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RECLAIMING 
 
 THE OLD HOUSE 
 
 ITS MODERN PROBLEMS AND 
 
 THEIR SOLUTION AS GOVERNED BY 
 THE METHODS OF ITS BUILDERS 
 
 WriBen and lar^'efy zYlii/irdied Ay 
 
 CHAS.EDW.HOOPER 
 
 Atdl^or qf"T/)e Counirylfouse^^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 NEW YORK 
 Jifc^ride, JVasi ^ Compaity, FziMisAers 
 
 1 i) 1 J 
 

 Copyright, 1913, by 
 McBride, Nast & Co. 
 
 Published, April, 1913 
 
<SD c) s) p C) > (pc>nrrk <^^^^C>^C>> 
 
 John Henry Hooper 
 
 26132G 
 
REFACE. 
 
 ^^ 
 
 One can do much with an old-time house by under- 
 standing its language; a step further one has a bet- 
 ter knowledge of French, who can think in French, 
 The old house was not as a rule the brain child of 
 the professional or even amateur architect; almost al- 
 ways it was conceived in a mind steeped in tradition and born 
 only when the last shaving fell from the plane of its crafts- 
 man parent. Tradition and custom thus applied and supple- 
 mented by local limitation, could breed only localism. But if 
 tradition bred localism, localism in turn bred variety; every 
 section did not solve its problems in the same way; its language 
 is often as diverse as that of the several German states. Be- 
 cause of this the average architect is seldom successful in restor- 
 ing the old house; the note from Westover or Mt. Vernon rings 
 false in halls of Ladd or Van Cortlandt. The craftsman sought 
 expression by means of methods unfamiliar to the architect, 
 methods which were apart from his training. The traditions of 
 the father were the heritage of the son; the art of the world is 
 the heritage of the architect. 
 
 The reader may find that his localisms differ slightly from 
 such as we may herein describe. This we expect as a matter 
 of course; we have not searched every nook and corner; we are 
 not writing a history. It was localism that marked the old house 
 as a native born; it is thus evident that the local touch gives the 
 local flavor. This fact we wish to impress strongly. The native- 
 born walks the streets of his own town without comment; 'tis the 
 foreigner who is noticeable, whose accent or pronunciation is 
 false. The more man has been driven by necessity, the more con- 
 centrated has been his endeavor, the better his results. The 
 forced conditions of the early settlers has given us the best of 
 Colonial tradition. To study old houses, one must be an anti- 
 quarian, even though his researches extend no further than his 
 own dooryard. Therefore we beg the reader to seek for himself 
 the inspiration that awaits him in such examples as surround his 
 old house. 
 
 We would here acknowledge the courtesy of Doubleday, Page 
 & Company and The Crowell Publishing Company in allowing 
 us the use of photographs and drawings already published in 
 Country Life in America and the Woman's Home Companion. 
 We have identified those of the former by "C. L."; those of the 
 latter by "W. H. C." 
 
ABLE OF Contents. 
 
 Chapter One 
 SELECTION ....... 13 
 
 Chapter ^wo 
 PLANNING .... 25 
 
 Chapter T^hree 
 EXTERIOR DETAILS ........ 42 
 
 Chapter Four 
 INTERIOR DETAILS ......... 57 
 
 Chapter Five 
 HARDWARE 73 
 
 Chapter Six 
 FURNITURE 86 
 
 Chapter Seven 
 A PRACTICAL EXAMPLE ....... 101 
 
 Chapter Eight 
 OUTBUILDINGS, ETC .113 
 
 Chapter Nine 
 THE GARDEN 128 
 
 Chapter T!en 
 FENCES AND ENCLOSURES .... . . 148 
 
 GLOSSARY ............. ., . 161 
 
1ST OF LLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 Note The dates given are those commonly accepted; with 
 very few exceptions they have not been verified by the author. 
 They are apt to be earlier than the house as it appears, al- 
 though the core may be much earlier than the skin. The local 
 historian is likely to give us what looks well and is satisfac- 
 tory to his public, regardless of plausibility. 
 
 The old Whitman houses Farmington, Conn. (1680) Fronti8pi4ce 
 
 Facing Paoi 
 
 The Joel West house, East Hampton, Conn 13 
 
 Variations of the highway frontage 14 
 
 The heritage of big trees 15 
 
 A bit of the coast as a prospect 19 
 
 The apple orchard as a feature of the site 18 
 
 An old house with a sound frame but dilapidated exterior 19 
 
 A fisherman's cottage at Martha's Vineyard 19 
 
 An old house sheltered by two trees 22 
 
 A good example of the old Colonial type 23 
 
 A prospect in the Connecticut Valley 23 
 
 An old house nestling close to the water's edge 23 
 
 The Peter Tufts house, Medford, Mass. (1677-1680) 26 
 
 An Asher Benjamin house at Windsor, Vt 28 
 
 One of the Ellsworth houses at Windsor, Vt. (about 1750) 27 
 
 An old house of "B" plan with a chimney stack 27 
 
 "Grumblethorp," Germantown, Pa 30 
 
 "Stenton," Germantown, Pa. (1727) 30 
 
 The Nelson house, Yorktown, Va 31 
 
 A Southern type with the two-storied piazza 31 
 
 An old Connecticut gambrel-roof house 38 
 
 An old Dutch house on Long Island, N. Y 38 
 
 An example of Greek influence on late New England Georgian 39 
 
 An old house at Yorktown, Va 39 
 
 Two examples of the three-story house 44 
 
 Entrance motive to HoUister house, Greenfield, Mass. (1800) 44 
 
 Detail of the Bowne house. Flushing, Long Island, N. Y 45 
 
 The "stoep" of a Dutch house on Long Island, N. Y 4^ 
 
 Two Colonial craftsmen'^s doorways 48 
 
 Details of a Dutch house on Long Island, N. Y 49 
 
 Late New England Colonial entrance influenced by the Greek Revival .... 49 
 
 The Taylor house, Roxbury, Mass 54 
 
 A rear piazza in the Connecticut Valley 54 
 
 Detail of an overhang with chamfered posts 55 
 
 Overhang detail of Whitman house, Farmington, Conn 55 
 
 An old kitchen of the pre-Revolution period 60 
 
 Hall of a Dutch house on Long Island, N. Y 61 
 
 Detail of the Bowne house. Flushing, Long Island, N. Y 61 
 
 Built-in buffet of the early type 66 
 
 Southern interior doorway 66 
 
 A New England hallway (about 1750) 67 
 
 An example of the Southern stairway in the North 67 
 
 A Southern interior doorway of the later period 70 
 
 A Southern mantel of the middle period 70 
 
 A New England mantel and Franklin stove 71 
 
 A Dutch mantel from Long Island, N. Y 71 
 
 Old locks, hinges, latches and knockers 74 
 
 Wrought-iron latch grips for exteriors, and knockers 75 
 
 Iron, bronze and brass latches, and knockers 78 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 
 
 Pacing Page 
 
 Brass and bronze knockers 79 
 
 Knockers, surface-hinge and door scrapers 84 
 
 Reproductions in brass of latches and knockers 85 
 
 Old and modern Colonial wall papers 88 
 
 An old hooked rug and a modern design 89 
 
 Old and new Colonial furniture 94 
 
 Two old mirrors with eagle emblems 95 
 
 An old-time lantern 95 
 
 Inlaid lyre hat-tree and a tip table 95 
 
 Old and new Colonial chairs 98 
 
 A Colonial dining-room 99 
 
 A Colonial living-room 99 
 
 An old house before and after alterations 103 
 
 The altered house from the street 103 
 
 The altered house from the water-side 103 
 
 Front entrance 104 
 
 Kitchen entrance based on the woodshed motive 104 
 
 A detail of the dining-room 105 
 
 The reception room mantel 105 
 
 Detail of the dining-room mantel 110 
 
 The living-room fireplace 110 
 
 The dining-room buffet Ill 
 
 The new stairs Ill 
 
 An old Long Island barn 114 
 
 A Connecticut barn boarded vertically 114 
 
 The Baldwin stables. North Woburn, Mass 115 
 
 Corn-crib on the Baldwin Estate 115 
 
 Outhouse and woodshed, screened 118 
 
 The old Taylor stable at Roxbury, Mass 118 
 
 Minot house. Concord, Mass 119 
 
 Caretaker's quarters attached to a modern barn 119 
 
 An open woodshed 122 
 
 A lattice-screened woodshed 122 
 
 An old well and sweep 123 
 
 Covered well attached to the house 123 
 
 Arbor-sheltered entrance to the Keyes garden, Putney, Vt 134 
 
 Octagonal arbor at "Boxwood," Lyme, Conn 134 
 
 The Keyes garden from the division wall 135 
 
 Entrance to the Prince house. Flushing, Long Island, N. Y 135 
 
 Sarkey garden, Essex, Conn 138 
 
 Pentagonal summer-house on the Hollister place, Greenfield, Mass 138 
 
 Two views of the Sarkey gardens 139 
 
 Garden path. Old Manse, Deerfield, Mass 144 
 
 Allyn garden, Saybrook, Conn 144 
 
 High-growing elements in the flower garden 145 
 
 An old enclosed front yard 150 
 
 A new gate in an old fence 150 
 
 A gateway in the style of the Greek Revival 151 
 
 An old fence with a stone base 151 
 
 An old fence at Salem, Mass 154 
 
 Repetition of design in fence and porch rail 155 
 
 A pleached entrance 155 
 
 A fence combination of lattice and pickets 158 
 
 An old walk sheltered by old growth 158 
 
 Entrance to the Garrettson house, Flushing, Long Island, N. Y 159 
 
 Gateway to the Cowles house, Fannington, Conn. 159 
 

The Joel West house at East llampion, Conn. An early example, having a Dutch 
 "kick" to the piazza roof, and a half-door at the end of the piazza to keep off the wind 
 
RECLAIMING THE 
 OLD HOUSE 
 
 Chapter One 
 SLECTlON 
 
 FOR one who has an atom of poetry in his soul, there is 
 a tremendous fascination in the antique. With some it 
 may be but a passing interest, as when one is brought 
 in contact with some interesting specimen of the handi- 
 craft of earlier days. Others become worshipers at the shrine, 
 purposely seeking, and even collecting, from simple pleasure. 
 Probably too, there are many people who would hardly con- 
 sider a bit of old lace, or relic of an unforgotten war, and yet 
 display a lively interest in an old house. The latter is perhaps 
 nearer to the sympathies of the many, inasmuch as it is closer 
 to the needs of human existence. At all events, for a number 
 of years past, there are many who have taken up old places and 
 made homes of them. For the most part this experiment has 
 destroyed the character of the subject; at times even bordering 
 on the criminal. Few have kept the feeling of the old thing, 
 while the failures have not been from want of inclination or lack 
 of trying. With these last it simply is a question of not under- 
 standing the subject of groping in the dark for something 
 
 13 
 

 14 RECLAIMING THE OLD HOUSE 
 
 which is plain enough if one looks in the right direction. Ten 
 to one the first thing that the average person thinks of, upon be- 
 coming the owner of an old house, is the addition of a piazza; 
 and ten to one this feature is not a part of the style to which 
 he would tack it. It is simply a clash between two demands 
 and conditions of living; being then entirely at sea, the result 
 is unavoidable. But a piazza or a legitimate substitute can be 
 put on any house, even though such be not a feature of the style. 
 This, however, would not be a restoration, rather more like say- 
 ing "mugwump" in the language of the Pharaohs but of this 
 later. 
 
 Now let us take up the subject at the beginning, in a mat- 
 ter-of-fact way, and proceed through the natural channels to a 
 definite conclusion: First catch your fish. One knows in a 
 general way from the history just about what he may expect 
 to find in various parts of the country. Naturally one does not 
 look for relics of 1650 in a country that was a howling wilder- 
 ness at that time; this is a thing to be remembered. We are, 
 unfortunately, slaves to a certain mistaken notion that every- 
 thing that may be called old dates from The Landing of the 
 Pilgrims and Sixteen Twenty. Of all our helpless pioneers, 
 they have been saddled with most of the impossibles. There 
 is enough of household furniture and utensils purported to have 
 come over in the 3Iay flower, to have sunk several modern navies ; 
 while they who have pinned their ancestry to this little band 
 would make it imperative to have adopted all the foundlings in 
 England in bearing out such facts. Having been rationalized 
 in the knowledge of conditions, one may cease to expect impossi- 
 bilities and accept things as they are. Really they are sufiicient 
 in themselves. 
 
 Among the best things to consult, after your history, are 
 the government charts, which are drawn on a scale of an inch to 
 the mile, and are quite reliable and complete. These show con- 
 tours of the land giving elevations, roads and even houses when 
 it is possible. Of course, these charts as yet do not cover the 
 whole of the country, but there is much that is covered and in 
 such cases the chart is valuable. Then there are the newspaper 
 advertisements and the catalogues of several agents who make 
 a specialty of farm property. But whatever section you may 
 
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SELECTION 15 
 
 select, be sure that it is practical, that is, does it cover your 
 requirements as to accessibility in its nearness to public convey- 
 ance, and in elapsed time to and from your business? Even 
 if it be a summer problem, which is more than likely, it 
 must be understood that week-end trips are tiresome at the best, 
 and one does not care to spend all one's time on the road. Fur- 
 ther than this, there is the question of traveling expenses of 
 vast importance to the most of us. 
 
 Then there is the locality itself. Is it healthy? What are 
 its inhabitants? Has it any public nuisance or insect pests? 
 What of supplies and their prices; the local store probably of- 
 fers some minor articles, or it may be good enough to be abso- 
 lutely relied on ^very likely, however, one must get things from 
 the outside can such be gotten with ease? Your postal serv- 
 ice what of that? Then there is fuel, an all important prob- 
 lem. What of climatic conditions; of prevailing winds? Do 
 you get any benefit from the latter? The roads are also rather 
 important factors one should understand what he is getting 
 in this direction. Is it the same old dust heap turned over and 
 over, or what? 
 
 Look into the taxes: is the rate high or low? If it is high, 
 is it offset by the valuation ? In what light will the town officials 
 receive your coming fairly, as a law-abiding citizen or unfairly 
 as one who is too fat and hence is to be squeezed. Unfair taxa- 
 tion is expensive to fight better get a point or two on this line. 
 
 There are many townships in which, of the several villages, 
 one is still "alive" and holds the large majority of the popula- 
 tion and hence the controlling vote. Should you select one of 
 these lesser villages, be forewarned that you may expect more 
 or less trouble from the larger center, which having little per- 
 sonal interest in any other direction but its own, will put such 
 valuation and tax on your holdings as it may see fit, and it is 
 surprising how these officials will suddenly become almost human 
 and discover unrecorded beauties of nature and charming views 
 in other folk's dooryards. If you have them for neighbors, 
 you have some base of comparison; their property against yours, 
 and perhaps a chance at redress, if you care to take it up. But 
 with the former condition you are practically at their mercy, and 
 your local official, if you are lucky enough to have even that, is 
 
16 RECLAIMING THE OLD HOUSE 
 
 naturally powerless against such odds. Now this is neither a 
 vision nor a theory; we know whereof we speak. 
 
 Suppose. then you have located a possibility that is pleasing. 
 The next step is to look it over. Outside of the general outlay 
 of the place, we would naturally turn to the house first but 
 let us digress in favor of the land for a moment. What is the 
 immediate neighborhood and what its neighbors; are they 
 desirable or otherwise; will they respect your property when 
 you are away? It might be well to know! At all events, get 
 what elbow room you can you will need it. At the same time 
 consider that the care of several acres, other than woodland, will 
 occasion some expense. Your lot should be above the road level 
 and drain onto it rather than receive drainage from it. Old 
 houses, as a general rule, had their living-rooms facing the street, 
 and unless there be a chance easily to arrange the plan to accom- 
 modate a good rearward view, your being below the road, or 
 too near to it, might be a serious objection. Our forefathers 
 had little time to sit about and view the beauties of Nature and 
 it is very likely that their taste leaned but slightly in such a 
 direction. The Colonial farmer was a working man: hardly a 
 gentleman of leisure, and consequently he built, for the most part, 
 on the highway to fit the practical part of his existence. The 
 merchant, and those of more professional calling than the farmer, 
 perhaps retired a bit farther from the highway, but those in 
 New England who built well in from the highway, in the south- 
 ern manner, are very rare. This nearness to the road is very apt 
 to be a menace, owing to its lack of privacy under most condi- 
 tions. It is rather a hard problem to handle successfully at 
 times, and should be considered and solved in outline, at least 
 during the first survey. 
 
 One thing on which the possibilities of the place largely 
 hinges is the outlook. We who have time to take up with the 
 problem at all will demand this. Now what is the character of 
 your view? Is it unobstructable, i. e., can future developments 
 destroy it? If the view is locally obstructed that is, on the 
 land itself one can remedy it, but the outside obstruction is 
 beyond correction. 
 
 The general charater of the surface of the plot is a thing 
 to be noted well at the start. On this, too, in a measure, de- 
 
SELECTIOI^ 17 
 
 pends the vital question of water supply and drainage. A local 
 elevation or an easy slope is perhaps preferable to level ground, 
 although the latter is reasonably safe from the menace of drain- 
 age from outside sources. It is better that your lot should drain 
 into your neighbor's than his into yours. The local hollow is 
 bad in many ways : everything flows into it ; it is naturally damp 
 and, being more or less cut off from the winds, is open to the 
 invasion of frosts. The too steep grade, however, is a thing 
 to be avoided on general principles, as there is a tendency to 
 washouts in all your surface contours ^gardens, grass plots, 
 drives, walks and the like. The climb involved in such ap- 
 proaches may become a hardship ; and if one purposes to remove 
 to such property later in life, the objection is doubled. 
 
 Another thing as regards land contours is the general ob- 
 jection to high land in the immediate vicinity, in any other 
 direction than the north. Land sloping toward the south or 
 southeast is, under ordinary conditions, the best that can be had. 
 Of course, locality has much to do with this, as well as the direc- 
 tion of prevailing winds, and as these last play a very important 
 part in the summer problem they should be borne in mind. 
 Although local conditions may vary with different localities, 
 the location and influence of the sun is the same wherever one 
 may go. With this to consider it is natural that the living-room 
 of the house should be so located as to avoid the hot sun of a 
 summer afternoon: hence the outlook is best toward the east or 
 southeast. Now, of course, it is hardly to be expected that one 
 will find a type of house embodying all the choicest points of 
 the ideal condition, but the vital things should be insisted upon; 
 one may perhaps jockey a little with the rest. 
 
 Water supply and drainage should always be considered 
 together, but in practice they should be kept very much apart. 
 The ordinary water supply of the country is the dug well, and 
 this should be as far from your ultimate drainage as is possible. 
 It must cast a suspicious eye on the barnyard, pigpen and the 
 outhouses, and, if located near, should by all means be well above 
 them in grade. It is hard to determine, without actually tear- 
 ing everything to pieces, in just what direction the underground 
 strata pitches. Therefore, it is safer to give any source of con- 
 tamination a wide berth. In cautioning the water supply to 
 
18 RECLAIMING THE OLD HOUSE 
 
 avoid the drainage, we are regulating the latter to its proper 
 place, yet here it might be well to remember that your neighbor 
 has a water supply and to consider this in your general rough 
 solution of the problem. This last very naturally calls one's 
 attention to the possibility of the foreign invasion on one's own 
 water supply, and plenty of elbow room is a great step in the 
 direction of self protection. Right here it might be well, while 
 considering your neighbor, to ascertain what local nuisance he 
 is fathering. A pigpen in the direction of prevailing winds 
 might be highly objectionable. The owner may say what he 
 chooses as regards this topic, but he cannot alter facts. If you 
 intend to do a little gardening, the presence of good soil and 
 a fairly level plot is important. 
 
 Outside of a rather hasty first survey of the land, the house 
 itself naturally engages our immediate attention. We will as- 
 sume that the exterior is fairly pleasing or suggestive of possi- 
 bilities; let us then pass to the interior, as this is the key to all 
 our troubles. 
 
 In the first examination two things should be borne in mind: 
 the general visible condition, and the possibilities of the gen- 
 eral arrangement. The latter, one will naturally keep in mind 
 while determining the former. This first survey will tell you 
 whether your house walls are plumb, or nearly so, and your floors 
 level. By the swing of doors over the floor one may tell some- 
 thing of this. The condition of the doors and windows and the 
 standing finish should be investigated, and, what is of consider- 
 able importance, the easy tread and accessibility of the stairs. 
 This last is really vital, inasmuch as the extra space required to 
 make easy stairs may not be forthcoming. 
 
 Right here it may be well to introduce a few simple techni- 
 calities regarding stairs in general. The treads of a flight of 
 stairs are the steps or horizontal members on which we tread; 
 the risers are the vertical members between the treads. Speak- 
 ing in figures, we say that the rise is so much and the tread so 
 much; in this way we definitely define the stairs. On a large 
 scale, the height from floor to floor is called the "rise," and the 
 available horizontal space the "run" of the flight. Modern cal- 
 culation has reduced the problem of easy stairs to the following 
 rule: the product of the rise and tread in inches should equal 
 
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 There is nothing just like a bit of the coast, with its ever-changing tides and salty- 
 smell of the sea. Fresh water is one thing and salt most decidedly another 
 
 ready-made apple orchard is no mean consideration. Although it may not mean , 
 
 self-supporting industry, it surely is worth while for home supply Pj 
 
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 This old fisherman's cottage at Martha's Vineyard suggests clams and crabs and 
 lobsters, to say nothing of the motor-dory and fresh fish 
 
SELECTION 19 
 
 seventy or nearly so. It has been found by experiment that 
 the nearer we keep to the rule the easier the stairs. Like all 
 rules this one is not infallible ; within it there is a happy medium, 
 from which in either direction it is dangerous to travel far. The 
 happy medium lies in a tread of ten inches and a rise of seven 
 that is, for the front stairs of a dwelling. If we increase the 
 rise we decrease the tread, and vice versa. It is hardly probable 
 that we will find in an old house, stairs as easy as seven by ten 
 ^they are more apt to be steeper. For the front stairs it is 
 not best that they be steeper than eight and one-half by eight 
 and one-half. The fact that they may be much flatter than 
 seven by ten is so improbable that one need hardly consider it. 
 
 Now, supposing the stairs in question to be too steep: in 
 their correction we must, in reducing the rise, increase the total 
 number of risers, and consequently the total number of treads. 
 In all probability the depth of the treads will be increased to 
 come somewhere near the seven by ten standard, so we can see 
 at once that the total run of the tread will be a considerable gain 
 on the original run. Vital question: have you the space for 
 the extra run? 
 
 When there is a chance for a new and independent flight 
 of stairs, which will be the most used medium of inter-story 
 communication, the question of the steep original is not so vital. 
 
 Then, too, there is the condition of the plastering. If one 
 taps it, he can determine whether or no it has broken away from 
 the clinch. Such as may be loose will, of course, have to be re- 
 placed. And in the case of a large area, and old-fashioned laths, 
 it is best to tear out and relath, for it is a considerable job to free 
 the intervals in old lathing from plaster. Old plastering was 
 generally better than our own, being made, for the greater part, 
 from shell lime. Their lathing in most cases was inferior, as it 
 did not give a uniform chance for a clinch of the plastering. 
 
 Look out for the sagging or saddle-back roof it is hard 
 to rectify. In its settlement it has exerted a tremendous 
 pressure against the outer walls of the house and forced them 
 outward. If the house walls had held, there would have been 
 no settlement of the roof. This problem is so difficult that it 
 requires practically the rebuilding of the entire structure. Not 
 only have the walls spread at the plate or junction with the roof, 
 
20 RECLAIMING THE OLD HOUSE 
 
 but they have probably pulled away from the nearer floor as 
 well. 
 
 Next to the true level and plumb condition of the structure, 
 is the real condition of the main timbers. The sill first of all: 
 It stands to reason that if this is badly decayed other members 
 which have depended upon it for support have settled; the first 
 floor timbers are aff'ected; the settling studs and other uprights 
 have either dragged other members with them or allowed them 
 to follow of their own weight. The same general result may be 
 expected if the ends of the uprights themselves become deteri- 
 orated. Now it may be possible that the evidences of decay are 
 not visible, in which case a knife or some long sharp instru- 
 ment should be used from both inside and out, where practical. 
 If there is not too much settlement, lesser timbers, or to a lim- 
 ited extent larger timbers, may be replaced, and with less ex- 
 pense in the case of floor timbers or girders, which are more or 
 less independent of the outer walls. Often, too, a slight local 
 settlement may be rectified, although the problem is rather 
 hazardous; involving besides the first expense, others which may 
 arise from it, such as broken plastering, sagging doors, windows 
 and like trouble. 
 
 In the two extremes of the house the attic and the cellar 
 one may look for trouble. In the former for roof conditions, 
 such as bad roof timbers and boarding, and a leaky roof. 
 Naturally the latter condition has done more or less damage to 
 the house interior; the wetting of woodwork has induced decay, 
 or that of plastering, a general weakening of the same. It may 
 be that while the present condition of the roof covering is well 
 enough, some previous state may have eff'ected the damage above 
 stated, so that it is well to look for evidence in any case. As 
 to the roof boards are they in condition to hold new shingles? 
 This naturally suggests a point which is vital in considering the 
 reconstruction problem of the old house. While an old bit of 
 construction may hold together if undisturbed, having become 
 from long association of parts and equal conditions of deteriora- 
 tion, as one mass, it is often a question whether or not it will 
 hear any attempt at rebuilding, without great weakening, or 
 even destruction. 
 
 As to the cellar: apart from offering an excellent chance 
 
SELECTION 21 
 
 to ascertain the condition of the floor timbers, it is frequently 
 the source of dampness. The question in such case is one of 
 origin. Is the cellar so poorly ventilated as to effect this? 
 Does it find its way through the cellar walls or is it local? This 
 last condition is often serious enough to make the abandonment 
 of the whole thing advisable. It is not best to have a well in 
 the cellar, but if your soil will permit of drainage it can be filled 
 up. A spring, however, is a different thing. Better waste no 
 further time with such a problem, unless the nuisance be small 
 and the slope of the land sufficient to carry a drain under the 
 house wall: then clap a concrete bottom on the cellar. Unless 
 the house appeals to you very strongly, it will hardly warrant 
 this expense. 
 
 Not to be overlooked are the chimneys. They may hide 
 untold evils evils which may mean the total destruction of the 
 house. This consideration is by far the more uncertain in a 
 house that has stood idle, and wherein the masonry may have 
 had a chance for great deterioration since it was last used. The 
 entire rebuilding of a chimney under the usual conditions attend- 
 ing old work makes it an expensive job, and yet, when the flues 
 are of considerable size, as is common in the majority of old 
 houses, one may get over the difficulty by introducing a circular 
 metal flue and filling in about it with concrete. Of course, it 
 is understood that alterations are of two kinds ^vital and merely 
 convenient. The chimney is decidedly of the former: one can 
 tell much of its condition in the attic and cellar, where the 
 masonry is exposed. A pointed iron or often a good umbrella 
 stick, will determine whether the brickwork is in a soft condi- 
 tion or not. When soft bricks have been used, they are apt to 
 have suffered much from the invasion of water, and will some- 
 times crumble at the touch. 
 
 Having obtained a general idea of the interior, we may pass 
 on to the exterior. As a general rule old houses were set too 
 low: dampness and many of the evils of decayed sills have orig- 
 inated from this source. If your problem is one of these, will 
 the structure stand raising a foot or more? Sills must be rea- 
 sonably sound to do this without considerable expense. Perhaps 
 a simple area and larger cellar windows may solve the problem. 
 
 Right here it might be well to state that much of the old 
 
22 RECLAIMING THE OLD HOUSE 
 
 seasoned look may have to be sacrificed in making the necessary 
 repairs. Is it the weather-beaten effect, or the general design 
 that pleases you? Weathering may not necessarily have led to 
 decay. Often such effects may be preserved. Then, too, it 
 may involve more expense to repair a comparatively complete 
 and satisfactory design, than to convert a sound example not so 
 pleasing. 
 
 Nearby trees are often valuable to the general scheme and 
 serve more than any other thing to relieve the sameness of an 
 otherwise barren composition. Their shade, too, excels all arti- 
 ficial contrivances. And yet they should not be too closely set 
 to the house as they may induce dampness, and if overhanging 
 the roof, the decay of roof covering and gutters. So do not 
 deceive yourself by such a leafy delusion: you may be obliged 
 to sacrifice a pet ideal to gain the healthful conditions of light 
 and air. 
 
 Should your roof shingles be old or moss covered, make it 
 a point to inspect the attic after a heavy rain. And remember, 
 too, that a new roof and wall covering does not mean that what 
 it hides is of necessity sound, but if the structure be plumb and 
 true, the frame cannot be so very far gone. 
 
 If you have discovered that your interior is insufficiently 
 lighted, study your exterior to discover whether you can correct 
 this without sacrifice to the design. The bay and the mullioned 
 window are not features of the simple Colonial design, although 
 the square bay was frequently used in shop fronts, and in 
 England the three-sided bay. Sometimes the bay may perhaps 
 be used, but it almost requires the overhanging second story 
 this depends on the local style and the amount of blank wall sur- 
 rounding it. Colonial work was generally sparing as to glass, 
 and windows were seldom crowded. 
 
 The foregoing seems at first glance to take much into con- 
 sideration at the very beginning, but this is best if it can be done. 
 One should have a general idea of probable alterations, both of 
 house and grounds, even at this stage. It is largely a question 
 whether certain desired things are possible or not. The ques- 
 tion of outbuildings should be given passing consideration as 
 well as the house. Their condition and practicability, if existing, 
 especially in reference to their sanitary condition and location. 
 
Here is a good type of the late Colonial influence. It has been tampered with 
 somewhat, but has also been kept in fairly good repair 
 
 1R 
 
SfSMMiaMtlMSISM^MaMSISMM^M^MSMSMSMaMaSJ^^ 
 
 If you can draw back from the highway and at the same time add to your view, 
 without too much effort, it is very much worth while 
 
 Along the great river highways one finds many an early settlement, nestled close to 
 the water's edge. Its past industry has vanished and for this reason let us 
 
 investigate 
 
 feMaSMeJcUeMSJSJSJSMSJM&fSMSJeMSMSjaiSMSM^ja^M^ 
 
SELECTION 28 
 
 means much. If they are yet to be built, their possible location 
 should be determined roughly. 
 
 And now as to the general business method of procedure. 
 First provide yourself with a pointed piece of iron about a foot 
 long for the purpose of sounding beams, masonry, etc., also a 
 lantern or pocket lamp. Assuming that your first survey is 
 satisfactory, you should get a refusal of the property for a couple 
 of weeks at least, in order to have the title looked into. For 
 this purpose get a lawyer, unless of course, you are an expert. 
 In any event, the local lawyer, who probably has such things at 
 his finger ends, is perhaps safer. If the title be not clear, and 
 cannot be rectified without time and expense, better drop it; 
 future legal tangles are imdesirable and altogether too near 
 home. 
 
 When the question of title is settled, make another inspec- 
 tion and bring a competent carpenter along. By this time you 
 probably have a rough sketch plan of your first alteration. Do 
 not let him run away with himself and with the idea that he is 
 to find all the fault he can. Let him understand that if there 
 is too much to be done you will not purchase. In any event do 
 not commit yourself to the limit of what you will spend. Give 
 him to understand that he is to present his figures and opinions 
 that you may think them over. As to the price of the property, 
 it should be borne in mind that a home is worth more to you 
 than an investment; also that the property should have some- 
 thing to back it up. Should you ever wish to put it on the 
 market, it should be practical. 
 
 In getting a refusal, you should have a binder. This is 
 a simple document for the owner or agent to sign, in which he 
 acknowledges the payment of a small sum (perhaps from five 
 to twenty dollars, as the case may be), for which consideration 
 he agrees to give a refusal of the property in question for a 
 specified time. Then should you decide to take the property 
 at the end of this time the deposit shall be considered as a part 
 of the purchase price. Do not, however, commit yourself, in 
 writing or otherwise, to the price asked, as you may find, before 
 you are through with your investigations, that it is too high. 
 
 While your lawyer is drawing up the deed, try to ascertain 
 from the abutting property owners whether the existing bounds 
 
24 RECLAIMING THE OLD HOUSE 
 
 are right ; if so, they should be willing to sign a plan and it would 
 be well to get a surveyor to make a simple outline plot. Have 
 the abutters sign it to the effect that the bounds, as shown on 
 the plan, where abutting their property, are correct. Use a 
 dark ink for signatures and sign lastly yourself, in order to 
 show your good faith. Take one or two blueprints, and file the 
 original tracing in the proper place with the record of deed. 
 Having completed this thoroughly, you have the best start 
 toward a home. 
 
 And now you are ready to take up the more serious consid- 
 eration of practical restoration as a property holder. 
 
Chapter Tii^o 
 PLJJVN/NG 
 
 THE so-called "Colonial" plan is in the earliest exam- 
 ples a tradition of the mother country. Later it be- 
 came more independent, yet still holding fast to the 
 skirts of the parent style; finally letting go altogether. 
 This deviation became possible, in work of the less pretentious or- 
 der, through the passing of the English trained craftsman, whose 
 descendants had not before them continually those instructive 
 examples of old English work, for it must be known that the 
 architect of the mass of our old houses was also the carpenter, 
 and that such conditions were just what has given the dwelling 
 its individual and sympathetic touch. 
 
 We do not aim in this work to give a history of the style, in- 
 teresting as it would undoubtedly prove. We may delve lightly 
 beneath the surface, but only to such depths as our needs re- 
 quire. It must be borne in mind however, that the earliest 
 English cottages were of an extremely simple and primitive 
 character, about two-thirds of which were used to house the 
 cattle. Being thus largely houses for stock, they had the lower 
 
 25 
 
26 RECLAIMING THE OLD HOUSE 
 
 floor level with, or just below, the ground. Important in gov- 
 erning the plan were the oxen. A yoke standing in the tie-up 
 occupy about eight feet in breadth, and as each ox always 
 occupied the same position in the team, and as the ordinary Eng- 
 lish team of those days consisted of two yoke, the oxen were 
 for obvious reasons confined to a section by themselves. This 
 section was called a bay, and was about sixteen feet wide. In 
 the frame this bay was naturally emphasized by an upright 
 post in each corner and in the earliest examples this post was 
 made from a curved tree trunk and extended on into the roof 
 as a rafter, so as to form a crude Gothic arch. These arches, 
 which leaned slightly inward, were called crucks, and were the 
 big sticks in the upright construction, occurring as we have 
 already stated at the junction of upright partitions, just as the 
 sill, girt and plate performed a similar office for the horizontal 
 partitions or floors. 
 
 While the earliest houses consisted of only one room or bay, 
 they soon came to have several, and, as in all buildings, the 
 groping for more room resulted in the inevitable addition; in 
 this case it was the outshot, the ancestor of our own lean-to or 
 attached shed. 
 
 After a time the house evolved itself into our present-day 
 lines: vertical framing and walls and an independently framed 
 roof. We cannot give any definite plan as a type, as various 
 localities and craftsmen translated their inspirations in differ- 
 ent ways and consequently got different results. And at this 
 point it is well for us to emphasize this fact: English crafts- 
 men, from various parts of the mother country, brought 
 with them to these shores the usages and traditions of their 
 individual localities which were expanded and developed by 
 their successors, and this has naturally produced a series of local 
 types, often similar, yet bearing the stamp of individuality and 
 localism do not forget this, localisjn. 
 
 It may perhaps have occurred to the reader that the con- 
 struction of the early plan had much to do with the arrange- 
 ment of rooms and their sizes, and such is the case. Early 
 interior partitions were thin and comparatively light, being of 
 matched upright boards called wainscot. When first used they 
 simply accommodated themselves to the spacing of the big up- 
 
^b<^<^<^^i5i^k<^^k^^^<Sb^(^<^^<3ft)(^<^b<^b<^<^<^<^(^ 
 
 The Peter Tufts House, Medford, Mass. Built between 1677 and 1680. Wrongly 
 called "Cradock" House. An early type of gambrel roof. Composite of "C" and 
 
 "F" plans 
 
 House at Windsor, Vt. Designed and built by Asher IJenjainin during the close of 
 the eighteenth century. The chimney tops arc new. "I" plan 
 
 qpqpgpgpgpqpqp qpqpqpgp qpqpqp qpgtsgpejpegpqgejg gpejpqpqp 
 
One of the Ellsworth houses at Windsor, Vt. (about 1750). This preserves the 
 tradition of the Pre-Georgian overhang on each story. Modified "I" plan 
 
 An old "IJ" i)lan house showing a "stack of chimneys." In the old times, 
 "chimney" meant flue, and in the topping out each flue was apt to show as a unit 
 
PLANNING 27 
 
 rights or posts, which were essential units in the general con- 
 struction. Later, when the plan had developed somewhat and 
 every house boasted a chimney, the design revolved about that 
 and the construction accommodated itself more or less to it. 
 
 The very earliest form of the fireplace consisted of a raised 
 hearth in the center of the building, and on this the fire was 
 built and the smoke escaped as best it could through a hole in 
 the roof above. Later it was carried to the outer wall, and it is 
 these two arrangements that govern our commonest plan; with 
 the English chimney tax the former was naturally the most 
 popular, as it was possible to get more out of one chimney. 
 Thus with the chimney as an important fixture, we can readily 
 see that it governed and dominated the plan, a fact of which we 
 should not lose sight. 
 
 It must be understood at the start that there are compara- 
 tively few houses that remain in the condition of their original 
 building more particularly in the few surviving early, and 
 the later small, structures. The simple needs of a beginning 
 were often succeeded by a demand for expansion, and yet where 
 the purse-strings were short, it is remarkable how little room 
 even our grandparents could get along with, although encum- 
 bered with a large and growing family. The traditions of liv- 
 ing in 1620 followed far beyond 1800. As a general thing 
 these additions, or at least the later ones, were out of harmony, 
 and simply impossible from the standpoint of good planning; 
 the tradition of gaining space did not allow for eccentricity; 
 building was a tried-out formula. We hope to be able, in the 
 course of this book, to show in a general way the ear-marks of 
 various periods, so that the reader may determine for himself 
 the various stages of construction. 
 
 The first floor plan is the dominant plan and the second story 
 it made to accommodate itself to it. Generally it was a dupli- 
 cate of the first. That this was not always successful, at least 
 from our standpoint, we shall see later. We shall therefore 
 consider our several types from a first-floor standpoint. In 
 Fig. 1 we have shown several common types of plan, to which 
 it may be well to refer. But before proceeding to this it might 
 be well to state that the plan was an expression of a mode of 
 life, and that such has changed constantly with the ages. Be- 
 
28 
 
 RECLAIMING THE OLD HOUSE 
 
 cause our ancestors chose to live, eat and even sleep in one 
 room, does not argue that they were not as worthy, or that they 
 suffered hardships in comparison with other people of their 
 time. If we take some of the greatest names of our early his- 
 
 Fig. 1 Common types of Colonial first floor plans, showing the general arrange- 
 ment without regard to scale. In "I" and "J" the length of the rooms is gen- 
 erally with the front. The dotted lines suggest common variations of ells, etc., 
 
 found in some examples 
 
 tory and examine the inventory of their estates, we will often 
 find a bed set up in the kitchen; naturally this is more common 
 in the north. It is, then, this difference in the times, as ex- 
 pressed in the house plan, that we must recognize, and our prob- 
 lem is to adapt this heritage to our own needs with the best 
 advantage. 
 
PLANNING 29 
 
 In the plans already referred to we have designated the 
 kitchen by K; next to the chimney it is the important unit. 
 Diagrams A, B, C and D are the earliest forms. Of these 
 we have noted A in the Eastern Massachusetts, B in the Con- 
 necticut plantation, C in New York State and D in Rhode 
 Island. They will probably be found elsewhere, they or their 
 variations; D, however, we believe to be a localism about Provi- 
 dence, R. I. C is also common in the South. These plans 
 were of the period prior to about 1700, and with the exception 
 of the last, were in high favor at a much later date. They are 
 boiled-down experiences, hard to better. D, from its vast 
 masonry end, would have offset the saving effected by the more 
 economic handling of wood, and yet this plan was probably a 
 popular one in the old countrj% being one type of the two-bay 
 and outshot plan. B, which was treated sometimes as one story 
 and an attic, with kitchen in the lean-to (or outshot) ; some- 
 times as two stories over the two front rooms and a story and a 
 half over the kitchen; and finally, as a simple two-story struc- 
 ture, was perhaps most popular of early northern types and in 
 its last form continued a favorite long after 1700. It is readily 
 seen that A is its ancestor, and that repeated enforced additions 
 to the former, resulted in the latter as an original. 
 
 Type E is similar to B, but it was frequently larger and in 
 such cases the chimney was very likely farther to the rear, lessen- 
 ing the size of the kitchen and dividing an otherwise through 
 hallway and separating front and back stairs. It is not difficult 
 to trace the evolution of C to the later H, nor through F to 
 J. I is a good commonsense plan, economical in chimneys. 
 Sometimes the kitchen eliminated the rear portion of the hall, 
 making a larger room. This arrangement was a somewhat 
 earlier version of the type and seems to have evolved itself from 
 H. J was the most palatial layout and was particularly well 
 adapted to the wooden structure with brick ends. When this 
 plan is used with the hip roof it does not look well; a chimney 
 seldom looks well when it leaves the roof at its lowest point. 
 J is but the doubling up of C, and we know* examples which 
 have become type J in a series of evolutions from the earlier 
 form. With the Southern mansion, it is usually a plan after 
 I or J, with modifications or elaborations at all events a bal- 
 
30 RECLAIMING THE OLD HOUSE 
 
 anced plan with the door in the center and the through hall. 
 In the more pretentious schemes the central motive is flanked 
 by semi-detached wings, and the piazza is generally the full 
 height of the house, suggestive of Classic design, if not abso- 
 lutely so detailed. About 1800 arrived the Classic, or, more 
 properly, the Greek Revival. Its influence on building was 
 marked, even in the case of the type of Georgian which fol- 
 lowed it and became its contemporary, and whose plan is shown 
 in G, but it was not a happy source of inspiration for domestic 
 architecture and it left little that was not ugly and inconsistent. 
 Generally its plan was type J or I, but sometimes it veered 
 towards G. This latter plan was the last of the marked 
 Georgian influence, and the kitchen Avas usually in an ell in the 
 rear, not shown in our sketch. It was extremely popular for 
 the simpler dwellings which followed it and which adopted modi- 
 fied details from the Greek Revival in an effort towards econ- 
 omy. It might even be said to be a merging of the two styles; 
 it is still used in sections where the influence of the architect has 
 not given us a mushroom settlement with a 1, 2, 3, 4 and repeat, 
 as a basis of variety. 
 
 In the following consideration of the old house we shall speak 
 of it largely as regards a building of wood. This, however, will 
 not exclude brick and stone; our principles govern them all. 
 Wood was the first material, and its constructional possibilities 
 and limitations gave birth to design. Its walls were largely 
 of brick and frequently stone was an accessory. Our first care 
 is to see what the old-time craftsman did ; our second, to reason 
 out what he would naturally have done with some of our modern 
 problems, considering his traditions and his limitations. 
 
 We have already spoken of the sixteen-foot bay and the rea- 
 son for this particular dimension; when the reason for this had 
 passed, as far as the house was concerned, its tradition remained 
 but the dimensions became flexible, and in our common houses 
 the size of the room was generally reduced. With the installa- 
 tion of the central chimney, a bay or division of a different size 
 was required. Judging by such old examples as we have noted, 
 we may establish a certain proportion between the room and 
 the chimney bays. Approximately the chimney bay was from 
 two-thirds to three-quarters the size of the room bay, the latter 
 
"Grumblethorp," Germantown, Pa. Showing a slight modification of central door 
 arrangement. Variation of the "F" plan 
 
 'Stenton," Germantown, Pa. 
 
 Built by James Logan, Secretary to Wm. Penn, in 
 1727. "I" plan 
 
^IfedfeGlfed& dfedfedfe db6ifedbd& dbdjaclfe d&(3&d&GlE> d&d&G!& d& d&d&dfe 
 
 ^ 
 
 The Nelson House, Yorktown, Va. A relic of past Southern grandeur. Note the 
 enclosed fore-yard and also the servants' quarters. "I" plan 
 
 .\ simple example of the well-known Southern type, with the two-storied piazza. One 
 could li'tc in a house like this. "T" plan 
 
 qpgpgp gp gpqpgp qpgpejpqp qpgpqp qpgpejpqp q^jqpq^ qpejpqpqp 
 
PLANNING 31 
 
 proportion generally applying to the older houses. When the 
 chimney was no longer a central feature and the stairs and hall- 
 way reigned in its stead, the proportion does not seem to have 
 changed, because the stairs, which had first been made to accom- 
 modate themselves to the chimney size, became established, and 
 once again a regulation of width was fixed. When the hall 
 bisected the house, the stairs were built with a straight run, 
 and in some of the less elaborate examples the hall bay was 
 about one-half the room bay. All this but leads to one thing: 
 a means of establishing a unit of design the greatest comjnon 
 divider of the parts involved. Therefore, if the hall be eight 
 feet and the flanking rooms twelve, then our unit is four. One 
 must not be misled by the lesser partitions which do not con- 
 nect posts; it is the divisions by the heavy cross-beams which 
 we are to consider as our basis, when they exist; in later styles, 
 where they should exist. The advantage of the unit will become 
 apparent when we are planning for modem improvements, as 
 it is one the designer would most naturally use, and it gives the 
 layman a mathematical substitute for the constructive limita- 
 tions of the old-time carpenter. In academic planning, the 
 square is the unit on which the composition is constructed; in 
 Classic design, the diameter of the base of the column, with its 
 subdivisions, was the scale of all dimensions. Of course the 
 old-time craftsman did not work with mathematical precision, 
 nor did he reason with himself regarding units and squares, 
 but custom and constructive limitations served as a substitute; 
 what he got was generally good. 
 
 Having established the unit for one dimension, we must de- 
 termine that of the other so that we can work in both directions. 
 (See Fig. 3 and 4). Naturally this may not work out abso- 
 lutely to the inch, but we must make it fit as well as we can. 
 If, of our two dimensions, one be about two-thirds of the other, 
 then our unit the greatest common divider is one-half the 
 smaller and one-third the larger. Supposing that the one room 
 be ten and the other fourteen feet, our unit would be four feet 
 ten inches, a compromise between a division into halves of the 
 one and thirds of the other. It is well that the unit be of suf- 
 ficient size to accommodate a window and about its own width 
 besides. Our four feet ten does this nicely and with room to 
 
32 RECLAIMING THE OLD HOUSE 
 
 spare; four feet alone would answer. It is somewhere around 
 these two figures that we may roughly calculate our unit to be. 
 It is best that our unit be small ; if by chance it be large, it should 
 be halved, and in such case the other unit should be halved as 
 well. 
 
 If one has a house that has been mutilated or so added to as 
 to disguise it thoroughly, the problem is of course to eliminate 
 the objectionable side, whether it be in its looks or its utility. 
 As old design is a localism, there should exist somewhere not 
 far oiF, some duplicate which might serve to show what the 
 original was. However, it is not always a question of restora- 
 tion, but of replanning, yet the original method is good to have. 
 Generally the old craftsman built house after house, practically 
 the same, excepting where now and then the usual formula did 
 not exactly fill the bill. In making his moldings he used a plane 
 or a combination of planes, and the careful student can often 
 trace the same details through a wide range. Sometimes these 
 planes were home-made, differing from others. Being good 
 tools, they were in any event handed down to do the work of the 
 following generation, which, while producing different forms, 
 used the same details. Now and then, too, details varied, but 
 one should not be thus led astray in passing on a family like- 
 ness between two buildings. 
 
 Our forefathers made their additions in the form of the 
 lean-to or the ell, with a frankly new roof problem. Generally 
 this latter was one story high, and was frequently added to in 
 turn. Often this last made an effective and picturesque com- 
 position; often, too, it did not. With the country problem it 
 has its advantages; the one level saves stairs. The proper way 
 to add to an old house is after the manner of its builders, and 
 these methods, if we are allowed to reiterate, we must study. 
 The modem carpenter, if left to himself, will work after his 
 own fashion, and this is what we particularly wish to avoid. It 
 is, however, not his methods, but his results that are objec- 
 tionable. If one would be thorough, the general history and 
 the public records often afford information which is of value. 
 To know what intercourse our immediate locality had with those 
 adjoining it, gives us the probable range of our localism and the 
 part of the mother country from which the early craftsman 
 
PLANNING 
 
 33 
 
 came, gives us something to fall back on, in cases of the earlier 
 work. 
 
 In Fig. 2 we show a development of the B plan; the oldest 
 son has married and brought home his wife whence the ell. This 
 is an actual plan, taken from the original. To illustrate the 
 
 
 
 Fig. 2 An example of a later development of type "B" plan in which the ell 
 has been added upon the marriage of the eldest son. Also its possible alteration 
 and elaboration. The dotted lines on the old plan show the arrangement of the 
 sills, girts, plates and cross-ties of each floor plan with their relation to the 
 posts or uprights into which they were framed and pinned 
 
 method of framing, the posts and their horizontal components 
 are shown, and their government of the plan is at once seen. 
 We have also shown a possible modern adaptation of the plan, 
 and it might be well to use this layout in explaining our method 
 of working out the problem. 
 
 The older part of the house is fairly modern in its layout. 
 In the pantry system we would save steps and gain shelf room. 
 By turning the bedroom and parlor into one room, we offer what 
 we fancy to be the accepted modem notion as to the living- 
 room. In this way we are meeting, also, the demands of the 
 old times; the old-time kitchen was generally the largest room 
 in the house, and in Western Connecticut it occupies the space 
 of our new living-room. In the son's ell we connect the wood- 
 
34 RECLAIMING THE OLD HOUSE 
 
 bins (which should be ventilated) by an open arcade in space 
 stolen from the kitchen. The den or library occupies the re- 
 mainder. Although the piazza was never a part of this plan in 
 its earliest stages, and but a minor consideration in its later 
 forms, we have nevertheless suggested it here as an important 
 detail ; it should never be placed across the front unless it is well 
 proved that it was so used. The front elevation is generally the 
 best effort of the design and should not needlessly be disturbed; 
 this holds good in all Colonial work. With the ends, however, 
 it is different; they are the places for extensions. The early 
 plan, as we have already stated, consisted of several bays, side 
 by side; in other words a barn of greater or less length as the 
 case might be. One could add bays at the ends and commit 
 no crime; it was like a sectional bookcase, and the extension was 
 always with the direction of the roof ridge. Now if our piazza 
 had been less important and in the rear, we could make it 
 smaller, but it must have utility. Having a different purpose 
 than the adjoining room, we consider that we have the right to 
 alteration. Alteration gives variety, and thus we have util- 
 ized our hall space for our piazza. As the old-time carpenter 
 would have framed in his piazza to his house, we may very 
 properly consider it a part of the structure. The perspective 
 view from the east includes the ell, and this is our excuse for 
 omitting the piazza here. 
 
 Our solution of the problem is not the only one ; it probably 
 would not meet all requirements. Perhaps one might wish to 
 keep the ell as it was, make the dining-room include the parlor 
 and enough of the bedroom to center the fireplace, using the 
 balance of the bedroom for china, service and a built-in buffet. 
 The living-room could occupy the entire space to the west of 
 the chimney, and the balance of the old kitchen be made into a 
 new staircase hall, arranged to tap each room on the second 
 story, including a bath in the ell. 
 
 On general principles it is not advisable to remove the entire 
 outer wall of a room in order to enlarge. A room should not 
 be partly in the old structure and partly in the new ; the opening 
 should be more of an arch or a square opening, interrupted by 
 posts, while the new room is complete in itself and counts as 
 such, both inside and out. Further than this, there is the diffi- 
 
PLANNING 
 
 85 
 
 culty attending the holding up of the wall above, owing to the 
 low stud of the structure. Normally one could put an iron 
 beam under the girt and have head-room enough, but the old 
 house had its ceiling only about seven feet high, and the girt 
 dropped some three or four inches below that. The girt is a 
 considerable stick, but if unsupported it would be liable to sag, 
 and the more so did it receive the weight of the floor as well as 
 the wall. Of course a truss could be built in the wall above, 
 but it would mean expense the whole thing is contrary to the 
 principles of good construction. 
 
 We may see from Fig. 1 that the first extension was made 
 at the rear and under a shed or continuation of the old roof. 
 This caused little disturbance in the general lines and was eco- 
 nomical. The next method was in the form of an ell, as in H or 
 in Fig. 2, in which the new structure was a one-story affair, 
 commonly set against the two stories of the main house ; the roof 
 was thus independent and at right angles to the main roof. 
 Simplicity was the dominant note, and little quaint features 
 seldom complicated the general ensemble. 
 
 We have spoken of a unit and the method of fixing it. In 
 Figs. 3 and 4 we show its application to practical conditions. 
 We have also stated that the divisions may not be found to 
 come exactly. This matters little, as it gives a general idea and 
 that is all that is necessary. They form a convenient basis for 
 the preliminary plan, even though the dimensions may have to 
 
 ! : : : i i 
 ; ;._j I : ; 
 
 \ a \ ' 
 
 \ ' ' : 
 
 I T" i " i : ; : 
 
 i i [ i i ! i i * : 
 
 SI ..J..i...."H'-J ...].... 
 
 I : I : > : i 
 
 ! i ^ i I i I i I i i i i 
 
 Fig. 3 The "B" plan as divided by the big beams and showing the sub-divisions 
 
 into units; also indicating the most plausible ways of addition, which covers as 
 
 well the plan's later form "E," which has the same framing 
 
36 RECLAIMING THE OLD HOUSE 
 
 be changed slightly to fit our interior sizes and arrangements. 
 The best method of procedure is to lay out your original plan 
 to a scale of one-eighth of an inch to the foot and black in the 
 partitions so that they can readily be seen through tracing paper. 
 Use an imperial drawing board and cheap Bristol board for the 
 original, and some thin pencil paper for the rough sketches; 
 finished drawings can be made on tracing cloth, the grease first 
 having been removed from the dull side by rubbing with chalk 
 or ironing starch, after it has been stretched down. Get a cheap 
 T-square and a forty-five degree triangle, also a cheap drawing- 
 pen. Place your old plan in the center of the sheet so that you 
 may have plenty of room around it. Lay out your front fences 
 if they be close at hand. After inking in your plan, lay out 
 your field of units as suggested in Fig. 3, extending the pattern 
 over the entire field of possible extensions. Ink this in with 
 strong red (use waterproof ink black and carmine) . Over 
 this one can make freehand studies on cheap tracing paper and 
 think out the general scheme of alterations. 
 
 Now we think that the reader has grasped the fact that the 
 front is not to be added to unless there be authority for it; a 
 precedent of an open or closed porch, or, what is least likely, 
 a piazza. We say "least likely" because, although we find some 
 which are excellent in themselves, they are generally later than 
 the original house and are more likely to destroy some important 
 feature for the older structure than to improve it. Then too, 
 we are getting to care more for privacy, on account of which a 
 house located near the street demands that we retire from the 
 front of it. We will therefore consider the rear and sides of 
 our dwelling, the walls to which we may more properly attach 
 additions. 
 
 First the B plan: In A, Fig. 3, we show the ell (a) after 
 the manner of Fig. 2. The portion b we will suppose to be a 
 less important addition perhaps a shed. The roof of a is at 
 right angles to the main roof and may or may not intersect it, 
 according to the height of both. The element b is, in turn, at 
 right-angles with a. In c we suggest a wooA-shed piazza of two 
 arches in length ; in ^ a possible sun parlor or plant room. The 
 roof of c would naturally be of the pitched type; that on d, 
 hipped. 
 
PLANNING 
 
 37 
 
 In B a we show the shed-roof or lean-to addition. Its roof 
 may be a continuation of the house roof or simply a buttress 
 against the house wall. A more important addition is h^ in 
 which the rear pitch of the roof is a continuation of the roof of a. 
 Still more important is c, and it can be entered from the adjacent 
 front room. The piazza problem for B is most naturally solved 
 by a location in the angle between the main house and the lat- 
 eral extension. In such case it is best included under the exten- 
 sion of the roof of the wing. 
 
 In the consideration of the I and J plans we have the prob- 
 lem of the through hall, which is nearer to our modern methods 
 of building. It is, at the same time, more pretentious than that 
 of the B plan. We may assume that we have a two-story house. 
 
 *I^*' i It' i ill 1^1 1^' ! 
 
 --] {-i---f f ',,; ^- ' :- : ; I M *:--:- 
 
 "i--'r--X < j...; .4.- 
 
 Fig. 4 The "I" plan as divided by the big beams, showing 
 the sub-divisions into units. Also indicating the most plaus- 
 ible way of addition, which applies as well to the "J" plan, 
 having a similar frame 
 
 Fig. 5 Showing 
 the narrow hall- 
 way with the ad- 
 vantage of the un- 
 centered over the 
 centered door 
 
 as such is generally the case, and may use the rear addition as 
 already explained in the problem of the B plan. But if we 
 desire further extension we are in danger of cutting off light 
 from some of our rear rooms by this means. We can of course 
 attach to the center of the rear, lapping over one unit on each 
 flanking room. The most natural treatment, however, is that 
 of the flanking wing, and generally, though not imperatively, 
 these wings should balance each other. In a Fig. 4, we have a 
 room or a collection of rooms ; & is an open and through passage, 
 which in modem work is designated by the unconventional term 
 of "dog-trot." In the opposite extension we have attempted a 
 sub-division into rooms (c-c-c) which are approached through 
 the passage d (perhaps arcaded). 
 
38 
 
 RECLAIMING THE OLD HOUSE 
 
 We have already spoken of the second story as being less 
 adapted to modern ideas than the first story. This, while true 
 of the earlier houses, was hardly noticeable in the later examples. 
 With the exception of the bath, the L and J plans fill the bill 
 fairly well, but with the B plan one is obliged to traverse im- 
 portant rooms to reach others. In Fig. 6 we show one solution 
 of the problem; the back stairs reach every room, while the 
 deficiency in closet room has been cared for to a limited degree. 
 
 We must not overlook the plan D of Fig. 1 ; it is apart from 
 its fellows, and yet if we reverse the present layout and inject 
 a through hall we have the J plan. In this case however, the 
 
 Fig. 6 Showing a possible alter- 
 ation of the second story of plan 
 "B." Solid black indicates old 
 work 
 
 Fig. 7. Plan of old Dutch house at Cor- 
 ona, L. I., showing the slight variation of 
 this type of "J" plan from the English 
 version 
 
 outshot cuts off the light from the two rear rooms and should 
 either be eliminated or made a part of the latter. 
 
 Now, while we wish the reader to consider these foregoing 
 suggestions, we expect him to turn also to the old work for in- 
 spiration, for while there is much that is questionable, there is 
 an abundance of good. Our problem is to select simple solu- 
 tions and renderings that do not have the appearance of over 
 patchiness; as to the details they are for us to regulate. 
 
 It might be well to add here a few rules and suggestions 
 which bear upon general planning. Additions are ordinarily best 
 considered as attached to the original structure by their smallest 
 dimension, which is less apt to destroy the lighting area of exist- 
 ing rooms. These should be few rather than many simple 
 
2i3iajsrai2iajaisiaia/aMaEiaiaraiaia/aoMaiaMBMara/a)3iaE/arai 
 
 i 
 
 An old Connecticut house of the gambrel type which retains the tradition of the over- 
 hang of the Pre Georgian style. (C L.) 
 
 Old Dutch house on Long Island, N. Y. This has the usual overhang and "kick 
 
 with typical "stocps" on either side. Modified "J" plan ' rgj 
 
 .^ . 
 
PLANNING 39 
 
 forms carefully subdivided into units rather than units jumbled 
 into an irregular whole. Roofs, where connected directly with 
 the main roof, should be made a part of it if conditions permit. 
 Ordinarily the addition should be lower than the main house, 
 the more so if the supplementary structure be small. If the 
 main house be two stories, the wings may be one and one-half 
 stories, or if the main house be high-studded enough, the wing 
 may effect its object by using lower stories. Do not forget 
 that the main house should remain the dominant note of the 
 complete composition, and that its roof should rise well above 
 the surrounding skyline. There are, of course, cases where the 
 old structure is so small that, to fulfill the conditions, it must 
 be considered as a wing. Wings like c in Fig. 3, B and those 
 in Fig. 4, should have one wall in line with that of the house, 
 and under no condition should they extend fully to the line of 
 the front wall, but should be kept back at least the projection 
 of the cornice. Small bays and like projections may center, 
 but generally the larger addition looks better if treated as 
 suggested. 
 
 The axis of a body is its center line and in the layout of a 
 room or the entire house, the design is commonly made to bal- 
 ance on this center. Sometimes, for structural reasons, our 
 important detail (like the fireplace) cannot center, and fre- 
 quently this is dominant enough to draw to itself a new axis, 
 which is followed by the lesser details. In any event, it is well 
 to consider the possibilities of an axis of design in connection 
 with the proposed addition, and this axis is controlled by details 
 rather than the general balance of the rooms themselves. 
 (Fig. 8). 
 
 The windows of the house front are usually spaced, with the 
 front doorway, to make a pleasing exterior effect, and hence do 
 not center in the flanking rooms. The balance of details as 
 above suggested, does not give an academic plan. It has a 
 certain freedom, and lesser details may be entirely haphazard. 
 In our proposed layout it is important that we consider well 
 the passage through one room to another. While with bed- 
 chambers this is out of the question, the first floor conditions 
 allow it. It must, however, be borne in mind that the uses or 
 privacy of a room should not be disturbed in this process, and 
 
40 
 
 RECLAIMING THE OLD HOUSE 
 
 that it is not advisable to traverse an important room to reach 
 a less important one, unless the purpose of the latter be more 
 private or individual than the former. 
 
 F/rji- I^loor JP/i/t 
 
 tSeeontt J^'JCoor J'/an. 
 
 Fig. 8 Showing the enlargement and alteration of a "B" plan in which the axis 
 of design is considered in the placing of details. Heavy pieces of furniture may 
 sometimes be made to take the place of set architectural details.. This arrange- 
 ment may also be adapted to a "J" plan 
 
 The piazza, unless a straight column is used, is best set back 
 from the corner of the building so that its cornice may butt 
 against the house wall. If other than plain corner boards be 
 used on the main structure, its overlapping of such is a grave 
 
PLANNING 41 
 
 question. In the case of a full-length pilaster with cap and 
 base, it should not interfere with this at all. 
 
 Carefully plan the swing of your doors; be sure they will 
 swing to the wall. If you have doors in the end of a narrow 
 passage or hallway, remember that the uncentered door will 
 allow of easier passage (when one is obliged to open and close 
 the door) than the centered one (see Fig. 5). Do not destroy 
 the utility of all your corners; they are valuable. If you desire 
 the sleeping-porch, keep it within the style. The two-story piazza 
 may solve it or it may come within the house wall. In any 
 event, in its latter location, it should be so arranged that one 
 cannot see daylight through it, and if possible it should be kept 
 at the rear of the house. 
 
 The foregoing covers in a general way, the heading under 
 which it is placed, but we will probably gain other information 
 as to details in the following chapters. 
 
Chapter J7)fee 
 EXTERIOR DETAILS 
 
 THE external clothing of an old house may hide a very- 
 old skeleton; it is risky to rely entirely on appearances. 
 The older houses were generally complete under one 
 roof, the ell being frankly an addition enforced by the 
 demand for more space. Later houses, however, often make 
 the ell a part of the original planning, as is our modern custom. 
 It is next to impossible, especially with older houses, to find an 
 example that has not been altered or added to at some time or 
 other, and it is for one to determine whether such changes are in 
 or out of harmony with the original design. 
 
 There are three ways of effecting our reclamation: first, by 
 bringing all later additions into the style of the original ; second, 
 by compromising between the several extremes; and third, to 
 dress the whole structure in a new coat. Naturally the treat- 
 ment depends on the subject, and naturally too, they should be 
 preferred in the order given the last only when the others fail. 
 It can be said of this, however, that a very plain house of no 
 distinctive style or period, and of a late date, may be used as a 
 
 42 
 
EXTERIOR DETAILS 43 
 
 block on which an acknowledged style may be built. That the 
 subject should conform to the proposed style in proportions and 
 general outlines, goes without saying. 
 
 In the previous chapter we have mentioned the old plan which 
 received the addition of an ell when the son married and came 
 home to live. Generally the style of the later stinicture was 
 in harmony with the old and hence needs no correction. This 
 harmony is governed by the sizes of the windows and glass; the 
 style of cornices, doors and casings; and all such details which 
 go to make up a style. The roof, too, was generally of the 
 same pitch as the main roof, although the pitched-roof ell is 
 permissible with a gambreled main house. Whether your ell 
 was a part of the original structure or not is generally to be 
 detected in the framing. As a part of the original, the post 
 which forms its junction with the main house would most natu- 
 rally be found within the line of the main walls. If it be of 
 later date and unless the width exactly fitted the width of a bay 
 in the original house, the post will be found in the extension and 
 attached to the outside of the main structure. Sometimes such 
 a decision is puzzling to the layman, and in such a case the car- 
 penter can often solve the problem. Whether your frame is 
 hewn or sawed; of oak or otherwise; framed together and 
 pinned or merely nailed; the nails wrought, cut or wire; these 
 bear much on the problem involved. It is well to remember 
 that while the wire nail may be found in old work, it is there 
 only as an assistant to the failing faculties of the original agent, 
 and that the original can easily be detected. 
 
 The walls, usually of wood, are not infrequently of brick or 
 stone. Very few brick were imported, except in the South, 
 contrary to a myth to that eiFect. Clay was plentiful, at least 
 m the North, and even if the product was rough at first, it 
 sufficed. But the early settlers did not waste much time with 
 either brick or stone; both are rather the materials of a later 
 development. One feature of Georgian brickwork is the pro- 
 jecting band at the height of the second floor, which, correspond- 
 ing with the projecting underpinning, served to emphasize the 
 stories. In the South, much was made of the ornamental laying 
 of the material and some of this was most effective. 
 
 We have already mentioned that the early wooden walls were 
 
44 RECLAIMING THE OLD HOUSE 
 
 generally of thick boards laid vertically on the frame. The 
 very early methods were those of England: studding, with 
 brick, clay, chopped straw and plaster filling up the wall. We 
 mention this merely because later it was boarded in and clap- 
 boarded, after stucco, as then made, was found ill adapted to 
 the climate. There are very few houses of this type in exist- 
 ence. The frankly wooden walls as above described marked 
 the most common form, being cheaper, and yet there were 
 studded houses as well. At all events, the early covering was 
 clapboarding, secured with wrought nails, generally clinched on 
 the inside of the boarding. Under the head of clapboards we 
 are considering the more robust and larger treatment afforded 
 by "siding," which is handled in the same way and has an ap- 
 pearance corresponding to shingles of large weatherage. The 
 shingle, as a wall covering, was not used until much later, and 
 then with considerable weatherage. Its use was not so ex- 
 tended as clapboarding, which had come to stay. A two-foot 
 cypress shingle can be gotten which may be laid ten inches to 
 the weather. Next best is an ordinary shingle, laid so that 
 every alternate course is double, but this is naturally not quite 
 so effective as the real thing. 
 
 Plain corner-boards were used, even with the first shingled 
 houses; which covering eventually abandoned them. In that 
 period where heaviness was a feature of all details, the corner- 
 board was often in the form of a full-length square column with 
 cap and base. Later this gave place to the pilaster effect on 
 the front, but not infrequently the corner pilasters were re- 
 moved slightly from the comers with two other like members 
 in between. In this case a plain corner-board did duty for prac- 
 ticability. This is more distinctly Georgian; the Greek Revival 
 which followed put back the corner column, which was fre- 
 quently, in the Greco-Georgian style (the contemporary of the 
 true Revival), a pilaster. 
 
 The framing of early houses followed the custom of the 
 mother country the second story overhanging the first, but un- 
 like the practice there, the overhang was generally confined to 
 one side or two opposite sides, rather than circling the entire 
 building. Gables, too, frequently had this overhang, though 
 less pronounced. Frequently, the second-story posts extended 
 
S/SIBaSJ^MSfafaMSMMaaSTMSJ^MMMSMMSISMSMMSMSrSJ 
 
 1^ 
 
 ^^^^^^^ 
 
 Detail of the Bowne house, Flushing, Long Island, N. Y. Of the Pre-Georgian 
 period and English in a Dutch atmosphere 
 
 The "stoep" of a Dutch house on Long Island, N. Y. This is a good and simple 
 treatment, with excellent constructional qualities 
 
 [ejeMeMSMSMeMMSMSMSI3MSJaMaMSMSM2MSJ^^ 
 
EXTERIOR DETAILS 45 
 
 below the supporting girt and terminated in what is commonly 
 called a "drop." This tradition has continued down to certain 
 later, but generally pre-Revolutionary, types in the Connecticut 
 Valley, although in these the overhang circles the building and 
 seldom projects more than three inches, being embellished with 
 moldings. Contrary to all this, there are very old examples 
 which had no overhang. It must have struck some of the early 
 settlers that there was a considerable saving of time and money 
 in the straight wall. 
 
 The overhanging second story has given rise to a belief that 
 it was intended for defensive purposes. As such it may have 
 been utilized occasionally. This method of construction, how- 
 ever, had become traditional long before the Colonial settlement. 
 
 Early roofs were very steep, and this because they were in- 
 tended for thatch. With the advent of the shingle they became 
 flatter. They were naturally simple in character and generally, 
 though not always, without dormers. Prior to 1700 the gambrel 
 made its appearance. This form was of French origin and be- 
 came very popular here, while strangely enough it seems to be 
 quite rare in England. There was so much of good and utility 
 in both the pitch and the gambrel that their use has been a matter 
 of taste down to the present day. The former gave a good attic 
 and stowaway, and frequently bedroom space as well; the gam- 
 brel was frankly a means toward this latter utility, which af- 
 forded excellent space for shallow closets and drawers. In 
 flattish roofs of the pitch type, where no bedrooms were required, 
 the gable gives way to the hip; the ordinary gambrel is seldom 
 so treated. A rather flat form occurs, however, in which the 
 upper pitch is surrounded by a balustrade. The ordinary form 
 is frequently treated in like manner, more particularly in cases 
 where the gable is obscured by a brick end. 
 
 The early cornice was simply an overhang with the butts of 
 the rafters showing, and with this the verge-board or visible 
 rafter was used in the gable. Early and crude examples were 
 apt to show the rafter itself. In any event, the member was 
 flat against the building and devoid of elaboration. This treat- 
 ment extended to the later gambrel and it was not until the early 
 stages of the Georgian period that we have the boxed or molded 
 cornice with the returns on the gable ends. As to the gable 
 
46 RECLAIMING THE OLD HOUSE 
 
 finish, it remained practically the same ^flat and with but slight 
 elaboration, until the advent of the Greek Revival, about 1800, 
 when we find the gable finish projecting and as important as the 
 cornice itself. There are some examples antedating this, and 
 particularly in the South, that have the full rake moldings and 
 the full return, of at least a portion of the cornice, across the 
 gables, after the Greek methods. The box cornice was, for a 
 considerable period, of good depth and of normal projection, 
 but the Georgian style, parallel with the Greek Revival, gives 
 us a flat molding with a rather abnormal projection, which is 
 pleasing nevertheless, in spite of its departure from Renaissance 
 proportions. This, the last of what may be called, by courtesy, 
 the Colonial style, almost always returns its cornice across the 
 gables in the style of the Greek work. 
 
 The ancient and honorable roof covering is the shingle, and 
 for the wooden structure nothing can equal it for effect. Even 
 where slate was a local product, it did not fit the frame house. 
 As a substitute for shingles the new asbestos shingle in the 
 natural gray and natural shape is good ; it approximates the gray 
 of weathered shingle and is non-burnable. It can also be used 
 for the brick or stone structure. 
 
 The wooden shingle can be much benefited by dipping before 
 laying. Perhaps the cheapest way is to mix your paint to the 
 color you desire and of a consistency as for painting; then thor- 
 oughly mix this with an equal bulk of creosote oil, and dip the 
 shingles a little more than twice your proposed weatherage. If 
 the roof water is to go into the cistern, the roof should wash for a 
 time before turning the water into it. A brush coat of stain 
 may be applied from time to time. This method may be applied 
 to the house walls, if they be of shingles. The bleach or weather- 
 ing which external woodwork acquires when unprotected, may 
 be imitated by toning down with white a mixture of black and 
 umber. 
 
 The earliest form of dormer is that with the lean-to or pent- 
 house roof and this is merely a flattening of the pitch of the 
 roof from which it springs. Later we have the pitched gable 
 and hipped dormers to be followed by the segmental gable. 
 The final effort of the true Colonial or Georgian was the com- 
 bination of dormer forms in a group of thi'ee and not infre- 
 
EXTERIOR DETAILS 47 
 
 quently these were connected by a balustrade. Dormers were 
 generally small containing but one window. The gambrel 
 dormer is not common and when found is apt to be larger than 
 the run of other types. 
 
 Early cornices had no gutters; it is in fact a comparatively 
 new device. Where it exists it should be retained as originally 
 designed. Its first form was an independent detail of wood 
 hung on iron hangers; its utility demonstrated, it became incor- 
 porated in the cornice. As the metal gutter is superior to the 
 wood, our usual problem is simple. Early conductors of wood 
 were treated architecturally; if used at all they fit best the 
 more pretentious houses and even then are best considered only 
 as an envelope for the corrugated metal. After all, the cor- 
 rugated copper style with a rectangular section is better and 
 fully as effective. In the simpler types the galvanized con- 
 ductor may be used but should be painted the same color as that 
 portion of the house against which it comes and thus avoid as 
 far as possible the appearance of an emphatic detail, which is 
 somewhat the function of the more elaborate type. Prior to 
 the gutter, the drip from the eaves was caught and distributed 
 by flagstones laid next to the underpinning on the ground 
 below. This feature preserved, serves to carry out the old idea 
 to advantage. 
 
 With the exception of the simplest types, the side facing the 
 street is generally treated more elaborately than the other sides, 
 for while the casings of other doors and windows may be com- 
 paratively plain, those of the front may be treated with caps 
 and further embellishments. 
 
 The front door generally is in the center and therefore is 
 naturally the unit of exterior design, about which lesser details 
 arrange themselves and take their inspiration. Pre-Georgian 
 doors were of the batten type and of oak; marked off with a 
 scratch-awl into a diamond pattern. Where these lines inter- 
 sected, the door was studded with iron nails. Later came the 
 panel, in which the face of this was flush with the rails and 
 posts, having only a small bead molding at the edges running 
 the length of the panels. This type seems to have persisted 
 and to have been used even after the beveled sunken panel ap- 
 peared. This last was for a considerable time used with a bat- 
 
48 RECLAIMING THE OLD HOUSE 
 
 ten back as an exterior detail. It was sometimes divided in the 
 middle and swung in two parts like a Dutch door with its elab- 
 orate paneling, but for the most part it was single and compara- 
 tively simple. In the early forms it was solid without top-light 
 or side-lights, making a dark hall. Then the upper horizontal 
 panel was altered to receive bull's-eye lights, which were later 
 added to the transom. These gave way to the simple top-light, 
 which, gradually elaborated with wooden muntins, finally 
 blossomed forth into leaded glass. With its first elaboration 
 came the side-light and these in combination effected sufficient 
 lighting area, even for a considerable hall. 
 
 While the first door trim was absolutely flat a plain enclos- 
 ing member like the window casing it shortly took on a cap 
 and back moldings and, later, pilasters. In certain sections the 
 pilaster developed into a three-quarter-round column and the 
 next step was the isolated column and the open porch, while in 
 rare instances, a hood was supported on brackets. Shortly 
 after 1800 the enclosed pre-Georgian porch came back again, 
 minus its second story. Where one would add an enclosed 
 porch, which however would cover a creditable doorway, the 
 porch should be so adapted and fitted as to leave the doorway 
 entire and without mutilation. 
 
 Windows were sparingly used and of moderate size all 
 through the early period. They were first of the casement type 
 and diamond-paned set in lead at least after the oiled paper 
 and mica period. Towards 1700 these gave way to the sliding 
 sash with wooden muntins and small rectangular panes for the 
 front and important rooms following the new style but the 
 leaded casement was still retained in the rear of the house, in 
 some sections as late as 1860. Casement windows were also 
 made for small openings, with rectangular glass to conform to 
 the sliding sash, but for our purpose, whether we desire cement 
 or sliding sash, the leaded sash and diamond pane may as well 
 be ignored. 
 
 In the early wooden sash, the muntin was quite heavy and, 
 we venture to assert, more effective than the later and lighter 
 types. The chief objection raised against the small pane is the 
 work required to keep it clean; there is hardly a question as to 
 its looks. If one really cares to perpetuate this feature and 
 

 qpgpgpqpqpqpgpqp(^(^qpqpqg>gpqpggq59qpq53ejg 
 
EXTERIOR DETAILS 49 
 
 does not intend to occupy the house in the winter, the effect 
 an be obtained in the following manner: The type of house 
 to which this small pane most naturally belongs, had a plain or 
 comparatively plain casing. This being so, the member can be 
 reinforced so as to take an outer sash of the style desired, show- 
 ing practically the same relation to the new casing as the old 
 glazed sash does to the old casing. But the new sash may be 
 made in one piece and of seven-eighths stock and covered with 
 wire screen on the inside. Blinds may be hung outside of this, 
 if desired, and controlled from the inside. The sash proper 
 should conform to the divisions of the screen with as few divi- 
 sions as possible perhaps one light to a sash. This scheme 
 might be elaborated so that the screen is a fixture independent 
 of the sash, being replaced in winter by a storm sash, leaving 
 the dummy sash still in place. 
 
 Early window-casings, like those of the door, were plain and 
 held this characteristic in the simple types, to the present day. 
 With the advent of the sliding sash arose a new difficulty owing 
 to the thinness of the exterior walls, which were heavy boards 
 fastened vertically to the frame, devoid of studding. Naturally, 
 there was not width enough in the thickness of this wall to 
 accommodate the new window frame, since it was made of fairly 
 heavy stock, framed and pinned, so it projected beyond the 
 house wall. This feature was retained in some instances even 
 after studding came into use, where it was desirable to help out 
 the deep window-seat. Later it led to the external projecting 
 feature, taking the form of a flat bay of the same height as the 
 house. With the brick or stone wall, this subterfuge resorted 
 to in wood, did not, of course, exist. Window frames were 
 heavy and solid, owing to the absence of weights, and were as 
 effective in their way as those in the wooden houses. 
 
 The plain board casing, though checked for a time, for the 
 reason above described, returned to its own with the studded 
 wall. A simple back molding or band came into use, but many 
 were absolutely bare. This flat casing was also elaborated, as 
 a matter of course, with molded cap and stool to keep pace with 
 the entrance and other motives, and was considered an index 
 of prosperity. 
 
 In the spacing of windows, we note that they are seldom if 
 
60 RECLAIMING THE OLD HOUSE 
 
 ever nearer together than two-thirds their width and then used 
 only in pairs. Ordinarily more space is allowed. The only 
 legitimate way in which they may be placed closer is by arrang- 
 ing them in a simple square bay, and while this is traditional of 
 English work and of our own early shop windows, it is probably 
 more of a feature of the street line than of the open country 
 and would find little authority in existing examples. Never- 
 theless the feature is permissible and if treated in a light man- 
 ner with consistent details, should fit the place. Its great pit- 
 fall is over-elaboration. 
 
 Our attention has been called to the fact which, if extended, 
 is in all probability sectional, that the elaborated dooi*way is 
 supplemented by a comparatively plain window and vice versa. 
 The doorway is, as we have already remarked, the dominant 
 external feature. The area of the window-casing available for 
 elaboration is comparatively small and from this and certain 
 structural conditions would have to be finished at the start as 
 intended. The doorway, or rather its elaboration, is often 
 superimposed upon a plain casing, which serves to cover the 
 preliminary structural problems. These last concluded, the 
 elaboration has been deferred and perhaps abandoned. Such 
 few examples as we have noted, suggest nothing else. 
 
 The window shutter was devised to exclude, beside the wind 
 and weather, much more serious marauders. Its early form, 
 like that of the door, was battened. As a real feature and a 
 means of closing the house for the season it is valuable, but it 
 cannot compare of course with the blind as a sun shade, and 
 under ordinary conditions must give way to the latter, unless 
 one has the inside blind to fall back on, awnings being too 
 modern for the remodeled house. One way of retaining the 
 shutter and doing away with the blind is through the use of an 
 arbor or trellis enclosing a window or group of windows. This 
 should project far enough from the house to cut off the sun and 
 would be found practical enough unless the exposure was due 
 west, where the sun drops a bit too low. One might grow 
 grapes on such a structure and thus keep all the leafage at the 
 top where it is wanted; in the winter your screen is rolled back 
 and the sun has a chance. 
 
 Speaking of the blind it is well to know that the older it is, 
 
EXTERIOR DETAILS 51 
 
 the heavier it is found; the earliest form we know is between 
 three and four inches thick with correspondingly heavy louvers. 
 Where one is having blinds made, they should be heavier than 
 our modern article, with the fixed rather than the swivel louvers. 
 
 The piazza is not, strictly speaking, a feature of the 
 Georgian style. Its existence is common enough to be familiar 
 but it is not the rule. Southern mansions, molded on Classic 
 lines, have embraced it and the Greek Revival has made a fea- 
 ture of it, yet our early habitation knew it not. For all this, 
 it is one of the demands of our modern life and hence must be 
 reckoned with. 
 
 The layman usually sees the thing in one of two ways and 
 the result is round colunms and balustrades or square columns 
 and balustrades according to taste. The former may be the 
 tortured design of some carpenter or a real gem, and yet not 
 fit. The latter is generally clumsy and looks equal to the task 
 of Atlas, which it is not. 
 
 As a matter of fact, our problem is really not so serious as 
 might at first be supposed. Our cornice should ordinarily re- 
 produce the house cornice at a slightly reduced scale, unless lim- 
 ited by the cap of the front entrance. Our roof would 
 generally be hipped; frequently (with a pitched-roof house) it 
 may have a shed roof and in this last form it may come under the 
 extension of the roof of the main house. For convenience the 
 floor would most naturally be one step down from the house 
 floor and this brings us so low as to be practically on top of our 
 underpinning. Therefore it is best for the house underpinning 
 to extend under the piazza, in which case our floor might be of 
 flags or brick or a combination, rather than of wood. 
 
 The columns are the most difiicult to keep in style. If your 
 front entrance boasts a pilaster, your inspiration is at hand, 
 and in such case the lines of your entrance cap should govern, 
 in a measure at least, those of the piazza. The new free column 
 may be round, unless your pilaster be very scanty indeed. If 
 the pilaster be bulky, there is all the more need of the round 
 free column; the round column of the same diameter as 
 a square one, appears smaller than the latter. If your front 
 entrance be of that debased Revival form and we do not flatter 
 it by calling it Greek in which the moldings are more Gothic 
 
52 RECLAIMING THE OLD HOUSE 
 
 than Classic, it might be well to correct the original on Greek lines 
 and start afresh. So much for the front and sides of the house 
 under the most favorable conditions, but for the rear, we are 
 apt to find another form of treatment, which is more difficult. 
 
 Should your house be devoid of inspiration as to the column 
 and still be not of the oldest type, one naturally looks about for 
 a similarity and the necessary hint. Failing in this there is a 
 chance that some upright interior detail contains the desired 
 unit, and in such case its proportions should be increased for 
 exterior use and probably simplified into the bargain. Should 
 all else fail, the absolutely square column with perhaps a small 
 quarter-round or cove molding in the corners, free from cap or 
 base and bearing much the same relation to the cornice as the 
 corner-board does to the house cornice, will be found to be less 
 liable to criticism than some more elaborate forms. 
 
 Old age demands respect and for that reason we approach 
 our oldest examples with caution. In the old work, the frame 
 was the thing; it stood out like the muscles of a strong man that 
 defy entire concealment. Often it offered all the structure could 
 boast of in the way of ornamentation; in its spacing and simple 
 details, it was decorative. What, then, is more natural than that 
 the piazza (had it existed) should have been framed in the 
 manner and as a part of the house? The builder was not afraid 
 to expose his frame to the close inspection of the inside; why 
 then should he not expose the outside? It is nearer to the true 
 meaning of architectural (decorated) construction than the 
 usual tacked-on affair with the round columns, which we all 
 know as the piazza. 
 
 But we have another argument in support of our theory and 
 will spare the reader and ourselves his intended interruption by 
 introducing it at once, and we need not trouble ourselves to go 
 out of the Connecticut Valley for this purpose. First, how- 
 ever, we would remark that the framing post the floor beams 
 also was generally treated on its internal angle with a cham- 
 fer which lost itself in an ornamental cut several inches from 
 the ends of the timber. With this as a tradition, the successors 
 of the original builders erected structures, probably as late as 
 1770 and surely considerably before, in which their posts were 
 made after the method of the ancient beams, although generally 
 
EXTERIOR DETAILS 
 
 58 
 
 lighter and more or less octagonal in section. The simplest of 
 these were straight, but later forms tapered the chamfer and 
 even the flat sides of the post to a certain extent, so that where 
 the chamfer ended at the top, the cut that eased it into the square 
 portion above, gave the latter a cap form. We have called our 
 argument a theory, for the reason that the actual treatment did 
 not, so far as we know, take place in the earliest houses. We 
 are strongly of the opinion, however, that such would have been 
 the treatment. This form of post was contemporary with the 
 round column and tapering pilaster, being used with it at the 
 back of the house or on lesser and simpler buildings of the time. 
 
 / e e^ 
 
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 MM..<M>teHUM<A|,|||,Mt.->.^ ..! <<Me(l 
 
 
 T 
 
 ^ "^ 
 
 i > 
 
 ^V<v *r<u'(t<Mr>4 
 
 Fig. d-^Showing pier which supported the horizontal slabs in the old-time burying 
 
 ground. 
 
 We hate to send to a grave-yard for data for the house and 
 yet, with care in handling, there is much material there. The 
 posts which supported the old-time slabs have preserved in stone 
 what we may have lost in wood, and if we take the trouble to 
 compare existing examples of both we will find much similarity 
 in handling, a fact that is most natural. 
 
 Although we may assume the foregoing treatment to be per- 
 missible for the early effect, and locally for a much later period, 
 there is another treatment which first shows itself in the early 
 Georgian and which may be adapted with excellent results. 
 This is the adaptation of the elliptical or segmental opening 
 heads which framed the old-fashioned woodshed. In some cases 
 these may be well fitted to the piazza. At any rate the motive 
 may be copied. 
 
54 RECLAIMING THE OLD HOUSE 
 
 Rails and balusters were simple; examples of the latter, 
 turned, are common only in the later work. They were gener- 
 ally square and spaced about twice their width apart at the 
 closest; earlier spacing was much more, and in the early forms 
 the baluster, as in the case of the stairway, did not exist. Speak- 
 ing of the stairway reminds us that there is much similarity be- 
 tween it and piazza railing and that some inspiration may be 
 found in the former for the government of the latter. In the 
 earliest style we would eliminate the baluster. 
 
 The sleeping-porch is a little more difficult of solution than 
 the porch in most cases, although the double-decked and rare 
 second-story piazza solves the problem well enough. It is safer 
 to keep them in the rear as a rule. The solution of the regular 
 piazza problem may help us, but we are of the opinion that the 
 sleeping-porch is best located within the house wall. It might 
 be treated after the manner of the second-story hall, with Pal- 
 ladian motive or perhaps as a flat bay of several windows; in 
 either case it should become a central motive, unless in the latter 
 treatment it should be placed on the corner of the end of a wing. 
 There are several ways of avoiding this difficulty all of which 
 require careful handling of details. 
 
 The baluster is not a feature of the early roof fencing so 
 common in the later houses; it only occurs in porch and piazza 
 and the very latest examples of the main roof. Its substitute 
 was the cross-brace between posts, either plain or further 
 elaborated. 
 
 The open porch naturally comes under the same head as the 
 piazza and, where the two are used, it should predominate. Any 
 attempt to build in side seats should have good local authority 
 or else it is better to employ the old-time settle as a movable 
 piece of furniture. This is reproduced and easily procured. 
 As a final caution, it is well to remember that the pergola or any 
 suggestion of it, has no place in Colonial architecture. 
 
 The chimney, which is either of bricks or stone, is seldom, in 
 the. North, found as an entirely external feature. This, which 
 is an old tradition, seems to have flourished largely in the South. 
 It is often interesting from its indication of the fireplace within. 
 In the North, the end chimney came within the house or in a 
 masonry wall, forming a part of it. In the early type, the chim- 
 
This shows that the Northerner had some ideas regarding the second-story piazza, 
 which differed somewhat from those of the South. Taylor house, Roxbury, Mass. 
 
 A rear piazza in the Connecticut valley, with the "kicked" roof. The problem is 
 one of framing and was solved without the aid of the turned column 
 

 G29d& GlRcnsidK) d&cifecI&Gils) dfed&Gife dbd&d&dE> dbd&cl& cCa d&d&dfe 
 
 qjsqpqpqpqpqpgp gp(^gpqp gpqg>g5? qipgO^gpsfis*^^ 
 
EXTERIOR DETAILS 55 
 
 ney flared largely at the top, later it contented itself with a 
 slight projection and lastly resorted to the flag as a top cover- 
 ing. It was generally made of such material as the locality af- 
 forded; brick, paving cobbles or roughly faced stone; the rough 
 field stone was never used, at least to the extent that would form 
 a sane example. Mortar was white, there being no cement. 
 The black brick, frequently used in the South, were not a feature 
 of Northern work, although it is occasionally seen. 
 
 Early houses were not painted, either inside or out, and one 
 is often tempted to preserve this weather-beaten effect. Old 
 examples testify that our first paint was red and it is a question 
 whether white or yellow came next, although we frequently find 
 the yellow with the red underlay. The yellow may be the aging 
 of the oil. As the three are accepted as Colonial there is little 
 excuse for using anything else. The white house with the green 
 blinds was a favorite and has lost nothing of its dignity by long 
 use. Where the woodwork has become clogged by many appli- 
 cations of paint, the same should be burned off to restore crisp- 
 ness. This should be carefully done as there are frequently 
 cracks and openings in old buildings into which it might be dan- 
 gerous to introduce the flame of the burning torch. Do not 
 mistake, as an effect of the paint, the woodwork that has been 
 worn and weathered while bare of the preserving coating. As 
 the grain of the wood is suggested, it is easy of detection. 
 
 We will close this chapter with a few cautions, at the same 
 time begging the reader to investigate and reason for himself 
 and in his investigation be careful that he is not fooled by com- 
 paratively new details, which may be, but are probably not, 
 authentic. The main house is the major and most important 
 mass and should so remain. The front entrance motive is the 
 dominant external detail, unless overshadowed and thrown off 
 center by a large and important piazza, and even then it should 
 become secondary so as still to hold its importance. Keep ex- 
 ternal details generally simple but of a larger scale than those 
 of the interior; too small moldings are apt to lose their char- 
 acter after several coats of paint. If it be possible the run of 
 horizontal lines through the various details, where the same come 
 reasonably close should be preserved, or else ignored entirely in 
 favor of throwing them out of line. And remember above all 
 
56 RECLAIMING THE OLD HOUSE 
 
 things that external simplicity is less culpable than over-elabora- 
 tion and far less liable to jar if it does not quite happen to have 
 hit the mark. 
 
 It may be well to add, that in the old house which has at some 
 later date been remodeled in the style of the Greek Revival, for 
 instance, there was a chance for other changes in the interval 
 and we may assume this, if not already done, clothing our 
 Georgian motive in details of the later style. This of course 
 gives us a certain crudeness, which however may be made inter- 
 esting. 
 
Chapter lour 
 INTERIOR DETAIS 
 
 THE vital questions relating to the cellar have to do with 
 interior comforts and utility. It was the usual custom 
 to place the old house near the ground, which limited 
 the light area of windows to such an extent as to render 
 the cellar damp as well as dark. It is quite evident that the win- 
 dows must be enlarged in height. As it is not advisable, unless 
 the house be absolutely on the ground, to increase the underpin- 
 ning and hence lose a valuable characteristic, our only resource 
 lies in the use of the area. As it happens, this has already been 
 resorted to by the Colonists themselves, largely in cases of the 
 house on the street where the grade at some later, yet still 
 ancient time had been raised. Thus we have our problem 
 solved for us and from it we gather that the area wall was usually 
 of brick and of a half elliptical shape, so made to withstand the 
 earth pressure. In our rendering we should carry the walls of 
 the area down far enough to eliminate the possibility of an over- 
 flow of water into the cellar, and with that in mind the bottom 
 of the area should be left open and the portion below the win- 
 
 57 
 
58 RECLAIMING THE OLD HOUSE 
 
 dow-sill filled with gravel. Another method, which is perhaps 
 preferable, would be to concrete the bottom of the area just 
 below the sill and connect the same with a tile drain, which shall 
 skirt the house and discharge some distance from it. In any 
 event it is well that the walls of the cellar be gone over and well 
 pointed up with cement. 
 
 Not only was the cellar dark, but it was frequently low as 
 well. That this is an inconvenience, outside of the problem of 
 heating pipes, is readily understood and unfortunately it is not 
 always easy to remedy it. There are two ways possible: one 
 is raising the building from one to two feet and carrying up a 
 terrace wall several feet away from and about the house to pre- 
 serve the apparent relation of the latter to the ground, and 
 another is digging away the cellar bottom, say from sixteen to 
 thirty inches, and putting in a low retaining wall next the cellar 
 wall. The first is effective when complete but its great objec- 
 tion lies in the questionable condition of the house sill and tim- 
 bers. The second has several advantages while slightly reduc- 
 ing the area of the cellar bottom. The low wall can be carried 
 up, if desired, as a shell within the old outer wall, and if it be 
 laid solid in cement and the new bottom concreted and drained, 
 you will have stolen a march on the invasion of moisture from 
 without. In any event, the old cellar should have a drain as 
 the walls are more apt than not to be laid dry. 
 
 On Cape Cod one finds an unusual form of cellar which seems 
 to have been calculated to withstand the shifting and unequal 
 pressure of the sand. It is circular in shape and independent 
 of the house foundation, except for two or three intersections at 
 which occur windows. 
 
 Old framing was of oak and heavy, often unduly so. Its 
 early characteristic was that of being exposed and becoming a 
 part of the design and general embellishment. In the first 
 houses, the big sill was set above the floor timbers and one 
 stepped over it on entering the house. It projected into the 
 room and formed a low narrow ledge; perhaps many still re- 
 member this peculiarity. There are few houses of this sort still 
 standing. While the earliest beams were roughly hewn and per- 
 haps bare of ornament, they still had the effect of being made 
 to be seen, for such beams as were used later and intended to be 
 
INTERIOR DETAILS 59 
 
 ceiled-in were very rough and often showed the round of the 
 tree-trunk. When there was the time and money, the beams 
 had chamfered or simply molded edges, terminating near the 
 beam ends in more or less intricate cuts. 
 
 The first stage of this construction was the entirely wooden 
 ceiling, in which the floor boards of the story above showed. A 
 big beam, called the "summer," was set in the center of the room 
 and corresponded to the house girts. Into the girt on one end 
 and the summer on the other, the lesser beams were framed. 
 The second stage ceiled in the lesser beams with plaster and 
 often this treatment was applied to the first stage. The third 
 stage gave us a cased-in beaming in the general style of the first 
 stage. The fourth stage had the cased-in summer with the lesser 
 beams plastered. While it was properly contemporary with 
 stage three, it endured long after the other had passed out. In 
 stage five we have the plain plaster ceiling covering the entire 
 floor framing, with the cased-in posts, girts and cross-ties alone 
 showing of the frame. Later these disappeared in the wall and 
 the charm of the old construction was hidden. Another treat- 
 ment lay in the early abandonment of the summer beam and 
 using a floor beam laid in the manner of modern times. 
 
 The early roof rafters, like most horizontal beams (ex- 
 cept the lesser floor timbers, that were intended to be seen), 
 were nearer square than the modern article and frequently were 
 wider than their depth. No ridge-board was used as in modern 
 work; the rafters met one another directly. In the interval be- 
 tween the plate and the ridge was a horizontal member whose 
 office was similar to that of the plate to help support the raft- 
 ers. This in turn found support on jack-posts over such main 
 partitions as occurred below. Sometimes we find the roof boards 
 running up and down while the work of the rafters was done by 
 purlins. This was more common in early work and is not a good 
 roof to shingle on. That it is a tradition of the English roof is 
 evident. The grain of a shingle should not run in the same 
 direction as that of the boarding to which it is affixed and thus 
 form the great danger of splitting. 
 
 As near as we can determine, the first floors were made with 
 plain-edged boards laid close together. Under the intersection 
 was a thin strip which served to close up the crack. There are 
 
60 RECLAIMING THE OLD HOUSE 
 
 examples of floors in which the edges of the boards were rab- 
 beted and lapped but the common form which found much favor 
 was that of the double groove with the loose tongue which was 
 the ancestor of the tongue and groove. The first double floors 
 were not matched, but returned to the early method. Our prob- 
 lem is generally that of an upper floor, which is mostly needed 
 to straighten and level up the old floor. As the old floor cannot 
 be imitated, owing to the tendency of wide modern stock to 
 shrink, it is best to lay it as is the up-to-date custom. Artificial 
 heat, while detrimental to all woodwork, is more so to the wide 
 board; it will open joints. The second story floor, however, may 
 be in good enough condition to preserve. 
 
 We have mentioned, in the previous chapter, that after the 
 abandonment of stucco as a wall filling, houses were built with- 
 out studs, the frame being covered with heavy vertical boarding 
 to both sides of which the finish was applied. This was at least 
 a Northern custom and extended into the time when studded 
 houses were being built. 
 
 The early form of wall covering was of wood, called wain- 
 scot. Its wide boards extended vertically from floor to ceiling 
 and were lapped or put together with the loose tongue strip. In- 
 terior partitions were made in this manner without other sup- 
 port. In rare instances this wainscot was applied horizontally, 
 the same as siding, in which case it was affixed to studding. 
 This early interior studding was simply rough boards set after 
 the manner of wainscot but with open joints; its use was common 
 for a long period. Wainscot was also paneled in later work; 
 but to distinguish, we shall confine the term to the early form. 
 
 When the use of plastering became common, outer walls and 
 the main partitions were lathed and so covered, but for lesser 
 partitions, the wainscot with the loose tongue survived well to- 
 ward the Revolution. With the plastered wall, the dado came 
 into use and has never since lost its popularity. For a long 
 time it was but a plain board reaching from floor to window- 
 stool. The base helped out its height and the window-stool, con- 
 tinued, became the dado-cap. Later it was paneled ; an efl'ective 
 detail of design. 
 
 Early and middle period houses were very low studded; 
 about seven feet and sometimes even less. Where one had to heat 
 
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INTERIOR DETAILS 61 
 
 with wood, whether by fireplace or stove, economy of space was 
 most desirable. Early windows were small, in consideration of 
 the heating problem. As we have already stated, the chimney 
 was the key-note which fixed the harmony of the plan. It is 
 the one unit which one watches with distrust, wondering what 
 it will do next ; the eternal question is, when will it set the house 
 afire? We do not wish to scare the reader, because there are 
 many things in his favor, but we wish him to take the chimney 
 seriously it is a most powerful agent. 
 
 The least one can do is to have it examined carefully. For- 
 tunately, the older the construction, the larger the chimney and 
 the easier for the mason to get down inside it for this is what 
 must be done. Generally we find that the top of the chimney 
 has crumbled and deteriorated from the generous use of soft 
 brick and the wear of many rains, and this is not limited to the 
 exterior. Such condition is best treated by taking down the 
 chimney to the attic floor, or in extreme cases, below it. Such 
 will probably save in time and labor the extra work, as it is a slow 
 and tedious process working inside the chimney walls. Part of 
 the work is, however, of this nature. 
 
 In reconstruction, where it is possible to get at it, the modern 
 tile flue lining should be used and where not, a galvanized pipe 
 may be let down and filled in around with concrete made of 
 lime and cement in which hard brick-bats are used. As no 
 dampers occur in old-time fireplaces, the smoke chamber (the 
 enlargement of the flue above the fireplace) is fairly easy to get 
 at from below and can be plastered over and otherwise repaired 
 if necessary. The plaster should be of lime mortar with but a 
 dash of cement, as pure cement disintegrates under the action 
 of fire. When this is plastered to the height of the beginning 
 of the flue proper, or as high as one can reach, tire-irons, set 
 across the flue on edge, and bedded in the masonry, may serve 
 as a rest on which to start the lining. As this, of a size that can 
 be used, must of necessity be smaller than the old opening, there 
 will be considerable space about it to stop up. A galvanized 
 sheet put on top of the new irons will serve as a base on which 
 to build and the whole should be shored up until the masonry 
 has set. The new masonry about the new flue lining, should 
 be solid, whatever its character, and if it can be brick and mortar 
 
62 RECLAIMING THE OLD HOUSE 
 
 laid in the ordinary way, so much the better. If one has to tear 
 down the chimney near enough to the fireplace to build in a 
 modern damper, this work should by all means be done. 
 
 The round galvanized flue is suggested only in cases where 
 the tile lining cannot be used; tile is of course better. If one 
 can get and use the round tile, its working is superior to the 
 rectangular form. Smoke ascends spirally and there is con- 
 sequently less friction where round tile is used. A round tile of 
 twelve inches in diameter would equal in efficiency a square tile 
 of the same dimension; some claim it would more than equal it. 
 
 The interior partitions of an old chimney are generally easily 
 removed and thus internal operations are not hampered as 
 might seem probable. One should not be surprised at what is 
 found there, as the early chimney was laid in clay with the free 
 interjection of oak timbers in the masonry. The modern 
 mason, starting at the base of his new work, climbs gradually 
 skyward by shifting about on his tiles; at the same time his new 
 chimney is filling in solidly to the inner skin of the old. 
 
 Before doing anything in the way of reconstruction, it is well 
 to consider the advisability of introducing extra flues. The 
 same flue should not serve two fireplaces, nor should a stove 
 tap a fireplace flue unless it be on the floor above it and even 
 then it is best independent. As to sizes of flues, we generally 
 consider that the ordinary stove calls for an eight by twelve 
 flue; the lesser stove calls for an eight by eight and the heater a 
 twelve by twelve flue. For the fireplace we generally reckon 
 the area of the flue to be about one-tenth the area of the opening 
 into the room. 
 
 As the oak sills and girts of old work were rather hard gnaw- 
 ing for rats, their usual highway was by way of the chimney. 
 To avoid this a strip of tin or galvanized iron will close up the 
 space between masonry and woodwork in both cellar and attic. 
 The squirrel and chipmunk are also a menace, entering the 
 house by way of the eaves. A judicious use of wire mesh will 
 prevent their entry further. To avoid further damage, destroy 
 them. 
 
 In the building of a new chimney we have it all our own way 
 and can proceed by modern methods. In the base of the old 
 stack should be an ash pit with a clean-out and, connecting with 
 
INTERIOR DETAILS 
 
 63 
 
 this, an ash flue from each fireplace. Although a limited accu- 
 mulation of ashes on the hearth serves to give a better fire, they 
 are constantly in need of reduction and our ash-dump has its 
 utility. The common fireplace is three feet wide and requires 
 an eight by twelve flue. Ordinarily we consider the height of 
 
 Fig. 10 Section and plan of a 
 practical fireplace. If an ash-dump 
 opening is desired, it is located in 
 the back of the hearth at AD. A 
 air space; B back draft; C smoke 
 chamber; D damper; F facing; 
 H hearth; Hf heater flue; Lf 
 laundry flue 
 
 /']? 
 
 Fig. 11 Sections illustrating the incorpor- 
 ating of a hearth. Fig. 1 shows a hearth 
 laid on the floor (very bad) ; Fig. 2, an 
 incorporated and raised hearth by aid of 
 flagging; Fig. 3 the incorporated flush 
 hearth by aid of irons. Hd header; H 
 hearth; F flooring; B brickwork; S 
 plank studding, Fl flagstone; T tie 
 beam; I tire irons 
 
 the fireplace opening to be about three-quarters of its width, 
 reducing to about two-thirds in the larger sizes. The depth 
 should be about one-half the width; old fireplaces were often 
 deficient in this respect and smoked or scorched the front of the 
 mantel in consequence. The outer hearth should extend into 
 the room about the depth of the fireplace. The lining should be 
 good medium common brick, except for the back and perhaps 
 the inner hearth for which fire-brick are commonly used. These 
 resist the heat better than others, but their light color is rather 
 out of harmony with Colonial design. As a possible substitute, 
 the black header laid as such will be found serviceable and un- 
 obtrusive ; in fact the entire inner portion of the fireplace may be 
 built of these. The black header is the brick next to the fire in 
 the brick kiln, and if it has survived this first baptism, it will 
 
64 RECLAIMING THE OLD HOUSE 
 
 answer. In any event, it is best that the inner lining be only 
 four inches thick and generally independent of the backing, so 
 that in case of deterioration it can be easily replaced. 
 
 Old fireplaces were commonly built of brick, but often of 
 stone which chipped and crumbled when in contact with the heat. 
 Some types used a brick instead of a stone back, which helped; 
 but the stone hearth suffered. Another provincialism was the 
 use of stone flags for the jambs and in fact all else but the back, 
 which was of brick. More pretentious examples frequently had 
 the familiar iron back. As a matter of practicability, it is best 
 that the entire lining and hearth be of some simple and service- 
 able clay product, neither too smooth nor uniform, although we 
 might concede a point in favor of the flag jambs. 
 
 While the earlier fireplace was entirely of brick or stone as 
 we have stated, the later facing was not always of the same 
 material as the lining; in fact as time went on the tendency to 
 deviate became more pronounced. Thus we find the plain and 
 carved soapstone facings and later those of glazed tile and 
 marble. As the early facing was generally of comparatively 
 small width, it is easy to see why it was not made more of at 
 that time. 
 
 Of the two contrivances made to hold the pots in early cook- 
 ery, the trammel bar with its suspended hooks or trammels, was 
 the earlier form. The crane, with its pot-hooks followed closely 
 and is quite ancient, according to our reading of the times. The 
 crane is frequently made use of in the restoration; it gives an 
 ancient touch, not obtainable in any other way, only the real 
 ingle-nook can rival it and this is a contemporary of the trammel 
 and bar. If you find these last installed in your fireplace, your 
 house in all probability dates prior to 1700. 
 
 One of the best materials for the ordinary hearth, was the red 
 "Dutch" tile. It was about nine inches square, rather uneven, 
 and fortunately can still be procured. The old hearth was fre- 
 quently of stone, more particularly in the early work. Although 
 it is more or less affected by fire, it may last considerable time 
 if used as an outer hearth only. It was generally supported by 
 projecting wooden beams, built into the chimney base. In re- 
 building or in new work the hearth should be supported on 
 masonry foundations or piers for very heavy materials, as the 
 
INTERIOR DETAILS 65 
 
 case requires, while lighter tiles may be well cared for by the 
 trimmer arch. 
 
 A development of the fireplace is the fire-frame or ancestor 
 of the Franklin stove. It consists of top and jambs of iron set 
 against the brick chimney facing, and is an excellent radiator of 
 heat. 
 
 Frequently one is confronted with the "fake" fireplace one 
 that, while efficient as to its inner self, lacks the outer hearth. 
 Now this latter necessity cannot be laid on the floor; we must 
 tear up and get below it. Then again the big tie-beam comes 
 across the front of the chimney, making it out of the question to 
 turn a trimmer arch, even if we care to tear away enough of the 
 ceiling below to set and remove an arch form. As the tie-beam 
 is perhaps from eight to ten inches deep and the question of sup- 
 port is settled, we can, therefore, cut away from three to four 
 inches from the top of this stick where necessary. There are 
 then two ways of effecting results: the first consists in laying 
 a two-inch flagstone from the reduced fireplace opening (so as 
 to clear the beam on an upward slant, by at least one-half inch) 
 to the new header. The second utilizes one-inch iron straps set 
 on edge, on which a course of brick is laid flatwise. In both 
 methods the masonry is leveled up and the hearth laid on top. It 
 is best, in saving space below, to set the tile their full height 
 above the flooring breaking a molding around. In extreme 
 cases the hearth may be even higher, but not if it can safely be 
 avoided as there is a tendency to stumble over it anyway. ( Fig. 11 . ) 
 
 One naturally turns from the fireplace to the mantel. This 
 as we commonly understand it, signifies the framing of the fire- 
 place with the embodied shelf. In the earliest work this em- 
 bellishment did not exist, but the great oak beam which sup- 
 ported the masonry over the fireplace opening, called the "man- 
 tel-tree," was the only link between the earlier mantel or hood 
 and the form that followed. Soon, however, the space about 
 the fireplace was paneled and frequently we see the whole side 
 of the room was thus treated. ( This was the paneled wainscot. ) 
 Not only were new houses built in this style, but the older ones 
 were thus embellished. With this treatment the old oak man- 
 tel-tree still remained at least until the fireplace opening was 
 much reduced, when an iron strap assumed the function. 
 
66 RECLAIMING THE OLD HOUSE 
 
 The first mantel, which was incorporated in the wall panel- 
 ing, was a slightly molded frame about the masonry. The man- 
 tel shelf did not occur at first and its introduction was in the form 
 of a foreign or independent motive an after-thought which had 
 no connection with the design of the original paneling. Later, 
 however, it seems to have found its place, for the mantel gained 
 an individuality and distinction beyond the paneling which sur- 
 rounded it. 
 
 The earliest stair of which our records speak, was the ladder 
 and this in some form or other was the primitive thing. A later 
 form of development we may see occasionally in the cellar stairs 
 of the oldest houses, but this has vanished from the story above, 
 if it ever existed there, which seems more than likely. We refer 
 to the ladder form in which the rungs are triangular sticks of 
 timber, framed into flanking plank stringers, which while steep, 
 give the flat tread of the stairs. The next form was the common 
 one which we all know, the molded box stringer which resembles 
 our plank; small, square, and simple posts, plain rail and no 
 balusters. This is the form one sees in our earliest existing ex- 
 amples; later it took on the baluster. We should not be fooled 
 by the absence of the baluster, as often the rail was grooved on 
 the under side to receive them but their installation was deferred. 
 With this groove they are naturally of the second stage. Later 
 this form drops the box stringer and adopts the open one; that 
 which shows the step on the stair facing. Gradually the con- 
 sole form finds favor as a stringer ornament; it essays carving, 
 the posts and baluster are no longer square but turned, the post 
 is a cork-screw, the rail caps the posts and terminates at the 
 bottom of the staircase, in a volute, the stairs flatten out and 
 Ibecome easy of ascent, and we find ourselves at the beginning of 
 the high-water mark of Colonial development, just prior to the 
 Revolution. 
 
 In a previous chapter, we described the window as an ex- 
 ternal feature. An internal feature which came between the 
 casement and the sliding sash was a solid sash that slid sideways 
 in grooves cut in the casing of the girt and the dado cap. It 
 is not likely that the scheme was ever very popular or success- 
 ful and it was probably sectional. It seems 'soon to have given 
 way to the ordinary sliding sash, but we have mentioned it in 
 
< V 
 
 89? 
 
EMMH[^ia^[I2MMSIM3MMSJSMSMSraM^MMM3JaMraMMM3rai 
 
 A New England hallway of about 1750. During this period the details were 
 iTioderatelv robust and refined 
 
 This Southern type may also be found in the North, thanks to English architec- 
 tural books. While the New England tyne above has been evolved from an ".\" 
 
 plan, this is frankly of the "J" type 
 
INTERIOR DETAILS 67 
 
 view of the fact that the reader may possibly run across the 
 grooves and naturally wonder what they may mean. 
 
 The early window was small and high from the floor and its 
 casing plain to bareness. Later a simple back-band was for a 
 considerable time the only embellishment. In time and in the 
 more elaborate examples, it gained a cap and eventually a pi- 
 laster; it even boasted carving. In the period of the Greek Re- 
 vival the casing was generally without back-band and in this 
 form was fluted or grooved, with square corner blocks, and fre- 
 quently a rectangular panel interrupted the lines of the hori- 
 zontal run. These panels and blocks, while frequently plain, 
 were often creditably carved in the Greek style. This influence 
 extended at times to the less classic Georgian. 
 
 The decorative value of the large muntin with small panes 
 is not to be underestimated. When a window had twenty or 
 twenty-four panes, it is quite evident that the hole-in-the-wall 
 efl'ect was obliterated. Our modern tendency toward large 
 glass has absolutely destroyed a valuable architectural detail, 
 the more to be lamented in that it is vastly essential to the best 
 principles of design. We are thankful, therefore, that we but 
 have to refer back to our originals. The pity of it is that so 
 many old houses have largely sacrificed their identity to the 
 modern vanity of the large glass. 
 
 The treatment of the door trim is parallel with that of the 
 window, only that it is often more elaborate and important. 
 While the opening in a masonry wall may be square headed or 
 any form of the arch, those of the wood should if we stick 
 closely to architectural principles be square headed. How- 
 ever, the Georgian style, inspired from Italian examples built 
 of masonry, in its wooden forms, has the license of long usage, 
 so one seldom thinks of the fact that the arch has no place in 
 wooden construction. 
 
 The lack of closet room in the early houses was due to the 
 fact that the comparatively scanty furnishings were otherwise 
 disposed of. Clothing, if not hung about the room on pegs, was 
 stored in the chest, case or wardrobe. The few wooden or pew- 
 ter dishes were kept in racks. The opening up of all available 
 space was desirable. 
 
 The first buff*et shows clearly that it was originally a mov- 
 
68 RECLAIMING THE OLD HOUSE 
 
 able piece of furniture. Generally placed across some corner, 
 it was as a stranger in a strange land. Clearly under Georgian 
 influence, it attached itself to the older style, like a barnacle. 
 Gradually, however, it became as one of the family and a delight- 
 ful and serviceable detail of Colonial work. Its ornamental 
 form had the round headed opening and the interior was semi- 
 circular and half domed after the manner of the Renaissance 
 niche. The modern tendency was to use leaded glass in the 
 doors, but the wooden muntins seem so much simpler and more 
 in harmony, that it seems a pity to over-decorate it. 
 
 In a general way, the character of moldings may help to 
 determine something as to the period of a building, especially 
 when other details are lacking. First the molding was con- 
 spicuous by its rarity, then for its simple and often crudely 
 worked surfaces. In scale the early forms were generally larger 
 than those following. It was, too, rather lacking in projection, 
 compared with the round fullness of later forms. Crudity alone 
 may simply mean less expert work produced in a locality away 
 from important settlements or main highways. From the early 
 to the middle stages we note a slight increase in members and 
 decrease in scale until we arrive at a stage in which some mem- 
 bers are almost minute. Then comes the later stage in which 
 carving added to the general richness. This last stage extended 
 beyond 1800 and was last of the true Georgian. Following this 
 came a composite in which the Greek influence was strongly felt 
 yet never quite overshadowing the Georgian scale and details. 
 The general character of this work is noted in the flattish mold- 
 ing with considerable projection. As for the Greek, its char- 
 acteristics are so easily obtainable that description is hardly 
 necessary. 
 
 We have noted the axis of design in our chapter on planning. 
 While this was not always considered in old work, as the char- 
 acter of the plan did not admit of it, yet there is no reason why 
 we cannot frequently make use of it in our alterations or new 
 work. A series of openings offer a vista which is often eff'ective 
 even if seen through the narrow confines of the old-time door- 
 way, and if the vista culminates in an attractive fireplace or a 
 bit of nature outside, the efl'ect is complete. Naturally the 
 units embracing the axis of design should have some slight mark 
 
INTERIOR DETAILS 69 
 
 of preference over other similar units, some little added feature 
 or embellishment. It is not necessary that the axis be on the 
 center line of the room or rooms a general impossibility with 
 the "B" plan. 
 
 One naturally asks where the line is drawn between the early 
 style, which in JEngland was known as half -timber, and the 
 Georgian which followed it. As is common with most changes 
 of a peaceful nature, the process is rather one of transition than 
 abrupt discarding and taking on. For general convenience we 
 may consider the wainscot to be the ear-mark of the early style 
 and the panel that of the following. Of course the two cross- 
 lap, but we refer to their use in important places. The reign 
 of the four Georges embraced the period from 1714 to 1830, yet 
 the influence of Jones had been felt in England long before, and 
 our own Georgian had advanced somewhat, prior to that period. 
 The gambrel roof may be said to be a Georgian feature, yet it 
 has been used with the overhang and the horizontal wainscoting. 
 
 Three modern problems of importance intrude themselves 
 into our old-time atmosphere and refuse to be denied: heating, 
 plumbing and lighting. To a certain extent and for the strictly 
 summer house, the fireplace suffices as a substitute for the 
 former. But in a rigorous climate it leaves the week-end or 
 delightful winter vacation a rather precarious undertaking, and 
 half the charm of the country is garbed in a winter cloak. 
 
 If extra heat be required, there are several things to be con- 
 sidered and first is the system of supply. At the start we will 
 eliminate steam as its offices are better supplied by hot water. 
 This leaves us hot water and hot air. Hot water has the ad- 
 vantage of giving adequate heat and putting it where it belongs ; 
 it is a sure system if only it be kept going. It becomes objec- 
 tionable in its liability to freeze if water is left in the system 
 when not in use, and consequently the extra work required in 
 preparation, prior to opening the establishment, even for a few 
 days, and last, but not least, in its unsightly radiator, which 
 has been designed with any other idea but that of harmonious oc- 
 cupation of the place assigned it. 
 
 Hot air is a healthful heat, delivering, as it does, warmed 
 pure air. There is nothing to freeze ; it can be left without extra 
 work at the last moment without danger of damage and it can 
 
70 RECLAIMING THE OLD HOUSE 
 
 be started without loss of time. Nor do its registers intrude 
 themselves after the manner of radiators. Unfortunately, how- 
 ever, it is a great consumer of fuel; it requires extra head-room 
 in the cellar; its second story pipes occupy much space and it 
 does not always deliver, where it is wanted, as it is next to im- 
 possible to drive heat against the wind. 
 
 One may naturally raise the query as to stoves. We do not 
 consider them advisable; the kitchen range is enough. If set up 
 prior to closing the house, they must be oiled to prevent rusting. 
 Does one require them for a couple of days, it takes just about 
 that time to burn off the oil, then they must be oiled again and 
 oil cannot be applied to a hot stove. The involved inconveni- 
 ences are apparent to the housekeeper. 
 
 Returning to hot water: we can do nothing to change the 
 inconvenience of the system; being a system establishes its 
 inelasticity. The only thing that can be tackled with any hope 
 of success is the radiator. We do not think of any practical 
 scheme for disguising it while in use not at least in the old 
 house. The second story pipes may be carried up in a parti- 
 tion, a closet, an unimportant room or in an imitation post made 
 to balance the genuine article. But the natural location of the 
 outlet is on the outer wall and near the corner if possible and 
 unless one's post is very small and will admit of plausible en- 
 larging, we are thwarted. In a masonry wall we sometimes 
 have a chance that is if we care to pay for it, but the danger 
 of chilling the pipes often makes such an arrangement im- 
 practical. There is however, one chance which may serve to 
 screen the radiator and pipes as well, and this lies in the furred 
 partition of the frame house, where such treatment was resorted 
 to in order to get the deep window-seat. This side being en- 
 tirely of wood, one can arrange the panels regardless of dado 
 height and in this incorporate double doors which may stand 
 open while the heater is in operation. This would require a 
 metal box to enclose the radiator, pitching outward at the top 
 and covered on the back to retard the loss of heat. Whether it 
 is advisable to attempt the screening of the radiator is a ques- 
 tion. That it would perhaps hamper its operations to a cer- 
 tain extent seems probable. If used at all, it should be simple 
 as it has no parallel in Colonial design unless one paints the 
 
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 (^qpqp qp qpqpqp gpqpqpgp qpqg>qp q[3gpejpqp eg3^ 
 
.^ -' ^* 
 
 A Xcw England mantel of simple but interesting design. The dado and door trim 
 is also good. The Franklin stove is worth while as a chamber heater 
 
 A Dutch mantel from Long Island, X. Y., which, despite the flanking pilaster 
 "puzzles," is crisp and effective as a design 
 
INTERIOR DETAILS 71 
 
 radiator black and tries for a baluster effect. For the Classic 
 Revival, one might employ the cast-iron window grill made for 
 that style. 
 
 To screen an exposed radiator when not in use, we would 
 suggest placing some article of furniture in front of it. If a 
 secretary, the drawers might be shortened in the back, and 
 thus one has a three-sided screen to enclose the objectionable 
 ?eature. Or if one were to use a very low radiator, an imitation 
 chest to be used as a seat may eiFect the same end. 
 
 With hot air there seems to be but one chance for it. Use 
 it with a small house and place the heater in the direction of 
 the prevailing winds, or get two heaters for a large house and 
 thus reduce the horizontal run of pipe; it is in the latter that 
 our difficulty lies. 
 
 Plumbing is a modern necessity. Although the well may 
 be our source of water supply, having it piped to the house 
 is almost a necessity. Perhaps one may desire a tank in the 
 attic or perhaps it is a lift pump in the kitchen; in either case 
 there is a saving over carrying by hand. 
 
 In locating the bathroom, one naturally bears in mind that 
 the waste pipes must he located beneath it and that one does not 
 care to see them in the parlor or hall. To avoid cutting much 
 into the old construction which by the way is the carpenters' 
 and not the plumbers' job it is best to lay the horizontal waste 
 pipes on the old floor and furr up for a new floor with six-inch 
 timbers, using a single floor on top. Ordinarily there will be 
 sufficient headroom left, after deducting this. If the vent pipe 
 occurs near a chimney there is perhaps a chance to carry a part 
 of it, at least, up next the kitchen flue, where the warmth may 
 induce a draft with good results. 
 
 While the up-to-date plumbing system may be essential, 
 yet certain old methods have their value; the sanitary earth 
 closet is not to be despised in cases where it is not advisable to 
 install the plumbing system. 
 
 The lighting of the old house may be satisfactorily solved 
 by the older methods of lamps or candles; one is nearer to the 
 real thing in these. There is a certain convenience however in 
 gas and electricity, which many demand, and ordinarily the latter 
 is the medium, if a public plant exists at all. A comparatively 
 
72 RECLAIMING THE OLD HOUSE 
 
 new gas system is that in which the hghting medium, in con- 
 densed form, is transported to any point in large metal bottles. 
 These are attached to the house system and, as far as we know, 
 give excellent results. There is of course the private plant, 
 which may be designed to supply gas or electric current. 
 
 Although we shall speak at length on outlets in Chapter 
 Six, it might be well to mention that the candle period is that 
 which must be imitated if we would keep close to early tradi- 
 tional usage. 
 
Chapter Fii^e 
 I/ARDWARE 
 
 IF one be so fortunate as to find all the hardware of his old 
 house intact, he can congratulate himself. Old things 
 much used, wore out, and doors and windows were no ex- 
 ception. When these were discarded for the more up-to- 
 date style, the hardware was apt to pass also, giving preference to 
 the "modern" article. Hence we frequently note in the old house, 
 a graded scale, a history of hardware, which sometimes starts 
 with the latch string in the attic and the wooden hinges in the 
 cellar, through the iron latches in the kitchen, the box surface 
 lock in the best chamber to the late mortice lock with its metal 
 knob, in the front parlor. Of these it may be only the last that 
 is objectionable. A house may hold within itself much of im- 
 provement without being obnoxious so long as it does not extend 
 too far into the present. Generally the best rooms were those 
 improved; the old kitchen is apt to be nearer the original. 
 
 Now of course if your later doors are of good design there 
 is no reason to discard them and consequently the hardware. 
 The older inside doors were generally about seven-eighths of an 
 
 73 
 
74 RECLAIMING THE OLD HOUSE 
 
 inch thick or less ; the thinnest door on which a mortice lock was 
 used was one inch. Some of these early mortice locks were very- 
 good, having commonly white porcelain or glass handles with 
 comparatively simple brass in the more elaborate forms. The 
 thin door was fitted with the latch and surface hinges, while the 
 fixed- joint "butt" or hinge supported the thicker type. In the 
 early paneled door the usual form of molding, at least in the 
 East, was the quarter-round and this was a part of the door 
 frame and not an independent piece as in later doors. The 
 panels, too, were "raised" and their face flush with the face of 
 the frame. The back of the door, which was distinctly a back, 
 was plain: flat panels and no moldings. A later form in which 
 were used mortice lock and butts, had the raised panel without 
 the molding. Still later the door became double sided, had small 
 inserted moldings and plain panels. These were commonly one 
 inch and a quarter thick. With the early forms were used, first 
 the latch and then the surface lock. This last was also used 
 with thicker doors. The very earliest door was a "batten," in 
 which the strap hinge extended its full width. Styles of course 
 vary in different sections and the periods and fittings overlap 
 each other more or less, but the foregoing is intended to show 
 certain general relations. 
 
 Now naturally, if one find the early hardware lacking, the 
 question arises as to where it may be procured. Often these 
 things may be found in the junk-shop of a small city or in the 
 catch-all box of farmers, or they may be procured by agree- 
 ment from an old house which is past usefulness, or again from 
 a tenanted house perhaps by the exchange of other hardware. 
 I^atches and surface hinges are frequently found in the cellar 
 litter of houses destroyed by fire. And lastly, there are some 
 forms among the modern reproductions, both in iron and brass. 
 
 There are two heads which claim our attention when choos- 
 ing hardware for our refitting. These are art and practicability, 
 and of these the latter is of prior importance. Practicability is 
 the ground or frame on which artistic embellishment is based. 
 A thing may be severely practical and still be artistic, or it may 
 be elaborately artistic and yet practical. Often the very limita- 
 tion necessary to its practicability gives most excellent results. 
 
 The most important member in connection with which hard- 
 
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 i 
 i 
 
 Common to North 
 and Sontli 
 
 kiiuckcr (C. L.) Mrass knocker (C. L.) 
 
 qpqpgp qp gjsxgpgp gpqpejpgp e22iejg>qi2 ejpgpegsejp ejpqgejja gpejpejpqp 
 
HARDWARE 75 
 
 ware is to be considered is the door, already mentioned. 
 Roughly the door is a wooden panel closing an opening in a wall. 
 It is swung on hinges and fitted with a contrivance to hold it 
 shut. It is fitted into a rabbet at the top and sides and swings 
 clear of a threshold at the bottom. Theoretically this is simple 
 but practically it is different. The besetting sins opposed to 
 the perfect working of the door lie in sagging first of the door 
 itself and second owing to loose hinges. Doors do not as a rule 
 suggest from their design that they are hung on one side. 
 There are some old outside doors which show braces in their 
 construction and these are better and truer to the door principle 
 than those of rectangular panels, as they suggest at once the 
 fact that the door is hung, and that the door has been designed 
 to meet the difiiculty of sagging. As a matter of fact, the or- 
 dinary door of soft wood, if well made, suffers little in this re- 
 spect; older doors in particular being thin and light as a rule. 
 The principal difficulty lies in the pulling away of the upper 
 hinge. Practically the door does not fit tightly into its rabbet 
 but is allowed some play in order that it may work easily. It 
 is this which permits it to sag and consequently to bind. The 
 method used in hanging the door by the previous generation, 
 was to allow the easy rolling of a quarter dollar in the joints 
 when the door was closed. This sagging is of course limited 
 when the door is shut and is less restricted when it is open. 
 When in the latter case it becomes bad enough to interfere with 
 the floor it is time to throw it away. The old-fashioned pinned 
 door is less liable to pull apart than the more recent sort with 
 glued joints. When the door itself begins to sag it must be 
 eased with the plane at the points of friction, which at once gives 
 it a chance to sag more ; if it starts the hinges they must be reset. 
 In the half or Dutch doors where the leverage was con- 
 siderable, the strap hinge was used and extended across the 
 full width of the door. This form of strap hinge was "loose- 
 joint": that is, the hinge-pin, which was driven into the door 
 post, and which received the strap socket, allowed of the easy 
 unhanging of the door. Its principle was somewhat at fault 
 as the strain was not direct, the hinge-pin receiving a side and 
 not a direct strain. For this, and the further reason that it is 
 next to impossible satisfactorily to readjust the hinge-pin, owing 
 
76 RECLAIMING THE OLD HOUSE 
 
 to the considerable hole made in the door-post, it should not 
 generally be used in modern work. When affixed to the old 
 oaken door-post however it was fairly firm. The later and bet- 
 ter form, the familiar surface hinge, was on the same principle 
 as the strap hinge of to-day, which, while having the disadvan- 
 tage of the fixed joint, admitted of better adjustment to the 
 door-post; the same being effected by nails. The strap hinge 
 was one form of the surface hinge, and as a door support, the 
 best type we have had. We know of no perfect hinge, but this 
 comes nearest to it; its objection lies in the fixed joint, which 
 prevents the easy unhanging of the door in case of the shifting 
 of the door-frame. There is however no reason why the old 
 models cannot be altered to the loose-pin type with but little 
 expense. But these pins should be of brass to avoid the rusting 
 together of parts. 
 
 The next hinge which claimed the attention of our fore- 
 fathers and which soon superseded the surface hinge, was the 
 fixed- joint "butt." This being, when folded, but the thickness 
 of the door, was practically concealed between the door jamb 
 and the engaging rabbet, thus destroying an important prin- 
 ciple of good art, which demanded in this case that the door 
 have some visible means of support. This form of hinge has 
 developed into the common form of to-day with but few changes. 
 The first of these was making the two hinge plates detachable, 
 so that the door could be readily unhung; these were called 
 "loose- joint" butts. For heavy doors the "loose-pin" pattern 
 was an extension of the loose- joint principle. Owing to the 
 awkwardness of conditions attending the unhanging of the door 
 a further alteration of the old type widened the hinge-plate so 
 that the door when open, swung free of the casing, thus allow- 
 ing one to secure a hold on the inner stile. Personally we do 
 not care for this type of hinge. In the first place as already 
 stated, it does not sufficiently suggest the hanging of the door; 
 secondly its mode of attachment is poor. It depends for its 
 hold upon the woodwork on the resisting qualities of the wood 
 fiber engaging the comparatively minute screw threads. If the 
 strain exerted were uniform and direct upon the hinge-plate, 
 there would be less chance of their loosening, but it is a shifting 
 and prying strain. 
 
HARDWARE 
 
 77 
 
 Unless one has to do with the problem of the Greek Revival, 
 the conimon forms of the surface hinge, which we have already 
 mentioned, may be used anywhere, with the latch or surface 
 lock, without committing any serious architectural offense. 
 Not having made any very extended investigation of the mat- 
 ter, we are still under the impression that this type is not repro- 
 duced to any extent in modern hardware. It is a common cus- 
 tom to effect this feature in modern Colonial work with loose 
 hinge-plates which are merely "ornaments" placed in proper 
 juxtaposition to the active agent the butt. 
 This, while somewhat cheaper than the real 
 thing, does not remedy the faults of the more 
 modern article. For minor doors this treat- 
 ment may answer, but we would suggest for 
 heavy doors that, if one can procure good 
 specimens of the old iron surface hinge with 
 but little trouble and expense, the local black- 
 smith can tinker the upper hinge, so as to off- 
 set the prying strain on the upper hinge-plate. 
 If your blacksmith cannot do this any reliable 
 hardware manufacturer should. It is simply 
 to incorporate a couple rabbet plate to keep 
 the hinge in place while the door is open. 
 
 Old hardware was at first put on with 
 wrought nails and the effect of the irregular 
 heads 'was most interesting. Owing to the 
 difficulty in removing them, they should be 
 avoided by us for such purpose. As a substi- 
 tute, a large, round-headed brass screw can be 
 filed slightly to suggest irregular contour and flat hammer- 
 planes, but care should be taken not to weaken the slot. This 
 last can be filled with paint or putty without destroying its 
 efficiency. 
 
 Sometimes red felt or leather was used under the nail-heads. 
 With the unpainted brass screw this might be very interesting, 
 but it should be used only in the best rooms and there through- 
 out. Any color, not too dark, might replace the red. 
 
 In order that the door may be fastened, it must be hung 
 and we will assume this task has been accomplished. 
 
 12 The door 
 portion of old sur- 
 face hinge, showing 
 the new rabbet or 
 jamb plate, which is 
 
 shaded 
 
78 
 
 RECLAIMING THE OLD HOUSE 
 
 The latch string has come down the years and stands to- 
 day, the emblem of friendly hospitality, but it has a real use; 
 it suggests real latches of wood, which of course would only 
 apply to the early forms and batten doors. In later days they 
 
 were used on some 
 minor doors where the 
 ever thoughtful econ- 
 omy regulated house- 
 hold affairs and we 
 recall an elderly gen- 
 tleman who remembers 
 distinctly certain juv- 
 enile confinements in 
 the ancestral attic, 
 with the latch string 
 carefully withdrawn 
 from his side of the 
 door. Its under-sec- 
 retary, the wooden 
 button, was used ex- 
 tensively and is still 
 used on rough work. 
 Formerly it was very 
 interesting as jack- 
 knife handicraft they could use jack-knives in those days, too. 
 It left us metal descendants which are very useful for small 
 closet doors, but as they do but half the work, being operated 
 from one side only, they are easily disposed of. The little oval 
 knobs, however, with circular button plates of brass are excel- 
 lent in their way and with the brass surface hinge make effec- 
 tive trimmings for the small door. 
 
 It is the iron latch, however, that is of greater interest. Its 
 earliest form, as far as we know, was that of roughly wrought 
 metal in which the grip-plates were lanceolate or leaf-shaped; 
 later comes the continuous and more rectangular plate, of cast 
 metal. 
 
 The principle of the latch is too simple and well known to 
 require description of its working parts, which, while direct are 
 not close working. The more ornamental side of the latch is 
 
 Fig. 13 The wooden latch is not difficult to 
 make with a jack-knife. The catch in this case 
 is made of the junction of two limbs with the 
 trunk. A braided leather shoestring is better 
 than rope. 
 
^M^J^M^MEM^M^M^M^M^M^Mu^M^I^M^M^M^MEM^M 
 
 fSMeMSJSiSJeMSMSJSMSMMHMaSMeMSMSMfSMSJSMIMa^ 
 
4.C V .*>- 
 
 83^ 
 
 Brass knocker 
 (C. L.) 
 
 An excellent bronze knncker. South- Brass latch. (C L.) 
 
 era 
 
 Brass knocker with crisp cutting 
 
 Brass knocker. Later type. (C L.) 
 
HARDWARE 79 
 
 naturally, from its working, used on the side of the door opposite 
 to the hinge. This consists of the handle and thumb-piece. 
 The latch on the opposite side with its simple working parts is 
 hardly less interesting. We hate to acknowledge it but the latch 
 has one grave defect. We went into an old house with a friend 
 a short time ago to pick up some information, and the friend 
 glancing around asked the old lady what she had done with the 
 latches. "Well," she answered, "yer know we had to take them 
 all off; they tore our clothes so!" And when one comes to 
 think of it, 'tis so; look at the projection of the latch beyond the 
 door and the hook of a handle that lifts it. Then too, the wicked 
 little latch-catch which is affixed to the door-post is a further, 
 though lesser, agent of destruction ; even in cheap modern latches 
 there is some danger from the above mentioned parts. These 
 deficiencies are such as would mostly annoy the female side of 
 the establishment. A farmer who had a fine old latch on his 
 front door volunteered the information that he was going to take 
 if off because he could not "slam the door and hev it stay shet." 
 The latch was not calculated to provide for such undue haste. 
 On the whole it does not seem advisable to employ the early 
 form of latch on much used interior doors without some modi- 
 fication. With the better examples the lift was a straight bit 
 of iron projecting but slightly beyond the door. In this the 
 curved end had generally been eliminated. This was a rather 
 insufficient grip, but on the other hand its aggressiveness was not 
 serious, and the button attached to the latch served the purpose, 
 where it existed. If you do not have these, get brass ones put 
 in by the general tinker ; it's but the matter of drilling and head- 
 ing. If you should wish to retain the curve of the lift, it should 
 be continued until nearly striking the door or better, in a some- 
 what special form. Whatever you do, leave no square edges 
 round them off. 
 
 Later developments of the latch substituted the knob for the 
 lift. In one form the knob was part of the latch, being centered 
 with the pivot on which it turned. Another form introduced 
 the knob below the latch; a turn of the former operating the 
 latter by means of a lever. A small latch similar to this 
 form, but differing in that the knob was placed directly on 
 the latch as a lift, was used for cupboards. This of course was 
 
80 RECLAIMING THE OLD HOUSE 
 
 fitted with no device to operate the latch from the inside. This 
 reminds us of a very important consideration growing out of 
 the above conditions and also those attending the use of the 
 button. As an invariable rule, always fit a door to a closet, 
 cupboard or recess, into which there is the slightest possibility 
 that a human being can squeeze, with a device for opening it 
 from the inside. In so doing not only awkward but perhaps 
 fatal consequences may be avoided. Children will be children 
 as long as the world shall last; it is best therefore not to provide 
 any traps for them in your house. 
 
 As may be seen from the illustrations, there are considerable 
 artistic possibilities with the exterior latch. With care, these 
 are less liable to give trouble, particularly with the front door, 
 considering the fact that the latch and catch have been attended 
 to as suggested for the interior doors. There are many straight 
 reproductions made from old models, also an adaptation in which 
 the thumb piece springs the bolt of a modem mortise lock. This 
 is fitted with a knob or another grip and thumb piece for the 
 inside. Although a combination of principles, it is legitimate. 
 There is perhaps with this double latch notion a solution of the 
 latch problem as applied to new; interior work; it requires how- 
 ever, a door thick enough to mortise. As for the practical part, 
 there is nothing the matter with the workings of the modern 
 latch. The old latch has often queer and ingenious methods 
 of locking; commonly however, a wooden peg was used. Some 
 of the old exterior latches were rather amusing in their combina- 
 tion of metals. Besides being wholly of iron, brass and bronze, 
 there were iron and brass, iron and bronze and in one type an 
 ornamental circlet of pewter was introduced around the center 
 of the grip. This last was a common form of interior latch. 
 
 If there were any good box-locks, their use would perhaps 
 be preferable to the latch in many cases, at least, for interior 
 use. The common forms were of iron painted black and the 
 term "box" amply described them. Some large examples were 
 enormous and their keys too large for one's pocket. Had these 
 been of brass they \s^ould have been interesting as bits of plain 
 metal, but black iron on white seems altogether too strong a 
 contrast. If these had perhaps been painted a dull red or ochre, 
 or a bronze green, the effect might have been different. The 
 
HARDWARE 81 
 
 early form of box-lock had a wooden boxing and examples are 
 often met with. They are more interesting as curiosities how- 
 ever, than of any practical value the key being a great draw- 
 back. There is a form commonly seen on our coasting passenger 
 steamers which may pass muster. But it should be remembered 
 that the brass lock requires a brass hinge. The drop handles and 
 escutcheons of some of the more ornamental forms were delight- 
 ful in design, but the former seems hardly steady enough to 
 compete with the absolute grip of the knob or latch. They were 
 surely out of the way however, when not in use. Then too, they 
 really belong to the more elaborate structure. With the French 
 this style of lock is still used and by them has been made a thing 
 of beauty ; it seems a pity that it has not more popularity with us. 
 
 The mortise lock was first introduced in England along the 
 latter part of the eighteenth century, and it is now our accepted 
 type. While not being quite so true to the principles of good art 
 as its predecessor, the box-lock inasmuch as its working parts 
 are entirely hidden it is nevertheless a satisfactory and practi- 
 cal article. For interior doors the lock should be fitted with the 
 usual spring latch and dead bolt ; for exterior doors a heavier lock 
 should be used, in which the aforementioned spring latch and 
 dead bolt are supplemented by a spring bolt. This spring bolt 
 is naturally duplicated on the inner vestibule door (if such exists) 
 so that one key may be common to both. 
 
 The eiFective parts of the mortise locks are naturally such 
 members as are not concealed in the door as the knobs and 
 escutcheons. These then are our ornamental possibilities and as 
 the modern article offers several reproductions of the old models 
 we may safely draw from them. The plain and the slightly 
 molded round brass knobs are effective because, outside of their 
 simple lines, the material of which they are made is attractive 
 and decorative. The plain oval brass and octagonal glass knob 
 affords a better grip than the round ones. For less important 
 locations, the white porcelain knob may be used. Wooden 
 knobs are also effective. 
 
 Plain escutcheons which include the knob and keyhole are 
 perhaps better than the two isolated units. While this is more 
 modern it suggests the lock better and somewhat after the man- 
 ner of the old box-lock. The mortise lock, because of its method 
 
82 RECLAIMING THE OLD HOUSE 
 
 of application, is seldom placed on the door where it naturally 
 belongs on the lock rail. This is owing to the fact that if so 
 placed it would destroy the strength of the door at this point. 
 The box-lock has not this difficulty. 
 
 The old form of door bolt was rectangular in section not 
 round. Some of the modern reproductions in iron, brass and 
 bronze and called "Dutch" door bolts, are excellent and in 
 harmony with the latches. 
 
 It is to be noted that comparative simplicity is the dominant 
 note of the mass of Colonial work, and that often the tendency 
 of the reproduction is to over-elaborate the model. One with any 
 sense of observation will readily note such modern work as comes 
 closest to the simplicity of the original. Much, however, is abso- 
 lute replica. Even such modern units as the bell-pull, electric 
 button and independent name plates may have the look of 
 Colonial design. The latter, however, is generally cared for in 
 certain types of knockers which we may note from the cuts. 
 Right here it might be well to state that all modern necessities 
 which do not properly belong with the style, should be kept as 
 subdued as possible. 
 
 The knocker is a useful and decorative feature of Colonial 
 hardware, and no Colonial house should be without at least one. 
 It never fails in its duty, especially in a moderate sized house. 
 Even if supplemented by the electric bell, it is still useful. The 
 oldest knockers were of iron, and while crude were far from un- 
 interesting in design. Even with the brass name plate they be- 
 longed with the other iron fittings or with such fittings combined 
 with a limited amount of brass. Old ones are very apt to be 
 somewhat rust-eaten and in purchasing them one should be care- 
 ful that they are not too far gone. 
 
 Brass or bronze are undoubtedly better materials than iron, 
 owing to the tendency of the latter to fill up with paint if not 
 carefully done, thus destroying the design; also because of the 
 aforesaid tendency to rust if not thus protected. With the older 
 houses and iron hinges, iron is the thing however. The most 
 common form of the knocker was that in which the hammer 
 "straddled" the design, its pivots generally occupying a position 
 at its extreme width. The other type, which did not perhaps 
 admit of as much variation of design, had but one pivot. In 
 
HARDWARE 83 
 
 design it is generally the elaborate effort that is of the later 
 period. Many brass reproductions are made, many of them 
 good. 
 
 There is one rather important item in connection with the 
 name plate and that is the lettering. The modern type of letter 
 is very apt not to fit. If one secures a photograph from an 
 old tombstone of about the period of the knocker, he will have 
 a model that is worth following. 
 
 Old-fashioned windows were not originally hung with 
 weights, although the lead weight may have been added later. 
 The top sash was fixed and the lower raised as a dead weight. 
 A catch at the side served to hold it at several heights and also 
 acted as a lock. The raising of the window was not as laborious 
 as might be supposed owing to the light weight of the sash. A 
 modern "sash balance" adapted to the purpose may be had of the 
 hardware dealer. It is a coil spring, the coil box of which is let 
 in the stile after the manner of the modern pulley. Some sash 
 slide sideways, but examples of these are not common. As the 
 only hardware was this spring catch, there is little to be said of 
 it. With modern weighted sash, both fastener and lifts should 
 be of brass and simple. The simple common forms are not out 
 of harmony with Colonial design. If you are inserting new 
 windows in new walls you will probably use the weighted sash. 
 
 The old-fashioned window shutter antedated the blind. Its 
 fastener which secured it in an open position and was used with 
 the blind as well, was highly ornamental and of varying pat- 
 terns. Although slightly more trouble to manipulate, it was 
 sure and did not get out of order as many of our modern con- 
 trivances are apt to do. The hinges were of the strap pattern. 
 
 The old-time door-scraper offers delightful possibilities. It 
 hangs onto the skirts of the hardware list; an outsider, but im- 
 portant. Being the work of the local blacksmith, it was in design 
 like some of the best old outside iron latches, an expression of 
 local art and hence often of individual style. Such scrapers 
 were naturally affixed to the great stone step. 
 
 In the selection of your hardware, if using new, avoid on 
 general principles the new "scheme." Never use a plated metal; 
 it will not wear. Buy locks that have good steel working parts, 
 aside from the purely artistic side. Remember that a really 
 
84 RECLAIMING THE OLD HOUSE 
 
 cheap article cannot be otherwise than cheap. Select hardware 
 that fits. 
 
 One of the most important considerations relating to hard- 
 ware is putting it in place, after having procured it. We will 
 try to consider the fitness of it together with its placing. Our 
 forefathers were very successful as a whole with the designing of 
 units, but, in combining these units into a composition, they made 
 as many failures as successes. Some of their blunders are so 
 unwarranted as to be foolish. As a general thing they passed 
 over the hinges with credit. Sometimes however, a specimen out 
 of all proportion to the door necessitated the cutting away of 
 part of the back-mold of the architrave with the natural effect of 
 mutilation. Much of this may have been the fault of the owner's 
 selection. It was however, with the adjustment of the latch that 
 they fell most deplorably, and here again it was often the design 
 of the door that caused the fall. With the inside problem 
 there should be but little trouble as the fitting is comparatively 
 small. Usually it was only necessary that the handle be set as 
 near as possible to the center of the stile and the latch not too 
 far from the middle of the rail, which is commonly called the 
 lock-rail. Of course it is very important that this rail be at the 
 proper height ; this was a chance for another blunder, and in the 
 earlier work they generally made it. It is with the outer door 
 that the real trouble occurred ; you have but to note old examples. 
 
 The place for the knocker is in the center of the door and at 
 a convenient height for manipulation. If on a double door, it 
 may balance the latch, or be placed above it on the same stile. 
 It is important further that the style and shape of the knocker 
 fits that of the door. When the door is divided by several hori- 
 zontal rails, the knocker may approach a somewhat squat shape, 
 and is perhaps best located at the juncture of rail and stile if 
 the same be feasible or even a trifle above it. For doors with 
 predominant vertical panels a more vertical knocker may be used. 
 This last type can also be used on a many-paneled door by 
 simply placing it on the stile rather than the intersection of stile 
 and rail. The intermediate type may be used with any door; the 
 result depends on its placing. The knocker should never be 
 wide enough to interfere with or destroy the architectural lines 
 of the door. It may fill the full width of the stile, but such is 
 
This type of angle surface-hinge can 
 
 be nsefl for heavy outer doors with 
 
 ffodil i-(sult~. 1 1 -I iriiuilicns the door 
 
 An excellent brass knocker, the beauties of 
 
 which are largely;"" due to time and the 
 
 elements. (C. L.) 
 
 An admirable cast-iron knocker of 
 
 rather unusual form and design 
 
 (C. L.) 
 
 A wroiight-iron door scraper Iron latch. (C. L.) Wrougbt-iron scraper. (C. L.) 
 
2M2JHf^SISMaMSMeMM3MSMeM^M3MeMa^MmraJSM3M^ 
 
 feMeMaaSMMMSJMSJeMSMSMSMSJSMSMSMMSISfaHJHS^ 
 
HARDWARE 85 
 
 the limit. In this case the lines of the panel moldings still pre- 
 serve the intention of the door design. It is often puzzling to 
 determine just what knocker really belongs with the rest of the 
 door fittings and it is most difficult to lay down rules which shall 
 effectively govern such questions. It is largely one of common- 
 sense, taste and a knowledge of things Colonial. It should be re- 
 membered, however, that such details are largely governed by 
 the architectural balance of the unit to which they are applied. 
 Perhaps after one has looked about a bit and studied the problem 
 he may have in hand, there may come, as is often the case, a 
 certain feeling for things Colonial a certain unclassified sense 
 which absorbs and solves without effort just such problems. 
 
Chapter Six 
 FURJVITURE 
 
 UNDER the head of furniture we do not intend to limit 
 ourselves to chairs, tables, etc., but shall consider such 
 necessities as suggest themselves perhaps with re- 
 gret after the carpenter has compromised and gone 
 home with the greater part of our bank account. 
 
 Early plaster walls were whitewashed and frequently where 
 lime was a rarity, a clay wash was used instead. We mention 
 this more for the benefit of the primitive and simple type which 
 may utilize a white or claj'^-colored calcimine and this effectively. 
 The plain wall is an excellent background but one ought never to 
 utilize a cartridge paper to get the effect. Whatever medium 
 one employs, the dull surface should result. It should alwaj'^s be 
 borne in mind that the wall surface is usually a background and 
 as such should be simple. 
 
 Wall papers are comparatively new and if we remember 
 rightly the picture paper was its first form. Miss Kate San- 
 born, in her valuable and interesting volume, gives us a clear 
 idea of its history and use. Personally we are not enthusiastic 
 
 86 
 
FURNITURE 87 
 
 over picture paper; it is only in its later forms, when brought 
 into tone in an all-over repeated pattern, that it takes its place 
 as a subservient wall decoration. The first types of an enor- 
 mous scale seldom fitted their architectural setting; they hap- 
 pened, and happened badly. They were never truly a back- 
 ground for anything and their restfulness was about as soothing 
 as a German band in one's cellar. However, they were a phase 
 of Colonial details in which one is interested and which one likes 
 to see almost anywhere but in one's own house. If any at- 
 tempt be made to use such a detail, it should be in a large hall 
 devoid of further wall embellishment; and remember the thing 
 has to be lived with ! 
 
 Some of the early all-over patterns were hideous in color, be- 
 ing in pure reds, blues, and yellows. Tone does not seem to 
 have been a consideration of much of this work. The redeeming 
 feature of the whole thing lies in the later efforts, of which we 
 frequently see beautiful examples. Fortunately we may pro- 
 cure papers of modern manufacture, which often duplicate the 
 old-time product. The details were usually small in scale and 
 the units of design arranged in a diaper pattern and ordinarily 
 interrupted by vertical bands or stripes. As the ceilings were 
 low as a rule, this vertical emphasis served to accentuate the ap- 
 parent height, and where the dado occurred this was all the more 
 necessary. Naturalistic flowers were the common units of de- 
 sign, and these generally flourished as bouquets, as the contents 
 of baskets, or other simple and unobtrusive motives. 
 
 Burlap and cartridge paper have no place in Colonial design 
 and although we have seen the burlap used as a substitute for the 
 wide board in the plain dado with considerable effect it is 
 really more permissible in a modern "Colonial" than in the real 
 thing. The same may be said of straw matting or like material, 
 although they suggest the Oriental just enough to make their 
 use plausible in rare cases. To be frank, the only substitute for 
 the wide dado board is painted plaster and this should naturally 
 project beyond the line of the plaster above. Of course if one 
 can afford redwood and it seems desirable, it can be procured 
 in considerable width. 
 
 It might be well to state here, that the history of the Colonies 
 suggests considerable importation of "East India" goods and its 
 
88 RECLAIMING THE OLD HOUSE 
 
 adapted uses, as well as its influence on design or articles of 
 English manufacture. The eastern styles had therefore, more 
 influence in the Colonial home than any other outside source. 
 
 Early window fabrics were hung on small wooden rods 
 supported by crude wooden brackets, probably without curtain 
 rings, which are mentioned later. The drop curtain was not 
 then in use but its general form will still be remembered by 
 some of us. This form had a slot and engaging trip in the rod 
 for the fastening of the curtain, and the whole was hung on 
 wooden brackets with a cord and tassel as a lifting agent. 
 
 Right here we are going to take advantage of the reader 
 and shirk our responsibility as well, by suggesting that he him- 
 self consult the old records, particularly the inventories, for in- 
 formation on household fittings and furniture. Taking a date 
 somewhat later perhaps, than that of the building of your house, 
 thus giving it time for the accumulation of comfortable furnish- 
 ings, one may see what was considered the thing of the time and 
 what, perhaps, was relegated to the chest or garret. Some of 
 these old inventories are very explicit and exact. 
 
 Properly speaking, the door hanging should not be used; 
 with the Colonists, the door was a thing to be closed. If this, 
 however, be insisted on, it is best that the supporting rod should 
 be as simple as possible, perhaps to the extent of using the 
 wooden brackets. Oriental prints or other fabrics are plausi- 
 ble, yet one should be consistent and not over-load a simple 
 house with too rich fabric. Stripes should run up and down as 
 in wall paper and for the same reason. 
 
 Ceilings should follow in character the walls, and where the 
 latter are of plaster, there should be at least plaster (or its eff*ect) 
 between the beams. The all-wood efl*ect properly belongs with 
 the early wainscoted walls. Some of the more elaborate and 
 later ceilings had stucco cornices, centerpieces and comerpieces. 
 
 The subject of floors has already been touched upon; we 
 would simply remind the reader that a hot oil or dull wax finish 
 should be preferred to high gloss and varnish. The wax is 
 naturally used with the later style. Early sanded floors are out 
 of the question and imitation of them in paint impossible with 
 the use of floor coverings. Ordinarily one would cover the floor 
 with rugs, unless the carpet tradition be pleasing. The carpet. 
 
^5^^\^<^^^^i^k^^f^>^^i!^<^^^^<^^<3![3(^<^<^\^><^<^<^<^(^ 
 
 .An old wall paper which is probably more interesting as an antique than as an in- 
 spiration for modern treatment. The colors in the original are strong and crude 
 
 Two examples of modern papers treated in the Colonial manner. The first is the 
 sort of "picture" paper one might live with; the second is effective in a low room 
 
An old hooked rug with a border of rag braid. There is a charm in the simple, 
 uncertain rendering of this type which would be hard for the trained draughtsman 
 
 to imitate 
 
 A hooked rug designed by the author on Indian motives. This source offers much 
 good inspiration if its translation he not too frankly Indian in line or color 
 
FURNITURE 89 
 
 however, belongs to the parlor and sleeping-rooms rather than to 
 the living-room, which in olden times was the kitchen. If one 
 has utilized this last for such purposes, he naturally keeps much 
 of the old kitchen flavor, although modern ideas of comfort de- 
 mand the introduction of details that effect a somewhat mixed, 
 though not necessarily objectionable, whole. The rag carpet, 
 which one naturally falls back upon, is still made in certain sec- 
 tions of the country and would probably be easy to get from the 
 manufacturers of the rag rug, which has been on the market for 
 several years. The one trouble with the latter, excellent in 
 every other way, lies in its light color, causing it very quickly to 
 display dirt. 
 
 People are too apt to omit the rug when making a list of 
 Colonial furnishings, though as a matter of fact it is recorded 
 at a very early date. We have already spoken of the rag rug 
 and by this we refer to that made on a loom, carpet fashion. 
 The braided rug is another thing and probably more familiar to 
 most of us than the aforementioned loom product. They are 
 not difficult to procure in the country, more especially new ones ; 
 and their shape, either round or elongated, fits them to many a 
 space which for other shapes would prove awkward. Much 
 taste may be displayed in the making of this form of rug, even 
 if it is evolved from a single length of braided rags. We say 
 single length because the spiral form was most common, but 
 sometimes we find it made with joined ends a series of rings. 
 'Often, too, we find a bit of carpet used as a center but this 
 seems to have been a later notion and is surely not an im- 
 provement over the other form. The trouble with the usual 
 attempts at design are that they are too variegated; too 
 striped; too labored. Breadth of effect and quiet simplicity 
 is often entirely sacrificed to longing for strong contrast. 
 
 Another rug floor covering is the hooked rug of rather 
 later date than the braided article. A piece of strong bur- 
 lap serves as the foundation, while the rag strips are hooked 
 into it, pile fashion. The loops are then sheared, giving a crude 
 carpet effect. Although there are several arts and crafts 
 colonies making this style of rug, the general tendency is 
 toward other effects in design, unlike the ordinary country ones, 
 which, barring their woeful stumbling over animal motives, is 
 
90 RECLAIMING THE OLD HOUSE 
 
 more creditable than otherwise. Perhaps this last, if we be 
 allowed a choice, is more what we may wish, its sources being 
 direct. Generally to save the edges, one or more braided strands 
 are sewn about the outside. Sometimes this is carried further, 
 giving a braided rug with a hooked center, but we have never 
 seen an example that has been quite satisfactory. 
 
 The Oriental rug is ancient enough to have been used with 
 the settlement of the country, but it is doubtful if such were the 
 case, to any extent at least. At that early stage local prosperity 
 was a thing of the future and it was this prosperity that made 
 foreign importation possible. We are told that it was first used 
 as a table cover, but this is not the proper place for it. That it 
 belongs on the floor and there only in houses of a later date and 
 substantial mien, is self-evident. It naturally does not belong 
 in the living-room with the kitchen atmosphere, where every- 
 thing bears the imprint of the homespun, but rather where 
 the ivory-white of the walls, with mahogany furniture and 
 Lowestoft china, requires its supplementary effort to complete a 
 refined whole. 
 
 The Oriental cotton print makes an effective and inex- 
 pensive table covering as well as window hanging, although we 
 may frequently find modern fabrics approximating the old de- 
 signs, and as we generally have to fall back on the modern 
 article, one should saturate himself with the spirit of the real 
 thing and sally forth. 
 
 The general public is probably not aware that, in the early 
 days, paint was such a rarity as to be practically non-existent. 
 This of course refers to its application to buildings and not to 
 signs. We have seen old doors and other interior finish, brown 
 with the mellowness of age. Even when paint came into use 
 there was much inside the house that was devoid of paint and 
 this well down toward the Revolutionary war. While the great 
 kitchen and pantry with perhaps the lean-to shed were brown 
 as a nut; the front of the house was resplendent in white, and 
 while the kitchen side of the door rejoiced in its natural naked- 
 ness, the reverse side had hidden its grain under an artificial 
 coat. 
 
 This later woodwork was naturally pine while that of the 
 earlier, or wainscot, was of oak. In our reclamation, it may be 
 
FURNITURE 91 
 
 that oak or local pine are not obtainable in the desired width 
 and if so, perhaps cypress or western pine, fir or redwood may 
 be used as a substitute. Of course stain and dead finish will 
 probably be required. There is a chance here, surely, to gain 
 effects not usually attempted. Naturally one would not care to 
 tear off good finish to effect such ends, because the old kitchen 
 (the room we have all had our eyes on) was as a rule eventually 
 painted. In some cases it might be possible to remove the paint 
 by burning, if care be used, but of course the surface of the wood 
 should not be disturbed or marred a difficult operation. We 
 have made a point of all this, because, while there is a chance one 
 may strike the unpainted thing, there is also the possibility of 
 the new living-room with the earmarks of the kitchen. 
 
 While the unpainted interior may last indefinitely, the ex- 
 terior, being exposed to the weather which hastened its deteriora- 
 tion, was probably to receive paint. If one is desirous of re- 
 taining the weathered effect it can be done with creosote stain, 
 with a later application of hot oil. The oiling should be re- 
 newed at intervals the same as painting. The stain should not 
 be too dark in the first place as the wood is apt to darken with 
 age. Whatever the result, it is better to go slowly. There is no 
 inconsistency in a painted exterior with an unpainted interior, 
 only if one would come within the line of safety, it is best to 
 use a dull red paint (Indian Red) for interiors. 
 
 While we are on the subject of paint, it might be well to 
 speak a word on the subject of color. We all know that a house 
 j)ainted white appears larger than if done in any other color, 
 but do we all understand that red and yellow are positive, while 
 blue is a retiring color? Green and purple hold flexible positions 
 which depend on the amount of predominance of the positive 
 or retiring color used in their composition. White is naturally 
 more positive than either pale blue, green or black gray. 
 
 Now, as in our interior color plays an important part, we 
 are bound to consider it and consider it well. The placing of 
 our wall planes may be determined by its aid; a small room 
 made to appear larger, a larger one smaller. The plaster wall 
 is naturally on a plane slightly back of our dado and other 
 finish; therefore if the latter be white, the wall tone should be 
 of a slightly darker note and of a predominant color that re- 
 
92 RECLAIMING THE OLD HOUSE 
 
 cedes rather than advances. Naturally, if our wall tint be re- 
 tiring, it should not be too much in contrast to our finish; if it 
 be much darker it requires the touch of positive colors to bring 
 it forward. 
 
 By such means we are able to make our ceiling higher or 
 lower and to prevent our floors flying up and hitting us in the 
 face ; howling red is not a good floor color anyway. 
 
 Old unpainted wood has its own color, and other adjacent 
 surfaces must be brought into line with it. Kitchen walls of 
 course must be plain, for wall paper and the kitchen are 
 strangers. In speaking of the kitchen, we mean the old-time 
 one which we may have appropriated for a living-room. 
 
 As we have already stated, the several enclosing planes of 
 a room should be considered as backgrounds for embellishments. 
 Therefore the furniture, hangings, rugs and the like should be 
 stronger in tone but harmonious, as it is against all of these that 
 the lamps, china, clocks, and bric-a-brac find their backing. 
 Harmony, the key-note to successful decoration, is to be found 
 in color as well as line. 
 
 Furniture generally suggests the antique and the collector, 
 and while we would hardly discourage the gentle art of getting 
 fleeced, we would state that much may be procured in replica 
 that will probably save expense in the end. Our best furniture 
 dealers carry at times much that is decent in design, and if one 
 is familiar with the styles, one might do much worse than to 
 investigate. New furniture has the advantage of having its 
 life before it. Then too, there are many who manufacture 
 handicraft styles and sell direct. Their notices are constantly 
 seen in the various "house" papers. Some even sell the goods 
 in an unfinished state, so that one may color to match conditions, 
 but here we must use caution in choosing our colors, as only such 
 as suggests old-time material, whether new or weathered, should 
 be used. Much of this sort of product is very like that used in 
 the early kitchens: the wood settle, the high straight-backed 
 chair, the Windsor and the ancient types of rocker. As to the 
 rocking-chair, a caution: be sure to get the old form; many 
 types have the modern rockers and more than likely the type 
 never had rockers at all. The old-time rocker was short and 
 dignified; one had to be very dignified to use it without getting 
 
FURNITURE 93 
 
 an upset. In order to check this tendency to topple over, we 
 have tried rubber on the ends of the rockers such rubbers as 
 the plumber uses on the stool cover. This scheme has proved 
 effective; it holds the center of gravity. 
 
 The mass of early furniture was extremely simple and 
 crude. If one ever gets within easy distance of Old Salem, 
 one can gather much valuable information by visiting the Essex 
 Institute. This institution has recently purchased an old house 
 of the type prior to 1700 and is furnishing the same in the man- 
 ner of the times; it is really worth one's while. We may men- 
 tion also the "House of Seven Gables," likewise recently 
 restored. 
 
 There has been so much written on old furniture that one 
 should get a fairly good idea of the subject by taking notes from 
 the mass of material. Old inventories help us greatly here in 
 giving the list of plausibilities. We find that oak was the com- 
 mon early wood, much of the furniture brought from the other 
 side being of this material. Besides this they had black and 
 white walnut, cherry, and in fact most anything that worked 
 easily. It is well to bear in mind that mahogany was not used 
 for the making of furniture to any extent until toward the mid- 
 dle of the eighteenth century, at which time tools were perfected 
 in England for its more successful handling. It is found, how- 
 ever, in small scattered quantities, prior to 1700 and slowly 
 grew in favor after this date. The Boston fire of 1760 gives us 
 many inventories in which mahogany lumber is recorded, yet its 
 quantity was but small in comparison to other woods. The New 
 England cabinet-maker and the amateur have produced much 
 furniture, particularly of a simpler sort. They are even said to 
 have sold it into the other Colonies, which seems probable. 
 
 Old inventories were generally explicit in declaring goods 
 as old or up-to-date; it was every man's dream to keep abreast 
 of the times. It is undoubtedly true that much "old" furniture 
 was destroyed by our forefathers to make way for the advance 
 of fashion. 
 
 The question naturally arising after one has familiarized 
 oneself with the styles and periods is: what can we, with pro- 
 priety, put in our house? Let us reason this out together; it 
 is not difficult. The early stages supposing we take the chair 
 
94 RECLAIMING THE OLD HOUSE " 
 
 as a key were stiff and straight backed; their relaxation occurs 
 gradually at first, increasing to our own time. Naturally one 
 would not care for the "milking" stool of the first settlers, so 
 this may be discarded. The form or bench might go perhaps 
 as a dining-room feature in connection with the simple crude 
 and straight-backed chairs and the plain Tudor table. One 
 may perhaps find some forms of "mission" in the new, which with 
 some little alteration, like chamfering, will come rather close to 
 the furniture of the period. For other than such purpose, 
 "mission" furniture is entirely unfit. While the straight-back 
 chair may serve in moderation for other rooms of the house, 
 one really needs some chairs that offer comfort. Again there 
 may be a possibility to a certain extent in the "mission" but one 
 will probably have to fall back on early rocker forms and crude 
 "Windsor" types. Upholstery should be avoided; the cushion 
 if you will, but by no means the stuffed sort. Besides all this, 
 there is the delightful oak furniture of the Elizabethan; nor is 
 there any real danger from it, even though it may be a castle's 
 plunder in a plowman's hut. One thing the Colonist had rev- 
 erence for was the heirloom; though his own cast-offs were value- 
 less, this was sacred. So if there be examples of a date prior to 
 the fixed date of your house, there is no harm. The fixed date is 
 one which approximates the last apparent development, regard- 
 less of the date of the building. We have no authority for the 
 term "fixed date"; it might be anything else. As a matter of 
 fact it is much in the position of Mrs. Wiggs' duck we've "just 
 named it." Every condition must have a handle to swing by; 
 ours has just grown. To get back to our subject: the danger 
 from inconsistency lies not so much in our getting back of our 
 fixed date, as from getting ahead of it; the masterpieces of 
 Chippendale do not belong in a pre-Georgian interior. 
 
 The early period is the most difficult of adaptation to 
 modem conditions, and fortunately or unfortunately there are 
 very few of us who will be called upon to do it. Perhaps we 
 might divide our time into four periods as a matter of conven- 
 ience. The first or pre-Georgian, prior to 1700 straight-back, 
 and crude, with smatterings of the Elizabethan, perhaps a httle 
 crude Windsor; early Georgian, 1700 to 1750 ^lighter straight- 
 back, more turning, Windsor and some Dutch influence; 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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 tion. The first has a gilt in-frame with an out-frame of miliogany veneer. The 
 second is all gilt and is supported on the common brass rests 
 
 An old-time lantern which suggests that, 
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FURNITURE 95 
 
 middle Georgian, 1750 to 1800 Chippendale and others, ma- 
 hogany period; later Georgian, 1800 to 1830 same as the 
 previous period, some Empire or if in Greek Revival, Empire 
 and other Classic motives. This of course is not absolute and 
 there is much overlapping. However, it gives us a basis to work 
 on, and our history of furniture should help us to pull things into 
 shape. 
 
 We have already touched on the possibilities in connection 
 with furniture stores; we might go farther and include the de- 
 partment store. There are also to be found occasionally in the 
 suburbs the cabinet-maker and general repairer who deals in old 
 furniture as well. The point here is not with the old furniture, 
 however, but the reproduction made during slack times from such 
 old examples as may have been collected. These are frequently 
 careful copies, similar in construction and made from old and 
 seasoned wood picked up with the old furniture. These copies 
 are as good in every way as the original for all practical pur- 
 poses, and as cheap in the end, unless one has unusual luck with 
 an unusually well conditioned original. 
 
 Returning to the department store: we secured some few 
 years ago at a clearing of stock, two mahogany rush-bottom 
 chairs for fifteen dollars. One was a well known Dutch model 
 and the other a common English translation. From another 
 similar store we procured an oak gate-legged table in true style, 
 and at a normal figure. There is surely a chance here for one 
 who knows what he is buying. Unless your original happens 
 to have been in the family, there is much to be said for the re- 
 production. It will stand usage at least, whether your original 
 will or not. 
 
 We mentioned in an early chapter in connection with the 
 axis of design, the possibility of using a heavy and important 
 piece of furniture to emphasize a terminal in this line, provided 
 there existed no plausible architectural excuse for effecting this 
 end. We repeat this suggestion, therefore, believing it to be 
 often a great help in securing a balance and repose where lesser 
 details are apt to be shifting continually. Frequently the fire- 
 place has no plausible opposition to carry its center across the 
 room. In such cases the cabinet or secretary may serve the 
 purpose well. 
 
96 RECLAIMING THE OLD HOUSE 
 
 Iron furnished the material for the first fireplace fixtures. 
 Even later when the Colonists had become well-to-do and could 
 afford brass, the iron fixture still had its popularity, extending 
 on into the period of cast metal. Thus we see the cast-iron fire- 
 dog or andiron, often very creditable in design and in thorough 
 harmony with the cast-iron fire-frame it is intended to embellish. 
 The blacksmith, who made our nails and spikes, also furnished 
 our fireplace, and many of his kind to-day will make a creditable 
 showing with this sort of work. If one has not an old model 
 to go by, a drawing made with wax-crayon on tin or iron will 
 make absolute comparison possible between the draft and the 
 progressing article. 
 
 The size of the fire-dog in relation to the fireplace opening 
 is a question which only the eye can settle in the case at hand. 
 We are frequently tortured with the sight of the diminutive 
 specimen, entirely lost in the vastness of a decent sized fireplace. 
 As the fire-dog is made in many shapes ; is chunky or slim, deli- 
 cate or brutal, it would be folly to lay down definite rules for its 
 height in relation to that of the fireplace opening. We may 
 suggest, however, that a slim style may be from two-thirds to 
 three-quarters and a chunky pattern from one-half to three-fifths 
 < all of which depends on its design and character. We can 
 assert one thing without fear of blunder and that is, while we 
 may choose the large fire-dog for the large fireplace and small 
 for the small, yet the scale of details should never conflict with 
 those of the mantel trim or the general scale of the fire-opening. 
 In other words, never use a design with small and delicate de- 
 tails as an accessory to a large fireplace. 
 
 Another rather important article not generally considered 
 as a fireplace accessory, is the warming-pan and yet we occasion- 
 ally see it standing beside the mantel, as an ornament merely. 
 The leather thong frequently found attached to its handle sug- 
 gests its suspension from a peg beside the bellows. Besides its 
 decorative side, that of its intended utility is not to be despised. 
 Passed between the sheets, filled with a few glowing coals, it 
 will remove both damp and chill and render the bed something be- 
 sides a necessary cold plunge. In this we speak not from hear- 
 say, but from experience. 
 
 Modern adaptation of the Colonial in dealing with the din- 
 
FURNITURE 97 
 
 ing-room, has stopped the wainscot (paneled or unpaneled) 
 just short of the ceiling and, by the introduction of an enlarged 
 dado cap, has found room for the accommodation of china 
 purely a decorative feature. We make no exception to this as an 
 adaptation, but it is not authentic and not to be considered in 
 our problem. Our forefathers put such things where they could 
 be reached, first of all; that they happened to be decorative was 
 not their fault. Instead of being generally scattered they were 
 collected on shelves singly or in open cupboard form, and the 
 plate shelf was more than likely to have a rack or strip across 
 the front. Any old house which, being historical, has been fur- 
 nished in the old style and thus made a museum for the antique, 
 will probably offer some suggestions of this sort. If, however, 
 one desires an independent shelf to be affixed to the wainscot, 
 it should be planted frankly on it an acknowledged after- 
 thought. Unless, perhaps, one is restoring the wainscot, in 
 which case the paneled form may have a rail provided. True 
 wainscot, as we all know, runs to the ceiling. 
 
 As the earmark of antiquity is denoted by the general 
 scarcity of metal work, there is much chance for crude forms 
 in wood. Shelf brackets and the like should be made; also door 
 buttons and pulls. If one is handy with tools, there is a chance 
 for him here, but be sure to let the marks of the jack-knife show; 
 do not sand-paper it all out. 
 
 Having supplied a place for our little vanity in old china, 
 pewter and glass, the next thing is to display it. We may add 
 that such should rarely be done on the mantel. Perhaps it 
 is very like suggesting that one sleeps after retiring, but we must 
 inflict the advice. Choose good specimens and not too many 
 and let their arrangement be a composition, in which the placing 
 is neither too crowded nor too open. Remember, that as one 
 goes back, the average condition becomes simpler and simpler; 
 there were very few utensils in the oldest houses. 
 
 Sets of china are hard to pick up and awkward to display 
 afterwards, unless confined to the buffet. Isolated pieces are 
 more plentiful and far more satisfactory in a composition as 
 they offer diversity in size, color and form. Although wood and 
 pewter were used in the early period, they should be kept sepa- 
 rate in display. If they do not express different conditions of 
 
98 RECLAIMING THE OLD HOUSE 
 
 life, they at least denote the best and the every-day bonnet. 
 China and glass may associate if necessary, but if one has enough 
 of either to make a separate group, it is best, owing to the dif- 
 ferent background required for each. Brass utensils are gen- 
 erally foreign in use to china and consequently stand apart. 
 
 So much for the display for utility, one hardly cares to 
 risk even old Staffordshire of the commonest sort to the tender 
 mercies of the domestic. Even if careful, she can hardly have 
 the interest in its welfare that we have. If one can handle this 
 personally, let it be old china by all means, but rare pieces ought 
 never to be exposed even to the bare possibility of accidents. 
 
 Fortunately for this problem, as with the furniture, de- 
 signers have discovered sometime since, that old shapes and pat- 
 terns could hold their own with any they could devise. Hence 
 there is rather a liberal field to select from in the way of replica. 
 Of course there is the familiar Willow pattern, also the onion 
 pattern. Many old factories or their successors are reproduc- 
 ing popular old-time designs. One may get excellent Minton, 
 if one can stand the price, and we remember a cheaper repro- 
 duction of an early Minton pattern, strong in Oriental sugges- 
 tions, which calls up visions of powdered coiffure, full skirts 
 and dainty slippers. 
 
 As the light is necessarily a part of teh table accessories, we 
 will speak of it here. There is nothing softer or more restful 
 than candle light. For the dining-table the candelabra or even 
 a group of candlesticks do excellent service. Old brasses are 
 not so difficult to get and even the reproduction is not exorbitant. 
 For cheaper types, the Colonial glass offers good forms. Fo5 
 general lighting and reading there is the glass lamp, which may 
 be attached to either gas or electricity in one way or another. 
 Of course this is a necessary evil, not easily disposed of by ignor- 
 ing it. Perhaps the old-time lantern, if suspended and fitted 
 with modern lights might serve to preser\^e a little of the flavor 
 of the older days. In any event it is the candle or the early 
 lamp that we must base our designs on ; it is manifestly impossi- 
 ble to follow the suggestions of the pitch knots of primitive 
 methods. 
 
 As a wall or table fixture, the old brass candlestick may 
 settle the problem. If the former, let it be set on a shelf or on 
 

 A New England chair of pine, with 
 rush seat and of Dutch influence 
 
 A modern Mahogany chair, modelled 
 on New York Dutch lines 
 
 A common and interesting form of 
 
 the Chippendale. Such chairs have 
 
 refinement 
 
 Mahogany chair of l-^mpire influence. 
 
 This and the one above were from a 
 
 department store 
 
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 J 
 
 
 The only criticism on the above simple and uncrowded arrangements would be on 
 
 the conflict in styles of table and chairs in the upper picture. Disconnected units 
 
 may vary; these should harmonizt' 
 
FURNITURE 99 
 
 the mantel. Not only should its location be here, but it should 
 be fastened and thus substitute for the usual bracket or chande- 
 lier. This may effect our ends if we do not insist on the electric 
 bulb or gas mantel. The former may be tolerated in the raw but 
 if a shade is required or the mantel used, it is best to lapse into 
 the lamp period, using the old glass lamp standard with the spher- 
 ical globe. 
 
 In early days the picture was a rarity ; the simpler dwelling 
 knew it not. The sampler was about the only thing among 
 the masses and was given the place of honor over the mantel. 
 It is extremely interesting, and one handy with the needle can 
 readily copy or originate something of the sort or they can often- 
 times be bought at arts and crafts shops. Later comes the 
 silhouette, which one occasionally sees rejuvenated at fairs and 
 summer places of amusement. Frequently too, these artists are 
 quite successful in catching a profile. 
 
 What one may really rely on is the print; first the un- 
 colored and later the colored. The first we naturally connect 
 with Hogarth, who began to produce about 1736. Then come 
 the colored prints, English and French. These cover a consider- 
 able range religious, sporting, dainty French society, etc. The 
 engraving is a thing apart and could stand very well alone ; it is 
 used however, as a key plate for the application of color, which 
 is often done by hand. Fortunately we can buy these of a 
 modern manufacture, which are perhaps as effective as the old 
 specimens. 
 
 The hanging of pictures was first accomplished with the 
 aid of a wooden peg, nail or hook; the picture molding and 
 cord was not then in the field. Personally we do not care for the 
 looks of picture cord or wire. There is a brass wall hook which 
 can be procured in several sizes, over which the screw eyes in the 
 back of the frame are hung. For heavy pictures the strong 
 screw hook may be used and the weight supported by the rests 
 one commonly sees used for old mirrors. As the majority of 
 old houses are fairly low-studded, the picture can be hung flat 
 or nearly so. 
 
 The arrangement of pictures should be carefully thought 
 out beforehand to avoid the making of unnecessary holes. An 
 important picture may serve to assist the axis of design or to 
 
100 RECLAIMING THE OLD HOUSE 
 
 balance some other important detail or one of its kind. Colonial 
 design frequently seeks for balance and symmetry, but such 
 should never be too set. Smaller pictures may be grouped 
 about a larger one. The best scheme is to locate the important 
 units and let the lesser play up to them with more or less loose- 
 ness, as the general problem may seem to dictate. 
 

 Cha/)ter Sepen 
 A PRACTICAL XAMJPLE 
 
 WHEN one has become the possessor of an old house 
 he is much in the position of a man who is giving an 
 illustrated lecture for the first time, with the dif- 
 ference however, that he is a double personality; for 
 while he is delivering his lecture, he is at the same time by no 
 means an unimportant member of his audience. Nor do he and 
 his outside audience meet on equal terms ; they will be ever chang- 
 ing and passing on, forgot ; he cannot pass on cannot forget. 
 
 He would quite naturally impress the outside world, but in 
 this he must first have felt that impression and lastly must live 
 with it. And it is better that such living should be peaceful and 
 the associations one of pleasure, rather than a forced and irri- 
 table companionship. Therefore one must consider the thing 
 seriously. 
 
 Instead of laying down rules to illustrate one method of 
 handling the following problem, we will try to make the method 
 clear in the manner of our working. 
 
 101 
 
102 
 
 RECLAIMING THE OLD HOUSE 
 
 To begin with, in the original, as near as we can gret at it, 
 bared of all the good and bad conditions of later dates (mostly 
 bad), we have a six-room plan in two stories, which stories were 
 about 7 ft. 8 in. and 7 ft. 2 in. respectively. The arrangement is 
 one of the early forms used in the Connecticut Valley, but the 
 house itself is not as old as its plan. It has however, a good 
 solid oak frame, reasonably sound and fairly level. 
 
 The outer covering is of double 
 grooved siding, which when fitted to- 
 gether shows an over-lap as in com- 
 mon clapboarding. This was laid 
 directly on the frame without board- 
 ing an old method, but the old-time 
 birch wall-filling does not occur. 
 There was no gutter to the roof, 
 which is hipped and of about a thirty- 
 degree pitch. The old chimney was 
 built largely of stone laid in clay 
 mud (an old custom) with occa- 
 sional interjected and apparently 
 meaningless pieces of oak timber. 
 The visible portions of the fireplaces 
 were of brick laid up in lime mortar, with brown freestone caps 
 and hearths. The caps were in good order but the hearths were 
 cracked and much the worse for fire ; the whole chimney was un- 
 safe and had been unused for some time. 
 
 When the house came into our hands there was a long 
 telescopic addition of one and one-half stories, attached to the 
 rear in width, from the corner of the pantry to the post be- 
 yond the door. The first unit was evidently a new kitchen ; the 
 next and the next, unclassified and all of different dates. Had 
 its outreach not been stopped by a fairly large apple tree, it 
 might have gone on and on into the river. A covered piazza 
 extending around four sides of the house was of that period 
 when the decadent wooden "Gothic" ran riot and the jig-saw 
 was a thing to be played with rather than used. Then too, the 
 windows on the front and ends had been narrowed for window 
 weights and also cut down to the floor with the obvious purpose 
 of affording access to the piazza, which feat was easy, if one 
 
 Fig. 14 The old plan as it ex- 
 isted before alteration, showing 
 the arrangement of early days 
 
y 
 
 qq/? 
 
 
 Before alteration, this '"gem" of a piazza nearly girdled the house, cutting out direct 
 
 svinlight from all the lower rooms. Otherwise the block of the structure had not been 
 
 tampered with to any extent 
 
 The substitute for the old piazza was a bit more in keeping with the period of the 
 house. The "kick" to the roof of the "outdoor" room is a localism probably borrowed 
 
 from the Dutch 
 
i 
 
 Front of the altered house from the street. Tlicre has been no effort to make a di 
 tinguished thing; rather a restful habitation and home 
 
 A view from the water side and rear. The open-air room commands a full sweep of 
 the river and makes a good sun-parlor, if desired 
 
 r^Jc}MM^S^SclMEM^M^S^M^MM&I^M^MEM^S^J^M^M^S^M^^ 
 
A PRACTICAL EXAMPLE 103 
 
 cared to crawl. In its origin our house was surely the work of 
 the craftsman. 
 
 The first problem was the rebuilding of the old chimney, 
 which was torn down to the level of the first floor. In the liv- 
 ing-room or old kitchen, the fireplace was reduced from five feet 
 to four feet in width because the original was much too close to 
 the woodwork to suit our fancy. All masonry was kept two 
 inches from the wood work and air chambers were built in the 
 flanking jambs as an extra precaution. In the parlors we had 
 a three-foot opening and in the room marked "B" (which was 
 probably either a bedroom or office) we got a two and one-half 
 foot opening. A light segmental arch was turned back of the 
 brick facing above the caps to relieve them of what little weight 
 might occur above. The old caps were re-dressed and reset, but 
 cut out slightly at the back to accommodate the Murdock throat 
 and damper. For the hearth concrete was used, but while it 
 answered very well for the smaller openings, the larger one, 
 owing to some imperfection or perhaps from the excessive heat, 
 crumbled slightly in front of the fire and so we were obliged 
 to introduce a raised hearth of fire-brick, a possibility we had 
 fortunately foreseen. This raised hearth has at least one practi- 
 cal advantage outside of its natural properties; it forms a defi- 
 nite line of demarcation betwen the fireplace and the room and 
 hence there is a limit set to the loose ashes. It is hardly neces- 
 sary to state that we used tile flue linings; their advantage is 
 evident. 
 
 It will be noticed from the illustrations that black bricks 
 have been introduced into the facing of the large fireplace as 
 well as into the topping out of the chimneys. Why did we 
 use this distinctively Southern feature? We found authority 
 for it in the basement of an old house not two miles distant 
 very simple it is true, yet existing. One naturally wonders 
 what inspired them. To get these we were obliged to dip hot 
 brick in hot tar; the result was a dead and lusterless black. 
 
 It was first intended by the owner simply to rebuild the 
 chimney and let the rest hang over for a while, but a careful in- 
 spection discovered so much to be done to get the house into 
 possible shape that it was decided not to waste time and money 
 on temporary repairs. Therefore after patching the roof for 
 
104 
 
 RECLAIMING THE OLD HOUSE 
 
 the winter we got at the problem of the new layout, that it 
 might be ready in the spring, and as fast as anything definite 
 could be decided upon for the carpenter, we let him have it to 
 help the thing along. 
 
 As to the plan here shown, it is necessary to understand 
 that modern requirements differ from those of old times and in 
 introducing the piazza, for instance, we have made the house of 
 a later date than it really is. As a visible feature and in order 
 to avoid conflict, we have introduced a column which follows a 
 certain local craftsman's crudeness, thus going back to the early 
 types and methods of our original house. 
 
 It was decided at the start that the "telescope" and fancy 
 piazza had better go. This left the original block of the house 
 and a far simpler problem to contend with. As to utilizing 
 
 the old plan, it seemed 
 
 best that the old 
 kitchen should serve 
 as a living-room one 
 of its original uses. 
 This was away from 
 the street, but the 
 outlook up and down 
 the river demanded it. 
 Then too, the house 
 was near the street 
 and herein was an- 
 other reason. The 
 fairly sunny parlor 
 was to be used as a 
 sleeping-room for the older generation and the old bedroom as a 
 reception-room. The old pantry plus the old back stairs were to 
 afford space for the new main staircase, the old-time front stairs 
 remaining as they were. While the old kitchen was ample as 
 to size and relative placing to serve well the purpose of a living- 
 rpom, yet its window area was inadequate. We therefore in- 
 troduced the square bay in as simple a form as possible so as not 
 to disturb the general simplicity of the exterior. As the bay 
 was not a feature of this particular type in the original, care was 
 taken to keep it simple and in line. The built-in seat suggested 
 
 Fig. 15 Remodeled plan first floor. Oa R, Open- 
 air Room; E, Entry; V, Veranda; L, Lavatory; S. 
 Stairs; S R., Servant's Room; b, Buffet; s. Stand- 
 pipe; L Y., Laundry yard; R R., Reception room 
 
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A PRACTICAL EXAMPLE 105 
 
 
 
 itself naturally and by making a raised cover we gained stow- 
 away room for papers, magazines and the like. There was one 
 overhead cubby in the parlor; we replaced this and added an- 
 other in the reception-room. 
 
 Perhaps the first impression one gets in comparing the 
 original house and the addition, is that of the tail that wags the 
 dog, but this problem is one of many similar, in which the house 
 belonged in the family and still was not sufficient in size to meet 
 new requirements. We have done what we could to emphasize 
 the old house. 
 
 It will be noticed that the rear wall of the new ell does not 
 correspond with the similar wall of the old house and on this 
 account the eaves on this side are naturally lower in order to 
 keep the roofing planes together. This was made necessary on 
 account of the old windows in the reception room and guest 
 chamber, which prevented our bringing the addition near the 
 street. The position of these windows was very good and hardly 
 worth while to disturb. We fancy that the better sort of old 
 craftsman would have done much the same with this problem. 
 
 The open-air room, which replaces the removed kitchen ad- 
 dition, has sheathed walls and ceiling, but the floor is the same 
 as in the rest of the house. The wooden walls give it a little 
 more freedom, more the porch character, and as a matter of 
 fact it is really, as its name suggests, as much of an open as a 
 closed-in feature. The construction of the room is rather un- 
 usual; the sill being dropped below the floor timbers so that the 
 lower sashes, which are weighted, may be dropped into pockets 
 and hinged window-stools dropped back over them. The upper 
 sashes are hinged and swing to the ceiling, and thus the whole 
 window area can be utilized; in damp weather they are readily 
 closed. Outside screens complete the utility. 
 
 The particular points of the plan may be readily seen. 
 The kitchen end is merely a modem arrangement without re- 
 gard to Colonial style. There is room enough and not too much. 
 The cook has a sink and shelves out of the way of any passing 
 traffic; her pantry is ample and well lighted; she is in reach of 
 the trademan's door and can see readily who is at it; two win- 
 dows on either side give cross ventilation while a register ovef 
 the stove connects with a vent flue in the chimney, which is 
 
106 
 
 RECLAIMING THE OLD HOUSE 
 
 warmed by the range flue. The kitchen dresser is handy for 
 both cook and second girl and together they have a small room 
 of their own with a good river view. There is room in the 
 pantry for a small ice-chest which may be filled from the out- 
 side by opening the swing window and dropping an inclined 
 platform. 
 
 The reception room is easily accessible from both the front 
 and side doors, the latter of which is most used. The servants 
 can answer the bell with but little intrusion on the rest of the 
 house and from the side door see the visitor before opening 
 the front door. There are, as there should be, two doors between 
 the kitchen quarters and the rest of the house. 
 
 The basement is reached by stairs from the hallway in 
 the new part, and at their foot is the outer door to the laundry 
 yard. Owing to the sharp grade, full-sized windows were pos- 
 sible in the end and yard side, the stonework coming only to 
 the height of the sills in the latter instance. The laundry occu- 
 pies the end under the pantry, servants' room and the major 
 part of the kitchen. Next to this and the outer door is a toilet. 
 The coal bunkers are beside the wall under the hallway and 
 entry, while the space below the dining-room is reserved for the 
 future heater. The old cellar is poorly lighted and is used for 
 
 little more than a 
 store room. Un- 
 der the open-air 
 room is a light 
 area accessible 
 both from the old 
 cellarway and the 
 laundry yard. 
 
 The second story 
 has required more 
 alteration of the 
 old part than on 
 the first floor; and 
 with the single- 
 chimney plan this 
 were content to go 
 
 Fig. 16 Remodeled plan second floor. C, Chamber; G 
 
 C, Guest chamber; F H, Front hall; Hy, Hallway; D R, 
 
 Dressing-room; B, Bath; C, Closet; S, Servant's Room; 
 
 T R, Trimk room; T, Trapdoor. 
 
 is always the case. Our forefathers 
 
 through one room to reach another; we, however, object to this. 
 
A PRACTICAL EXAMPLE 107 
 
 The old chimney took up all the space as in the lower story, 
 but we were obliged to rake it toward the old front stairs to 
 gain the hallway to the front corner room. We also steal 
 from the guest chamber to continue this to connect with the new 
 part. In the original plan there were no fireplaces on the sec- 
 ond floor and it was deemed best to leave them out in the alter- 
 ation in favor of the small closets. We provided, however, 
 three small flues for stove connection in the three chambers, in 
 case of emergency. The small closets are small, but they are 
 only for immediate use, the large closet oif the trunk room of- 
 fering plenty of stowaway room. The chamber over the old 
 kitchen has been divided, partly to help our hall and also to get 
 a dressing-room. 
 
 The new staircase is well lighted by borrowed light from 
 the two windows in the long hallway. The staircase is centrally 
 located and reaches the vital points of the second floor easily. 
 
 It will be seen from the plan that the servants are cut ofl* 
 from the rest of the house by a large flat and curtained arch. 
 Within this section are the bedrooms, bath and ample closet 
 room. There is one point which might have been bettered; the 
 family bath is not centrally located as regards the chambers. 
 Even if left as it is, an extra toilet would have been well placed 
 in some handy part of the trunk room. The idea of its present 
 location lay with the owner and the idea was to reduce the very 
 considerable plumbing into one upright stack. Economically 
 it is a success. 
 
 It will be noticed that there is a standpipe in the hallway 
 of the new part. This is of two-inch galvanized pipe and ex- 
 tends from cellar to garret. It is fed from a reservoir on the 
 hill above the common water supply of the house. On the 
 three floors proper, a fifty-foot linen hose hangs on a bracket 
 rack, ready at all times for use. With this all parts of the in- 
 terior can be reached. In the cellar the hose is one hundred 
 feet in length to allow for out of doors use. 
 
 Having considered the plan as a plan let us consider the 
 general finish and design. The building itself belongs to the 
 middle of what is commonly called the Georgian period. Its 
 style is extremely simple in both outline and detail. Its loca- 
 tion on the map is about the middle of the state of Connecticut, 
 
108 RECLAIMING THE OLD HOUSE 
 
 and on the Connecticut River. This last being an old-time 
 highway, it was natural that there should be much intercourse 
 between the various settlements bordering it, and hence one may 
 naturally look for a great similarity in the style of building over 
 this entire territory. We were fortunate in having, at the start, 
 numerous photographs and some measured details of the period 
 above mentioned; it saved our making a special expedition for 
 them. 
 
 In looking up and down our little stretch of country one 
 notices great similarity of design and detail and its examples, 
 owing to the great waterway, are often scattered. In measuring 
 details in our own little town we find that up to the later work 
 our cornice moldings, for instance, are apparently from the same 
 tool, regardless of dates. One old farmhouse, now burned, 
 which was a survival of the third stage of development, and 
 still retained the old "summer" beams and the wooden ceiling, 
 had a cornice almost identical with one on a building which was 
 not built until fifty years later. In it was to be found much 
 of the Gothic influence and its original windows had slid side- 
 ways in a single sash, betwixt the girt and the dado cap, which 
 last was identical with the window-stool. To such sources as these 
 have we resorted to help us in our problem of reconstruction. 
 
 Let us take our interior first, bit by bit and see what was 
 done with it. In the old part it was found necessary, in laying 
 the new floor, to level up with furrings on top of the old floor; 
 buildings will settle and get out of level. We used for our new 
 floor best grade Southern pine, of narrow width. In the ell, 
 on the second floor, we laid but a single floor in order to save 
 every inch possible there being considerable difference in the 
 depth of the old oak floor beams and the shallowest we could 
 contrive with our modern spruce beam. When the top of the 
 window casings do not come too close to the ceiling it is best 
 not to do this as it gets rather dirty and is apt to be scarred 
 during the balance of the construction. As it was we waited 
 until the masons were out of the way before we laid it and even 
 then it had to be scraped. Judging from the way in which the 
 ceiling cut into the tops of the casings on the first floor, and 
 from the style of the glass, we judged that our original windows 
 were not as high by one width of siding. 
 
A PRACTICAL EXAMPLE 109 
 
 When the windows had been enlarged, it is probable that 
 new doors were hung as well and at the same time new back- 
 boards put on to the casings. All this work was old, but it was 
 not the original by any means, nor was there anything to show 
 what the original might have been except the ancient front doors. 
 However, our second-story doors and casings were far too good 
 to abandon and we retained them with their design of four up- 
 right panels. In the kitchen and other working parts of the 
 house the new doors were of cypress in a natural and dead finish. 
 Elsewhere they were painted white. Brass, loose-pin butts were 
 used throughout except when the door or its butt side was of 
 natural wood, in which case a similar japanned butt was used. 
 The old door knobs were all of white porcelain; we substituted 
 octagonal glass on the lower story to go with the white paint 
 and black to go with the natural wood. These last were also 
 used on the second story, while with the white paint we used 
 mahogany. 
 
 The one feature of the living-room is the fireplace; the seat 
 in the bay is too simple to be so classed. Our brickwork has al- 
 ready been explained, but our modern embellishment is a bit 
 more complicated. The architrave or form about the brick- 
 work is after a similar motive in our (unfortunately destroyed) 
 farmhouse. It has a few novel Gothic bumps in its makeup. 
 The mantel itself is very close to the old doorcap of the farm- 
 house. This too differs from anything we have before seen and 
 we are glad of it. But the over-mantel is not a Georgian fea- 
 ture, neither is it Elizabethan; it is a victim of circumstances. 
 When the owner became possessed of the property there was an 
 old rosewood piano with a few bits of very good inlay about it. 
 This piano was an old friend: what should he do with it? As a 
 piano it was hopeless, but the inlay . Well, we thought it 
 over for a moment and then determined upon the place above 
 the mantel for it. It was perfectly natural that we put the 
 piano cover over the mantel to get rid of it and preserve it at the 
 same time. As it was not large enough to fit we framed it with a 
 natural cypress frame which had the added advantage of mak- 
 ing the transition to the white paint less abrupt and startling. 
 Then too there was more space at the sides than at the top and 
 bottom and we introduced a small ornament of dull gold tem- 
 
110 RECLAIMING THE OLD HOUSE 
 
 pered with color. It will be noticed that the surmounting cap is 
 a bit of the backboard of the door casings and further that it is 
 in line with these members on either flank. This is a bit archi- 
 tectural, but there was no real good reason to do otherwise. 
 
 In our adjoining bedroom the old simple mantel was re- 
 placed. This had an architrave very similar to those of the door 
 and window and below the shelf was a well proportioned dentil 
 molding. In the reception-room the old mantel was also re- 
 tained but as it had a cart-before-the-horse arrangement of 
 panels in the frieze, we filled these with composition ornaments 
 to control, but not to hide its oddity. 
 
 In our new dining-room there was little to hinder us with our 
 feature, which is the fireplace. From the plan and the pictures 
 it will be seen to be well balanced. It is mostly of wood and 
 such little plaster as occurs in the surface space around the 
 doors has been painted like the woodwork to count as such. 
 There is a bit of the local crudeness in the buffet and its bal- 
 ancing motive, the door into the entry. Our beam is clumsy 
 and our corbels in the sofiit of the flat arches are relics of our 
 old farmhouse and hence of Gothic origin. The chimney breast 
 proper will be noticed for its simplicity; the few ornaments are 
 introduced to get terminal spots and produce lines. We are 
 so far from the common thing that we feel we may do this. 
 Otherwise it follows closely in its molding and general sugges- 
 tions an old house at Windsor which still retains some of the 
 earmarks of the early period both in its moldings and in its over- 
 hanging second story. 
 
 And lastly of the hall, and this resolves itself into the stair- 
 case. Now this feature is one of the last stages of the Gothic 
 development merging into the Georgian, which however, we often 
 find in the earlier Georgian examples. The solid or box stringer 
 is easily likened to the side of a stepladder and it was by means 
 of a stepladder that the old Elizabethan chambers or lofts were 
 reached. Our posts are a bit off from the plain square models, 
 but it seemed desirable to get the extra strength here and at 
 the same time avoid the necessary bulkiness of the square post. 
 
 A word as to decoration: ^the walls of the kitchen, to- 
 gether with the servants' rooms and the bathrooms have been 
 painted, which allows of easy cleaning. The walls of the recep- 
 
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A PRACTICAL EXAMPLE 111 
 
 tion-room are done in flat fresco color of a pale yellow. Those 
 of the living-room are covered with paper of a medium brown 
 in a pattern suggesting the texture of the Eastern grass fabrics. 
 A limited and judicious use of dull gold adds richness to the ef- 
 fect. This paper was chosen above the pattern sort because it 
 was to serve largely as a background for pictures. The dining- 
 room, being intended to carry itself without much pictorial aid, 
 is of a very good semi-realistic tree pattern in grey monochrome 
 with touches of subdued green. A couple of the chambers show 
 examples of the perpendicular stripe with the usual diaper pat- 
 tern of flowers. 
 
 The exterior of the main building has undergone but little 
 alteration, except in the raising of the long windows and the 
 addition of a molded water-table across the front. The sash 
 are made with the old-fashioned heavy muntins, but the size of 
 the glass has been increased from its probable original size. 
 Its shape too suggests the general block of the building and is 
 more in harmony than a narrower form might be. In reality 
 it is a compromise which considers in a measure the difficulty 
 attending the cleaning of small panes. Old-time glass was 
 small from the conditions attending its manufacture. 
 
 The additions consist of an elaboration of the front en- 
 trance, the new oval window above, the bay window at the rear 
 and the new piazza. There has also been added a hanging gut- 
 ter and this is always best when the original has no installed 
 gutters. 
 
 The original front door was a double affair and so narrow 
 that to use one-half of it was a nuisance. The new doors 
 were similar in design but wider. The doorway is a composite 
 and has its origin in different originals. There is little that is 
 copied absolutely and this little is in the molding details. The 
 oval window above, which is really a part of the motive, draws 
 its inspiration from other sources. 
 
 Our piazza has been made to balance that this characteristic 
 of the house proper might not be lost sight of. Our cornice is 
 as simple as is practical, and certain members in it correspond 
 and line up with the top of the window casings. Our columns 
 and pilasters have a "double" entasis, that is they are curved 
 from the base to the cap, while in the architectural conceptions 
 
112 RECLAIMING THE OLD HOUSE 
 
 ^ ^ 
 
 the lower portion is straight; we have full authority for this. 
 The piazza rail and balusters are as simple as possible. 
 
 The recess in which the service steps enter the kitchen is 
 suggestive in line of the old woodshed addition. This it will 
 be noticed has an architrave bare of moldings and the cap is 
 made up of the case moldings of the windows, with the top of 
 which it is in line. The elliptical arch is a true form, not con- 
 structed with three segments of a circle, as is likewise the case 
 with the oval window in the front of the main house. The small 
 windows above the recess serve only to light the closets and 
 therefore we have considerable blank wall about our recess, a 
 telling but generally a difficult effect to obtain. 
 
 The bay window added to the living-room is so inconspic- 
 uous a feature as to speak for itself in the picture, but the long 
 sweep and terminating curve of the roof of the open-air room 
 is apt to make a New Yorker, unfamiliar with the valley, bristle 
 with interrogation points. No, let us hasten to assure him, we 
 have not borrowed from the Dutch and in so doing mixed up 
 style. The old-time craftsman did this for us and there are 
 many existing examples in the valley to testify to the fact. 
 
 It will be noticed that the rear of our ell, owing to the 
 abrupt falling off of the ground, looms up in the air consider- 
 ably. Therefore the laundry yard with its wistaria-covered 
 enclosure will serve, besides its initial purpose, as a screen to 
 eliminate some of the height of the offending ell. 
 
 The foregoing will serve to give some idea of the problem 
 presented and our method of solving it. It may not be a per- 
 fect solution; probably it could be bettered; but we feel that it 
 is a fairly creditable effort and we are firmly convinced that 
 our course in following the local craftsman, rather than the wider 
 source of inspiration and the very correct taste of the average 
 architect, is the only sane method of handling an old house. 
 One does not set the same palette for every sort of picture. 
 
Chapter Eiffht 
 OUTUJLDIJVGS, ETC. 
 
 WITH all structures independent of the house, the ex- 
 teriors, like that of the latter, should keep to the old 
 style as far as possible, however modern their interiors 
 may be. Amongst outbuildings, the barn stands 
 prominent. In its original form it housed all kinds of stock. 
 The stable is an aristocratic barn, intended only for horses. Al- 
 though ancient enough for all practical purposes, it does not 
 occur commonly in Colonial design, except in the South: most 
 people used the barn. 
 
 When the barn divorced itself from the general roof, it took 
 unto itself new dignity. The outshot, which in the parent form 
 housed the cattle, was retained; the main body of the structure, 
 used as a threshing floor, became a through passage with double 
 doors at either end, and the outshot was repeated in reverse 
 on the opposite side of the building, making a balanced plan. 
 One can see at a glance that its kinship with church construction 
 was very close: the central nave and flanking aisles. Perhaps 
 our using the term outshot in this way may confuse those who 
 
 113 
 
114 RECLAIMING THE OLD HOUSE 
 
 will remember it as an ell form with an independent roof. With 
 the cathedral the outshot is the aisle; in barn construction the 
 framing places it, although it is generally under the same roof 
 as the barn. The interior posts flanking the threshing floors 
 are really the limits of a main structure, from which the out- 
 shots might be removed without injuring its true intention and 
 utility. 
 
 Although we still have with us a few examples of the pre- 
 Georgian house, there are, as far as we are aware, no barns of 
 this period, such as would stand for examples. Whether the 
 Pennsylvania stone barn can be dated as far back as this, is a 
 question for the local historian. However this may be, there 
 is enough of tradition preserved in the Connecticut Valley of 
 the early and middle Georgian period to show what it might 
 have been and it is very improbable that any radical change took 
 place in its development. Being an offspring of the house, it 
 inherits its construction. It is a simple edition, adapted to its 
 new and exclusive purposes. Less important than the house 
 in many ways, it was very plain often to the extreme of bare- 
 ness; nor did the change of style afl'ect it to the degree that it 
 did the house. Consequently we find it much the same through- 
 out the several periods, although in special instances during the 
 later Georgian, the barn and the stable were treated to a little 
 style. 
 
 Many barns were boarded vertically, without other cover- 
 ing, although we note that sectionally, shingles were used in 
 addition. This open construction served to ventilate the hay. 
 The Pennsylvania stone barn had vertical slots at intervals to 
 eff'ect the same purpose. In the Connecticut Valley the tradi- 
 tion of the early overhang was preserved oftentimes in the gables 
 but there was no break between the two stories in the frame, 
 although we frequently see the second-story boards overlapping 
 those below, thus preserving the tradition through a detail of 
 construction. 
 
 We have already mentioned the fact that the style of the 
 barn was behind that of the house. This was because the former 
 was merely a constructional problem, unembellished. Except 
 in the case of the overhang, the Georgian house was practically 
 the pre-Georgian structure dressed up. The early open cornice. 
 
^M^M^M^M^M^J^MEMEM^M^M^M^M^M^S^M^M^M&M 
 
 An old [.oiig Island barn which follows the Saxon tradition in having the end door 
 The design as it stands is good and nl-Mi effective with the long shingles 
 
 A Connecticut barn which follows the tradition of the Pre-Georgian type It is 
 boarded vertically and the aisle is from side to side after the English fashion 
 
 fSJEliSMSJ^jQUMaraJSMSMSMSMmMMeMaiSMSISM 
 

 The Baldwin stables at North Woburn, Mass. A good model for a large building of 
 the kind, which might be built with two aisles instead of one, giving five sections 
 
 Corn-crib at the Baldwin Estate, which holds its style despite its simplicity, 
 excellent barn-yard gates beyond 
 
 Note the 
 
OUTBUILDINGS 115 
 
 boxed in became a Georgian cornice; the open stair rails grew 
 turned and elaborate balusters and became another style. 
 
 While we would advise keeping the character of the struc- 
 ture as originally intended, we would modify it to a certain 
 extent. There should be some note which should tie it to the 
 house (unless it is already tied in fact, when the problem be- 
 comes one of dressing) , some detail that will fix the thought of 
 comradeship, without marring the original. If one is to retain 
 the boarded walls, the crude types of segmental, elliptical or 
 circular heads for the great doors will help us, or perhaps if the 
 building be shingled, the simplest form of a box cornice har- 
 monious with the house will do. In the case of the overhanging 
 gable, we would suggest that the cornice merely return slightly 
 rather than disturb the simplicity of the overhang by traversing 
 the gable. In all this we are simply doing what the owner 
 would probably have done, had he cared to go to the expense. 
 
 If we are to cover the outside boarding we naturally de- 
 stroy our ventilation by closing up the cracks. For this reason 
 other means must be employed to preserve it. It is not neces- 
 sary that we put a ventilator in the roof (unless our roof be 
 hipped), although this in an excellent place for it. We cause 
 less disturbance by inserting two narrow window openings in 
 the opposite peaks and fortifying the same with louvers. Under 
 the eaves and over window openings or where they would 
 naturally occur, the flat squat vent may be placed to good 
 purpose. 
 
 While shingles may serve to cover the bam walls, we are 
 much averse to using clapboards, unless in extreme cases where 
 one be in the village and the structure be near the street. We 
 do not wish the barn to be too conscious ; clapboards have the 
 self-consciousness of dress. Perhaps the wide siding could be 
 used, it being a crude form of our modern clapboard, but best 
 of all is the manner of the original intention; the vertical board- 
 ing, which we can, if desired, overlay in like manner and thus 
 keep our effect. Of course where shingle was original, it should 
 be retained. The great danger in overhauling our barn lies in 
 our chance of spoiling it ; it may be of so simple a character that 
 one may fail to recognize its perfection until too late. Per- 
 sonally we feel that the open vertical boarding has so much in 
 
116 
 
 RECLAIMING THE OLD HOUSE 
 
 its favor that it might well be retained as such, without cover- 
 ing. The portion of the interior allotted to the stock can be 
 ceiled up on the inside if desired. 
 
 While the exterior may be a barn exterior, there is nothing 
 to hinder the interior being a stable. We have already stated 
 that the common arrangement consisted of the main, through 
 passage with the flanking outshots. Above the latter, leaving 
 a head room between six and seven feet, were second floors or 
 platforms, while another platform over the central portion of 
 the structure was placed about four or five feet higher. This 
 
 Sf 
 
 !.--r^.-r:-.v:i:! 
 
 % 
 
 s s j 
 
 ; 
 
 i e 
 
 ' 
 
 0* 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 Fig. 17 Plan and section suggestive of the stabbleizing 
 
 of the old barn. B S, Box stall; C, Carriage; H, Hay; 
 
 HR, Harness room; S, Stall; St, Straw bay; T, 
 
 Threshing-floor; P & H, Poultry & hogs 
 
 Fig. 18 Plan and sec- 
 tion suggestive of the 
 utility of the spring as a 
 cooler. C, Cold storage; 
 S, Spring-house cooler ; 
 W, Water; V, Vent; O, 
 Overflow; G, Grade 
 
 left, as will be seen, a chance to stow away the hay by passing 
 it first to the outshot platforms or mows and thence to the center 
 mow. Where we find the stock and horses confined to one side 
 of the building, the opposite outshot is very apt to have no floor 
 and thus ofl'ers several feet in depth for the further storage of 
 hay or straw. Part of this outshot may be utilized for the best 
 carriage, the every-day rigs and carts being relegated to an 
 outside shed. Underneath the barn, a portion is utilized as a 
 shelter for the stock when turned into the attached yard and 
 another portion for the hogs. This old-time arrangement is 
 still a good one ; any farmer will tell j'^ou why. Sometimes, too, 
 
OUTBUILDINGS 117 
 
 the poultry are taken care of under this roof. All this is the 
 general scheme of the old barn, which is subject to variations 
 and sometimes radical changes. 
 
 While we may desire still to utilize the barn for the pur- 
 poses for which it was intended and of which use there is little 
 to be said, we often require its use as a stable. Its adaptation 
 is comparatively easy : one outshot may be utilized for the horses, 
 the harness room and the grain room, while the opposite outshot 
 may serve to store carriages. The space allotted to the horses 
 would naturally be closed off from the rest of the floor, but the 
 carriage portion is best left open into the main passageway. 
 Such arrangements will probably make it necessary to separate 
 the mows from the rest of the building. To effect this change, 
 we may floor across our passage on top of our side mows and 
 remove the old floor above it, provided we gain space enough 
 to make the change worth while. Or perhaps we may treat the 
 portion in the center thus, leaving that near the main entrance 
 free so as to get inside with a load of hay from either direction, 
 keeping the lowered new flooring as an easy passageway from 
 one side mow to another. Perhaps scuttles may be necessary 
 in the floor at each end to allow for the successful workings of 
 the hay-carrier or, if one is afraid of getting dirt on the car- 
 riage, the hay can be put in through an outside door. There 
 may be some difficulty in getting head-room for the carriage 
 under the frame of the side mow and such may mean a raising 
 of this, or perhaps utilizing the outside cart shed. Whatever 
 the treatment be resorted to, it is quite evident that the carriage 
 should be protected from the litter of the hay. 
 
 Necessary to the general utility of the barn is the barnyard. 
 This is the natural intermediary gathering place of the stock, 
 betwixt the tie-up and the pasture. With the stableized barn, 
 it may be used as a paddock. When the height of the barn 
 underpinning (usually of stone) is sufficient, the enclosing bar- 
 rier is best made of like material. Laid in one-third-cement 
 mortar and reasonably smooth on the inner side, it will, if 
 properly constructed, with a suitable foundation, last indefinitely. 
 As far as utility is concerned, a good wire fence would answer 
 every purpose, but unfortunately for this effective agent, it lacks 
 bulk and the look of substance one naturally expects in the fence 
 
118 RECLAIMING THE OLD HOUSE 
 
 attached to a building. Therefore, outside the wall, the rail 
 fence of sawed stock seems to be the proper thing under the 
 circumstances and corresponds with much of the old-time gate 
 consti-uction. The picket fence is hardly the thing, even if 
 capped; the barn-yard is too near the purpose of the pasture 
 to borrow the motive of the enclosed front flower garden. 
 Sometimes, when the barn occurs on the opposite side of the 
 road from the house, we frequently find two barn-yards. One 
 of these forms the entrance way to the structure and the other 
 the stock yard. In all this is an excellent chance for simple 
 gates and fences; one may make or mar the problem with this 
 treatment alone. 
 
 There is little to be said of the stable that has not already 
 been said of the barn. As a general thing it is modern enough 
 to be serviceable without loss of convenience. Have a care to 
 your exterior; your interior may be as up-to-date as you choose. 
 One thing must be remembered: that the barn or the stable 
 should not overpower the house, neither by its size, by its near 
 proximity to the latter nor by its color. 
 
 If one's holdings are large or important enough, it may be 
 desirable to keep a man on the place all the time, and as this 
 often means his family, a structure taking the isolated form or 
 attached to or incorporated in the barn or stable may be desir- 
 able. With the separate building, there is a chance to do much 
 with the early methods; a large kitchen (also used as a dining- 
 room) and a living-room, with one or two rooms above. One 
 could almost duplicate some of those simple early structures. 
 Whether attached or detached, it should be simple and at best 
 be but one grade higher than the barn. There is temptation, 
 where the main house is set back from the street and other con- 
 ditions admit of it, to put the cottage on the street, making a 
 gate lodge of it and giving it the whole flavor of the early setting ; 
 its natural simplicity helps. 
 
 It is perhaps better that small outhouses like the swine- 
 house, hen-house, woodshed, etc., with possible exception of the 
 ice house, corn-crib and vegetable cellar, be included collectively 
 under one roof or annex themselves as is fitting to either of the 
 large structures the barn or the house. This saves a scatter- 
 ing of buildings. Such should not be tacked onto the barn or 
 
The outhouse, if incorporated under the roof of the woodshed and screened by 
 or trees, loses its bald identity in the general ensemble 
 
 The old Taylor stable at Roxbury, Mass. The wings to the right are apparently of 
 a later date. The stable proper is simple and dignified 
 
SMSTcirarSMMSMSfSISMMMMSrSMM^MSJSMSM^MMSf^MSja 
 
 
 p] 
 
 Minot House, Concord, Mass. An early Georgian type of the "B" plan, with an 
 excellent woodshed 
 
 w^^^^^!^r^m '^^ -^*\^^^'m'^i^ i i^m 
 
 Servants' or caretaker's quarters attached to the barn. A modern building on old 
 lines, using the windows and doors of a former structure 
 
 m^lM^M^M^M^M^MM^Mi^M^^M^S^M&M^M^J^M^M^SB^J^ 
 
OUTBUILDINGS 
 
 119 
 
 stable, although it may be embodied within its walls. The wood- 
 house, which is often attached to the house, may be separate 
 from it and combined with the tool-house, the earth closet and 
 perhaps an outside laundry. Even if the house is provided with 
 a plumbing system, the earth closet is still important. One fact 
 should never be lost sight of in locating the pig-pen and like 
 delicate units : their relation to prevailing winds and the house. 
 
 In suggesting the earth closet we pass the old-time privy 
 by as a dangerous thing. The former is provided with a tight 
 box arranged for easy transportation either by hand or horse 
 and its frequent distribution to various parts of the orchard, 
 vineyard or garden. A receptacle for dry earth is arranged for, 
 inside the structure, and this if used plentifully will act as an 
 absorbing agent for both moisture and odor, being a decided im- 
 provement over the ever leaching and consequently dangerous 
 privy. It is especially important that the usual conspicuous 
 isolation of the above mentioned structure be absorbed under 
 another and more dominant roof. 
 
 The woodshed is generally attached to the house, either 
 directly or by a covered passage. So arranged it best serves 
 
 Fig. 19 Showing two arrangements of the attached woodshed with the incorpor- 
 ated tool-house and earth closet. The latter has all the advantage of the isolated 
 
 closet, by introducing cross ventilation in the passage between it and the house 
 H House E Earth closet V Louvered vents 
 
 WS Woodshed T Tool shed I^ Lattice 
 
 its purpose when rain, sleet and snow are frolicking with Boreas 
 all up and down the countryside. We do not know whether 
 the reader be aware of the fact, but in such case it will bear re- 
 peating: wood, to keep dry and in good condition, requires 
 considerable ventilation. For this reason one side is frequently 
 open to the weather or, in the extreme, the opening is latticed or 
 blinded. Under such conditions the flooring or platform does 
 not necessarily extend to the front line of the open side, but 
 
120 RECLAIMING THE OLD HOUSE 
 
 drops back to aiFord a passage on the ground between the two. 
 This serves to remove the wood from the weather and to keep it 
 from the ground. Of course one recognizes, without being told, 
 the possibiUties for effect with an exterior of this sort. 
 
 The spring house is an institution of which many of us hold 
 pleasant memories. When one is fortunate enough to have a 
 good spring, within reasonable distance, the opportunity should 
 not be neglected. Not only is the spring a possible source of 
 water supply, but it serves as a cooler as well. Naturally the 
 spring house is just below the spring so that the water may be 
 made to flow through it. The common floor is an island around 
 which the cool water is made to flow, discharging at a point ap- 
 proximately opposite its entrance. The pails or cans are placed 
 in this miniature stream, which, never freezing, is as eff*ective 
 in winter as in summer. Naturally the walls are best if of 
 masonry and hollow, and in these days of cement concrete the 
 problem of the interior may be made both simple and clean. 
 The wall openings should be blinded and two at least be low in 
 themselves or extend downward to near the level of the plat- 
 form. The roof must be ventilated as well. Commonly the 
 entrance was protected by a porch, but if the structure be used 
 for other purposes and in so doing gives us a vestibule between 
 the outside and spring house proper, or if the door occurs on the 
 north side, or if it be well shaded by trees, the porch may be 
 omitted. 
 
 A good spring with gravity toward the house is worth al- 
 most its weight in gold. Such a condition is at once a water 
 supply, milk cooler, house cooler and cold storage for fruit and 
 vegetables. The same supply o*f cold water passing through 
 several compartments of one building may serve several ends. 
 If we have grade enough so that our cold storage may be located 
 beneath the spring house floor (and this can readily be done by 
 aid of concrete), we can construct a water-tight and hollow wall 
 so that a sheet of moving cold water will envelop our cold stor- 
 age and render its temperature as even as is possible. This of 
 course would require ventilation. Although the idea is new to 
 us, we see no reason why it might not be made of practical value, 
 being but the combined principles of the ordinary spring house 
 and root cellar. 
 
OUTBUILDINGS 121 
 
 If perchance our grade will admit of it, the overflow of the 
 spring house, or a part of it, may be carried in a tight conduit 
 through the hollow walls of a metal cooler in the house cellar. 
 As ice is a problem in itself the above suggestions are worth 
 consideration. 
 
 Speaking of ice very naturally suggests the ice house, and 
 if there be no spring, one has hardly any other resource. Al- 
 though the question of the ice house is discussed at length in 
 Farmers' Bulletin 475, and far more thoroughly than our lim- 
 ited space will allow, yet we can hardly pass it by without a 
 brief description. Generally speaking its construction is as fol- 
 lows : having selected a sheltered spot, the foundation is carried 
 below the frost and the pit thus excavated, being well drained, 
 is filled with broken stone and cinders. Perhaps there is a slat 
 floor on top of this, but it is not necessary. The walls, if of 
 wood, are double sheathed on the outside and also on the inside, 
 the latter having an air space between. The space between 
 studs is filled with shavings or sawdust and the roof carries neces- 
 sary vents. In primitive tj'^pes the ceiling is omitted, but there 
 is practicability in an insulated ceiling. Within this chamber, 
 properly drained and ventilated and protected from the sun, the 
 ice is packed in sawdust. A form of cold storage is contrived 
 by elevating the ice chamber and utilizing the space below it. 
 
 The common root cellar is supposed to be for the most part 
 covered with earth and partly below the ground level. It 
 should be placed on well drained soil, either in the open or dug 
 into a bank or hill. Its roof is generally covered with soil and 
 turfed, in fact it is made to retain as far as possible a normally 
 cool temperature without danger from the influence of the out- 
 side temperature. With this in view, the vertical end, against 
 which it is manifestly impossible to pile dirt, should be treated 
 much in the manner as the ice house wall and also fitted with 
 double doors. It goes without saying that there should be a 
 ventilator in the roof and one that may be stufl*ed with straw 
 in extreme weather. 
 
 Sometimes we find the cellar banked up on all sides and 
 accessible only from the roof; a good idea, barring the difficulty 
 of handling the contents of the cellar. 
 
 There seems to be considerable diiFerence of opinion as to 
 
122 RECLAIMING THE OLD HOUSE 
 
 whether the floor should be of concrete or dirt. The cement 
 manufacturers give us deHghtful cuts of up-to-date farm 
 buildings in concrete, amongst which the root cellar figures en- 
 tirely of this material, even to the bins. The less "progressive," 
 but probably as competent farmer tells us that he can't keep 
 his "stuff" on a concrete bottom. The discussion is rather out- 
 side the scope of this book and yet one cannot help remarking, 
 before dismissing the subject, that fruit and vegetables were 
 successfully handled long before concrete was heard of in this 
 country. 
 
 Perhaps the most vital question which we humans have to 
 contend with, outside that of food supply, is that of water sup- 
 ply. The reclaimed house that cannot call to its assistance the 
 service of good pure water in sufficient quantities, is handicapped 
 in a most unfortunate manner. The modern public service, 
 which one cannot often rely on in the country, from its very 
 nature is not always pure beyond question. The same may be 
 said of the small co-operative system, which is also expensive; 
 then too, one is not always able to protect one's source of supply 
 from the outside interference and contamination. 
 
 If, however, one has a good and copious spring, the prob- 
 lem is simply one of guarding against outside infection. Often 
 in following the flow back into the ground we may be able to 
 find firm footing on solid rock on which to rear a protecting wall 
 of stone or concrete. Brick is omitted purposely; it is too por- 
 ous for this problem, unless thoroughly tarred on the outside, a 
 treatment which might be applied to stone and concrete as well. 
 
 Unfortunately the reliable surface spring is a rarity, ex- 
 cept in places where it is unavailable or in the advertisements of 
 farm property. Thus we are back with the old well at last; 
 not the well we knew intimately in the days of childish joys, but 
 the kind the doctors prod with a long stick, calling all the time 
 for the public to look out. Yes, it is probably true that the 
 well has killed many; 'tis also a wonder it has not killed more. 
 But whose fault is it? Surely not that of the well. Sometimes 
 the well is spring fed; more often it simply interrupts a flow. 
 In either case the great danger lies in possible infection. The 
 spring fed well is probably safer as it is apt to come from con- 
 siderable depth and to have been thoroughly filtered. The 
 
^(^^5iGib^^^^^(^(Sb^^(Sb<^^<^<^<^I^x^^^^<^ 
 
 An open woodshed will. k^""'. -^iii.i'li- t.^u.;,.-, giving a large area of openings. Its 
 attachment to the house is bad, however 
 
 The screened woodshed has some practical advantages, but the lattice should fall 
 back of the outer wall face several inches to give the best results 
 
 qpqpqp qjp gpqpqp qpqpqpqp ejpqg>qgi ejpgjsejisqp egsqgejig qpejpejpqg 
 
OUTBUILDINGS 128 
 
 other type, on the contrary, coming from no one knows where, 
 may pick up all sorts of unpleasant things in its passage. We 
 reason that if we keep our drainage away from the well and on 
 a lower level, we are doing about all that we can be expected to 
 do. But then there is the barn and the outhouse; how do they 
 stand? Even then it is a question whether the sub-strata pitch 
 with the land or against it. With this to contend against one 
 can only keep watch on the water and resort to occasional 
 analysis. 
 
 As to the construction of the well there are several different 
 methods. Of these the stone wall is the most common. Old 
 wells were of very rough masonry and the collection of water 
 growth they acquired suggests that such walls might be much 
 smoother to good advantage; the well requires cleaning occa- 
 sionally. Brick of course makes a cleaner job, but good hard 
 material should be selected. Our own preference is the glazed 
 tile. 
 
 The manner of construction depends on the nature of the 
 supply. Have we the spring feed, the walls may be tight (if 
 possible) to the exclusion of other possible sources of supply. 
 This may mean an overflow above the ground level that, pro- 
 vided we have been fortunate enough to check the loss of our 
 water, through its natural subterranean channels. If on the 
 contrary we are dependent on the ordinary filtered flow, we must 
 leave enough dry wall at the bottom to allow of its collection, 
 but the wall above should be tight, thus excluding such surface 
 water as might otherwise pass through it. 
 
 Besides the purely practical side of the interior we have the 
 exterior which must be both practical and artistic. To begin 
 at the beginning, we have the well sweep. We will not go into 
 its history, because it is not vital. It suffices to say that it 
 may be used with any of our less palatial houses up to 1800. 
 As to the well sweep we can testify to its practicability, having 
 found it comparatively easy to push the bucket down; it would 
 come up laden, of its own accord. Perhaps the one thing in all 
 this with which fault may be found, is the curbing and general 
 open condition of the well. Stray toads, kittens, rats and mice, 
 to say nothing of countless insects, are hardly pleasant additions 
 to M^ell water. That these arrive by way of the bottom, the 
 
124 RECLAIMING THE OLD HOUSE 
 
 cracks, the spout and the open top, one hardly needs be told and 
 that it is a simple matter to eliminate these objections, is equally 
 clear. A tight well curb, well secured and fitted to its founda- 
 tion, a cover for the top having a slight pitch and some sort of 
 screened contrivance for closing the spout (provided it had one) 
 should form an effective combination against undesired visitors. 
 This, and of course the provisions for ventilation plus a dust 
 screen, should not be neglected if we are to do the thing properly. 
 
 The windlass is probably later than the stone balance, which 
 we often see in shallow wells. With this last form the well rope 
 is attached to a wheel or drum whose axle is a wooden shaft. 
 To the latter the stone weight is hung as a balance, being suf- 
 ficiently heavy to counteract the leverage of the drum. Thus 
 it is evident that, if the circumference of the shaft be one-third 
 that of the drum, the bucket will drop fifteen feet while the stone 
 is ascending five. 
 
 Of the crank windlass there is little to be said, except that 
 the external details of curb, hood and crank should have perhaps 
 a primitive touch. This and the same regard for the curbing and 
 screening in, as we have already mentioned, will do about all that 
 can be done. 
 
 Does the reader by any chance remember the old wooden 
 pump; made from a solid log, with a wooden handle and a 
 wooden spout, which together with a long wooden trough 
 for the horses to drink out of, completed a very wooden 
 whole? And perhaps there was a ball on top and a bit of 
 crude wrought iron work to support the spout and keep the 
 suspended bucket from slipping off. Do you by chance remem- 
 ber this? If so, it is well, for this is our pump the only pump 
 we are allowed to use, unless perhaps we may hide it where its 
 cast iron ugliness will not be seen. But if it be possible give us 
 the wooden exterior whatever you may do with its inner working 
 parts. Remember there are lots of things more unsightly than 
 an old wooden pump. And if it is not rich enough for your 
 house, take a good look at a fence post and see if it does not sug- 
 gest something to you but do not over-elaborate. 
 
 When one mentions the power pump we naturally think of 
 the driven well which often supplies us with water ^water which 
 tastes of yards and yards of iron pipe. Now the driven well is 
 
OUTBUILDINGS 125 
 
 too important in its function to be slighted and too modern to 
 be discussed here. It will be sufficient if we admit its usefulness 
 for general purposes, while denying its superiority as a producer 
 of drinking water. 
 
 The power pump however, is not limited to the deep well. 
 With the aid of hot air or gasoline it may be used with the ordi- 
 nary well, provided it furnishes a copious supply. Small prob- 
 lems may frequently be solved in this way. That the house 
 which encloses the outfit should be in harmonious style goes with- 
 out saying. 
 
 Not so very many years ago, people lowered things down 
 into the well in pails to keep them cool, but the doctor with the 
 very long stick, pointed a correspondingly long finger at them 
 and some drew the pails up again. Now perhaps he was right 
 after all; just the same, the well was a pretty good cooler. Per- 
 haps out of respect to the busy and learned M.D. we might build 
 twin wells and utilize one entirely as a cooler. The dumb-waiter 
 principle might be followed, with the addition of a metal tank 
 on the bottom of the waiter which should serve to float it and 
 incidentally to hold the milk cans. 
 
 We would not advise placing a new well close to the house 
 wall, where we sometimes find them, but if such exists and seems 
 practical, the cooler scheme might be used to advantage. Usu- 
 ally this well was back of the kitchen, next the sink and was cov- 
 ered with a shed. The bucket was on a drum, stone balanced, 
 and the door in the kitchen wall above made it accessible from 
 inside as well as the outside. 
 
 In most instances we are confronted with the problem of 
 water storage, whether it be the common one of rain water or the 
 less common one of the general gravity supply. 
 
 The outside cistern should be below the ground if possible 
 and, where its exposure is necessary, it should be screened with 
 some plausible Colonial motive, whether by house, evergreen or 
 vine-decked wire. The cistern bottom whether of concrete or 
 brick should pitch toward the outlet so that its contents may be 
 drawn off and the chamber cleaned. A slight hollow or basin 
 will be found convenient at the low point. Naturally it should 
 be provided with an overflow and a modern man-hole device in 
 the top. 
 
126 RECLAIMING THE OLD HOUSE 
 
 The round or jug type is circular with a domed top, the 
 man-hole being in the center. The walls are commonly of brick 
 plastered on the inside with cement, waterproofed. This water- 
 proofing should also be used with the concrete cistern. This 
 type, ordinarily, has a flat re-enforced concrete slab as a covering 
 and the man-hole, as in the jug type, has a necking so that the 
 earth may cover the main structure by at least a foot. Outside 
 of all this the cistern requires a vent and such may easily be ef- 
 fected by incorporating a tee in the man-hole cover, with 
 screened quarter bends dropped from the two openings. 
 
 The attic tank, which sometimes stores the rain water or a 
 part of it, is more frequently filled by means of the force pump. 
 It gives us gravity service and its filling is a job in itself. What- 
 ever its construction, it should have a metal tray under it in case 
 of leaks, a sufficient overflow and ample support in the framing 
 of the house. 
 
 Having modern plumbing to aid us we are tempted to sug- 
 gest a form of home-made ice-chest which, with the usual cool 
 cellar, may be found very convenient and effective. The food 
 receptacle is made in the form of a dumb-waiter screened with 
 fine mesh wire on all four sides. This is dropped from the 
 pantry into the cold box provided for it in the cellar, the ice 
 being beside it and as near the floor as possible but so that the 
 ice can be slid into it from the cellar window. The dumb-waiter 
 slides by the ice and an extension is made to the bottom of the 
 former, so that the cold box into which it drops is kept continu- 
 ally closed. 
 
 The disposal of sewage is often a delicate problem, but 
 with strictly country conditions, one has more leeway than in the 
 village or town. However, we cast the ever suspicious eye on 
 the local water supply. The only thing to do is to carry our soil 
 pipes, laid tightly, to a point below and distant from the water 
 supply. Here one naturally builds a cesspool, but this is so un- 
 sanitary a contrivance that we suggest that one consult some of 
 the numerous books devoted to this especial subject before 
 plunging into an antiquated system that can be improved on in 
 many ways. A detailed discussion of the subject is somewhat 
 outside the purpose of this book, but we have in mind one system 
 which is said to work perfectly by such as have used it and which, 
 
OUTBUILDINGS 127 
 
 being very simple, should make any other system practically un- 
 necessary. 
 
 The septic tank is built of concrete; its inlet is through the 
 side wall at the top and has a quarter-bend, bell-shaped, termi- 
 nal; the outlet is the same. When full, the surface is but four 
 or five inches from the solid concrete top and the tank, being thus 
 sealed (as the bell-shaped inlet and outlet are submerged) allows 
 of the accumulation of gases in the space between the fluid and 
 the top. These gases act on the solids and destroy them. It is 
 estimated that a lapse of some years must take place before the 
 tank would have to be broken open and cleaned. 
 
 The inlet soil pipe is laid with close joints; the outlet for the 
 distance of a few feet, when it opens into a horse-shoe tile, which, 
 being laid with a slight pitch, may be anywhere from twenty to 
 fifty! f ^^t in length. The size of the tank, if we remember rightly, 
 is three by three by six feet deep ; this for eight persons. 
 
Chapter Nine 
 
 The garden 
 
 WITH the firm belief that all outdoors is a garden, we 
 have included the general details of artistic practica- 
 bility as well as floral treatment under this simple 
 head. And in all this we do not intend to deluge the 
 patient reader with the big words of floriculture and horticulture 
 and expect him to encore. All this has been done and done again 
 in a far more convincing manner than our limited space will per- 
 mit. 
 
 In our first chapter we mentioned the importance of pre- 
 liminary plotting of our further arrangements. This one may 
 study and restudy until he arrives at the solution of the problem ; 
 most any one can draw well enough to do this. 
 
 Now in all probability you have a barn and a woodshed out- 
 side the house and will decide on a hen-house and a new cover for 
 the well and let it go at that. Don't! Please don't! Plot out 
 the location and approaches of all the buildings we have men- 
 tioned and some perhaps besides. It is not difficult, nor does it 
 take much time. Later, when you have decided to introduce 
 
 128 
 
THE GARDEN 
 
 129 
 
 some of these features and find that they do not fit, you will re- 
 gret it; we are sure of this. 
 
 Our great governing line is the axis of design; which so far, 
 we have spoken of only in connection with the house. The main 
 doorways offer one set, the principal windows or groups of 
 windows another; perhaps there are more. All these with the 
 
 Fig. 20 Showing an example of the "B" plan in which the 
 most of the view to the north is bad. Also illustrating the 
 
 in the method of treatment 
 G Grape trellis 
 H Hall 
 I Ice house 
 BR Bedroom 
 V Vista 
 K Kitchen 
 LR Living-room 
 Lry Laundry yard 
 P Pantry 
 R Pie plant 
 
 A Arch 
 AR Arbor 
 
 B Bird bath 
 
 C Cedars 
 CM Carriage mount 
 AD Axis of design 
 CR Currants 
 DR Dining-room 
 EC Earth closet 
 FT Flower trellis 
 
 barn is to the south and 
 use of the axis of design 
 
 KG^ Kitchen garden 
 
 S Shrub 
 
 St Strawberries 
 
 T Tree 
 SB Barn 
 TS Tool-house 
 
 W Well 
 Wd Woodshed 
 WA Wistaria arch 
 
 extreme outlines of the house, should be produced independently 
 on the side of the house from which they spring. Naturally the 
 window or group of windows is more determinate of features, 
 while the door suggests the path. It is not necessary that the 
 axis terminate in some more or less emphatic detail ; often it may 
 pass between two units as in the path or vista, but in such case 
 the flanking accessories become balanced on the axis as a center 
 and hence count as one mass. The axis may or may not tally 
 with our interior axis, but if it does, so much the better. If we 
 
130 
 
 RECLAIMING THE OLD HOUSE 
 
 are making alterations of the house and it comes our way the 
 lines should be made coincident. 
 
 Aside from the axis, there are the lines of vision. These, 
 drawn from your view points to external objectives, determine 
 the location of units in the interval between. Sometimes one 
 
 Fig, 21. Barnard Garden (restored), Deerfield, Mass. (W. H. C.) 
 
 1 Sour berry 
 2 Bridal wreath 
 3 ^^Veigelas 
 4- Day lily 
 5 Syringa 
 6 Japonica 
 
 7 Smoke bush 
 
 8 Lilac 
 
 9 Roses 
 
 10 Climbing rose on trellis 
 a Annuals 
 p Perennials 
 
 A Apple 
 
 E Elm 
 
 F Fir 
 
 B Barberry hedge 
 
 L Lily-of-the-valley 
 
 P Piazza 
 
 wishes to hide certain objectives and in so doing makes a feature 
 of the means employed or perhaps it is a clear vista that is re- 
 quired. All these lines drawn to scale (over cross-section 
 paper) should give you a pretty clear idea of our arrangement. 
 
THE GARDEN 131 
 
 Perhaps the first thing one considers is the possibility of 
 the vista. Oftentimes old growth suggests this or gives us a 
 foundation to work on. At the present time it is possible to 
 transplant trees of considerable size and in the country the work 
 may be done cheaper, if one understands it, than it can be done 
 by the expert. On the other hand, however, the latter has all 
 the necessary paraphernalia to work with and the process is per- 
 haps surer. Your vista may be one in which considerable 
 breadth is desirable or, for quite the contrary, an avenue may 
 answer. Nor does the line of the vista require flanking through- 
 out its length; two trees or shrubs in the foreground establish 
 and frame it and the occasional glimpse of others beyond in not 
 too regular order adds color and distance. 
 
 The vista line may have as its terminal or objective point 
 any natural or artificial object on the place which is attractive 
 enough to hold notice, or it may be something at a considerable 
 distance. In the country the little white church is frequently 
 an object of restful interest and its climbing spire may be seen a 
 long way off. If seen through a vista that leads up to it 
 naturally, with the glory of the late afternoon sun of summer 
 full upon it, one need desire nothing more. 
 
 Next to the vista is the panorama or sweep and this may fre- 
 quently be open and unobstructed; it is far more varied and 
 effective if seen through a screen of trees. Generally, one be- 
 comes tired of the unobstructed view. Such gains tremendously 
 if framed and the more so if a change of composition is made 
 possible by a shifting view point. One thing should be remem- 
 bered always ; that in effect, an extended view or a vista depends 
 largely on the perspective of units. A bush or shrub near at 
 hand appears larger than a tree in the distance or middle dis- 
 tance. It is the different planes in which our various units ar- 
 range themselves that may remove the result from the common- 
 place and render into art that which on our plan seems hopeless. 
 A straight line, as in a hedge, goes rambling away over the 
 natural contours of rolling land. Is the result a straight line? 
 Far from it. There are only two spots where it appears straight 
 and one should be careful that one's view point be not one of 
 them. Properly viewed, the result is a rambling undulation, a 
 crowning sweep or a depressed hanging, as a festoon. 
 
132 
 
 RECLAIMING THE OLD HOUSE 
 
 In these days when the hand camera is so successfully 
 handled by the amateur, one could well afford to make pictures 
 of bits and general arrangements which strike him, but these 
 naturally should have the flavor of your particular locality, no 
 matter how far they may be from it in reality. For him who 
 has not the camera or as a further aid to him who has, the numer- 
 ous magazines and photographic reproductions of paintings 
 
 Mtlptri attage, Jfaila er ytnl m WjJiif c/y^nct:: . ". .P , 
 
 f .f.5*'>Fi**rt' 
 
 1 10 io 30 10 so io m eo so loo 
 
 Fig, 22 Garden at "Boxwood," Lyme, Conn. 
 A Arbor F Perennials T Apple tree 
 
 B Flower bed (crowned) G Grapevine V Vegetables 
 
 C Trumpet creeper P Goldfish pond X Privy 
 
 D Dogs' graves S Shrub Z Trumpet creeper on pole 
 
 with the reproductions from straight photographs will help one 
 considerably in suggesting possibilities. 
 
 Wherever it be possible one should consider the chance of a 
 conservative arrangement; frequently it is possible, by well 
 planned alteration, to give up our parlor to public reception and 
 in utilizing the old kitchen as a living-room, turn our backs on 
 the street. 
 
 After a due consideration of views and vistas we next turn 
 our attention to the existing outbuildings. Have they still 
 utility and for the purposes for which they were intended? Per- 
 
THE GARDEN 
 
 133 
 
 Mtxiun ffornin^-^iory on fence 
 
 ^C/1 
 
 Fig. 53 Keyes Garden, Putney, Vt. See planting list on next page, {W. U. C.) 
 
134 RECLAIMING THE OLD HOUSE 
 
 PLANTING LIST OF THE KEYES GARDEN, PUTNEY, VT. 
 
 1 Rubro-Coerulea 
 
 2 Darwin tulip 
 
 3 Sweet alyssum 
 
 4 Canterbury bell 
 
 5 Shell-pink aster 
 
 6 Autumn crocus 
 
 7 Day lily 
 
 8 Heliotrope 
 
 9 Geranium 
 10 Pink verbena 
 11 Pansy 
 12 Madonna lily 
 13 Japanese iris 
 
 14 German iris in bed of forget-me- 
 not 
 15 Larkspur 
 16 Lavender 
 1 7 Forget-me-not 
 18 Monkshood 
 19 Honeysuckle 
 20 Old lemon lily 
 21 Cosmos 
 22 Foxglove 
 23 Mountain fringe 
 23 Swamp mallow 
 24 Prairie lily 
 25 Gladiolus 
 26 Peonv 
 27 Daffodil 
 28 Myrtle 
 29 Sunflower 
 30 Golden glow 
 31 Old yellow lily 
 32 Lilv-of-the-valley 
 33 Phlox 
 34 Mignonette 
 35 Lily 
 36 Poppy 
 37 Wood violet 
 A Asparagus 
 C Cold frame 
 L Lilac 
 
 S Syringa 
 M Maple 
 H Larch 
 F Fruit tree 
 E Elm 
 G Grass 
 W Woodbine 
 T Tomatoes 
 Veg Vegetable 
 
 X Mist 
 WG^ Wild grape 
 
'^^p,; 
 
 ^^<^^Si^k(^^k^^(^^biSb<^^^^^QS5i<^M^<^<Sb<^<^ 
 
 The Keyes garden from the division wall. It is next to impossible to show tht 
 charm of the simple old-fashioned garden through the medium of a photograph 
 
 Entrance to the Prince house, F"lushing, Long Island, X. V. The house is raised on 
 a fair-sized terrace, and tlie main path is flanked with planting 
 
 q^qpqp ejjp qpqpqp gpqpqpqp ejpqg>qg ejpgpejisejp ejpejpefla gpejpqpqj? 
 
THE GARDEN 185 
 
 haps they may serve other purposes, singly or in combination. 
 Then to the new buildings, immediate or in the future; and 
 with all this their relations to the house, one another and their 
 natural approaches. Do not plan to make too much of a detour 
 in getting from one place to another, for unless you put up an 
 impassable barrier, you yourself will be one of the first to take the 
 short cut. This is human nature ; watch your tradesman if you 
 doubt. 
 
 Should your land slope to such an extent that it becomes 
 necessary to ascend a considerable grade, get a good teamster to 
 help you in the location of your drives. As you may perhaps 
 have to call on some contractor of a nearby town or city to do 
 some of your work, he or his foreman should be able to help 
 you out of this difficulty. 
 
 The nature of your roadway or drive determines the char- 
 acter of its construction. Under conditions of the town our 
 forefathers used cobbles to considerable extent with perhaps flag 
 foot paths incorporated. Even in old-time courtyards we find 
 the cobble and flag. Brick was also used to a certain extent; 
 the material depended on the production of the locality. 
 
 With the country however, where one's drive is lengthy or 
 its character near to that of the farm, a simple treatment with 
 rough field cobbles, crushed stone and a top dressing, oiled, will 
 be found serviceable and quite inexpensive. The more so, that 
 the treatment does not need to extend for the full width of the 
 drive if on a level, as the gutter may be simply of dirt. Cobbles 
 would be required if on an incline. 
 
 The path or walk, too, depends on its use and its setting. 
 Flag, brick, pebble or gravel have their places according to the 
 problem. Walks adjacent to the house have a natural leaning 
 toward flag and in a lesser degree brick, even if the smaller paths 
 diverging from them be of another material. Generally speak- 
 ing, the most used paths should be of the most durable material, 
 but remember, we are limited to the production of our locality; 
 this is the natural principle of building. Hence a marble 
 slab for a marble section, a slate slab for a slate section. Flag 
 walks are more efl*ective if not too regular or if fitted together 
 of more or less irregular units. When crossing a grass plot they 
 are best laid with open joints after the manner of the Japanese 
 
136 RECLAIMING THE OLD HOUSE 
 
 
 
 stepping stones, which allows the grass to show between and 
 hence does not cut the grass plot quite so sharply. In like man- 
 ner the principal walks of a flower garden may be laid in pebbles 
 or gravel. 
 
 Steps, which often are of stone of the common type, are 
 frequently built with flag treads and brick rises. Sometimes, 
 in a free treatment the flags alone are set in the incline of a sod 
 bank. This is well enough, except its lack of lasting qualities. 
 If it be constructed with a masonry foundation, not necessarily 
 exposed, it has a much better chance of staying in place. 
 
 Speaking of the steps, recalls the old pillion-mounts one 
 sometimes (but rarely) sees and the ordinary horse block of 
 later popularity. Another form which catches the eye along 
 the roadside in New York State and which probably exists else- 
 where, is a flight of simple wooden steps with rails, a relic of high- 
 swung wagon bodies and through-braces. Now these are de- 
 tails that interest us, and their use, in one form or another, should 
 fit into our general scheme. Even though we may keep no horse 
 ourselves, we may have visitors. 
 
 Having disposed of our walks and drives, let us return to 
 our outbuildings, which we left so unceremoniously. Generally 
 the existing buildings are fixtures, if we retain them; their size 
 and condition often prohibits their removal to other locations. 
 The new structure, then, must play up to the old and it is for us to 
 determine what is to be seen from the house and what not. 
 
 In dealing with problems of the South, one naturally has 
 in mind Mt. Vernon and other well known examples, in which 
 the arrangement of the whole scheme of buildings is balanced 
 and connected. This of course is easier to handle than our north- 
 ern problems which require special study, the result of which can 
 not always be founded on precedent. It is however, an interest- 
 ing problem, such as lends itself to unlimited space and far off 
 views. Its key-note being academical, it requires harmonious 
 chords to carry out a satisfying theme; in its intimate arrange- 
 ment, any unit off the main center line (which usually passes 
 through the long hall of the house) , requires a balancing unit on 
 the opposite side of the line. 
 
 The most objectionable portion of any structure is, gener- 
 ally speaking, its bald junction with the ground. Long ago our 
 
THE GARDEN 137 
 
 ancestors grew flowers and shrubs along the house wall, probably 
 because it was a convenient place, but in this it served two pur- 
 poses. Now we are enthusiastic admirers of these old flower 
 borders ; they have wonderful possibilities. No matter how stiff 
 their planting, their rambling nature redeems, in a measure, 
 man's laxity, whether it be of taste or forethought. 
 
 Some structures we may wish to see entire or in part. Most 
 buildings look better if obscured slightly by trees. Thus, even 
 our most open rendering were better for some break in its formal 
 outlines. Supposing that your view points are not so far apart 
 and that the building in question sits at an angle to your lines of 
 vision : do not place your obstructive agent in the center ; throw 
 it to one side destroying all suggestions of formality. 
 
 The roof line of a building is the better for a slight break, 
 but even without this, it is the least objectionable part to have 
 exposed. A roof ascending out of the trees or small growth is 
 a feature which generally lends itself well to composition. In 
 shutting off a portion of your building or in interrupting its sky 
 line, one should not forget that a small tree or sizable shrub 
 a lilac, syringa or smoke bush may, if placed in the foreground, 
 effect as much as an elm fifty feet high, placed near the object 
 we wish to screen. The screen may perhaps be as efl'ective, if 
 but a tracery of vines or interlaced branches and twigs. Often 
 the far object, seen dimly through such lacework, is interesting 
 in the extreme and perhaps the more so if the character of the 
 structure permits a play of light color through the interstices of 
 the intervening growth. Naturally, if the near tree or shrub 
 can be used locally as a feature, so much the better for the art ; 
 and if it comes within the limits of the garden, it at once gives it 
 a touch that must be reckoned with in our planning. 
 
 These screens may serve three purposes; as windbreaks, 
 as screens to objectionable objects, or in a more or less open form 
 as a frame for some picture beyond. 
 
 For an eff'ective windbreak the evergreen is necessary. If 
 we are fortunate enough to possess one ready made, so much the 
 better. Perhaps the neighboring hills or woods answer the pur- 
 pose; let us hope so at least. Very large trees would be rather 
 expensive to transplant in any number, for while one row may 
 answer, two would be better ; the large tree means a considerable 
 
138 RECLAIMING THE OLD HOUSE 
 
 sweep of wind. For ordinary purposes, the cedar or its local 
 equivalent may be used with effect. It may take a formal or 
 informal arrangement as the case may demand. Generally 
 speaking, however, it is best to evade the set look of a balanced 
 composition by the informal arrangement of details; in an in- 
 formal plan too much formality should not exist. 
 
 The screen, while commonly made from small or medium 
 sized trees, need not be so compact as the windbreak and it may 
 also be composed of evergreen or deciduous trees or their combi- 
 nation; the conditions should dictate. We have already men- 
 tioned its use as an obscuring agent for local details ; besides this, 
 it may be required to cut off offensive details or masses at a 
 distance. Very often our neighbor's taste is so utterly depraved 
 that one wishes to forget those things in which he glories, and 
 one way to effect this lies in not seeing them. Besides the tree, 
 shrubs may often serve to advantage as foils to the monotony of 
 green foliage, or if used in the foreground, may dispense with the 
 tree altogether. 
 
 We have already spoken of the tree screen as an agent in 
 breaking the broad sweeping view and giving foreground detail. 
 We here suggest that the row or clump should be trimmed up 
 at the bottom to effect this purpose, provided of course they be 
 not already in condition. For this purpose we generally con- 
 sider the deciduous tree, but where less view is required the ever- 
 green is practical. It also has the advantage over the former in 
 offering a fitting subject for trimming and piercing, a thing 
 which can rarely be applied to the deciduous tree without throw- 
 ing it off its balance. This treatment we have seen applied to 
 cedars and if it be well done and has not the look of the artificial, 
 it offers a chance for little glimpses of distance or near color, 
 which last may be supplied by a rear planting of shrubs. 
 Shrubs and small trees may play a large part in connection with 
 the large deciduous tree-screen. 
 
 The connecting of buildings in southern work suggests that 
 there is a chance with our northern, which was however, observed 
 to a certain extent. The fence, the hedge, the fence with the 
 hedge backing, the trellis and the arbor are means to this end. 
 In work of a free nature, a picket fence of chestnut, in which 
 the pales have been roughly split out by hand and not too evenly 
 
^M^M^SEJ^M^I^M^M^M^M^M^I^M^I^M^M^M^MM^Mr^M 
 
 Sarkey garden, Essex, Conn., showing the walk to the old shipyard. The box on the 
 place is said to have been started from a cup of clippings brought from New Haven 
 
 Pentagonal arbor summer-house on the Hollister place, Greenfield, Mass. Asher 
 Benjamin, designer and builder. Displaying considerable understanding of classic 
 
 models 
 
83<? 
 
THE GARDEN 
 
 139 
 
 S /O /S 20 2S JO 3S -^O 4S JO 
 
 jScale. 
 
 3free& 
 
 Fig. 21r Old Timothy Starkey Garden, Essex, Conn. {W. H. C.) 
 
 A Apple F Flagging V Arbor-vitae 
 
 B Box G Grape arbor W Well 
 
 Bh Bulkhead Gt Grape trellis f Flower bed 
 
 By Barberry H Horse-chestnut h Honeysuckle 
 
 C Catalpa L Lilac w Woodbine 
 
 c Coldframe P Pine y Small planting 
 
 Ch Cherry S Syringa p Pedestal 
 
 D Drinking fountain Sp Spruce 
 
140 RECLAIMING THE OLD HOUSE 
 
 placed as to space or uniform height, will be found most effective, 
 and if the note of our buildings be gray, it can be left in the raw 
 except for an immersion in creosote oil, which sinks into the pores 
 and helps preserve it. 
 
 If one finds an old box hedge or even an isolated shrub or 
 tree, one has a treasure. Box is slow growing and consequently 
 is much sought for by those making new gardens. Sometimes 
 one finds it ragged and at first sight rather hopeless, but if it is 
 pruned, not to a regular shape, but following the forms sug- 
 gested by its deterioration, it may be made effective as well as 
 unusual. We have noted several instances of such treatment. 
 
 Often one sees the house that is set in the field, bare, cheer- 
 less and without proper accessory, and it looks so hopeless we 
 are tempted to pass it by, believing it beyond redemption. Per- 
 haps, however, it is not so hopeless after all. If it were enclosed 
 with a fence, and the enclosure made into a garden; if some 
 medium sized evergreens were planted, flanking it to carry out 
 the line, and if one could afford two or three deciduous trees, 
 not to balance, but grouped around one corner, there is a chance 
 for it. Where a composition is isolated in an open plot, and its 
 ensemble can be taken in at a glance, it should not be treated 
 academically, as the charm of such treatment lies in close associa- 
 tion and the feeling, rather than the instant seeing, that detail 
 balances detail and mass opposes mass. The academic treat- 
 ment demands perspective and the view point on the axis gives 
 tiresome results. 
 
 Sometimes on the country road, the sidewalk does not exist, 
 or perhaps it is not on our side of the road. What then are the 
 possibihties with our grass plot in the street? Is there a chance 
 for the crocus in the spring or the wild aster and golden rod in 
 the fall? And will your public allow such treatment to go un- 
 molested? These are questions to be answered and on their 
 answer hangs the fate of a very pretty feature. 
 
 Rarely it may happen, but if it should, lay unflinching hands 
 on it and claim it as your own the old watering place, the side 
 drive which intercepts the crossing brook. This is one of those 
 old-time features which our modern soulless road-maker is prone 
 to destroy. It may be bald and desolate; shorn of all growth 
 and "beautified" by the country road-maker claim it and at 
 
THE GARDEN 141 
 
 once set about its rejuvenation. Many are the shrubs, flowers 
 and trees that grow by the water and perhaps in your rambles 
 you may gather suggestions from some unspoiled examples. 
 Real rustic wood with the bark on is not suggestive of Colonial 
 methods; our rustication on the fencing must be without bark. 
 Sawed slabs of chestnut, unedged, often work out well in prob- 
 lems of this kind. 
 
 Of course the roadway will require a light (as does our en- 
 trance) although normally it has none. Here again is a chance. 
 If one really wishes to take hold of such a problem, it is very 
 doubtful if any objections would be ofl'ered by the town authori- 
 ties ; generally they are only too glad for any little help with the 
 town expenses. 
 
 Bridges are somewhat of a rarity, we fancy, in working out 
 the problem of the old house, and yet there are so many little and 
 big brooks at large, it is barely possible one might extend its aim- 
 less course through our grounds and in such case it may be found 
 necessary or advisable to erect a bridge. This may be for 
 wagons or pedestrians, and there are so many pictures of simple 
 old English bridges that may be consulted and such definite in- 
 formation contained in the public records, that we might almost 
 pass it by; for this reason we will be brief. 
 
 The old-time town bridge was frequently built on "cob" 
 piers, filled with stone. The heavy stringers were laid over these 
 and a simple squared hand rail and posts with cross braces be- 
 tween. When a truss was used, it was the king-post type. The 
 foot bridge, commonly on two log stringers with a single hand 
 rail, was sometimes laid on one. Although the log used as a 
 stringer was in the rough, with the top sized down, it was never 
 intended for rustic work and should not be so regarded. 
 
 There is frequently a great chance for diversion in design 
 where one has the bridge as a basis to work on. It is little trouble 
 to plant a shrub or two some semi- wild thing or a vine to 
 wander over the hand-rail; or perhaps in the open a willow or a 
 few poplars. This for the simplest types, but the bridge itself 
 offers opportunity. Does not a wistaria arbor suspended over 
 the water suggest something for the foot bridge; a motive half 
 open, half lattice, with pendant blossoms drooping in the water? 
 Or perhaps the clematis may mingle with the wistaria, or even 
 
142 RECLAIMING THE OLD HOUSE 
 
 some other vine be added to perpetuate the bloom. There is the 
 old covered bridge, which, reduced to the scale of the foot bridge, 
 would probably not be too large for the place. Where the 
 original model might on the sides be boarded in solid, the 
 miniature could well afford lattice and it is possible to introduce 
 a flat bay and seat if it be large enough for three spans. Yes, 
 if you have a chance for a bridge, it is surely worth while. 
 
 Although the temples of Greece and Rome have stood for 
 centuries and our own Colonial houses are tangible facts, the 
 gardens of our forefathers are for the most part things of the 
 past. Both the temple and the house were outgrowths of neces- 
 sity and hence of practical value ; the garden was the whim of a 
 refinement, more or less matured; the toy of a temperament 
 whose leisure, released from the drudge of bare existence, sought 
 expression and outlet in things about it. When this controlling 
 spirit passed away the garden often followed it; plowed under 
 in a day. 
 
 That the garden is a constant care, one may readily see; re- 
 lax that care and it will return to nature, so surely as its units 
 are alive and things of nature. For this reason keep the garden 
 simple; simplicity is frequently more effective than elaboration, 
 and much harder to quarrel with. 
 
 According to our dictionary the garden is the gathering 
 place of fruits, vegetables and flowers. But gardens differ from 
 one another in a great degree ; it takes comparatively few flowers 
 oftentimes, to make a flower garden. Then, too, our ancestors, 
 with the practical end continually in view, planted their vege- 
 tables and flowers together and very interesting the result must 
 have been. Not that things were necessarily mixed up, but the 
 flowers were a sort of flanking motive for the more serious con- 
 sideration of the vegetables. We are of those who still believe 
 that fruit and vegetable may be made a part of the flower 
 garden, without sacrifice to its general purpose and effect. It 
 was not so long ago that the tomato was used entirely as an orna- 
 ment, being grown on a trellis, and the barberry is an old-time 
 hedge shrub. The grape arbor frequently frames an entrance 
 and the quince, currant and gooseberry have each their qualify- 
 ing characteristics. 
 
 In one of our garden examples, the formal garden borders 
 
THE GARDEN 143 
 
 on the street and the lot rises gradually toward the back by means 
 of low terraces. Above the formal garden are two tiers of 
 practically solid annuals; back of them a mass of sweet peas 
 silhouette against the corn-planted terrace behind it, while the 
 corn tassels melt into the foliage of the apple trees in the rear. 
 Between the corn and the apple trees, however, are two terraces 
 of vegetables, each with a border or low hedge of flowers in front 
 of it. Another entirely different treatment has several rectangu- 
 lar plots, box and flower borders, in which one finds grass plot, 
 kitchen garden, and orchard. Few shrubs are used and the 
 flowers are limited as suggested. 
 
 The main axis of the garden is best if it can be continued 
 on into the house as already described. Lesser lines may pro- 
 duce other outlooks or walks. The secondary axis crosses the 
 main axis at right angles, generally through the center. This 
 makes the center the important point and although it may be low 
 and comparatively simple, it is still the governing point of the 
 design. 
 
 Ordinarily, the garden is an enclosure and consequently the 
 confining boundaries with the floral adjuncts are higher than the 
 rest of the planting. If the plot be small, its subdivisions into 
 beds should be very simple, probably ignoring diagonals and 
 curves. That the main and secondary axis be coincident with 
 paths is not necessary, but the general conditions of design call 
 for some observance of their existence. More often than not, 
 this takes shape in some emphatic detail in the outer bound and 
 unless the plot be close to a balanced house, whose axis is coin- 
 cident with that of the garden, the two side details may take 
 differing forms and sizes. Too rigid adherence to the principles 
 of balance often result in a setness not over pleasing. 
 
 Although the garden is, in the majority of cases, near the 
 house and governed by house conditions, it may be away and 
 even hidden from it. Such however, was not perhaps the best 
 solution of the problem, as it fails to follow the old tradition, and 
 a garden is best seen from the house, yet as we have remarked 
 elsewhere, surrounding conditions govern individual cases. 
 
 In the planting of a garden, one should strive for a sequence 
 of bloom and so arranged that in a balanced plan this fact will 
 not be lost sight of. While the actual agents may difl*er on 
 
144 
 
 RECLAIMING THE OLD HOUSE 
 
 either side of the axis, as far as their character and color may- 
 go, they should clearly suggest the intention of the plan, else the 
 plan has no excuse for its existence. For instance : the extreme 
 corners are marked by white and pale purple lilacs; when these 
 are gone, they give place to other varieties. These outer de- 
 tails should predominate 
 in size and color over the 
 lesser and interior units, 
 which are enclosed in box 
 or sweet alyssum borders 
 and these in turn by plank 
 or brick edgings. With 
 these lesser details, more 
 abandon can be displayed, 
 yet it is best that one 
 bloom find its opposition 
 on the other side of the 
 axis. When all is said 
 and done, we would wish 
 for as loose a treatment as 
 the character of our sub- 
 ject will permit, retaining 
 only, perhaps as we have suggested, the true intention of the plan. 
 It is well not to forget the effective possibilities of the ter- 
 race under favorable circumstances; a side hill garden may be 
 made delightful. 
 
 That color is a vital note, is undisputable and one realizes 
 this more when one comes to the actual handling of it. We have 
 already spoken on this topic in our chapter on Furniture; we 
 might go even further in explaining that the complementary 
 colors are red and green, yellow and purple, blue and orange 
 and that such combinations are generally harmonious. Further 
 than this, the yellow tertiary, citron, the blue tertiary, olive 
 and red tertiary, russet, require for their theoretical balance, 
 purple, orange and green, respectively and in small proportions. 
 However this means nothing to one who has not a natural eye 
 for color and it is probable, too, that woman is more often thus 
 blessed than man. 
 
 White, yellow and red are naturally our most vigorous colors 
 
 Fig. 
 (TF. 
 
 25 Allen Garden, Saybrook, 
 H. C.) All beds raised- 
 crowned. F Fountain 
 
 Conn, 
 -center 
 
.i.'^ti^- 
 
 7i- --'hh*^ 
 
 
 Floral treatment of the garden ])atli. ( )kl Manse, Deerfield, Mass. A comparatively 
 modern treatment, with all the flavor and abandon of the old 
 
 cm 
 
 o9t 
 
 Allyn garden, Saybrook, Conn., showing the box borders with the greenhouse 
 beyond. The layout of this garden is rather ambitious 
 
^J^M^MEMM^M^MEI^M^M^M^J^M^M^M^M^M^MEM^M 
 
 rSMeJSMSMaJSMeraJSMSJaSMSMSMSM^MSMeiMSJSMBM^ 
 
THE GARDEN 
 
 145 
 
 and consequently are used when one wishes particular emphasis. 
 Care should be exercised with these, because of their positive 
 qualities ; it is very easy to overdo the thing. Naturally, retiring 
 and toned colors may be used in larger masses than positive 
 colors. A retiring color, against the glare of a white house re- 
 quires mass to make it convincing; the conditions really require 
 positive colors. 
 
 The limits of colors are not, however, within the garden en- 
 closure; they extend beyond it including the whole estate. For 
 this reason, beware of the red barn ; it may clash with everything 
 in sight ; it may, also, be made to take its place. 
 
 Fig. 26 West House, East Hampton, Conn. An old- Fig. 27 A simple motive 
 
 time enclosed yard in which the old poplars replaced from a Vermont front 
 
 the old spruce of the original layout. Thus the motive yard. A, Pear; G, Grape 
 
 is as old as the combined lives of the two trees arbor; H, To house; F, 
 
 Fence; M, Marble flags; 
 
 P, Tall perennials; S, 
 
 Seat; T, Tulips 
 
 The pool is not, as far as we know, a conmion feature of the 
 old garden; we have met with only one example and that was 
 intended for a fish pond, being set low enough to intercept an 
 underground flow. The lining of this example is of roughly 
 dressed granite and we would suggest such or a brick lining in 
 preference to cement. If the pool be used at all it would be per- 
 haps safer as a side issue or as an independent detail altogether. 
 The fountain does not belong here. 
 
 Although we would advise one to gather as much local in- 
 formation as possible regarding old gardens, and to use this in 
 governing the further arrangements, it is not necessary that 
 one should confine himself so closely as in the case of the house. 
 
146 RECLAIMING THE OLD HOUSE 
 
 The origin of the two things were different and at the time the 
 Colonies were prosperous enough to afford time for gardens 
 they were in position for better intercourse and interchange of 
 ideas. So while we would suggest that one keep as near home as 
 possible, it would be but natural if he gathered garlands from a 
 nearby field. 
 
 The examples pictured in this chapter have been carefully 
 measured and most of them restored, and such restorations are al- 
 most positive. Such examples as were too uncertain to be con- 
 clusive have been discarded. From the descriptions given by 
 those who have known them and a careful testing of such on the 
 ground, one may arrive at very plausible conclusions. Where 
 a garden is simply allowed to go without being plowed up, it 
 leaves in the turf the imprint of the path, borders and general 
 forms and if one will take the pains to test suggestions with the 
 foot, the problem is often less difficult than appears at first sight. 
 
 Of garden furniture, we should be sparing; it is easy to 
 overload. The sundial frequently marks the center and the less 
 common bird bath or drinking cup is sometimes found. These 
 can be imitated in cement, but care should be taken to retain 
 the color and texture of the local stone. 
 
 Good old-fashioned designs for the garden seats in wood 
 have been reproduced and are frequently valuable in our garden. 
 It might be well, however, that these be unpainted and given a 
 thorough application of creosote oil; the legs particularly should 
 be soaked in it. They may be used in the natural wood if practi- 
 cal, but a coat of paint may be required. Be careful of the use 
 of white; it may be too strong for the setting. Do not place 
 a seat to look into the sun, as its use is thereby limited. 
 
 The summer-house and the arbor make the garden habitable. 
 They should never be rustic and the caution as to white paint 
 should be remembered here, for the office of these in the garden 
 is rather that of a background than as a straight ornament. 
 What they may effect in this last capacity should be done as a 
 subdued silhouette. Their placing is confined to the rim of the 
 enclosure, rather than its center and for the most part they are 
 located on the axis. Thus situated they command a view of the 
 garden on one hand and whatever vista or general view we have 
 planned to meet the emergency. 
 
THE GARDEN 
 
 147 
 
 As a step between the enclosed garden and the lengthened 
 path with which, by the way, one can do delightful things in the 
 way of banking shrubs and touches of smaller planting there 
 is a floral treatment which is merely the elaboration of a certain 
 short portion of some important path. Beyond this elaboration 
 
 ;^ * \ir-- " 
 
 
 .V 
 
 Fig. 28 A simple motive Fig. 29 Plan of an elaborate walk from house to 
 
 for the flat country. In vegetable garden. H, Hedge; L, Lilies; Lc, Lilac; 
 
 the view from the arbor P, Peony; Py, Poppy; Px, Phlox; T, Slight terrace; 
 
 the upright trees destroy R, Roses; W, White Lily; S, Small planting; Hy, 
 the flat monotony of the Hydrangea; A, To house, B, To garden; G, Grass 
 
 landscape. A, Arbor; P, 
 Small planting; L, Larch 
 
 there may be no attempt to decorate. For him who has not the 
 time to dally in the garden, it is a special treat. If one be busy 
 there is little time lost by it and, we can believe, a whole lot 
 gained. With this treatment, the arbor may be used to advan- 
 tage, as one can pass through it and its natural location would 
 seem to be in the center. 
 
 We can hardly close this chapter without a brief reference 
 to wild flowers. Whether they may be used in our garden 
 scheme is a question to be determined by the case in hand, but 
 they surely have utility as informal borders and simple little 
 compositions of their own. That they should not play a too 
 important part with the house as a background is also evident. 
 Golden rod and asters in particular have varieties enough to 
 effect an extended flowering. Perhaps one might try a simple 
 garden, entirely of wild flowers. It would differ from our 
 domesticated garden in many ways; we would be using another 
 palette, other brushes. 
 
Chaptef Ten 
 FENCES ^ ENCLOSURES 
 
 THE question of boundaries has ever been one of grave 
 dispute with the world at large; let there be no doubts 
 left as to yours. The function of the fence is, be- 
 sides that of an enclosing barrier, one of boundary. So 
 that if your fence in itself be not lasting or exact in its location, 
 it should be supplemented by a stone bound-stone, plainly 
 marked and duly recorded in your plan on file. The stone wall 
 and snake fence are examples of the indefinite and crude bounds 
 and while they may do well enough as barriers for lands of little 
 value, their use on cleared and more valuable lands is not ordi- 
 narily advisable. The snake fence is, in fact, from its character, 
 outlawed as an inter-boundary. There are others of a like 
 rambling and indefinite nature which are sectional, such as the 
 stump fence of Maine. These, however, have their use, as in- 
 terior barriers. 
 
 Old-time bounds were vague and passing; an oak tree can- 
 not be expected to last forever. Many fences, which were evi- 
 dently intended to run straight, on the contrary described most 
 
 148 
 
FENCES AND ENCLOSURES 149 
 
 
 
 beautiful curves. Thickness of growth or perhaps more often 
 a rough land contour, where one frequently lost sight of their 
 line and consequently their direction, was largely to blame for 
 this. Such old lines it is best to preserve as they exist; their 
 location has probably established them, over and above any 
 description. 
 
 The laws of a state regulate the character of a fence that 
 is, certain materials must follow certain lines and be of a certain 
 height to cover the law relating to a "legal" fence. Before 
 building or rebuilding, this law is a good thing to be familiar 
 with. It is also understood that each party to the boundary 
 shall maintain his half of it and erect it, if it does not already 
 exist. You can only exact of your neighbor, for his half, a legal 
 fence; if you desire something different you must make up the 
 difference in cost perhaps maintain the whole thing. 
 
 A boundary line has no width and therefore the modern 
 wire fence comes nearest to locating it exactly; the wire being 
 on the line and the posts on the property of the maintainer. 
 This is the scheme of all similar fences, but with the stone wall, 
 the center is conmionly the line, which fact gives either party 
 the right to add stone to it, an important consideration with the 
 old-time farmer. 
 
 A fence or barrier on the highway is supposed to be located 
 entirely on the property of the abutter; but our records show 
 that the public thoroughfare was constantly encroached upon. 
 We wonder at the narrow streets of Boston, yet they were ample 
 as laid out. Our forefathers stole lands from the highway and 
 in many rural districts the practice has not been discontinued. 
 
 Perhaps it might be well to say a word regarding the com- 
 mon old fences one may find, and probably the oldest are the 
 stone wall and the rail fence, the latter being the older. The 
 sort described in our early records was the common form in 
 which the posts were pierced to receive the rails. Where one 
 has such in fairly good condition, and of some length, it may 
 pay to keep and repair. It is not, however, a good model to re- 
 build on. We have spoken disparagingly of the stone wall and, 
 in so doing, had in mind the common result of the hasty throwing 
 together of all sorts of stone from the field. 
 
 If the wall is really built, it may last indefinitely, provided 
 
150 RECLAIMING THE OLD HOUSE 
 
 the public will let it alone. There is, however, the common tres- 
 passer who will use your land as a thoroughfare and pull down 
 enough of your wall to make his passage easy. There is also 
 the rabbit hunter. This annoying fellow, upon finding his quarry 
 sheltered in your wall, will demolish it indefinitely in dislodging 
 his victim. Poison ivy finds shelter in it and is almost impossible 
 to dislodge. Of course it stands to reason that any wall laid in 
 part cement mortar, no matter how roughly done, is superior to 
 a dry wall. Such work, however, adds expense. It can, how- 
 ever be laid to imitate a dry wall by keeping the mortar back 
 from the face of the masonry. If the top of the wall be relaid 
 in mortar for about a foot, and the side pointed at leisure, it 
 will foil both the general public and the rabbit fiend. It is a 
 common practice to extend a masonry foundation about three 
 feet below the surface of the ground to avoid heaving by frost, 
 and such, of course, is the best practice ; but with the stone wall, 
 its length makes such treatment very expensive. The old wall 
 had, usually, a large footing sunk below the surface, which, to- 
 gether with its width and the comparative lowness of the super- 
 structure, made it firm and secure. If one is bothered with 
 outside invasion, broken glass set in a concrete top will probably 
 be annoying enough to be effective. 
 
 The modem wire fence is the cheapest and easiest to keep 
 in repair, and by wire we do not mean the wire strand. There 
 are many wire-mesh fencings on the market, one-half of which 
 perhaps are fit to spend money on. A good lock joint, weld, or 
 knot is essential and further, a mesh that will stretch evenly and 
 without losing shape. The wire fence is of course at the mercy 
 of the wire cutter, but it is easily repaired. Ordinarily a locust 
 or chestnut post may be used; but they will last longer in the 
 ground and pay for the extra trouble, if the butts are treated 
 with creosote, charred or dipped. Farmer's Bulletin, No. 387, 
 describes these several processes at length and more fully than 
 our limited space will allow, yet we would suggest briefly that 
 the posts be thoroughly seasoned so as to exclude the water as 
 such repels all preservatives. Charring can be done over an 
 open fire or the post can be saturated with oil and burned in 
 this way. Care should be taken not to burn too deeply. As 
 painting is inferior to dipping we will pass over it. Petroleum 
 
dMfedfsdE) Gl&G!l3dl3 dfeclfeGl&dfe dfet^&dls dbd&(3&d& d&d&dE) cffi) d&d&db 
 
 iSM 
 
 ^iH 
 
 An old enckiscd front yard; a rapidly disappearing feature, which was very common at 
 one time. It suggests small planting and climbers on the house 
 
 A new gate in an old fence, which anticipates the possible breaking of pickets by a 
 cap and likely sagging by the introduction of a brace 
 
 qpgpqp qp gpqpgp qpqpepgp eji2)gg>qp qjagj^egaqp gpejjsxej^ gpejpejgq]^ 
 
v"i'";i. 
 
 A gateway in the style of the Greek Revival in which are some rather good and 
 interesting details. The fence sill is well supported 
 
 There is no eianorate treatment to this fence, but it suggests being put there with a 
 purpose. There is a stone base or foundation below the wood fence sill 
 
FENCES AND ENCLOSURES 151 
 
 tar, coal tar and creosote may be used for the latter treatment. 
 Perhaps the best results are gotten by immersing the heated post 
 in coal tar creosote. 
 
 Sometimes it is best to treat the entire post. In any event 
 the top, which is cut on a slant to shed the water, should be so 
 treated. Posts are commonly set three feet in the ground and 
 the treatment should extend at least one foot above. The ex- 
 posed portion of the fence may be painted later ; creosote oil and 
 paint in equal parts being excellent for either dipping or brush 
 work. 
 
 Posts for wire should be spaced about ten feet apart; not 
 more than twelve at the most. Loose stone or pebbles at the 
 bottom of the post hole will help to keep the butt of the post 
 from moisture. One of the best methods of treating a wire 
 fence is with a strand of barbed wire at the top, where it is out of 
 the way of the stock, to which it is a menace. A strand of barbed 
 wire on each side of the post is a mean thing to straddle over. 
 If a piece of wood be made fast to the tops of the posts and ex- 
 tended toward the property of the maintainer, the two strands 
 may be made more effective by spacing them one foot apart. 
 These strands should be pulled as taut as possible. Should 
 dogs, or other animals, annoy by digging under the wire mesh, 
 a strand of barbed wire sunk slightly in the ground or a small 
 sunken stone wall will probably abolish the evil. 
 
 Of late years we hear much of concrete posts. These are 
 easily made at home from home-made molds of wood. The 
 common form used is the tapering, which saves material. Wire 
 re-enforcements are used in their making, and incorporated 
 staples allow for the attaching of the fencing. Great care should 
 be exercised in their setting, as the staples establish the height of 
 your fencing and cannot be shifted; therefore they must be in 
 line. The cement post is not so strong as the wooden post of 
 equal size, but unless it has to stand the strain of uneasy and in- 
 quisitive stock, it will probably answer all ordinary requirements. 
 Farmer's Bulletin, No. 235, gives a detailed description of their 
 manufacture. 
 
 So far we have dwelt only with the common forms of fenc- 
 ing as bound and barrier between estates. We have mentioned 
 these first because of their prime importance; they have little 
 
152 RECLAIMING THE OLD HOUSE 
 
 artistic value. More interesting is the front or highway prob- 
 lem and with such, varied treatments arise from varied condi- 
 tions. There are many considerations which go far to establish 
 the lines on which a problem may be solved. The relation to 
 the highway, both in level and in distance, the presence of over- 
 shadowing trees, the importance of the highway itself and last 
 but not least, the style and general character of the house. 
 There are those of course who open up their grounds to the in- 
 vasion of everything that travels on legs by omitting the fence, 
 but this, we feel, is a great mistake. 
 
 The reader has, without doubt, noticed the little enclosed 
 front yards of which a few examples are left. Generally these 
 were the width of the house, such being their early form. This 
 form of yard follows an old tradition dating back to feudal 
 times. In those days the habitation was the castle a hollow 
 square a fortress, which the times demanded. With the decline 
 of feudalism, the hollow square dropped one of its sides, but 
 retained its semblance in a high wall. Later, the two flanking 
 sides or wings gave place to the continuation of the front wall. 
 Still later, the enclosure became commonly a terrace, the fence 
 superseded the wall. Here is the evolution of your front yard, 
 which was in favor even later than the year 1800. It became 
 simplified, however, prior to this in eliminating the flanking 
 fences. Both in its original and later state, it was a thing apart 
 from the extensions of the front bound, which were of a simpler 
 character. With the later form the front portion, which stood 
 for the house, perhaps included in its motive the side gate and 
 the driveway gate. This difl'erence in the treatment of the front 
 fence from that of the flanking fence is characteristic of Colonial 
 work and generally holds good with all but the simplest problem. 
 
 Our earliest barrier was the pale or picket fence and it has 
 changed but little in the simpler examples of to-day. Old 
 English specimens show many variations which have not sur- 
 vived with us. The roughly shaped pickets of unequal width, 
 left to weather, or stained gray or brown, may do admirably 
 for a simple cottage, in which one may be retaining the weathered 
 effect. Such efl'orts require little or no gate-post and the gate is 
 really a section of the fence. 
 
 There are many forms of the picket fence : sharp and square 
 
FENCES AND ENCLOSURES 153 
 
 tops, jig-sawed and capped, but in all they rely on the same 
 principles of construction. There is the post, the top and bot- 
 tom rails and the pickets. The posts may be treated, to pro- 
 long their usefulness, as has already been described, but for a 
 short fence one will find that a piece of iron, one and one-quarter 
 of an inch square, set in a stone or concrete footing, will out- 
 wear the wooden post enough to more than pay the initial ex- 
 pense. This iron may not extend the full height of the fence, but 
 be bolted to a wooden plank post, serving to support it. If stone 
 is used, the iron may be set in sulphur (the old-time custom), 
 instead of lead. In constructing boxed fence posts with the 
 above principle, it will be necessary to use a plank form to build 
 upon, and these are best affixed with the aid of an iron strap 
 welded to the iron post at right angles, through which screws 
 may be driven into the plank forms. This scheme is, however, 
 limited; as a heavy gate cannot be hung upon it without re-en- 
 forcement, although the fence should help to steady it when the 
 swinging member is closed. One occasionally runs across an 
 example of the later period, set near to the highway in which the 
 balustrade of the porch or other similar feature is followed in the 
 fence and which classes the two at once as part of one scheme. 
 
 It might be well to mention the fact that all picket butts, 
 fence skirtings (or bases), which are liable to come in contact 
 with the ground should be treated by some accepted method. 
 The decay of such parts of fences is their great drawback, and 
 the extra labor and expense will pay for itself. Later and 
 more elaborate forms of the picket fence anticipated such diffi- 
 culties by superimposing the fence on a low brick wall; other 
 variations returned again to the wood, as a base. 
 
 While the picket fence as a front feature is ordinarily "ex- 
 tended" by a simpler type in wood, the stone wall may be used 
 in its stead, and such should be laid in mortar. If in such combi- 
 nation a stone footing be continued under the wooden portion, 
 with perhaps the additional note of stone gate-posts, the harmony 
 will be more complete. It is hardly necessary to add that the 
 fence caps should be of wood. A more elaborate and delicate 
 effect may be obtained by substituting brick, or perhaps a com- 
 bination in which the stone is the core of the extended walls 
 only, leaving the base, cap and post of brick. There are cases 
 
154 RECLAIMING THE OLD HOUSE 
 
 which warrant the use of the stone wall in front of the house; 
 ordinarily, however, this function should be taken by wood with 
 a wooden structure. 
 
 The common old type of high board fence is a telling fea- 
 ture in front of the small orchard or garden of small fruits. 
 With it there are many chances for variation. Boards may be 
 of varying widths, perhaps laid ^n inch and one-half apart, the 
 tops saw-tooth or varying in height. The high price of wood, 
 however, makes any extended use of this material, for such pur- 
 poses, out of the question for most of us. 
 
 While the stone wall has little chance of fitting into the 
 front scheme of the small estate and the wooden house, it may 
 be just the thing for the larger layout, and particularly in case 
 the buildings set well back from the street. As wood is ahvays 
 a material that seems to fit into close fellowship with the wooden 
 structure, the wooden fence may be used here as an enclosure, 
 independent of the fencing scheme of the highway. At all events, 
 the remoteness of the house naturally suggests a less elaborate 
 outlay in the character of the highway barrier. 
 
 Where the land is higher than the roadway, a stone retain- 
 ing wall may be used and if the grade is not high enough to 
 make a sufficient barrier of it, a surmounting motive may be 
 added. Where your house is remote from the road, a picket 
 fence makes a good supplement and allows of a view through it 
 from the highway. If the buildings are near the road, a hedge 
 may answer the purpose, or perhaps a wire or lattice fence, on 
 which should be grown some sort of vine, will be suitable. The 
 plain wire fence hardly has a place here; it may be used as a 
 core of a hedge and thus establish its permanency. 
 
 One may gather from the foregoing that the nearness of 
 the house to the highway demands privacy; its remoteness, open- 
 ness. The important highway suggests more elaboration than 
 that of the minor and remote road. Trees which shade the front 
 yard, limit the possibilities of your flower garden to such varieties 
 as do well in the shade, and the litter that falls from them stains 
 your fence and suggests anything but white paint. 
 
 The tree itself may play an important part in the line of 
 demarcation by suggestion. While frequently supplemented by 
 the fence or wall, it may be used alone as with a driveway or 
 
All old fence at Salem, Mass. Built at the height of the Georgian influence. The 
 design is clean, well-studied and well-pioportioned, as is readily seen by a careful 
 
 examination 
 
dbdfed&cl& 6l&l&d&d&6l&d&d!3 g!Ib<^c!& dS)d&dE)dE> d&dM& <^ d&d&d& 
 
 & 
 
 gpqpqp qp gpqpqp gp<^gpgp qpg^gp qj^gjagjsqpqpqgqja gp^gp^ 
 
FENCES AND ENCLOSURES 155 
 
 lane. If such are newly planted allowance should be made for 
 their growth and expansion. The common fence, on the rail 
 principle in which the rail is a sawed board, makes an excellent 
 auxiliary for maple and elms. Trees, however, take time to 
 grow and the fulfillment of your feature may take years. 
 
 The hedge offers many possibilities for front and interior 
 barriers, not afforded by the fence or wall. It is at once from 
 its nature, a part of the landscape and melts into it more readily 
 than other more artificial contrivances. If one is starting a 
 hedge we advise strongly the incorporation of a wire fence in 
 the center as a core. If it is to be a front barrier, and as such 
 must be made to last indefinitely, it had best be made with iron 
 or concrete posts in the manner already described. Any good 
 mesh fencing or barbed wire strands will serve the purpose and 
 perhaps the former will lend itself about as readily to our ends 
 as a discourager of invaders as we could wish, provided a strand 
 of barbed wire be just sunk in the ground and another stretched 
 at the top. These last will dispose of the dog and the climber. 
 The trespasser is a nuisance. He may have the best intentions 
 in the world and yet he will insist on making a highway of your 
 grounds. Have you a nursery of choice plants, he will find it; 
 have you wasted a year over grape cuttings, he will blunder into 
 them; whatever you wish to preserve he will destroy as if fated. 
 Nip this in the bud ; later it is hard to stop. 
 
 We commonly understand the hedge to be of evergreen, 
 spruce, hemlock, cedar, box or privet. As a matter of fact most 
 any hardy flowering shrub will answer, provided it be not located 
 where its blossoms offer too much temptation to the public. 
 Barberiy and japonica are in themselves more or less difficult 
 to penetrate, but there is the tough hided ox and the fool cow to 
 be reckoned with. 
 
 We have already spoken of the vine-clad fence and as a 
 quick-growing substitute for the hedge it is both interesting and 
 effective. For the summer problem, one sees but little of the 
 naked vine and fencing and hence nothing is lost ; but for winter, 
 the snow-ladened evergreen hedge has a charm of its own and 
 even the deciduous article is more convincing than the skeleton 
 of loveliness offered by the clinging vine. 
 
 Where one boasts of the kitchen garden, the low hedge is 
 
156 RECLAIMING THE OLD HOUSE 
 
 often effective as a defining line; it may be utilized as a wind- 
 break as well. If the garden is small and to be spaded, one need 
 allow only for the unloading of dressing and removal of litter, 
 but where the plot is large enough to plow, the ends should be 
 left open to allow of the turning of the plow team. Of course 
 the board fence may be substituted for a wind-break or it can be 
 used back of the low hedge in conjunction with it. 
 
 The laundry yard is not a feature of the Colonial style, nor 
 is it properly a part of any problem other than in the more 
 elaborate house. Even then it is properly a part of the house, as 
 is also in a measure the enclosed front yard. When detached, 
 however, it may be handled independently. The diamond lattice 
 and the arbor oiFer our best suggestions for the above ; it requires 
 that, while serving as a screen, the air shall, at the same time, 
 draw through it. 
 
 There are some fences, characteristic of various localities, 
 which, while being altogether inadequate for practical, or accurate 
 inter-boundaries, are excellent as front or interior decorative 
 fences under certain conditions. We recall two of a rather 
 diverse nature, which will serve to illustrate. In certain parts 
 of Maine, where a piece of land has been cleared of timber, the 
 stumps have been removed so as to make the land available for 
 mowing. These have been utilized as fences by throwing them 
 over on one side with the abbreviated roots reaching skyward. 
 Prior to their removal, the land has been very likely burned over 
 to get rid of the brush and the stumps had become charred ; this 
 serves well in prolonging the life of the stump. There is nothing 
 more picturesque than a stump fence, but it demands the real 
 country and is probably best as a side extension only on the 
 front. It forms a most excellent trellis for vines and if these be 
 of the brier sort with the occasional judicious interjections of 
 a little barbed wire the ensemble is well nigh impregnable. 
 
 The other, which is of entirely different nature, is the flag 
 fence of Connecticut. Of this we have noted but a few speci- 
 mens. It consists of more or less rough slabs set on end in the 
 ground. Its slightest grave-yard suggestion is almost elim- 
 inated by the stones being set close together. Where an 
 effective barrier is desired this will not answer and yet it might 
 be effective as such, if auxihary to a retaining wall. It needs 
 
FENCES AND ENCLOSURES 157; 
 
 in any case the brightening effect of flowers and as a wind-break 
 and backing to small planting, it may flank the foot path or be 
 used in enclosing a small garden. 
 
 Probably the most interesting feature of the fence prob- 
 lem is the gate or gateway. Its treatment is of wide latitude; 
 its possibilities, almost without limit. One may evolve new 
 ideas through a process of well judged combinations, but what- 
 ever the result, it should be limited by the principles of good 
 construction. Under all circumstances it should belong to the 
 place in which it is used, suggesting either in line or detail the 
 family resemblance to the all-important flanking barrier. 
 
 In its construction, the first principle is, that the post on 
 which the gate is hung and which naturally receives more or 
 less side strain from the weight of the gate, should be either 
 rigid enough in itself or so braced as. to resist this strain. The 
 second principle requires, that the gate itself shall be so braced 
 as to keep its shape and be free from the danger of sagging. 
 Unfortunately, most old examples have not been as carefully 
 considered in these respects as we could wish and, as a conse- 
 quence, have sufl'ered from it. It is not pleasant to contemplate 
 a delightful old design in which it has been necessary to use 
 methods foreign to the original conventions, to overcome the 
 ever-to-be-considered question of gravity. "Why not have 
 done this in the first place?" one very naturally asks and we 
 heartily echo the query. 
 
 A gate is in repose when it is shut and when it is open, and 
 in both positions it should have something to rest on. When 
 closed, the post on which it is hung, being secured to the barrier 
 of which it is a part, is capable of resisting the strain. One 
 can readily see that the weak point is when the gate is off its 
 two supports. Very naturally, the wider the gate, the greater 
 the strain and this at once brings us to the ordinary farm gate, 
 as a simple example of the type. The convenient form of this, 
 is that which we find pictured on old plans of the Elizabethan 
 and First Settlement periods: sawed rail with a brace, extend- 
 ing from the foot of its extreme swing to the top of the high post 
 on which the structure is hung. There is a tremendous leverage 
 exerted on this big post and it must be very solid and well set 
 to keep straight. In some parts of the country where granite 
 
158 
 
 RECLAIMING THE OLD HOUSE 
 
 quarries were formerly worked, one finds many rough ashlar 
 underpinnings and very likely great stone posts, which support 
 great gates with apparently as little trouble as if they were 
 paper. 
 
 There is a later form of the above gate, which has aban- 
 doned the high post and long brace; to this contrivance, one is 
 
 
 Fig. 31 Proper bracing for a wide 
 
 Fig. 30 Balanced gate and stile 
 
 simply a slave. The best farm gate we know of is that com- 
 monly seen in parts of Maine, but which seems to be known 
 elsewhere, although we do not remember having seen it. It 
 gets rid of the leverage at once by adopting the principles of 
 balance. The section of a tree trunk which takes the most of 
 the strain is pivoted on the top of a good stout post somewhat 
 higher than the adjoining fence or wall. The gate hangs from 
 the longer and lighter end, while the balancing end, which is 
 also the butt of the tree, extends on its side of the post about 
 two-thirds of the distance of its opposite. On the end of the 
 butt is a wooden box, in shape much like a mason's hod, into 
 which field stones are heaped, until the necessary balance is ef- 
 fected. A good, strong, true post and a sufficient beam are all 
 that are necessary to dispose of our gate worries. 
 
 The house gate is, after all, the one where variety may be 
 secured. Ordinarily it has gate posts which are emphatic 
 enough in design to become a feature, but sometimes they are 
 insignificant, being, with the gate, but a part of the fence. In 
 its simplest form this was neither the best of taste, nor con- 
 venient, as it often caused the stranger much confusion in its 
 location. Developed, the type had its excuse in the equal spac- 
 ing of ornamental fence-posts across the entire front; in this 
 scheme it was judged unwise to disturb the simple spacing of 
 these units. We cannot help thinking, however, that the gate- 
 way should have some definition and individuality of its own. 
 

 This fence is unusual as well as simple. The lattice effect is not elaborate enough to 
 be tiresome and the woodwork is kept well above the dirt 
 
 The enclosed walk is often a feature in which one is lost to the influence of the out- 
 side. It controls narrow confines and leads to a definite openness 
 
 I 
 
 ^ 
 
 [SMaSMejejaMaMMSMSJSMeMMSiSMl&MSMSMSM^lMJSM^ 
 
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FENCES AND ENCLOSURES 159 
 
 if only from the practical point of view. In any event the 
 whole motive should be simple enough to belong to the house 
 and the style should not be foreign to the locality. There 
 should be good material at hand and such and such only will 
 give you the individuality of the home touch. It is true that 
 foreign lines may be adapted, but in so doing, one must grasp 
 the true intention of localism and be governed by it. In the 
 mass of gateways, the two posts are separate, but sometimes we 
 find them yoked or connected by an arch. In some later ex- 
 amples, too, the iron motive which sei'ved to support the lantern, 
 also affected this. Most of this iron-work does not belong to 
 the rest of the design, being attached in any way that came 
 handy; its outgrowth from the ball or urn is of course bad taste. 
 
 Old-time gate-hinges were of the strap pattern and this is 
 as it should be. For farm gates, the fastening may be a simple 
 wooden latch or bolt, or where it may be tampered with, a hasp 
 and padlock. The wooden latch might also be adapted to the 
 gate of the house front motive, that is, in simple and primitive 
 types; more elaborate problems might use the old-time door 
 latch with effective results, particularly if the same be of iron. 
 
 The entrance without the gate is not a thing to be advised. 
 There are few conditions under which it may be used without 
 sacrifice to privacy and independence. If your entrance pass- 
 age be fenced in with hedge, or otherwise, contain nothing of 
 a private nature (as flowers), and be entirely cut off from the 
 grounds proper, the gate may be omitted. In like manner, 
 the entrance which relies on steps from the street level to the 
 higher grade of the house, may be more effective without the 
 member in question. 
 
 In the pleached entrance lies, perhaps, the best method of 
 treating the opening in the hedge; it always counts for what it 
 is. Generally it is unclosed by a gate, but the latter may be 
 used nevertheless with success, provided its lines are made to 
 fit those of evergreen motive. 
 
 The ordinary turn-stile has possibilities, but one will prob- 
 ably have to look for examples on the other side of the water 
 as our ever restless native could hardly be content with such a 
 primitive contrivance. There is a common English stile, which 
 provides for the passage over the wall by means of steps on 
 
160 RECLAIMING THE OLD HOUSE 
 
 either side. Occasionally we see this here, and there is a varia- 
 tion, in which the steps are stone flags built into the wall, each 
 one free of its neighbor. While the stile is far from fitting 
 every problem, it has excellent possibilities and should by all 
 means be included in your list as such. 
 
 We have spoken of the fence problem as one of new build- 
 ing; such will be the majority of cases. The fence, as ordinarily 
 constructed, was short-lived and when it passed, it was rebuilt 
 on up-to-date lines. It is only with those who have had the 
 means and the inclination, that some old and elaborate exam- 
 ples are allowed to exist, or with those too poor, or otherwise 
 occupied, to rebuild. 
 
 The old sign board is a distinctive ear-mark of the old- 
 time tavern and savors of the post-road and the stage-coach. 
 As a possibility in our reclamation, it can have but one use: 
 that of bearing the name we may have chosen, for it is a common 
 frailty amongst Xis that of naming things and as our old 
 house is frequently a tavern, it can hardly be out of place. Our 
 only care should be that the name does not suggest a tavern, 
 else there may be much cause for annoyance and further the 
 sign should be well fastened to elude the honest curiosity of the 
 souvenir hunter. 
 
 Old signs were simple enough in the round, whatever their 
 pictorial embellishment might be. They were suspended from 
 posts, standing usually on or near the street line or perhaps 
 hung from a pole between two trees. For a farm, it might be 
 hung from the extended gate-post or, in the more pretentious 
 estate, take the place of the suspended lantern above the en- 
 trance gates. In any event, its utility is unquestionable as an 
 identification for the stranger guest. It voices the sentiment 
 and hospitality of times that are gone, but which in their passing 
 have left a mellow glow, through which one sees dimly, yet feels 
 more, and though the men and the times are moving steadily 
 backward as we advance, they have left a treasured heritage 
 the old house. 
 
GLOSSARY 
 
 Architrave. The lower division of an entablature, or that part which 
 
 rests immediately on the column. Also the group of moldings 
 
 around a door or other opening the "trim." 
 Batten. A strip of wood used for nailing across two or more pieces 
 
 to hold them together. 
 Butt. A kind of hinge secured to an edge of the door and to the face 
 
 of the jamb which butts against this edge when the door is shut. 
 
 A loose-pin butt is one from which the pivot pin is removable. 
 Console. A bracket with a scroll-shaped profile. 
 
 Corbel. A projection from the face of a wall to support a super- 
 incumbent weight. 
 Cornerboard. The upright L-shaped member, usually made of two 
 
 boards, covering the corners on the outside of a frame house. 
 Chamfer. The surface formed by cutting away the angle formed by 
 
 two faces of a piece of timber, stone, etc. 
 Cove. A concave molding. Used especially to designate the molding 
 
 at the junction of side walls and ceiling. 
 Dentil. A small rectangular block in a series projecting like teeth. 
 
 The series is called a dentil course or dentil molding. 
 Entablature. In classic architecture the architecturally treated wall 
 
 resting upon the capitals of the columns, and consisting of archi- 
 trave, frieze and cornice. 
 Entasis. The slight curve representing the departure from the vertical 
 
 in the shaft of a classic column. 
 Furring. An application of wood, brick or metal to a wall, beam or the 
 
 like, to level a surface as for lathing, plastering, etc., to make an 
 
 air space or to make the wall thicker for another reason. 
 Framing post. An upright timber forming an integral part of the 
 
 frame or skeleton structure of a building and supporting a girder 
 
 or plate. 
 King-post. A vertical member connecting the apex of a triangular truss 
 
 with the base. 
 Louvers. The sloping boards set to shed rainwater outward in openings 
 
 which are to be left otherwise unfilled. 
 Muntin. A slender bar forming a division between lights of windows, etc. 
 Palladian (motive or window). Referring to architectural forms founded 
 
 on the work of Andrea Palladio, an Italian architect of the 16th 
 
 161 
 
162 RECLAIMING THE OLD HOUSE 
 
 century, but especially to the motive comprising three windows the 
 century, but especially to the motive comprising three windows, the 
 
 Purlin. A horizontal member in a roof running at right angles to the 
 rafters. It occurs between the ridge and the wall plate. 
 
 Rabbet. A longitudinal channel cut out of the edge or face of any body, 
 especially one intended to receive another member. From rebate. 
 
 Rake (molding). A molding or series of moldings running up the in- 
 clination of a gable end or pediment. They are necessarily cut in 
 a distorted profile to miter with a horizontal run. 
 
 Ridge-board. A V-shaped member covering the intersection of two planes 
 of a roof at their high point. 
 
 Stile. One of the upright pieces in framing or paneling, into which the 
 secondary members are tenoned. 
 
 Soffit. The under side of the subordinate parts and members of build- 
 ings, such as staircases, entablatures, archways, cornices or the like. 
 
 Stringer. A horizontal timber to connect uprights in a frame or to sup- 
 port floor joists. Also short for string course, one of the inclined 
 sides of a stair supporting the treads and risers ; hence a similar 
 member whether supporting or not. 
 
 Scuttle. A small opening in a wall roof or floor furnished with a lid. 
 
 iStudding. The upright members (2x4 in. or 3x4 in. scantlings) in 
 the framing for lath-and-plaster partitions, and furring, upon 
 which the lath are nailed. Applied also to similar members in an 
 outside wall. 
 
 Stool (of a window). The flat member set vertically under the front 
 edge of the sill. 
 
 Tie-beam. A beam acting as a tie, as in a roof, to secure together oppo- 
 site rafters. 
 
 Trammel bar. An iron rod held in place over the fire chamber in a fire- 
 place, on which, by means of hooks, were hung pots, kettles, etc. 
 
 Trimmer arch. An arch built between trimmers or from a wall to a 
 trimmer to support a hearth. 
 
 Trimmer. A beam which receives the end of a header (a short joist) in 
 floor framing, as about a hole left for stairs or to avoid bringing 
 joists into or near a chimney. 
 
 Verge-board. The plain, molded or carved member covering and depend- 
 ing from the projecting edge of a roof or a gable. 
 
 Volute. A spiral scroll-shaped ornament, especially that which forms 
 the chief feature of the Ionic capital. 
 
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