THE LIBRARY 
 
 OF 
 
 THE 
 
 OF 
 
 UNIVERSITY 
 CALIFORNIA 
 
 Education 
 
 GIFT OF 
 
 F. C, Scharpf 
 

 <M 
 
 '^."WvV.1 
 
 |^B 
 
 K 
 


THE 
 
 YOUNG CHEMIST: 
 
 A BOOK OF 
 
 LABORATORY WORK, 
 
 FOR BEGINNERS. 
 
 BY 
 
 JOHN H. APPLETON, A.M., 
 
 Professor of Chemistry in Brown University. 
 
 SECOND EDITION. 
 
 PHILADELPHIA 
 
 COWPERTHWAIT & CO 
 1880. 
 
(By the same Author. 
 
 COWPERTHWAIT & CO 
 
 ALSO PUBLISH 
 
 AppLETON's QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS. 
 
 Sent by Mail on receipt of go Cents. 
 
 Copyright, 
 JOHN H. APPLETON. 
 
 1878. 
 
 Education 
 
 GIFT 
 
 WBStcotT & THOMSON, K - STANLEY HART 
 
 SUreotyfitrs and Electrotype, Philad* er ' PMada ' 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 in the 
 
 THE purpose of this little book is to aid i 
 instruction of pupils in chemistry. The method em- 
 ployed is the experimental or object method. 
 
 Every experienced teacher has remarked the won- 
 derful ease and pleasure with which beginners in chem- 
 istry when they are allowed to perform experiments 
 grasp the facts and principles of the science. It has 
 also been recognized that the only objections to the 
 experimental method arise from the greater expenditure 
 of the teacher's time, and from the cost of supplies. 
 
 It is hoped that this little book removes one of 
 these objections; and, fortunately, chemical apparatus 
 and supplies can now be had at very low prices. 
 
 The following are some of the characteristic advan- 
 tages of the book 
 
 First. The apparatus described, and the supplies called 
 for, are of the very simplest character. 
 
 Second. The experiments are described in clear and 
 simple language, and in direct form; the pupil can 
 hardly fail to perform them successfully, even without 
 special aid from the teacher. 
 
 855 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 Third. Dangerous experiments have been excluded. 
 (But, of course, care must always be exercised in 
 experimenting.) 
 
 ^ 
 
 Fourth. The chemical elements are discussed in a 
 
 scientific order which, while it aids the memory, does 
 so upon correct principles. 
 
 Fifth. Formulas and reactions are introduced freely, 
 so that the student learns the new nomenclature and 
 new notation without suspecting it. (But a systematic 
 discussion of these subjects has been offered for pur- 
 poses of reference, or for such other use as the teacher 
 may judge best to make of it.) 
 
 It may also be added that this book is not an 
 experiment. The first edition of it has been used with 
 great success by many professors and teachers of wise 
 judgment and large experience. 
 
 The author hopes that in its improved form it may 
 be found to possess additional usefulness. 
 
 BROWN UNIVERSITY, October, 1878. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGH 
 
 HINTS TO TEACHERS 7 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Nomenclature and Notation of Chemistry II 
 
 First Section. Elements and Compounds II 
 
 Second Section. Names and Symbols 14 
 
 Third Section. Systematic Names of Compounds 17 
 
 CHAPTER I. THE NON-METALLIC MONADS 25 
 
 Hydrogen 26 
 
 Fluorine 29 
 
 Chlorine ~ 30 
 
 Chlorohydric acid 32 
 
 Bromine 33 
 
 Iodine 34 
 
 CHAPTER II. THE NON-METALLIC DYADS 37 
 
 Oxygen 38 
 
 Sulphur 42 
 
 Sulphuric acid 43 
 
 Sulphuretted-hydrogen 45 
 
 Selenium and Tellurium 45 
 
 CHAPTER III. THE NON-METALLIC TRIADS 46 
 
 Boron 47 
 
 Boracic acid 47 
 
 Nitrogen 48 
 
 Compounds of Nitrogen and Hydrogen 48 
 
 Ammonia-gas 49 
 
 Compounds of Nitrogen and Oxygen 50 
 
 Nitrogen di-oxide 51 
 
 Nitrogen pentoxide 51 
 
 Nitric acid 51 
 
 Phosphorus 54 
 
 Arsenic 55 
 
 Antimony 57 
 
 1* h 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 CHAPTER IV. THE NON-METALLIC TETRADS 59 
 
 Carbon 60 
 
 Compounds of Carbon and Hydrogen 61 
 
 Ethylene f 62 
 
 Compounds of Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen 62 
 
 Compounds of Carbon and Oxygen 62 
 
 Carbon mon-oxide 62 
 
 Carbon di-oxide 63 
 
 Silicon 64 
 
 Titanium 65 
 
 Tin 66 
 
 CHAPTER V. THE METALLIC MONADS.... 67 
 
 Silver 68 
 
 Potassium 69 
 
 Sodium 71 
 
 Lithium 71 
 
 CHAPTER VI. THE METALLIC DYADS 72 
 
 First Section.. 
 
 Lead 73 
 
 Barium 75 
 
 Strontium 76 
 
 Calcium 77 
 
 Second Section. 
 
 Mercury..... 80 
 
 Copper 82 
 
 Magnesium 84 
 
 Zinc 86 
 
 Third Section. 
 
 Cobalt 89 
 
 Nickel 90 
 
 Iron 91 
 
 Manganese 93 
 
 Chromium 94 
 
 (Aluminum) 96 
 
 CHAPTER VII. THE METALLIC TRIADS 98 
 
 Bismuth 99 
 
 Gold... 100 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. THE METALLIC TETRAD 101 
 
 Platinum 101 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 List of Chemical Supplies Needed 103 
 
 List of Apparatus Needed 106 
 
HINTS TO TEACHERS. 
 
 I. PERFORM slowly several experiments before the class. 
 Let the pupils perform the same experiments (and no others), 
 each at his own desk. After this let the pupils learn carefully 
 the entire description of the experiments so performed. 
 
 It is highly desirable to have the pupils learn the outline 
 of a given chapter, and recite it day after day, until the work 
 of that chapter is finished. They thus discover the logical 
 relation which binds the separate experiments into one 
 whole ; they also discover the scientific plan of the work. 
 
 II. Use extreme caution in experimenting. Be careful not 
 to vary the conditions of an experiment, as stated in the 
 book. Be careful how you attempt experiments other than 
 those described in this book. 
 
 Do not allow pupils to approach too near to an experiment 
 in progress. 
 
 III. Use very small quantities of the substances prescribed. 
 
 IV. In preparing a gas, 
 the most convenient appa- 
 ratus is a side-neck flask 
 or a side-neck test-tube. 
 
 The cuts need no expla- 
 nation. 
 
 FIG. i. Evolving a gas by use of a 
 side-neck flask. 
 
 FIG. 2. Evolving a gas by use of a side-neck 
 test-tube. 
 
 r 
 
THE YOUNG CHEMIST. 
 
 V. To collect a gas in a small bell-glass, use a lead-post. 
 This is made by cutting a strip of lead into the form shown at 
 the left, in Fig. 3, and folding it into the other form shown in 
 the same figure. 
 
 FIG. 3. The lead-post before bending into shape, and after bending. 
 
 The use of a rubber ring in attaching a test-tube to the lead- 
 post is apparent upon inspection of Fig. 4. 
 
 FIG. 4. Illustrating the preparation of gas by use of the lead-post, the side-neck test- 
 tube, and the wire triangle. 
 
 VI. If more than one experiment is to be performed with a 
 given gas, several portions of gas may be collected in several 
 small bottles; the gas may be retained a short time in the 
 
HINTS TO TEACHERS. 
 
 bottles by covering the latter, when filled, with wet pieces 
 of filter-paper. 
 
 VII. Instead of being placed alongside of a beaker or casse- 
 role, the lead -post may be placed inside of a water-pan of 
 granite-ironware, or other suitable ware. 
 
 VIII. As a support for apparatus, a wire triangle arranged 
 on screw-eyes as in Fig. 4 is very useful and very cheap. 
 The teacher's own ingenuity will suggest a variety of modifi- 
 cations of this triangle, so as to suit a variety of purposes. 
 
 IX. As a support or prop for lamps, etc., wooden blocks, 
 from three to four inches square and from one-half to one 
 inch thick, are extremely serviceable. In Fig. i both thick- 
 nesses are represented. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 THE NOMENCLATURE AND NOTATION 
 OF CHEMISTRY. 
 
 OUTLINE OF THIS CHAPTER. 
 
 FIRST SECTION. Elements and Compounds. 
 
 An Element. A Compound. A mechanical mixture. List of 
 Elements with their atomic weights. 
 
 SECOND SECTION. Nantes and Symbols. 
 
 Names of Elements. Literal, graphic, and glyptic symbols of 
 Elements. 
 
 Names of Compounds. Literal, graphic, and glyptic symbols of 
 Compounds. 
 
 THIRD SECTION. Systematic Names of Compounds. 
 
 ist. Names of Binaries. Compound Radicles. Anhydrides. 
 Haloid acids. Haloid salts. 
 
 2d. Names of Ternaries. Acids. Salts (normal, acid, and basic). 
 Graphic symbols of ternary acids and salts. 
 
 FIRST SECTION. 
 ELEMENTS AND COMPOUNDS. 
 
 1. An element or elementary substance is a form or 
 kind of matter that cannot, by any known means, be 
 decomposed or subdivided into parts differing from itself. 
 
 11 
 
12 THE YOUNG CHEMIST. 
 
 For example, Sulphur cannot be decomposed, by any known means, 
 into parts differing from Sulphur. 
 
 Also, pure Iron cannot be decomposed, by any known means, into parts 
 differing from Iron. 
 
 Sulphur is an element ; Iron is an element. 
 
 2. A compound is formed by the chemical union of 
 elements. A compound may be broken up or decom- 
 posed, by chemical means, into the elements of which it is 
 composed. But a compound cannot be decomposed, by 
 mere mechanical subdivision, into its elements. 
 
 For example, Sulphur (S) and Iron (Fe) may form a chemical union. 
 The product is a chemical compound, called Ferrous sulphide, and indi- 
 cated by the symbol, FeS. This compound may be decomposed chemi- 
 cally into Iron and Sulphur ; but by no mere mechanical means can we 
 take away the one element from the other, when they are combined 
 chemically into a compound. Moreover, the compound, formed by Iron 
 and Sulphur, is very different in most of its properties from Iron and 
 from Sulphur. 
 
 3. A mechanical mixture is formed when two sub- 
 stances are merely intermingled, without chemical union. 
 
 For example, filings of Iron and powdered Sulphur may be inter- 
 mingled to form a mechanical mixture. But, by means of a sieve of 
 proper fineness, the Sulphur may be entirely sifted out from the Iron 
 filings. 
 
 4. No complete list of mechanical mixtures can be 
 given. The number of such possible mixtures appears 
 to be infinite. 
 
 5. No complete list of chemical compounds can be 
 given. We do not know that there is any limit to the 
 number of them. A list of the known chemical com- 
 pounds would be very large. 
 
 6. The chemical elements are far less numerous. The 
 total number is about sixty-four. The great mass of our 
 planet is made up of only thirteen of the elements, united 
 
INTR OD UCTION. 
 
 in various compounds, 
 lively small quantities. 
 
 The other elements exist in rela- 
 
 TABLE OF THE SIXTY- FOUR ELEMENTS, WITH THEIR 
 ATOMIC WEIGHTS. 
 
 Name. Symt 
 
 , Atomic 
 L Weight. 
 
 Name. Symbol. 
 
 Atomic 
 Weight. 
 
 Aluminum Al 
 
 27.3 
 122. 
 74.9 
 i 136.8 
 210. 
 > 11. 
 79.75 
 111.6 
 133. 
 39.9 
 11.97 
 141.2 
 35.37 
 52.4 
 58.6 
 i 63. 
 147. 
 169. 
 19.1 
 i 69.8 
 9. 
 i 196.2 
 1. 
 113.4 
 126.53 
 196.7 
 ; 55.9 
 \ 139. 
 5 206.4 
 7.01 
 g 23.94 
 n 54.8 
 
 
 Hg 
 Mo 
 Ni 
 Nb 
 N 
 Os 
 O 
 Pd 
 P 
 Pt 
 K 
 Rh 
 Rb 
 Ru 
 Se 
 Si 
 Ag 
 Na 
 Sr 
 S 
 Ta 
 Te 
 Tl 
 Th 
 Sn 
 Ti 
 W 
 Ur 
 Va 
 Yt 
 Zn 
 Zr 
 
 199.8 
 
 95.6 
 58.6 
 94. 
 14.01 
 198.6 
 15.96 
 106.2 
 30.96 
 196.7 
 39.04 
 104.1 
 85.2 
 103.5 
 78. 
 28. 
 107.66 
 22.99 
 87.2 
 31.98 
 182.0 
 128. 
 203.6 
 231.5 
 117.8 
 48. 
 184. 
 240. 
 51.2 
 93. 
 64.9 
 90. 
 
 \ntimony 1 Sb 
 
 Molybdenum 
 Nickel 
 
 
 
 
 
 Nitrogen...' 
 Osmium 
 
 Boron . Be 
 
 Bromine . Br 
 
 Oxygen 
 
 
 Palladium 
 
 Caesium Cs 
 
 Phosphorus 
 
 Calcium Ca 
 
 
 Carbon 1 C 
 
 Potassium 
 
 
 Rhodium 
 
 Chlorine Cl 
 
 Rubidium 
 
 Chromium Cr 
 
 Ruthenium 
 
 Cobalt ... Co 
 
 Selenium 
 
 Copper Cu 
 
 Silicon . 
 
 Didvmium D 
 
 Silver 
 
 Erbium E 
 
 Sodium 
 
 Fluorine Fl 
 
 Strontium 
 
 Gallium Gi 
 
 
 Glucinum Gl 
 
 
 Gold Ai 
 
 
 Hvcirocren I-J 
 
 Thallium 
 
 Indium . ... In 
 
 Thorium 
 
 Tin 
 
 Iodine I 
 
 Indium Ir 
 
 Titanium 
 Tungsten ... 
 
 Iron Ft 
 
 Lanthanum LJ 
 
 Uranium 
 
 Lead PI 
 
 
 Lithium ,.. ... L] 
 
 Yttrium 
 
 Magnesium ... . M 
 
 Zinc 
 
 M anganese i NI 
 
 i Zirconium 
 
 
14 THE YOUNG CHEMIST. 
 
 SECOND SECTION. 
 NOMENCLATURE AND NOTATION. 
 
 7. A CHEMICAL substance may be designated by a name, 
 or it may be represented more in brief by a symbol. 
 
 The same substance may properly have more than one 
 name, and it may be correctly represented by more than 
 one symbol. 
 
 8. A system of chemical nomenclature and notation 
 aims to employ names and symbols which shall represent 
 the true qualitative and quantitative composition of 
 substances. 
 
 Names of Elements. 
 
 9. No special system is necessary in the case of ele- 
 ments, but it is customary, (a) to allow the names of 
 elements long known, to remain unchanged e.g., Gold; 
 (b) to derive the names of new elements from some well- 
 marked property of them e.g., Chlorine, a greenish gas, 
 derives its name from chloros, green ; (c] the names of 
 newly discovered metals are made to terminate in um 
 e.g., Thallium. 
 
 Symbols of Elements. 
 
 10. Literal symbols are those which employ letters. 
 An atom of an elementary substance is usually indicated 
 by the initial (sometimes with the addition of another 
 letter) of its native or of its Latin name, thus: 
 
 C indicates one atom of Carbon; 
 Ca " " Calcium ; 
 
 Cd " " Cadmium ; ', 
 
INTRODUCTION. 15 
 
 Ce indicates one atom of Cerium; 
 
 Cl " " Chlorine; 
 
 Co " " Cobalt; 
 
 Cr " " Chromium; 
 
 Cs " " Csesium; 
 
 Cu " " Copper (cuprum). 
 
 11. Graphic symbols are those which employ dia- 
 grams. Thus, Professor Kekule recommends the follow- 
 ing symbols 
 
 (ED (EH) ( Q 
 
 to represent monad, dyad, triad, and tetrad atoms or 
 radicles respectively. 
 
 The same symbols may be conveniently simplified to 
 the following forms : 
 
 12. Glyptic symbols are those which employ models, 
 as spheres, cubes, etc. Sometimes models having differ- 
 ent colors are used, so as to suggest the properties of the 
 substances represented. 
 
 Names of Compounds. 
 
 13. Most chemical compounds have more than one 
 name. Sometimes the same compound has three or four 
 different names. 
 
 There may be 
 
 (a) A name strictly descriptive of the components ; thus, 
 the compound of Hydrogen and Chlorine (HC1) is called 
 Hydric chloride ; 
 
 (&) A name suggestive of some property of the sub- 
 stance ; thus the compound above mentioned (HC1) is 
 called Chlorohydric acid ; 
 
1 6 THE YOUNG CHEMIST. 
 
 (c) A commercial name ; thus, HC1 is called, in com- 
 merce, Muriatic acid ; 
 
 (d) A mineralogical name; thus, the compound of 
 Lead and Sulphur (PbS), is called, properly, Plumbic sul- 
 phide ; but the mineral substance, found crystallized in 
 nature, and having the composition PbS, is called Galena ; 
 
 (e) A more or less arbitrary name. This is exemplified 
 in the case of many organic compound radicles ; thus, the 
 compound having the constitution represented by the 
 symbol H 4 C is usually called Marsh-gas. 
 
 Symbols of Compounds. 
 
 14:. Literal Symbols. The literal symbol of acorn- 
 pound is formed by grouping together the literal symbols 
 of the elements composing it. It is customary to place 
 the symbol of the most electro-positive substance first, 
 and in general to arrange the symbols so as to follow the 
 order of the parts of the name of the compound. But, 
 where no special effort is made to indicate the arrange- 
 ment of atoms in the molecule, the formula is said to be 
 empirical ; thus, HNO 3 is an empirical formula for Nitric 
 acid. Where such attempt is made, the formula is called 
 rational ; thus the rational formula of Nitric acid is 
 H O (N=O 2 ). 
 
 15. Graphic Symbols. Of course, all graphic for- 
 mulas are rational formulas ; they are also general for- 
 mulas. 
 
 As examples of the Kekule system, Nitric acid, HNO 3 , 
 is represented thus : 
 
 6 i t i~t) 
 
 
 
 It may also be represented thus : r-n ri 
 
INTR OD UCTION. I / 
 
 Water, H 2 O, thus, ; Mercuric chloride, HgCl 2 , 
 thus, > ; Mercurous chloride, Hg 2 Cl 2 , thus, 
 
 16. Glyptic Symbols. These are models, made by 
 joining together the glyptic symbols of elements. 
 
 THIRD SECTION. 
 
 STRICTLY SYSTEMATIC NAMES OF 
 COMPOUNDS. 
 
 1st. Binaries. 
 
 17. Definition. A binary is a compound which has 
 but two kinds of atoms. 
 
 Thus, HC1, Hydric chloride, is a binary; 
 SO 3 , Sulphuric oxide, is a binary. 
 
 18. Compound Radicles. Sometimes the term binary 
 is extended to apply to a union of two compounds, 
 called compound radicles, which play the parts of two 
 elements. 
 
 Thus (NH 4 ), a compound radicle called Ammonium, 
 and (CN), a compound radicle called Cyanogen, may unite 
 to form the compound (NH 4 )(CN), called Ammonic cya- 
 nide, which may be considered a binary. 
 
 19. Names. In case of binaries, the name given 
 involves the names of both parts of the binary. But the 
 terminations of both names are changed. The termina- 
 tion of the second name (which is always that of the more 
 electro-negative substance) is always changed to ide. The 
 termination of the first name (which is always that of the 
 more electro-positive substance) is changed to ous or ic. 
 
1 8 THE YOUNG CHEMIST. 
 
 according to the equivalence of such first part But 
 otis is usually employed for lower, and ic for higher, 
 equivalences : 
 
 IV VI 
 
 Thus, SO 2 is Sulphurous oxide ; and SO 3 is Sulphuric 
 oxide. 
 
 20. Prefixes. Prefixes are sometimes used. They may 
 be numeral, as Manganese di-oxide for MnO 2 ; or they 
 may be general; thus, the prefix hypo is used for a lower, 
 and the prefix per (abbreviation for hyper) is used for a 
 higher, equivalence. 
 
 21. Anhydrides. An anhydride is a substance usu- 
 ally a binary which, by combining with water, or some 
 analogous compound, can produce a ternary called an 
 acid. 
 
 Thus, SO 3 , Sulphuric oxide, is also called Sulphuric 
 anhydride, because it can combine with water to form a 
 ternary acid H 2 SO 4 , Sulphuric acid. 
 
 Again, SO 2 , Sulphurous oxide, is also called Sulphurous 
 anhydride, because it can combine with water to form a 
 ternary acid H 2 SO 3 , Sulphurous acid. 
 
 22. Haloid Acids. Though most acids are ternaries, 
 there are some acids that are binaries ; as, HC1, Chloro- 
 hydric acid. Such acids are called haloid acids. 
 
 23. Haloid Salts. There is an important class of salts, 
 called haloid salts, the members of which are binaries. 
 They are formed after the analogy of common salt, NaCl. 
 KI, Potassic iodide, and KBr, Potassic bromide, are 
 examples. They are formed by the substitution of a 
 metal or radicle for the Hydrogen of certain correspond- 
 ing Haloid acids, such as HC1, Chlorohydric acid,, and 
 HI, lodohydric acid. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 1 9 
 
 2d. Ternaries. 
 
 24. Definition. A ternary is a compound of three 
 parts ; the first and third parts may each be represented, 
 according to circumstances, either by single atoms, or by 
 groups of atoms or by compound radicles without any 
 peculiar restriction as to equivalences. The second part 
 is the linking part, whence it cannot be a monad; it is 
 oftenest one or more atoms of Oxygen. 
 
 The principal ternary compounds are acids and salts. 
 
 25. Acids. An acid is a compound of Hydrogen, 
 such that the Hydrogen may be removed, and a metal or 
 metals, a radicle or radicles, may be substituted in its 
 place, thus giving rise to a metallic salt. 
 
 The general formula for an acid is H D R ; in which 
 H represents Hydrogen ; D represents the linking dyad, 
 usually Oxygen ; R represents an electro-negative radicle 
 (either simple or compound). 
 
 The following set of anhydrides may be used to illus- 
 trate the foregoing definition : 
 
 C1 2 O, Hypochlorous anhydride; 
 
 C1 2 O 3 , Chlorous anhydride ; 
 
 Cl 2 O 5 , Chloric anhydride ; 
 
 C1 2 O 7 , Perchloric anhydride. 
 
 The following reactions illustrate the system both of 
 forming and of naming acids : 
 
 The anhydrides react with water as follows : 
 
 C1 2 O -f H,O = 2(HC1O) or Hypochlorous acid (H O Cl) ; 
 C1 2 O 3 -f H 2 O = 2(HC1O 2 ) or Chlorous acid (H O CIO); 
 
 C1 2 O 5 -f H 2 O = 2(HC1O 3 ) or Chloric acid (H O Cl O 2 ) ; 
 
 C1 2 O 7 + H 2 O = 2(HC1O 4 ) or Perchloric acid (H O Cl O 3 ). 
 
2O THE YOUNG CHEMIST. 
 
 26. Salts. A salt is a ternary linked by a dyad. The 
 
 + + 
 
 general formula of a salt is R D R ; in which R rep- 
 resents an electro-positive radicle (either simple or com- 
 pound) ; D represents the linking dyad, usually Oxygen 
 (and it should be remembered that there is usually one 
 atom of linking dyad for each open point of attraction of 
 the metal or positive radicle); R represents an electro- 
 negative radicle, which may be either simple or com- 
 pound, but is usually made up of a non-metal combined 
 with saturating oxygen (or with whatever dyad may be 
 performing the linking function). 
 
 27. Salts may be viewed as formed by substitution of a 
 metal, or other electro-positive radicle, for the Hydrogen 
 of the acid from which the salt is formed. 
 
 Thus, Potassium may be substituted for the Hydrogen 
 in the above acids, and may give rise to the following 
 salts : 
 
 K Cl O, Potassic hypochlorite, (K O Cl) ; 
 
 K Cl O 2 , Potassic chlorite, (K O Cl O) ; 
 
 K Cl O 3 , Potassic chlorate, (K O C1O 2 ); 
 
 K Cl O 4 , Potassic perchlorate, (K O Cl O 3 ). 
 
 28. From the foregoing examples it will be seen that 
 in naming a salt, the names of only two of the constit- 
 uents are usually involved. The third constituent is so 
 often Oxygen that the name of this element is understood. 
 But, if the linking dyad is Sulphur, its name is expressed. 
 The two constituents, whose names are always expressed, 
 are the metal, and the non-metal which is the basis of the 
 compound radicle. The Latin name of the metal is often 
 used, and it is made to terminate in ic for higher and in 
 ous for lower equivalences ; the name of the non-metal is 
 made to terminate in ate when the salt is formed from an 
 ic acid, or in ite when the salt is formed from an ous acid. 
 
INTR OD UCTION. 2 1 
 
 Thus, Ferrous sulphate (FeSO 4 ) is formed from an ic 
 acid that is, H 2 SO 4 , or Sulphuric acid. 
 
 Ferrous sulphite (FeSO 3 ) is formed from an ous acid 
 that is, H 2 SO 3 , or Sulphurous acid. 
 
 The following formulas illustrate the analogy of Sul- 
 phur salts to ordinary Oxygen salts : 
 
 H. 
 
 K 3 As O 4 is Potassic arsenate, or, in full, Potassic oxy-arsenate. 
 K 3 As S 4 is Potassic sulpho-arsenate. 
 
 Salts may be acid, normal, or basic. 
 
 29. Acid salts. They are called acid salts when only 
 a part of the Hydrogen, of the original acid, is replaced 
 e. g., Hydro-potassic sulphate, HK,SO 4 , formed from 
 H 2 SO 4 . Acid salts are part acid, and part salt. 
 
 30. Normal salts. They are called normal salts when 
 all the Hydrogen, of the original acid, is replaced. K 2 SO 4 , 
 Potassic sulphate, is a normal salt. 
 
 31. Basic salts. They are called basic salts, after the 
 analogy of the term base, which was formerly applied to 
 
 
 
 hydrates, such as PbO 2 H 2 , Plumbic hydrate, Pb_ 
 
 Now, when the radicle NO 2 is substituted for both 
 atoms of H, we have Pb~Q~^Q 2 , or Pb(NO 3 ) 2 , which is 
 
 the normal Plumbic nitrate. When the radicle, NO 2 , is 
 substituted for only one atom of Hydrogen, we have the 
 
 product Pb~Q~^ 2 , or Pb(NO 3 HO), a basic salt, called 
 
 Plumbic nitro-hydrate. 
 
 Basic salts are part base, and part salt. 
 
22 THE YOUNG CHEMIST. 
 
 Symbols of Acids and Salts. 
 
 32. Literal Symbols. The manner of constructing 
 literal symbols is apparent from the foregoing discussion. 
 
 33. Graphic Symbols. A simple and useful method 
 of representing acids is as follows : 
 
 HN0 3 H 2 S0 4 H 3 P0 4 H 4 Si0 4 
 
 it Hi 1 1 1 1 
 
 L_ li_ III Illl 
 
 Of course these diagrams represent, in general, acids 
 having, respectively, one, two, three, four atoms of re- 
 placeable hydrogen, and one, two, three, four atoms of 
 linking oxygen, and attached to suitable electro-negative 
 radicles. 
 
 They also represent, in general, the appropriate salts 
 formed from the acids mentioned the only restriction 
 being that in the four examples given in the above para- 
 graph the electro-positive constituents must be monads. 
 But, of course, positive elements or radicles of higher 
 equivalences may be indicated by using proper symbols. 
 
 Thus, the diagrams on the opposite page represent by 
 the simple combination of symbols similar to those indi- 
 cated in paragraphs 15 and 33 a large number of the 
 possible salts formed by such acids with monad, dyad, 
 triad, and tetrad metals or positive radicles. 
 
 34. In connection M'ith page 23, it may be said that in drawing dia- 
 grams it is desirable to employ continually the same plan. The fol- 
 lowing principles are recommended. Let the diagram? of ternary salts 
 take the form of the letter L, so far as is practicable; let the linking 
 dyad be always represented by vertical (or up-and-down) strokes; let the 
 acid radicle be represented by horizontal (or right-and-left) strokes; let the 
 metals or positive radicles be represented at the top. 
 
 These diagrams assist the student to comprehend and to remember for- 
 mulas ; and they cannot be expected to do more. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
24 THE YOUNG CHEMIST. 
 
 Mules for Writing Chemical Equations. 
 
 RULE I. As the first member, write the symbol 
 of one molecule of each substance taking part in 
 the reaction. 
 
 MULE II. As the second member, write the sym- 
 bol of one molecule of each substance observed, or 
 known to be produced during the experiment. 
 
 MULE III. Correct the second member f if neces- 
 sary, by increasing the number of molecules so as to 
 exhaust the supply of elements in the first member. 
 
 RULE IV. Correct the first member, if necessary, 
 
 by increasing the number of molecules absolutely 
 demanded by the substances formed in the second 
 member. 
 
 MULE V. Cancel on both sides of the equation- 
 beginning with the first member all those elements 
 that are used in both members. 
 
 MULE VI. See if any elements are left over, after 
 the cancellation required by Rule V. If there are 
 such, combine them in accordance with their known 
 chemical affinities. 
 
CHAPTER I. 
 THE NON-METALLIC MONADS. 
 
 Hydrogen and Fluorine; 
 Chlorine, Bromine, and Iodine. 
 
 OUTLINE OF THE CHAPTER. 
 Hydrogen. 
 
 Its distribution in nature, and in the arts. 
 
 Its preparation ; by Potassium ; by Sodium ; by Zinc. 
 
 When it burns it forms Water-vapor, H 2 O. 
 
 Fluorine. 
 
 Its distribution. It etches glass. 
 
 Chlorine. 
 
 Its distribution in common salt. 
 
 Its preparation from Chlorohydric acid with Manganese di-oxide. 
 It is a bleaching agent (because of its affinity for Hydrogen). 
 It forms metallic chlorides. 
 
 CMorohytlric Add. 
 
 Its preparation and properties. 
 
 Bromine and Iodine. 
 
 Distribution. Preparation. Properties. 
 
 THE NON-METALLIC MONADS. 
 
 35. Hydrogen is adopted as a monad. In other cases 
 a monad is an element, that atom for atom -can unite 
 with, or take the place of, Hydrogen. 
 
 25 
 
26 
 
 THE YOUNG CHEMIST. 
 
 36. The 
 
 non-metallic monads are the following : 
 
 Name. 
 
 Symbol. 
 
 Ordinary condition. 
 
 Color. 
 
 SK3S&. 
 
 Hydrogen, 
 
 H, 
 
 gas, 
 
 none, 
 
 1. 
 
 Fluorine, 
 
 Fl. 
 
 Cl, 
 Br, 
 I, 
 
 gas, 
 liquid, 
 solid, 
 
 green, 
 orange- red, 
 black, 
 
 19. 
 
 35.5 
 80. 
 127. 
 
 Chlorine, 
 Bromine, 
 Iodine, 
 
 Hydrogen. 
 
 37. The principal natural form is in Water, H 2 O. 
 Many artificial compounds contain it; thus all acids 
 contain it. 
 
 Examples. Chlorohyddc acid, 
 Sulphuric acid, 
 Nitric acid, 
 
 HC1. 
 H 2 S0 4 . 
 
 H N O 3 
 
 FIG 5 Forms of Water crystallized (as Snow). 
 
 38. Potassium liberates Hydrogen. Both take fire. 
 
 E&peritnent. Place a piece of Potassium upon dry filter paper; 
 whittle off the surface and lay the chips aside ; throw a small piece of the 
 clean metal upon water in a beaker. Quickly cover the beaker with a 
 piece of glass, or even of paper. 
 
 The reaction is, 
 
 K 2 + 2H 2 = 2KOH + H.,. 
 
THE NON-METALLIC MONADS. 
 
 The K O H (Potassic oxy-hydrate, or simply Potassic hydrate) dissolves 
 in the water; the Hydrogen burns 
 on the surface of the globule of 
 metal ; the metal also burns. Thus : 
 
 Burning of Hydrogen. 
 H 2 -f- O = H 2 O. 
 
 Burning of Potassium. 
 K 2 + O = . K 2 0. 
 
 iPotassic oxide.) 
 
 39. Sodium liberates Hy- 
 drogen from cold water; 
 neither of the elements FlG " 6 -~ P ta K ssi T burnin f by combinin g 
 
 with the Oxygen of water. 
 
 takes fire. ^ 
 
 Experiment. Take a piece of Sodium; whittle off the surface and 
 lay the chips aside; throw a fragment on water in a beaker. Quickly 
 cover the beaker with a piece of glass, or even of paper. The metal acts 
 thus: 
 
 Na 2 4- 2H 2 O = 2 Na O H -f H 2 . 
 
 (Na O H is Sodic hydrate; it dissolves in the water. The Hydrogen 
 escapes, but does not burn.) 
 
 40. Sodium takes fire on hot water; the liberated 
 
 Hydrogen also burns. 
 
 I 
 
 Experiment. Try Experiment 39, using hot water; the hot water 
 makes the reaction so violent that 
 sufficient heat is afforded to set tin 
 fire both Hydrogen and Sodium. 
 The latter burns with an orange 
 flame. 
 
 Burning of Hydrogen. 
 
 Burning of Sodium. 
 
 Na 2 -f O == Na,0. 
 
 (Sod; 
 
 m burning on hot water. 
 
28 
 
 THE YOUNG CHEMIST. 
 
 41. Sodium, if kept in one place, on cold water, takes 
 fire. 
 
 Experiment. Trim a piece of Sodium as if for Experiment 39. 
 Take a covered beaker of cold water; float a piece of filter-paper on the 
 water ; throw a fragment of Sodium upon the wet paper. The wet paper 
 usually keeps the Sodium in one place, so that the heat of the reaction is 
 retained there ; the heat thus becomes sufficient to set on fire both Sodium 
 and Hydrogen. 
 
 42. Hydrogen, liberated from Water, may be collected. 
 
 Experiment. Fill a large test-tube full of water ; cover it with a 
 bit of paper ; invert it in the water-pan. Trim a piece of Sodium ; take 
 
 FIG. 8. Collecting Hydrogen, evolved from Water by Sodium. 
 
 it with tweezers ; dexterously.put it under the mouth of the test-tube. The 
 Sodium will rise in the tube, evolving Hydrogen rapidly. When the reac- 
 tion ceases, stop the tube with the thumb, hold it with its mouth up, and 
 try the gas with a lighted match. It burns, forming Water vapor, H 2 O. 
 
 43. Zinc liberates Hydrogen from Sulphuric acid 
 (H 2 S0 4 ). 
 
 Fill a small beaker one-fourth full of dilute Sul- 
 phuric acid ; drop in a few strips of Zinc ; cover the beaker with a paper 
 having a half-inch hole in it; hold a lighted match to the Hydrogen gas, 
 escaping at the opening. 
 
 Zn -f H 2 SO 4 == H 2 -f Zn SO 4 (Zinc Sulphate). 
 
THE NON-METALLIC MOXADS. 
 
 2 9 
 
 The Hydrogen unites with Oxygen of the air, and so gives rise to a 
 slight explosion. 
 
 H 
 
 + O = H 2 O (Water vapor). 
 
 Allow the liquid in the beaker to remain on the Zinc for twenty-four hours. 
 
 44. Zinc and Sulphuric acid form Zinc sulphate 
 
 (ZnSO 4 ). 
 
 E.rpei'inieilt. After the lapse of twenty-four hours as required by 
 Experiment 43 the solution usually contains a network of crystals of Zinc 
 sulphate. If these crystals fail to appear, repeat Experiment 43, using 
 more Zinc than at the previous trial. 
 
 45. Hydrogen liberated from Sulphuric acid (H 2 SO 4 ) 
 may be collected. 
 
 Experiment. Fill a saucer half-full 
 of dilute Sulphuric acid. Also, fill a test- 
 tube full of* the same, and invert it, while 
 full, into the saucer. Under the mouth of 
 the tube slip a fragment of Zinc and a frag- 
 ment of Platinum in contact with it. Hy- 
 drogen collects in the test-tube. Try it with 
 a lighted taper. 
 
 Fluorine, Fl. 
 
 46. Distribution of Fluorine. 
 
 The most common natural form 
 of Fluorine is the mineral called 
 Fluor-spar. It is Calcic fluoride 
 (CaFl 2 ). 
 
 Of the element Fluorine but 
 little is known; it corrodes glass 
 very violently. 
 
 The principal commercial form 
 
 of Fluorine is Fluohydric acid (HF1). It is of itself a 
 gas, but its solution in water is kept in gutta-percha 
 
 bottles, and is sold in that form. 
 s* 
 
 FIG. 9. Hydrogen burning. 
 
30 THE YOUNG CHEMIST. 
 
 47. Fluohydric acid (HF1) attacks glass. 
 
 Experiment. Powder some Fluor-spar; place it in a test-tube; 
 add some concentrated Sulphuric acid, and warm the mixture. Fluohydric 
 acid is liberated as a gas. 
 
 CaFl 2 -f H 2 SO 4 = 2HF1 -f CaSO 4 (Calcic sulphate). 
 
 The Fluohydric acid immediately attacks the glass, corroding and 
 roughening its surface. 
 
 48. Fluohydric acid may be used for etching glass. 
 
 . Coat a slip of glass with beeswax over a gentle 
 flame. Scratch your initials through the beeswax to the glass. 
 
 Powder some Fluor-spar ; place 
 it in a lead saucer; add a con- 
 siderable quantity of Oil of vit- 
 riol (H 2 SO 4 ) ; place the glass 
 slip on the top of the saucer, and 
 let the whole stand twenty-four 
 hours. 
 
 Take off the glass ; melt off as 
 FIG. io. Etching glass by means of gaseous 
 
 Fluohydric acid. much wax as you can; remove 
 
 the rest with Turpentine. The 
 initials should be engraved in the glass by this process. 
 
 SiO 2 + 4HF1 = SiFl 4 -f aH 2 O. 
 
 (Of the glass . ) ( Gaseous . ) 
 
 Chlorine, Cl. 
 
 49. Distribution of Chlorine. 
 
 In nature, Chlorine is never found free; it oftenest 
 occurs in common salt (NaCl, called Sodic chloride). 
 The salt is found in solid deposits, and in the brine of the 
 ocean and of mineral springs. 
 
 In the arts, Chlorine is largely used in Bleaching- 
 ^owder, also called Chloride of lime. 
 
THE NON-METALLIC MONADS. 
 
 50. Preparation of Chlorine. 
 
 Experiment. Prepare Chlorine as follows. Take a deep test-tube; 
 place in it some powdered Manganese di-oxide (MnO 2 , also called Black 
 oxide of manganese). Add some concentrated Chlorohydric acid, and 
 gently warm it for a few minutes. Now place a piece of white paper 
 behind the tube, and see if you cannot distinguish the greenish color of 
 the gas (and its choking odor). 
 
 The Chlorine is formed thus : 
 Mn0 2 -f 4HC1 = C1 2 
 
 2H 2 O + MnCl 2 . 
 
 (Manganous chloride.) 
 
 The gas is more than twice as heavy as air, and it remains in the tube 
 for some time. 
 
 51. Chlorine is a bleaching agent, and is used as such, 
 for cotton and linen goods. 
 
 Experiment. Take two small beakers ; into one put some dilute 
 Sulphuric acid; into the other put some Bleaching-powder and water. 
 
 FIG. ii. Removing the color from calico by means of Bleaching-powder. 
 
 Now pass a piece of chocolate calico from one solution to the other, sev- 
 eral times ; finally wash the cloth in a basin of water. The Sulphuric acid 
 should liberate Chlorine from the Bleaching-powder, and the Chlorine 
 should partly destroy the color. 
 
 Oo + CaCl 2 ] f 
 
 ( B'eachmg-powckr. i 
 
 2 CaSO 4 
 
32 THE YOUNG CHEMIST. 
 
 52. Chlorohydric acid precipitates Silver as Argentic 
 chloride .(AgCl). 
 
 Experiment. To a solution of Argentic nitrate (AgNO 3 ), add a 
 few drops of dilute Chlorohydric acid. A white precipitate of Argentic 
 chloride appears. 
 
 
 HC1 + AgNO 3 AgCl -|- HNO 3 . 
 
 53. Common salt precipitates silver as Argentic chlo- 
 ride (AgCl). 
 
 Experiment. To a solution of Argentic nitrate, add a dilute solu- 
 tion of common salt (Sodic chloride, NaCl). A white precipitate of 
 Argentic chloride appears. 
 
 NaCl + AgN0 3 = AgCl '+ NaNO 3 . 
 
 (Sodic nitrate.) 
 
 54. Sunlight decomposes Argentic chloride, and black- 
 ens it. 
 
 Experiment. Filter the product of the preceding experiment, and 
 expose the white precipitate to the sunlight for twelve hours. The sun- 
 light should decompose it and turn it violet, and finally black. 
 
 (It is Argentic chloride, on the surface of the paper of a photographic 
 "proof," that becomes black, by exposure to sunlight.) 
 
 Chlorohydric Acid, H Cl. 
 
 55. Preparation of Chlorohydric acid. 
 
 Experiment. Place a little common salt (Na Cl) in a small retort; 
 to it, add enough concentrated Sulphuric acid to make a thin paste; con- 
 nect the neck of the retort with a clean test-tube containing a few drops 
 of water. Then gently heat the retort; Chlorohydric acid (H Cl) will be 
 formed, and will distill from the retort, and condense in the receiver. Re- 
 serve the acid for examination, as described in paragraph 56. 
 
 Na Cl + H 2 S O 4 H Na S 4 -f- H Cl. 
 
 (Hydro-sodic s.ulphate.) 
 
THE NON-METALLIC MONADS. 
 
 33 
 
 FIG. 12. Preparation of Chlorohydric acid. 
 
 56. Three tests for Chlorohydric acid. 
 
 Experiment. Examine, by three tests, the small amount of Chloro- 
 hydric acid formed : 
 
 (a) Take a drop on a glass rod, and apply it to blue litmus-paper. It 
 should turn the paper red. 
 
 (b) Touch a minute drop to the tongue, and observe the sour taste. 
 
 (c) Touch a drop to a solution of Argentic nitrate, in a test-tube, and 
 observe the white precipitate of Argentic chloride formed. 
 
 Bromine, Br. 
 
 57. Distribution of Bromine. 
 
 In nature, Bromine is comparatively rare. It is never 
 found free. In sea-water and in saline springs, it occurs as 
 a Bromide of certain metals. 
 
 In the arts, it is known both as Bromine and as Potassic 
 bromide (K Br, also called Bromide of potassium). 
 
34 THE YOUNG CHEMIST. 
 
 58. Preparation of Bromine. 
 
 . In a deep test-tube, place some Manganese di-oxide 
 and some Potassic bromide. Add a little water to dissolve the latter sub- 
 stance. Next, add some Chlorohydric acid. Now heat the whole, gently. 
 Reddish fumes, and the choking odor of Bromine, should appear. 
 
 2KBr -f MnO 2 -f 4 H Cl = Br 2 -f 2H 2 O -f 2 KC1 -j- MnCl 2 . 
 
 (Manganous chloride.) 
 
 59. Potassic bromide precipitates Silver as Argentic 
 bromide; the product blackens in sunlight. 
 
 Experiment. To a solution of Argentic nitrate, add a few drops of 
 solution of Potassic bromide. A yellowish-white precipitate of Argentic 
 bromide should appear. 
 
 K Br + Ag N O 3 = Ag Br -f K N O 3 . 
 
 Filter, and expose the precipitate to sunlight, for twelve hours. It 
 should blacken, as Argentic chloride did. (Experiment 54.) 
 
 Iodine, I. 
 
 60. Distribution of Iodine. 
 
 In nature, Iodine is comparatively rare. It is never 
 found free. In sea-water and in saline springs, it occurs 
 as an Iodide of certain metals. 
 
 In the arts, it is known both as Iodine and as Potassic 
 iodide (KI, also called Iodide of potassium). 
 
 61. Preparation of Iodine. 
 
 Experiment. In a deep test-tube, place some Manganese di-oxide 
 and some Potassic iodide. Add a little water to dissolve the latter sub- 
 stance. Now add some Chlorohydric acid, and heat the mixture. A violet 
 vapor of Iodine should arise, and should form in some part of the tube 
 a black deposit of solid Iodine. 
 
 2 K I -f Mn 2 -f 4 H Cl == I 2 -f 2 H 2 O + * K Cl + Mn C1 2 . 
 
THE NON-METALLIC MONADS. 
 
 35 
 
 62. Iodine, when heated, forms a violet vapor which 
 condenses to a black solid. 
 
 Experiment. H*eat some fragments of Iodine in a clean test-tube. 
 Observe the heavy violet vapors and the black sublimate or deposit. 
 
 FIG. 13. Subliming Iodine. 
 
 63. Iodine dissolves in alcohol ; but it does not dissolve 
 well in water, unless Potassic iodide is present. 
 
 Experiment. Take three clean beakers, and place them upon a 
 white surface. 
 
 (a) To the first, add a little water. 
 
 (b) To the second, add alcohol. 
 
 (c) To the third, add a solution of Fotassic iodide in water. 
 
 To each, add a few fragments of solid Iodine, and observe the dif- 
 ferent rates of solution of the Iodine. 
 
 Save all three for the next Experiment. 
 
 Under proper conditions, Starch (C 6 H 10 O 5 ) is a 
 lelicate test for free Iodine, but not for combined 
 
THE YOUNG CHEMIST. 
 
 Experiment. Boil a single fragment of Starch, in a tube half-full 
 of water; fill up with cold water; divide this liquid into four parts; to 
 three of them add respectively (#), (), and (c] of Experiment 63. The 
 difference in the amount of blue color produced, shows a difference in the 
 amount of free Iodine dissolved. 
 
 Now dissolve a fragment of Potassic iodide in water, and add it to 
 the fourth portion of starch-water. It should afford no change of color. 
 
 65. Potassic iodide precipi- 
 tates Silver as Argentic iodide; 
 it blackens in sunlight. 
 
 Experiment . To a solution of 
 Argentic nitrate, add a few drops of 
 solution of Potassic iodide. A yellow- 
 ish precipitate of Argentic iodide should 
 appear. 
 
 K I + Ag N O 3 = Ag I + K N O 3 . 
 
 FIG. 14. A precipitate of Argentic 
 iodide. 
 
 Filter, and expose the precipitate to 
 
 sunlight for twelve hours. It should blacken, as the Argentic chloride 
 and Argentic bromide did. (Experiments 54 and 59.) 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 THE NON-METALLIC DYADS. 
 
 Oxygen; 
 Sulphur, Selenium, and Tellurium. 
 
 OUTLINE OF THE CHAPTER. 
 Oxygen. 
 
 Distribution (most abundant element of our planet) ; 
 Preparation; from Mercuric oxide (Hg O) ; 
 
 from KC1O 3 , mixed with MnO,. 
 
 It is an energetic supporter of combustion. 
 
 Sulphur. 
 
 Distribution; preparation from Pyrites; 
 Its properties, shown by heating ; 
 
 by dissolving ; 
 
 by burning. 
 
 Sulphuric Add. 
 
 Heats water ; reddens litmus ; 
 Precipitates PbSO 4 , by dilution; 
 Chars sugar, starch, paper ; 
 Dissolves indigo. 
 
 Sulphuretted Hydrogen. 
 
 Preparation ; blackens Lead salts. 
 
 Selenium and Tellurium are rare. 
 
 4 37 
 
THE YOUNG CHEMIST. 
 
 THE NON- METALLIC DYADS. 
 
 66. These are the following : 
 
 Name. 
 
 Symbol. < 
 
 Ordinary condition 
 
 . Color. 
 
 Approximate 
 Atomic "weight. 
 
 Oxygen, 
 
 o, 
 
 gas, 
 
 none, 
 
 16. 
 
 Sulphur, 
 
 s, 
 
 solid, 
 
 yellow, 
 
 32. 
 
 Selenium, 
 
 Se, 
 
 solid, 
 
 black, 
 
 78. 
 
 Tellurium, 
 
 Te, 
 
 solid, 
 
 white, 
 
 128. 
 
 Oxygen, O. 
 
 67. Oxygen is the most abundant element in the earth. 
 It makes up one-half, by weight, of our entire planet. It 
 is also very widely distributed. 
 
 FIG. 15. Preparation of Oxygen from Mercuric oxide. 
 
 It therefore may be said to be found in the majority 
 of substances known. 
 
THE NON-METALLIC DYADS. 
 
 39 
 
 68. The discoverer of Oxygen, Dr. Priestley, prepared 
 the gas by heating Mercuric oxide (HgO). 
 
 Experiment. Arrange a test-tube as a bell-glass of water, in the 
 water-pan. Put an inch of Red oxide of mercury (Mercuric oxide, 
 Hg O) into a fitted 8-inch combustion tube, or one with a side-neck. In 
 either case, the combustion tube must be of veiy hard glass. Heat the 
 Mercuric oxide carefully, and conduct the Oxygen gas evolved, into the 
 little bell-glass. Try the gas in the bell, by a wax taper which has a spark 
 on it ; the gas should relight the taper, and the taper should burn with un- 
 usual brilliancy. 
 
 2 Hg O heated = 2 Hg -f O 2 . 
 
 FIG. 16. Preparation of Oxygen from Mercuric oxide. 
 
 69. Oxygen is best prepared from Potassic chlorate, 
 mixed with Manganese di-oxide. 
 
 Experiment. Arrange a test-tube bell in the water-pan. In a 
 small glass retort, place about a teaspoonful of a mixture of about one part 
 of Manganese di-oxide, and three parts of Potassic chlorate. Now heat 
 
THE YOUNG CHEMIST. 
 
 the mixture, and after some of the atmospheric air has expanded and 
 passed out of the retort collect the Oxygen gas in four small bell-glasses. 
 (A convenient method is to collect the gas in small, wide-mouth bottles. 
 As each bottle is filled and set aside, cover it with a piece of wet filter- 
 paper. Reserve the gas for the following experiments: 70, 71, 72, 73.) 
 
 FIG. 17. Preparation of Oxygen from a mixture of Potassic chlorate and 
 Manganese di-oxide. 
 
 The chemical change may be expressed as follows : 
 
 KC1O 3 heated = K Cl + O 3 . 
 
 The Manganese di-oxide undergoes no chemical change 
 in the experiment indeed, other substances may be 
 substituted for it. It serves, mainly, to equalize the 
 application of the heat, and so to prevent the explosive 
 decomposition of the whole of the Potassic chlorate at 
 once. 
 
 70. Oxygen stimulates the combustion of a candle. 
 
 Experiment. Try one of the jars of Oxygen by a taper having 
 only a spark upon it; the gas should promptly relight the taper. (See 
 Experiment 68.) 
 
THE NON-METALLIC DYADS. 
 
 71. Sulphur burns 
 flame. It forms a 
 di-oxide (SO 2 ). 
 
 in Oxygen with a brilliant violet 
 choking gas, called Sulphurous 
 
 FIG. 18. A candle burning in Oxygen. 
 
 Experiment. Take a frag- 
 ment of black-board crayon ; hol- 
 low it, at one end, into a little 
 cup; tie a piece of wire to the 
 cup. In the cup place a frag- 
 ment of Sulphur. After setting 
 the Sulphur on fire, immerse it 
 in a small jar of Oxygen gas. 
 The Sulphur burns with greatly 
 increased brilliancv. 
 
 72. Charcoal burns in 
 Oxygen with great bril- 
 liancy. It forms Carbon 
 di-oxide (CO 2 ), a color- 
 less gas. 
 
 Experiment. Iviist a bit of wire about a piece of charcoal bark. 
 Set one corner of the charcoal on fire by holding it in a lamp-flame. It 
 will not burn freely. Immerse it (when combustion has commenced) in a 
 small bell of Oxygen. The charcoal burns freely and with great brilliancy. 
 
 73. Iron burns freely in Oxygen gas. It forms a solid 
 product called Magnetic oxide, also called Ferroso-ferrk 
 oxide (Fe 3 O 4 ). 
 
 Experiment. Twist into a bunch some fine iron wire, called piano- 
 forte wire. (It is the fine wire used by florists.) To one end of the wire 
 attach a fragment of Sulphur. Set the Sulphur on fire, and quickly 
 immerse it in one of the jars of Oxygen. The Sulphur, burning bril- 
 liantly, should set the Iron on fire. 
 
 74. Nitrates, when heated on charcoal, burn the coal. 
 
 Experiment. Heat, on charcoal, before the blow-pipe, -with care, 
 a fragment of Potassic nitrate (KNO 3 ). The Oxygen of the Nitrate 
 burns the coal vividly. 
 4* 
 
42 THE YOUNG CHEMIST. 
 
 75. Chlorates, when heated on charcoal, burn the coal. 
 
 Experiment. Heat, on charcoal, before the blow-pipe, with great 
 care, a fragment of Potassic chlorate (K C1O 3 ). 
 
 The Oxygen is liberated from the chlorate, and burns the coal with great 
 violence. 
 
 -^ Sulphur, S. 
 
 76. Distribution of Sulphur. 
 
 In nature, Sulphur is found free, called native Sulphur ; 
 it is also found combined with metals, as in Iron pyrites 
 (FeS 2 ). 
 
 In the arts, it is known as Flowers of sulphur, and as 
 Roll brimstone; and in many compounds, for example, 
 Sulphuric acid (H 2 SO 4 ). 
 
 77. Preparation of Sulphur. 
 
 pipe tube made of hard glass. The mineral gives off a part of its Sulphur, 
 which collects, as a yellow solid, a little farther up in the tube. 
 
 78. Preparation of brittle Sulphur. 
 
 Experiment. In a dry test-tube, heat a fragment of Brimstone, 
 until it just fuses. Now pour it into cold water. The cooled Brimstone 
 is brittle. 
 
 79. Preparation of soft Sulphur. 
 
 Experiment. Heat another portion of Brimstone until it melts ; 
 then until it grows thick and dark ; then heat further, until it grows thin 
 again ; now pour it into cold water. This cooled product is Sulphur, but 
 it is plastic and very different from the product of Experiment 78. (Take 
 care that the Sulphur does not take fire.) 
 
 80. Preparation of crystallized Sulphur. 
 
 . Dissolve some Flowers of sulphur in a small quantity 
 of Carbon di-sulphide (C S 2 ). Allow the solution to evaporate, by itself, 
 
THE NON-METALLIC DYADS. 43 
 
 over-night. The Sulphur will be deposited in crystals, from its solution. 
 (Take care that Carbon di-sulphide does 
 not take fire.) 
 
 81. Sulphurous di-oxide (SO 2 ) 
 is a bleaching agent. 
 
 Experiment. Put a few fragments 
 of Roll brimstone in a small crucilie. 
 Heat it carefully until the Sulphur takes 
 
 fire. Cover the burning Sulphur with a 
 
 FIG. 19. bulpuurous ci-oxide 
 
 glass lamp-chimney. In the top of the bleaching a flower, 
 
 chimney hang a moist carnation-pink, or 
 other red flower. The gas has a slight bleaching action upon the flower. 
 
 The gas is Sulphurous anhydride (SO 2 ). It is used for bleaching straw 
 and woolen goods. 
 
 Sulphuric Acid, H 2 S O 4 . 
 
 82. Sulphuric acid, when mixed with water, produces 
 heat. 
 
 Experiment. Place in a beaker about one fluid-ounce of water; now 
 add, very carefully, about four fluid-ounces of concentrated Sulphuric acid. 
 Observe the great heat afforded by the mixture. 
 
 83. Sulphuric acid strongly reddens litmus. 
 
 Experiment. Pulverize a few blocks of litmus ; add some water to 
 it; add one drop of Sodic hydrate solution this gives a blue solution. 
 Now add a drop of Sulphuric acid this should turn the color red. Now 
 add just enough Sodic 4iydrate to turn the color back to blue ; finally, add 
 just enough Sulphuric acid to bring the red again. 
 
 (Litmus is turned red by acids, and blue by alkalies.) 
 
 & 
 
 81. Concentrated Sulphuric acid usually contains 
 Plumbic sulphate (PbSOJ, which it derives from the 
 leaden walls of the large rooms in which it is formed. 
 
 Experiment. Take five fluid-ounces of water. Carefully add one 
 fluid-ounce Sulphuric acid. Stir, and allow to stand over-night. The 
 
44 
 
 THE YOUNG CHEMIST. 
 
 concentrated acid contains some Plumbic sulphate (PbSO 4 ) dissolved in 
 it, but this separates from the diluted acid, and is found as a white sediment 
 at the bottom of the beaker. 
 Save the clear liquid. 
 
 85. Concentrated Sulphuric t acid chars sugar (C 12 H 22 O n ). 
 
 Experiment. In a beaker, dPtheSiize of a te*fjpp, place four tea- 
 spoonfuls of white sugar ; add one fluid-ounce of boiJin<B.water. Having 
 placed the beaker in a dinner-plate, add, very carefully, 0ne ounce of con- 
 centrated Sulphuric acid. A black carbonaceous mass appears. 
 
 The sugar is composed of Carbon, Hydrogen, and%Cjpcygen. The 
 Sulphuric acid withdraws the Hydrogen and Oxygen as water and so 
 leaves the carbonaceous mass. 
 
 86. Concentrated Sulphuric acid chars starch (C 6 H 10 O 5 ). 
 
 Experiment. Try the same experiment as 85, only use starch 
 instead of sugar. Starch has the same chemical elements (C, H, and O) 
 that sugar has. The result is similar. 
 
 FIG. 20. Sulphuric acid charring paper. 
 
 Dilute Sulphuric acid when made strong by dry- 
 ing off the water chars paper (C 6 H 10 O 5 ). 
 
 Experiment. With a quill pen, write, not with ink, but with the 
 acid of Experiment 84, some characters upon white paper. Dry the paper 
 carefully over the lamp-flame. Where the characters are, the paper will 
 become black and charred. 
 
THE NON-METALLIC DYADS. 45 
 
 The paper has the same chemical elements (C, H, and O) that starch 
 and sugar have. Here, also, the Sulphuric acid, "when by drying it becomes 
 strong enottgh, acts just as in Experiments 85 and 86. 
 
 88. Concentrated Sulphuric acid dissolves indigo. 
 
 Experiment. Grind some indigo to a very fine powder. Mix it 
 with clean sand, to prevent the formation of clots of the indigo; add some 
 concentrated Sulphuric acid; allow the whole to stand twenty-four hours; 
 then pcoir into a half-pint of water. 
 
 Filter, and save the blue solution. 
 
 Sulphuretted Hydrogen, H 2 S. 
 
 89. Sulphuretted hydrogen is a colorless gas with a 
 disagreeable odor. 
 
 Experiment. Place in a long test-tube a fragment of Ferrous sul- 
 phide (Fe S) ; add a little dilute Sulphuric 
 acid ; observe the odor of the gas that is 
 liberated. 
 
 FeS -f H 2 SO 4 = H 2 S - FeSO 4 . 
 
 (Proceed immediately to Experiment 
 90.) 
 
 90. Sulphuretted hydrogen 
 
 blackens Lead compounds, form- FlG - ".-Sulphuretted hydrogen 
 
 blackening Plumbic acetate. 
 
 ing black PbS. 
 
 Experiment. Cover the test-tube (Experiment 89) with a piece of 
 filter-paper which has had a few drops of solution of Plumbic acetate 
 poured upo^it. A black coloration of Plumbic sulphide (Pb S) should 
 appear on the paper. 
 
 Selenium, 8e, and Tellurium, Te. 
 
 91. These elements are so rare that they need not be 
 discussed here. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 THE NON-METALLIC TRIADS. 
 
 Boron and Nitrogen; 
 Phosphorus, Arsenic, and Antimony. 
 
 OUTLINE OF THE CHAPTER. 
 Boron. 
 
 Distribution. 
 
 Boracic Acid (H 3 B O 3 ). 
 
 Preparation, and flame color. 
 
 Nitrogen. 
 
 Distribution, in the atmosphere, in Nitrates, etc. Its inertness. 
 
 Compounds of Nitrogen and Hydrogen. 
 
 Ammonia-gas (N H 3 ). 
 
 When free, gives test with H Cl ; otherwise, does not. 
 Ammonic hydrate (N H 4 O H) is an Alkali. 
 Ammonium salts are volatile. 
 
 Compounds of Nitrogen and Oxygen. 
 
 Nitric Acid (H N O 3 ). 
 
 Attacks quill, indigo, copper, zinc, iron, nickel coin, lead ; 
 
 Does not attack gold; 
 
 Turns Ferrous sulphate, brown. 
 
 Preparation, from K N O 3 and H 2 S O 4 . (The product tested. 
 
 Phosphorus. 
 
 Occurs in bones ; is very combustible ; 
 
 Burns into P 2 O 5 ; forms Phosphoric acid (H 3 PO 4 ). 
 40 
 
THE NON-METALLIC TRIADS. 47 
 
 Arsenic. 
 
 Occurs in ores; As 2 O 3 volatilizes readily; is decomposed by 
 
 carbon ; 
 Forms yellow Arsenious sulphide (As 2 S 3 ). 
 
 Antimony. 
 
 Occurs in ores ; fuses readily ; 
 
 Does not dissolve in H N O 3 ; 
 
 Forms orange Antimonious sulphide (Sb 2 S 3 ). 
 
 THE NON-METALLIC TRIADS. 
 
 92. The non-metallic triads are the following : 
 
 Name. Symbol. Ordinary condition. 
 
 Color Approximate 
 Atomic weight. 
 
 Boron, 
 
 B, 
 
 solid, 
 
 brown, 
 
 11. 
 
 Nitrogen, 
 
 N, 
 
 gas, 
 
 none, 
 
 14. 
 
 Phosphorus, 
 
 P, 
 
 solid, 
 
 amber, 
 
 31. 
 
 Arsenic, 
 
 As, 
 
 solid, 
 
 steel, 
 
 75. 
 
 Antimony, 
 
 Sb, 
 
 solid, 
 
 bluish-white, 
 
 122. 
 
 Boron, B. 
 
 93. Distribution of Boron. 
 
 In nature and in the arts, Boron is little known except 
 in Boracic acid (H 3 BO 3 ) and in Borax (Na^A -f ioH 2 O). 
 
 94. Boracic acid is a crystalline solid. 
 
 Experiment. Dissolve some Borax in hot water; niter if neces- 
 sary; add some Chlorohydric acid; allow the whole to cool. White 
 crystals of Boracic acid should separate. The Chlorhydric acid sets free 
 the weaker Boracic acid. 
 
 Na.B.O, -f 2HC1 + 5H 2 = 4 H 3 BO 3 + 2 Na Cl. 
 
4 8 
 
 THE YOUNG CHEMIST. 
 
 95. Boracic acid, when highly heated, gives out green 
 light. 
 
 . Place a little Borax in a casserole, and add some 
 Sulphuric acid to liberate the Boracic acid ; now add some alcohol ; dip a 
 glass rod into the mixture, and then hold the rod in the flame of a 
 lamp. The highly heated Boracic acid imparts a delicate green color to 
 the flame. (If the alcohol takes fire in the casserole, and it is desired U, 
 extinguish it, cover it with a folded towel.) 
 
 FIG 22.- Luracic acid imparts a green color to the flame of alcohol. 
 
 Nitrogen, N. 
 
 96. Distribution of Nitrogen. 
 
 In nature, Nitrogen is found in great abundance in our 
 atmosphere. It is also found in Saltpetre (KNO 3 , also 
 called Potassic nitrate), 
 
 In the arts, it exists in Nitrates and Nitric acid (HNO 3 ). 
 
 The element Nitrogen is very inert, so that few experi- 
 ments can be performed with it ; but some of its com- 
 pounds are exceedingly active. 
 
 Compounds of Nitrogen and Hydrogen. 
 
 NH 2 , called Amidogen (existing only in combination with other 
 
 elements). 
 
 NH 3 , Ammonia-gas. 
 N H 4 , Ammonium (existing only in combination with other elements). 
 
THE NON-METALLIC TRIADS. 49 
 
 Ammonia-gas, NH 3 . 
 
 97. The test for free Ammonia. 
 
 * Pour some Spirits of Hartshorn (Ammonic hydrate, 
 N H 4 O H) into a small flask ; shake the flask ; the Ammonic hydrate gives 
 off colorless, pungent-smelling Ammonia-gas (N H 3 ). Suspend in the 
 upper part of the flask a glass rod previously dipped in concentrated Chlo- 
 rohydric acid. Fumes of Ammonic chloride (N H 4 Cl) appear. 
 
 NH 3 -f HC1 = NH 4 C1. 
 The fumes are minute particles of a white solid, N H 4 Cl. 
 
 FIG. 23. Ammonia-gas and Chlorohydric-gas meeting in the air and forming 
 Ammonic chloride. 
 
 98. Another method of producing the cloud of Am- 
 monic chloride. 
 
 Experiment. Place in a wine-glass or beaker some strong solution 
 of Ammonic hydrate. Place near it another similar vessel, containing con- 
 centrated Chlorohydric acid. A cloud of Ammonic chloride forms in the 
 air between them, especially noticeable when the two glasses, are moved 
 from side to side. 
 
 99. To test for combined Ammonia, having first liber- 
 ated it. 
 
 Experiment* Into a small flask pour a small quantity of solution 
 of Ammonic chloride (N H 4 Cl). Try with the rod and Chlorohydric 
 acid. There should be little, if any, fume. Now add solution of Sodic 
 5 
 
5O THE YOUNG CHEMIST. 
 
 hydrate, and, after shaking the flask, try the rod again. Fumes should now 
 appear, because Ammonia-gas (N H 3 ) has been liberated, thus : 
 
 N H 4 Cl 4- Na O H N H 3 + H 2 O -f Na Cl. 
 
 100. Ammonic hydrate is an alkali. 
 
 Experiment. Pulverize a block of litmus ; add some water and a 
 drop of dilute Sulphuric acid. The solution .will be red; now, by care- 
 fully adding Ammonic hydrate, the Sulphuric acid may be neutralized, and 
 the litmus changed to blue. 
 
 101. Ammonia-gas has a very strong attraction for 
 water. 
 
 Experiment. FIRST STAGE. Invert a small flask in a metal sup- 
 port of some kind, and then fill the flask with Ammonia-gas, by displace- 
 ment of the air, as follows. In a side-neck test-tube place some strong 
 Aqua-ammonia. Add some Sodic hydrate (solid or in solution). Now 
 heat the test-tube. By means of a rubber tube, direct the Ammonia-gas 
 upward into the inverted flask. 
 
 SECOND STAGE. When the flask is supposed to be full of Ammonia-gas, 
 place in its neck a perforated cork, fitted with a little glass tube open at 
 both ends. Dip the outer (and larger) opening into a dilute solution of 
 Cupric sulphate. If the experiment is properly conducted, the copper 
 solution will soon be drawn up into the flask, so as to make a miniature 
 fountain. The rapid absorption of the gas by the water-solution causes the 
 latter to be readily forced up by the atmospheric pressure. 
 
 102. All Ammonium salts are volatile. 
 
 Experiment. Place a fragment of dry Ammonic chloride on Plati- 
 num foil; heat it over the lamp; the Ammonic chloride will go off" as a 
 vapor, which finally solidifies as dense white smoke. 
 
 Compounds of Nitrogen and Oocygen. 
 
 N 2 O, Nitrogen protoxide (called laughing-gas). 
 
 N 2 O 2 (or N O), Nitrogen cli-oxide. 
 
 N 2 O 3 , Nitrogen tri-oxide or Nitrous anhydride (forms 
 
 Nitrous acid). 
 
 N 2 O 4 (or N O 2 ), Nitrogen tetroxide (brown fumes). 
 N 2 O 5 , Nitrogen pentoxide or Nitric anhydride (forms 
 
 Nitric acid). 
 
THE NON-METALLIC TRIADS. % 51 
 
 Nitrogen di-oxide, N 2 O 2 (or N O). , 
 
 103. Nitrogen di-oxide, a colorless gas, readily absorbs 
 Oxygen from the air, and then forms brown fumes of 
 Nitrogen tetroxide, N 2 O 4 (or NO 2 ). 
 
 Experiment. Place some copper wire in a side-neck flask. To it, 
 add concentrated Nitric acid. Allow the gas formed to pass into a small 
 bell-glass full of water. (If any brown fumes pass into the bell, they may 
 be disregarded, for they will soon be absorbed by the water.) Finally, 
 empty the little bell-glass into the air ; brown fumes will at once appear. 
 
 Nitrogen pentoxide, N 2 O 5 . 
 
 104. This substance is often called Nitric anhydride, 
 because it is viewed as Nitric acid deprived of water. 
 With water it forms Nitric acid. 
 
 N 2 5 + H a O.,*= 2HN0 3 . 
 
 Nitric Acid, HNO*. 
 
 105. Nitric acid turns quill, and other animal matters, 
 to a yellow color. 
 
 Experiment. Warm a few fragments of white quill in dilute 
 Nitric acid; then wash the pieces in water. They will be found to have 
 acquired a permanent yellow color. Many animal matters are turned 
 yellow by Nitric acid. 
 
 106. Nitric acid turns indigo to a permanent yellow 
 color. 
 
 Experiment. Place a drop of concentrated Nitric acid on a piece 
 of dark-blue flannel; if the goods are dyed with indigo, the acid produces 
 a bright yellow spot. 
 
 107. Nitric acid attacks Copper with violence ; it forms 
 a green (or blue) solution; it liberates a gas, at first 
 colorless, then brown. 
 
THE YOUNG CHEMIST. 
 
 Experiment. Place in a test-tube a short strip of Copper wire; 
 add Nitric acid : then warm it gently until the Copper disappears. Cupric 
 nitrate, Cu (N O 3 ) 2 , will be formed. 
 
 3 Cu 4- 8HN0 3 3 Cu(N0 3 ) 2 + 4 H 2 O + N 2 O 2 . 
 
 The action produces a colorless gas (Nitrogen di-oxide, N 2 O 2 ), but 
 this gas, upon coming in contact with the afr, combines with Oxygen of 
 the air, and forms brown fumes of Nitrogen tetroxide (N 2 O 4 ), which are 
 seen at the mouth of the tube. (See paragraph 103.) 
 
 N 2 2 
 
 N 2 4 . 
 
 108. Nitric acid attacks Zinc with great violence. 
 
 Experiment. Try the same experiment as 107, only employ Zinc 
 in place of Copper. Zinc nitrate, Zn (N O 3 ) 2 , will be formed. It gives 
 a colorless solution. It evolves brown fumes. 
 
 109. Nitric acid attacks Iron with 
 violence. 
 
 Experiment. Try the same experiment 
 as 107, only employ Iron wire in place of 
 Copper. A more complex compound Ferric 
 nitrate, Fe 2 (N O 3 ) 6 is formed. 
 
 110. Nitric acid dissolves a Nickel 
 coin. 
 
 Experiment. Try the same experiment 
 as 107, only employ a Nickel coin. As the 
 coin consists of Copper and Nickel or of 
 Copper, Nickel, and Zinc, there may be formed 
 Cupric nitrate, Cu (N O 3 ) 2 , Zinc nitrate, 
 Zn( N O 3 ) 2 , and Nickelous nitrate, Ni (N O 3 ) 2 . 
 
 FIG. 24. Nitric acid dis 
 solving Copper. 
 
 111. Lead and some other metals dissolve better in 
 dilute Nitric acid than in concentrated Nitric acid. 
 
 Experiment. Add concentrated Nitric acid to some shavings of 
 metallic Lead. A. part of the Lead dissolves, but in so doing it forms 
 crystals of Plumbic nitrate, Pb(NO 3 ) 2 , which collect on the Lead and 
 
THE NON-METALLIC TRIADS. 
 
 53 
 
 cover it up, and stop further action of the acid. Now add water ; this will 
 be found to dissolve the crystals, and to allow the action of the Nitric acid 
 to continue. 
 
 112. Aqua-regia dissolves Gold though neither of the 
 components, when separate, will do so. 
 
 Experiment. Prepare two beakers; into one put some Nitric acid 
 and a strip of Gold-leaf; into the other put some Chlorohydric acid and a 
 strip of Gold-leaf; warm each one separately. The Gold will not dissolve 
 in either case. Mix the contents of the two beakers, and the Gold dis- 
 solves at once. 
 
 The mixture of these two acids is called Aqua-regia (royal- water), 
 because it dissolves the king of the metals, Gold. Auric chloride (Au C1 3 ) 
 is formed. 
 
 113. Ferrous sulphate affords a delicate test for Nitric 
 acid. 
 
 Experiment. Dilute some Nitric acid with water to about one- 
 tenth of its strength; into the dilute acid drop a crystal of Ferrous 
 sulphate (Fe SO 4 ) and a little concentrated Sulphuric acid. The crystal 
 becomes surrounded with a deep-brown coloration (Ferrous nitro-sulphate, 
 FeSO 4 , N 2 O 2 ). (Ferrous sulphate is called, in commerce, copperas, 
 also green vitriol.) 
 
 FIG. 25. Preparation of Nitric acid. 
 
 5* 
 
54 THE YOUNG CHEMIST. 
 
 114. Preparation of Nitric acid (HNO 3 ). 
 
 Experiment. Place a little Potassic nitrate (KNO 3 ) in a small 
 retort; to it, add enough concentrated Sulphuric acid to make a thin paste; 
 connect the neck of the retort with a clean test-tube containing a few drops 
 of water, and then gently heat the retort for some time. Nitric acid ( H N O 3 ) 
 will be formed, and will distill from the retort and condense in the receiver. 
 
 + HNO 3 . 
 
 Hydro-potassic sulphate. 
 
 After a sufficient amount of Nitric acid has collected, test it as described 
 in Experiment 115. 
 
 115. Tests for the Nitric acid already prepared. 
 
 Experiment. Divide the acid, produced by Experiment 114, into 
 three parts: 
 
 () To the first portion, add a small fragment of Copper wire; the 
 Copper should freely dissolve, evolving Nitrogen di-oxide, and leaving a 
 blue solution of Cupric nitrate. (See Experiment 107.) 
 
 (6) To the second portion, add water, and then boil a piece of quill in 
 it. The quill turns yellow. (See Experiment 105.) 
 
 (c] Dilute the third portion with water, and then add some Sulphuric 
 acid and a crystal of Ferrous sulphate. (See Experiment 113.) 
 
 Phosphorus, P. 
 116. Distribution of Phosphorus. 
 
 In nature, Phosphorus occurs, principally, in bones. 
 These are composed, mainly, of Calcic phosphate, 
 Ca 3 (P0 4 ) 2 . 
 
 In the arts, the element Phosphorus and many Phos- 
 phates are employed. 
 
 Phosphorus is very poisonous and very combustible. 
 It 'should never be touched with the hands, since danger- 
 ous burns are often caused by it. 
 
THE NON-METALLIC TRIADS. 
 
 55 
 
 117. Phosphorus burns into Phosphoric oxide (P 2 O 5 ). 
 
 Experiment. Cut a piece of Phosphorus under water. Dry, upon 
 a piece of filter-paper, a fragment smaller than a pea ; place the fragment 
 upon a piece of wood, metal, or porcelain. 
 After setting the Phosphorus on fire, cover 
 it quickly with a large jar or bell-glass. 
 The white fumes are Phosphoric anhydride 
 (P.O.). 
 
 118. Phosphoric anhydride, with 
 water, produces Phosphoric acid 
 (H.POJ 
 
 Experiment. The Phosphoric anhy- 
 dride of the last experiment is a white, 
 snow-like substance which quickly absorbs 
 moisture from the atmosphere so quickly, 
 in fact, that the white substance cannot 
 always be secured. 
 
 If a little of it can be obtained, throw it 
 
 on water ; it hisses, owing to the heat of combination. It forms Phosphoric 
 acid (H 8 P O 4 ). 
 
 3 H 2 + P 2 5 = 2(H 3 P0 4 ). 
 
 Apply a fragment of moist blue litmus-paper to the place, under the jar, 
 where the Phosphoric acid is supposed to be. A reddening of the paper 
 will indicate the presence of the acid. 
 
 FIG. 26. Phosphorus burning 
 
 Arsenic, As. 
 119. Distribution of Arsenic. 
 
 In nature, Arsenic occurs as a constituent of a large 
 number of metallic ores. 
 
 In the arts, it occurs in the form of Arsenious oxide 
 (As. 2 O 3 ), also called White-arsenic. It is also contained 
 in Paris-green. 
 
50 THE YOUNG CHEMIST. 
 
 Most of the compounds of Arsenic are very poisonous ; 
 they must be handled with great care. 
 
 120. Arsenical compounds, heated on charcoal, give a 
 peculiar odor. 
 
 Experiment. Heat upon charcoal a fragment of As 2 O 3 no bigger 
 than a pin's head. It volatilizes, giving forth an odor of garlic. 
 
 121. White-arsenic may be sublimed in a glass tube. 
 
 Experiment. Heat, in a blow-pipe tube of hard glass, a pin-head 
 of White-arsenic. It volatilizes, and condenses in crystals of the same 
 composition as before. 
 
 FIG. 27. Arsenious oxide detected by heated charcoal. 
 
 122. Highly heated Carbon withdraws Oxygen from 
 Arsenious oxide. 
 
 Experiment. Place a pin-head of Arsenious oxide in a blow-pipe 
 tube ; above it, place a minute fragment of charcoal ; heat the tube near 
 the charcoal, and then near the White-arsenic. The Carbon should take 
 
THE NON METALLIC TRIADS. $? 
 
 Oxygen from the Arsenious anhydride, forming Carbonic anhydride gas, 
 which escapes, while uncombined Arsenic forms a black sublimate in the 
 tube. 
 
 123. Arsenic can form a yellow sulphide of Arslnic 
 
 (As 2 S 3 ). 
 
 Experiment. Dissolve a pin-head of White-arsenic in Chlorohydric 
 acid; this produces Arsenious chloride (As C1 3 ). Now add water and 
 then Sulphuretted-hydrogen as gas, or dissolved in water. A yellow 
 precipitate of Arsenious sulphide appears (As 2 S 3 ). 
 
 2 As C1 3 + 3 H 2 S = As 2 S 3 -f 6 H Cl. 
 
 Antimony, Sb. (Stibium.) 
 124:. Distribution of Antimony. 
 
 In nature, Antimony is found in many minerals, princi- 
 pally in Stibnite (Sb 2 S 3 ). 
 
 In the arts, it is known as the element Antimony, called 
 metallic Antimony. Tartar emetic is a double tartrate of 
 Antimony and Potassium. 
 
 125. Antimony fuses readily and burns readily. 
 
 Experiment. Fuse, on charcoal, a small fragment of Antimony 
 (not larger than a pin-head). It fuses readily, and, if it drops on the table, 
 the molten fragments hop along, burning in the air, and leaving a small, 
 smoky ash of Antimonic oxide (Sb 2 O 5 ). 
 
 126. Antimony does not dissolve in Nitric acid. 
 
 Experiment. Boil a few fragments of Antimony with a little Nitric 
 acid. The acid does not dissolve the Antimony, though it changes it into 
 an oxide (Antimony tetroxide, Sb 2 O 4 ). 
 
THE YOUNG CHEMIST. 
 
 127. Antimony forms an orange Sulphide of Antimony 
 (Sb 2 S 3 ). 
 
 Experiment. Dissolve a little Tartar emetic in water and a few 
 dropfc of Chlorohydric acid. Add some Sulphuretted-hydrogen as gas, or 
 dissolved in water. An orange precipitate of Antimonious sulphide 
 appears (Sb 2 S 3 ). 
 
 FIG. 28. Sulphuretted- hyv..iojcii ^'us ustd to precipitate Antimony. 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 THE NON-METALLIC TETRADS. 
 
 Carbon ; 
 Silicon, Titanium, and Tin. 
 
 OUTLINE OF THE CHAPTER. 
 Carbon. 
 
 Distribution in nature ; 
 
 Shown to exist in starch ; 
 
 May be detected by Potassic nitrate (K N O 3 ). 
 
 Charcoal decolorizes indigo solution ; 
 
 Does not dissolve in any ordinary solvent. 
 
 Compounds of Carbon and Hydrogen. *8 
 
 Compounds of Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen. 
 Compounds of Carbon and Oxygen. 
 
 Carbon di-oxide (C O 2 ). 
 
 Is prepared from marble ; 
 
 Extinguishes flame ; 
 
 May be poured into another vessel ; 
 
 Makes lime-water milky ; 
 
 Is exhaled from the lungs. 
 Silicon. 
 
 Distribution in nature ; 
 
 Sand (SiO 2 ) is difficult to fuse; and to dissolve. 
 
 Soluble glass is decomposed by H Cl. 
 
 Titanium. 
 
 (Rare.) 
 
 Till. 
 
 Distribution. 
 
 It dissolves in H Cl, but not in H N O 3 . 
 
 59 
 
6o 
 
 THE YOUNG CHEMIST. 
 
 THE NON-METALLIC TETRADS. 
 
 128. The non-metallic tetrads are the following : 
 
 
 
 Name. 
 
 Symbol. 
 
 4 
 
 Ordinary condition. 
 
 Color. i 
 
 fi 
 
 X. 
 
 Carbon, 
 
 c, 
 
 solid, 
 
 black, 
 
 12. 
 
 Silicon, 
 Titanium, 
 Tin, 
 
 Si, 
 Ti, 
 Sn, 
 
 solid, 
 solid, 
 solid, 
 
 black, 
 dark green, 
 white, 
 
 28. 
 48. 
 118. 
 
 Carbon, C. 
 
 129. Distribution of Carbon. 
 
 In nature, Carbon exists (a) crystallized in the Dia- 
 mond ; (b) as Graphite, the black mineral called also 
 Plumbago and Black-lead, and used in lead-pencils; (c) as 
 Charcoal^ which is formed by heating either animal or 
 vegetable matters in such a way as to expel elements 
 other than Carbon, and to leave the latter. 
 
 Pit-coal (Anthracite or Bituminous) 
 is far from pure carbon ; it contains 
 many other elements. 
 
 130. Charring affords a simple test 
 for Carbon. 
 
 Experiment. Heat a small fragment of 
 starch in a test-tube; an impure carbon is left. 
 (Starch is C 6 H 10 O 5 .) 
 
 131. Potassic nitrate deflagrates with 
 charcoal. 
 
 FIG. 29. Carbon. Side- Experiment. Fuse gently, on platinum, 
 
 ii^unt: - p- f p <*-- *-. c-f" 1 ? dr p 
 
 called a brilliant. i nto the fused mass a fragment of charcoal. Heat 
 
THE NON-METALLIC TETRADS. 
 
 6l 
 
 carefully, if necessary. The deflagration which ensues is a true combus- 
 tion of the coal, the K N O 3 .furnishing the Oxygen. 
 
 132. Carbon is a decolorizing agent. 
 
 .i 
 
 Experiment. Filter an indigo solution (Experiment 88) through 
 p.aper. It passes through still blue, 
 showing that we have a true soln- 
 fion of the indigo. 
 
 To the filtrate, add some animal \N^F 
 
 charcoal, and filter again. The \jjfcx 
 
 charcoal manifests a wonderful 
 decolorizing power. 
 
 133. Carbon is not solu? 
 
 ble in any ordinary solvent. 
 
 i 
 
 Experiment. Boil a frag- 
 ment of charcoal with Chlorohy- 
 dric acid. It will not dissolve. 
 
 There is scarcely any substance 
 known that will dissolve Carbon 
 as an element zx\& without changing 
 it into some new compound. 
 
 FIG. 30. Indigo solution decolorized by 
 filtering through animal charcoal. 
 
 Compounds of Carbon and Hydrogen. 
 134. These compounds are numbered by hundreds : 
 Of solids, Paraffine ; 
 Of liquids, Turpentine ; 
 Of gases, Illuminating gases, are examples. 
 
 Test each of these for Carbon, by burning them care- 
 fully in or under a porcelain dish, so as to give a 
 deposit of lamp-black. 
 
 Two of the best-known gaseous hydro-carbons are 
 Marsh gas, also called Methyl hydride (CH 4 ), and Ole- 
 fiant gas, also called Ethylene (C 2 H 4 ). 
 
*' * ' . * 
 
 62 THE YOUNG CHEMIST. 
 
 Olefiant gas (Ethytene), +C 2 H. 
 
 * * ** - 
 
 . 135. Olefiant gas burns with a luminoifs flame. (It 
 
 must be prepared with great care$ one reason being 
 because it forms an explosive mixture with air.) 
 
 . Place about half a thimbleful of ordinary Alcohol 
 (Ethyl alcohol) in a side-neck flask. To itj^add about four times its bulk 
 of concentrated Sulphuric acid ; add also a little clean sand, to prevent 
 frothing. Heat the flask, carefully ; and when the gas appears to have 
 expelled the air of the apparatus, collect what next comes, in a small bell- 
 glass. Afterward try the gas with a lighted taper. It shoi^jd burn with 
 a yellow flame! (It is not pure Ethylene.) 
 
 Compounds of Carbon, Hydrogen, and 
 
 Oxygen. 
 
 ' 
 136. These, also, are extremely numerous. Starch 
 
 (C 6 H^O 5 ), Wood (C 6 H 10 O,), Sugar (C 12 H 22 O n ), and Alco- 
 hol (C 2 H 5 OH), are examples. 
 
 Compounds of Carbon and Oxygen. 
 
 137. Carbon forms two compounds with Oxygen, 
 namely, Carbon mon-oxide (CO), and Carbon di-oxide 
 (CO 2 ). Both of them are colorless gases. 
 
 Carbon rnon-oxide, C O. 
 
 138. Carbon mon-oxide burns with a blue flame, and 
 with the production of Carbon di-oxide (CO 2 ). 
 
 Experiment. Place a few fragments of crystallized Oxalic acid 
 (H 2 O 2 C 2 O 2 ) in a side-neck tube. To it, add sufficient Sulphuric acid 
 to moisten it. Now heat gently. Carry the evolved gas to a small bell- 
 glass. Afterward try the gas with a lighted taper; it should burn with a 
 pale-blue flame. 
 
THE NON-METALLIC TETRADS. 
 
 Carbon di-fixide, C O 2 . 
 
 139. Carbon di-oxide (CO 2 ) (also called Carbonic acid, 
 Carbonic anhydride, etc.) may be prepared from a Car- 
 bonate. 
 
 Experiment. Fill a test-tube one-third full of Chlorohydric acid; 
 drop into the acid a fragment of Potassic carbonate; the effervescence 
 observed is due to the escape of Carbonic anhydride, a gas. 
 . 
 
 2 K Cl 
 
 K 2 C 3 
 
 2 H Cl = CO, 
 
 H 2 O. 
 
 (White marble, which is Calcic carbonate (Ca C O 3 ), maybe used in 
 place of Potassic carbonate. See next experiment, No. 140.) 
 
 140. Carbon di-oxide extinguishes flame. 
 
 . Put a little Chlorohydric acid in the bottom of a 
 wide-mouthed candy-jar or other jar ; add some,, fragments of marble ; 
 allow the action to go on for a few minutes. Immerse a candle or a 
 lighted taper in the jar ; when it comes below the surface of the Car- 
 bonic gas, it will be extinguished suddenly. 
 
 Ca C O 3 + 2 H Cl = CO, 
 
 
 141. Carbon di-oxide, 
 
 though invisible, is a 
 heavy gas, and may be 
 poured from one vessel 
 to another. 
 
 Experiment. Suspend a 
 lighted candle in a small beaker 
 or jar, or cover the lighted 
 candle with a glass lamp-chim- 
 ney. Upon the candle, carefully 
 pour .the gas left in the jar from 
 Experiment 140. If the experi- 
 ment is properly performed, the 
 candle will be quickly extin- 
 guished by the falling gas. 
 
 Ca C1 2 + H 2 O. 
 
 FIG. 31. Pouring Carbon di-oxide from one 
 vessel to another to extinguish a burning 
 candle. 
 

 
 6 4 
 
 v 
 
 THE YOUNG CHEMIST, 
 
 142. Carbon di-oxide makes lime-water milky with 
 Calcic Carbonate. ^ 
 
 Experiment. Prepare some fresh lime-water as follows. Pulverize 
 a fragment of quicklime (Ca O, called Calcic oxide) ; then place it in 
 a pint bottle of water. Allow the mixture to stand over-night or until the 
 solid subsides, and the liquid becomes quite clear. 
 
 Generate a little Carbonic gas in a beaker, and pour the gas into a smaller 
 
 beaker half- full of fresh lime- 
 water; on the surface of the 
 lime-water a white precipitate of 
 Calcic carbonate (Ca C O 3 ) ap- 
 pears. Stirring the solution 
 favors absorption of the gas. 
 
 Ca0 2 H 2 
 
 C0 
 
 143. Carbon di-oxide 
 is exhaled from the lungs 
 of livujg animals. 
 
 Experiment. Take a 
 beaker one-third full of fresh 
 and clear lime-water ; by means 
 of a glass tube, blow a few 
 bubbles of breath into the lime- 
 water ; the Carbonic gas ex- 
 haled from the lungs will soon render the clear water milky, with Calcic 
 carbonate. 
 
 FIG. 32. Carbonic di-oxide from the lungs 
 passed into Lime-water (Ca O.j H 2 ). 
 
 Silicon, Si. 
 
 
 144. Distribution of Silicon. 
 
 In nature, Silicon is the second element in order of 
 abundance. One-fourth, by weight, of our planet, is 
 Silicon. But it is extremely difficult to obtain uncom- 
 bined Silicon, owing to its intense affinity for Oxygen, 
 with which it is almost always united Sand, quartz, and 
 
- 
 
 THE NON-METALLIC TETRADS, 65 
 
 rock-crystal are forms of Silicic oxide (SiO 2 ). Most other 
 rocks are Silicates. 
 
 In the arts, glass and Silicate of soda are its best-known 
 compounds. 
 
 145. Sand is very infusible. 
 
 Expci'huetlt. Heat some sand on a platinum foil; it will not melt. 
 
 FIG. 33. Crystals of Quartz, Silicic oxide (Si O 2 ). 
 
 146. Sand is very insoluble. 
 
 Experiment. Boil some sand in a test-tube with Chlorohydric 
 acid; it scarcely dissolves at all. 
 
 147. Silicic acicns gelatinous or jelly-like. 
 
 Experiment. Place some soluble Silicate of soda in a test-tube, and 
 then add some Chlorohydric acid; a gelatinous precipitate of Silicic acid 
 
 is formed. 
 
 I 
 
 Titanium, Ti. 
 
 bstance is comparatively rare, and need not 
 
 here.) 
 
 E 
 
66 
 
 THE YOUNG CHEMIST. 
 
 Tin, Sn. (Stannum.) 
 
 148. Distribution of Tin. 
 
 In nature, Tin occurs as an oxide, called Stannic oxide 
 (Sn0 2 ). 
 
 In the arts, the un combined element is called Block-tin. 
 What is called Sheet-tin is really Sheet-iron with a thin 
 coating of Tin. Stannous chloride (SnCl 2 ), also called 
 Tin-crystals, and Sodic stannate (Na 2 SnO 3 ), are much 
 used in dyeing. 
 
 149. Stannous sulphide is a dark-brown precipitate. 
 
 Experiment. Dissolve some Siftmnous chloride in water and Chlo- 
 rohydric acid; add some Sulphuretted-hydrogen as gas or dissolved in 
 water; a dark-brown precipitate of Stannous sulphide (SnS) appears. 
 
 H 2 S = SnS -f 2 H Cl. 
 
 150. Jin dissolves in Chloro- 
 hydric acid. 
 
 Experiment. Boil Tin-foil or some 
 filings of Tin, in Chlorohydric acid ; they 
 partly or wholly dissolve, forming SnCl 2 . 
 
 Sn 
 
 2HC1 = SnCl, 
 
 H 9 . 
 
 Test a little 
 
 the clear solution by 
 as gas or 
 
 : jft 
 
 adding Sulphuralpd 
 
 FIG. 34 . -Posing Sulphuretted- j ssolved ifi wat eT The dark-brown pre- 
 hydrogen gas into a solution 
 of Tin cipitate is Stannous sulphide (Sn S). 
 
 , 
 151. Nitric acid oxidizes Tin, but does not dissolve it. 
 
 >il some Tin-foil or filings of Tin, in Nitric acid ; 
 
 the acid does not dissolve the metal, though it changes it to a whjgf insol- 
 uble acid, called Meta-stannic acid (H 10 Sn 5 O 15 ). 
 
CHAPTER V, 
 THE METALLIC MONADS. 
 
 Silver; 
 Potassium,, Sodium, and IMhiiim. 
 
 OUTLINE OF THE CHAPTER. 
 Silver. 
 
 
 
 Distribution. 
 
 It dissolves in dilute Nitric acid. 
 
 Silver coin proved to contain Copper and Silver. 
 
 Potassium. 
 
 Distribution. Many important Potassic salts are used in the arts. 
 
 Potassic carbonate deliquesces. 
 
 Potassic chlorate deflagrates. 
 
 Potassic nitrate gives a good flame-color. 
 
 Potassic di-chrojgMWbrms chrome-yellow. 
 
 .: jra^ ft i 
 
 Sodium. 
 
 Dist 
 i 
 Sodium salts give an orange flame-color. 
 
 ^Distribution.- A few Sodium salts are used in enormous quantities 
 in the arts. 
 
 
 Lithium. 
 
 giv^a crimson flame-color. 
 
 67 
 
I 
 
 68 
 
 THE YOUNG CHEMIST. 
 
 
 
 THE METALLIC MONADS. 
 
 152. The principal metallic monads are the following 
 
 Name. 
 
 Symbol. 
 
 Ordinary condition. 
 
 Color. 
 
 Approximate 
 Atomic weight. 
 
 Silver, 
 
 W-- - -- 
 
 Ag, 
 
 solid, 
 
 white, 
 
 108. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Potassium, 
 
 K, 
 
 solid, 
 
 white, 
 
 39. 
 
 Sodium, 
 
 Na, 
 
 solid, 
 
 white, 
 
 23. 
 
 Lithium, 
 
 Li, 
 
 solid, 
 
 white, 
 
 7- 
 
 ver, Ag. (Argentwm.) 
 
 ' 
 153. Distribution of Silver. 
 
 In nature, Silver is found native or uncombined ; it also 
 occurs in a state of combination with Sulphur and with 
 other elements. 
 
 In the arts, Silver coins and Silver ware are employed. 
 They are usually alloys of Silver and Copper, the Copper 
 giving hardness to the alloys. Argentic nitrate (AgNO 3 ) 
 also called Nitrate of silver is largely used by 
 photographers. 
 
 154. Silver dissolves best in 
 dilute Nitric acid. 
 
 Ive a fragment of 
 
 a silver five-centB Hp'Y boiling, in dilute 
 Nitric acid; divraBPfte solution into two 
 parts for the next two experiments. 
 
 155. First method of testing for 
 Silver and Copper. 
 
 Experiment. To the first part of 
 the solution of Experiment 154,. add some 
 
 FIG. 35. Silver coin dissolving in chlorohydric acid. This precipitates the 
 Silver as Argentic chloride (AgCl). Filter, 
 
 Nitric acid. 
 
THE METALLIC MONADS. 
 
 69 
 
 and to the filtrate, add Ammonic hydrate. This forms a deep-blue com- 
 pound with the Copper, and so shows the presence of the latter metal. 
 
 156. Second method of testing for Silver and Copper. 
 
 Experiment. In the second part 
 of the solution of Experiment 154, use 
 a solution of common salt, in place of 
 Chlorohydric acid, for precipitating the 
 Silver; continue the experiment as in 
 Experiment 155. Common salt answers 
 the same purpose as Chlorohydric acid, 
 and is cheaper. 
 
 157. The metallic Silver may 
 be recovered. 
 
 FIG. ^MP& precipitate of 
 
 Experiment. Remove from the Hechloride. 
 
 filters of Experiments 155 and 156 the 
 Argentic chloride obtained ; place it on charcoal, with some dry Potassic 
 carbonate ; fuse the mixture with a blow-pipe, until glories of pure Silver 
 are obtained. The Potassium of the Potassic carbonate withdraws Chlorine 
 to form Potassic chloride; the Silver is thus liberated. 
 
 / 
 
 YT Potassium, K. (Kalium.) 
 
 158. In nature, Potassium exists in many minerals. 
 The metal itself is very difficult of preparation because 
 of its intense affinity for Oxygen ; even when once pre- 
 pared, it quickly absorbs Oxygen from air, or even from 
 water. The metal must be preserved under some oil that 
 contains no Oxygen. 
 
 In the arts, a wniliar source of Potassium is wood- 
 ashes. The following-named compounds are well known 
 and largely used 
 
 Potassic carbonate, K 2 C O 
 
 Potassic chlorate, K Cl (X 
 
 Potassic di-chromate, K 2 Cr 2 
 
 Potassic hydrate, K O H 
 
 Potassic nitrate. K N O , 
 
 (also called Bi-chrome) ; 
 (also called Caustic potash) ; 
 (also called Nitre and Saltpetre). 
 

 THE YOUNG CHEMIST. 
 
 159. Potassic carbonate deliquesces and effervesces. 
 
 Experiments. (a) Place a little of the dry Potassic carbonate in a 
 watch-glass, and allow it to stand for twenty-four hours exposed to the open 
 air; it has so strong an attraction for the moisture of the air that it fre- 
 quently entirely liquefies. 
 
 (b) Add a little Chlorohydric acid to a few fragments of Potassic car- 
 bonate, in a test-tube, and observe the effervescence. 
 
 K 2 C0 3 
 
 2HC1 = C0 2 -f aKCl + H 2 0. 
 
 160. Potassic chlorate (KC1O 3 ) deflagrates on charcoal. 
 
 Expert Hi^jm ^^Bhise a fragment of the dry salt on charcoal ; 
 observe the i^H %>n of the coal, due to the Oxygen of the salt. 
 
 (b} Gently^^M ^^Ir ^ the salt on clean porcelain; a reaction 
 occurs, but it is hardly perceptible. (See page 40.) 
 
 161. Potass!! nitrate (KNO 3 ) gives the violet flame- 
 color of Potassium. 
 
 Experiments. (a) and (b}. Try with this salt two experiments 
 similar to those of Experiment 1 60. 
 
 (c] Wet a Platinum wire loop; 
 dip it in powdered Potassic nitrate; 
 then fuse the salt in the Bunsen 
 lamp-flame. Observe the violet 
 Potassium-color. 
 
 162. Potassic di-chromate 
 
 produces chrome-yellow. 
 
 Experiment. Dissolve a 
 fragment of Potassic di-chromate 
 in water, and add the liquid to a 
 solution of Plumbic acetate. A 
 yellow precipitate of Plumbic chro- 
 
 mate, also called Chrome-yellow (Pb Cr O 4 ) appears. (See Experi- 
 ment 173.) 
 
 FIG. 37. Producing the violet flame-color 
 of Potassium. 
 
THE METALLIC MONADS. 71 
 
 Sodium, Na. (Natrium.) 
 
 163. Distribution of Sodium. 
 
 In nature, Sodium exists in many minerals. The best 
 example is Rock-salt (NaCl). 
 
 In the arts y metallic Sodium is somewhat used. 
 
 Sodic hydrate (NaOH), called Caustic-soda, is used in 
 the manufacture of soap ; Sodic chloride (NaCl), common 
 salt, is used for culinary and for manufacturing purposes ; 
 Sodic carbonate (Na 2 CO 3 ), called Soda-ash, is used in the 
 bleaching of cotton goods, the scouring*f^wool, and the 
 manufacture of soap and of glass. The consumption of 
 Soda-ash is enormous. 
 
 164. Sodium salts afford a peculiar orange flame-color. 
 
 Experiment. Heat, in the 
 lamp-flame, a Platinum wire which 
 has been dipped into some powdered 
 Sodic chloride. Observe the yellow 
 Sodium light ; meanwhile, hold near 
 the flame a small bright-red object 
 e.g., a clear crystal of Potassic di- 
 chromate (K 2 Cr 2 O 7 ), or a small 
 quantity of a very concentrated red 
 solution of the same salt in a test- 
 tube. Notice that the Sodium flame 
 peculiarly degrades the color of the FIG. 38. Producing the orange flame-color 
 Object. ' of Sodium. 
 
 Lithium, JJi. 
 
 165. Distribution of Lithium. 
 
 Lithium is rare both in nature and in the arts. 
 
 166. Lithium salts afford a crimson flame-color. 
 
 Experiment. Add a drop of Chlorohydric acid to a minute portion 
 of Lithic carbonate, in a watch-glass. Dip a Platinum wire into the solu- 
 tion, and then heat it in the lamp- flame. A magnificent crimson flame is 
 characteristic of Lithium. 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 
 THE METALLIC DYADS. FIRST 
 SECTION. 
 
 Lead; 
 Barium, Strontium, and Calcium. 
 
 OUTLINE OF THE FIRST SECTION. 
 Lead. 
 
 Distribution. 
 
 Properties of its salts: Plumbic chloride, white; Plumbic iodide, 
 
 yellow; Plumbic sulphide, black; Plumbic chromate, yellow. 
 Precipitation of metallic Lead, by Zinc. 
 
 Barium. 
 
 Forms Baric sulphate, which is very insoluble. 
 Its salts afford green flame-colors. 
 
 Strontium. 
 
 Forms Strontic sulphate. 
 
 Its salts afford red flame- colors. 
 
 Calcium. 
 
 Distribution. 
 
 Properties of Quicklime ; of Calcic chloride ; of Calcic sulphate. 
 
 72 
 
THE METALLIC DYADS.-FIKST SECTION. 73 
 
 THE METALLIC DYADS. FIRST SECTION. 
 
 167. The First Section of the metallic dyads includes 
 the following : 
 
 Name. 
 
 Symbol. 
 
 Ordinary condition. 
 
 Color. 
 
 SKSSK 
 
 Lead, 
 
 Pb, 
 
 solid, 
 
 bluish-white, 
 
 206. 
 
 Barium, 
 
 Ba, 
 
 solid, 
 
 yellow, 
 
 137. 
 
 Strontium, 
 
 Sr, 
 
 solid, 
 
 yellow, 
 
 87. 
 
 Calcium, 
 
 Ca, 
 
 solid, 
 
 yellow, 
 
 40. 
 
 Lead, Pb. (Plumbum.) 
 
 168. Distribution of Lead. 
 
 Lead occurs, in nature, as Galena (Plumbic sulphide, 
 PbS), and also in many other ores. 
 
 In the arts, one of its most important uses is for Lead 
 pipe ; another very important use is in the manufacture of 
 White lead (a hydrated Carbonate of lead), which is the 
 basis of nearly all paints. 
 
 169. Plumbic nitrate dissolves in water. 
 
 Experiment. Dissolve some Plumbic nitrate, Pb (N O 3 ) 2 , in 
 water, and divide the solution, so formed, into four parts, for the follow- 
 ing four experiments. 
 
 170. Plumbic chloride is insoluble in cold water, but 
 dissolves in hot water. 
 
 Experiment. To solution of Plumbic nitrate, add Chlorohydric 
 acid; a white crystalline precipitate of Plumbic chloride (PbCl 2 ) appears. 
 
 Pb(NO 3 ) 2 -f- 2 H Cl Pb Cl, + 2fcNO 3 . 
 
 Allow the precipitate a few moments to subside; then decant the clear 
 liquid. To the precipitate, add some clean water, and, boil ; the precipitate 
 dissolves wholly or in part ; now allow the whole to cool, when the 
 Plumbic chloride that dissolved will re-appear as feathery crystals. 
 
 7 
 
74 
 
 THE YOUNG CHEMIST. 
 
 171. Plumbic iodide is insoluble in cold water, but dis- 
 solves in hot water. 
 
 To solution of Plumbic nitrate, add solution of 
 Potassic iodide; a yellow precipitate of Plumbic iodide (Pb I 2 ) appears. 
 
 Pb(N0 3 ) : 
 
 2KI = Pb I 2 -f 2 K N O 3 . 
 
 Allow the precipitate a few moments to subside ; then decant the clear 
 liquid. To the precipitate, add some clean water, and boil ; the precipi- 
 tate dissolves wholly or in part ; now allow the whole to cool, when the 
 Plumbic iodide will re-appear as golden crystalline spangles. 
 
 172. Sulphuretted-hydrogen affords a delicate test for 
 Lead. 
 
 Experiment. To solution of Plumbic nitrate, add some Sulphur- 
 etted-hydrogen as gas, or dissolved 
 in water: a black or brownish- 
 black precipitate of Plumbic sul- 
 phide (Pb S) appears. 
 
 
 Pb(N0 3 ) 2 
 
 = Pb S 
 
 HS 
 
 FIG. 39. Passing Sulphuretted-hydrogen 
 gas into a soluti&i containing Lead. 
 
 173. Potassic di-chromate 
 is used as a test for Lead. 
 
 Experiment. To solution of 
 Plumbic nitrate, add solution of 
 Potassic di-chromate : a yellow 
 precipitate of Plumbic chromate 
 (PbCrO 4 ) appears. Allow the pre- 
 cipitate a few moments to subside, 
 and then pour off the clear liquid. 
 
 To the precipitate, add solution 
 of Sodic hydrate until it dissolves ; 
 next add Acetic acid; this will 
 neutralize the Sodic hydrate which 
 
 dissolved the chrome-yellow. The latter will then re-appear. 
 
 2Pb(N0 3 ) 2 
 
 
 K 2 Cr 2 O 7 -}- H 2 O 
 = 2PbCrO 4 -f 2 K N O 3 -f- 2 H N O, 
 
THE METALLIC DYADS. FIRST SECTION. 
 
 75 
 
 174. Metallic Lead may be liberated from its solutions 
 by metallic Zinc. 
 
 Experiment. Fill a beaker or 
 bottle nearly full of a dilute solution of 
 Plumbic acetate ; in the solution suspend 
 a strip of metallic Zinc. A portion of 
 the Lead is precipitated from the solution 
 in the form of bright metallic flakes upon 
 the Zinc. But, at the same time, there 
 is dissolved an amount of metallic Zinc, 
 that is chemically equivalent to the Lead 
 precipitated. 
 
 FIG. 40. The Lead-tree precipi- 
 tated by metallic Zinc. 
 
 Barium, 
 175. Distribution of Barium. 
 
 The most abundant natural form of Barium is the 
 mineral Heavy-spar. It is Baric sulphate (BaSO 4 ). 
 
 In the arts. Baric chloride (BaCl 2 ) and Baric nitrate, 
 Ba(NO 3 ) 2 are considerably used. 
 
 176. Barium and Sulphuric acid are tests for each 
 other. 
 
 Experiment. Add a drop of dilute Sulphuric acid to a solution of 
 Baric chloride. It gives a milk-white precipitate of Baric sulphate 
 (Ba S O 4 ), which is one of the most insoluble of known substances. 
 Hence, Sulphuric acid is used as a test for Barium compounds, and, vice 
 versa, Barium compounds are used as a test for Sulphuric acid. 
 
 Ba C1 
 
 H 2 S 4 == Ba S 4 + 2 H Cl. 
 
 -a, 
 
 177. Barium salts affbl a green flame-color. 
 
 Experiment. Moisten a Platinum wire loop; dip it in powdered 
 Baric chloride, and then place it in the lamp-flame, and keep it there for 
 some time. Barium salts impart a yellowish-green color to the flame. 
 
THE YOUNG CHEMIST. 
 
 178. Barium salts are used to give the color in green-fire. 
 
 Experiment. Pulverize separately, -with great care, 
 
 Baric nitrate, 
 Potassic chlorate, 
 Gum shellac. 
 
 Then measure, in a small dry test-tube, an equal quantity, by bulk, 
 of each of the three substances. (It will be found convenient to measure 
 
 the powdered Shellac between 
 the two white powders. The 
 quantities used are thus easier 
 distinguished.) 
 
 Now mix the powders gen- 
 tly and carefully, but thoroughly, 
 on a piece of paper. Place the 
 mixture in an iron pan, or on a 
 wooden block, and set fire to it. 
 It affords green-fire. 
 
 The Shellac is a vegetable sub- 
 stance and contains Carbon. The 
 combustion of this Carbon is sus- 
 tained by the Oxygen of the 
 Nitrate and Chlorate. (See Ex- 
 periments 74 and 75.) At the 
 same time, the Barium imparts 
 the green color to the flame. 
 
 FIG. 41. Green-fire colored by a salt of 
 Bariutp. 
 
 Strontium, Sr. 
 179. Distribution of Strontium. 
 
 In nature, Strontium is not very abundant ; in the arts, 
 Strontic nitrate, Sr(NO 3 ) 2 , and Strontic chloride (SrCl 2 ) 
 are somewhat used. 
 
 180. Strontium 
 sulphate. 
 
 forms a Sulphate resembling Baric 
 
 >ulph 
 
 Experiment. To a solution of Strontic nitrate, add some dilute 
 Sulphuric acid; a white precipitate of Slrontic sulphate appears. 
 
 Sr(N0 3 ) 2 + H 2 S0 4 = SrS0 4 + 2 HNO 3 . 
 
THE METALLIC DYADS.^fJRST SECTION. 
 
 181. Strontium salts affprd a fed flame-color. 
 
 Experiment. Moisten afilatmum wire loop; dip it in powdered 
 Strontic nitrate, and then place it in the lamp-flame. 
 Strontium salts impart a deep-red color to the flame. 
 
 182. Strontium salts are used to give the color in 
 red-fire. 
 
 Experiment. Pulverize 
 separately, with great care, 
 
 Strontic nitrate, 
 Potassic chlorate, 
 Gum shellac. 
 
 Then measure, in a small dry 
 test-tube, an equal quantity, by 
 bulk, of the three substances. 
 Now mix the powders gently and 
 carefully, but thoroughly, on a 
 piece of paper. Place the mix- 
 ture in an iron pan, or on a 
 wooden block, and set fire to it. 
 It affords red-fire. (See Ex- 
 periment 178.) 
 
 Calcium, Ca. 
 
 183. Distribution of Calcium. 
 
 Calcium is a very abundant and widely diffused 
 substance. 
 
 In nature, it is the characteristic constituent of shells, 
 marble, and limestones, also of gypsum, bones, and many 
 other substances. 
 
 In the arts, it is used in enormous quantities in such 
 compounds as lime, bleaching-powder, etc. 
 
 184. Calcic chloride is deliquescent. 
 
 Experiment. Place about a teaspoonful of concentrated Chloro- 
 hydric acid in a casserole; drop a piece of litmus-paper into it. Now stir 
 in slaked or unslaked quicklime, little by little, until the acid is entirely 
 neutralized ; this point is attained when the iitmus-paper becomes blue. 
 Filter the whole mass. The clear filtrate contains the Calcic chloride. 
 Ca O 2 H 2 + 2 H Cl Ca Cl, - 2 H, O. 
 
 7 I 
 
 42. Red-fire colored by a salt of 
 Strontium. 
 
78 THE ^pUNG CHEMIST. 
 
 Now evaporate the solution to dryness, and allow the dry residue to 
 remain, for twenty-four hours, exposed Ufsthe air. Calcic chloride has so 
 strong an attraction for moisture that it^oon absorbs from the atmosphere 
 water enough to liquefy itself. 
 
 alcic chloride may be changed back to Calcic 
 carbonate. 
 
 Experiment. Add some water to the Calcic chloride afforded by 
 Experiment 184. Now add Ammonic hydrate and Ammonic carbonate 
 solution. 5 A white precipitate of Calcic carbonate (CaCO 3 ) is formed. 
 
 CaCl 2 + (NH 4 ) 2 C0 3 = CaC0 3 + 2 N H 4 Cl. 
 
 186. A paste of plaster of Paris quickly " sets." 
 
 Experiment. Mix some plaster of Paris (Calcic sulphate, Ca SO 4 ) 
 with water so as to make a stiff paste. Observe how quickly the paste now 
 "sets" to a solid mass. (Make the paste on a piece of stiff paper.) 
 ' I 
 
 187. Alcohol expels Calcic sulphate from its solution 
 in water. 
 
 Experiment. Place a very small quantity of plaster of Paris in a 
 test-tube. Add cold water and shake the tube, so as to favor the solution 
 of the Calcic sulphate. Filter, and to the clear filtrate add its bulk of 
 Alcohol ; a white precipitate will appear. It is Calcic sulphate, which is 
 slightly soluble in water, but is much less so in presence of Alcohol. 
 
 188. Quicklime and water unite with evolution of great 
 heat. 
 
 Experiment. Pulverize some fresh Quicklime ; place a sufficient 
 quantity of it in a casserole half-full of warm water ; the Lime gradually 
 unites with the water, forming Calcic hydrate and affording great heat. 
 
 CaO -f H 2 = Ca0 2 H 2 . 
 

 
 CHAPTER VI. (Continued) 
 
 THE METALLIC DYADS. SECOND 
 SECTION. 
 
 Mercury 
 
 Mercury and Copper; 
 Magnesium, and Zinc. 
 
 
 OUTLINE OF THE SECOND SECTION. 
 
 Distribution. 
 
 Mercurous salts differ from Mercurio salts. 
 
 Metallic Mercury is precipitated by Copper and by Zinc. 
 
 Properties of Mercuric iodide and Mercuric sulphide. 
 
 Copper. 
 
 Distribution. 
 
 It conducts heat well; is difficult of fusion. 
 Metallic Copper is precipitated by metallic Iron. 
 Several tests for Copper. 
 
 Magnesium. 
 
 Distribution. 
 
 I It burns in air, giving dazzling light. 
 -It dissolves readily in acids. 
 
 Tests for Magnesium. 
 
 Ives readi 
 
 Zinc. 
 
 Distribution. 
 
 It burns readily ; dissolves readily. 
 
 Tests for Zinc. 
 
 79 
 
8o 
 
 THE YOUNG CHEMIST. 
 
 THE METALLIC 
 
 189. The Second Se 
 the following : 
 
 SECOND SECTION. 
 
 n of the metallic dyads includes 
 
 Name. 
 
 Symbol. 
 
 Ordinary condition. 
 
 Color. 
 
 Approximate 
 Atomic ivei^nt. 
 
 Mercury, 
 
 Hg, 
 
 liquid, 
 
 white, 
 
 200. 
 
 Copper, 
 
 Cu, 
 
 solid, 
 
 red, 
 
 63. 
 
 Magnesium, 
 
 Mg, 
 
 solid, 
 
 white, 
 
 24. 
 
 Zinc, 
 
 Zn, 
 
 solid, 
 
 bluish-white, 
 
 65. 
 
 and 
 
 Mercury, Hg. (Hydrargyrum,.) 
 
 190. Distribution of Mercury. 
 
 Mercury is found, in nature, both as native Mercury i 
 as Cinnabar (Mercuric sulphide, HgS). 
 
 In the arts, metallic Mercury is largely used, as is also 
 Vermilion (HgS). Corrosive sublimate is Mercuric chlo- 
 ride (HgCl 2 ). 
 
 CAUTION. Care must be taken to prevent metallic Mercury, or its solu- 
 tions, from coming in contact with finger-rings or other jewelry. Mercury 
 quickly alloys itself with Gold and with other 
 metals, and produces stains upon them. 
 
 191. Mercuric nitrate and its. 
 properties. 
 
 Experiment. Dissolve, completely, a 
 small globule of Mercury, by boiling it in con- 
 centrated Nitric acid. Mercuric nitrare is 
 formed, Hg (N O 3 ) 2 . 
 
 Divide the solution into two parts. 
 To the first portion, add a few drops of Chlo- 
 rohydric acid ; no precipitate should appear, be- 
 cause Mercuric chloride (HgCl 2 ) is soluble. 
 
 To the second portion, add Chlorohydric 
 acid, and then Ammonic hydrate; a white precipitate (Amido-mercuric 
 chloride, N H 2 Hg Cl) appears. 
 
 FIG. 43. Mercury dissolving 
 in Nitric acid. 
 
THE METALLIC DYADS. SECOND SECTION. 8 1 
 
 192. Mercurous nitrate and its properties. 
 
 Experiment. Dissolve, only partially, a globule of Mercury, by 
 warming it in Nitric acid. Mercurous nitrate is formed, Hg 2 (N O 3 ) 2 . 
 
 Dilute the solution, and then add a little diluted Chlorohydric acid; a 
 white precipitate of Mercurous chloride (Hg. 2 C1 2 ) should appear. Filter, 
 and to the white precipitate on the filter, add Ammonic hydrate ; a black 
 precipitate should be formed Amido-mercurous chloride (N H. 2 Hg 2 Cl). 
 
 193. Metallic Copper precipitates metallic Mercury. 
 
 Experiment. To a solution of Corrosive' sublimate, add a few 
 strips of Copper wire, which have been previously cleaned by immersion, 
 first in Nitric acid and afterward in water ; the wires soon become coated 
 with a film of Mercury, which, if not already bright and silvery, may be 
 made so by gentle rubbing with a cloth. 
 
 Cu 2 4- HgCl 2 = CuHg 4- CuCl 2 . 
 
 Dry the wires with filter-paper; place them in a narrow blow-pipe tube; 
 heat them gently for a short time. The Mercury will volatilize from the 
 Copper in vapors, which will condense to minute globules of liquid Mer- 
 cury in the upper part of the tube. 
 
 194. Metallic Zinc precipitates metallic Mercury. 
 
 Experiment. Try the same ex- 
 periment as 193, only employ Zinc in 
 place of Copper, and observe that the 
 coating of Mercury renders the Zinc 
 very brittle. 
 
 Zn 2 
 
 Zn Hg -f 
 
 195. Mercuric iodide changes 
 in color from salmon to scar- 
 let. 
 
 FIG. 44. Preparation of Mercuric 
 
 ^Experiment. To a solution of iodide. 
 
 Corrosive sublimate, add, carefully, a 
 solution of Potassic iodide. Mercuric iodide (Hg I 2 ) is formed. 
 
 HgCl. 
 
 - 2 K I = 
 F 
 
 HgI 2 
 
 a K Cl. 
 
82 THE YOUNG CHEMIST. 
 
 The Mercuric iodide goes through a series of delicate changes of color, 
 from salmon to scarlet. Strangely enough, the precipitate is soluble in an 
 excess either of Mercuric chloride or of Potassic iodide. 
 
 196. Mercuric sulphide, after some changes of color, 
 becomes black. 
 
 Experiment, To a solution of Corrosive sublimate, add some Sul- 
 phuretted-hydrogen as gas or dissolved in water. Precipitates varying from 
 yellow to black may occur. They all contain more or less Mercuric sul- 
 phide (Hg S). 
 
 HgCl 2 + H, S = HgS + 2HC1. 
 
 Copper, Cu. (Cuprum.} 
 197. Distribution of Copper. 
 
 Copper occurs, in nature, in a great number of forms. 
 Copper pyrites a double sulphide of Copper and Iron 
 is the most important. 
 
 In the arts, next to the metal itself, the most important 
 form is Cupric sulphate (CuSO 4 ), also called Blue vitriol. 
 
 ' 198. Copper pyrites gives off Sulphur, when roasted. 
 
 . Powder a few fragments of Copper pyrites and then 
 heat them in a blow-pipe tube, and observe the Sulphur afforded. 
 
 FlG. 45. Observing the great difference between Copper and Platinum, as t their 
 power of conducting heat. 
 
THE METALLIC DYADS. SECOND SECTION. 83 
 
 199. Metallic copper is a good conductor of heat. 
 
 Experiment* Hold in one hand a small Copper wire, and in the 
 other hand a small Platinum wire; now simultaneously hold in a lamp- 
 flame the disengaged ends of the wires, and observe the difference in the 
 conducting powers of the metals. 
 
 200. Metallic Copper is not easily fusible before the 
 blow-pipe. 
 
 . Try to fuse a fragment of Copper wire before the blow- 
 pipe, and upon a charcoal support. The metal is difficult of fusion. 
 
 201. Metallic Iron precipitates metallic Copper. 
 
 Experiment. To a solution of Cuppic sulphate, add a few drops 
 of Chlorohydric acid.- Now clean an Iron nail, or piece of Iron wire, K " 
 rubbing it with a cloth dipped in Chlorohydric acid. Immerse the 
 Iron in the Copper solution, and allow the whole to stand until a 
 able deposit of metallic Copper appears on the Iron. 
 
 CuSO, 4- Fe Fe S<X Cu. 
 
 202. Copper dissolves slowly in Sulphury acid, giving 
 off fumes of Sulphur di-oxide (SO 2 ). 
 
 Experiment. Add some concentrated Sulphuric acid to some 
 strips of Copper wire. Now heat wiih great care. The Copper dissolves 
 slowly, evolving the choking fumes of Sulphurous anhydride ^HjfSO , 
 
 Cu - 2H 2 SO 4 = CuSO 4 + aH 2 O 
 
 203. Ammonic hydrate is used as a test for Copper. 
 
 Experiment. Dissolve a fragment of Cupric sulphate in water; 
 filter, and to the filtrate add Ammonic hydrate. If a sufficient quantity of 
 the alkali is added, a clear and deep-blue solution is obtained. 4b 
 
 204. Potassic ferro-cyanide is used as a test for Copper. 
 
 Experiment. To a solution of Cupric sulphate add a 
 solution of Potassic ferro-cyanide (K 4 Fe Cy 6 ). A rich brow 
 of Cupric ferro-cyanide appears. (If it is desired to apply th 
 
8 4 
 
 THE YOUNG CHEMIST. 
 
 alkaline solution, Acetic acid in quantity sufficient to neutralize the 
 alkali must first be added.) 
 
 2CuSO 4 -K K 4 FeCy fi = Cu 2 Fe Cy ( 
 
 2K 2 SO 4 . 
 
 205. Sulphuretted-hydrogen is used as a test for 
 Copper. 
 
 Experiment. To a very dilute solu- 
 tion of Cupric sulphate, add Sulphuretted- 
 hydrogen as gas or its solution in water. A 
 black precipitate of Cupric sulphide (Cu S) 
 appears. 
 
 206. A process of testing Cop- 
 per pyrites for Copper. 
 
 Experiment. Grind a few fragments 
 of Copper pyrites to a very fine powder. 
 Place the powder in a test-tube, and after 
 adding a little Aqua-regia, boil for a few 
 minutes. Next, pour both liquid and sedi- 
 ment into a casserole containing water. 
 Warm the solution, and filter it. 
 
 To the clear filtrate, add an excess of Ammonic hydrate. This should 
 precipitate the Iron and some other substances, but should dissolve the 
 Copper. 
 
 Filter/and if the filtrate has a decided blue color, it may be considered 
 as one test for the presence of Copper in the original ore. (See Experi- 
 ment 
 
 -Passing Sulphuretted- 
 gas into a solution 
 Copper. 
 
 Magnesium, Mg. 
 207. Distribution of Magnesium. 
 
 In nature, Magnesium is very abundant. Dolomites 
 (Magnesian limestones) and Soapstones contain it. 
 
 arts, metallic Magnesium, Magnesic sulphate 
 5, MgSO 4 ), and calcined Magnesia (MgO) are 
 
THE METALLIC DYADS. SECOND SECTION. 85 
 
 208. Magnesium wire or ribbon burns with dazzling 
 light. 
 
 Experiment. Hold a fragment of Magnesium wire in a pair of 
 tweezers, and then light the Magnesium in the lamp-flame. A white ash 
 of Magnesic oxide (MgO) is produced by the combustion. 
 
 FIG. 47. Magnesium ribbon burning, and producing Magnesic oxide (Mg O). 
 
 209. Magnesium dissolves easily in acids. 
 
 Experiments. Dissolve one fragment of Magnesium wire in dilute 
 Hblorohydric acid; it forms Magnesic chloride (MgCl 2 ). 
 
 Dissolve another fragment in dilute Nitric acid ; it foi 
 nitrate, Mg (N O 3 ) 2 . 
 
 Dissolve another fragment in dilute Sulphuric acid ; it foi 
 sulphate (MgSO 4 i 
 
 rms^Magm 
 n-ms Magiu 
 
 Mg 
 
 H, S ( 
 
 Mg S 
 
 210. Ammonium salts have the remarkable power of 
 preventing the precipitation of ^Magnesium compounds. 
 
 Experiment. Dissolve some Magnesic sulphate in water, and 
 divide the solution into two parts. 
 
 To theyfrsV part, add Potassic carbonate ; a white precipitate appears. 
 
 MgS0 4 
 
 K.CO. 
 
 MgC O ; 
 
 K 2 S0 4 . 
 
. 
 
 86 THE YOUNG CHEMIST. 
 
 To the second part, add first Ammonic chloride solution in considerable 
 quantity, and then Potassic carbonate; the Ammonic chloride prevents the 
 formation of a precipitate. 
 
 Zinc, Zn. 
 211. Distribution of Zinc. 
 
 In nature, many different ores of Zinc are known. 
 Zinc carbonate (ZnCO 3 ) (Smithsonite) is an example. 
 
 In the arts, metallic Zinc is common ; the name gal- 
 vanized Iron is applied to Iron which has received a 
 thin coating of metallic Zinc. 
 
 2. Metallic Zinc may be made to burn. 
 
 Experiment. Heat a fragment of Zinc before the blow-pipe, on 
 charcoal. The metal actually burns, forming Zinc oxide (Zn. O). 
 
 213. Zinc dissolves easily in acids. 
 
 . Dissolve one fragment of Zinc in dilute Chlorohy- 
 dric acid'| it forms Zinc chloride (Zn C1 2 ). 
 
 Dissolve another fragment in dilute Nitric acid; it forms Zinc nitrate, 
 Zn (N 3 ) 2 . 
 
 Dissolve another fragment in dilute Sulphuric acid ; it forms Zinc 
 sulphate (Zn S O 4 ). (See Experiments 43, 44, and 45.) 
 
 214. Zinc hydrate is precipitated by Sodic hydrate, but 
 it re-dissolves. 
 
 Experiment. Dissolve a small quantity of Zinc sulphate in water; 
 add some solution of Sodic hydrate ; a white precipitate of Zinc hydrate 
 (Zn O 2 H 2 ) appears. Now, add a considerable excess of Sodic hydrate, 
 and the Zinc hydrate dissolves. Reserve this solution for Experiment 215. 
 
 
THE METALLIC DYADS. SECOND SECTION. 87 
 215. Sulphide of Zinc is white. 
 
 Experiment* To the alkaline solution, produced by Experiment 
 214, add Sulphuretted-hydrogen as gas or dissolved in water. A white 
 precipitate of Zinc sulphide (Zn S) should appear. 
 
 FIG. 48. Passing Sulphuretted-hydrogen gas into a solution of Zinc. 
 
 
CHAPTER VI. (Concluded^ 
 
 THE METALLIC DYADS. THIRD 
 SECTION. 
 
 Cobalt and Nickel; 
 
 Iron, Manganese, Chromium; 
 
 (and Aluminum). 
 
 OUTLINE OF THE THIRD SECTION. 
 Cobalt. 
 
 Distribution. 
 
 It forms a black Sulphide ; it gives a blue color to Borax glass. 
 
 Nickel. 
 
 Distribution. 
 
 It is attracted by the magnet. 
 
 It forms a black Sulphide ; it gives a brown color to Borax glass. 
 
 fron. 
 
 Distribution. 
 
 Action of acids on wrought Iron and on cast Iron. 
 
 Distinctive tests for Ferrous and Ferric salts. 
 
 Ferrous compounds give bottle-green colors to Borax glass. 
 
 Manganese. 
 
 Distribution. 
 
 Tests for Manganese. 
 
 Manganous compounds give a purple color to Borax glass. 
 88 
 
 
THE METALLIC DYADS THIRD SECTION. 
 
 8 9 
 
 Chromium. 
 
 Distribution. 
 
 Chromic acid is a powerful oxidizing agent. 
 Chromium compounds give a green color to Borax glz 
 
 (Aluminum. 
 
 Distribution. 
 
 The metal dissolves in alkalies. 
 
 Properties of Alum.) 
 
 THE METALLIC DYADS THIRD SECTION. 
 
 216. The Third Section includes the metals of the fol- 
 lowing table. At different times all except Aluminum 
 are dyads, tetrads, or hexads. Aluminum is usually a 
 tetrad. 
 
 Name. 
 
 Symbol. 
 
 Ordinary condition. 
 
 Color. 
 
 Approximate 
 Atomic weight. 
 
 Cobalt, 
 
 Co, 
 
 solid, 
 
 white, 
 
 59. 
 
 Nickel, 
 
 Ni, 
 
 solid, 
 
 white, 
 
 59. 
 
 Iron, 
 
 Fe, 
 
 solid, 
 
 white, 
 
 56. 
 
 Manganese. 
 
 Mn, 
 
 solid. 
 
 white, 
 
 55. 
 
 Chromium, 
 
 Cr, 
 
 solid. 
 
 gray, 
 
 52.5 
 
 (Aluminum, 
 
 Al, 
 
 solid, 
 
 white, 
 
 = 27.5.') 
 
 
 Cobalt, Co. 
 217. Distribution of Cobalt. 
 
 In nature, Cobalt is of somewhat rare occurrence ; even 
 in the arts it has but few uses. Its principal use is to 
 impart a blue color to glass. 
 
 s * 
 
90 THE YOUNG CHEMIST. 
 
 218. Cobalt forms a black Sulphide. 
 
 Experiment. To a solution of Cobaltous nitrate, add first Ammonic 
 hydrate, and then Sulphuretted-hydrogen as gas or dissolved in water. A 
 black precipitate (Cobaltous sulphide, Co S) is formed. 
 
 Filter, and reserve the precipitate for the next experiment. 
 
 Co(NO 3 ) 2 + H 2 S = CoS -f zHNO v 
 
 219. Cobalt compounds give a blue color to Borax 
 glass. 
 
 . Make a loop in a Platinum wire ; dip the loop into 
 powdered Borax, and then hold it in the lamp-flame. The Borax will lose 
 its water of crystallization, with frothing (see 93). By heating sufficiently, 
 a clear and colorless bead of Borax-glass is prepared. 
 
 Dip the bead into the black precipitate obtained by Experiment 218. 
 Then fuse again in the lamp-flame. The bead should become dark-blue. 
 
 Nickel, Ni. 
 220. Distribution of Nickel. 
 
 Nickel occurs, in nature, in small quantities, but in a 
 number of ores. 
 
 It is widely used in coinage and in Nickel-plating. 
 
 FIG. 49. Metallic Nickel attracted by a magnet. 
 
THE METALLIC DYADS. THIRD SECTION. 9 1 
 
 2*21. Metallic Nickel is magnetic. 
 
 Experiment. Try a fragment of metallic Nickel with a magnet; 
 it is attracted strongly. 
 
 222. Nickel forms a black Sulphide. 
 
 Experiment. Dissolve, in water, a Double sulphate of Nickel and 
 Ammonia (NiSO 4 -f (NH 4 ) 2 SO 4 + 6H 2 O); then add Ammonic 
 hydrate and Sulphuretted-hydrogen as gas, or dissolved in water. A 
 black precipitate (Nickelous sulphide, NiS) is formed. Reserve the 
 precipitate for Experiment 223. 
 
 223. Nickel compounds give a brown color to Borax 
 glass. 
 
 Experiment. Fuse, into a fresh Borax bead, some of the black 
 precipitate obtained by Experiment 222. 
 
 Compounds of Nickel make the bead violet while hot, and brown when 
 cold. 
 
 Iron, Fe. (Ferrum.) 
 221. Distribution of Iron. 
 
 f It is not probable that there exists terrestrial native 
 Iron. But meteorites generally contain metallic Iron. 
 
 Many valuable oxides and other compounds of Iron 
 are found in the earth as ores ; but Iron pyrites (FeS 2 ), 
 although abundant and widely diffused, is an ore that 
 cannot be economically used for the manufacture of Iron. 
 
 In the arts, wrought Iron, Steel, and cast Iron are of 
 immense importance. Ferrous sulphate (FeSO 4 , also 
 called Green vitriol and Copperas) is largely used. 
 
 225. The action of acids on wrought Iron. 
 
 Experiment. Prepare three test-tubes; in them, boil portions of 
 wrought Iron (carpet-tacks) in Chlorohydric acid, in Nitric acid, and in 
 Sulphuric acid respectively. Observe the differences in the action of the 
 solvents. 
 
 Fe - 2HC1 Fed, H 2 . 
 
92 THE YOUNG CHEMIST. 
 
 . The action of acids on cast Iron. 
 
 Experiment. Try an experiment like 225, only use cast Iron 
 turnings in place of wrought Iron. 
 
 227. Iron forms Ferrous and Ferric salts. 
 
 Experiments. (a) Prepare a Ferrous solution by dissolving some 
 clean crystals of Ferrous sulphate (Fe S O 4 ) in water without heating. 
 
 (b] Prepare a Ferric solution by dissolving Ferrous sulphate in hot 
 
 water, and then adding Nitric acid, and finally boiling the whole. Ferric 
 
 sulphate, Fe ,( S O 4 ! 3 . and Ferric nitrate, Fe 2 f N O 3 ) a , are formed. Dilute 
 the solution for subsequent use. 
 
 228. The action of Ammonic hydrate upon Iron solu- 
 tions. 
 
 Experiments. (a) Add Ammonic hydrate to a portion of Ferrous 
 solution. Ferrous hydrate is produced. 
 
 FeS0 4 -f- 2NH 4 OH Fe O 2 H 2 + (N H 4 ) 2 S O 4 . 
 
 (b) Add the same to a portion of Ferric solution. Ferric hydrate is 
 produced. 
 
 Fe 2 (S 4 ) 3 f 6 N H 4 O H = Fe 2 O 6 H 6 + 3 (N H 4 ) 2 S O 4 . 
 
 229. Potassic ferro-cyanide is a test for Ferric salts only. 
 
 Experiments. (a) Add solution 
 of Potassic ferro-cyanide (K 4 Fe Cy 6 ) 
 to a portion of Ferrous solution. A 
 pale bluish- white precipitate is pro- 
 duced. 
 
 (b] Add the same to a portion of 
 Ferric solution. Prussian-blue (Ferric 
 ferro-cyanide) is produced. 
 
 230. Potassic ferri-cyanide is 
 
 FIG. so-Producing Prussian-blue. a tCSt for FerrOUS salts Only. 
 
 Experiments. (a) Add solution 
 
 of Potassic ferri-cyanide (K 3 Fe Cy 6 ) to a portion of Ferrous solution. 
 A deep-blue precipitate, called TurnbulPs blue, is produced. 
 
THE METALLIC DYADS. THIRD SECTION. 
 
 93 
 
 () Add the same to a portion of Ferric solution; a reddish-brown 
 coloration, but no precipitate, is produced. 
 
 231. Potassic sulpho-cyanate is a test for Ferric salts 
 only. 
 
 . (a) Add solution of Potassic Milpho-cyanate (KSCy i 
 to a portion of Ferrous solution. No change of color is produced. 
 
 (6) Add the same to a portion of Ferric solution. A blood-red colora- 
 tion, but no precipitate, is produced. 
 
 232. Metallic Iron is infusible, except at very high 
 temperatures. 
 
 Experiment. Try to fuse 
 fragments of wrought Iron and 
 of cast Iron, respectively, on char- 
 coal. 
 
 233. Ferrous compounds 
 give bottle-green colors to 
 Borax glass. 
 
 Experiment. Fuse, into a 
 Borax bead, a minute fragment of FIG. 51. Testing for Iron by a Borax bead. 
 Ferrous sulphate ; colors are pro- 
 duced varying from yellow or bottle-green to dark-red, according to the 
 conditions of the experiment. 
 
 Manganese, Mn. 
 234. Distribution of Manganese. 
 Perhaps the most common and most useful not 
 
 form of Manganese is Pyrolusite (Manganes 
 MnO 2 ). 
 
 In the arts, it is used in the form* of Manganous sul- 
 phate (MnSO 4 ) and Potassic per-manganate (K^MfljOj). 
 
94 THE YOUNG CHEMIST. 
 
 235. Three tests for Manganese. 
 
 Experiments. (a) To a solution of Manganous sulphate, add Am- 
 monic hydrate, and then Sulphuretted-hydrogen as gas, or dissolved in 
 water; a flesh-colored precipitate of Manganous sulphide is formed (MnS). 
 Upon exposure to air the sulphide becomes brown. Filter, and save the 
 precipitate for Experiment (). 
 
 (b] Dry the precipitate from Experiment (a), and then fuse i^ on a 
 Platinum foil with a mixture of dry Potassic nitrate and Potassic carbonate ; 
 a green salt, Potassic manganate (K 2 Mn O 4 ) is formed. Proceed imme- 
 diately to Experiment (c). 
 
 (c) Place in a test-tube, half-full of water, the product of Experiment 
 (6) both the Platinum and the materials that are upon it. Warm the 
 whole, gently, for a few moments, and then allow it to stand in quiet until 
 the insoluble part subsides; the solution should have a reddish or purple 
 color, owing to the formation of a small quantity of Potassic per-manganate. 
 (This solution should not be filtered through paper; the latter decomposes 
 the Potassic. per-manganate sought.) 
 
 236. Potassic per-manganate (K 2 Mn 2 O 8 ) is a powerful 
 oxidizing agent. 
 
 Experiment. Dissolve some Crystals of Potassic per-manganate in 
 water. To this solution, add a solution of Ferrous sulphate and some 
 Sulphuric acid. 
 
 The Potassic per-manganate oxidizes Ferrous sulphate to Ferric sulphate, 
 itself becoming de-oxidized to Manganous sulphate, and the entire solution 
 thereby becoming nearly or 
 
 237. Manganous compounds give a purple color to 
 Borax glass. 
 
 Experiment. Make a clear and colorless Borax bead on Platinum 
 wire; into this bead fuse some Manganese di-oxide; the bead should 
 acquire a violet or purple color. 
 
 Chromium, Cr. 
 
 238. Distribution of Chromium. 
 
 In nature, the most important form of Chromium is 
 Chrome-iron ore (Ferroso^chromic oxide, FeCr 2 Oj. 
 
THE METALLIC DYADS. THIRD SECTION* 95 
 
 In the arts, Potassic di-chromate (K 2 Cr 2 O 7 ) is its most 
 important form. 
 
 239. Preparation of Chromic acid. 
 
 Experiment, Make a concentrated solution of Potassic di-chromate 
 by boiling some of the powdered salt in a small quantity of water; filter 
 white hot; to the filtrate, add very carefully about its bulk of concen- 
 trated Sulphuric acid. Allow the solution to cool, when dark-red crystals 
 of Chromic acid should appear. 
 
 240. Chromic acid is a powerful oxidizing agent. 
 
 Experiment. Make a solution of a small quantity of Potassic 
 di-chromate; to it, add a small quantity of Sulphuric acid; now add 
 Alcohol, drop by drop, with great care. 
 
 The red color, due to Chromic acid (see Experiment 239), quickly 
 changes to a beautiful green. This change is due to the oxidizing power 4 
 of the Chromic acid, and the reducing action of the Alcohol. The green 
 substance is Chromic sulphate, Cr 2 (S O 4 ) 3 . 
 
 (Proceed to use this product for Experiment 241.1 
 
 24:1. Ammonic hydrate is a test for Chromic salts, but 
 not for Chromates. 
 
 Experiments*. (a) Carefully evaporate, to one-half its bulk, the solu- 
 tion formed by Experiment 240. Dilute the residue with water. To the clear 
 green solution, add Ammonic hydrate. A dull-green precipitate of Chromic 
 hydrate (Cr 2 O 6 H 6 J appears. (The color is recognized after boiling.) 
 
 Cr 2 (S0 4 ) 3 - 6NH 4 OH :. Cr 2 O 6 H c - 3 (NH 4 ) 2 SO 4 . 
 
 (b] To a clear solution of Potassic di-chromate, add Ammonic hydrate. 
 No visible chemical change takes place. 
 
 2-42. Potassic di-chromate is an oxidizing agent. 
 
 Experiment. Make a solution of Potassic di-chromate in water. 
 Pour a few drops of the solution upon a clean filter-paper. Carefully dry 
 the filter-paper over the lamp. When quite dry, apply a burning match to 
 the edge of the paper. It burns steadily, but without flame, and leaves 
 a green tea-like ash. The combustion is assisted by the Oxygen of the 
 
96 THE YOUNG CHEMIST. 
 
 Potassic di-chromate, but it is retarded by the other constituents of the 
 compound. The green color of the ash is due to the formation of some 
 compound of Chromium. 
 
 243. Chromium compounds give a green color to 
 Borax glass. 
 
 Experiment. Make a clear and colorless Borax bead on a platinum 
 wire; into it, fuse a minute crystal of Potassic di-chromate; an emerald- 
 green color is produced. 
 
 Aluminum, Al. 
 244. Distribution of Aluminum. 
 
 Compounds of Aluminum are among the three or four 
 most abundant mineral materials in the earth. Clay, a 
 complex silicate of Aluminum, is an example. 
 
 Alum (Double sulphate of Aluminum and ammonium), 
 A1 2 (SO 4 ) 3 -f (NHJ 2 SO 4 + 24H 2 O, is very largely used in 
 dyeing. The metal Aluminum is slightly used. 
 
 245. Alum easily forms crystals. 
 
 Experiment. Pulverize some Alum. Dissolve a considerable 
 quantity of it, by boiling it in a small quantity of water. Filter, and allow 
 the filtrate to stand at rest for twenty-four hours. The Alum should form 
 crystals upon cooling. 
 
 246. Ammonia may be detected in Alum. 
 
 Experiment. There are many kinds of Alum. Dissolve a frag- 
 ment of ordinary Alum in water. Now test the solution for Ammonia-gas, 
 as described in Experiment 99. The Ammonia-gas will probably be dis- 
 covered, since Ammonia-alum is that generally ysed-tit present. 
 
 247. Aluminic hydrate dissolves in alkalies. 
 
 Experiment. Dissolve a small crystal of Alum in water; add a few 
 drops of solution of Sodic hydrate, and boil ; a flaky precipitate of Aluminic 
 
THE METALLIC DYADS. THIRD SECTION. 
 
 97 
 
 hydrate (A1 2 O 6 H 6 ) appears. Now add considerably more Sodic hydrate, 
 and boil again ; the precipitate is soluble in a considerable excess of the 
 alkali. 
 
 FIG. 52. Crystals of Alum. 
 
 248. Even metallic Aluminum dissolves in alkali. 
 
 Experiment. Boil a fragment of Aluminum in a solution of Sodic 
 hydrate ; it dissolves, evolving Hydrogen gas and producing Sodic alumi- 
 nate (Na 2 Al 2 O 4 ). 
 
 9 G 
 
CHAPTER VII. 
 
 THE METALLIC TRIADS. 
 
 Bismuth and Gold. 
 
 OUTLINE OF THE CHAPTER. 
 Bismuth. 
 
 Distribution. 
 
 The metal is brittle. 
 
 Its solutions give white precipitates by mixture with water. 
 
 Gold. 
 
 Distribution. 
 
 Test for Gold, by producing Purple of Cassias. 
 
 THE METALLIC TRIADS. 
 
 249. The principal metallic triads are the following 
 
 Name. Symbol. Ordinary condition. Color. 
 
 Bismuth, Bi, solid, reddish-white, 210. 
 
 Gold, Au, solid, yellow, 196. 
 
THE METALLIC TRIADS. 
 
 99 
 
 Bismuth, Bi. 
 250. Distribution of Bismuth. 
 
 Bismuth and its compounds are comparatively rare in 
 nature and in the arts. 
 
 % 251. The metal is brittle. 
 
 Experiment. Pulverize a fragment of metallic Bismuth ; observe 
 that it is brittle, while most metals are malleable. 
 
 252. Bismuth dissolves in Nitric acid. 
 
 Dissolve the powder, from Experiment 251, by 
 warming it in dilute Nitric acid. Evaporate 
 the solution to a few drops, and then pour it 
 into a beaker nearly full of cold water; a 
 white precipitate appears (Bismuthyl nitrate, 
 [BiO] N0 3 ). 
 
 253. Bismuthous sulphide is black. 
 
 Experiment. Dissolve Bismuthyl ni- 
 trate (BiONO 3 , Basic Nitrate of Bismuth) 
 in Chlorohydric acid ; then pour the solution 
 into a beaker half-full of cold water ;*a white 
 precipitate of Bismuthyl chloride (Bi O Cl) 
 appears. Add now Sulphuretted-hydrogen 
 as gas, or dissolved in water, when a black 
 
 precipitate of Bismuthous sulphide (Bi 2 S 3 ) will be formed. Filter, and 
 reserve the precipitate. 
 
 FIG. 53. Bismuth dissolving 
 in Nitric acid. 
 
 254. Metallic Bismuth may be produced from its 
 compounds. 
 
 Experiment. Remove from the filter the precipitate obtained by 
 Experiment 253, and then fuse it, on charcoal, with Potassic carbonate. A 
 metallic globule of Bismuth should be obtained. Place it in a mortar, and 
 ascertain whether it is brittle or not. 
 
IOO 
 
 THE YOUNG CHEMIST. 
 
 Gold, Au. (AurumJ 
 255. Distribution of Gold. 
 
 In nature, Gold is generally found in the metallic or 
 uncombined state. Although it is very widely distributed, 
 it is nowhere abundant. 
 
 In the arts, although employed for numberless pur- 
 poses, it is almost invariably used in the metallic state. 
 
 256. Gold is detected by its 
 affording Purple of Cassius, 
 
 Experiment. Dissolve some 
 Gold-leaf as described in Experiment 112. 
 Also, prepare a test-liquid by adding a 
 solution of Stannous chloride to a solu- 
 tion of Ferric chloride. (Ferric chloride 
 may be produced by dissolving a few 
 fragments of fine Iron wire in Chloro- 
 hydric acid, then adding a few drops of 
 Nitric acid, and boiling for a minute.) 
 Now add a few drops of the Gold solu- 
 tion to the test-liquid. A precipitate 
 
 called Purple of Cassius appears ; it varies in color, being brown, blue, 
 purple, or black, according to the conditions under which it is produced. 
 
 FIG. 54. Detecting Gold by pro- 
 ducing Purple of Cassius. 
 
CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 THE METALLIC TETRAD, 
 
 Platinum. 
 
 OUTLINE OF THE CHAPTER. 
 
 Platinum. 
 
 It occludes gases. 
 
 It dissolves in Aqua-regia. 
 
 THE METALLIC TETRAD. 
 
 257. The principal metallic tetrad is the following : 
 
 Name. Symbol. Ordinary condition. Color. Atomic wight. 
 
 Platinum, Pt, solid, white, 197. 
 
 258. Distribution of Platinum. 
 
 In nature, Platinum occurs in the metallic state, in the 
 condition of an alloy with certain other metals. 
 
 In the arts, it has valuable applications ; it is generally 
 used in the metallic form. 
 
 9* 101 
 
102 
 
 THE YOUNG CHEMIST. 
 
 
 
 259. Platinum re-lights an extinguished gas-jet. 
 
 Experiment. Heat a piece of tolerably clean Platinum foil in a 
 Bunsen lamp-flame. Now stop the gas, and soon let it flow anew against 
 the Platinum. The metal quickly becomes red-hot, and often re-lights the 
 gas. The Platinum absorbs, or occludes, upon its surfaces, both the coal- 
 gas and the Oxygen of the air ; the two substances are thus brought within 
 the range of chemical affinity, and so they unite, affording heat and light. 
 
 When illuminating-gas is not at hand, the experiment may be performed 
 as follows : Boil some water in a Casserole or a beaker. Move the lamp 
 to a safe distance. In the hot water, place a small beaker containing 
 alcohol ; the upper part of the beaker soon fills with vapor of alcohol. 
 Now make a coil by winding a Platinum wire, in a close spiral, around a 
 lead-pencil. Heat the spiral in a lamp-flame; then suspend it in the 
 alcohol vapors previously described. The wire should continue to glow, 
 by reason of a slow combustion of the alcohol vapors. 
 
 FIG. 55. Metallic Platinum producing a flameless combustion of Alcohol vapor. 
 
 260. Platinum dissolves in Aqua-regia. 
 
 Experiment. Dissolve a small fragment of Platinum wire in Aqua- 
 regia. Evaporate the solution nearly to dryness; dilute this procruct 
 slightly with water. Add a solution of Ammonic chloride (N H 4 Cl). 
 A yellow crystalline precipitate of Ammonio-platinic chloride appears, 
 (N H 4 ) 2 Pt C1 6 . It proves the presence of Platinum in the solution. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 LIST OF SUPPLIES 
 
 NEEDED FOR THE PERFORMANCE OF THE EXPERIMENTS DESCRIBED IN 
 "THE YOUNG CHEMIST." 
 
 1. Alum, (NH 4 ) 2 S0 4 ,A1 2 (S0 4 ) 3 . 
 
 2. Aluminum, Al. 
 
 3. Ammonic carbonate, (NH 4 ) 2 C O 3 . 
 
 4. chloride, N H 4 Cl. 
 
 5. Antimony, Sb. 
 
 6. Argentic nitrate, Ag N O 3 . 
 
 7. Arsenious oxide, As 2 O 3 . 
 
 8. Baric nitrate, 
 
 Ba(N0 3 ) 2 
 
 9. chloride, 
 
 Ba C1 2 . 
 
 10. Beeswax. 
 
 
 II. Bismuth, 
 
 Bi. 
 
 12. Bismuthyl nitrate, 
 
 Bi N 3 . 
 
 13. Bleaching powder, 
 
 [Ca O 2 C1 2 
 
 14. Borax, 
 
 Na 3 B 4 7 . 
 
 15. Calcic carbonate (marble), 
 
 Ca C O 3 . 
 
 1 6. sulphate, 
 
 Ca S O 4 . 
 
 17. Carbon di-sulphide, 
 
 CS 2 . 
 
 - Charcoal, 
 
 C. 
 
 18. animal, 
 
 C. 
 
 19. Cobaltous nitrate, 
 
 Co (N0 3 ) 2 . 
 
 20. Copper (wire), 
 
 Cu. 
 
 21. pyrites, 
 
 Cu 2 S -f 
 
 22. sulphate, 
 
 Cu S O 4 . 
 
 Ca C1 2 -j- Ca O 2 H 2 ]. 
 
 Fe 2 S 3 . 
 
 i- 
 
 23. Fluor-spar, Ca F1 2 . 
 
 103 
 
IO4 APPENDIX. 
 
 24. Gold-leaf, Au. 
 
 25. Indigo. 
 
 26. Iodine, I. 
 
 27. Iron pyrites, Fe S 2 . 
 
 28. sulphate, Fe S O 4 . 
 
 29. sulphide, Fe S. 
 
 30. (turnings), Fe -f C. 
 31- (wire), Fe. 
 
 32. Lead (sheet), Pb. 
 
 23. acetate, Pb O 2 (C 2 H 3 O) Z ' 
 
 34. nitrate, Pb (N O 3 ) 2 . 
 
 Lime (quick), Ca O. 
 
 35. Lithic carbonate, Li 2 C O 3 
 
 36. Litmus-blocks. 
 
 37. paper. 
 
 38. Magnesium, Mg. 
 
 39. sulphate, Mg S O 4 . 
 
 40. Manganese di-oxide, Mn O 2 . 
 
 41. sulphate, Mn S O 4 . 
 
 42. Mercury (metallic), Hg. 
 
 43. Mercuric chloride, Hg C1 2 . 
 
 44. oxide, Hg O. 
 
 Nickel coin, (Nickel, Copper, Zinc). 
 
 45. metallic, Ni. 
 
 46. double sulphate of, ~) 
 
 and ammonia, } Ni S < + (* H 4 ) 2 S O 4 . 
 
 47. Oxalic acid, H 2 C 2 O 4 -f 2 H 2 O. 
 
 48. Paraffine, 
 
 49. Phosphorus, P. 
 
 50. Potassium, K. 
 
 51. Potassic bromide, K Br. 
 
 52. iodide, K I. 
 
 53. carbonate, K 2 C O 3 . 
 
 54. chlorate, K Cl O 3 . 
 
 55. di-chromate, K 2 Cr 2 O 
 
APPENDIX. 105 
 
 56. Potassic ferro-cyanide, K 4 Fe Cy 6 . 
 
 57. ferri- cyanide, K 6 Fe 2 Cy 12 . 
 
 58. nitrate, K N O 3 . 
 
 59. per-manganate, K 2 Mn 2 O g . 
 
 60. sulpho-cyanate, K S Cy. 
 
 61. Quill. 
 
 62. Sand, Si O 2 . 
 
 63. Shellac. 
 
 Silver coin, (Silver, Copper.) 
 
 64. Sodium, Na. 
 
 65. Sodic chloride, Na Cl. 
 
 66. hydrate, Na O H + Aq. 
 
 67. silicate, Na 2 Si O 3 . 
 
 68. Stannous chloride, Sn C1 2 . 
 
 Starch, C 6 H~ O 5 . 
 
 69. Strontic nitrate, Sr (N O 3 ) 2 . 
 
 Sugar (cane), C 12 H 22 O^. 
 
 70. Sulphur, S. 
 
 Sulphuretted-hydrogen 
 
 water, H 2 S. 
 
 71. Tartar emetic, K Sb O H 2 , O 4 , (C 4 H 2 O 2 ). 
 
 72. Tinfoil, Sn. 
 
 Turpentine, C 10 H 16 . 
 
 73. Zinc sulphate, . Zn S O 4 . 
 
 74. metallic, Zn. 
 
 Acid, Acetic, H O (C 2 H s O). 
 
 - Chlorohydric, H Cl. 
 
 - Nitric, . H N O 3 . 
 
 - Sulphuric, H 2 S O 4 . 
 Alcohol, Ethylic, C 2 H 5 O, H. 
 Ammonic hydrate, N H 4 O H. 
 
IO6 APPENDIX. 
 
 LIST OF APPARATUS 
 
 NEEDED FOR THE PERFORMANCE OF THE EXPERIMENTS DESCRIBED 
 "THE YOUNG CHEMIST." 
 
 3 Beakers (small). 
 
 3 Blocks (of wood ; 3x3x1 inches). 
 
 I Blow -pipe (brass). 
 
 I Casserole (six ounce). 
 
 Corks. 
 
 I Cork (fitted with glass-jet). 
 i Crayon. 
 
 I Crucible (porcelain). 
 25 Filter-papers. 
 i Flask (plain, eight ounce). 
 i (side-neck, two ounce). 
 
 1 Funnel (two inch). 
 
 2 feet Glass tubing (quill size). 
 i Glass rod. 
 
 I Jar (species). 
 
 i Lamp, for alcohol (or for gas ; with tube). 
 
 I Lamp-chimney. 
 
 i Lead cup. 
 
 I Lead post (and rubber-ring). 
 
 I Magnet. 
 
 i Mortar. 
 
 i Platinum foil (one inch square). 
 
 I wire (three inches). 
 
 I Retort (two ounce, tubulated). 
 
 1 Rubber tube. 
 
 12 Test-tubes (plain, five-inch). 
 
 2 ( eight inch). 
 
 I (side-neck, five inch). 
 
 I (hard glass, eight inch). 
 
 i (side-neck, eight inch). 
 
 6 (small, for blow-pipe). 
 
 I Test-tube rack (for twelve tubes). 
 
 I Taper. 
 
 I pair Tweezers. 
 
 i Tripod (or Triangle, or Lamp-stand). 
 
 I Watch-crstal. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 ACID, arsenic, 21. 
 
 arsenious, 21. 
 
 boracic, 46, 47, 48. 
 
 carbonic, 63, 64. 
 
 chloric, 19. 
 
 chlorohydric, 32. 
 preparation of, 32. 
 tests for, 33. 
 
 chlorous, 19. 
 
 chromic, 95. 
 
 fluohydric, 29, 30. 
 
 hypochlorous, 19. 
 
 meta-stannic, 66. 
 
 muriatic, 16. 
 
 nitric, 16, 46, 51, 52. 
 preparation of, 54. 
 tests for, 53, 54. 
 
 oxalic, 62. 
 
 perchloric, 19. 
 
 phosphoric, 46, 55. 
 
 silicic, 65. 
 
 sulphuric, 28, 29, 37, 43-45. 
 Acids, 19. 
 
 haloid, 18. 
 Alcohol, 62. 
 Alum, 96. 
 
 Aluminic silicate, 96. 
 Aluminum, 89, 96. 
 Amidogen, 48. 
 Amido-mercuric chloride, 80. 
 
 -mercurous chloride, 81. 
 Ammonia-gas, 46, 48-50. 
 Ammonic chloride, 49, 50. 
 
 cyanide, 17. 
 Ammonium, 48. 
 
 salts, 50. 
 Anhydrides, 18. 
 Antimonic oxide, 57. 
 Antimonious sulphide, 47, 58. 
 Antimony, 47, 57. 
 
 and potassium, tartrate of, 57. 
 tetroxide, 57. 
 Aqua-regia, 53. 
 
 Argentic bromide, 34. 
 
 chloride, 32. 
 
 iodide, 36. 
 
 nitrate, 32. 
 Argentum, 68. 
 Arsenic, 47, 55. 
 
 white, 55, 56. 
 Arsenious oxide, 55. 
 
 sulphide, 47, 57. 
 Atomic weights (table), 13. 
 Aurum, 100. 
 
 | BARIC chloride, 75. 
 nitrate, 75. 
 sulphate, 75. 
 Barium, 72, 75. 
 Base, 21. 
 Binaries, 17. 
 Black-lead, 60. 
 i Bleaching with sulphur, 43. 
 
 powder, 30, 31, 77. 
 j Blue vitriol, 82. 
 Bone, 54. 
 Borax, 47, 48. 
 Boron, 46, 47. 
 Brimstone, 42. 
 Bromine, 25, 26, 33. 
 preparation of, 34. 
 
 CALCIC carbonate, 77, 78. 
 
 chloride, 77, 78. 
 
 fluoride, 29. 
 
 phosphate, 54. 
 
 sulphate, 78. 
 Calcium. 72. 
 Carbon, 59-61. 
 
 di-oxide, 41, 63, 64. 
 
 mon-oxide, 62. 
 Caustic soda, 71. 
 Chlorates, 42. 
 Chlorine, 25, 26, 30. 
 
 bleaching with, 31. 
 Chlorine, preparation of, 31. 
 
io8 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Chrome-iron ore, 94. 
 
 Hydrogen, compounds of, with nitro- 
 
 Chromium, 89, 94. 
 
 gen, 46, 48. 
 
 Chrome-yellow. 74. 
 
 Hydro-potassic sulphate, 21, 54. 
 
 Cinnabar, 80. 
 
 -sodic sulphate, 32. 
 
 Clav, Q6. 
 
 
 v -' 1 **/ 9 y^** 
 
 Coal, 60. 
 
 ILLUMINATING gas, 61. 
 
 Cobalt, 88, 89. 
 
 Indigo, 45, 51, 61. 
 
 Compound substances, 12. 
 names of, 15. 
 
 Iodine, 25, 26, 35. 
 preparation of, 34. 
 
 Copper, 79, 82, 83. 
 pyrites, 82, 84. 
 Copperas, 91. 
 
 Iron (see Ferrous, etc.), 41, 88, 91. 
 galvanized, 86. 
 magnetic oxide of, 41. 
 
 Corrosive sublimate, 80-82. 
 
 pyrites, 42, 91. 
 
 Cupric ferro- cyanide, 83. 
 sulphate, 82, 83. 
 
 KALIUM, 69. 
 
 sulphide, 84. 
 
 LAUGHiNG-gas, 50. 
 
 Cuprum, 82. 
 
 Lead, 72-75. 
 
 Cyanogen, 17. 
 
 carbonate of, 73. 
 
 
 chloride of, 73. 
 
 DIAMOND, 60. 
 
 chromate of, 74. 
 
 Dolomites, 84. 
 
 iodide of, 74. 
 
 Dyads, metallic, 72, 79, 88. 
 
 nitrate of, 73. 
 
 non-metallic, 37. 
 
 sulphide of, 74- 
 
 
 Lead-post, 8. 
 
 ELEMENTS, 11-14. 
 
 Lime, 77. 
 
 names of, 14. 
 
 chloride of, 30, 31. 
 
 symbols of, 14. 
 
 11 r 
 
 quick, 78. 
 
 table of, 13. 
 
 -water, 64. 
 
 Epsom salts, 84. 
 
 Limestone, 77. 
 
 Ethylene, 61, 62. 
 Etching with fiuohydric acid, 30. 
 
 Lithium, 67, 68, 71. 
 Litmus, 43. 
 
 FERRIC compounds, 92, 93. 
 
 MAGNESIA, 84. 
 
 Ferroso-chromic oxide, 94. 
 
 Magnesic sulphate, 84. 
 
 Ferrous compounds, 92, 93. 
 
 Magnesium, 79, 84, 85. 
 
 nitro-sulphate, 53. 
 
 Manganese. 88, 93. 
 
 sulphide, 45. 
 
 di-oxide, 31, 34, 39, 40. 
 
 Ferrum, 91. 
 
 Manganous chloride, 34. 
 
 Fluorine, 25, 26, 29. 
 
 sulphate, 93. 
 
 Fluor-spar, 29. 30. 
 
 Marble, 63, 77. 
 
 
 Marsh-gas, 16, 61. 
 
 GALENA, 16, 73. 
 
 Mercuric chloride, 17, 80. 
 
 Glass, 65. 
 
 iodide, 81. 
 
 Gold, loo. 
 
 nitrate, 80. 
 
 injured by mercury, 80. 
 
 oxide, 39. 
 
 Graphite, 60. 
 
 sulphide, 80, 82. 
 
 Green fire, 76. 
 
 Mercurous chloride, 17, 8l. 
 
 Gum-shellac, 76, 77. 
 
 nitrate, 8l. 
 
 
 Mercury, 79-81. 
 
 HARTSHORN, spirits of, 49. 
 
 red oxide of, 39. 
 
 Heavy-spar, 75. 
 
 Metallic dyads, 72, 79, 88. 
 
 Hydrargyrum, 80. 
 
 monads, 67. 
 
 Hydrogen, 25-29. 
 
 tetrad, 101. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 109 
 
 Metallic triads, 98. 
 Meteorites, 91. 
 Methyl hydride, 61. 
 Mixture (defined), 12. 
 Monad, definition of, 25. 
 Monads, metallic, 67. 
 non-metallic, 25. 
 
 NATRIUM, 71. 
 Nickel, 88, 90. 
 Nitrates, 41, 48. 
 Nitric anhydride, 50. 
 Nitrogen, 46-48. 
 
 and oxygen, compounds of, 46, 50. 
 
 compounds of, with hydrogen, 
 46, 48. 
 
 di-oxide, 50, 51. 
 
 pentoxide, 50. 
 
 protoxide, 50. 
 
 tetroxide, 50, 51. 
 
 tri-oxide, 50. 
 Nitrous anhydride, 50. 
 Nomenclature, II, 14. 
 Notation, n, 14. 
 
 OLEFIANT gas, 61, 62. 
 Oxygen, 37-42. 
 
 and nitrogen, compounds of, 46, 
 50- 
 
 PAPER, 44. 
 
 Paraffine. 61. 
 
 Phosphoric anhydride, 55. 
 
 oxide, 55. 
 
 Phosphorus, 46, 47, 54. 
 Photographic " proof," 32. 
 Plaster of Paris, 78. 
 Platinum, 29, 101. 
 Plumbago, 60. 
 Plumbic acetate, 45. 
 
 carbonate, 73. 
 
 chloride, 73. 
 
 chromate, 74. 
 
 iodide, 74. 
 
 nitrate, 73. 
 
 sulphate, 43. 
 
 sulphide, 16.. 45, 73, 74. 
 Plumbum, 73. 
 Potassic arsenate, 21. 
 
 bromide, 33. 
 
 carbonate, 63, 69, 70. 
 
 chlorate, 20. 39, 40, 42, 69, 70, 
 76,77. 
 10 
 
 Potassic chlorite, 20. 
 
 di-chromate, 69, 70, 71, 95. 
 
 ferro- cyanide, 83. 
 
 ferri-cyanide, 92. 
 
 hydrate, 27, 69. 
 
 hypochlorite, 20. 
 
 iodide, 34-36, 81. 
 
 nitrate, 41, 48, 60, 69, 70. 
 
 oxide, 27. 
 
 perchlorate, 20. 
 
 per-manganate, 93, 94. 
 
 sulpho-arsenate, 21. 
 
 sulpho-cyanate, 93. 
 Potassium, 26, 27, 67-69. 
 Prefixes, 18. 
 Priestley, Dr., 39. 
 Prussian blue, 92. 
 Purple of Cassius, 100, 
 Pyrolusite, 93. 
 
 QUARTZ, 64'. 
 Quicklime, 78, 
 Quill, 51. 
 
 RADICLES, compound, 17. 
 Red-fire, 77. 
 Rock crystal, 65. 
 salt, 71. 
 
 SALT, common, 30. 
 Salts, 20. 
 
 acid, 21. 
 
 basic, 21. 
 
 haloid, 18. 
 
 normal, 21. 
 
 sulphur, 21. 
 Saltpetre, 48. 
 Sand, 64, 65. 
 Selenium, 37. 
 Sheet-tin, 66. 
 Silicates, 65. 
 Silicic fluoride, 30. 
 
 oxide, 30, 65. 
 Silicon, 59, 60, 64. 
 Silver, 67, 68. 
 Smithsonite, 86. 
 Snow-crystals, 26. 
 Soap-stone, 84. 
 Soda-ash, 71. 
 Sodic carbonate, 71. 
 
 chloride, 30, 71. 
 
 hydrate, 27, 71. 
 
 oxide, 27. 
 
no 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Sodic silicate, 65. 
 
 stannate, 66. 
 
 Sodium, 27, 28, 67, 68,71. 
 Stannic oxide, 66. 
 Stannous chloride, 66. 
 
 sulphide, 66. 
 Stannum, 66. 
 Starch, 35, 36, 44, 60, 62. 
 
 iodide of, 36. 
 Stibium, 57. 
 Stibnite, 57. 
 Strontic chloride, 76. 
 
 nitrate, 76, 77. 
 
 sulphate, 76. 
 Sugar, 44, 62. 
 Sulphur, 37,38,41,42. 
 Sulphuretted-hydrogen, 37, 45. 
 Sulphurous anhydride, 83. 
 
 di-oxide, 41, 43, 83. 
 Sunlight on silver salts, 32. 
 Supports for apparatus, 9. 
 Symbols, literal, 14, 16. 
 
 graphic, 15, 1 6, 22, 23. 
 
 glyptic, 15, 17. 
 
 of acids, 22, 23. 
 
 of compounds, 16, 17, 22, 23. 
 
 of salts, 22, 23. 
 
 TARTAR-emetic, 57. 
 Teachers, hints to, 7. 
 Tellurium, 37. 
 Ternary compounds, 91. 
 Tetrads, metallic, 101. 
 
 non-metallic, 59. 
 Tin, 59, 60, 66. 
 Tin crystals, 66. 
 Titanium, 59, 60. 
 Triads, metallic, 98. 
 
 non-metallic, 46. 
 Turnbull's blue, 92. 
 Turpentine, 61. 
 
 VITRIOL, blue, 82. 
 green, 91. 
 oil of, 30. 
 
 WHITE arsenic, 55, 56. 
 
 lead, 73. 
 Wood, 60. 
 
 ZINC, 28, 79, 80, 86. 
 carbonate of, 86. 
 sulphate, 29. 
 sulphide, 87. 
 

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 Percy, John. Metallurgy. London. 1861. pp. 634. 
 Iron and Steel. London. 1864. pp. 934. 
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 Fuel, etc. London. 1875. PP- 59 6 - 
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 Johnson, Samuel W. How Crops Feed. New York. 1870. pp. 375. 
 
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 Stewart, Balfour. Lessons in Elementary Physics. London. 1870. 
 
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 Stewart, Balfour. An Elementary Treatise on Heat. London. 1871. 
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 Cooke, Josiah P. Elements of Chemical Physics. Boston. 1860. 
 
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 Ganot, A. Traite de Physique experimentale et appliquee. Paris. 
 
 1859. 8th ed. pp. 825. ($2.80.) 
 
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 New York. 1873. pp. 225, 316. (#4.) 
 
 Roscoe, Henry E. Spectrum Analysis. Six lectures delivered in 1868. 
 
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 Tyndall, John. Heat as a Mode of Motion. New York. 1865. pp. 480. 
 
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 Sprague, John T. Electricity. Its Theory, Sources and Application. 
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 Barnard, Frederick A. P. The Metric System of Weights and Mea- 
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 Davies, Charles. The Metric System considered with reference to its in- 
 troduction into the United States. New York. 1874. pp. 349. 
 
 (This work contains a reprint of John Quincy Adams's Report on Weights and Mea- 
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