wmmmmmm. 
 
 m 
 
 
 
LIBRARY 
 
 OF THE _ 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
 Class 
 
Price Thirty Cents 
 
 MANUAL METHODS 
 
 OF 
 
 SUNDAY-SCHOOL TEACHING 
 
 WITH FULL DIRECTIONS 
 
 AND PHOTOGRAPHS OF WORK 
 
 EXECUTED BY SUNDAY-SCHOOL PUPILS 
 
 RICHARD MORSE HODGE, D.D. 
 >\ 
 
 Director of Extension Courses for Lay Students, Union Theological Seminary, 
 
 New York, and Lecturer in Biblical Literature at Teachers 
 
 College, Columbia University 
 
 MAKING PAPER-PULP MAPS OF PALESTINE. 
 
 UNION THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY 
 700 Park Avenue 
 
 TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY 
 
 525 West 120th Street 
 
 The Woman's Missionary Society of the Methodist Church 
 Room 20, Wesley Buildings, Toronto, Ontario 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 INTRODUCTION: The Manual Methods Available .... 5 
 
 CHAPTER I : Model Work . 8 
 
 CHAPTER II: Map Work . . . n 
 
 CHAPTER III: Blank-book Work .23 
 
 CHAPTER IV: Ways and Means . . 29 
 
 APPENDIX A: The Essentials of a Good Sunday-school . . 37 
 
 APPENDIX B: A Sunday-school Curriculum 38 
 
 Copyright, by 
 RICHARD MORSE HODGE 
 
PREFACE 
 
 No more earnest educationalists are to be found to-day than 
 Sunday-school teachers. As a class they are more than ever dis- 
 satisfied with the results of their efforts. Not because they are 
 doing poorer work than used to be the case. Sunday-school 
 teachers, as a whole, never did their work so well. But theirs is 
 the pious discontent of seeking the best ways and means. They 
 want to borrow of one another. And they want the benefit of 
 the larger experience of their fellow teachers of the school world, 
 particularly in regard to methods of teaching history and Hter r 
 ature. For such inquiring Sunday-school teachers these pages 
 have been prepared. What is offered has been learned on the 
 floors of an elementary school and a large variety of Sunday- 
 schools in city, town and country. It has been learned, such as 
 it is, with the help of many able Sunday-school teachers, some of 
 whom know more about Sunday-school than day-school practice, 
 and others more about the practice of day-schools than of Sunday- 
 schools. There is nothing herein laid down which has not stood 
 a practical, if not a protracted, test, in both kinds of schools. 
 Both theory and practice are cited. They are supported by photo- 
 graphs of products of manual work of Sunday-school pupils and 
 of some of them engaged in the operations recommended. It is 
 hoped that what is submitted will be of practical assistance to 
 those in quest of directions for manual methods in Sunday-school 
 teaching, and that students of religious education will find the 
 ideas suggestive. 
 
 155865 
 
PALESTINE. 
 
 A cast, 30 x 24 inches, used as a copy for making relief maps in sand and paper-pulp. 
 
OF THE 
 
 UNIVERSITY 
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 THE MANUAL METHODS AVAILABLE 
 
 MANUAL methods are prized in elementary schools for the study of 
 history, geography, literature, art and arithmetic. History, litera- 
 ture and geography are formal studies of a Sunday-school. 
 
 The question is raised naturally of how far manual methods which 
 have proved successful in elementary schools may be used to advantage in 
 Sunday-schools also. The distinguishing principle of modern education 
 is self-expression. A pupil is to learn by expressing the ideas which he has 
 and those which he is striving to learn. Self-expression is both an accom- 
 plishment and a stimulus to learning. It is an art, which it is the very 
 object of education to cultivate. Education is accomplished by giving 
 content and form to self-expression. 
 
 Conversely, learning has been inculcated too commonly by impression. 
 On this plan the endeavor is to sow knowledge by books and teachers, with 
 the expectation that more or less seed will take root in a pupil's mind. 
 Success is sought also by repeated seed-sowing. This method makes 
 much of verbal memory and less of mental assimilation. It demands 
 literal reproduction rather than natural generation. It encourages pas- 
 sivity in a pupil instead of forcing his activities. The learner is induced 
 to be imitative rather than constructive. He strives to be like other people 
 rather than to be himself. His individuality is arrested. This, process 
 cultivates the selfish instincts. For the effort of the student is to receive 
 ready made what he ought to form, frame and give. His talent is folded 
 in a napkin and not put out at interest. Morally, mentally and physi- 
 cally it is better to give than to receive. 
 
 This accords with the mission of education, which is social. Now 
 manual work is self-expression. But the ideas projected in manual work 
 must be ideas which it is natural for a child of a given age to frame at the 
 time. 
 
 History, for instance, is to be studied in the order of the development of 
 civilization, beginning with the state of savagery. The young child is 
 primitive in his tastes. He loves out-of-door life. He imitates the dwellings, 
 the simple modes of life and the sports and institutions of primitive man 
 in his play. The games which children cultivate are the pastimes of young 
 races. They dramatize the recreations and more serious pursuits of remote 
 ancestors. Children delight in primitive occupations and have use for 
 crude implements and weapons. The drawings of rude races are such as 
 they use to express location and form. The stories children relish are 
 those of the peoples whom they most resemble in resources, tastes and 
 talents. The Esquimaux, the tent-dwelling nomad, the agriculturist, the 
 city dweller appeal to them in order. The superstitions of children reveal 
 a development corresponding to the culture periods of the race. Their 
 capacity for religion corresponds to the growing knowledge of God and 
 
morality revealed in race history; and nowhere so perfectly and fully as in 
 Hebrew history, so thoroughly recorded in the Scriptures. This argues, to 
 be sure, for a graded curriculum for Sunday-schools, as in harmony with the 
 self-expression of manual methods. But whether the courses of a Sunday- 
 school be graded or not, the hand should be employed as far as possible 
 in expressing what a child is engaged in learning. 
 
 The manual work employed by the elementary school for the teaching 
 of history embraces the construction of models of the dwellings, implements 
 and weapons considered, producing art work characteristic of the successive 
 peoples studied, the writing of narratives and making of maps. Pictures 
 are used also for illustrating landscapes and the habits and customs of 
 different peoples. The literature work accompanying the history includes 
 oral stories, reading, recitation, note-book work and dramatization. 
 
 In Sunday-school little or no attempt need be made to reproduce the 
 liberal or fine arts of the peoples studied, as this may be left to the day 
 school; and the time permitted for Sunday-school instruction is too limited 
 to expect it. But gift work, as a kindergartner would put it, may be 
 used in place of occupation work. Models of oriental dwellings, imple- 
 ments, etc., can be purchased ready made. These may be handled at 
 least, and will serve to illustrate the habits and customs of biblical and 
 mission peoples scarcely less than if they were made by the pupils them- 
 selves. The Sunday-school may make as extensive use, however, as the 
 day school of map-making, note-book work and pictures. 
 
 The employment of manual methods in Sunday-school instruction is 
 comparatively new. Picture-pasting and note-book work, sometimes of 
 an ornamental character, have been in use in Sunday-schools for some time 
 and are widely prevalent. Oriental models for Sunday-schools have been 
 manufactured for several years; but they have had little sale, and their use 
 has been confined almost entirely to kindergarten and primary grades. 
 The manual study of biblical geography is common now in the boys' de- 
 partment of the Young Men's Christian Association. It has been em- 
 ployed at the model Sunday-school of Teachers College, Columbia Uni- 
 versity, for two years, and for one year at the First Union Presbyterian 
 Church and at a Sunday class of children at Union Theological Seminary, 
 New York. Since the exhibit of maps made by the pupils of the second 
 of these schools at the exhibition of the Second Annual Convention 
 of the Religious Education Association, at Philadelphia, in March, 1904, 
 and at the Convention of the Sunday-school Association of Western Penn- 
 sylvania, at Pittsburg, of the same year, and the more comprehensive 
 display of this work, which was made at the Sunday-school exhibit at 
 Teachers College, Columbia University, a little later, the number of 
 Sunday-schools using manual methods of instruction in geography has 
 been multiplying rapidly. 
 
 The results of manual methods of teaching in Sunday-schools are evi- 
 dent enough, although the full benefits of any new method of teaching can- 
 not be demonstrated fully until it has passed the experimental stage and 
 teachers have learned to use it with technical correctness and without 
 lapsing into making the method an end in itself instead of a means to the 
 spiritual purpose for which the school stands. Sunday-school pupils are 
 clearly more interested in biblical history when assisted by map-making, 
 
oriental models and note-book work. The presentation is more concrete 
 and better understood and remembered. The history is mastered in more 
 detail, and the spiritual heroes of the biblical narratives appeal to pupils 
 more powerfully. Teachers are stimulated to an even greater degree 
 than pupils. They learn much more themselves and gain in confidence 
 and zeal. The children became proud of their school and no longer dis- 
 parage the quality of its instruction in favor of what they obtain at day 
 school. The attendance has shown a marked increase in schools which 
 have employed manual methods of teaching, particularly in. the case of 
 boys and young men. No other pupils prove to be more easily interested in 
 Sunday-school than young people; and the use of manual methods 
 appears to solve how to hold the attendance at Sunday-school of those of 
 adolescent age. The accessions to the membership of the church, whose 
 Sunday-school happens to have employed manual methods more thoroughly 
 than any other up to this time, doubled in number during the first year 
 of their use. If children are more naturally religious after twelve than be- 
 fore, as psychologists now are insisting, such results are to be expected if 
 only rational methods of teaching be employed. The purpose of this essay 
 is to show that manual work is a rational method for the teaching of the 
 courses attempted at Sunday-school. 
 
 Three varieties of manual. work have proved to be of special service 
 in Sunday-schools which have attempted this kind of teaching. They 
 are map-making, blank-book work and the handling of models of oriental 
 objects. These methods are intimately related and are to be used more 
 or less in combination. They are to be combined also, of course, with other 
 methods of instruction, such as oral work, reading and memoriter work, 
 which must not be less emphasized than formerly. Bible stories are to be 
 told, read and recited over oriental models ; and school-made maps, picture- 
 books and note-books are to be compiled with the same concrete illustra- 
 tions of biblical history in the memory if not in view of the eye as well. 
 
 SAND MAP OF JERUSALEM. 
 
 The Rev. Milton S. Littlefield, pastor of the First Union Presbyterian Church, New York, teaching 
 history over a sand map of Jerusalem, just made by the class. 
 
CHAPTER I. MODEL WORK. 
 
 ORIENTAL MODELS AND COSTUMES. 
 
 Costumes and shepherd's club from Palestine ; house, well-top, water jar, tent, Herod's Temple 
 in plaster, the same in aluminum, cast of Jerusalem, temple furniture, dining table and couches, cubit 
 measure, lamp, hand-mill, phylactery, scroll, sheepfold, flowers of Palestine and tomb with rolling 
 stone. Shown at the first annual Sunday-school Exhibit at Teachers College, Columbia University 
 1904, in connection with the course in Sunday-school Teaching. 
 
 Model work consists in the setting up and other handling of models 
 for illustrating the manners and customs of peoples of biblical times. 
 Models are designed to illustrate both Bible stories in the primary grades 
 and biblical history in the other grades of a Sunday-school. They prove 
 helpful to both children and adults, who value them alike as more concrete 
 than pictures. 
 
 The models which are manufactured for Sunday-school purposes are 
 made of wood, metal and cardboard. They vary in size from eighteen 
 inches square to an inch in diameter. They include an oriental house 
 about a court, a dining table with couches, a sheepfold, water jar, well, 
 hand-mill, frontlet, lamp, cubit measure, scroll of Scripture, tomb, the 
 temple furniture, the elevations of the temple and its courts and- a box 
 of building blocks. 
 
 Some teachers have had their pupils make the oriental models desir- 
 able out of thin cardboard. This adds to the knowledge of the objects 
 represented. It takes extra time; but the time can be had in some cases by 
 using evenings during the week. The work is an excellent occupation for 
 a boys' or girls' club. 
 
 Besides the models already enumerated a tent should be made of 
 upright sticks a few inches long, standing on a piece of board, for the sup- 
 port of black paper muslin, to represent the black goat's hair cloth of 
 
NOMAD TENT. 
 
 Mounted on a sand-table. Made by a boy thirteen years old, of the Model Sunday-school at Teachers 
 College, Columbia University. 
 
 the tents of the patriarchs and the Israelites when roaming the wilderness. 
 Views of Bedouin tents may be found among the numerous penny pictures 
 on sale, and will prove sufficient to direct the simple construction in- 
 volved. 
 
 Some of the models may be copied in damp sand, as a house, dining table 
 and couches and the temple elevations. The models again can be set 
 effectively upon a sand-table. The sand may be used for making the 
 grounds about a well, house or tomb. 
 
 In the primary grades many of the Bible stories may be classified 
 according to the accidents of physical environment, as well, house, dining- 
 room and temple stories respectively. Such a classification is advisable, 
 both for illustration and review work in the history grades also. For 
 instance, the table and couches for the reclining of the diners will illustrate 
 the table-talk of Jesus recorded in Luke 14: 1-24; and, among other things 
 which there figure, the upper and lower seats may be pointed out. Ref- 
 
10 
 
 erences may be added of similar occasions where Jesus was entertained 
 by Pharisees, the two suppers at Bethany and the farewell supper of 
 Jesus and His disciples, and His appearances at Emmaus and Jerusalem on 
 Easter night. Stories, of course, may be arranged in order on other plans 
 in addition. They may follow one another in more or less chronological 
 sequence or according to the religious lessons which they may have in 
 common. 
 
 ORIENTAL HOUSE. 
 
 Mounted on a sand-table for the telling and reciting of the house stories of the Bible. The First 
 Union Presbyterian Church, New York. 
 
II 
 CHAPTER II. MAP-WORK. 
 
 SAND-TABLE. 
 A Hammett sand-table, upon which a map can be moulded and then elevated in view of a class. 
 
 Geography work should begin with history study at the tenth or 
 eleventh year. Smaller areas only should be represented for children who 
 are younger, e..g., a camp, an oasis, a shrine or battleground or other 
 landscape, and best on a sand-table. For until children are nine years old 
 they cannot be expected to have the space sense necessary to appreciate 
 how extensive an area may be represented by a map of a larger territory. 
 The time sense necessary to understand history, as distinguished from 
 story, is developed at the same time as the space sense required to appreciate 
 the meaning of maps. Geography and history study should both begin 
 at the same time and be pursued together in the closest connection. They 
 interpret each other, and each is necessary to the understanding of the 
 other from the very first. Biblical geography work, in consequence, should 
 be distributed over the years devoted to courses in biblical history e.g., 
 from the tenth to the sixteenth year, the different countries involved being 
 studied no faster than the historical courses may require. 
 
 No way to learn a map is comparable to the making of it, particularly 
 for children. This is true whether only learning a map well be considered 
 or learning it well in the shortest space of time. Maps may be moulded 
 in relief, made in colors on a plane surface, sketched by water lines only 
 to locate towns, and by points only to locate places and events. The four 
 kinds of maps, to be sure, may be combined in one. For a relief map may 
 be colored and towns and names and even journey lines marked upon its 
 surface. Each kind of map, however, has a distinct advantage over the 
 others; a relief map to learn elevations, a surface map to study political di- 
 visions, a line map to locate places by name and trace journeys, and a 
 point map to show relative distance and direction and locate events by 
 phrases defining them. These lessons are all better learned if studied 
 one at a time by means of a separate map in each case. This accords with 
 mental nature. For the mind resorts to separate mental pictures for 
 different aspects of a country. One does not think of the towns of a coun- 
 
12 
 
 THE PLAIN OF ESDRAELON. 
 
 Moulded in modified clay, with paper slips to locate biblical events, and flags to mark the battle- 
 fields of Barak, Gideon and Saul. Made by an instructor for the first annual Sunday-school Exhibit, 
 at Teachers College, Columbia University, 1904. 
 
 try, for instance, when particularly bent on recalling its mountain ranges 
 or rivers. Moreover, the several different kinds of maps can be made in 
 a shorter time and more easily than can one map containing all that the 
 other maps would have between them. For paper or cardboard is far more 
 quickly colored than paper-pulp, and it is harder to inscribe names on the 
 latter material with a crayon or brush than to write them with a pen or 
 pencil on paper. 
 
 The different kinds of maps should be made both in the order of the 
 respective impressions which they should make and in the order of the 
 ease also with which they can be made. Fortunately, a relief map is both 
 the easiest to make and is first in importance. For it is nearest to nature 
 in representing a country in three dimensions and connects itself directly 
 with the landscapes which a child sees and travels over. It is a most im- 
 portant fact also that a relief map of a country once conceived will be read 
 inevitably into all surface, line or point maps of the same country, which 
 may ever after be used. This fact should be kept constantly in mind. 
 The surface map in colors is the next easiest variety to make. And the 
 political divisions represented by the different colors are more general 
 and, therefore, easier to understand than the more minute locations within 
 them. A line map of water lines, locating towns, requires both more 
 knowledge to make and more care in the making. A point map of towns, 
 places and events alone calls for more training still and an independent 
 knowledge of distances and directions, because of the absence of even 
 water lines for guidance. 
 
 All of the four kinds of maps recommended are easily made, when 
 attempted in the right order. If this be so, the first question is the number 
 of maps to be studied. Six maps are necessary for the study of biblical 
 history; and they are to be made in their historical order. First, the Ancient 
 World, extending from the Euphrates to the Nile, for the patriarchal 
 period; second, Canaan and Egypt, for the Exodus period; third, Palestine, 
 for the period of Israel as a nation and New Testament history; fourth, the 
 
Plain of Esdraelon, for the many events there located in the periods of the 
 Judges and Elijah and Elisha particularly; fifth, Jerusalem and Environs, 
 particularly for study of the life of Christ; sixth, the Mediterranean Basin, 
 for the period of the apostles. Each of these maps should be made by 
 relief and surface work as an introduction to the history which calls for 
 them. Line and point maps should be made more or less gradually during 
 the study of the historical narratives. 
 
 For map work a map-room is very desirable. It should be furnished 
 with one or more sand-tables, and a work-table for the making of individual 
 relief, surface, line and point maps. If a map-room is not available, some 
 space may be found for the sand-tables, and a place for a work-table. The 
 latter may be only a board on saw-horses, or one fitted in front of a pew, in 
 the gallery of the church. 
 
 i. RELIEF MAPS. 
 
 A. LAND MAPS. The first relief map ought to be made by the whole class 
 together, directed by the teacher. For this purpose there is nothing compara- 
 ble to a sand-table. About eight pupils and a teacher can work at once at a 
 table three feet square. An equal number can follow the work by looking 
 over the shoulders of the others. The sand should be damp. The sand 
 for most maps should amount to about one-half an inch in depth, when 
 spread over the tray. The teacher may outline the bodies of water and 
 indicate the mountain ranges; and different hands can expose the bottom 
 of the sand tray within the sea lines and heap up the mountains as desired. 
 Other pupils can pat down the coast plains and other low levels. The 
 rivers can be traced with the finger. A relief map should be used as a copy for 
 the operation. The teacher may have to correct the exaggerations as the 
 work proceeds. When the map has been properly shaped, as much more 
 time will be necessary to make the surface everywhere as smooth as pos- 
 sible, in order to give the appearance of distance to the areas represented. 
 Meanwhile a general idea of the historical course contemplated should be 
 offered to give point to the geographical features of the map. If the map 
 be of the Exodus period, for instance, the pupils moulding Egypt should 
 be told that they are shaping the country from which the Hebrews are to 
 be emancipated. Those moulding Palestine must know that they are 
 shaping the highland country which is the chosen land and goal of the 
 migration, which is the subject of the course. Those who flatten the land 
 for the desert must know that they are working on the region to be crossed. 
 Those who pile up the mountains of Sinai must be told that this is the first 
 objective point of the Exodus, and where the Hebrews are to enter upon the 
 worship of God under the name of Jehovah. A scale should be marked 
 in the sand and pupils should measure different distances according to it; 
 and obtain a definite idea of the dimensions of the country represented by 
 the map and the distances between different points of interest involved in 
 the history to be studied. Or the Jordan system of one hundred miles 
 from the northern end of the Lake of Galilee to the southern extremity 
 of the Dead Sea, may be used as the measuring standard. It is necessary 
 to have a bucket for extra sand or to receive any excess of it already in the 
 
STEREOSCOPIC WORK. 
 
 A class of the Boys' Department of the Y. M. C. A., studying Palestinian geography by means 
 of stereographs, located by a map, and writing down the results of observations made through the 
 stereoscope. 
 
sand-tray. A vessel of water is necessary to moisten the sand in the first 
 place. 
 
 A stereoscope is an invaluable aid in sand-map work. Seen through 
 this instrument stereograph landscapes stimulate the imagination to an 
 impression of distance which the most correct of maps will fail in a measure 
 to suggest. They accomplish this by revealing the expanse of only small 
 parts of the area represented by the map on the table. Because the two 
 prints of a stereograph are the views of both the left and right eyes and are 
 brought together by the lenses of the stereoscope, the perspective is perfect 
 and objects stand out in as bold relief as to the naked eye of the traveller 
 who stands on the soil of the Palestine hills. The stereoscope transports 
 the operator to the country itself; and creates the illusion that he is actually 
 there. Used by itself a stereoscopic outfit is expensive, as every 
 member or two of a class must have an instrument and a stereograph to keep 
 all pupils engaged and equally interested. A single stereoscope and set 
 of stereographs, on the other hand, will answer for a class at a sand- table, as 
 has been found by actual experience. For while one pupil is looking through 
 the lenses the others are meanwhile thoroughly interested in looking at the 
 almost inexhaustible configurations of the relief map spread before them 
 on the sand-table. The sand map and stereoscope seem made for each 
 other. It is hard to say which enhances more the value of the other. 
 This is particularly true for the plain of Esdraelon, the hills of Galilee, 
 the Lake of Gennesaret, the city and hills of Jerusalem, the vale of Shechem 
 and the plain of the Jordan about Jericho. 
 
 B. EMBOSSED RELIEF MAPS. Before undertaking individual relief 
 maps of paper pulp, clay or other plastic material, it is well for each pupil 
 to color an embossed relief map to impress the several elevations already 
 presented by a sand map by sharply bounding the areas of different heights 
 above the sea. The Klemm embossed maps of Palestine and the Exodus 
 countries from Egypt to Palestine, seven by four and one-half inches each, 
 and the Basin of the Mediterranean Sea, twelve by seventeen inches, 
 may be had for from two and one-half to ten cents apiece. A good color 
 scheme for the purpose is of blue for water bodies ; green for coast and other 
 low-lying plains; orange for higher foot-hills, e. g., the Shephelah of Pales- 
 tine ; brown for high table-lands and mountains ; and yellow for an area 
 below the level of the sea, e. g., the Jordan valley south of Lake Meron. 
 
 The coloring matter employed may be crayon, colored inks or water 
 paints. The coloring can be done with crayons in one quarter of the time 
 that is possible with a brush; and, to save time, it has been found advisable 
 to use crayons at Sunday-school and to give an extra embossed map to each 
 pupil to paint at home in water-colors, w r ith his crayon colored map for a 
 copy. This map study has the advantage of being done on a base which 
 is thoroughly accurate, particularly as the proportions of the sand map are 
 only approximate. 
 
 c. PAPER- PULP MAPS. The third step is the moulding of individual 
 relief maps in a plastic material which will hold its form permanently, a 
 result out of the question, of course, in the case of sand. These maps may 
 be small; but they had better be not less than ten by eight inches. For this 
 
i6 
 
 RELIEF MAPS OF PALESTINE AND JERUSALEM. 
 
 First work by pupils : the first two maps in paper-pulp from the First Union Presbyterian 
 Sunday-school. New York ; the third map in putty, from the New York Orphanage ; the fourth map 
 a plaster cast made from a clay model, moulded by two boys of the former school, four months after 
 examining a cast of Jerusalem at the Museum of Union Theological Seminary, which is shown 
 on page 8. 
 
 purpose, paper-pulp, clay, modified clay, putty, and dough of salt and flour, 
 all have their claims. Clay and dough both call for basins, soap and towels 
 on the completion of the operation. Modified clay soils the clothes very 
 easily. Putty adheres to the skin and has a disagreeable odor. Paper- 
 pulp is a little slower to work ; but it has the advantage of being cleanly. 
 It produces an excellent map with just the uneven surface desirable. It 
 can be colored also and mounted on cardboard; and hung upon the wall 
 of the child's home, if he pleases, where it will remind him continually of 
 the Bible lessons learned in Sunday-school. Dough, of one part flour and 
 two parts table salt mixed with water, also gives a properly uneven finish 
 and takes color well. 
 
For making paper-pulp maps a level table is needed, vessels for the 
 pulp and a sheet of some material on which to lay and shape the pulp. 
 Wood for this purpose is expensive and is sure to warp. Glass is excellent. 
 It has the advantage of transparency. The pulp needs to be moulded 
 over an outline map of the water lines only. For the map must be made 
 accurately. Such an outline may be made on thin paper by tracing from 
 a print map. The outline made can be laid under the glass. Thick 
 linoleum is considerably cheaper than glass. It is flat and waterproof. 
 To be stiff it should be three-sixteenths of an inch thick. The outline 
 will have to be laid on the top of the linoleum, and the paper-pulp moulded 
 directly upon it. It is well to cover the table with white enamel cloth, on 
 which the work may be done. 
 
 The pulp comes in large sheets, which should be torn up, some of 
 it the size of a hand and some as small as possible. Both varieties must 
 be soaked in water for a few minutes at least, before using. The pulp 
 will rot and smell if left in water several days. The larger pieces thus 
 prepared should be split or peeled into thin sheets. These may be laid 
 for coast plains and river basins, which, otherwise, are difficult to make 
 thin and smooth enough. The mountains and highlands may be made 
 of pinches of the smaller pieces of soaked pulp. The seas should be 
 marked by exposed areas of the glass or paper beneath the pulp. 
 The water areas may be colored blue, when the map becomes dry and is 
 mounted on cardboard. Pupils should have a relief map hung before 
 them for guidance, or else copy their colored embossed maps already 
 made. If the pulp map is not completed at one sitting it must be thor- 
 oughly soaked for the additional work, or the new pulp will not attach 
 itself to the old without glue. Small sponges will be found useful to press 
 down the pulp and take up the water in it, and may be squeezed into ves- 
 sels holding the soaked pulp. It makes the operation less sloppy. But 
 the more the work is done with the bare fingers the better for the educa- 
 tional purpose of the operation. For a child's mind is distinctly in his 
 finger tips. 
 
 By the next Sunday the pulp will be thoroughly dry. It will lift off 
 paper particularly without trouble. The map should be glued on thick 
 cardboard cut to the same size. The same day the cardboard exposed 
 at the seas should be colored blue, and the rivers traced in the same color. 
 It is of great advantage to color the elevations, in order to make their 
 lines of demarcation more definite to the pupil. For this the color scheme 
 used on the embossed maps should be employed. To save time, the 
 mountains alone may be colored in Sunday-school and any area below 
 sea level; and the seas, lakes and rivers can be painted by pupils at their 
 leisure at home. If the paper pulp used be green it may be colored for 
 the lands just above sea level or not, as desired. It is hard to say whether 
 water colors or inks are the more satisfactory to use. The results are 
 hardly distinguishable. Crayons may be used with rapidity, but the re- 
 sults are not as good. In any event the rivers should be done with a blue 
 pencil. Dennison rings may be pasted on the back of the cardboard; 
 and the map will be ready for hanging on a wall; and best by a colored 
 ribbon. 
 
i8 
 
 THE ;SIZE AND ELEVATIONS OF PALESTINE. 
 
 New York and Palestine according to the same scale. An embossed map of Palestine colored 
 by water paints, to enforce the elevations of land. The first study, done by paper-cutting, by a young 
 man ; the second study, prepared by "a Sunday-school teacher for a copy for her class. 
 
 THE POLITICAL DIVISIONS OF ISRAEL IN COLORS. 
 
 The united Kingdom; the divided Kingdom; Syria under Assyria; Israel destroyed by 
 Assyria ; Judah carried" captive by Chaldea ; and the Kingdom of Saul. The first maps being five of 
 a series of seventeen of the period, prepared by the Rev. Milton S. Littlefield, for the teachers of the 
 First Union Presbyterian Sunday-school, and the last map, being made by a pupil of the same school, 
 
COLOR WORK. 
 
 Painting maps of political divisions with colored inks, at the First Union Presbyterian Sunday-school, 
 
 New York. 
 
 SURFACE MAPS. 
 
 After the elevations the political divisions of a map must be learned. 
 This is done best by laying colors on charcoal paper or cardboard. Cray- 
 ons, water colors or colored inks are all available. The colors for the 
 different countries may be selected by the pupils as desired by each. This 
 map study will require the grouping of the bodies of land and water once 
 more. They may be outlined lightly with crayon or pencil beforehand. 
 An outline may be traced from a printed map and cut out with scissors and 
 used as a guide for drawing coast lines on the surface to be painted. Again 
 it will be found that the coloring can be done much faster with crayon. 
 For the study of Israel during the monarchy several maps of political 
 divisions will be necessary. It is better, probably, to execute all but the 
 first of such maps during the history work, at the different times when 
 they may be required to illustrate the course of events. Surface maps are 
 better made on charcoal paper than thin cardboard, as the maps in this 
 case can be inserted in narrative note-books as recommended below. 
 
20 
 
 MAP STUDY FOR THE EXODUS PERIOD. 
 
 Embossed cardboard maps, ihe first colored with crayons, the second with water paints ; pencil 
 outline over which to mould paper-pulp ; paper-pulp map, plain ; tlie same, colored according to 
 elevations; charcoal paper map, colored according to political divisions; line map, of names and 
 journey route; point map, recording principal events. Made, after map moulding in sand, in the 
 order presented, by pupils of from nine to twelve years of age, at the Model Sunday-school of Union 
 Theological Seminary. 
 
 LINE MAPS. 
 
 An outline map with pen and pencil is sufficiently complete, if only 
 the water lines be drawn. By this time pupils should be able to copy such 
 an outline free-hand. Mountains need be indicated only if they are in- 
 volved in the history work to follow. For the elevations will be read into 
 a map without them as surely as the pupils have made the map in relief. 
 After outlining the waterways, the towns should be located, and their 
 names attached to them; and the seas, rivers, countries and mountains 
 should be named also. But only those places and names should be put 
 on the map, which figure in the history course for which the map is made. 
 ( This is very important. Most printed biblical maps err in this respect, 
 and attempt to make one map of Palestine, for instance, do for both Old 
 Testament and New Testament study or for both gospel and apostolic his- 
 tory. This is done apparently in the interest of economy. Even so, however, 
 exclusively Old Testament names are found very frequently in New Testa- 
 ment maps of Palestine. Something should be said by the teacher of each 
 place recorded on the map at the time. If it be better to reserve such 
 comment until the location is considered in the course of the history, the 
 placing of such names on the map should be left until the events with 
 which they are associated have been reached. 
 
 Line maps may be used to indicate journeys of important characters 
 of biblical history, e. g., the migration of Abraham and the missionary 
 

 
 21 
 
 tours of Paul. To distinguish a journey route from the other lines of a 
 map, the former should be drawn with a colored crayon. A separate 
 map should be drawn for each different journey, as in the case of those of 
 Paul. The mind thinks of one such tour at a time; and it is a waste of effort 
 to follow one journey line on a map and strive at the same time to ignore 
 the lines of other journeys present, even if they are presented in different 
 colors. A map should contain only what the mind requires for the pur- 
 pose immediately in hand. Three mental maps are required for the three 
 tours of Paul; and a pupil's note-book should follow the cue of his mind. 
 
 It will be found a great advantage to have pupils make their line maps 
 in their note-books, especially as no particular quality of paper is required 
 for them. They should be large and cover a whole page. A scale of miles 
 should be indicated on a line map to reinforce a pupil's memory of the dis- 
 tances involved. The Jordan River system from the northern end of 
 Lake Galilee to the southern end of the Dead Sea may well be used as a 
 one-hundred-mile measure for all maps comprising Palestine. 
 
 Pupils should practice making line maps on the black-board. In 
 this work they should follow the example of the teacher, who ought to 
 make large use of the black-board in map instruction. 
 
 Home work may be provided by having pupils do their line map 
 making largely, at least, at home, where they can use their previously made 
 relief or surface maps to guide them. 
 
 POINT MAPS. 
 
 A novel but valuable map may be made of conspicuous dots alone, 
 to mark the locations of the principal events of a history. The name of 
 each place should be attached to its location and a phrase to define any 
 event which there transpired. The map will constitute a record in brief 
 of the history. Even the order of the events can be indicated by figures 
 attached to the phrases defining them. To prevent crowding on such 
 maps, a pupil may make more than one of them for the same historical 
 period and a partial list of the events may be recorded upon each of them. 
 
 The time for the making of point maps is after the study of the events 
 involved. Obviously they should be made either as the history course 
 proceeds or at its close. Such work may be practiced on the black-board. 
 Drills may be conducted also by using Hailmann's lintels. These are wooden 
 discs one-eighth of an inch in diameter, brightly colored. They may be 
 located by each pupil on a blank sheet of paper and the events recited 
 according to chronological order and location. The country or countries 
 covered by such a map will be sufficiently known by the pupil through the 
 more elaborate maps already executed by him, for him to have no trouble in 
 reading into the point map the rivers, mountains, etc., necessary to make 
 it entirely comprehensible for the purpose which it is to serve. 
 
 Point maps are best made on the pages of pupils' historical note- 
 books. Their execution may be reserved for home work. 
 
 MAPS FOR CHURCH HISTORY AND MISSIONS. 
 
 Missionary maps and maps for the study of church history can be 
 made by either one or more of the different operations, which have been 
 
22 
 
 described, as may be necessary. Care should be taken not to repeat the 
 same map work which the pupils are doing at day school; and only the ele- 
 vations, political divisions and the names and locations of towns and 
 events should be worked out, which are vital to the church or missionary 
 histories which are prescribed for Sunday-school courses. 
 
 Finally it may be said that the purpose of map work is to interpret 
 an historical narrative and invest it with reality. If geographical details 
 should fade from the memory, as the different routes, for instance, of the 
 second and third journeys of Paul, the map study has fulfilled its mission 
 if onlv it has enforced the historical lesson at the time. 
 
 SUNDAY-SCHOOL EXHIBIT, TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY, 1904 
 
 Cases of oriental models, Plain of Esdraelon in clay, pupils' note-books, nomad tent, 
 biblical maps made by pupils, graded text-books. 
 
23 
 
 CHAPTER III. BLANK-BOOK WORK. 
 
 Blank-book work includes picture-pasting, drawing, map-making, 
 historical tables and narrative writing. It is to be closely related to other 
 manual work and teaching methods; and is designed in one form or another 
 for all of the grades of a Sunday-school from the kindergarten to the adult 
 or graduate departments. 
 
 PICTURE BOOKS. 
 
 The first step is picture-pasting, in connection with story work in the 
 kindergarten and first three primary grades. 
 
 Story work with which picture-pasting is connected is several fold: 
 
 (1) An oriental model may or may not be used in connection with the 
 story. It may be set up by the pupils on a table. For this purpose a 
 sand-table will give the opportunity for some landscape work about the 
 model, e, g., an oasis, if the model be a well top, a hillside for the insertion 
 of a tomb; the grounds about a house, if the model be an oriental dwelling, 
 \vhether a private house or an inn. Pictures of familiar scenes will be 
 found very helpful. 
 
 (2) The teacher should next tell the story of the day. 
 
 (3) From several pictures of different subjects the children may 
 select one or more views which illustrate the story in question. If there 
 be more than one picture of the events of the story, the children should be 
 allowed to choose between them. If they disagree, their differences will 
 furnish an excellent exercise of unselfishness. Whether pictures should 
 precede or follow the story-telling depends upon their character. Photo- 
 graphs or other prints of landscapes or buildings may precede the story 
 telling. But pictures of faces, the grouping of characters or other elements 
 of a story, which a child is capable of imaging for himself during its 
 narration, should follow the word-painting of the teacher. This allows 
 an invaluable exercise of imagination, and enables a child to approach a 
 picture with a judgment already formed. It will save him from being 
 misled by the failure of many masterpieces to be truly oriental in detail 
 and from some more or less undesirable theological conceptions of many 
 great artists. A child will be taught also to discriminate more readily be- 
 tween reality and poetic license and its frequent anachronisms. Pictures 
 seen after a story is told will add something to a child's conception of a 
 scene, which will prove grateful and stimulating to his emotions particularly. 
 
 (4) Each child should fasten his picture in his note-book. This 
 may be done at home. The picture should be attached always to the 
 right hand side of the blank-book. It can be done by paste, or better by 
 small white Dennison plasters. Some prefer slitting the page for the in- 
 sertion of the four corners of the picture. A teacher may draw the lines 
 for such slits. 
 
 (5) The children should then examine and explain the pictures in 
 detail; and criticise the chosen pictures and say how far they may depart 
 from their own impressions formed in the first instance on their hearing 
 the story narrated ; and what they add to the conceptions which they had 
 formed. 
 
PICTURE INTERPRETATION No. i 
 
 By a selected picture (third page), titles (first page), a printed text (second page), a written text 
 (third page), a printed biblical description, an original written description, and a symbol on a cover. 
 The first three books, or five pages, from the Congregational Sunday-school, Auburndale, Massachu- 
 setts, the Rev. F. N. Peloubet, D.D., pastor, illustrating the International Lessons of 1904 and 1903 ; 
 the fourth book, from St. Paul's Sunday-school, Brooklyn, Junior Department; and the fifth book, 
 from a Baptist Sunday-school, Brooklyn. 
 
 (6) The story should then be retold by the children with the pictures 
 in view. 
 
 (7) After a series of pictures has been mounted in the books, re- 
 views may be conducted by having the children tell the different stories in 
 turn, with the help of the pictures. 
 
 (8) After the contents of a book are sufficiently mastered emblems 
 may be pasted, or else drawn and colored, on the covers or title pages of 
 the books, which will be symbolic of the story course, e. g., a cross, crown 
 or dove for stories of Jesus, and an altar, angel or scroll for Old Testament 
 stories. Each child may be given a choice of various emblems available. 
 It is well also to choose a picture characteristic of the course, for a frontis- 
 piece, e. g., the face of a principal character. 
 
 Story work should advance a step for children of five years and older; 
 The next step will be the interpretation of pictures. This can be attempted 
 in several different ways. 
 
 (a) The simplest of the interpretations recommended is by another 
 picture. A picture, and better a smaller one, may be selected which will 
 express some idea of the print in question, and fastened to the page oppo- 
 site, e. g., a print of the Horns of Hattin, for the Mount of Beatitudes, to 
 illustrate a picture of Jesus teaching his disciples; a tomb with a rolling 
 stone opposite a picture of the resurrection of Jesus; a sling opposite a 
 
2 5 
 
 PICTURE INTERPRETATION No. 2. 
 
 By three original drawings : two illustrating the Feeding of the Five Thousand, and another, 
 the Healing of Bartimaeus ; and by a page of drawings, from the blackboard sketches of a teacher. 
 The first drawing, by a boy of eight years old and the second and third, by boys of five, of the Model 
 Sunday-school of Teachers College, Columbia University ; and the last drawing, by a boy of the 
 Boys' Department of the East Side Branch of the Y. M. C. A., New York, Mr. H. S. de Biun, 
 teacher. 
 
 print of the fight of David and Goliath. These examples are all taken from 
 picture books of Sunday-school pupils. 
 
 (b) In the second and third grades of the primary department, 
 interpretative titles of pictures may be attached to them either by pasting 
 or writing. These may be selected by pupils. 
 
 (c) In these grades descriptive Scripture texts also may be pasted 
 opposite pictures, or they may be written. In both cases they should be 
 selected by pupils, with the aid of the teacher. The texts may be memor- 
 ized. 
 
 (d) Original descriptions of pictures may be attempted in the third 
 grade, consisting of probably two or three sentences. 
 
 (e) Finally, third grade pupils at least can illustrate prints by original 
 drawings. Even children of five years of age have done this work. 
 
 To home work may be relegated all of the pasting or other fastening 
 of pictures and texts, the writing of texts and descriptions of pictures, 
 and drawings. The memoriter work also may be done at home. 
 
 HISTORY BOOKS. 
 
 History study begins with the fourth grade, when children are nine 
 and ten years of age. Note-book writing then advances beyond the de- 
 scription of pictures and becomes a continuous narrative of an epoch. 
 
26 
 
 Narratives should be illustrated by maps, pictures and drawings. 
 The maps may be made both in color and with pen or pencil. One or 
 more color maps, as may be necessary, should indicate political divisions. 
 Line maps in pencil or ink are necessary to locate towns, rivers, seas and 
 mountains by name and trace important journeys; and point maps to 
 locate events, as described above under map-making. A color map, 
 either flat or embossed, to show land elevations, will make an excellent 
 frontispiece for a history note-book. Prints of both scenes and landscapes 
 can be pasted in the books where they belong, to illustrate the narrative. 
 Original drawings are invaluable also for illustration. 
 
 INDIVIDUAL BOOKS. 
 
 The narrative may be dictated in part by the teacher. For the rest 
 the pupil can be guided in his writing by information gained in the class- 
 room, by reading the Bible and other books and lesson helps and by maps 
 and pictures. 
 
 The narrative work ought to be very simple. It should be divided 
 into chapters. They need to be larger units as a rule than those of the 
 biblical chapters involved. The narratives can be preceded by a table of 
 contents, which will outline the course and serve as an introduction to it. 
 Each chapter also may be opened or closed by a summary of its contents. 
 A table of leading dates to be memorized can be added to the book. 
 An index also can be made of events and names of persons and places. 
 
 Much of the note-book work can be assigned for home work. So 
 can the mounting of the color maps and the drawing of the line and point 
 maps and the execution of drawings. Pupils prove to be much more ready 
 to do such work at home than to study lessons beforehand for recitations, 
 which do not call for manual work. Boys and girls have been known to 
 copy as much as an entire gospel in a note-book. 
 
 Narratives may be written, whether at home or at school in part, at 
 least, as answers to successive questions given out by the teacher. Such 
 questions may be answered by referring to the biblical records for the 
 information necessary. But larger passages than single biblical verses 
 should be indicated by the teacher for obtaining the information required. 
 Some questions ought to be given which call for thought, however simple 
 may be the process of putting the two and two together. A question or 
 two exacting moral judgments should be added. 
 
 In order to make note-books valuable to pupils and insure a proper 
 care of them they can be either tastefully bound or else made by the pupils 
 themselves or by a young people's club of the church. A very tastefully 
 bound note-book can be had for ten cents. 
 
 CLASS BOOKS. 
 
 Besides individual note-books of pupils, a historical note-book has 
 been successfully attempted, the several chapters of the narrative of which 
 are written by the different members of a class in turn. 
 
 A chapter is to be written only after the subject of it has been recited 
 upon in class and elaborated in the individual note-books. A pupil then 
 
PI A M U E l"l 
 
 ; 
 
 HISTORY NOTE-BOOKS. 
 
 Maps and narrative of Paul's Second Tour. Class book, showing two chapters on Journeys in 
 Palestine, by different pupils ; book cover, title page, table of contents, one page of three volumes of 
 a copy of text of the gospels. The first and second pages, from the New York Orphanage; the class 
 book, title page, and contents, from the Winthrop Sunday-school, Boston, by boys of from fourteen 
 to sixteen years old, the Rev. W. B. Forbush, Ph.D., pastor and teacher; the cover, made by a boy 
 of sixteen, of the Boys' Department of the Y. M. C. A., New Haven ; and the gospel copy, from the 
 Congregational Sunday-school, Auburndale, Massachusetts. 
 
 reads his chapter to the class. It is criticised by the other members, by 
 the aid of their own note-books. The maps and other illustrations and 
 cover of the class book may be secured by selecting the best copies which 
 may be submitted by the different members of the class in competition. 
 
 The experiment referred to is one of the Rev. W. B. Forbush, Ph.D., 
 with a class of young men in Boston. The subject of one class book was 
 The Life of Christ and of another Journeys in Palestine. 
 
 Class-book work is excellent for a summer course, when special courses 
 often are very desirable. Probably no better subject than a journey 
 through Palestine could be proposed for the purpose. The course may 
 follow the ordinary route of modern pilgrims to the Holy Land, beginning 
 at Jaffa (the ancient Joppa), and ending at Beirut. The studies should 
 be accompanied by an abundant use of the stereoscope; and the events of 
 biblical history should be considered according to chronological order in 
 each localitv visited by the imasdnarv travelers. 
 
 LITERATURE BOOKS. 
 
 Much can be said for a separate note-book for biblical literature, or 
 book of religious masterpieces, in addition to one compiled of biblical his- 
 
28 
 
 tory, even for pupils who have not completed a historical study of the Old 
 and New Testaments. 
 
 Such a book may be begun at the same time as the first history note- 
 book. In it will be recorded literary masterpieces to be memorized or 
 otherwise especially cherished, such as psalms, hymns, prayers, discourses 
 and maxims taken from the Scriptures and other sources. The selections 
 will be made sometimes for their own sakes and sometimes for their value 
 for enforcing or supplementing the religious lessons of the history courses. 
 In this way many passages from the New Testament may be used by classes 
 while engaged primarily for the time being in studying Old Testament 
 history. 
 
 Literature note-books can be written up and memorized or otherwise 
 studied at home. They may or may not be illustrated. The passages 
 may be given out by the teacher in the form of references to the Bible, 
 hymn books and other works to be levied upon. 
 
 For the eleventh and twelfth grades and the graduate, or collegiate, 
 classes and students enrolled in the extension, or "home," department of 
 the Sunday-school, literature note-books may be used in two ways. A 
 text-book, such as a biblical prophecy or epistle, or modern book, such as 
 a work on biblical history or literature, or church history, may be analyzed. 
 Again a thesis may be written upon a subject, the information for which 
 can be obtained from the text-book of the course, whether a Bible book or 
 other work. 
 
 If an analysis of a book be attempted, it should be condensed or ampli- 
 fied throughout in a way calculated to be of most service to the individual 
 writer as a work of reference for future study. It is best written on the 
 right hand pages only, leaving the other pages blank for notes, which may 
 be added from time to time. Thesis writing is the more ambitious exercise 
 as a rule. It is a welcome task to many, however, and writing papers on 
 topics once introduced as a Sunday-school exercise may be extended 
 easily to those not members of the Sunday-school. 
 
 The Rev. Milton S. Littlefield, the pastor of the First Union Presby- 
 terian Church of New York, conceived the plan of having papers read at 
 all of the Wednesday evening prayer meeting services during the present 
 winter. He enlisted for. the purpose Sunday-school teachers and officers, 
 pupils of the collegiate department, and others not belonging to the Sunday- 
 school. Two ten-minute papers are read at every meeting and are followed 
 by a discussion. The subjects of the papers as announced include the 
 following: The Widow's Oil, Elisha at Dothan, The Moabite Stone, The 
 Social and Religious Life of Israel in the Eighth Century, B.C., The Re- 
 ligious Ideas of the Early Prophets, Judah in the Time of Isaiah, Isaiah's 
 Message to Judah, Israel Among the Nations, Elements of Weakness in 
 Israel, The Hand of God in History, Great Revival Movements of History, 
 and Indirect Results of the Advent. So far not one of the appointees 
 has failed to prepare his paper. In these exercises the Sunday-school and 
 the rest of the church find a meeting ground, where church members 
 can enjoy the results of Sunday-school study and make contributions in 
 return. One result is the increase of the Sunday-school library of refer- 
 ence books, and their use by other than the members of the school. 
 
CHAPTER IV. WAYS AND MEANS. 
 
 WORKING OVER-TIME. 
 
 Coloring a paper-pulp map for the first Sunday-school Exhibit of the Religious Education Asso- 
 ciation, February, 1904. The First Union Presbyterian Sunday-school, New York. 
 
 The installation of manual methods in a Sunday-school will raise 
 questions of a practical character, which will loom large at first to some, 
 whose co-operation is desirable. 
 
 The questions may be reduced to four: First: "Is there time for 
 this work in the sessions of a Sunday-school?" "Will not the geography 
 work recommended crowd out the history teaching necessary and infringe 
 upon the doctrinal, moralizing and hortative methods of religious in- 
 struction?" "Can time be found for manual methods in connection with 
 the International Sunday-school Lessons?" Second: "Can space be 
 found for manual work in an ordinary Sunday-school building?" Third: 
 "How can manual methods be used in the absence of trained teachers?" 
 Fourth: "Is the cost of manual work prohibitive?" 
 
 THE TIME PROBLEM. 
 
 Of these objections the first has some force, in part because it may 
 well be questioned if the time ordinarily allotted to Sunday-school instruc- 
 tion is sufficient to teach what is necessary by any method, and in part 
 because time can easily be wasted over manual as well as other methods 
 of teaching. It must be admitted that it is very easy to spend unnecessary 
 time in the technical operations of manual work. But the geography 
 must be so closely related to history teaching that only the locations, names 
 and formations necessary to the understanding of the biblical history 
 immediately involved will be studied. This is only good geography method. 
 
If this be done the geography work will be history work, because the 
 physical character of countries largely determines history. Thinking 
 geography then will be thmking history, and the spiritual implications 
 of the history. The more purely mechanical operations are reserved for 
 home work, where pupils can afford the time, as such work is far from 
 arduous and passes into play. No one will dispute that geography is both 
 necessary for learning history and facilitates the acquisition of history in 
 direct proportion to how well it is understood. And since it has been 
 demonstrated beyond all question that map-making is the quickest way 
 to learn geography for children and adults alike, the desirability of manual 
 methods for the study of biblical geography in Sunday-schools is beyond 
 dispute. It is equally demonstrable that note-book work saves time in 
 learning history. 
 
 Whether there be time at Sunday-school for learning the Bible by 
 any method, whatever, has been answered by some schools by extending 
 the lesson period to forty minutes, when the session itself remains but one 
 hour long; and this in cases where manual methods have not been con- 
 templated. This can be done without detriment to devotional work, either 
 where the pupils are conducted to the church service for the greater part 
 of their public worship, as in many Episcopal churches, or where young 
 people's societies engage the pupils of the Sunday-school for about an hour 
 a week in devotional services which are similar in all essential respects to 
 those which characterize the opening and closing exercises of their Sunday-, 
 school. 
 
 Again, many Sunday-schools now meet for from one and a half to two 
 and a half hours. Jewish Sunday-schools commonly assemble on Sunday 
 mornings for two and one-half hours, and the biblical knowledge which the 
 pupils acquire is astonishing. But at the most, there can be no doubt 
 that, no matter how short the time allowed for lesson-study, more biblical 
 geography and history and religious truth can be acquired through the 
 self-expression methods of manual work than is possible without them. 
 
 This is as true for the International lessons as any other series. For 
 any system of lessons in biblical history may be introduced by some geog- 
 raphy studies. Why should a teacher keep exact pace with the lessons 
 as prescribed for different Sundays, provided he never outstrips the pub- 
 lished lesson helps of the course? Day schools have abandoned the plan 
 as mechanical and sentimental of assigning lessons for teachers for every 
 day of the school year. Elementary school teachers now, no less than 
 college professors, are required to teach so much only by the end of a year 
 or term ; and are allowed to distribute the work by the day, as their individ- 
 ual judgments may be guided by the necessities of their classes. If a 
 few r Sundays be spent in map-making, other classes, which have not 
 stopped for this study, may be overtaken at a gallop before a Sunday-school 
 course of six months' duration has been completed. The same thing can 
 be urged for the Blakeslee lessons or those of the Churchman series. Note- 
 books for history work can be used with the International lessons as easily 
 as picture-pasting which has been applied without difficulty to the same 
 lessons in the kindergarten and primary grades. The handling of models 
 will go with any lessons in classes of the higher grades as easily as in pri- 
 mary grades, where they already are beyond experiment. 
 
On the other hand, manual methods make time for themselves and 
 in various ways. 
 
 In the first place, it must be considered how much time is lost in teach- 
 ing biblical history whenever the geography involved is not once thoroughly 
 taught throughout the course. 
 
 In the second place, after the first or relief map of a country has been 
 made, the other kinds of maps of the same country are executed with ever 
 increasing speed. 
 
 In the third place, it takes no longer, certainly, to make a different 
 map each for elevations, political divisions, names of places and groups 
 of events than to put all of these things in one map. 
 
 In the fourth place, manual methods provide home work which is so far 
 from being irksome that children court it, and so much less arduous than 
 other kinds of study, that they give a remarkable amount of time to it 
 without feeling fatigue. 
 
 In the fifth place, classes unite with teachers in asking for longer lesson 
 periods, because the study by manual methods is interesting, delightfully 
 informing and spiritually stimulating. 
 
 In the sixth place, a great deal of time is saved by learning biblical 
 history w r ell on the first study of it. Ordinarily Sunday-schools teach 
 biblical history several times over to children during their passage from 
 infancy to adult life. This concentric method used to be general in day 
 schools; but has been abandoned in favor of more thorough work on the 
 first study of a subject. Repetition is valuable and some of it is most neces- 
 sary; but it should not be made an excuse for haste. If the Bible be taught 
 in story form in the primary grades, and once period by period in the 
 history grades, from the tenth to the sixteenth years inclusive, and once more 
 in a more mature and critical fashion in the elective courses of the graduate 
 or adult classes, nothing more can be desired. If it be objected that many 
 children do not remain long enough in the Sunday-school for this, it is 
 sufficient to reply that no teaching succeeds so well in making them do 
 this very thing. Children are never so susceptible to profound religious 
 impressions as during the adolescent decade of their lives; and manual 
 methods go to prove that no pupils are so easily attached to the Sunday- 
 school because of what they get from it than the adolescent boy and girl. 
 As for review and repetition, what method so well secures them as one 
 which produces picture books, note-books and maps to remind the maker 
 of them at a glance of what he has studied ? 
 
 In the seventh place, much time is gained by teaching any portion of 
 biblical history and literature at the period of life when a child has a char- 
 acteristic interest in the same. On the plan advocated biblical stories may 
 be taught until the ninth year ; Old Testament history will be studied 
 by children of from nine to eleven years of age; the life and teaching of 
 Christ by boys and girls of from twelve to thirteen years old and the life 
 and teaching of Paul by youths of fourteen to fifteen, the history of the 
 Bible as a library and a revelation by those sixteen and seventeen years old ; 
 and those of eighteen years and over can study the Bible books as such, 
 and biblical history as desired. It will be seen at once that there is time 
 for manual methods in an Old Testament history course of three years 
 and a New Testament history course of four years. 
 
PAPER-PULP WORK. 
 
 Moulding maps on a board, set on a pew in the gallery of the First Union Presbyterian Church, 
 
 New York. 
 
 In the eighth place, time is made by using manual work, particularly 
 map-making, for the entertainment of a class from one to several times 
 a year at a teacher's home; or for occupation for a boys' or girls' club with 
 meetings once a month or weekly at the church. 
 
 In the ninth place, time is saved by the manual methods recommended 
 by rendering written examinations and reviews unnecessary, as pro- 
 motions are based better on the quality of the geography and note-book 
 work and recitations. 
 
 As far as time for moralizing and exhortation is concerned teachers or- 
 dinarily do too much of both. To tag a moral to a story is almost as much 
 of an acknowledgment of failure as to tag an explanation to a joke. Not 
 quite, however. For although a biblical story is itself an incarnation of a 
 religious truth and an independent form of its expression, it may, never- 
 theless, be enhanced by being hit off with a maxim. History note-book 
 work provides for this very thing; and the note-book of religious master- 
 pieces provides for parallels in psalms, hymns and discourses; and for memo- 
 rizing as many of such passages as possible. 
 
 THE SPACE PROBLEM. 
 
 The second objection suggested proceeds upon the limitations of a 
 Sunday-school plant. To this it may be said that where there is a will there 
 is a way. The question of floor space is a separate one for every Sunday- 
 school. 
 
 To begin with, less space is necessary for manual work than may be 
 imagined. Even if every class has not a class-room, it is well always for 
 economy of apparatus alone to have a map-room for sand-tables and 
 map-making. In the absence of a room for the purpose, space has been 
 found in a corner of a Sunday-school assembly room ; in the galleries of at 
 least one church, in the basement of another and on a superintendent's 
 platform, curtained off for the purpose, in another. Seats in the 
 Sunday-school room, church gallery or amen corners may be removed in 
 
33 
 
 same cases to secure the extra space desired. Again, a class gathered about 
 a sand- table takes up no more floor space than if seated in chairs; and 
 classes can use a sand-table in turn on different Sundays. 
 
 A table or tables for paper-pulp work and map painting are not quite as 
 difficult a problem. In the absence of a map-room or other special place 
 for a large work table, small tables may be set in the center of a class where 
 it is accustomed to sit. 
 
 THE TEACHER-TRAINING PROBLEM. 
 
 The third objection proposes the difficulty of untrained teachers. 
 This condition must be met in very many schools. 
 
 But while manual methods maybe easily abused, they are never sinned 
 against so much as in their omission. 
 
 The training necessary is easily acquired. This stands to reason. By 
 actual experiment children of nine years of age will frequently make just as 
 good a paper-pulp map of Palestine as their brothers and sisters of twelve, 
 when they all use the material for the first time. And children of eight and 
 even five years of age have been known to make original drawings to illus- 
 trate pictures of biblical scenes, while one very successful teacher of a 
 Young Men's Christian Association class of boys fifteen and sixteen years 
 old has been considered ambitious for having boys of this age only copy 
 illustrative drawings, which he made for them upon the blackboard. 
 Some schools have no children less than twelve and thirteen write descrip- 
 tions of biblical pictures, when the fact is that children of eight years readily 
 do the same work, although, of course, not quite so well. Are not all of the 
 manual methods expressly intended for children ? And have not all of the 
 operations been selected on purpose because they are easy to do on the first 
 trial when done in the right order? And cannot grown-up teachers be 
 depended upon to learn the same operations on a first trial? Obviously 
 the manual operations themselves are easy enough to learn, especially with 
 directions such as this paper offers. 
 
 The real difficulty lies in teachers' ignorance of the Bible. They will 
 learn the geography of the Bible easily enough, of course, by the map- 
 making prescribed, but they falter over their lack of knowledge of the 
 subject-matter of the history. They find difficulty in using geography 
 work because of not knowing accurately what it is to illustrate. It is one of 
 the recommendations of manual methods that it drives teachers to Bible 
 study and teacher- training classes. That teachers can make time for such 
 study is proved by the experience of manual methods wherever they have 
 been tried. The work is readily learned by a teacher, if he will only take the 
 pains to do in advance whatever work he expects of his class. 
 
 At the same time something must be done to assist matters by means 
 of school organization. The present Sunday-school superintendent has 
 enough to do generally in fulfilling the duties ordinarily assigned him. His 
 office needs to be specialized if more be required of it. A Director of 
 Instruction may be appointed to take on the duties of inaugurating new 
 methods of teaching and training the teachers in the practice of them. 
 The best man for this work is almost always the pastor. He needs be a 
 Sunday-school expert no less than a preacher. He can learn what he 
 
34 
 
 requires his teachers to learn ; especially as he knows more of the subject- 
 matter than they do to begin with. He may very well be assisted by a Super- 
 visor of Educational Methods. Often an elementary-school expert may 
 be found for this office. He needs not be present every Sunday, in order to 
 render very material assistance. One teacher of each department may be 
 chosen its Head and superintend the work of the teachers of all of the grades 
 of the department. This will co-ordinate the teaching. Special teachers 
 may be appointed each to supervise the teaching of a different study of the 
 curriculum, e. g., biblical history, religious masterpieces, church history, 
 missions or map-making. The Superintendent, Pastor, Director of In- 
 struction, Supervisor, Heads of Departments, Special Teachers, Librarian, 
 Secretary and Treasurer may constitute a Faculty of the school. 
 
 This is precisely the way in which the First Union Presbyterian Church 
 Sunday-School of New r York City has been organized. The Model Sunday- 
 School of Teachers College is managed by the parents of its pupils. They 
 have Membership, Executive and Curriculum Committees, a Superin- 
 tendent, Assistant Superintendent and three Supervisors of Teaching. 
 They all give their services; but teachers are paid; and the pupils pay 
 tuition. These schools have a graded curriculum.* 
 
 It is a graded curriculum, after all, which offers the greatest advantage 
 that school organization can provide teachers for biblical study. If a 
 teacher has the life of Paul, for instance, to teach every year, he will read 
 certainly a book on Paul, and, not unlikely a book every year. Why should a 
 Sunday-school teacher be expected to know the whole of the Bible equally 
 well, when such a burden is considered too great for a professor of a theo- 
 logical seminary? The secret of well-trained day school teachers and 
 university professors lies in their being permitted to specialize. This is 
 equally the secret of how to secure well-trained teachers for a Sunday- 
 school. 
 
 THE EXPENSE PROBLEM. 
 
 The fourth objection relates to expense. 
 
 Manual work is inexpensive. Considerable money may be spent to ad- 
 vantage in multiplying apparatus and materials, of course. But one 
 complete set of what is necessary will answer for a large number of classes 
 which may perform the various operations in turn. 
 
 Again, these things can be home-made, so that what would cost too 
 much to buy may be had for the labor of making them . Oriental models can 
 be made out of cardboard. They can be copied' from the pictures of the 
 panorama mentioned in the list of supplies below, or from the cuts in the 
 advertisements of the models for sale. This has been done. A sand-table 
 may be constructed by making a tray of the top of a common kitchen table, 
 by nailing strips of wood, five inches wide, to the sides, and either painting 
 the inside of the tray or lining it with enamel cloth, to prevent warping 
 from the damp sand to be used. A galvanized-iron tray on saw-horses 
 will serve the same purpose. Or the tray can be made of the wood of old 
 packing-boxes and lined with enamel cloth. In one case a cardboard box, 
 used by a clothing house to deliver goods, was lined with enamel cloth and 
 used for a year. The expense was ten cents. Paper-pulp can be made 
 from newspapers torn into very small pieces and soaked in cold water or 
 
 *See Appendix B. 
 
35 
 
 AN ORIENTAL HOUSE WITH UPPER ROOM. 
 Made entirely of cardboard, eighteen inches square. 
 
 boiled and afterwards well stirred and kneaded with a stick. One set of 
 crayons will do for three pupils at a time. Colored inks can be diluted with 
 water without sacrificing satisfactory results. The cardboard of old card 
 parcel boxes may be used for mounting paper-pulp maps. Note-books 
 may be made by folding and stitching paper purchased at wholesale. As 
 none of this construction work calls for skilled labor, it can be done by 
 members of the Sunday-school themselves. 
 
 The following supplies are recommended both for excellence and 
 economy: 
 
 Dixon oriental models, 1 7 especially valuable articles, at from 15 cents 
 to $1.50 apiece. 
 
 Bible Panorama, picturing the objects represented by these models, 
 $1.00. 
 
 Hammett sand-table, 3x3 feet, with tray on hinges for inclination after 
 a map is moulded, $8.50. 
 
 Sand-tray of galvanized iron, 3x2^ feet, $2.75. 
 
 Klemm embossed maps of Palestine and the Exodus countries, 7x4^ 
 inches each, 5 cents a pair; and of the Mediterranean Basin, 10x15 inches, 
 10 cents each. 
 
 McKinley prints of Palestine and the Mediterranean Basin, 54x7^ 
 inches, 10 cents a dozen. 
 
 Heath's prints of Palestine, for coloring, 15x12 inches, 2 cents. 
 
 Dissected Map of Palestine, 10x5 inches, 15 cents. 
 
 Paper pulp (American Writing Paper Company, Holyoke, Mass.), 6 
 cents a pound. 
 
 White enamel cloth for \vork-table, 20 cents a yard. 
 
 Iron-ware pans for paper-pulp receptacles, 6 inches in diameter, 1 5 
 cents. 
 
 Linoleum, J-inch thick, for 8xio inch pieces on which to mould paper- 
 pulp maps, $1.00 a yard. 
 
 Short pencil crayons, 6 in a box, 75 cents a dozen boxes. 
 
 Rembrandt water-color boxes, 35 cents. 
 
 Water-color tubes, 20 cents apiece. 
 
 Hammett colored inks, 10 colors, $1.25 a box. 
 
 Quill camel's-hair brushes, 25 cents a dozen. 
 
 Water cups for dipping brushes, 48 cents a dozen. 
 
 Butter dishes, 2 cents. 
 
36 
 
 Cardboard, 3-16 inches thick, for mounting paper-pulp maps, 22x44 
 inches, 25 cents. 
 
 Charcoal paper pads for color maps, 9x6 inches, 10 cents. 
 
 Blank books for picture-pasting, 8^x7 inches, 7 cents. 
 
 Note-books, 8^x7 inches, ruled, 10 cents. 
 
 Prints of biblical scenes and landscapes, 8x5^ inches, American S. S. 
 Union, Brown, Heidelberg, Harper, Perry, Wilde, i cent each, or 120 for 
 $1.00. 
 
 Similar prints, 3^x3 inches, by Eliott, ^ cent each. 
 
 The larger prints on card, Sunday-School Commission series, 2 cents 
 each. 
 
 Bible Study Union Primary Cards for coloring, 30 cents a year for five 
 or more copies. 
 
 Pease Bible Symbols, 50 cents a set. 
 
 Photochromes of landscapes, 6|x8| inches, by Detroit Photo Co., 25 
 cents. 
 
 Stereographs of Palestine landscapes, Underwood and Underwood, 18 
 cents each, or $2.00 a dozen. 
 
 Stereoscopes, 90 cents each. 
 
 Hailmann's lintels, 1,000 in a box, 25 cents. 
 
 Relief Map of Palestine, by Burton, 4x3 feet, $12 ; 12x9 inches, $5.00. 
 
 Relief Map of Palestine, by Littlefield, 25x15 inches, $5.00; uncolored, 
 $3-00. 
 
 Palestine, elevations presented in colors, by G. A. Smith, Scribner's, 
 5x4 feet, $5.00. 
 
 Stand Atlas of Biblical Geography, Ohman, 13 maps, 26x30 inches, 
 $5.00. 
 
 Maps, Johnson, at $2.25. 
 
 Maps, Levine-Dechant, $2.50. 
 
 Other wall map makers are Eiler, Whittaker and Union Press. 
 
 Blackboards pivoted on stands, Hammett, $1.50416.75, according to 
 size. 
 
 Lap blackboards, without frames, two surfaces, 1^x2 feet, 50 cents. 
 
 These supplies may be obtained at the Diocesan House, 29 Lafayette 
 Place, New York. 
 
37 
 
 APPENDIX A. 
 
 THE ESSENTIALS OF A GOOD SUNDAY-SCHOOL. 
 
 I. GRADING. 
 
 A Graded Curriculum. Graded Classes and Teachers. 
 
 Graded Text Books. Graduation and Graduate Courses. 
 
 II. TEACHING. 
 Worship : 
 
 a. Exposition, rehearsal and singing work. 
 
 b. Actual worship. 
 Oral Work. 
 Dramatic Work. 
 Picture Work. 
 Memoriter Work. 
 Book Work. 
 
 Manual Methods: 
 
 a. Model Work: Handling and even making models of oriental 
 
 buildings, furniture, etc. 
 
 b. Note-book Work: Picture-pasting, narrative and thesis work. 
 
 c. Map-making: Relief, surface, line and point work. 
 
 Moral Practice: Direction in duties to self and others, collectively and 
 individually performed. 
 
 III. EQUIPMENT. 
 
 Pictures: Prints and stereographs. 
 
 Maps: Relief and print maps. 
 
 Sand-tables. 
 
 Work-tables, for clay, paper-pulp, painting and drawing work. 
 
 Models of oriental dwellings, furniture, etc. 
 
 A Library of reference and desk books for teachers and pupils. 
 
 A Museum, with an annual exhibit of pupils' work. 
 
 An Assembly Room. 
 
 A Map-room, with relief and surface maps, sand- and work-tables, and 
 
 a case of models. 
 
 A Separate Room for Every Class, with black-board, maps and pictures. 
 Chairs for Pupils, which admit of writing. 
 
 IV. MANAGEMENT. 
 A Principal. 
 
 A Faculty of the head teachers of different departments. 
 
 A Director of Instruction (the Pastor). 
 
 A Director of Benevolence. 
 
 A Supervisor of Educational Methods. 
 
 A Summer Vacation. 
 
 A Summer (Sunday) School, with special courses. 
 
 An Extension (or "Home") Department. 
 
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 225 FOURTH AVENUE, N|W YORK 
 






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