s 
 
 116 
 
 ri-IE TALMUD 
 
 ITS RELATION TO JUDAISM, 
 
 E ATTITUDE OF THE JEWS TOWARDS SOCIETY, 
 
 RABBI SAMS 
 
 tslated Inj special permission from tli.e German 
 
 />// /. Kaatffmann, Frankfort-on~the-Maine, 
 
 BY REV. DR. \V. STERN. 
 
 PRINCIPAL OK THK ARIA COLI.FGK, PllRTSFA 
 
 California 
 
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 cility 
 
 BRPE1NTBD KKOM 'TIIK .II WISH sTAXDARl)."
 
 r
 
 ITS RELATION TO JUDAISM, AND THE ATTITUDE OF THE JEWS TOWARDS SOCIETY, 
 BY RABBI SAMSON RAPHAEL HIRSCH. 
 
 Translated by special permission from the German Version, 
 BY REV. DR. W. STEKX, 
 
 PRINCIPAL OF "ABIA COLLEGE, POETSEA. 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 Certain of my friends have suggested that I should write a short 
 and popular account of the relationship of the Talmud to Judaism 
 and the social attitude of the Jews. The century to which we are 
 accustomed to assign the palm for enlightened humanity and general 
 regard for law and right, seems, unhappilv, not likely to come to an 
 end without inflicting on the sincere lover of his kind the sharp pain 
 of a complete disillusion. Truths which we long ago thought firmly 
 established as the mental property of mankind, are once more called 
 in question, and prejudices which we thought dead and buried are 
 celebrating their resurrection in terrible fashion. And the Jews in 
 especial are sufferers by this retrogression in knowledge and culture. 
 Anti-Jewish agitators are striving to recommend as a subject for 
 regulation and consideration to governments and councils that so-called 
 " Jewish Question " which we imagined to be settled long ago, and 
 the very possibility of the aegis of inviolable legal equality failing the 
 Jew, causes the lower passions of hatred and ill will to find fresh 
 nourishment in the breasts of nations long accustomed to look upon 
 the Jew as an equal-privileged fellow-citizen, whose honest diligence 
 and useful industry, as well as his purse ever open to the calls of 
 charity, had acquired for him the recognition and good-will of his 
 fellow-countrymen. 
 
 From the very beginning the Talmud has always suffered with 
 the Jew, and the prejudice which attacked the Jew attacked in special 
 fashion the Talmud also nay, ignorance has always shown itself ready 
 to fasten on the Talmud as the cause of the mischievous conduct of 
 which it was alleged the Jew was guilty. 
 
 Thus even people otherwise well disposed, but to whom no means 
 of correcting an erroneous view on such a subject are accessible, are 
 found giving countenance to the opinion that a repudiation of the 
 Talmud, which they regard as no intrinsic or original part of Judaism, 
 is most earnestly to be desired, as well in the interest of the Jews 
 themselves as in that of the population in whose midst they live ; and 
 they hail approvingly as a symptom of modern progress the gradual 
 emancipation of their Jewish contemporaries from the Talmud.
 
 IF The Talmud : Its Relation to Judaism, 
 
 r These considerations, drawn from everyday experience, have in- 
 i duced ine to listen to the above-mentioned suggestion of my friends, 
 and by furnishing extracts from the Talmudic writings in scrupulously 
 exact renderings to enable every non-Jewish and impartial reader to 
 form a correct judgment as to the influence of the Talmud upon its 
 upholders. 
 
 This task I have willingly undertaken, and in the following pages 
 I have striven to acquit myself of it to the best of my powers. 
 "Wherever the opportunity presented itself I have chosen for extract 
 such maxims as have become verbally incorporate in the national 
 consciousness, and thereby exercised the most immediate influence on 
 the formation of Jewish sentiments and principles. May these un- 
 pretending pages serve as a source of better information to all who 
 care to exchange prejudice for truth ; may they be thought worthy of 
 attention particularly by all those who, by their position and activity 
 are bound to exercise an influence on their Jewish fellow-citizens, 
 and may the time be not too far distant which, by recognition of the 
 true and reverence of the right, shall bring to all the social relation- 
 ship of mankind the hopeful fulfilment of all good men's desires for 
 the general welfare. 
 
 I. 
 
 THE INFLUENCE OF THE TALMUD OK JUDAISM AND ON THE SOCIAL 
 ATTITUDE OF THE JEWS. 
 
 Hardly can it be paid of any other literary work that it has 
 directed and sustained the spiritual, moral, and social development of 
 a whole nation through all the centuries between the earliest period 
 of its historical existence and the living present, as may be affirmed of 
 the Talmud. Long before the commencement of the third century of 
 the Christian era (at which time the reduction of the Talmud to 
 writing was begun) its contents were operative as oral tradition and 
 teaching in the hearts and minds of the nation, as is testified by the 
 writings of a Josephus and a Philo, and even by the religion of the 
 Christians themselves. The Talmud contains in reality nothing but 
 the formal setting forth in writing of the orally current explanations, 
 interpretations, definitions and corollaries of the Law formulated in 
 pregnant curtness in the written word of the Bible. The germs of 
 these traditions date from the time of Moses, who committed them to 
 the memory of his people in the forty years of their wanderings as 
 being of equally divine origin with the written word and of like im- 
 portance for their instruction. These oral interpretations were from 
 the outset presupposed in the writing down of the Law, which abso- 
 lutely required them for its due observance. An attentive reader of 
 the Bible will even discover that the whole Law was at first delivered 
 orally and was thus already fully known to the people when Moses, 
 before his departure, reduced it to writing. The very reading of the 
 Bible in its original character requires the knowledge of tradition. To 
 the present day our scrolls of the Law have neither vowels, nor 
 accents, nor divisions into verses, which all three are demonstrably the 
 inventions of later times, and are also intended merely to fix in writing
 
 And the Attitude of the Jews towards Society. 3 
 
 the traditional method of reading. Thus the simple reading of the Bible- 
 character rests on traditions handed down by the very generations 
 and men who also handed down the interpretations contained in the 
 Talmud ; and as the Christian church honours the Jewish Bible as the 
 source of its faith, this, in so far as it rests on the word of the Bible, 
 is built on a basis of Talrnudic tradition. This is what Hillel pointed 
 out to a heathen who wished to be admitted to membership in the 
 Jewish community by accepting the written Law while rejecting the 
 unwritten. Hillel showed him that he himself, for the mere reading 
 of the written Law, was obliged to rely entirely upon tradition. So 
 necessary for the carrying out in practice of the written Law, and so 
 presupposed by it, is tradition, that those very sects which, in the 
 course of time, arose within the pale of Judaism and rejected the 
 Talraudic tradition found themselves obliged to set up a tradition of 
 their own. And they all have also vanished in the course of time, 
 with the survival of only a small section of the Karaites. The only 
 Judaism of historic import which has held its God-appointed way 
 through the centuries and through the nations, is Talmudic Judaism 
 the Judaism nourished, sustained and preserved by Talmudic 
 tradition. 
 
 In addition to traditions which go back to the time of Moses, the 
 Talmud also contains judicial and instructive utterances, decisions 
 and illustrations of later teachers and sages, which, as consequences, 
 applications or interpretations, are deduced from or added to those 
 traditions, and are invested with an equal authority. These form the 
 Halacha, or the Halachic part of the Talmud. Then there are indi- 
 vidual views, proverbs, parables, &c., with no claim to binding authority ; 
 and these form the Haggadah, or Haggadistic part of the Talmud. 
 
 The Talmud consists of two works, of which the older one the 
 Mishna contains the traditions current at the time of its reduction 
 to writing in aphorisms of close-packed sententiousness, the inter- 
 pretations rf which, however, remained traditional and oral. Some 
 250 years later these interpreting traditions were also reduced to 
 writing in a work called the G-eniara. This Gemara, a voluminous 
 work, is in form unique in literature. It consists of almost verbally- 
 reported discussions which took place in the schools. It therefore 
 records opposing opinions, and only the results finally arrived at are 
 valid for practical guidance, and these are systematically arranged and 
 classified into codes. 
 
 From this slight sketch it will easily be seen that the Talmud is 
 no mere supplement to Judaism which might be rejected without 
 thereby affecting the character of Judaism, but is rather the one 
 source from which Judaism has flowed, the basis upon which Judaism 
 is built the very soul which informs and sustains Judaism. In fact 
 Judaism, as embodied in the historic phenomenon of the Jewish race, 
 and as manifested in its mental and moral capacities and virtues, which 
 not even the enemies of Judaism can deny, Judaism is wholly and 
 solely an outcome of Talmudic teaching and of the system of .education 
 and culture followed and fostered by it. 
 
 As distinctly Jewish characteristics may be mentioned the fol- 
 lowing : Conscientious conduct through all the changes of time and 
 destiny ; patience and trustful endurance in the most acute and trying
 
 4 The Talmud : Its Relation to Judaism, 
 
 sufferings; self-sacrificing power of truth to conviction, which makes 
 the Jews capable of being bent but not broken, of preferring death 
 to apostacy ; the sense of duty, obedience and loyalty to sovereign 
 and government ; benevolence and beneficence towards fellow-citizens, 
 prompt and active at all times and without regard to the greater or 
 lesser degree of benevolence, justice and humanity, or their opposites, 
 with which they are treated by those fellow-citizens, so that although 
 the Jews have at all times been the victims of cruelty and ill- 
 treatment they have never allowed themselves to be provoked into 
 reprisals in kind, but in all political tempests have always taken a 
 firm stand on the side of government; interest in everj thing intel- 
 lectual, and the intellectual gifts which have always distinguished 
 individuals of the Jewish nation, who, with no advantage from State 
 guardianship, but in the teeth of most utterand contemptuous neglect 
 by those in authority have found for themselves and drawn from their 
 own resources such sufficient mental culture as to place the Jewish 
 nation, when once the favour of recent times allowed it to emerge 
 from the enforced seclusion of the past, most unexpectedly on a 
 spiritual level with its hitherto more favoured contemporaries ; the 
 personal virtues of temperance, diligence, philanthropy and thrift, 
 combined with open-handeduess, wherever the ends of humanity, public 
 welfare, and education are to be served ; the moral virtues, for to this 
 day Jewish names are rarities in the lists of serious transgressions 
 against life, chastity, and property ; the virtues of domestic life, 
 the kindly relations which subsist between husband and wife, parents 
 and children, brothers and sisters ; the manner in which the com- 
 munity is able to count upon the liberality of its members, and the 
 disinterested character of its administrators all these average pecu- 
 liarities of the Jewish character, which are surely no disgrace to it, and 
 which are so strongly marked that the bitterest enemies are forced to 
 admit their existence, are the work of the Talmud ; so much so that 
 with the greater or less neglect of the Talmud, in these later days 
 there is a perceptible falling off in the strength of some of these pecu- 
 liarities. The Talmud, moreover, by its liturgic forms and its daily use 
 has made the common life of the Jews one continued reminder of and 
 educator in the fear of G-od. In every enjoyment, in every observed 
 process of nature, in every joyful or sorrowful event of his life, it 
 bids the Jew look up to God, whose hand he is thus accustomed to 
 see, and to honour Him in nature, life and destiny. Nay, the whole 
 doctrine of the incorporeality and immortality of the soul, the doctrine 
 of a future existence, and the ultimate righteous reward of a life of 
 performed or neglected duty these doctrines, which afford such an 
 essential support to religious consciousness and patient fulfilment of 
 duty, are in the written word onry hinted at, having been received for 
 oral transmission in the Talmud. 
 
 And while in opposition to all this the allegation of the mis- 
 chievousness of the Talmud is being widely disseminated by enemies 
 and opponents of Jews and Judaism, and finds acceptance even among 
 the well-disposed, who are not in a position to enquire for themselves 
 into the truth or falsehood of the accusation ; while it is alleged that 
 the Talmud encourages cunning and subtlety, allows deception, theft, 
 and all unrighteousness in dealing with jion- Jews, makes the Jew shy
 
 And the Attitude of the Jews towards Society. 5 
 
 of work, sets its face against labour, handicraft and agriculture, and 
 is to blame for the Jew's exclusive devotion to commerce ; it is 
 demonstrable that the direct reverse of all this is the real truth, and 
 that all these allegations are but the offspring of hatred, delusion, 
 ignorance, unconscious understanding or deliberate misrepresentation. 
 
 In a time which has witnessed the prominent reappearance of 
 the so-called Jewish question in the arena of public discussion, it 
 cannot be a matter of indifference, seeing the undeniably close 
 connection existing between the Talmud and the whole intellectual 
 and moral, social and individual life of the Jews it cannot be a 
 matter of indifference what view of the Talmud is held by those who, 
 from their position or intellectual eminence, are called to exercise an 
 influence on the nation's sense of truth and justice and through these 
 on the thereon dependent destinies of the adherents of Judaism. At 
 least it may well appear desirable by the accurate quotation of 
 passages from the Talmud and its practical commentaries to furnish 
 the proofs of the extreme value of the Talmud as the whole source of 
 true Judaism, and at the same time in opposition to the allegations 
 of its pernicious character to demonstrate the tendency of the 
 teaching of the Talmud to promote and secure the general well-being 
 and good conduct of the Jews. 
 
 We will begin with the latter point the rebutting of the false ac- 
 cusation against the Talmud, and the establishment of the contrary facts. 
 
 As to Honesty. The Talmud informs us that when we appear 
 before the great Judge to give an account of our lives the first 
 question asked will be : " Hast thou been upright in all thy goings 
 and doings P" 1 Let thy yea be yea, and thy nay be nay. Let not 
 thy thoughts gainsay thy words. Even though the bargain be not 
 legally or formally concluded on thy part, thou shalt know that the 
 same God will punish the man who departs from his word, who once 
 punished the generations of the Flood and of the Tower of Babel. 
 Merely to depart from the spoken word is a breach of honesty. 2 Nay, 
 he is approved who is true to his unuttered thought, like one of the 
 wise men of the Talmud, to whom a purchaser made an offer while he, 
 the vendor, was occupied, with something else and was therefore 
 unable to answer him, whereupon the purchaser, thinking he had 
 made too small an offer, increased it. The vendor, however, having 
 dispatched his other business, accepted the first-named low price for 
 his goods, because he said he had already in thought resolved to do so 
 before the higher bid was made. 3 
 
 It is forbidden to cheat any man Jew or Gentile in buying or 
 selling, or to mislead him by words, or even to conceal from him any 
 known defect in the goods. It is equally forbidden to give a decep- 
 tive appearance to goods or to diminish their value by adulteration. 4 
 
 All, even the most trifling, theft, robbery, or withholding of what 
 belongs to others, whether Jew, Gentile, or idolatrous heathen, is 
 forbidden. Nothing may be stolen even in jest or with an intention 
 of restoration either immediate or ultimate. The mere temporary 
 use of an article without the knowledge of the owner is robbery. 5 
 
 1 Sabbath, 31 a. 2 Baba MezLa, 49 a. 3 Makkoth, 24 a. 
 
 * Maimonides, On Selling, ch. 18. s Maimonides, On Theft, &c., ch. 1.
 
 6 The Talmud : Its Relation to Judaism, 
 
 Goods supposed to be stolen must not be bought, nor anything from 
 a known thief. 1 If any man at a feast or in the house of mourning 
 has an article of clothing changed he must not use the one left to 
 him. 2 The avoidance of State dues or taxes is no less than robbery. 8 
 It is not allowed to take even a straw from a truss or a twig from 
 the hedge to make a toothpick ; for, it is added, if every man took 
 them, there would be an end of the one man's truss of straw and of 
 the other man's hedge. 4 
 
 Much which does not come properly within the definition of theft 
 or robbery is forbidden by the rabbinical regulations which proceed 
 from the maxim to avoid everything which resembles or might lead 
 to wrongdoing a maxim which they have extended over the whole 
 field of the religious law, and which is exemplified in the saying that 
 a Nazarite who has vowed to abstain from the taste of wine or grapes 
 should be admonished to make a circuit so as to avoid even the 
 neighbourhood of a vineyard. 5 These safeguards against wrong- 
 doing are called fences of the Law. For similar reasons several kinds 
 of gaming and betting are forbidden (the professional gambler is 
 declared incapable of giving legal testimony), and the Jews are 
 instructed not to fly pigeons so close to those of their neighbours as 
 to tempt strange pigeons into their traps or pigeon houses. 8 
 
 The Talmud recognises not only the theft of goods but also a 
 theft of opinion and esteem, 7 as when one causes another to have a 
 better opinion of him than he is really entitled to by his conduct, 
 even when no prejudice thereby arises to the other. It is said 
 expressly that we are not to steal men's good opinion or esteem not 
 even the Gentile's ; and as a warning it is told how one of the Doctors 
 of the Talmud seriously reprimanded his servant for having given to 
 a Gentile ferryman as kosher, or perfect, a fowl which was really 
 treifa, or not fit for use by Jews according to their law, although 
 the imperfection was of no importance to the Gentile ferryman and 
 the fowl was perfectly fit for his use. Into the same category fall all 
 unmerited captatio benevolentiae,e.g., pressing invitations, overloading 
 with presents when one knows that they will not be accepted, &c. 
 
 Particular stress is laid upon the observance of the commands 
 about just weights and measures contained in Lev. xix. 35, 36, and 
 Deut. xxv. 13-15, and the most minute and elaborate directions are 
 given for the maintenance of correctness in weights and measures and 
 for the avoidance of errors in weighing, measuring and counting. 8 
 The Talmud warns us 9 that the penalty for using false weights and 
 measures is heavier than for sexual frailties, which are sins against 
 God alone, while the use of false weights and measures is an offence 
 against man also. The one offence can be atoned for by honest 
 repentance, while in the other case a perfect atonement is usually 
 impossible, as it would require in the first place a restitution of the 
 wrongful gain to be made, whereas it is generally impossible to tell to 
 
 1 Baba Kama, 119 b. 2 B. Bathra, 46 a. 
 
 3 B. Kama, 113 a ; Maimonides, On Thefc, cb. 5, 11. 'Ch. M. 359, 1. 
 
 * Chulin, 44 b ; Sabbath, 13 a ; Pessachim, 40 b, &c. 
 
 * Sanhedrin, 24 b. ' Chulin, 84 a, b. 
 
 ' B. Bathra, 88, a ; Maimon., Theft, ch. 7 and 8. 
 "B. Bathra, 88 a ; Maimon., Theft, 7, 12.
 
 And the Attitude of the Jews towards Society. 7 
 
 what extent and to whom wrong has been done by false weights and 
 measures. Here again it is expressly repeated that it matters not 
 that we are dealing with a Gentile or an idolater whoever gives a 
 short measure or weight breaks a commandment and must make it 
 good 1 ; similarly we are not to cheat a Gentile in reckoning whoever 
 does it comes under the text Deut. xxv. 16, " For all that do such 
 things, and all that do unrighteously, are an abomination unto the 
 Lord thy God." 
 
 The Talmud is also very explicit as to the conscientious discharge 
 of obligations contracted by debtors, guardians, hired workmen, &c. 
 From its rich store of material we extract a few sentences. The pay- 
 ment of debts is not only a legal obligation, but also a religious duty, 2 
 and unpunctuality is severely censured in him who is able to pay.* 
 The man who borrows 100 and repays it by instalments pays indeed 
 but his creditor is entitled to be angry. 4 Borrowed money must be 
 so employed that the lender shall not lose it in the end. Thy neigh- 
 bour's profit shall be as dear to thee as thy own. 5 Goods left in trust 
 must not be used even temporarily such using entails the same 
 consequences as theft. 8 The same consequences ensue in some cases 
 where such use has merely been begun and not completed. 7 
 
 Even as the employer is bound not to unjustly deprive his labourer 
 of anything, the labourer is bound to give his whole time and ability 
 to his master's service. He may not work for him by night and hire 
 himself out to another by day ; nor may he refrain from taking 
 proper food and pass it to his children, for by so doing he diminishes 
 the strength which he has let to his employer and his own turnout of 
 work. He must also make full use of the time for which he is hired, 
 and not waste it in repeated idling 8 ; nay, he may not interrupt his 
 labour even to rise when some one passes by to whom he is otherwise 
 bound to pay reverence. 9 
 
 As to gaining a livelihood, the Talmud puts a high value upon an 
 independent life, which dispenses with all charitable assistance, and 
 teaches that this end should be sought by every possible honest 
 means, that for its attainment we should be ashamed of no labour or 
 work, and that we should bear with the greatest privation?, if by so 
 doing we may dispense with the assistance of others. Tn the Tal- 
 mudic circle labour was held sacred. The principle acted on was 
 " Labour is a grand thing, for it honours man." 10 Strip the skin 
 from a dead beast in the street and earn something, and say not "I 
 am a priest or a great man, and it beseems me not."" Live on the 
 Sabbath as on week-days, but ask not for relief. 12 Hire thyself to a 
 work that otherwise fits thee not, and keep thyself free of man's 
 help. 13 The Talmudic doctors esteemed their learning too highly, as 
 they said, to make a spade of it and dig therewith 14 ; they imparted it 
 gratuitously and supported themselves mainly by labour, handicraft, 
 agriculture or simple commerce. As we find these various occupa- 
 
 1 Maimon., Theft, 8. 2 Arachin, 22 a. B. Mezia, 3 a. 
 
 4 B. Mezia, 77 b. s Maimon., Loans, 1, 3 ; Aboth, 2, 17. 
 
 6 B. Mezia, 43 a, b. 7 Ibid. 
 
 ' Maim., On Wages, end of Ch. M. 337, 19, 20. 9 J. D., 244, 5. 
 
 10 Nedarim, 49 b. " Pesachim, 113 a. " Ib., 112 a. 
 
 13 B. Bathra, 1 10 a. 14 Abotb, 4,7.
 
 8 The Talmud : Its Relation to Judaism, 
 
 tions followed by them, we are not astonished to find them teaching 
 that as the father is bound to instruct his son in the law of religion, 
 he is also bound to have him taught a trade. 1 According to one 
 interpretation, every lawful calling was on a footing of equality with 
 a trade. Others maintained that it was necessary to learn a handi- 
 craft, even though the man intended to follow some other profession, 
 for a handicraft alone was always sure of earning him a living. 1 
 A man should always teach his son a trade having as few temptations 
 to wrongdoing as may be, and offering him some leisure for intellec- 
 tual cultivation. 8 He shall not put him to a trade which will bring 
 him much in contact with women. Handicrafts are particularly 
 approved. Handicrafts there will always be in the world ; happy is 
 he who has a good trade in his hands !* Though the famine endure 
 for seven years, yet will it not find the door of the craftsman. 5 
 Love work, and desire not to be highly placed. 8 The Q-od-fearing man 
 who lives by the work of his hands is doubly blessed ; he is happy 
 both in this world and in the next. 7 
 
 Agriculture also was held in high esteem. Many indeed pre- 
 ferred commerce, and one Kabbi passing by a cornfield whose full 
 ears seemed to nod and beckon to him, said jestingly, " Beckon as 
 much as you like, it is better to have to do with trade than with 
 you ! " c But the general verdict contradicted this. A man so we 
 are told who possesses no field is no man, for it is written : The 
 earth hath He given to the children of men. Sow thine own fruit 
 and buy it not ; though both cost thee alike dear, yet is that which 
 thou hast sown thyself more blessed. 9 When it is said (Deut. xxviii. 
 66), "And thy life shall hang in doubt before thee," it is intended to 
 apply to those who buy their supply of corn from year to year ; "thou 
 shalt fear day and night," applies to those who buy it from week to 
 week; "and shalt have none assurance of thy life," is said of him 
 who relies on the breadseller. 10 " He that tilleth (literally, serveth} 
 his land shall be satisfied with bread " (Prov. xii. 11). Only when a 
 man works like a servant on his land shall he be satisfied with bread 
 not otherwise." From all these maxims it is evident that the 
 Talmud strongly desires and recommends that every man shall have 
 and till his own land, raising the crops he requires by his own 
 cultivation. According to the agrarian ideas of that time it was con- 
 siderel a particularly blessed holding of land which consisted of corn 
 land, olives, and vines in equal extents. 12 We read 13 that when God 
 bade Abraham emigrate into a land which he and his seed should 
 possess, and he saw the people of Mesopotamia eating and drinking, 
 and idling and making merry, he said : " God grant that my lot may 
 not be cast in this land ! " But when he came to the Tyrian slopes 
 on the borders of Palestine and saw the folks busy with weeds in the 
 weed-time and with ploughing in its due season, he said : " God 
 grant that my lot be cast in this land ! " In these words appears the 
 consciousness that the agricultural life with its regularly recurring 
 
 1 Kiddushin, 30 b. 'Ibid. "Kidduohin, 82 a. 4 Ibid. 
 
 "Sanhedrin, 29 a, 'Abotb, 2, 10. : I!.-rachot, 8 a. 
 
 ' Jebamoth, 63 a. II,:,]. " Mt-nachoth, 103 b. 
 
 11 Sanhedrin, 58 b. 15. Mezia, 107 a. " M. Rabba on Gen. xii. 1.
 
 And the Attitude of the Jews towards Society. 9 
 
 seasons is favourable to the development of man's nature. The 
 whole religious legislation of the Jews presupposes agriculture as its 
 first condition, and every one of the Jewish festivals is in direct 
 connection with field labour and agriculture. The tribe most 
 celebrated for intellectual culture Issachar was a tribe of agricul- 
 turists, and " every man under his own vine and fig-tree " was the 
 Jewish ideal of national prosperity. 1 And this continued even after 
 the Jewish nation had been driven out of its own country to dwell 
 among strangers. 
 
 A glance into the comprehensive treatise of Seraitn, which treats 
 of the religious prescriptions relating to agriculture, or into the civil 
 law treatises Baba Kama, Mezia, and Bathra, which incidentally touch 
 upon agricultural topics, will show how extensive and minute was the 
 knowledge possessed by the Talmudic doctors of the peculiarities 
 of the various crops and of their different management and treatment 
 according to the conditions of the soil and locality, &c. ; in short, 
 what a thoroughgoing knowledge the Talmudic sages had of a rational 
 agriculture and arboriculture a knowledge only to be gained by a 
 serious practice of husbandry by themselves. A glance into the 
 above-mentioned treatises will serve to show also that the opinions 
 there expressed as to the value of agriculture influenced their own 
 practice. To such an extent did they rely upon their husbandry for 
 their subsistence, that one master of the rabbinical lore saw occasion 
 to request his numerous hearers not to frequent his lecture room in 
 spring and autumn, so as to be able at those seasons to devote their 
 undivided attention to their fields and not to be troubled about their 
 subsistence during the rest of the year. 2 Commerce and manufac- 
 tures were indeed practised in the Talmudic time they are both as 
 indispensable as husbandry the very husbandman himself has need 
 of them. What can he do with his crops unless the merchant relieves 
 him of the produce of his labour and disposes of it elsewhere ? a 
 combination which the Bible exhibits in the fraternal and comple- 
 mentary alliance of the land cultivation of the intellectual tribe of 
 Issachar with the commercial tribe of Zebulun. 3 Still, the wise men 
 of the Talmud were not favourable to a too extensive commerce or a 
 too great devotion to trade. There was no blessing, they opined, on 
 the profit from across the sea. 4 And whereas the husbandman at the 
 end of his day's work aud in the winter season always has some leisure 
 for self-cultivation, they found by experience, that with merchants 
 and traders mental culture usually comes to an early end 5 ; that he 
 who is too much of a business man is usually no sage. 8 They there- 
 fore advised their brethren to restrict themselves in business and con- 
 trive to gain time for mental culture. 7 
 
 Increase of knowledge was consistent only with limited attention to 
 business. 8 We have already stated that they did not make merchan- 
 dise of their learning, and were therefore obliged to earn their living 
 by some trade or occupation ; and they therefore also said : " Beautiful 
 is the study of the Law with a breadwinner, but the study of the 
 Law not joined with labour endures not." 9 
 
 1 Micah iv. 4. - Berachot, 35 b. 3 Deut. xxxiii. 18. 
 
 4 Pesachim, 50 b. 5 Eruvin, 55 a. 6 Aboth, 2, 6. 
 
 7 Aboth, 4, 12. 8 Aboth, 6, 6. Aboth, 2, 2.
 
 10 The Talmud : Its Relation to Judaism, 
 
 The above quotations from the Talmud and they could easily be 
 multiplied if it were necessary suffice to show how erroneous is the 
 opinion that the Talmud is hostile to labour and particularly adverse 
 to agriculture. If in the more recent centuries of his sojourn in 
 European countries the Jew has turned away from husbandry and 
 given himself ever more and more to commerce, the fault is not in 
 the Talmud, nor yet in the Jew's distaste or incapacity for husbandry, 
 but is due wholly to the disfavour shown him by the various States 
 and nationalities, who have either absolutely prohibited him from 
 owning and cultivating the soil or have hampered him with endless 
 restrictions. 
 
 And again, so long as the Jew was not entitled to the same legal 
 status and protection as his fellow-citizens, so long as he was liable 
 to be driven from house and home by Governmental tyranny or the 
 unfettered passions of a fanatical populace, so long was it impossible 
 for him to devote himself to the cultivation of the soil, a business 
 which, more than any other, requires a completely secure legal 
 position. He was obliged to practise such means of livelihood and 
 cultivate such capacities as were capable of being easily carried away, 
 and of being everywhere available for the maintenance of those 
 depending upon him. Let the Jew be made free and equal, and have 
 time given to grow familiar with an occupation to which unless we 
 are much deceived a man must be accustomed by habit and practice 
 from his youth up, and the Jew will return with hereditary affection 
 to a mode of life which was part of his original destiny. 
 
 II. 
 BELA.TION TO GOVEBNMENT AND FELLOW- CITIZENS. 
 
 With three oaths, says the Talmud, God sent Israel into exile. 
 He made Israel swear never to attempt to return to the Promised 
 Land, but to abide patiently until God should lead him back. He 
 made Israel swear never to rise in rebellion against the States into 
 which he should be adopted. And He adjured the nations that they 
 should not oppress Israel beyond measure.' 
 
 Its two oaths the Jewish nation has kept through all the long 
 centuries of its exile ; never has it sought in self-will to return, and 
 never, nor in any place, has it rebelled against the government of any 
 land wherein it has found shelter. The same Talmud which inserted 
 in our daily prayers as integral parts of Jewish conviction, confidence 
 in an ultimate return to the land of our fathers, in the rebuilding of 
 the Temple and tho complete fulfilment of the divine law on its native 
 soil of the Promised land, simultaneously with the appearance on earth 
 of the kingdom of God with its eternal peace, the assembling together 
 of all mankind for the acknowledgment and worship of God the 
 Only One by a life of truth, righteousness and love ; the same Talmud 
 which implants and encourages these hopes and expectations pronounces 
 every unauthorised attempt to hasten that return to be criminal 
 insubordination to the will of God. It remits the fulfilment of 
 
 1 Kethuboth, 111 a.
 
 And the Attitude of the Jews towards Society. 11 
 
 these promises wholly to the time of Q-od's call for our reassembling. 
 It bids us until then wait patiently in the land of His appointment, 
 to love it as our country, to promote its welfare, and towards its 
 prince, government and inhabitants to fulfil all the duties of loyal 
 subjects and citizens, as was commanded in the case of Babylon (Jer. 
 xxix. 1-7). 
 
 For this reason the Jews have always and everywhere approved 
 themselves as the most loyal of subjects. "The law of government 
 is law " so runs the short formula which the Talmud sets before us 
 as a guiding principle, meaning that whatever a government imposes 
 as law OH its subjects has for us an inviolable validity and must be 
 conscientiously observed by us. 1 On this principle the Talmud, as 
 already mentioned, teaches that the evasion of lawfully due taxes is 
 to be considered as theft, and it is expressly stated in the legal code 
 (Ch. M., 369, 6) that the same rule applies to taxes levied only on 
 Jews. Rabbi Nissim - explains this rule thus : The land belongs to 
 the ruler and the permission to settle in it accorded to the Jew is 
 granted only on condition that he will faithfully obey the laws of 
 that land. Never forget the respect due to the government. 3 There 
 is nothing more glorious in might on earth than a king. 1 A. servant 
 having his king's commission is as the king himself. 5 A government 
 makes its word a fact. Does it say it will remove mountains, so it 
 doth, and takes not back the word it spake." 
 
 Pray for the welfare of the government, for but for its dreaded 
 power society would dissolve in a war of all against all. 7 Every governor, 
 every petty official even, thou shalt regard as appointed by heaven, for 
 in his proper circle he has to maintain law and order. 8 Therefore our 
 public liturgy contains a prayer for sovereign and government, and 
 the Talmud teaches us upon seeing a king to repeat the benediction : 
 " Blessed be God who to mortal man giveth of His glory." 9 
 
 We have already shown under the head of Honesty that according 
 to the teaching of the Talmud the obligation of uprightness towards 
 all men is without the exception even of heathen or idolater, and 
 that every departure from the right every wrong done, no matter to 
 whom, in buying or selling, every deception and fraud in measure, 
 weight, tale or computation is hateful to God. But not merely are 
 the obligations of honesty towards all men inculcated by the Talmud, 
 but it enjoins us also to relieve their poor, to tend their sick, to bury 
 their dead, 10 to give reverent assistance to their old men, 11 to greet 
 such of them as are eminent for worldly learning with the benediction 
 of the God who giveth wisdom to mortal men, 12 and all this though 
 they be heathens or idolaters. Non-Jews, however, who recognise 
 the Lord of heaven and earth of the Bible, and confess themselves 
 bound to the fulfilment of all human duties, to refrain from murder, 
 theft, unchastity, &c., these, according to the teaching of the Talmud, 
 stand, so far as the duties between man and man are concerned, on a 
 footing of perfect equality with the Jews, and are entitled not merely 
 to upright dealing at our hands, but also to the display of active 
 
 1 B. Kama, 113 a. 
 4 Gittin, 56 a. 
 ' Aboth, 3, 2. 
 10 Gittin, 61 a. 
 
 * Nedarim, 28 a. 
 5 B. Kama, 136 b. 
 5 Berachot, 58 a. 
 11 Kiddushm, 33 a. 
 
 * Sebachim, 102 a. 
 6 B. Bathra, 3 b. 
 Berachot, 58 a. 
 13 Berachot, 55 a.
 
 12 The Talmud : Its Relation to Judaism, 
 
 philanthropy. 1 The Talmudic sages are ths only teachers who do 
 not say, " no salvation outside of our creed! " They rather teach that 
 the just oE all nations have a share in the everlasting blessedness. 2 
 
 The Mosaic Law, according to the Talmud, is of everlasting 
 validity, but only for the Jews. The rest of mankind is fully justified 
 before God by the conscientious observance of the common, seven so- 
 called Noachic duties. Hence the Talmudic gloss on Lev. xviii. 5 
 (Ye shall therefore keep My statutes, and My judgments, which if a 
 man do, he shall lire in them), " Even a Gentile who fulfils the Law 
 of God, which is given to him, stands equal with the high priest, for 
 it is written : "Which if a man do, he shall live in them." 
 
 In the same way, in Isaiah xxvi. 2, it is not written : " Open ye the 
 gates that Israel and the priests may enter in," but " that the righteous 
 nation which keepeth the truth may enter in." Again in Psalm r:xviii. 
 20, it is not : " This is the gate of the Lord, into which priests, Levites 
 and Israel shall enter," but " into which the righteous shall enter." 
 Again in Psalm xxxiii. 1, we read, "Rejoice in the Lord, ye 
 righteous!" not "0 je priests, Levites and Israel!" And lastly, in 
 Psalm crxv. 4, it is written " Do good, O Lord, unto those that be 
 good," not " unto the priests, Levites and Israel" From all this it 
 follows that even a Gentile who fulfils the Law that is given to him 
 stands on an equality with the high priest himself. 8 These utterances 
 promise life, nearness to God, happiness, and salvation to every man 
 who fulfils his obligations before God in deed and in truth. One of 
 the Talmudic doctors says explicitly : " I call heaven and earth to 
 witness that, whether it be Gentile or Jew, man or woman, man- 
 servant or maidservant, according to his works, even so shall the holy 
 spirit rest on him."* 
 
 On the ground and in the spirit of these Talmudic doctrines have 
 the rabbis of all ages instructed their brethren as to what their 
 Jewish obligations required of them in the way of conduct towards 
 the rulers and peoples under whose protection and among whom they 
 live. With special earnestness and insistence have they pointed out 
 that the nations among whom the Jews now live, however they may 
 vary from the views and mode of life of the Jews, do nevertheless 
 accept and reverence the Jewish Bible, as a book of divine revela- 
 tion, and acknowledge in their creeds and moral codes the God of 
 heaven and earth taught by the Bible, and His ruling providence in 
 this life and in that which is to come which acknowledgment lays 
 them under the obligation of the general duties of humanity and 
 altogether differentiates them from the heathen and idolatrous peoples 
 of the Talmudic time, towards whom the Talmud commands the per- 
 formance of all legal duties (though not necessarily the full display 
 of active philanthropy), and places them in the category of the non- 
 Jews, whom, in the matter of active philanthropy, the Talmud places on 
 a foating of perfect equality with Jews. Our teachers, also, earnestly 
 and with insistence point out that we owe a particular debt of grati- 
 tude even now to the princes and nations who have given us shelter 
 and protection, for even of the Egyptian, in whose land we suffered 
 
 'Maimon., Melachim, 10, 12. "Sanhedrin, 105 a. 
 
 *Sifra on Lev. xviii. 5. 'Tana debe Elia on Judges iv. 4.
 
 And the Attitude of the Jews towards Society. 13 
 
 the most oppressive slavery, Holy Scripture commands, " Thou shalt 
 not abhor an Egyptian, because thou wast a stranger in his land " 
 (Deut. xxiii. 7). 
 
 Towards the close of the last century celebrated Rabbis like 
 R. Ezekiel Landau, R. Eliezer Fleckeles and R. Jacob Emden treated 
 this subject exhaustively in their various works. The Talmud, accord- 
 ing to a commentary on Aboth iv. 11, laid particular stress on the 
 way in which Christians and Mohammedans are to be regarded by us 
 as instruments for the ultimate universalisation of the knowledge of 
 Q-od over the whole earth. Whereas the nations who preceded them 
 worshipped idols, denied the existence of Gk>d and acknowledged 
 neither Q-od's power nor a future retribution, the existence of 
 Christianity and Mohammedanism has served to spread abroad the 
 knowledge of God, and to open up the most remote lands to the idea 
 that there is a God who rules the world, distributes rewards and 
 penalties, and has revealed Himself to man. Intelligent Christian 
 scholars, moreover, have not only procured recognition among the 
 nations for the written revelation, but have also acted as protectors 
 of the revelation transmitted by oral tradition. For when wicked 
 haters of God's law among ourselves proposed to abrogate and destroy 
 the Talmud, there sprang up among them champions to defend it 
 against their endeavours, &c. 
 
 That on the whole the Jewish nation has conscientiously and 
 cheerfully accepted the Talmudic obligations of loyalty and obedience 
 towards rulers, and righteousness and brotherly love towards fellow- 
 citizens can be disputed only by a hostility which of set purpose 
 ignores and distorts the truth. 
 
 We hope, by the foregoing literal extracts from the Talmudical 
 Scriptures, to have made plain the groundlessness of the widely-held 
 opinion of the mischievous influence exercised by the Talmud on the 
 social conduct and intercourse of the Jews, and also to have demon- 
 strated on the other hand the extent to which the Talmud cultivates 
 in the hearts of its students the loftiest and most unselfish principles 
 of righteousness, industry and loyalty on a foundation of religious 
 consciousness the very principles most conducive to the common 
 welfare of a State. 
 
 We have already stated that the laudable characteristics of the 
 Jewish nation, admitted even by its enemies, are altogether the result 
 of Talmudic teaching and of the education and training carried out 
 under its influence. We now desire to furnish the proof of this 
 assertion in a few extracts from the Talmudic Scriptures, and thus, 
 in a measure, present a complete outline of the Talmudic doctrine. 
 We shall, however, confine ourselves to a few quotations from the 
 rich treasury of Talmudic wisdom dealing with the formation of 
 character, sentiment and life-principles in the individual, with marriage 
 and domestic life, with beneficence and philanthropy, and with civic 
 society.
 
 14 The Talmud : Its Relation to Judaism, 
 
 III. 
 
 THE FORMATION OF MIND AND CHARACTER, DISPOSITION 
 AND IDEA OF LIFE. 
 
 The cultivation of mind was in high honour with the wise men of 
 the Talmud. The science vouchsafed to them in Scripture and in 
 tradition they did not regard as the property or privilege of any 
 particular caste or profession, but as a national possession, to whose 
 enjoyment and guardianship every son of Israel is called. And as 
 this science is not concerned with any supersensual beyond, but has 
 to do with this real actual world, with its historical development in 
 the past, its religious, moral and social problems in the individual and 
 collective life of the present, and its aims in the future such being 
 the subject with which this learning has to deal it forms on the one 
 hand an efficient school of things, circumstances, and relations, and is, 
 on the other hand, so universal a nature as to readily join hands with 
 any other science whose object is to enquire into circumstances and 
 relations in nature and history. 
 
 That the boy may grow up in this wisdom, may one day found a 
 house of his own and live in the practice of virtue such are the 
 wishes which friends and gossips express to a father on the birth of 
 his son. And if, as stated above, the first question to be answered 
 before the judgment seat of God concerns the uprightness of our 
 living, the Talmud further informs us that the second will be 
 " Hast thou not wholly given up thyself to a life of business, and 
 hast thou reserved a certain part of each day for the mental growth 
 of knowledge P" 1 
 
 The prayer for knowledge, prudence and understanding is the first 
 petition of the liturgy repeated three times daily by Jews. 1 He who 
 neglects the acquisition of proper knowledge almost forfeits his claim 
 for mercy ; but he who possesses right knowledge and insight, is one 
 of the hewn stones of the sanctuary. 3 He who wants right know- 
 ledge and insight is the real poor man. 1 But our teachers value only 
 a proper mental training such as, to use their own expression, 
 seeks not to drive an elephant through the eye of a needle, and they 
 enumerate a whole series of perverse mental disciplines, which they 
 earnestly censure. 5 
 
 But no knowledge or science is of any value except it be to the 
 profit of a G-od-fearing life. Woe to him who goes about to make a 
 door and has no house ! Tea, the fear of G-od is the key that opens 
 the right way into science. But whoso has science without the fear 
 of God, is like unto one who has the inside keys but not the outer 
 one how shall he enter in ? 9 But whether a man shall bo God-fear- 
 ing or not depends solely on himself. When a man is to be born, hia 
 angel appears before the throne of God and asks : " What shall come 
 of this seed of man ? Shall he be strong or weak, wise or simple, 
 rich or poor ? " But he does not ask whether he is to be good or bad 
 for the fear of God alone proceeds not from God. 7 
 
 1 Jore Dea, 265, 3 ; Sabbath, 31 a. ' Berachot, 33 a. 
 
 'Ibid. 'Nedarira, 41 a. *B. Mezia, 38 b ; Kethuboth, 17 a. 
 
 6 Sabbath, 31 a, b. ' Nidda, 16 b.
 
 And the Attitude of the Jews towards Society. 15 
 
 Give watchful heed to thy character, and consider well each step 
 that thou takest. 1 Kepent one day before thou diest, and as thou 
 knowest not the day of thy death, think each day it may be to-morrow, 
 and let thy whole life be a life of growing in goodness. 2 Keep thy 
 garment always clean and guard thee from the smallest spot, for thou 
 knowest not how soon thou mayest be bidden to the presence of the 
 Creator. 3 This world is as an ante-chamber to the next. Make thee 
 ready in the ante-chamber, that thou mayest appear worthily in the 
 audience-chamber. 4 Make the Creator thy model. As He is merciful 
 and gracious, long-suffering, full of love and of truth, as He clothes 
 the naked, visits the sick, and comforts the afflicted, so be and so do 
 thou ; for it is written, " Walk after Him, walk in His ways, become 
 like unto Him." 5 By its nature thy soul, the image of God, is pure, 
 seeing and unseen like God, fills its world, the body, even as God 
 fills the great world, and, like God, is not to be found therein ; it 
 guides, sustains, and outlasts thy body, as God does His world, and is 
 alone and single in the body, as God is in His world. 6 
 
 The strongest hereditary note in the Jewish character is compas- 
 sionateness. The Jew who is not compassionate to all that God has 
 made is no true Jew. 7 He who has mercy on his fellow-creatures 
 shall receive mercy from heaven, but he who has no mercy on his 
 fellow-creatures has no mercy to expect from above. 1 * Of the most 
 renowned master of the Law, the author of the Mishna, the Talmud 
 relates that a calf, which was being led to the slaughter-house, fled to 
 him and hid its head weeping in his mantle. " Go," said he, " to that 
 end wert thou created." Thereupon it was said above (in heaven) 
 that as he had not shown mercy, long-enduring pains should be his 
 portion. One day, however, that his maidservant was going to drown 
 some young weasels which she had swept up in the house, " Let them 
 go," said he, " for of God it is written, ' His mercy is over all His 
 works." Thereupon it was said above that as he had shown mercy, 
 mercy should be shown to him, and his pains ceased. 9 
 
 The Talmud inculcates the duty of employing one's means to good 
 purpose, for no man is justified in wasting his goods to no purpose, 
 at the same time it bids us be always ready to openhandedly further 
 all charitable and humane purposes. "Whosoever only burns an un- 
 necessary quantity of oil, it teaches, transgresses against the com- 
 mand given in Deut. xx. 20, " Destroy nothing," for the prohibition 
 to fell a fruit tree is to be extended to the destruction and aimless 
 expenditure of anything useful. 10 
 
 It also commands us to lay aside and hold in readiness for 
 charitable purposes a tenth of all yearly profits, a precept whose 
 conscientious observance has caused active charity to be so blessedly 
 practised in Jewish circles, that it has been deemed advisable to 
 restrict almsgiving to at most a fifth of the yearly profits, lest any 
 man should bring himself into a position to need assistance. 11 Our 
 sages are inexhaustible in instructions as to the duty of charity, 
 
 1 Sota, 5 b. "- Sabbath, 153 a. 3 Sabbath, ibid. 
 
 4 Aboth, iv. 21. 6 Sabbath, 133 b ; Sota, 14 a. G Talktit on Ps. ciii. 
 
 7 Beza, 32 b. s Sabbath, 151 b. 9 B. Mexia. 85 a. 
 
 10 Sabbath, 67 b. " Kethuboth, 67, 6.
 
 16 Tlie Talmud : Its Relation to Judaism, 
 
 entering most minutely into the details of its proper application, as 
 well in private life as on the part of the community at large, 1 and 
 warning most earnestly all who endeavour to evade the conscientious 
 fulfilment of this duty. 2 On the other hand, they admonish us to 
 suffer the most extreme privations rather than have to ask assistance. 
 But to carry this restraint so far as to endanger the health either of 
 pelf or family they pronounce sinful. But if a man not needing it 
 accept assistance, he will surely need it before he quits the world, 
 while he who is entitled to support and does not accept it, will not, in 
 his old age, leave the world without having been himself a benefactor 
 to the poor. 3 
 
 But higher than mere almsgiving the Talmud places the preven- 
 tion of poverty by gifts, loans and assistance in business, 4 and higher 
 than the charitable expenditure of money, the helping deed of love 
 that flies to help, tend, comfort, raise up, support, advise and lead 
 the poor, the sick and the suffering, and calls forth the like good 
 deeds in others. 5 
 
 Above all, we are to lay to heart the command to encounter the 
 poor and unfortunate with kindly and sympathising affection, to let 
 them feel that we pity but do not despise them, that we do not forget 
 in them the children of G-od (our brethren), that it really grieves us 
 to be unable to help them more effectually. lie who breaketh his 
 bread to the poor is blessed with the blessings contained in Isa. Iviii. 
 8, 9. But he who at the same time comforts them with words, or, as 
 it is there expressed, " draws out his soul to the hungry and satisfies 
 the afflicted soul," earns for himself the eleven blessings contained in 
 verses 10-12. 8 If thou give it to the poor with unkindly looks, thy 
 looks take back what thy hand gives. 7 
 
 We are bidden to bear ourselves considerately and lovingly 
 towards the unhappy strangers, widows and orphans, particularly 
 towards women ; we are reminded how sensitive they are to every 
 rude act and word, how easily they are hurt, and we are referred to 
 the Word of God : " If they cry at all unto Me, I will surely hear 
 their cry" (Ex. xxii. 23). Though all the gates of heaven be closed, 
 yet will a tear shed by a wounded spirit find entrance. 8 
 
 But we are warned again and again, not merely as to our inter- 
 course with the unfortunate, but against insulting, harming, defaming 
 or shaming any man. Mischief done by words is worse than damage 
 to property. The latter may be made good, the former not. Whoever 
 openly shames his neighbour, it is said among other things, or calls 
 him ill names, has to do sore penance for it in the life to come. 8 
 
 The sin which is painted in the blackest colours and threatened 
 with the heaviest responsibility before God is " evil speaking," which 
 embraces every word calculated to prejudice the well-being, peace or 
 honour of our neighbours, even though it may be founded on truth, 
 but much more if it be slander resting on falsehood. It also iucludes 
 the revealing of secrets and all gossip about our neighbours' affairs, 
 and we are warned not even to speak good of our neighbours in any 
 
 1 Kethuboth. - Ibid, 68a ; B. Bathra,9,10. * Peah (end). 
 
 4 Sabbath, G3 a. Suka, 49 b. 6 B. Bathra, 9 a. " Ib., b. 
 
 * Semag Jeb., 162. B. Mezia, 59 a, b ; Maimon. Deoth vi. 10.
 
 And the Attitude of the Jews towards Society. 17 
 
 company where there is reason to apprehend that some one else will 
 seize the occasion to speak evil of him. 1 Let the honour of thy neigh- 
 bour be as dear to thee as thine own. He who seeks his honour in 
 the abasement of another squanders his share of the future life. 2 
 
 The Talmud is never weary of enjoining the acquisition and 
 practice of such characteristics and sentiments as tend to make easy 
 to us the fulfilment of our social duties, nor, on the other hand, of 
 warning us against the acquirement of the opposite characters which 
 go to undermine and make difficult a social life of duty fulfilled. 
 Pride, anger, contentiousness, hastiness, dogmatism, imprudence, 
 perverseness, obstinacy, insoleacy, flattery, falsehood, suspicion, 
 ambition, greed, covetousneas, avarice, envy, implacability, rancour, 
 ingratitude, malice, sullenness, frivolity, hatred, unsociableness, &c., 
 are faults of character and vices, against which the Talmud lifts its 
 voice in most earnest warning. On the other hand, it as earnestly 
 commends modesty and humility, self-possession, patience and long- 
 suffering, placability, peaceableness, pliancy, propriety, kindliness, 
 affability, truthfulness and straightforwardness, gentleness and con- 
 tentedness, self-government, open-handedness, moderation, gratitude, 
 sympathy, cheerfulness, seriousness, reserve, love, truth, and loyalty, 
 tranquillity, and the like. 
 
 We will note down here a few precepts from the Talmudic moral 
 teaching, in order to exhibit its method of procedure. As idolatry, so 
 is haughtiness abhorred of God, and is like unto a denial of God. God 
 saith of the haughty man, " "We cannot both live in the world." Who 
 ever goes about with his neck erect in haughtiness thrusts the presence 
 of God from the earth back into heaven. When God wished to reveal 
 Himself, He passed by the high mountains and the tall trees, and 
 descended to the modest crest of Sinai and the lowly bush. Thus God 
 withdraws Himself from the haughty, and dwells amongst those who 
 are modest. 8 
 
 The man of wrath is governed by a power which ought to remain 
 a stranger in the human breast a power of which it is written : 
 " Thou shalt have no strange god within thee.' u Be not angry and 
 thou shalt not sin ; even as thou refrainest from drunkenness, lest 
 thou commit sin. 5 In anger a man is exposed to all the evils that 
 lead to " Gehinnom " (hell) ; he heeds not God himself, forgets what 
 he has learnt and becomes void of understanding." 5 Profit there is 
 none in wrath. The wrathful man has nothing but his wrath, 7 and 
 his living is no life. 8 God loves the man who gives not way to 
 wrath nor drunkenness nor stickles for his rights. 9 It is said of those 
 who suffer hurt and inflict none, who listen to abuse and speak none, 
 who do all for love of God and rejoice in what they have to bear, 
 " They who love Him are like the sun breaking in power out of the 
 clouds." 10 Be thou slow to anger but quick to be appeased. 11 
 
 The man who passes over the injury done to him, shall have the 
 wrong done by him passed over also. God will forgive the man who 
 
 1 Arachin, 15, 16. 2 Aboth, 2, 15 ; Maimon. vi. 3. 
 
 " Sota, 4 b, 5 a ; Berachoth, 43 a. 4 Sabb., 105 b. 5 Ber., 30. 
 
 6 Ned., 22 b. ' Kid., 41 a. * Pessach, 113 b. 
 
 9 lb. ' 10 Sabb., 88 b. Aboth, v. 14.
 
 18 The Talmud : Its Relation to Judaism, 
 
 forgives. 1 Pick first the burrs from thine own garment before thou 
 pickest them from thy neighbour's. Cleanse thyself before thou 
 goest to cleanse thy neighbour. 8 Beware when thou sayest to thy 
 neighbour: "Take the chip from thine eye," lest he say to thee : 
 "Take the beam from thine own." 5 Be thou yielding like the reed 
 and not stubborn like the cedar. The storm that breaks the cedar 
 spares the reed because it bends. 4 
 
 Strife is like unto a stream that breaks through a dyke ; if it be 
 not stayed at once, it is not to be stayed after. Hail to him who 
 answers not again ; he escapes a hundred ills. 5 "Wouldst thou know 
 how to recognise the moral nobility of a man? By his being the first 
 to keep silence in strife. 8 
 
 Esteem every man according to what is best in him. 7 Judge no 
 man until thou hast been in the same position. 8 Be not indifferent to 
 the judgment of thy fellow-men. As man desires to stand pure before 
 Q-od, so shall he justify his actions in the eyes of men, and not take 
 upon himself any false show. 9 
 
 Have thou no "evil eye" that grudges good to thy neighbour, but 
 have a " good eye " that can look kindly on the prosperity of thy 
 neighbour, and rejoice in his joy. 10 Envy, immoderate desire, and 
 ambition destroy a man. 11 Be not envious the name that belongs to 
 thee thou receivest, the place that fits thee thou boldest, and no man 
 may take what is meant for another. 12 Be content with the portion 
 allotted to thee the contented man is rich, 13 and not to every man is 
 it given to have a seat at two tables (the material and the spiritual, 
 the present and the future). 14 Desire not thou for thyself shoes too 
 large for thy foot." 15 
 
 Not in dejection and not in merriment art thou at thy best and 
 able to stand before the Lord but in cheerfulness, in the serenity 
 of mind won by faithful performance of duty. 18 Sighing breaketh 
 the half yea, the whole strength of man. 17 Jesting and frivolity pave 
 the way for sin. 18 He who is not conscious of guilt fears not. Fear 
 brings pain after it. Man should ever remember that all that God 
 does is for the best. 19 But it is ill to comfort the mourner by saying : 
 "What can man do against it?" 20 Do thy duty and torment not 
 thyself, for into God's secrets thou canst not penetrate." Seest thou 
 sorrow come upon thee, look to thy actions. If thou findest nothing 
 there seek again in the divine teaching exact knowledge of thy duty. 
 If thou there also findest no fault in thyself, thou mayest regard it 
 as sorrow laid by the fatherly educating hand of God on man to lead 
 him through trial and purification to ever greater perfection. 11 Let 
 man always do his best and not rely on a miracle. 25 Never shall he 
 give up hope, however; though he feel a sharp sword at his throat, yet 
 shall he not cease to pray to God. 24 
 
 The worst sin, according to the teaching of the Talmud, is what it 
 calls " desecration of the divine name." By this is meant a mode of 
 
 1 Ro8hHash.,17a. 
 'Sanhedrin, 7 a. 
 "Shekaliru, 6 a. 
 "Aboth iv. 1. 
 " Ber., 58 b. 
 " Ber., 60 a. 
 
 1 B. Bathra, 60 a. 
 Kidd., 71 h. 
 10 Aboth ii. 13, 14. 
 "Berachoth, f> 1.. 
 "Aboth iii. 17. 
 M Ib.,5a. 
 
 s Ib., 15 b. 
 
 ' Aboth i. 6. 
 11 Ib. iv. 28. 
 l\i.l(lushin,49a. 
 "Her.. 60 a. 
 M Ki(l(lushin,39b. 
 
 4 Taanith. 20 a. 
 Ib. ii. 5. 
 "Joraa, 38 b. 
 *'Beracboth,31a. 
 * B. Kama, 38 a. 
 !4 Ber., 5 a.
 
 And the Attitude of the Jews towards Society. 19 
 
 action which not only ignores the command of duty, but causes in 
 others a diminution of the reverence for God, which should be sacred 
 and exalted beyond everything and exhibited in a scrupulous fulfil- 
 ment of duty and thus the name of Q-od loses its power. 
 
 According to the teaching of the Talmud, each man has not only 
 to fulfil scrupulously the divine law himself, but the God-fearing 
 conscientiousness of his brethren is also one of his obligations. By 
 word and deed, whenever and wherever he can, he is bound to restrain 
 his fellow-men from sin and to excite them to the discharge of duty. 
 A heavy responsibility weighs upon him if he is able to prevent 
 wrongdoing and does not exert himself to do it. Heavier still if by 
 his example he has contributed to the neglect of duty to God by his 
 neighbours. 1 The Talmud teaches : " When it is said that thou shalt 
 love the Lord thy God, the obligation is implied on the part of win- 
 ning love for the name of God." 
 
 When a man learns the written and the Oral Law, improves him- 
 self by living intercourse with the wise, and is decent in his converse 
 with men, fair in all his dealing and upright in hia walk through life 
 what do men say of him ? Blessed be he who studies the Law, 
 blessed be the father and teacher that taught him the Law. Woe to 
 them who make not the Law their study ! See ye not him who has 
 learnt the Law, how fair are his paths, how upright are his dealings ? 
 Of him the Word says (Is. xlix. 3), " Thou art My servant, O Israel, 
 in whom I will be glorified." 
 
 But when a man learns the written and Oral Law, but his conver- 
 sation with men is not decent, his dealings not fair, nor his walk 
 through life upright, what do men say of him ? Woe be to him who 
 learns the Law, and to the father and teacher who teach it him, but 
 blessed are they who learn not the Law ! This man who hath learnt 
 the Law, how hateful are his dealings and how perverse his paths \ 
 Of him the Scripture saith : " These are the people of the Lord, and 
 are gone forth out of His hand " (Ezek. xxxvi. 20). 2 
 
 But the conception of this sin is relative. The higher a man 
 stands in the estimation of his fellow-men, the more his actions are 
 taken as models by other men, so much the more strict is the require- 
 ment of moral purity in his conduct, so much the more easily can he 
 fall into this the greatest of sins, so much the more scrupulously 
 must he avoid even the appearance of wrong and deny himself many 
 things which are permitted in others. Thus more is required of the 
 Jewish nation, which has been chosen to carry through the world the 
 doctrine of God and of man's duty to God, than of the rest of man- 
 kind. Of the priests more is required than of the people, of the 
 teachers, and all in whom familiarity with the Law, and thereby 
 knowledge of what is right and wrong in God's sight is presupposed, 
 more is required than of the rest of the people.'' The standing 
 formula used in passing judgment is, " With an esteemed and con- 
 siderable man the case is rather different." 1 
 
 Again and again is the Jewish nation admonished and reminded of 
 its peculiar obligation in intercourse with the Gentiles, the obligation, 
 
 1 Sabbath, 55 a. 2 Joma, 86 a (after En. Jacnh). :; Joma, 66 a. 
 4 B. Mezia, 33 a ; Sabbath, 51 a, 142 b ; Moed Katan, lib, &c.
 
 20 The Talmud : Its Relation to Judaism, 
 
 namely, of practising with even more scrupulousness than ordinary 
 the strictest uprightness towards all non- Jews. A wrong done to a 
 Jewish compatriot is the transgression of a simple ordinance ; but the 
 same wrong committed against a non-Jew is at the same time the 
 supreme sin of " desecration of the divine name," whose sanctification 
 is the peculiar mission of Israel and the co-ordinate object of its dis- 
 persion among the nations. 1 
 
 THE FAMILY. 
 
 If there is any subject on which a pitiful prejudice prevails, that 
 subject is the position of woman in Jewish antiquity. The low 
 opinion resulting from observation of the position of woman among 
 the other peoples of the East has been extended without further ado 
 to that of the women of Jewish antiquity, and no weight has been 
 allowed to the fact that Jewish conceptions and morals were formed 
 under a very different influence under the influence, namely, of a 
 doctrine and a law of which no trace was to be found among the other 
 nations. There is, in fact, no national document in which more 
 justice is done to the worth of woman and the importance of her 
 influence than is done in the writings of the Talrnudic age. Here are 
 a few passages to the point. 
 
 The female sex has been endowed by God with greater mental 
 powers and therefore comes to intellectual maturity earlier than the 
 other sex. 2 In national calamities, such as the Egyptian bondage, it 
 was always the women who retained their courage and presence of 
 mind, who comforted and sustained the men, and by their merits 
 brought about the final deliverance. 8 And in the greatest of our 
 national transgressions as the golden calf and the spies (Ex. xxxii. 
 and Num. xiv.) it was the women who would not be drawn into the 
 iniquities of the men, who, as the phrase runs, upheld what the men 
 were casting down. 4 God has, therefore, promised greater things to 
 the women than to the men and this on account of their educational 
 influence on their children's and husband's intellectual and moral 
 development. 5 The wife is the house. 6 He is a rich man who has a 
 virtuous wife. 7 Who wants a wife wants all ; 8 he has neither joy 
 nor blessing, nothing that is good, no knowledge, no comfort, and no 
 peace. 8 The wifeless man is incomplete. 10 To him who loses his 
 wife the world grows dark, his stride grows shorter, he misses the 
 friend from whose approbation and applause he drew confidence in 
 his undertakings, and his projects become feeble : he misses the 
 counsellor who strengthened him with her intelligence. 11 No one 
 feels the husband's death as the wife, or the wife's death as the 
 husband does. 1 * 
 
 The treatment and position assigned to woman in the Talmudic 
 teaching agrees with these conceptions. Of the man who loves his 
 wife as himself and honours her more, who trains up sons and 
 daughters iu the right way and marries them young, the Scripture 
 says (Job v. 24) " Thou shalt know that peace is thy tabernacle." ' 
 
 1 Semag., pt. i. 2, 152 ; ii. 74. Nida, 46 b. 8 Sota, 1 1 b. 
 
 4 Rabbuth on Num. xxvii. 1. 'Ber., 17 a. 'Jim*, 2 a. 
 
 T Sabb., 25 b. " Nedarim, 41 a. Jebamoth, 62 b. 
 
 10 Ib., 63 a. "Sanhedrin, 1>-' u. Ib., 22 b. "Jebamoth, 62 b.
 
 And the Attitude of the Jews towards Society. 21 
 
 Let every man guard the honour of his wife, for only through the 
 wife dwells blessing in the house. Honour your wives and ye shall 
 flourish. If thy wife be little, bend down to her and hear what she 
 says. Be not rough with thy wife, but if thou art forced to oppose 
 her, hold out thy right hand in kindness even while the left repels 
 her. Beware of hurting thy wife, for her tears are easily wakened 
 and are near to her wounding. 1 Let not the man be a dreaded tyrant in 
 the house ; he who makes himself feared over much may easily cause 
 great misdoing. What thou hast to say to those of thy household, say 
 to them quietly.' 2 As the Talmud instructs the husband how to treat 
 his wife, it also defines the duties of the wife to the husband. 3 Love r 
 unity, peace and friendship should, according to the nuptial bene- 
 diction prescribed in the Talmud, prevail between man and wife. 4 If 
 man and wife are what they ought to be, in the way that they ought 
 to be, God dwells with them. 5 
 
 The Talmudic marriage-law displays the deepest wisdom, the 
 clearest insight into human nature in general, into the peculiarities of 
 the sexes, and into the manifold relationships of married and family 
 life, as also the most circumspect and foresightful consideration of all 
 that goes to make domestic life happy or the reverse. All these 
 qualities appear in the rabbinical statute law. This marriage law also 
 displays the tenderest considerations for wives and daughters. As 
 examples we will quote just two provisions. The first declares that 
 the woman rises with her husband, but does not descend to him. 6 That 
 is, whenever the legal claims of the wife as to style of maintenance 
 and her duties have to be decided on, the customs and habits of her 
 family if they have not been renounced beforehand furnish the 
 standard if her family stand higher in the social scale than her hus- 
 band's, otherwise the habits and customs of his family are the standard. 
 And further, for instance, when a father dies leaving behind him a 
 fortune too small to provide for both sons and daughters, it goes to 
 the daughters, while an appeal to benevolence is made on behalf of 
 the sons. 7 In all questions of maintenance from charitable funds the 
 female sex always has the advantage over the male, on the principle 
 that the female sex requires more protection against the shame of 
 being brought down in the world ; 8 and the dowering of unprovided 
 maidens is one of the most approved modes of manifestation of Jewish 
 charity. 9 
 
 The command " Honour thy father and thy mother," receives in 
 the Talmudic teaching the most thorough explanation and a very 
 extensive application. We can only quote a few sentences here. This 
 command is in no wise based on gratitude, nor does the duty of the 
 children depend on the measure of what the parents have done for 
 them, or cease to be binding if the parents for want of means have 
 done little or nothing for them, or if the children are so happy as to 
 be the benefactors of their parents. The foundation of filial reve- 
 rence is not the duty of gratitude, but the command of God, who 
 demands on behalf of parents a reverence approaching that which is 
 due to Himself, and who counts the honour shown to parents for 
 
 1 B. Mezia, 59 a. 2 Gittin, 6 b, 7 a. 3 Kidd., 31 a. 
 
 4 Kethuboth, 67 a, b. * Sota, 17 a. 6 Kethuboth, 61 a, &c. 
 
 7 Ib., 103 b. Ib., 67 a, b. Jore Dea, 249, 15.
 
 22 The Talmud : Its Relation to Judaism, 
 
 worship addressed to Himself. 1 In the fulfilment of this duty the 
 most implicit obedience is required, an obedience which is bounded 
 only by that which is due to God, in case parents should command 
 their children to do something contrary to His commands. 1 And with 
 this must go the most respectful bearing, that never contradicts nor 
 even confirms unless called upon to do so, nor in general interrupts 
 when the parents speak ; that never allows itself an irreverent word 
 of or to the parents ; that is subject to self-control even when the 
 parents inflict on the child the greatest wrong, injury or undeserved 
 public shame, &c. One or the Talmudic sages instanced in the school 
 as an example his own conduct to his mother, to whom he always lent 
 his back as a footstool by which to step into and out of bed. And 
 his colleagues answered : " Did she not once cast a purse of money 
 into the water in thy presence, and didst thou not respectfully keep 
 silence? " s 
 
 And this obligation of obedience, reverence and respect is not con- 
 fined to childhood or youth ; it remains binding on the man even into 
 old age, and the death of his parents does not abolish it. 1 
 
 On the other hand parents are admonished not to make the per- 
 formance of this duty difficult to their children, and particularly not 
 to provoke their grown-up children to sin. As a corollary to the duty 
 to parents, respectful behaviour is required towards elder brethren, 
 step-parents and parents-in-law. 5 
 
 On the father is incumbent the obligation of procuring for his 
 children by instruction and training the knowledge, capacities and 
 abilities necessary for their religious and social life, and to the best of 
 his ability to help them to the founding of independent houses of 
 their own. 9 With earnest warning words parents are admonished to 
 make no distinction between their children, to give none any pre- 
 ference over the others ; and are reminded of the important con- 
 sequences which resulted from the slight silken border on the coat by 
 which Joseph's father distinguished him from his brothers. 7 And 
 never may parents be rough with their children, but shall always 
 hold out the right hand in kindness even when obliged to repel them 
 with the left. 8 
 
 THE COMMUNITY. 
 
 The individual is feeble and mortal. The community alone here 
 below, as the Talmud puts it, is immortal and strong. 8 Therefore the 
 highest spiritual and moral goods are given not to the individual but 
 to the community to possess and defend, and every man is in duty 
 bound to connect himself with the community of his place of abode, 
 and to asnist in the fulfilment of its obligations and the performance 
 of its tasks to the best of his ability both with purse and person. 10 
 The foundation and maintenance of all kinds of institutions for 
 the promotion of religion, education and charity, is one of the first 
 obligations of every Jewish community, 11 and a careful, unselfish, con- 
 
 1 Ki<Mu>hin, 30 b. " B. Mezia, 32 a. 
 
 Ki.ldu-hin, 31 b. Kiddushin, 31 b. * Kethuboth, 103 a. 
 
 KidduHh., 29, 30 ; Jebamoth, 02 b ; Kethuboth, 50 a. 7 Sabbath, 10 b. 
 
 Sanlu-.lri.i, 107 b. 'Theinura, 15 ; Jalkot Amos, 9 ; Sebachitu, 88 b. 
 1 Aboth, 2, 5 ; B. Bathra, 7-11. " Thosifta B. Bathra, 21 a and 8 b.
 
 And the Attitude of the Jews towards Society. 23 
 
 ecientious and active participation in the affairs of the community 
 counts among the most imperative of Jewish duties. All who occupy 
 themselves with public affairs must work in pureness and unselfish- 
 ness for the carrying out of God's will, and the merits of their fore- 
 fathers will help them, and their own right influence will last for ever. 1 
 The game spirit, however, which unites the Jews of any locality 
 into a religious community in which their united forces are made to 
 subserve the aims of the Law, worship and charity, 2 leads also, in the 
 larger communities, to the formation of smaller free associations 
 (Chebroth), which carry out and complete the works of religion and 
 humanity required by the larger body. This tendency to unite for 
 religious and humanitarian purposes is in Talmudic Judaism very 
 ancient, and has always been most assiduously cultivated. 3 Thus 
 there were, and there are still, " Talmud Torah Unions " for the 
 religious instruction of the children of the poor or for the common 
 study of the Torah Law, " Zedaka Unions," and " G-emiluth Chassadim 
 Unions " for the various exigencies of charity, visitation of the sick, 
 burial of the dead, &c. In the larger communities the various 
 trades and professions frequently had in the old times their own 
 societies for worship, study, and mutual assistance societies which, 
 after the day's work was over, offered to the working man, instead 
 of the degrading attractions of the tavern, opportunities for worship 
 and moral and religious instruction. These societies, founded for 
 essentially religious and humanitarian purposes, by their self-sacri- 
 ficing liberality saved the Jewish nation in the most dismal ages from 
 the rise of a proletariat, and kept awake in the very lowest strata of 
 society some interest in things intellectual and moral. 
 
 CONCLUSION. 
 
 We believe that we may confine ourselves to the extracts here 
 given. They might easily be multiplied tenfold, but we think that 
 to every unprejudiced reader they will suffice for the formation of a 
 correct and impartial judgment as to the spirit and tendency of the 
 Talmudic teaching. We believe that we are not mistaken in saying 
 that any state or community might esteem itself fortunate if all its 
 members allowed their individual, domestic and civic life and their 
 relationship to their sovereign and superiors to be penetrated, shaped 
 and guided by principles agreeing in spirit with this Talmudic teach- 
 ing, and that their devotion to the doctrine and principles of the 
 Talmud is by no means the least valuable jewel brought by the sons 
 of Judah into every community which opens its gates to admit them. 
 The public weal, in its widest sense, can only benefit by the Jewish 
 members of any community continuing to allow their religious con- 
 victions, as well as their private and political life, to be sustained and 
 shaped by the spirit of Talmudic tradition. And it really indicates 
 no forward progress that in so many Jewish circles of the present day 
 the bond of attachment to the Judaism handed down by the Talmud 
 seems broken, and that familiarity with the Talmud and its doctrines 
 
 'Aboth, 2, 2. 2 Ibid., 1. 
 
 3 Moed Katan, 27 b ; Sucka, 51 b ; Berachoth, 63 b ; Chagiga, 9 b.
 
 24 The Talrmid : Its Relation to Judaism. 
 
 no longer occupies the position due to it, either in educational plans 
 for the instruction of youth or in the spiritual life of the old. 
 
 True it is that the Jewish nation has not in all its members realised 
 the ideal of moral perfection ; nor have the adherents of any creed 
 done so. True it is that there are also unconscionable and dishonest 
 Jews, but their want of conscience and honesty is not a consequence 
 of their Talmudic Jewish creed, but is in direct contradiction to it ; and 
 anyone who should from the want of conscience and dishonesty of indi- 
 vidual Jews conclude to the character of Jewish religious dogma would 
 go just as far astray as he who should venture to set down to the 
 account of Christian dogma all the horrible and ghastly crimes 
 against life, morality, and property committed by men born in 
 Christendom and reported nearly on every page of the most recent 
 history of times to the account of the Christian dogma. 
 
 Eminent Christian scholars who belonged to the few who really 
 understood the Talmud, have, therefore, both in old and in recent 
 times always replied to such calumniators by demonstrating that 
 their indictment sprang from conscious misrepresentation or from 
 pitiable ignorance, an ignorance on which must remain the disgrace 
 of condemning without sufficient knowledge a work the condemnation 
 of which condemns at the same time the life and well-being of 
 hundreds of thousands of their fellow men. In the older times we 
 name Reuchlin, who, in the beginning of the sixteenth century, by 
 the warm advocacy of conviction, saved the Talmud from the annihi- 
 lation with which it was threatened by the machinations of the 
 apostate Pfeffercorn, who, as Melancthon expressed it, was specu- 
 lating in the ransom money of the Jews. In recent times we may 
 name Dr. Franz Delitzch, who demonstrated the absolute futility of 
 the accusations of that enemy of the Talmud, Rohling, and also a 
 criticism of the Talmud left behind him in Prague and published in 
 Vienna by Carl Fisher, for many years censor, reviser and translator 
 in Hebraics, in which the author supplements his own judgment as to 
 the high utility and importance of the Talmud with extracts from the 
 writings of a long series of eminent Christian scholars, whose judg- 
 ments agree with his own. As being particularly remarkable, we 
 would instance his demonstration that the Talmudic Scriptures were 
 once in such high esteem in the Catholic Church that Pope 
 Clement V. commanded them to be read to Christians. 
 
 Perchance we, also, by these quotations from the Talmudic Scrip- 
 tures, may contribute to the overthrow of the still prevailing prejudice 
 against the Talmud and the adherence of the Judaism based on 
 Talmudic tradition, and to prepare the way for a jueter estimation of 
 the Talmud and of its upholders. 
 
 THE END. 
 
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