sub- 
 ordinative conjunctions, and relative pronouns; e.g.^ 
 
 Substantive 
 stating, 
 
 II. 
 
 Attributive 
 describing. 
 
 III. AdJ 
 verbial of) 
 
 I. 
 11. 
 
 is. 
 
 Place. 
 Time. 
 
 
 III. Manner. 
 
 IV. Cause 
 
 1. A Fact — that, what, why, how. 
 
 2. An Alternative — whether, or. 
 
 3. A Contingency — if. 
 1. A Person — who, that. 
 
 A Thing — which, that. 
 A Place — where, wherein. 
 A Time — when, whereat. 
 
 Where, whither, whence. 
 , When, while, whenever. 
 ( 1. Likeness — as, as if. 
 ( 2. Comparison — as (much) as, than. 
 (^3. Effect— (so) that. 
 \ 1. Reason — because, since. 
 
 2. Purpose — (in order) that, lest (neg. 
 
 3. Condition — if, unless (neg.). 
 
 4. Concession — though. 
 
 Exercise 3. 
 
 Expand the words printed in italics in the following sentences 
 into clauses : — 
 
 1. Quarrelsome persons are despised, 2. We manure the fields to make 
 them fruitful. 3. The manner of his escape is a profound mystery. 4. 
 Some persons believe the planets to he inhabited. 5. Truly wise philosophers 
 are even rarer than very learned scholars. 6. He answered contemptuously, 
 helieving himself to have been insulted. 7. No one doubts the roundness of 
 the earth. 8. His guilt or innocence is still uncertain. 9. With patience^ 
 he might have succeeded. 10. The people, seeing so many of their towns- 
 people fall, were exasperated beyond all sense of danger, il. The battle 
 having been concluded, the general began to estimate his loss. 12. The 
 barricade being forced, the crowd immediately rushed out. 
 
 2. Contraction. 
 
 31. This process is the converse of expansion, and may be 
 performed, — 
 
 1. By converting a principal into a subordinate clause; as, 
 
STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES. 15 
 
 The sea spent its fury, and then became calm. (Con- 
 tracted) When the sea had spent its fury, it became calm. 
 
 2. By converting a subordinate clause into a phrase ; as, The 
 
 sea, having spent its fury ^ became calm. 
 
 3. By converting a phrase into a single word; as, The 
 
 exhausted sea became calm. 
 
 Exercise 4. 
 
 Contract the following Compound into Complex sentences: — 
 
 1. He descended from his throne, ascended the scaffold, and said, " Live, 
 incomparable pair." 2. I took them into the garden one summer morning, 
 and showed them two young apple-trees, and said, " My children, I give 
 you these trees." 3. The light infantry joined the main body, and the 
 enemy retired precipitately into Lexington. 4. Just give me liberty to 
 speak {condition), and I will come to an explanation with you. 5. He 
 was a worthless man {cause), and therefore could not be respected by his 
 subjects. 6. He arrived at that very moment {negative condition), or I 
 should inevitably have perished. 7. Egypt is a fertile country, and is 
 watered by the river Nile, and is annually inundated by it. 8. It thus 
 receives the fertilising mud which is brought by the stream in its course, 
 and derives a richness from the deposit which common culture could not 
 produce. 9. Thomas a Becket completed his education abroad, and 
 returned to England; he entered the church, and rapidly rose to the 
 grade of Archdeacon. 
 
 Exercise 5. 
 
 Contract the following Complex into Simple sentences: — 
 
 1. As he walked towards the bridge, he met his old friend the captain. 
 
 2. When he had spoken for two hours, the member resumed his seat. 
 
 3. The ground is never frozen in Palestine, as the cold is not severe. 
 
 4. The choice of a spot which united all that could contribute either to 
 health or to luxury, did not require the partiality of a native. 5. There 
 are many injuries which almost every man feels, though he does not 
 complain. 6. Socrates proved that virtue is its own reward. 7. Cromwell 
 followed little events before he ventured to govern great ones. 8. When 
 darkness broke away, and morning began to dawn, the town wore a strange 
 aspect indeed. 9. After he had suppressed this conspiracy, he led his 
 troops into Italy. 10. The ostrich is unable to fly, because it has not 
 wings in proportion to its body. 
 
 32. Contraction may also be performed by omitting, in a 
 compound sentence, elements common to different clauses j as, 
 
16 COMPOSITION IN PROSE. 
 
 Wellington was a great general, and Marlborougli also was a 
 great general : (Contracted) Wellington and Marlboiough were 
 great generals. 
 
 Exercise 6. 
 
 Contract the following sentences^ hy omitting elements common 
 to different clauses : — 
 
 1. Plato was a great philosopher, and Aristotle also was a great 
 philosopher. 2. Death does not spare the rich, and as little does death 
 forget the poor. 3. In his family he was equally dignified and gentle, in 
 his office he was equally dignified and gentle, in public life, also, he was 
 equally dignified and gentle. 4. The hyena is a fierce animal, the hyena 
 is a solitary animal, and the hyena is found chiefly in the desolate parts 
 of the torrid zone. 5. Baptism is a sacrament of the Christian Church, 
 and the Lord's Supper is a sacrament of the Christian Church. 6. The 
 sun shines on the good, and the sun shines equally on the bad. 7. Of all 
 vices, none is more criminal than lying ; of all vices, none is moi-e mean 
 than lying ; and of all vices, none is more ridiculous than lying. 8. Alfred 
 was wise, and Alfred was good ; Alfred was a great scholar (not only), and 
 Alfred was one of the greatest kings whom the world has ever seen. 
 
 3. Enlargement 
 
 33. An element of a sentence is said to be enlarged when 
 there is added to it a new word, phrase, or clause, expressing an 
 additional idea ; e.g., — 
 
 1. (Simple) A prudent man is respected. 
 
 2. (Enlarged) A prudent man is most respected hy Ms fellows 
 when he is also generous. 
 
 Exercise 7. 
 
 Enlarge the following sentences ly the addition of words or 
 phrases : — 
 
 1. Alexander was the son of Philip . 2. years have 
 
 passed away {phrase of time). 3. Robert Bruce , died in 1329 
 
 . 4. Have you ever considered the wonderful structure ? 5. The 
 
 general resolved to give battle {dative complement), {time). 6. The 
 
 master accused his clerk {genitive complement), and the judge sentenced 
 
 him {infinitive complement). 7. He resides {place) {time), and 
 
 goes {place) {time). 8. The earth moves round the sun 
 
STKUCTURE OF SENTENCES. 17 
 
 . 9. The ship set sail (absolute phrase). 10. Bonaparte was 
 
 imprisoned {place) {time^ how lovg), where he died {time 
 
 when). 11. The enemy began their attack {absolute phrase). 12. 
 
 Churches are erected {purpose) ; and they are built {material) 
 
 that they may last . 
 
 Exercise 8. 
 
 Enlarge the following sentences hy the addition of Substantive 
 Clauses : — 
 
 1. The king could not understand . 2. I am more willing to give 
 
 , than to ask . 3. doth appear in this. 4. When the trial 
 
 is concluded, we shall know {alternative). 5. We believe , and 
 
 . 6. It has often been observed . 7. is right. 8. After 
 
 the accident, the children gathered round their father, and asked 
 
 {contingent). 9. He complains of our being late, but he did not tell us . 
 
 10. I have tried every means, but I cannot discover . 11. is a 
 
 traitor. 12. Though we have sought him everywhere we cannot tell . 
 
 Exercise 9. 
 
 Enlarge the following sentences hy the addition o/ Attributive 
 Clauses : — 
 
 1. I should not like to be the man . 2. The house has been 
 
 burnt. 3. I have often wished to revisit the place . 4. The clergy- 
 man died yesterday at the very hour . 5. He could not have 
 
 anticipated the fate . 6. The motives are difficult to understand. 
 
 7. John Wycliffe died in 1384. 8. We had not proceeded far when 
 
 a shower overtook us . 9. The treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle was 
 
 concluded in 1748. 10, He need not hope for that success . 11. 
 
 The statement does not agree with that . 12. They can- 
 not look for the protection of the government . 
 
 Exercise 10. 
 
 Enlarge the following sentences hy the addition o/ Adverbial 
 Clauses : — 
 
 1. He had just completed his work {time). 2. It was not known 
 
 {place) until {time). 3. We are often so beset by temptation 
 
 {effect). 4. The righteous shall flourish {likeness). 5. Govern- 
 ment has offered a reward for the rebel {concession). 6. He will 
 
 succeed (condition). 7. He would have succeeded {condition). 
 
 8. He will have succeeded before next May,   (condition). 9. He will 
 
 not succeed {condition, negatively and affirmatively). 10. He would 
 
 not have succeeded (condition, negatively and affirmatively). 11. The 
 
 evils of war are greater (comparison). 12. The king fitted out an 
 
 expedition (concession) (purpose). 
 
 B 
 
18 COMPOSITION IN PROSE. 
 
 4. Substitution. 
 
 34. Substitution is the process of writing in tlie place of 
 one word or phrase, another of the same, or similar, meaning ; 
 
 1. The favourers of the ancient religion maintained that the 
 
 pretence of making the people see with their own eyes was 
 a mere cheat^ and was itself a very gross artifice, etc. 
 
 2. The adherents of the old faith held that the pretext of 
 
 making the people see for themselves was a mere subter- 
 fuge^ and was itself a very vulgar tricky etc. 
 
 Exercise 11. 
 
 Substitute for the words or phrases printed in italics others 
 equivalent to them in meaning : — 
 
 1. My uncle was so charmed with the character of Captain Brown, 
 that he drank his health three times successively at dinner. 2. Conscious 
 of his own weight and importance, his conduct in parliament would be 
 directed by nothing but the constitutional duty of a peer. 3. All the 
 eminent writers of the preceding period had inclined to the party that 
 was now overthrown. 4. The friends of the Reformation asserted that 
 nothing could be more absurd than to conceal in an unknown tongue the 
 word of God itself, and thus to counteract the will of heaven. 5. As they 
 proceeded, the indications of approaching land seemed to be more certain, 
 and excited hope in proportion. 6. The power of fortune is confessed only 
 by the miserable ; for the happy impute all their success to prudence and 
 merit. 7. It is at least pious to ascribe all the ill that befalls us to our own 
 demerits, rather than to injustice in God. 8. Those who are attentive to 
 such propositions only as may fill their pockets, will probably slight these 
 things as trifles beloio the care of the legislature. 9. The books which now 
 employed my time solely were those, as well ancient as modern, which 
 treat of true philosophy. 10. To abstract the mind from local emotion 
 would be impossible if it were endeavoured, and would be foolish if it were 
 possible. 11. The most extraordinary instance of his command of the 
 house is the manner in which he fixed indelibly on Mr Grenville the oppd- 
 lation of "The Gentle Shepherd." 12. The great advantage, therefore, of 
 the Revolution, as I would explicitly affirm, consists in that which was 
 reckoned its reproach by some, and its misfortune by more, that it broke 
 the line of succession. 
 
structure of sentences. 19 
 
 5. Transposition. 
 
 35. Transposition is tlie process of changing the order in which 
 the parts of a sentence are arranged, without changing the sense ; 
 and allows such alterations on the construction as the new 
 arrangement requires ; e.g,^ — 
 
 1. The greatness of mind which shows itself in dangers, if it 
 
 wants justice, is blameable. 
 
 2. (Transposed) If the greatness of mind which is shown in 
 
 danger wants justice, it is blameable. 
 
 Exercise 12. 
 
 Transpose* the phrases and clauses in the following sentences^ 
 without altering the sense: — 
 
 1. That morning he had laid his books, as usual, on the table in his 
 study. 2. I shall never consent to such proposals while I live. 3. Many- 
 changes are now taking place in the vegetable world under our immediate 
 notice, though we are not observant of them. 4, By those accustomed to 
 the civilisation and the warm sun of Italy, it must have' been felt as a 
 calamity to be compelled to live, not only in a cold, uncultivated country, 
 but also among a barbarous people. 5. Let us not conclude, while dangers 
 are at a distance, and do not immediately approach us, that we are secure, 
 unless we use the necessary precautions to prevent them. 6. You may 
 set my fields on fire, and give my children to the sword ; you may drive 
 myself forth a houseless, childless beggar, or load me with the fetters of 
 slavery ; but you never can conquer the hatred I feel to your oppression. 
 7. Meanwhile Gloucester, taking advantage of the king's indolent disposi- 
 tion, resumed his plots and cabals. 8. In all speculations upon men and 
 human affairs, it is of no small moment to distinguish things of accident 
 from permanent causes. 9. At Bath, the remains of two temples, and of 
 a number of statues, have been dug up, in laying the foundations of new 
 streets and squares. 
 
 36. In transposing poetical passages from the Metrical to the 
 Prose Order — an exercise which must not be confounded with 
 paraphrasing (See§103) — all ellipses should be supplied, and the 
 terms of each sentence should in the first instance be arranged 
 in logical order, — viz.. Is/, The subject, with its attributes; 2<;?, 
 The verb; 36?, The complements; 4/A, The adverbials. This 
 
 * As it is the purpose of these preliminary exercises to explain processes 
 afterwards made use of, the pupil should' be required to give as many 
 versions of each sentence as possible. 
 
20 COMPOSITION IN PROSE. 
 
 order may afterwards be modified, to make tlie sentence more 
 graceful and harmonious ; e,g.^ — 
 
 Wonder not then, what God for you saw good, 
 
 If I refuse not, but convert, as you, 
 
 To proper substance. — Milton, 
 
 Transposed : — Do not wonder, then, if I refuse not what God 
 saw to be good for you, but convert it, as you have done, to 
 proper substance. 
 
 Exercise 13. 
 Transpose the following passages from the metrical to the prose 
 order^ without altering the sense : — 
 
 1. Blest he, though undistinguish'd from the crowd 
 By wealth or dignity, who dwells secure 
 Where man, by nature fierce, has laid aside 
 
 His fierceness, having learnt, though slow to learn, 
 The manners and the arts of civil life. — Cowper. 
 
 2. From that bleak tenement 
 
 He, many an evening, to his distant home 
 
 In solitude returning, saw the hills 
 
 Grow larger in the darkness, all alone 
 
 Beheld the stars come out above his head, 
 
 And travelled through the wood, with no one near 
 
 In whom he might confess the things he saw. — Wordsworth, 
 
 3. The pain of death denounced 
 
 Deterred [you] not from achieving what might lead 
 
 To happier life, — knowledge of good and evil ; 
 
 Of good, how just ? of evil (if what is evil 
 
 Be real), why not known, since easier shunn'd? 
 
 God therefore cannot hurt ye, and be just ; 
 
 Not just, not God ; not fear'd then, nor obey'd : 
 
 Your fear itself of death removes the fear. — Milton. 
 
 4. But, that thou shouldst my firmness therefore doubt 
 To God or thee, because Ave have a foe 
 
 May tempt it, I expected not to hear. 
 
 His violence thou fear'st not, being such 
 
 As we (not capable of death or pain) 
 
 Can either not receive, or can repel. — Milton. 
 
 6. They heard, and were abash'd, and up they sprung 
 Upon the wing ; as when men wont to watch 
 On duty sleeping found by whom they dread, 
 Kouse and bestir themselves ere well awake. — Milton. 
 
STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES. 21 
 
 6. That yovi do love me I am nothing jealous ; 
 What you would work me to I have some aim ; 
 How I have thought of this, and of these times, 
 I shall recount hereafter : for this present 
 I would not, — so with love I might entreat you,— 
 Be any further moved. — Shakespeare. 
 
 37. Another variety of transposition is tliat of changing 
 speeches from the Direct to the Indirect or Oblique form, and 
 vice versa. A Direct speech gives the words exactly as spoken, 
 the speaker employing the pronouns of the first person in refer- 
 ring to himself; an Indirect speech gives the words as reported 
 by another. E. g. : — 
 
 Direct. I have frequently said to myself, "I shall never 
 be happy till I have atoned for this offence." 
 
 Indirect. He had frequently said to himself that he would 
 never be happy till he had atoned for that offence. 
 
 38. In transposing a speech from the direct to the indirect 
 form, the following rules must be observed : — 
 
 1. The first and second persons must be changed to the 
 
 third ; e. g.^ — / assure you ; He assured them. 
 
 2. Each present tense must be turned into its corresponding 
 
 past ; e. g.^ — 
 
 I knoiv well. He knew well. 
 
 I told you last year. He had told them last year. 
 
 I have now explained^ etc. He had now explained. 
 I shall endeavour, etc. He would endeavour, etc. 
 3. The nearer demonstrative this is changed into the more 
 remote Mai; e.g., — 
 
 I shall never forget this day. 
 He would never forget that day. 
 
 Exercise 14. 
 
 Transpose the following passages from the direct to the indirect 
 form : — 
 
 1. The Chancellor of the Exchequer: — " There is no commodity of more 
 universal use than paper. It is a great error to suppose, as my riglit 
 honourable friend has supposed, that paper is consumed exclusively by 
 the rich." 
 
22 COMPOSITION IN PROSE. 
 
 2. " The rich, no doubt, are the largest consumers for writing purposes ; 
 but paper is consumed to an enormous extent by the poor, who can scarcely 
 purchase a single article of daily consumption which is not wrapped in 
 paper that enhances its price." 
 
 3. " Yes, I repeat, that enhances its price, — not in the same degree, I 
 admit, as the paper consumed by the rich, who use the better sorts of 
 writing paper, and finely printed books, that are taxed at the rate of 3, 4, 
 and 5 per cent." 
 
 4. Mr Macaulay : — " I am so sensible. Sir, of the kindness with which 
 the House has listened to me, that I will not detain you longer. I will 
 only say this, that if the measure before us should pass, and should 
 produce one-tenth part of the evil which it is calculated to produce, and 
 which I fully expect it to produce, there will soon be a remedy, though 
 of a very objectionable kind." 
 
 5. Mr Pitt: — "The atrocious crime of being a young man, which the 
 honourable gentleman has, with such spirit and decency, charged upon 
 me, I shall attempt neither to palliate nor to deny; but content myself 
 with wishing that I may be one of those whose follies cease with their 
 youth, and not of that number who are ignorant in spite of experience. 
 Whether youth can be imputed to any man as a reproach, I will not, Sir, 
 assume the province of determining; but surely age may become justly 
 contemptible, if the opportunities which it brings have passed away without 
 improvement, and vice appears to prevail where the passions have sub- 
 sided." 
 
 6. " I trust myself," said Mr Brougham, " once more in your faithful 
 hands, I fling myself again on your protection ; I call aloud to you to bear 
 your own cause in your hearts. I implore of you to come forward in your 
 own defence, — for the sake of this vast town and its people, — for the 
 salvation of the middle and lower orders, — for the whole industrious part 
 of the whole country. I entreat you by your love of peace, by your 
 hatred of oppression, by your weariness of burthensome and useless 
 taxation; by yet another appeal, to which those must lend an ear who 
 have been deaf to all the rest, — I ask it for your families, for your infants, 
 if you would avoid such a winter of horrors as the last. It is coming fast 
 upon you; already it is near at hand. Yet a few short weeks, and we 
 may be in the midst of those unspeakable miseries, the recollection of 
 which now rends your very souls." 
 
 Exercise 15. 
 
 Transpose from the Indirect to the Direct form : — 
 1. Mr Canning said, that the end which he had always had in view as 
 the legitimate object of pursuit to a British statesman, he could describe 
 in one word. The language of the philosopher was diffusely benevolent. 
 It professed the amelioration of the lot of all mankind. He hoped that 
 his heart beat as high towards other nations of the earth as that of any 
 one who vaunted his philanthropy ; but he was contented to confess that 
 the main object of his contemplation was the interest of England. 
 
STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES. 23 
 
 2. The temper and character, said Mr Burke, which prevailed in our 
 colonies were, he was afraid, unalterable by any human art. They could 
 not, he feared, falsify the pedigree of that fierce people, and persuade 
 them that they were not sprung from a nation in whose veins the blood 
 of freedom circulated. The language in which they (the colonists) would 
 hear them (the House of Commons) tell them this tale would detect the 
 imposition; their speech would betray them. An Englishman was the 
 most unfit person on earth to argue another Englishman into slavery. 
 
 3. In his speech at the trial of Warren Hastings, Mr Sheridan said, 
 that whilst he pointed out the prisoner at the bar as a proper object of 
 punishment, he begged leave to observe that he did not wish to turn the 
 sword of justice against that man, merely because an example ought to 
 be made. Such a wish was as far from his heart, as it was incompatible 
 with equity and justice. If he called for justice upon Mr Hastings, it 
 was because he thought him a great delinquent, and the greatest of all 
 those who, by their rapacity and oppression, had brought ruin on the 
 natives of India, and disgrace upon the inhabitants of Great Britain. 
 Whilst he called for justice upon the prisoner, he wished also to do him 
 justice. 
 
 4. Sir Robert Peel, addressing the students of the University of Glasgow, 
 asked whether he said that they could command success without difficulty? 
 No; difficulty was the condition of success. "Difficulty is a severe 
 instructor, set over us by the supreme ordinance of a parental guardian 
 and legislator, who knows us better than we know ourselves, as he loves 
 us better too. He that wrestles with us strengthens our nerves, and 
 sharpens our skill. Our antagonist is our helper." Those were the 
 memorable words of the first philosophic statesman, the illustrious 
 Edmund Burke. He (Sir Robert) urged them to enter into the amicable 
 conflict with difficulty. Whenever they encountered it, they were not 
 to turn aside ; they were not to say that there was a lion in the path ; 
 but to resolve upon mastering it : and every successive triumph would 
 inspire them with that confidence in themselves, that habit of victory, 
 which would make future conquests easy. 
 
 5. Sir Edward Bulwer Lytton said he now proceeded to impress on them 
 the importance of classical studies. He would endeavour to avoid the set 
 phrases of declamatory panegyric which the subject too commonly provoked. 
 But if those studies appeared to them cold and tedious, the fault was in the 
 languor with which they were approached. Did they think that the statue 
 of ancient art was but a lifeless marble? Let them animate it with their 
 own young breath, and instantly it lived and glowed. Greek literature, 
 if it served them with nothing else, should excite their curiosity as the 
 picture of a wondrous state of civilisation, which, in its peculiar phases, 
 the world could never see again, and yet from which every succeeding state 
 of civilisation had borrowed its liveliest touches. 
 
 6. Addison wrote in the Spectator, that when he looked upon the tombs 
 of the great, every emotion of envy died in him ; when he read the epitaphs 
 of the beautiful, every inordinate desire went out; when he met with the 
 
24 COMPOSITION IN PROSE. 
 
 grief of parents upon a tombstone, his heart melted with compassion ; when 
 he saw the tomb of the parents themselves, he considered the vanity of 
 grieving for those whom we must quickly follow ; when he saw kings lying 
 by those who deposed them, when he considered rival wits laid side by side, 
 or the holy men that divided the world with their contests and disputes, he 
 reflected with sorrow and astonishment on the little competitions, factions, 
 and debates of mankind. 
 
 6. Punctuation. 
 
 39. Punctuation is the art of indicating, by means of points, 
 what members of a sentence are to be conjoined, and what 
 members are to be separated, in meaning. 
 
 {a) It is a secondary use of Punctuation to indicate where the 
 chief pauses are to be made in reading aloud. These pauses are 
 naturally made where the meaning is divided; but there must often 
 be pauses where there are no points, as there are frequently points 
 where there need be no perceptible pauses. 
 
 40. The Points made use of for this purpose are : — 
 
 The Period, 
 
 The Comma, , 
 
 The Semicolon, ; 
 
 The Colon, : 
 
 The Dash, — 
 
 The occasional points — the use of which is sufficiently in- 
 dicated by their names, — are : — 
 
 The Mark of Interrogation, ? 
 
 The Mark of Exclamation, ! 
 
 Quotation Marks, ". . . ." 
 
 Brackets, or Parentheses, (. . .) 
 
 41. I. The Simple Sentence: — 
 
 I. When the simple elements stand in their natural or logical 
 order (§ 36), the only punctuation required is a period at the 
 close ; as, " I visited every chamber by turns." 
 
 II. An Adverbial phrase at the beginning of a sentence is 
 generally followed by a comma ; as, '^ By night, an atheist half 
 believes a god." 
 
 III. Parenthetical Connectives and Vocatives are enclosed 
 between commas; as, "His master, however, has dismissed 
 him ;" " This, my friends, is our only chance of escape." 
 
STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES. 25 
 
 IV. Apposltlonal phrases following their nouns are generally 
 enclosed between commas ; as, " Thackeray, the author of 
 Vanity Fair, died in 1863." 
 
 y. Co-ordinate words and phrases are separated from each 
 other by commas, unless they are in pairs connected by a con- 
 junction ; as, " They came on the third day, by the direction 
 of the peasants, to the hermit's cell;" "He was reserved and 
 proud, haughty and ambitious." 
 
 Exercise 16. 
 
 Supply the proper Points : — 
 
 1. Our dear friend the General in his last letter mortified me not a little. 
 2. On his departure I presented him with a piece of opium. 3. Man Sir 
 is a weed in those regions. 4. The nation too was now for the first time 
 essentially divided in point of character and principle. 5. Goldsmith the 
 author of the Deserted Villaye wrote with perfect elegance and beauty in 
 a style of mellow tenderness and elaborate simplicity. 6. Much less did 
 it resemble any known herb weed or flower. 7. A premonitory moisten- 
 ing at the same time overflowed his nether lip. 8. Nevertheless strange 
 stories got about. 9. Mr Speaker I rise to more the second reading of 
 this Bill. 10. In a few days his Lordship's town-house was observed to 
 be on fire. 11. Our ancestors were nice in their method of sacrificing 
 their tender victims. 12. Give me Master Zimmerman a sympathetic 
 solitude. 
 
 42. II. The Complex Sentence : — 
 
 I. The rules for simple sentences apply to individual clauses 
 in complex sentences. 
 
 II. Subordinate clauses are separated from their principal 
 clauses, and from one another (unless when very closely con- 
 nected in meaning) by commas ; as, " As my heart was entirely 
 subdued by the captivating strains I had heard, I fell down at 
 his feet." 
 
 III. When a clause is restrictive,* no comma is needed ; as, 
 " The soul that sinneth, it shall die." 
 
 IV. A number of subordinate clauses bearing the same relation 
 to the principal clause, are separated from one another by semi- 
 colons, and from the principal clause by a colon ; as, " If he 
 
 * See Progressive English Grammar, § 46, II. 
 
26 COMPOSITION IN PROSE, 
 
 violates tlie most solemn engagements ; if lie oppresses, extorts, 
 robs ; if he imprisons, confiscates, banishes at his sole will and 
 pleasure : this is his defence, etc." 
 
 V. A formal quotation is enclosed in quotation marJcs^ and 
 preceded by a colon ; as, " His defence is : 'To be robbed, 
 violated, oppressed, is their privilege.' " When the quotation 
 forms a part of the narrative, it may be preceded by a comma ; 
 as, " To a tribune who insulted him, he replied, ' I am still 
 your Emperor.' " 
 
 VI. A sudden break in a sentence is marked by a dash ; as, 
 " Only in a custom of such long standing, methinks, if their 
 Ilolinesses the Bishops had, in decency, been first sounded — but 
 I am wading out of my depths." 
 
 Exercise 17. 
 
 Supply the proper Points : — 
 
 1. As the Russian cavalry retired their infantry fell back toward the 
 head of the valley leaving men in three of the redoubts they had taken and 
 abandoning the fourth. 
 
 2. Had there been merely an opening in the coral rock it could not have 
 been detected from the sea excepting by the diminution of the foaming 
 surf just at that spot a circumstance that could scarcely be visible unless 
 the observer were opposite the aperture. 
 
 3. When Phncion the modest and gentle Phocion was led to execution 
 he turned to one of his fellow-suiferers who was lamenting his own hard 
 fate Is it not glory enough for you says he that you die with Phocion. 
 
 4. If we consider our own country in its natural aspect without any of 
 the benefits and advantages of commerce what a barren uncomfortable 
 spot of earth falls to our share, 
 
 5. These unhappy people were proposing schemes for persuading mon- 
 archs to choose favourites upon the score of their wisdom capacity and 
 virtue of teaching ministers to consult the public good of rewarding merit 
 great abilities and eminent services of instructing princes to know their 
 true interest by placing it on the same foundation with that of their people 
 of choosing for employments persons qualified to exercise them with many 
 other wild impossible chimeras that never entered before into the heart of 
 man to conceive. 
 
 6. Emerging thence again before the breath 
 
 Of full-exerted heaven they wing their course 
 And dart on distant coasts if some sharp rock 
 Or shoal insidious break not their career 
 And in loose fragments fling them floating round. 
 
STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES. 27 
 
 43. III. TiiE Compound Sentence : — 
 
 I. The rules for simple and complex sentences apply to simple 
 and complex clauses in compound sentences. 
 
 IT. Co-ordinate clauses are generally separated by a semicolon; 
 as, " The genius making me no answer, I turned about to address 
 myself to him a second time; but I found that he had left 
 me." 
 
 III. When two clauses are simple, and neither of them con- 
 tains a comma within itself, a comma may be used to separate 
 them ; as, "Every man desire th to live long, but no man would 
 be old." 
 
 IV. When an independent clause is appended to a sentence 
 without a conjunction, it is preceded by a colon ; as, " To reason 
 with him was vain : he was infatuated." 
 
 V. In contracted sentences, the omissions are indicated by 
 commas ; as, " To err is human ; to forgive, divine." 
 
 Exercise 18. 
 
 Supply the proper Points : — 
 
 1. It may seem a little extraordinary that notwithstanding his cruelty 
 his extortion his violence his arbitrary administration this prince not only 
 acquired the regard of his subjects but never was the object of their hatred 
 he seems even in some degree to have possessed to the last their love and 
 affection. 
 
 2. The success of their enterprises was suitable to the diversity of their 
 characters and was uniformly influenced by it. 
 
 3. Conversation enriches the understanding but solitude is the school 
 of genius and the uniformity of a work denotes the hand of a single 
 artist. 
 
 4. The mind of Clovis was susceptible of transient fervour he was ex- 
 asperated by the pathetic tale of the passion and death of Christ and in- 
 stead of weighing the saluttiry consequences of that mysterious sacrifice 
 he exclaimed with indiscreet fury had I been present at the head of my 
 valiant Franks I would have revenged his injuries. 
 
 5. The Arians upbraided the Catholics with the worship of three gods 
 the Catholics defended their cause by theological distinctions and the 
 usual ai'guraents objections and replies were reverberated with obstinate 
 clamour till the king revealed his secret apprehensions by an abrupt but 
 decisive question which he addressed to the orthodox bishops If you truly 
 profess the Christian religion why do you not restrain the king of the 
 Franks. 
 
28 COMPOSITION IN PROSE. 
 
 6. Nor only through the lenient air this change 
 
 Delicious breathes the penetrative sun 
 His force deep-darting to the dark retreat 
 Of vegetation sets the steaming power 
 At lai-ge to wander o'er the verdant earth 
 In various hues but chiefly thee gay green 
 Thou smiling Nature's universal robe 
 United light and shade where the sight dwells 
 "With growing strength and ever -new delight. 
 
 Chapter II. — Principles of Construction. 
 
 44. Synthesis is the converse of Analysis. The latter is the 
 breaking down of a sentence into its parts ; the former is the 
 building up of parts into a whole. 
 
 4& In constructing a sentence, the first care must be to make 
 it complete. Every sentence must contain at least one indepen- 
 dent predicate (§ 26) ; and every predicate must have its sub- 
 ject distinctly expressed or clearly implied. 
 
 46. In arranging the subordinate members of the sentence, 
 care must be taken to connect explanatory words and phrases 
 with the words which they explain. This is the quality of 
 clearness. It may be destroyed, — Is^, by dislocation^ or the 
 unnatural separation of members that are closely connected in 
 meaning ; or, 2c?, by ambiguity^ or by placing a member in such 
 a position that it is doubtful which of two possible constructions 
 is intended. 
 
 1 . The following is an example of dislocation : — 
 
 " The effect of this devotion of elegant minds to rural 
 occupations has been wonderful on the face of the country J' 
 
 Here the phrase, '• on the face of the country," is separated by the 
 greater part of the sentence from the word '• effect," to which it directly 
 refers ; and the mind is perplexed by the long suspension of the current of 
 the sense. The sentence would be clearer, as well as more elegant, thus: 
 " This devotion of elegant minds to rural occupations has produced a 
 wonderful effect on the face of the country." 
 
 2. The following is an example of ambiguity : — 
 
 " Rome once more ruled over the prostrate nations by the 
 power of superstition." 
 
PRINCIPLES OF CONSTRUCTION. 29 
 
 This may mean either of two things, — (1 .) that Rome had at a former time 
 ruled over the nations " by the power of superstition," and now resumed 
 that power; (2.) that Rome had formerly ruled over the nations by some 
 other power, — that of conquest, or of imperial influence, — and now did so by 
 a different power, that of superstition. The sentence, as it stands, most 
 naturally bears the former construction. To convey the latter meaning, 
 it should stand thus : " Rome, by the power of superstition, once more 
 ruled over the prostrate nations." 
 
 47. Ambiguity frequently arises from tlie careless use of the 
 pronouns, especially the relatives; e.g,^ — 
 
 " King John of France was led in triumph through the 
 streets of London by the Black Prince, the son of 
 Edward III., who had defeated him, and taken him 
 prisoner, at the battle of Poictiers." 
 
 Any one unacquainted with the historical facts would be doubtful, from 
 the construction of this sentence, whether it was the Black Prince or his 
 father that had taken John prisoner. The following arrangement would 
 remove the ambiguity : " King John of France, who had been defeated 
 and taken prisoner at Poictiers by the Black Prince, the son of Edward 
 III., was led in triumph through the streets of London by his conqueror." 
 
 48. Important modifications of a statement should be men- 
 tioned before the statement itself. This applies especially to 
 negatives, to absolute phrases, and to clauses of condition and 
 concession; e.g.^ — 
 
 " I have never been in Vienna." 
 
 " The king being dead, a dispute arose as to the succession." 
 ^^ If the secretary really wrote that letter, he is a traitor." 
 " Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him." 
 When the substantive notion is mentioned first, the mind is apt to 
 conclude that it is absolutely true. It is the object of the above 
 arrangement to prevent this error. For a similar reason, we prefix 
 the attribute to the substantive ; as, a white rose, a black horse. 
 
 49. When a sentence contains a number of adverbs (words, 
 phrases, or clauses), they should be distributed over the sen- 
 tence; e.g., — 
 
 "The Earl of Lancaster was thrown (1) into prisoii, 
 (2) shortly after the execution of the Earl of Kent, (3) at 
 the instigation of Mortimer, (4) on pretence of his having 
 consented to a conspiracy for the restoration of Edward IIJ'^ 
 
30 COMPOSITION IN PROSE. 
 
 Here we have four adverbial phrases, all relating to the same verb, 
 "was thrown;" and the, effect of ranging them one after another at the 
 end, is to make the sentence cumbrous to the sense, and unmusical to the 
 ear. The sense will be clearer, the sound more melodious, and the whole 
 effect more graceful, by grouping the adverbs round the principal members 
 of the sentence, thus: " Shortly after the execution of the Earl of Kent, 
 the Earl of Lancaster was, at the instigation of Mortimer, thrown into 
 prison, on pretence of his having consented to a conspiracy for the restoration 
 of Edward 11.^' Every one of the phrases is thus brought nearer in 
 position to the words to which they all refer. 
 
 In this arrangement, it is most natural to place the adverb of 
 time at the beginning of the sentence, and the adverb of place 
 after the verb, and as near to it as possible. 
 
 60. In antithetical clauses, the contrasted members should 
 occupy corresponding places; e.g., — 
 
 " To be CARNALLY minded is death, but to be spiritually 
 minded is life and ^eace." 
 Sometimes, however, the order of the terms in the second clause 
 is the reverse of that in the first ; e.g., — 
 
 " Evil pursueth sinners, but to the righteous good shall be 
 repaid." 
 
 51. Prominence is given to compared or contrasted members 
 by Ellipsis, i. e., by leaving out in the subsequent clauses words 
 which may be supplied from the first ; e.g., — 
 
 " Homer was the greater genius ; Virgil the better 
 
 artist : in the one, we most admire the man ; in the 
 other, the work." 
 
 52. According to the method of its construction, a sentence is 
 either periodic or loose. A sentence in which the clauses are 
 knit together by a close logical connexion, and in which the 
 complete sense is suspended until the close, is called a period. 
 When there is any earlier point at which the thought naturally 
 terminates, and when the predicate is followed by phrases or 
 clauses which are not necessary to the completeness of the sense, 
 the sentence is said to be loose. It is not essential to the period 
 that it should close with the principal predicate ; for, as appears 
 in the following example, this may be extended by modifications, 
 which form an integral part of the proposition. The loose style 
 
PRINCIPLES OF CONSTRUCTION. 31 
 
 is admissible in simple narrative and ordinary descriptions. The 
 periodic style is adopted in dignified or elevated compositions. 
 
 The following is an example of the period : — 
 " Compelled by want to attendance and solicitation, and 50 
 much versed in common life, that he has transmitted to 
 us the most perfect delineation of the manners of his age, 
 Erasmus joined to his knowledge of the world such 
 application to books, that he will stand for ever in the 
 first rank of literary heroes. 
 
 The words on which the thread of the sentence is suspended are printed 
 In italics. The introductory clauses, " Compelled .... age," are obviously 
 attributive, and lead us to expect a subject to which they relate. We find 
 that subject in " Erasmus." The latter part of the sentence is held to- 
 gether by the correlative particles " such" and " that." 
 
 The following illustrates the loose construction : — 
 *' It is in vain to say that the portraits which exist of this 
 remarkable woman are not like each other ; for, amidst 
 their discrepancy, each possesses general features which 
 the eye at once acknowledges as peculiar to the vision, 
 which our imagination has raised, while we read her 
 history for the first time, and which has been impressed 
 upon it by the numerous prints and pictures which we 
 have seen." 
 
 This sentence is not only loose, but viciously so. In the second member 
 of it, the main assertion ends with " features." To this word, two of the 
 remaining clauses are clumsily attached by " which," and each of these 
 has another " which'' clause attached to it, one of them being still further 
 prolonged by the clause beginning with " whiles 
 
 53. A sentence, periodic or loose^ should not close abruptly, 
 or end with an insignificant word. 
 
 1. It should not end with a postponed preposition ; e.g., — 
 
 " It (custom) is indeed able to form the man anew, and to 
 give him inclinations and capacities altogether different 
 from those he was born with." 
 The last phrase should be, " from those with which he was bom." 
 
 2. It should as rarely as possible close with the pronoun " it;" 
 e.g.— 
 
32 COMPOSITION IN PROSE. 
 
 " Let us first consider the ambitious, and these botli in 
 their progress to greatness, and after the attaining of zY." 
 
 Say, "after its attainment," or " after attaining li;" for tlie construc- 
 tion is not so objectionable when the pronoun is immediately preceded by 
 a verb. 
 
 3. It should not close with an unemphatlc adverb; e.g., — 
 " Example appeals not to our understanding alone, but to 
 our passions likewise." 
 
 Here the adverb usurps the place which, in order to bring out the con- 
 trast, properly belongs to " our passions." It is stronger and more elegant 
 to say, " but likewise to our passions." 
 
 54. As regards expression, or the language of which a sen- 
 tence is composed, the following rules will suffice at this stage 
 of the subject : — 
 
 I. Prefer simple words to those that are abstruse or unintelli- 
 gible ; e.g.— 
 
 " The inoculation of the political virus embittered party- 
 feeling in England." 
 
 Many ordinary readers would be puzzled by this sentence, who would 
 understand the writer's meaning at once if he were to say, " The introduc- 
 tion of the political poison," 
 
 II. Avoid circumlocution^ or a round-about way of expressing 
 a simple idea ; e. g., — 
 
 " Even at that period of time, the things I endured were not 
 allowed to come to a termination." 
 
 The sentence would be much stronger thus, " Even then my sufferings 
 were not allowed to terminate.''^ 
 
 III. Avoid redundancy, or the addition of words which the 
 sense does not require ; e.g., — 
 
 *' They ascended to the top of the mountain, and then returned 
 home again." 
 
 A more forcible expression would be, " After ascending the mountain, 
 they returned home." 
 
 IV. Avoid tautology, or the repetition of a word in a different 
 sense; e.g., — 
 
PRINCIPLES OF CONSTRUCTION. 33 
 
 " Harrow from tlie accident oi position, Rugby of wealth, have 
 
 risen from the hmnhXe, position of charity schools, etc." 
 The word " situation " might have been used for " position" in the first 
 instance. 
 
 The substance of these rules is contained in the general direc- 
 tion, — "Aim at conveying the maximum of thought in the 
 minimum of words." 
 
 Chapter III. — Synthesis of Simple Sentences. 
 
 55. A Simple Sentence, as already explained, is a sentence 
 that contains only one subject and predicate. This single 
 predicate must be independent, — it must not be preceded by any 
 word which implies its dependence upon another statement. The 
 sentence must contain only one finite verb. All other verbs which it 
 is necessary to retain must be turned into participles or infinitives. 
 
 56. In the following exercises in Synthesis, each element to 
 be included in the sentence is stated as a separate proposition ; 
 but only such words are to be introduced into the sentence as 
 are necessary fully and clearly to express all the thoughts. 
 
 57. In working the exercises, the following directions are to 
 be followed ; — 
 
 T. Write down the Subject on a line by itself. 
 II, Write down the Verb on a line by itself. 
 
 III. If the Verb is incomplete, write down each complement or object 
 
 on a line by itself. 
 
 IV. Write down the attributes beside the nouns to which they refer. 
 V. Write down each adverb or adverbial phrase on a line by itself. 
 
 VI. Arrange these parts according to the principles explained in the 
 preceding chapter. 
 
 58. Example. 
 
 (1.) The Propositions. 
 
 a. The king gained a victory. 
 
 6. The king ruled over England {att. to subj.). 
 
 c. The victory was a decisive one {att. to ohj.). 
 
 d. It was gained over the Scots {adv.). 
 
 e. The battle was fought near Dunbar {adv.). 
 
 f. Dunbar is on the east coast of Scotland {att. to e.). 
 
 g. This took place in 1294 {adv.). 
 
34 COMPOSITION IN PROSE. 
 
 (2.) The Elements. 
 
 Subject, . The king {att) of England 
 Verh^ . gained 
 
 Complem', a victory {att.) decisive 
 Adverbs^ 1. over the Scots 
 
 2. near Dunbar {att.) on the east coast of Saotland 
 
 3. in 1294. 
 
 As there are three adverhials here, it is a case to which . § 49 applies. 
 We therefore begin with the adverb of time ; and get, 
 
 (3.) The Sentence. 
 
 " In 1294, the King of England gained a decisive victory over the 
 Scots, near Dunbar, on the east coast of Scotland." 
 
 Exercise 19. 
 
 Synthesis of Simple Sentences. 
 *^* The Subject and Predicate are printed in Italics. 
 
 1. a. Malcolm was king of Scotland. 
 
 b. He ivas constrained to retire. 
 
 c. He had come too late to support his confederates {adv. phr. of cause). 
 
 2. a. I saw the Queen of France. 
 
 b. It is now sixteen or seventeen years since I saw her [adv. phr. of 
 
 time). 
 
 c. She was then the Dauphiness {appositional phr.). 
 
 d. I saw her at Versailles {adv. phr. of place). 
 
 3. a. Edgar Atheling sought a retreat in Scotland. 
 
 b. He was the Saxon heir to the throne {appos. phr.). 
 
 c. The insurrection on his behalf had failed {abs. phr.). 
 
 d. He was accompanied by his followers {att. phr. to suhj.). 
 
 e. He had taken refuge in Scotland on a previous occasion [an adverb). 
 
 f. He fled from the pursuit of his enemies {adv. phr. of cause). 
 
 4. a. There was a conspiracy. 
 
 b. It consisted of two parts {adjective). 
 
 c. Its object was to subvert the government {att. phr. to subj.) 
 
 d. The conspiracy was discovered. 
 
 e. This took place shortly after the accession of James I. {adv. phr. of 
 
 time). 
 
 5. a. The one plot was called the Main {att. phr. to subj.). 
 
 b. It was said to have been chiefly conducted by Sir Walter Raleigh 
 
 and Lord Cobham {att. phr. to subj.) 
 
 c. It consisted of a plan to place Arabella Stuart on the throne. 
 
SYNTHESIS OF SIMPLE SENTENCES. 35 
 
 d. She was the king's cousin {appos. plir.). 
 
 e. This was to be accomplished with the assistance of the Spanish 
 
 Government {adv.phr. of manner). 
 
 6. a. The other plot was called the Bye (att.phr. to suhj.). 
 
 h. It is also known as the Surprise, or the Surprise Treason {att.phr. 
 to suhj.). 
 
 c. This plot was led by Broke and Sir Griffin Markham {ait phr. to 
 
 subj.). 
 
 d. Broke was brother of Lord Cobham {appos. phr.). 
 
 e. This was a design to surprise and imprison the king. 
 
 /. It was also intended to remodel the government {adv. phr. of 
 purpose). 
 
 7. a. Tournay surrendered in 1513 {adv. phr. of time), 
 h. It surrendered to Henry VIII. 
 
 c. The Bishop of Tournay was dead {ahs.phr.). 
 
 d. The King bestowed the see upon Wolsey. 
 
 e. Wolsey was the king's favourite {appos. phr.). 
 
 f. He obtained the revenues of the see as well as its administration 
 
 {object). 
 
 8. n. Sir Edward Howard was an English admiral {appos. phr.). 
 
 b. There was a French war in 1513 {adv. phr. of time). 
 
 c. Howard was attempting to cut six French galleys out of a port 
 
 {adv. phr. of time or manner). 
 
 d. That port was Conquet {att. phr. to "port"). 
 
 e. He had with him only two vessels {adv. phr. of manner to c). 
 
 f. He was slain. 
 
 g. This happened at the commencement of the war {adv. phr. of time). 
 
 9. a. Henry VII. was the founder of a dynasty {appos. phr.). 
 
 b. That dynasty was the House of Tudor. 
 
 c. He died of a consumption. 
 
 d. His death took place at Richmond. 
 
 e. Richmond was his favourite palace {appos. phr.). 
 
 f. The event happened on the 25th April 1509. 
 
 g. He had reigned twenty-three years and eight months {adv. phr. of 
 
 time). 
 h. He was then in the fifty-second year of his age {adv. phr. of time). 
 
 10. a. The European nations were conquered by the Romans {adv. phr. 
 
 of manner to b.). 
 
 b. This conquest had first cemented them into awhole(a<<. to "nations"). 
 
 c. They had a second bond of union {adj.). 
 
 d. It was a still firmer bond. 
 
 e. They dfen'yec? it from Christianity. 
 
 /. This Christianity was common to them all {adj.). 
 
 11. a. Warenne had entered Scotland. 
 
 h. He had collected an army {adv. phr. to a.). 
 
36 COMPOSITION IN PROSE. 
 
 c. It consisted of forty thousand men {att. phr. to " army"). 
 
 d. He had levied it in the north of England. 
 
 e. His advance was unexpected {adv. to a.). 
 
 f. He was defeated by Wallace. 
 
 g. The English army suffered severely {adv. phr. of manner), 
 h. The battle was fought at Cambuskenneth. 
 
 i. Cambuskenneth is near Stirling. 
 
 12. a. Elizabeth was sister to Mary. 
 
 b. The latter was anxious to involve the former in some appearance 
 
 of guilt {adv. phr. of purpose to c). 
 
 c. For this purpose she seized the opportunity of a rebellion. 
 
 d. This rebellion had been headed by Wyatt {poss. att). 
 
 e. Mary ordered Elizabeth to be committed to the Tower. 
 /. When there she was to be examined. 
 
 f/. Her examination was to be strict {adv.). 
 h. It was to be conducted by the Council. 
 
 Chapter 17.— Synthesis of Complex Sentences. 
 
 59. A Complex Sentence is a sentence which, besides its prin- 
 cipal predicate, has one or more subordinate clauses. A simple 
 sentence may be made complex by expanding one of its members 
 into a clause. The simple and the complex sentence thus agree 
 in that both contain one, and only one, leading assertion ; they 
 differ in that the subordinate members in the former are either 
 words or phrases ; while in the latter one at least of them is a 
 clause. 
 
 60. The different kinds of subordinate clauses are distin- 
 guished by the connectives that introduce them. Care should 
 therefore be taken in every case to employ the proper connective. 
 
 With this view constant reference should be made to the Table in § 30. 
 
 61. In the following exercises, the substance of each clause is 
 stated as an independent proposition. The pupil is required to 
 supply the proper connectives, and to connect each subordinate 
 clause with that member of the principal clause to which it 
 relates. 
 
 (a) In the earlier exercises, the connectives are supplied, so that 
 the pupil has only to arrange the clauses in the best order for giving 
 clearness and force to the sentence. 
 
SYNTHESIS OF COMPLEX SENTENCES. 
 
 37 
 
 62. In working the exercises, the following plan may be 
 adopted : — 
 
 I. Write down each member of the principal clause (subject, verb, 
 
 object, etc.) in a line by itself. 
 II. Write each subordinate clause beside the member in its superior 
 
 clause to which it relates. 
 III. Arrange the clauses according to the principles explained in 
 Chapter 11. 
 
 63. 
 
 Example 1. 
 
 2. 
 A. 
 
 The Clauses, 
 
 A. The more prudent of the crusaders provided themselves with those 
 
 precious metals. 
 !«!. Who were not sure {att. to subj.). 
 a^. That they should be fed from heaven with a shower of quails or 
 
 manna (suhs.). 
 2a}. Which, in every country, are the representatives of every com- 
 modity {att. to " metals"). 
 
 The Elements. 
 
 Subject: The more prudent of 
 the crusaders 
 
 Verb : provided 
 Object: themselves 
 Adverb: with those precious 
 metals 
 
 (Ifli.) who were not sure | (a^.) that 
 they should be fed from heaven 
 with a shower of quails or manna 
 
 (2a^.) which, in every country, are 
 the representatives of every com- 
 modity. 
 
 3. The Sentence. 
 
 " The more prudent of the crusaders^ who were not sure that they 
 should be fed from heaven with a shower of quails or manna, provided 
 themselves with those precious metals which, in every countiy, are the 
 representatives of every commodity." 
 
 64. In the following example, the clauses are thrown into the 
 form of separate propositions, the nature of each, and its relation 
 to its superior clause, being indicated in the notes. 
 
 Example 2. 
 
 1. The Propositions. 
 
 A. Tyranny would have mled without control, 
 lai. Tyranny was breaking through all barriers on every favourable 
 
 moment {att to subj.). 
 2a^. The nobility had not been free and brave {adv. of condition), 
 cfi. The people were poor and disunited {adv. of time). 
 
38 COMPOSITION IN PROSE. 
 
 2. The Elements. 
 A. Subject: Tyranny, 
 
 Verb : would have ruled 
 
 Adverb : without control. 
 
 (laV) loTiich was breaking through 
 all barriers on every favourable 
 moment, 
 
 {2a?-.) if the nobility had not been 
 free and brave | (a^.) when the 
 people were poor and disunited. 
 
 3. The Sentence: In accordance with § 48, we should begin with the 
 clause of condition. At the same time we interweave with it the clause of 
 time^ which modifies it : and the following is the result : — 
 
 " If, when the people were poor and disunited, the nobility had not 
 been free and brave, that tjiranny which was breaking through all 
 barriers on every side, would have ruled without control." 
 
 Exercise 20. 
 
 A, (With Connectives.) 
 
 1, A. History has frequently taught me. 
 
 «i. That the head has the very next (day) been fixed upon a pole {suhs.). 
 a^. Which has one day grown giddy with the roar of the million 
 {att. to suhj.). 
 
 2. A. The variation of the needle filled the companions of Columbus 
 
 with terror. 
 «i. Which is now familiar {att. to suhj.). 
 a^. Though it still remains one of the mysteries of nature {adv. of 
 
 concession). 
 c?. Into the cause of which the sagacity of man hath not been able 
 
 to penetrate {att. to " mysteries "). 
 
 3- A. Alexander VI. perceived the townsmen busy in the market-place, 
 
 pulling down a figure from a gibbet. 
 
 la''. As he was entering a little town in the neighbourhood of Eome 
 
 {adv. of time). 
 
 a\ Which had just been evacuated by the enemy {att. to *' town "). 
 
 2ai. Which had been designed to represent himself {att. to " figure"). 
 
 4. A. These ruling principles are in truth everything and all in all. 
 
 a?. Which in the opinion of such men have no substantial existence 
 
 {att. to suhj.). 
 aK As I have mentioned {att. to "men "). 
 
 5. A. It is impossible to doubt. 
 
 Ifti. That private wars were perpetuated by so convenient a custom 
 (sM&s., ohj. of " doubt '). 
 
SYNTHESIS OF COMPLEX SENTENCES. 39 
 
 a2. Which, indeed, owed its universal establishment to no other oause 
 {att. to "custom "). 
 2a^. Though private wars did not originate in the feudal system {adv. 
 of concession). § 48. 
 
 6. A. We may believe, 
 la^ That Samuel ventured on the solemn step of anointing David 
 
 king {subs., ohj. to "believe"). 
 Ia2. After David had been driven away from Saul {adv. of time). 
 2a2. And after David's life had been attempted several times {adv. of 
 
 time). §53(3). 
 2a\ If we are to arrange events according to their probable connexion 
 
 {adv. of condition). § 48. 
 
 B. (Without Connectives.) 
 
 1. a-. The king broke off both treaties {subs. obj.). 
 a^. The people learned this {adv. of time). 
 
 A. The people celebrated their triumph by bonfires and public re- 
 joicings. 
 
 2. a"^. I have an indifferent opinion of the vulgar {subs. obj.). 
 
 a3. Some merit raises the shout of the vulgar {att. to " merit "). 
 a2. I am ever led to suspect that merit {adv. of effect). 
 A. This I own. 
 
 3. A. Charles gave orders. 
 
 lofi. Parliament was summoned in 1026 {adv. of time). 
 
 2a\ The customary writ was not to be sent to the Earl of Bristol 
 {subs. obj.). 
 
 Ia2. Bristol, while Spanish ambassador, had mortally offended Buck- 
 ingham, the king's favourite, in the affair of the Spanish 
 marriage {att. to " Bristol "). 
 
 2a2. Bristol was therefore obnoxious to Charles {att. to " Bristol"). 
 
 4. A. There were thousands of living gazettes in all the villages of 
 
 France, 
 la^. They discussed Napoleon's measures with the utmost freedom 
 
 {att. to " gazettes "). 
 2a\ They uttered curses, not loud, but deep {att. to ^* gazettes "). 
 Ba\ Napoleon had got possession of the press, of the tribune, and 
 
 of the pulpit {adv. of concession). 
 4a\ Nobody could write an attack on him {adv. of concession). 
 5a\ Nobody could make a public speech in opposition {adv. ofcou' 
 
 cession: contr.). 
 
 5. lo^. Despotism is the genuine constitution of India {subs. obj.). 
 
 2a}-. A disposition to rebellion in the subject or dependent prince is 
 the necessary effect of this despotism {svhs. obj.). 
 
40 COMPOSITION IN PROSE. 
 
 Za^. Jealousy and its consequences naturally arise on the part of 
 
 the sovereign {subs. obj.). 
 4a}. The government is everything (subs. obj.). 
 5a}. The subject is nothing {subs. obj. : contr.). 
 Qa}. The great landed men are in a mean and depraved state, and 
 
 subject to many evils {subs. obj.). 
 A. All this he lays down as a rule. 
 
 6. \a}. The paramount end of liberal study is che development of the 
 student's mind {subs. obj.). 
 a'A Tliis development is accomplished through some exercise of 
 the faculties {att. to " exercise "). 
 2a}. Knowledge is principally useful as a means of determining the 
 faculties to that exercise {subs. obj.). 
 A. This I hold. 
 
 Chapter V. — Synthesis of Compound Sentences. 
 
 65. A Compound Sentence is a sentence which contains more 
 than one principal Predicate, — each of which may have subor- 
 dinate Predicates attached to it. In a compound sentence, a 
 principal clause without subordinate clauses is called a simple 
 clause, and corresponds, in construction, to the simple sentence ; 
 a principal clause with subordinate clauses, is called a complex 
 clause, and corresponds to the complex sentence. The leading 
 divisions of the compound sentence, therefore, are dealt with in 
 the same manner as simple and complex sentences. The only 
 point of difference that remains is the manner of connecting 
 these principal members with one another. The relation between 
 them is that of co-ordination ; and the proper connectives are 
 mentioned in § 25. For convenience, the signs which represent 
 them may be repeated here : — 
 
 1. The sign -{-indicates copulative co-ordination, expressed by a7i^. 
 
 2. „ — „ alternative „ ,, either, or. 
 
 3. „ X 1, antithetical „ „ but. 
 „ causative „ „ therefore. 
 
 J) 77 » J> /<5^» 
 
 66. In working the following exercises, each leading member 
 of the compound sentence is to be dealt with as if it were a 
 
 :; 
 
SYNTHESIS OF COMPOUND SENTENCES. 41 
 
 simple or a complex clause. The proper connectives are then to 
 be placed between them, and the compound sentence will be 
 complete. 
 
 (a) In the earlier Exercises (A), as in the case of the complex 
 sentence, the connectives are supplied. 
 
 67. Example 1. ( With Connectives.) 
 
 1. T7ie Clauses: — 
 
 A. The sentinels were wedged amongst the crowd. 
 
 «!. Who endeavoured to prevent the people from trespassing on the 
 parapet {att. to subj.). 
 
 B. And an officer was compelled rapidly to retire. 
 
 &i. Who ordered the sentinels to drive the people down with their 
 bayonets, not very prudently on such an occasion {att. to subj.). 
 
 C. F<yr the people would not be debarred from gazing, till the last 
 
 moment, upon the hero, the darling hero of England. 
 
 2. The Leading Members : — 
 
 A. The sentinels, who endeavoured to prevent the people from tres- 
 
 passing on the parapet, were wedged amongst the crowd. 
 
 B. And an officer, who ordered them to drive the people down with 
 
 their bayonets, — not very prudently, on such an occasion, — 
 was compelled rapidly to retire. 
 
 C. For the people would not be debarred from gazing, till the last 
 
 moment, upon the hero — the darling hero of England. 
 
 3. The Compound Sentence : — 
 
 " The sentinels, who endeavoured to prevent the people from tres- 
 passing on the parapet, were wedged amongst the crowd; and an 
 officer, who ordered them to drive the people down with the bayonet, — 
 not very prudently, upon such an occasion, — was compelled rapidly 
 to retire ; for the people would not be debarred from gazing, till the 
 last moment, upon the hero, — the darling hero, of England." 
 
 68. Example 2. ( Without Connectives.) 
 
 1. The Clauses: — 
 
 «'. At times industry and the arts flourish {att. to " times"). 
 
 A. In these times men are kept in perpetual occupation. 
 -^B. They enjoy the occupation itself as their reward. 
 
 c^. Some pleasures are the fruit of their labours {att. to obj.). 
 -j-C. They also enjoy these pleasures as their reward {contr.). 
 
 2. The Leading Members : — 
 
 A. In times when industry and the arts flourish, men are kept in 
 perpetual occupation. 
 
42 • COMPOSITION IN PROSE. 
 
 B. And they enjoy as their reward the occupation itself. 
 
 C. As well as those pleasures which are the fruit of their lahours. 
 3. TJie Compound Sentence : — 
 
 " In times when industry and the arts flourish, men are kept in 
 perpetual occupation ; and enjoy as their reward the occupation itself, 
 as well as those pleasures which are the fruit of their labour." 
 
 Exercise 21. 
 
 A. (With Connectives.) 
 
 1. A. I may at least plead in excuse. 
 
 la?-. If I accomplish the present task but imperfectly {adv. of condition). 
 2a^. That the present task has not been previously attempted {subs.). 
 
 B. And I therefore request. 
 
 h^. That you will view rather as the outline of a course of reasoning 
 than as anything pretending to finished argument {subs.). 
 
 62. What I have to state to you on this subject {subs. obj.). 
 
 2. A. This might serve to teach the great. 
 
 la^. If the great could be taught any lesson {adv. of condition). 
 2a'. Their glory stands upon how weak a foundation {subs. obj.). 
 
 cfi. Which is built upon popular applause {att. to subj.). 
 
 B. For they as quickly condemn, 
 l&i. As such praise {adv. of man). 
 
 62, What seems like merit {subs. obj.). 
 26^ What has only the appearance of guilt {subs. obj.). 
 
 3. A. Johnson had seen so much of sharp misery. 
 
 B. And Johnson had felt so much of sharp misery. 
 
 ab. That Johnson was not affected by paltry vexations {adv. of effect). 
 
 C. And Johnson seemed to think. 
 
 c^. That every body ought to be hardened to these vexations as much. 
 c2. As Johnson was hardened to these vexations {adv. of degree). 
 
 4. A. Their joy literally becomes our joy. 
 
 a^. When we cordially congratulate our friends {adv. of time). 
 cP-. Which, however, to the disgrace of human nature, we do but 
 seldom {att. to aS). 
 
 B. We are as happy for the moment. 
 6^. As they are happy {adv. of degree). 
 
 C. Our heart swells with real pleasure. 
 1). Our heart overflows with real pleasure. 
 JE. Joy sparkles from our eyes. 
 
 F. Joy animates every feature of our countenance, and every gesture 
 
 of our body. 
 O. Complacency sparkles from our eyes. 
 II. Complacency animates every feature of our countenance and 
 
 every gesture of our body. 
 *^* The clauses from C. to H. to be contracted (§ 32). 
 
SYNTHESIS OF COMPOUND SENTENCES. 43 
 
 5. A. "We prepare to meet the blow. 
 
 i?. And we think to ward off the blow. 
 
 C. Or we think to break the force of the blow. 
 abc. When the blow is coming. 
 
 d^. What cannot be avoided {suhs. obj.). 
 
 D. We arm ourselves with patience to endure. 
 
 E. We agitate ourselves with fifty needless alarms about it. 
 
 F. But the pang is over. 
 
 G. And the struggle is no longer necessary. 
 fg. When the blow is struck {adv. of time). 
 
 H. And we cease to harass ourselves more about the blow. 
 h. Than we can help {adv. of comp.). 
 
 6. A. A war is just against the wrong-doer. 
 
 a'. When reparation for wrong cannot be otherwise obtained {adv. of 
 
 time). 
 B. But a war is conformable to all the principles of morality then 
 
 only. 
 6'. When the war is not likely to expose the nation to the evils 
 {adv. of time). 
 162, By which it is levied {att. to " nation"), 
 2J2, Which it professes to avert {att. to "evils"). 
 2W: And when the war does not inflict on the nation sufferings 
 
 {adv. of time). 
 362. Which has done the wrong {att. to " nation"). 
 46^. Which are altogether disproportioned to the extent of the injury 
 {att. to " sufiferings" ). 
 
 B. (Without Connectives.) 
 
 1. a^. We do not discern many stars with our naked eyes {att. to 
 
 " stars"). 
 A. We see many stars by the help of our glasses. 
 fti. Our telescopes are the finer {adv. of degree). 
 •\-B. Our discoveries in that proportion are the more. 
 
 2. A. We have great deference for public opinion. 
 62. Something is good {att. to " that" ). 
 
 6^. Nothing but that can be permanently popular {subs. obj.). 
 -\-B. This we readily admit. 
 
 3. A. I at first kept my usual silence. 
 
 6^. Was it more like himself than a Saracen ? {subs, alter.). 
 X-S. Upon the knight's conjuring me to tell him this, I composed my 
 countenance in the best manner I could. 
 
 c\ Much might be said on both sides {subs. obj.). 
 -\-C. I replied. 
 
 4. a^. Sir Eoger is landlord to the whole congregation {adv. of reason). 
 A. He keeps the whole congregation in very good order. 
 
44 COMPOSITION IN PROSE. 
 
 h\ By chance he has been surprised into a good nap at sermon 
 {adv. of condition). 
 \'B. Upon recovering out of it he staSids up. 
 -f-C'. He looks about him. 
 -j-T). He wakes them himself. 
 — £J. He sends his servant to them. 
 
 de. He sees somebody else nodding {adv. of condition). 
 
 5. 1«^ A person looked on the waters only for a moment {att. to " per- 
 
 son" ). 
 2a^. The waters were retiring {suhs. ohj.). 
 
 A. That person might fancy this. 
 lh\ A person looked on the waters only for five minutes {att. to 
 
 " person"). 
 2h^. The waters were rushing capriciously to and fro {suhs. ohj.). 
 -\-B. That person might fancy this. 
 lc\ A person keeps his eye on the waters for a quarter of an hour 
 {adv. of time). 
 -j- 2ci. He sees one sea-mark disappear after another {adv. of time). 
 3ci. The ocean is moved in some general direction {att. to "direc- 
 tion" ). 
 X C. Then it is impossible for him to doubt of that general direction. 
 
 6. la^. Unavoidable difficulties might be expected from the nature of 
 
 Columbus's undertaking {att. to "difficulties"). 
 2a2. Other difficulties were likely to arise from the ignorance and 
 timidity of the people under his command {att. to " such"). 
 
 «!. Columbus had to be prepared to struggle not only with the former 
 difficulties, but also with such as the latter {suhs. comp.). 
 
 A. The early discovery of the spirit of his followers taught Columbus 
 this. 
 
 &3. He had discoveries in view {att. to " discoveries"). 
 
 fe2. Naval skill and undaunted courage would be requisite for ac- 
 complishing these discoveries {adv. of comparison). 
 
 &i. The art of governing the minds of men would be no less requisite 
 {suhs. ohj.). 
 -\-B. He believed. 
 
 Chapter VI. — Original Sentences. 
 
 69. The preceding exercises afford sufficient practice in the 
 mechanical construction of sentences, of which both the thought 
 and the language are supplied. The next step in the course of 
 instruction suggested in these lessons is the writing of Original 
 Sentences, in which both the thought and the language shall be 
 
ORIGINAL SENTENCES. 45 
 
 the pupil's own. This may best be accomplished by proposing 
 questions, the answer to each of which shall be in the form of a 
 complete sentence, — simple, complex, or compound, according 
 to the necessities of the case, the ability of the pupil, or the 
 judgment of the teacher. 
 
 70. In performing this exercise, two things must be carefully 
 attended to : — 
 
 1. The sentence must in every case be a direct answer to the 
 
 question; not a vague statement about the subject of 
 inquiry. 
 
 (a) This will conduce to accuracy of thinking, as well as to precision 
 of language. A loose answer should in every instance be rejected. 
 
 2. Every sentence must be grammatically complete. It must 
 
 make complete sense, apart from the question. In other 
 words, the subject of the question must be repeated in 
 the answer. For example, if the question be : " How is 
 an eclipse of the sun caused?" it is not a complete answer 
 to reply, " By the moon intercepting its rays." It must 
 be : " An eclipse of the sun is caused by the moon 
 intercepting its rays." 
 
 (a) "When an incomplete sentence is presented to the teacher, he 
 should ask the pupil to analyze it. This will demonstrate its incom- 
 pleteness. 
 
 The construction of every sentence should further be tested by 
 the principles explained in Chapter II. 
 
 71. Example. 
 Question : . What is a volcano ? 
 
 Ansicer : . A volcano is a mountain which from time to time throws 
 up burning matter or lava, together with ashes and 
 stones, through an opening in its summit called the 
 crater. 
 
 Exercise 22. 
 
 Write one sentence in answer to each question, 
 A. 
 
 1. What is coal ? 
 
 2. What is the diamond? 
 
 3. Which is the most precious metal? and why? 
 
46 COMPOSITION IN PKOSE. 
 
 4. How is paper raade ? 
 
 5. What is leather? 
 
 ' 6. Whence is linen obtained; and what are its uses? 
 
 7. What is an earthquake? 
 
 8. How is an eclipse of the moon caused ? 
 
 9. Is snow of any use to the farmer ? 
 
 10. What are the motions of the earth ; and what changes depend 
 
 upon each. 
 
 11. What is the cause of the tides ? 
 
 12. What are gregarious animals? 
 
 B. 
 
 1. What is the mariner's compass ? 
 
 2. What is the microscope ? 
 
 3. What was the Gunpowder Plot ? 
 
 4. Who were the Pilgrim Fathers ? 
 
 5. What were the Jacobite Rebellions? 
 
 6. Who was Christopher Columbus ? 
 
 7. For what is William Wallace famous ? 
 
 8. What was the fate of Sir Walter Raleigh. 
 
 9. What led to the invention of printing ? 
 
 10. What is trial by jury ? 
 
 1 1. What is the difference between exogenous and endogenous plants ? 
 
 12. What is the difference between reason and instinct? 
 
47 
 
 PART II.— THE STRUCTURE OF PARAGRAPHS. 
 Chapter I. — Principles of Construction. 
 
 72. A Paragraph is a connected series of sentences relating 
 to the same subject. As the sentence is the result of the 
 synthesis, or building up, of clauses, so the paragraph is the 
 result of the synthesis, or building up, of sentences. Indeed, the 
 elements of the sentence and of the paragraph are substantially 
 the same. They differ only in form. In the sentence they 
 appear as words, phrases, or clauses; in the paragraph they 
 appear as complete sentences. A sentence may thus be ex- 
 panded into a paragraph, by expressing each of its important 
 members in the form of a separate sentence. 
 
 73. There are three qualities to be aimed at in the construction 
 of paragraphs, — 1. Unity; 2. Continuity; 3. Variety. 
 
 74. I. Unity. — This quality requires that all the sentences in 
 a paragraph should bear directly upon the main subject, or 
 division of a subject, to which it refers. It should not be 
 overloaded with details which tend to destroy its clearness 
 and force ; neither should it be prolonged so as to embrace 
 elements which have not a manifest connexion with its leading 
 topic. 
 
 75. II. Continuity. — As all the sentences in a paragraph 
 should thus relate to the same subject, they should be arranged 
 so as to carry the line of thought naturally and suggestively 
 from the one to the other. For this purpose free use should be 
 made of the continuative particles and phrases ; as, " however," 
 "moreover," "indeed," "thus," "consequently," "at the same 
 time," " in like manner," etc., etc. 
 
 76. III. Variety. — The successive sentences should differ 
 from one another, both in the manner of their construction and 
 in their length. It will be found to be of advantage to make 
 the sentences at the beginning brief. The attention of the 
 reader is thus arrested at the outset, without being subjected to 
 
48 COMPOSITION IN PROSE. 
 
 any unnecessary strain. A longer sentence than usual, gathering 
 up the various threads of thought, has its appropriate place at 
 the close. 
 
 77. These qualities are illustrated in the following brief 
 paragraph from Macaulay ; — 
 
 (I.) " It is by his essays that Bacon is best known to the 
 
 (2.) multitude. The Novum Organum and the De Aug- 
 
 (3.) mentis are much talked of, but little read. They have 
 
 produced, indeed, a vast effect upon the opinions of 
 
 mankind; but they have produced it through the 
 
 (4.) operation of intermediate agents. They have moved 
 
 (5.) the intellects which have moved the world. It is in 
 
 the essays alone that the mind of Bacon is brought 
 
 into immediate contact with the minds of ordinary 
 
 (6.) readers. There he opens an exoteric school, and talks 
 
 to plain men in language which everybody understands, 
 
 (7.) about things in which everybody is interested. He 
 
 has thus enabled those who must otherwise have taken 
 
 his merits on trust, to judge for themselves ; and the 
 
 great body of readers have, during several generations, 
 
 acknowledged that the man who has treated with such 
 
 consummate ability questions with which they are 
 
 familiar, may well be supposed to deserve all the 
 
 praise bestowed on him by those who have sat in the 
 
 inner school." 
 
 The unity of this paragraph is complete. The subject to which it 
 relates is announced in the opening sentence. The fact thus stated is 
 illustrated and enforced, chiefly by comparison and contrast, in the suc- 
 ceeding sentences ; but no new topic is started throughout the paragraph, 
 and its oneness is thus unimpaired. 
 
 The continuity is also very evident. Sentences (1) and (2) are con- 
 nected by the relation of antithesis. Sentence (3) is an amplification of 
 (2), and is connected with it by the pronoun they, and the particle indeed. 
 Sentence (4) repeats the closing clause of (3) in another form, and is joined 
 to it, also, by the pronoun. Sentence (5) is the return from the antithesis, 
 and repeats the statement of (1), which in sentences (5), (6), and (7), is still 
 further elaborated. (5) and (6) are linked together by there; (6) and (7), 
 by thus. 
 
 The variety in length is sufficiently indicated by the spaces between the 
 
PRINCIPLES OF CONSTRUCTION. 49 
 
 numbers of the sentences in the margin. It will be noticed that (1), (2) 
 are both short sentences; (3), (5), (6) are of medium length, but their 
 equality is saved from sinking into sameness by the introduction of 
 another short sentence, (4). The long sentence (7) at the close gives 
 dignity and impressiveness to the paragraph, like a prolonged note at the 
 conclusion of a melody. 
 
 78. There are three kinds of composition, to any one of which 
 a paragraph may belong : — 
 
 I. Narration : detailing a course of events. 
 TI. Description: setting forth the nature of particular objects. 
 III. Exposition : explaining scientific principles. 
 
 We shall deal with each kind of composition separately. 
 
 79. The element of Reflection, which is rather an operation of 
 the mind than a distinct species of writing, enters more or less 
 into all the kinds of composition specified above. It frequently 
 occupies no more than a single sentence in a narration or a 
 description. It may even be conveyed in a single epithet, as 
 when we characterize a contrivance as " wonderful," or a course 
 of action as "disastrous." Reflection may therefore be more 
 conveniently regarded as an element common to all kinds of 
 writing, than as itself a distinct kind of composition. The 
 particulars which it usually embraces are relations of cause and 
 eff'ect, judgments of approval or disapproval, and feelings of 
 pleasure or pain. 
 
 Chapter II.— Narration. 
 
 80. Active scenes and courses of events form the proper sub- 
 jects of Narration. 
 
 81. The single law of narration is, that the events be narrated 
 in the order of their occurrence. 
 
 82. A narrative paragraph may be constructed by expanding 
 and enlarging a narrative sentence, or a sentence in which certain 
 events, or things done {res gestce), are set forth. Indeed there 
 is a remarkable correspondence between the elements of the 
 paragraph and those of the sentence. The predicates in the 
 
50 COMPOSITION IN PROSE. 
 
 latter represent the separate events in the former ; the subjects and 
 objects in the latter correspond with the persons engaged in these 
 events ; the attributes in the sentence become explanatory sentences 
 in the paragraph ; the udverbials of time, place, manner, and cause 
 in the one, are expanded in the other into separate sentences^ 
 which contribute those details of circumstance that give life and 
 energy to the composition. This suggests the best practical 
 method of dealing with the exercises. 
 
 83. In expanding a sentence into a paragraph, every fact 
 stated or implied in the former must first be written down as a 
 separate sentence. These sentences will form the skeleton or 
 outline of the paragraph. They must then be enlarged by the 
 addition of circumstances which, though out of place in the 
 sentence, are necessary to the completeness of the paragraph. 
 
 84. Example. 
 
 1. Tlie Sentence. 
 " After quelling the disturbances excited in the west of England by 
 Githa, King Harold's mother, and building a fortress to overawe the city 
 of Exeter, William returned to Winchester." 
 
 2. The Expansion. 
 The following facts are stated or implied in this sentence : — 
 
 1. A disturbance had arisen in the west of England. 
 
 2. It was excited by Githa. 
 
 3. Githa was the mother of Harold, the late king. 
 
 4. William started from Winchester with an army for the scene of this 
 
 disturbance. 
 
 5. He succeeded in quelling it. 
 
 6. Thereafter he built a fortress to overawe the city of Exetor, the 
 
 centre of the disaffection. 
 
 7. William then returned to Winchester. 
 
 3. The Enlargements. 
 To make the paragraph complete, we must introduce such new facts 
 as will explain the historical connexion of this event Referring to the 
 history of the period, we find : — 
 
 1. That William, having spent a year in settling the affairs of his new 
 
 kingdom, believed that he might with safety visit his subjects 
 in Normandy. 
 
 2. That the malcontents in England took advantage of his absence to 
 
 excite tumults. 
 
I 
 
 NARRATION. 51 
 
 3. That the disturhance referred to in the west of England arose in 
 
 this connexion, 
 
 4. That on hearing of it, William hurried to England and succeeded in 
 
 quelling it. 
 
 Interweaving these new facts with those already ascertained, we obtain, 
 as the result of the combined processes of expansion and enlargement, — 
 
 4. The Paragraph. 
 
 "William the Conqueror, having spent a year in settling the affairs of his 
 new kingdom, had succeeded so completely in i-estoring outward peace and 
 order, that he believed he might safely fulfil his promise of revisiting his 
 ancient subjects in Normandy. . He had not been long absent, however, till 
 the malcontents in England, taking advantage of his absence, began to excite 
 tumults in various parts of the country. The most serious of these dis- 
 turbances arose in the west of England, where a considerable party had 
 gathered round Githa, the mother of Harold the late king. On hearing 
 of the discontent, William hastened across the channel ; and, arriving at 
 Winchester, placed himself at the head of a small army with which he 
 marched to the scene of the rebellion. By his personal presence, and his 
 vigorous measures, he speedily succeeded in quelling the revolt. Before 
 leaving the scene of the rebellion, he took the precaution of building a 
 fortress to overawe the city of Exeter, the centre of the disaffection in 
 that part of the country. Having by these measures re-established his 
 authority in the west, he returned in triumph to Winchester, which was 
 then the seat of his government." 
 
 85. The simplest form of Narration is, — 
 
 I. Incidental Narration^ which deals with ordinary occur- 
 rences coming within the writer's experience, and includes, 
 therefore. Letters, incidents of Travel or Adventure, and 
 accounts of Mechanical Processes 
 
 Its highest form is, — 
 
 II. Historical Narration^ which deals with recorded events, 
 lying, for the most part, beyond the writer's experience, 
 and includes, besides stories, — real or fictitious, — the 
 narrative portions of History and Biography. 
 
 1. Incidental Narration. 
 
 86. In Incidental Narration, the simplest language, and the 
 most direct form of statement should be employed. A stiff or 
 formal style of treatment is especially to be avoided. 
 
52 COMPOSITION IN PROSE. 
 
 87. Example. 
 
 1. The Sentence. 
 
 " Last Wednesday night, one of my hares having escaped, some 
 of my people, accompanied by many of the neighbours, set off in 
 pursuit; and after an hour's chase, secured her in a tanpit full of 
 water, and brought her home in a sack at ten o'clock." 
 
 The particulars to be successively taken up in expanding this statement, 
 arc, — 
 
 1. The time of the occurrence. 
 
 2. The alarm raised. 
 
 3. The chase, and its incidents. 
 
 4. The capture. 
 
 5. The return. 
 
 The following paragraph, — from one of Cowper's letters, — will show 
 how this may be done : — 
 
 2. The Paragraph. 
 
 " Last Wednesday night, while we were at supper, between the hours 
 of eight and nine, I heard an unusual noise in the back parlour, as if one 
 of the hares was entangled, and endeavouring to disengage herself. I was 
 just going to rise from table, when it ceased. In about five minutes, a 
 voice on the outside of the parlour-door inquired if one of my hares liad 
 got away. I immediately rushed into the next room, and found that my 
 poor favourite Puss had made her escape. She had gnawed in sunder the 
 strings of a lattice work, with which I thought I had sufficiently secured 
 the window, and which I preferred to any other sort of blind, because it 
 admitted plenty of air. From thence I hastened to the kitchen, where I 
 saw the redoubtable Thomas Freeman, who told me that having seen her, 
 just after she had dropped into the street, he attempted to cover her with 
 his hat, but she screamed out, and leaped directly over his head. I then 
 desired him to pursue as fast as possible, and added Richard Coleman to 
 the chase, as being nimbler, and carrying less weight than Thomas ; not 
 expecting to see her again, but desirous to learn, if possible, what became 
 of her. In something less than an hour, Richard returned, almost breath- 
 less, with the following account. That soon after he began to run, he 
 left Tom behind him, and came in sight of a numerous hunt of men, 
 Avomen, children, and dogs ; that he did his best to keep back the dogs, 
 and presently outstripped the crowd, so that the race was at last disputed 
 between himself and Puss — she ran right through the town, and down 
 the lane that leads to Dropshort ; a little before she came to the house, 
 he got the start and turned her ; she pushed for the town again, and soon 
 after she entered it, souglit shelter in Mr Wagstaff's tanyard, adjoining to 
 old Mr Drake's. Sturges's harvest men were at supper, and saw her from 
 the opposite side of the way. Here she encountered the tanpits full of 
 
NARRATION. 53 
 
 water; and wliile she was struggling out of one pit, and plunging into 
 another, and almost drowned, one of the men drew her out by the eai-s, 
 and secured her. She was then well washed in a bucket, to get the lime 
 out of her coat, and brought home in a sack at ten o'clock." — Cowper. 
 
 Exercise 23. 
 
 Expand each of the following sentences into an Incidental 
 Paragraph : — 
 
 1. In the course of an excursion to the top of , which I made 
 
 with two companions, in my last holidays, we had the misfortune to lose 
 our way in a thick mist, and narrowly escaped spending the night upon 
 the hill. 
 
 2. When fishing in the yesterday, I succeeded in hooking a large 
 
 trout ; but after playing him up and down the river for twenty minutes, 
 I had the moi*tification to see him slip off the hook, just as I was 
 bringing him to land. 
 
 3. Castle was visited last week by a large party, wliich, after wan- 
 dering about the grounds, and examining the castle inside and outside, 
 took luncheon under a spreading oak-tree on the lawn. 
 
 4. When we were at breakfast this morning, an alarm having been 
 raised that my pony had escaped, we set off in pursuit ; and after an 
 exciting chase by all the men and dogs in the neighbourhood, we secured 
 him at the turnpike gate, which the taxman had wisely closed when he 
 lieard the noise of our approach. 
 
 5. Last Saturday, we had a delightful walk across the fields and through 
 the woods, in the course of which we gathered many specimens of beau- 
 tiful wild-flowers, mosses, and ferns. 
 
 6. In the great fire in street, a fireman lost his life, in making a 
 
 brave attempt to save two children who had been left in an upper storey. 
 
 7. The games, consisting of contests in running, leaping, putting 
 
 the ball, throwing the hammer, and other manly exercises, were held last 
 week with great success. 
 
 8. In the contest between the wind and the sun, to see which would 
 first compel a traveller to doff' his cloak, the sun succeeded by the force 
 of his genial influence, when the wind exerted his utmost violence in vain. 
 
 9. A stag, which greatly admired his branching horns when he saw 
 them reflected in a clear pool in which he was drinking, found them very 
 inconvenient when he was pursued by hounds through a thick wood. 
 
 10. An old man whose end was near, wishing to show his sons the 
 strength of union, took a bundle of sticks, and after vainly attempting 
 to break them so long as they were bound together, easily snapped them 
 one by one when they were separated. 
 
 11. A countryman finding a little snake half frozen, put it in his bosom 
 to warm it to life again ; but it had no sooner been revived by his kindness 
 than it stung its benefactor, so that he died. 
 
54 COMPOSITION IN PROSE. 
 
 12. Household gas is the vapour given off by cannel coal when enclosecl 
 in an iron or clay retort, heated to a white heat; but it must be freed of 
 tAr, and be purified by passing through thin layers of lime, before it is fit 
 for use. 
 
 Additional Subjects. 
 
 13. A Day in a Yacht. 19. A Military Review. 
 
 14. A Visit to the Bass Rock. 20. A Foot-ball Match. 
 
 15. A Sail down the Thames. 21. An Alarm of Thieves. 
 
 16. A Walk by the Sea-shore. 22. An Eclipse of the Sun or Moon. 
 
 17. A Snow-storm. 23. The Shepherd Boy and the Wolf. 
 
 18. An Inundation. 24. The Old Man and his Ass. 
 
 2. Letter- Writing. 
 
 88 A Letter is not necessarily, or In all cases, a Narrative. 
 It may embrace both Description and Exposition. Excepting 
 peculiar cases however, Narration is the element which pre- 
 dominates in correspondence ; and it is in connexion with this 
 clement that the forms and specialties of Letter-writing may 
 be most conveniently explained. 
 
 89. The language of Letters should be plain and simple. The 
 construction of the sentences should be easy and natural. Stiff- 
 ness, formality, and the affectation of preciseness are, in this kind 
 of composition, particularly objectionable. Here, a colloquial or 
 conversational style is not only allowable, but is even desirable. 
 Letters are for the most part written to relatives or intimate 
 friends. Their purpose is to communicate facts which, in other 
 circumstances, would form the subject of familiar conversation. 
 We should therefore write to our friends in their absence very 
 much as we should speak to them if they were present. 
 
 90. The mechanical arrangement of a letter is important. A 
 slovenly or careless habit contracted in writing familiar letters 
 may lead to serious consequences in more important correspond- 
 ence. The following points are therefore to be attended to. 
 Every letter should contain : — 
 
 L The DatCj and the Place where it is written. 
 
 The day, month, and year, should be given in full. Never date a 
 letter merely by the day of the week, as, " Tuesday Evening." 
 
NARRATION. Ob 
 
 II. The Form of Address ; as « Sir," " Dear Sir," " My Dear 
 Charles," " My Dearest Father ; " according to the terms 
 of intimacy between the writer and the person addressed. 
 
 III. The Narrative^ or Letter proper. 
 
 IV. The Subscription; as " Yours truly," " Yours faithfully," 
 
 " Your affectionate brother," etc. (varying as in No. II., 
 with the relations of the parties), and the Name of the 
 writer. 
 V. The Name of the Recipient. 
 
 Example. 
 I. 24 Blank Street, London, 
 
 January I3th, 1867. 
 IT. My Dear Cliarles, 
 
 III. 1 write this short note to let you know of my safe aitival here 
 this morning, after a long and tedious journey. The train was un- 
 usually heavy, and the delay at several of the stations was very long 
 and tiresome. Had no accident happened, we should have been an 
 hour behind time ; but to add to our misfortunes, when we were a 
 few miles on the other side of Darlington, the engine broke down, 
 and a messenger had to be sent to that station for another engine. 
 We had to wait nearly two hours before it arrived, and two more 
 dreary hours I have never spent. We put on extra speed to make 
 up for lost time, and we got considerably shaken during the latter 
 part of the journey, to the great alarm of the ladies. In spite of 
 all our efforts, we found, on amving at King's Cross, that we were 
 two hours and a half late. Mr Smith had waited for me all that 
 time. His anxiety (for the officials would give him no particulars) 
 had prevented him from tiring. I have not yet seen anything of 
 London ; but the Smiths have a number of plans formed for my 
 amusement, so I expect to enjoy my visit very much. 
 
 Give my kind regards to all friends, and believe me, my dear 
 Charles, 
 
 IV. Your affectionate Brother, 
 
 V. To William F. Brown 
 Mr Charles Brown, 
 
 Edinburgh. 
 
 Exercise 24. 
 
 Subjects for Letters. 
 
 1. The Journey from Home to School. 
 
 2. A Holiday Ramble. 
 
 '6. The Daily Routine at School. 
 
56 COMPOSITION IN PROSE. 
 
 4. How Sunday is spent at School. 
 
 5. A Visit to a Picture Gallery. 
 
 6. The Results of an Examination. 
 
 7. An Answer to a Letter inquiring when the Christmas Holidays 
 
 begin and end. 
 
 8. An Answer to a Letter inviting you to spend a Holiday with a friend. 
 
 9. An Answer to a Letter asking where you are to spend your Holidays. 
 10. A Letter acknowledging receipt of a Present. 
 
 1 ] . A Letter inviting a companion to spend his or her Holidays with you. 
 12. A Letter to a Friend abroad, describing the changes that have taken 
 place during his absence. 
 
 91. Formal Notes {e.g.^ Cards of Invltntion and the Replies 
 to the same) are generally written in the Third Person. In this 
 case the Form of address and the Subscription must be omitted ; 
 and the Date is usually put at the end. 
 
 (a) It is a common mistake, in replying to such notes, to use the future 
 tense instead of the present. Never say, " Miss Jones vyill have much 
 pleasure in accepting, etc." She has much pleasure in accepting; she 
 vnll have much pleasure in being present. 
 
 92. Example 1. 
 
 Invitation. 
 Mr and Mrs Fitzroy request the pleasure of Mr Butler's company at 
 dinner, on Friday, the 26th inst., at seven o'clock. 
 The Elms, 
 5th February 1867. 
 
 Acceptance. 
 Mr Butler has much pleasure in accepting Mr and Mrs Fitzroy 's invita- 
 tion to dinner, for Friday the 26th inst., at seven o'clock. 
 The Oaks, 
 6th February 1867. 
 
 Declinature. 
 Mr Butler, with compliments to Mr and Mrs Fitzroy, regrets that he 
 cannot have the pleasure of accepting their invitation to dinner, for Friday 
 the 26th inst., in consequence of a prior engagement. 
 The Oaks, 
 6th February 1867. 
 
 93. Example 3. 
 
 Note. 
 Mr Bruce presents his compliments to Major Spence, and begs to know 
 whether he can give him the present address of his friend Mr James 
 Thomson, who obtained a situation in a mercantile house in Liverpool 
 
NARRATION. 57 
 
 three or four years ago. Mr Bruce's reason for wishing to know Mr 
 Thomson's address is, that he has a book belonging to Mr T. in his 
 possession, which he wishes to return. 
 
 The Hall, Cheshire, 
 1st March 1867. 
 
 Beply. 
 
 Major Spence, with compliments to Mr Bruce, begs to inform him that 
 after spending two years in Liverpool, Mr James Thomson removed to 
 London, where he at present resides. Major S. is not aware of Mr 
 Thomson's present address ; but he thinks Mr Bruce might obtain it by 
 applying to Mr T.'s uncle in Cornhill. In the event of Mr Bruce 
 succeeding in obtaining Mr Thomson's address, Major Spence will feel 
 greatly obliged by Mr Bruce's communicating it to him. 
 
 Crook Street, Manchester, 
 2d March 1867. 
 
 Exercise 25. 
 
 1. Card of Invitation to an Evening Party. 
 
 2. Card of Invitation to a Soiree Musicale. 
 
 3. Acceptance of the same. 
 
 4. Declinature of the same. 
 
 5. Note to a Librarian, requesting the loan of *' Hume's History of Eng- 
 
 land." 
 
 6. Reply to the same, forwarding the work. 
 
 7. Note to a tradesman, requesting Goods on sight. 
 
 8. Reply to the same. 
 
 9. Note to a neighbour, complaining of annoyance from his dog. 
 
 10. Reply to the same. 
 
 11. Note to a Lady, inquiring as to the character of a servant. 
 
 12. Reply to the same. 
 
 3. Historical Narration. 
 
 94. In Historical Narration, of which a complete example has 
 been given at § 84, the same plan is to be followed as in the 
 last exercise. In this kind of writing, a higher style of diction 
 is allowable than in incidental narration. It must be remem- 
 bered, however, that at this stage it is only a single para- 
 graph on each subject that is to be produced — not a complete 
 essay. 
 
58 COMPOSITION IN PROSE. 
 
 Exercise 26 
 
 Expand each of the following sentences into an Historical 
 Paragraph : — 
 
 1. During his reverses, King Alfred was on one occasion soundly- 
 scolded by a neatherd's wife for allowing some cakes to burn, which she 
 had told him to watch ; and greatly ashamed she was when she discovered 
 who it was that she had been abusing. 
 
 2. William Tell, the Swiss patriot, having pierced with an arrow the 
 apple placed for a mark upon his son's head by the Austrian tyrant, 
 dropped a second arrow ; and being asked its purpose, replied that it 
 should have found the tyrant's heart if he had harmed his son. 
 
 3. Harold, when on a visit to Duke William in Normandy, was induced 
 to swear fealty to him; but was startled to find, on a covering being 
 removed, that he had sworn on the relics of saints, and that his oath was 
 irrevocable. 
 
 4 On the eve of the Battle of Bannockbum, King Robert the Bruce in- 
 cautiously engaged in single combat with Sir Henry de Bohun, an English 
 knight, and cleft his skull, shivering the shaft of his battle-axe in the act. 
 
 5. When Rolf the Ganger was required to do homage for Neustria to 
 Charles the Simple, he deputed one of his soldiers to perform the ceremony ; 
 who, raising Charles's foot instead of lowering his own mouth, threw the 
 monarch on his back. 
 
 6. After the Battle of Zutphen, as the wounded Sir Philip Sidney was 
 raising a cup of water to his parched lips, he handed it untasted to a dying 
 soldier, who was being carried past, saying, "Thy necessity is greater "than 
 mine." (1586). 
 
 7.' The Surajah Dowlah, Viceroy of Bengal, having taken Calcutta, thrust 
 the English inhabitants, to the number of a hundred and forty-six, into a 
 small and loathsome dungeon known as the Black-hole, where in one 
 night the greater part of them were stifled; but Clive soon avenged this 
 barbarity in the great Battle of Plassy. 
 
 8. At the heights of Abraham, General Wolfe was carried to the rear 
 mortally wounded ; but he lived to hear that the enemy was fleeing, when 
 he exclaimed, " Then, God be praised, 1 shall die happy," and immediately 
 expired. 
 
 9. The Emperor Leopold 1. claimed the Spanish crown for his son 
 Charles on the ground that he was a lineal descendant of Philip HI. ; but 
 Louis XIV. of France could also make the same claim for his son, since 
 both Louis and Leopold were grandsons of Philip III. 
 
 10. After Howe's return to Portsmouth, the Eoyal George, of 108 guns, 
 when undergoing repairs, was capsized at Spithead by a squall, and, all 
 her ports being open, immediately sank, when a great part of the crew, as 
 well as Admiral Kempenfeldt, who was writing in his cabin, were drowned. 
 
 11. When the ships laden with the taxed tea arrived at Boston 
 (December 16, 1773), a body of men disguised as Mohawk Indians boarded 
 the ships, and scattered their cargoes in the water, to the value, it is com- 
 puted, of £18,000. 
 
NARRATION. 59 
 
 12. The revocation, by Louis XIV., of the Edict of Nantes, granted by- 
 Henry IV. for the protection of his Protestant subjects when tie himself 
 became a Roman-catholic, deprived France of upwards of half-a-millicni of 
 its most industrious subjects, who carried into other countries not only 
 vast sums of money, but also those arts and manufactures which had 
 chiefly tended to enrich that kingdom. 
 
 Additional Subjects. 
 
 13. The Offering of Isaac. 20. The Battle of Ivry. 
 
 14. The Death of Absalom. 21. The Foreign Tour of Peter the 
 
 15. The Shipwreck of St Paul. Great. 
 
 16. The Battle of Morgarten. 22. The Reign of Terror. 
 
 17. The Crowning of Charlemagne. 23. The Charge of the Light Bri- 
 
 18. The Boy Crusade. gade. 
 
 19. Luther at the Diet of Worms. 24. The Relief of Lucknow. 
 
 4. Biographical Narration. 
 
 95. A Biograpliical paragraph contains a brief summary of the 
 leading events in a man's life. It should open with a general 
 description of the position which its subject occupied. This is fol- 
 lowed by the narrative proper. It may conclude with reflections on 
 his character^ and the work which he accomplished in the world. 
 
 (a) It is to be observed that the pupil is not expected to produce 
 more than a single comprehensive Paragraph on each subject. In a 
 Theme, a complete paragraph would be devoted to each item in the 
 outline; in the paragraph a sentence to each item, on an average, 
 will be sufficient. 
 
 Example. — Lohd Clive. 
 
 1. Outline. 
 
 \. Description: The founder of the British Empire in India. 
 
 2. Narrative: Bom at Styche (Shropshire), 1725 — idle and mischievous 
 
 at school — goes to Madras — clerk in the E. I. Company — disgusted 
 with the monotony of office life — welcomes the call to military 
 service — English influence in India very low — great success of 
 Clive's exploits — Arcot, 1751 — Plassy, 1757 — great reputation — 
 returns to England, 1760 — made an Irish peer — affairs go wrong in 
 his absence — sent out to put them right, 1764 — restores perfect order 
 in eighteen months— returns to England, 1767 — his conduct and 
 administration assailed, 1773 — acquitted — commits suicide, 1774. 
 
 3. Character: Great warrior, and able statesman — resolute and uncom- 
 
 promising — often unscrupulous — always successful — the effects of 
 his labours. 
 
60 COMPOSITION IN PROSE. 
 
 2. Paragraph. 
 
 Robert, Lord Clive, Baron of Plassy, the founder of the British Empire 
 in India, was born at Styche, in Shropshire, in 1725. At school, he showed 
 greater aptitude for mischief and acts of recklessness than for learning; 
 and it was a relief to his parents to get him safely shipped off to India in 
 1744. He entered the civil service of the Company at Madras, at a time 
 when its prosperity had sunk to a very low ebb; and the monotony of his 
 sedentary life so depressed him, that he oftener than once attempted to 
 commit suicide. When French encroachment and intrigue rendered it 
 necessary to take measures to save English influence from total extinction, 
 Clive gladly welcomed the call to active service. His change of profession 
 marks an epoch in the history of India. From the day when he assumed 
 the sword, English interests began sensibly to revive. His first great 
 exploit was the capture and defence of Arcot, with only 500 men, 300 of 
 whom were natives. His crowning triumph was the victory of Plassy, 
 which laid Bengal at the feet of the English. His own reputation was now 
 firmly established, and his name became everywhei'e a tower of strength. 
 On his return to England in 1760, he received the thanks of the Company, 
 and an Irish peerage from Government. But affairs went wrong in his 
 absence, and in 1764, the Company sent him out again to set them right. 
 This, by his vigorous measures, he very soon succeeded in doing. In the 
 course of eighteen months, perfect order was restored; and on his final 
 return to England in 1767, he was received with the distinction which his 
 great services deserved. But his reforms had given offence to many of 
 those who had profited by the former laxity of affairs; and it is to be 
 regretted that many of his acts were of so questionable a character as to 
 give his enemies a handle against him. In 1773, his administration was 
 made the subject of a parliamentary inquiry. The decision was in his 
 favour ; but he was dissatisfied with the terms of the acquittal ; and the 
 mere fact of his having been put upon his trial affected him so deeply, that 
 he sought relief in suicide, November 22d, 1774. Clive was one of the 
 greatest warrior-statesmen of whom England can boast. Bold, resolute, 
 and rapid as a soldier, he was equally calm, judicious, and comprehensive 
 as an administrator. It cannot be denied that he was often unscrupulous 
 in opposing cunning with cunning; but he was not cruel; he was not 
 selfish ; and his faults have been condoned by the success of his career, and 
 by the splendid services he rendered to his country. 
 
 Exercise 27. 
 
 1. Horatio Nelson. 
 
 1, Description : The greatest naval hero of England. 
 
 2. Narrative: Bom at Burnham Thorpe (Norfolk) in 1758 — a boy of 
 
 great spirit and courage — fondness for the sea — joins the Raisonndble 
 as a midshipman, under his uncle. Captain Suckling — sails in Captain 
 Phipps's Arctic expedition, 1773 — assists in the reduction of Corsic.n, 
 
NARRATION. 61 
 
 when he lost his right eye at Calvi, 1794 — with Sir J. Jervis, defeats 
 the Spaniards off Cape St Vincent, 1797 — loses his right arm at Santa 
 Cruz, 1798 — gains the battle of the Nile, 1798 — created Baron Nelson 
 of the Nile — attacks Copenhagen, 1801 — created Viscount — defeats 
 the French and Spaniards at Trafalgar, 1805, — death wound ; dies in 
 three hours — great public funeral in St Paul's. 
 3. Character : Great determination — strong sense of duty — " the greatest 
 sailor since the world began." 
 
 2. James Watt. 
 
 1. Description : The chief inventor of the steam-engine. 
 
 2. Narrative: Bom at Greenock, 1736 — delicate childhood, educated at 
 
 home — turn for practical mechanics — apprenticed to a mathematical 
 instrument maker in London, 1755 — returns to Glasgow, 1756 — 
 patronized by the University — becomes mathematical instrument 
 maker there — plans and executes the Monkland and Crinan Canals — 
 surveys the Caledonian— begins to study the steam-engine, 1759 
 — repairs the model engine of Glasgow College — patents his 
 improved steam-engine, 1789 — sets up engine works, with Boulton, 
 at Soho, near Birmingham, 1775 — very prosperous — discovers the 
 elements of water, 1783 — introduces gas-lights, 1798 — retires from 
 business, 1800 — dies at Heathfield, near Birmingham, 1819. 
 
 3. Character : Acute, persistent, and laborious — effects of his invention on 
 
 the progress of the world — upright, generous, simple-minded. 
 
 3. Cardinal Woi.se y. 
 
 1. Description : The great minister of Henry VIII. 
 
 2. Narrative: Thomas Wolsey, born at Ipswich, 1471 — his father said 
 
 to have been a butcher there — goes to Oxford — called "the boy 
 bachelor" — connexion with the Dorset family — presented to the 
 living of Lymington — becomes royal chaplain, 1508 — service to 
 Henry VII. — king's almoner to Henry VIII. — acquires ascendancy 
 over the king— becomes lord treasurer, 1512 — bishop of Lincoln — 
 archbishop of York — cardinal and pope's legate, 1515 — lord chan- 
 cellor — influence supreme— contemplates the reform of the church 
 — supports tlie king's divorce from Catherine — the king alienated 
 by its failure — opposition of the nobles — antipathy of Anne Boleyn 
 — deprived of his offices, 1529 — retires to Esher — arrested at York 
 for high treason, 1530 — dies at Leicester on his way to London, 
 
 3. Character: Ambitious, haughty, arrogant — but an impartial judge, 
 
 and an able administrator. 
 
 4. Martin Luther. 
 
 1. Description: The leader of the Reformation in Germany. 
 
 2. Narrative: Born at Eisleben, 1483 — poverty of his youth — studies law 
 
 at Erfurt — finds copy of the Vulgate —enters the monastery of St 
 Augustine — his spiritual struggle — kindness of Staupitz — ordained 
 a priest, 1507 — Professor at VVittemberg — his great popularity — 
 
62 COMPOSITION IN PROSE. 
 
 sent to Rome. 1510 — disgust with the corruption of the clergy- 
 sale of indulgences — controversy with Tetzel — bums the pope's 
 bull — summoned to the Diet of Worms, 1521 — carried off to Wart- 
 burg — translates the New Testament into German — returns to 
 Wittemberg — marries— great activity — Diet of Augsburg, 1530 — 
 Melancthon's confession— last days at Wittemberg — goes to Eis- 
 leben, and dies, 1546. 
 3. Character: Honesty, determination, fearlessness — eloquence — the 
 effects of his labours on the world. 
 
 5. MuNGO Park. 
 
 1 Description : Great African traveller. 
 
 2. Narrative: Born at Fowlshiels, near Selkirk — destined for the church 
 
 — studies medicine— apprentice in Selkirk — goes to Edinburgh — 
 appointed assistant-surgeon to the Worcester^ East Indiaman, 1792 
 — offers his services to the African Association — Arrives at the 
 Gambia, 1795 — penetrates to Sego, and returns, 1796 — kindness of 
 Kart'a Taura — returns to London, 1797 — publishes his travels, 1799 
 — practises in Peebles, 1801 — returns to Africa, 1805— reaches Bam- 
 bakoo, on the Niger — approaches Sego — murdered, or drowned. 
 
 3. Character: Courage and perseverance — self-sacrifice — endurance of 
 
 fatigue and hardships — results of his labours. 
 
 6. George Washington. 
 
 1. Description: The founder of the Republic of the United States. 
 ,2. Narrative: Bom at Bridge's Creek, in Virginia, 1732 — education, 
 simple and meagre — early military predilections — nearly enters the 
 British navy — becomes public surveyor to Lord Fairfax — appointed 
 adjutant-general of militia, 1751 — encroachments of the French — 
 is appointed commissioner to remonstrate with them — serves in 
 the expedition to the Ohio, and in various campaigns against the 
 French — marries and settles at Mount Vernon — outbreak of the War 
 of Independence — appointed commander-in-chief, 1775 — defeated at 
 Brandy wine, 1777 — capitulation of l>ord Cornwallis at Yorktown, 
 1781 — enters New York, 1783 — resigns, and returns to private life 
 • for six years — delegate from Virginia in the federal convention, 1787 
 — elected first President of the United States, 1789 — re-elected, 1793 
 —retires, 1796— dies, 1799. 
 
 3. Character: Simple, truthful, sincere, patriotic — patient, persevering, 
 conciliatory, disinterested — his influence on the infant republic. 
 
 Additional Subjects. 
 
 7. Oliver Cromwell. 13. Alfred the Great. 
 
 8. Wellington. 14. Peter the Great. 
 
 9. Marlborough. 15. Alexander the Great. 
 
 10. Napoleon. 16. Charlemagne. 
 
 11. Warren Hastings. 17. Julius Caesar. 
 
 12. William Pitt. 18. William of Orange. 
 
DESCRIPTION. 63 
 
 Chapter III.— Description. 
 
 96. It is tKe purpose of the Descriptive Paragraph to explain 
 ichat an object is, — to describe its nature, its structure or the 
 combination of its parts, its qualities, and the uses to which it is 
 applied. 
 
 97. Description may be either general or particular. The 
 former corresponds with logical definition. It states the species 
 or class to which an object belongs, comparing and contrasting 
 it with other objects of the same genus. The latter embraces 
 an enumeration of all the particulars regarding the object which 
 are necessary to make our knowledge of it clear and complete. 
 A general description may be contained in a single sentence. 
 A particular description extends over several sentences, or an 
 entire paragraph. A complete Descriptive Paragraph should 
 include both kinds of description, starting with the general 
 description, and passing from this to particulars. It admits 
 also of the introduction of occasional reflections on the qualities 
 of objects, and the purposes which they serve. 
 
 98. The general outline of a Descriptive Paragraph will there- 
 fore embrace these elements : — 
 
 1. A General Description: the class to which the object belongs, 
 
 and the points of agreement and difference between it and 
 other objects of the same class. 
 
 2. A Particular Description : its appearance, form, size, colour, 
 
 etc. — its locality or situation — its structure, with a 
 description of its parts — its characteristic features, or 
 points of special interest — its habits (if it be an animal) 
 — its kinds or varieties. 
 
 3. Reflections : its qualities — its uses. 
 
 (a) It is not necessary to mention all these particulars in connexion 
 with every object. Neither is it necessary that the elements should 
 follow one another in the above order. In particular, reflections 
 may be introduced at various points in the paragraph, as they 
 are frequently suggested by particular features in the description. 
 The mode in which the general scheme is applied to special classes 
 of objects will appear in the outlines given under each of the following 
 exercises. 
 
64 COMPOSITION IN PROSE. 
 
 99. Example. 
 
 The Elephant. 
 1 . Outline. 
 
 1. General: Thick-skinned animals, — the largest terrestrial mammalia 
 
 furnished with a prohoscis. 
 
 2. Particular : Gigantic size — clumsy appearance — thick, pillar-like legs 
 
 — the proboscis or trunk ; its uses — short neck — sharp sight— quick 
 ear— gregarious animals — swim well— the Indian elephant — the 
 African elephant. 
 
 3. Rejlection: Docile disposition — intelligence — revengeful when roused 
 
 — used as beasts of burden, in hunting and in war. 
 
 2. Paragraph. 
 
 The elephant belongs to the order of Pachyderms, or thick-skinned 
 animals, which includes the largest terrestrial mammalia at present in 
 existence. It is called a proboscidian pachyderm, from being furnished 
 with a proboscis or trunk. The elephant is an animal of gigantic size, and 
 as its parts are not well proportioned, it has a clumsy appearance. Its legs 
 are thick and pillar-shaped, and are well adapted for supporting its massive 
 body. Its head is large, and its neck very short in proportion to its size ; 
 but this is compensated by the length and elasticity of its trunk. This trunk 
 is an elongation of the nostrils, consisting of a double tube, terminating in 
 a curious appendage resembling a finger. By means of this wonderful 
 contrivance, the animal supplies itself with food and water. With it, also, 
 it can lift great weights, uproot trees, untie knots, and even hold a pen. 
 The elephant possesses sharp sight, a quick ear, and a delicate sense of 
 smell. They usually live together in herds, comprising from fifty to a 
 hundred individuals. The oldest marches at the head of the troop, the next 
 in age watching the rear. They swim well, and they run with remarkable 
 speed. They often live to the age of nearly two hundred years. Two 
 species of elephants are known in existing nature, the African elephant, 
 known by its round head, convex forehead, and large flattened ears ; and 
 the Indian elephant, which has an oblong head, a concave forehead, and 
 ears of moderate size. The former is exceedingly fierce, and indeed cannot 
 be tamed. The latter is mild and docile. When taken young, they are 
 easily tamed, and are employed as beasts of burden, both in tiger-hunting 
 and in war. Inoffensive and peaceful, they rarely use their gigcxntic 
 powers of injury ; but when irritated, they often exhibit a furious and re- 
 vengeful ferocity. Conscious of their own massive strength, they feared 
 no enemy, till the agressions of man taught them his superiority. 
 
 100. In the following exercises, the subjects are classified 
 under four heads : — 1. Common Things, including Machinery. 
 2. Natural History. 3. Physical Appearances. 4. Remarkable 
 Places. 
 
DESCRIPTION. 65 
 
 I. COMMON THINGS. 
 Exercise 28. 
 
 1. A Clock. 
 
 1. General: An instrument for measuring and indicating time — compare 
 
 with sun-dial ; sand-glass, etc. 
 
 2. Particular: The dial, divided into hours and minutes — smaller circle 
 
 divided into seconds — hands — works; wheels moved by spring or 
 or weights — pendulum, its use — fusee cylinder, its use — kinds ; 
 house Block, public clock, watch, etc. 
 
 3. Beflection : Regularity — exactness of indication — use in regulating our 
 
 occupations — importance of punctuality. 
 
 2. A Ship. 
 
 1 . General : A floating house or castle — a water carriage. 
 
 2. Particular : Shape, adapted for motion — various sizes — parts : hull — 
 
 masts — sails — rigging — rudder — cabins — hold — kinds: saihng ship 
 — steam-ship — merchant ship — man-of-war — yacht — schooner, etc. 
 
 3. Reflection: Strength — lightness — speed — use in passenger traffic — in 
 
 commerce — in war. 
 
 3. A Railway Carriage. 
 
 1. General: A carriage made to run on iron rails — contrast with ordinary 
 
 carriages. 
 
 2. Particular : Divided into compartments ; several carriages in one — 
 
 seats divided — lamps for night travelling — iron wheels (four, six, 
 or eight), broad surface, with projecting flange, to catch the inner 
 side of the rail — break — buffers — guard's box — kinds : first, second, 
 and third classes — saloon carriage — post-office carriage — luggage 
 van, etc. 
 
 3. Reflection: Strength — safety — comfort. 
 
 4. Paper. 
 
 1. General: The material of which books are made— compare with parch- 
 
 ment, leather, etc. 
 
 2. Particular: Made of linen rags — picked and sorted — reduced to pulp 
 
 — strained — passed over wire-cloth — pressed between rollers, etc.* — 
 resembles a sheet or web of cloth — various thicknesses and colours. 
 
 3. Reflection : Qualities : flexible — smooth — stiff" — easily torn — ^used for 
 
 writing — printing — packing — for making papier-mach6 goods — 
 effects in diffusing literature and intelligence. 
 
 * The process of paper-making need not be minutely detailed here: 
 that belongs rather to Narration. 
 
 £ 
 
66 COMPOSITION IN PROSE. 
 
 5. Coal. 
 
 1, General: An inflammable fossil, in common use. 
 
 2, Particular: Found in mines or pits in all parts of the world— tlie most 
 
 remarkable mines in England at Whitehaven— principal mines in 
 Scotland in Lanarkshire— often shows traces of its vegetable origin 
 — black colour — ^found in strata — brought forth in irregular masses 
 — English coal — cannel coal — Scotch coal. 
 
 3, Reflection : Burns brightly, slowly, and throws out much heat — one of 
 
 the chief sources of British wealth — used wherever it is necessary 
 to raise heat — for domestic purposes — in the arts and manufactures 
 — for the steam-engine — for making gas, tar, coke, etc. 
 
 6. Iron, 
 
 1. General : A hard, fusible metal — contrast with lead and gold. 
 
 2. Particular: Found in the earth, in combination with clay, lime, and 
 
 flint — in all countries — abundantly in Britain, France, Sweden, and 
 Russia — livid grey colour — no definite form — sometimes in crystals 
 — pig iron — ^wrought iron — malleable iron — steel — wire — plumbago 
 — loadstone, etc. 
 
 3. Reflection: The most useful of the metals — for domestic purposes — 
 
 machinery and implements of all kinds — a great source of wealth to 
 a country — affords occupation to thousands of the inhabitants. 
 
 Additional Subjects. 
 
 7. Leather. 
 
 10. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 13. Sugar. 
 
 16. 
 
 A Barometer. 
 
 8. Porcelain. 
 
 IL 
 
 Lime. 
 
 14. Oil. 
 
 17. 
 
 A Life-Boat. 
 
 9. Wine. 
 
 12. 
 
 Lead. 
 
 15. Wool. 
 
 18. 
 
 A Telescope. 
 
 *^* Before writing on any of these subjects, the pupil should 
 prepare an outline upon it, similar to the above. 
 
 IL NATURAL HISTORY. 
 Exercise 29. 
 
 1. The Lion. 
 
 1. General: A carnivorous or flesh-eating animal; one of the cat tribe — 
 
 compare with domestic cat, and with tiger. 
 
 2. Particular: Great size — graceful form — majestic air — tawny colour — 
 
 now found chiefly in Africa — large head — long and slender body — 
 shaggy mane — powerful neck — sharp teeth — cat-like claws — long 
 tail with tassel end — terrible roar — Habits., feeds on flesh — 
 lies in wait for its prey— treads softly — roams at night, rests by 
 day. 
 
 3. Reflection : Prodigious strength — great sagacity — the king of beasts. 
 
DESCRIPTION. 67 
 
 2. The Horse. 
 
 1. General: Hoofed quadraped: contrast with lion — non-ruminating: con- 
 
 trast with cow. 
 
 2. Particular: Found in a wild state in Tartary and America — long body 
 
 — long and slender legs, adapted for running — durable hoofs — silken 
 mane and tail — skin covered with short hair, smooth and glossy — 
 cutting teeth in front — grinders behind — space between those in 
 which the bit is placed — gregai'ious in a wild state — feeds on grass, 
 oats, etc. — draught horse — riding horse — racer — hunter, etc. 
 
 3. Bejlection: To man, the most useful of the animals, in peace or in 
 
 war — leather — horse- hair, etc. — qualities, easily domesticated, docile 
 and affectionate, patient, persevering, courageous. 
 
 3. The Owl. 
 
 1 . General : A nocturnal bird of prey — contrast with eagle. 
 
 2. Particular : Large head — short neck — projecting eyes, with border of 
 
 feathers — weak wings — imperfect vision — pursue their prey in the 
 dark — fly without noise, and easily surprise their victims — hide in 
 holes in trees, or clefts of rocks by day — mournful hooting. 
 
 3. Reflection: More useful than injurious — destroy great numbers of 
 
 vermin — used to be thought a bird of ill-omen, "the bird of night." 
 
 4. The Herring. 
 
 1. General: Soft-finned fish — with scaly body. 
 
 2. Particular: Inhabit the Northern Seas — come south as far as40°lat. ' 
 
 every year — begin to arrive on coasts of Europe, Asia, and America 
 in April and May — abundant in June and July — caught in the 
 meshes of nets — travel in vast shoals — smoked — dried — fresh. 
 
 3. Bejlection : A valuable article of food — great source of activity and of 
 
 wealth — occupies large fleets and great numbers of the population. 
 
 5. The Silkworm. 
 
 1. General: Scaly- winged insects — nocturnal, working by night. 
 
 2. Particular: A native of North China — now reared in Italy, France, 
 
 and the south of Europe — Three stages ; caterpillar, chrysalis, but- 
 terfly — feeds on the mulberry-leaf — thirty-four days in caterpillar 
 state — three days in forming cocoon — twenty days in chrysalis state 
 — to obtain the silk, the chrysalis must be killed before it leaves 
 the cocoon — the fibres are then wound off three or four filaments in 
 one thi-ead — the part which cannot be reeled off is carded, and forms 
 floss-silk. 
 
 3. Bejlection: Very valuable for its silk. 
 
 6. The Fir-Tree. 
 
 1. General: Applied to various species of pine : evergreen. 
 
 2. Particular : Symmetrical and conical shape — leaves, needle-shaped, 
 
 dark green, clustering round the branchlets—KJones, egg-shaped^ 
 
68 COMPOSITION IN PROSE. 
 
 reddish-brown in colour, scales covering the seed — trunk, tall and 
 straight — branches, horizontal — bark, rough — kinds : Scotch, spruce, 
 silver, larch, etc. 
 3. Reflection: Uses: trunk forms deals for building, etc. — ships' masts — 
 fuel — yields tar, turpentine, resin, etc. 
 
 Additional Sdbjects. 
 
 7. The Camel. 10. The Whale. 13. The Gorilla. 16. The Cedar. 
 
 8. The Ostrich. 11. The Spider. 14. The Mole. 17. The Apple. 
 
 9. The Sahnon. 12. The Gnat. 15. The Oak. 18. Grass. 
 
 ' III. PHYSICAL APPEAEANCES. 
 Exercise 30. 
 
 1. An Eclipse of the Sun. 
 
 1. General: The face of the sun obscured by the interposition of the moon 
 
 on the line between the sun and the earth. 
 
 2. Particular : At the first contact, a dark segment appears to touch the 
 
 edge of the sun's disc — cannot be looked at with the naked eye — 
 coloured or smoked glass — progress gradual — the light gradually 
 diminishes, first silvery, then grey, till a twilight effect is produced 
 — birds go to roost, thinking that night is coming on — but the dark 
 shadow passes off. Kinds : total — partial — annular. 
 
 3. Reflection : Strangely beautiful appearance — filling the mind with 
 
 terror and awe in contemplating the forces of nature. 
 
 2. A Volcano. 
 
 1. General: A burning mountain. 
 
 2. Farticular : Crater, or cup, at top, through which the burning matter 
 
 is ejected — eruptions take place at varying intervals; Vesuvius, 
 once in ten years ; Etna and Hecla, once in thirty or thirty-five 
 years — preceded by rumbling noises in the earth — masses of red-hot 
 rock, sand, and mud and water, thrown into the air — streams of 
 lava run down sides, destroying all life. 
 
 3. Reflection : Cause : connected with central heat — the water below the 
 
 earth's surface converted into steam — acts upon the burning mass 
 in the bowels of the earth — this set in motion, must find an outlet 
 — volcanoes are thus safety valves. Effects: destroy vegetation, 
 animal Kfe, human dwellings — sometimes buries cities; e.g.., 
 Pompeii and Herculaneum. 
 
 3. Glaciers. 
 
 1. General: Fields of ice, — resembling frozen lakes or rivers — contrast 
 
 with avalanches, and icebergs. 
 
 2. Particular: Accumulations of snow in higher elevations, partially 
 
 melted by the summer heat, then frozen — gradually slide down the 
 
DESCRIPTION. 69 
 
 mountains or valleys, in the shape of a viscous or semi-solid body — 
 become laden with debris, called moraines — in warmer regions, the 
 glacier melts and deposits the moraines — these are proofs that 
 glaciers once were where they do not now exist ; e.g., in Scotland — 
 traced also by the scratches they leave on rocks — the most remark- 
 able glaciers, in the Alps and Himalayas. In northern latitudes, 
 they reach the sea without melting — break off and form icebergs. 
 3. Reflection : Gradual movement — use in carrying off the surplus snow 
 from high mountains. 
 
 4. The Falls of Niagara. 
 
 1. (reneraZ: The most gigantic known waterfalls in the world. 
 
 2. Particular : Situated on the River Niagara, connecting Lakes Erie and 
 
 Ontario, separating the United States from Canada — twenty-two 
 miles from Erie, fourteen from Ontario — strength of the rapids for 
 a mile above the falls — narrowing of the channel — great declivity, 
 sixty feet in the mile — divided by Goat Island (seventy-five acres) 
 into the Canadian or horse-shoe fall (1800 feet broad, 154 feet high) 
 and the American fall (600 feet broad, 160 feet high) — on Canadian 
 side, water thrown out to fifty feet from the base of the cliff, leaving 
 a passage — finest view of the whole cataract from Table Eock on 
 Canadian side. 
 
 3. Reflection : Vastness — ^power — grandeur— sense of danger. 
 
 5. The Bass Rock. 
 
 1. General: A remarkable and picturesque isolated rock — compare with 
 
 Ailsa Craig. 
 
 2. Particular: In Firth of Forth, about two miles from the coast of 
 
 Haddingtonshire — composed of fine granular greenstone — a mile in 
 circumference — nearly round — 420 feet high — accessible only on 
 south-west — precipices rise perpendicularly on other sides — covered 
 with solan geese — cavern perforating the island, accessible at low 
 water — a spring on the island — a few sheep — partially inhabited — 
 at one time fortified. 
 
 3. Reflection: Great natural strength — picturesqueness — historical asso- 
 
 ciations — at one time a state prison. 
 
 6. The Mammoth Cave. 
 
 1. General: The largest known cave in the world— compare with Caves 
 
 of Flora. 
 
 2. Particular: In Kentucky (U.S.), 180 miles from Lexington— narrow 
 
 entrance — a series of chambers, connected by passages — has been 
 explored for ten miles underground — the giant's coffin (a huge, 
 coffin-shaped rock) — the ball-room : of circular form — the bottomless 
 pit — the lover's leap — stalactites hanging from the limestone roof — 
 nitre abundant — a river crossed by a boat — the fish in it, blind. 
 
 3. Reflection: Vastness — grandeur— intense darkness, inspiring terror — 
 
 equable temperature and nitrous atmosphere; recommended for 
 consumptive patients. 
 
70 COMPOSITION IN PROSE. 
 
 Additional Subjects. 
 
 7. Icebergs. 11. Aurora Borealis. 15. The Giant's Causeway. 
 
 8. The Rainbow. 12. The Milky Way. 16. Ailsa Craig. 
 
 9. Earthquakes. 13. Teneriffe. 17. Mont Blanc. 
 
 10. Whirlpools, 14. The Trossachs. 18. Campagna di Roma. 
 
 IV. REMARKABLE PLACES. 
 
 Exercise 31. 
 
 1. London. 
 
 1. General Description: The metropolis of the British Empire. 
 
 2. Particular Description: Vast population, equal to that of Scotland: 
 
 situation, on the Thames, which divides it into north and south : the 
 city proper, the west end : has absorbed many towns which were 
 at one time suburbs : area, 117 square miles : many miles of streets : 
 great activity and bustle : an important seaport : the seat of govern- 
 ment : the centre of literary and artistic life. 
 
 3. Points of Interest: The Tower: the Mansion House: the Houses of 
 
 Parliament : St Paul's : Westminster Abbey : Buckingham Palace : 
 St James's Palace : the Parks : the British Museum : the National 
 Gallery : the Kensington Museum : the Monument : the Nelson 
 Column : the Wellington Statue : the Strand : Pall Mall : Regent 
 Street, etc., etc. 
 
 4. Reflection: London, an epitome of the Empire: wonderful variety of its 
 
 inhabitants, men of all nations, in all states and circumstances : 
 the solitude of a great city. 
 
 2. Edinburgh. 
 
 1 . General Description : The capital of Scotland. 
 
 2. Particular Description: Picturesque situation on a cluster of hills: 
 
 near the Forth : separated into the old and new towns by a valley, 
 once filled with water : the Old Town rugged, and picturesque : the 
 New, regular, substantial, and stately : glimpses of the sea and 
 country obtained from its busiest centres : intellectual, legal, and 
 educational, rather than commercial. 
 
 3. Points of Interest : The Castle : Holyrood : the University : the Scott 
 
 Monument : Fine Art Galleries : Calton Hill and Monuments 
 thereon : Princes Street and its buildings : High Street : Bridges, 
 Gardens, and Parks. 
 
 4. Peflection: Historical associations: beauty and picturesqueness, con- 
 
 trast between the Old Town and the New. 
 
 3. Oxford. 
 
 1. General Description : An ancient and famous seat of learning. 
 
 2. Particular Description : Situated on the Isis, a tributary of the Thames, 
 
 55 miles from London : surrounded by fertile and wooded meadows : 
 
DESCRIPTION. 71 
 
 a city of colleges, of all varieties of architecture : interspersed with 
 gardens, meadows, and fine trees : the town and the university two 
 distinct corporations : two distinct communities : four main streets 
 diverging from a centre: fine groups of buildings, and beautiful 
 vistas at various points. 
 
 3. Points of Interest : Magdalene College : Christ Church : Trinity : New 
 
 College : University College, etc. : Bodleian Library : Radcliffe 
 Library: the Sheldonian Theatre : the Museum: Magdalene Bridge : 
 Christ Church Meadows : the River : the High Street and its 
 Colleges : the Martyrs' Memorial. 
 
 4. Beflection: Great picturesqueness of the tout ensemble : beauty of 
 
 detail : venerable associations : contrast in appearance with a great 
 manufacturing city, as Liverpool or Manchester, — chimney-stalks 
 and factories in the one case ; spires, towers, domes, and palaces in 
 the other. 
 
 4. Chester. 
 
 1. General Description: An ancient episcopal city: a river port: capital 
 
 of Cheshire. 
 
 2. Particular Description: Situated on the Dee, 16 miles S. E. of Liver- 
 
 pool : nearly enclosed by a rectangle of walls, about two miles in 
 circuit, seven or eight feet thick : promenade on top : two main 
 streets running at right angles ; excavated by the Romans : lined 
 by covered promenade in second storey. 
 
 3. Points of Interest: The "Rows" just described: the Cathedral: St 
 
 John's Church, built by Ethelred : Arch across the Dee, the largest 
 stone arch ever built, 200 feet span : fine Railway Station. 
 
 4. Beflection : The most picturesque town in England. 
 
 5. PoMPEn. 
 
 1. General Description : A city buried in the debris of volcanic eruptions. 
 
 2. Particular Description: In Campania, near the base of Vesuvius: 
 
 remained buried, and unknown, for sixteen hundred years : whole 
 streets and houses now excavated : regular in plan, the streets cross- 
 ing at right angles, the houses two storeys high : many skeletons 
 found in the city, some in cellars : some have left their impression 
 in clay and mineral moulds, from which casts have been taken : 200 
 skeletons found in the Temple of Juno : houses and shops left entire 
 when freed of the surrounding rubbish. 
 
 3. Beflection : Preserves a wonderfully complete picture of domestic and 
 
 public life as it was in Italy 1800 years ago. 
 
 6. The British Museum. 
 
 1. General Description : A great national institution for preserving treasures 
 
 of literature, art, and science. 
 
 2. Particular Description: The building (completed 1847) in Great Russell 
 
 Street : a hollow square : frontage of 570 feet : architecture, Grecian 
 Ionic : immense galleries, of imposing appearance. 
 
72 COMPOSITION IN PROSE. 
 
 3. Points of Interest : The entrance portico, — double range of columns, 
 
 eight in each, five feet in diameter, forty-five feet high : the libraries, 
 — The King's Library (George III. — presented by George IV.), the 
 Grenville Library, etc. : collections of books, manuscripts (Scott's 
 Kenilworth) • a mortgage-deed, signed by " William Shakespeare," 
 etc.) : prints and drawings : antiquities, Egyptian, Assyrian (Nimrud, 
 Khorsabad); Greek (the Elgin Marbles, etc.); Roman: Zoological 
 department (the bird gallery) : botanical department : geological 
 collection ; mineralogical collection. 
 
 4. Reflection: Value of so vast and rich a collection to the nation, and to 
 
 the progress of science. 
 
 Additional Subjects. 
 
 7. LiverpooL 12. Rome. 17. The Crystal Palace. 
 
 8. Glasgow. 13. Gibraltar. 18. Edinburgh Castle. 
 
 9. Cambridge. 14. Paris. 19. The Town you live in. 
 
 10. Dresden. 15. Westminster Abbey. 20. The School you attend. 
 
 11. Jerusalem. 16. The Louvre. 21. The Church you attend. 
 
 Chapter IV.— Exposition. 
 
 101. Exposition is a species of description. It is description 
 applied to scientific or abstract truths. We describe objects ; 
 we expound principles. The proper sphere of exposition, there- 
 fore, is the explanation of abstract thoughts and the laws of 
 science — both physical and moral. 
 
 102. The subjects for exposition may be presented in the form 
 either of propositions or of terms. We shall treat of these 
 separately. ^ 
 
 1. Exposition of Propositions, or Paraphrase. 
 
 103. The simplest method of expounding a proposition con- 
 sists in paraphrase. This exercise must not be confounded 
 either with transposition (§ 35) or the variation of the order of 
 a sentence, or with substitution (§ 34) or the changing of par- 
 ticular words. It consists properly in expressing an author's 
 meaning in a different form. A sentence is " a complete thought 
 expressed in words :" a sentence paraphrased is the same thought 
 expressed in different words. This process requires that the 
 meaning of the proposition to be explained should be correctly 
 
EXPOSITION. 73 
 
 understood. The pupil must grasp the thought, make it his 
 own, and then express it in original language. For example, 
 we may elucidate an abstract truth by expressing it in a con- 
 crete form, or vice versa. The general truth that men's ill deeds 
 are remembered after their good deeds are forgotten, is expressed 
 by Shakespeare in contrasted metaphors when he says, — 
 
 •' Men's evil manners hve in brass ; 
 Their virtues we write in water." 
 
 And he repeats the same truth under a different image in the 
 lines, — 
 
 ** The evil that men do lives after them ; 
 The good is oft interred with their bones." 
 
 This is simple paraphrase in its briefest form. But Exposition 
 requires greater elaboration of the thought than this simple 
 transference of the thought from one form to another. To 
 explain the truth fully and enforce it, we must expand the 
 simple statement by the addition of comments, illustrations, and 
 reflections, until the paragraph bears the same relation to the 
 original proposition that a brief homily bears to its text. This 
 is Expanded Paraphrase , or Exposition. 
 
 104. Example. 
 
 " 'Tis better to have loved and lost, 
 Than never to have loved at all." — Tennyson. 
 
 " When we lose a very dear friend, we are apt to think that we might 
 have been spared the trial and suffering of bereavement had we never known 
 him, and even to wish that it had been so. A little reflection, however, 
 will convince us that we have gained inestimable advantages both by the 
 friendship itself and by its loss. That man is not to be envied who has 
 never had a friend to lose. The best feelings of his nature lie dormant, 
 and his affections, having no external object to which to cling, hang loose 
 and useless, or entwine themselves around his own heart and choke its 
 growth. Nothing is more despicable than to see a man wrapt up con- 
 tinually in his own heart, living for himself alone, seeking only what 
 ministers to his own pleasure, or gratifies his own vanity. There is a 
 joy, on the other hand, in the mere outflowing of affection, in the enkind- 
 ling of generous sentiments, in the performance of little acts of kindness, 
 which strengthens our nature, and makes us in every sense better men. 
 Even the bereaved mother, in her deepest grief, has sources of joy which 
 the childless cannot understand. 
 
74 COMPOSITION IN PROSE. 
 
 " He talks to me, that never had a son," 
 says Constance of Pandulph, when he was reproving her for her excessive 
 grief. It is in this sense that it is " better to have loved," even when the 
 object of that love is gone. But there is a great gain also in the discipline 
 of sorrow. Loss proves the reality and intensity of our affection ; for love 
 feeds on the recollection of itself. " Grief," says Constance again, — 
 " Grief fills the room up of my absent child, 
 Lies in his bed, walks up and down with me, 
 Puts on his pretty looks, repeats his words. 
 Remembers me of all his gracious parts, 
 Stuffs out his vacant garments with his form." * 
 But sorrow has higher uses to serve than this. It draws us to the only 
 enduring source of consolation, and leads us to acknowledge a Father's 
 loving hand in our severest trials. So true is it that — 
 " Men may rise on stepping-stones 
 Of their dead selves to higher things.** 
 Of these lessons, so precious in themselves, and so abiding in their effects, 
 the man who has never loved is wholly deprived. These are the truths 
 which the poet means to convey when he says — 
 
 " 'Tis better to have loved and lost 
 Than never to have loved at all," 
 
 Exercise 32. 
 
 Subjects for Expanded Paraphrase, or Exposition. 
 
 1. " 111 blows the wind that profits nobody." — ShaJcespeare. 
 
 2. " Men should not talk to please themselves, but those that hear 
 
 them." — Steele. 
 
 3. " Stone walls do not a prison make, 
 
 Nor iron bars a cage." — Lovelace. 
 
 4. " Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed, and some few 
 
 to be chewed and digested." — Bacon. 
 
 5. " The good of the people is the ultimate and true end of govern- 
 
 ment." — Bolinghroke. 
 
 6. " That loss is common would not make 
 
 My own less bitter, rather more : 
 Too common : never morning wore 
 To evening, but some heart did break." — Tennyson. 
 
 7. " Every man desireth to live long, but no man would be old." — Swift. 
 
 8. " For solitude sometimes is best society, 
 
 And short retirement urges sweet return." — Milton. 
 
 * King John, iii. 4. 
 
EXPOSITION. 75 
 
 9. " O. what a tangled web we weave, 
 
 When first we practice to deceive." — Scott. 
 
 10. *' He who tells a lie is not sensible how great a task he undertakes ; 
 
 for he must be forced to invent twenty more to maintain one." 
 — Fope. 
 
 11. " Predominant habits of warfare are totally irreconcilable with those 
 
 of industry." — Hallam. 
 
 12. " Thrice is he armed that hath his quarrel just; 
 
 And he but naked, though lock'd up in steel, 
 
 Whose conscience with injustice is coiTupted." — Shalcespeare. 
 
 2. Exposition of Terms. 
 
 105. When the subject for exposition is presented in the form 
 of a Term, simple or complex, the mode of treatment resembles 
 that followed in Description. The first step is a general descrip- 
 tion or definition of the subject, embracing both comparison and 
 antithesis, or contrast. This should be followed by a particular 
 description, or an enumeration of its characteristic features. "To 
 this we may add illustrations, in the shape of concrete examples 
 of the application of the abstract principles. At various points 
 in the paragraph, reflections may be appropriately introduced. 
 In the case of some subjects, indeed, the paragraph must be 
 reflective throughout. 
 
 106. The el6ments of an Expository Paragraph are, therefore, 
 the following: — 
 
 1. General Exposition : Definition of the term ; comparison and 
 
 contrast. 
 
 2. Particular Exposition: Characteristic features — illustrations. 
 
 3. Reflection: Causes and consequences — advantages and dis- 
 
 advantages — approval or disapproval — feelings of pleasure 
 or pain. 
 
 107. Example. 
 Democracy. 
 
 1. General : That form of government in which a preponderance of power 
 
 belongs to the people — contrast with Monarchy and Aristocracy. 
 
 2. Particular : The community governs itself— either directly or indirectly 
 
 — resembles a company of shareholders — republics of ancient Greece 
 — Switzerland — France — America. 
 
 3. Peflection: Its apparent justice — its advantages — its disadvantages-- 
 
 its dangers. 
 
76 COMPOSITION IN PROSE. 
 
 2. Paragraph. 
 Democracy (from the Greek demos, the people) is that form of govern- 
 ment in which the sovereign power is in the hands of the people. The 
 forms of government to which Democracy is opposed are Monarchy, in 
 which the supreme power is entrusted to a single hereditary ruler or 
 sovereign ; and Aristocracy, in which it is exercised by men of exalted 
 birth or influence, who are not selected by the choice of the people, but 
 assume their position by virtue of hereditary power or personal fitness. 
 Under the democratic form of government, the community either directly or 
 indirectly governs itself. A direct democracy resembles a company or 
 copartnery in which every member has a vote. Laws are made, taxes are 
 imposed, war is declared or peace is concluded, by the whole body of the 
 people in public assembly. An indirect democracy, on the other hand, 
 resembles a company in which the shareholders elect directors or managers 
 to act in their name. In the republics of ancient Greece, as in the original 
 cantons of Switzerland, the government was exercised directly by the 
 people in full assembly. In the modern republics, as in France, Switzer- 
 land, and the United States of America, the representative form has been 
 preferred, chiefly because the direct form is unsuitable in a populous and 
 widely extended state. The democratic form of government is recom- 
 mended by its apparent justice. It seems only fair that those who con- 
 tribute the taxes should determine the extent to which they are to be 
 taxed, and the use to be made of the revenues. It is further maintained 
 by philosophers that self-government tends to develop in the greatest degree 
 the highest qualities, mental and moral, of the governed. On the other 
 hand, democra'cy is attended by great disadvantages, and exposes a state to 
 serious dangers. It does not secure in the governing body those high mental 
 qualifications which the difficulty and responsibility of managing the com- 
 plicated machinery of a state imperatively require ; and it gives to the lower 
 and less intelligent class, who form a numerical majority in every state, a 
 preponderating influence in its affairs, to the exclusion of those who, by 
 position and education, are both better fitted and better entitled to rule. 
 
 Exercise 33. 
 
 Subjects for Expository Paragraphs. 
 
 1. MONAKCHY. 
 
 1. General: That form of government in which the sovereign power is 
 
 vested in a single ruler — contrast with democracy and aristocracy. 
 
 2. Particular: Elective monarchy, — the sovereign chosen by the people 
 
 or their representatives: hereditary monarchy, — descending from 
 father to son ; more independent than the former : absolute mon- 
 archy, — the sovereign derives his power from himself: limited 
 monarchy, — the power of the sovereign checked by other elements, 
 as the people, or the aristocracy, or both : elective, — the Old German 
 Empire: hereditary, — the English Crown: absolute, — Russia: 
 limited, — the British Constitution. 
 
EXPOSITION. 77 
 
 3. Refiedion : Its origin in paternal government : gives dignity to a state, 
 and compactness to its government : elective M. secures a succes- 
 sion of powerful rulers : hereditary M. saves a state from internal 
 discords : absolute M. secures celerity of action, but tends to 
 despotism: limited M. combines the advantages of different forms 
 of government, and affords the greatest happiness and prosperity 
 to a state. 
 
 2. Education. 
 
 1. General: The training (literally " the drawing out") of the faculties of 
 
 the mind. 
 
 2. Particular: A prolonged and laborious process: compared to the culti- 
 
 vation of the soil, — the seed buried for a time, the fruit distant and 
 uncertain ; the end aimed at, the development and elevation of the 
 whole man : distinguish between intellectual or general education, 
 and professional or special education : the means employed, — 
 languages, science, facts : different faculties to be operated upon, — 
 judgment, imagination, taste: mental, moral, and physical educa- 
 tion : contrast education with crudeness or the absence of training, 
 on the one hand ; and with instruction or the imparting of know- 
 ledge, on the other: instruction to be used as a means of educa- 
 tion : education in ancient Persia and Greece : in modern Prussia, 
 France, Britain, and America. 
 
 3. Reflection: Its value to all men: importance of right methods being 
 
 adopted : difficulty of the process : delicacy of the machine to be 
 operated upon. 
 
 3. Revenge. 
 
 1. General: The passion which prompts to repaying injury with injury. 
 
 2. Particular: Belongs to the lower part of human nature: seen in the 
 
 lower animals as well as in man, — example of the elephant : man 
 tries to conceal it as a motive, even when acting under its influence : 
 contrast with generosity ; with the " golden rule," to do as we would 
 be done unto : with forbearance : the savage. 
 
 3. Reflection : A despicable passion : reduces man to the level of the 
 
 brutes : a proof of our fallen nature : unchristian : the duty 
 of restraining it: the influence of education and of religion in 
 checking it. 
 
 4. Cohesion, 
 
 1. General : That species of attraction by which particles are held together 
 
 so as to form bodies. 
 
 2. Particular: Its strength is in proportion to the power of bodies to 
 
 resist separation of their particles ; in gases it is nil; in liquids it 
 is small; in solids it is greatest: particles may be reunited by 
 cohesion, when they have been separated : it is reduced by heat, 
 which acting on solids converts them into liquids ; and acting upon 
 liquids converts them into gases: contrast with repulsion of par- 
 
 h 
 
78 COMPOSITION IN PROSE. 
 
 tides in aeriform bodies : contrast with gravitation : difSculty of 
 separating two smooth pieces of lead or glass : dust made into tiles 
 by compression, and expulsion of the air. 
 3. Beflection: Power of cohesion in holding the universe together: its 
 effects in giving to matter such properties as elasticity, flexibility, 
 ductility, malleability, etc. 
 
 5. Division op Labour. 
 
 1. General: The principle in economics by which different departments 
 
 of labour are performed by different hands. 
 
 2. Particular : The process of producing a specific article is subdivided 
 
 into successive steps, and each step is assigned to a special work- 
 man: each workman limits himself to his own department: con- 
 trast with the rudimentary stages in society, in which each man 
 does all the parts of the same work ; and with the most advanced, 
 in which machinery does all the parts equally well : pin-making : 
 book -making: trade: education. 
 
 3. Beflection: Each man acquires higher skill, and greater celerity, by 
 
 confining himself to a special department: saving of time — all 
 departments progressing at once : economy of labour : increase of 
 production : increase of employment : a greater number of men can 
 acquire sufficient skill to labour in one department than in several : 
 extension of manufactures and commerce. 
 
 6. The Benefits of Commerce. 
 
 1. Beflection: Affords employment to large numbers: increases wealth 
 
 and prosperity : calls forth energy, enterprise, activity : creates a 
 demand for education : leads to moral and social elevation : con- 
 tributes to the strength and influence of a country: binds men 
 together by promoting common interests : binds nations together : 
 promotes peace. 
 
 2. Illustration: Constitutes the true greatness of Britain : its influence in 
 
 preserving peace amongst modem states, — e.g., Britain, America, 
 and France. 
 
 3. Antithesis: Contrast with states and periods in which commerce was 
 
 limited : the great empires based upon military power have been 
 evanescent, — e.g., the ancient Asiatic monarchies, the Roman empire, 
 the Germano- Roman empire, the first French empire, etc., etc. 
 
 Additional Subjects. 
 
 7. Aristocracy. 13. The Benefits of Travelling. 
 
 8. Toleration. 14. The Force of Habit. 
 
 9. Honesty. 15. The Advantages of Method. 
 
 10. Elasticity. 16. The British Constitution. 
 
 11. Gravitation. 17. The Pleasures of Imagination. 
 
 12. Obedience. 18. The Influences of Art. 
 
SUMMARY, OR PRECIS WRITING. 79 
 
 Chapter V. — Summary, or Precis Writing. 
 
 108. Summarising is the process of selecting, and expressing 
 in a single paragraph, the essential features of an extended com- 
 position, or series of papers, — e.g.^ a debate, a correspondence, an 
 historical narrative, an official letter or despatch. 
 
 («) The preceding exercises on the Paragraph have depended mainly 
 on Expansion and Enlargement. The present Chapter requires the 
 converse process, — that of Contraction and Abridgment. 
 
 109. The writing of a Summary (or Memorandum, as it is 
 officially called) requires that the document or passage to be 
 summarised be in the first place carefully read over, and a brief 
 abstract or analysis made of the most important parts ; and then 
 that these parts be written out in the form of a short narrative, 
 which will be the summary required. The following extract 
 from the " Report of H. M. Civil S.rvice Commissioners," fully 
 explains the nature and requirements both of the abstract and of 
 the summary : — 
 
 "1. The object of the abstract (schedule or docket) is to serve as an 
 index. It should contain the date of each letter : the names of the persons 
 by whom and to whom it is written ; and, in as few words as possible^ the 
 subject of it. The merits of such an abstract are, — (1.) to give the really 
 important point or points of each letter, omitting everything else; (2.) to 
 do this briefly; (3.) distinctly; and (4.) in such a form as readily to catch 
 the eye. 
 
 " 2. The object of the memorandum (or precis), which should he in the 
 form of a narrative, is that any one who had not time to read the original 
 letters might, by reading the precis, be put in possession of all the leading 
 features of what passed. The merits of such a precis are, — (1.) to contain 
 a concise history of the correspondence, including all that is important in 
 its substance, and nothing that is unimportant ; (2.) to present this in a 
 consecutive and readable shape, expressed as ' distinctly as possible; (3.) 
 to be as brief as is compatible with completeness and distinctness." 
 
 110. The best method of performing this exercise may be 
 gathered from the following rules : — 
 
 I. Read over the whole passage or correspondence, and 
 underline with pencil, or otherwise mark, the most 
 important parts. 
 
80 COMPOSITION IN PROSE. 
 
 II. Select tliese parts, and write tliem in the fewest possible 
 words, as an abstract, or series of heads. 
 
 III. Extend these heads in the form of short sentences. This 
 
 forms the summary. 
 
 IV. Number the letters or paragraphs (1, 2, 3, etc.) in the 
 
 original, and place corresponding numbers before the 
 notes or heads in the abstract, and the sentences in the 
 summary. 
 V. The abstract may, for reference, afterwards be thrown into 
 the form of an index. (See § 111. IV.) 
 
 Ill, Example. 
 
 [The essential parts in the following correspondence are here printed in 
 
 itahcs.] 
 
 I. The Correspondence. 
 
 No. 1. — Mr Waddington to the Civil Service Commissioners. 
 
 Gentlemen, Whitehall, 4th June 1860. 
 
 I am directed by Secretary Sir George Lewis to inform you that he 
 
 proposes to appoint Mr , at present a supplemental clerk in the Treasury, 
 
 to a vacant clerkship in the office of the Receiver of Police. As Mr 
 
 obtained a certificate from you in 1857, on his appointment to the Treasury, 
 Sir George Lewis presumes it will not he necessary for him to appear before 
 you for examination on his appointment to the Receiver's office, but he 
 will be glad to receive your decision on the matter, and I am to request 
 your early reply. — I am, &c. 
 
 No. 2. — Mr Maitland to Mr Waddington. 
 
 Sir, ^ 7th June 1860. 
 
 (1.) In reply to your letter of the 4th instant, notifying the nomination 
 
 of Mr , now a supplemental clerk in the Treasury, to a clerkship 
 
 in the office of the Receiver of Police, and requesting to be informed whether 
 it will be necessary for him to appear for examination ; 
 
 I am directed by the Civil Service Commissioners to state that Mr 
 
 was on his nomination to his present clerkship examined in some of the 
 subjects required for the office of the Receiver of Police, and that the 
 Commissioners having referred to his performances, will not think it 
 necessary to re-examine him in those subjects. There are, however, two 
 others (history and geography) in which he was not on the former occasion 
 examined, and in which he should therefore he examined, in order that the 
 certificate necessary on his appointment to the junior situation to which 
 he is now nominated may be granted. 
 
SUMMARY, OR PRl^CIS WRITING. 81 
 
 (2.) I have at the same time to state that Mr appears, from the 
 
 evidence produced on his former nomination, to he between 29 and 30 years 
 of age, and that the ordinary limits for the situation to which he is now 
 nominated are 1 7 and 25. The Commissioners, however, will be perfectly 
 willing to accede to an extension of the limit in favour of those who have 
 previously been in the public service, if the Receiver of Police should think 
 fit to recommend it, and they will communicate with him on the subject. 
 I have, &c. 
 
 No. 3. — Mr Maitland to Mr Drummond. 
 
 Sir, 7th June 1860. 
 
 I am directed by the Civil Service Commissioners to acquaint you 
 that, by letter from the Home Office, of the 4th instant, they have been 
 
 informed of the nomination of Mr , now a supplemental clerk in the 
 
 Treasury, to a clerkship in your department. 
 
 It appears from the evidence produced by Mr on his former nomi- 
 nation, that he is now between 29 and 30 years of age, and consequently 
 ineligible, under the regulations established by the late Receiver of Pofice, 
 after a correspondence, which will be found in the appendix to the new 
 report of the Commissioners. 
 
 The Commissioners, however, will be perfectly willing to accede to an 
 extension of the higher limit of age in favour of candidates who have 
 previously been in the public service, and they would suggest for your 
 consideration the following rule, which has been adopted by several of the 
 public departments : — "For candidates who have been previously in the 
 public service, the higher limit of age shall be extended to 30, provided 
 that the candidate was under 25 when he entered the service, and has 
 served continuously." — I have, &c. 
 
 No. 4. — Mr Drummond to the Civil Service Commissioners. 
 
 Metropolitan Police Office, Receiver's Department, 
 Gentlemen, 8th June 1860. 
 
 In reply to your communication of the 7th instant, I beg to state, in 
 regard to the limit of age for candidates for clerkships in my department 
 who have previously been in the public service, that / fuUy concur in the 
 suggestion which you have made. 
 
 I have, &c. 
 
 No. 5. — Mr Maitland to Mr Waddington. 
 
 Sir, 9th June 1860. 
 
 Referring to my letter of the 7th instant, in which it was stated that 
 
 the age of Mr exceeds the maximum limit fixed for clerkships in the 
 
 office of the Receiver of Metropolitan Police, but that the Civil Service 
 Commissioner would suggest for the consideration of the Receiver whether 
 
 F 
 
82 COMPOSITION IN PROSE. 
 
 it would not be advisable somewhat to extend that limit where, as in the 
 
 case of Mr , the candidate being in the public service had entered it 
 
 before he had attained the maximum applicable to the Keceiver's Office, 
 and had served continuously ; — 
 
 I am directed by the Civil Service Commissioners to acquaint you, for 
 the information of Secretary Sir George Lewis, that they have this morning 
 received a letter from Mr Drummond, who acquiesces in their suggestion^ 
 
 and that they will therefore he prepared to examine Mr on Tuesday 
 
 next, the \2th instant, at 10 a.m., or at the same hour on any subsequent 
 Tuesday. — I have, &c. 
 
 II. The Abstract. 
 
 No. 1. — Mr Waddington 
 to 
 Civ. Ser. Commrs. Whitehall, 4th June 1860. 
 
 or, 4/6/60. 
 
 Appointment of Mr , Sup. Clerk in Treasury, as Clerk to Receiver 
 
 of PoUce. He obtained certificate in 1857 ; need he be examined again? 
 
 No. 2. — Mr Maitland 
 
 to 7/6/60. 
 
 Mr Waddington. 
 
 (1.) Mr need not be re-examined in the subjects in which he was 
 
 examined in 1857, but must be tested in History and Geography, in which 
 he was not examined before. 
 
 (2.) Mr is above 29 ; the max. age is 25. The Coms. will extend 
 
 the limit to 30 in the case of one in public service, if the Receiver of 
 Police agree. 
 
 No. 3. — Mr Maitland 
 
 to 7/6/60. 
 
 Mr Drummond. 
 
 Suggesting the above exception [2. (2.) ] as to age, " provided the 
 candidate was under 25 when he entered the service, and has served 
 continuously." 
 
 No. 4. — Mr Drummond 
 
 to 8/6/60. 
 
 Civil Ser. Commrs. 
 Concurring in the suggestion. 
 
 No. 5. — Mr Maitland 
 
 to 9/6/60. 
 
 Mr Waddington. 
 
 Intimating Mr Drummond's concurrence, and appointing Tuesday, 
 12th inst. (or any subsequent Tuesday), at 10 a.m., for Mr 's exa- 
 mination. 
 
SUMMARY, OR PRECIS WRITING. 
 
 83 
 
 III. The Summary. 
 
 Exception to Bute for Examination and Age of Clerks in Office of Receiver 
 
 of Police. 
 
 No. 1. (4/6/60.) Sir G. C. Lewis having proposed (4th June 1860) 
 to transfer Mr from a Supplemental Clerk- 
 ship in the Treasury Office, to an Assistant Clerk- 
 ship in the office of Receiver of Police, the question 
 
 •was raised : " Whether Mr , who had obtained 
 
 a Civ. Ser. Certificate in 1857, need be re-examined?" 
 
 No. 2. (7/6/60.) The Commissioners decided that he need be examined 
 
 only in the subjects he had not been examined 
 in before (History and Geography). But they 
 
 observe that Mr is above 29, while the limit 
 
 of age for the new appointment is 25. They, how- 
 ever, express their willingness to waive that ob- 
 jection in the case of one previously in the public 
 service (provided he had entered it before 25 and had 
 served continuously), if the Receiver of Police con- 
 
 Nos. 3, 4. (7,8/6/60.) curred. Mr Drummond (the Receiver), having sig- 
 nified his concurrence, the Commissioners intimated 
 
 No. 5. (9/6/60.) the same, and their readiness to examine Mr on 
 
 the subsequent Tuesday. 
 
 IV. The Index. 
 
 1 ^^- 
 
 CORKKSPONDENTS. 
 
 Dates. 
 
 Substance of Letters. 
 
 \ 
 
 Mr Waddington to 
 Civ. Ser. Coras. 
 
 4/6/60. 
 
 Inquiring whether a Clerk trans- 
 ferred from one Department to 
 another need be re-examined. 
 
 I: 2. 
 
 Mr Maitland to 
 Mr Waddington. 
 
 7/6/60. 
 
 (1.) Ans. : — Not in same subjects ; 
 
 but in new ones. 
 (2.) Suggesting exceptions as to age 
 
 in such cases. 
 
 \ 3. 
 
 Mr Maitland to 
 Mr Drummond. 
 
 7/6/60. 
 
 Submitting the above suggestion. 
 
 4. 
 
 Mr Drummond to 
 Civ. Ser. Corns. 
 
 8/6/60. 
 
 Concurring in suggestion. 
 
 5. 
 
 Mr Maitland to 
 Mr Waddington. 
 
 9/6/60. 
 
 Intimating the alteration, and ap- 
 pointing day for Examination. 
 
84 COMPOSITION IN PROSE. 
 
 Exercise 34. 
 
 Write an Abstract and Summary of each of the following 
 letters, or series of letters, and make an Index to the correspon- 
 dence : — 
 
 I. 3Ir Romaine to the Civil Service Commissioners. 
 
 Admiralty, 28th November 1860. 
 Gentlemen, 
 
 With reference to the enclosed Admiralty memorandum of the 25th of 
 October 1855, which fixes the qualifications for persons proposed to be 
 appointed to junior situations in the Civil Establishments under the 
 Admiralty ; 
 
 I am commanded by my Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty to 
 acquaint you that they are desirous of so far modifying the exception to 
 the regulation as regards the maximum age for admission, as to admit 
 persons who have been temporarily employed, and who may be nominated 
 to clerkships, if under 30 years of age, provided they were under 25 years 
 of age when first either temporarily or otherwise employed under Her 
 Majesty's Government. 
 
 This modification of the existing exception to the rule of age will admit 
 persons to the Civil Service, who, though above 25 when first appointed 
 to temporary employment, may have previously served the Crown in the 
 navy or army, or other permanent situations, not under the Civil Service. 
 
 I am, &c. 
 
 II. (No. 1.) — C. H. Pennell, Esq., to the Civil Service Commissioners. 
 
 Admiralty, 24th July 1860. 
 Gentlemen, 
 
 I am commanded by my Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty to in- 
 form you that, as book-keeping is not a necessary qualification for the 
 clerks employed in the Admiralty, Whitehall, their Lordships request that 
 you will substitute " English composition, and making a precis or digest 
 of papers or correspondence," for book-keeping, in the case of persons 
 hereafter to be examined for temporary clerkships in this oflict* 
 
 I am, &c. 
 
 (No. 2.)— Mr Maitland to Mr Romaine. 
 
 28th July I860. 
 
 Sir, 
 
 In reply to your letter of the 24th instant, expressing the wish of my 
 Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty, that " English composition," and 
 
SUMMARY, OR PRECIS WRITING. 85 
 
 " the preparation of a precis or digest of papers or correspondence," should 
 be substituted for book-keeping in the examination of candidates nominated 
 to temporary clerkships in tlie Admiralty, Whitehall ; 
 
 I am directed by the Civil Service Commissioners to state that they will 
 .comply with the wishes expressed by my Lords. They endeavour fairly 
 to test the knowledge of book-keeping possessed by candidates in cases 
 where such knowledge is deemed necessary by the authorities of the 
 several departments ; but where this is not the case, they have no desire 
 that it should remain among the prescribed subjects of examination. 
 I have, &c. 
 
 III. (No. I.)— Mr Maitland to Mr Bothery. 
 
 23d April 1860. 
 Sir, 
 
 I am directed by the Civil Service Commissioners to acknowledge the 
 receipt of your letter of the 16tli instant, stating, by desire of the Judge 
 of the High Court of Admiralty in England, the alterations about to be 
 made in the constitution of the offices of the Registrar and Marshal of the 
 Court, and the changes proposed in the examination to which candidates 
 are subjected. 
 
 In reply, I am to state that the Commissioners will be prepared to 
 carry Dr Lushington's wishes into eflfect, as regards the examination of 
 candidates. With reference to the higher limits of age (35 for the 
 Registrar's Office, and 30 for that of the Marshal), I am to observe that 
 they exceed the usual maximum, and that although in your letter of 6tli 
 February 1858 a reason for the peculiarity is assigned, it appears possible 
 that the re-organisation now in progress may so far diminish the force of 
 that reason as to render it expedient that the question should be recon- 
 sidered. Dr Lushington will be aware that under the general Super- 
 annuation Act (the schedule to which includes the Act 17 & 18 Vic. c. 78), 
 the maximum pension attainable is two-thirds of the salary previously 
 enjoyed, and that for the attainment of this maximum forty years' service 
 is required. A person admitted at 35 will not acquire this claim until he 
 has attained the age of 75, and there will probably be a period (ordinarily 
 not less than 10 years) dui*ing which he is, on the one hand, becoming less 
 and less efficien': for the duties of a clerk, while, on the other hand, he is 
 annually gaining a title to increased superannuation. Under these circum- 
 stances, it will be difficult to press his retirement, and it will be still more 
 difficult if, as is not very unusual, the failure of bodily or mental vigour 
 should begin at 55, when the superannuation allowance will be only one- 
 third, or at 60, when it will be only five-twelfths of the salary. 
 
 Of course it is impossible to avoid all risk of this inconvenience, but it 
 is less likely to occur in the case of a public servant appointed while 
 under 25 than in that of one who enters at 35. 
 
86 COMPOSITION IN PROSE. * 
 
 The same considerations apply, though with less force, to the higher 
 limit (30) at present fixed for the Marshal's Office, 
 
 The Commissioners have thought it right to bring this question again 
 under Dr Lushington's notice; but if he should be of opinion that the 
 reason originally assigned still renders it necessary that the limits for the 
 two offices should be exceptional, they will readily defer to his judgment. 
 
 I have, &c. 
 
 (No. 2.) — Mr Bothery to Mr Maitland. 
 
 Admiralty Registry, Doctors' Commons. 
 27th April 1860. 
 Sir, 
 
 I am directed by the Right Honourable Stephen Lushington, the Judge 
 of the High Court of Admiralty of England, to acknowledge the receipt of 
 your letter of the 23d instant, stating that the higher limits of age proposed 
 for admission to this and the Marshal's Office exceed the usual maximum, 
 pointing out the inconveniences that may attend the appointment of clerks 
 at the age of 35 years, who would probably become incapable of efficiently 
 performing their duties long before they were entitled to the maximum 
 pension, and suggesting whether, now that these offices have been re- 
 organised and extended, the reasons assigned in my letter of the 6th of 
 February 1858 for this deviation from the usual practice still prevail. 
 
 In reply, I am directed to inform you that the reason which originally 
 induced Dr Lushington to think that an exception in regard to the maxi- 
 mum limit of age on admission might bo made in this office was, that 
 occasions might arise, as on the breaking out of a war, when it might be 
 necessary suddenly to increase the establishment, and if in that case there 
 should not be found amongst the junior clerks any who were capable of 
 discharging the more important duties of the office, it would be necessary 
 to appoint persons who, from professional experience, might have acquired 
 a knowledge of the practice of the Court. 
 
 These reasons, in Dr Lushington's opinion, still prevail, although, it 
 must be admitted, not in so great a degree as when the office was smaller. 
 The same remarks apply to the Marshal's Office. And as the Commis- 
 sioners have been good enough to say that, should Dr Lushington continue 
 of the same opinion, they would defer to his judgment, he desires me to 
 inform you that he thinks that it would be better to retain the limits of 
 age as originally proposed, viz., from 17 to 35 years on admission to this 
 office, and 18 to 30 on admission to the Marshal's Office. At the same 
 time, I am desired to state that, in making any future appointments, care 
 will be taken that the limits of age usual on admission to other public 
 offices shall be maintained, except when the nature of the duties to be 
 performed renders a deviation therefrom necessary. 
 
 I am, &c. 
 
SUMMARY, OR PRECIS WRITING. 87 
 
 IV. (No. l.)—3Ir Macaulay to Mr Maitland. 
 
 Audit Office, 13th July 1860. 
 Sir, 
 
 The attention of the Directors of Prisons in Scotland having been 
 called to the appointment of a warder of Perth prison to the situation of 
 clerk in the steward's department in that establishment without a certi- 
 cate of qualification from the Civil Service Commissioners, I am directed 
 by the Commissioners for auditing the Public Accounts to transmit to you 
 a copy of the query and of the reply to it, and also of a letter from the 
 Directors, forwarding the same, and I am to request that the Board may 
 be apprised of the opinion of the Civil Service Commissioners upon the 
 subject. 
 
 I have, &c. 
 
 Enclosure. 
 
 General Board of Prisons, Edinburgh. 
 5th July 1860. 
 Sir, 
 
 In reference to the accompanying answer to a query relating to the 
 appointment of an officer in the General Prison at Perth, who has not 
 received a certificate from the Civil Service Commissioners, I am directed 
 to make the following explanations. The person in question having been 
 merely transferred from one office in the prison to another, it was not 
 supposed that under any circumstances the regulations of the Civil Service 
 Commission would apply to his case. On a previous occasion, however, 
 when they appointed two persons not previously on the stafi' of the prison 
 to clerkships, the Board took the matter into consideration, and made 
 inquiries to satisfy themselves on the question whether the staff of the 
 General Prison could be brought within the arrangement referred to. The 
 Board found some practical difficulties in their way, and they have not 
 found it expedient to deal with these, as there is at present a bill before 
 Parliament which provides for the Board coming to an end in December 
 next, and for the administration of the General Prison being placed more 
 immediately under the control of the Secretary of State. 
 1 have, &c., 
 
 (Signed) J. II. Burton. 
 
 Copy of the Query and Answer. 
 Salaries and Wages. Query. 
 
 Appointment of Mr , head The name of this person does not 
 
 warder, as clerk in steward's de- appear in the return of certificates 
 partment, at a salary of £85 per of qualification furnished to this 
 annum, with house and garden. office by the Civil Service Commis- 
 
 sioners. Explanation is requested. 
 
88 coMrosiTiON in prose. 
 
 Reply. 
 
 The officers in the General Prison do not require to possess certificates 
 from the Civil Service Commissioners. They are appointed by the General 
 Board of Directors of Prisons under the following statutory powers in 2 and 
 3 Vic, cap. 42, sec. 22 : — " The said General Board shall have power to 
 appoint keepers, chaplains, medical officers, and teachers for the said 
 General Prison at Perth, under their own immediate superintendence and 
 management, together with all officers, clerks, and other persons required 
 for the said General Prison at Perth, in execution of this Act, and to assign 
 to all such persons such remuneration for their services as they shall 
 think proper." 
 
 (Signed) J. H. Burton. 
 
 (No. 2.) — Mr Maitland to Mr Macaulay. 
 
 19th July 1860. 
 Sir, 
 
 In reply to your letter of the 13th instant, enclosing correspondence 
 relative to the appointment of a warder of Perth prison to the situation 
 of clerk in the steward's department in that establishment, without a 
 certificate of qualification, I am directed by the Civil Service Commissioners 
 to state that Mr Burton's letter does not appear to them to assign any 
 sufficient ground for the exemption of the officers of Perth prison, and that 
 as at present advised they can only express their opinion that a certificate 
 of qualification was required. It is probable that the practical difficulties 
 apprehended by the Board might have been removed if there had been any 
 communication with this office previously to the appointments which Mr 
 Burton mentions as having preceded that now under consideration. 
 I have, &c. 
 
 (No. 3.) — /. H. Burton^ Esq., to Mr Maitland. 
 
 General Board of Prisons, Edinburgh, 
 1st August 1860. 
 Sir, 
 
 Referring to your letter of the 19th July to the Secretary of the Com- 
 missioners of Audit, relating to the appointment of a clerk in the General 
 Prison at Perth, which has been transmitted to this office, I am directed to 
 request that you will have the goodness to furnish me with the latest 
 regulations or instructions of the Civil Service Commission in relation to 
 officers in Government prisons, for the purpose of enabling me to lay full 
 information on the matter before the General Board of Prisons in Scotland. 
 
 I have, &c. 
 
I 
 
 SUMMARY, OR PRECIS WRITING. 8 
 
 (No. 4.)— ilfr Maitland to Mr Burton. 
 
 7th August 1860. 
 
 Sir, 
 
 In reply to your letter of the 1st instant, requesting to be furnished 
 with the latest regulations or instructions of this Commission in relation to 
 officers in Government prisons ; 
 
 I am directed by the Civil Service Commissioners to state that no 
 documents relating especially to the class in question have been issued by 
 them. The officers of Government prisons have been considered as holders 
 of junior situations within the meaning of the Order in Council under which 
 the Commissioners act ; and this being the case, it appears that regulations 
 as to the age, health, and character of candidates, and also as to the sub- 
 jects of examination, should be settled with the assistance of the Commis- 
 sioners, at the discretion of the chief authorities of the department. 
 
 Correspondence relative to the department of Convict Prisons in England 
 will be found in the Appendix to the Fourth Report of the Commissioners, 
 but the Commissioners are of course unable to judge whether the circum- 
 stances are so far similar as to render a reference to it desirable. 
 I have, &c 
 
 112. The same process may be employed in writing Summaries 
 of official Reports, of historical periods, and of imaginative nar- 
 ratives, in prose and verse. In performing this exercise, it is 
 necessary to omit all unnecessary details, and to record results 
 rather than causes. 
 
 Exercise 35. 
 Subjects for Summary. 
 
 1. The reign of William the Conquerer. 
 
 2. The reign of Henry VIII. 
 
 3. The reign of Louis XIV. 
 . 4. The Third Crusade. 
 
 6. The Second Campaign in the Peninsular War. 
 
 6. The Battle of Waterloo. 
 
 7. A Parliamentary Report. 
 
 8. A Parliamentary Speech. 
 
 9. The Evidence of a Witness. 
 
 10. The Book of Esther. 
 
 1 1. The First Canto of llarmion. 
 
 12. The Prologue to the Canterbury Tales. 
 
 13. The Fifth Act of Hamlet. 
 
 14. The First Act of Macbeth. 
 
 15. The First Book of Paradise Lost. 
 
 16. Tennyson's -fi'^aine. 
 
PRINTED BY OLIVER AND BOYD, EDINBURGH. 
 
i 
 
ADVANCED TEXT-BOOK 
 
 OP 
 
 ENGLISH COMPOSITION, 
 
 IN PEOSE AND VEKSE. 
 
 WALTEE SCOTT DALGLEISH, M.A.EDIN., 
 
 LATE ENGLISH MASTER IN THE LONDON INTERNATIONAL COLLEGE, 
 AUTHOR OF "THE PROGRESSIVE ENGLISH GRAMMAR," "GRAMMATICAL ANALYSIS," ETC. 
 
 NINTH EDITION. 
 
 EDINBURGH : 
 OLIVER AND BOYD, TWEEDDALE COURT. 
 
 N, MAI 
 
 1872. 
 
 Price 23.; or bound with the Introductory Text-Book, 2s. 6d 
 
ME DALGLEISH'S SCHOOL BOOKS. 
 
 OUTLINES OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION, 
 
 For Elementary Schools ; with Exercises. 6d. 
 
 INTRODUCTORY TEXT-BOOK OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION; 
 
 Based on Grammaticai, Synthesis: 
 Containing Sentences, Paragraphs, and Short Essays. Is. 
 
 ADVANCED TEXT-BOOK OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION; 
 
 Treating of Style, Pbose Themes, and Versification. 2s. 
 *^f* Both Books bound together, 2s. 6d. 
 
 GRAMMATICAL ANALYSIS, with PROGRESSIVE EXERCISES. 9d. 
 
 OUTLINES OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR AND ANALYSIS, 
 
 For Elementary Schools ; with Exercises. 8d. 
 
 PROGRESSIVE ENGLISH GRAMMAR, with EXERCISES. 2s. 
 
 From Dr Joseph Bosworth, Professor of Anglo-Saxon in the University of Oxford; 
 Author of the Anglo-Saxon Dictionary, etc., etc. 
 
 " Quite a practical work, and contains a vast quantity of important information, well 
 arranged, and brought up to the present improved state of philology. I have never 
 seen so much matter brought together in so short a space." 
 
 edindurgh: trikted by Oliver akd eoyd. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 The Author has taken advantage of the publication of his work 
 on English Composition in two parts, to adapt the present 
 portion of it specially to the requirements of the higher classes 
 in schools. He has accordingly prefixed to the Part on the 
 Structure of Themes a series of chapters on Style, in which 
 he has embodied the remarks on the Selection of Words and 
 on Figurative Language which formerly appeared in an earlier 
 part of the work. 
 
 Instead of introducing Exercises after each chapter, he has 
 increased the number of illustrations in the text, and has ap- 
 pended to the Part on Style a series of extracts from standard 
 authors for critical examination. To assist the pupil in this 
 useful exercise, a few questions, chiefly by way of suggestion, 
 are appended to each extract. As these selections are arranged 
 chronologically, they afford a view, though necessarily an im- 
 perfect one, of the progress of English Prose Style. 
 
 The plans suggested for Theme writing will, it is believed, be 
 found at once less ambitious, and more practical, — more within 
 
4 PREFACE. 
 
 the compreliension and the powers of school boys and girls, — 
 than those usually adopted. They arc, in fact, — as a reference 
 to Exercises 22, et seq., will show, — a simple carrying out in a 
 higher form of the " Object Lessons" of our elementary schools, 
 and are designed to exercise the observing powers of the young 
 mind long before the reflective powers are called Into play. 
 The exercises are at the same time carefully graduated, from 
 the simplest and briefest narration of daily occurrences, and 
 description of every-day objects, to the more abstract argumen- 
 tative themes, which, in the case of advanced pupils, will form 
 an introduction to the study of Rhetoric proper, as treated of in 
 the works of Whately, Blair, and Campbell. 
 
 In the present edition, the number of skeleton Themes has 
 been greatly Increased, in order to afford both pupils and teachers 
 greater facilities for applying the principles of Style. At the 
 same time, great importance Is attached to " Scheme-making," 
 or the preparing of outlines from which themes or paragraphs 
 are to be written. For this exercise special directions have 
 been given at § 68 ; and it Is suggested that teachers should 
 encourage the idea that this is as Important an exercise as that 
 of writing the complete theme. It is so In reality ; for on the 
 completeness and accuracy of the outline, the true excellence of 
 the after composition, as an expression of connected thought, 
 mainly depends. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 ' In tlie chapters on Versification, the author has made the 
 experiment at once of discarding the classical names hitherto 
 usually employed in English Prosody, and, at the same time, 
 of very much simplifying the treatment of this part of the sub- 
 ject. The chief reason for adopting such a change was the 
 evident impropriety of using terms which in Latin apply to 
 length and shortness of sound, for what in English denote strength 
 and weakness of accent. In Classical Prosody, an Iambus means 
 a short and a long syllable ; in English, it means a weak and a 
 strong accent, — a difference, the neglect of which cannot but 
 lead to misconceptions as to the nature both of accent and 
 of quantity. It may be expected, on the other hand, that a 
 clearly marked distinction between these two principles may 
 tend to give greater prominence, in Classical Prosody, to the 
 rhythm of the verse, as distinct from its quantitative measure. 
 Whether the classification here proposed (§§ 93, 106, et seq.) 
 is adequate or satisfactory is a difi'erent question, — one which 
 this is not the proper place to discuss. 
 
 In this part of the work, the further experiment has been 
 made of giving practical exercises in English Prosody. Some 
 of these exercises are not new. Others, however, such as 
 Exercises 32, 33, were, so far as the author is aware, suggested 
 for the first time in this work ; and he is glad to find that his 
 own experience of their utility in training the ear and improving 
 
6 PREFACE. 
 
 the taste of more advanced pupils, has been confirmed by that 
 of teachers who have adopted the system. 
 
 Appendices, containing directions for the Correction of the 
 Press, a list of Books of Reference, and an Explanatory Index 
 giving brief definitions of Grammatical and Rhetorical Terms, 
 have been added to the work, in order to render it as complete 
 as possible. 
 
 W. S. D. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 PART I.— ON STYLE. 
 
 PAQB 
 
 Chapter I. — Style in General, 9 
 
 „ II. — Language, ........ H 
 
 1. Accuracy, 31 
 
 2. Simplicity, 36 
 
 3. Conciseness, 19 
 
 4. Purity, 21 
 
 „ III. — Figures of Language, 24 
 
 „ IV. — Construction, 29 
 
 1. Unity, 29 
 
 2. Clearness, 30 
 
 3. Strength, 33 
 
 4. Melody, 37 
 
 „ V. — Analysis of Style, 40 
 
 PART II.— PROSE THEMES. 
 
 Chapter I. — Narration, 53 
 
 1. Incidental Themes, 55 
 
 2. Biographical Themes, 56 
 
 3. Historical Themes, 60 
 
 „ II. — Description, 63 
 
 „ III. — Exposition, 66 
 
 1. Discursive Themes, 66 
 
 2. Argumentative Themes, 71 
 
8 CONTENTS. 
 
 PART III.— VERSIFICATION. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Chapter I. — Preliminary Definitions and Processes, . . . 81 
 
 „ II. — Regular Measure, .88 
 
 1. Simple (Iambic), 88 
 
 2. Complex (Anapaestic), 92 
 
 „ III. — Irregular Measure, 97 
 
 1. Simple (Trochaic), 97 
 
 2. Complex (Dactylic), 99 
 
 „ IV. — Narrative in Verse, 105 
 
 „ V. — Translation, 119 
 
 APPENDICES. 
 
 I. Correction of the Press, . . , , . , ,135 
 
 II. Books of Eeference, , 140 
 
 HI. Explanatory Index, , , , . . , . ,142 
 
ADYANCED TEXT-BOOK 
 
 OP 
 
 ENGLISH COMPOSITION. 
 
 PART I.— ON STYLE. 
 
 Chapter I.— Style in General. 
 
 1. Style signifies manner of writing. It is the name given 
 to that combination of qualities which Rhetoric requires a 
 good composition to possess. Style takes no account of the 
 matter of a literary work. It is concerned only with its form ; 
 and not with its form as thought, but only with its form as 
 expressed. The question which it asks is not what does an 
 author say ? but, how does he say it ? It does not ask whether 
 the thought is true or false ; that is a question of science, or of 
 fact : it does not inquire whether the conclusions are accurately 
 drawn ; that is a question of Logic. The domain of Rhetoric is 
 posterior to, and independent of, both of these inquiries. The 
 facts may be undoubted, or the truths unimpeachable; the 
 reasoning may be the most exact, and the conclusions inevitable ; 
 yet the language may be obscure or inelegant, and the con- 
 struction weak or clumsy. It is here that Rhetoric steps in, to 
 enounce principles regulating both the choice of words and the 
 arrangement of words in sentences, and of sentences in an 
 extended composition. 
 
 {a) These principles have already been glanced at, both under the 
 Sentence and under the Paragraph. At this stage, however, it is 
 expedient that they should be more formally elucidated, for the pur- 
 poses both of criticism and of practical application to the art of 
 composition. 
 
10 COMPOSITION IN PROSE. 
 
 2. The excellence of a literary composition depends primarily 
 upon that of its separate sentences. The qualities of style in 
 general, therefore, may be reduced to the qualities of the sentence. 
 Now, the excellence of a sentence depends upon two things, — 
 first, upon the LangucCge^ or the choice of words ; second, upon 
 the Construction^ or the arrangement of its parts. We have thus 
 two divisions of the subject of style, which require separate 
 treatment. 
 
 3. Before proceeding to examine these divisions in detail, 
 there are certain general qualities of style to be noted, which 
 indicate the ends sought to be attained by the special qualities 
 of language and of construction. These are Perspicuity^ Energy^ 
 and Grace. 
 
 4. I. Perspicuity of style is opposed to obscurity, or indefinite- 
 ness of meaning. It corresponds with transparency in sensible 
 objects. It is the quality which renders style a true medium for 
 transmitting the writer's thought to the reader. It aims at con- 
 veying a clear and intelligible idea of the author's meaning. 
 Style is wanting in perspicuity, if it leaves any doubt as to the 
 precise drift of every sentence, or any difficulty in ascertaining 
 this. It is a quality of the first importance. 
 
 5. II. Energy of style is opposed to feebleness. It is that 
 quality by which an author makes his meaning not only plain, 
 but also impressive. If perspicuity makes it impossible to mis- 
 understand a writer, energy makes it difficult to forget him ; it 
 may be, difficult to differ from him. 
 
 6. III. Grace of style is opposed to clumsiness and vulgarity. 
 Its aim is to please the reader, — to gratify his taste, and so to 
 gain his sympathy. Its general effect resembles that of good 
 manners in society. Both are the result of culture in its widest 
 sense. If energy corresponds with the fortiter in re, grace of 
 style corresponds with the suaviter in modo, 
 
 7. Nearly corresponding with this classification of the qualities 
 of style, there is a threefold division of Rhetoric, according to the 
 end which a composition has in view. Its aim may be, 1st, 
 simply to inform, — to convey information regarding objects, 
 events, or the truths of science; 2<f, to persuade, — to induce 
 those addressed to pursue a certain course of action; Sd, to 
 
I 
 
 STYLE. 11 
 
 please^ — to encourage and aid the mind in the exercise of its 
 faculties. The first kind of composition appeals primarily to the 
 understanding. Its sphere is Science in its widest acceptation, 
 as including History as well as Philosophy, and it requires 
 perspicuity as its prominent quality. The second kind of 
 composition seeks to influence the will. Its proper domain is 
 Oratory, and its distinguishing quality is energy. The third 
 kind of composition works upon the imagination. It includes 
 Poetry, and all kinds of imaginative writing, whether in prose 
 or in verse; and, without detriment to the other qualities, it 
 must pre-eminently be characterized by grace. This division is 
 exhibited in the following table : — 
 
 Composition. End. Faculty. Quality. 
 
 1. Science, . ... to inform . . the understanding . Perspicuity. 
 
 2. Oratory, . ... to persuade . the will .... Energy. 
 
 3. Poesy, to please . . the imagination . . Grace. 
 
 It will be understood that these qualities of style do not 
 exclusively belong to the kinds of writing against which they 
 are placed. It is, for example, desirable that the expositions of 
 Science should be energetic and graceful, as well as perspicuous ; 
 it is indispensable that Oratory and Poetry should be perspicuous 
 as well as graceful and energetic. This classification is intended 
 to show only the outstanding or primary qualities of the different 
 kinds of composition respectively. 
 
 8. We now proceed to examine the special qualities of language 
 and of construction which conduce to these general qualities of 
 style. 
 
 Chapter II. — Language. 
 
 9. In regard to Language, or the choice of words, upon which 
 much of the charm of style depends, there are four qualities to 
 be aimed at, — 1. Accuracy/; 2. Simplicity/; 3. Conciseness; 4. 
 Purity. 
 
 1. Accuracy. 
 
 10. Of these qualities of language. Accuracy is the most im- 
 portant. It claims the first attention. It is the last to be 
 
12 COMPOSITION IN PROSE. 
 
 sacrificed. It is that quality of language wliicli makes it the 
 precise counterpart of the thought. The words employed by 
 a writer may fail in simplicity ; they may be abstruse or rare : 
 his words may fail in conciseness ; they may be too numerous 
 for the thought : his words may fail in purity ; they may be 
 harsh-sounding or unidiomatic. In all these respects he may 
 lose something, and yet his meaning may be quite intelligible. 
 But if he fail in Accuracy, he fails in everything. Accuracy is 
 the indispensable quality of language, without which all other 
 qualities go for nothing, and merely conceal the fundamental 
 weakness. In this particular, too, the taste as well as the judg- 
 ment must be satisfied. The inaccuracy may be so apparent that 
 the writer's meaning can be gathered notwithstanding. He may 
 speak of the "invention" of electricity, or any other power of 
 nature ; he may speak of the " discovery" of the telescope, or 
 any other mechanism of art. Yet his error may fail to mislead 
 us. But in this case, correctness is preserved rather by the 
 reader's acuteness than by the writer's precision. And a 
 writer who perpetrates such mistakes of language, is not 
 likely to inspire his readers with much respect for his intelli- 
 gence, or confidence in his accuracy of thought ; and so far 
 he has failed. 
 
 11. Inaccuracy may consist (I.) in the use of tlie wrong word 
 in a certain connexion. It is wrong, for example, to say that 
 " Queen Mary's actions admit of no alleviation^ Actions may 
 admit of " excuse " or " apology ; " " guilt " may admit of 
 alleviation. But it is obviously wrong to connect alleviation^ or 
 relieving of a burden, with actions which, when performed, cannot 
 be changed. We have other examples of improper combinations 
 in the following sentences : — 
 
 " Social reformers assert that our deficiencies in this respect 
 are being gradually improved^ 
 
 "Deficiency" means the want of something; to "improve" 
 means to make better. We cannot make the want of a thing 
 better. AYe may " remove" it, or " supply" it. 
 
 " Shortly before the fire, the librarian had lent to different 
 people a quantity of the most valuable books." 
 
LANGUAGE. 13 
 
 A " quantity" means a single mass ; and this could not be lent 
 to different people. It should be " a numler of the most valuable 
 books." 
 
 " The attempt was found to be impracticdbleJ^ 
 
 "Impracticable" means impossible of accomplishment. A 
 " scheme " may be impracticable. A " design " may be imprac- 
 ticable. But if an " attempt " be not made, it is no attempt at 
 all. An "attempt" may be futile^ or fruitless, or unsuccessful; 
 but it is a contradiction in terms to speak of it as impracticable. 
 
 12. Mistakes often arise from the misuse of prepositions, 
 conjunctions, and other words which are apparently of trivial 
 importance. It is not positively inaccurate to say, — 
 
 " God made the country, and man made the town," 
 
 for the antithesis is so direct that it is unaffected by the conjunction 
 " and ;" but it would have been more accurate to have used the 
 conjunction " but." Certain verbs and adjectives require to be 
 followed by certain prepositions, and mistakes frequently occur 
 in their misuse. We should say, to agree ivith, to differ /ro???, to 
 rely upon, to be dependent upon, to be independent of etc., etc. 
 The mistakes of most frequent occurrence in this connexion, 
 consist in making one preposition the complement of two diff'erent 
 or contrasted words. It is wrong to say, — 
 
 " He was a man with whom he agreed on a few subjects, 
 but differed on many." 
 
 " Differed " must be followed by *' from." We should therefore 
 say, " with whom he agreed on a few subjects, from whom he 
 differed on many." In like manner it is improper to say, — 
 
 " Such were the difficulties with which the question was 
 
 involved. — (For with, read in.) 
 " Napoleon sought to engraft himself to an old imperiril 
 
 tree." — (For to, read on.) 
 " For this diff'erence, no other general cause can be assigned 
 
 but culture and education." — (For but, read than.) 
 " Scarcely had he uttered the fatal word than the fairy 
 
 disappeared." — (For than, read when.) 
 
14 COMPOSITION IN PROSE. 
 
 13. Inaccuracy may consist (II.) in the use of an equivocal 
 word. An equivocal word is a word which admits of being taken 
 in more senses than one. Equivocation in language, corresponds 
 with ambiguity in construction. When there is any doubt about 
 the connexion in which a member of a sentence is to be taken, 
 it is ambiguous ; when a word admits of several meanings, and 
 it is doubtful which meaning is to be attached to it, it is 
 equivocal. The following are examples of equivocation : — 
 
 "The Queen did not want solicitation to consent to the 
 measure." 
 
 The word "want" may imply either that she did not desire 
 solicitation, or that she was not without it. 
 
 " Henry had been from his youth attached to the Church of 
 Rome." 
 
 This may mean either that he had been fond of the church, or 
 that he had been a memher of it. 
 
 " Exactly at eight, the mother came up, and discovered that 
 supper was not far off." 
 
 " Discovered " may be taken in either of two senses. It may 
 vm^\y found out, or it may imply, made known, revealed. 
 
 " The minister's resignation, in these circumstances, cannot 
 be too highly praised." 
 
 Does this mean his having resigned his ofBce, or his being resigned 
 to his fate? "Retirement" would imply the one meaning, 
 " submission " the other. If the former is intended, say " the 
 minister's resignation of his office ;" if the latter, say " the 
 resignation exhibited by the minister." 
 
 14. Inaccuracy may consist (III.) in the use of an improper 
 synonyme. Synonymes are words which agree in their general 
 meaning, but differ in their special applications. " Discovery" 
 and " invention " have in common the idea of presenting for the 
 first time; but discovery is applied to making known what 
 previously existed, as a principle or object; invention, to construct- 
 ing what did not previously exist. We speak of the discovery of 
 electricity, and the invention of the telegraph. But it is wrong 
 to say that the steam-engine was discovered, or that the circu- 
 
LANGUAGE. 15 
 
 lation of tlie blood was invented. The following are additional 
 examples : — 
 
 "Many people believe that there are good grounds for 
 questioning the authenticity of Ossian's poems." 
 
 A work is authentic when it states what is true. When it is 
 really the work of the author to whom it is ascribed, it is 
 genuine. Genuineness should be used instead of authenticity in 
 this sentence. 
 
 " If I am exposed to continuous interruptions, I cannot 
 pursue 2^ perpetual train of thought." 
 
 Perpetual refers to repeated acts, continuous means uninterrupted. 
 The two words should therefore be transposed. 
 
 " A child is educated in the grammar of a language, and 
 instructed to speak it correctly." 
 
 " Education " is a comprehensive word, implying the whole 
 course of mental training ; and it is therefore improper to apply 
 it, or the verb to " educate," to a particular branch of instruction, 
 as grammar. " Instruction," again, is applied to communicating 
 the theory of a subject. The proper word to apply to the practice 
 is to " teach." We ought therefore to say, " a child is instructed 
 in the grammar of a language, and taught to speak it correctly." 
 
 " Wholesome food and healthful exercise make healthy 
 children." 
 
 These words are correctly used. "Wholesome" is applied to 
 objects, "healthful" to acts, and "healthy" to states. 
 
 " I have persuaded him that he is wrong." 
 
 " Persuasion" refers to the will, and leads to action. The pro- 
 per words to use, with reference to understanding, are " convic- 
 tion" and "convince." We "persuade" a person to do a 
 thing; we ^^ convince him that he is wrong." The shades of 
 meaning in the following synonymes may be examined : — 
 
 To promote, to forward. 
 Graceful, elegant. 
 To guide, to direct. 
 While, though. 
 
 Inconsistent, incongruous. 
 To resign, to relinquish. 
 Fright, terror. 
 Enenij, antagonist. 
 
16 COMPOSITION IN PROSE. 
 
 2. Simplicity. 
 
 15. Simplicity of language ranks next in importance to ac- 
 curacy. Words should not only be the precise equivalents of 
 the thoughts expressed, they should also be so simple as to be 
 perfectly intelligible to those addressed. The simple is thus 
 opposed to the abstruse or unintelligible. The degree of simpli- 
 city desirable necessarily varies with the capacity of the readers 
 whom a writer designs to address. It therefore varies also 
 with the nature of the subject. In a philosophical treatise, 
 addressed to a learned audience, it is less important than in a 
 popular work addressed to general readers. Herein, indeed, lies 
 the difference between accuracy and the other qualities of 
 language. The former is constant ; nothing will excuse or com- 
 pensate for its violation. The latter are variable, and may be 
 graduated according to circumstances. But in no case is the 
 disregard of simplicity unattended with danger to a writer's 
 influence and acceptability with his readers. 
 
 16. The neglect of Simplicity is most objectionable, and 
 most detrimental to style, when technical terms and words of 
 limited application are introduced in writings which are not pro- 
 perly scientific, or when rare or foreign words are imported into 
 general composition. We have already given (I. § 54, I.) an 
 example of this in the following sentence, descriptive, of the 
 efifect of the French Revolution upon English politics :^" The 
 inoculation of the political virus embittered party-feeling in 
 England." 
 
 17. Simplicity is also violated by the excessive use of words 
 of classical origin. It is a primary law of style, that those 
 words should be preferred which are likely to be understood by 
 the greatest number of readers. Native words, or words of 
 Saxon origin, are, as regards English readers, most likely to 
 fulfil this condition. Hence Archbishop Trench says, " Ceteris 
 paribus, when a Saxon and a Latin word offer themselves, we 
 had best choose the Saxon." The rule, however, it will be 
 obp.erved, is stated with the qualification, ceteris paribus ; and, in 
 particular, it is to be noted that the classical side of the language 
 is much richer than the Saxon in scientific terms, and words 
 
LANGUAGE. 17 
 
 relating to the world of mind. In expository writing, therefore, 
 greater latitude in the use of classical M^ords must be allowed 
 than in the other kinds of composition. A distinction is to be 
 drawn, too, between words of classical origin which, from long 
 and general use, have become naturalized in the language, and 
 have assumed an English form and dress, and those which have 
 not obtained a place in the current speech, and are therefore not 
 so generally understood. Such words as creed, churchy city^ 
 school, battle, war,, sport, estate, sentence,, — words which were 
 engrafted on the language at an early period in its growth, — 
 belong to the former class. Such words as vigour, admonition^ 
 ignominious, congeal, amit, humidity, — for which we have excel- 
 lent native equivalents in strength, warning, shameful, freeze^ 
 lose, wetness, — belong to the latter class. 
 
 The following sentence (from Johnson) is an example of the 
 excessive use of classical words (the classical words are printed 
 in italics) : — 
 
 " Dryden's performances were always hasty, either excited 
 by some external occasion, or extorted by domestic neces- 
 sity ; he composed without consideration and published 
 without corrections^ 
 
 In the following (from Swift) the Saxon element predominates 
 (the classical words are in italics) : — 
 
 " Vain men delight in telling what honours have been done 
 them, what great company they have kept, and the like ; 
 by which they plainly confess that their honours were 
 more than their due, and such as their friends would not 
 believe if they had not been told ; whereas a man truly 
 proud thinks the greatest honours below his merit^ and 
 consequently scorns to boast." 
 
 In the following (from St John's Gospel), there is only one 
 classical word : — 
 
 " In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with 
 God, and the Word was God. The same was in the 
 beginning with God. All things were made by him ; 
 and without him was not any thing made that was made. 
 
 B 
 
18 COMPOSITION IN PROSE. 
 
 In him was life ; and the life was the light of men. And 
 the light shineth in darkness ; but the darkness compre- 
 hended it not." 
 
 These examples will show how simplicity increases as the 
 classical element disappears. 
 
 18. It is a further rule of Simplicity, depending upon the 
 same principle as the last, to prefer special to general terms. 
 Special terms are more easily understood than general terms ; 
 they therefore conduce to perspicuity. They are grasped by a 
 direct and simple act of thought, and the images they call up 
 are definite and precise, and immediately intelligible. General 
 terms, on the other hand, imply a complex mental act. They 
 are the result of generalization ; and consciously or unconsciously 
 the mind in interpreting them necessarily descends to particular 
 instances before reaching the general result. Thus when Hal- 
 lam describes Cromwell as "courted by the two rival monarchies of 
 Euroipe^^ a question is raised which every reader may not at once 
 be able to answer, as to what " the two rival monarchies " were. 
 Where the same writer compares Cromwell to " him who, more 
 recently and upon an ampler theatre, has struck nations with 
 wonder and awe," he takes for granted that his readers will see 
 in this description a picture of Napoleon. When an archbishop 
 invites his bishops " to engage in the highest act of the worship 
 of God," he refers to the service of prayer. When Berkeley 
 appeals to the Government to prohibit those public diversions 
 " which have a direct tendency to corrupt our morals," he refers, 
 as we gather from the context, to gaming, masquerades, and 
 theatrical performances. But in all such cases, the meaning is 
 reached by a complex process, and the complexity always in- 
 volves more or less difficulty, and danger of error. Such danger 
 is best prevented by mentioning the individuals either before or 
 after the general terms. Thus we might say that '' Cromwell 
 was courted by France and Spain, the two rival monarchies of 
 Europe." Berkeley's meaning would have been more readily 
 apprehended had he requested the Government "to prohibit 
 gaming, masquerades, theatrical performances, and all such public 
 diversions as have a direct tendency to corrupt our morals." 
 
LANGUAGE. l9 
 
 The great objection to general terms lies in the vagueness to 
 which they lead. If a man is described merely as a " criminal," 
 we form only a general and indistinct notion of what he is ; but 
 when he is described specifically as a " forger/' a " thief," or a 
 "murderer," the notion at once becomes definite and clear. It 
 is thus, too, that specific language imparts the quality of energy 
 to style. In tlie language of Logic, the more specific a term is, 
 the greater is its " comprehension ;" that is to say, the greater is 
 the number of ideas included under it. The species includes the 
 difi'erentia together with the genus. " Man " includes the idea 
 of " rational " as well as the idea of " animal." Thus, also, 
 *' European," though less " extensive," is logically more " com- 
 prehensive" than "man;" "Englishman" than "European," 
 "Londoner" than "Englishman," and "Cockney" than "Lon- 
 doner." And as regards style, the dictum of Dr Campbell may 
 be accepted : " The more general the terms are, the picture is the 
 fainter; the more special they are, the brighter." 
 
 19. The use of abstract rather than of concrete terms is also 
 to be avoided, especially in general literature. The limitation 
 that was made above (§ 17), however, must be repeated here. In 
 philosophical writing such terms are not only allowable, they are 
 necessary ; for the subjects themselves are abstract. But such 
 works should always be prefaced with an " Explication of terms;" 
 and even here abstract language should never be employed when 
 simple words equally expressive can be found. 
 
 3. Conciseness. 
 
 20. Conciseness, or brevity of language, consists in using the 
 smallest number of words that is necessary for the adequate 
 expression of the ideas. " It is an invariable maxim," says 
 Campbell, " that words which add nothing to the sense or to 
 the clearness must diminish the force of the expression." It 
 might have been added, that, if words add nothing to the sense, 
 they detract from the clearness. Such words tend only to dis- 
 tract and perplex the mind by encumbering it with useless 
 repetitions of the same thoughts, and raising expectations which 
 are never realized. 
 
20 COMPOSITION IN PROSE, 
 
 21. This quality is violated (I.) by Redundancy or excess, — 
 that is, by the addition of words which the sense does not 
 require; e.g.^ — 
 
 " The whole nation applauded his magnanimity and great- 
 ness of mindy 
 
 "Greatness of mind" is simply a translation of "magna- 
 nimity," and either of the expressions is therefore unnecessary. 
 The adjective " whole" might also be dispensed with, inasmuch 
 as "the nation" implies the qualification ; but in this case the 
 attribute intensifies the unity and universality of the applause. 
 We may therefore say, " The whole nation applauded his mag- 
 nanimity." 
 
 (a) A Kedundancy which, as in the case of " whole " in the above 
 example, enforces and intensifies the thought, is called a Pleonasm. 
 This figure is common in poetry and in impassioned prose; e.g.^ — 
 
 " I cried to the Lord with my voice." 
 
 " Cannons overcharged with double cracks.''^ 
 
 22. The coupling of synonymes is one of the commonest forms 
 of Redundancy, and it is unfortunately encouraged by the ex- 
 ample of good authors. How frequently do we find such 
 expressions as " cruel and barbarous," " calm and tranquil," 
 " clear and obvious," " mild and gentle," " plain and evident," 
 "joy and satisfaction ! " This custom is defended on the ground 
 that when the first word does not fully express a writer's mean- 
 ing, the addition of a second word, with a slightly different shade 
 of meaning, makes it clear ; and there are many cases in which 
 both energy and accuracy are gained by the expedient. Equi- 
 vocation, for example, is often obviated in this way : " His 
 appearance gratified the party," is equivocal ; " His appearance 
 and demeanour^^^ is clear. But it will generally be found that 
 the latter word of such couples implies the former, and is of 
 itself sufficient clearly and fully to express the meaning. The 
 first is a trial word, an approximation to the meaning which is 
 fully reached in the second. In spoken discourse, this experi- 
 mental process is to some extent permissible ; but it mars both 
 the conciseness and the clearness, as it is certainly beneath the 
 dignity, of written style. 
 
LANGUAGE. 21 
 
 (a) The term Tautology \^ sometimes appligd to lllalr for. ncf RedaTi- 
 dancy which consists in the repetition of the same idea ih diiTerent 
 words ; e. g., — " There is a simple and easy way of dealing with such 
 accidents and chances." But it is unnecessary, as it is often difficult, to 
 distinguish between Redundancy and Tautology in this sense. We 
 therefore prefer to restrict the name Tautology to its literal meaning 
 of the repetition of the same word in different senses, — a fault noticed 
 in a subsequent section. 
 
 23. Conciseness is violated (II.) by Circumlocution, or diffuse- 
 ness, — that is, as the name implies, a round-about way of ex- 
 pressing an idea ; e.g., — 
 
 " Pope professed to have learned his poetry from Dryden, 
 whom, whenever an opportunity presented itself, he 
 praised through the whole period of his existence with a 
 liberality which never varied ; and perhaps his character 
 may receive some illustration, if a comparison be instituted 
 between him and the man whose pupil he wasJ' 
 
 Which may be thus condensed : — 
 
 " Pope professed himself the pupil of Dryden, whom, on 
 every opportunity, he praised through his whole life with 
 unvaried liberality ; and perhaps his character may he 
 illustrated hy comparing him with his master J^ 
 
 (a) Circumlocution is allowable when more concise language might 
 be harsh and offensive. Instead of saying, " You are telling a lie," we 
 may say, " Your statement is not quite consistent with truth." This 
 is called a Euphemism. 
 
 4. Purity. 
 
 24. Purity of language is regulated by the laws of taste. But 
 taste is a variable standard ; and therefore the quality is difficult 
 to estimate and to attain. Taste varies with the natural suscep- 
 tibility, the experience, the education, of the individual ; it 
 varies, too, with the modes of thought and feeling peculiar 
 to the age. But there must be a standard of taste, before 
 taste can be the law of purity. We have an approximation to 
 such a standard in the usage of those who are recognised as 
 good authors. Not that such authors are themselves independent 
 of taste ; but the position which they have acquired by common 
 
22 COMPOSITION IN PROSE. 
 
 cowserit in'dicHtfis that their principles of style have been ap- 
 proved of by the great mass of readers ; and their example may 
 therefore be safely followed. They furnish us with precedents 
 which are as authoritative in matters of style, as precedents in 
 a law court are in matters of jurisprudence. Usage, however, 
 is only an approximate standard. It is itself variable and con- 
 tradictory. Modes of speech which one age allows, are avoided 
 by the next. We are therefore thrown back upon natural sensi- 
 bility as the ultimate standard in matters of taste. And we 
 shall find practically that the best guide to purity of language is 
 innate feeling modified by the prevailing sentiment of the time, 
 as exhibited in the writings of its best authors. 
 
 25. In order to attain purity, according to this standard, it is 
 necessary, 
 
 1. To avoid vulgar and "slang" expressions; 
 
 2. To avoid harsh-sounding words ; 
 
 3. To avoid obsolete words and foreign idioms. 
 
 26. I. Slang consists for tlie most part of vulgar metaphors 
 and imitative words, introduced first into the spoken language 
 by those who affect quaintness and low humour. In an age like 
 ours, in which so many men write without having had any special 
 education for a literary life, these corruptions are apt to be im- 
 ported into written language. Popular fiction, too, affords a wide 
 avenue for their introduction. Vulgar words are naturally put 
 into the mouth of a vulgar character ; and such words in the pages 
 of a standard author, are supposed by the undiscriminating to 
 bear the stamp of his taste and judgment. Many such expres- 
 sions have lately come to us from the other side of the Atlantic, 
 and must be stigmatized as Americanisms. In a recent book of 
 travel, for example, we find the following sentences : — 
 
 " Each had an old musket which he rested against tlie 
 ground, holding it slantindiciilarly^ so tliat the bayonets 
 of the two formidable weapons crossed." 
 
 " What was his astonishment when he discovered that they 
 had been so alarmed by the noise that they had con- 
 sidered it prudent to skedaddle.'^ 
 
LANGUAGE. 23 
 
 The following are examples of the same vice : — 
 
 " The secretary did not come up to the scratch till the close 
 of the debate, when he more than msinuated that his 
 master h.?id. put his foot in it." 
 " Many of them came readily on deck, and being down on 
 their marrow bones, did not venture to rise till they 
 were positively ordered to do so." 
 Amongst the slang words now too freely nsed by popular 
 writers are the following : — humbug, bosh, dodge, bore, spin, 
 pluck, governor (father), grind, brick, cut up (review), stunning, 
 all serene. 
 
 27. 11. Harsh-sounding luords are apt to be employed by men 
 who speak or write under the influence of strong feeling. Their 
 judgment is blinded by their passion. They use such words in 
 what is called " the heat of debate," under the mistaken notion 
 that they are more forcible than those which are purer and more 
 idiomatic. Of this violation of purity the following are in- 
 stances : — 
 
 " Straight again, when he went from her, she fell a-weeping 
 and blubbering, looking ruefully at the matter." 
 
 " Is it not grevious to see such a muck-worm spirit in one so 
 high-born and influential!" 
 
 " Judge, good Christian reader, whether it be possible that 
 he be any better than a beast, out of whose brutish, 
 beastly mouth cometh such a form of blasphemy." 
 
 " I left our young poet snivelling and sobbing behind the 
 scenes, and cursing somebody that has deceived him." 
 
 " A journal is a sort of hash which suits the debilitated 
 jaws of the multitude, and the blase taste of some." 
 
 28. III. Obsolete vjords and foreign words and idioms are 
 classed together, on the principle that they are equally de- 
 partures from the current language. It may happen that a 
 writer finds in a foreign word a better expression of his idea 
 than in any English word he can produce. But the frequent 
 use of such words is generally due, not to necessity, but to 
 aff"ectation; and this is a vice which impairs very greatly, not 
 only the purity, but also the perspicuity of a writer's language. 
 
24 COMPOSITION IN PROSE. 
 
 For if It be a sound principle that men should write so as to be 
 clearly understood, it is surely a mistake to interpret thoughts 
 by words that themselves require interpretation. A writer is 
 apt to suppose that words which are quite intelligible to himself 
 are equally so to his readers. Indeed a great part of the 
 obscurity of style arises from the neglect or failure of authors 
 to put themselves in the position of their readers, and realize 
 their capacity and the state of their knowledge. And as regards 
 purity, it may be accepted as an axiom, that a writer will best 
 attain his end, whether it be to convince or simply to please, 
 by using words and idioms which are a recognised part of the cur- 
 rent language. This rule is violated in the following sentences : — 
 
 " He expresses with almost a muUebris impotentia of lan- 
 guage, a semi-official sympathy with the cause of free- 
 dom in Europe." 
 
 " Malgre the weather, the meeting was both influential and 
 agreeable." 
 
 " Well, I do agnise something of the sort." 
 
 " Above all thy varieties, old Oxenford, what do most 
 arride and solace me, are thy repositories of moulder- 
 ing learning." 
 
 " Lewis the Fourteenth had reason (was right) when he 
 said, ' The Pyrenees are removed.' " 
 
 Chapter III. — Figures of Language, 
 
 29. Words are said to be used figuratively when they are 
 employed, not in their ordinary or literal signification, but in a 
 sense suggested by the imagination. This principle is deeply 
 rooted in language itself. Many words owe their meaning to 
 the figures which they contain. The word "daisy" [A.-S. 
 dceges-ege =. day's-eye) is a case in point. We have other 
 examples in such words as " melancholy " (= black bile), 
 " choleric " (= bilious), " hypochondry " (= under the cartil- 
 age), " humour," etc., etc. Many words, again, have come to be 
 accepted in their figurative sense as naturally and commonly 
 
FIGURES OF LANGUAGE. 25 
 
 as in their literal meaning. " Fountain," for example, which 
 primarily signifies a well^ or spring, has acquired the figurative 
 sense of the source of any principle. Thus God is the " fountain 
 of righteousness," the crown is the " fountain of justice." In 
 the same manner, to edify literally signifies to huild^ figuratively 
 to improve ; " depth" signifies both natural deepness^ as of water, 
 and sagacity or profundity; the "dawn" signifies both the le- 
 ginning of the day^ and \\\^ first rise of a principle, as the " dawn 
 of the Reformation ; " " ground " signifies both earth, and the 
 basis or cause of a truth ; and so with " head," " heart," 
 "hand," and many other words. 
 
 30. The rhetorical effect of the use of figurative language is to 
 increase both the energy and the grace of style. Figures arrest 
 attention, produce a striking effect ; and in the act of doing so 
 exercise the imagination. "He was a very brave soldier" is 
 quite perspicuous ; but " he was a lion in the fight," is both 
 more forcible and more graceful. 
 
 31. The chief Figures of Language are — 1. Simile; 2. Meta- 
 phor; 3. Allegory; 4. Personification; 5. Apostrophe; 6. Me- 
 tonymy; 7. Synecdoche; 8. Hyperbole; 9. Epigram; 10. Irony. 
 
 32. 1. Simile, and 2. Metaphor, both involve comparison. In 
 the Simile, one object is said to resemble another, and some 
 sign of comparison [as, like) stands between them. In the 
 Metaphor, an object is spoken of as if it ivere another, by 
 reason of the qualities in which they agree. Thus : — 
 
 1. Simile : — He is like a lion in the fight. 
 Metaphor : — He is a lion in the fight. 
 
 2. Simile: — The Assyrian came down like a wolf on the fold. 
 Metaphor: — The Assyrian wo//" came down on the fold. 
 
 3. Simile : — " As, whence the sun 'gins his reflection 
 
 Shipwracking storms and direful thunders break ; 
 So, from that spring whence comfort seem'd to come, 
 Discomfort swells." 
 
 Metaphor : — The storms and the sunshine of life often 
 spring from the same source. 
 
26 COMPOSITION IN PROSE. 
 
 A warning must here be given against mixed 3Tetaj)liors, or the 
 combination of two different comparisons in one figure. Of this we 
 have an example in the following : — 
 
 " I do not want to handle, to profane the leaves their windinQ slieets. 
 
 I could as soon dislodge a shade. I seem to inhale learning 
 
 walking amid their foliage ." — Lamb. 
 
 Here the leaves of the books in a library are first compared to the 
 
 "winding sheets" of their authors, and are immediately afterwards 
 
 compared to the "foliage" of trees. 
 
 33. 3. Allegory is a continued comparison, or a composition 
 in which the language is figurative throughout. The Fable 
 and the Parable belong to this class. In all these composi- 
 tions, abstract truths are represented by sensible objects, or 
 human affairs are described under the image of the conduct of 
 the lower animals and of the processes of nature. This also 
 involves Personification. 
 
 ^ 34. 4, Personification, which, like Simile and Metaphor, im- 
 plies comparison, is that figure by which the lower animals 
 and inanimate objects are endowed with the powers of human 
 beings, specially with the power of speech ; as, 
 
 " I am glad," answered the bee, " to hear you grant, at least, 
 
 that / came honestly by my wings and my voice." 
 *' The mountains and the hills shall break forth before you 
 
 into singing, and all the trees of the field shall clap 
 
 their hands' 
 
 35. 5. Apostrophe is personification of the second person, in 
 which the inanimate and the absent are addressed as if they were 
 persons, and present; as '^ Death, where is thy sting?" 
 
 " Shrine of the mighty ! can it be. 
 That this is all remains of thee f" 
 
 (a) Apostrophe (Gr. a^ro, o-t^'k^u) means literally a turning off or 
 aside, and the figure is so called because the writer interrupts the 
 natural course of his narration or description, to address the object to* 
 which it refers. 
 
 36. 6. Metonymy is the figure by which ccrrelative terms are 
 interchanged ; as when we transpose, 
 
 1. The concrete and the abstract; as, the croivn, for royalty ; 
 the sword, for military pov^er ; Caesar, for the sovereign 
 
FIGURES OF LANGUAGE. 27 
 
 power ; the fatal cup, for poison, etc., etc. Her 
 Majesty, for the Queen; Ills Impudence, for an im- 
 pudent fellow ; etc., etc. 
 
 2. The effect and the cause ; as, drunkenness, for wine ; sun- 
 
 shine, for the sun ; gray hairs, for old age. 
 
 3. TAe author and his works ; as, " I am reading Shale- 
 
 speare; " lie is an admirer of Wordsworth. 
 
 (a) Metonymy literally signifies (Gr. ,£tsra, ovo^a) a change of name. 
 
 37. 7. >S^nec67ocAe is the figure whicli puts a part for the whole ; 
 ^^1 fifty ^^^^ ^^^ fifty ships. '' Consider the lilies how they grow," 
 where lilies is put for all flowers, or for the whole vegetable 
 world. The part in the latter case is the species, and the whole 
 is the genus. 
 
 (a) Synecdoche literally signifies (Gr. erw, Ik, Vix,"!^'^'^ ^he undei'stand- 
 ing or receiving of one thing out of another. Tne force of this figure 
 consists in the greater vividness with which the part or the species is 
 realized. 
 
 38. 8. Hyperbole is the figure of exaggeration. It frequently 
 consists in putting the whole for a part, and may therefore be 
 regarded in this case as the converse of synecdoche ; as, " The 
 whole cily came forth to meet him." This example also involves 
 Metonymy : the city is put for the inhabitants. The exaggera- 
 tion, as in this instance, is frequently conveyed in the attribute : 
 sometimes in the verb ; as, " The French fleet was annihilated,'^ 
 meaning that it was rendered useless. 
 
 (rt) Hyperbole (Gr. v-ri^, (ioixxu) literally signifies a throwing beyond, 
 an overshooting. 
 
 39. 9. £|p/^ramis the figure of apparent contradiction. It is a 
 short, pointed, or witty saying, the true sense of which is differ- 
 ent from that which appears on the surface. It involves a hidden 
 meaning, which contradicts that which is expressed. The force 
 of the figure lies in the pleasant surprise attendant upon the dis- 
 covery of the paradox. It is an epigram to say that *' solitude 
 sometimes is best society." Taken literally, this is an absurdity ; 
 yet it is a forcible way of saying that the pleasures of solitude are 
 
28 COMPOSITION IN PROSE. 
 
 greater than tlio.>e derived from ungenial companioiisliip. Other 
 examples are : — 
 
 " Every man desireth to live long ; but no man would be 
 
 old." 
 " He is dissatisfied because he has nothing to complain of." 
 " The half is greater than the whole." 
 " The child is father to the man." 
 " He is all fault that has no fault at all." 
 
 Many Proverbs are epigrammatic ; e.g.^ — 
 
 " Good words are worth much, and cost little." 
 
 " Many kinsfolk, but few friends." 
 
 " The worth of a thing is best known by the want of it." 
 
 '' When all men speak, no man hears." 
 
 {a) The primary signification of the Epigram (Gr. Wt, yodipa,) was 
 an inscription on a statue ; the sense in which epigraph is now used. 
 It was then applied to a short poem (a couplet, or stanza) containing 
 a pithy or witty saying, generally at its close. Lastly, the name was 
 applied to the witty saying itself, and hence to any saying character- 
 ized by wit and point. 
 
 40. 10. Irony is the figure of real contradiction. If epigram 
 means something different from what is expressed, Irony expresses 
 the opposite of what is meant. It bestows praise in such a manner 
 as to convey disapprobation. It professes belief in a statement 
 for the purpose of casting ridicule upon it. Elijah's address to 
 the priests of Baal is a memorable example of Irony: — "Cry 
 aloud ; for he is a god ; either he is talking, or he is pursuing, 
 or he is on a journey, or peradventure he sleepeth, and must be 
 awaked." Job, also, mocked his friends when he said, " No 
 doubt but ye are the people, and wisdom will die with you." 
 Johnson's letter to the Earl of Cliesterfield afi'ords several 
 examples of Irony; <?.^.,— "To be so distinguished is an honour, 
 which, being very little accustomed to favours from the great, I 
 know not well how to receive, or in what terms to acknowledge." 
 
 (a) Irony (Gr. u^uv, a dissenibler) literally signifies dissimulation. 
 It pretends to approve, in order to expose and ridicule. 
 
CONSTRUCTION. 29 
 
 Chapter IV. — Construction. 
 
 41. As regards the arrangement of its parts, there are four 
 qualities which a sentence should possess : — 1. Unity; 2. Clearness; 
 3. Strength; 4. Melody. 
 
 1. Unity. 
 
 42. A sentence should contain only one leading idea, or a 
 combination of ideas which have a natural and logical connexion 
 with one another. As a simple sentence contains only one 
 proposition, its unity is involved in its form. In the complex 
 sentence, which is an expansion of the simple sentence, and con- 
 tains only one leading proposition, the subordinate clauses are 
 generally so closely interwoven with the principal clause, that 
 unity of design is easily and naturally preserved. But care must 
 be taken, in sentences of this kind, not to bury the main propo- 
 sition in such a mass of secondary clauses that its identity is lost, 
 or its superiority destroyed. It is, however, in the compound 
 sentence that unity is most apt to be violated. The compound 
 sentence contains at least two, it may contain many, principal 
 clauses. Grammatically, these clauses are said to be independent 
 of one another. They ought, therefore, to form separate sen- 
 tences. But there may be a close logical connexion between 
 them, and on this ground they may be combined. The connexion, 
 however, must in every case be close and real, not merely formal. 
 Where the ideas do not naturally combine, the sentence is 
 overweighted, and the effect is indistinct and confused. The 
 violation of unity interferes, not only with perspicuity, but also 
 with energy and grace ; e.g., — 
 
 ** King Richard was a man of a revengeful and cruel spirit, 
 and a passionate lover of poetry ; he died on the 8th of 
 April 1199, left no issue, and was succeeded by his 
 brother John." 
 
 The want of unity in this sentence consists in the variety of 
 independent topics, to each of which it gives the prominence of 
 a principal clause. The fiiult may be corrected in two ways, — 
 
30 COMPOSITION IN PROSE. 
 
 1. By separation, or by expressing tlie leading points in separate 
 sentences ; thus : — 
 
 " King Richard died on the 8th of April 1199. He was a 
 man of a revengeful and cruel spirit ; but he was a pas- 
 sionate lover of poetry. He left no issue, and was 
 succeeded by his brother John." 
 
 2. By contraction, or by throwing the points deemed of less 
 importance into subordinate clauses ; thus : — 
 
 '' King Richard, who, though a passionate lover of poetry, 
 was a man of a revengeful and cruel spirit, died on the 
 8th of April 1199; when, as he left no issue, he was 
 succeeded by his brother John." 
 
 43. Unity is also violated by prolonging a sentence beyond 
 its natural close, or by the addition of members which not only 
 interfere with the completeness of the sentence, but would 
 themselves produce a better effect if stated independently ; e.g., — 
 
 " He is not so happy as may be, who hath not the pleasure 
 of making others so, and of seeing them put into a happy 
 condition by his means ; which is the highest pleasure, 
 I had almost said pride, but I may truly say glory, of a 
 good and great mind." 
 
 The period is naturally closed by the word "means." The 
 introduction of the latter half of the sentence with the relative 
 is clumsy. It were better to throw this part into a new sentence, 
 beginning with "' This," or " To accomplish this, is the highest 
 pleasure," etc. The unity of the latter part of the sentence is 
 further marred by the parenthetical clauses, " I had almost said 
 pride, but I may truly say glory." Better thus : — " This satisfac- 
 tion is the glory, if not the pride, of a good and great mind." 
 
 2. Clearness. 
 
 44. The parts of the sentence should be so arranged as to leave 
 no possibility of- doubt as to the writer's meaning. Clearness is 
 thus opposed to obscurity ; and, as regards arrangement, the two 
 great causes of obscurity are dislocation, or the unnatural separa- 
 tion of members that are connected in meaning, and amhiguitij, 
 
CONSTRUCTION. 31 
 
 or the placing of a member in such a position that it is doubtful 
 which of several possible constructions is intended. 
 
 1. The following is an example of dislocation : — 
 
 " This summer, the ban of the Empire was published, and 
 the execution of it given to the Duke of Bavaria, against 
 the Elector Palatine." 
 
 Here the phrase " against the Elector Palatine," is separated by a 
 whole clause from the verb ''published," on which it immediately 
 depends. The effect of such a suspension of the current of the 
 sense is to oppress and confuse the mind. The sentence should 
 be : " This summer, the ban of the Empire was published against 
 the Elector Palatine, and the execution of it was given to the 
 Duke of Bavaria." 
 
 2. The following is an example of amhiguity : — 
 
 " Rome once more ruled over the prostrate nations by the 
 power of superstition." 
 
 This may mean, (1) that Rome had at a former time ruled over 
 the nations "by the power of superstition," and now ruled over 
 them a second time by the same power ; (2) that she had formerly 
 ruled over them by some other power, — that of conquest or of 
 imperial influence, — and now did so " by the power of supersti- 
 tion." As the sentence stands, it most naturally bears the former 
 construction. To convey the latter meaning, it should be arranged 
 thus : — " Rome, by the power of superstition, once more ruled 
 over the prostrate nations." 
 
 45. The careless and excessive use of the relative and demon- 
 strative pronouns is a frequent source of ambiguity. A pronoun 
 should stand as near as possible to its correlative ; and when there 
 is danger of misconception, the correlative should be repeated. 
 In the following sentence the relative is ambiguous : — 
 
 ^' A verdict, however, was obtained against him (Wilkes), 
 for No. 45 (of The North Briton)^ as well as for a piece 
 called An Essay on Woman, an obscene and scurrilous 
 libel in parody of Pope's Essay on Man, in which Lord 
 Sandwich and Bishop Warburton had been reflected on 
 and ridiculed." 
 
32 COMPOSITION IN PROSE. 
 
 A reader unacquainted with Pope's works would naturally suppose 
 from this statement that it was Pope who had ridiculed Sandwich 
 and Warburton ; and the ambiguity is favoured by the use of the 
 past-perfect, " had been." To prevent this misconception, the 
 latter part of the sentence should run thus : — " As well as for 
 an obscene and scurrilous libel in parody of Pope's Essay on 
 Man^ entitled An Essay on Woman^ in which Lord Sandwich and 
 Bishop Warburton had been (or were) reflected on and ridiculed." 
 The following illustrates ambiguity in the use of the dem^on- 
 strative (or 3d personal) pronouns : — 
 
 '' He (Wellington) thus succeeded in at last combating the 
 revolution with its own weapons, and at the same tim.e 
 detaching from them the moral weakness under which it 
 laboured. lie met it with its own forces ; but he rested 
 their efforts on a nobler principle." 
 See also The Progressive English Grammar^ § 248. 
 
 46. In expressing a complex idea, the modifications and quali- 
 fications should precede the substantive notion, in order to make 
 it clear at the first reading that the latter is not stated absolutely. 
 This arrangement conduces to energy and grace, as well as to 
 clearness. On this principle, 
 
 Is^, Clauses of condition and concession logically precede their 
 principal clauses ; e. g., — 
 
 " If the Secretary really wrote the letter in question, he is a 
 traitor." 
 This is a clear and logical statement, inasmuch as it mentions the 
 ground of the conclusion before the conclusion itself, and it gives 
 the Secretary the full benefit of the doubt which the hypothesis 
 implies. If, on the other hand, the sentence were arranged in 
 the grammatical order, — " The Secretary is a traitor, if he really 
 wrote the letter in question," — the mind would at once seize 
 on the charge of treachery as an absolute charge, and be less 
 influenced by the second^ay condition on which it rests. In like 
 manner the sentence 
 
 *' Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him," 
 presents a view of faith at once clearer and more forcible than if 
 the grammatical arrangement were adopted. 
 
CONSTRUCTION. 33 
 
 2<i, An Absolute Phrase sJiould stand at the beginning of the 
 sentence; e.g., — 
 
 " The King being dead, a dispute arose as to the succession." 
 
 This also is the logical arrangement. The cause precedes the 
 consequence, and the mind at once grasps the whole situation of 
 affairs more clearly than if the order were inverted. 
 
 47. The necessity of making the modification precede the main 
 statement is more apparent w^hen the former is negative, or in 
 any degree contradictory of the latter. Thus we say, 
 
 '' I have never been in Vienna." 
 
 " In my dreams, I have often ascended Mont Blanc." 
 The cases in which this order is inverted, for the sake of an- 
 tithesis, or of exciting surprise, will be referred to under the 
 head of Strength. 
 
 3. Strength. 
 
 48. It is desirable that, without sacrificing clearness, the 
 members of a sentence should be so disposed as to convey the 
 most forcible and vivid impression. This is what is meant by 
 Strength, as opposed to weakness or looseness of arrangement. 
 The first principle of energy is that the most important words 
 should occupy the most prominent places. These are the be- 
 ginning and the end of the sentence. The principal subject 
 naturally occupies the former, the principal predicate, with its 
 essential modifications, the latter ; and the other members should 
 be ranged between tlie.se two extremes. A sentence arranged on 
 this plan, so that the sense is suspended until the close, is called 
 a Period. If, on the other hand, the principal predicate is 
 followed by explanatory clauses, the sentence is said to be Loose. 
 
 49. A sentence may, however, be energetic, without assuming 
 the proportions or the measured roll of a period. In sentences, 
 whether periodic or loose, this quality of style may be obtained 
 by the following means : — 
 
 l5^. By inversion^ — by placing an element in a position which 
 does not naturally belong to it; e.g., — 
 
 " Narrow is the way that leadeth unto life." 
 " Silver and gold have I none." 
 
 c 
 
34 COMPOSITION IN PROSE. 
 
 26Z, By Interrogation^ — by throwing the proposition into the 
 form of a question, leaving the reader to supply the answer, in 
 which the real statement is conveyed ; e.g.^ — 
 
 *' Who can paint like Nature ? " 
 
 " Who does not hope to live long ? " 
 
 These are forcible statements. The direct assertions, " No one 
 can paint like Nature," " Every one hopes to live long," would 
 be weak and ineffective in comparison. It will be observed 
 from these examples that a negative question implies an affirma- 
 tive statement, and vice versa. Analogous to this Figure of 
 construction, as it may be called, is the next mode of obtaining 
 energy : — 
 
 3c?, 'Rj Exclamation ; e.g., — 
 
 " How oblique and faintly looks the sun on yonder climat-es 
 
 — far removed from him ! " 
 " What a piece of work is man ! " 
 
 The force of both these figures lies in their indefiniteness. 
 W^hen the statement of a specific degree or quality might fail by 
 inadequacy, it is better vaguely to suggest it as something very 
 great. 
 
 A graduated series of Exclamations, rising in intensity as they 
 proceed, form the figure called Climax^ of which the following 
 is a well-known example : — 
 
 *' What a piece of work is man ! how noble in reason ! 
 how infinite in faculties! In form and moving, how 
 express and admirable ! in action, how like an angel ! 
 in apprehension, how like a god!" 
 
 If, on the other hand, the latter member of a sentence suddenly 
 fall in dignity or importance, the figure is called Anti-climax ; 
 e.g.,— 
 
 " Next comes the great Dalhoussey, god of war, 
 Lieutenant-colonel to the Earl of Mar." 
 
 4^^, By Antithesis^ — by arranging the terms of antithetical 
 clauses so as to give prominence to the contrasted ideas. A 
 
CONSTRUCTION. 35 
 
 contrast is often implied in the sense, without being formally 
 expressed; e.g.^ — 
 
 " Charles deliberated long, and determined with coolness ; 
 but, having once fixed his plan, he adhered to it with 
 inflexible obstinacy." 
 
 But in connexion with construction we have to deal only with 
 the formal or balanced antithesis, in which specific terms in two 
 clauses are sharply contrasted with one another. The usual 
 arrangement is the direct one, in which the contrasted words 
 occupy a corresponding place in the two clauses ; e.g., — 
 
 " Speech is silvern, but silence is golden^ 
 " To be CARNALLY miudcd is death; but to be spiritually 
 minded is life and peace.^^ 
 
 Sometimes, however, the order of the terms in the second clause 
 is the reverse of that in the first ; e.g., — 
 
 " Evil pursueth sinners ; but to the righteous good shall be 
 
 repaid." 
 " He twice forsook Ivh party ; hh principles never." 
 
 bth, By Ellipsis, — The last example shows how the effect of 
 antithesis may be heightened by this means. Prominence is given 
 to the contrasted words by avoiding the repetition of those that 
 are alike; e.g., — 
 
 "Homer was the greater genius; Virgil, the better artist: 
 in the one we most admire the man ; in the other, the 
 work." 
 
 " Philosophy elevates and steels the mind, but Christianity 
 makes us better men. The former makes us the objects 
 of human admiration ; the latter, of divine love. That 
 insures us temporal, but this an eternal happiness." 
 
 50. It is also a rule of strength, that a sentence should not 
 close with an insignificant word. 
 
 (1.) This rule is most frequently and most seriously violated 
 by separating the preposition from the word it governs, and 
 placing it at the end of the sentence ; e.g., — 
 
36 COMPOSITION IN PROSE. 
 
 " Other objects that have more than once offered themselves 
 to the senses have yet been little taken notice o/." 
 
 Better thus : — " Of other objects that have more than once 
 offered themselves to the senses, little notice has yet been taken." 
 Another example : — 
 
 *' He had not proceeded much farther when he observed 
 the thorns and briers to end, and give place to a thousand 
 beautiful green trees, covered with blossoms of the finest 
 scents and colours, that formed a wilderness of sweets, 
 and were a kind of lining to those rugged scenes which 
 he had before passed through^ 
 
 The last clause should be — " through which he had before 
 passed." 
 
 This construction is often adopted when the relative is 
 omitted; e.g., — 
 
 " It (custom) is indeed able to form the man anew, and to 
 give him inclinations and capacities altogether different 
 from those he was bom withJ^ 
 
 This is loose and colloquial. It should be, — " from those with 
 which he was born." 
 
 (2.) The pronoun " it" also makes a weak conclusion, 
 especially when preceded by a preposition ; e.g.., — 
 
 " Let us first consider the ambitious ; and those both in 
 their progress to greatness and after the attaining o/tY." 
 
 This is both weak and inelegant. Say either " after attaining it," 
 or ** after its attainment." So also — 
 
 " But the design succeeded ; he betrayed the city, and was 
 made governor o/z7." 
 
 Better leave out the particles, and say, " he betrayed the city, 
 and was made governor." 
 
 The following sentence illustrates another form of the same 
 fault, and it also shows the looseness arising from multiplying 
 prepositions and pronouns in different clauses : — 
 
CONSTRUCTION. 37 
 
 " Unless you will be a servant to them (as many men are), the 
 
 trouble and care of yours in the government of them all 
 
 is much more than that of every one of them in their 
 
 observance of you^ 
 
 Corrected : — " Unless you will be their servant (as many men are), 
 
 your trouble and care in governing them will be much greater 
 
 than theirs in serving you." 
 
 (8.) A sentence is often rendered weak by ending with an un- 
 emphatic adverb ; e.g. — 
 
 *' What pity is it, my Lord, that even the best should speak 
 to our understandings so seldom I " 
 
 Here the adverb usurps the prominent place which by right 
 belongs to "understandings." The sentence would be stronger 
 thus :— " should so seldom speak to our understandings ! " So also, 
 
 "Example appeals not to our understanding alone, but to 
 our passions likewise.'' 
 Should be, — " but likewise to our passions." Again : — 
 
 " By the same means that they give us pleasure, they afford 
 us profit too." 
 
 Should be, — " they also afford us profit." 
 
 4. Melody. 
 
 51. Melody or rhythm is that quality of language which 
 renders it easy to the voice and agreeable to the ear. It there- 
 fore contributes very greatly to grace of style. The importance 
 of this quality, though universally admitted in verse, is not suffi- 
 ciently recognised in prose writing. Rhj^thm in verse arises 
 from the recurrence of stress or accent at regular intervals. Every 
 prose sentence has, or should have, a rhythm depending upon the 
 same principle. The chief distinction between verse-rhythm 
 and prose-rhythm is, that in verse the accents and intervals are 
 regular, in prose they are variable. 
 
 52. Melody deals not with single sounds, or the impression 
 produced by single words, but with the succession of sounds in a 
 sentence. It therefore belongs properly to the head of construe- 
 
38 COMPOSITION IN PROSE. 
 
 tion or arrangement, and not to that of language or tlie cliolce of 
 single words. 
 
 53. Prose melody depends upon two things : — 
 
 1st, Upon the combination or succession of sounds ; 
 2c?, Upon the alternation of accent and interval ; 
 
 or, more briefly, first, upon sound ; second, upon accent. 
 
 54. I. Sound. — The chief quality to be aimed at in Sound is 
 variety. A combination of similar sounds is painful to the ear, 
 and produces an effect similar to that of monotony produced by 
 the repetition of the same note in music. Such a combination is 
 further difficult for the voice, and this very difficulty renders it 
 disagreeable to the ear. It is impossible to lay down strict rules 
 for melody in language. If a writer is naturally destitute of 
 ''car," or the sense of harmonious sound, no formal rules will 
 make up for the deficiency. The following principles, however, 
 are generally recognised as worthy of attention in connexion with 
 this subject : — 
 
 (1.) Vowels and consonants should, as much as possible, alter- 
 nate ; e.g., — 
 
 "The miseries of the poor are entirely disregarded." 
 " Life is thorny." " I must yield my body to the foe." 
 
 (2.) When mute consonants come together, sharp sounds com- 
 bine most easily with sharp, and fiat sounds with flat ; e.g., — It 
 is easier to pronounce of this than off this ; right point than right 
 hook; make thin than make thine; plague them than plague 
 thunder. 
 
 (a) In the case of the juxtaposition of a flat and a flat, there is a 
 natural tendency to flatten the sharp, or to sharpen the flat. The 
 reason of this is, that the strain upon the organs of speech is the same 
 in one flat sound as in another, and the same in one sharp sound as in 
 another. Now, in passing from a sharp to a flat (or vice versa), the 
 amount of strain or effort has to be suddenly changed, 
 
 (3.) Identical sounds should not come together in different 
 words or syllables ; e.g., — 
 
 Such combinations as hot temper, off first, red deer, ripe 
 pear^ are difhcult and disagreeable. 
 
CONSTRUCTION. - , 39 
 
 (a) There is a tendency in such cases to sink the second consonant, 
 or to run the two into one, as liot-emper, off-irst, red-eer, ri-pear. 
 
 (b) The difficulty is not so great when different powers, as a flat 
 and a sharp, of the same sound come together; e.g., — hot day, of first, 
 red tape, ripe berry. 
 
 (c) The same rule applies to voAvels. Such combinations as stray 
 angel, tree easy, bloio over, my idol, truly innocent, are objectionable. 
 
 (d) The reason of this is, that the organs of speech act most freely 
 by passing from one position to another. The immediate repetition of 
 the same sound constrains the voice by keeping the organs in the 
 same position. It resembles the act of making two steps in walking 
 with the right foot before the left. 
 
 (4.) Similar sounds should not follow one another closely, either 
 at the beginning, in the middle, or at the end of words ; e.g., — 
 Comparative comfort^ womanish emotion^ mortal animal. " But 
 he has unhappily perplexed his poetry with liis philosophyj^ 
 are weak and unmusical collocations. 
 
 (a) Alliteration, or the device of beginning successive words with 
 the same letter, is the least objectionable form of this combination. 
 It formed the distinctive mark of our oldest poetry, and it is used 
 occasionally for effect by modern authors. Its frequent introduction, 
 however, savours of affectation. 
 
 55. II. Accent. — In Accent as in Sound, the best effect is 
 produced by variety. Rhythm depends essentially upon the 
 intermixture of weak and strong accents. A succession either of 
 accented or of unaccented syllables produces monotony. Hence 
 it follows that, 
 
 (1.) The excess of monosyllables Is apt to be monotonous. 
 Most monosyllables are accented ; most polysyllables have only 
 one accent ; all of them contain at least one interval or weak 
 syllable. The introduction, therefore, of words of more than one 
 syllable relieves the monotony by introducing unaccented sylla- 
 bles. Compare, " One man in his time plays many parts," with 
 " The better part of valour is discretion." But, 
 
 (2 ) The excess of polysyllables is also apt to be monotonous ; 
 e.g.,— 
 
 " Their appetites were excited by frequent enumerations of 
 different enjoyments, and revelry and merriment was the 
 business of every hour." 
 
40 COMPOSITION IN PROSE. 
 
 (3.) The last accent slioiild fall as near the end of the sentence 
 as possible. A sentence is most forcible when it closes with a 
 strong accent ; e.g., — 
 
 *' llieir everlasting recurrence is among the great blemishes 
 of his st5'le." 
 
 The accent may, however, ftiU on the penultimate syllable, 
 without destroying its effect ; e.g.^ — 
 
 " The allegories of Spenser have been frequently censur'd." 
 An antepenultimate accent makes a weak ending ; e.g., — 
 " I have not observed proofs of much acquaintance with 
 him on the c6ntinent." 
 
 If the accent fall earlier, it is still more objectionable ; e.g., — 
 " Nor have their opponents been of much credit in the paths 
 of literature." 
 
 (a) For the "Principles of Construction" in the Paragraph, the 
 student is referred to the Introductory Text- Booh, p. 47. 
 
 Chapter V. — ^Analysis of Style. 
 
 56. The following extracts are here given, in addition to those 
 scattered over the preceding chapters, in order to afford the 
 pupil further practice in the application of the principles already 
 explained. The analysis of style here suggested is quite a sub- 
 ordinate part of literary criticism. It proposes to deal merely 
 with the mechanism or outward form of composition, not with 
 the thought or inner life, which is after all the essence of every 
 literary work. The. latter is the proper domain of criticism in 
 its highest sense. But this lies beyond the scope of the present 
 work ; and without questioning the paramount importance of the 
 higher department, it may be suggested that the lower sphere has 
 undoubted claims to consideration. Composition bears the same 
 relation to Literature that mechanical drawing does to Art. In 
 the one case as in the other, the spirit is in a great measure 
 dependent on the form in which it is clothed. 
 
 57. In regard to the general effect of style, the questions to be 
 asked are : — 
 
ANALYSIS OF STYLE. 41 
 
 1. Is it perspicuous, or intelligible? 
 
 2. Is it energetic, or imp^-essive ? 
 
 3. Is it graceful, or pleasing ? 
 
 58. In regard to the Language in particular, the questions to 
 be considered are : — 
 
 1. Is it accurate ? I 3. Is it concise? 
 
 2. Is it simple ? | 4. Is it pure ? 
 
 59. In regard to the Construction in particular, the questions 
 to be asked are : — 
 
 1. Does it possess unity ? 1 3. Is it strong or forcible ? 
 
 2. Is it clear? | 4. Is it melodious? 
 
 60. The following extracts may be examined and tested by 
 these general questions. But a few special questions are 
 appended to each extract, with the view of bringing out its 
 particular features. 
 
 Exercise 1. 
 
 Milton. (1608-1674.) 
 
 (1) " \Vliat could a man require more from a nation so pliant and 
 
 (2) so prone to seek after knowledge? What wants there to such a 
 towardly and pregnant soil, but wise and faithful labourers, to 
 make a knowing people, a nation of prophets, of sages, and of 
 
 (3) worthies? We reckon more than five months yet to harvest; 
 there need not be five weeks: had we but eyes to lift up, the 
 
 (4) fields are white already. Where there is much desire to learn, 
 there of necessity will be much arguing, much writing, many 
 opinions; for opinion in good men is but knowledge in the 
 
 (5) making. Under these fantastic terrors of sect and schism, we 
 wrong the earnest and zealous thirst after knowledge and under- 
 
 (G) standing which God hath stirred up in this city. What some 
 lament of, we rather should rejoice at, — should rather praise this 
 pious forwardness among men to re-assume the ill-deputed care 
 
 (7} of their religion into their own hands again. A little generous 
 prudence, a little forbearance of one another, and some grain of 
 charity, might win all these diligencies to join and unite into one 
 general and brotherly search after truth ; could we but forego 
 this prelatical tradition of crowding free consciences and Christian 
 
 (8) liberties into canons and precepts of men. I doubt not, if some 
 great and worthy stranger should come among us, wise to dis- 
 cern the mould and temper of a people, and how to govern it, 
 
42 COMPOSITION IN PROSE. 
 
 observing the high hopes and aims, the diligent alacrity of our 
 extended thoughts and reasonings in the pursuance of truth and 
 freedom, but that he would cry out as Pyrrhus did, admiring the 
 Itoman docility and courage, ' If such were my Epirots, I would 
 not despair the greatest design that could be attempted to make 
 a church or kingdom happy.' " 
 
 Questions. 
 
 1. What figure of construction have we in (1) and (2)? Turn these 
 sentences into the direct form. 
 
 2. Point out the figure of language in (3). 
 
 3. What is the connexion between sentences (3) and (4) and (5) ? 
 
 4. Point out the examples of redundancy in this paragraph. 
 
 5. Point out instances o^ the postponed preposition. 
 
 6. Are there any uncommon words here, or words employed in an un- 
 usual sense? 
 
 7. Is there any example of sl period in the paragraph ? 
 
 8. Point out the case of dislocation in (8). 
 
 9. What is the general character of the style? Is it energetic or 
 graceful, or the reverse cf either ? 
 
 Exercise 2. 
 
 DUYDEN. (1631-1701.) 
 
 (1) " It may now be expected, that having written the life of an 
 historian, I should take occasion to write somewhat concerning 
 history itself; but I think to commend it is unnecessary, for the 
 profit and pleasure of that study are both so very obvious, that a 
 quick reader will be beforehand with me, and imagine faster than 
 
 (2) I can write. Besides that, the post is taken up already ; and few 
 authors have travelled this way but who have strewed it with 
 
 (3) rhetoric as they passed. For my own part, who must confess it 
 to my shame that I never read anything but for pleasure, it has 
 always been the most delightful entertainment of my life ; but 
 they who have employed the study of it as they ought, for their 
 instruction, for the regulation of their private manners, and the 
 management of public affiiirs, must agree with me, that it is the 
 
 (4) most pleasant school of Wisdom. It is a familiarity with past 
 ages, and an acquaintance with all the heroes of them : it is, if 
 you will pardon the similitude, a prospective glass carrying your 
 soul to a vast distance, and taking in the farthest objects of anti- 
 
 (5) quity. It informs the understanding by the memory : it helps us 
 to judge of what will happen, by showing us the like revolutions 
 
 (6) of former times. For mankind being the same in all ages, agitated 
 by the same passions, and moved to action by the same interests, 
 nothing can come to pass but some precedent of the like nature 
 
ANALYSIS OF STYLE. 43 
 
 has already lieen produced ; so that having the causes before our 
 eyes we cannot easily be deceived in the effects, if we have judg- 
 ment enough but to draw the parallel." 
 
 Questions. 
 
 1. Point out an ellipsis in (1). 
 
 2. What have you to remark upon the expression " will be beforehand 
 with me," in (1)? 
 
 3. " Besides that," introducing (2), is clumsy. What connecting particle 
 might be substituted for it? 
 
 4 Point out a grammatical inaccuracy in (2). 
 
 5. " It " occurs four times in (3) : What is its correlative in each case ? 
 Is any of them equivocal ? 
 
 6. Do you notice any inelegance in (4) ? 
 
 7. Sentence (6) is loose: at what point would the^enW close? 
 
 8. Criticize the paragraph as to unity, variety, and continuity. 
 
 9. Eemark upon the melody of the passage. 
 
 Exercise 3. 
 
 Addison. (1672-1719.) 
 
 (1) " In the first place, true honour, though it be a different 
 principle from religion, is that which produces the same effects, 
 
 (2) The lines of action, though drawn from different parts, terminate 
 
 (3) in the same point. Keligion embraces virtue, as it is enjoined by 
 the laws of God; honour, as it is graceful to human nature. 
 
 (4) The religious man fears, the man of honour scorns, to do an ill 
 
 (5) action. The latter considers vice as something that is beneath 
 him, the other as something that is offensive to the Divine Being. 
 
 (G) The one as what is unbecoming, the other as what is forbidden. 
 
 (7) Thus Seneca speaks in the natural and genuine language of a 
 man of honour, when he declares, that were there no God to see 
 or punish vice, he would not commit it, because it is of so mean, 
 so base, and so vile a nature." 
 
 Questions. 
 
 1. What is the general subject of this paragraph? What is the general 
 ch;iracter of the sentences ? 
 
 2. What sentences contain the enunciation of the general subject ? In 
 what relation do the others stand to these ? 
 
 3. Of what is (7) an instance? 
 
 4. Show the ellipses in several sentences. Which sentence is incom- 
 plete by ellipsis ? 
 
 5. What is the logical effect of "is that which" in (1)? Are these 
 words necessary ? 
 
 6. Is any word in the passage objectionable, or cut of place ? 
 
44 COMPOSITION IN PROSE. 
 
 Exercise 4. 
 
 JoHXSON. (1709-1784.) 
 
 A. (1) •' Bossu is of opinion that the poet's first work is to find a moral, 
 {2) which his fable is afterwards to illustrate and establish. This 
 
 seems to have been the process only of Milton : the moral of other 
 poems is incidental and consequent ; in Milton's only it is essen- 
 (3) tial and intrinsic. His purpose was the most useful and the 
 most arduous, to vindicate the ways of God to man; to show the 
 reasonableness of religion, and the necessity of obedience to the 
 divine law. 
 
 B. (4) " To convey this moral there must be a fahle, a narration 
 
 artfully constructed, so as to excite curiosity and surprise expec- 
 
 (5) tation. In this part of his work Milton must be confessed to have 
 
 (6) equalled every other poet. He has involved in his account of 
 the fall of man the events which preceded and those that were to 
 follow it : he has interwoven the whole system of theology with 
 such propriety that every part appears to be necessary; and 
 scarcely any recital is wished shorter for the sake of quickening 
 the progress of the main action. 
 
 C (7) " The subject of an epic po'em is naturally an event of great 
 
 (8) importance. That of Milton is not the destruction of a city, the 
 
 (9) conduct of a colony, or the foundation of an empire. His subject is 
 the fate of worlds, the revolutions of heaven and of earth ; rebellion 
 against the Supreme King raised by the highest order of created 
 beings ; the overthrow of their host and the punishment of their 
 crime ; the creation of a new race of reasonable creatures ; their 
 original happiness and innocence, their forfeiture of immortality, 
 and their restoration to hope and peaca 
 
 D. (10) " Great events can be hastened or retarded only by persons 
 
 (11) of elevated dignity. Before the greatness displayed in Milton's 
 
 (12) poem, all other greatness shrinks away. The weakest of his 
 agents are the highest and noblest of human beings, the original 
 parents of mankind, with whose actions the elements consented; 
 on whose rectitude or deviation of will depended the state of 
 terrestrial nature, and the condition of all the future inhabitants 
 of the globe." 
 
 Questions. 
 
 1 . Show the train of thought which connects these paragraphs with one 
 another. Is the connexion obvious ? 
 
 2. Point out the similarity of the paragraphs, in construction and varifty 
 of sentence. 
 
 3. What is the difference in meaning between "excite curiosity" and 
 " surprise expectation " in (4) ? 
 
ANALYSIS OF STYLE. 45 
 
 4. Point out in (2) an example of antithesis, and an instance of tautology, 
 and correct the latter. 
 
 5. Are any words in (5) and in (12) employed in an unusual sense? 
 
 6. Note the proportion of Classical and of Saxon words. 
 
 7. Are there sa^j figures of language in the passage ? 
 
 8. Kemark on the melody of the passage. 
 
 Exercise 5. 
 
 Gibbon. (1737-1794.) 
 
 (1) " In the vacant spnce between Persia, Syria, Egypt, and 
 Ethiopia, the Arabian peninsula may be conceived as a triangle 
 
 (2) of spacious but irregular dimensions. From the northern point of 
 Beles on the Euphrates, a line of fifteen hundred miles is termi- 
 nated by the Straits of I3abelmandel and the land of frankincense. 
 
 (3) About half this length may be allowed for the middle breadth, 
 from east to west, from Bassora to Suez, from the Persian Gulf 
 
 (4) to the Red Sea, The sides of the triangle are gradually enlarged, 
 and the southern basis presents a front of a thousand miles to the 
 
 (5) Indian Ocean. The entire surface of the peninsula exceeds in 
 a fourfold proportion that of Germany or France; but the far 
 greater part has been justly stigmatized with the epithets of the 
 
 (6) stony and the sandy. Even the wilds of Tartary are decked, by 
 the hand of nature, with lofty trees and luxuriant herbage ; and 
 the lonesome traveller derives a sort of comfort and society from 
 
 (7) the presence of vegetable life. But in the dreary waste of Arabia, 
 a boundless level of sand is intersected by sharp and naked moun- 
 tains; and the face of the desert, without shade or shelter, ia 
 
 (8) scorched by the direct and intense rays of a tropical sun. Instead 
 of refreshing breezes, the winds, particularly from the south-west, 
 diffuse a noxious and even deadly vapour ; the hillocks of sand 
 which they alternately raise and scatter, are compared to the 
 billows of the ocean, and whole caravans, whole armies, have 
 
 (9) been lost and buried in the whirlwind. The common benefits of 
 water are an object of desire and contest; and such is the 
 scarcity of wood, that some art is requisite to preserve and propa- 
 
 (10) gate the element of fire. Arabia is destitute of navigable rivers, 
 which fertiHze the soil, and convey its produce to the adjacent 
 regions : the torrents that fall from the hills are imbibed by the 
 thirsty earth : the rare and hardy plants, the tamarind or the 
 acacia, that strike their roots into the clefts of the rocks, are 
 nourished by the dews of the night : a scanty supply of rain is 
 collected in cisterns and aqueducts: the wells and springs are 
 the secret treasure of the desert ; and the pilgrim of Mecca, after 
 many a dry and sultry march, is disgusted by the taste of the 
 
 (11) waters, which have rolled over a bed of sulphur or salt. Such ia 
 the general and genuine picture of the climate of Arabia." 
 
46 COMPOSITION IN PROSE. 
 
 Questions. 
 
 1. To what kind of composition does this passage belong? 
 
 2. For what purpose is (6) introduced? 
 
 3. What peculiarity is there in the second and third clauses of (10), — 
 "which .... regions?" Are they naturally introduced ? 
 
 4. Are the sentences genersLlly periodic or loose ? What, in this respect, 
 is the prominent character of the style ? 
 
 5. Do Classical or Saxon words predominate ? 
 
 6. Note instances of circumlocution, or of thoughts unnecessarily 
 elaborated. 
 
 Exercise 6. 
 
 BuBKE. (1730-1797.) 
 
 (1) " It is now sixteen or seventeen years since I saw the queen of 
 France, then the dauphiness, at Versailles; and surely never 
 lighted on this orb, which she hardly seemed to touch, a more 
 
 (2) delightful vision. I saw her just above the horizon, decorating 
 and cheering the elevated sphere she just began to move in — 
 glittering like the morning star, full of life, and splendour, and 
 
 (3) joy. Oh, what a revolution ! and what a heart must I have, to 
 
 (4) contemplate without emotion that elevation and that fall ! Little 
 did I dream when she added titles of veneration to those of 
 enthusiastic, distant, respectful love, that she should ever be 
 obliged to carry the sharp antidote against disgrace concealed in 
 that bosom; little did I dream that I should have lived to see 
 such disasters fallen upon her in a nation of gallant men, in a 
 
 (5) nation of men of honour and of cavaliers. I thought ten thousand 
 swords must have leaped from their scabbards to avenge even a 
 
 (6) look that threatened her with insult. But the age of chivalry is 
 
 (7) gone. That of sophisters, economists, and calculators, has suc- 
 
 (8) ceeded ; and the glory of Europe is extinguished for ever. Never, 
 never more, shall we behold that generous loyalty to rank and 
 sex, that proud submission, that dignified obedience, that sub- 
 ordination of the heart which kept alive, even in servitude itself, 
 
 (9) the spirit of an exalted freedom. The unbought grace of life, the 
 cheap defence of nations, the nurse of manly sentiment and heroic 
 
 (10) enterprise is gone! It is gone, that sensibility of principle, that 
 chastity of honour, which felt a stain like a wound, which inspired 
 courage whilst it mitigated ferocity, which ennobled whatever it 
 touched, and under which vice itself lost half its evil, by losing 
 all its grossness." 
 
 Questions. 
 
 1. What sentence marks the transition from admiration to sarcasm? 
 
 2. What figures are employed in (1) and (2) ? Are they consistent or 
 congruous? 
 
ANALYSIS OF STYLE. 47 
 
 3. What fgure of construction liave we in (3) ? 
 
 4. What Jigtire is used in (5) ? 
 
 5. What expression in (9) is inconsistent with the lofty sentiment of the 
 passage ? 
 
 6. What expression in (10) is epigrammatic f 
 
 Exercise 7. 
 
 Junius. (? Fiuncis, 1740-1818.) 
 
 A. (1) " My Lord, — You are so little accustomed to receive any marks 
 
 of respect or esteem from the public, that if, in the following lines, 
 a compliment or expression of applause should escape me, I fear 
 you would consider it as a mockery of your established character, 
 
 (2) and, perhaps, an insult to your understanding. You have nice 
 feelings, my lord, if we may judge from your resentments; 
 cautious, therefore, of giving offence, when you have so little 
 deserved it, I shall leave the illusti-ation of your virtues to other 
 
 (3) hands. Your friends have a privilege to play upon the easiness 
 of your temper, or possibly they are better acquainted with your 
 
 (4) (5) good qualities than I am. You have done good by stealth. The 
 (6) rest is upon record. You have still left ample room for specula- 
 tion, when panegyric is exhausted. 
 
 B. (7) (8) " You are indeed a very considerable man. The highest rank ; 
 
 a splendid fortune ; and a name glorious till it was yours, were 
 
 sufficient to have supported you with meaner abilities than 1 think 
 
 (9) you possess. From the first, you derived a constitutional name 
 
 to respect ; from the second, a natural extensive authority ; — the 
 
 (10) last created a partial expectation of hereditary virtues. The use 
 you have made of these uncommon advantages might have been 
 more honourable to yourself, but could not be more instructive to 
 
 (11) mankind. We may trace it in the veneration of your country, 
 the choice of your friends, and in the accomplishment of every 
 sanguine hope which the public might have conceived from the 
 illustrious name of Kussell." 
 
 Questions. 
 
 1. What is the prevailing tone of this passage? Note particular 
 instances of the figure referred to. 
 
 2. What expression in (3) is objectionable? 
 
 3. What words are in (6) equivocal ? 
 
 4. What expression in (9) disturbs the unity of the tone of the sentence ? 
 W^hat is the eff'ect of this ? 
 
 5. Wherein lies the antithesis between (5) and (6) ? 
 
 6. Out of which sentence in A., does paragraph B. spring? 
 
 7. Note the connexion between the successive sentences in B. 
 
48 COMPOSITION IN PKOSE. 
 
 Exercise 8. 
 
 Lamb. (1775-1834.) 
 
 A. (1) "Antiquity! thou wondrous charm, what art thou? that, 
 
 (2) being nothing, art everything! When thou we?*^, thou wert. 
 not antiquity — then thou wert nothing, but hadst a remoter 
 antiquity^ as thou calledst it, to look back to with bhnd vener- 
 ation ; thou thyself being to thyself flat, jejune, modem ! 
 
 (3) What mystery lurks in this retroversion ! or what half Januses 
 are we, that cannot look forward with the same idolatry with 
 
 (4) which we for ever revert ! The mighty future is as nothing, 
 being everything ! the past is everything, being nothing ! 
 
 B. (5) (6) " What wex-e thy darh ages ? Surely the sun rose as brightly 
 
 then as now, and man got him to his work in the morning! 
 (7) Why is it we can never hear mention of them without an ac- 
 
 companying feeling, as though a palpable obscure had dimmed 
 the face of things, and that our ancestors wandered to and fro 
 groping ! 
 
 C (8) " Above all thy varieties, old Oxenford, what do most arride 
 and solace me, are thy repositories of mouldering learning, 
 thy shelves 
 
 D. (9) (10) " What a place to be in is an old library ! It seems as though 
 all the souls of all the writers that have bequeathed their 
 labours to these Bodleians, were reposing here, as in some dor- 
 
 (11) mitory or middle state. I do not want to handle, to profane 
 
 (12) the leaves, their winding-sheets. I could as soon dislodge a 
 
 (13) shade. I seem to inhale learning, walking amid their foliage ; 
 and the odour of their old moth-scented coverings is fragrant 
 as the first bloom of those sciential apples which grew amid 
 the happy orchard." 
 
 Questions. 
 
 1. Of what^f/wre of language are A. and B. examples? 
 
 2. Point out the ejAgram in this paragra})h. 
 
 3. Remark on the use of the words "jejune" in (2), "revert" in (3), 
 " arride" in (8), and " sciential," in (13). 
 
 4. Point out the example of mixed metaphors in D. 
 
 5. What epithet would best describe the character of Lamb's style ? 
 
 Exercise 9. 
 
 Jeffrey. (1773-1850.) 
 
 (1) " The Restoration introduced a French court, — under circum- 
 
 stances more favourable for the effectual exercise of court in- 
 fluence than ever before existed in England : but this of itself 
 would not have been sufficient to account for the sudden change 
 
ANALYSIS OF STYLE. 49 
 
 (2) in our literature Avhich ensued. It was seconded by causes of 
 
 (3) far more general operation. The Restoration was undoubtedly a 
 popular act ; — and, indefensible as the conduct of the army and 
 the civil leaders was on that occasion, there can be no question 
 that the severities of Cromwell, and the extravagances of the 
 sectaries, had made republican professions hateful, and religious 
 ardour ridiculous, in the eyes of a great proportion of the people. 
 
 (4) All the eminent writers of the preceding period, however, had 
 inclined to the party that was now overthrown ; and their writ- 
 ings had not only been accommodated to the character of the 
 government under which they were produced, but were deeply 
 imbued with its obnoxious principles, which were those of their 
 
 (5) respective authors. When the restraints of authority were taken 
 off, therefore, and it became profitable, as well as popular, to dis- 
 credit the fallen party, it was natural that the leading authors 
 should affect a style of levity and derision, as most opposite to 
 that of their opponents, and best calculated for the purposes they 
 
 (6) had in view. The nation, too, was now for the first time es- 
 sentially divided in point of character and principle, and a much 
 greater proportion were capable both of writing in support of their 
 
 (7) notions, and of being influenced by what was written. Add to 
 all this, that there were real and serious defects in the style and 
 manner of the former generation ; and that tlie grace, and brevity, 
 and vivacity of that gayer manner which was now introduced 
 from France, were not only good and captivating in themselves, 
 but had then all the charms of novelty and of contrast ; and it 
 will not be difficult to understand how it came to supplant that 
 which had been established of old in the country, — and that so 
 suddenly, that the same generation, among whom Milton had 
 been formed to the severe sanctity of wisdom and the noble in- 
 dependence of genius, lavished its loudest applauses on the ob- 
 scenity and servility of such writers as Rochester and Wycherley." 
 
 Questions. 
 
 1. What is the relation between (1) and (2) ; and between (2) and those 
 that follow it? 
 
 2. Note the connecting particles between (3) and (4), and the subsequent 
 sentences. 
 
 3. Why is the last clause of (4) objectionable ? 
 
 4. Point out the redundancy and feebleness in (5). 
 
 5. Wherein is the paragrapli wanting in variety? 
 
 6. What clause in (7) is obscure ? 
 
 7. What words in (7) form an unmelodious combination ? 
 
 8. What is the general character of the style ? 
 
50 COMPOSITION IN PROSE. 
 
 Exercise 10. 
 
 Hallam. (1778-1859.) 
 
 (1) *' It has been justly observed by a living writer of the most 
 ardent and enthusiastic genius, whose eloquence is as the rush of 
 mighty waters, and has left it for others almost as invidious to 
 praise in terms of less rapture, as to censure what he has borne 
 along in the stream of unhesitating eulogy, that " no poet has ever 
 
 (2) had a more exquisite sense of the beautiful than Spenser." In 
 Virgil and Tasso this was not less powerful ; but even they, even 
 the latter himself, do not hang with such a tenderaess of delight, 
 with such a forgetful delay, over the fair creations of their fancy. 
 
 (3) Spenser is not averse to images that jar on the mind by exciting 
 horror or disgust, and sometimes his touches are rather too strong ; 
 but it is on love and beauty, on holiness and virtue, that he 
 
 (4) reposes with all the sympathy of his soul. The slowly sliding 
 motion of his stanza, " with many a bout of linked sweetness 
 long di*awn out," beautifully corresponds to the dreamy enchant- 
 ment of his description, when Una, or Belphcebe, or Florimel, or 
 
 (5) Amoret, is present to his mind. In this varied delineation of 
 female perfectness, no earlier poet had equalled him ; nor, except- 
 ing Shakspeare, has he had, perhaps, any later rival." 
 
 Questions. 
 
 1. Point out the dislocation in (1). 
 
 2. Note how the fault is redeemed by the grace of the expression. 
 
 3. What expressions in (2) and (3) strike you as being particularly 
 appropriate ? 
 
 4. Do any words in (4) make a disagreeable combination of sounds ? 
 
 5. Note the judicial caution of the opinion expressed in (5). 
 
 6. What is the general character of the style ? 
 
 7. Remark on the continuity of the paragraph. 
 
 Exercise 11. 
 
 Macaulay. (1800-1859.) 
 
 (1) " When Sunday the fourth of November dawned, the cliffs of 
 the Isle of Wight were full in view of the Dutch armament. 
 
 (2) That day was the anniversary both of William's birth and of 
 
 (3) his marriage. Sail was slackened during part of the morning ; 
 
 (4) and divine service was performed on board of the ships. In the 
 afternoon and through the night the fleet held on its course. 
 
 (5) Torbay was the place where the Prince intended to land. 
 
 (6) But the morning of Monday the fifth of November was hazy. 
 
ANALYSIS OF STYLE. 51 
 
 (7) The pilot of the Brill could not discern the sea marks, and 
 
 (8) carried the fleet too far to the west. The danger was great. 
 
 (9) (10) To return in the face of the wind was impossible. Plymouth 
 
 (11) was the next port. But at Plymouth a garrison had been 
 
 (12) posted under the command of the Earl of Bath, The landing 
 might be opposed ; and a check might produce serious conse- 
 
 (13) quences. There could be little doubt, moreover, that by this 
 time the royal fleet had got out of the Thames, and was 
 
 (14) hastening full sail down the channel. Russell saw the whole 
 extent of the peril, and exclaimed to Bumet, " You may go to 
 
 (15) (16) prayers, doctor. All is over." At that moment the wind 
 
 changed, a soft breeze sprang up from the south, the mist 
 dispersed, the sun shone forth, and, under the mild light of an 
 autumnal noon, the fleet turned back, passed round the lofty 
 cape of Berry Head, and rode safe in the harbour of Torbay." 
 
 Questions. 
 
 1. What is the most noticeable feature in the structure of this para- 
 graph ? What effect does it produce ? 
 
 2. To what kind of composition does it belong ? 
 
 3. Are there any examples of abrupt transition ? 
 
 4. What relation do sentences (9) to (13) bear to (8)? 
 
 5. Estimate the proportion of Classical and Saxon words. 
 
 6. Is any word or phrase inappi'opriate ? 
 
 7. What does the greater portion of the paragraph lead the reader to 
 expect? Where does the change come, and with what effect ? 
 
 8. Can the style be characterized as melodious ? 
 
 Exercise 12. 
 
 Carltle. 
 
 A. (1) " To this conclusion, then, hast thou come, O hapless Louis! 
 
 (2) The Son of Sixty Kings is to die on the Scaffold by form of Law. 
 
 (3) Under Sixty Kings this same form of Law, form of Society, has 
 been fashioning itself together these thousand years; and has 
 
 (4) become, one way and another, a most strange Machine. Surely, 
 if needful, it is also frightful, this Machine ; dead, blind ; not 
 what it should be; which, with swift stroke, or by cold slow 
 torture, has wasted the lives and souls of innumerable men. 
 
 (5) And behold now a King himself, or say rather Kinghood in his 
 person, is to expire here in cruel tortures; — like a Phalaris 
 
 (6) shut in the belly of his own red-heated Brazen Bull ! It is ever 
 so ; and thou shouldst know it, O haughty tyrannous man : 
 injustice breeds injustice ; curses and falsehoods do verily return 
 
 (7) ' always ho^ne,'' wide as they may vander. Innocent Louis bearri 
 
52 COMPOSITION IN PROSE. 
 
 the sins of many generations : he too experiences that man's 
 
 tribunal is not in this earth ; that if he had no Higher one, it were 
 
 not well with him. 
 
 B. (8) " A King dying by such violence appeals impressively to the 
 
 (9) imagination ; as the like must do, and ought to do. And yet at 
 
 (10) bottom it is not the King dying, but the man ! Kingship is a 
 
 (11) coat: the grand loss is of the skin. The man from whom you 
 
 (12) take his Life, to him can the whole combined world do more f Lally 
 
 (13) went on his hurdle ; his mouth filled with a gag. Miserablest 
 mortals, doomed for picking pockets, have a whole five-act 
 Tragedy in them, in that dumb pain, as they go to the gallows, 
 unregarded; they consume the cup of trembling down to the 
 
 (14) lees. For Kings and for Beggars, for the justly doomed and the 
 
 (15) unjustly, it is a hard thing to die. Pity them all: thy utmost 
 pity, with all aids and appliances and throne-and-scaftbld con- 
 trasts, how far short is it of the thing pitied ! " 
 
 Questions. 
 
 1 . Point out examples of abrupt expression in this passage. 
 
 2. With what ^^wre of construction does the paragraph open ? How 
 far does it extend ? 
 
 3. Are any of the expressions harsh or inelegant ? 
 
 4. Are any of the expressions colloquial or undignified ? 
 
 5. What figure of language is employed in (5) ? 
 
 6. Note instances of an inverted construction of sentences : what is the 
 efiect of this ? 
 
 7. Wliat is noticeable in the use of the word "doomed" in (13) 
 and (14) ? 
 
 8. What is the difference in subject between A. and B. ? 
 
53 
 
 PART II.— PROSE THEMES. 
 
 61. A Theme is a series of paragraphs discussing the different 
 parts of a subject, so arranged as to give a complete exposition 
 of the subject of which it treats. 
 
 62. As ah'eady explained in connexion with the Paragraph, 
 there are three kinds of composition, to any one of which mainly, 
 though not exclusively, a Theme may belong. These are 
 Narration, Description, and Exposition. Reflection, as was 
 formerly shown, may better be regarded as an element which 
 may be introduced into any kind of Theme, than as itself a 
 distinct kind of composition. While a Theme is less likely than 
 a Paragraph to belong entirely to only one of the above named 
 classes, it is convenient to classify Themes according to their 
 prominent character, into, 
 
 I. Narrative Themes. • 
 
 II. Descriptive Themes. 
 III. Expository Themes. 
 
 Chapter I. — ^Narration. 
 
 63. A Narrative Theme has for its object to give a complete 
 account of all that happened in connexion with a particular 
 event ; and only such details arc to be introduced into it as are 
 necessary for that purpose. 
 
 64. The Narrative Theme may therefore be regarded as an 
 expansion and enlargement of the narrative paragraph, as the 
 paragraph is of the sentence (I. § 82). It affords, however, 
 greater scope for the introduction occasionally of descriptive and 
 reflective elements. 
 
 65. The particulars embraced in the Theme will generally 
 refer to the following heads : — 
 
 1. The Event itself. 
 
 2. The Persons or Instruments concerned in it. 
 
 3. The Time. 
 
54 COMPOSITION IN PROSE. 
 
 4. The Place. 
 
 0. The manner and accompanying circumstances. 
 
 6. Reflections on the causes and consequences of the event. 
 The last two heads will obviously afford the greatest scope for 
 amplification, as they will include a detailed account of the 
 course of events to which the incident under consideration 
 belongs. 
 
 66. Narrative Themes may be classified, according to the 
 nature of the subjects treated of, under these three heads : — 
 
 1. Incidental Themes^ including such miscellaneous subjects as 
 
 Mechanical Processes, and Incidents of every-day life. 
 IT. Biographical Themes. 
 III. Historical Themes. 
 
 67. Rules for Narration : — 
 
 I. Narrate the events in the order of their occurrence. 
 
 II. Introduce Description, only when really necessary to 
 explain objects referred to in the narrative. 
 
 III. Introduce Reflection sparingly, and always keep it sub- 
 ordinate to Narration, which is the main object of the Theme. 
 
 IV. Each circumstance which forms a distinct unity should 
 occupy a separate paragraph. 
 
 As the drawing out of a scheme or skeleton before writing any 
 Theme is an important exercise in itself, only one or two model 
 schemes are here given under each head. It is recommended that, as 
 a first exercise, the pupils should be required to prepare the scheme, 
 and as a second, to write the Theme therefrom. The following 
 directions for scheme-making are given to aid the pupil in doing this 
 for himself. 
 
 68. Directions for Scheme-making : — 
 
 I. AVhen the facts are not derived from personal observation, 
 read some plain and authentic account of them ; and in the course 
 of reading, make notes. 
 
 II. From these notes, select the points most worthy of atten- 
 tion, and arrange them in the order in which they are to be taken 
 up in the narrative. 
 
 III. Indicate by marginal notes those objects that may require 
 descriptioil, and the points which suggest reflections. 
 
NARRATION. 
 
 55 
 
 IV. Write the Theme from the scheme and notes alone, and 
 not from the author consulted. 
 
 V. The division into paragraphs is most conveniently made in 
 the course of composition. 
 
 I. Incidental Themes. 
 
 69. The style, in Incidental Narrative, should be plain and 
 unaffected. The language should be simple and direct, and the 
 construction natural. The sentences should, for the most part, 
 be short and uninvolved. An excess of Periods, in compositions 
 of this class, is apt to make the style formal and pompous, and is 
 generally inconsistent with the character of the subject. 
 
 Exercise 13. 
 
 1. The Openino of Parliament. 
 
 D.* The interior and 
 
 The gathering of the Houses — the House of 
 Lords ^ — the crowds outside — military guard — 
 arrival of the Queen — Her entrance into the 
 House — arrival of the Commons 2 — reading of the 
 Koyal speech-^ — withdrawal of the Commons — 
 reading of the speech in the Lower House — the 
 address and debate thereupon in both Houses. 
 
 aspect of the House. 
 
 2K.* The different ele- 
 ments of the consti- 
 tution. 
 
 3 D. The form and parts 
 of the speech. 
 
 2. A Military Review and Sham Fight. I 4. A Public Funeral. 
 
 3. A Jury Trial. | 5. A Cricket or Football Match. 
 
 6. The Break-up at School. 
 
 Exercise 14. 
 
 1. Paper-Makixo. 
 Rags collected — dusting — sorting — cutting ^ — 
 washing — teasing — bleaching — stirring pulp in 
 vat — passage through strainer — over wire cloth 2 
 — vacuum box^ — lateral vibration* — passage of 
 film between iron rollers — on to felt web — rollers 
 again — under steam-heated cylinders — on to a 
 drum or reel, a perfect web of paper.s 
 
 2. The Process of Photographing, 
 
 3. The Process of Glass-making. 
 
 4. A Walk through a Manufactory. 
 6. The Laying of the Atlantic Cable. 
 6. The Casting of a Statue. 
 
 * D. = Description. E. = Reflection. 
 
 D. Knife, cylinder. 
 
 D. Machine. 
 
 R. Purpose of this. 
 
 R. Effect of this. 
 
 R. Beauty of the con- 
 trivance; ingenuity; 
 effects, — spread 'of 
 knowledge, etc. 
 
56 
 
 COMPOSITION IN PROSE. 
 
 Exercise 15. 
 
 1. A Highland Tour. 
 
 Start from Edinburgh i — incidents of the depar- 
 ture — view of Linlithgow Palace and Loch — 
 approach Stirling — bustle of the station — crowd 
 of tourists from all parts — meeting of friends 
 discussing different plans — view of Stirling 
 Castle 2 — Callander, run for seats — the drive 
 to the Trossachs by Lochs Venacher and 
 Achray — first view of the Trossachs and Ben 
 Venue ^ — Loch Katrine — the sail down the loch 
 — Helen's Isle — the Silver Strand — view of the 
 Trossachs from the lake — Stronachlachar — walk 
 to Inversnaid past Loch Arklet— sail from Inver- 
 snaid, past Rob Roy's Cave, to Inverarnan — view 
 of Ben Lomond — drive to Tyndrum — Glenorchy 
 — Dalmally — Kilchurn Castle ^ — Loch Awe — 
 view of Ben Cruachan — Taynuilt — view of Dun- 
 staffnage Castle — to Oban. 
 
 Excursion to Staffa and lona,^ — returning to 
 Oban. 
 
 Excursion to Glencoe,^ — returning to Oban — 
 Oban, by Crinan Canal to Ardrishaig — sail round 
 the Kyles of Bute^ — by Rothesay — Wemyss Bay 
 — rail to Glasgow — Glasgow' to Edinburgh. 
 
 2. A Continental Tour. 
 
 3. The Ascent of a Mountain. 
 
 R. Sense of freedom. 
 
 2 R. Transition 
 
 Lowlands to 
 lands. 
 
 3 D. The scene. 
 
 4D. The ruin. 
 
 from 
 Hio-h- 
 
 R. Historical associa- 
 tions. 
 
 6 D. The scenery. 
 ' R, Contrast Edinburgh 
 and Glasgow. 
 
 4. A Walking Excursion in Skye. 
 
 5. A Day in l^ondon, Paris, Berlin, etc. 
 
 6. A Cruise in the Hebrides. 
 Additional Subjects: — See Part I., Exercise 23, Nos. 13-20. 
 
 II. Biographical Themes. 
 
 70. A Biographical Theme gives a detailed account of the events 
 in a man's life. Like the paragraph (I. § 95), it may open with 
 
 1. A Description^ in general terms, of his position and char- 
 acter. Then follows 
 
 2. The Narrative proper, in the course of which descriptions 
 or reflections may be introduced, suggested by objects referred 
 to, or by features of character and conduct. The theme may 
 conclude with a formal estimate 
 
 3. Of Character^ and remarks upon the lessons of the life that 
 has passed under review. 
 
 The outlines of Biographical paragraphs given in Part I. 
 (Exercise 27), may be used also as the bases of Themes. The 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL THEMES. 
 
 57 
 
 particulars, however, mnst now be treated with greater detail. 
 The following outlines, with marginal references to description 
 and reflection, will serve as models for the schemes which, before 
 writing any Theme, the pupil should be required to prepare. 
 
 Exercise 16. 
 
 Frederic the Great. 
 
 Description : The real founder of the Prussian 
 
 Power — a great soldier. 
 Narrative: Born in 1712 — liis father becomes 
 king in 1713 — education — occupations of 
 youth — treatment by his father ^ — imprison- 
 ment — liberation — first campaign. 
 
 Ascends the throne in 1740 — stale of 
 Europe — retrospect of Prussian history 
 since 1701 — Silesian wars^ begin, 1740 — 
 defeats the Austrians at Molwitz, 1741 — 
 alliance with Britain, 1742 — takes Prague, 
 1744 — conquers Saxony ; treaty of Dresden, 
 1745. 
 
 Connexion with Vol taire,3 — verse-making 
 and literary pursuits. 
 
 Seven Years' War begins ; seizes Saxony, 
 1756 — battles of Lo.wositz, 1756— Prague, 
 Kolin, Eosbach, 1757— Hochkirchen,* 1758 
 — disasters of third and fourth campaigns,^ 
 1759, 1760 — saved by the death of Elizabeth 
 of Russia, 1762 — treaty of Hubertsburg, 
 1763. 
 
 Interferes in Poland,^ 1766 — sends an 
 army into Poland, 1771 — agrees to the first 
 partition, 1772. 
 
 The Armed Neutrality formed,? 1780— 
 joined by Frederic, and by the Emperor 
 Joseph IL, 1781. 
 
 Prevents the exchange of Belgium for 
 Bavaria, 1785 — dies, 17th August 1786. 
 Character: A great general — rapid in his 
 movements — skilful in conducting a cam- 
 paign — not depressed by defeat: a wise 
 ruler: a cautious and selfish politician: 
 effects of his reign in establishing the influ- 
 ence of Prussia in European politics. 
 
 2. Hannibal. i 4. Charles XIT. 
 
 3. Cyrus the Elder. I 5. Gustuvus Adolphus. 
 
 6. Louis XIV. 
 
 1 R. Frederic William's 
 character. 
 
 '^ D. Their origin. 
 
 R. Treatment of Vol- 
 taire. 
 
 4 D. One or more of 
 these battles in detail. 
 
 5 R. His fortitude in 
 adversity. 
 
 6R. Fate of Poland. 
 
 7 D. The coalition, anJ 
 its objects. 
 
58 
 
 COMPOSITION IN PROSE. 
 
 Exercise 17. 
 
 1. John Milton. 
 
 1. Description: England's greatest epic poet. 
 
 2. Narrative: Born in London, 1608 — descended 
 
 from an Oxfordshire family — his father, i a 
 well-known composer, having been dis- 
 inherited for becoming a Protestant, came 
 to London and lived as a scrivener. 
 
 Milton's education — his taste for study 
 encouraged by his father — at St Paul's 
 School — earliest poem, Translation of ISQth 
 Fsalm, 1623 — at Christ's College, Cam- 
 bridge, 1624-5 — disliked for his religious 
 opinions 2 — takes his bachelor's degree, 
 1628-9. 
 
 Retires to his father's house, Horton, in 
 Buckinghamshire, 1629 — writes Comus, 
 16S^—Lycidas,^ 1637— L' Allegro and II 
 Penseroso. 
 
 Visits the Continent, 1638 — Paris — 
 Geneva — Florence — Rome — Naples — hears 
 of the civil war* in England, and returns to 
 London. 
 
 Resides in St Bride's Churchyard — teaches 
 his nephews, Edward and John Philips — 
 removes to Aldersgate Street with his pupils. 
 
 First marriage, 1643 — writes the Doctrine 
 and Discipline of Divorce — publishes the 
 Tractate on Education and Areopagitica — 
 death of his father, 1647. 
 
 Latin Secretary to the Council of State, 
 1 649 — publishes his Defence of the People of 
 England,^ 1651 — loses his sight, 1652 — 
 death of his wife, 1652 — second marriage 
 — third marriage, 1662. 
 
 Paradise Lost first published,^ 1667 — 
 Paradise Regained and Samson Agonistes, 
 1670— dies, 8th November 1674. 
 
 3. Character : Simple and frugal in his habits — 
 
 affable and graceful in manners — ardent in 
 affection — firm, decided, and independent in 
 character: — vast learning, lofty imagina- 
 tion, musical ear — Paradise Lost, the 
 greatest poem in the English language. 
 
 2. William Cowper. 1 4. Joseph Addison. 
 
 3. Lord Bacon. | 5. Samuel Johnson. 
 
 6. Sir Walter Scott. 
 
 1 R. Milton's reverence 
 for his father. 
 
 2 R, Early indications 
 of character. 
 
 D .The poem, and the 
 circumstances which 
 it. 
 
 4 D. The nature of the 
 struggle. 
 
 ^ D. The opinions advo- 
 cated. 
 
 ^ D. The circumstances 
 in which it was 
 written. — R. His 
 treatment by his 
 daughters. 
 
BIOGRAPHICAL THEMES. 
 
 59 
 
 Exercise 18. 
 
 1. Mary Stuart. 
 
 Description: The beautiful and unfortunate 
 Queen of Scots. 
 
 Narrative: Bom December 8, 1542 — Her 
 father, James V.,i dies a week afterwards — 
 Cardinal Beaton Regent — negociations for 
 marriage with Prince Edward of England 2 
 unsuccessful, 1543 — state of Scotland at 
 this time. 
 
 Taken to France 3 and affianced to the 
 Dauphin, 1548 — educated in France ^ — 
 married to the Dauphin, 1558 — Queen of 
 France, 1559 — Francis (her husband) dies, 
 1560 — Mary returns to Scotland, 1561 — 
 her mode of life in Scotland — progress of 
 the Reformation 5 — proposals for her second 
 marriage, 1563 — David Rizzio her secre- 
 tary, 1564 — marries Lord Darnley, 1565 — 
 murder of Rizzio, 15(56 — and of Darnley, 
 1567 — carried off by Botiiwell — married by 
 him — taken prisoner at Carberry Hill — 
 abdicates in favour of James VI. — Murray 
 Regent e — the Parliament condemns her as 
 an accomplice in the murder of Darnley ^ — 
 escapes from Lochleven Castle — defeated at 
 Langside — flees to England and claims the 
 protection of Elizabeth " — this is refused and 
 she is imprisoned at Bolton, — Tutbury, 1568 
 — proposed marriage with Norfolk, 1569 — 
 negociations with Alva — and Norfolk ^ — 
 tried as an accomplice in Babington's con- 
 spiracy and condemned, 1586 — beheaded at 
 Fotheringay, February 8, 1587. 
 
 Character : Affable, insinuating, sprightly — 
 self-willed and impatient of contradiction — 
 impulsive, vivacious, and warm-hearted — 
 judgment weak — beautiful and graceful, 
 and conscious of her charms. 
 
 ID. The fate of the 
 Jameses. 
 
 2 R. Relations between 
 
 England and Scot- 
 land. 
 
 3 R. Relations between 
 
 Scotland and France. 
 *R, Effect of this on her 
 
 whole career. 
 1 
 I 5 D. The state of parties, 
 
 and Mary's treat- 
 I ment of the Reform- 
 I ers. 
 
 6R. Character of Mur- 
 ray. 
 7R. Justly or unjustly? 
 
 8 R. Conduct of Eliza- 
 
 beth. 
 
 9 R. Involved the Pro- 
 
 testant succession to 
 the English throne. 
 
 2. Queen Elizabeth. I 4. Marie Antoinette. 
 
 3. Catherine de Medici. ' 5. Catherine of Russia. 
 
 6. Queen Victoria. 
 
 Adoitioxal Subjects : — See Part I., Exercise 27. 
 
60 
 
 COMPOSITION IN PROSE, 
 
 III. Historical Themes. 
 
 71. An Historical Theme deals with the details of a specific 
 event or of a period of history. It should consist of 
 
 1. An Introduction, partly narrative, partly reflective, ex- 
 plaining the connexion of the event with the general current 
 of history, and tracing its origin. Then follows 
 
 2. 2'he Narrative proper, in which the incidents are mentioned 
 in the order of their occurrence. Descriptions of important places 
 or prominent characters may be occasionally introduced. The 
 theme may close with 
 
 3. Reflections, of a more general character than those intro- 
 duced incidentally in the course of the narrative, and dealing 
 with the nature and consequences of the event as a whole. 
 
 Exercise 19. 
 
 1. The Destruction of Jerusalem. 
 
 1 . Introduction : Roman occupation of Palestine ^ 
 
 — oppression of the Jews — they revolt — 
 Nero 2 sends Vespasian — changes in the 
 Empire — the siege of Jerusalem left to 
 Titus. 
 
 2. Narrative: Titus marches from Caesarea, 
 
 forms three camps around the city^ — 
 opening of the siege — first wall gained — 
 attack on the second wall, the Ilomans 
 repulsed — retaken and razed. 
 
 Famine within the city — Titus surrounds 
 it with a wall in three days* — attack on the 
 Tower of Antonia^ — taken — attack on the 
 Temples — get on fire by a Roman soldier — 
 Titus tries to save it, but fails^ — the Jews 
 take refuge in the Upper City — are driven 
 out to the caves and valleys — terrible 
 slaughter of Jews, 
 
 3. Reflections : Fulfilment of Christ's prophecy — 
 
 retribution for their rejection of Christ — the 
 earthly Jerusalem destroyed — the Triumph 
 of Titus, with the sacred trophies from the 
 Temple — the Arch of Titus at Rome^^ — 
 scattering of the Jews — their subsequent 
 history. 
 
 ^ R. Extent of the Em- 
 pire, 
 ^ R. His character. 
 
 3 J). The city, and its 
 walls. 
 
 3 R. Dissensions in the 
 
 city; the Zealots and 
 their leaders. 
 
 4 R. Luke xix. 43, 44. 
 
 5 D. The Tower. 
 
 6 D. Tlie Temple. 
 
 7 R. His motives. 
 
 8 D. The sculpture on 
 the arch. 
 
HISTORICAL THEMES. 
 
 61 
 
 ID. Enumerate the 
 Spanish possessions. 
 
 2 D. The Spanish fleet. 
 ■^D. The English fleet. 
 '* R. A cathoHc, but 
 loyal. 
 
 5D. Head of the 
 
 League. 
 
 2. The Taking of Constantinople by the Turks. 
 
 3. The Siege and Relief of Leyden, 
 
 4. The Massacre of St Bartholomew. 
 
 5. The Capture of Rochelle. 
 
 6. The Storming of the Bastile. 
 
 Exercise 20. 
 
 1. The Spanish Armada. 
 
 1. Introduction: Nature of the struggle — real 
 
 design to deal a death-blow to the Pro- 
 testantism of Europe- — position of England 
 
 — vast power of Spain ^ — supported by the 
 
 Pope, and the whole Catholic powers of 
 
 Europe — preparations in Spain and the 
 
 Netherlands 2 — prepai'ations in England ^ — 
 
 The leaders in the struggle : Lord Howard 
 
 of Effingham,* Sir Francis Drake, Sir 
 
 Martin Frobisher, Sir Walter Raleigh: — 
 
 Alexandre Farnese Prince of Parma, Ad- 
 miral Vera Cruz, Mendoza : — the Duke of 
 
 Guise 5; — Pope Sixtus V. 
 2 Narrative: 20th May 1588, the Armada 
 
 leaves the Tagus — assailed by a storm 
 
 and obliged to put back — death of Vera 
 
 Cruz — Duke of Medina Sidonia^ succeeds 
 
 him — fleet repaired — 12th July, sets sail 
 
 again — 19th, reaches the English coast — 
 
 2uth, first seen by Lord Howard — the 
 
 Armada makes for Calais,'' to meet Parma 
 
 — running fight for several days^ — Parma 
 
 blockaded by the Dutch ^ and English — 
 
 29th, fire-ships sent into the Armada at night 
 
 — thrown into confusion — 30th, pursued 
 
 northward by Howard and Drake i° — de- 
 stroyed on the coasts of Scotland and Ireland 
 
 — only 53 ships out of 1 40 return to Spain. 
 3. Beflections: Importance of the issue; estab- 
 lished Protestantism in England — enthu- 
 siasm of the whole country — insufficient 
 
 preparation in England prevented the 
 
 victory being so complete as it should 
 
 have been — annihilation of the Spanish 
 
 navy — effect on the subsequent history of 
 
 Europe and of the world. 
 
 2. The Battle of Marathon. I 4. The Battle of Bannockbum. 
 
 3. The Prattle of Actium. | 5. The Battle of the Nile. 
 
 6. The Battle of Waterloo. 
 
 6R. An 
 
 leader. 
 
 incompetent 
 
 "^ R. Indecision ; change 
 of plan. 
 
 8 D. Incidents of the 
 fight. 
 
 9 R. 1 mportance of this 
 service. 
 
 10 R. Insufficiently sup- 
 plied with ammuni- 
 tion. 
 
62 
 
 COMPOSITION IN PROSE. 
 
 Exercise 21. 
 
 1. The Thirty Years' War. 
 
 1. Introduction: Struggle in Bohemia — Protes- 
 tant V. Catholic' — persecution of Protestants 
 by Rudolf II., 1604 — Bohemia transferred 
 to Matthias, 1611 — resigned by him to 
 Ferdinand, 1617 — the Protestants take up 
 arms, 1618. 
 
 2 Narrative: 1st Period: Ferdinand becomes 
 Emperor, 1619 — the Bohemians elect Fre- 
 deric, the Elector Palatine,^ their king, and 
 march on Vienna — defeated at Prague by 
 Maximilian of Bavaria, 1620 — flight of 
 Frederic.-'^ 
 
 2d Period: Christian IV. of Denmark 
 heads the Protestant Union, 1625 — VVallen- 
 stein takes the field — Christian defeated by 
 Tilly at Lutzen, 1626 — his German states 
 overrun by Wallenstein, 1627 — restored to 
 him by the Peace of Liibeck, 1629. 
 
 ^d Period: Wallenstein* dismissed by 
 the intrigues of Richelieu, 1630 — Gustavus 
 Adolphus of Sweden heads the Protestant 
 Union — overruns Pomerania — Tilly sacks 
 Magdeburg^ — defeated by Gustavus at 
 Leipsic 163 1— Gustavus takes Mentz — Tilly 
 slain at the passage of the Lech, 1632 — 
 Gustavus overruns Bavaria — Wallenstein 
 recalled 6 — Gustavus'' slain at Lutzen, in the 
 hour of victory, 1632— Oxenstiern regent of 
 Sweden, 1633 — Wallenstein assassinated,^ 
 1634. 
 
 Ath Period: Richelieu openly aids the 
 Protestants in Germany, 1635 — death of 
 Ferdinand, 1 637 — Banner, Swedish general, 
 overruns Bohemia, 1639 — Torstenson oc- 
 cupies it, 1644 — French defeated at Fri- 
 burg, 1644 — Konigsmark takes Prague, 
 1646— Peace of Westphalia,^ 1648. 
 
 8. Peflections : Overthrow of the Germanic Em- 
 pire — independence of petty states — Ger- 
 many desolated — the gains of France — 
 settlement of Modern Europe. 
 
 1 R. A consequence of 
 the Reformation 
 struggle. 
 
 !D. Husband of Eliza- 
 beth, daughter of 
 James I. of England. 
 
 ' R. His misfortunes. 
 
 * D. His character. 
 
 ^ D. The massacre. 
 
 6R. The reason of this. 
 ' D. His character. 
 8 R. His treatment by 
 the Emperor. 
 
 D. Its terms. 
 
HISTORICAL THEMES. G3 
 
 2. The Retreat of the Ten Thousand. 
 
 3. The Swiss War of Independence, 
 
 4. The Scottish War of Independence. 
 
 5. The Wars of the Roses. 
 
 6. The Reformation in Germany, 
 
 7. The Rise of the Dutch Republic. 
 
 8. The Jacobite Rebellion. 
 
 9. The American War of Independence. 
 
 10. The French Revolution. 
 
 11. The Crimean War. 
 
 12. The Indian Mutiny. 
 
 Chapter II. — Description. 
 
 72. It is the aim of the Descriptive Theme to impart such 
 information regarding the object described as shall convey a full 
 and clear idea of its nature, its qualities, and its uses. As in 
 the case of narration, the theme differs from the paragraph 
 chiefly in the fulness and minuteness with which details are 
 entered into. Many of the particulars, which in the paragraph 
 (I. §§ 96-99) are dismissed in a single sentence, will in the 
 theme occupy a separate paragraph. The elements of the 
 theme are the same as those of the paragraph, viz., — 
 
 1. A General Description: the class to which the object 
 
 belongs, and the points of agreement or difference be- 
 tween it and other objects of the same class. 
 
 2. A Particular Description: its appearance, form, size, 
 
 colour, etc. — its locality or situation — its structure, with 
 a description of its parts — its characteristic features, or 
 points of special interest — its habits (if it be an animal) 
 — its kinds or varieties. 
 
 3. Reflections : its qualities — its uses. 
 
 Exercise 22. 
 
 1. The Camera Obscuka. 
 
 I. General Descripiion: An optical apparatus^ 
 for producing images or pictures of external 
 objects.^ 
 
 * N. = Narration. 
 
 1 N.* Its invention, and 
 
 the improvements 
 effected in its struc- 
 ture. 
 
 2 R, Compare it to the 
 
 human eye. 
 
64 
 
 COMPOSITION IN PKOSE. 
 
 Particular Description: Consists of a box or 
 dark chamber, into which light is admitted 
 only through a double convex lens^ — a 
 screen* of ground glass is placed in the 
 focus of the lens — on this the images of 
 objects placed before it are received in- 
 verted and reversed. — Kinds: stationary, 
 portable, stereoscopic,^ microscopic, magni- 
 fying, etc. 
 
 Reflections : Used in photography^ — a chemi- 
 cally prepared plate is put in the place of the 
 screen, and the image is made permanent — 
 beauty of the contrivance — wonderful re- 
 sults obtained by it — application to por- 
 traiture, to landscape, to astronomy, and 
 the useful arts. 
 
 ^ R. The lens of the eye. 
 *E. The Ketina. 
 
 ^ D. Solid pictures. 
 6N. History of the art. 
 
 2. The Electric Telegraph. 
 
 3. An Armstrong Gun. 
 
 I 4. A Paper-making Macliiue. 
 I 5. A Steam Plough. 
 A Gas-work. 
 
 Exercise 23. 
 
 1. Plant -Life. 
 
 1. General Description: The process by which 
 
 plants are propagated. ^ 
 
 2. Particular Description: (1.) The Seed: the 
 
 cotyledons, the plumule, and the radicle — 
 dicotyledons, monocotyledons, and acoty- i 
 ledons.2 {2 .) T\\q Root : caudex and fibrils | 
 — branching, fibrous, bulbous,^ etc. (3.^ j 
 The Stem: exogenous and endogenous,* I 
 (4.) The Leaf: fibres and pores. (5.) The I 
 Flower: calyx — corolla, petals — stamens, j 
 anther, and pollen — pistils, stigma, and | 
 ovary .6 (6.) The Fruity or seed vessel. j 
 
 3. Reflections : Beauty of arrangement and con- 
 
 trivance — uses of the root, seed, and fruit 
 as food for man and the lower animals — of 
 the stem and stalk as timber, etc. — of the 
 bark in tanning and in medicine — other 
 vegetable products, turpentine, resin, gum, 
 balsam, sugar, gutta percha, india rubber, 
 tea, coffee, cotton, wine, oil,— all contributing 
 to the health, comfort, and pleasure of man. 
 
 2. The Animal Kingdom. i 4. The Structure of Birds. 
 
 3. The Mineral Kingdom. I 5. The Senses. 
 
 6. The Circulation of the Blood. 
 
 1 R. Compare with ani- 
 mal life. 
 
 2 D. The peculiarities 
 of each order. 
 
 3D. The kinds of roots, 
 with examples. 
 
 * D. The difference be- 
 tween them. 
 
 5 R, The functions of 
 the different parts. 
 
DESCRIPTION. 
 
 65 
 
 Exercise 24. 
 
 1. Motions of the Earth, 
 
 1. Description: (1.) Diurnal motion.:'^ causing 
 
 day and night — earth's axis inclined to its 
 orbit, hence varying length of day and 
 night. (2.) Annual motion: causing the 
 succession of the seasons— differences of 
 temperature and light in different hemi- 
 spheres and zones 2 — spring and autumnal 
 equinoxes^ — summer and winter solstices^ 
 — accompanied by the moon* — account for 
 the phases of the moon — explain the doc- 
 trine of eclipses. 
 
 2. Be flections : (1.) Contrast with the effect if 
 
 the earth's axis had been perpendicular to 
 its orbit. (2.) Contrast real with apparent 
 motion — effect of the succession of day and 
 night, and of the seasons upon the ani- 
 mal and vegetable kingdoms. 
 
 2. The Tides. i 4. The Winds. 
 
 3. The Solar System. | 6. Heat. 
 
 6. The Mechanical Powers. 
 
 1 N. Contrast Ptolemaic 
 and Copemican sys- 
 tems. 
 
 D. Enumerate the 
 
 zones. 
 D. Explain these terms. 
 R. Explain the causes 
 
 of the tides. 
 
 Exercise 25. 
 
 1, The Tower of London. 
 
 General Description: The citadel 
 of London. 1 
 
 Particular Description: Situated 
 on north bank of the Thames 2 
 — separated from London proper 
 by Tower Hill^ — a collection of 
 different towers, in different 
 styles.— P«Ws: White Tower* 
 — Chapel — Lion Towers — Mid- 
 dle To wer— Bell Tower— Bloody 
 Tower 6 — Salt Tower— Brick 
 Tower "^ — Bowyer Tower — 
 Beauchamp Tower ^ — Horse 
 Armoury 9 — Jewel House.^*^ 
 
 lie flections: Strength and grandeur 
 — now used chiefly as barracks. 
 
 1 R. Compare with the Capitol, the 
 Acropolis, the Bastile, etc. 
 
 1 N. Its history — William I. , 
 
 Rufus, Charles H. 
 
 2 R. To overawe the city and com- 
 
 mand the river. 
 
 3 N. Place of execution of state 
 
 prisoners. 
 
 4 D. Queen Elizabeth's Ai-moury. 
 
 5 N. Lions in the Tower for 600 
 
 years — 1834. 
 
 6 R. The Princes murdered by 
 
 order of Richard III. 
 ■^ R. Lady Jane Grey. 
 ^ R. Anne Boleyn. 
 ^ N. Its history. 
 
 D. Its contents. 
 10 D. The Crown jewels. 
 
66 , COMPOSITION IN PROSE. 
 
 2. St Paul's Cathedral. I 4. StafFa and lona. 
 
 3. The Houses of Parliament. | 5. A National Gallci 7. 
 
 6. A Great Exhibition. 
 
 Additional Subjects: — See Part I., Exercises 28-31. 
 
 Chapter III. — Exposition. 
 
 73. Exposition has already been described as Description 
 applied to scientific and abstract truths (I. § 101). At this 
 stage, we may distinguish two classes of Expository Com- 
 positions — 1st, Discursive Themes or Essays ; 2d, Argumentative 
 Themes. 
 
 I. — Discursive Themes or Essays. 
 
 74. The distinction usually drawn between the Theme and 
 the Essay is, that the latter is less restrained than the former by 
 fixed rules or a rigid plan. It is not intended that Essays 
 should be written without any plan or scheme, — only that they 
 cannot, as in the previous cases, be composed according to a 
 uniform plan. No Essay should be written without a systematic 
 laying out of the subject; but the subjects are so various in 
 kind, and many of them are so complex, that each of them will 
 require, or at least admit of, a different mode of treatment. 
 
 («) In the following exercise a few model schemes are given as 
 specimens. From these the first Essays should he written. After- 
 wards, the pupils should be required to prepare an outline of each 
 subject, and submit it to the teacher for approval before writing the 
 
 Essay. 
 
 Exercise 26. 
 I. On Cruelty to Animals. 
 
 Outline. 
 
 a. The obligations of man to the lower animals. The ingratitude 
 
 of maltreating his benefactors. 
 
 b. The goodness of God in providing these animals for our use, and 
 
 in giving man " dominion over them." The injustice and 
 
EXPOSITION. 67 
 
 immorality of abusing God's gifts, and of violating the trust 
 which that " dominion " implies. 
 
 c. The duty of caring for the helpless, of being kind to the dumb. 
 
 The cowardice of taking advantage of their helplessness and 
 inability to plead their own cause. 
 
 d. The hardening effect upon the heart and affections of systematic 
 
 ill- treatment of dumb animals. The intelligence that can be 
 developed in them. The pleasure derivable from their com- 
 panionship. The fidelity and love with which they are capable 
 of rewarding their benefactors. 
 
 2. On Method in Daily Life. 
 
 Outline. 
 
 a. Enables us to do more work, and better work in less time. 
 
 b. The proper division of time will do for the individual what the 
 
 division of labour does for the community. 
 
 c. Much time is wasted in thinking what we are to do next ; much 
 
 by not taking our duties in a proper succession, (illustration) 
 as if a letter-carrier were to take out his letters in a general 
 heap, and deliver them just as the addresses turned up. 
 
 d. Shew how organisation is applicable to various occupations and 
 
 pursuits ; to daily business ; to the weekly round of duties ; 
 to amusements ; to travelling ; to the associations of men 
 for all purposes, as churches, railways, &c. ; to religious 
 duties ; to beneficence ; to teaching ; to literature ; to art. 
 
 e. The greater comfort and happiness arising from doing work 
 
 methodically, thoroughly, and well. 
 
 3. On Foreign Travel. 
 
 Outline. 
 
 a. Solitude often produces selfishness. Men's sympathies expand 
 
 the more, the more they mix with their fellows. The men of 
 a narrow circle, coterie, or small party, are narrowest and 
 most bigoted in their views. 
 
 b. Men who know no country but their own are apt to be filled 
 
 with national prejudices, to underrate other countries. Travel 
 removes these prejudices, expands the intellect, increases our 
 knowledge of men and things, shews us nature and art under 
 different circumstances, makes us less vain and more chari- 
 table. 
 
 4. On Memoir Writing. 
 
 Outline. 
 a. Much pleasure maybe given, and much good done, by narrating 
 the lives of great men ; by shewing us genius struggling with 
 poverty or adversity ; principle, with villany ; j)erseverance, 
 with difficulties. 
 
68 COMPOSITION IN PROSE. 
 
 b. Tlie danger of carrying memoir writing too far. Friendship 
 
 exaggerates virtues and extenuates faults. Truth must be the 
 great end of the biographer. His labours can only be justified 
 by the value of the lessons of the life he writes, not by the 
 admiration or vanity of friends. Memoirs too numerous and 
 too partial. 
 
 c. Injustice to the dead; the sacred privacy of inner thoughts, and 
 
 the no less sacred confidence of private correspondence often 
 violated to satisfy the inquisitiveness of friends or of the pub- 
 li c. Other men often compromised by too partial judgments on 
 the one side, and inadequate statement on the other, 
 
 d. Danger of men living artificially, and writing diaries and letters 
 
 with a view to posthumous book-making. 
 
 e. A true and faithful memoir a great rarity ; but, like gold, a pre- 
 
 cious gift when it is found. 
 
 6. The Power of Mystery, 
 
 Outline. 
 
 a. The intense interest we feel in the unknown and inexplicable. 
 
 The fact that human faculties and efforts are bafHed excites a 
 kind of awe, akin to that with which we regard the unknown 
 limits of time and space. 
 
 b. The pleasure the mind takes in the exercise of discovering 
 
 causes, of advancing explanations, and speculating on their 
 probability. Malebranche said, " If I held truth captive in 
 my hand, I should open my hand and let it fly, in order that 
 I might again pursue and capture it." 
 
 c. The fascination of novel reading, the keenness with which men 
 
 hunt a wild and dangerous animal, or pursue a robber, or 
 trace home a crime to its perpetrator, are of the same nature. 
 The pursuit, the anticipation of an appalling disclosure, hold 
 men spell-bound. 
 
 d. This has its disadvantages, in exciting dangerous and unhealthy 
 
 feelings : the sensation of a mysterious murder has been 
 known to produce cases of insanity. 
 
 e. It has its advantages, in leading men instinctively, and with 
 
 untiring assiduity, to track the perpetrators of great crimes. 
 
 G. The Fear of Man. 
 
 Outline. 
 
 a. Equivalent to moral cowardice ; leads to much folly and un- 
 
 happiness. 
 
 b. Tendency of men to think and act in parties ; disinclination to 
 
 appear singular (opposite extreme, the pride of appearing 
 singular) . 
 
EXPOSITION. 69 
 
 e. Danger of its becoming a motive, a principle of conduct; of 
 men acting, not from a sense of riglit or of duty, but from a 
 dread of incurring the censure or ridicule of tlieir fellows. 
 
 d. Consequent stifling of conscience, weakening of moral sense, of 
 judgment, of decision of character. Thus men become con- 
 temptible in their neighbours' eyes, miserable in their own. 
 
 7. On Ignorance of the Future. 
 
 Hints. 
 a. A happy thing for our peace of mind. 
 
 6. We should be miserable if we knew the evil that awaited us 
 presumptuous if we knew the good. 
 
 c. All our energies and efforts would be paralysed. 
 
 d. The divine goodness in the veil suspended between us and the 
 
 future. 
 
 e. The folly of our inquisitiveness : our daily comfort and future 
 
 happiness depend upon this blessed ignorance. 
 
 8. On the Study of the Dead Languages. 
 
 Hints. 
 
 a. The study of language the best mental gymnastic. 
 
 0. The classical languages afford the best discipline — (1.) because 
 they are dead and not studied for practical utility ; (2.) be- 
 cause they are so highly synthetic in their grammar ; (3.) be- 
 cause of the light they throw on modern European lan- 
 
 c. The richness of their literature — foundations of art, science, and 
 
 abstract thought. The perfection of the models of style they 
 present. 
 
 d. The effects of this study in advancing all learning and thought. 
 
 9. On Government of the Tongue. 
 
 Hints. 
 
 a. A word uttered cannot be recalled. 
 
 b. Injury to others, discomfort to ourselves by rashly uttered words. 
 
 Momentary haste has led to life-long quarrels. Domestic 
 discord. National differences. 
 
 c. An unruly member — yet when restrained an instrument of 
 
 happiness and good. Explosive as steam, gunpowder, or gas, 
 but as useful when kept under due restraint. 
 
 10. The Good and the Evil of War. 
 
 Hints. 
 
 a. The good : calls forth noble sentiments, courage, manliness ; 
 
 rouses a nation from lethargy ; counteracts the effeminacy, 
 
 luxury, weakness, indolence, which a long peace engenders. 
 
 Frequently avenges tyranny, murder, and banishes barbarism. 
 
70 
 
 COMPOSITION IN PEOSE. 
 
 b. The evil: excites angry passions, sacrifices human life, destroys 
 property, devastates nature, entails national, social, and 
 domestic misery. 
 
 11. On Forming Acquaintanceships. 
 
 Hints. 
 
 a. To be done deliberately and carefully, for the friends of youth 
 
 may be the friends of time. 
 
 b. The influence men exercise over each other— affects success in 
 
 life, daily happiness, social position, domestic tastes, political 
 opinions, religious views, and therefore our eternal well-being. 
 
 12. On Historical Reading. 
 
 Hints. 
 
 a. Increases the sphere of our knowledge. 
 
 b. Expands our sympathies. 
 
 c. Presents noble pictures of patriotism and courage. 
 
 d. A source of gratification and amusement. 
 
 e. Enables us to draw lessons from the past applicable to the pre- 
 
 sent. 
 /. Gives us models for personal imitation, and leads to the forma- 
 tion of sound views of life and conduct. 
 
 13. The Influence of Scenery on the mind. 
 
 14. Submission to Superiors 
 
 15. The Power of Conscience. 
 
 16. The Liberty of the Press. 
 
 17. Negro Slavery. 
 
 18. The Influence of Climate on the Character of a Nation, 
 
 19. The Inheritance of Genius. 
 
 20. National Characteristics. 
 
 21. Decision of Character. 
 
 22. The Power of Prejudice. 
 
 23. Trusting to Appearances. 
 
 24. The Power of Little Things. 
 
 25. The Force of Habit. 
 
 26. The Art of Putting Things. 
 
 27. The Moral Influences of the Dwelling. 
 
 28. The Policy of Honesty. 
 
 29. Success in Life. 
 
 30. The Pleasures of Association. 
 
 31. The Benefits of Commerce. 
 
 32. The Uncertainty of Fame. 
 
 33. Party Spirit. 
 
 34. The Pleasures of Imagination. 
 S5. The Advantages of Content. 
 
EXPOSITION. 71 
 
 86. The Disappointments of Life. 
 
 37. The Study of Natural Science. 
 
 38. Giving and Eeceiving Keproof. 
 
 39. Friendship in Age. 
 
 40. The Influence of Eeligion on Happiness. 
 
 II. Argumentative Themes. 
 
 75. Argumentative Composition — ^whicli Whately and others 
 regard as the proper sphere of Rhetoric — has for its end the 
 irroduction of belief, whether it be in those who have no fixed 
 opinions on the subject in question, or in those who hold an 
 opposite opinion. 
 
 76. The Argumentative Theme should consist of the follow- 
 ing parts : — 
 
 I. The Introduction of the subject. 
 
 II. The Proposition, or statement of the question. 
 
 III. The Proof, or arguments in support of it. 
 
 IV. The Refutation of objections. 
 
 V. The Exhortation, or appeal to the feelings. 
 
 VI. The Recapitulation and conclusion. 
 
 77. Before explaining the nature of each of these parts 
 separately, two things must be premised : — 
 
 1. All reasoning must proceed upon truths admitted equally 
 
 by writer and readers. 
 
 2. A thorough, unprejudiced, and impartial investigation of 
 
 the subject under consideration must precede all writing 
 upon it. We here suggest only the kind of arguments 
 that may be employed, and the plan to be followed in 
 arranging them. The arguments themselves will arise 
 in the course of the investigation of the question. This 
 done, the writer, having noted the most striking points 
 in his case, may proceed to lay out his theme under 
 such heads as the above, which we now come to explain 
 in detail. 
 
 78. The Introduction of the subject should not be too long, 
 and should not anticipate the arguments to be afterwards used. 
 It may be either : — 
 
72 COMPOSITION IN PEOSE. 
 
 1 . Narrative, explaining the course of events which led to the 
 
 raising of the question to be discussed ; or 
 
 2. Beflective, shewing (a.) that the subject is important, 
 
 curious, or otherwise interesting ; or (b) that it has been 
 neglected, misunderstood, or misrepresented hitherto. 
 
 *^* Some high authorities in Rhetoric have recom- 
 mended that, though the introduction stands Jirst in the 
 theme, it should be written last ; that is, after the mind 
 has become thoroughl}^ imbued with the subject, and 
 has satisfied itself as to the goodness of its case. 
 
 79. The Proposition, or statement of the case, should leave 
 no doubt as to the question to be discussed, or the particular 
 point to be proved. This need not be a stiff or formal announce- 
 ment, like the enunciation of a proposition in Euclid, though 
 it is necessary that it should have that definite shape in the 
 writer's mind. Care must be taken to limit the field of discus- 
 sion to the special point at issue, and to avoid vagueness or 
 generality in referring thereto. In doing this, however, it must 
 be remembered that a teiin is not a ijroposition, and that in 
 treating of a term we are usually apt to be more vague and 
 general than in discussing a projjosition. For example, when 
 treating of such a subject as " happiness," we may adopt any 
 one of a number of different lines of thought, and be as discur- 
 sive as we please ; but in discussing such points as " wherein 
 happiness consists," or " whence our notions of it arise," we 
 have definite questions proposed to which we must return 
 specific answers. 
 
 80. The Proof, or statement and enforcement of the argu- 
 ments in support of the proposition, forms the main part of an 
 argumentative theme, and therefore requires the greatest atten- 
 tion. Several points here call for consideration, of which the 
 chief are these : — 1. The different kinds of arguments ; 2. Their 
 comparative force and value ; and 3. The order in which they 
 should be introduced. Of these separately. 
 
 81. Arguments have been divided by Whately into two 
 general classes, viz. : — 
 
 I. Such as would account for the fact or principle maintained, 
 
 were its truth admitted. 
 
 II. Such as would not account for the fact or principle. The 
 
EXPOSITION. 73 
 
 former he calls the d priori argument ; the latter com- 
 prises two classes, (a.) signs (including testimony), (p.) ex- 
 amples (including experience, analogy, &c.) ; e. rf., when 
 we infer that A murdered B, from the fact that he hated 
 him and had an interest in his death, w^e use an argu- 
 ment of Class I., because, supposing A's guilt admitted, 
 these circumstances would be sufficient to account for 
 his having done the deed. When we infer that A mur- 
 dered B, from the fact that A's clothes are blood- 
 stained, we use an argument of Class II., for supposing 
 A's guilt proved, the bloody clothes would not account 
 for his having done the deed, though they would be 
 accounted for thereby. 
 82. Though this classification is scientifically accurate, and 
 appropriate in an advanced treatise on Rhetoric, a more popu- 
 lar division of arguments will better serve the purpose of the 
 present work. They may be classified as follows : — • 
 
 1. Argument from. Prohahility : — 
 
 States a cause to prove the probability of an efect. E. g.y 
 Alleges hatred and Interest to prove the probability of 
 murder. 
 
 Plausibility is a weaker form of this argument. 
 
 2. Argument from Necessity : — 
 
 (1.) States an effect to prove its necessary cause. E.g.^ 
 
 States the appearance of ice to prove that the temperature 
 
 is helow the freezing 'point. 
 (2.) States a fact to prove a necessary condition of it. 
 
 E.g., Alleges that A died on Saturday to prove that he 
 
 was alive on Friday. 
 
 3. Argument from Testimony: — 
 
 Also states 2k fact to prove a condition. E.g., States A's 
 testimony to a fact, to prove the truth of the fact. Had 
 the fact not occurred, A could not have testified to it. 
 The truth is a condition of the testimony. 
 
 4. Argument from Possibility : — 
 
 States an effect to prove a possible cause, E. g., Alleges 
 blood-stained clothes to prove murder. 
 
 5. Argument from Example: — 
 
 Applies an individual case to the whole class, or to another 
 
74 COMPOSITION IN PROSE. 
 
 individual case. When the argument stops short at the 
 general conclusion, or whole class, it is called Induction. 
 E.g., Astronomy was denounced as hostile to religion. 
 Induction ; Every science is likely to be denounced as 
 inimical to religion. Example ; Geology is likely to be 
 so denounced. 
 6. Argument from Analogy : — 
 
 Adduces one instance of a relation to prove the probability 
 of another instance of that relation. The case is the 
 same as example if we regard the "whole class" as the 
 relation, including the two individual instances of its 
 occurrence. It must be carefully noted that the analogy 
 is not between things but between the relations of 
 things. As proportion in numbers is *' an equality of 
 ratios," so analogy is "an identity of relations." E. g., 
 bird : egg = plant : seed ; and egg : young bird = seed : 
 young plant. Analogy, Whatever is true of one of these 
 relations, may be expected to be true of the correspond- 
 ing relation.* 
 
 'o 
 
 Exercise 27. 
 
 Assign each of the following Arguments to its jjroper clasSf and 
 precisely explain its nature : — 
 
 1. From the burning of Mexico in September 1812, we infer that it 
 existed in August 1812. 
 
 2. From the presence of a mortal wound in a dead body, we infer 
 violent death. 
 
 3. From misfortune and unhappiness we infer suicide. 
 
 4. From the gospel history we argue the truth of miracles. 
 
 6. From the appearance of smoke we infer the presence of fire. 
 
 * The above classification maybe shewn to be co-extensive with the 
 classifications both of Aristotle and of Whately. 
 
 1, corresponds with Aristotle's ^rs^ class, g/'x&'ra, proofs of probability. 
 
 2, 3, 4, correspond with his second class, (T^j/^t-s/a, signs or symptoms. 
 6, 6, correspond witli his third class, '^'a^adir/fJi^aTa, examples. 
 AVhately's Class I. again corresponds with Aristotle's first, and his 
 
 Class II. with Aristotle's second and third. 
 
EXPOSITION. 75 
 
 6. From the queen's being on the throne, we conclude that she is a 
 Protestant. 
 
 7. From strychnine poisoning a dog, we infer, first, that it will poison 
 all animals ; secondly, that it will poison man. 
 
 8. From the revival of nature in spring, we infer the probability of 
 the continuance of life beyond the grave. 
 
 9. From the universality of moral distinctions, we infer the divine 
 origin of conscience. 
 
 10. From the ruins of a hut on a desert island, we infer the presence 
 at some time of man. 
 
 11. Since young children omit the particles of speech, and Anglo- 
 Saxon poetry does the same, we infer that their poetry belonged to the 
 infancy of the nation. 
 
 12. From the possession of stolen property we infer theft. 
 
 13. From malice we infer incendiarism. 
 
 14. Since the abuse of supreme power led to a revolution in England, 
 we infer (1.) that the abuse of supreme power is likely always to lead 
 to a revolution, and (2.) that it is likely to lead to a revolution in 
 Austria. 
 
 15. From the appearance of infinite design in the world, we infer an 
 omnipotent Designer. 
 
 16. Since the adaptation of means to ends proves a designer in a 
 watch, we argue that the adaptation of means to ends proves a designer 
 in the world. 
 
 17. From finding A's clothes on the brink of a river, we infer that 
 he has drowned himself. 
 
 18. From the benevolence of God in this world, we infer that he will 
 be benevolent in the next. 
 
 19. From the gradual acceleration of motion by the gradual removal 
 of resistance, we conclude that, if there were no resistance, motion 
 would be perpetual ; hence the law of vis inertice. 
 
 20. Since virtue leads to happiness, we argue that vice will lead to 
 misery. 
 
 Exercise 28. 
 
 Give three Examples of each kind of Argument. 
 
 83. The value of the different arguments varies somewhat 
 according to the different purposes for which they are used. 
 They may be employed, as was stated above (§ 75), either to 
 instruct those who have no fixed opinion on the subject, or to 
 convert those of a contrary opinion. As a general rule, the 
 argument from probability will be found to give most satisfac- 
 tion to an unbiassed mind. For effecting a change of opinion, 
 
76 COMPOSITION IN PEOSE. 
 
 the other kinds of argument are generally considered the most 
 forcible. Of the latter, that from necessity is the weightiest and 
 most conclusive. The deducing either of a necessary cause or 
 a necessary condition from the existence of their effects, is, as 
 is evident from the examples given above (§ 82, 2), not only 
 warrantable, but inevitable. The argument from probability 
 cannot of itself be a conclusive proof, though it is often of ad- 
 vantage to be able to prove that the truth of our proposition is 
 possible, as, when supported by testimony or example, it may 
 lead to extreme probability, if not complete demonstration. 
 The argument from testimony, like that from possibility, to 
 which it is closely allied, is mainly of force in establishing past 
 facts ; but it involves the question of the credibility of witnesses, 
 which must be separately established, by internal consistency 
 or by example. In the case, however, of a plurality of wit- 
 nesses on the same point, this is not necessary, as the mere 
 concurrence of their testimonies, provided there has been no 
 collusion, is of itself a strong proof of truthfulness. Testimony 
 is also admitted in matters of opinion, and is forcible in pro- 
 portion as the men whose opinions are quoted are recognised as 
 wise and honourable. Example is chiefly serviceable in estab- 
 lishing the likelihood of future events. It is not excluded, how- 
 ever, says Whately, "from the proof of matters of opinion; 
 since a man's judgment in one case may be aided or corrected 
 by an appeal to his judgment in another similar case." * It is 
 on this principle, he points out, that we are enjoined to do unto 
 others as we would that they should do unto us, and that we 
 ask our heavenly Father to forgive us our trespasses as we for- 
 give them that trespass against us ; that is, in judging how we 
 should treat others, we form to ourselves a supposed similar 
 case, in which we change places with our neighbour. This then 
 becomes our example in arriving at the judgment in question. 
 The difference between example used as argument, and example 
 used merely for the sake of illustration, must be carefully noted, 
 as the confounding of these two uses of it leads often to mis- 
 apprehension, and weakens the proof. The same distinction is 
 to be observed in the use of analogy, which is indeed a species 
 
 * " Ehetoric," p. 32. 
 
EXPOSITION. 77 
 
 of example. Analogical reasoning cannot of itself establish more 
 than a presumption (it may be a strong presumption) of the 
 truth of the conclusion. For example, all that Butler seeks to 
 establish in his " Analogy " is, that there is a strong presump- 
 tion that what takes place in the physical world will also hold 
 in the moral. There is at least no improbability in such a 
 supposition. It should be added, that it is impossible to over- 
 estimate the force of the argument from analogy in answering 
 objections. If, for example, it be alleged that the difficulties of 
 Scripture prevent us from believing in its divine origin, analogy 
 may reply, that similar difficulties in nature do not prevent our 
 believing in the divine origin of the world. This is incontro- 
 vertible. Of this kind, in reality, are the arguments employed 
 by Butler ; and it is in this sense that Whately has asserted that 
 in the evidences of Christianity *' the arguments from analogy 
 are the most unanswerable." 
 
 84. The order of the introduction of arguments is a matter 
 of extreme importance. Proofs which according to one arrange- 
 ment afford mutual support and confirmation, may, according 
 to another, lead to confusion and failure. For instance, to begin 
 with an argument from testimony or example would not only 
 give the impression of the inherent improbability of the propo- 
 sition, but would weaken the force of the arguments from pro- 
 bability or necessity when afterwards adduced. It will be found 
 advisable therefore to observe in this matter the following rules : — 
 
 I. Where the argument from necessity can be employed, it 
 should be stated at once ; and since it affords complete 
 proof, no other argument is required ; though example or 
 analogy may be employed for the sake of illustration. 
 
 II. Where arguments of different kinds are required, that 
 from probability, if available, should take precedence of 
 the others. 
 
 III. Of these others, the strongest should be stated first, but 
 the weakest should not be reserved till the last. 
 
 IV. When there are several arguments of the same kind, the 
 most obvious and most naturally occurring should be 
 stated first. 
 
 85. The Hefiitat'wn of objections may proceed in two ways ; 
 either (1.) by proving the opposite proposition, or (2.) by 
 
78 COMPOSITION IN PROSE. 
 
 answering in detail the arguments advanced in support of the 
 objections. These answers should generally be placed in the 
 midst of the other arguments ; but, says Whately, " nearer the 
 beginning than the end," on the principle that oppt sition should 
 be disposed of as soon as possible, so as to give the writer's own 
 arguments the full advantage of leaving the last impression. 
 
 86. The Exhortation, or appeal to the feelings, is designed to 
 influence the will, to effect persuasion. Though forming a 
 distinct head in the plan of an argumentative theme, the appeal 
 should not be expressly avowed or formally introduced as such. 
 It is more successfully effected by placing the circumstances, in 
 their consequences and collateral efi'ects, in a striking light before 
 the hearers or readers. As a most perfect example of this kind of 
 composition, the speech of Anthony over the dead body of Caesar, 
 in Shakespeare's " Julius Caesar," should be carefully studied. 
 
 87. Recapitulation of the arguments in a brief form is of use 
 in placing a compact view of the proof within the grasp of the 
 reader, and tends to confirm whatever impression may have 
 been produced by the appeal. In recapitulating, the arguments 
 should be stated in the reverse order of that in which they were 
 first given, that the most powerful argument, which made its 
 impression first, may also leave its impression last. In the 
 way of conclusion, little else need be added than a confident 
 restatement of the proposition. 
 
 88. The parts of the argumentative theme may now be more 
 minutely stated, as follows : — 
 
 I. The introduction, narrative or reflective. 
 
 II. The proposition, or statement of the precise question 
 under consideration. 
 
 III. The proof, including the refutation of objections. 
 
 1. Argument from probability. 
 
 2. ... from necessity. 
 
 3. ... from testimony. 
 
 4. ... from possibility. 
 
 5. ... from example. 
 
 6. ... from analogy. 
 
 IV. The exhortation, or appeal to the feelings. 
 
 V. Recapitulation, or brief summary of the proof, and con- 
 clusion. 
 
EXPOSITION. 79 
 
 89, Model Scheme of Argumentative Theme. 
 
 The Proof feom Miracles of the Truth of Christianity. 
 
 I. Introduction. — The absence of worldly influence in the first 
 preachers of Christianity, and their humble origin, required that they 
 should shew credentials of their divine commission. Contrast of Ma- 
 homedanism in this respect. 
 
 II. Propositions. — A. That the miracles were really wrought. B. 
 That they were such as to afford evidence of divine power. 
 
 III. Proof.-- 
 
 A. 
 
 1. From Prohahility. From the position and the pretensions of the 
 men, it is probable that they would work miracles. 
 
 2. From Testimony. The sacred writers assert that miracles were 
 wrought, and that hundreds saw them performed, these hundreds in- 
 cluding not only poor Jews, but learned and powerful Greeks and 
 Eomans. 
 
 [Objection 1. These men may be deceiving us. 
 
 Refutation. Their accounts are consistent. There is every reason to 
 believe that their writings are authentic. They are corroborated in 
 some points by profane writers. Their character is inconsistent with 
 their being deceivers. 
 
 Objection 2. They may have been deceived themselves. It is more 
 likely that human faculties may be deceived than that a single law of 
 nature should be suspended. 
 
 Refutation. So many hundreds are not likely to have been deceived. 
 Then, all our knowledge of the past, our knowledge even of the uni- 
 formity of the laws of nature, depends on the testimony of others. 
 Again, the truth of miracles being admitted, they can be accounted 
 for in a way quite consistent with the constancy of nature. They are 
 an exception, which proves the rule. 
 
 Objection 3. It is diflScult ioxus to believe that miracles were wrought. 
 
 Refutation. It is more difficult for us to believe that Christ convinced 
 men of his divine power without miracles.] 
 
 3. Testimony (2). The fact that the enemies of Christianity attempted 
 to account for the miracles by suggesting magic and the intervention 
 of evil spirits, proves that even they could not deny that the miracles 
 were really wrought somehow. 
 
 B. 
 
 1. From Necessity. Miracles could not be wrought without divine 
 power. That power established the laws of nature, and only that power 
 can suspend or change them. 
 
 [Objection 1. They were wrought by magic. 
 
 Refutation. They were too numerous, too various, too instantaneous, 
 too extemporaneous, and too uniformly successful, to have been effected 
 by any natural magician. Then, had they been wrought by magic, the 
 secret could not have been confided to so many as seventy at once. 
 
80 COMPOSITION IN PROSE. 
 
 wKliont its oozing out. Nor would a source of so great gain as it would 
 have been to worldly men and deceivers (as they must have been, on 
 the supposition of being magicians) have been allowed so suddenly to 
 cease. Their ceasing when they did and as they did is explicable only 
 on the supposition of their being divine. 
 
 Objection 2. They were wrought by evil spirits. 
 
 Refutation. They were too uniformly benevolent for this supposition. 
 " Can a devil (i.e., is it of the nature of a devil to) open the eyes of the 
 blind?"] 
 
 2. From Testimony. Many were convinced and converted by them, 
 were led by them to sacriiice the dearest ties on earth, worldly pros- 
 perity and peace, for the sake of the hopes this miracle-supported re- 
 ligion held out to them, [Which naturally leads to the] 
 
 IV. Exhortation. — Refer to several of the miracles in detail, shew 
 their beneficent character, call forth sympathy for the lame, blind, &c., 
 and love for Him who went about continually doing good, shew the in- 
 consistency of this with His being a deceiver, &c. 
 
 V. Recapitulation. — There is no doubt, therefore [for all these reasons) , 
 that these miracles were really wrought, and thnt they were wrought 
 by divine power ; and the 
 
 Conclusion is inevitable, that they prove the truth of Christianity to 
 us, as much as to those in whose presence they were performed. 
 
 Exercise 29. 
 
 Subjects for Argumentative Themes : — 
 
 1. The Evidence from Prophecy of the Truth of Christianity. 
 
 2. The Credibility of the English Scriptures. 
 8. The Harmony of Religion and Geology. 
 
 4. The Evidence from Nature of a Future State. 
 
 6. The Internal Evidence of the Truth of Christianity. 
 
 6. The Study of Experimental Philosophy favourable to Religion. 
 
 7. The Divine Origin of Language. 
 
 8. The Immortality of the Soul. 
 
 9. The Great Antiquity of the World. 
 
 10. The Rotundity of the Earth. 
 
 11. Industry the ultimate source of National Prosperity. 
 
 12. The Plurality of Worlds. 
 
 13. Was the Execution of Charles I. justifiable? 
 
 14. Was the Execution of Mary Queen of Scots justifiable ? 
 
 15. Should International Differences be settled without war ? 
 
 16. The Utility of the Study of the Dead Languages. 
 
 17. Should Education be made compulsory by the State? 
 
 18. That the Introduction of Machinery has increased the amount 
 
 of Human Happiness. 
 
 19. That Education should train the Mind, not store it. 
 
 20. That changes have taken place in the Ocean level. 
 
81 
 
 PART III.— VERSIFICATION. 
 
 Chapter I. — Preliminary Definitions and Processes. 
 
 90. The practice of Versification, or the art of Composition 
 in Verse, — the outward form in which poetry expresses itself, — 
 may be made to have an important influence on Prose style, 
 tending as it does to promote perspicuity and energy, as well as 
 grace of language, and to cultivate refinement of thought and 
 taste. Moreover, even as regards those who are born poets, 
 the art deserves more careful cultivation than it has usuallj' 
 received. For while the uninspired have generally left the art 
 to poets, poets have been apt to think that their genius could 
 dispense with the art. Not so thought Ben Jonson, — himself 
 a thoroughly artistic poet, — who, speaking of Shakespeare, 
 says that 
 
 ** Though the poet's matter Nature be, . 
 His art doth give the fashion." 
 
 He also gives warning against the neglect of the poetical art, 
 saying that if the poet trust too much to the ^' poeta nascitur, 
 nonjit'' of Cicero, 
 
 *' For the laurel he may gain a scorn, 
 For a good poet 's made as well as born." 
 
 Wordsworth, too, has expressed himself most unequivocally on 
 
 this subject : — 
 
 " many are the poets that are sown 
 By nature, men endowed with highest gifts, 
 The vision and the faculty divine ; 
 Yet wanting the accomplishment of verse, 
 Which, in the docile season of their youth, 
 It was denied them to acquire, through lack 
 Of culture, and the inspiring aid of books." — Excursion, I 
 
 F 
 
82 COMPOSITION IN VERSE. 
 
 91. English verse derives its character from Rhythm, or 
 the recurrence of stress, beat, or accent, at regular intervals of 
 duration. 
 
 *^* In this respect, Enghsh metre differs from the classical 
 metres, which are constructed principally according to the 
 quantity of syllables ; though modified by the rhythm in 
 many instances. Thus, in English verse, we speak of 
 accents as strong or iceak, while Latin verse is measured 
 by syllables regarded .as long or short. This essential 
 differ Afi^ between English and Latin versification is, how- 
 ever, ^t to be lost sight of, when, as has hitherto been 
 customary, the terminology of classical prosody is applied 
 to that of our own language. Dr Latham has substituted 
 for these terms, formulae which, however convenient in some 
 respects, are very inconvenient as names. He has, more- 
 over, made his formula exactly correspond with five classi- 
 cal " feet," a number which, as will presently be explained, 
 the case does not require. In the following paragraphs the 
 classical names for feet (as iambus, trochee, &c.), are dis- 
 carded, as only tending to mislead. Such names, however 
 as tetrameter, trimeter, &c., are not liable to this objection, 
 and are more convenient than their English equivalents, 
 four-measure, three-measure, &c. They are therefore re- 
 tained. 
 
 92. The equivalent parts, each consisting of an interval and 
 an accent, into which a line is divided, are called measures or feet, 
 and correspond with measures or bars in musical melody. The 
 division of a verse or line into feet is called scanning, or scansion. 
 
 93. The Accent in a foot consists always of a single syllable, 
 represented, according to Dr Latham's notation, by the letter d. 
 
 The Interval most commonly consists of a single syllable, 
 represented by the letter x. Sometimes, however, it contains 
 two syllables, but they are sounded in the same time as one, 
 and are represented by the letters ss. Thus, x = ss, and xd = 
 ssd: e. g., in the line, 
 
 " Not a pine | in my grove | is there seen ;" 
 the intervals are of exactly the same duration as in the line, 
 " No pine | in grove ] is seen." 
 
PRELIMINARY DEFINITIONS AND PROCESSES. 83 
 
 Read by the metronome (an instrument used by musicians for 
 measuring the beat of time), they would be found exactly to 
 correspond. Indeed, x and ss correspond in the same way as 
 a minim and two crotchets do in a bar of music. We have a 
 further illustration of this in the occurrence of feet of two and 
 of three syllables in the same line ; e. g. : — 
 
 " The vine I still clings I to the moul I -daring wall, 
 And at ev | -ery gust j the dead | leaves idl\."—Longfelloiv. 
 
 94. A foot in which the interval consists of o?2^weak sylla- 
 ble is called a simple foot ; as, ax or xa. A foot in which the 
 interval consists of two weak syllables is called a complex foot ; 
 as, ass or ssa. 
 
 95. A verse in which the feet are either all simple or all 
 complex is called a pure verse ; e. g. : — 
 
 " Look here | upon | this pic | -ture, and [ on this." 
 
 One in which some of the feet are simple and some complex is 
 called a inixed verse ; e. g. : — 
 
 *' I have read [ in some | old mar J • vellous tale." ( 
 
 96. When a verse wants a weak syllable to make it com- 
 plete, it is called defective (catalectic) ; as, 
 
 " Life is I but an | empty | dream, x." 
 
 W^hen a complete verse has a weak syllable added to it, it is 
 called excessive (hypercatalectic) ; as, 
 
 " So I -ver vi | -olent | and o j -ver ci | -vil.''^ 
 
 97. A verse consisting of one foot or measure is called mono- 
 meter ; of two, dimeter ; of three, trimeter ; otfour, tetrameter ; 
 of Jive, pentameter ; of six, hexameter, &c., &c. 
 
 98. A foot is not necessarily a single word. It may con- 
 sist of — 
 
 1. A succession of monosyllables ; as, 
 
 " And ten | long words | oft creep | in one [ dull line.'* 
 
 2. Parts of polysyllables ; as, 
 
 " In friend [ -ship false, | impla j -cable | in hate.'* 
 
 99. Rhyme is the correspondence of one verse with another 
 in final sound. Perfect rhymes must comply with the following 
 rules : — 
 
84 COMPOSITION IN VERSE. 
 
 I. The vowel sounds and final consonants of the rhyming 
 syllables must Jbe the same ; and the consonant sounds pre- 
 ceding them must be different ; e. g. : — 
 
 r-ing rhymes with s-ingy k-i)ig, sl-ing ; but not with s-ang, or 
 k-ind, or err-ing. 
 
 II. The rhyming syllables must both have the strong accent ; 
 e.g,:— 
 
 ring rhymes with sing, but not with pleasing. 
 
 When the second line ends in a trisyllable, accented on the 
 ante - penultimate, no accent is required on the ultimate ; 
 e.g., Ex. 31, No. 9. 
 
 III. The penultimate syllables may rhyme, provided the 
 ultimates are identical and weak in accent ; e. g. : — 
 
 bedr-ing rhymes with tedr-ing. 
 
 IV. The antepenultimate syllables may rhyme, provided the 
 two last syllables are identical in the two lines, and both 
 are weak in accent ; e. g. : — 
 
 im^dr-tunate rhymes with /oir- tunate. 
 
 100. The Rhythm sometimes requires words to be slightly 
 changed in pronunciation, so as to suit a particular measure. 
 This is done — 
 
 1 . By contraction^ so as to reduce the number of syllables ; 
 as, 
 
 ' Tis, for it is ; o'er, for over ; fc'ew, for taken ; Fve, for I have ; 
 cunning^st, for cunningest; pow^r, for power; spirHu% for 
 spiritual ; might-iest, for mightiest. 
 
 2. By expansion, to increase the number of syllables ; as, 
 
 th{o)rough, for through; command{e)'ment, for commandment; 
 drenched, for drench'd ; na-ti-on, for nation. 
 
 101. The number of words in the English language which 
 form perfect rhymes is so limited that some slight deviations 
 from the above rules are sanctioned by the practice of the best 
 poets, and are called allowable rhymes. In allowable rhymes, the 
 final consonant sounds remain the same, and the vowel sound is 
 modified ; e. g. : — 
 
 sun, upon; adores, powers; war, car; love, move; lost, coast. 
 
PRELIMINARY DEFINITIONS AND PROCESSES. 85 
 
 Exercise 30. 
 
 Give Perfect Rhymes for each of the following words : — 
 
 1. Grace, match, detract, gladden, invade, safe, epitaph, chain, taking, 
 flame, trance, chant, lapse, beware, grave. 
 
 2. Speech, creak, conceal, extreme, gleaning, heard, cease, death, 
 shred, steed, sweep, offence, islander, wariness, bedew, 
 
 3. Bribe, slid, Ides, midst, defy, brief, drift, thrilling, guileless, 
 shrine, spring, sire, desist, united, driven, guise, lisp. 
 
 4. Throb, shewed, scoffer, voice, anoint, spoke, golden, stolen, prone, 
 song, brood, roofless, gloomy, grope, forswore. 
 
 5. Kude, judge, skull, overruling, sun, importune, blunt, spur, num- 
 berless, birds, nurse, dangerous, persecute, mistrust. 
 
 Exercise 31. 
 
 Point out which of the following Rhymes are Allowable^ and 
 which Bad. Shew what rules the latter violate. 
 
 1. " So some rats of amphibious nature. 
 
 Are either for the land or water " — Butler. 
 
 2. " "Wine or delicious fruits unto the taste, 
 
 A music in the ears will ever last." — Johnson. 
 
 3. " Yet to his guest though no way sparing, 
 
 He ate himself the rind and paring." — Pope. 
 
 4. " And pulpit, drum ecclesiastic. 
 
 Was beat with fist instead of a stick." — Butler. 
 
 6. " That jelly 's rich, this wine is healing. 
 
 Pray dip your whiskers and your tail in." — Pope. 
 
 6. " Whose yielded pride and proud submission, 
 
 Her heart did melt in great compassion," — Spenser. 
 
 7. " Pleased to the last he crops the flowery food, 
 
 And licks the hand just raised to shed his blood." — Pope, 
 
 8. " Let not ambition mock their useful toil, 
 
 Nor grandeur hear with a disdainful smile." — Gray. 
 
 9. " Much converse do I find in thee. 
 
 Historian of my infancy." — Wordsworth. 
 
 10. " Oh ! not in cruelty, not in wrath, 
 
 'Twas an angel visited the green earth." — Longfdl&uj. 
 
86 COMPOSITION IN VERSE. 
 
 11. " What praise for sucli rich strains shall we allow? 
 
 What just rewards the grateful crown bestow ?" — Dryden. 
 
 12. "A Cerberus himself pronounce 
 
 A leash of languages at once." — Butler. 
 
 13. " Whose regular motions better to our view, 
 
 Than Archimedes' sphere, the heavens did shew." — Dryden, 
 
 14. " Learn'd, virtuous, pious, great ; and have by this 
 
 An universal metempsychosis," — Dryden. 
 
 15. " Till into seven it multiplies its stream. 
 
 And fattens Egypt with a fruitful slime." — Addison. 
 
 16. " That lieth in a hoard, 
 
 Till it be spread abroad." — Old Ballad. 
 
 17. " Half a league onward. 
 
 Rode the six hundred ; — 
 
 Volleyed and thundered." — Tennyson. 
 
 18. " An hour they sate in council, 
 
 At length the Mayor broke silence : 
 * For a guilder I'd my ermine gown sell ; 
 I wish I were a mile hence !' " — Browning. 
 
 19. " Bird of the wilderness, 
 
 Blithesome and cumberless ; 
 
 Emblem of happiness. 
 
 Blest is thy dwelling-place." — Hogg. 
 
 20. " And this shall be the forfeyture 
 
 Of your own flesh a pound. 
 If you agree, make you the bond. 
 
 And here is a hundred crownes." — Old Ballad. 
 
 102. Two consecutive lines rhyming, form a Coujjlet ; as- — 
 
 " The face of nature we no more survey, 
 All glares alike, without distinction gay." — Pope. 
 
 Three consecutive lines rhyming, form a Triplet ; as — 
 
 " But true expression, like th' unchanging sun, 
 Clears and improves whate'er it shines upon ; 
 It gilds all objects, but it alters none." — I'ope. 
 
 A combination of four or more lines, with various rhymes, is 
 called a Stanza (see §§ 109, 110, &c.). 
 
 103. Unrhymed lines are called Blank verse. 
 
 104. The Pause is that point in a verse where the sense and 
 
PKELIMINAEY DEFINITIONS AND PROCESSES. 87 
 
 rliytlim both admit of a momentary interruption of tlie latter. 
 The pause cannot be made in the middle of a word ; but, with 
 this exception, it may fall at any part of the verse. Besides the 
 pause in the course of the line, there is generally one also at 
 the end of the line, as there the sense is usually interrupted. 
 Not always, however ; e. g. : —   
 
 " Nor content with snch 
 Audacious neighbourhood." — Milton. 
 " What cannot you and I perform | upon 
 The unguarded Duncan ? | What not put upon 
 His spungy officers." — Shakespeare. 
 
 105. Measures, understanding by that term the character 
 given to verse by the combination of similar feet in it, are of 
 two kinds according as the accent follows or comes before the 
 interval, or holds the first place or the second place in the foot ; 
 dx and xd ; dss and ssd. 
 
 106. The oldest as well as most common measure in English 
 verse is that in which the accent succeeds the interval, xd. This 
 we shall call regular measure, calling that in which the accent 
 precedes the interval (dx), irregular measure. 
 
 *j^* It appropriately bears this name on other grounds. 
 The tendency of a weak syllable to drop off at the end of a 
 line is obvious from the frequently defective character of 
 this irregular measure. Weak syllables have also a ten- 
 dency, though less decided, to drop off at the beginning. 
 It therefore seems warrantable to deduce the irregular from 
 the regular measure as follows : — An excessive regular 
 verse (l)xa|ya|xa|xa|x|, loses the first syllable 
 and becomes (2)ax|ax|ax|ax|,a complete irre- 
 gular verse. The last syllable being weak, however, easily 
 drops, and the verse becomes (3)ax|ax|ax|a — |, 
 a defective irregular verse, and one of the most usual form. 
 We may make a concrete example of this from the follow- 
 ing three lines ; — 
 
 (1.) That life is but an empty dreaming. = Excessive Regular. 
 Ci.) — Life is but an empty dreaming. = Complete Irregular. 
 (3.) — " Life ia but an empty dream."= Defective Irregular. 
 
88 COMPOSITION IN VERSE. 
 
 Chapter II.— Regular Measure. 
 
 107. Of this measure, which, as has been stated, is at once 
 the oldest and commonest in Enghsh poetry, there are two 
 varieties (§ 94) : — 
 
 1. Simple Eegular measure ; x a, x a, &c. 
 
 2. Complex Regular measure, s s a, s s a, &c. 
 
 1. Simple (xa).* 
 
 108. Simple Regular Pentameter is the Heroic Measure of Eng- 
 lish poetry. In its rhymed form it is the measure of Chaucer 
 and Spenser, of Dryden and Pope, of Cowper, Campbell, and 
 Byron ; e. g. : — 
 
 *' True ease in writing comes from art, not chance. 
 As those move easiest who have learn'd to dance. 
 'Tis not enough no harshness gives offence ; 
 The sound must seem an echo to the sense. 
 Soft is the strain when Zephyr gently blows, 
 And the smooth strain in smoother numbers flows ; 
 But when loud surges lash the sounding shore, 
 The hoarse, rough verse should like the torrent roar." — Pope. 
 
 In its unrhymed form it is the stately and solemn blank verse 
 of Shakespeare and Milton, as of Wordsworth and Tennyson; 
 e.g.;— 
 
 " Now came still Evening on, and Twilight gray 
 Had in her sober livery all things clad ; 
 Silence accompanied ; for beast and bird, 
 They to their grassy couch, these to their nests, 
 Were slunk, all but the wakeful nightingale ; 
 She all night long her amorous descant sung.'' — Milton. 
 
 109. Four lines of simple regular pentameters rhyming alter- 
 nately, form the Elegiac Stanza of Enghsh poetry ; e. g. : — 
 
 *' Full many a gem of purest ray serene, 
 
 The dark unfathom'd caves of ocean bear ; 
 Full many a flow'r is born to blush unseen, 
 
 And waste its sweetness on the desert air." — Gray. 
 
 110. Nine lines, the first eight of simple regular pentameters, 
 
 * So-called Iambic. 
 
REGULAR MEASURE. 89 
 
 and the ninth a hexameter (or Alexandrine *), form the Spen- 
 serian Stanza, first used by Spenser, and more recently by 
 Thomson and Byron. The nine lines contain only three rhymes 
 disposed thus, b, c, b, c c, d, c, d, d ; e. g. : — 
 
 " It fortuned, out of the thickest wood 
 A ra.mping lion rushed suddenly. 
 Hunting full greedy after salvage blood ; 
 Soon as the royal virgin he did spy, 
 "With gaping mouth at her ran greedily, 
 To have at once devour'd her tender cor'se ; 
 
 But to the prey whenas he drew more nigh, 
 His bloody rage assuaged with remorse, 
 And with the sight amazed, forgot his furious force." — 
 
 Spenssr. 
 
 111. Fourteen lines of simple regular pentameters (the last 
 sometimes an Alexandrine) form the Italian Stanza or Sonnet, 
 introduced into English poetry, in the IGth century, by Henry 
 Howard, Earl of Surrey, who also was the first to adopt blank 
 verse in English. Great licence is allowed in the order of the 
 rhymes ; e. g. : — 
 
 Surrey uses only two rhymes ; making the sonnet seven 
 couplets. 
 
 Spenser uses five rhymes ; the first nine lines being a Spen- 
 serian Stanza, and the last five corresponding with the last five 
 of the same stanza. 
 
 Shakespeare uses seven rhymes, making his sonnet equal to 
 three elegiac stanzas and a couplet ; as, 
 
 be be I de de I fg fg | hh 
 
 Wordsworth uses three rhymes, of which one runs throughout 
 the whole sonnet thus : — 
 
 " Weak is the will of man, his judgment blind, 
 
 Kemembrance persecutes, and hope betrays ; 
 Heavy is woe, and joy for humankind 
 
 A mournful thing, so transient is the blaze ! 
 
 Thus might he paint our lot of mortal days, 
 Who wants the glorious faculty assigned 
 To elevate the more than reasoning mind, 
 
 And colour life's dark cloud with orient rays. 
 
 * So called from a twelfth century romance in that measure, called 
 the " Alexandreis." 
 
90 COilPOSITION IN VERSE. 
 
 Imagination is that sacred power, 
 Imagination lofty and refined ; 
 
 'Tis hers to pluck the amaranthine flower 
 Of faith, and round the sufferer's temple bind 
 
 Wreaths that endure affliction's heaviest shower, 
 And do not shrink from sorrow's keenest wind." — 
 
 Wordsworth. 
 
 112. The Simple Regular Tetrameter, is the Romantic Measure 
 of English poetry. In it wrote Wace, Barbour, Wyntoun, 
 Harry the Minstrel, and many other of our old Chroniclers and 
 Bomancists, and it was revived in modern poetry by Sir Walter 
 Scott. Though not equal in dignity to the Pentameter, it has 
 been employed in almost every kind of poetical composition, 
 except the very highest. 
 
 113. Rhyme is almost invariably employed in this measure, 
 the line being too short to admit of the stateliness indispensable 
 to the rhythm of blank verse. Its original form was that of 
 rhymed couplets ; e. g. : — 
 
 " Ah, Freedom is a noble thing ! 
 Freedom makes men to have liking ; 
 Freedom all solace to men gives ; 
 He lives at ease that freely lives. 
 A noble heart may have none ease, 
 Na else nought that may him please, 
 If freedom faileth ; for free liking 
 Is yearned oure all other thing." — Barlour. 
 
 114. To get rid of the monotony which a continuous flow of 
 such couplets produces, Dunbar (see '' Dance of the Seven 
 Deadly Sins ") had recourse to a stanza consisting of four such 
 couplets, each followed by a Trimeter in the same measure, the 
 four Tetrameters having the sams rhyme. Scott, in his poeti- 
 cal romances, adopts the same principle, but uses it with less 
 regularity, frequently making the four and three feet lines alter- 
 nate, e. g. : — 
 
 *' He was a man of middle age ; 
 In aspect manly, grave, and sage, 
 
 As on king's errand come ; 
 But, in the glances of his eye, 
 A penetratine:, keen, and sly 
 Expression found its home ; 
 
KEGULAR MEASURE. 91 
 
 The flash of that satiric rage, 
 Which, bursting on the early stage, 
 Branded the vices of the age, 
 
 And broke the keys of Rome. 
 On milk-white palfrey forth he pac'd ; 
 His cap of maintenance was grac'd 
 
 With tlie proud heron-plume. 
 From his steed's shoulder, loin, and breast, 
 
 Silk housings swept the ground, 
 With Scotland's arms, device, and crest, 
 
 Embroider'd round and round." — 
 
 Scott's description of Sir David Lindsay, 
 in 3Iarmion. 
 
 115. In songs and ballads it is frequently used in stanzas 
 of four lines, rhyming alternately; for example, in Scott's 
 ** Cadzow Castle." The most impressive form of this measure 
 is the Tennysonian Stanza, first used to any considerable extent 
 in the Laureate's " In Memoriam." In this stanza, two rhym- 
 ing verses come between other two ; e. g. : — 
 
 " I held it truth with him who sings 
 To one clear harp in divers tones. 
 That men may rise on stepping-stones 
 Of their dead selves to higher things. 
 
 •' But who shall so forecast the years 
 And find in loss a gain to match ? 
 Or reach a hand thro' time to catch 
 The far-off interest of tears ? " — Tennyson. 
 
 116. The Simple Kegular Trimeter is very rarely used by 
 itself, though there are some examples of it in Shakespeare's 
 lyrics; e.g.: — 
 
 " Blow, blow, thou winter wind, 
 Thou art not so unkind 
 As man's ingratitude ; 
 Thy tooth is not so keen. 
 Because thou art not seen, 
 
 Although thy breath be rude." — 
 
 As you like it, II. 7. 
 
 It is most frequently found, as stated above (§ 114), in combi- 
 nation with Tetrameters. These two alternating form the most 
 common of our lyrical measures, that of our ballads and popular 
 songs, as well as of our metrical psalms. Sometimes both the 
 Tetrameters and the Trimeters rhyme ; as : — 
 
92 
 
 COMPOSITION IN VERSE. 
 
 " Thus fares it still in our decay ; 
 And yet the wiser mind 
 Mourns less for what age takes away, 
 
 Than what it leaves behind." — Wordsworth. 
 
 Sometimes only the Trimeters rhj^me ; as : — 
 
 ** Aft hae I rov'd by bonnie Doon, 
 To see the woodbine twine, 
 And ilka bird sang o' its love, 
 And sae did I o' mine." — Burns. 
 
 The Trimeter Excessive alternating with the complete Tri- 
 meter, form what has been called Gay's Stanza ; e. g. : — 
 " 'Twas when the seas were roar-ing 
 With hollow blasts of wind, 
 A damsel lay deplor-ing 
 
 All on a rock reclined." — Gay. 
 
 117. The other forms in which the simple regular measure 
 occurs, are either varieties of those already explained, or parts 
 or multiples of them. The long verses of seven and eight feet 
 may generally be written as two verses of four and three, and 
 of four and four feet respectively. Thus the first line of the 
 *' Battle of Ivry," which is generally printed as one Heptameter, 
 may be printed as a Tetrameter and a Trimeter : — 
 
 " Now glory to the Lord of Hosts, 
 
 From whom all glories are ! " — Macaiday. 
 
 2. Complex {ssa)* 
 
 118. The Complex Regular Measure is rarely found pure 
 (§95), even in single lines. For example, in Beattie's *' Her- 
 mit," out of forty-eight lines, only four are pure complex verses ; 
 all the others have a simple foot at the commencement ; e. //. ; — 
 
 " At the close I of the day, when the ham I -let is still, 
 
 And mor | -tals the sweets of forget | -fulness prove, 
 
 When nought I but the tor -rent is heard I on the hill, 
 
 And nought | but the night -ingale's song J in the grove." — 
 
 Beatiie. 
 
 Sometimes, however, a line thus defective at the beginning, 
 is counterbalanced by an excessive syllable in the preceding line, 
 thus : — 
 
 " 'Tis the last I rose of sum i -mer, 
 Left bloom j -ing alone." | — Moore. 
 
 * So-called Anapaestic. 
 
REGULAB MEASURE. 93 
 
 in which case the lines printed as one verse would be pure ; 
 
 " 'Tis the last | rose of sum [ -mer, left bloom | -ing alone." 
 
 119. The commonest forms of this complex measure are the 
 Trimeter; as, 
 
 " I am monarch of all I survey, 
 
 My right there is none to dispute ; 
 From the centre all round to the sea, 
 
 I am lord of the fowl and the brute." — Cowper. 
 
 and the Tetrameter ; as, 
 
 " And the widows of Ashur are loud in their wail, 
 And the idols are broke in the temple of Baal ; 
 And the might of the Gentile, unsmote by the sword. 
 Hath melted like snow in the glance of the Lord." — Byron, 
 
 120. Variety is given to regular measure (both simple and 
 complex) in the following ways : — 
 
 1. By introducing irregular feet ; e. g. : — 
 
 " Standards I on stan I -dards, men J on men." — Scott. 
 = a X I X a I X a I X a Jr. in 1. 
 
 " Of man's I first dis I -obed I -ience and I the fruit." — Milton. 
 = X a I a X I X a j x a j x a Ir. in 2. 
 
 2. By making the line excessive; e. g. : — 
 
 " "Wherefore j rejoice ? I That Cse I -sar comes I in tri I -umph ?" — 
 a x|xa jx a|x a jxaj x Shakespeare. 
 
 "He is gone I on the raoun I -tain, 
 s s a I s s a I X 
 He is lost I to the for j -est." — Scott. 
 s s a I s s a I x 
 
 3. By contracting the first foot. In this way, the regular 
 measure becomes irregular ; e. g. : — 
 
 " Or ush I -ered with | a show | -er still, 
 X When the | gust hath | blown his | fill." — Milton, 
 (ss) *• Know I ye the land | where the cy | -press and myr | -tie ; 
 = a ss|a s sja s s|a x 
 
 and in the complex measure the first foot becomes simple ; as, 
 
 Are em I -blems of deeds I that are done I in their clime." — Byron. 
 xa|ssa|ssa|ss a 
 See I 106, and note. 
 
94 COMPOSITION IN VERSE. 
 
 4. By making the verse mixed (§ 95) ; e. g., see the lines 
 last quoted, and 
 
 " That held [ the peach I to the gar I -den wall." — Tennyson. 
 X a|x a|ssa|x a 
 
 Asoursove I -reign lord \ King Hen | -ry, the sol | -dierof I Navarre." 
 
 X a I X a 
 — Macaulay. 
 
 5. By varying the position of the pause ; e. g. : — 
 
 ♦* The quality of mercy 1| is not strained, || 
 It droppeth, || as the gentle rain from heav'n'^ 
 Upon the place beneath. 1| It is twice bless'd ; || 
 It blesseth him that gives, || and him that takes. || 
 'Tis mightiest in the mightiest ; 1] it becomes^""" 
 The throned monarch better than his crown. || — Shakespeare. 
 
 In this passage, the pauses occur in the different lines re- 
 spectively after the following syllables : — 1st line, 7th and 
 10th ; 2d line, 3d ; 3d line, 6th and 10th ; 4th line, 7th 
 and 10th ; 5th line, 7th ; 6th line, 10th. 
 G. By combining verses of different lengths, and varying the 
 order of rhymes ; e. g. : — 
 
 ** No war, or battle's sound, 
 "Was heard the world around : 
 
 The idle spear and shield were high uphung, 
 The hooked chariot stood, 
 Unstain'd with hostile blood ; 
 
 The trumpet spake not to the armed throng ; 
 And kings sat still with awful eye. 
 As if they surely knew their sovran Lord was by." — 
 
 Milton's Ode on the Nativity. 
 
 7. In blank verse, broken verses are often introduced, espe- 
 cially in dramatic dialogue, where frequently one part of 
 a verse is spoken by one person, and the rest by another ; 
 e, g. :— 
 
 " Shylock. Cursed be my tribe, 
 
 If I forgive him ! 
 Bassanio. Shylock, do you hear ?" — Shakespeare. 
 
 Shakespeare often uses these broken verses in the quick 
 interchange of passionate dialogue, and to indicate abrupt 
 changes of feeling. 
 
REGULAR MEASURE. 95 
 
 Exercise 32. 
 
 A. — Arrange each of the following sentences into Heroic 
 couplets : — 
 
 1. Tliis man would soar to heaven by his own strength, and would 
 not be obliged for more to God, 
 
 2. How art thou misled, vain, wretched creature, to think thy wit 
 bred these God -like notions. 
 
 3. She made a little stand at every turn, and thrust her lily hand 
 among the thorns to draw the rose, and she shook the stalk, every rose 
 she drew, and brush'd the dew away. (4 lines.) 
 
 4. Whoever thinks to see a faultless piece, thinks what never shall 
 be, nor ever was, nor is. 
 
 5. Sometimes men of wit, as men of breeding, must commit less 
 errors, to avoid the great. 
 
 6. The hungry judges soon sign the sentence, and that jurymen may 
 dine, wretches hang. 
 
 B. — Arrange each of the following into Simple Regular Tetra- 
 meters {I'hyming) : — 
 
 1. He soon stood on the steep hill's verge, that looks o'er Branksome's 
 towers and wood ; and martial murmurs proclaimed from below tho 
 southern foe approaching. (4 lines.) 
 
 2. Of mild mood was the Earl, and gentle ; the vassals were rude, and 
 warlike, and fierce ; haughty of word, and of heart high, they recked 
 little of a tame liege lord. (4 lines.) 
 
 3. A lion, worn with cares, tired with state affairs, and quite sick of 
 pomp, resolved to pass his latter life in peace, remote from strife and 
 noise. (4 lines.) 
 
 4. I felt as, when all the waves that o'er thee dash, on a plank at 
 sea, whelm and upheave at the same time, and towards a desert realm 
 hurl thee. (4 lines.) 
 
 5. No more, sweet Teviot, blaze the glaring bale-fires on thy silver 
 tide ; steel-clad warriors ride along thy wild and willowed shore no 
 longer. (4 lines, rhyming alternately.) 
 
 6. His eyes of swarthy glow he rolls fierce on the hunter's quiver'd 
 hand, — spurns the sand with black hoof and horn, and tosses his mane 
 of snow high. (4 lines, rhyming alternately.) 
 
 7. Where late the green ruins were blended with the rocks' wood- 
 cover'd side, turrets rise in fantastic pride, and between flaunt feudal 
 banners. (4 lines, rhyming alternately.) 
 
 8. Whate'er befall, I hold it true ; when I sorrow most, I feel it : — 
 better than never to have loved at all, 'tis to have loved and lost. 
 (Tennysonian Stanza.) 
 
96 COMPOSITION IN VERSE. 
 
 C. — Arrange each of the following into Simple Begular Tetra' 
 meters and Trimeters, rhyming alternately : — 
 
 1. With childish tears are my eyes dim, idly stirred is my heart ; 
 for the same sound which I heard in those days is in my ears. 
 
 2. They never do wage a foolish strife with Nature ; a happy youth 
 they see, and free and beautiful is their old age. 
 
 3. But we with heavy laws are pressed, and often no more glad ; a 
 face of joy we wear, because glad we have been of yore. 
 
 4. Through the night we watched her breathing, her breathing soft 
 and low, as the wave of life kept heaving to and fro in her breast. 
 
 5. We seem'd to speak so silently, moved about so slowly, as [if] we 
 had lent her half our powers to eke out her living. 
 
 6. So, when youth and years are flown, shall appear the fairest face ; 
 such is the robe that, when death hath reft their crown, kings must 
 wear. 
 
 D, — Arrange each of the following into Complex Regular 
 verses : — 
 
 1. Now the half-extinguished moon displays her crescent, gliding 
 remote, on the verge of the sky : I but lately marked [the time] when 
 Bhe shone majestic on high, and the planets were lost in her blaze. 
 (4 lines, tetrameter, rhyming alternately.) 
 
 2. There came a poor exile of Erin to the beach ; heavy and chill 
 was the thin dew on his robe ; when repairing at twilight to wander 
 alone by the wind-beaten hill, he sighed for his country. (4 lines, 
 — 2 tetrameters exces., and 2 tetrameters, rhyming alternately.) 
 
 3. I'll not leave thee to pine on the stem, thou lone one ! since the 
 lovely are sleeping, go thou, sleep with them ; thus thy leaves I kindly 
 scatter o'er the bed where scentless and dead lie thy mates of the gar- 
 den. (8 lines, dimeter exces., and mixed dimeters, the latter rhyming.) 
 
 4. For his love he had liv'd, he died for his country. They were all 
 that had entwin'd him to life ; nor shall the tears of his country soon 
 be dried, nor will his love stay long behind him. (4 lines, — 2 tetrameters 
 and 2 trimiters exces., rhyming alternately.) 
 
 E. — Arrange each of the following in Blank Verse: — 
 
 1. All the world 's a stage, and all the men and women merely 
 players : they have their exits and their entrances ; and one man in his 
 time plays many parts, his acts being seven ages. 
 
 2. Farewell, a long farewell, to all my greatness ! This is the state 
 of man ; to-day he puts forth the tender leaves of hope, to-morrow blos- 
 soms, and bears his blushing honours thick upon him ; the third day 
 comes a frost, a killing frost, and, when he thinks, good easy man, full 
 surely his greatness is a-ripening, — nips his root, — and then he falls as 
 1 do. 
 
 3. So the foundations of his mind were laid. In such communion, 
 
IRREGULAR MEASURE. 97 
 
 not from terror free, while yet a child, and long before hi3 time, had he 
 perceived the presence and the power of greatness ; and deep feelings 
 had impressed so vividly great objects, that they lay upon his mind like 
 substances whose presence perplexed the bodily sense. 
 
 4. Then, when I am thy captive, talk of chains, proud limitary 
 cherub! but ere then far heavier load thyself expect to feel from my 
 prevailing arm, though heaven's king ride on thy wings, and thou with 
 thy compeers, used to the yoke, drawest his triumphant wheels in pro- 
 gress through the road of heaven star-paved. 
 
 Chapter III. — Irregular Measure. 
 
 121. Of this measure, as of the Regular, there are two varie- 
 ties : — 
 
 1. Simple Irregular measure ; a x, a x, &c. 
 
 2. Complex Irregular measure; a s s, a s s, &c. 
 
 1. Simple {ax),'^ 
 
 122. The Simple Irregular measure is generally defective. This 
 arises from the awkwardness of constant double rhymes (§ 99, 
 III.), and from the tendency of the verse to throw off a weak 
 syllable at the end ; e. g. : — 
 
 " Lauded be thy name for ev I -er, 
 Thou of life the guard and giv | -er." — Ho^g. 
 
 Frequently complete and defective verses alternate ; <?. g, : — 
 " Fill the bumper fair ; (x) 
 Every drop we sprinkle 
 On the brow of care (x) 
 
 Smoothes away a wrinkle." — Moore. 
 
 " Life is real ! Life is earnest, 
 
 And the grave is not its goal ; (x) 
 Dust thou art, to dust returnest, 
 
 Was not spoken of the soul." (x) — Longfellow. 
 
 123. The general character of the irregular measure, as com- 
 pared with the regular, is cheerful and lively. Thus in Milton's 
 " L'Allegro" (the Mirthful), defective irregular verses predominate, 
 while in his companion poem, *'I1 Penseroso" (the Melancholy) 
 regular verses are in excess. For example, in twenty-siit lines 
 chosen at random from the former poem, there are fifteen irre- 
 gular and eleven regular verses. In the same number of lines 
 from the latter, nineteen are regular, and only seven irregular. 
 
 *• So-calljd Trochaic. 
 
98 COMPOSITION IN VERSE. 
 
 124. Simple irregular verses are of various lengths, from one 
 foot to eight ; but the most common are Tetrameters (complete 
 and defective), e. g. ; — 
 
 " Tell me not in mournful numbers, 
 ' Life is but an empty dream,' 
 For the soul is dead that slumbers, 
 
 And things are not what they seem." — Longfellow. 
 
 Or with a different arrangement of rhymes — 
 
 " In his chamber, weak and dying, 
 Was the Norman baron lying ; 
 Loud, without, the tempest thunder'd, 
 
 And the castle turret shook. 
 In this fight was death the gainer, 
 'Spite of vassal and retainer. 
 And the lands his sires had plunder'd 
 
 Written in the Doomsday Book." — Longfellow. 
 
 Or defective Tetrameters throughout — 
 
 " Other Romans shall arise, 
 
 Heedless of a soldier's name ; 
 Sounds, not arms, shall win the prize. 
 Harmony the path to fame." — Cowper. 
 
 125. The prevalence of the same measure in Milton's " L' Alle- 
 gro" has already been referred to (§ 123). Tennyson also em- 
 ploys it, but with similar licence to Milton ; thus, in " The Lady 
 of Shalott," which is irregular in the general character of its 
 verse, the refrain in every stanza is a regular Trimeter, and 
 there is only one stanza in the whole poem in which the other 
 verses are irregular throughout : — 
 
 " Willows whiten, aspens quiver. 
 Little breezes dusk and shiver 
 Thro' the wave that runs for ever 
 By the island in the river 
 
 Flowing down to Camelot. 
 Four gray walls and four gray towers 
 Overlook a space of flowers, 
 And the silent isle embowers 
 The Lady of Shalott." 
 
 But in the latter part of the next stanza, he breaks into the 
 regular measure : — 
 
IRREGULAR MEASURE. 99 
 
 " But who hath seen her wave her hand? 
 Or at the casement seen her stand? 
 Or is she known in all the land, 
 
 Tho Lady of ShalottT'—TenriT/son. 
 
 126. The measure of ''Locksley Hall," and Longfellow's "Bel- 
 fry of Bruges," is generally considered irregular, equivalent to 
 a complete Tetrameter and a defective Tetrameter in one long 
 line. But the stress on the alternate accents (2d, 4th, 6th, and 
 8th), is evidently greater than that on the others (1st, 3d, 5th, 
 and 7th). It is in fact equivalent to a double accent, as is indi- 
 cated in the formula, ax|ax|ax|ax|jax|ax|ax|a; 
 e. g. :— 
 
 " Yet I douht not | through the ages | one increasing | purpose runs. 
 And the thoughts of | men are widened | with the process | of the 
 suns.'' — Tennyson. 
 
 " In the market | -place of Bruges | stands the belfry | old and brown ; 
 Thrice consum'd and | thrice rebuilded, | still it watches | o'er the 
 to wn . " — Longfellow. 
 
 127. Irregular verse is generally rhymed : but Longfellow has 
 written a long Indian epic poem, " Hiawatha," in unrhymed 
 irregular Tetrameters ; e. g. : — 
 
 " There the little Hiawatha 
 Learned of every bird its language, 
 Learned their names and all their secrets, 
 How they built their nests in summer, 
 "Where they hid themselves in winter, 
 Talked with them where'er he met them, 
 Called them ' Hiawatha's chickens.' 
 Of all beasts he learned the language, 
 Learned their names and all their secrets. 
 How the beavers built their lodges. 
 Where the squirrels hid their acorns, 
 How the rein-deer ran so swiftly, 
 Why the rabbit was so timid, 
 Talked with them where'er he met them. 
 Called them ' Hiawatha's Brothers.' " — Longfellow, 
 
 2. Comijlex {ass).* 
 
 128. Complex Irregular verse is sometimes chosen, as the 
 complex regular verse also is, for dirges and laments ; e. g. : — 
 
 «- So-called Dactylic. 
 
100 COMPOSITION IN VERSE. 
 
 *' Pibroch o' 
 Pibroch o' 
 "Wake thy wild 
 Summon clan 
 
 Donuil Dhn, 
 Donuil, 
 voice a-new, 
 Conuil." — Scott. 
 
 This is an example of Complex Irregular Dimeters alter- 
 nating with defective Dimeters. We have the same combina- 
 tions in the following : — 
 
 *' I was a I Viking old ! 
 My deeds, though manifold, 
 No Skald in song has told, 
 
 No Saga taught thee ! 
 Take heed, that in thy verse 
 Thou dost the tale rehearse, 
 Else dread a dead man's curse ! 
 
 For this I sought thee." — Longfellow. 
 
 The measure is also found in Trimeters (generally combined 
 with Dimeters), and in Tetrameters ; e, g. : — 
 
 *' Weary way | wanderer, | languid and | sick at heart. 
 Travelling | painfully | over the | rugged road, 
 "Wild-visaged | wanderer, | God help thee, | wretched one." — 
 
 Southey. 
 
 And in Hexameters (defective), as — 
 
 " This is the | forest pri | -meval. But | where are the | hearts that 
 be I -neath it 
 Leap'd like the | roe when he | hears in the | woodland the | voice of 
 the I huntsman?" — Longfellow. 
 
 129. Variety is given to Irregular Measure (both simple and 
 complex), in the following ways : — 
 
 1. By prefixing a weak syllable to the verse, and so 
 making it regular, as in ** The Lady of Shalott," § 125 ; 
 e.g.:— 
 
 " Where shall the ] song of thy I praises be I -gin," 
 a s s|ass|assla, 
 
 By prefixing " Oh," becomes — 
 
 ** Oh where I shall the song I of thy prais I -es begin." 
 s a|s s a|ss a|ssa 
 
 2. By making the line defective; e. g. : — 
 
 " Cease, ye I mourners, I cease to I languish 
 O'er the j graves of J those you j love.'' (x) 
 
IRREGULAR MEASURE. 101 
 
 " Come, ye dis I -consolate, I where'er ye I languish, (s) 
 Come to the | mercy-seat, | fervently | kneel." (s s) 
 
 3. By making the verse mixed (simple and complex feet 
 combined) ; e. g. : — 
 
 " Let the I dead past I bury its I dead." 
 ax| a x|ass| a 
 " List to a I tale of I love in I Acadie, I home of the I happy."* 
 a ss|ax|a x|ass| a ssjax 
 
 4. By varying the position of the Pause. 
 
 6. By combining verses of different lengths, and varying 
 the order of the rhymes. 
 
 * Mr Longfellow frequently uses a simple foot in every position hut 
 the second last ; as — 
 
 " Stand like I harpers I hoar with I beards that I rest on their I 
 a x|ax{ax|a x|a8s{ 
 bosoms." 
 a X 
 and offers this as an English equivalent to a Latin spondaic hexameter 
 verse. But it is evident that if all the syllables in the first four feet 
 were read as lonff, without accent, the verse would be destitute of 
 rhythm, and therefore would be no English verse at all. Even when 
 reading all the syllables as long, the voice naturally lays stress on the 
 alternate syllables, and presses lightly on the intervening ones, thus 
 making rhythm in spite of quantity, as English verse constantly does. 
 As in music, so in verse, melody depends as much on the intervals as 
 on the beats. These English Hexameters (for they are indeed Hexa- 
 meters) bear the same relation to classical Hexameters that English 
 Komantic verse (regular) bears, to the Iambics of Horace or Catullus; 
 they substitute accent and time for quantity. Indeed, the resemblance 
 in the case of Hexameters is even more remote ; for, as we have just 
 shewn, anything like a combination of accentual spondees in English 
 verse is incompatible with rhythm. A similar remark applies to the 
 so-called Sapphics of Watts and Southey, parodied by Canning in " The 
 Anti- Jacobin," and which resemble their classical prototype only in the 
 number of syllables in each verse, and in the form of the stanza. "VVe 
 shall best shew this by placing side by side an English Sapphic and 
 a Latin one, and comparing their formulae ; — 
 
 (L) " Down sunk the j wanderer, j sleep' had | seized her | senses." — 
 
 Southey. 
 (2.) " Jam sat | -is ter ] -ris nivis | at que— dirse." — Horace. 
 
 thus (l.)as s|a ss|ax|ax|Ax. 
 (2.) _^| I- _^i __!__. 
 
102 COMPOSITION IN VERSE. 
 
 Exercise 33. 
 
 Arrange the following sentences into Irregular Verses : — 
 A — Simple. 
 
 1. Above the cathedral door are standing forms of kings and saints ; 
 yet among them I saw but one who with love hath soothed my sonl. 
 (4 lines Tetra. and Tetra. def., the latter rhyming.) 
 
 2. The dying Saviour on the cross lifts his calm eyelids heavenward, 
 in his pierced and bleeding palm feels, but scarcely feels, a trembling, 
 (do.) 
 
 3. In sadness and in illness oft have I watched thy current glide, 
 till the beauty of its stillness, like a tide, overflowed me. (Do., rhyming 
 alternately.) 
 
 4. In those stars above, God hath written wondrous truths, and 
 manifold as wondrous ; but in the bright flowerets under us the reve- 
 lation of his love stands not less. (4 lines Pent, and Pent, def., rhyming 
 alternately.) 
 
 5. whither do ye call me, mountain winds ? vainly my steps 
 would pursue, vainly ; chains of care enthral me to lower earth ; 
 wherefore woo thus my weary spirit ? (Do.) 
 
 6. Hark, from a distant shore, the sounds of gladness, like relief 
 from sadness, now sadness no more. (4 lines Trim, and Trim, def., 
 rhyming alternately.) 
 
 B— Complex. 
 
 1. Thy lay is loud and wild, far in the downy cloud ; love gives it 
 energy, love gave it birth : on thy dewy wing where, where art thou 
 journeying ? on earth is thy love, thy lay is in heaven. (6 lines, same 
 as No. 13, Ex. 63.) 
 
 2. But when I grew older, joining a corsair's crew, I flew with the 
 marauders o'er the dark sea. The life we led was wild ; the souls that 
 sped by our stern orders (were) many, (and) many the hearts that bled. 
 (8 lines, same as Ex. 2, § 128.) 
 
 3. Gabriel, with hunters and trappers behind him, had entered far 
 into this wonderful land at the base of the Ozark mountains. The 
 maiden and Basil, with their Indian guides, followed his flying footsteps 
 day by day, and thought each day to o'ertake hira. (4 lines, mixed 
 Hexameters, § 129. 3, Ex. 2 ) 
 
 4. Where shall the lover, whom the Fates sever, rest, for ever parted 
 from his true maiden's breast ? Where the far billow sounds through 
 deep and high groves, where early violets die under the willow. (8 lines, 
 Dimeters and Dimeters defec. alternately, and rhyming alternately.) 
 
lEEEGULAK MEASUKE. 103 
 
 Exercise 31. 
 
 Scan the following verses, naming the particular measure oj 
 each verse, and pointing out whatever peculiarities of rhythm, 
 rhyme, or pause it may contain : — 
 
 1. " Remember March, the Ides of March remember !" — Shakespeare. 
 
 2. •' Not in love neither ? Then let us say you are sad." — Shakespeare. 
 
 3. " That like a wounded snake drags its slow length along." — Pope. 
 
 4. " Once to every man and nation comes the moment to decide." — 
 
 Lowell. 
 
 5. " For the sunset of life gives me mystical lore, 
 
 And coming events cast their shadows before." — Campbell. 
 
 6. ♦' Thus did the long, sad years glide on, and in seasons and places 
 
 Divers and distant far was seen the wandering maiden." — 
 
 Longfellow. 
 
 7. ** Or the least little delicate aquiline curve in a sensitive nose, 
 
 From which I escaped heart- free, with the least little touch of 
 spleen." — Tennyson. 
 
 8. *' Drink to me only with thine eyes. 
 
 And I will pledge with mine." — Ben Jonson. 
 
 9. *' 'Tis a sight to engage me, if anything can, 
 
 To muse on the perishing pleasures of man." — Cowper. 
 
 10. " His zeal to heaven made him his prince despise, 
 
 And load his person with indignities." — Dryden. 
 
 11. "Of Gothic structure was the northern side, 
 
 O'erwrought with ornaments of barbarous pride." — Pope. 
 
 12. " Warriors or chiefs, should the shaft or the sword 
 
 Pierce me in leading the host of the Lord." — Byron. 
 
 18. " Bird of the wilderness, 
 
 Blithesome and cumberless. 
 Light be thy matin o'er moorland and lea." — Bogg. 
 
 H. " Lifted up so high, 
 
 I disdained subjection, and thought one step higher 
 Would set me highest." — Milton. 
 
 15. " Art thou a lover of song ? Would'st fain have an utterance 
 found it. 
 True to the ancient flow, true to the tones of the heart ?" — 
 
 Whewell (Trans, of Schiller.) 
 
104 COMPOSITION IN VERSE. 
 
 16. " And the "wild marsh-marigold shines like fire in swamps and 
 
 hollows gray, 
 And I'm to be Queen o' the May, mother ; I'm to be Queen o' 
 the May." — Tennyson. 
 
 17. " East and west, and south and north, the messengers ride fast, 
 
 And tower, and town, and cottage, have heard the trumpet's 
 blast." — Macaulay. 
 
 18. " Crabbed age and youth 
 
 Cannot live together ; 
 Youth is full of pleasaunce, 
 
 Age is full of care." — Shakespeare. 
 
 19- " I come from haunts of coot and hern, 
 I make a sudden sally. 
 And sparkle out among the fern, 
 
 To bicker down a valley." — Tennyson. 
 
 20. " Is this a fast, to keep 
 
 Thy larder lean 
 And clean 
 From fat of meats and sheep ?" — Ilerricl:. 
 
 21. " And storied windows richly dight, 
 
 Casting a dim religious light : 
 
 There let the pealing organ blow 
 
 To the full- voiced quire below." — Milton. 
 
 22. *' By rock, by oak, by hawthorn tree, 
 
 Troop after troop are disappearing ; 
 Troop after troop their banners rearing, 
 Upon the eastern bank you see." — Sicoti. 
 
 23. " Take her up tenderly, 
 
 Lift her with care ; 
 Fashioned so slenderly, 
 
 Young and so fair." — Uood. 
 
 24. " Take back the virgin page. 
 
 White and unwritten still ; 
 
 Some hand, more calm and sago, 
 
 The leaf must fill." — Moore. 
 
 25. *' And a deer came down the pathway. 
 
 Flecked with leafy light and shadow ; 
 And his heart within him fluttered. 
 
 Trembled like the leaves above him." — LortgferMtv. 
 
 26. " Wide o'er the foaming billows 
 
 She cast a wistful look ; 
 Her head was crowned with willows. 
 That trembled o'er the brook." — Gay. 
 
NASRATIVE IN VEKSE. 
 
 105 
 
 27. " Most potent, grave, and reverend seigniora, 
 
 My very noble and approved good masters, 
 That I have taken away this old man's daughter, 
 It is most true ; true I have married her : 
 The very head and front of my offending 
 Hath this extent, no more." — Shakespeare. 
 
 28. " The lion would not leave her desolate, 
 
 But with her went along as a strong guard 
 , Of her chaste person, and a faithful mate 
 
 Of her sad troubles and misfortunes hard ; 
 
 Still, when she slept, he kept both watch and ward ; 
 And when she waked, he waited diligent, 
 
 With humble service to her will prepared : 
 From her fair eyes he took commandement, 
 And ever by her looks conceived her intent." — Spenser. 
 
 Chapter IV. — Narrative in Verse. 
 
 130. Before applying the preceding principles to original 
 poetical composition, useful materials for versification may be 
 found in prose tales and fables, in versifying passages of 
 Scripture, and in translations from foreign or classical poets. 
 
 131. In versifying tales or incidents, the most detailed 
 accounts in prose should be consulted as the sources of informa- 
 tion. The selection of a particular measure must be regulated 
 by the character of the subject. Generally, however, the 
 Romantic measure — Iambic Tetrameter, or Tetrameter and 
 Trimeter combined, will be found the most suitable, as well as 
 the most easily managed. The following may serve as examples. 
 Both the prose and the metrical version of the first are from 
 Scott :— 
 
 1. Death of De Bohun, befoee Bannockbukn. 
 In Prose. 
 
 " The van of the English army now came in sight, and a number of 
 their bravest knights drew near to see what the Scots were doing. 
 They saw King Robert dressed in his armour, and distinguished by a 
 gold crown, which he wore over his helmet. He was not mounted on 
 his great war-horse, because he did not expect to fight that evening. 
 But he rode on a little pony up and down the ranks of his army, putting 
 his men in order, and carried in his hand a sort of battle-axe made of 
 steel. When the King saw the English horsemen draw near, he 
 
106 COMPOSITION IN VERSE. 
 
 advanced a little before his own men, that he might look at them more 
 nearly. 
 
 " There was a knight among the English, called Sir Henry de 
 Bohun, who thought this would be a good opportunity to gain great 
 fame to himself, and put an end to the war, by killing King Kobert. 
 The King being poorly mounted, and having no lance, Bohun galloped 
 on him suddenly and furiously, thinking, with his long spear, and his 
 tall, powerful horse, easily to bear him down to the ground. King 
 Robert saw him, and permitted him to come very near, then suddenly 
 turned his pony a little to one side, so that Sir Henry missed him with 
 the lance-point, and was in the act of being carried past him by the 
 career of his horse. But as he passed. King Robert rose up in his 
 stirrups, and struck Sir Henry on the head with his battle-axe so 
 terrible a blow, that it broke to pieces his iron helmet as if it had been 
 a nut-shell, and hurled him from his saddle. He was dead before he 
 reached the ground. This gallant action was blamed by the Scottish 
 leaders, who thought Bruce ought not to have exposed himself to so 
 much danger when the safety of the whole army depended on him. 
 The King only kept looking at his weapon, which was injured by the 
 force of the blow, and said, ' I have broken my good battle-axe." 
 
 In Verse. 
 
 " Here must they pause ; for, in advance 
 As far as one might pitch a lance, 
 The Monarch rode along the van. 
 The foe's approaching force to scan, 
 His line to marshal and to range, 
 And ranks to square, and fronts to change. 
 Alone he rode — from head to heel 
 Sheathed in his ready arms of steel ; 
 Nor mounted yet on war-horse wight, 
 But, till more near the shock of fight, 
 Reining a palfrey low and light. 
 A diadem of gold was set 
 Above his bright steel bassinet, 
 And clasp'd within its glittering twine 
 Was seen the glove of Argentine ; 
 Truncheon or leading staff he lacks, 
 Bearing, instead, a battle-axe. 
 He ranged his soldiers for the fight, 
 Accoutred thus, in open sight 
 Of either host. — Three bowshots far, 
 Paused the deep front of England's war, 
 And rested on their arms awhile, 
 To close and rank their warlike file, 
 And hold high council, if that night 
 Should view the strife, or dawning hght. 
 
NAKKATIVE IN VEESE. 107 
 
 " gay, yet fearful to behold, 
 Flashing with steel and rough with gold. 
 
 And bristled o'er with bills and spears, 
 "With plumes and pennons waving fair, 
 Was that bright battle-front ! for there 
 
 Eode England's King and peers : 
 And who, that saw that monarch ride. 
 His kingdom battled by his side, 
 Could then his direful doom foretell ! — 
 Fair was his seat in knightly selle, 
 And in his sprightly eye was set 
 Some spark of the Plantagenet. 
 Though light and wandering was his glanca, 
 It flash'd at sight of shield and lance. 
 * Know'st thou," he said, " De Argentine, 
 Yon knight who marshals thus their line ?"-— 
 " The tokens on his helmet tell 
 The Bruce, my Liege : I know him well." — 
 " And shall the audacious traitor brave 
 The presence where our banners wave ?" —   
 " So please my Liege," said Argentine, 
 " Were he but horsed on steed like mine, 
 To give him fair and knightly chance, 
 I would adventure forth my lance." — 
 " In battle-day," the King replied, 
 " Nice tourney rules are set aside. 
 — Still must the rebel dare our wrath ? 
 Set on him— sweep him from our path !" 
 And, at King Edward's signal, soon 
 Dash'd from the ranks Sir Henry Boune. 
 
 " Of Hereford's high blood he came, 
 A race renown'd for knightly fame. 
 He burn'd before his Monarch's eye 
 To do some deed of chivalry. 
 He spurr'd his steed, he couch'd his lance, 
 And darted on the Bruce at once. 
 — As motionless as rocks, that bide 
 The wrath of the advancing tide, 
 The Bruce stood fast. — Each breast beat high, 
 And dazzled was each gazing eye — 
 The heart had hardly time to think, 
 The eyelid scarce had time to wink. 
 While on the King, like flash of flame, 
 Spurr'd to full speed the war-horse came ! 
 The partridge may the falcon mock. 
 If that slight palfrey stand the shock — 
 
108 COMPOSITION IN VERSE. 
 
 But, swervinf]; from the knight's career, 
 Just as they met, Bruce shunn'd the spca?. 
 Onward the baffled warrior bore 
 His course— but soon his course was o'er ! — 
 High in his stirrups stood the" King, 
 And gave his battle-axe the swing. 
 Eight on De Boune, the whiles he pass'd. 
 Fell that stern dint — the first — the last ! — • 
 Such strength upon the blow was put, 
 The helmet crashed like hazel-nut ; 
 The axe-shaft, with its brazen clasp. 
 Was shiver'd to the gauntlet grasp. 
 Springs from the blow the startled horso, 
 Drops to the plain the lifeless corse ; 
 — First of that fatal field, how soon. 
 How sudden, fell the fierce De Boune !" 
 
 2. How HoEATius Kept the Bkidge. 
 
 In Prose. 
 
 " The Sublician Bridge well nigh afforded a passage to the enemy, 
 had there not been one man, Horatius Codes (that defence the fortune 
 of Eome had on that day), who, happening to be posted on guard at the 
 bridge, when he saw the Janiculum taken by a sudden assault, and 
 that the enemy were pouring down from thence in full speed, and that 
 his own party, in terror and confusion, were abandoning their arms 
 and ranks, laying hold of them one by one, standing in their way and 
 appealing to the faith of gods and men, he declared, ' That their flight 
 could avail them nothing if they deserted their post ; if they passed the 
 bridge and left it behind them, there would soon be more of the enemy 
 in the Palatium and Capitol, than in the Janiculum ; for that reason he 
 advised and charged them to demolish the bridge by the sword, by fire, 
 or by any means whatever ; that he would stand the shock of the enemy 
 as far as could be done by one man.' He then advances to the first 
 entrance of the bridge, and being easily distinguished among those who 
 shewed their backs in retreating from the fight, facing about to engage 
 the foe hand to hand, by his surprising bravery he terrified the enemy. 
 Two, indeed, a sense of shame kept with him, Spurius Lartius, and T. 
 Herminius, men eminent for their birth, and renowned for their gallant 
 exploits. With them he for a short time stood the first storm of the 
 danger and the severest brunt of the battle. But as they who demo- 
 lished the bridge called upon them to retire, he obliged them also to 
 withdraw to a place of safety on a small portion of the bridge still left. 
 Then casting his stern eyes round all the oflicers of the Etrurians in a 
 threatening manner, he sometimes challenged them singly, sometimes 
 reproached them all ; ' the slaves of haughty tyrants, who, regardless 
 of their own freedom, came to oppress the liberty of others.' They 
 
NARRATIVE IN VERSE. 109 
 
 hesitated for a considerable time, looking round, one at the other, to 
 commence the fight ; shame then put the army in motion, and a shout 
 being raised, they hurl their weapons from all sides on their single 
 adversary ; and when they all stuck in the shield held before him, and 
 he with no less obstinacy kept possession of the bridge with firm step, 
 they now endeavoured to thrust him down from it by one push, when 
 at once the crash of the falling bridge, at the same time a shout of the 
 Komans raised for joy at having completed their purpose, checked their 
 ardour with sudden panic. Then Codes says : ' Holy Father Tiberinus, 
 I pray that thou wouldst receive these arms, and this thy soldier in thy 
 propitious stream.' Armed as he was, he leaped into the Tiber, and 
 amid showers of darts hurled on him, swam across safe to his party, 
 having dared an act which is likely to obtain more fame than credit 
 with posterity. The State was grateful towards such valour ; a statue 
 was erected to him in the Comitium, and as much land was given to 
 him as he ploughed around in one day. The zeal of private indivi- 
 duals, also, was conspicuous amongst the public honours. For, amid 
 the great scarcity, each person contributed something to him according 
 to his supply at home, depriving himself of his own support." — Livy, 
 II. 10. 
 
 In verse. 
 
 ** But the Consul's brow was sad, 
 
 And the Consul's speech was low, 
 And darkly looked he at the wall, 
 
 And darkly at the foe. 
 ' Their van will be upon us 
 
 Before the bridge goes down : 
 And if they once may win the bridge, 
 
 What hope to save the town ? ' 
 
 *' Then out spake brave Horatius, 
 
 The Captain of the Gate : 
 * To every man upon this earth 
 
 Death cometh soon or late. 
 And how can man die better 
 
 Than facing fearful odds, 
 For the ashes of his fathers. 
 
 And the temples of his Gods ? 
 
 " * Hew down the bridge, Sir Consnl, 
 
 With all the speed ye may ; 
 I, with two more to help me, 
 
 Will hold the foe in play. 
 In yon strait path a thousand 
 
 May well be stopped by three. 
 Now who will stand on either hand, 
 
 And keep the bridge with me ? ' 
 
110 COMPOSITION IN VERSE. 
 
 " Then out spake Spurius Lartius ; 
 A Eamnian proud was he : 
 
 * Lo, I will stand at thy right hand. 
 
 And keep the bridge with thee.' 
 And out spake strong Herminius ; 
 Of Titian blood was he : 
 
 • I will abide on thy left side, 
 
 And keep the bridge with thee.* 
 " ' Horatius,' quoth the Consul, 
 
 ' As thou sayest, so let it be.' 
 And straight against that great array 
 
 Forth went the dauntless Three. 
 For Romans in Rome's quarrel 
 
 Spared neither land nor gold, 
 Nor son nor wife, nor limb nor life, 
 
 In the brave days of old. 
 
 •* Now while the three were tightening 
 
 Their harness on their backs. 
 The Consul was the foremost man 
 
 To take in hand an axe : 
 And Fathers mixed with Commons 
 
 Seized hatchet, bar, and crow, 
 And smote upon the planks above, 
 
 And loosed the props below. 
 " Meanwhile the Tuscan army, 
 
 Right glorious to behold. 
 Came flashing back the noonday light, 
 Rank behind rank, like surges bright 
 
 Of a broad sea of gold. 
 Four hundred trumpets sounded 
 
 A peal of warlike glee. 
 As that great host, with measured tread. 
 And spears advanced, and ensigns spread. 
 Rolled slowly towards the bridge's head, 
 
 Where stood the dauntless Three, 
 
 •* The Three stood calm and silent, 
 
 And looked upon the foes, 
 And a great shout of laughter 
 
 From all the vanguard rose : 
 And forth three chiefs came spurring 
 
 Before that deep array ; 
 To earth they sprang, their swords they drew, 
 And lifted high their shields, and flew 
 
 To win the narrow way ; 
 
NARRATIVE IN VERSE. Ill 
 
 " Then Ocnus of Falerii 
 
 Rushed on the Roman Three : 
 And Lausulus of Urgo, 
 
 The rover of the sea ; 
 And Aruns of Volsinium, 
 
 "Who slew the great wild boar, 
 The great wild boar that had his den 
 Amidst the reeds of Cosa's fen, 
 And wasted fields, and slaughtered men, 
 
 Along Albinia's shore. 
 ** Herminius smote down Aruns : 
 
 Lartius laid Ocnus low : 
 Right to the heart of Lausulus 
 
 Horatius sent a blow. 
 
 * Lie there,' he cried, 'fell pirate! 
 
 No mnre, aghast and pale, 
 From Ostia's walls the crowd shall mark 
 The track of thy destroying bark. 
 No more Campania's hinds shall ily 
 To woods and caverns when they spy 
 
 Thy thrice accursed sail.' * 
 
 ** But meanwhile axe and lever 
 Have manfully been plied ; 
 And now the bridge hangs tottering 
 Above the boiling tide. 
 
 * Come back, come back, Horatius ! 
 
 Loud cried the Fathers all. 
 
 * Back, Lartius ! back, Herminius I 
 
 Back, ere the ruin fall ! ' 
 " Back darted Spurius Lartius ; 
 
 Herminius darted back : 
 And, as they passed, beneath their feet 
 
 They felt the timbers crack. 
 But when they turned their faces, 
 
 And on the farther shore 
 Saw brave Horatius stand alone, 
 
 They would have crossed once more. 
 ** But with a crash like thunder 
 
 Fell every loosened beam. 
 And, like a dam, the mighty wreck 
 
 Lay right athwart the stream : 
 And a long shout of triumph 
 
 Rose from the walls of Rome, 
 As to the highest turret-tops 
 
 Was splashed the yellow foam. 
 
112 COMPOSITION IN \'ERSE. 
 
 *' Alone stood brave Horatius, 
 But constant still in mind ; 
 Thrice thirty thousand foes before^ 
 And the broad flood behind. 
 
 • Down with him ! ' cried false Sestcs, 
 
 With a smile on his pale face. 
 
 * Now yield thee,' cried Lars Porsena, 
 
 * Now yield thee to our grace.' 
 
 " Hound turned he, as not deigning; 
 
 Those craven ranks to see ; 
 Nought spake he to Lars Porsenc, 
 
 To Sextus nought spake he ; 
 But he saw on Palatinus 
 
 The white porch of his home ; 
 And he spake to the noble river 
 
 That rolls by the towers of Komo. 
 
 « • Oh, Tiber ! father Tiber ! 
 
 To whom the Romans pray, 
 A Eoman's life, a Roman's arms. 
 
 Take thou in charge this day ! ' 
 So he spake, and speaking sheathed 
 
 The good sword by his side, 
 And with his harness on his back, 
 
 Plunged headlong in the tide. 
 
 " No sound of joy or sorrow 
 
 Was heard from either bank ; 
 But friends and foes in dumb surprise, 
 With parted lips and straining eyes, 
 
 Stood gazing where he sank ; 
 And when above the surges 
 
 They saw his crest appear, 
 All Rome sent forth a rapturous cry, 
 And even the ranks of Tuscany 
 
 Could scarce forbear to cheer. 
 
 " And now he feels the bottom ; 
 
 Now on dry earth he stands ; 
 Now round him throng the Fathers 
 
 To press his gory hands ; 
 And now, with shouts and clapping, 
 
 And noise of weeping loud. 
 He enters through the River-Gato, 
 
 Borne by the joyous crowd. 
 
NAKEATIVE IN VEKSE. 113 
 
 " They gave him of the corn land,   
 
 That was of public right, 
 Ab much as two strong oxen 
 
 Could plough from morn till night ; 
 And they made a molten image, 
 
 And set it up on high. 
 And there it stands unto this day 
 
 To witness if I lie. 
 
 " It stands in the Comitium, 
 
 Plain for all folk to see ; 
 Horatius in his harness, 
 
 Halting upon one knee : 
 And underneath is written, 
 
 In letters all of gold, 
 How valiantly he kept the bridge 
 
 In the brave days of old." — Macaulay's Uoratiue, 
 
 Exercise 35. 
 
 Subjects for Narrative in verse : — 
 A. 
 
 1. Death of Boadicea (a.d. 61). 
 
 2. The Bloody Banquet (450). 
 8. The Battle of Camlin (542). 
 
 4. The Saxon Slaves in Rome (597). 
 
 5. King Edwin's Dream (ab. 600) . 
 
 6. The White Horse [Ethandun] (878). 
 
 7. Canute and Ironside (1016). 
 
 8. Death of Hardrada (1066). 
 
 9. Hereward the Saxon (1071). 
 
 10. Death of Rufus (1100). 
 
 11. Death of a Becket (1170). 
 
 12. The Siege of Ascalon (1191). 
 
 13. The Burgesses of Calais (1346). 
 
 14. The Siege of Orleans (1429). 
 
 15. The Death of Lord Level (1487). 
 
 &c., &c , &c. 
 
 B. 
 
 1. The Death of Sir Giles d'Argentine (1314). 
 
 2. The Barns of Ayr (1296). 
 
 3. Black Agnes of Dunbar (1338). 
 
 4. Clan Chattan and Clan Kay (1392). • 
 
 5. The Battle of Verneuil (1424). 
 
 6. The Stirling Tournament (1449). 
 
114 COMPOSITION IN VERSE. 
 
 7. The King's Hunting in Athole (1533). 
 
 8. The Rescue of Kinmont Willie (1596). 
 
 9. The Story of Allan-a-Sop (1605) ? 
 
 10. Entrance of Prince Charles into Edinburgh (1745). 
 
 c. 
 
 1. The Horatii and the Curiatii, 
 
 2. Damon and Pythias. 
 
 3. Dionysius and Damocles. 
 
 4. Tarquin and the Sybil. 
 
 5. The Story of Coriolanus. 
 
 6. Virginia. 
 
 7. Androcles and the Lion, 
 
 8. The Schoolmaster of Falerii. 
 
 9. The Leap of Curtius. 
 
 10. The Slaughter in the Forum (b c. 390). 
 
 11. Thermopylae. 
 
 12. Hector and Achilles. 
 
 13. Pygmalion and the Statue. 
 
 14. ^neas and Anchises. 
 
 15. The Gordian Knot. 
 
 16. Cincinnatus Eeturning to the Plough. 
 
 &c., &c., &c. 
 
 132. For Scriptural subjects, a graver measure, as blank 
 verse, may be selected. Such subjects may either be treated 
 as Narratives, or made the basis of Keflections. 
 
 1. Narrative. — Blind Bartimeus. 
 In Prose. 
 
 " And as he (Jesus) went out of Jericho with his disciples, and a great 
 number of people, blind Bartimeus, the son of Timeus, sat by the high- 
 way side begging. And when he heard that it was Jesus of Nazareth, 
 he began to cry out, and say, Jesus, thou Son of David, have mercy on 
 me. And many charged him that he should hold his peace : but he 
 cried the more a great deal, Thou Son of David, have mercy on me. 
 And Jesus stood still, and commanded him to be called. And they 
 call the blind man, saying unto him. Be of good comfort, rise ; he calleth 
 thee. And he, casting away his garment, rose, and came to Jesus. 
 And Jesus answered and said unto him, What wilt thou that I should 
 do unto thee ? The blind man said unto him, Lord, that I might re- 
 ceive my sight. And Jesus said unto him, Go thy way ; thy faith hath 
 made thee whole. And immediately he received his sight, and followed 
 Jesus in the way." — Maek x. 46-52. 
 
NARRATIVE IN VERSE. 115 
 
 In Verse 
 
 Blind, poor, and helpless, Bartimeus sate. 
 
 Listening the foot of the wayfaring man, 
 
 Still hoping that the next, and still the next, 
 
 Would put an alms into his trembling hand. 
 
 He thinks he hears the coming breeze faint rustle 
 
 Among the sycamores ; it is the tread 
 
 Of thousand steps ; it is the hum of tongues 
 
 Innumerable. But when the sightless man 
 
 Heard that the Nazarene was passing by, 
 
 He cried and said, ' Jesus, thou Son of David, 
 
 Have mercy on me !' and, when rebuked. 
 
 He cried the more, * Have mercy upon me !' 
 
 * Thy faith hath made thee whole ;' so Jesus spake — 
 
 And straight the blind beheld the face of God." — Grahame. 
 
 Another version : — 
 
 " Blind Bartimeus at the gates 
 Of Jericho in darkness waits : 
 He hears the crowd ; — he hears a breath 
 Say, * It is Christ of Nazareth !' 
 And calls, in tones of agony, 
 
 The thronging multitudes increase ; 
 Blind Bartimeus, hold thy peace ! 
 But still, above the noisy crowd, 
 The beggar's cry is shrill and loud ; 
 Until they say, * He calleth thee I' 
 ©ages/, gyg/ga/, ^uvsT a ! 
 
 Then saith the Christ, as silent stands 
 The crowd, * What wilt thou at my handu?* 
 And he replies, ' give me light ! 
 Rabbi, restore the blind man's sight !' 
 And Jesus answers, "X-rayg- 
 'H ^/Vt/s gov oedojKS os ! 
 
 Ye that have eyes, yet cannot see, 
 
 In darkness and in misery, 
 
 Recall those mighty Voices Three, 
 
 ^Irjffov, sXsr}G6v [li ! 
 
 &dpffsi, 'iysioai, Zitciyz ! 
 
 *H cr/tfr/j <S()\) Gsou'/A eg !" — LongfellfKif, 
 
116 COMPOSITION IN VERSE. 
 
 Exercise 38. 
 
 Suljects for Scriptural Narrative Poems : — 
 
 1. The Finding of Moses. 
 
 2. Jephthah's Vow. 
 8. Saul and David. 
 
 4. Elijah fed by Ravens. 
 
 6. The Annunciation. 
 
 6. Little Children brought to Jesua. 
 
 7. Jesus Calms the Tempest. 
 
 8. The Dumb Cured. 
 
 9. Paul's Shipwreck. 
 
 10. Paul on Mars Hill, &c,, &c. 
 
 133. 2. Narrative (with Eeflection). — Wisdom. 
 
 In Prose. 
 
 " The Lord possessed me in the beginning of his way, before his 
 works of old. I was set up from everlasting, from the beginning, or 
 ever the earth was. When there were no depths, I was brought forth ; 
 when there were no fountains abounding with water. Before the moun- 
 tains were settled, before the hills was I brought forth : while as yet he 
 had not made the earth, nor the fields, nor the highest part of the dust 
 of the world. When he prepared the heavens, I was there : when he 
 set a compass upon the face of the depth : when he established the 
 clouds above : when he strengthened the fountains of the deep : when 
 he gave to the sea his decree, that the waters should not pass his com- 
 mandment : when he appointed the foundations of the earth : then I 
 was by him, as one brought up with him : and I was daily his delight, 
 rejoicing always before him ; rejoicing in the habitable part of his earth ; 
 and my delights were with the sons of men." — Pkov. viii. 22-31. 
 
 In Verse. 
 
 " Ere God had built the mountains, 
 
 Or raised the fruitful hills ; 
 Before he filled the fountains 
 
 That feed the running rills ; 
 In me, from everlasting. 
 
 The wonderful 1 AM 
 Found pleasures never wasting, 
 
 And Wisdom is my name. 
 
 When, like a tent to dwell in, 
 
 He spread the skies abroad, 
 And swathed about the swelling 
 
 Of ocean's mighty flood ; 
 
NABRATIVE IN VERSE, 117 
 
 He -wrouglit by weight and measure, 
 
 And I was with him then : 
 Myself the Father's pleasure, 
 
 And mine the sons of men. 
 
 Thus Wisdom's words discover 
 
 Thy glory and thy grace. 
 Thou everlasting lover 
 
 Of our unworthy race ! 
 Thy gracious eye surveyed us 
 
 Ere stars were seen above ; 
 In wisdom thou hast made us, 
 
 And died for us in love. 
 
 And couldst thou be delighted 
 
 With creatures such as we, 
 Who, when we saw thee, slighted. 
 
 And nailed thee to a tree? 
 Unfathomable wonder, 
 
 And mystery divine ! 
 The voice that sj)eaks in thunder, 
 
 Says, ' Sinner, I am thine !' " — Cowper. 
 
 Exercise S7. 
 
 Subjects for Narrative Scriptural Poems (with Reflection). 
 
 1 . Enoch walked with God.— Gen. v. 21-24. 
 
 2. God's Bow in the Cloud.— Geu. ix. 8-17. 
 
 3. The Destruction of Sodom. — Gen. xviii. xix. 
 
 4. God did tempt Abraham. — Gen. xxii. 1-14. 
 
 6. The Lord gave, and the Lord hath taken away. — Job i. 21. 
 
 6. And Esau fell on his neck and kissed him, and they wept. — Gen. 
 
 xxxii. xxxiii. 
 
 7. Death of the First-born. — Exod. xi. xii. 
 
 8. And the Children of Israel wept for Moses. — Dent, xxxiv. 
 
 9. Entreat me not to leave thee. — Ruth i. 
 
 10. The Death of Samson. — Judges xvi. 21-31. 
 
 11. How are the Mighty fallen.— 2 Sam. i. 17-27. 
 
 12. The Conclusion of the whole matter. — Eccl. xii. 
 
 13. The Chariot of Israel.— 1 Kings ii. 1-12. 
 
 14. The Man of Sorrows. — Isa. liii. 
 
 15. Our Father. —Matt. vi. 9-13. 
 
 16. Not dead, but sleepeth.— Matt. ix. 18-26. 
 
 17. I will give you rest.— Matt. xi. 28-30. 
 
 18. Thy will be done.— Matt. xxvi. 38-42. 
 
 19. Eli, Eli, Lama Sabachthani. — Matt, xxvii. 45-63. 
 
118 COMPOSITION IN VEESE. 
 
 20. Kneeled down on the shore and prayed. — Acts xxi. 5. 
 
 21. And the Books were opened. — Rev. xx. 12-15. 
 
 22. They shall see his face. — Rev. xxii. 1-7. 
 
 &c. &c. &c. 
 
 134. Before writing a Fable in verse, the incidents to be in- 
 troduced should be set down in their order, thus : — 
 
 The Sheep-Dog and the Wolf. 
 In Prose. 
 
 There was once a ravenous wolf that spent the night in making raids 
 upon the flocks, and the day in regaling himself with his stolen booty. 
 Neither the traps nor dogs could capture him, and the shepherds de- 
 spaired of preventing his attacks. One day, however, Lightfoot (the 
 dog), in ranging over the forest, came upon the retreat of the wolf, and 
 proposed to reason the matter with him. 
 
 " How," asked the dog, " can one of your intrepid mind be guilty of 
 attacking these defenceless lambs ? the boar and the lion are your pro- 
 per prey. Be brave, and feed upon such noble food ; but let your great 
 soul melt with generous pity towards these harmless creatures." 
 
 " Friend,'' replied the wolf, " you must weigh the matter thus : We 
 are by nature beasts of prey, and when hungry, must eat. But it is 
 just so with men. Go home, then, and make the same appeal to your 
 master that you have made to me ; for men eat sheep by thousands, we 
 only now and then. Be sure the sheep fare much worse with their pre- 
 tended friends than with their open enemies." 
 
 In Verse. 
 
 " A wolf with hunger fierce and bold, 
 Ravaged the plains and thinn'd the fold ; 
 Deep in the wood secure he lay, 
 The thefts of night regaled the day. 
 In vain the shepherd's wakeful care 
 Had spread the toils, and watched the snare : 
 In vain the dog pursued his pace. 
 The fleeter robber mocked the chase. 
 
 As Lightfoot ranged the forest round, 
 By chance his foe's retreat he found. 
 
 ' Let us awhile the war suspend, 
 And reason as from friend to friend.' 
 
 ' A truce ! ' replies the wolf. 'Tis done— 
 The dog the parley thus begun : 
 
 ' How can that strong, intrepid mind 
 Attack a weak defenceless kind ! 
 Those jaws should prey on nobler food, 
 And drink the boar's and lion's blood : 
 
TRANSLATION. 119 
 
 Great souls witli generous pity melt, 
 Which coward tyrants never felt. 
 How harmless is our fleecy care ! 
 Be brave, and let thy mercy spare.' 
 
 ' Friend,' says the wolf, ' the matter weigli ; 
 Nature designed us beasts of prey ; 
 As such when hunger finds a treat, 
 'Tis necessary wolves should eat. 
 If mindful of the bleating weal, 
 Thy bosom burn with real zeal ; 
 Hence, and thy tyrant lord beseech, 
 To him repeat the moving speech : 
 A wolf eats sheep but now and then, 
 Ten thousand are devoured by men. 
 An open foe may prove a curse, 
 But a pretended friend is worse.' " — Gey. 
 
 Exercise 38. 
 
 Subjects for Fables in Verse, 
 
 1. The Lion, the Fox, and the Geese. 
 
 2. The Hare and many Friends. 
 
 3. The Elephant and the Bookseller. 
 
 4. The Fox and the Crow. 
 6. The Frog and the Ox. 
 
 6. The Town Mouse and the Country Mouse, 
 
 7. The Wolf and the Crane. 
 
 8. The Wind and the Sun. 
 
 9. The Fox without a TaiL 
 
 10. The Three Bears. 
 
 11. The Seven Crows.* 
 
 12. The Gold Children.* 
 &c. &c. &e. 
 
 Chapter V. — Translation. 
 
 135. In translating in verse from a foreign language, the fol- 
 lowing directions should be followed : — 
 
 I. Write out a literal prose translation of the passage, and 
 
 * From Grimm's " Household Stories," which contains some hun- 
 dreds of Fables, Legends, and Fairy Tales, forming excellent subjects 
 for Versification. Hans Christian Andersen's " Danish Fairy Legends 
 and Tales," contains abundance of similar material. 
 
120 COMPOSITION IN VERSE. 
 
 endeavour to grasp the author's spirit, as well as his 
 meaning. 
 
 II. Try to preserve the same order of ideas as in the original. 
 
 III. Keep the translation as nearly literal as possible. 
 
 IV. Make the measure correspond to that of the original 
 poem in spirit, rather than in form. 
 
 133, Example.— Ad Pyrrham. 
 
 " Quis multa gracilis te pner in rosa 
 Perfusus liquidis urget odoribus 
 Grato, Pyrrha, sub antro ? 
 
 Cui flavam religas comam, 
 Simplex munditiis ? Hen quoties fidem 
 Mutatosque deos flebit, et aspera 
 Nigris sequora ventos 
 
 Emirabitur insolens, 
 Qui nunc te fruitur credulns aurea ; 
 Qui semper vacuam, semper amabilem 
 Sperat, nescius aurse 
 
 Fallacis. Miseri quibus 
 Intentata nites ! Me tabula sacer 
 Votiva paries indicat uvida 
 Suspendisse potenti 
 
 Vestimenta maris deo." — Horace, Book I. 5. 
 
 Translation. 
 
 ** What slender youth, bedewed with liquid odoura, 
 Courts thee on roses in some pleasant cave, 
 
 Pyrrha? For whom bindst thou 
 
 In wreaths thy golden hair, 
 Plain in thy neatness ? Oh how oft shall he 
 On faith and changed gods complain, and seas 
 
 Kougli with black winds and storms 
 
 Unwonted shall admire ! — 
 Who now enjoys thee, — credulous, — all gold, 
 Who, always vacant, always amiable, 
 
 Hopes thee, of flattering gales 
 
 Unmindful. Hapless they, 
 To whom thou untried seem'st fair ! me in my vow'd 
 Picture the sacred wall declares to have hung 
 
 My dank and dropping weeds 
 
 To the stern god of the sea." — Miltcm. 
 
TRANSLATION. 121 
 
 Exercise 39. 
 
 Subjects for Translation in Verse: — 
 
 _^, 1. Canis per fluvium caknem feeens. 
 
 Amittit merito proprium qui alienum adpetit. 
 
 Canis per flumen carnem dum ferret natans, 
 
 Lympharum in speculo vidit simulacrum suum, 
 
 Aliamque prsedam ab alio ferrier putans 
 
 Eripere voluit : verum decepta aviditas, 
 
 Et quem tenebat ore dimisit cibum, 
 
 Nee quem petebat potuit dente attingere. — Fhcedrus, I. 4. 
 
 2. AUEEA ^TAS, 
 
 " Aurea prima sata est aetas, quae vindice nuUo, 
 Sponte sua, sine lege fidem rectumque colebat 
 Poena metusque aberant ; nee verba minacia fixe 
 Aere legebantur, nee supplex turba timebat 
 Judicis ora sui ; sed erant sine judice tuti. 
 Nondum caesa suis, peregrinum ut viseret orbem, 
 Montibus in liquidas pinus descenderat undas ; 
 Nullaque mortales praeter sua litora norant. 
 Nondum praecipites cingebant oppida fossae : 
 Non tuba directi, non aeris cornua flexi, 
 Non galeae, non ensis erant : sine militis usu 
 MoUia securae peragebant otia gentes. 
 Ipsa quoque immunis rastroque intacta, nee ullis 
 Saucia vomeribus, per se dabat omnia tellus : 
 Contentique cibis nullo cogente creatis, 
 Arbuteos fetus montanaque fraga legebant, 
 Cornaque et in duris haerentia mora rubetis, 
 Et quae deciderant patula Jovis arbore glandes. 
 Ver erat aeternum ; placidique tepentibus auris 
 Mulcebant zephyri natos sine semine flores. 
 Mox etiam fruges tellus inarata ferebat, 
 Nee renovatus ager gravidis canebat aristis : 
 Flumina jam laetis, jam flumina nectaris ibant, 
 Flavaque de viridi stillabant ilice mella." — 
 
 Ovid, Metam. I. 89-112. 
 
 3. EoMULUs ET Remus. 
 " Silvia Vestalis coelestia semina partu 
 Ediderat, patruo regna tenente suo. 
 Is jubet auferri parvos et in amne necari. 
 Quid facis ? ex istis Romulus alter erit ! 
 Jussa recusantes peragunt lacrimosa ministri, 
 Fleiit tamen, et geminos in loca jussa ferunt. 
 
122 COMPOSITION IN VEKSE. 
 
 Albula, quem Tiberim mersus Tiberinus in undis 
 
 Keddidit, hibernis forte tumebat aquis. 
 Hie, ubi nunc fora sunt, lintres errare videres, 
 
 Quaque jacent valles. Maxima Circe, tuae. 
 Hue ubi venerunt, — neque enim procedere possunt 
 
 Longius — ex illis unus et alter ait : 
 
 * At quam sunt similes ! at quam formosus uterque ! 
 
 Plus tamen ex illis iste vigoris habet. 
 Si genus arguitur vultu, nisi fallit imago, 
 Nescio quem vobis suspicer esse deum ' — 
 
 * At si quis vestrae deus esset originis auctor 
 
 In tam praecipiti tempore ferret opem. 
 Ferret opem certe, si non ope mater egeret, 
 
 Quae facta est uno mater et orba die. 
 Nata simul, m oritur a simul, simul ite sub undas 
 
 Corpora!' Desierat, deposuitque sinu. 
 Vagierunt ambo pariter ; sensisse putares. 
 
 Hi redeunt udis in sua tecta genis. 
 Sustinet impositos summa cavus alveus unda. 
 
 Heu, quantum fati parva tabella tulit ! 
 Alveus in limo silvis appulsus opacis 
 
 Paulatim fluvio deficiente sedet. 
 Arbor erat. Remanent vestigia : quaeque vocatur 
 
 Rumina nunc fieus, Romula ficus erat. 
 Venit ad expositos — mirum !— lupa feta gemellos. 
 
 Quis credat pueris non nocuisse feram ? 
 Non nocuisse parum est ; prodest quoque. Quos lupa nutrit, 
 
 Perdere cognatae sustinuere manus ! 
 Constitit, et cauda teneris blanditur alumnis, 
 
 Et fingit lingua corpora bina sua. 
 Marte satos scires : timor abfuit ; ubera ducunt, 
 
 Nee sibi promissi lactis aluntur ope. 
 Ilia loco nomen fecit : locus ipse Lupercis. 
 
 Magna dati nutrix praemia lactis habet." — 
 
 Ovid, Fasti, II. 383-423. 
 
 4. JEneas Precatur. 
 
 " Atque haec ipse suo tristi cum corde volutat, 
 Adspectans silvam immensam, et sic forte precatur. 
 * Si nunc se nobis ille aureus arbore ramus 
 Ostendat nemore in tanto : quando omnia vere 
 Heu nimium de te vates, Misene, locuta est.' 
 Vix ea fatus erat, geminae quum forte columbae 
 Ipsa sub ora viri coelo venere volantes, 
 Et viridi sedere solo. Turn maximus heros 
 Maternas agnoscit aves, laetusque precatur : 
 
TRANSLATION. 123 
 
 • Este duces, 0, si qua via est, ciirsumque per auras 
 Dirigite in lucos, ubi pinguem dives opacat 
 Ramus humum. Tuque, o, dubiis ne defice rebus. 
 Diva parens !' Sic effatus vestigia pressit, 
 Observans, quae signa ferant, quo tendere pergant. 
 Pascentes illae tantum prodire volando, 
 Quantum acie possent oculi servare sequentum. 
 Inde ubi venere ad fauces graveolentis Averni, 
 Tollunt se celeres, liquidumque per aera lapsae 
 Sedibus optatis gemina super arbore sidunt, 
 Discolor undo auri per ramos aura refulsit. 
 Quale solet silvis brumali frigore viscura 
 Fronde virere nova, quod non sua seminat arbos, 
 Et croceo fetu teretes circumdare truncos : 
 Talis erat species auri frondentis opaca 
 Ilice, sic leni crepitabat bractea vento, 
 Corripit Aeneas extemplo, avidusque refringit 
 Cunctantem, et vatis portat sub tecta Sibyllae." — 
 
 Virgil, ^neid, VI. 185-211. 
 
 5. Ad Leuconoen. 
 
 Tu ne quaesieris (scire nefas), quem milii, quern tibi 
 Finem di dederint, Leuconoe, nee Babylonios 
 Tentaris numeros. Ut melius, quidquid erit, pati ! 
 Seu plures hiemes seu tribuit Jupiter ultimam, 
 
 Quae nunc oppositis debilitat pumicibus mare 
 Tyrrhenum. Sapias, vina liques, et spatio brevi 
 Spem longam reseces. Dum loquimur, fugerit invida, 
 Aetas : carpe diem, quam minimum credula postero.' — 
 
 Ilorace, Car. I. 11, 
 
 6. Ad Viegilium. 
 
 " Quis desiderio sit pudor aut modus 
 Tam cari capitis ? Praecipe lugubres 
 Cantus, Melpomene, cui liquidam pater 
 Vocem cum cithara dedit. 
 
 Ergo Quintilium perpetuus sopor 
 TJrget ? cui Pudor et, Justitiae soror, 
 Incorrupta Fides, nudaque Veritas 
 Quando ullum inveniet parem ? 
 
 Multis ille bonis flebilis occidit, 
 Nulli flebilior quam tibi, Virgili. 
 Tu frustra plus heu non ita creditum 
 Poscis Quintilium deos. 
 
 Quod si Threicio blandius Orpheo 
 
124 COMPOSITION IN VERSE. 
 
 Anditam moderere arboribus fidem, 
 Non vanae redeat sanguis imagini, 
 Quam virga semel horrida, 
 
 Non lenis precibus fata recludere, 
 Nigro compulerit Mercurius gregi. 
 Durum : sed levius fit patientia, 
 Quidquid corrigere est nefas." — Horace, Car. I. 24. 
 
 7. Ad L. Licinium. 
 
 " Rectius vives, Licini, neque altum 
 Semper urgendo neque, dum procellas 
 Cautus horrescis, nimium premendo 
 Litus iniquum, 
 
 Auream quisquis mediocritatem 
 Diligit, tutus caret obsoleti 
 Sordibus tecti, caret invidenda 
 Sobrius aula. 
 
 Saevius ventis agitatur ingens 
 Pinus, et celsae graviore casu 
 Decidunt turres feriuntque summos 
 Fulgura montes. 
 
 Sperat infestis, metuit secundis 
 Alteram sortem bene praeparatum 
 Pectus. Informes hiemes reducit 
 Jupiter, idem 
 
 Summovet. Non, si male nunc, et olini 
 Sic erit. Quondam cithara tacentem 
 Suscitat Musam neque semper arcum 
 Tendit Apollo. 
 
 Eebus angustis animosus atque 
 Fortis appare ; sapienter idem 
 Contrahes vento nimium secundo 
 Turgida vela." — Horace, Car. II. 10. 
 
 8. MONUMENTUM AeEE PeEENNIUS. 
 
 " Exegi monumentum aere perennius, 
 liegalique situ pyramidum altius ; 
 Quod non imber edax, non Aquilo impoteua 
 Possit diruere, aut innumerabilis 
 
 Annorum series et fuga temporum. 
 Non oranis moriar, multaque pars mei 
 Vitabit Libitinam. Usque ego postera 
 Crescam laude recens, dum Capitolium 
 Scandet cum tacita Virgine pontifex. 
 Dicar, qua violens obstrepit Aufidus, 
 Et qua pauper aquae Daunus agrestium 
 
TRANSLATION. 125 
 
 Regnavit populornm, ex humili potens, 
 
 Princeps Aeolium carmen ad Italos 
 Deduxisse modos. Sume superbiam 
 Quaesitam meritis, et mihi Delphica 
 Lauro cinge volens, Melpomene, comam." — 
 
 Horace, Car. III. 30. 
 
 9. Ad Tokquatum. 
 
 " Diffugero nives, redeunt jam gramina campis 
 Arboribusque comae ; 
 Mutat terra vices, et decrescentia ripas 
 Flumina praetereunt ; 
 
 Gratia cum Nympbis geminisque sororibus audet 
 Ducere nuda cboros. 
 
 Immortalia ne spares, monet annus et almum 
 Quae rapit bora diem. 
 
 Frigora mitescunt zepbyris ; ver preterit aestas 
 Interitura, simul 
 
 Pomifer auctumnus fruges effuderit ; et mox 
 Bruma recurrit iners. 
 
 Damna tamen celeres reparant coelestia lunae ; 
 Nos ubi decidimus, 
 
 Quo pater Aeneas, quo dives Tullus et Ancus, 
 Pulvis et umbra sumus. 
 
 Quis scit, an adjiciant bodiernae crastina summae 
 Tempera Di superi ? 
 
 Cuncta manus avidas fugient heredis, amico 
 Quae dederis animo. 
 
 Cum semel occideris, et de te splendida Minos 
 Fecerit arbitria, 
 
 Non, Torquate, genus, non te facundia, non te 
 Restituet pietas. 
 
 Infernis ncque enim tenebris Diana pudicum 
 Liberat Hyppolytum ; . 
 
 Nee Letbaea valet Tbeseus abrumpere care 
 Vincula Piritboo." — Horace, Car. IV. 7. 
 
 1. "Wandkers Nachtlied. 
 
 " Ueber alien Gipfeln 
 1st Rub, 
 
 In alien Wipfeln 
 Spiirest du 
 Kaum einen Hauch ; 
 Die Vogelein schweigen im "Waldo. 
 Warte nur, balde 
 Rubest aucb du." — Goethe. 
 
126 COMPOSITION IN VEKSE. 
 
 2. Die Eache. 
 
 * " Der Knecht hat erstochen den edeln Herrn, 
 
 Der Knecht war selber ein Eitter gem. 
 
 " Er hat ihn erstochen im dunkeln Hain 
 Und den Leib versenket im tiefen Ehein. 
 
 ** Hat angeleget die Eiistung blank, 
 Auf desHerrenEoszsich geschwungen frank. 
 
 *' Und als er sprengen will tiber die Briick, 
 Da stutzet das Eosz nnd baumt sich zuriick. 
 
 *' Und als er die goldnen Sporen im gab, 
 Da schleuderts ihn wild in den Strom hinab. 
 
 *' Mit Arm, mit Fusz er rudert und ringt, 
 Der schwere Panzer ihn niederzwingt." — 
 
 Uhland. 
 
 3. Heimkehr. 
 
 " Ich weisz nicht was es soil bedeuten, 
 Dasz ich so traurig bin, 
 Ein Marchen aus alten Zeiten, 
 Das kommt mir nicht aus dem Sinn. 
 
 ** Die Luft ist kiihl, und es dunkelt, 
 Und ruhig flieszt der Ehein ; 
 Der Gipfel der Berge funkelt 
 Im Abendsonnenschein. 
 
 " Die schonste Jungfrau sitzet 
 Dort oben wunderbar, 
 Ihr goldnes Geschmeide blitzet, 
 Sie kammt ihr goldnes Haar. 
 
 " Sie kammt es mit goldnem Kamme, 
 Und singt ein Lied dabei ; 
 Das hat eine wundersame, 
 Gewaltige Melodei. 
 
 " Den Schiifer im kleinen Schiffe 
 Ergreift es mit wildem Weh ; 
 Er schaut nicht die Felsenriffe, 
 Er schaut nur hinauf in die Hoh. 
 
 ** Ich glaube, die Wellen verschlingen 
 Am Ende Schiffer und Kahn ; 
 Und das hat mit ihrem Singen 
 Die Lore-Ley gethan." — Ileinrich Heine, 
 
thanslation. 127 
 
 4. Erlkoniq. 
 
 " Wer reitet so spat durcli Naclit und "Wind ? 
 Es ist der Vater mit seinem Kind ; 
 Er hat den Knaben wol in dem Arm, 
 Er faszt ihn sicher, er halt ihn warm. 
 
 " Mein Sohn, was birgst du so bang dein Gesicht ?— 
 Siehst, Vater, du den Erlkonig nicht ? 
 Den Erlenkonig mit Kron und Schweif ? — 
 Mein Sohn, es ist ein Nebelstreif. — 
 
 " ' Du liebes Kind, komm, geh mit mir ! 
 Gar schone Spiele spiel ich mit dir ; 
 Manch bunte Blumen sind an dem Strand ; 
 Meine Mutter hat manch giilden Gewand.'" 
 
 " Mein Vater, mein Vater, und horest du nicht, 
 Was Erlenkonig mir leise verspricht ? — 
 Sei ruhig, bleibe ruhig, mein Kind ; 
 In diirren Blattern sauselt der Wind. — 
 
 " ' Willst, feiner Knabe, du mit mir gehn ? 
 Meine Tochter sollen dich warten schon ; 
 Meine Tochter fiihren den nachtlichen Reihn, 
 Und wiegen und tanzen und singen dich ein.' 
 
 *' Mein Vater, mein Vater, und siehst du nicht dort 
 Erlkonigs Tochter am diistern Ort ? — 
 Mein Sohn, mein Sohn, ich seh es genau ; 
 Es scheinen die alten Weiden so grau. — 
 
 *• ' Ich liebe dich, mich reizt deine schone Gestalt ; 
 Und bist du nicht willig, so branch ich Gewalt.' 
 Mein Vater, mein Vater, jetzt faszt er mich an ! 
 Erlkonig hat mir ein Leids gethan ! 
 
 " Dem Vater grausets, er reitet geschwind, 
 Er halt in Armen das achzende Kind, 
 Erreicht den Hof mit Miihe und Noth ; 
 In seinen Armen das Kind war todt." — Goetks. 
 
 5. Die Geenadiere. 
 
 " Nach Frankreich zogen zwei Grenadier, 
 Die waren in Ruszland gefangen. 
 Und als sie kamen ins deutsche Quartier, 
 Sie lieszen die Kopfe hangen. 
 
 •' Da horten sie Beide die traurige Mahr ; 
 Dasz Frankreich verloren gegangen. 
 Besiegt und erschlagen das tapfere Heer— 
 Und der Kaiser, der Kaiser gefangen. 
 
128 COMPOSITION IN VERSE. 
 
 ** Da weinten zusammen die Grenadier 
 Wol ob der klaglichen Kunde. 
 Der Eine sprach : ' Wie weh wird mir, 
 Wie brennt meine alte Wunde.' 
 
 *' Der Andre sprach : * Das Lied ist aus, 
 Auch ich mocht mit dir sterben, 
 Doch hab icb Weib und Kind zu Hans, 
 Die ohne mich verderben.' 
 
 ^' ' "Was scbert mich Weib, was schert micb Kind, 
 Ich trage weit bessres Verlangen ; 
 Lasz sie betteln gehn, wenn sie hungrig sind, — 
 Mein Kaiser, mein Kaiser gefangen ! 
 
 *' ' Gewahr mir, Bruder, eine Bitt : 
 "Wenn ich jetzt sterben werde, 
 So nimm meine Leiche nach Frankreich mit, 
 Begrab mich in Frankreichs Erde. 
 
 *'   Das Ehrenkreuz am rothen Band 
 SoUst du aufs Herz mir legen ; 
 Die Flints gib mir in die Hand 
 Und giirt mir um den Degen. 
 
 *■ * So will ich liegen und horchen still, 
 Wie eine Schildwach, im Grabe, 
 Bis einst ich hore Kanonengebriill, 
 Und wiehernder Eosse Getrabe. 
 
 *' ' Dann reitet mein Kaiser wol iiber mein Grab, 
 Viel Schwerter flirren und blitzen ; 
 Dann steig ich gewalfnet hervor aus dem Grab, 
 Den Kaiser, den Kaiser zu schiitzen.' " — E. Heuie. 
 
 6. Der Sangeb. 
 
 " • Was hor ich drauszen vor dem Thor, 
 Was auf der Briicke schallen ? 
 Lasz den Gesang vor unserm Ohr 
 Im Saale wiederhallen ! ' 
 Der Konig sprachs, der Page lief ; 
 Der Knabe kam, der Konig rief ? 
 • Laszt mir herein den Alten !' 
 
 ** * Gegriiszet seid mir, edle Herrn, 
 Gegriiszt ihr, schone Damen ! 
 Welch reicher Himmel ! Stern bei Stem, 
 Wer kennet ihro Namen ? 
 
TRANSLATION. 129 
 
 Im Saal voll Pracht und Herrliclikeit 
 Schlieszt, Augen, euch ; hier ist nicht Zeit 
 Sich. staunend zu ergetzen.' 
 
 " Der Sanger driickt' die Augen ein,, 
 Und schlug in vollen Tonen ; 
 Die Eitter schauten muthig drein, 
 Und in den Schosz die Schonen. 
 Der Konig, dem das Lied gefiel, 
 Liesz, ihn zu ehren fiir sein Spiel, 
 Eeine goldne Kette reiclien. 
 
 Die goldne Kette gib mir nicht. 
 Die Kette gib den Kittern, 
 Vor deren kiilinem Angesicht 
 Der Feinde Lanzen splittern ; 
 Gib sie dem Kanzler, den du hast, 
 Und lasz ihn noch die goldne Last 
 Zu andern Lasten tragen. 
 
 ** ' Ich singe, wie der Vogel singt, 
 Der in den Zweigen wohnet ; 
 Das Lied, das aus der Kehle dringt, 
 Ist Lohn, der reichlich lohnet. 
 Doch darf ich bitten, bitt ich eins ; 
 Lasz mir den besten Becher Weins 
 In purem Golde reichen.' 
 
 " Er setzt' ihn an, er trank ihn aus : 
 ' Trank voll siiszer Labe ! 
 wohl dem hochbegliickten Haus, 
 Wo das ist kleine Gabe ! 
 Ergehts euch wohl, so denkt an mich, 
 Und danket Gott so warm, als ich 
 Fiir diesen Trunk euch danke!' " — Goethe. 
 
 Q. 1. Le Chien, le Lapin, et le Chasseub. 
 
 " Cesar, chien d'arret renomm6, 
 
 ' Mais trop enfle de son merite, 
 
 Tenait arrete dans son gite 
 
 Un malheureux lapin, de peur inanim6. 
 
 * Kends-toi,' lui cria-t-il d'une voix de tonnerre, 
 
 Qui fit au loin trembler les peuplades des bois. 
 
 * Je suis Cesar, connu par ses exploits, 
 
 Et dont le nom remplit toute la terre.' 
 
130 COMPOSITION IN VERSE. 
 
 A ce grand nom, Jeannot lapin, 
 Eecommandant aux dieux son ame penitente, 
 Demande, d'une voix tremblante : 
 ' Trds-serenissime matin, 
 Si je me rends, quel sera mon destin ? ' 
 
 • Tu mourras.' — ' Je mourrai ! ' dit la bete innocente. 
 
 ' Et si je fuis ? ' — ' Ton trepas est certain.' 
 
 * Qnoi ! ' reprit I'animal qui se nourrit de thym, 
 
 * Des deux cotes je dois perdre la vie ! 
 
 Que votre illustre seigneurie 
 
 Veuille me pardonner, puisqu'il me faut mourir, 
 
 Si j'ose tenter de m'enfuir.' 
 
 II dit, et fuit en heros de garenne. 
 
 Caton I'aurait blame, je dis qu'il n'eut pas tort, 
 
 Car le chasseur le voit a peine 
 Qu'il I'ajuste, le tire...et le chien tombe raort! 
 Que dirait de ceci notre bon La Fontaine ? 
 Aide-toi, le ciel t'aidera. 
 J'approuve fort cette morale -la." — NapoUon Bonaparte. 
 
 2. Qu'est-ce Qu'un Heros ? 
 
 " Est-on heros pour avoir mis aux chaines 
 Un peuple ou deux ? Tibere eut cet honneur. 
 Est-on heros en signalant ses haines 
 Par la vengeance ? Octave eut ce bonheur. 
 Est-on heros en regnant par la peur ? 
 Sejan fit tout trembler, jusqu'a son maitre. 
 Mais de son ire eteindre le salpetre, 
 Savoir se vaincre, et reprimer les flots 
 De son orgueil, c'est ce que j'appelle etre 
 Grand par soi-meme ; et voila mon heros.'' — 
 
 J. B. Rousseau. 
 
 3. Le Vieillaed et l'Ane. 
 
 •* Un vieillard sur son ane apergut en passant 
 Un pre plein d'herbe et ileurissant : 
 II y lache sa bete, et le grison se rue 
 Au travers de I'herbe menue, 
 Se vautrant, grattant et frottant, 
 Gambadant, chantant et broutant, 
 Et faisant mainte place nette. 
 L'ennemi vient sur I'entrefaite. 
 
 * Fuyons,' dit alors le vieillard, 
 
 * Pourquoi ? ' r^pondit le paillard 
 
TRANSLATIONc 131 
 
 * Me fera-t-on porter double bat, double charge ? ' 
 
 ' Non pas,' dit le vieillard, qui prit d'abord le large. 
 
 • Et que m'importe done,' dit Pane, ' a qui je sois ? 
 
 Sauvez-vous, et me laissez paitre. 
 Notre ennemi, c'est notre maitre : 
 Je vous le dis en bon fran^ois.' " — La Fontaine. 
 
 4. VOYAGEUK EGAKE DANS LES NEIGES DU MONT SaINT-BeENARD. 
 
 " La neige au loin accumulee 
 En torrents epaissis tombe du haut des airs, 
 
 Et sans relache amoncelee, 
 Couvre du Saint-Bernard les vieux sommets deserts. 
 
 " Plus de routes, tout est barriere ; 
 L'ombre accourt, et deja, pour la derniere fois, 
 
 Sur la cime inhospitaliere 
 Dans les vents de la nuit I'aigle a jet6 sa voix. 
 
 " A ce cri d'eflfroyable augure, 
 Le voyageur transi n'ose plus faire un pas; 
 
 Mourant, et vaincu de froidure, 
 Au bord d'un precipice il attend le trepas. 
 
 " La, dans sa derniere pensee, 
 II songe a son epouse, il songe a ses enfants : 
 
 Sur sa couche aifreuse et glacee 
 Cette image a double I'horreur de ses tourments. 
 
 ** C'en est fait ; son heure derniere 
 Se mesure pour lui dans ces terribles lieux, 
 
 Et chargeant sa froide paupiere, 
 Un funeste sommeil deja chercbe ses yeux. 
 
 " Soudain, 6 surprise ! 6 merveille ! 
 D'une cloche il a cru reconnaitre le bruit I 
 Le bruit augmente a son oreille ; 
 Une clarte subite a brille dans la nuit. 
 
 " Tandis qu'avec peine il ecoute, 
 A travers la tempete un autre bruit 8"entend : 
 Un chien jappe, et s'ouvrant la route, 
 Suivi d'un solitaire, approche au meme instant. 
 
 " Le chien, en aboyant de joie, 
 Frappe du voyageur les regards eperdus : 
 
 La mort laisse echapper sa proie, 
 Et la charite compte un miracle de plus."— CMmdolU^ 
 
132 COMPOSITION IN VEKSE. 
 
 5. Le Lac. 
 
 " Ainsi, toujours pousses vers de nouveaux rivages, 
 Dans la nuit eternelle emportes sans retour, 
 Ne poTirrons-nons jamais sur I'ocean des ages, 
 Ne pourrons-nous jamais jeter I'ancre un senl jour ? 
 
 *♦ lac! I'annee a peine a fini sa carriere, 
 Et pres des flots cheris qu'elle dovait revoir, 
 Eegarde ! regarde ! je viens senl m'asseoir 
 Sur cette pierre ou tu la vis s'asseoir. 
 
 " Tu mugissais ainsi sous ces roclies profondes ; 
 Ainsi tu te bxisais sur leurs flancs decliires ; 
 Ainsi le vent jetait I'ecume de tes ondes 
 Sur ses pieds adores. 
 
 ♦* Un soir t'en souvient il ? nous voguions en silence ; 
 On n' entendait au loin, sur I'onde et sous les cieux, 
 Que le bruit des rameurs qui frappaient en cadence 
 Tes fiots liarmonieux. 
 
 ** lac ! rochers muets, grottes, foret obscure, 
 Vous que le terns epargne ou qu'il pent rajeunir, 
 Gardez de cette nuit, gardez, belle nature, 
 Au moins le souvenir. 
 
 " Que le vent qui gemit, le roseau qui soupire, 
 Que les parfums legers de ton air embaume. 
 Que tout ce qu'on entend, Ton voit ou Ton respire, 
 Tout dise : ils ont aime." — A. de Lamartine. 
 
 6. Les Adieux de Marie Stuakt. 
 
 " Adieu, charmant pays de France, 
 Que je dois tant cherir ! 
 Berceau de mon heureuse enfance, 
 Adieu ! te quitter, c'est mourir, 
 
 " Toi, que j'adoptai pour patrie, 
 Et d'ou je crois me voir bannir, 
 Entends les adieux de Marie, 
 France, et garde son souvenir ! 
 Le vent souffle, on quitte la plage, 
 Et, pen touclie de mes sanglots, 
 Dieu, pour me rendre a ton rivage, 
 Dieu n'a point souleve les flots ! 
 
TEANSLATION. 138- 
 
 " Lorsqu'aux yeux du peuple que j'aime 
 Je ceignis les lis eclatants, 
 II applaudit au rang supreme 
 Moins qu'aux charm es de mon priutempa. 
 
 En vain la grandeur souveraine 
 M'attend chez le sombre Ecossais, 
 Je n'ai desire d'etre reine 
 Que pour regner sur des Fran^ais ! 
 
 " L'amour, la gloire, le genie, 
 Ont trop enivre mes beaux jours ; 
 Dans rinculte Caledonie 
 De mon sort va changer le cours. 
 Helas ! un presage terrible 
 Va livrer mon coeur a I'efFroi : 
 J'ai cru voir, dans un songe horrible, 
 Un echafaud dresse pour moi ! 
 
 " France, du milieu des alarmes, 
 La noble fille des Stuarts, 
 Comme en ce jour qui voit ses larmes. 
 Vers toi tournera ses regards, 
 Mais, Dieu ! le vaisseau trop rapide 
 Deja vogue sous d'autres cieux, 
 Et la nuit, dans son voile humide, 
 Derobe tes bords a mes yeux ! 
 
 " Adieu, charmant pays de France, 
 Que je dois tant cherir ! 
 Berceau de mon heureuse enfance, 
 Aitieu ! te quitter, c'est mourir." — Biranger. 
 
APPENDICES. 
 
 I. CORBECTION OF THE PrESS. 
 
 The following are the chief rules observed, and signs used, 
 by Printers in correcting proofs for the press : — 
 
 1. No alteration should be made between the lines which has not 
 some mark opposite it in the margin, to attract the printer's eye. 
 
 2 Instructions to the printer should be enclosed within a circle, to 
 distinguish them from additions to the proof. 
 
 3. AVhen a point, letter, or word is to be changed, draw the pen 
 through it, and write the new point, letter, or word in the margin. (See 
 Nos. 1, 5, and 6.)* 
 
 4. When points, letters, or words are to be inserted, write them in 
 the margin, and mark a caret (a) at the place where they are to be in- 
 troduced. (See Nos. 2, 16, 19, 20, and 22 ) 
 
 5. In the case of quotation marks, asterisks, or apostrophes, which 
 
 are to be inserted, a curve should be drawn under them, thus ^-^/• 
 (See Nos. 24, 30, 31, 33, 34, and 37.) 
 
 6. In the case of a period to be inserted, it should be placed in 
 the margin, within a circle (7) otherwise it might be overlooked. 
 (See No. 29.) 
 
 7. When a point, letter, or word, is to be omitted altogether, draw 
 the pen through it, and write j/ (dele) in the margin. (See Nos. 3, 
 25, 35, and 36.) 
 
 8. Letters or words placed too close should have a stroke drawn 
 between them, and a space (tt) marked in the margin. (See No. 4.) 
 
 *■ These Nos. refer to the numbers of the corrections in the " Ex- 
 ample of an Author's Proof," &c , on page 137. 
 
136 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 9. Letters too far separated should be joined by curves (C), and 
 have curves marked in the margin. (See No. 12.) 
 
 10. "When two paragraphs are to be conjoined, draw a curved line 
 from the end of the one to the beginning of the other, and write in the 
 margin, " run on.'" (See No. 7.) 
 
 11. When a sentence in the body of a paragraph is to begin a new 
 PARAGRAPH, draw a square bracket ([ ) round the first letter of it, and 
 write in the margin, N.F. (new paragraph). (See No 11.) 
 
 12. When a word in italics is to be printed in roman, underline it, 
 and write rom. in the margin. (See No. 8.) 
 
 13. When a word in roman is to be printed in italics, underline 
 it, and write ital. in the margin. (See No. 10.) 
 
 14. When a word is to be printed in small capitals, draw a 
 double line under it, and write sm. cap. in the margin, ('See No. 18.) 
 
 15. When a letter or word is to be printed in capitals, draw a 
 triple line under it, and write caps, in the margin. (See No. 23.) 
 
 16. When a word in capitals or small capitals is to be printed in 
 small letters, underline it, and write in the margin, I. c. (" lower 
 case," the " case " in which capitals are kept being above the other.) 
 (See No. 21.) 
 
 17. When a letter is inserted upside down, draw a line under it, 
 and make a reverse 3/ in the margin. (See No. 9.) 
 
 18. When a deleted word is to be retained, draw a dotted line 
 under it, and write stet (let it stand) in the margin. (See No. 13.) 
 
 19. When a space sticks up between two words, it is noticed by a 
 stroke in the margin. (See No. 14.) 
 
 20. When a line should be indented, put a square bracket at the 
 point where the line should begin, and write indent in the margin. 
 (See No, 17.) 
 
 21. When a letter of a different character has got into a word, a 
 line should be drawn under it, and w.f. (wrong fount) marked in the 
 margin. (See No. 26.) 
 
 22. When two letters are to be transposed, draw a short line under 
 them, and write tr. in the margin, (See No. 28.) 
 
 23. When two or more words are to be transposed, draw a curved 
 line above the first and below the second, and write tr. in the margin. 
 (See Nos. 15 and 27.; 
 
 24. When letters or lines stand crooked or irregular, draw lines 
 above and below them. (See No. 32.) 
 
 25. When a second proof, incorporating first corrections, is wanted, 
 write Revise on the upper corner : When no such proof is wanted, and 
 it is ready to be printed off, write Press on the upper corner. 
 
APPENDIX. 137 
 
 Example of an Author's Proof, with the marks for making Cor- 
 rections and Alterations, according to Rules stated on paores 
 135, 136. 
 
 Popular glory is a perfejt coquette ; her lovers must ^ c/ 
 
 toil^feel' every inquietude, indulgcjevery caprice [ and ^ ,1 ^ 4/ *!{/ ",/ 
 perhaps at last be jilted wi^ the bargain. , « intol ' run on[ 
 
 ^True glory, on the other hand, resembles a woman of 
 sevse : her admirers must play no tric2[S ; they feel no " rom.l ^ ^/ 
 great anxiety, for they are sure in the end of being re- ^" ital.\ 
 warded in proportion to their merit. [I know not how " N.P,\ 
 to turn so trite a sub ject out of the beaten road of >a (3/ 
 
 € 0» >iKi OT ! place, except by illustrating it, ratherHby the " siet.\ ^* | 
 assistance of my/judgmentl ^than my |iuemory, and instead ^^ tr.\ 
 of making reflections by teliug a story. " fj,\ 
 
 A [Chinese, who had long studied the works of ^''indent] 
 
 Confucius, who knew fourteen thousand words, and could '^ s"^- caps.\ 
 
 ^ , . n ^ 1 1 i.1, i. 1, • ^^ fUhe characters of 
 
 read a great part of every book that came^his way, once liu . , -^ 
 
 took it into his head to travel into E pkope , and observe ^^ l.c.l 
 
 the customs of a people in the arts of refining upon 
 
 every pleasure. Upon his arrival at _^msterdam, his "^ cap.l '^'^ ^ 
 
 passion for letters naturally led him to a booksellers! 2*^/ ^^ 4/ | | 
 shop ; and as he could speak DutchT^a little he civilly ^° wf.j =' tr.l S" >• 
 
 asked the bookseller for the works fo the immortal ** tr.l S- 1^ 
 
 Ilisifou^ The bookseller assured him he had never ^^ Q I "^ 
 
 heard the book mentioned before. "What! have you § s 
 
 never heard of that immortal poet,/vreturned the other, ^°,a"/ s. ^ 
 
 much surprised,Athat light of the eyes, that favourite of '^ /\^/ *§ «4 
 
 kings, that rose of perfection ! I suppose you know Dq- '^ ' I 
 
 thing of the immortal Fipsihihi, second cousin to {he" ^^ ' — " ^ 
 
 moon?" "Nothing at all indeed, sir," returned^T^ ^"^ *!» 
 
 other. " Alas !a cries our traveller,;^ to what purpose ^^ t^z\ ^* A^/ ^' 
 then has one of these f(|asted to death, and the other ^' ^f 
 offered biis himself up as a sacrifice to the Tartarean ^' S)/ 
 enemy to gain a renown which has never travelled be- 
 yond the precincts of China-A " A "V 
 
138 APPENDIX. 
 
 The Author's Proof after the corrections marked on p. 137 
 have been made : — 
 
 Popular glory is a perfect coquette ; her lovers must toil, feel every 
 inquietude, indulge every caprice, and perhaps at last be jilted into the 
 bargain. True glory, on the other hand, resembles a woman of sense : 
 her admirers must play no tricks ; they feel no great anxiety, for they 
 are sure in the end of being rewarded in proportion to their merit. 
 
 I know not how to turn so trite a subject out of the beaten road of 
 common place, except by illustrating it, rather by the assistance of my 
 memory than my judgment, and instead of making reflections by tell- 
 ing a story. 
 
 A Chinese who had long studied the works of Confucius, who knew 
 the characters of fourteen thousand words, and could read a great part 
 of every book that came in his way, once took it into his head to travel 
 into Europe, and observe the customs of a people whom he thought not 
 very much inferior even to his own countrymen in the arts of refining 
 upon every pleasure. Upon his arrival at Amsterdam, his passion for 
 letters naturally led him to a bookseller's shop ; and as he could speak 
 a little Dutch, he civilly asked the bookseller for the works of the im- 
 mortal Ilixifou. The bookseller assured him he had nev»r heard the 
 book mentioned before. " "What ! have you never heard of that im- 
 mortal poet," returned the other, much surprised, " that light of the 
 eyes, that favourite of kings, that rose of perfection I 1 suppose you 
 know nothing of the immortal Fipsihihi, second cousin to the moon ?" 
 " Nothing at all indeed, sir," returned the other. "Alas!" cries our 
 traveller, " to what purpose then has one of these fasted to d«?.ath, and 
 the other offered himself up as a sacrifice to the Tartarean enemy to 
 gain a renown which has never travelled beyond the precincts of China." 
 
 Exercise 40. 
 Correct for the Press the Proof on Pajjer apart 
 
 The following is Exercise 40 as it would stand after being 
 corrected. The pupil is required to make such marks on the 
 paper apart as would bring the proof into conformity with this 
 correct version. 
 
PAPER APART (to come in between pages 138, 139). 
 
 Exercise 40. 
 
 [The following is from the Sixth Eeport of H. M. Civil Ser- 
 vice Commissioners. It is slightly altered from the paper set 
 to a candidate for the situation of Assistant Librarian in the 
 Geological Museum] : — 
 
 Correct the accomj^aiiying paper for the Press: — 
 Monteagle knew not what to tliink of this letter, and 
 shewed it to Lord Salisbury, who was not inclined to 
 pay much attention to it, but who nevertheless, laid it 
 before the kidg. The king had sagacity enough to per- 
 ceive, from its serious, earnest style, that something 
 important was meant ; aud this forewarning of a sudden 
 and terrible qlow, yet with the outhors concealed, made 
 his suspicions come very near ths truth. The clay before 
 the meeting of parliament he sent the Earl of Suffolk 
 to examice all the vaults under the houses of parlia- 
 ment. In that which was under the house of lords, 
 Suffolk was surprised to see so many wood of piles and 
 faggots, and was also struck with the dark and mysteri- 
 ous countenance of Guy Fawkcs, who was found there, 
 and who called himself Percys servant. It was then 
 resolved to make a more through inspection, and about 
 midnight a magistrate was sent for with proper attend- 
 ants for that purpose On turning over the faggots, the 
 barrels oj Gunpowder were discovered. Fawkes had beed 
 seized near the door, and matches and everything re- 
 quired for setting the trian on firewere found upon him. 
 He at first appeared quite undaunted, but his courage 
 afterwards failed him, and he made a full discovery of 
 the plot, and of all the couspirators. Catesby, Percy, 
 and some others hurried into Warwickshire, where one 
 of their confederates. Sir everard dighy, not doubting 
 but that the expected catastrophe in London had taken 
 place, was aheady in arms. The country was soon roused 
 against these wretches, who took refuge in one of those 
 for tified houses which were commom at that pariod, 
 and resolved to defend themselves to the last. But the 
 same fate awaited them which them which they had de- 
 
signed for so many others. Their gudpowder caugh lire, 
 and blew up, maiming and destroying several them. The 
 rest rushed out upon the multitude, and were literally 
 cut to, except a few who were taken alive, and afterwards 
 executed. The king shewed more moderation on this 
 occasion than was approved of by nis subjects ingeneral, 
 who were wound up to such a pitch of horror at the great- 
 ness of the crime which had been attempted, that they 
 would gladly have had every Papist in the kingdom put 
 to death ; and they were very much displeased that James 
 punished those only who were more immediately con- 
 cerned in the plot. 
 
 AVhen the ferment of this affair was over, James em- 
 ployed himself in an unsuccessful attempt to bring about 
 a union between his two kingdoms ; but the parliament 
 of England was so much swaed by old and vulgar pre- 
 judices and antipathies against the Scots, that it would 
 agree to nothing, except to annul the hos:^ile laws which 
 had formerly subsisted two the between kingdoms. 
 They would have done well to have followed the example 
 of good scnseand candour which James really shewed 
 them in his arguments on this point. Argument, indeed, 
 was his delight and his glory. He loved to exhibit his 
 wisdom and learning in long and some times S'Bgaaioushar 
 angues. But this was all he could do though he could 
 talk he could not act ; he wanted both decision and exer- 
 tion ; and the parliament, soon fidning out his weakness, 
 listened to his speeches, but paid no other attention to 
 them, and contrived by degrees to strengthen its own 
 power, and diminish that of the crown so, that, while he 
 was perpetually taking of his kingly prerogative, he gra- 
 dually lost much of it ; His bad management of the 
 finances, and hisprofuse generosity to his faAOurites, in- 
 volved him in great difficulties. Amongst other ways of 
 procuaing money, he sold titles and dignities. The title 
 of baornet, which might be purchased by any bidder for 
 a thousand poudps, was now first created to supply hia 
 necessities. The idea was suggested by Lord Salisbury ; 
 and this species of hereditary knighthood is, I believe, 
 still quite peculiar to this country. 
 
APPENDIX. 139 
 
 Monteagle knew not what to think of this letter, and shewed it to 
 Lord Salishury, who was not inclined to pay mnch attention to it, but 
 who nevertheless laid it before the king. The king had sagacity 
 enough to perceive, from its serious, earnest style, that something 
 important was meant ; and this forewarning of a sudden and terrible 
 blow, yet with the authors concealed, made his suspicions come very 
 near the truth. The day before the meeting of Parliament he sent the 
 Earl of Suffolk to examine all the vaults under the Houses of Parlia- 
 ment. In that which was under the House of Lords, Suffolk w^s 
 surprised to see so many piles of wood and faggots, and was also struck 
 with the dark and mysterious countenance of Guy Fawkes, who was 
 found there, and who called himself Percy's servant. It was then 
 resolved to make a more thorough inspection, and about midnight a 
 magistrate was sent for, with proper attendants for that purpose. On 
 turning over the faggots, the barrels of gunpowder were discovered. 
 Fawkes had been seized near the door, and matches and everything 
 required for setting the train on fire were found upon him. He at first 
 appeared quite undaunted, but his courage afterwards failed him, and 
 he made a full discovery of the plot, and of all the conspirators. Catesby, 
 Percy, and some others hurried into Warwickshire, where one of their 
 confederates, Sir Everard Digby, not doubting but that the expected 
 catastrophe in London had taken place, was already in arms. The 
 country was soon roused against these wretches, who took refuge in one 
 of those fortified houses which were common at that period, and re- 
 solved to defend themselves to the last. But the same fate awaited 
 them which they had designed for so many others. Their gunpowder 
 caught fire, and blew up, maiming and destroying several of them. The 
 rest rushed out upon the multitude, and were literally cut to pieces, 
 except a few who were taken alive, and afterwards executed. The king 
 shewed more moderation on this occasion than was approved of by his 
 subjects in general, who were wound up to such a pitch of horror at the 
 greatness of the crime which had been attempted, that they would 
 gladly have had every Papist in the kingdom put to death ; and they 
 were very much displeased that James punished those only who were 
 more immediately concerned in the plot. 
 
 When the ferment of this affair was over, James employed himself 
 in an unsuccessful attempt to bring about a union between his two king- 
 doms ; but the Parliament of England was so much swayed by old and 
 vulgar prejudices and antipathies against the Scots, that it would agree 
 
140 APPENDIX. 
 
 to nothing, except to annul the hostile laws which had formerly sub- 
 sisted between the two kingdoms. They would have done well to have 
 followed the example of good sense and candour which James really 
 shewed them in his arguments on this point. Argument, indeed, was 
 his delight and his glory. He loved to exhibit his wisdom and learning 
 in long and sometimes sagacious harangues. But this was all he could 
 do. Though he could talk he could not act ; he wanted both decision 
 and exertion ; and the Parliament, soon finding out his w^eakness, lis- 
 tened to his speeches-, but paid no other attention to them, and contrived 
 by degrees to strengthen its own power, and diminish that of the crown; 
 80 that, while he was perpetually talking of his kingly prerogative, he 
 gradually lost much of it. His bad management of the finances, and 
 liis profuse generosity to his favourites, involved him in great diflS- 
 culties. Amongst other ways of procuring money, he sold titles and 
 dignities. The title of baronet, which might be purchased by any bidder 
 for a thousand pounds, was now first created to supply his necessities. 
 The idea was suggested by Lord Salisbury ; and this species of heredi- 
 tary knighthood is, 1 believe, still quite peculiar to this country. 
 
 II. Books of Eefekence. 
 
 For many of the subjects prescribed (both for Prose and 
 Verse Composition) in the previous Exercises, the pupil will 
 require to gather materials from different sources. The follow- 
 ing List contains Authorities and Books of Reference which are 
 in general easily accessible. In cases in which the information 
 necessary for writing a Theme or Poem is not likely to be 
 within the reach of all the members of a class, the teacher is 
 recommended to read, in their hearing, such portions of any of 
 the following works as may be required, on which they should 
 make notes, as directed in § 68. 1. : — 
 
 1. Ancient History, Biogkaphy, Mythology, &c. 
 
 Dr Smith's Classical Dictionaries. 
 Plutarch's Lives, Langhorne's Translation. 
 The Student's Histories of Greece and Rome. 
 
APPENDIX. 141 
 
 Dr Schmitz's Histories of Greece and Ivome, Ancient History, and 
 
 History of the Middle Ages. 
 Dr Smith's Dictionary of the Bible. 
 Dr Kitto's do. do. 
 
 Kingsley's Heroes. 
 
 Cox's Tales from Greek Mythology ; and Gods and Heroes. 
 ^Esop's Fables, Riley's Translation of Phsedrus. 
 Grimm's Household Stories. 
 Andersen's Danish Fairy Legends and Tales. 
 
 2. Modern History, and Biography, Adventures, &c. 
 
 Cyclopaedia of Universal Biography. 
 
 Dictionary of Biography. 
 
 Hume's England. 
 
 Charles Knight's Popular History of England. 
 
 Macaulay's History of England, and Essays. 
 
 Lingard's History of England. 
 
 Scott's Tales of a Grandfather (Scotland and France). 
 
 Scott's Provincial Antiquities. 
 
 The Student's Hume, Gibbon, and France. 
 
 Hallam's Middle Ages. 
 
 Robertson's Charles V. 
 
 Tytler's Modern British Plutarch. 
 
 Murray's History of British India. 
 
 Chambers's Domestic Annals of Scotland. 
 
 Percy Anecdotes. 
 
 3. Miscellaneous. 
 
 Encyclopaedia Britannica. 
 
 The English Cyclopaedia, — Biography, Arts, and Sciences. 
 
 Haydn's Dictionary of Dates. 
 
 Maunder's Treasuries. 
 
 Chambers's Encyclopaedia. 
 
112 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 III. Explanatory Index. 
 
 [TJie Roman Numerals refer to the two Parts of the Wor^o^^ 
 
 Accent, — In prose-rhythm, II. 39 ; 
 in verse, II. 82. 
 
 ACCURACY, — A quality of language, 
 II. 11. 
 
 ALEXANDRINE, — A verse consisting of 
 six regular feet, II. 89. 
 
 ALLEGORy, — A figure of language, in- 
 volving a continuous comparison, 
 II. 26. 
 
 ALLITERATION, — Initial rhyme, II. 39. 
 
 AMBIGUITY, — A double meaning in- 
 volved in the construction of a sen- 
 tence, I. 28 ; II. 31. 
 
 ANALYSIS, —The division of a sentence 
 into its primary elements, I. 28. 
 
 ANAPiESTIC VEKSE, — II. 92. 
 
 ANTEPENULTIMATE, — The sBCOud Syl- 
 lable before the last in a word, 
 II. 40. 
 
 ANTi CLIMAX,— The convcrscof climax : 
 a sentence in which the ideas sud- 
 denly become less dignified at the 
 close, II. 34. 
 
 ANTITHESIS, — A Contrast of words or 
 ideas in successive clauses or sen- 
 tences, I. 30 ; II. 34. 
 
 APODOSis, — The conclusion in a hypo- 
 thetical sentence, answering to the 
 protasis. 
 
 APOSTROPHE, — A figure of language, 
 in which the speaker turns aside 
 from the natural course of his ideas 
 to address the absent or the dead, 
 as if they were present, II. 26. 
 
 ARGUMENTATIVE THEME, — A theme in 
 which a position is supported by 
 formal arguments, II. 71. 
 
 ATTRIBUTE, — The enlargement of the 
 subject or object, I. 10. 
 
 Biographical narration, — In para- 
 graphs, I. 59 ; in themes, II. 56. 
 
 Catachresis, — An over-strained or 
 far-fetched metaphor — as the blood 
 of the grape. 
 
 CIRCUMLOCUTION,— A round-about way 
 of expressing a simple idea, I. 32 ; 
 II. 21. 
 
 clause, — A member of a sentence 
 v/hich contains a subject and predi- 
 cate within itself, I. 11. 
 
 clearness, — A quality of construction, 
 II. 30. 
 
 climax, — A figure of construction : a 
 graduated series of exclamations, 
 II. 34. 
 
 conciseness, — A quality of language : 
 brevity, II. 19. 
 
 contraction. — The reverse of expan- 
 sion : a reduction of the expression 
 without omitting any of the ideas, 
 I. 14; II. 30. 
 
 co-ordination, — The relation of equal- 
 ity between phrases or clauses, I. 
 12. 
 
 COMPLEMENT, — That which completes 
 the sense of an incomplete verb, 
 
 I. 10. 
 
 CONTINUITY,— The close union of the 
 parts of a sentence or paragraph, 
 1.47. 
 
 Description, — An account of icliat a 
 
 thing is, I. 63 ; II. 63. 
 dimeter, — A verse consisting of two 
 
 feet or measures, II. 83, 
 
 DIRECT speech, — I. 21. 
 
 discursive theme, — The essay, II. 66. 
 
 DISLOCATION, — The unnatural separa- 
 tion of the members of a sentence, 
 1.28; 11.31. 
 
 Elegiac STANZA, — Four lines of simple 
 regular pentameters, rhyming alter- 
 nately, II. 88. 
 
 ELLIPSIS, — The omission of words neces- 
 sary to the completeness of a sen- 
 tence, I. 30 ; II. 35. 
 
 ENERGY, — A quality of style, by which 
 a forcible impression is produced, 
 
 II. 10. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 143 
 
 EXLARGEMENT, — The addition of words 
 to a sentence to express additional 
 ideas, I. 36. 
 
 EPiGRA>r, — A figure of language, in- 
 volving an apparent contradiction, 
 11. 27. 
 
 EQUIVOCATION, — A doubls meaning in- 
 volved in the language of a sentence, 
 II. 14. 
 
 ESSAY, — A discursive theme, II. 66. 
 
 EUPHEMISM,— Anallowable circumlocu- 
 tion, employed to soften a harsh 
 statement, II. 21. 
 
 EXCLAMATION,— A figure of construc- 
 tion, IT, 34. 
 
 EXPANSION, — An amplification of the 
 expression, without adding to the 
 ideas expressed, 1. 13. 
 
 EXPOSITION,— The description of scien- 
 tific or abstract truths, I. 72 ; II. GQ. 
 
 Grace, — A quality of style, by which a 
 pleasing effect is produced, II. 10. 
 
 Heptameter, — A verse consisting of 
 seven feet or measures, II. 83. 
 
 HEROIC measure, — Simple regular pen- 
 tameter verse, II. 88. 
 
 HEXAMETER, — A vcrsc Consisting of 
 six feet or measures, II. 83. 
 
 HISTORICAL NARRATION, — In para- 
 graphs, I. 57 ; in themes, II. 60. 
 
 HYPERBOLE, — A figure of language, pro- 
 ducing its effects by exaggeration, 
 II. 27. 
 
 Iambic verse,— II. 88. 
 INCIDENTAL NARRATION, — In para- 
 graphs, I. 51 ; in themes, II. 55. 
 
 INDIRECT speech, — I. 21. 
 
 INTERROGATION,— A figure of Construc- 
 tion : a statement in the form of a 
 question, II. 34. 
 
 INVERSION, — A change in the order of 
 the members of a sentence, II. 33. 
 
 IRONY, — A figure of language, in which 
 the meaning conveyed is the con- 
 trary of that expressed, II. 28. 
 
 Language, — The department of style 
 which treats of the expression of 
 ideas, II. 11. 
 
 LETTER-WRITING,— I. 54. 
 
 Melody, — Applied to prose-rhythm, 
 II. 37. 
 
 metaphor, — A figure of language, 
 involving comparison, II. 25. 
 
 metonymy, — A figure of language, in 
 which correlative terms are inter- 
 changed, II. 26. 
 
 Narration. — An accouut of a course 
 of events, I. 49 ; II. 53. 
 
 Object, — The complement of a transi- 
 tive verb, I. 10. 
 
 obsolete words, — Words which no 
 longer belong to the current speech, 
 II. 23. 
 
 Paragraph, — A connected series of 
 sentences relating to the same sub- 
 ject, I. 47. 
 
 paraphrase, — The rendering of a 
 thought in a different form, I. 72. 
 
 PAUSE, — The point in a verse where the 
 rhythm is suspended, II. 86. 
 
 PENTAMETER, — A vcrse Consisting of 
 five feet or measures, II. 83. 
 
 PENULTIMATE,— The Syllable before 
 the last in a word, II. 40, 84. 
 
 PERIOD, — A sentence in which the 
 complete sense is suspended until 
 the close, 1.30; II. 33. 
 
 personification,— A figure of lan- 
 guage, in which the lower animals 
 and inanimate objects are endowed 
 with the powers of human beings, 
 II. 26. 
 
 PERSPICUITY,— A quality of style, by 
 which a writer's meaning is ren- 
 dered clear and intelligible, II. 10. 
 
 phrase, — A form of words expressing 
 a single idea, but not containing a 
 subject or predicate, I. 10. 
 
 PLEONASM, — An allowable redundancy, 
 II. 20. 
 
 PRECIS, — See Summary, I. 79. 
 
 PREDICATE, — That part of a sentence 
 which makes a statement about the 
 subject, I. 10. 
 
 PREPOSITION POSTPONED, — A fault of 
 
 construction, I, 31 ; II. 35. 
 PROPOSITION,— The statement of the 
 question in an argumentative theme, 
 11. 72. 
 
144 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 PROTASIS, — The premises, or condition 
 in a hypothetical sentence, answer- 
 ing to the apodosis. 
 
 ruxcTUATioN, — The use of points to 
 indicate the separation and con- 
 nexion of the members of a sen- 
 tence, I. 24. 
 
 PURITY, — A quality of language, II. 
 21. 
 
 Kedundancy, — The addition of words 
 which the sense does not require, 
 
 I. 32 ; II. 20. 
 
 KEFLECTiON, — An account of thoughts 
 and emotions excited in the mind, 
 1.49; 11.53. 
 
 RHETORIC,— The science of the expres- 
 sion of thought, I. 9; II. 9, 71. 
 
 HHYME, — The correspondence of one 
 verse with another in final sound, 
 
 II. 83. 
 
 RHYTHM, — In verse, the recurrence of 
 stress or accent at regular intervals, 
 II. 82 ; in prose, at variable inter- 
 vals, II. 37. 
 
 ROMANTIC MEASURE,— Simple regular 
 tetrameter verse, II. 90. 
 
 ScHEME-MAKixG, — Directions for, II. 
 54. 
 
 SENTENCE, — A Complete thought ex- 
 pressed in words, I. 10. 
 
 SIMILE, — A figure of language, involv- 
 ing a formal comparison, II. 25. 
 
 SIMPLICITY, — A quality of language, 
 II. 16. 
 
 SLANG, — The language of vulgar 
 humour, II. 22. 
 
 SONNET, — The Italian stanza, II. 89. 
 
 SOUND, — As a part of melody, II. 38. 
 
 SPENSERIAN STANZA, — II. 89. 
 
 STRENGTH, — A quality of construction; 
 
 force, II. 33. 
 STYLE, — Manner of writing : the 
 
 qualities of a good composition, 
 
 11.9. 
 
 SUBJECT,— The part of a sentence 
 which names the thing about 
 which a statement is made, I. 
 10. 
 
 SUBSTITUTION, — The proccss of writ- 
 ing, in the place of one word or 
 phrase, another of the same or 
 similar meaning, I. 18. 
 
 SUMMARY, — A selection of the essen- 
 tial points in a series of papers or 
 paragraphs: a precis, I. 79. 
 
 SYNECDOCHE, — A figure of language, 
 which puts a part for the whole, 
 II. 27. 
 
 SYNONYMES, — Words which agree in 
 their general meaning, but diflFer 
 in their special applications, II. 
 14. 
 
 SYNTHESIS, — The building up of ele- 
 ments into a sentence, I. 28. 
 
 Tautology, — The repetition of the 
 same word in a difierent sense In 
 the same sentence or paragraph, 
 11-21. 
 
 TENNYSONIAN STANZA,— II. 91. 
 
 TETRAMETER, — A vcrsc Consisting of 
 four feet or measures, II. 83. 
 
 THEME,— A connected series of para- 
 graphs : a complete pi-ose com- 
 position, I. 9 ; II. 53. 
 
 TRANSPOSITION. — The process of 
 changing the construction of a 
 sentence, without altering the 
 sense, I. 19. 
 
 TRIMETER, — A vcrsc Consisting of 
 three feet or measures, II. 83. 
 
 TROCHAIC VERSE, — II. 97. 
 
 Unity, — Singleness of subject in a 
 sentence or paragraph, I. 47 ; 
 II. 29. 
 
 Variety,— Diversity in the construc- 
 tion of successive sentences, I. 
 47. 
 
 PIUNTED BY OLIVER AND BOYD, EDINBURGH. 
 
EDUCATIONAL WORKS 
 
 PUBLISHED BY 
 
 OLIVER AND BOYD, EDINBURGH; 
 
 SOLD ALSO BY 
 
 SIMPKIN, MARSHALL, AND CO., LONDON 
 
 A Specimen Copy of any icorTc tcill be sent to Principals ofScJiools, 
 post free, on receipt of one lialfthe retail price in postage stamps. 
 
 Oliver and Boyd's New Code Class-Books, page 4. 
 
 English Beading, Grammar, etc. 
 
 Armstrong's Eng. Composition.... P. 7 
 
 Eng Etymology 7 
 
 Geography and Astronomy. 
 
 Clyde's School Geography P. 9 
 
 Elementary Geography 9 
 
 Colville's New Code Reading-Books 4 
 
 Douglas's Introductory Geography.. 10 
 
 First Spelling-Book 6 
 
 Text-Book of Geography..lO 
 
 Edin. Acad. Modem Geography 11 
 
 Dalgleish's English Grammars 6 
 
 Gram. Analysis 6 
 
 ,., , Eng Composition 6 
 
 Ewing's Geography 11 
 
 Atlas 11 
 
 Lawson's Geog. of British Empire... 10 
 
 Demaus's Paradise Lost 8 
 
 Analysis of Sentences 8 
 
 Douglas's English Grammars 5 
 
 Progressive Eng. Reader.. 5 
 
 Ph5'sical Geography ,. 4 
 
 Murphy's Bible Atlas 11 
 
 Reid's First Book of Geography 10 
 
 Modem Geography .'. 10 
 
 Sacred Geography 10 
 
 Atlases 11 
 
 Reid's (Hugo) Elements of Astro- 
 nomy 11 
 
 Phys. Geography 11 
 
 Stewart's Modem Geography 9 
 
 White's Abstract of Geography 9 
 
 System of Geography 9 
 
 Atlas 11 
 
 School Bongs. 
 
 Hunter's Books on Vocal Music 17 
 
 School Psalmody 17 
 
 Household Economy. 
 Gordon's Household Economy 8 
 
 History. 
 
 Corkran's History of England 12 
 
 Simpson's Scotland 13 
 
 Goldsmith's England 13 
 
 Spelling and Dictation. 5 
 
 English Etymology 5 
 
 Ewing's Elocution 8 
 
 Fisher's Assembly's Catechism 8 
 
 M'Culloch's Reading-Books 3 
 
 English Grammar 3 
 
 M'Dowall's Rhetorical Readings 8 
 
 Milieu's English Grammar 8 
 
 Morell's Poetical Reading-Book 7 
 
 Pryde's Studies in Composition 7 
 
 Reid's English Grammar 7 
 
 ,,. English Composition... . 7 
 
 English Dictionary 7 
 
 Sess. School Etymological Guide 8 
 
 Old & New Test. Biographies... 8 
 
 Shakspeare's Richard II 5 
 
 Spalding's English Literature 7 
 
 White's English Grammar . 8 
 
 Wordsworth's Excursion "5 
 
 Object-Lessons. 
 On the Vegetable Kingdom 8 
 
 Ross's How to Train Eyes and Ears. . 8 
 
 Rome 13 
 
 
 
Index. 
 
 Tytler's General History P, 13 
 
 Watt's Scripture History 13 
 
 White's Universal History 12, 13 
 
 England for Jim. Classes.. 12 
 
 History of France 12 
 
 Great Britain and Ireland..l2 
 
 Sacred History 13 
 
 Histories of Scotland 12 
 
 History of Rome 13 
 
 Writing, Aritlunetlo, eto. 
 
 Gray's Arithmetic 15 
 
 Hutton's Arithmetic, etc 15 
 
 Ingram's Principles of Arithmetic.lS 
 
 Maclaren's Arithmetic 16 
 
 Book-keeping 16 
 
 Melrose's Arithmetic 15 
 
 Scott's Arithmetical Works 16 
 
 Copy Books & Copy Lines.. .16 
 
 Smith's Arithmetical Works 14 
 
 Stewart's Arithmetical Works 15 
 
 Trotter's Arithmetical Works... 14, 15 
 
 New Code Arithmetic 4 
 
 Hutton's Book-keeping...l5 
 
 Gaelic. 
 
 Forhes's Gaelic Grammar 16 
 
 Mathematics, etc. 
 Ingram's System of Mathematics.. .16 
 
 Mensuration, by Trotter.. 16 
 
 Euclid 16 
 
 Algebra 16 
 
 Nicol's Sciences 17 
 
 Trotter's Key to Ingram's Mathe- 
 matics 16 
 
 Manual of Logarithms.. ..16 
 
 French. 
 Beljame's French Grammar, etc ....20 
 Caron's First French Class-Book ...20 
 
 First French Reading- Book... 20 
 
 French Grammar 20 
 
 Chambaud's Fables Choisies 18 
 
 Christison's French Grammar 20 
 
 Fables et Contes Choisis 20 
 
 Fleury's History of France. ..20 
 
 French New Testament 18 
 
 Gibson's Le Petit Fablier 18 
 
 Hallard's French Grammar 20 
 
 Schneider's First French Course 18 
 
 Conversation.Grammarl8 
 
 French Reader 18 
 
 French Manual 18 
 
 licrin Litt^raire 18 
 
 Surenne's Dictionaries P. 19 
 
 New French Manual, etc ....19 
 
 New French Dialogues 19 
 
 French Classics 19, 20 
 
 French Reading Instructor . .20 
 
 Wolski's French Extracts 20 
 
 French Grammar 20 
 
 Latin and Greek. 
 
 Ainsworth's Latin Dictionary 23 
 
 Cicero's Orationes Selectse 24 
 
 Cato Major, De Oflficiis 24 
 
 Clyde's Greek Syntax 21 
 
 Dymock's Caesar and Sallust 22 
 
 Edin. Academy Class-Books : — 
 Rudiments of Latin Language.... 21 
 
 Latin Delectus 21 
 
 Rudiments of Greek Language. ...21 
 
 Greek Extracts 21 
 
 Ciceronis Opera Selecta 21 
 
 Selecta e Poetis 21 
 
 Ferguson's (Prof.) Gram. Exercises 24 
 
 Latin Delectus 24 
 
 Ovid's Metamorphoses 24 
 
 Fergusson's (Dr) Xenophon's Ana- 
 basis 23 
 
 Greek Gram. Exercises 23 
 
 Homer's Iliad, with Vocab. 23 
 
 Geddes' (Prof.) Greek Grammar.... 21 
 
 Greek Testament, by Duncan 23 
 
 Hunter's Ruddiman's Rudiments.. .22 
 
 Sallust, Virgil, and Horace 22 
 
 Livy, Books 21 to 25 22 
 
 Latin Testament, by Beza 23 
 
 Macgowan's Latin Lessons 22 
 
 Mair's Introduction, by Stewart.. ..23 
 Massie's Latin Prose Composition..22 
 
 M'Dowall's Caesar and Virgil 22 
 
 Melville's Lectiones Selectae 22 
 
 Neilson's Euti'opius 22 
 
 Stewart's Cornelius Nepos 23 
 
 Veitch's Homer's Iliad 23 
 
 German. 
 
 Fischart's New German Reader 24 
 
 Logic. 
 Port-Royal Logic (Prof. Baynes')...24 
 
 School Registers. 
 Pupil's Daily Register of Marks.... 17 
 School Register of Attendance, 
 
 Absence, and Fees 17 
 
 Geometrical Drawing. 
 Kennedy's Grade Geometiy 17 
 
 Messrs Oliver and Boyd were awarded Medals for their Educa- 
 tional Works by Her Majesty's Commissioners of the London 
 International Exhibition, and by the Jvurora of the Paris Uni- 
 versal Exhibition. 
 
EDUCATIONAL WORKS. 
 
 ENaLISH EEADING, GEAMMAE, ETC. 
 
 In the initiatory department of instruction a valuable series of works has been 
 prepared by Dr M'Culloch, formerly Head Master of the Circus Place School, 
 Edinburgh, now Minister of the West Church, Greenock. 
 
 DB M'CnLIOCH'S SEBIES OF CLASS-BOOKS. 
 
 These Books are intended for the use of Schools where the general mental 
 culture of the pupil, as well as his proficiency in the art of reading, is studiously 
 and systematically aimed at. 
 
 They form, collectively, a progressional Series, so constructed and graduated 
 as to conduct the pupil, by regular stages, from the elementary sounds of the 
 language to its highest and most complex forms of speech ; and each separate 
 Book is also progressively arranged, — the lessons which are more easily read 
 and understood always taking the lead, and preparing the way for those of 
 greater difficulty. 
 
 The subject-matter of the Books is purposely miscellaneous. Yet it is 
 always of a character to excite the interest and enlarge the knowledge of the 
 reader. And with the design of more effectually promoting his mental growth 
 and nurture, the various topics are introduced in an order conformable to that 
 in which the chief faculties of the juvenile mind are usually developed. 
 
 That the moral feelings of the pupil may not be without their proper 
 stimulus and nutriment, the lessons are pervaded throughout by the religious 
 and Christian element. 
 
 NEW AND GREATLY IMPPvOVED EDITIONS. 
 
 Dr M'CuUocli's First Readings-Book. Ud. 
 
 Do. Large Type Edition^ in two parts, price 2(1. each. 
 
 Do. in a series of Sheets for hanging on the Wall, Is. ; 
 
 or on lioller, l.s. 8d. 
 
 Dr M'CuUoch's Second Reading-Book. 3d. 
 
 Dr M'Culloch's Third Reading-Book, containing simple 
 
 Pieces in Prose and Verse, with Exercises. lOJ. Now printed in 
 larger type. 
 
 Dr M'CuUoch's Fourth Reading-Book, containing only- 
 Lessons likely to interest. With Synopsis of Spelling. Is. 6d. 
 
 Dr M'CuUoch's Series of Lessons in Prose and Verse. 2s. 
 Dr M'CuUoch's Course of Elementary Reading in 
 
 Science and Literature, compiled from popular Writers. 3s. 
 
 Dr M'CuUoch's Manual of English Grammar, Philo- 
 sophical and Practical ; with Exercises ; adapted to the Analytical 
 mode of Tuition. Is. Gd. 
 
Oliver & Boyd's New Code Class-Books, 
 
 1. 
 STANDARD READING-BOOKS, 
 
 By James Colville, M.A., English Master, Glasgow Academy; late English 
 
 Master, George "Watson's College Schools, Lauriston, Edinburgh, one 
 
 of the Educational Institutions of the Merchant Company. 
 
 PRIMEK : Being Spelling and Reading Lessons Introductory to 
 Standard I. (Illustrated.) 36 pages. IJd. 
 
 FIRST STANDARD READING-BOOK; with Easy Lessons in 
 Script. (Illustrated.) 95 pages. 4d. in stiff wrapper, or 6d. cloth. 
 
 SECOND STANDARD READING-BOOK; with Dictation Exer- 
 cises, partly in Script. (Illustrated.) 108 pages. 4d. in stiff wrapper, or 
 6d. cloth. 
 
 THIRD STANDARD READING-BOOK; with Dictation Exercises, 
 partly in Script. 144 pages, strongly bound. 8d. 
 
 *^* The Fourth, Fifth, and Sixth Standard Reading-Books, 
 
 completing the Series, will shortly be published. 
 2. 
 
 ARITHMETIC, 
 
 By Alex. Trotter, Teacher of Mathematics, etc., Edinburgh ; 
 Author of "Arithmetic for Advanced Classes," etc. 
 
 Part I., embracing Standards 1 and 2. 36 pages. 2A.— Answers, 3d. 
 „ II., embracing Standards 3 and 4. 36 pages. 2d. — Answers, 3d. 
 „ III., embracing Standards 5 and 6. 
 
 3. 
 
 STANDARD GEOGRAPHIES, 
 
 By W. Lawson, F.R.G.S., St Mark's College, Clielsea; Author of 
 " Geography of the British Empire," etc. 
 
 GEOGRAPHICAL PRIMER, embracing an Outline of the Chief 
 Divisions of the World. Adapted to Standard IV. 36 pages. 2d. 
 
 GEOGRAPHY of ENGLAND and WALES ; with a Chapter on 
 Railways. Adapted to Standard V. 36 pages. 2d. 
 
 GEOGRAPHY of SCOTLAND and IRELAND; with Notes on 
 Railways. 36 pages. 2d. 
 
 GEOGRAPHY of EUROPE. Adapted to Standard VI. 48 pages. 3d. 
 
 4. 
 LAWSON'S ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Adapted to tlie Koquirements of the New Code. 90 pages. Gd. 
 
English Readiiig^ Grammar^ etc. 
 
 The following WorTcs^ included in the present Catalogue, will also he 
 found adapted to the Requirements of the New Code : — 
 
 EEID'S RUDIMENTS OF MODERN GEOGRAPHY, with 
 
 36 pages of information on Counties and Railways, Catalogue^ p. 10 
 
 DOUGLAS'S PROGRESSIVE GEOGRAPHY, a New Work, 10 
 
 LENNIE'S GRAMMAR, with Analysis of Sentences, . . 6 
 
 DOUGLAS'S GRAMMAR, with Analysis of Sentences, . . 5 
 
 REID'S GRAMMAR, with Analysis of Sentences, ... 7 
 
 HUNTER'S SCHOOL SONGS, with Music, .... 17 
 
 The Principles of English Grammar ; with a Series of 
 
 Progressive Exercises, and a Supplementary Treatise on Analysis 
 of Sentences. By Dr James Douglas, lately Teacher of English, 
 Great King Sti-eet, Edinburgh. Is. 6d. 
 
 Douglas's Initiatory Grammar, for Junior Classes. 
 
 Printed in larger type, and containing a Supplementary Treatise 
 on Analysis of Sentences. 6d. 
 
 Douglas's Progressive English Reader. A New Series 
 
 of English Reading-Books. Tlte Earlier Books are illustrated with 
 numerous Engravings. 
 
 First Book. 2d. I Third Book. Is. I Fifth Book. 2s. ' 
 Second Book. 4d. | Fourth Book. Is. 6d. ( Sixth Book. 2s. 6d. 
 
 Douglas's Selections for Recitation, with Introductory 
 
 and Explanatory Notes ; for Schools. Is. 6d. 
 
 Douglas's Spelling and Dictation Exercises. 144 pages, 
 
 price Is. 
 
 Athenceum. — "A good practical book, from which correct spelling and pro- 
 nunciation may be acquired." 
 
 Douglas's English Etymology: A Text-Book of Deriv- 
 atives, Avith numerous Exercises. 168 pages, price 2s. 
 Scotsman. — " An especially excellent book of derivatives." 
 
 Shakespeare's King Richard II. With Historical and 
 
 Critical Introductions ; Grammatical, Philological, and other Notes, 
 etc. Adapted for Training Colleges. By Kev. Canon Robinson, 
 M.A., late Principal of the Diocesan Training College, York. 2s. 
 
 Wordsworth's Excursion, The Wanderer. With Notes 
 
 to aid in Analysis and Paraphrasing. By Canon Robinson. 8d. 
 
6 English Reading^ Grammar^ etc. 
 
 Lennie's Principles of English Grammar. Comprising 
 
 the Substance of all the most approved English Grammars, briefly 
 defined, and neatly arranged ; with Copious Exercises in Parsing 
 and Syntax. New Edition ; with the author's latest improvements, 
 and an Appendix in which Analysis of Sentences is fully treated. 
 Is. 6d. 
 
 The Author's Key, containing, besides Additional Exercises 
 in Parsing and Syntax, many useful Critical Eemarks, Hints, and 
 Observations, and explicit and detailed instructions as to the best 
 method of teaching Grammar. 3s. 6d. 
 
 Analysis of Sentences ; Being the Appendix to Lennie's 
 
 Grammar adapted for General Use. Price 3d. — Key, 6d. 
 
 Outlines of English Grammar and Analysis, for 
 
 Elementary Schools, with Exekcises. By Walter Scott 
 Dalgleish, M.A. Edin., lately one of the Masters in the London 
 International College. 8d. Key, Is. 
 
 Dalgleish's Progressive English Grammar, with Exer- 
 cises. 2s. Key, 2s. 6d. 
 
 From Dr Joseph Bosworth, Profrssor of Anglo-Saxon in the University of 
 Oxford; Author of the Anglo-Saxon Dictionary, etc., etc. 
 " Quite a practical work, and contains a vast quantity of important informa- 
 tion, well arranged, and brought up to the present improved state of philology. 
 1 have never seen so much matter brought together in so short a space." 
 
 Dalgleish's Grammatical Analysis, with Progressive 
 
 Exercises. 9d. Key, 2s.   
 
 Dalgleish's Outlines of English Composition, for 
 
 Elementary Schools, with Exercises. 6d. Key, 4d. 
 
 Dalgleish's Introductory Text-Book of English 
 
 COMPOSITION, based on Grammatical Synthesis; containing 
 Sentences, Paragraphs, and Short Essays. Is. 
 
 Dalgleish's Advanced Text-Book of English Com- 
 
 POSITION, treating of Style, Prose Themes, and Versification. 
 2s. Both Books bound together, 2s. 6d. Key, 2s. 6d. 
 
 English Grammar, founded on the Philosophy of Language 
 and the Practice of the best Authors. With Copious Exercises, 
 Constructive and Analytical. By C. W. Connon, LL.D. 2s. 6d. 
 Spectator.—" It exhibits great ability, combining practical skill with philo- 
 sophical views." 
 
 Connon's First Spelling-Book. 6d. 
 
English Reading^ Grammar^ etc. 
 
 A Dictionary of the English Language, containing 
 
 the Pronunciation, Etymology, and Explanation of all Words author- 
 ized by Eminent Writers, By Alexander Eeid, LL.D., late 
 Head Master of the Edinburgh Institution. Reduced to 5s. 
 
 Dr Reid's Rudiments of English Grammar. Greatly 
 
 Improved. Copious Exercises have been introduced throughout; 
 together with a new Chapter on the Analysis of Sentences ; while 
 the whole work has been revised and printed in a larger type. 6d. 
 
 Dr Reid's Rudiments of English Composition, with 
 
 Copious Exercises. 2s. Thoroughly Revised and Enlarged. 
 
 The work has been entirely remodelled. It now includes Systematic 
 Exercises in Sentence-making. A distinct division has been devoted to the 
 Structure of Paragraphs. The sections on Descriptive and Narrative Essays 
 have been entirely rewritten. 
 
 Key TO THE Improved Edition, including Directions for 
 teaching the Work. 2s. 6d. 
 
 History of English Literature ; with an Outline of the 
 
 Origin and Growth of the English Language. Illustrated by 
 Extracts. For Schools and Private Students. By William 
 Spalding, A.M., Professor of Logic, Rhetoric, and Metaphysics, 
 in the University of St Andrews. Continued to 1870. 3s. 6d. 
 
 Spectator,—" A compilation and text-book of a very superior kind. . . . 
 The volume is the best introduction to the subject we have met with." 
 
 Poetical Reading-Book, with Aids for Grammatical 
 Analysis, Paraphrase, and Criticism ; and an Appendix on English 
 Versification. By J. D. Morell, A.M., LL.D., Author of Gram- 
 mar of the English Language, etc. ; and W. Ihne, Ph.D. 2s. 6d. 
 
 Studies in Composition: A Text-Book for Advanced 
 Classes. By David Pryde, M.A,, Head Master of the Edinburgh 
 Merchant Company's Educational Institution for Young Ladies. 
 2s. Recently published. 
 
 English Composition for the Use of Schools. By 
 
 Robert Armstrong, Madras College, St Andrews; and Thomas 
 Armstrong, Heriot Foundation School, Edinburgh. Part I., 
 Is. 6d. Part II., 2s. Both Parts bound together, 3s. Key, 2s. 
 
 Armstrong's English Etymology. 2s. 
 Armstrong's Etymology for Junior Classes. 
 
 4fl. 
 
8 English Reading^ Grammar^ etc. 
 
 Selections from Paradise Lost ; with Notes adapted for 
 
 Elementary Schools, by Rev. Robert Demaus, M.A., late of the 
 West End Academy, Aberdeen. Is. 6d. 
 
 Demaus's Analysis of Sentences. 3d. 
 
 Ewing's Principles of Elocution, improved by F. B. 
 
 Calvert, A.M. 3s. 6d. 
 
 Consists of numerous rules, observations, and exercises on pronunciation, 
 pauses, inflections, accent, and emphasis, accompanied with copious extracts in 
 prose and poetry. 
 
 Rhetorical Readings for Schools. By Wm. M'Dowall, 
 
 late Inspector of the Heriot Schools, Edinburgh. 2s. 6d. 
 
 System of English Grammar, and the Principles of Com- 
 position. With Exercises. By John White, F.E.I. S. Is. 6d. 
 
 Millen's Initiatory English Grammar. Is. 
 Object-lesson Cards on the Vegetable Kingdom. Set 
 
 of Twenty in a Box. £1, Is. 
 
 How to Train Young Eyes and Ears ; being a Manual 
 
 of Or.jECT-LESsoxs for Parents and Teachers. By Mary Anne 
 Ross, Mistress of the Church of Scotland Normal Infant School, 
 Edinburgh. Is. 6d. 
 
 Household Economy : a Manual intended for Female 
 
 Training Colleges, and the Senior Class of Girls' Schools. By 
 Margaret Maria Gordon (Miss Brewster), Author of "Work, 
 or Plenty to do and how to do it," etc. 2s. 
 
 AthencBum.—" Written in a plain, genial, attractive manner, and constituting, 
 in the best sense of tlie word, a practical domestic manual." 
 
 SESSIONAL SCHOOL BOOKS. 
 
 Etjrmological Guide. - 2s. 6d. 
 
 This is a collection, alphabetically arranged, of the principal roots, affixes, 
 and prefixes, with their derivatives and compounds. 
 
 Old Testament Biography, containing notices of the chief 
 persons in Holy Scripture, in the form of Questions, with references 
 to Scripture for the Answers. 6d. 
 
 New Testament Biography, on the same Plan. 6d. 
 
 Fisher's Assembly's Shorter Catechism Explained. 2s 
 
 Part I. Of what Man is to believe concerning God. 
 II. Of what duty God requires of Man. 
 
Geography and Astronomy. 
 
 GEOGEAPHY AND iSTEOXOMY. 
 
 In compiling the works on these subjects the utmost possible care has been 
 taken to ensui'e clearness and accuracy of statement. Each edition is scru- 
 pulously revised as it passes through the press, so that the works may be 
 confidently relied on as containing the latest information accessible at the 
 time of publication. 
 
 A Compendium of Modern Geography, Political, 
 
 Physical, and Mathematical : With a ("hapter on the Ancient 
 Geography of Palestine, Outlines of Astronomy and of Geology, a 
 Glossary of Geographical Names, Descriptive and Pronouncing 
 Tables, Questions for Examination, etc. By the Rev. Alex. 
 Stewart, LL.D. Carefulhj Bevised. With 11 Maps. 3s. 6d. 
 
 School Geography. By James Clyde, M.A., LL.D., one 
 
 of the Classical Masters of the Edinburgh Academy. With special 
 Chapters on Mathematical and Physical Geography, and Techno- 
 logical Appendix. Corrected throughout. 4s. 
 
 Athmceum.—'-^'WQ have been struck with the ability and value of this work, 
 which is a great advance upon previous Geographic Manuals. . . , 
 Almost for the first time, we have here met with a School Geography that is 
 quite a readable book, — one that, being intended for advanced pupils, is well 
 adapted to make them study the subject with a degree of interest they have 
 never yet felt in it. . , . Students preparing for the recently instituted 
 University and Civil Service examinations will find this their best guide." 
 
 Dr Clyde's Elementary Geography. Corrected 
 
 throiujhout. Is. 6d. 
 
 An Appendix on Sacred Geography has now been added, which will be 
 found amply sufficient for ordinary uses. Fresh interest has been given to 
 many old names by the mention of quite modern facts connected with the 
 corresponding places. 
 
 An Abstract of General Geography, comprehending a 
 
 more minute Description of the British Empire, and of Palestine or 
 the Holy Land, etc. With numerous Exercises. For Junior 
 Classes. By John White, F.E.I.S., late Teacher, Edinburgh. 
 Careftdly Bevised. Is. ; or with Four Maps, Is. 3d. 
 
 White's System of Modern Geography ; with Outlines of 
 
 Astronomy and Physical Geography; comprehending an Account 
 of the Principal Towns, Climate, Soil, Productions, Religion, Educa- 
 tion, Government, and Population of the various Countries. With 
 a Compendium of Sacred Geography, Problems on the Globes, Exer- 
 cises, etc. Carefidly Bevised. 2s. 6d..; or with Four IMaps, 2s. yd. 
 
10 Geography and Astronomy. 
 
 Rudiments of Modern Geography. By Alex. Reid, 
 
 LL.D., late Head-Master of the Edinburgh Institution. With 
 Plates, and INIap of the World. Carejuily Revised. Is. ; or with 
 Five Maps, Is. 3d. Enlarged by 'i% pages of extra information re- 
 garding the Counties and pnncipaL liailways of the United Kingdom. 
 
 The names of places are accented, and accompanied with short descriptions, 
 and occasionally with the mention of some remarkable event. To the several 
 countries are appended notices of their physical geography, productions, 
 government, and religion ; concluding with an outline of sacred geography, 
 problems on the use of the globes, and directions for the construction of maps. 
 
 First Book of Geography; being an Abridgment of 
 
 Dr Keid's Rudiments of Modern Geography ; with an Outline of the 
 Geography of Palestine. Carefully Itevised. 6d. 
 
 This work has been prepared for the use of young pupils. It is a suitable 
 and useful companion to Dr Reid's Introductory Atlas. 
 
 Lr Reid's Outline of Sacred Geography. 6d. 
 
 This little work is a manual of Scripture Geography for young persons. 
 It is designed to communicate such a knowledge of the places mentioned in 
 holy writ as will enable children more clearly to understand the sacred nar- 
 rative. It contains refei'ences to the passages of Scripture in which the 
 most remarkable places are mentioned, notes chiefly historical and descrip- 
 tive, and a Map of the Holy Land in provinces and tribes. 
 
 Aji Introductory Geography, for Junior Pupils. By Dr 
 James Douglas, lately Teacher of English, Great King Street, 
 Edinburgh. Carefully Revised. 6d. 
 
 Dr Douglas's Progressive Geography. An entirely new 
 
 zcorh, sliowing the recent changes on the Continent and elsewhere, 
 and embracing much Historical and other Information. 160 pages, 
 Is. Carefully Revised. 
 
 Dr Douglas's Text-Book of Geography, containing the 
 
 Physical and Political Geoguaphy of all the Countries of the 
 Globe. Systematically arranged. 2s. 6d. ; or with ten Coloured 
 Maps, 3s. Carefully Revised. 
 
 (Geography of the British Empire. By Willia.ai 
 
 Laavson, St Mark's College, Chelsea. Carefdly Revised. 3s. 
 
 Part I. Outlines of Mathematical and Physical Geography. II. Phy- 
 sical, Political, and Commercial Geography of the British 'Islands. 
 III. Physical, Political, and Commercial Geography of the British 
 Colonies. 
 
 Lawson's Standard and Physical Geographies, adapted 
 
 to the requirements of the Keto Code. See Catalogue, page 4. 
 
Geogra])]iy and Astronomy. 
 
 11 
 
 Edinburgh Academy Modern Geography. 
 
 Revised. 2s. 6d. 
 
 Carefully 
 
 Edinburgh Academy Ancient Geography. 3s. 
 
 Ewing's System of Geography. Carefully Revised. 4s. 6d. ; 
 
 with 14 Maps, 6s. 
 
 Besides a complete treatise on the science of geography, this work contains 
 the elements of astronomy and of physical geography, and a variety of prob- 
 lems to be solved by the terrestrial and celestial globes. At the end is a 
 pronouncing Vocabulary, in the form of a gazetteer, containing the names 
 of all the places in the work. 
 
 Elements of Astronomy : adapted for Private Instruction 
 and Use of Schools. By Hugo Eeid, Member of the College of 
 Preceptors. With 65 Wood Engravings. 3s. 
 
 Reid's Elements of Physical Geography ; with Outlines 
 
 of GrEOLOGY, MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY, and ASTRONOMY, and 
 
 Questions for Examination. With numerous Illustrations, and a 
 large coloured Physical Chart of the Globe. Is. 
 
 SCHOOL ATLASES. 
 
 A General Atlas of Modern Geography; 29 Maps, 
 
 Coloured. By Thomas Ewing. 7s. 6d. 
 
 White's Elementary Atlas of Modern Geography. 
 
 4to, 10 Maps, Coloured. 2s. 6d. 
 
 CoNTKNTS.— 1. The World ; 2. Europe; 3. Asia; 4. Africa ; 5. North America; 
 6, South America; 7. England; 8. Scotland; 9. Ireland; 10. Palestine. 
 
 A School Atlas of Modern Geography. 4to, 16 Maps, 
 
 Coloured. By Alexander Eeid, LL.D., late Head Master of the 
 Edinburgh Institution, etc. 6s. 
 
 Reid's Introductory Atlas of Modern Geography. 
 
 4to, 10 Maps, Coloured. 2s. 6d. 
 
 Contents. — 1. The "World ; 2. Europe ; 3. Asia ; 4. Africa ; 5. North America; 
 6. South America; 7. England; 8. Scotland; 9. Ireland; 10. Palestine. 
 
 Murphy's Bible Atlas of 24 Maps, With Historical 
 
 Descriptions. Is. 6d. coloured. 
 
 Witness. — "We recommend this Atlas to teachers, parents, and individual 
 Christians, as a comprehensive and cheap auxiliary to the intelligent reading 
 of the Scriptures." 
 
12 History. 
 
 HISTOEY. 
 
 The works in this department have been prepared with the greatest care. 
 They will be found to include Class-books for Junior and Senior Classes in all 
 the branches of History generally taught in the best schools. While the 
 utmost attention has been paid to accuracy, the narratives have in every 
 case been rendered as instructive and pleasing as possible, so as to relieve the 
 study from the tediousness of a mere dry detail of facts. 
 
 A Concise History of England in Epochs. By J. F. 
 
 CoRKRAN. With Maps and Genealogical and Chronological Tables, 
 
 and comprehensive Questions to each Chapter. New Edition^ with 
 
 the History continued. 2s. 6d. 
 
 The writer has endeavoured to convey a broad and full impression of the 
 great Epochs, and to develop with care, but in subordination to the rest of 
 the narrative, the growth of Law and of the Constitution. 
 
 History of England for Junior Classes ; with Questions 
 
 for Examination. Edited by Henry White, B. A., Trinity College, 
 Cambridge, M.A. and Ph. Dr. Heidelberg. Is. 6d. 
 Athenoium. — " A cheap and excellent history of England, admirably adapted 
 for the use of junior classes. The various changes that have taken place in 
 our constitution are briefly but clearly described. It is surprising how suc- 
 cessfully the editor has not merely avoided the obscurity which generally 
 accompanies brevity, but invested his narrative with an interest too often 
 wanting in larger historical works. The information conveyed is thoroughly 
 sound; and the utility of the book is much increased by the addition of 
 examination questions at the end of each chapter." 
 
 History of Great Britain and Ireland ; with an Account 
 
 of the Present State and Eesources of the United Kingdom and its 
 Colonies. With Questions and a Map. By Dr White. 3s. 
 Athenceum.—'''- K carefully compiled history for the use of schools. The 
 ■writer has consulted the more recent authorities: his opinions are liberal, 
 and on the whole just and impartial; the succession of events is developed 
 with clearness, and with more of that picturesque effect which so delights the 
 young than is common in historical abstracts." 
 
 History of Scotland for Junior Classes ; with Questions 
 
 for Examination. Edited by Dr White. Is. 6d. 
 
 History of Scotland for Senior Classes ; with Questions 
 
 for Examination. Edited by Dr White. 3s. 6d. 
 
 History of France ; with Questions for Examination, and a 
 
 Map. Edited by Dr White. 3s. 6d. 
 
 Athenaeum. — "Dr White is remarkably happy in combining convenient 
 brevity with sufficiency of information, clearness of exposition, and interest of 
 detail. He shows great judgment in apportioning to each subject its due 
 amount of consideration." 
 
 Outlines of Universal History. Edited by Dr White. 2s. 
 
 Spectator.— '■'■Difitmci in its arrangement, skilful in its selection of leading 
 features, close and clear in its narrative." 
 
History, 13 
 
 Dr White's Elements of Universal History, on a New 
 
 and Systematic Plan. In Three Parts. Part I. Ancient History; 
 
 Part II. History of the Middle Ages ; Part III., Modern History. 
 
 "With a Map of the World. 7s. ; or in Parts, 2s. 6d. each. 
 
 This work contains numerous synoptical and other tables, to guide the 
 researches of the student, with sketches of literature, antiquities, and manners 
 during each of the great chronological epochs. 
 
 Outlines of the History of Rome; with Questions for 
 
 Examination. Edited by Dr White. Is. 6d. 
 
 London Review. — "This abridgment is admirably adapted for the use of 
 schools, — the best book that a teacher could place in the hand of a youthful 
 student." 
 
 Sacred History, from the Creation of the World to the 
 Destruction of Jerusalem. With Questions for Examination. 
 Edited by Dr White. Is. 6d. 
 
 Baptist Magazine. — " An interesting epitome of sacred history, calculated to 
 inspire the young with a love of the divine records, as well as to stoi'e the 
 mind with knowledge." 
 
 Elements of General History, Ancient and Modern. To 
 
 which are added, a Comparative View of Ancient and Modern 
 Geography, and a Table of Chronology. By Alexander Eraser 
 Tytler, Lord Woodhouselee, formerly Professor of History in the 
 University of Edinburgh. New Edition^ with the History continued. 
 With two large Maps, etc. 3s. 6d. 
 
 Watts' Catechism of Scripture History, and of the 
 
 Condition of the Jews from the Close of the Old Testament to 
 the Time of Christ. With Introduction by W. K. Tweedie, 
 D.D. 2s. 
 
 Simpson's History of Scotland ; with an Outline of the 
 
 British Constitution, and Questions for Examination at the end of 
 each Section. 3s. 6d. 
 
 Simpson's Goldsmith's History of England; with the 
 
 Narrative brought down to the Middle of the Nineteenth Century. 
 To which is added an Outline of the British Constitution. With 
 Questions for Examination at the end of each Section. 3s. 6d. 
 
 Simpson's Goldsmith's History of Greece. With 
 
 Questions for Examination at the end of each Section. Ss. 6d. 
 
 Simpson's Goldsmith's History of Rome. With Questions 
 
 for Examination at the end of each Section. 3s. 6d. 
 
14 Writing, Arithmetic, and Book-keeping. 
 WEITING. AEITHMETIC, AND BOOK-KEEPING. 
 
 This section will be found to contain works in extensive use in many of the 
 best schools in the United Kingdom. The successive editions have been 
 carefully revised and amended. 
 
 Arithmetic adapted to the New Code, in Three Parts. 
 
 By Alexander Trottek, Teacher of INIalliematics, Edinburgh. 
 Farts I. and II., emhracing the first four Standards, are now Ready. 
 Each containing 36 pages, 2d., stiff wrapper. Answ^ers to Parts 
 I. and II., price 3d. each. Part III. in Preparation. 
 
 Practical Arithmetic for Junior Classes. By Henry 
 
 G. C. Smith, Teacher of Aritlmietic and Mathematics in George 
 Heriot's Hospital. 64 pages, 6d. stiff wrajiper. Ansivers, 6d. 
 
 From the Rev. Philip Kelland, A.M., F.R.SS. L. & E., late Fellow of Queens^ 
 College, Cambridge, Professor of Mathematics in the University of Edinburgh. 
 
 " I am glad to learn that Mr Smith's Manual for Junior Classes, the MS. 
 of which I have examined, is nearly ready for publication. Trusting that 
 the Illustrative Processes which he has exhibited may prove as efficient in 
 other hands as tliey have proved in his own, I have great pleasure in 
 recommending the work, being satisfied that a better Arithmetician and a 
 more judicious Teacher than Mr Smith is not to be found." 
 
 Practical Arithmetic for Senior Classes ; being a Can- 
 
 tinuation of the above. By Henry G. C. Smith. 2s. Answers, 6d. 
 Key, 2s. 6d. 
 
 *i* The Exercises in both works, which are copious and original, have been 
 constructed so as to combine interest with utility. They are accompanied by 
 illustrative processes. 
 
 Lessons in Arithmetic for Janior Classes. By James 
 
 Trotter. 66 pages, 6d. stiff wrapper ; or 8d. cloth. Answers, 6d. 
 
 This book was carefully revised, and enlarged by the introduction of Simple 
 Examples of the various rules, worked out at length and fully explained, 
 and of Practical Exercises, by the Author's sou, Mr Alexander Trotter, 
 Teacher of Mathematics, etc., Edinburgh ; and to the present edition Exercises 
 on the proposed Decimal Coinage have been added. 
 
 Lessons in Arithmetic for Advanced Classes; being 
 
 a Continuation of the Lessons in Arithmetic for Junior Classes. 
 Containing Vulgar and Decimal Fractions ; Simple and Compound 
 Proportion, w^ith their Applications ; Simple and Compound Interest; 
 Involution and Evolution, etc. By Alexander Trotter. New 
 Edition, with Exercises on the proposed Decimal Coinage. 76 pages, 
 6d. in stiff wrapper ; or 8d. cloth. Answers, 6d. 
 
 Each subject is also accompanied by an example fully worked out and 
 oiiBUtely explained. The Exercises are numerous and praetical. 
 
Writing y Arithmetic^ and Book-keeping. 15 
 A Complete System of Arithmetic, Theoretical and 
 
 Practical ; containing the Fundamental Rules, and their Application 
 to Mercantile Computations ; Vulgar and Decimal Fractions ; Invo- 
 lution and Evolution; Series; Annuities, Certain and Contingent. 
 By Mr Tkotter. 3s. Key, 4s. 6d. 
 
 *** All the 3400 Exercises in this work are new. They are applicable to the 
 business of real life, and are framed in such a way as to lead the pupil to reason 
 on the matter. There are upwards of 200 Examples wrought out at length and 
 minutely explained. 
 
 Ingram's Principles of Arithmetic, and their Application 
 
 to Business explained in a Popular Manner, and clearly Illustrated 
 by Simple Rules and Numerous Examples. Remodelled and greatly 
 Enlarged, with Exercises on the proposed Decimal Coinage. By 
 Alexander Trotter, Teacher of Mathematics, etc., Edinburgh. Is. 
 Key, 2s. 
 
 Each rule is followed hy an example wrought out at length, and is illustrated 
 by a great variety of practical questions applicable to business. 
 
 Melrose's Concise System of Practical Arithmetic; 
 
 containing the Fundamental Rules and their Application to Mercan- 
 tile Calculations ; Vulgar and Decimal Fractions ; Exchanges ; 
 Involution and Evolution ; Progressions ; Annuities, Certain and 
 Contingent, etc. He-arranged, Imjproved, and Enlarged, with Exer- 
 cises on the proposed Decimal Coinage. By Alexander Trotter, 
 Teacher of Mathematics, etc., in Edinburgh. Is. 6d. Key, 2s. 6d. 
 Each Rale is followed by an example worked out at length, and minutely 
 explained, and by numerous practical Exercises. 
 
 Hutton's Arithmetic and Book-keeping. 2s. 6d. 
 Button's Book-keeping, by Trotter. 2s. 
 
 Sets of Ruled Writing ^oo^s,— Single Entry, per set, Is. 6d.; Double Entry, 
 per set, Is. 6d. 
 
 Stewart's First Lessons in Arithmetic, for Junior Classes; 
 
 containing Exercises in Simple and Compound Quantities arranged 
 so as to enable the Pupil to perform the Operations with the greatest 
 facility and correctness. With Exercises on the Proposed Decimal 
 Coinage. 6d. st'.flf wrapper. Answers, 6d. 
 
 Stewart's Practical Treatise on Arithmetic, Arranged 
 
 for Pupils in Classes. With Exercises on the proposed Decimal 
 Ooinage. Is. 6d. This work includes the Answers ; with Questions 
 for Examination. Key, 2s. 
 
 Gray's Introduction to Arithmetic; with Exercises on 
 
 the proposed Decimal Coinage. lOd. bound in leather. Key, 2s. 
 
16 Cojpy- Books ^ Mathematics^ etc. 
 
 Lessons in Arithmetic for Junior Classes. By James 
 
 Maclaren, Master of the Classical and Mercantile Academy, 
 Hamilton Place, Edinburgh. 6d. stiff wrapper. 
 
 The Answers are annexed to the several Exercises. 
 
 Maclaren's Improved System of Practical Book- 
 
 KEEPINGr, arranged according to Single Entry, and adapted to 
 General Business. Exemplified in one set of Books. Is. 6d. 
 A Set of Ruled Writing Books, expressly adapted for this work, Is. 6d. 
 
 Scott's First Lessons in Arithmetic. 6d. stiff wrapper. 
 
 Answers, 6d. 
 
 Scott's Mental Calculation Text-book. Pupil's Copy, 6d. 
 
 Teacher's Copy, 6d. 
 
 Copy Books, in a Progressive Series. By R. Scott, late 
 .Writing-Master, Edinburgh. Each containing 24 pages. Price : 
 Medium paper, 3d ; Post paper, 4d. 
 
 Scott's Copy Lines, in a Progressive Series, 4d. each. 
 
 The Principles of Gaelic Grammar ; with the Definitions, 
 
 Rules, and Examples, clearly expressed in English and Gaelic ; 
 containing copious Exercises for Eeading the Language, and for 
 Parsing and Correction. By the Eev. John Forbes, late Minister 
 of Sleat. 3s. 6d. 
 
 MATHEMATICS, NATUEAL PHILOSOPHY, ETC. 
 Ingram's Concise System of Mathematics, Theoretical 
 
 and Practical, for Schools and Private Students. Improved by 
 James Trotter. With 340 Woodcuts. 4s. 6d. Key, 3s 6d. 
 
 Trotter's Manual of Logarithms and Practical Mathe- 
 
 MATICS, for Students, Engineers, Navigators, and Surveyors. 3s. 
 
 A Complete System of Mensuration ; for Schools, Private 
 
 Students, and Practical Men. By Alex. Ingram. Improved by 
 James Trotter. 2s. 
 
 Ingram and Trotter's Euclid. Is. 6d. 
 
 Ingram and Trotter's Elements of Algebra, Theoretical 
 
 and Practital, for Schools and Private Students. 3s. 
 
MusiCj Drawing, School Registers. 17 
 Introductory Book of the Sciences. By James Nicol, 
 
 F.R.S.E., F.G.S., Professor of Natural History in the University 
 of Aberdeen. With 106 Woodcuts. Is. 6d. 
 
 SCHOOL SONGS WITH MUSIC, 
 
 By T. M. Hunter, Director to the Association for the Eevival of 
 
 Sacred Music in Scotland. 
 
 Elements of Vocal Music : An Introduction to the Art of 
 
 Eeading Music at Sight. Price 6d. 
 
 *^* This Work has been prepared with great care, and is the result of long 
 practical experience in teaching. It is adapted to all ages and classes, and 
 will be found considerably to lighten the labour of both teacher and pupil. 
 The exercises are printed in the standard notation, and the notes are named as in 
 the original Sol-fa System. 
 
 Contents. — Music Scales. — Exercises in Time. — Syncopation. — The Chro- 
 matic Scale. — Transposition of Scale. — The Minor Scale. — Part Singing. — 
 Explanation of Musical Terms. 
 
 Hunter's School Songs. With Preface by Eev. James 
 
 CuERiE, Training College, Edinburgh. 
 
 FOR JUNIOR CLASSES : 60 Songs, principally set for two 
 
 voices. 4d. — Second Series : 63 Songs. 4d. 
 
 FOR ADVANCED CLASSES : 44 Songs, principally set for three 
 voices. 6d. — Second Series : 46 Songs. 6d. 
 
 School Psalmody ; containing 58 Pieces arranged for 
 
 three voices. 4d. 
 
 GEOMETRICAL DRAWING. 
 
 The First Grade Practical Geometry. Intended chiefly 
 
 for the use of Drawing Classes in Elementary Schools taught 
 in connexion with the Department of Science and Art. By John 
 Kennedy, Head Master of Dundee School of Art. 6d. 
 
 School Register. Pupil's Daily Eegister of Marks. 
 
 Improved Edition. Containing Spaces for 48 Weeks ; to which are 
 added, Spaces for a Summary and Order of Merit for each Month, 
 for each Quarter, and for the Year. For Schools in general, and 
 constructed to furnish information required by Government. 2d. 
 
 School Register of Attendance, Absence, and Fees : 
 
 adapted to the Provisions of the Revised Code, by Morris F. Mtron. 
 Each folio will serve 50 pupils for a Quarter. Is. 
 
18 Fr^ench. 
 
 CLASS-BOOKS BY CHAS. HENRI SCHNEIDER, F.E.I.S., 
 
 M.C.P.. 
 
 Senior French Master in the Edinburgh High School, the Merchant Com- 
 pany's Educational Institution for Young Ladies, the School of Arts and 
 Watt Institution, etc. ; French Examiner to the Educational Institute of 
 Scotland, etc. 
 
 Schneider's First Year's French Course. Is. 6d. 
 
 *^* This work forms a Complete Course of French for Beginners, and 
 comprehends Grammatical Exercises, with Rules; Heading Lessons, with 
 Notes ; Dictation ; Exercises in Conversation ; and a Vocabulary of all the 
 "Words in the Book. 
 
 The Edinburgh High School French Conversation- 
 
 GRAMMAK, arranged on an entirely New Plan, with Questions 
 and Answers. Dedicated, by permission, to Professor Max MiXller. 
 3s. 6d. Key, 2s. 6d. 
 
 The Edinburgh High School New Practical French 
 
 READER: Being a Collection of Pieces from the best French 
 Authors. With Questions and Notes, enabling both Master and 
 Pupil to converse in French. 3s. 6d. 
 
 The Edinburgh High School French Manual of 
 
 CONVERSATION and COMMERCIAL CORRESPONDENCE. 
 
 2s. 6d. 
 
 In this work. Phrases and Idiomatic Expressions which are used most 
 frequently in tlie intercourse of every-day lite have been carefully collected. 
 Care has been taken to avoid what is trivial and obsolete, and to introduce all 
 the modern terms relative to railways, steamboats, and travelling in general. 
 
 Ecrin Litteraire : Being a Collection of Lively Anec- 
 dotes, Jeux de Mots, Enigmas, Charades, Poetry, etc., to serve 
 as Readings, Dictation, and Recitation. 3s. 6d. 
 
 Letter from Professor Max Muller, University of Oxford, May 1867. 
 "My DEAR Sir, — I am very happy to find that my anticipations as to 
 the success of your Grammar have been fully realized. Your book does 
 not require any longer a godfather; but if you wish me to act as such, I 
 shall be most happy to have my name connected with your prosperous 
 child. — Yours very truly, Max Mulleb. 
 
 " To Mons. C. H. Schneider, Edinburgh High School." 
 
 The French New Testament. The most approved 
 
 Protestant Version, and the one in general use in the French 
 Reformed Churches. Pocket Edition, roan, gilt edges, Is. 6d. 
 
 Chambaud's Fables Choisies. With a Vocabulary 
 
 containing the meaning of all the Words. By Scot and Wells. 2s. 
 
 Le Petit Fablier. With Vocabulary. For Junior Classes. 
 By G. M. Gibson, late Rector of the Bathgate Academy. Is. 6d. 
 
French. 
 
 19 
 
 Standard Pronouncing Dictionary of the French and 
 
 ENGLISH LANGUAGES. In Two Pakts. Part I. French and 
 English.— Part II. English and French. By Gabriel Surenne, 
 late Professor in the Scottish Naval and Military Academy, etc. 
 The First Part comprehends Words in Common Use, Terms con- 
 nected with Science and the Fine Arts, Historical, Geographical, 
 and Biographical Names, with the Pronunciation according to the 
 French Academy and the most eminent Lexicographers and Gram- 
 marians. The Second Part is an ample Dictionary of English words, 
 with the Pronunciation according to the best Authorities. The 
 whole is preceded by a Practical and Comprehensive System of 
 French Pronunciation. 7s. 6d., strongly bound. 
 
 The Pronunciation is shown by a different spelling of the Words. 
 
 Surenne's French -English and English -French 
 
 DICTIONARY, without the Pronunciation. 3s. 6d. strongly bound. 
 
 Surenne's Fenelon's Telemaque. 2 vols, Is. each, stiff 
 
 wrapper ; or bound together, 2s. 6d. 
 
 Surenne's Voltaire's Histoire de Charles XII. 
 
 Is. stiff wrapper ; or Is. 6d. bound. 
 
 Surenne's Voltaire's Histoire de Russie sous Pierre 
 
 LE GRAND. 
 
 2s. 6d. 
 
 2 vols. Is. each, stiff wrapper ; or bound together, 
 
 la Henriade. Is. stiff wrapper; 
 
 Surenne's Voltaire's 
 
 or Is. 6d. bound. 
 
 Surenne's New French Dialogues ; With an Introduc- 
 tion to French Pronunciation, a Copious Vocabulary, and Models of 
 Epistolary Correspondence. Fi'onunciation marked throughout. 2s. 
 
 Surenne's New French Manual and Traveller's 
 
 COMPANION. Containing an Introduction to French Pronuncia- 
 tion ; a Copious Vocabulary; a very complete Series of Dialogues 
 on Topics of Every-day Life; Dialogues on the Principal Conti- 
 nental Tours, and on the Objects of Interest in Paris ; with Models 
 of Epistolary Correspondence. Intended as a Class-book for the 
 Student and a Guide to the Tourist. Map. Pronunciation marked 
 throughout. 3s. 6d. 
 
 Surenne's Pronouncing French Primer. Containing 
 
 the Principles of French Pronunciation, a Vocabulary of easy and 
 familiar Words, and a selection of Phrases. Is. 6d. stiff wrapper. 
 
 Surenne's Moliere's TAvare : Comedie. Is. stiff wrap- 
 per ; or Is. 6d. bound. 
 
 Surenne's Moliere's le Bourgeois Gentilhomme : 
 
 Comedie. Is. stiff wrapper ; or Is. 6d. bound. 
 
20 French, 
 
 Surenne's Moliere's Le Misanthrope: Comedie, Le 
 
 MARIAGE FOKCE : Comedie. Is. stiff wrapper; or Is. 6d. bound. 
 
 Surenne's French Reading Instructor, Reduced to2^. 6d. 
 Hallard's French Grammar. 3s. 6d. Key, 3s. 6d. 
 Grammar of the French Language. By Auguste 
 
 Beljame, B.A., LL.B., Vice-Principal of the Paris International 
 College. 2s. 
 
 Beljame's Four Hundred Practical Exercises. Being 
 
 a Sequel to Beljame's French Grammar. 2s. 
 
 *^* Both Books hound together, 3s. 6d!. 
 The whole work has been composed with a view to conversation, a great 
 number of the Exercises being in the form of qaeBtious and answers. 
 
 First French Class-book, or a Practical and Easy Method 
 of learning the French Language, consisting of a series of French 
 and English Exercises, progressively and grammatically arranged. 
 By Jules Caron, F.E.I. S., French Teacher, Edin. Is. Key, Is. 
 
 This work follows the natural mode in which a child learns to speak its own 
 language, by repeating the same words and phrases in a great variety of forms 
 until the pupil becomes familiar with their use. 
 
 Caron's First French Reading-book: Being Easy and 
 
 Interesting Lessons, progressively arranged. "With a copious Vocab- 
 ulary of the Words and Idioms in the text. Is. 
 
 Caron's Principles of French Grammar. With numerous 
 
 Exercises. 2s. Key, 2s. 
 
 Spectator.— ^' May be recommended for clearness of exposition, gradual pro- 
 gression, and a distinct exhibition to the mind through the eye by means of typo- 
 graphical display : the last an important point where the subject admits of it." 
 
 An Easy Grammar of the French Language. With 
 
 Exercises and Dialogues. By John Christison, Teacher of 
 Modern Languages. Is. 4d. Key, 8d. 
 
 Christison's Recueil de Fables et Contes Choisis, 
 
 k rUsage de la Jeunesse. Is. 4d. 
 
 Christison's Fleury's Histoire de France, Racont^e 
 
 a la Jeunesse. With Translations of the difficult Passages. 2s. 6d. 
 
 French Extracts for Beginners, With a Vocabulary 
 
 and an Introduction. By F. A. Wolski, JMaster of the Foreign 
 Language Department in the High School of Glasgow. 2s. 6d. 
 
 Wolski's New French Grammar. With Exencises. 3s. 6d. 
 
Latin and Greek. 
 
 21 
 
 EDINBURGH ACADEMY CLASS-BOOKS. 
 
 The acknowledged merit of these school-books, and the high reputation of 
 the seminary from -vrhich they emanate, almost supersede the necessity of 
 any recommendation. The " Latin " and " Greek Rudiments " form an intro- 
 duction to these languages at once simple, perspicuous, and comprehensive. 
 The " Latin Rudiments " contain an Appendix, which renders the use of a 
 separate work on Grammar quite unnecessary; and the list of anomalous verbs 
 in the " Greek Rudiments" is believed to be more extensive and complete than 
 any that has yet appeared in School Grammars of the language. In the 
 " Latin Delectus " and " Greek Extracts " the sentences have been arranged 
 strictly on the progressive principle, increasing in difficulty with the advance- 
 ment of the Pupil's knowledge; while the Vocabularies contain an explanation 
 not only of every word, but also of every difficult expression which is found 
 in the works, — thus rendering the acquisition of the Latin and Greek languages 
 both easy and agreeable. The Selections from Cicero embrace the portions 
 of his works which are best adapted for Scholastic tuition. 
 
 1. Rudiments of the Latin Language. 2s. 
 
 *^* This work forma an introduction to the language, at once simple, perspicuous, 
 and comprehensive. 
 
 2. Latin Delectus ; with a Vocabulary containing an 
 Explanation of every Word and Difficult Expression which occurs 
 in the Text. 3s. 6d. 
 
 3. Rudiments of the Gresk Language ; with the Syntax 
 
 entirely re-written, and with Accent and Quantity treated of accord- 
 ing to their mutual relations. 3s. 6d. 
 
 4. Greek Extracts ; with a Vocabulary containing an 
 Explanation of every Word and of the more Difficult Passages in 
 the Text. 3s. 6d. 
 
 5. Selections from Cicero, 3s. 
 
 6. Selecta e Poetis Latinis. 3s. 
 
 Greek Syntax ; with a Rationale of the Constructions, by 
 Jas. Clyde, LL.D., one of the Classical Masters of the Edinburgh 
 Academy. With Prefatory Notice by John S. Blackie, Professor 
 of Greek in the University of Edinburgh. Ath Edition, entirely 
 re-written, and enlarged by a Summary for the use of Learners and 
 a chapter on Accents. 4s. 6d. 
 
 Greek Grammar for the Use of Colleges and Schools. By 
 
 Professor Geddes, University of Aberdeen. 4s, 
 
 The author has endeavoured to combine the clearness and conciseness of the 
 older Greek Grammars with the accuracy and fulness of more recent ones. 
 
22 Latin and Greek. 
 
 DR HUNTER'S CLASSICS. 
 
 1. Hunter's Ruddiman's Rudiments. Is. 6d. 
 
 2. Hunter's Sallust; with Footnotes and Translations. 
 
 Is. 6d. 
 
 3. Hunter's Virgil; with Notes and other Illustrations. 
 
 2s. 6d. 
 
 4. Hunter's Horace. 2s. 
 
 5. Hunter's Livy. Books XXI. to XXV. With Critical 
 and Explanatory Notes. Bedaced to 3s. 
 
 Latin Prose Composition : The Construction of Clauses, 
 
 with Illustrations from Cicero and Caesar ; a Vocabulary containing 
 an Explanation of every Word in the Text ; and an Index Verborum. 
 By John Massie, A.M. 3s. 6d. 
 
 Dymock's Caesar ; with illustrative Notes, a Historical and 
 Geographical Index, and a Map of Ancient Gaul. 4s. 
 
 Dymock's Sallust; with Explanatory Footnotes and a 
 Historical and Geographical Index. 23. 
 
 Caesar ; with Vocabulary explaining every Word in the Text, 
 Notes, Map, and Historical IVIemoir. By William M'Dowall, 
 late Inspector of the Heriot Foundation Schools, Edinburgh. 3s. 
 
 M'Dowall's Virgil; with Memoir, Notes, and Vocabulary 
 explaining every Word in the Text. 3s. 
 
 Neilson's Eutropias et Aurelius Victor; with Vocabu- 
 lary containing the meaning of every Word that occurs in the Text. 
 Bevised by Wm. M'Dowall. 2s. 
 
 Lectiones Selectae : or. Select Latin Lessons in Morality, 
 History, and Biography : for the use of Beginners. With a Vocab- 
 ulary explaining every Word in the Text. By C. Melville, late 
 of the Grammar School, Kirkcaldy. Is. 6d. 
 
 Macgowan's Lessons in Latin Reading. In Two Parts. 
 
 Part I., Improved by H. Eraser Halle, LL.D. 2s. 17th Edition. 
 Part II. 2s. 6d. The Two Courses furnish a complete Latin Library 
 of Reading, Grammar, and Composition for Beginners, consisting of 
 Lessons which advance in difficulty by easy gradations, accompanied 
 by Exercises in English to be turned into Latin. Each volume 
 contains a complete Dictionary adapted to itself. 
 
Latin and Greek. 
 
 23 
 
 Mail's Introduction to Latin Sjmtax : with Illustrations 
 
 by Ivev. Alex. Stewart, LL.D. ; an English and Latin Vocabulary, 
 for the assistance of the Pupil in translating into Latin the English 
 Exercises on each Rule ; and an Explanatory Vocabulary of Proper 
 Names. 3s. 
 
 Stewart's Cornelius Nepos; with Notes, Chronological 
 
 Tables, and a Vocabulary explaining ererj Word in the Text. 3s. 
 
 Ainsworth's Latin Dictionary. Edited by Wm. Duncan, 
 
 E.G. p. 1070 pages. 9s. strongly bound. 
 
 This edition contains a copious index of proper names, a complete list of 
 Latin abbreviations, and other important and useful tables. 
 
 Duncan's Greek Testament. 3s. 6d. 
 
 Beza's Latin Testament. 
 
 Dickinson, A.M. 3s. 6d. 
 
 Revised by the late Adam 
 
 Xenophon's Anabasis, Books I. and II. ; with Vocabulary 
 
 giving an Explanation of every "Word in the Text, and a Trans- 
 lation of the more difficult Phrases. By James Fergusson, M.D., 
 late Eector of the West End Academy, Aberdeen. 2s. 6d. 
 
 AthenoEum.—" The text of this admirable little work is that of Dindorf, 
 and the punctuation generally that of Poppo. Its principal excellence as 
 an introduction to the study of Greek consists in the copious, correct, and 
 well arranged Vocabulary at the end. This contains good translations of 
 difficult passages, with exact information upon points of antiquities derived 
 from the best and most modem authorities." 
 
 Grammatical Exercises on the Moods, Tenses, and 
 
 SYNTAX OF ATTIC GREEK. With a Vocabulary containing 
 the meaning of every Word in the Text. On the plan of Professor 
 Ferguson's Latin " Grammatical Exercises." By Dr Feegusson. 
 3s. 6d. Key, 3s. 6d. 
 
 *,^* This work is intended to follow the Greek Eudiments, 
 
 Homer's Iliad— Greek, from Bekker's Text. Edited 
 
 by the Rev. W. Veitch, Author of " Greek Verbs, Irregular and 
 Defective," etc. 3s. 6d. 
 
 Homer's Iliad, Books I., VI., XX., and XXIV. ; with 
 
 Vocabulary giving an Explanation of every Word in the Text, and 
 a Translation of the more difficult Passages. By Dr Fergusson. 
 3s. 6d, 
 
24 Latin and Greek, 
 
 LATIN ELEMENTARY WORKS AND CLASSICS. 
 
 Edited by George Ferguson, LL.D., lately Professor of Humanity in King's 
 
 College and University of Aberdeen, and formerly one of the 
 
 Masters of the Edinburgh Academy. 
 
 1. Fergnson's Grammatical Exercises. With Notes, 
 
 and a Vocabulary explaining every Word in the Text. 2s. Key, 2s. 
 
 2. FergQson's Introductory Latin Delectus; Intended 
 
 to follow the Latin Rudiments ; with a Vocabulary containing an 
 Explanation of every Word and of every Difficult Expression. 2s. 
 
 3. Ferguson's Ovid's Metamorphoses. With Explanatory 
 
 Notes and an Index, containing Mythological, Geographical, and 
 Historical Illustrations. 2s. 6d. 
 
 4. Ferguson's Ciceronis Orationes Selectae. Containing 
 
 pro Lege Manilla, IV. in Catilinam, pro A. L. Archia, pro T. A. 
 Milone. Ex Orellii recensione. Is. 6d. 
 
 5. Ferguson's Ciceronis Cato Major sive de Senectute, 
 
 Laelius sive de Amicitia, Somniura Scipionis, et Epistolae Selectae. 
 Ex Orellii recensione. Is. 6d. 
 
 6. Ferguson's Ciceronis de Officiis, Is. 6d. 
 
 ITALIAN. 
 Theoretical and Practical Italian Grammar; with 
 
 Numerous Exercises and Examples, illustrative of every Eule, and 
 
 a Selection of Phrases and Dialogues. By E. Lemmi, LL.D., Italian 
 
 Tutor to H. E. H. the Prince of Wales. 5s. — Key, 5s. 
 
 From Count Saffi, Professor of the Italian Language at Oxford. — " I have 
 
 adopted your Grammar for the elementary instruction of students of Italian 
 
 in the Taylor Institution, and find it admirably adapted to the purpose, as 
 
 well for the order and clearness of the rules, as for the practical excellence and 
 
 ability of the exercises with which you have enriched it." 
 
 GEEMAN. 
 A New German Reader, in Prose and Verse; with a 
 
 Grammatical and Etymological Vocabulary containing the meaning 
 of all the Words in the Text ; Forms of Commercial and other 
 Correspondence, and Specimens of German National Handwriting. 
 For the Use of Schools. By C. Fischeu-Fischart, of the Edin- 
 burgh Merchant Co. Educational Institutions. 3s. 6d. Now ready 
 PUBLISHED BY OLIVER AND BOYD, EDINBURGH; 
 
 SOLD ALSO BY 8IMPKIN, MARSHALL, AND CO., LONDON, AND ALL BOOKSELLEB8. 
 
Oliver and Boyd^s New Code Class-Books. 
 
 1. 
 
 STANDARD READING-BOOKS, 
 
 By James Colville, M.A., Senior English Master, George Watson's College- 
 Schools, Lauriston, Edinburgh, one of the Educational Institutions 
 of the Merchant Company. 
 
 The folloioing are already published : — 
 
 FBIMEB : Being Spelling and Reading Lessons Introductory to Standard I. 
 
 {Illustrated.) 36 pages. Ud. 
 FIRST STANDARD READING-BOOK; with Easy Lessons in Script. 
 
 {Illustrated.) 95 pages. 4d. in stiff wrapper, or 6d. cloth. 
 
 SECOND STANDARD READING-BOOK ; with Dictation Exercises, 
 partly in Script. {Illustrated.) 108 pages. 4d. in stiff wrapper, or 
 6d. cloth. 
 
 THIRD STANDARD READING-BOOK ; with Dictation Exercises, partly 
 in Script. 144 pages, strongly bound. 8d. 
 
 2. 
 
 ARITHMETIC, 
 
 By Alexander Trotter, Teacher of Mathematics, etc., Edinburgh ; 
 Author of " Arithmetic for Advanced Classes," etc. 
 
 Part I., embracing Standards 1 and 2. 36 pages. 2d. — Answers, 3d. 
 
 Part II., embracing Standards 3 and 4. 36 pages. 2d. — Answers, 3d. 
 
 Part III. in Preparation. 
 
 3. 
 STANDARD GEOGRAPHIES, 
 
 By W. Lawson, F.R.G.S., St Mark's College, Chelsea; Author of 
 "Geography of the British Empire," etc. 
 
 GEOGRAPHICAL PRIMER, embracing an Outline of the Chief Divisions 
 of the World. Adapted to Standard IV. 36 pages. 2d. 
 
 GEOGRAPHY of ENGLAND and WALES ; with a Chapter on Railways. 
 Adapted to Standard V. 36 pages. 2d. 
 
 4. 
 LAWSON'S ELEMENTS OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY, Adapted to 
 the Requirements of the New Code. 90 pages. 6d. 
 
 *^f* A Specimen Copy of any one or more of the above will be sent to Principals of 
 Schools, post-free, by Oliver and Boyd, on receipt of half the retail price in stamps. 
 
 Edinburgh : Oliver asd Boyd. London : Simpkin, Marshall, and Co. 
 
 3 
 
YB 
 
 36929 
 
 NEW SCHOOL-BOOKS 
 
 PUBLISHED BY 
 
 OLIYEE AND BOYD, EDINBURGH. 
 
 1. 
 
 This day is published, 452 pages, price 3s. 6d. 
 A NEW GERMAN READER, in Prose and Verse; with a Gram- 
 matical and Etymological Vocabulary containing the meaning of all the Words in 
 the Text; Forms of Commercial and other Correspondence, and Specimens of 
 German National Handwriting. For the Use of Schools. By C. Fischer-Fischakt, 
 of the Edinburgh Merchant Company's Educational Institutions, etc. 
 
 2. 
 
 Just published, price 6d. 
 
 OUTLINES OF ENGLISH COMPOSITION for Elementary Schools. 
 
 ENGL] 
 
 numei 
 of "I 
 
 PROGi 
 
 New 
 much 
 
 541715 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY 
 
 SPELt.«« 
 
 By Dr James Douglas. 144 pages. Price Is. 
 
 "A good practical book, from which correct spelling and pronunciation may be 
 acquired." — Athenceum. 
 
 FIRST YEAR'S FRENCH COURSE. By Charles Henri Schneider, 
 Author of "French Conversation-Grammar/' etc., etc. 212 pages. Price Is. 6d. 
 %* This work forms a complete course of French for beginners, and comprehends 
 Grammatical Exercises, with Rules; Reading Lessons, with Notes; Dictation; Exer- 
 cises in Conversation; and a Vocabulary of all the Words in the Book. 
 
 *,* A Specimen Copy of any one or more of the above will be sent to Principals of 
 Schools, post-free, by Oliver and Boyd, on receipt ofhalftht, retail price in stamps.