THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA RIVERSIDE A MANUAL OF * THE GEOLOGY OF INDIA. PART II ! EXTRA-PENINSULAR AREA, CONTENTS. PART II. CHAPTER XIX. EXTRA-PENINSULAR AREA. BIND. (W. T. B.) Sub -division of the Extra-Peninsular area 445 I. SIND : Physical geography of West- ern Sind 446 Rock formations . . . . 447 Cretaceous beds , 448 Paleontology 449 Deccan trap 450 Ranikot group . . . . . 451 Palaeontology ' 452 Cretaceous and lower tertiary rocks of Baluchistan 453 Khirthar group ..... 456 Palaeontology . . . . .458 Nari group . 459 Palaeontology 461 Gaj group 463 Palaeontology 465 Manchhar group 466 Relations to Makran group . . . 470 Palaeontology of Mauchhar group . 471 Post-tertiary beds . . . . 473 Additional notes on Sind tertiary series 473 Absence ' of general breaks below pliocene 474 Great post-pliocene disturbance . . 474 Alternation of marine and freshwater beds .475 CHAPTER XX. EXTRA-PENINSULAR AREA. THE PUNJAB HILLS WEST OF THE JHELUM. (W. T. B.) FA OB Physical geography .... 477 Geological data . . . . . 479 General geological features . . . 480 Rock-groups of Salt Range . . . 481 Rock -groups of Hazara and the North- ern Punjab 483 Abnormal boundary of upper tertiaries . 483 Azoic and I'alieozoic rocks of Salt Range, &c. ..... 485 Salt marl 486 Purple sandstone 488 Silurian (?) 438 Magnesian sandstone .... 489 Speckled sandstone .... 489 Carboniferous 489 Mesozoic rocks of Salt Range, &c. : Ceratite beds 403 Pseudoinorphic salt-crystal zone . . 494. Jurassic or variegated group . . 495 Cretaceous (neocoiniau) . . . 41)6 Olive group . . . . 406 . CONTENTS. CHAPTER XXI. EXTRA-PENINSULAR AREA. THE PUNJAB HILLS WEST OF THE JHELUM Continued. (w. T. B.) Palaeozoic and mesozoic rocks of North- ern Punjab 498 Crystalline and metainorphic . . 498 Schistose series 499 Attock slates . . ' . ... 499 Carboniferous and infra-triassic . . 501 Trias (including Rha3tic) . . .501 Jurassic : Spiti shales .... 502 Gieumal sandstone . . . .503 Cretaceous 503 Tertiary beds of Punjab generally . 504 Thickness of tertiary series . . . 504 Distribution of eocene beds . : . 505 Mari and Bhugti hills . . . .505 Suleman range near Dera Ghazi Khan . 505 Chichali Hills and Salt Range . . 506 Kohat district 507 Salt and gypsum ..... 508 Clays, limestones, and sandstones above the salt 509 Northern Potwar and Murree Hills . 509 Hill nummulitic limestone of Northern Punjab .511 Upper tertiaries, Siwaliks, $c. . . 512 Distribution 513 Paleontology 514 Post- pliocene deposits of Northern Punjab 515 Erratics .515 Indus floods . . . . . .516 Fossil shells . . 516 CHAPTER XXII. EXTRA-PENINSULAR AREA. SUB-HIMALAYAS. (H. B. M.) Scanty materials . . ... Provisional limits of Himalayan region Map General features . . ... Three main divisions .... THE SUB-HIMALAYAS. Provisional conclusions General features . Early views on Sub-Himalayas . . General range of these deposits . Classification . . . . Petrology .' Chiefly of freshwater origin Structural conditions' . Faults Flexures Middle and terminal Sub-Himalnyan regions The Simla region . Order of description . THE SlRMUB AREA PASB 517 518 519 519 519 520 521 521 522 523 524 525 526 526 528 528 529 530 530 PAGB 530 Unity of the formation Subathu, Dagshai, and Kasauli groups . 530 Relation to the older rocks . Section at Subathu .... Limits of the Sirrnur area . Easternmost outlier of the nummulitic group SlWALIK SERIES : NAHAN AREA . The Nahan-Sivvalik boundary The Nahan-Sirmur boundary THE JUMNA- GANGES AREA . Composition in relation to the great rivers Identification of beds in the two zones . Suggested connection of the two zones in this area 542 THE GAHBWAL AND KTTMAUN AREA . 543 NEPAL AREA 543 SIKKIM AND BHUTAN AREAS . . 545 UPPER ASSAM AREA .... 545 532 533 534- 534 535 537 539 541 541 541 CONTEXTS. CHAPTER XXIII. EXTRA-PENINSULAR AREA. SUB-HIMALAYAS continued. (H. B. M.) TERMINAL SUB-HIMALAYAS : KANQBA ABEA ...... General structure .... The Ghambar-Basauli fault . . The Kosari and Badsar-Nurpur faults Extinction of the Nahan-Siwalik boundary ..... The Sutlej at Bubhor . . . . Extinction of the Nahan-Sirinur bound- ary ....... Difficulties of classification in the Kangra area ..... 554 Bubhor and Belaspur sections compared 555 Doubtful beds in the Sirnmr zone Want of fossils The base of the Dhauladhar range The Mandi rock-salt . . . North-western termination of the Kangra area ..... 559 Special feature ..... 560 Sirmur zone at the Ravi . . .560 Western expansion of Sirmur zone . 561 Inliers ...... 562 Characters of the Subathu group . 562 Relation of tertiary to palaeozoic rocks 563 547- 548 548 549 550 551 552 556 557 557 558 Comparison with sections of Simla region Doubtful newer rocks of the Sirmur Other general features of. Sirmur zone The Siwalik-Sirmur boundary The Basauli-Naushera fault . . Kiassi conglomerates .... The outer Siwalik'zone SUMMARY 1. Special Himalayan disturbance altogether post-eocene . 2. Eocene Himalayan land 3. Doubtful extension over the Lower Himalayan area .... 4. Actual Himalayan border defined in middle tertiary times 5. Its partial extension to the north- 6. Himalayan river-gorges in Siwalik times same as now 7. Extreme slowness of disturbing . action . . 8. Elevation preceded compression 564 564 566 567 567 568 568 569 569 569 570 570 570 570 571 CHAPTER XXIV. EXTRA-PENINSULAR AREA. SIWALIK FAUNA. (w. T. p.) PAGK The later tertiary vertebrate fauna . 572 Siwalik mollusca . . . . 576 ' Homotaxis of mammalia . . . 576 Reptilian evidence .... 580 Siwulik fauna probably pliocene . . 580 Stratigraphical evidence of age of Siwa- liks 581 Survival of miocene forms in Siwalik beds '582 Pliocene fauna of Pikermi in Attica . 583 PAGE Migration . . ,' . . 584 Effects of change of climate . . 585 Comparative poverty of recent mam- malian faunas 586 Relations of Siwalik to Perim Island fauna ' . .588 Comparison with Irawadi fauna . . 588 Comparison of Siwalik and recent faunas . 589 CONTENTS. CHAPTER XXV. EXTRA-PENINSULAR AREA. LOWER HIMALAYAS. (H. B. M.) Limits 592 General features 593 The terminal area .... 694 Classification of rocks .... 595 Correlation of groups . . . .595 The gneissic series .... 596 The. slate series 598 The Infra-Blaini rocks (Simla slates) . 599 The Blaini group 599 Infra-Krdl group 600 The Krdl group ... . . .601 The relations of the slate and gneissic series ...... 601 Special inetmorphism and disturbance . 605 Trappean rocks 606 The Chor mountain . . . .607 South-east of Simla .... 608 Kumaun and Garhwal .... 609 Nepal 611 The Sikkim area 612 The Darjiling gneiss .... 614 The Daling series . . . .614 The Damuda series .... 615 Relations of the three series in Sikkim 615 The Bhutan horder : Buxa series . . 618 The Dikrang section . . . .620 Summary 620 CHAPTER XXVI. EXTRA-PENINSULAR AREA. CENTEAL (TIBETAN) HIMALAYAS. (H. B. ii.) PAGE Data available . . . . . 622 Classification of rocks . . w .623 General structure and distribution . 624 The main gneissic axis . . . 624 The Ladak axis 625 The Hundes and Zanskar synclinal . 625 The Karakoram synclinal and Kuenlun axis . . . . . *. 626 The Kashmir synclinal . . . 626 Position of the tertiary formations . 626 Gneiss of two ages . . . . 626 The central gneiss .... 627 Mineral character .... 627 Stratigraphical relation . . . 628 Relations defined only in the middle Himalayas 628 PAGB The granitic axis . . . .629 Terminal extensions of the central gneiss 630 The Zanskar gneissic range . . . 630 The Pir Panjal gneissic chain . . 631 The Dhauladhar gneissic range . . 632 The newer gneiss .... 633 The chief sedimentary basins . . 633 The formations of the Zauskar area . 635 Palaeozoic series 638 South-west boundary . . . ' . 639 South-east boundary .... 639 The liupshu nietamorphics . . . 640 North boundary with tertiary rocks . 640 The secondary series . . . . 641 The tertiary series .... 643 CONTENTS. CHAPTER XXVII. EXTRA-PENINSULAR AREA. CENTRAL (TIBETAN) HIMALAYAS continued. (n. B. jr.) PA6B The Hundes or Ngari-Khorsum area . 646 Stratigraphical series of Niti in Hun- des 647 The tertiary eruptive rocks of Hundes . 650 The sedimentary tertiary rocks of Hundes ...... 651 The Karakoram area .... 652 The Ladak gneiss . . . , . 652 The eastern section of the Karakoram basin 653 The Karakoram section" . . . 654 The Kuenlun range .... 655 The Suket pass section . , .656 The Yangi pass section . . . 656 The Pamir section . . . .657 The Kashmir-Pangi area . . .658 Triassic rocks of Kashmir . . .659 P.4GB Carboniferous rocks of Kashmir . . 660 Silurian rocks of Kashmir . . 6P>2 The Pangi hasin 664 The Pir Panjal chain . . . .665 One-sidedness of mountain structure . 667 Post-tertiary and recent formations . 667 Sub-Himalayan high-level gravels . 668 Glacial evidence in Tibet . . .669 The Hundes hike-basin . . . 670 Lingzhfthang and Knenlun lake-basins 671 Tso Moriri and other basins . . 671 Alluvial deposits of Tibet . . .672 The Kashmir basin . . . .672 The Nepal valley . . . 674 Other lakes 675 Drainage lines 675 Summary 679 CHAPTER XXVIII. EXTRA-PENINSULAR AREA. THE ASSAM RANGE. (H. B. M.) Area to be described . Formations present General structure The Sylhet trap . . . . The cretaceous series : Khasi area Cretaceous series : Garo area Cretaceous series : Mikir area . . Nummulitic series : Khasi area . 687 PAGH Nummulitic series : Garo area . . 695 Eastern extension of the nunimulitics . 696 The upper tertiaries .... 696 The Assam coal-fields .... 699 General structure .... 700 The Disang group . . . .701 The coal measures .... 701 Tipam and Dehing groups . . . 702 CHAPTER XXIX. EXTRA-PENINSULAR AREA. BURMA. (W. T. B.) Area and physical geography Geological data . PAS* . 704 Rock -groups 706 j Metamorphic rocks 70(> 707 CONTENTS. PAGB Mergui group 708 Maulmain group ..... 709 Axial (triassic) group . . . .710 Mai-i (cretaceous) group . . . 711 Supposed cretaceous coal in Tenas- serim 712 713 714 715 717 718 Pegu group 719 Newer tertiary beds in Arakan . . 721 Negrais rocks . Serpentine Nummulitic group Arakan Coal-bearing rocks of Tenasserim Pliocene fossil-wood group . . . 721 Tertiaries of Upper Burma . . . 724 Extinct volcano of Puppa . . . 725 Trachyte in Soutb- Western Pegu . 725. Post-tertiary deposits : laterite . . 726 Older alluvial sands and gravels . . 726 Delta- of Irawadi 727 Littoral concrete of Arakan coast . 729 Mud volcanoes of Ramri, &c. . . 729 Islands in the Bay of Bengal . . 732 Andaman Islands .... 732 Nicobar Islands 734 Barren Island and Narcondam . . 735 Extra-Peninsular.] SUB-DIVISION OF THE EXTRA-PENINSULAR AREA. 445 CHAPTER, XIX. EXTRA-PENINSULAR AREA. Sub-division of the extra-peninsular area : I, SIND Physical geography of Western Sind Rock formations Cretaceous beds Deccan trap Ranikot group Palaeonto- logy Cretaceous and lower tertiary beds of Baluchistan Khirthar group Palae- ontology Nari group Palaeontology Gaj group Palaxntology Manchhur group Relations to Makraii group of Baluchistan Palaeontology of Manchhar group Post-tertiary beds Additional notes on Sind tertiary series Absence of general breaks below pliocene Great post-pliocene disturbance Alternation of marine and fresh-water beds. Sub-division of the extra-peninsular area. The distinctions in geological characters between the peninsular and extra-peninsular areas of India have already been explained, and the reasons for treating the two regions separately have been sufficiently stated in the intro- ductory chapter ; whilst the descriptions of the tertiary, and still more of the post-tertiary, formations of the Peninsula furnish a natural passage to the extra-peninsular area. This is geologically an intrinsic portion of the Asiatic continent, whilst peninsular India is not. Imperfect as is our knowledge of the geology of the Indian Penin- sula, our acquaintance with the geological structure of the mountain ranges west of the Indus, of the Himalayas, and of the countries east and north- east of the Bay of Bengal, is even more fragmentary. Occasionally wide areas intervene, such as Nepal and the outer hills of the Afghan high- lands, from which Europeans are rigidly excluded, and, even when no political difficulties exist, the physical impediments to surveying are of the most serious description. Many parts of the mountainous barrier which almost surrounds India are, from their great elevation and rigor- ous climate, only habitable for a short period of the year, and even then their exploration is a matter of difficulty ; population is sparse, and roads either difficult or wanting throughout the whole tract. To the eastward, in the damper regions of Assam, Sylhet, and Burma, the dense- ness of the forest throughout nearly the whole of the country, and the impenetrable undergrowth of creepers, canes, bamboos, and shrubs, render the examination of the rocks toilsome, tedious, and unsatisfactory. To crown the whole, throughout extra-peninsular India, with the exception of Sind and the Panjab, the geology is greatly obscured by the disturbance and, in many parts, the metamorphism which the rocks have undergone. 446 GEOLOGY OF INDIA SIND. [Chap. XIX. Owing to these various drawbacks, it is not practicable to treat the geology of extra-peninsular India as has been done in the case of the peninsular area, and to describe each formation throughout the whole region by itself. Having to deal with fragmentary and isolated observa- tions, varying greatly in their amount of detail, it appears best to take each geological tract separately ; and this arrangement is facilitated by the fact that there is a wide distinction between different parts of the region, both in the formations represented, and in the physical features of the geology, such as the directions of the mountain chains. The plan that will be adopted in describing the extra-peninsular tracts will be to commence at the west with Sind, as the rocks of that province are not only closely connected with the tertiary formations of Cutch and Katty- war, described in the fourteenth chapter, but are also of importance as affording a better series of the tertiary beds, so widely developed in extra-peninsular India, than is known elsewhere in Southern or South- Eastern Asia. The following regions will therefore be separately described : I. Sind. II. Panjab hills west of the Jhelum. IV. Assam, Sylhet, Chittagong, &c. V. Burma. III. Himalayas. I. SIND : Physical geography of Western Sind. The greater part of the province of Sind is included in the Indo-Gangetic plain, already described in Chapter XVII; Eastern Sind, beyond the limits of the Indus alluvium, consists chiefly of sand-hills, and the rock area of the province is almost limited to the ranges of hills on the w r estern or Baluchistan frontier, and a few isolated ridges in the alluvium ; the most important exposures amongst the latter being those near Sukkur (Sakhar) and Rohri (Roree). The province is commonly divided into Upper and Lower Sind, the former lying north, the latter south of Sehwan. Upper Sind consists of a bread alluvial plain on both sides of the river, interrupted near Suk- kur and Kohri by the ridges of limestone already mentioned, and bounded to the westward by a north and south mountain chain, known as the Khirthar, l forming the boundary between Sind and Baluchistan, and rising in places to 6,000, and even in one spot to 7,000, feet above the sea. Lower Sind, west of the Indus, consists of a series of parallel north and south ridges of no great height, seldom exceeding 2,000 feet above the sea, but much loftier to the north than to the south, where they almost disappear in an undulating plain near the coast. Many of 1 This range in all the older maps is united with other hills on the western border of Sind, and the whole is called the Hala range. No such range is recognised in the country. There is a Hala pass, not in the Khirthar range, hut in another much smaller ridge south of Sehwan. Extra-Peninsular. ] ROCK FORMATIONS. 447 these ridges are simple anticlinals, the axes being formed of the massive nummulitic limestone of which the highest portion of the Khirthar also consists. The Khirthar range terminates in Lower Sind some distance south of Sehwan ; other ridges, however, Loth east and west of this main range, extend farther to the south. East of the Indus there is an isolated low range of limestone hills, on the northern extremity of which stands the town of Hyderabad, and there is another similar rise at Tatta. The hills of Baluchistan, west of Sind, are very imperfectly known ; for some distance from the Sind frontier they form ranges running north and south parallel to the Khirthar, but farther west they assume an east and west direction. They are principally composed of tertiary rocks, like the hills of Sind, but at Kelat itself, and in a few other localities, older formations have been discovered, 1 and some apparently extensive igneous rocks also occur. Rock formations. The rocks found in Sind, 2 as already noticed, belong chiefly to the tertiary epoch, but in one locality some cretaceous beds crop out from beneath the higher formations. The following is a list of the different groups, exclusive of the alluvium : Name. Sub-divisions. Approximate thickness. Supposed geological age. Remarks. r upper . . 5,000 pliocene. Apparently represent- 1. MAXCHHAB ative of the Siwa- lower , . 3,000 to 5,000 lower pliocene or liks proper. upper miocene. 2. GAJ . 1,000 to 1,500 miocene. r upper . . 4,000 to 6,000 lower miocene ? 3. NAIII . I lower . . 100 to 1,500 upper eocene. f upper . . 500 to 3,000 eocene. Nnminulitic lime- 4. KHIBTHAB .j (. lower . 6,000? eocene. stone. The base not deter- mined. 5. RANIKOT . 2,000 lower eocene. 6. TBAPS . 40 to 90 upper cretaceous. Representative of Dec- a. Cardita ) can and Malwa trap. Beaumonti 350 to 450 ?. CBETACEOUS beds b. Sandstones ) 700 cretaceous. c. Hippuritic limestone 320 . Base act exposed. 1 Cook, Trans. Med. Phys. Soc, Bombay, 1860, VI, pp. 1,45 ; Carter, Jour. Bombay Br. R. A. S., VI, p. 184. It is possible that some of the igneous rocks described as occurring may be interstratified and representative of the Deccan trap, as in Sind. - This description is taken partly from the accounts of Sind geology given in Rec. G. S. I., IX, pp. 8 22, XI, pp. 161 173, and partly from manuscript notes. Some details were given previously, Mem. G. S. I., VI, pp. 112. The earliest description of the geology of Sind was by Vicary, Q. J. G. S., 1847, p 334. The fossils obtained by Vicary and others were described in Messrs. D'Archiac and Haime's great work, the " Description des auimaux fossiles du groupe Nummulitique de 1'Inde, " published in 1853. 448 GEOLOGY OF INDIA-SIND. [Chap. XIX, Of these rocks, the lower Khirthars and the Ranikot beds may be, to some extent, representative of each other. On the river Gaj, which traverses the Khirthar range in Upper Sind, a thickness of at least 25,000 feet of strata is exposed, none of the fossiliferous beds being of older date than eocene ; but some of the rocks towards the base of the section beyond the Sind frontier correspond so well with the description given by Dr. Cook of strata in which he found mesozoic fossils (Ammonites, &c.) in Kelat, that these bottom beds on the upper Giij, which are only seen west of the British frontier, may very probably be of cretaceous age. There is, however, no resemblance between any of the lower beds on the Gaj and the cretaceous rocks of the Laid range. Cretaceous beds. The only locality in Sind, in which beds of older date than eocene have been identified, is in a range of hills running due south from the neighbourhood of Sehwan, and generally known to Europeans as the Laid range, 1 from the small town of Laki near the northern extremity. South-west of Amri on the Indus, a number of very dark-coloured hills are seen in this range ; they contrast strongly with the cliffs of grey and whitish nummulitic limestones behind them. These dark hills consist of cretaceous beds, but the lowest member of the series is only exposed in a single spot, at the base of a hill known as Barrah, lying about 10 miles south-west of Amri. The whole range here consists of three parallel ridges, the outer and inner composed of tertiary rocks ; while the intermediate one consists of cretaceous beds, faulted to the eastward against the lower eocene strata and dipping under them to the westward. Close to the fault some whitish limestone is found, compact and hard ; the lower portion pure ; the upper portion, often con- taining ferruginous concretions, is sandy, gritty, and forms a passage into the overlying sandstones. The base of this limestone is not seen ; the whole thickness exposed is a little over 300 feet, and the length of the outcrop does not exceed half a mile. The limestone is fossiliferous, and contains echinoderms and mollusca, but it is so hard and homogeneous that nothing that has been obtained from it can be easily recognised, except one frag- ment of a hippurite. This fossil is, however, of great importance, because it shews that the white limestone may very probably be an eastern representative of the hippuritic limestone, so extensively developed in Persia, and found in numerous localities 2 from Tehran to east of 1 This range has no general name, different portions being known hy a numher of local terms. It is one of the ranges which combines to form the Hala range of Vicary and other writers, and the name is less inappropriate in this case, for there is an unimportant pass through the chain known as the Hala Lak. Different portions of the range are known as Tiy fin, Kara, Eri, Surjana, &c. The range is very incorrectly represented on the maps. 2 Eastern Persia, II, pp. 457, 485. Extra-Peninsular.] CRETACEOUS BEDS. 44.9 Karman in longitude 58, just ten degrees west of the Laid range in Sind. Of course the same formation may be found in the intervening country, the geology of which is unknown. The precise position of the Persian hippuritic limestone in the cretaceous series has not been deter- mined, but the European formation, which is very similar and probably identical, is of the age of the lower chalk (turonian). The sandstones resting on the hippuritic limestone occupy a consider- able tract around Barrah hill, and extend for about 3 miles from north to south. They are also seen at Jakhmari to the northward, and in one or two other places in the neighbourhood. They are gritty and conglo- meratic, frequently calcareous, and contain a few bands of shale, usually of a red colour. The prevailing colour on the weathered surface's is dark brown or purple, many of the beds being highly ferruginous. On the top ( f the sandstones is a thick bed of dark-coloured impure limestone, contain- ing oyster shells, and occasionally large bones, apparently of reptiles ; none, however, have been found sufficiently well preserved for identification. In one place a bed of basalt, about 40 feet thick, has been found inter- stratified in the sandstones, and it is possible that the band may exist elsewhere, but it has hitherto remained undetected. The position of this bed of basalt on the face of a hill called Bor, about 13 miles north of Ranikot, is at an elevation of 300 or 400 feet above the base of the sandstones, and about twice as much beneath the main band of inter- bedded trap, to be described presently. The highest sub-division of the cretaceous formation consists of soft olive shales and sandstones, usually of fine texture. The sandstone beds are thin, and frequently have the appearance of containing grains of de- composed basalt or some similar volcanic rock, or else fine volcanic ash. A few hard bands occur, and occasionally, but rarely, thin layers of dark olive or drab impure limestone. Gypsum is of common occurrence in the shales. Palaeontology. The olive shales are highly fossiliferous, the com- monest fossil being CarcUta deaumonti, 1 a peculiar, very globose species, truncated posteriorly, and most nearly allied to forms found in the lower and middle cretaceous beds of Europe (neocomian and gault). This shell is extremely abundant in one bed, about 200 to 250 feet below the top of the cretaceous series, but is not confined to this horizon. Naiitili also occur, the commonest species closely resembling N. lalechel"- of Messrs. D'Archiac and Haime, but differing in the position of the siphuncle. This form appears undistinguishable from N. bouckardianus, found in the upper cretaceous Arialur beds of Pondicherry, and at a lower riac and Haime, An. foss. Gronpe Num., p. 253, pi. xxi, fig. 14. 2 T. c. p. 338, pi. xxxiv, fig. 12. 1> 1 450 GEOLOGY OF INDIA-SIND. [Chap. XIX. cretaceous horizon in Europe. A second Nautilus resembles N. subfleuri- ausianus, another eocene Sind species, in form, and is also allied to some cretaceous types. Several Gasteropoda occur, especially forms of Hostel- laria, Cypraia, Natica and Turritella, but none are very characteristic. Two forms of Ostrea are common one of them allied to the tertiary 0. jlemingi and to the cretaceous 0. zitteliana, but distinct from both. The only mollusk which certainly passes into the Ranikot beds is Corbula harpa. Two echinoderms have been found one is an Epiaster, an almost exclusively cretaceous genus, only one or two tertiary species having been found j the other is an aberrant form of Ecliinolampas . Two or three corals complete the list of invertebrate fossils found in the olive shales. In the lower part of the beds with Cardita beaumonti, however, some amphiccelian vertebrae were found, which Mr. Lydekker has ascertained to be crocodilian. All amphicoelian crocodiles are mesozoic, and the present form must be one of the latest known. So far as it is possible to form an opinion from very fragmentary materials, the vertebrae in question appears more nearly allied to the Wealden Snchosaunts than to any other form hitherto described. It has, however, been already shewn, when writing of the Gondwana flora, that the distribution viReptilia in past ages was not the same in India as in Europe. The fossils of the Cardita beaumonti zone require much fuller examin- ation and comparison than they have hitherto received, but sufficient has been ascertained to shew that they have a distinctly cretaceous character, and that the limit of tertiary formations must be drawn above them. As will be seen in the description of the Panjab Salt Range in the next chapter, it is probable that this peculiar band of olive-coloured shales is represented by similar beds in that locality also. It has, however, not hitherto been recognised in Baluchistan or in the Western Panjab, south of the Salt Range. Deccan trap. Mention has already been made of one bed of basalt intercalated in the sandstones above the hippuritic limestone : a much more important band of the same igneous rock has been traced, resting upon the Cardita beaumonti beds, throughout a distance of 22 miles from Ranikot to Jakhmari, about 17 miles south of Sehwan, wherever the base of the Ranikot group, the lowest tertiary formation, is exposed. The thickness of this band of trap is trifling, and varies from about 40 to about 90 feet. Apparently in some places the whole band consists of two lava flows similar in mineral character, except that the upper is somewhat ashy, and contains scoriaceous fragments ; the higher portion of each flow is amygdaloidal, and contains nodules of quartz, calcedony and calcite, and in places the nodules are surrounded by green earth, as is Extra-Peninsular.] RANIKOT GROUP, 451 so frequently the case in the Deccan traps. Another characteristic accessory mineral, common also in the traps of the Deccan and Malwa, is quartz with trihedral terminations. The basaltic trap of the Laki hills is apparently of subaerial origin, although it rests conformably on the marine (or estuarine?) Cardita beaumonti beds. There is nothing in the igneous bed to indicate its having consolidated otherwise than in the air, and the structure differs altogether from that of subaqueous volcanic tuffs. The evidence that this band of basaltic rock is interstratified and not intrusive is ample ; throughout the whole distance the trap is found in precisely the same position between the lowest beds of the Ranikot group and the highest cretaceous strata, and apparently perfectly conformable to both. The close resemblance in mineral character and the similarity of geological position at the base of the tertiary beds shew that this band must be in all probability a thin representative of the great Deccan and Malwa trap formation, and the occurrence of a second bed at a lower horizon, interstratified with rocks of cretaceous age, tends strongly to confirm the inference drawn from the relations of the traps to cretaceous and tertiary rocks in the Narbada valley, that the great volcanic formation of Western India must be classed as upper cretaceous. Ranikot group, The name of the lowest tertiary sub-division is derived from a hill fortress of the Sind Amirs, situated in the Laki range of hills, and known as Rani-jo-kot, or Ranikot, and also us Mohan-kot, from the Mohan stream, which traverses the fortification. The Ranikot group is much more extensively developed in Sind than the underlying cretaceous beds, for although it is confined to Lower Sind, and although its base is only seen in the Laki range, north of Ranikot, its upper strata occupy a considerable tract of country, about 26 miles long from north to south by 'about 12 in breadth, north-west of Kotri, and another even larger exposure, about 36 miles long, occurs, extending from north of Jhirak (Jhirk, Jhirruk, Jerruck or Jurruk) to Tatta. In the Laki range, the Ranikot beds are seen for about 35 miles, but the outcrop is never more than 2 or 3 miles broad, and one small inlier is exposed to the west of Ranikot. All the lower portion of the Ranikot group, including by far the greater portion of the beds, consists of soft sandstones, shales and clays, often richly coloured and variegated with brown and red tints. Gypsum is of frequent occurrence ; some of the shales are highly carbonaceous ; and in one instance a bed of coal (or lignite) nearly 6 feet thick was found, and a considerable quantity of the mineral extracted. 1 The quality was, however, poor, and from the quantity of iron-pyrites present, the coal decomposed rapidly, and was liable to spontaneous combustion i Mem, G. S. I., VI., p. 13. 452 GEOLOGY OF INDIA-SIND. [Chap. IXX. when exposed, whilst the deposit was found to be a small patch, not extending- more than about 100 yards in any direction. Some of the more pyritous shale is used in the manufacture of alum. The only fossils found in the lower portion of the Ranikot group, with the exception of a few fragments of bone, have been plants, some dicotyledonous leaves, hitherto not identified, being- the most important. All the Ranikot beds, except towards the top of the group, have the appearance of being of fresh-water origin, and are probably fluviatile. A variable portion of the group, however, towards the top, consists of highly fossiliferous limestones, often light or dark brown in colour, interstratified with sandstones, shales, clays, and ferruginous bands. These are the lowest beds in Sind containing a distinctly tertiary marine fauna. The brown limestones are well developed around Lynyan, east of Band Vero and north-west of Kotri, and throughout the area of Ranikot beds near Jhirak and Tatta. In this part of the country there appears to be a complete passage upwards into the overlying nummulitic limestone (Khirthar) ; but in the Laki range, the upper marine beds of the Ranikot group are poorly represented or wanting, and it is evident that they were removed by denudation before the deposition of the Khirthar limestone, for the latter is seen at Hothian Pass resting upon their denuded edges. The greatest thickness of the Ranikot group in the Laki range, where alone, as has already been explained, the base of the group is visible, is about 2,000 feet, but generally the amount is rather less, about 1,500. It must, however, be recollected that in this locality some of the upper marine beds are wanting, and as these marine limestones and their intercalated shales, sandstones, &c., are 700 or 800 feet thick, in places northwest of Kotri, it is evident that the original development of the group exceeded the 2,000 feet seen in the Laki range. Paleontology. The following are some of the commonest or most important fossils of the Ranikot group. The large collections made by the Geological Survey have as yet only been partially examined, and the lists of fossils given can be considered only preliminary, ' many of the commonest species being undescribed forms : CEPHALOPODA. Nautilus sulfleuriausianus. I N. forbesi. N. deluri. i As in other lists in this chapter, most of the names are taken from D'Archiac and Haime's " Animaux fossiles du groupe nummulitique de PInde." In ihis work, however, species from upper cretaceous, eocene and miocene beds are described ; until the rocks of Siud were surveyed, the distribution of the fossils was not known, although indications of a probable sub-division had been pointed out by D'Archiac and Haime, (t. c. p. 359), and it had been shewn by Jenkins (Q. J. G. S., 1864, p. 65), and by Martin Duncan (ib., p. 66, and Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. Ser. 3, Vol. XIII, p. 295), that some of the fossils described indicated the presence of mioceue beds. Extra-Peninsular. ] CRETACEOUS ROCKS OF BALUCHISTAN. 453 Rostellaria angistoma. K. prestivichi. R.fusoides. Terebellum dis tor turn. T. plicatum. Corbula harpa. Vulsella legumen. Spondylus roualti. GASTEHOPODA. Valuta jugosa. Natica longispira. Nerita ( Velates) schmedelian Turritella angulata, var. T. assimilis. LAMELLIBBANCHIATA. Ostrea flemingi. O. vesicularis. Schizaster, sp. Hemiaster digonus. Eurhodia morrisi. Prenaster, sp. Toxobrissus, sp. Cunoclypeus, sp. BEACHIOPODA. Terebratula, cf'. subrutumlcc. t EcniNODEKMATA. Echinohtmpas, cf. sulisimilis. Temnopleurus Valenciennes i. Salenia, 2 sp. P/iymosoma, sp. Porocidaris, sp. (spines). Cidaris halaensis. Trochocyathns vandenheckei. Cyclolites vicaryi. ANTHOZOA. Montlivaltiajacquemonti. FOBAMINIFEEA. Operculina canalifera. I Nummulites irregularis. Nummulites spira. \ N. leymeriei. In the above list the majority of forms, such as the majority of the Echinodermata and Gasteropoda are lower tertiary, but still there is a very distinct admixture of species with cretaceous affinities, such as the Nautili, all of which 'are connected rather with cretaceous than with tertiary types, the Terebratula, which cannot be distinguished from one of the commonest upper mesozo'i species, and forms of Salenia, Cyclolites, &c. Corbula harpa is the only form hitherto recognised that is also found in the upper cretaceous olive shales, but a variety of the same shell is also found in the Nari beds. Cretaceous and lower tertiary rocks of Baluchistan. All the rocks described in the last few pages as occurring below the nummulitic limestone or Khirthar group are found in Lower Siml, and, so far as is known, are confined to a tract near the right bank of the river ludus. Farther to the westward the series of older tertiary and upper cretaceous rocks has not been thoroughly examined, but the information hitherto obtained appears to shew that the strata below the nummulitic limestone are very different in character from those found in Lower Sind. In 454 GEOLOGY OF INDIA SIND. [Chap. XIX. Baluchistan, west of the frontier of Upper Sind, lower beds crop out from beneath the massive nuinmulitic (Khirthar) limestone, forming the crest of the intervening range of hills, and on the banks of the Gaj river which traverses the range south-west of Mehar, a series of more than 10 000 feet of strata is exposed below the Khirthar group. The follow- ing is a rough section of the rocks thus exposed, the thickness being merely an approximation : KHIETHAB LowEit KHIBTHAB ? CRETACEOUS 1. Massive nummulitic limestone, forming the crest of the Khirthar range 2. Shales, marls and clays, mostly dark-olive in colour, abounding in Nmnmulites 3. Hard grey limestone, with Nummulites .... 4. Argillaceous limestone, shales and clays, olive and bluish grey in colour, abounding in Nummulites . 5. Unfossiliferous olive and bluish-grey clays and nodular shales, no limestone bands 6. Pale-brown sandstones in thick beds with vegetable markings ......... 7. Fine greenish-white sandstone and shale, some of which is carbonaceous 8. Dark-brown limestone and dark-green argillaceous beds, with Nummulites .... ... '. Pale-grey argillaceous limestone, with but few fossils; one band towards the base contains Nvmmulites and Alveolince 10. Fine dark -coloured shales, unfossiliferous 11. Very fine grained homogeneous thin-bedded limestones, white, red, grey, or ochrey in colour, unfossiliferous, forming a conspicuous range ..... 12. Hard grey shales with calcareous bands from an inch or two to a foot in thickness The base not exposed. 1,200 500 60 400 1,500 1,000 500 100 200 3,000 1,200 2,500 12,160 About this section the first point to be observed is that none of the beds resemble those seen in Lower Sind sufficiently to enable any of the strata of the two localities to be identified with certainty. The sandstone No. 6 may correspond to the sands and clays of the Ranikot group, but there is no great similarity, and nothing in the above section appears to represent the f ossiliferous brown limestones of the Raiiikot group, the Deccan trap, the olive shales with Cardita leaumonti, or any other of the cretaceous beds in the Laki hills. So far, indeed, as the section on the Upper Gaj river is concerned, all the rocks exposed might be referred to the tertiary epoch and classed as lower eocene ; no marked break inter- venes anywhere, nor are there any fossils below the argillaceous limestone with nummulites, No. 9, to shew the age of the beds. But, as has Eitra-Peninsular. ] CRETACEOUS ROCKS OF BALUCHISTAN. 4.55 already been noticed, farther to the westward, near Khozddr, in Baluchis- tan, Dr. Cook discovered Ammonites ' in some argillaceous beds, passing upwards into red and white limestone, and it appears probable from the description that the latter is identical with the fine-grained thin-bedded limestone, No. 11, of the preceding section, whilst the argillaceous beds may be the same as No. 12. The following section, abridged from that given by Dr. Cook, 2 shews the nature of the rocks between Kelat and Khozdar, the latter place lying about 70 miles north-north-west of the section on the upper Gaj river : Feet. I. Compact white or reddish-white limestone containing Summulites, Orbitolifes, Orbitoides, Alveolina, &c (This is doubtless the Khirthar limestone.) Thick- ness unknown ; probably more than .... 1,000 EOCENE . . 2. Limestone strata, differing in character, compact, sub- crystalline, saccharoid, at times cretaceous, containing Kummulites (Assilina), Alveolina, and minute indistinct Foraminifera and passing downwards into coloured argillaceous strata ? 200500 3. More or less compart, fine grained red and white lime- stone interleaved with slabs of flint or chert, the upper part containing one or two massive strata of an excess- ively hard limestone, abounding in Orbitoides, OrbitO' MBSOZOIC . , Una, and Operculina, the lower strata becoming argil- laceous and shaly and containing (rarely) Ammonites . ? 2,000 Dark-blue fossiliferous limestone containing strata yielding lead ore (galena and carbonate of lead) . ? 2,000 5. Clay slate ? 2,500 It is true that the precise rektions of many of these beds are far from clear. Thus, in the valley of Kelat, the red and white limestone appears to underlie strata containing Orthoceratites. This may, however, be due to faulting or inversion. It is probable that several different groups of beds occur near Kelat, for amongst the fossils, besides Orthoceratites, Ammonites of Jurassic types, Ceralites, Crioceras, Scaphites and Belem- nites occur, and whilst some of the forms are typically cretaceous, others can scarcely be newer than triassic. It is not impossible that the limestone bands in No. 3, containing Orbitoides and other Foraminifera, may belong to the tertiary series and 1 Jour. Bombay Br. R. A. S., VI, pp. 186, 188. 2 Bombay Med. Phys. Soc. Trans, 1860, VI, p. 100. The bed numbered 2 in the section is called upper cretaceous by Dr. Cook, but with a mark of doubt. This was perhaps in accordance with the views as to the classification of the beds beneath the nummulitic limestone formerly held by Dr. Carter, but subsequently modified by him. See Jour. Bombay Br. R. A. S., IV, pp. 93, 95, V., p. 635, and f Geological papers on Western India," pp. 623, 626, 699, 700, footnote, &c. 4.56 GEOLOGY OF INDIA-SIND, [Chap. XIX. not to the group with which they are associated. The banded fine Drained white or red and white limestone is a conspicuous and important bed, and is probably widely developed in Baluchistan. It was found by Dr. Cook at several places south and south-west of Kelat ; it occurs, as already shown, on the upper Gaj river west of the Khirthar range, forming a range of hills known as Parh, and a rock of precisely the same mineral character appears 130 miles further south on the coast at a small hill called Gadani, about 25 miles north-west of Karachi. If, as appears probable, this peculiarly fine limestone or calcareous shale (for the rock in places appears argillaceous) belong to the upper portion of the cretaceous series, it will serve to mark that horizon in Baluchistan and facilitate the recognition of the indistinct limit between mesozoic and tertiary. There is, however, a great appearance of passage between all these formations. Returning to the beds of the Gaj section, the gradual passage upwards from the shales, marls, and clays with Nnmmulites, Nos. 2,* 3, and 4 of the section, into the massive nummulitic limestone is worthy of notice. A similar passage takes place locally in Lower Sind, and it appears best to consider the shales and marls as the lower portion of the same group as the limestone. The six thousand feet of rocks remaining between the nummulitic shales and the banded limestones of supposed cretaceous age may be classed as lower Khirthar ; they very possibly represent the Ranikot group, but, as already noticed, there is no distinct miueralogical or palaeontological connexion. The nummulites found in No. 8 in the middle of this lower Khirthar group comprise N. ottusa, N. granu- losa, N. leymeriei, N. spira, and other species common in the Khirthar limestone itself. It is probable that the beds below the Khirthar limestone extend throughout a large tract in Baluchistan, on the west side of the Khir- thar range, for similar beds are seen, from the crest of the hills, cropping out to the westward as far north as Dharyaro and Kutto-jo-Kabar (the dog's tomb), the culminating point of the range due west of Laikana. Again, west of the Habb river, forming the boundary of Sind near the sea, the whole Khirthar formation appears composed of shales, marls and sandstones, closely resembling in character those of the lower Khir- thar group west of Upper Sind, and an enormous thickness of similar beds is found extensively developed in Makran. 1 Khirthar group. Although this group, named from the great frontier range of hills already noticed, is, when the underlying shales and sandstones are excluded, inferior in total thickness to several 1 Eastern Persia, vol. ii., pp. 460, 473. Extra-Peninsular.] KHIHTIIAR OROUP. 457 other sub-divisions of the tertiary series in Sind, it comprises by far the most conspicuous rock, the massive nummulitie limestone. Of this formation all the higher ranges in Siud consist. It forms the crest of the Khirthar throughout, and all the higher portions of the Laki range, of the Bhit range south-west of Manchhar lake, and of several smaller ridges, and consists of a mass of limestone, varying in thickness from a few hundred feet in Lower Sind to about 1,000 or 1,200 at the Gaj river, and probably 2,000, or even 3,000, farther north. The colour is usually pale, either white or grey, sometimes, but less frequently, dark grey ; the texture varies f rom hard, close, and homogeneous, breaking with a conchoidal fracture, to soft, coarse and open. Ordinarily, the nummulitie limestone is tolerably compact, but not crystalline, a*nd chiefly composed of Foraminifera, especially Nummulttes, whole or fragmentary ; corals, sea-urchins and mollusks also abound, but the two latter very frequently only weather out as casts. Throughout Northern Sind, except near Rohri, no beds are seen beneath the Khirthar limestone, and the rocks which crop out west of the Sind frontier from beneath the main limestone band have already been de- scribed. The remarkable range of low hills, surrounded by Indus alluvium, and extending for more than 40 miles south from Rohri, consists of nummulitie limestone having a low dip to the westward, and beneath the limestone forming the eastern scarp of the hills, on the edge of the alluvial plain, a considerable thickness of pale-green gypseous clays is exposed, with a few bands of impure dark limestone and calcareous shale. No Foraminifera have been found in these beds, although Nummulites abound in the limestone immediately overlying ; several species of mollusca occur, but none are characteristic, and it is far from clear whether the green clays and their associates are merely thick bands intercalated in the limestone, or whether they belong to a lower group. Probably these argillaceous beds of the Rohri hills represent some of the marls, shales and clays forming the lower portion of the upper Khirthar group on the G aj river. In some places west of Kotri, a band of argillaceous and ferruginous rock is found close to the base of the Khirthar group. This rock weathers into laterite ; it is mainly composed of brown haematite, and appears to be found over a considerable area near Kotri and Jhirak. It is impossible to avoid suggesting its identity with the ferruginous lateritic bed found in a similar position in Guzerat, Cutch, the Salt range, and the Sub-Himalayan region. It has already been mentioned that in the Laki range the nummul- itie limestone rests unconformably on the Ranikot group. The Khir- thar group here cannot be much more than 500 or 600 feet thick, and 458 GEOLOGY OF INDIA-SIND. [Chap. XIX. consists entirely of limestone. To the south-east, towards Kotri and Tatta, there is no unconformity between the Kanikot and Khirthar groups, but on the contrary there is an almost complete passage between the two, and the limestone of the latter becomes much split up and inter- calated with shales and sandy beds. This is even more the case further to the south-east in Cutch, 1 where, as was noticed on a previous page, the whole group consists of comparatively thin beds of limestone, in- terstratified with shales. To the south-west, near the Habb river, the massive limestone dies out altogether, and although it is well developed in the southernmost extremity of the Khirthar range near Karchat, about 50 miles south of S eh wan, it disappears entirely within a dis- tance of 12 or 14 miles, and in the ranges on the Habb river is entirely replaced by shaly limestones, shales, and thick beds of sandstone. Some rather massive beds of nummulitiferous dark-grey limestone, very different in character from the pale-coloured Khirthar limestone, are found west of the Habb, but their precise position in the series is not known, and the rocks appearing from beneath the Nari group, in the place of the Khirthar limestone, consist of shales and sandstones, with some calcareous bands abounding in nummulites, and closely resembling, both in character and in the species of Foraminifera they contain, the nummulitic shales beneath the massive limestone on the Gaj river. It is not known to what extent the typical Khirthar limestone is developed in Baluchistan ; around Kelat, to the northward, this band appears to be extensively exposed, but to the westward, near Gwadar, the rocks supposed to represent the older tertiary beds consist of an immense thickness of shales, shaly sandstones, and unfossiliferous calcareous bands, resembling the lower Khirthars of the Gaj, and the beds of the Habb valley, and limestones with nummulites are of unfrequent and local occurrence. It is thus evident that the Khirthar limestone, although it is so conspicuous in most parts of Sind, and although it attains a considerable thickness, is not by any means universally distributed. Palaeontology. The most characteristic fossils 2 of the Khirthar group are Nummulites and Alveolina ; neither the genera, nor, as a rule, 1 See ante, p. 345. 2 The following fossils from the eocene formations of Western India are figured oil plate XV:- Fig. 1. Valuta jwgosa. 2. Nerita schmedeliana, 2a. cast of the same, half natural size. 3. Pecten labadyei. 4. Vulsella legumen. 5. Echinolampas discoideus, i size. 6. Eurhodia morrisi. 7. Orbitoides papyracea. Fig. 8. Orbitoides dispansa. 9. Alveolina spheroidea, 10. Nummulites garansensis, 11. N. sublcBvigata. 12. N. ramondi. 13. N. obtusa. 14. N. granulosa, 15. N. leymeriei. Extra-Peninsular- ] NARI GEOUP. 459 the species are peculiar, but the extraordinary abundance of individuals renders it usually easy to recognise even small fragments of the rock by the organisms preserved in it. The following is a list of the commonest or most important fossils : Ovulum murchisoni, and other species. Cerithium cf- giganteum. GASTEHOPODA. Nerita scJimedeliana, PL XV,, fig, 2, 2a. LAMELLIBBANCHIATA. Pholadomya halaensis. Corbula subexarata, Cardita mutabilis. C. subcomplanata, Lucina gigantea. Brissopsis scutiformis . _Z?. sowerbyi ? Schizaster, sp. Eupa tagus avellana , Fibularia, sp. Astarte hyderabadensis. Crassatella sindensis. C. halaensis, Vulsella legumen, PL XV., fig. 4. Ostrea vesicularis, var. (O. globosa, Sow.) ECHINODEBMATA. Amblypygus, sp. Conoclypeus pulvinatus. Eurhodia calderi. Echinolampas discoideus, PI. XV, fig, 5. E. sindensis. FOBAMINIFEEA. OrUtolites complanata. Orbitoides dispansa, PI. XV, fig. 8. Patellina cooki. Alveolina ovoidea. A. spheroidea, PI. XV, fig. 9. Nummulites obtusa, PI. XV, fig. 13. Nummulites ramondi, PL XV, fig. 12. N. biaritzensis. N. beautnonti. N. vicaryi. N. granulosa, PL XV, fig. 14. N. leymeriei, PI. XV, fig. 15. Many of the species named, and the foraminifera especially, are characteristically eocene, and there can be no question that the num- mulitic limestone of India is a continuation of the same formation in Europe. Several species pass from the Ranikot beds into the Khirthar group ; indeed, the principal palseontological differences between the two may be due to a change in conditions, the Khirthar being apparently a deeper water deposit than the Ranikot group. Nari group. The series of tertiary rocks above the Khirthar nummulitic limestone is superbly developed and very well seen in the hills on the frontier of Upper Sind, the culminating ridge of which is known as the Khirthar, The names of the tertiary groups over- 460 GEOLOGY OF INDIA-SIND. [Chap. XIX, lying the nummulitic formation have consequently been derived from places in this range, and the Nari group takes its title from a stream which traverses the lower portions of the range, composed almost entirely of Nari beds, for a considerable distance, and issues from the hills nearly west of Johi, and west by north of Sehwan. The present sub-division comprises at the base the uppermost bands of limestone con- taining Nummulites; the species, however (N. garansensis, PI. XV, fig. 10, and N. subltevigata, ib., fig. 11), being distinct from those so commonly found in the Khirthar sub-division, and the limestone itself being usually distinguished from that of the Khirthar group by its yellowish- brown colour, and by being in comparatively thin bands interstratified with shales and sandstones. Several other fossils, too, besides the nummulites, differ from those in the Khirthar beds. Not unf requently, however, there is an apparent passage from the white or greyish-white Khirthar limestone into the yellow or brown Nari rock, and the two groups appear always to be perfectly conformable, but no intermixture of the characteristic species of nummulites has been detected, and the division between the Khirthar and Nari beds can always be recognised by the fossil evidence. In some places the lower Nari beds consist almost entirely of brown and yellow limestones, but more frequently the limestone bands are subordinate; dark shales, and brown rather thinly -bedded sandstone forming the mass of the rocks. The limestone bands are often confined to the base of the group, and always diminish in abundance and thickness above, although they are occasionally found as much as 1,500 feet above the top of the Khirthar. The shales and fine sandstones, with occasional bands of limestone, constitute the lower Naris, and pass gra- dually into the coarser, massive, thick-bedded sandstones forming the greater portion of the group, and attaining a thickness of 4,000 or 5,000 feet on the flanks of the Khirthar range. With the sandstones a few bands of clay, shale, or ironstone, are interstratified, and bands of conglomerate occasionally occur. The Nari beds in their typical form extend throughout the eastern flank of the Khirthar range, and occupy a belt of varying width, from one or two to as much as 10 miles in breadth, between the underlying Khirthar and the overlying Gaj beds. On the western side of the Bhagotoro hills, 4 or 5 miles south of Sehwan, there is a break in the Nari beds, and some variegated shales, clays and sandstones, richly tinted in parts with brown and red, and representing the massive sandstones of the upper Nari group, rest unconformably on the denuded edges of the lower Nari brown lime- stones and shales. The break is evidently local. To the east of the Extra-Peninsular. ] NARI GROUP. 461 Laid range the Nari beds are entirely wanting, and it appears very possible that they have never been deposited in this portion of the Indus valley. From the neighbourhood of Sehwan to Jhirak, Manchhar beds rest, with more or less unconformity, on the Khirthar, a very faint and imperfect representative of the Gaj group occasionally intervening. But west of the Laki range, throughout Lower Sind, the Nari beds are found exposed almost wherever the base of the Gaj group is seen ; they increase in thickness to the westward, and the Habb valley, from the spot where the river first forms the boundary of British territory to the sea, consists entirely of these strata. There is, however, in this part of the country no longer any such marked dis- tinction between the sub-divisions of the tertiary series as is found in the Khirthar range. The disappearance of the Khirthar limestone has already been mentioned, and with it the lower Nari limestones with Niiminnlites garansensis and N. sublcevigata also disappear, so that it is no longer possible to draw a distinct line between the two groups, for the shaly beds at the base of the Naris are undistinguishable from similar rocks in the Khirthars. The calcareous shales, with the cha- racteristic Khirthar nummulites, below, and the massive Nari sandstones above, are still recognisable, and the two groups can consequently still be traced, although the dividing line between them is obscured. Beds of brown limestone, too, full of Orbitoides papyracea (or 0. fortisi, PI. XV, fig. 7), a fossil closely resembling a nummulite, and associated in abundance with N, garansensis in the typical lower Nari limestones, occur in the Nari beds of the Habb valley ; but instead of being found at the base, they appear in the middle of the group. Again, just as at the base of the Naris, there is a difficulty in distinguishing them from the Khirthar, so the beds at the top of the former group can only be separated by an arbitrary line from the overlying Gaj beds. In the Khirthar range the upper boundary of the Nari group, although there is no unconformity, is distinct and definite, limestones with marine fossils of the Gaj group resting immediately upon the upper Nari sand- stones. But in Southern Sind bands of limestones, or calcareous sand- stone, with marine fossils, some of which are well-marked Gaj species, occur in the upper part of the Nari group, whilst limestone bands with the Nari Orbitoides papyracea are found in the Gaj. Palaeontology. The sandstones, which form so large a portion of the Nari group, have hitherto proved destitute of animal remains, and in the typical area in Upper Sind, no beds with marine fossils are intercalated in the upper portion of the group, but the occasional interstratifications of shales and clays often contain fragments of plants, and some ill-marked 462 GEOLOGY OF INDIA SIND. [Chap. XIX, impressions, probably due to fucoids, have been found in the sandstones themselves. There appears a probability that these sandstones may be of fluviatile and not of marine origin. In the limestones towards the base of the Nari group, many marine fossils have been obtained, the following being some of the more important : GASTEROPODA. Natica patula. N. sigaretina. Siliquaria granti. Terebellum obtusum. Cyprcea nasuta. Valuta jugosa, PL XV, fig. 1. V. dentata. Triton davidsoni. Solarium affine. Trochus cumulans. Phasianella oweni. Corbula harpa. LAHELLIBBANCHIATA. Pecten labadyei, PI. XV, fig. 3. Venus granosa, PI. XVI, fig. 7. Ostrea flabellula. Cardium triforme. ECHINODEBMATA. Schizaster beloutchistanensis. Eupatagus rostratus. Echinolampas, sp. TrocJiocyatJius burnesi. Clypeaster profundus. Coslopleurusforbesi. Cidaris verneuilli. ANTHOZOA. 1 Montlivaltia vignei. FOBAMINIFEEA. Nummulites garansensis, PI, XV, fig 10.1 Orbitoides papyracea, PI. XV, fig. 7- N. sublcevigata, PI. XV, fig. 11. Although some species pass from the Khirthar, and even from the Ranikot group into the Nari beds, the fauna is chiefly distinct and marks a higher horizon. The most marked change is perhaps in the Foraminifera, because they are so abundant and characteristic ; whole beds of limestone towards the base of the Nari group being entirely made up of Nummulites garansensis, N. sublavigata and Orbitoides papy- racea, the last named frequently of large size, some specimens being two to three inches in diameter ; yet every species is distinct from those occurring in the Khirthar group. One of these species of Nummulites, N. garansensis, is of importance, because it occurs in Europe, as in Sind, in the highest strata characterised by the abundance of the genus, those beds being at the base of the miocene. Nummulites sublcevigata is peculiar, so far as is known, to India. Several of the Mollusca and EcMnodermata of the Nari beds also, such as Siliquaria granti, Solarium affine, Venus granosa, and Clypeaster Extra-Peninsular.] GAJ GROUP. 463 profundus, shew distinctly miocene affinities, and some of these pass up into the Gaj group. But at the same time there are so many eocene forms present, such as Natica palula, N. sigaretina, Ostrea Jlabellula, Valuta jugosa, &c., that it is somewhat difficult to decide to which sub- division the Nari beds should be assigned. They may, perhaps, occupy an intermediate position, similar to that of the oligocene of continental geologists. Gaj group. Upon the Nari group, almost throughout Sind, there is found resting a mass of highly fossiliferous limestones and calcareous beds, usually more or less shaly, always distinctly stratified, and easily distinguished from the limestones of the older tertiary formations by the absence of nummulites. A superb section of the strata forming this group is exposed on the banks of the Gaj river, the only stream which cuts its way through the Khirthar range, and in the neighbourhood of which, west of the range, the fine section of lower tertiary and cretaceous beds already noticed is exposed. From this river the present group derives its name. On the eastern flanks of the Khirthar range in Upper Sind, the Gaj group forms a conspicuous ridge, the hard dark-brown limestone bands near the base of the formation resisting the action of denudation far more than the soft sandstones of the Nari beds, and rising every here and there into peaks of 1,000 and 1,500 feet, or even more, escarped to the westward, and sloping to the east ; Amru, the highest summit of the Gdj ridge, being 2,700 feet above the sea. Still, the limestone bands, although so conspicuous, are subordinate, the greater part of the group consisting of sandy shales, clays with gypsum, and, towards the base, sandstones. Many of the bands of limestone appear very constant in position, and may be traced for a long distance ; as a rule, they are dark-brown in colour, but one bed is white and abounds in corals and small Foraminifera (Orbitoides) , whilst some of the darker bands contain Echinodermata in large quantities. The uppermost portion of the group is usually argillaceous, being chiefly composed of red and olive clays with white gypsum, and these beds pass gradually into precisely similar strata belonging to the over- lying Manchhar group. The passage beds contain, amongst other fossils such as Turritella angitlata, PI. XVI, fig. 2, and forms of Ostrea and Placuna, the following : Corbula trigonalis, PI. XVI, fig. 8. , Tellina subdonacialts. Lucina (Diplodonta) incerta. \ Area larkanensis, PL XVI, fig. 6. All of these have allies living in estuaries at the present day ; Area granosa, a recent representative of A. larhmensis, being one of the 464 GEOLOGY OF INDIA SIND. [Chap. XIX. commonest and most typical of Indian estuarine mollusca. To these estuarine passage bods further reference will be made presently when the relations of the Manchhar to the Gaj beds are discussed. The Gaj beds at the Gaj river are very nearly 1,500 feet thick, but they appear to be less developed to the northward in the Khirthar range, and not to be much more than half the thickness named west of Larkana, where, however, they are nearly vertical, and have probably suffered from pressure. In Lower Sind, the Gaj group, like the Nari, disappears to the eastward of the Laki range, where it is either entirely wanting, or else represented by a thin band containing one of the charac- teristic fossils, Ostrea multicostata (PI. XVI, fig. 3), at the base of the Manchhar group. There is, however, a very large area of Gaj beds north and north-east of Karachi, and the appearance of the formation here is somewhat different from what it is in the Khirthar range, for the greater portion of the group consists of pale-coloured limestones, almost horizontal, or dipping at very low angles, and to the east of the Habb valley forming plateaus 400 or 500 feet high bounded by steep scarps, which rise from the low ground of the soft Nari sandstones. A low range of hills, formed of Gaj beds, extends to the south-west, past the hot spring at Magar or Mangah Pir, to the end of the promontory known as Cape Monze, west of Karachi, and the same beds form the low hills east and north-east of the town, and furnish the materials of which the houses in Karachi are mostly built. A small island called Churna, in the sea, west of Cape Monze, also consist of Gaj rocks. To the north- ward the Gaj area of lower Sind extends with very irregular outline to the neighbourhood of Tong and Karchat, almost due west of Hala, and there are several outliers farther north, connnecting the southern portion of the group with the typical outcrop in the Khirthar range. East of Karachi, also, Gaj beds extend in the direction of Tatta, until they dis- appear with the other tertiary rocks beneath the alluvium of the Indus. As was shewn in a previous chapter, the Gaj group of Sind appears to be represented in Cutch by a highly fossiliferous belt, containing most of the typical mollusca, echinoderms, &c. It is quite possible that the present group, as well as the Nari, never was deposited in the neighbour- hood of Kotri and Jhirak. It has been already stated that the Gaj beds, throughout the greater portion of the Khirthar range, rest conformably upon the Nari group, although there is a change in mineral character, and that, in lower Sind, the passage from one group into the other is gradual, calcareous bands with Gaj fossils, such as Ostrea mnlticostata and Pecten subcornens, being interstratified with the uppermost Nari sandstones. At one place Extra- Peninsular. ] GAJ GROUP. 465 however, near Tandra Rahim Khan, west by north of Sehwan, the outcrop of the Gaj beds, here dipping at a high angle to the westward, runs nearly in a straight line across the mouth of a valley, composed of a deep synclinal of the Nari group between two anticlinal ridges of Khirthar limestone. As the Gaj beds do not share the synclinal curve of the Naris, it is difficult to see how the two can be conformable ; but an examination of the boundary between the two groups failed to shew any clear evidence of unconformity. There are, however, some places south of Sehwan where the Gdj group overlaps the Nari beds and rests upon the Khirthar limestone, but it must be recollected that the Gaj group is itself overlapped by Manchhar beds in the immediate neighbourhood. Palseontology. The following i is of course a very imperfect list of the animal remains found in this richly fossiliferous group, only the more important or common forms being noticed : CBUSTACEA. ! Balanus sublcevis. Palaocarpilius rugifer. 2 Typilobus, sp. Buccinmn cautleyi. B. vicaryi. GASTEBOPODA. Vicar-ya verneuilli, PL XVI, fig. 1. Turritella angulata, PL XVI, fig. 2. LAMELLIBBANCHIATA. Kuphus rectus (Serpula recta, Sow.). Corbula trigonalis, PI. XVI, figs. 8, 8. Venus granosa, PI. XVI, fig. 7. V. cancellata. Tapes subvirgata. Cardium anomale. Astarte hyderabadensis. Dosinia pseudoargus. Area kurracheensin , PI. XVI, figs. 5, 5. Schizaster, sp. Maretia cf. planulata. Meoma, sp. Breynia carinata, PI. XVI, Echinolampas jacquemonti. Area peethensis. A. larkhanensis, PL XVI, fig. 6. Pectunculus pecten. Pecten subcorneus. P. bouei. P.favrei, PI. XVI, fig. 4. Spondylus tellavignesi. Ostrea multicostata, Desh., PI. XVI, figs. 3, 3. ECHINODEEMATA. Echinolampas spheroidalis. Echinodiscus, sp., PL XVI, fig. 10. Ctypeaster profundus. C. depress, PL XVI, fig. 11. Ccelopleurus forbesi. The following fossils from the miocene beds of Sind are figured on Pkte XVI -.- Fig. 1. Vicarya, verneuilli. 2. Turritella angulata. 3. Ostrea multicostata, Desh. 4. Pecten favrei. 5. Area (ParalellopipedumJ kurra- cheensis. Fig. 6. Area (Anomalocardia) larkhanensis. 7. Venus granosa, %. 8. Corbula trigonalis. 9. Breynia carinata. 10. Echinodiscus, sp. ,, 11, Cfi/peaster defu'cssus, i 2 Stoliczkn: Pal, Ind., Ser. VII, p, 8, Pis, IV, V. 1 466 GEOLOGY OF INDIA SIND. [Chap. XIX. ANTHOZOA. Pachyseris murchisoni. j Cladocora haimei. Hydnophora plana and other species. | Mycedium costatum, FOBAMINIFEBA. Operculina canalifera. \ Orbitoides papyracea. The commonest and most characteristic fossils of this group are Ostrea mnlticostata J and Breynia carinata. There cannot be any question that the Gaj fauna is newer than eocene; some of the species are recent (for instance, Dosinia pseudoargus is identical with the recent D. exas- perata, Chemn.), and it is probable that many others, when they are compared with recent forms more carefully than has hitherto been done, will prove to be the same as living species. Several genera, too, as Maretia, Breynia, Meoma, Echinodiscus, Cladocora, and Mycedium, are rare or un- known in the older tertiaries, and there is almost a complete disappearance of eocene forms, very few species being common to the Nari beds even. The chief doubt is whether the Gaj should not be considered as upper miocene. The only mammal yet obtained from the Gaj beds is Rhinoceros sivalensis a species found also in the Siwaliks. Manchhar group. The highest sub-division of the Sind tertiary series has been named from a large lake, the Manchhar, a few miles west of Sehwan. The group doubtless represents generally the far better known Siwaliks of Northern India, and it is probable that the upper and lower limits of the two may be the same, but the fossiliferous bands are at different hoi'izons. The Manchhar group of Sind consists of clays, sandstones, and conglomerates, and attains in places a thickness of but little, if at all, less than 10,000 feet on the flanks of the Khirthar range. Although it is difficult to draw an absolute line between the sub-divisions, the whole group may be divided, wherever it is well exposed, into two portions ; the lower consisting mainly of a characteristic grey sandstone, rather soft, moderately fine grained, and composed of quartz, with some felspar and hornblende, together with red sandstones, conglomeratic beds, and, towards the base, red, brown, and grey clays ; the latter, however, being much less largely developed than in the upper sub-division. The conglo- meratic beds chiefly contain nodules of clay and of soft sandstone, apparently derived from beds precisely similar to those of the Manchhars themselves; so far as has been observed, these conglomerates do not contain fragments derived from the older tertiary rocks, no pebbles either 1 It is not quite certain whether this species is identical with the European form, but it is certainly the shell figured by Messrs. D'Archiac and Haime. There is another species known by the same name and found in triassic beds in Europe. Extra-Peninsular.] MANCHHAR GROUP. 467 of the characteristic Gaj limestones or of the still more easily recognised nummulitic limestone of the Khirthars having been noticed in the beds of the lower Manchhars, although both abound in the upper strata of the group. These conglomeratic beds of the lower Manchhars are frequently ossiferous, the bones and teeth contained in them being, however, usually isolated and fragmentary. The upper Manchhar sub-division, where it is best seen, on the flanks of the Khirthar range, west of Larkana, is thicker than the lower, and consists principally, towards the base, of a great thickness of orange or brown clays, with subordinate bands of sandstone and conglomerate. The sandstones are usually light-brown, but occasionally grey, like the characteristic beds of the lower sub-division. The higher portio*n of this upper sub-group contains more sandstone and conglomerate, and the whole is capped by a thick band of massive coarse conglomerate, which throughout Upper Sind forms a conspicuous ridge along the edge of the Indus alluvium. This conglomerate contains numerous large pebbles of nummulitic and Gaj limestone, together with fragments of quartzite and other rocks of unknown origin. Throughout the conglomeratic beds of the upper Manchhars, pebbles of nummulitic limestone and of the brown Gaj limestone occur, shewing that these older tertiary beds must have been upheaved and denuded in the later Manchhar period, although there is a complete passage between the Gaj beds and the lower Manchhars. There appears, however, good reason for supposing that some disturb- ance of the older rocks took place before the deposition of the loWer portion of the Manchhar group. To the east of the Laki range the Manchhar beds, themselves disturbed, rest unconformably on the Khirthar group, the beds of which are vertical in many places, so that it is manifest that the Khirthars had in this locality been upheaved before the deposition of the Manchhars. The presence in this locality of the lower portion of the latter group appears to be proved by the occurrence of teeth and bones of the same mammals as are found in the lower Manchhars elsewhere. It is evidently far from improbable that the Manchhar group of Sind should be sub-divided into two distinct groups, the upper being perhaps the equivalent of the typical Siwaliks. Only a few fragments of bones, too imperfect for determination, have, however, hitherto been found in the upper Manchhars, so that no clue to the age of the sub-division is afforded by fossil remains. There is also a possibility that the coarse conglomerate capping the whole tertiary series should be classed apart from the under- lying beds, although it appears to pass into them. The only reason for 468 GEOLOGY OF INDIA-SIND. [Chap. XIX, distinguishing the upper conglomerate, apart from its great coarseness and thickness, is that it, and it alone, exhibits some slight connection in its development with the existing features of the country ; at least the conglomeratic band appears to be much thicker at the spot where it is traversed by the Gaj river than it is to the northward or to the south- ward, and this increase in thickness may be due to an accumulation of pebbles brought down by a stream which occupied in upper Manchhar times the same position as the Gaj now does. A similar increase in the development of conglomerate near the course of the present rivers will be noticed in a subsequent chapter in the ease of the Sub- Himalayan Sivvaliks. It is, however, manifest that a great part of the disturbance which has caused the elevation of the Khirthar range is of later date than the Manchhar conglomerate, because that conglomerate has been tilted up at high angles, and appears to dip conformably with the older tertiary rocks. Nevertheless it is true that, as has been shewn in the last paragraph, there must have been some change of level before the Manchhars were deposited, and it is also true that there is in places an apparent passage from the upper Manchhar conglomerate into the gravels of the slope, on the edge of the alluvium, but the latter may simply be due to the reconsolidation of pebbles derived from the con- glomerate itself ; and if the amount of disturbance in the interval between the upper and lower Manchhar periods was considerable, the evidence of such a break should be more conspicuous than it is. On the whole, it appears evident that the great period of disturbance which terminated the tertiary epoch in Sind commenced during the deposition of the Manchhar beds, or probably even earlier, but that far greater changes took place after the highest Manchhar strata had been deposited than during the period of their deposition. In one case a few estuarine fossils were found, near the Nari stream, in a Manchhar bed 300 or 400 feet above the base of the group. The only form recognised was Corbula trigonalis, already mentioned as characteristic of the estuarine passage beds between Gaj and Manchhar. With this exception, and that of some rolled oyster-shells possibly derived from a lower formation, no marine or estuarine fossils have been observed in the Manchhar beds of Upper Sind, above the passage beds at the base of the group, and there appears every reason to believe that the group is of fluviatile origin. The form of the pebbles in the conglomerate of the upper Manchhars is that of stream- worn, and not that of sea- worn fragments ; they approach an oblate rather than a prolate spheroid. Still the amount of rounding is such as could only have been produced by a rapid stream. Extra-Peninsular.] MANCHHAR GROUP. 469 In Lower Sind, however, there is a very considerable intercalation of marine or estuarine beds with the Manchhars, and this evidence of deposition in salt water increases in the neighbourhood of the present coast. Around Karachi, beds of oysters, and sometimes of other marine or estuarine shells, are found not unfrequently interstratified with the Manchhar group. There is also some change in mineral character, the sandstones becoming more argillaceous and being associated in places with pale grey sandy clays and shales. The passage into the Gaj beds is very gradual, calcareous bands with Gaj fossils, such as Ostrea multicostata and Pecten subcorneits, being found some distance above the base of the Manchhar group. , Although, on account of the change in mineral character, there is, except in the neighbourhood e-f the coast, no difficulty in drawing a line between Manchhar and Gij beds, everything tends to shew that there is no break in time between the two, the lower portion of the upper group being an estuariue or fluviatile continuation of the underlying marine beds. But the great thickness of the Manchhar group in Upper Sind alone would suffice to prove that a considerable period of time must have elapsed during the deposition of this formation, and it is far from improbable that the lower Manchhars may be upper miocene, whilst the upper Manchhars are pliocene. The Manchhar beds extend along the edge of the alluvium, and form a broad fringe to the Khirthar range, throughout Upper Siud, from west of Shikarpur to the Manchhar Lake, but the breadth of the outcrop varies greatly, being as much as 14 miles where broadest west of Larkana, and diminishing both to the north and south. As already noticed, the Manchhars are thickest just where their outcrop is widest, but the breadth of the area occupied by them is not due simply to their vertical development, but chiefly to their forming a synclinal and anti- clinal roll before disappearing beneath the alluvial plain ; whereas in other parts of the range the same beds are exposed in a simple section, all the strata dipping to the westward. To the north the section is complicated by faults, but to the south the thickness of the Manchhar group dim- inishes greatly, and west of Sehwan, near Tandra Rahim Khan, although both upper and lower sub-divisions of the group are developed, and the uppermost conglomerate is exposed, the whole thickness of the Manchhar strata cannot be much more than about 3,000 feet. The Manchhar beds are seen west, south, and east of the Manchhar Lake ; they are well developed, and occupy a large plain to the east of the Laki range, and west of the nummulitic limestone tract near Kotri and Jhirak ; they reappear in many places in the different synclinal valleys to the west of 470 GEOLOGY OF IiNDIA-SIND. [Chap, XIX. the Laki range, and they occupy a considerable tract of country east and north-east of Karachi. But throughout these areas in Lower Sind the rocks are not nearly so well seen as to the northward, the soft sandstones and clays of the Manchhar group having been denuded into undulating plains, covered and concealed in general by the pebbles and sands derived from the neighbouring hills, formed of the comparatively hard older tertiary rocks, and it is far more difficult than it is in Upper Sind to distinguish the different portions of the group, or to form a correct idea of the thickness of strata exposed. Relations to Makran group. The Manchhar beds extend along the edge of the sea, west of Karachi, almost to the end of Cape Monze, but no representative of this formation is seen for a considerable distance to the westward of the Cape. The few exposures of rocks seen near the shores of Sonmiani Bay are older tertiary, or perhaps cretaceous, and the greater part of the country consists of alluvium; a low cliff near the coast, north of Gadani, being composed apparently of sub-recent deposits. But west of Sonmiani Bay, in the neighbourhood of Hinglaj, a well- known place of Hindu pilgi-image, there are high hills of hard greyish white marls or clays, usually sandy, often highly calcareous, and occasion- ally intersected by veins of gypsum. With this clay or marl, bands of shaly limestone, dark calcareous grit and sandstone are interstratificd, but they usually form but a small portion of the mass, although their greater hardness renders them conspicuous. This marl formation extends for many hundreds of miles along the coast, and is well seen at Ras Malan, Ormara, Pasni, Gwadar, near Jashk at the entrance of the Persian Gulf, and on the Persian shores of the gulf itself. The headlands of Rds Malan, Ormdra, and Gwadar consist of great horizontal plateaus, surrounded by cliffs of whitish marl or clay, and capped by dark- coloured calcareous grit, Ras Malan especially being a table-land rising abruptly to a height of 2,000 feet from the sea. These remarkable rocks have been called the Makran group l from the name usually applied to the littoral tracts of Baluchistan. The Makran group is of purely marine origin, and abounds in mol- lusca, echinoderms, &c., most of the species apparently being the same as those found in the neighbouring seas at present. The collections made at Gwadar, Jashk, ana 1 other places have not been sufficiently compared to ascertain whether any are common to the Gaj beds of Sind, but by far the greater portion are distinct; none of the characteristic Gaj fossils, such as Ostrea mnlticostata, Breynia carinata, Echinolampas jacque- monti, &c., have been noticed in the Makran group, and the latter 1 Rec. G. S. I., V, p. 43; Eastern Persia, II, p. 462. Extra- Peninsular.] MANCHHAR GROUP. 471 appears to be of later age than the miocene Gaj beds. Although there is no resemblance between the typical Manchhar beds and the cha- racteristic rocks of the Makran group, nor, from the widely different con- ditions under which the two formations must have been deposited, would any similarity in mineral character be probable, some of the soft argil- laceous shaly sands in the Manchhar beds near Karachi closely resemble some similar beds in the Makran group near Gwadar. As the coast of Baluchistan has never been examined geologically, all that is known of its structure having been ascertained by brief visits to a few points separated from each other by intervals of from 50 to 100 miles, it is uncertain to what extent the rocks of Sind extend to the westward, and whether any representatives of the Gaj group, especially, exist in that direction, but there appears a considerable amount of proba- bility that the marine Makran group in Baluchistan may represent the fresh- water Manchhars and Siwaliks on the edge of the Indo-Gangetic plain. Palseontology of Manchhar group. The only fossil remains of any importance hitherto detected in the Manchhar group are bones of mammalia, and all that have been recognised belong to the lower Man- chhars, the upper sub-division of the group, as has already been mention- ed, having hitherto furnished only a few bones, in too poor and fragment- ary a state of preservation for the species, or even the genera, to be determined. The few estuarine shells which have been found in the lowest Manchhar beds in Upper Sind, and a portion at least of the marine fossils procured from a similar horizon near Karachi, appear to be Gaj forms, and to indicate a close connection between the lower Manchhars and the underlying group. In places, and especially in the neighbourhood of the Laki range, silicified fossil wood is found in abundance in the Manchhar beds, stems of large trees being of common occurrence. The majority are dicotyledonous, but some fragments of monocotyledons are also found. The following is a list of the species of Vertebrate^ hitherto identified from the lower Manchhar group : it should perhaps be repeated that the remains are extremely fragmentary, and chiefly consist of single teeth and broken portions of bones. No remains of Quadrumana, Chiroptera, Insectivora, Rodent ia, or Cetacea have hitherto been found, and the fauna is chiefly remarkable for the prevalence of artiodactyle ungulates, allied to pigs, or intermediate between pigs and ruminants. i These have been named by Mr. Lydekker, Rec. G. S. I., IX, pp. 91, 93, 106; X, pp. 76, 83, 225 ; XI, pp. 64, 71, 77, 79, &c. ; Pal. Ind., ier. X, pt. 2. GEOLOGY OF INDIA SIND. [Chap. XIX, MAMMALIA. CABNIVOBA. Amphicyon paleeindicus, PI. XIX, fig. 4. PBOBOSCIDIA. Mastodon perimensis, PI. XVII, fig. 3. M. latidens, PI. XVII, fig. 4. Mastodon (Trilophodon) falconeri - Dinotherium pentepotamia. UNGTJLATA. PERISSODACTYLA. Rhinoceros palceindicus. Acerofherium perimense. It. sp. near B, deccanensis. ASTIODACTTLA. Sus hysudricus. * Hyopotamiis palaindicus. * Hemimeryx, sp. * Sivameryx, 2 sp. Chalicotherium sivalense. * Hyotherium sindiense. Dorcatherivm majus. D. minus. Anthracutherium silistrense. EDENTATA. * Manis sindiensis. REPTILIA. Crocodilus, sp. Ophidia, sp. indet. Chelonia, sp. indet. Species marked with an asterisk have not been found elsewhere. The majority of the genera are extinct ; Itkinoceros, Sus, and Manis being the only living types, and the last named has only been recognised from a single digital phalange, so that the generic identification is far from sufficient. Both Rhinoceros and Sus existed in miocene times, whilst Amphicyon, Anthracotherium, Hyopotamus, and Dinotherium are not known to occur in Europe in beds of later date than miocene. The genera Hemimeryx and Sivameryx are peculiar ; both are allied to the Siwalik Merycopotamus . The species found also in the pliocene Siwaliks are Rhinoceros palain- dicus, Acerotherium perimense, Chalicotherium sivalense, Sus hysudricus, the two species of Dorcotherium, Mastodon ladidens, and Mastodon falconeri ; but as the presence of these forms in the Manchhars is inferred for the most part from fragments, the identifications araby no means quite certain, whilst the general facies of the fauna, the absence of characteristic living forms like Squus, Bos, Antilope, Cervus, and Mephas, and the presence of several extinct genera not hitherto detected in the Siwaliks, shew that the mammaliferous beds of Sind are of older age than the typical Siwalik strata. It should be recollected, moreover, that the precise horizon at which the Siwalik forms are found is but rarely known with accuracy ; that some of the Siwalik strata are as old as the lower Manchhars, if not older, and that a portion at least of the older types of mammals are from Extra-Peninsular-] NOTES ON TERTIAKY SERIES. 17.", beds low in the Siwalik series. None of the remarkable series of types allied to the giraffes and Sivalh&rium, nor of the peculiar bovine and antilopine forms so characteristic of the Siwalik fauna, have as yet been found in Sind ; the only ruminant detected in the Manchhar beds is the miocene Dorcatherium, and the place of the more specialised Pecora appears to have been occupied by the less specialised even-toed ungulates allied to the pig. While therefore it is probable that some extinct types, such as Anthracotherium and Hyopotamns, which are not known in Europe above the lower miocene, existed in India at a somewhat later period, together with species which survived till pliocene times, it is evident that the lower portion of the Manchhar group can scarcely be con- sidered of later date than upper miocene. The palseontological evidence is in accordance with the geological, and both shew the close connexion between the lower Manchhar beds and the Gaj group. Post-tertiary beds. The post-tertiary formations in the Sind hills are not of sufficient importance to deserve a lengthened description ; gravel, sand and clays, brought down by torrents, occupy a large area in the valleys, and frequently form a slope some miles broad, extending from the base of each range of hills, and covering a very large portion of the intervening valleys. The same phenomenon is seen throughout a great part of Western and Central Asia, being more conspicuous on account of the dryness of the climate and the resulting deficiency of forest or dense vegetation ; independently, however, of the greater facilities for studying such formations which are afforded by the absence of trees and shrubs, the formation of extensive gravel slopes appears to be character- istic of climates like that of Sind, with a low rainfall, because in such tracts rock detritus accumulates along the bases of hills more quickly than it can be carried away by the streams ; the rainfall is sufficient to wash down the disintegrated fragments from the steeper slopes, but not to carry them forward where the fall is more gradual. 1 The great plain north-east of Karachi is covered by extensive allu- vial deposits, chiefly of gravel and sand ; the gravels here, and in many of the valleys in Western Sind, being often consolidated into a hard conglomerate by carbonate of lime derived from the pebbles of limestone, which form the bulk of the detritus. Some oysters of recent species are found in the conglomerates near Karachi. Additional notes on Sind tertiary series. Before quitting the subject of the Sind tertiaries, there are two or three points to which attention may be directed. These points are chiefly of interest with 1 For further details as to these gravel slopes, see Q. J. G. S., 1873, p. 496 ; Eastern Persia, II, p. 465 ; and also Drew, Q. J. G. S., 1873, pp. 445, &c. 474 GEOLOGY OF INDIA-SIND. [Chap. XIX. regard to the geology of more extensive areas, but the knowledge, gained in the last few years, of the sequence in Sind, and of the peculiarities of the upper mesozoic and tertiary series there exposed, together with the great imperfection of our acquaintance with all the neighbouring regions, renders it desirable that these geological features, although they may not be peculiar to the Sind area, should not be overlooked when the characters of the region are compared with those of other parts of India. Absence of general breaks below pliocene. The first of these points is the general conformity of the whole series from cretaceous (probably upper cretaceous) to pliocene. The lowest bed, the hip- puritic limestone, passes into the cretaceous sandstones, and these again into the olive shales with Cardita beaumonti. The Deccan trap and the Ranikot beds at the base of the eocene period follow in regular and conformable succession, and the break, shewn by the Khirthar lime- stones resting on the denuded edges of the upper Ranikot beds in the Laki range, is merely local, for a few miles to the south-east the two forma- tions pass completely into each other. At the top of the Khirthar limestones also, although there is a sudden and abrupt change in the fauna, no unconformity has been detected at the base of the Nari group, whilst Nari beds in many places, and especially in South- Western Sind, pass uninterruptedly into the miocene Gaj beds, and there is again a complete passage from the latter into the Manchhar group. In the middle of the Manchhar formation there may be a break proved by some slight indications of unconformity and by the appearance of detritus derived from middle and lower tertiary beds in the upper sub-division, but the unconformity, if any exist, is probably local. Great post-pliocene disturbance. Here, however, the sequence ends, and, in the evidence of great disturbance having taken place in Western Sind since the upper Manchhar beds were deposited, there is an abrupt and startling change from the phenomena exhibited on the other side of the Indus valley. We are in fact brought into the pre- sence of one of the great facts which divide with so trenchant a line the geology of the Indian Peninsula from that of neighbouring countries. The eocene nummulitic limestone, even in the middle of the Indus valley around Sukkur and Rohri, never dips at more than 5, and rarely at more than 1 or ; the tertiaries of Cutch, Kattywar and Surat pass upwards almost without a break into the coast alluvium ; the laterite of Western India, probably of tertiary age at least, lies undisturbed upon the flat cretaceous basalts ; and the difficulty in drawing a line between older and newer forms of laterite a difficulty so frequently pointed out in the Extra-Peninsular. ] ALTERNATION OF BEDS. 475 fifteenth chapter of the present work alone suffices to shew how destitute of violent disturbance the geological history of peninsular India has been in csenozoic times. It is unnecessary here to do more than refer to the older mesozoic and palaeozoic rocks of the Indian Peninsula, but it is a fact that the pliocene beds of Sind and the Himalayas are more disturbed than the ancient azoic Vindhyans of Bundelkhand. The uppermost Manchhar rocks on the edge of the alluvial Indus plain are frequently vertical, and rarely dip at lower angles than 30 or 40, and it is manifest that the great anticlinal ridges of the Sind mountains have been mainly formed in post-pliocene times. In the few notes on the physical geography of Sind at the commence- ment of the present chapter, it was shewn that the ranges of hills in the province are simple anticlinals with paralled axes, all running nearly north and south. This probably proves that the action of disturbance has been unusually simple, and has consisted of a distinct lateral thrust from one direction. The change of direction to the westward in Baluchistan, and to the northward in the Punjab, has been noticed elsewhere. Alternation of marine and fresh- water beds. The cretaceous rocks appear to have been marine, with the possible exception of the uufossiliferous sandstones above the hippuritic limestone, but at the base of the Sind tertiary rocks, in the Ranikot beds, proofs of the im- mediate neighbourhood of land are afforded by the presence of terrestrial plants. It is probable that the thin band of Deccan trap at the base of the Ranikot group was of subaerial origin in Sind as elsewhere, and that the lower Ranikot beds themselves are fluviatile. The upper portion of the Ranikot group, the whole of the Khirthar and the lower Nari beds are marine, and the nummulitic limestone may have been deposited far from land, whilst it is certain that a considerable portion of this lime- stone formation is too pure to have accumulated in a sea into which sediment in any quantity was poured by rivers or washed from a coast line. But, as has been shewn above, the Khirthar limestone in Lower Sind contains intercalated sandstones and shales, shewing the admixture of detritus derived from land, and the great limestone band itself disappears in the south-western part of the province near the Habb river. The thick upper Nari sandstones, and the still thicker Manchhars have, again, the character of fluviatile deposits, but the intervening Gaj group is marine and in part perhaps estuarine. Thus throughout the tertiary series of Sind there is evidence of frequent alternations of marine and terrestrial conditions, the last marine beds known being of miocene date. It will be shewn in subsequent chapters 476 GEOLOGY OF INDIA SIND. [Chap. XIX. that to the northward, on the flanks of the Himalayas, the tertiary marine beds tend to disappear or diminish, even the nummulitic limestone, the only marine formation which appears to be persistent throughout the greater part of the extra-peninsular area, being much less developed- in the Sub-Himalayan ranges than it is in the neighbourhood of the lower Indus valley. Extra-Peninsular.] PUNJAB HILLS, 477 CHAPTER XX. EXTRA-PENINSULAR AREA. THE PUNJAB HILLS WEST OP THE JHELUM. Physical geography and general features Geological data General geological features Rock-groups of Salt Range Hock-groups of Hazara and the Northern Punjab Abnormal boundary of upper tertiaries Azoic and pala;ozoic rocks of Salt Range, &c. Salt marl Purple sandstone Silurian ? Magnesian sandstone Speckled sandstone Carboniferous Mesozoic rocks of Salt Range, &c. Ceratite beds Pseudomorphic salt crystal zone Jurassic or variegated group Cretaceous (neocomian) Olive group. Physical geography. Passing northward from Sind to the Pun- jab, the physical features of the country at first undergo little or no change. The South- Western Punjab near the Sind frontier consists, like Sind itself, of the alluvial plain of the Indus, bounded to the westward, for the most part beyond the limits of the province, by a range of ter- tiary hills, and to the eastward by a sandy desert. Farther north the alluvial tract expands into the great plain of the five rivers, the rocky boundary, known as the Suleman Range, continuing to the westward. A little beyond the thirty-second parallel of north latitude, however, a series of curved hill ranges, of which the most important, between the Indus and Jhelum, is known as the " Salt Range/' crosses the province from Shekh Budin, a little north of Dera Ismail Khan, to Jhelum, and to the northward of these ranges, which cross the Indus at Kalabagh, a tract of more or less hilly country extends to the foot of the Hima- layas,, and of the great mountain ranges between the Himalayas of Western Kashmir and the Hindu Kush. But this tract may again be sub-divided into three high level plains, more or less broken up by ravines, and separated from each other by ranges of hills. The south-eastern plain extends from the Salt Range to beyond Rawalpindi, and closely approxi- mates in dimensions with the basin of the river Soan, a tributary joining the Indus a little above Kalabagh. This plain is sometimes known as the Potwar or the Rawalpindi plateau ; it extends from the Indus nearly to the Jhelum ; it has a superficial area of about 7,000 square miles, and a general elevation of about 1,000 feet above the Indo-Gangetic plain to the south of the Salt Range. The surface is greatly cut up by deep ravines in the soft Siwalik beds, of which almost the whole area is com- posed. North of this southern plain there is a series of hill ranges 478 GEOLOGY OF INDIA THE PUNJAB HILLS. [Chap- XX, known as Margalla, Chitapahar, Cherat, &c., which have a general east and west (or east by north to west by south) direction, and connect the Murree and Hazara with the Afridi mountains. These hill ranges traverse the Northern Punjab south of Attock, and repeat, though on a diminished scale, the remarkable curves of the Salt Range and Chichali or Shingarh hills. North of the Cherat and Afridi hills is the alluvial plain of Peshawar, and this again is bounded on the north by the hills of Swat and Yusafzai, the geology of which is unknown. A third plain, more to the westward, of smaller extent than either of the former, exists in the neighbourhood of Bannu (Bunnoo) . It is close to the northern continuation of the Suleman Range, and is bounded to the northward by ranges of hills having a general east and west direction in the Bahadur Khel and Waziri country in Kohat, and to the east and south by the trans-Indus continuation of the Salt Range, known under a variety of names, such as Chichali or Shingarh, Kafirkot, Shekh Budin, &c., none of which, however, appear to have more than a local value. l The Bannu plain comprises about 1,500 square miles ; it is about 1,200 feet above the sea, and is drained by the Kurram (Koorum) river and its tributaries. For the purposes of the present work, the boundary between the Punjab and Himalayan areas will be understood as coinciding with the course of the Jhelum below the junction with the Kishenganga at Muzafirabad, the whole of Hazara, and of the hills around Murree (Mari) being included in the Punjab hill ranges. The circumstance that the valley of the Jhelum, which is also the boundary of Kashmir in this direction, closely corresponds with the important change in the main direction of the ranges from the east-north-east strike prevalent in Hazara 1 No names are applied to these ranges on the map, and almost every writer employs different terms for them. The ranges in the Punjab are not named by the inhabitants of the country, and such distinctive terms as are commonly used appear to be derived either from the tribes inhabiting the hills, as Waziri, Afridi, &c., from the passes through them, from the country around, or from some local peculiarity, as in the case of the Salt Range. The following are the names used by various writers for the hills forming the western extension of the Salt Eange beyond the Indus. The portion near the river, much curved, but having on the whole an east and west strike for some distance, and then turning southwards and running north and south, is known as the Chichali, Shingarh or Lowagarh and Surgarh. By one writer these hills are called Khattak. South of the break made by the Kurram river, there is a double range, the northern or north-western, running north-east and south-west, known as the Batani or Shekh Budin ridge, whilst the parallel ridge to the south-east near the bank of the Indus is variously known as Khasor, Betot, Kafirkot, or Rotta Roh. From west of the peak of Shekh Budin another ridge runs to the north-west and joins the Shekh Budin range to the Suleman. This minor ridge is known as the Pyzu (Peyzoo) from a pass through it. Most of the ridges named consist of tertiary rocks, but older formations occur in the Chichali or Shingarh and Kafirkot ranges, and under Shekh Budin peak. Extra-Peninsular.] GEOLOGICAL DATA. 479 to the north-western direction of the Pir Panjal, justifies the selection of this line for the eastern limit of the Himalayan region. The plains of the Punjab, so far as they require geological notice, or perhaps, it should rather be said, so far as their geology is known, have already been described in the seventeenth chapter with the rest of the post-tertiary Indo-Gangetic plain. The orographical features of the hills to the north and west of the province are peculiar, but our knowledge of the geology requires many additions to be made to it before these features can be understood. The change in the direction of the ranges, caused by a similar alteration in the strike of the rocks at the Jhelum valley, has just been noticed, but this is only one of several similar abrupt changes in the Punjab hills. Commencing again on the frontier of Sibd, the Mari and Bhdgti hills, north of Jacobabad, run nearly east and west, whilst the Suleman Range, from the Sind frontier to Dera Ismail Khan, runs nearly north and south, like the Khirthar and other mountain chains in Sind. The various ranges of the Northern Punjab are so much curved and twisted, that no general direction .can be detected ; there is, however, in many parts of them, as in the Eastern Salt Range, and in the Shekh Budin hills, a tendency to parellelism with the east-north-east direction of the Hazara hills. The extraordinary curve of the Salt Range at the Indus may be considered a remarkable instance of folding due to compression, but the cause of so singular a change of direction requires further explanation. In the Punjab hills three distinct lines of strike may be traced : that of the Suleman Range, running nearly north and south ; that of the lower Hazara hills, running east-north-east to west-south-west; and that of the Pir Panj&l, running nearly north-west and south-east ; but all these chains are, in great part at least, of post- pliocene date, for all comprise pliocene beds, and it is difficult to see any reason for doubting that all are of contemporaneous origin. Geological data. Our present knowledge of the various hill ranges varies greatly in accuracy and detail. The Salt Range and the elevated tract to the northward in the Rawalpindi district, known as the Potwar, together with some of the hills west of the Indus forming the trans- Indus salt region, and extending to the neighbourhood of Kohat and Bannu, have been examined and mapped by the Geological Survey l ; portions of Hazara and the Murree hills have also been surveyed, but of the remainder of the region very little is known. Of the hills of the Dera j at from Bannu southward scarcely any information exists. Some notes on the ranges near the Indus, from Kalabagh to Shekh 1 Chiefly by Mr. Wynne ; portions of the Salt Range, of the Murree hills, and Hazara having also been examined by Dr. Waagen. The Salt Range is described at length by Mr. Wynne: Mem. G. S. I., vol. XIV; an account of Mount Tilla having previously 4,80 GEOLOGY OF INDIA THE PUNJAB HILLS. [Chap. XX. Budin, have been published by Dr. Fleming. 1 A few observations on the geology of the Shekh Budin hills and neighbouring ranges have also been published by Dr. Costello 2 and Dr. Verchere, 3 but the details in all these cases are extremely meagre and imperfect. The Sulemau Eange beyond the British frontier has been traversed west of Dera Ghazi Khan by Mr. Ball/ and some notes on the Mari and Bhugti hills to the southward were published many years since by Captain Vicary ; whilst the only information on the northern part of the range is comprised in some brief notes by Dr. Fleming 6 and Dr. Stewart. 7 General geological features. So far as is at present known, the Mari and Bhiigti hills and the Suleman Range are principally, like the Khirthar and other hills of Sind, composed of tertiary beds, amongst which nummulitic limestone and the conglomerates, sandstones and clays of the upper tertiaries (Manchhar or Siwalik) are the most conspicuous rocks. In the northern part of the Suleman hills, however, older formations appear, some of them metamorphic. The Shekh Budin and Chichalior Shingarh hills, west of the Indus, are a continu- ation of the Salt Range, and contain to a great extent the same rocks, but, as already remarked, they are very imperfectly known. In the Salt Range there is a remarkable series of formations, from older palaeozoic to later tertiary, many of them fossiliferous, the oldest rocks being found along the southern base of the range, and all the beds, despite much irregular disturbance, having a general northerly dip. Here the contrast been published : Rec. G. S. I., Ill, p. 81. The various descriptions by previous observers are noted in Mr. Wynne's jnemoir : of these the most important were the reports by Dr. Fleming : J. A. S. B., XVII, 1848, Pfc. 2, p. 500, and XXII, 1853, pp. 229, 333, 444. The trans-Indus salt region was described: Mem. G. S. I., XI, pp. (105) (330); the Kharian hills, south of the Jhelum, Rec. G. S. I., VIII, p. 46 ; the neighbourhood of Mari (Murree) hill station, Rec. G. S. I., VII, p. 64 j and the tertiary rocks of the upper Punjab, Rec. G. S. I., X, p. 107, all by Mr. Wynne. Some details were also given : Q. J. G. S., 1874, p. 61 ; 1878, p. 347; and Rec. G. S. I., Ill, p. 73; VI, p. 59. The geology of Mount Sirban, close to Abbottabad in Ha/ara, was described by Dr. Waagen and Mr. Wynne : Mem. G. S. I., IX, pp. (331) (350) ; whilst Dr. Waagen separately gave an account of a section near Murree : Rec. G. S. I., V, p. 15 ; and of forms of Ammonites, Ceratites, and Qoniatites from carboniferous rocks : Mem. G. S. I., p. (351). The fossil collections made by Dr. Fleming and Mr. Purdon in the Salt Range were described by Mr. Davidson : Q. J. G. S., 1862, p. 25; and Prof, de Koninck : Q. J. G. S., 1863, p. 1. The only other important contribution to the geology of the Punjab is by Dr. Vcrchere: J. A. S. B., XXXV, Pt. 2, pp. 89, 159 ; XXXVI, Pt. 2, pp. 9, &c. The present and the following chapter are chiefly compiled from data furnished by Mr. Wynne's papers, except where the contrary is stated. 1 J. A. S. B., XXII, 1853, pp. 259, 261, 268, &c. 2 J. A. S. B., XXXIII, p 378. J. A. S. B., XXXIV, Pt. 2, p. 42 ; and map, J. A. S. B., XXXVI, Ft. 2. 4 Rec. G. S. I., VII, p. 145. 5 Q. J. G. S., 1846, p. 260; Geol. Papers on Western India, p. 521. 6 Q. J. G. S ., 1853, p. 346. ' J. A. S. B., XXIX, p. 31-1. Extra-Peninsular. 3 ROCK-GROUPS OF SALT RANGE. 481 so frequently noticed between the peninsular and extra-peninsular areas of India is very strongly marked ; although the Korana hills, 1 apparently composed of the Arvali transition beds, are but 40 miles distant to the south-east, not a single formation, out of the ten pre-tertiary groups distinguished by Mr. Wynne amongst the rocks of the range, has hitherto been clearly identified with any formation in the peninsular area, and the Salt Range tertiary beds are only represented, as already noticed, in Western India. At the same time the peninsular formations contrast much more strongly with the marine palaeozoic and mesozoic strata of the Western Salt Range than with the unfossiliferous sandstones in the eastern part of the hills, and there is not only a gradual passage in the range itself from west to east, from a distinctly marine facies to one more nearly resembling that of the Vindhyan and Gondwana series of the peninsula, but there is still a possibility that some of the peninsular formations may be identified with those of the Eastern Salt Range. All that can be said is that no such identification has hitherto been made. Dr. Waagen suggests 2 that the Salt Range marks the passage from the extra- peninsular to the peninsular type of rocks, and these hills may conse- quently be on the margin of the ancient land area, of which the*Indian Peninsula formed a portion in palaeozoic and mesozoic times. Rock-groups of Salt Range. The following is a general list of the rock- groups found in the Salt Range in descending order 3 : Approximate European equivalents. Name. Character of rocks. thickness, in feet. PLIOCENE . . 14 Upper Siwalik . Conglomerates, drab and pink clays . . . SCO to 2,000 13 Lower Siwalik 4 . Grey sandstones and red / 13 Lc ' (. 12 Ki clays, with mammalian MIOCENE (?) . ) bones .... 1,200 to 7,500 Nabau ? . . Greenisb-grey sandstones 600 to 1,000 Pale limestones, with nunimulites and other EOCB, . . 11 Ntic . and shales; 1 some carbonaceous shales (^ locally near the base . 1,700 to 3,000 /- Thin-bedded limestones, f 60 and up- \ unfossiliferous . ( wards ? 300 "j Sandy and rusty lime- stones, fossiliferous . 20 /" Sandstones, &c., poorly \ fossiliferous . 30 f Gienmal beds, . J Limestones, fossiliferous 10 to 100 J JBASSIC . J Spiti shales, &c. 1 Black shales, sandy beds, (. ' &c., fossiliferons . 30 TBIASSIC . Limestones, magnesian in part, shales and sand- stones, fossiliferous . 2,000 or less INFBA-TBIASSIC Siliceous and dolomitic breccia, shales, sand- stones, unfossiliferous. TANOL (TANAWAL) GBOOP Quartzites, conglomerates, slates, schists and mag- nesian limestones, un- fossiliferous. SILUBIAN ? . Attock slates . Black and grey slates, limestones, &c. Schistose beds, qnartzites and dolomites. Metamorphic and crystalline rocks. Abnormal boundary of upper tertiaries. The boundary b-i \\- . Akad. Wiss. Wien., Math. Naturhist. Kl. 1878, p. 10. A sketch is also given in the Punjab Gazetteer, the 1 details for which were furnished by Mr. Wynne. Extra-Peninsular.] ATTOCK SLATES. 499 valley, Susulgali, Agror, &c. To what extent these rocks are metamor- phosed sedimentary beds, and whether any or all of them are intrusive, is uncertain. The porphyritic granitoid rock with large twin crystals of felspar bears some resemblance to the central gneiss of the Himalayas. Very little more is known of these formations than that they occupy large areas in Northern and North-Eastern Hazara, and that they probably extend thence to the westward. They are a continuation of some of the crystalline rocks forming the axis of the Pir Panjal. Schistose series. Between the crystalline rocks and the Attock slates in Hazara there is found an immense thickness of quartzites, dolomites, and schistose beds passing down into gneiss. These r,ocks apparently rest upon the Attock slates, but the dip seen may" be an inversion. They occupy the greater portion of North- Western Hazara and extend down the Indus valley below Turbela. Neither the crystalline nor schistose formations of Hazara extend into the other hills of the Northern Punjab within the British boundary, but both are doubtless continued in the mountains of Yusafzai. Attock slates. The next formation has a much wider range. It consists of dark-coloured slates with limestones, some sandstones, and a few intrusions and perhaps contemporaneous beds of basic trap intercalated. These rocks are particularly well seen in the hills on the Indus south of Attock, and have consequently received the name of Attock slates. They are generally remarkable for their dark colour ; they are irre- gularly cleaved, and seldom, if ever, afford good slates for roofing or similar purposes, although their thinly laminated layers are sometimes employed. The limestones vary in texture, being sometimes compact, and occasionally brecciated; they are often altered, and many are dolomitic. They are not often crystalline, although a conspicuous band of fub-crystalline white marble belonging to the present forma- tion extends for some distance along the southern face of the Attock or Mirkulan hills and reappears in the Gandgarh range. The only fossils yet obtained are too obscure for identification, and even such traces of organisms as have been noticed are excessively rare, the slate beds themselves being unfossiliferous. In parts of Hazara the slates become altered and slightly schistose, as in the neighbourhood of Gandgarh and Haripur. In these hills the typical dark Attock slates are absent or so much altered that they cannot be recognised, the common rock being talcose, silky and schistose from partial metamorphism. Many greenstone dykes and intrusive masses of syenite are found in the schists. In Upper Hazara and Mianjain, limestones are rare or wanting in the slate series, but they abound in the Gandgavh hills and also near Attock, a few bands of trap being also 500 GEOLOGY OF INDIA THE PUNJAB HILLS. [Chap. XXI. found in the Gandgarh range. At Mount Sirban and around Abbott- abad the group consists of slates of a dark colour, sometimes black or purple, with bands of greenish grey sandstone. Nothing certain is known as to the age of these slates, 1 except that they must be palaeozoic, for they are inferior in position and quite un- conf ormable to the infra-triassic group near Abbottabad in Hazara. They are very probably identical with the slates of the Pir Panjal classed as silurian by Lydekker. 2 The Attock slates occupy a considerable area in Hazara, and form a broad belt between the tract of crystalline and schistose rocks to the north-west and the newer formations to the south-east ; one basin of stratified rocks, including limestone, resting upon the gneissose and schistose series of Northern Hazara, amongst the high mountains near the frontier, may also contain representatives of the present formation. The belt of Attock slates continues to the south-west in the Gandgarh hills and in the east and west ranges forming the Cherat and other hills south of Attock and Nowshera, and extending to the west- ward until the beds are lost near Julozai, beneath the gravels of the Peshawar plain. To the west of Peshawar the rocks are unknown, but the same beds may very probably reappear in the Khyber Pass. North of the cantonment of Nowshera, in the plain of Peshawar, the slates are said to be found near Hoti and Mardan at the base of the Yusafzai mountains. 1 The suggestion hns been repeatedly made by Dr. Waagen, Mr. Wynne and others that the Attock slates are probably represented by beds containing lower silurian fossils in the Khyber Pass. It is not, however, quite certain that the fossils found by Falconer and Vicary in that locality were silurian. The statement that " lower silurian fossils from the Khyber hills were found by Dr. Falconer in the gravel of the Cabul river " was made by Colonel (then Captain) H. H. Godwin-Austen in 1866 -(Q. J. G. S., XXII, p. 29). The paper in which this statement was made appears to have been drawn up from field notes without means of access to published information, and no reference is supplied to any original authority. No notice of the discovery of such fossils can be found in Falconer's published writings, and the only original statement in print we have been able to detect is in a foot-note to a paper by Captain Vicary (Q. J. G. S., 1850, p. 45). Vicary himself ob- tained " a small Spirifer, OrtMs in abundance, a Terelratula and some Polyparia " from limestone boulders in the water-courses near Peshawar. In a foot-note he adds : " Dr. Fal- coner obtained specimens of Spirifer, Orthis, and other palseozoic forms from these moun- tains several years ago." Also in a note by Sir R. Murchison, prefixed to Vicary's paper, the discovery of palseozoic fossils is mentioned. Now it is quite possible that the fossils collected by Falconer and Vicary have been examined and their age determined, but as this is not stated, some doubt remains whether the fossils may not have been carboniferous, as they were said to be by Verchere (J. A. S. B., 1867, Pt. 2, p. 21), the Orthis being perhaps Orthisina or Streptorhynchus crenistria, formerly included in the genus Orthis. The chief reason for suggesting the possibility of these fossils having been carboniferous, and not silurian, is that carboniferous rocks are known to occur in the Suleman Range, whilst no ftssilifcrous silurian beds have hitherto been discovered in that direction, 3 Kcc.G.S. I., XI, pp. 39,63, &c. Extra- Peninsular.] TRIAS OF HAZARA. 501 Carboniferous and infra-triassic. Carboniferous beds have not as yet been detected with certainty in any locality in the Northern Punjab ; a specimen of Products humboldti was found close to Hassan Abdal, by Mr. Lydekker, in a loose block of limestone, but with this exception the carboniferous limestone has not hitherto been traced in the Punjab north of the Salt Range and west of the Jhelum, and it is uncertain whence the block in question was derived. The age of the rocks resting upon the Attock slates at Mount Sirbdn, near Abbottabad, 1 has not been definitely ascertained ; the rocks in question are quite unconf ormable to the underlying formation ; they are overlaid by the triassic group, and comprise two divisions, the lower consisting of red sandstones, red shales and red siliceous dolomites, with, at the base, a red argillaceous breccia full of fragments derived from the underlying rocks ; the upper division composed of dolomites only, lighter in colour than the lower beds, often highly siliceous and of considerable thickness. Above these upper dolomites, again, are some quartz breccias, sandstones and shales, all containing haematite : these may belong either to the present or the next group. These beds have hitherto only been noticed at Mount Sirban and in other places in Hazara ; they may of course be in part carboniferous, but no fossils have hitherto been detected in them. In South -Western Hazara there is an immense thickness of quartzites, slates, conglomerates, sandstones and magnesian limestones, all somewhat altered and quite unfossiliferous. The relations of these beds are obscure ; they appear, however, to overlie the Attock slates. For these rocks Mr. Wynne has proposed the name of Tanol (or Tauawal) group, from a district in the western part of Hazara near Amb. They form a broad belt, in places 8 miles wide from north to south, extending nearly east and west from the neighbourhood of Abbottabad to the Indus, and probably comprise altered representatives of the infra-triassic rocks of Mount Sirban. Trias (including Rhsetic). The next zone is chiefly composed of dark limestone, black or grey, distinctly bedded, with thick zones of massive dolomite, sometimes containing numerous lamina of opaque white qiiartz, shales, siliceous breccia, haBmatitic clays, and sandstones. Near Abbottabad, where the series is complete, dolomites form the lowest beds, and are followed by thin-bedded fossiliferous limestones ; the dolomites are, however, frequently absent. Above the fossiliferous limestones come quartzites and dolomites of considerable thickness, and above these again thin-bedded limestones and slaty shales, fossiliferous, but 'Mem. G.S.I.. IX, p. (335). 502 GEOLOGY OF INDIA-THE PUNJAB HILLS. [Chap. XXI, containing different organisms from those in the underlying portion of the group. The lower sub-division contains two characteristic forms, Mega- lodon and Dicerocardium, together with Chemnitzia, Gervillia, &c., the upper beds contain numerous Nerinece, together with forms of Neritopsis, Astarte, Opis, Nucula, Leda, Ostrea, &c. The lower beds are apparently representative of the " Para limestone " or upper triassic of Spiti, and the higher sub-division of the lower Tagling limestone, 1 or rhsetic of the same area. The triassic rocks are well developed in Hazara between Murree and Abbottabad, and extend from the Mochpura mountains to beyond the trunk road, reappearing in the Chita Pahar, but the outcrops are greatly complicated by disturbance and faulting, especially in the neighbourhood of Murree itself and to the northward. Very little is known with certainty as to the extension of triassic rocks to the south-westward, as it is difficult and often impossible to distinguish the different forma- tions in a mass of unfossiliferous contorted limestones and other rocks, comprising representatives of triassic, Jurassic and nummulitic beds. The triassic strata are well developed in the spurs from the Hazara moun- tains east of Hasan Abdal and Haripur. Here the rocks contain but few fossils, although sufficient to enable -their age to be determined. The triassic group is also probably represented by massive contorted limestones in the Chita Pahar range and detached ridges to the north along the southern side of the ranges south of Attock and Nowshera, and extending westward into the Afridi hills .^ Jurassic, Spiti shales. Above the triassic beds there appears to be a break in the series, and in Hazara the next formation in ascending order consists of jet-black shales with more or less ferruginous concretions. These beds have been identified both by mineral character and fossils with the upper Jurassic " Spiti shales/' of the Himalayan region, but do not appear to be very thick. Amongst the fossils, Ammonites, Belemnites, and various Lamellibranchiata have been found, some of the most characteristic Spiti species found in the Punjab being Ammonites (Oppelid) acucinctus, A (Perispkinctes) frequeni, and Belemnites gerardi. The second and last named are also found in Cutch, though in different zones, the former being known from the Umia group, the latter from the Chari sub-division. The Spiti shales in Haz&ra are conspicuous from the contrast they afford to the thick mass of limestones ranging from palaeozoic to nummu- See chapter XXVI, on the Himalayan rocks. The lower Tagling limestone was classed by Stoliczka, Mem. G. S. I., V, p. 66, provisionally as lower lias, but he pointed out that it was the equivalent of the Kosseu beds, commonly classed as rhaitic. The Para limestone, it first ckssed as rustic, was subsequently united to the trias. Eitra-Peninsular .] CRETACEOUS OF HAZARA, ETC. 503 litic, and forming the bulk of the rocks. Like the underlying trias, the Jurassic beds are greatly broken up by faults and dislocations. The Spiti group is well seen on Chamba hill, north of Murree, and has hitherto been found in no district of the Punjab, except the higher parts of the South Hazara mountains. Gieumal sandstone. Above the shales in many places, but not in- variably, there is found a thick-bedded sandstone, yellowish-brown and ferruginous externally, but bluish-grey when freshly fractured. Occa- sionally the Spiti shales are wanting, and the rusty sandstones alone represent the Jurassic formation. The sandstone closely corresponds in mineral character to the Gieumal sandstone of Spiti, and has been identified with it by Dr. Stoliczka. 1 As a rule, in Hazara, the present formation is not fossiliferous, but some limestones and earthy beds with a few bands of calcareous sandstone can be traced for a long distance on the spur running west by south from the Murree hills to the north of Rawalpindi, and traversed by the Grand Trunk Road at the Margalla pass, and appear to be a continuation of the Gieumal sandstone, or they may represent both this band and the Spiti shales. At the Margalla pass and in some other places, the rock abounds in Trigonia ventricosa, 2 the fossil already noticed as characteristic of the Umia beds in Cutch and of the uppermost Jurassic zone near Ellore. The Gieumal sandstone has not been clearly recognised in the Mount Sirban section, but may be represented by calcareous sandy beds in the upper portion of the Spiti shales. The sandstone is well exposed north of Murree, in places, always being, however, much crushed and disturbed. The Jurassic beds have been traced to the south-west along the Margalla spur, and again south of the Chita Pah arrange, south of Camp- bellpur, to the Indus, and farther west beyond the Indus near Nilabgash into the Afridi country, where the same beds are seen north of Kohat, but very little is known of the exposures. The Spiti shales may perhaps be chiefly represented by limestones, and the Gieumal sandstone by the beds with Trigonia ventricosa, but the characteristic appearance of the Himalayan beds is no longer to be traced in this direction. Cretaceous. In Mount Sirban, resting upon the sandy and calcare- ous strata at the top of the Jurassic group, there is found a bed, 10 to 20 feet thick, of a different kind of calcareous sandstone, ferruginous and weathering of an orange colour. This bed abounds in fossils, mostly coated with iron oxide, and comprising Ammonites of cretaceous forms, 1 Scientific results of the second Yarkaud Mission, Geology, p. 11. 1 See woodcut, ante, p. 261. 504 GEOLOGY OF INDIA THE PUNJAB HILLS. [Chap. XXI. all belonging to the cristati and inflati groups, besides species of Ancyloceras, Anisoceras, Baculites and large Belemnites, The species have not been determined, but the fauna has a gault facies. Above the fossiliferous zone there is a group of thin-bedded limestones of grey colour, apparently destitute of organic remains. This may be either cretaceous or nummulitic. It is succeeded by the nummulitic limestone. Cretaceous rocks have hitherto been clearly recognised in only one other locality in the Northern Punjab, north of the Salt Range and Chichali pass beds ; this is close to Kohat, where a band of ferru- ginous sandy limestone contains some fossils, recognised as of cretaceous age by Dr. Waagen. Tertiary beds of Punjab generally. Hitherto, in dealing with the different paleozoic and mesozoic rocks of the Punjab, it has been sufficient to describe isolated outcrops of comparatively small ex- tent ; but in treating of the nummulitic limestone and the associated rocks, and to a still greater extent when describing the upper tertiary formations, much larger areas will come under notice, and it will therefore be better to describe each of the two great sub-divisions of the tertiary series, the older tertiary, or eocene, and the newer tertiary, including the representatives of miocene and pliocene formations, through- out the whole Punjab area, commencing at the south. It has already been stated that the miocene marine, or Gaj group of Sind, has not yet been recognised farther north, and although there is very little doubt that the upper eocene Nari group is represented in the Punjab, for some of the characteristic species of nummulites have been brought from Punjab localities, no attempt has yet been made to discriminate the different zones of nummulitic limestone in the northern region by means of fossils. The Ranikot beds, as already noticed, are only known to exist in Lower Sind, but they may be represented by rocks of similar character at the base of the nummulitic limestone in the Salt Range and elsewhere. The only Sind groups which have hitherto been clearly traced to the northwards are the Khirthar or nummulitic limestone proper, and the Manchhar or Siwalik. Thickness of tertiary series. The total thickness of the upper tertiary, or Siwalik formation of the Punjab cannot be much less than 15,000 feet, and the Murree beds, into which the upper tertiaries pass, represent about half as much more, so that the whole tertiary series, including the nummulitic limestone and its associated beds, where fully developed, comprises little, if at all, less than 25,000 feet of strata. Of this enormous thickness, all, except the lower 2,000 or 3,000 feet, is destitute of marine remains. Extra-Peninsular. ] TERTIARY BEDS OF PUNJAB. 505 Distribution of eocene beds. The nummulitic limestone and its associated beds form the higher ranges of the Mari and Bhugti hills north of the Sind frontier, and extend throughout the Suleman range, apparently without interruption, from the Sind frontier to Pesha- war. Eocene rocks are said not to occur in the Shekh Budin and other ranges south and south-west of the Bannu plain, 1 but they occupy a very large tract to the northward of the same plain in the Kohat district. They are well developed in the Chichali and Shingarh range, and they possibly form a great portion of the Af ridi hills south of Peshawar. East of the Indus, the nummulitic group is extensively de- veloped in the Salt Range, and forms the small range of Khairi Miirat south-west of Rawalpindi. The rocks underlying the Murree beds along the west side of the Jhelum valley belong to the same group, but are poorer in limestone than usual, whilst north of the line of abnormal boundary already mentioned as traversing the Punjab north of Rawal- pindi and Kohat, and forming the northern limit of the upper tertiaries, the nummulitic limestone is again largely developed in the Murree and Hazara hills and Chita Pahar, and forms a great band > across the province from the neighbourhood of Abbottabad and Murree to the Afridi range south of Peshawar. In this area the limestone differs from its representative further south, as will be explained presently. A few details of the sections in each area will shew the character of the formation. Mari hills. In the Mari and Bhrfgti hills north of Jacobabad, the nummulitic limestone forms a number of east and west anticlinal ridges. 2 No lower beds were noticed, and although sandstones rest upon the limestones, it is probable, from the description, that none of them belong to the Nari group, but that they are all Siwalik. Suleman range near Dera Ghazi Khan. Not far north of the Mari hills is the section of the Suleman range near Dera Ghazi Khan de- scribed by Mr. Ball. 3 Here, again, there is no trace of anything which can be identified with the Nari sandstones, the beds resting upon the num- mulitic limestone being described as dark -brownish sandstones in beds of no great thickness, alternating with bright red, greenish and grey clays, probably Siwalik. The lowest beds seen in the whole section of the range consist of a great thickness of sandstones and shales with very few fossils, succeeded by from 1,000 to 2,000 feet of massive limestone with 1 Vercherc, J. A. S. B., 1867, XXXVI, Ft. 2, pp. 13-16, and map. 2 Vicary, Q. J. Q. S., II, p. 260. J Rec. G. S. I., VII, p. 145. 506 GEOLOGY OF INDIATHE PUNJAB HILLS. [ Chap. XXI. nummulites, &c. On the eastern slope of the hills the nummulitic limestones are much mixed with sandy and shaly beds, but a few miles further to the westward the whole band consists of limestone. The main range of the Suleman consists of the sandstones and shales underlying the limestones. With the shales some very thin layers of coal are occasionally associated, but none are known to exceed about six inches in thickness, and consequently none hitherto discovered are of .any commercial value. The fossils .found in the sandstones are all tertiaiy species, 1 and one, Ostrea flemingi, is in Sind a characteristic Ranikot form. There appears good reason for assigning all the beds noticed to the eocene group, the lower sandstones and shales probably representing the lower Khirthars of the Upper Gaj section described in the last chapter: The nummulitic limestone is evidently a continuation of that forming the Khirthar range in Sind. Chichali Hills and Salt Range. No full description of the eocene rocks in the northern portion of the Suleman range has been published, and it will be as well therefore to proceed at once to the Salt Range and its continuation in the curved ridges of Chichali and Shingarh west of the Indus. A section of the latter range, taken near Sultan Khel, and about ] 5 miles north-west of Isa Khel, has been given by Dr. Verchere, 2 whilst the Salt Range rocks have been fully described by Mr. Wynne. The section appears much the same throughout, and has a considerable resemblance to that already described in the Suleman range. There is a bed of limestone several hundreds of feet thick and usually of a light colour, resting upon sandstones, shales and clays, with lignite. The latter pass downwards into the cretaceous olive group, but immediately upon the limestone conies the upper tertiary group, which contains no marine fossils. The Gaj and Nari beds of Sind appear to be unrepresented ; there is evidently a break above the nummulitic limestone, and the overlying formation is unconf ormable, and rests in places upon a denuded surface of nummulitic rocks. The unconformity is also shewn by overlap in several places at the eastern extremity of the Salt Range, and, as already noticed, in the ranges near Shekh Budin, and by the circumstance that the lowest bed of the upper tertiary sandstones sometimes contains pebbles of nummulitic limestone, as for instance near Fadial, west cf Mount Tilla. 1 The species quoted in Mr. Ball's paper were for the most part only approximately determined. 2 J. A. S. B., 1865, XXXIV, Pt. 2, p. 42. Extra-Peninsular.] KOHAT DISTRICT. 507 The inferior shaly portion of the nummulitic group consists of soft, variegated shales $>r clays, more or less sandy, with occasionally a pisolitic ferruginous band, resembling laterite, at the base. A similar band is found in a corresponding position in the Sub-Himalayan sections, as will be shewn in the next chapter. Many of the shales and clays are pyritous and decompose readily on exposure, the decomposed shales being burnt and employed in the manufacture of alum. The so-called coal of the Salt llange occurs in the upper part of this lower sub-division, associated with gypseous shales, and is really a lignite of variable purity, found chiefly in thin strings and beds of no great horizontal extent, but occasionally in rather thicker seams, some being as much as three to three and a half feet in thickness. The principal localities are Bhag- anwala, Pid and Samundri. Like most of the tertiary lignites, that of the Salt Range is pyritous, and frequently falls to pieces or takes fire spontaneously when exposed to the air. Similar lignite is found in the Chichali and Shingarh hills west of the Indus. Beneath the coaly shales are white, red and olive sandstones and clays, occasionally with marls or limestone full of foraminifera, and, in the western Salt Range, a thick band of nummulitic lime.stones occurs immediately below the beds with lignite. The main band of nummulitic limestone is usually compact, grey or white, occasionally chalky, the upper portion being generally purer and less mixed with shaly or marly bands than the lower. The whole group is fossiliferous, the nummulitic limestone containing the usual fossils, whilst bands containing nummulites and other foraminifera occur amongst the lower shales and sandstones, but more commonly remains of plants, chiefly dicotyledonous, are found in the latter. The similarity of the section in the Salt Range with that of the Laki range in Sind is very great ; the actual beds are thicker in Sind, but in both localities there are olive shales believed to be of upper cretaceous age at the base, then variegated sandstones, alum shales and clays with plant-remains, lignite and gypsum, followed in ascending order by nummulitic limestone. Further comparison of the fossils will, however, be necessary, before the group beneath the nummulitic limestone in the Punjab can be safely correlated with the Ranikot beds of Sind. Kohat district. There is another region in the Upper Punjab where the eocene rocks are well developed, and where they have been fully examined and described ; this is in the Trans- Indus salt region of the Kohat district, 1 and the section here exposed, although only a few miles distant from parts of the Salt Range, differs in some important 1 Wynne, Mem. G. S. I., XI, pp. (101) (330). 508 GEOLOGY OF INDIA THE PUNJAB HI^LS. [Chap. XXL points from that just described. The following is abridged from Mr. Wynne's summary of the rocks exposed : PlIOCENE AND MIOCENE EOCENE EOCENE ? Thickness in feet. Upper sandstones. Soft, grey sandstones, clays and conglomerates 500 to 1,500 Lower sandstones. Harder grey and purple sandstones, bright red and purple clays, slightly calcareous and pseudo-conglomeratic bands 3,000 to 3,500 Upper ntimmulitic. Nummulitic limestone and some shaly bands 60 to 100 Red clay zone, or lower nummulitic. Red clay, lavender coloured near the top, occasionally with Nummulites. The lower portion of the red clays in places is partly or wholly replaced by fossiliferous sandstones, thick greenish clays and bands of limestone all containing Nvmmulites . . . . . . . . 150 to 400 x Gypsum. White, grey or black gypsum with bands of \ clay or shale 50 to 300 7 Rock salt. Thick beds of salt, almost pure. The base v. not seen 300 to 700 (? 1,200) The region examined is the hilly tract north of the Bannu plain and of the Chichali hills, and extending from the Indus, on the east, to the British frontier. The ground is traversed by a series of east and west ranges, chiefly formed of crushed and broken anticlinals of the nummulitic limestone and the associated rocks. Salt and gypsum. The rock salt and gypsum at the base of the tertiary series in the Kohat region are very important and remarkable. The salt consists of a more or less crystalline mass, usually grey in colour, with transparent patches, and never reddish, like the salt of the Salt Range. A few earthy bands occur, but the portion of the whole mass too impure to be worked for commercial purposes is but small, although there is no attempt at refining the salt, which is exported for sale in the form in which it is mined. In some places the uppermost layer is dark- coloured, almost black, and bituminous. The quantity of salt is some- thing marvellous ; in the anticlinal near Bahadur Khel alone rock salt is seen for a distance of about eight miles, and the thickness exposed exceeds 1,000 feet, the width of the outcrop being sometimes more than a quarter of a mile. Hills, 200 feet high, are sometimes formed of pure rock salt. As a rule, the salt contains sulphate of lime (gypsum), but none of the potassium and magnesium salts of the Salt Range beds. Above the salt come gypsum and clays, as in the Salt Range, but the colours, white and grey, are very different, and the whole appearance of both salt and gypsum so distinct from those of the ancient salt marl, that although there is no indication of salt beds at a higher level in the Salt Range itself, and although the outcrop of the salt marl close Extra-Peninsular.] NORTHERN POTWAR AND MURREE HILLS. 509 to Kalabagh on the Indus is only 18 miles from one of the Kohat rock salt regions at Nundrukki, still as a great series of mesozoic and palaeozoic beds intervenes, throughout the Salt Range, between the nummulitic group and the salt marl, whilst in Kohat the former rests with apparent con- formity upon the gypsum and salt, it appears probable that the salt-bearing rocks in the Kohat district may belong to a very different horizon from that occupied by the same minerals in the Salt Range series. It is by no means certain that the Kohat salt and gypsum are eocene, but, in the absence of any evidence to the contrary, it appears best to class them with the nummulitic beds immediately overlying them. Clays, limestones, and sandstones above the salt. Overlying the gypsum, there is usually found a thick bed of deep red clay, the eocene age of which is proved by the occasional occurrence of nummulites in the upper portion. Sometimes the clay is wanting, and apparently re- placed by clays, marls, and limestones of a grey or olive colour, and con- taining nummulites, but the replacement is not clearly proved. Above the red clay zone come earthy limestones, clays, and shales, with nummulites. The main band of limestone is very much thinner than in the Salt Range, but is as usual massive, pale-coloured, and full of Nummulites, Alveolinte, fyc. The overlying formation, consisting of sandstones and clays, in which dark red and purple colours predominate, exceeds all the eocene beds in thickness, and is probably, like the sandstones and clays overlying the nummulitic limestone of the Salt Range, really of much later age than the limestone on which it rests. Pebbles of nummulitic limestone are said 1 to be found in the lowest beds of the sandstone, and some reptilian bones, (not determined,) siliceous fossil wood, and a few ill-preserved ribbed bivalve mollusca have been found, but no characteristic organic remains. The beds resemble Murree beds and pass upwards into undoubted newer tertiary (Siwalik or Manchhar) strata of the usual character, the red colours becoming rarer, and the usual drab grey sandstones and orange or drab clays being the prevailing rocks. Northern Potwar and Murree Hills. Along the northern side of the Rawalpindi or Potwar plateau, and up the Jhelum valley for a long distance north of Murree, there runs the line of abrupt boundary, already noticed as intervening between the tertiary formations to the southward, and the Himalayan or Alpine rocks, inclusive of the hill type of nummulitic limestone, to the northward. It is clear that the tertiary beds seen immediately south of the limit in question must be newer than those to the northward, for marine limestones are intercalated with the lowest clays and sandstones seen south of the boundary, and it is difficult t<> 1 Wynne, Mem. G. S. I., XI, p. (170) 510 GEOLOGY OF INDIA THE PUNJAB HILLS. [Chap. XXL understand how two totally different formations could have been depo- sited contemporaneously on the opposite sides of a line along which there is no evidence of any ridge of older rocks to separate the two areas of deposition. Besides, as has already been stated, the hill form of num- mulitic limestone occasionally appears a little to the south of the dividing line, being brought to the surface either by faults or anticlinals, and the newer tertiaries are similarly let in by synclinals, whether faulted or not, to the north of the same limit. Such outcrops are at no great distance from the main boundary, and the rocks are so greatly disturbed and contorted that their relations are obscure. In this case, as elsewhere, the additional knowledge of the distribution of fossils in the older tertiary formations afforded by the study of the Sind rocks has not yet been applied to the Punjab region, whilst the complicated disturbance of the rocks and the comparative paucity or bad preservation of organic remains in the latter country render the correlation of the various strata a work of great difficulty. Perhaps the most interesting section hitherto noticed is that already referred to, occurring in the anticlinal ridge of Khairi Miirat about 12 miles south-west of Rawalpindi. Here clays and sandstones with bands of limestone are seen resting conformably upon a massive clearer lime- stone ; tbe former rocks being evidently identical with the upper nummulitic beds found south of the main boundary, whilst the latter represents the hill nummulitic limestone. The eocene beds of the Upper Punjab, south of the line of disturbance, consist of sandstones and shales, very frequently of a red colour, and comprising, towards their base, occasional bands of limestone or marl, with nummulites. Associated with the sandstones, some gypseous shales and bands of gypsum are found, but no trace of the Kohat salt. As already stated, these lower tertiary sandstones are cut off abruptly to the north, and it is not always clear whether t^iey rest upon the hill limestone or are faulted against it ; doubtless the junction, whether conformable or unconformable originally, has become complicated by faulting and crushing, but the whole line of boundary has the appearance of a gigantic fault. There is a gradual and complete passage, to. the south of this line of fracture, from the beds containing nummulites into the upper tertiary Siwalik rocks, with mammalian bones. As will be noticed in the chapter on the Sub-Himalayan area, very similar beds occur at the base of the tertiary series along the southern foot of the Himalayas in the Eastern Punjab, but in this area representatives of the lower nummulitic limestone are shewn to exist by the fossils occurring. The rocks at the hill station of Murree have been repeatedly de- scribed. The station itself is built on grey and purple sandstones and Extra-Eeninsular.] HILL NUMMUL1TIC LIMESTONE. 511 deep purplish clays, with occasional concretionary bands. These are the Murree beds of Mr. Wynne, and whilst their lower strata may corre- spond to the Dagshai sub-division of the Sirmur or eocene series in the Simla hills, it is probable that they represent higher groups also, and they may even comprise strata corresponding- to all the Sub- Himalayan beds of the Dagshai, Kasauli and Nahan groups between the Subathu and the Siwaliks proper. It is evident that no definite line can be drawn, ' either in the neighbourhood of Murree or to the west of Rawalpindi, between the eocene beds and the newer tertiaries. Immediately north- west of the ridge on which Murree stands, similar grey and red sand- stones and shales, underlying the Murree beds, contain bands of nunrmul- itic limestone. These rocks are supposed to represent in part the Subathu beds at the base of the Sirmur group, 1 but it is probable that the lower portion of the Subathu group must be older and representative of part of the hill limestone of the Punjab. The bands with nummulites at the base of the Murree beds are traced at intervals from the country west of the Jhelum to the Potwar, and thence to the westward to beyond the Indus. Hill nummulitic limestone of Northern Punjab. The " hill nummulitic limestone/'' as it is frequently called, consists of a great thick- ness of dark-bluish grey or blackish limestones, with brownish olive shales. The rock is generally foetid and massive, with nodular bands, but thick zones of pale-grey splintery limestone also occur. Stratification is some- times distinct, sometimes obscure. Near Dungagali, between Murree and Abbottabad, some red clays are associated with the hill limestone and appear to be inter stratified. 2 These Himalayan and North Punjab beds differ from the nummulitic limestone of the Salt Range and Suleman mountains, and from the Khirthar limestone of Sind, in colour and structure ; but it is far from clear how far the distinction is due to the amount of disturbance and pressure experienced by the northern rocks. The intercalation of shales with the limestone takes place also in Lower Sind and Baluchistan. Similar dark-coloured nummulitic limestones are found in Baluchistan, also in a disturbed region, and all the differences hitherto noticed between the hill nummulitic rocks and their represent- atives in the Salt Range and elsewhere, except colour, might be attributed to the different amount of disturbance that has affected the two regions. No distinctions have been shewn to exist between the organic remains 1 'See next chapter. The tertiary rocks of the Sub-Himalayan ranges are thus classed in descending order : f Knshiili. 2 Older ; Sirmur ) Uagsbai. ) Subathu. 3 Wynne, MS. notes. 512 GEOLOGY OF INDIA THE PUNJAB HILLS. [Chap. XXL found in the two forms of limestone, except that the hill nummulitic beds contain much fewer and smaller organisms. The hill type of nummulitic limestones forms a broad belt throughout Hazara and the Murree Hills, from the neighbourhood of Abbottabad, past Murree, and along the spurs traversed by the grand trunk road north-west of Rawalpindi. The same rock forms the greater part of the Chita Pahar Range, and is continued west of the Indus in the Nilabgash and Afridi hills, which are chiefly composed of this formation. This great belt and the parallel band of the Attock slates to the northward are indeed the leading stratigraphical features of the Northern Punjab, the intervening formations being less prominent, although largely developed locally. Upper tertiaries, Siwaliks, &C- It will be unnecessary to devote much space to the description of the upper tertiary rocks, since, despite the enormous area covered by them, and their great thickness, they present a nearly uniform character, and differ but little from the rocks of the same age to the southward in Sind, already described in the last chapter, and from the typical Siwalik series of the Sub-Himalayan region, to which the next two chapters will be devoted. The passage from the lower into the upper tertiaries throughout the Northern Punjab, so far as the ground has been sufficiently examined, is transitional, with the exception of the boundary to the north of the Salt Range, where, as has already been shewn, the upper tertiary rocks rest unconformably on the nummulitic limestones. But even in this area there is an apparent conformity in dip and strike, the bedding planes of the upper tertiary strata being parallel to those of the nummulitic limestone, and it is not quite certain how many sub-divisions of the tertiary series are wanting. 1 Apparently the lower portion, if not the whole of the Murree beds, including the nummulitic bands at their base, that is, all those rocks classed as older tertiary that are exposed immediately to the south of the line of discordant junction traversing the Northern Punjab, are unrepresented to the south of the Rawalpindi plain. It is probable that a similar deficiency of the middle tertiary beds exists on the flanks 1 The lowest beds resting upon the nummulitic limestone of the Salt Range are con- sidered by Mr. Wynne to represent the Murree beds, but Mr. Theobald, who has identified the same strata with the middle Siwalik group of the Sub-Himalayan region, considers that even the Nahan group is wanting on the northern slopes of the Salt Range. The fact, determined by Mr. Theobald, that an ossiferous band may be traced not 100 feet above the nummulitic limestone,' and that amongst the bones discovered in this band are those of Mastodon latidens and Rhinoceros palaindicus, renders it probable that the beds resting upon the limestone must be either upper miocene or pliocene, and consequently must belong to a higher horizon than that of the Murree beds generally. Still as the limits of the Murree beds are vague and undefined, it is quite possible that strata, elsewhere classed wi h the Murree beds, may be represented north of the Salt Range. Extra-Peninsular.] UiTKtt TKUilAHlKs. 513 of the Sulcnian Range, and it is highly probable that the sandstones and clays resting upon the nummulitic beds in Kohat are also, as already suggested, separated by a considerable break in time from the typical eocenes. Throughout the Punjab, as in Sind, the upper tertiary rocks consist of a great sequence of sandstones and clays, surmounted in places by a mass of coarse conglomerate of variable thickness. No satisfactory sub-divisions have been established in this series, although it is certain that a large period of geological time is represented ; for the mammalian fossils from the lower portion in the Punjab, as in Sind, include much older forms of life, and resemble those peculiar to the miocene of Europe, whilst iji the upper beds living genera are common, although the species are extinct. The transition from the Murree beds to the upper tertiaries or Siwalik series is marked by a diminution in the prevalence of red clays and sandstones, and by the appearance of bright grey sandstones in great abundance. The sandstones become softer, concretionary bands more numerous, and a few pebbles derived from the nummulitic limestone and Murree beds, together with rounded fragments of quartzite and crystalline rocks, make their appearance. Higher in the section the red clays disappear, and are replaced by orange and grey clays, and there is a gradual passage upwards into the massive conglomerates, which form in many places the upper portion of the whole series. The pebbles of these conglomerates appear to have been derived from the same Himalayan rocks as those now furnishing the materials for the gravel and boulder beds of the Punjab rivers, and it is consequently evident that the rivers in the Siwalik period ran from the north, as they do now. Distribution. Commencing, like the eocene rocks, at the southern extremity of the area, the upper tertiary beds form several ranges of hills north of the Upper Sind frontier, between the desert plain of Jacobabad and the ridges of nummulitic limestone ; and, to judge by Vicary's section, 1 the higher beds reappear in the valleys between the parallel anticlinal ranges of older tertiary limestone, precisely as in Lower Sind. Passing northward along the boundaiy of the Derajat, the Siwaliks, although forming only a narrow belt on the flanks of the Suleman Range in the Siri Pass, west of Dera Ghazi Khan, comprise two well-marked sub-divisions; of these the upper, consisting of conglo- merates and coarse sandstones, 500 to 600 feet thick, rests unconform- ably upon the lower, composed of sandstones with bright red, greenish, and grey clays, and attaining a thickness of at least 3,000 feet, and probably more. 2 The only sections recorded have been too hurriedly traversed for more details to be determined, and it must remain for the 1 Q. J. G. S., II, 1846, p. 2G1. | - Ball, Rcc. G. S. I., VII, p. 150. H 1 5H GEOLOGY OF INDIA-THE PUNJAB HILLS. [Chap. XXI- present uncertain whether any of the intermediate groups of Sind are represented on the flanks of the Suleman Range. Passing 1 northward along- the Suleman, the belt of Tipper tertiaiy beds appears perfectly continuous. The whole of the Pyzii and Shekh Budin ranges are believed to consist of newer tertiary strata, with the exception of the peak of Shekh Budin itself, and all the north- western slope of the Kafirkot range near the Indus is of the same Siwalik formation. A broad tract to the west of the Bannii plain, the Waziri country north of Bannii, and the western slopes of the Shingarh Range are similarly composed, so that the newer tertiary beds entirely surround, and probably underlie, the Bannd plain. 1 North and north-east of this the upper tertiary formations cover a large portion of the Kohat district west of the Indus, and nearly the whole of the great Rawalpindi plateau to the east of the river, being thrown throughout into a series of great wave-like undulations, the anticlinal and synclinal axes of which have a general east and west direction. Older rocks appear to a large extent in the anticlinal ridges west of the Indus, more sparingly to the eastward, and to the north the upper tertiary area is bounded by the Murree and upper nummulitic beds south V>f the great line of dislocation. Palaeontology. It is unnecessary to enter into any detailed account of the organic remains, almost entirely vertebrate, found in the newer tertiaries of the Punjab, because a large number of the same species have also been discovered east of the Jhelum, and it will be better to deal with the Siwalik fauna as a whole. Owing to the similarity of the beds composing the upper tertiary series throughout, and the compli- cated disturbance which the rocks have undergone in many places, it is very often impracticable to determine the precise horizon at which any particular fossiliferous beds occur, and with a large proportion of the bones hitherto collected, the original locality has been imperfectly recorded. It is therefore impossible to draw up anything like a trust- worthy list of the species found in any sub-division of the newer tertiary series ; all that is known with certainty is that the majority of the bones found in the Punjab are from the higher portion of the strata. In one case only has the peculiar miocene fauna of the Sind Lower Manchhar beds as yet been detected in the Punjab, and in this case the exact locality is unknown, but it was in the neighbourhood of Kushalghar, 40 miles south of Attock. 2 Remains of Mastodon, Dino- therium pentepotamice, Listriodonpetitepotamice, Rhinoceros, Merycop'of.amus, Lorcatherium, Sanitherimn schlagintweitii. and Amphicyon palmndicus 1 These details are from Verchere's map, J. A. S. B., 1867, XXXVI, Pt. 2, and from the Atlas sheets of the Great Trigonometrical Survey. 2 Lydefcker, Kec. G. S. I., IX, p. 92. The fossils were first noticed by Falconer, Pal. Mem., I, p. 415. Extra-Peninsular.] ERRATICS. 515 were found. There can be no question that the beds yielding the above fossils must be at a lower horizon than those from which the bulk of the Siwalik fauna has been procured. It is, however, far from improbable that some of the supposed Siwalik forms come from the same lower horizon, as certain species belong to older forms of life than the major- ity of the Siwalik vertebrates. Post-pliocene deposits of Northern Punjab On the great plains of Rawalpindi (the Potwar), Bannii, and Peshawar, extensive deposits of gravel, sand and silt exist. Little is known about later deposits in the Peshawar and Bannu plains, but those of the Potwar present some features of interest. The surface consists of an alluvial, rather light-brown clay, often containing kunkur, and passing in places into fine silt. Beneath this alluvial deposit there is a mass of gravels and sand, some- times enclosing boulders of large size. The boulders are not, however, confined to the pebble beds; many have been observed imbedded in fine silt, and this circumstance, together with the great size of many of the blocks found, and the distance to which they have been trans- ported, has induced several observers to attribute the transport of the larger masses to ice, whether floating down a river or in a lake. It has been suggested that the Potwar may have been converted into a lacustrine basin in post-tertiary times by the elevation of the Salt Range and the ridges west of the Indus. There is but little evidence in favour of this view, but still it is not impossible, for, although the pebble beds underlying the finer silt of the Soan valley appear too coarse for lacustrine 1 deposits the silt may be, in part at least, a later deposit. The. post-tertiary deposits are of course quite unconformable to the Siwalik rocks, which had been greatly disturbed and denuded before the later beds were formed. These later beds themselves, however, are occasionally found dipping at a considerable angle, due, it is said, to original deposition. The pebble beds are found around Rawalpindi and in the neighbourhood of the Indus ; they overlie the Rhotas gorge near Jhelum, occur on some of the Salt Range plateaus, and cap the mountain above Kalabagh on the Indus. They are found at a considerable elevation above the present river beds, some fragments of crystalline rocks in the neighbourhood of the Indus, apparently brought down by the stream, having been observed 2,000 feet above the river. Erratics. The large blocks attributed to ice flotation appear to have been derived from the Himalayas. They are abundant along the Indus as far up as Amb, on the left bank of the river, in the gorge of the Sirun and for some miles below Attock, around Jhand about 20 miles farther south, and farther still to the southward near the village of Trap i For additional details concerning these alluvial deposit* of the Potwfir, e% Wynne, Rec. G. S. I., X, p. 122, and Theobald, ib. pp. 140, 223. 510 GEOLOGY OF INDIA-THE PUNJAB HILLS. [Chap. XXI. oil the lower course of the Soau. Some of the blocks have been mea- sured nearly 50 feet in girth and others are even larger. In places such blocks have been found 20 miles away from the banks of the Indus. Indus floods. The Indus, as is well known, is subject to extra- ordinary floods, due to a portion of the upper valley being- blocked by landslips or, according to some, by glaciers, and to the sudden destruction of the barriers thus formed. Such floods occurred in 1S41 and 1858, and have doubtless taken place in past ages. 1 In the flood of 184*1, the waters of the Cabul river were checked and forced backwards for 20 miles by the rise of the Indus ; and Drew has shewn that the lake in Gilgit formed by the landslip in 1840-41 must have been 35 miles long, and upwards of 300 feet deep. Enormous quantities of detritus must be carried down by the violent floods produced by the bursting of such barriers, and if, as appears probable, 2 the low temperature of the glacial epoch was felt in India, such lakes at an elevation of 5,000 or 6,000 feet above the sea would have been deeply frozen in winter, and large blocks from the river bed and dam might easily have been embedded in the ice ; glaciers also in the North-Western Himalayas must have been more ex- tensive than they now are, and the formation of lakes dammed up by glaciers was probably of common occurrence. Shaw 3 has called attention to the occurrence of heaps of stone and gravel of all sizes brought 80 miles down the Shayok, one of the tributaries of the Upper Indus in Ladak, by blocks of ice ; and a similar action on a larger scale on the Indus may easily have supplied the erratics of the Upper Punjab. If the Pot war was a lake, the dispersion of the erratic blocks is easily understood ; if not, the area over which the masses of rock are found may be due to variation in the course of the Indus, and to the reversed flow of its tributaries in great floods. Fossil shells. In one locality near Fatehganj a number of land and fresh-water shells were found 4 in silt, apparently the same as that in which boulders are elsewhere imbedded. The species found, including Lymnea rufescens, Planorlis exustus, Paludina lengalemis, Bythinia pulchella, Melania tuberculala, Bulimus insularis, Opeas gracilis, &c., are the same as are now found common in the country, and it appears doubtful if they would have survived any very great diminu- tion of temperature. At the same time it is possible that the beds containing shells may be of later date than those with boulders. 1 For accounts of these floods, see Cunningham's " Ladak " j Montgomerie, J. A. S B., 1860, p. 128 ; Shaw, " High Tartary, Yarkand and Kashghar," p. 433, &c., and Appendix, p. 481 ; and especially Drew, " Jummoo and Kashmir Territories," p. 414. Numerous references to other accounts are given by the last-named writer. 2 See ante, p. 372. 3 1. c., p. 486. 4 The Theobald, Rec. G. S. I., X, p. 141. Extra-Peninsular.] SUB-HIMALAYAS, 517 CHAPTER XXII. EXTRA-PENINSULAR AREA. SUB-HIMALAYAS. Scanty materials Provisional limits of Himalayas Map General features Three main divisions. THE SUB-HIMALAYAS : provisional conclusions General features Early views General range of deposits Classification Petrology Chiefly of fresh-water origin Structural conditions Faults Flexures Middle and terminal Sub-Himalayan regions The Simla region Order of description. THE SIBMUR AEEA Unity of the formation Subthu, Dagshai, and Kasauli groups Relation to the older rocks Section at Subathu Eastern limits of the Siruuir area .East- ernmost outlier of the nummulitic group. SIWALIK SEBIES: NAHAN AEEA The Nahan-Siwalik boundary The Nahan-Sirmfir boundary. THE JUMNA-GANGES AREA Composition in relation to the great rivers Identification of beds in the two zones Suggested connexion of the two zones in this area. THE GAHBWAL-KUMAUN AEEA. THE NEPAL ABEA. THE SIKKIM-BHUIAN AEEA. UPPEE ASSAM AEEA. Scanty materials. Information regarding the Himalayas would probably be the first demand made upon an Indian geologist out of India. In the country itself it has been quite the reverse, and so it happens that up to date this information is most scanty. Regular con- tinuous work in the mountains has not yet been attempted by the Survey, or has only just been begun, in the hope that circumstances wiH permit of its being continued. The whole information upon which to form an outline of this great geological region consists of Captain 11. Strachey's account of a portion of Central Tibet, Stoliczka's observations in Western Tibet, and some casual seasons' work, by members of the Survey, in the Lower and Sub- Himalayan ranges, besides isolated observ- ations of more or less doubtful validity by various travellers, whose principal objects of interest were not geological. As presenting some very marked uniformities of structure, the Himalayas as a whole have no doubt a continuous history ; but it would be impossible to make it out from such scant data as exist. Each portion of the Himalayan area has more intricate and intimate relation to the history of the whole moun- tain region than has, for instance, any particular basin of Gondwana rocks to the history of the peninsular area, so that a description of any part of the mountain chain is more dependent upon a knowledge of the 518 GEOLOGY OF INDIA SUB-HIMALAYAS. [Chap, XXII, whole. "We can only attempt to indicate such main features as have been determined, and to make some conjectures on their possible con- nexion. This very preliminary condition of our information must be our excuse for a somewhat irregular method of presentation. Provisional limits of region. The area to be included under 4he word " Himalaya" needs to be specified. As originally applied and accepted by excellent authorities, it would mean only the southern face of the Tibetan plateau ; whereas of late by geological writers the name has fre- quently been used as equivalent to extra-peninsular India, with undefined outer limits. Both senses are about equally inconvenient, in opposite ways. Although the name may be retained in its narrowest sense to distinguish the Himalayan range proper from other ranges of the same apparent system, it is also, as that of the principal, or at least the most famous member of the group, commonly understood to indicate the whole of this more or less parallel system of ranges. In these senses we shall here speak of the main line of snowy peaks between the Brahmaputra and the 'Indus as the Himalayan range, and of the Himalayan region as extending from the plains of India to the northern scarp of the Tibetan plateau. It is very possible, or even likely, that this geological region or mountain system, may hereafter be very largely extended ; but until this is done upon a basis of observation, and to express a meaning more defined and substantiated than any as yet proposed, it would be more confusing than instructive to adopt a wider definition than that given above. For example, the tertiary rocks of the Potwar and of Hazara (between the Jhelum and Indus) are shewn to be continuous with those of the Sub- Himalayas, and to have been affected by the same disturbing causes; yet it is quite necessary to distinguish by name the two regions, as affected by total and abrupt contrast in the direction of disturbance, and of the resulting surface-features. It is certainly most convenient to restrict the word "Himalaya" in this definite intelligible sense, more or less in agreement with the meaning spon- taneously attached to it, rather than adopt a new name for the familiar ground, and extend the old one to a meaning without assignable limits. The geological contrast between peninsular and non-peninsular India is a very striking one : in the former the sedimentary rocks are almost exclusively of fresh-water formation, while the corresponding deposits in adjoining areas are marine; again, the stratified rocks of the penin- sula, from the Upper Vindhyan time, have undergone comparatively little compression or alteration, while very late formations in the adjoining area are universally more or less contorted. We can, however, keep in mind the peculiar characters of the peninsular rocks without Extra-Peninsular.] THREE DIVISIONS OP HIMALAYAN REGION. 519 extending the term "Himalaya" on the grounds of such general features as marine origin, and disturbance, regardless of special distribution and structure. Map. In the map attached to this work, the Himalayan area is correspondingly more incomplete than the peninsula. The blanks are larger, and such indications as are given are less exact, the lines having been more or less conjecturally extended between the observations made on separate routes. Some important observations by Mr. Lydekker in the Kashmir region that are noticed in the text came too late for inser- tion on the map. General features. So far as known, the Himalayas exhibit more regularity of structure than the Alps. There are, no doubt, exceedingly knotty points to be unravelled, but the continuity and similarity of structure which prevail over large areas greatly facilitate description, and give a promise of an ultimate understanding. On a good physical map, the regularity of the boundary between the mountain region and the plains of Northern India is a very marked feature ; a steady gentle curve, convex to the west- south- west, without any interruption from spurs or semi-detached masses. Throughout great distances the main features of the mountains, both of structure and configuration, conform to this outer boundary, and thus we may conveniently take up the description in successive zones. Three main divisions. Three such zones or natural divisions, of permanent significance, can be indicated. There is on the south a con- tinuous fringing belt of lower ridges, appropriately known as the Sub- Himalayas, and composed of tertiary rocks. Between this marginal zone and the great snowy range there lies, throughout the whole length of the Himalayas to as far west as the Sutlej, a broad area, some fifty miles wide, consisting of irregular ridges of moderate average elevation, from 5,000 to 8,000 feet some ranging up to 12,000 all largely made up of crystalline metamorphic rocks, in very obscure relation with some unaltered formations, the latter being for the most part of very uncertain age. This great area, so well defined by position, and characterised throughout by extreme complexity of structure, may appropriately be distinguished as the Lower Himalayan region. Although of course the most accessible and the most frequented part of the mountains, it is the least understood. The great snowy range of the Himalayas proper belongs to what may be conveniently distinguished as the Central, or Tibetan, division of the mountains, which is characterised on the large scale by several parallel axes of gneissic rocks and intervening synclinal basins of little-altered, fossiliferous formations. To the west of the Sutlej, and actually on the strike of the 520 GEOLOGY OF INDIA-SUB-HIMALAYAS. [Chap. XXIL great Himalayan range, the hills next to the tertiary zone have thij latter type of structure, and must be classed in the central division. This feature and the corresponding disappearance of the whole Lower Himalayan region at the Sutlej point to a fact which must be constantly kept in mind that our observations and descriptions 'refer chiefly to the (partially) terminal portions of the great Himalayan region, most of the middle Himalayas, in Nipal and to the north of it, being unknown to us ; so that the divisions and characters adopted in the north-western portion may be inapplicable to the mountain region as a whole. It is, however, to be observed that the fundamental structural characters, from which the history of the mountains is to be made out, may be better exhibited where dying out than in the more elevated middle regions, where a deeper and intensified phase of disturbing conditions would be exhibited. THE SUB- HIMALAYAS. 1 Provisional conclusions. The Himalayas being generally supposed to have been upraised in late tertiary times, the study of the tertiary rocks ought to be of special importance, as embracing the most active period in the history of the mountains. Since our sketch of this history cannot be very formal or conclusive, it may assist comprehension to indicate at the outset the provisional views sug- gested by the observations that have been made, up to the present, in the Sub-Himalayan region. If these points do not specifically agree with current anticipations, they quite bear out the important part taken by the tertiary formations, and the mention of them here will give a meaning and an immediate interest to the descriptive details. Some of these provisional conclusions depend more or less upon single sections, on the report of a single observer, and the verification of them should be an object with every competent explorer, either to confirm or confute. To provoke this desirable service we will give dogmatic prominence to the crucial points. It will be shewn (1), that immediately preceding the lower tertiary (nummulitie) period, the area defined as the Lower Himalayas must have been exposed to denudation as part of a land of doubtful configuration ; (2), that the very ancient, slaty rocks of that land upon which, after depression, the marine nummulitie deposits were laid down, had then undergone little or no contortion, where they are now most contorted ; (3), that during the deposition of an immense thickness of the upper tertiary deposits, the Himalayan region was already 1 For published description* of the Geology, see Mem. G. S. I.. Ill, Pt. 2; Rec. G- S, I., IX, p. 49. Extra- Peninsular. ] EARLY VIEWS OX SUB-HIMALAYAS. 521 defined as an area of denudation in which the great rivers were the same as are now found there ; (4), that the topmost beds (Upper Shvalik) of the Sub-Himalayan tertiary series have undergone extreme disturbance ; (5), that the operation of the forces by which this total of results was accomplished must have been most gradual. General features. By abrupt difference of elevation and by contour, ihe Sub-Himalayan hills are eveiy where easily distinguishable from the much higher mountains to the north of them. They very commonly present a steep face to the south, with a more gentle inner slope ; and as a general rule they consist of two ranges, separated by a broad flat valley, for which the native name "dun" (doon) has been adopted in India. "When the outer of these ranges is wanting, as is the case below Nairn Tal and Darjiling, the whole geographical feature might escape notice, the inner range being confounded with the spurs of the mountains. From a point of view whence all the surface features of this inner range can be seen, it will, however, generally be observed, that the hills are not branching extremities of the spurs from the main range, but true longitudinal flanking ridges, separated from the higher range by a line of gaps and gorges ; or at least there will always be noticed a rapid increase of elevation immediately inside the tertiary boundary. Two places are known, on the Bhutan frontier, where even the inner Sub-Himalayan range is wanting, and the marginal slopes of the plains reach to the base of the Lower Himalayan region ; but with these exceptions the fringe of tertiary rocks is, so far as we know, continuous for 1,500 miles, from the Brahmaputra to the Jhelum, which are the limits of the Himalayan region proper, as here restricted. West of the Sutlej, where the Lower Himalayan area ends, there is an equivalent increase in the width of the Sub-Himalayan zone, made up by a repeti- tion of low ridges and intervening duns. Early views on Sub-Himalayas. Soft, massive sandstone is the pro vailing rock of the Sub- Himalayan ranges, but associated in very variable proportions, according to position, with conglomerates and clays. Owing apparently to some suspected connexion with the rock-salt deposits of North-Western India, these sandstones were considered by the early observers to belong to the New Red Sandstone of the European scale of formations. The Vindhyan rocks on the south of the plains were regarded at the same time as Old Red Sandstone ; and on the strength of these identifications borings were recommended, if not actually under- taken, along the margin of the plain?, to find the carboniferous formation 522 GEOLOGY OF INDIA SUB-HIMALAYAS. [Chap. XXII. with its coal. 1 It was the discovery of the famous Siwalik fossils in the outer range of the hills that established the true age of these rocks. Sir Proby Cautley (then Lieutenant Cautley, R.A.) seems to have been the original discoverer of those fossils, prior to 1832 2 ; and the great collections were subsequently made by him and Dr. Falconer, and described by the latter, chiefly in the Fauna Antiqua Sivalensis and Palaeontological Memoirs. Long after the publication of the tertiary age of the Siwalik rocks, until the examination of the ground by the Survey, the sandstones of the inner range flanking the mountains were still regarded as secondary. General range of these deposits. The whole of the Sub-Hima- layan zone is formed of these tertiary rocks, with the exception of some inliers of palaeozoic limestone in the north-west, where the area is broadest. At this western extremity of the range, on the Jhelum, the whole sedimentary series undergoes an abrupt change of strike, and the tertiary formations, without break of continuity, thus sweep into the Potwar (the upland north of the Salt Range) and across the Indus, passing down into Sind. In the other direction, the breach of continuity mentioned in the Sub-Himalayan hills on the Bhutan frontier applies also superficially to the rocks, no outcrop of the sandstones having been detected in this position. It is thought that they are only concealed, having been denuded, and then covered up by the diluvial gravels ; but it may be that they are altogether wanting, for in this neighbourhood, in Lower Assam, detached hill masses, formed of gneissic rocks of the peninsular type, approach nearer than anywhere else to the Himalayan border. At one spot, indeed, on the east bank of the Raidak (E. long. 89 47'), Mr. Mallet observed a small boss of this southern gneiss far within the tertiary zone, and only a few hundred yards from its inner boundary. 3 The sandstone intervened between this boss and the very different metamorphic rocks of the mountains; its contact with the gneiss forming the boss was not seen, but we may presume that the relation is one of simple superposition, and that we have here the local exlra- 1 In Notes on the Economic Mineralogy of the Hill Districts of the North-Western Provinces of India, by E. T. Atkinson, B.A., F.B.O.S., Bengal Civil Service, 1877, the following remark occurs : " But it has never yet been settled whether coal does or does not exist in Kumaun, and until this question has received the attention due to it, the eventual absolute success of the Kumaun mines must remain problematical " (p. 7). There is no further allusion to coal, to indicate upon what facts this hope of its occurrence is based. It may be only a survival of the primitive idea mentioned in the text. z Jour. As. Soc., Bengal, Vol. I, p. 219, 1832. 3 Mem. G. S. I., XI, 44. Extra-Peninsular. ] CLASSIFICATION. 52;3 Himalayan base of the tertiary series, the natural junction of such extreme types of rock indicating an equivalent geological break, even the nummulitic beds being absent. These gaps in the tertiary zone do not, however, quite correspond with the nearest approach of the southern gneissic rt)cks, but lie somewhat to the west ; and it may be more to the point to notice that they occur exactly in front of the great gap between the Assam range and the Rajmahal hills through which all the Hima- layan drainage passes to the Bay of Bengal. It seems at least probable that the sandstones once were continuous across these gaps, though no remnant of these tertiary beds may now be left beneath the superficial deposits; and at all events it is certain that the Sub- Himalayan hills and rocks occur again in full force and characteristic form throughUpper Assam to the Brahmaputra, where, as on the Jhelum at the western extremity of the range, they bend round across the head of the Assam valley, and there conform to a system of disturbance having a totally different direction from that of the Himalayas proper. All this takes place in a very remote wild country, inhabited by savage tribes, outside the limits of British occupation, so no details of the feature are known beyond the facts given. Besides the case described in Lower Assam, the only other position within or close to the Sub-Himalayan region where we find an extra- Himalayan base for the Sub- Himalayan series is in the Punjab, on the south side of the Rawalpindi plateau, or Potwar, where lower or middle Siwalik sandstones rest with quasi-conformity on the nummulitic lime- stone capping the older fossiliferous series of the Salt Range, as already described in the preceding chapter. Over all the intermediate country, from east to west, the southern limit of the tertiary rocks is altogether a matter of conjecture, for no trace of them is found along the southern edge of the plains, where from beneath the alluvial deposits the most ancient formations of peninsular India crop out ; unless, indeed, we are to recognise them, as has been suggested, in the deepest beds of these plains deposits themselves. Classification. From the familiar terms "nummulitic "and" Siwa- lik" used parenthetically in preceding paragraphs, it may be observed that the Sub-Himalayan system contains a pretty full representation of the ter- tiary series as generally understood, the former deposits being eocene and the latter in part pliocene. The deposits do ample justice to this extended period, their aggregate thickness being computed as between 12,000 and 15,000 feet, or very much more if we take the maximum thickness of different portions in different positions. Within this region the vertical limits of the series are very well defined, the nummulitic beds at the base arc everywhere in abrupt 52A OLOGY OF INDIA-SUB-IIIMALAYAS. [ Chap. XXII. contact with immensely older rocks, presumably palaeozoic; while the topmost Siwalik beds are as often as not vertical at the edge of the plains, and are thus in the sharpest possible stratigraphical contrast with the post-pliocene and recent deposits. For use within this special region the following classification may be adopted for the Sub-Himalayan form- ations : (Upper. ( Siwalik series < Middle. SUB-H,MALAT AN } (Lower (Nahan). SYSTEM. ^ (-Upper (Kasauli). ^Sinnil series j Middle (Dagshai). (Lower (Subathu : nummulitie). The enunciation of a classified list of formations ought at once to facilitate the progress of description. We should be able to take np each so-called group and point out its exact range. For the bottom and top divisions of our list the Subathu and the Upper Siwalik this might be roughly done ; but we should utterly break down in attempting a con- tinuous delineation of the middle zones. This failure is highly suggestive of error ; but recognised confusion may be a safer state of progress than imposed order ; and the compromise to be suggested is that no single group-list will ever suit the different sections of the Sub- Ilinialayan zone ; e. g., the break between the Siwalik and Sirmiir divi- sions, which is the most marked feature in the Simla region (accord- ing to the interpretation given), certainly disappears before reaching the Jhelum. Such discrepancies will not surprise any one who can per- ceive that the Himalayas have been in great part formed synchronously with the deposition of the tertiary series between the Subathu and Upper Siwalik groups. Under these difficult circumstances we must crave the reader's indulgence for a less regular form of treatment than has been followed in the preceding chapters, and for the introduction of discussion upon elementary questions not hitherto mentioned, because these are of crucial importance in the mountain-sections. A brief abstract account of each division will be given, and for further details reference must be made to the descriptions of the separate areas. Petrology. Sandstone immensely preponderates in the Sub-Hima- layan deposits, and is of a very persistent type from end to end of the region and from top to bottom of the series. Its commonest form is undistinguishable from the rock of corresponding age known as Mol- lasse in the Alps, of a clear pepper and salt grey, sharp and fine in grain, generally soft, and in very massive beds. The whole Middle and Lower Siwaliks arc formed of this rock, with occasional thick beds of red clay Extra-Peninsular.] CHIKFLY OF FUKSH-WATEU ORICIN 525 and very rare thin, discontinuous bands and nodules of earthy limestone, the sandstone itself being sometimes calcareous, and thus cemented into hard nodular masses. In the Sirmtir group generally, and locally in the Lower Siwaliks, the sandstone is thoroughly indurated and often of a purple tint, while retaining the distinctive aspect. In the Upper Siwaliks conglomerates prevail largely ; they are often made up of the coarsest shingle, precisely like that in the beds of the great Himalayan torrents. Brown clays occur often with the conglomerate, and sometimes almost entirely replace it. This clay, even when tilted to the vertical, is undis- tinguishable in hand specimens from that of the recent plains deposit ; and no doubt it was formed in a similar manner, as alluvium. The sandstone, too, of this zone, is exactly like the sand forming the banks of the great rivers, but in a more or less consolidated condition. Thus it was suggestive, and not altogether misleading, to say that the Siwaliks were formed of an upraised portion of the plains of India. It is only the bottom member of the series that departs widely from the prevailing type of Sub- Himalayan rock. The Subathu group with nummulites is, of course, marine. Its most distinctive, though not most abundant rock, is a thin-bedded limestone, more or less pure or earthy, associated with clear brown, olive and red, fine crumbling clays ; and these latter pass up by inter stratification into the strong red clunchy clays, alternating with sandstones, of the middle Sirmur horizon. Chiefly of fresh- water origin. The fresh- water origin of the Siwalik formation seems almost as indisputable as the marine origin of the Subathu beds ; yet, until lately, it has been usual to consider the Siwaliks marine. The notion was probably a relic of the opinion, that a water basin was an essential condition of the extensive accumulation of deposits, and that a sea margin would be required for such a great spread of shingle as that of the Siwalik conglomerates. The same opinion, on the same grounds, has been extended to the plains deposits themselves. The continued experience that the fossil remains in these tertiary strata are exclusively of land or fresh-water organisms, made this view untenable ; and in time it came to be realised that the deposits themselves bear out the same opinion : the mountain torrents are now in many cases engaged in laying down great banks of shingle at the margin of the plains, just like the Siwalik conglomerates ; and the thick sandstones and sandy clays of the tertiary series are of just the same type of form and composition as the actual deposits of the great rivers. Beds of this character alternate with the upper beds of the Subathu group ; so it seems probable that from early tertiary times the sea has been excluded from the Sub- Himalayan region, and that the whole of 52G GEOLOGY OF 1NDIA-SUB-IIIMALAYAS. [Chap. XXII. the Sub- Himalayan deposits, above the Subathu group, are fresh-water and fluviatile, and formed on the surface of the land. They are in fact subaerial formations, like the river alluvium and bhabar deposits of the present day. The striking agreement in character between the Sub-Himalayan rocks and the actual deposits now in progress of formation from Himalayan debris, at once suggests that the mountain border must have been to some extent defined, and the Himalayan area undergoing denudation, from early tertiary times ; and it will be seen from the distribution of the Siwalik conglomerates, that during the later tertiary times the configura- tion of the mountains must have been very similar to what it is now. Structural conditions. The validity and meaning of the classifica- tion of the Sub-Himalayan tertiary formations depend so much upon the interpretation of certain leading and constant features of the sections, that it is absolutely necessary to preface the descriptions of these features by a brief discussion of certain elementary stratigraphical characters of somewhat exceptional application. Although, of course, not required for the experienced geologist, these explanations will surely be of use to some who may attempt to extend our observations. The distinction between the original relations of rocks, those resulting from the conditions at the time of formation, and the relations induced by subsequent disturbance is perfectly clear in thought and in fact. In practice, however, it is often most difficult to discriminate between these relations, and the confusion is at the root of many a disputed position. The reader of the foregoing chapters may already have perceived this in connexion with the question of the nature of the basins of Gondwana rocks (pages 103-106). In the Himalayan sections it is of special difficultyand interest, as bearing upon the question of mountain forma- tion ; and some preliminary indications are necessary to a comprehension of the case. The most remarkable structural features in the Sub- Himalayan zone consist of long lines of abrupt contact of highly contrasting rocks, in which, as a rule, the newer strata dip towards, and so apparently under, the older ; and in most cases the beds on both sides of the junction are in normal order, i. e., not inverted. As exposed in the sides of steep valleys, the V-shaped outcrop of the plane of contact, pointing up the valley, towards the older rocks, shews indisputably that these latter are to that extent superposed on the newer. It is quite certain that this could not have been an original relation of these contiguous formations. Faults. In every region which has undergone disturbance to any extent there occur what geologists call faults fissures along which the Extra-Peninsular.] STRUCITIML CONDITIONS. 527 rocks on either side have moved up or down, or up on one side and down on the other, resulting in a separation of the once continuous strata. Side movement along the fissure may also occur, but this effect is not here considered. When the fissure is vertical, the displacement is altogether vertical ; hut when the fissure has a slope, there is a horizontal effect also : if the mass on the upper side move downwards, the ends of the broken beds retreat from each other, leaving- a gap between the broken ends of the several strata ; but when the opposite movement occurs, the ends of the several beds overlap, so that the newer underlies the older, and a vertical line would pass twice through the same beds on opposite sides of the fault. This latter kind is the least common, and so has oome to be called a reversed fault. It is clear that horizontal pressure on opposite sides of a sloping plane of fracture tends to produce reversed faults, the movement on the inclined plane being always in the direction of the force producing it. The feature mentioned as so common on the Himalayan border has primd facie the appearance of a reversed fault. Off-hand judgments are, however, very dangerous in complicated cases : a fault that was origin- ally vertical and normal might easily assume the condition of a reversed fault by a suitable tilt in the whole mass, and it is easy to see that the original relations of rocks might be similarly deformed beyond primd facie recognition. The word " deposit " suggests chiefly a floor of de- position, and other limiting conditions are liable to be lost sight of. We hear, indeed, of geological shores, but chiefly in the sense of shallow bottoms ; yet all of us are familiar with cliffs and slopes of every degree. Although due to erosion and always, as cliffs, subject to denudation, these may also form surfaces on and against which deposition may take place, and the resulting rock-feature must always bear more or less resemblance to a fault discontinuous rocks in steep juxta- position. It is, moreover, certain that subsequent compression might in this case also produce the resemblance of a reversed fault the overhang- ing of older upon newer strata. These evident chances of deception call for careful examination of the ground in certain cases, and we are not without tests, more or less trustworthy, according to circumstances. A fault, as such, unless it occurs in the bedding or along some other plane of original contact, implies the same series of rocks on each side that any bed on the downthrow side can be found on the upthrow side, unless removed by denudation ; and that any bed on the upthrow side can be found on the down- throw side, unless buried out of sight. Straightness of direction" is another special original character of faults, any departure from which 528 GEOLOGY OF INDIA SUB HIMALAYAS. [ Chap. XXII. would generally be due to inequalities in the resisting medium when the fracture was made ; and in proportion to the magnitude of the fault this interference would probably be ineffectual. Another important criterion between a faulted and an original contact should be found at the very contact itself, and in proportion to the magnitude of the fault. It is certain that slips do occur in the interior of rock masses with scarcely any perceptible effect of crushing or of friction; and it is intelligible how this may take place ; but there must be a _ general tendency to such effects, and often they are most marked. In the case of these reversed faults the result of lateral compression the friction must be prodi- gious, and its effects conspicuous. On the other hand, a steep surface of original contact, by deposition, would have a quite different appearance ; although this, too, would be greatly disguised by subsequent compression, such as would convert a normal into a reversed slope of the junction. The leading structural lines so marked in the Sub- Himalayas exhibit mixed characters ; in some the evidence is very strongly in favour of faulting ; in others there is very decided evidence that the feature is principally aboriginal. 1 Flexures. These special lines, the right comprehension of which is so essential to an understanding of the mountains' history, are in some cases traceable into connection with the known direct effects of disturbance, which in this region observe a decided prevailing type, that of normal flexures with the axis-plane inclined towards the mountains. 2 The familiar form of the Sub-Himalyan hills is a direct result of this structural character. The detached Siwalik ranges are mostly formed of a single flexure, the steep southern or outer face corresponding with the high dip of the beds ; or else, the strata on this, the southern, side of the axis have been removed by denudation, exposing the scarped edges of the gently sloping strata on the north side. This low dip becomes more or less horizontal, and so forms the area of the typical dun, or longitudinal valley, of the Sub-Himalayan zone. Middle and terminal Sub-Himalayan regions. As there are gaps of some 50 to 200 miles between several of the known sections of the 1 In geological language, this word must mean from the commencement of the relation, i. e., from the date of formation of the newer rock. 2 Professor H. D. Rogers' classification (Geology of Pennsylvania, 1858) of the un- dulations of strata will be found most useful : the symetrical flexure, when the inclinations is the same on both sides of the axis ; the normal flexure (so-called, perhaps, because, the most common in mountain regions), when the dip is greater on one side than on the other ; and Refolded flexure, when the steeper dip has been pushed beyond the vertical, the beds on that side being then inverted. The axis-plane is the plane bisecting the angle between the opposite dips. To the above we may add the monoclinal flexure, when the beds on one side are horizontal. Extra-Peninsular.] THE SIMLA REGION. 529 Sub-Himalayan zone, the description must be similarly broken, and this method will also best suit the imperfect state of our knowledge even where observations have been continuous. The conditions of the ground lend themselves to this method. One very marked natural division of the Sub-Himalayan rock-features corresponds to the termination of the Lower Himalayan region, about the seventy-seventh parallel of east longitude. East of this line, only the upper tertiary rocks are found, forming a mere fringe to the Lower Himalayas, and consisting often of a single range of low hills immediately flanking the mountains ; whereas, to the west, there are always several ranges of Sub-Himalayan hills, and the zone is sometimes 60 miles wide. As the word central Ijas been already applied to a division of the mountains in the sense of axial, and as distinguished from lateral, so the word middle will be used in a transverse sense, as distinguished from terminal ; and thus the contrast here indicated is between the terminal, north-western, portion of the zone and the middle portion. We do not know enough of the far eastern region to say whether there are any corresponding terminal features in that direction. * The Simla region. The discrepancies that have been mentioned in the classification of the tertiary series on different sections are chiefly connected with this general change of the mountain features, and so the position is one of special importance. For the older rocks, also, the terminal area of the Lower Himalayas will be shewn to be of peculiar interest, so it will be convenient to give this tract a distinguishing name as the Simla region ; the name being, of course, derived from the favourite hill station which stands in the middle of the area, on the watershed between the Sutlej and the Jumna. It is here we find the original type area of the Sirmur series, where a remnant of these lower tertiary formations has been elevated on the margin of the Lower Himalayas., To the east the series disappears altogether, and to the west it passes down into the Sub-Himalayan zone. Corresponding to this elevation of the lower tertiaries, we find here a total separation of them from the upper series ; and there is evidence to suggest that the relation between 1 The words inner and outer are of frequent nse in the description of mountain structure. With some writers they have reference to a point external to the range, to an imaginary centre of dispersion of the disturbing action. In the text these words will be used with reference to central (axial) ; and as our description chiefly refers to the southern face of the mountain region, this use will not conflict with that other sense of the words, for from that point of view the wave of Himalayan disturbance is supposed to have coine from the north. Longitudinal and transverse or lateral arc also terms of frequent use in descriptions of mountain structure; they refer to directions with, or across, the axis of thr nmp-. 1 1 530 GEOLOGY OF INDIA SUB-HIMALAYAS. [Chap. XXII- the two is of the nature of an unconformity. Here, too, we find evidence for at least a local unconformity in the upper tertiary, or Siwalik series. It seems possible that these two important features may be generally characteristic of the whole middle Himalayan area ; while it is certain that to the north-west neither supposed unconformity is maintained, and other structural features are introduced different from any observed in the middle area. Order of description. Following these indications, we will first examine these apparently more decisive sections of the Simla region, and then the other areas of the middle Himalayan ground to the east. We will then return and describe the expanded tertiary zone to the north- west, in the Kangra district and the Jamu (Jummoo) hills. THE SIRMUR AREA. The typical area of the Sirmiir series is not in the Sub-Himalayan zone, but on the margin of the Lower Himalayas, at their extremity, where the boundary sweeps round to the north up to the base of the Dhauladhar. At this edge of the mountains, convex to the south-west, a remnant of the lower tertiary formations has been pre- served, upraised on a basis of the old rocks. The occurrence forms thus an exception to the complete correspondence between the expressions Sub-Himalayan rocks and Sub-Himalayan area ; and we have to put up with the anomaly of taking our type section of the lower series of the Sub -Himalayan system from the Lower Himalayan area. Although spoken of as a remnant, the formation here occupies a considerable extent of ground, stretching from the Sutlej for 70 miles to the eastward to within 15 miles of the Jumna, and locally as much as 10 miles wide. All the east end of the area is in the Sirmur State, so this name has been taken for the formation. Unity of the formation. In a more important sense than relative size, the tertiaries of the Sirmur area are not properly a remnant. Al- though the latest beds of the series are only found in a few places, they form, with the lower deposits, a series of very complete facies and unity, presenting a gradual passage, by interstratification, from exclusively calca- rio-earthy marine beds at the base, Uirough clays and sandstones, to an exclusively sandy band at top, in which fossil leaves of plants are locally abundant, suggesting the natural local consummation of a continuous process of deposition. This character is of much importance in discuss- ing the relation to the Siwalik series immediately to the south. Subathu, Dagshai, and Kasauli groups. The nummulitic rocks of Subathu were first described by Major Vicary in 1853 ' ; and 1 Q. J. G. S., IX, 1853, p. 70. Extra-Peninsular.] SUBATHU, DAGSHAI AND KASAULI GROUPS. 631 the fossils collected by him were included in the Description des foxsiles clu Groupe Nummnlitiqne de I'Inde (1853) by D'Archiac and Haime, from which work the following list is taken. The authors remark upon the great contrast between these fossils and those from the nummulitic beds of the Salt Range and of Sind ; a contrast especially shewn by the total want of corals, bryozoa, echinoderms, and crustaceans in the collections from Stibathu. This discrepancy may perhaps to some extent be accounted for by the prevailing muddy character of the Sub- llimalayan luimmulitic deposits as compared with those to the south-west. 1 GASTEHOPODA. * C. hookeri. Fusus malcolmsoni. F. macclellandi. F. obscurus. Bostellaria rimosa. Bucrinum, sp. indet. Valuta multidentata ? e Terebellum fusifurme , e Ancellaria olivula. Conus, 2 sp. indet. Physa ? nummulltica. e * Natica glaucinoides. e * N. mutabilis. e * N. Roualti. e N- epiglottina. N. cyprceformis. Turbo oldheimi. Turritella subathooensis. T. subfasciata. Cerithiumjelumense. C. stracheyi. LAMELLIBEANCHIATA. F. subcyrenoides. V. nucleus. V. semicircularis. * Cardita subcomplanata, var. C. depressa. C. mutabilis. Cardium jacquemonti. Cypricardia vicaryi. C.jaba. Area, sp. Avicula rutimeyri. FOBAMINIFERA. var. I e * N. spira. Panopcea ? subelongata. Corbula subexarata. Donax crassa. Cyprina ? subathooensis. C. transversa. C. semilunaris. Venus gumberensis. V. subg umber ensis, V. pseudonitidula. V. everesti. V. subeveresti. e * Nummulites liicasana, N. Those marked e occur in Europe. * Sind. 1 Complete reliance cannot be placed in the recorded distribution of these fossils. In the brief stratigraphical sketch given on pages 175 and 176 of the work, there are several important errors, none of which occur in Major Vicary's own account (1. c.) published in the same year ; such as the occurrence of large mammalian fossils in beds immediately overlying the nummulitics near Subathu. Reference was made to Major Vicary on (lies.; points : lie declared the statements to be erroneous, but could not explain the confusion that appeared in the account of MM. D'Archiac and Ilaiine. (Mem. G. S. I., Ill, pt. 2, p. 93, note). 532 GEOLOGY OF INDIA SUB-HIMALAYAS. [Chap. XXII. In the Sirmur area, the prevailing rock of the Subathu group is a fine, pale yellowish-brown, crumbling clay with occasional calcareous bands, or locally some thin beds of purer limestone ; dark-greenish shales and sometimes harder sandy beds occur. Even within this small area the thickness of the group varies from 200 to 1,000 feet, as well as can be estimated in these very disturbed sections. At the top of the group, beds of red clay or shale alternate with the typical Subathu rocks, and more or less rapidly increase to the exclusion of the others, with the introduction of thick beds of hard purplish sandstone. Thus a gradual transition takes place into deposits of strikingly different aspect. The Dagshai ridge is entirely made up of these red clays and hard purplish sandstones of the middle Sirmur group, which must have a thickness of 800 to 1 ; 000 feet. The sandstone has quite the composition and texture of the Siwalik rock, and when from any local cause it is less indurated and has lost its colour, the two are undistinguishable. The red clays gradually disappear, and on- the Kasauli ridge, and elsewhere, we find some 600 to 800 feet of sandstone, with only occasional partings of grey sandy shale, in which the leaves of plants are locally abundant. 1 The separation of the Kasauli and Dagshai horizons is, of course, less marked and less significant than that of the Subathu group ; and the two would go well together as upper Sirmurs, as distinguished from the marine nummulitic deposits forming the lower part of the series. But, as suggested already, the further distinction is important for purposes of local comparison. A thickness of 2,000 feet is the least assignable for the series in the Sirmdr area, the whole mountain mass being formed of it, from the water level in the Sursulla, at an elevation of about 2,000 feet, to the summit of Kasauli (6,335), within a horizontal distance of less than two miles ; but the disturbance is everywhere excessive. Relation to the older rocks. The first thing to notice is, that the Sirmur rocks in the Simla region do not rest upon the top group of the older formations. All the strata are so tremendously crushed together, and the junctions for the most part so steep, that the true relation is not apparent at once. The newest group of the old, pre- tertiary, rocks is unquestionably the massive limestone, underlaid by a great thickness of flaggy slates, forming the conspicuous hills of 1 Two of these localities may be indicated : one is on the lower Mall, at Kasauli, at a projecting angle about a quarter of a mile south of the water tunnel ; the other is some miles north of Kasaxili, on the Budi road, near the stream in the chief re-entering anglo on the cast side of the main ridge. The leaves were roughly identified as belonging to the natural families of Sapindacece, Ericaceae, Lcmracca, Moracece, Cycadeacece, Conferee, raJmacecF, Ciipcracca;, and Graminete. Mem. G. S. I., Ill pt. 2, p. 97. Extra- Peninsular. ] SECTION AT SUBATHU. 533 the Boj and the Krol on the new road to Simla. The main tertiary outlier lies to the south of the Boj, the junction passing- under the flank of this mountain and along two spurs, the opposite sides of which are formed of highly contrasting formations, with converging dips, flaggy slates on the north-east, and thick sandstone and red clays on the south-west. But the deep valley between the Boj and Krol is also occupied by the bottom tertiary deposits. In the very great majority of exposed sections of the contact, it would be impossible to assert positively that the existing relative positions are not due to faulting ; but crucial sections are to be found ; and one such would be enough to prove that the old rocks had been deeply denuded before the tertiary period. Section at Subathu. Within the station of Subathu a typical section of this kind is well exposed. The small flat space north of the parade-ground is on a surface of soft nummulitic clay, the outcrop of steeply compressed beds, on both sides of which the slaty flags pro- trude. Down the sides of the valley to the north-west the contact can be followed continuously, and it is unmistakably an original junction. The feature is a synclinal fold, and the same bottom layer of the Subathu group, a peculiar pisolitic ferruginous clay, is in contact with the slates throughout. The horizon of these slates is many hundred feet below the base of the Krol limestone; it may even be below the Blaini limestone, which is itself at least 1,000 feet below the Krol : these details remain still to be worked out. Another very important relation is apparent in this section at Subathu : the same synclinal fold affects the slate series, approximately the same layer being at the contact throughout ; from which conditions we may certainly conclude that these slates were still approximately flat at the beginning of the tertiary period. This zone of the moun- tains is at present one of extreme contortion, 'most, if not all, of which therefore dates from that late period. There is other evidence from the Subathu sections that the prenum- mulitic surface here was very, and suddenly, uneven. In the little section of local bottom beds near the parade-ground, including alto- gether, perhaps, 200 feet in thickness, the red clays of the middle Sirmur, or Dagshai, type are already represented, and this group is found in force ascending the ridge to the south-east ; while in the steep flanks of the ridge iinder Subathu on the south-west, a much greater thickness is found of the brown and olive clays and thin limestone of the Subathu group. A still greater thickness of these purely nummulitic beds occurs in the sections along the south margin of the outlier, just inside the main boundary. These facts seem to indicate that there was here 534 GEOLOGY OF INDIA SUB-HIMALAYAS. [Chap. XXII. some approach to a margin of the nummulitic sea, the features of which (whether shore or sea bottom) must have consisted of steeply scarped flat masses of horizontal palaeozoic strata. A reasonable objection to the introduction of any actual shore here may be found in the total absence of anything- like a shore deposit along so steep a coast-line. Even small pebbles are very rare in the Sirmdr series at any point, and the Subathu group is almost exclusively made up of very fine mud, the calcareous element being quite subordinate in it throughout the Sub- Himalayan region. Limits of the Sirmur area. The lower tertiaries of the Sirmur area do not quite form an outlier, as they are not completely cut off from the Sub-Himalayan zone. A narrow band of Subathu beds, less than a quarter of a mile wide, crossing the Sutlej at Dihar, connects the Sirmiir area on the north-west with the innermost Sub-Himalayan zone of the KSngra area, where the nummulitic group soon disappears altogether, and is covered by higher beds. To the south-east the Sirmur rocks have undergone the very opposite effect : owing to a general elevation in tkat direction, the counterpart of the depression to the north-west, they have been altogether removed by denudation; the bottom beds are the last left, high on the ridge, about 10 miles east by north from Nahan. The south boundary of this area is an exceed- ingly regular and well-marked feature, an abrupt junction with the younger tertiary formations. The nature of this boundary will form an important subject of discussion in connexion with these latter rocks. The inner boundary of the Sirmurs in the Simla region is different from any other connected with the Sub-Himalayan rocks : at a few places, as along the south-easterly spur from the Boj mountain, the sandstones and clays of the middle horizon occur abutting steeply against the slates ; but for the most part the junction is found in low ground, with the Subathu clays at the contact, almost always steep and much crushed ; and straggling extensions from the main area of the Subathu group can be followed amongst the old rocks, as, for instance, the band passing north of Subdthu nearly up to Solan, between the Boj and the Krol. Several small outliers of bottom Subathu beds have also been observed, folded up in the slates, as may be seen on the old Simla road, above the Haripur rest-house, close to an outcrop of the Blaini limestone. Over the whole of this area, the massive Krol limestone, and a great thickness of the underlying slates, must have been denuded before the deposition of the Subathu gi*oup. Easternmost outlier of the nummulitic group. This is the fittest place to mention the one small outlier of the Subathu group that Extra-Peninsular.] SIWALIK SERIES: NAHAN AREA. 535 has been observed east of the Sirmur area. A small patch of brown nummulitie clay occurs near the village of Bon, in a depression of the ridge of slates at the east end of the Dehra dun over- Rikikes. The outlier is quite isolated, and some miles north of the Lower Himalayan boundary. As this ground, east of the Ganges, has been little examined, it is not unlikely that other such remnants may yet be found there ; but any large area of these rocks, west of Nepal, would probably have been brought to notice. It is thus still an open question, whether the nummulitie formation ever extended continuously along the southern face of the Himalayas, for no vestige of it has been found in the Sub- Himalayan zone of "the middle region. The fact that the nearest known rocks of eocene age, at the west end of the Assam range, in the Garo hills, are made up exclusively of fine clays, precisely like those of Subdthu, need only suggest similarity of origin. In both positions there is a marked absence of purely marine deposits ; while in both cases these are introduced extensively away from the middle region, to the north-west beyond the Jhelum, and to the east in the Khasi hills. The Assam range is, indeed, outside the Himalayan border, but this border, as we know it, has been in great measure defined in post-nummulitic times. It was, however, approximately fixed, as now, in earliest Siwalik (Nahan) times. Such a change of feature implies a great break between the deposits preced- ing and succeeding it ; and this is a suggested measure of the possible separation of the Sirmur and Siwalik series in the Simla region and throughout the middle Himalayas. SIWALIK SERIES : NAHAN AREA. It was in this Nahan area that by far the greater part of the original collections of Siwalik fos- sils were made, on which account alone this ground must be considered classical. It was here, too, that the study of these formations was first taken up by the Survey ; and it so happens that the sections are peculiarly favourable for observation ; or at least, features are here exposed that have not as yet been observed elsewhere, and that certainly are generally concealed. This exceptional character might indeed be reasonably taken as an objection to considering this ground as a standard of inter- pretation for any larger region ; however this may be, it is certain that the facts here exposed give us the means of stating, in the clearest manner, one important condition of this question of interpretation, .upon which the truth of our history of this mountain region must depend. The area thus peculiarly circumstanced, in the neighbourhood of Nahan, does not at all correspond in length with the adjoining Sirmur 36 GEOLOGY OF INDIA-SUB-HIMALAYAS, [Chap. XXII, area. The latter extends to the Sutlej ; whereas, in the Sub-Himalayan zone, the features of the western region begin where the boundary of the Lower Himalayas first trends northwards, near Kalka. Just east of this point the width of the Sub-Himalayan zone is at its lowest. The lower Himalayas themselves are here somewhat protuberant southwards ; but there is no exceptional compression of the upper tertiary rocks ; the corresponding reduction in width of the fringing tertiary zone is effected by the absence of any trace of a dun. From the west end of the Kaiarda dun, which is the trans-Jumna continuation of the Dehra dun, to the east end of the Pinjor dun, which is the cis- Sutlej continuation of the Una dun, the outer Siwalik hills are confluent, for a length of nearly 30 miles, with those on the north of the Pinjor and Kaiarda duns ; so that the junction of the rocks forming these distinct ranges can be closely followed for that distance. It was from the examination of this junction that a clear separation was proposed between a Siwalik and a Nahan group. It is not yet proven that such a separation is not maintained eastwards, throughout the middle Himalayan region ; but it certainly is not distinguishable on the extension to the north-west : and so, a compromise has been adopted to speak of the inner or Nahan zone, and its representative rocks elsewhere, as Lower Siwaliks. The Nahan, or Lower Siwalik rocks, forming the inner Sub- Himalayan zone at Nahan, consist mainly of massive grey sandstone, often spoken of as the lignite sandstone, from its frequently containing' small nests and strings of fossil wood, which from early times till now have given rise to many sanguine reports of the discoveiy of coal. In deeper sections red or purple clays occur, associated with thinner, harder, darker sandstones, very like the rock of the Dagshai group. Owing to the contorted and faulted condition of these rocks, and the rugged, covered nature of the ground, accurate estimates of thickness are not easily made : from 2,000 to 5,000 feet may be taken as limits. The rocks forming the outer tertiary zone, the true Siwalik hills, south of Nahan, consist at top of conglomerates and brown clays associated in very variable proportion, overlying a series of alternating thick, soft grey sandstones, and red and yellow clays. The total thick- ness may vaiy from 3,000 to 5,000 feet. In other ground the conglo- meratic beds by themselves are at least 5,000 feet thick, with a similar thickness of grey sandstone between them and the Nahan horizon. These beds of the Siwalik hills proper will be distinguished the conglo- merates as Upper, and the sandstones and clays as Middle Siwaliks ; even if the separation should not be maintained by fossil evidence, the Btratigraphical distinction will be always necessary. Extra-Peninsular. ] THE NAHAN-siWALiK BOUNDARY. 537 The Nahan-Siwalik boundary. The junction of the Siwalik and Nahaii groups is first described, because it clearly exhibits important characters that will be less confidently appealed to in the case of other boundaries. The topmost beds (conglomerates and clays) of the great series of deposits forming the outer hills, dip steadily towards the base of the higher hills, formed of massive sandstones and subordinate red clays of the Nahan zone. The strike in both rocks is the same, but the dip is generally higher on the inner side. Where the Markanda crosses the boundary under Nahan, the general effect is well seen, and it closely resembles a continuous ascending section ; so much so that the early discoverers of the Siwalik fossils accepted it as such, taking the inner beds to be the newer. Upon a first recognition of the outer rocks as the newer, the imme- diate conjecture would be that of a fault ; it is the explanation usually applied to junctions such as this. The dips might first suggest a doubt, for they certainly are not such as would, under ordinary conditions, result in connection with faulting. Further examination raises other doubts : the conglomerates of the outer beds are largely made up of stones very like that of the rock forming the contiguous hills, which at once suggests a break other than by faulting. Again, if the feature is due to a fault, it must be one of great throw, but the outline of the boundary, as traced through the hills, exhibits great and sudden irregularities, such as are almost incompatible with a great master- dislocation. One other test remains that of the actual contact, which it is so rare to find exposed to observation : at a short distance to the east of the Markanda, and close to where the first symptoms appear of the begin- ning of the Kaiarda diin, a clear section of the contact was found in a gully at the base of the inner hills, shewing the tilted Siwalik conglomerates abutting against a steep weathered surface of the older sandstones, proving that at this point any faulting whatever is out of the question. 1 This is quite a crucial section, and until it is disposed of, it must take a ruling part in our consideration of this great boundary question. In any civilised, or even more accessible, country so critical an observation would have been examined by many experts since it was first noticed. That this has not been done is only an extra reason for laying stress upon the point. A conjecture has been offered (by Mr. Theobald) that the newer beds at the contact here are not true Siwaliks, but the same as some beds at the top of the series in the Siwalik hills east of the Jumna, and differing somewhat from the usual type of the 1 Mem. G. S. I., III., Pt. 2, p. 108. 538 GEOLOGY OP INDIA SUB-HIMALAYAS. [Chap. XXII. Siwalik conglomerates. This hint is Worthy of notice, but it scarcely affects the question at issue, for the beds indicated, whether we choose to call them Siwalik or not, must be closely related to that series, as being at least apparently conformable to it, and having undergone the same disturbances, and must be totally distinct from any deposits formed subsequently to the elevation of the outer range. 1 Thus we may say that, for this portion of the ground, all the evidence, with one exceptfon, suggests that this boundary is not due to faulting. The exception is the reversed lie of the plane of contact ; and it is evident that this condition might be produced by lateral pressure upon an originally normal face of deposition. Another important point in the discussion of this boundary is, that no satisfactory identification has been made between beds on opposite sides of it in this section at Nahan. If this should be correct, that in the great thickness of rocks outside this boundary none of the inner rocks are re- presented, the consequences that follow upon either interpretation of the junction are rather startling : if it be a fault, the throw must amount to several thousand feet ; and, if it be an original boundary, disturbance of Sub-Himalayan (Siwalik) rocks, with denudation to a prodigious ex- tent, must have taken place within the Sub- Himalayan (Siwalik) period, involving great unconformity here between the upper and lower groups. A compromise may be yet made out ; but any possible identification of the beds of the inner zone, in the rock-series of the outer zone, must be low down in this latter series, and so would still leave a large break to be accounted for by the fault or the unconformity, as may be ultimately decided. It should be remembered that in such rapidly forming diluvial deposits as those of the Siwalik formation, very great discrepancies might occur between synchronous beds within short distances, so that great judg- ment and a full consideration of many circumstances are needed in deciding this question. An explanation of this peculiar unconformity will be suggested in describing its disappearance westward, in the Kangra region. The most westerly point at which the peculiar Nahan-Siwalik junc- tion has been observed is in the Sursulla, below Kalka, where the 1 Because of doubts expressed regarding this section, although no one, that I know of, has examined the spot indicated, I have wished much for an opportunity to re- visit it. Such an occasion, after a lapse of 18 years, has occurred within the last three months, since the above remarks were written. The position lies on the path to Khairwala from the Rajah's garden on the Markanda, near the village of Tib. I was disappointed to find that no section of the contact is now exposed, but on this point I never had any doubts of the accuracy of my original observation. I have, however, satisfied myself again that the outer rocks at the contact are the regular Upper Siwalik strata. H. B. M. Extra-Peninsular. ] THE NAHAN SIRMUR BOUNDARY. 539 massive horizontal Upper Siwalik conglomerate, forming the surface of the Pinjor drfn, takes a strong dip towards its junction with the highly inclined sandstones of the inner zone. Beyond this no contact- seption of the Upper Siwaliks has been observed on the north side of the dun for more than 50 miles, to near the Sutlej, where everything is changed, and the conglomerates are nearly vertical, having a slight south-westerly underlie, and are thus in apparent continuous sequence with hard Lower Siwalik rocks forming the ridge of the inner zone. This Sutlej section belongs to the Kangra area. The continuation to the east is more doubtful : at this end of the ex- posed contact in the Nahan hills, the tilted conglomerates at the boundary pass on to form the crest of the range on the south side of the Kaiarda dun, and flatten out to form its floor ; but no near sections of the junc- tion with the rocks of the Nahan zone are visible. The Nahan-Sirmur boundary. Within the Nahan area the junc- tion of the Siwalik and Sirmur series corresponds with what we shall con- stantly refer to as the main boundary ; for we may fairly give this name to the most persistent and striking structural feature of the whole mountain region the abrupt junction of the slaty or schistose rocks of the mountains with the rocks of the Sub- Himalayan zone. The correct interpretation of this line of junction is a first step towards understanding the history of the mountains. The scarcely disputed admission, that the Sub- Himalayan deposits are in great part made up of Himalayan debris, is at least suggestive that the present boundary may have had some- thing to do with the original one ; but the closer inspection of the feature seems always to deter from any further encouragement of this view : the appearance is nearly always that of a reversed fault, the outcrop of the plane of junction in the bottom of the valley being generally inside a line connecting the outcrops of the same plane on the adjacent spurs ; and consequently this plane of junction between tertiary and Himalayan beds is inclined towards the mountains. It is only through the Sirmur rocks in the Simla region that we can bring any direct argument to bear upon this question. Elsewhere there are no terms of comparison between the rocks on opposite sides of this sharp line ; whereas here the beds on either side unquestionably belong to the same great tertiary series. We have seen that the upper Sirmiir beds themselves exhibit strongly the type of the Sub- Himalayan deposits, and are also presum- ably derived from the same source denudation of the Himalayan area. The question again turns upon the part taken by faulting. If this main boundary is a j00^-Siwalik fault, we might expect to be able to identify some of the beds on opposite sides. The conditions are 540 GEOLOGY OP INDIA SUB-HIMALAYAS. [Chap. XXII. altogether favourable for such a recognition : the highest beds on the upthrow side are sufficiently distinctive, and the beds on the down- throw side are thoroughly turned up and eroded; yet there is no approach to a resemblance ; on the contrary, clays become more and more frequent as we get deep in the Lower Siwalik (Ndhan) group, and we have seen that the top beds of the Sirmurs are exclusively sandstone. No trace of the very distinctive nummulitic clays has ever been seen south of the junction, or as fault-rock in the supposed faulted boundary. These arguments may, of course, be met by magnifying the throw of the supposed fault, so that the Sirmur rocks should be completely buried out of sight to the south : or a more plausible objection might be raised, that as the outcrops we bring into comparison are for the most part at a considerable distance from the fault, and at a still greater distance from each other, the correspondence cannot be expected ; for theoretically, the agreement demanded only holds exactly for the beds originally continuous across the dislocation. It might thus be sug- gested that the plant-bearing sandstones of Kasauli belong to the same horizon as the Lower Siwalik clays, or the lignite sandstone. Those who have examined the rocks are least disposed to adopt this supposi- tion ; and unless one or other of these views is adopted, the argument is binding in favour of this main boundary being an original line of junc- tion, however modified by the subsequent compression to which even the Upper Siwaliks have been subjected. This conclusion would establish for the middle Himalayan region a very great unconformable break between the upper and lower ter- tiaries the Siwalik and the Sirmur series. It would shew that a great elevation took place, with deep erosion, along the margin of the Lower Himalayan region, in the interval between these formations. In the case of the Nahan-Siwalik boundary in the Simla region another argument, besides that founded on the contrast of the strata on opposite sides of the junction, was used to shew that the present boundary coincided with the original margin of deposition, and was not a line of fault. This argument was, the very broken direction of the boundary-line. Similar observations apply to the main boundary : the Dehra dun occupies a great bay in the Lower Himalayan area, so that a line joining the termination of the Sirmtfr beds in Sirmiir to the small outlier of the same beds east of the Ganges, would touch the Siwalik range south of Dehra; and within this bay the main boundary exhibits several sharp bends, not traceable to cross-faults. Such twists would be scarcely com- patible with a great dislocation having several thousand feet of throw, as this boundary must have, if it is to be regarded as a post- Siwalik fault. Extra-Peninsular.] JUMNA GANGES AREA. 5U THE JUMNA-GANGES AREA. Although few of the Siwalik fossils were obtained east of the Jumna, it was here the name took its origin, as adopted by Colonel Cautley from Shib-wdla, the native name for the range separating the Dehra dun from the plains. A more typical Siwalik range could not have been chosen. The axis of the normal anticlinal flexure runs close along the outer edge of the ridge, the beds to the south of the anticlinal having been much denuded, except at the end near the Ganges, where there is a pretty full remnant of the steep southerly dipping beds, gradually becoming vertical in the conglomerates of the little hills west of Hardwar. Composition in relation to the great rivers. By comparing this range with its representative in the adjoining region to the west, we find an illustration of the fact already mentioned, how the Siwalik depo- sits vary according to their position relatively to the great rivers. The con- trast between the rocks of the outer range on opposite sides of the Jumna is so great, that it has been doubted if they can be equivalent ; to the west, throughout the Nahan area, clays enter largely into the section, and the conglomerates are made up of the debris of the rocks forming the higher hills immediately to the north, principally the sandstone of the Nahan and the Sirmur groups ; whereas in the range between the Ganges and Jumna, clays are very subordinate, and the conglomerates are composed of the hardest quartzite pebbles, just like the shingle now found in the great mountain torrents. This portion of the range is, in fact, an ancient diluvial fan of the rivers Tons, Jumna, and Ganges. The Jumna, after its confluence with the Tons, now flows very obliquely across the dun, and passes through the outer range far to the west of the point, where it leaves the high mountains, having had to double round the immense accu- mulation of hard materials it had formerly laid down in front of that gorge. The passes of both the Jumna and Ganges in the Siwalik range are now strongly marked by cross-fractures of the rocks, with contrast- ing dips on opposite sides ; but it is more likely that the rivers helped to determine the position of these fractures, than the reverse ; for the rivers have not ceased to flow here since pre-Siwalik times : when the first elevation set in, the rivers had to take to channels of erosion ; and when the fracturing forces took effect, these lines of erosion were the positions of least resistance. Identification of beds in the two zones. The identification made by Colonel Cautley 1 of certain beds at the south base of the cis-Jumna 2 1 Trans. Gcol. Soc., London, 2nd Scries, Vol. V, p. 271 ; J. A. S., B, 1834, Vol. Ill, 528. 2 The prefixes cii and (rans arc used in Upper India with reference to the older l.ritish possessions iu Eastern India. Cis-Junma consequently means cast of Jumna ; truus-Jmnmi, west, 542 GEOLOGY OF INDIA-SUB-HIMALAYAS. [ Chap. XXII, range with some beds of the inner zone at Nahan is well worth attention. Taking the Nahan beds, by reason of their apparent position, as the highest in that section, he accounted for the non-appearance east of the Jumna of the more f ossiliferous strata of the west, by the smaller upheaval in the former position. As already explained, the reverse is the case; and the beds in question, in which fossils were found, at the entrance to the Kalawala pass (cis- Jumna), the same as in the Nahan beds, are probably older than any in the outer range trans-Jumna. A closer search might detect the suspected unconformity between these beds at the south end of Kalawala pass and the overlying Siwalik sandstones. The greater abundance of fossils in the range trans- Jumna than cis- Jumna may easily be due to the contrasting nature of the deposits. Suggested connection of the two zones in this area. The complete confirmation of the identification mentioned in the last paragraph, need not disturb the view given of the equivalence of the outer ranges on opposite sides of the Jumna ; but this equivalence has been questioned. Throughout the dun east of Dehra there is no representative of the Nahan range, any remnant of these rocks being covered by a great bank of detritus ; but in the western dun this inner ridge of the Sub- Himalayas is well defined, and in the Nun, under Mansuri (Mus- sooree), there is a peculiarly puzzling section. The stream, as usual, has cut a steep narrow gorge through the flanking ridge of the massive lignite sandstone, here nearly vertical, but with a slight inward underlie ; and just below the gorge there is in the low banks a nearly continuous section of seemingly conformable beds, in which the sandstone becomes pebbly, and gradually alternates with strong beds of conglomerate, the northerly underlie being steady throughout. According to the universal order in all normal sections, conglomerates always increase in the upper beds, so this section in the Niin must be an inverted series, and it most resembles that in the range south of the du"n. If this link should be confirmed, we should have to recast the view sketched above regarding the relations of the cis- and trans- Jumna Siwaliks ; for there is every reason to suppose that the massive sandstone of the Nun is the same as that of Nahan, with which it may be said to be continuous. There would then be much plausibility in the view once advocated by Mr. Theobald (in an unpublished report), that the original Siwalik hills are chiefly composed of Nahan rocks, and that the more fossiliferous and newer trans-Jumna Siwaliks are not represented to the east of the river, having been denuded away, or else never upheaved. The alternative interpretations, to reconcile the Nun section with the current opinion of the equivalence of the outer Siwaliks on both Extra-Peninsular.] NEPAL AREA. 543 sides of the Jumna, would be to suppose that the Ntin conglomerates are true top beds of the Nahan group, and quite different from those of the outer range ; or else, to suppose a break, by a concealed fault, in the apparently regular sequence between them and the lignite sandstone. The question must be worked out on the ground :. though it is needful to point it out, it would be out of place to discuss it further in these pages. 1 THE GAHRWAL AND KUMAUN AREA. These hill districts correspond with the Rohilkand division of the plains, between the Ganges and the Nepal frontier. This ground has scarcely been looked at. Within ten miles east of the Ganges the Siwalik rocks proper are well represented, and a narrow belt of Nahan beds separates them from the slaty rocks of the Lower Himalayan mountains. Further east, the outer range, and the rocks forming it, seem to be generally absent ; and the inner hills, formed of the massive sandstones supposed to belong to the lower Siwalik or Nahan group, become very prominent. The steady north-easterly dip pre- vails, wherever observations have been made. In General Strachey's paper on this part of the Himalayas 2 a very important observa- tion is recorded, that the trap-rock of the Lower Himalayas enters the sandstone of the Sub-Himalayan zone. The position is in the Gola river south of Bhimtal. No fact of the kind has been noticed elsewhere. Operations have been undertaken to smelt iron on a large scale from an ore concentrated in the red clays at the base of these hills under Naini Tal. Similar ferriferous clay is known to occur near Nahan, and again in the same rocks far to the east in Sikkim. NEPAL AREA 3 . For a length of 500 miles the kingdom of Nepal completely arrests all study of Himalayan geology, with the exception of the single track to Kathmandu (Katmandoo), and a small area around the valley. On this track very complete representatives are found of the two Sub-Himalayan ranges and their intervening dun or mdri, as the valley is called here. The Churiaghati range is structurally a facsimile of the original Siwaliks. At the outer base, at Bichiako, there are some earthy rusty beds, all greatly crushed. The dip soon settles down to 30 to north-north-west, maintaining the same angle steadily to the top of the pass. 1 Salt-pans were once set up on a small scale in the gorge of the Nun : it is not known whether this enterprise was started on the strength of the name nun (salt), or on account of the efflorescence that is often locally abundant on exposed surfaces of the lignite sandstone, or on the trust of some tradition of the occurrence of rock-salt. = Q. .1. G. S., L, 1851, Vol. VII, p. 296. 3 Kec. G. S. I., 1875, VIII, p. 03. 6 44 GEOLOGY OF INDIA SUB-HIMALAYAS. [Chap. XXII, This is the typical structure of these detached Sub-Himalayan ranges, the flat inner half of a normal anticlinal flexure. The range is about four miles wide, which would give an aggregate thickness of about 10,000 feet of rock. The pass, as is universal in these ranges, follows the broad bed of a torrent to near the summit, where the road turns up a steep gully, partly artificial. The lower half of the section is sand, and the upper half conglo- merate. In the Siwaliks of the North-West the passage between these two rocks is gradual and alternating ; in the Churiaghati section it was noticed that the change is rapid and complete, from an almost unbroken mass of fine grey sand to an equally uniform mass of pale yellowish-brown conglomerate. This may not be a point of any import- ance ; but special notice was made of the exceedingly fresh aspect of these deposits as compared with the rocks of the original Siwalik range, a point that may have some meaning in connexion with Mr. Theobald's suggestion, already mentioned, that the latter rocks may belong to the Nahan horizon. In this respect the rocks of the Churia- ghati range more resemble those of the outermost hills of the trans- Jumna region. This same newness of aspect may be noticed in comparing the Churiaghati rocks with those of the inner Sub-Himalayan range on the north side of the dun at Etaunda (the rest-house on the road to Kathmandu), in order to represent the apparent impossibility of the two ranges being a repetition of the same rock-series ; and hence the presumption that their junction is not a fault. In the Rapti, immediately under Etounda, there are outcrops of the rusty sandy clays and greenish-grey hard sandstone at the base of the section to the north. They dip at 60 to north by east. Wherever observed along the road, this dip (with slight variation in amount) was found constant, and there is but little change in the character of the rock. Clays occur, but very subordinately ; the sandstone becomes somewhat softer in the higher beds, and there are here several layers of thin conglomerates. It is clearly a normal ascending section, and in no particular is there any near resemblance to the series of the outer range. The section here is about two miles wide, which would give a thickness of about 10,000 feet, there being nothing to suggest repetition by faulting or flexure. As usual, the contact with the rocks of the mountain is concealed. Regarding the interpretation of this section : we might explain the actual difference of composition by the presumable difference in successive zones of one great belt of torrential deposits, and the actual differences of Extra-Peninsular.] UPPER ASSAM AREA. 545 texture by the presumable greater induration of the inner band, and thus make out that the two rock-series were originally continuous and equivalent, and that their present relation must be due to a great fault. The impression made on the observer was decidedly against that equiva- lence ; and hence, that the present relative position is, like that in the Nahan section, to a great extent aboriginal. SIKKIM AND BHUTAN AREAS. 1 Throughout the Sikkim and Bhiitan Duais there is no representative of the Sivvalik hills (the outer zone of the Sub- Himalayas) ; and in two places the Sub- Himalayan rocks are altogether absent, or concealed. 3 One of these gaps, about 10 miles wide, is just south of Dating Fort, and corresponds to a marked promontory of the older rocks of the mountains. The other gap is much longer, from the Jaldoka to beyond the Tursa, a distance of 40 miles, and throughout this area also the base of the mountains is prominent and irregular. It seems probable (see p. 522) that the absence of the tertiary sandstones in this ground is due to their partial removal, and the complete concealment of the denuded outcrops by the great gravel deposits that are here accu- mulated at the foot of the hills. There is nothing in the old rocks to suggest their former greater extension in this position : the Damuda rocks also are absent, but here, as elsewhere, the same belt of slaty formations separates the gneissic rocks from the plains. In close proximity to these gaps, the hills and rocks of the inner Sub- Himalayan zone are in full force, shewing no tendency to thin out towards those blank areas. In the Mahanadi the thickness is estimated by Mr. Mallet as 11,000 feet, and the characters are the same as noticed elsewhere ; soft massive grey sandstone being the prevailing rock, with occasional clunchy clays, especially towards the base, where these are sometimes highly ferruginous. Nests of poor lignite, and even small broken seams, occur in the sandstones. The upper beds are often conglo- meratic, sometimes coarsely so. In all there is a prevailing dip towards the mountains, so the highest beds occur next the main boundary, but no actual contact-section of this feature has been described. It is clear, however, that whatever explanation of it can be made out elsewhere will apply here also. UPPER ASSAM AREA. To the east of Bhutan the Himalayas north of the Assam valley are occupied by various tribes of savages, and the only observations worth mentioning of that ground are those maae by ' Mallet : Mem. G. S. I., 1874, XI, p. 45. J First noticed by Colonel Godwin-Austcn, J. A. S. B., XXXVII, p. 117. K 1 546 GEOLOGY OF INDIA SUH-HIMALAYAS. [Chap. XXII. Colonel Godwin- Austen 1 in the Daphla hills o the Dikrang basin, ad- joining the Darrang and Lakhimpur districts of Upper Assam. Here again there are two well-marked ranges of Sub-Himalayan hills, with an intervening dun. Each range is formed of a normal anticlinal flexure, directed from the mountains, 2 just as at the base of the North - Western Himalayas ; and the inner range is, at least in great part, formed of older beds than the outer one. Here, too, nests of lignite are of frequent occurrence in the sandstone. The same lignite sandstones have been observed more to the east, north of Dibrugarh, with the usual high northerly dip. 3 1 J. A. S. B, 1875, XLIV, p. 35. 2 1. e., having the axis-plane sloping towards the mountains (see note, p. 528). 3 Mem. G. S. I., IV, p. 393. Extra-Peninsular.] TERMINAL SUB-HIMALAYAS. 517 CHAPTER XXIII. EXTRA-PENINSULAR AREA. . SUB-HIMALAYAS (continued.} TERMINAL SUB-HIMALAYAS: THB KANGRA AHKA General structure The Ghambar- Basauli fault The Kosari and Badsar-Nurpur faults Extinction of the Nahan-Siwalik boundary The Sutlej at Bubh<5r Local extinction of the Nahan-Sinnur boundary Difficulties of classification in the Kangra area Bubhor and Belaspur sections compared Doubtful beds in the Sirmur zone Want of fossils The base of the Dhauladhar North-western termination of the Kangra area The Mandi rock-salt. THE JAMU AREA Boundaries Special feature Sirmfir zone at the Ravi Western expansion of the Sirmur zone Inliers Characters of the Subathu group Tertiary-palaeozoic relation Comparison with sections of the Simla region Doubtful newer rocks of the Sirmur zone Other general features of the Sirmur zone Sirmiir-Siwalik boundary The Basauli-Naushera fault lliassi conglomerates The outer Siwalik zone. SUMMARY. TERMINAL SUB-HIMALAYAS: Kangra area. In the last chapter the Sub- Himalayan rocks were traced from the typical Simla area to their eastern extension in Assam ; we have now to return to the North- West Himalayas and examine the sections to the west of the Simla region. 1 The great and rapid expansion of the tertiary zone to the north-west corresponds with the extinction of the Lower Himalayan region. From about half-way between Nahan and Kalka the " main boundary " bends steadily inwards, and continues this northerly course for nearly 80 miles, to the base of the Dhauladhar ridge, which is directly on the prolongation of the main snowy range of the middle Himalayas. The Sub -Himalayan ranges are for the most part unaffected by this bend of the main boundary ; and thus the ground on the prolongation of the Lower Himalayas is occupied by tertiary rocks, 60 miles wide inside Hoshiarpur. The greater part of this area, up to the Ravi, is in the Kangra district ; but this geological field, designated as the Kangra area, must be understood to begin east of the Sutlej, 1 It would be impossible to give any idea of the structure of this ground without mentioning features and localities that are not indicated on the small map accompanying this work : it will therefore be difficult to follow these descriptions without reference to a larger map (see note, p. 560). 548 GEOLOGY OF INDIA SUB-HIMALAYAS. [Chap. XXII. about the east end of the Pinjor (or Kalka) dun. The Sutlej and the Bias flow westwards, across the terminal boundary of the Lower Hima- layas, and traverse the duns and ridges of the Kangra area in very zig-zag courses. General structure. The outer Siwatik range of the Kangra area is continuous with that of the Nahan area ; so it will appear that the great spread of tertiary rocks to the north-west takes place for the most part on the prolongation of the Nahan, or inner Sub- Himalayan, zone of the middle Himalayan region. Both boundaries of this zone, as lines of contact of dissimilar rocks, change in character and disappear ; and in the middle of the expanded zone new features supervene, flexures and great faults, unlike anything as yet observed in the ground to the east. A more peculiar feature of the terminal Sub-Himalayas is the intro- duction of an inner zone of oldest tertiaries, not represented at all in the middle Himalayas, but on the prolongation of, and actually con- tinuous with, the Sirmur series, on the margin of the Lower Himalayas in the Simla region. The Sutlej may be given as the point where the Sirmur rocks take their place as belonging to the Sub-Himalayas ; and a great change rapidly supervenes in the aspect of all the rock- features. In all the zones the introduction of apparently higher beds to the north-west is the rule. It has been already observed that our representation of the Sub- Himalayan series depends mainly upon the interpretation put upon certain leading structural features peculiar to such mountain regions, and which are markedly homologous in all the formations ; our atten- tion must therefore be principally turned upon those features ; and as their characters are perhaps best exhibited in their less extreme form, among the newer rocks, the rule observed in this work, to proceed from the oldest to the newest, cannot be followed. The Grhambar-Basauli fault. At the east end of the Pinjor dun, in the section of the Mangrad, south -south-east of Kalka, the Nahan zone is scarcely a quarter of a mile wide ; the strata are vertical, and all of the lower type noticed in the Nahan section, hard purplish sandstones and red clays. North-north-west of Kalka, rocks of this stamp, in a very contorted condition, form a confused congeries of hills in the Mailog and Nalagarh States. About f Khadi, close to the main boundary, on the Subathu and Budi road, higher beds occur, paler, softer, coarser sandstones; and there is the beginning of a distinct feature, a faulted synclinal flexure, diverging steadily from the main boundary to the north-west. In this direction the character of the Extra-Peninsular.] THE KANGRA AREA. 549 dislocation becomes rapidly developed, and in the valley of the Ghambar it is perfectly defined as a great fault, thick conglomeratic sandstones dipping- steeply to the north-east towards, or under, deep red clays and hard sandstones. It follows a remarkably straight course across the Sutlej, through the Kangra district, to Basauli on the Ravi, and thence to Riassi on the China'b, where it again joins the outer Sirmur boundary, after a course of nearly 200 miles. It is well seen at many places, as in the Banganga river near the main road to Kangra ; about Kotleh on the Bhagsu-Nurpur road, and at Basauli on the Ravi. The actual contact is always disguised, but there can scarcely be a doubt that it is a great fault, of the reversed order that is most usual in these mountain sections : the strata on opposite sides are nearly parallel to each other, the upthrow is persistently on the inner side, and so the newer rocks in normal order (i. e. } not inverted) actually underlie the older ; as if in a double folded flexure the upper side of the anticlinal had subsided on, or been pushed over, the lower side of the synclinal limb, the contor- tion itself having been removed by denudation. At Jualamuki on this line of fissure there is a temple built in which flames issue continuously from the ground round the base of the idol. At Lunsu, under Dalhousie, there is a mineral spring on this same line of dislocation. The Kosari and Badsar-Nurpur faults. South of the Ghambar, the complex range of the Nalagarh hills continues up to the Sutlej, where two lines of dislocation take their rise and result in steady, well-defined ridges to the north-west. The southernmost of these lines is known as the Kosari fault, from a village on the bank of the Sutlej at the north end of the Bubhor gorge ; it is comparatively a minor feature, running down the centre of the compacted group of ridges into which the Parwain range is divided on the south-east. The Badsar fault, called after a village 20 miles from the Sutlej, at the north base of this same range of hills, is a principal structural feature of the trans- Sutlej Sub- Himalayas, being continuous for 300 miles up to and beyond the Jhelum. It clearly originates in an anticlinal flexure, and is again recognisable as such at several points of its course,, as at Nurpur ; sometimes the dislocation js small, but, as a rule, there is much faulting ; and towards the Sutlej the downthrow is on the north side. The Nadaun dun lies in a trough between the Badsar and Ghambar faults. These great lines of dislocation determine the chief features of the upper tertiary zone of the North- West ; and we have seen that they are quite unconnected with any feature of the tertiary zone of the middle 550 GEOLOGY OF INDIA SUB-HIMALAYAS. [ Chap. XXIII. Himalayas. With the introduction of these new features, characteristic of the north-western region, the two chief structural features of the Sub-Himalayas in the middle region the Nahan-Siwalik and Nahan- Sirmur boundaries become extinct. These boundaries have already been interpreted as primarily unconformities, marking decided divisions in the tertiary series ; and thus we already find established, in the middle of the Kangra area, the difficulty to be confronted throughout the tertiary series of the North- West, the absence of any well-marked stratigraphi- cal horizons. Extinction of the Nahan-Siwalik boundary. This boundary, as described to the east (p. 537), with topSiwaliks abutting at various angles against crushed Nahan beds along a very zig-zag line of junction, con- tinues all along the Pinjor dun to beyond Nalagarh, 16 miles north-east of Kupar (Roopur) , where lofty terraces of brown Siwalik clays lie flatly close up to the ridge of crushed red Nahan rocks. Seen in such juxta- position as this, the possibility of a conformable transition between the two would appear out of the question ; yet such is apparently the case within 15 miles to the north-west. North of Anandpur, low flanking hills, formed of these same upper Siwalik strata, turned up and vertical, rise in front of the ridge of the red rocks. A section is recorded just north of Nanowal (close to Anandpur), where the very strata forming the dtin turn up, within a space of 100 yards, from being horizontal to a dip of 80 to south-west ; in the section to the north they pass down into the grey rocks of the middle Siwaliks. On this section, under Naina Devi peak, there is still an abrupt, probably faulted, contact of the grey and the red rocks, all being parallel and vertical ; but on the continuation of the same strike, where the Sutlej cuts a deep gorge through the ridge, and the section is fully exposed, it is impossible to draw a line between the two types of rock. Within 10 miles farther to the north-west any semblance of a continuation of the original Nahan- NSiwalik boundary is lost ; the dip flattens, and the Naina Devi ridge, as denned by a core of the harder rocks, disappears, all the strata rolling over round the end of the ridge. In the annexed figures an attempt is made to illustrate the inter- pretation put upon the observed facts. Throughout the western region superficial features of the same character as those on section B, between a and c, are interpreted as great faults ; where beds several thousand feet apart in geological position are found in abrupt contact. The reasons for taking such a totally different view of like features in the eastern sections are : 1st, that the horizontal features (the outlines in plan) of the junction are strikingly different ; in the west they observe a H Extra- Peninsular.] THE KAXORA ARKA. 551 straight or very flatly curved course throughout great distances, while in the Simla region the Nahan-Snvalik boundary is extremely and sharply irregular in direction ; and Sndly, one section of the actual contact was observed here, giving independent and absolute evidence against faulting in that position. The reading to be taken from these sections is, that the disturbance began earlier, or progressed much more rapidly, in the east, and took effect as elevation over a broader area, entailing a greater denuda- tion of the lower group along the axis and in its neighbourhood ; while in the west the disturbance took effect as greater compression of the flexure and a more contracted elevation. In both cases deposition progressed continuously and conformably in the adjoining ground, and the latest accumulations gradually overlapped the denuded eastern area, pro- ducing extreme local unconformity along a narrow belt of outcrop, while the same beds in the western section became involved in the continued compression of the flexure at that point. The Sutlej at Bubhor. The explanation just given of the change in the Nahan- Siwalik boundary, and its disappearance westwards, may seem somewhat fanciful, involving extreme unconformity and continuous sequence of strata within a very narrow space ; but we find in this very ground, in one of the sections compared (that of the Sutlej through the Naina Devi ridge at Bubhor), most remarkable independent proof of that slow, creeping action of the disturbing forces which is all that is required for the result claimed. The same facts will furnish a very striking instance of the statement already made regarding the composition of the Siwalik rocks in relation to the actual rivers, and the pre-Siwalik age of the segreat drainage channels. The Upper Siwaliks at Bubhor are entirely formed of coarse conglomerates, just like the shingle in the river bed; and the grey middle Siwaliks are pebbly throughout, all being vertical as in the figured section A ; while within 5 to 10 miles on either side of the river, common brown clays constitute the bulk of the upper group, con- glomerates being quite subordinate. The same distribution of deposits is observable in the outer Siwaiik range, the case being analogous to that already described for the Jumna and the Siwaliks of Dehra (p. 541). Instead of making a passage through the strong conglomerates opposite the gorge at Bubhor, the river has crept round by Rupar, where the strata forming the range are altogether clays. It seems impossible to avoid the inference, that the Siwalik conglomerates of Bubhor were formed when already the Sutlej had been fixed in its present position by a gorge in the axis of the Naina Devi ridge, formed of the tilted Nahan, or Lower Siwalik strata, which are still an apparent conformity with the said conglomerates. 552 GEOLOGY OF INDIA SUB-HIMALAYAS. [Chap. XXIII. This is not a conjectural inference, as in the case of the boundary, but one that scarcely admits of an alternative ; as it would be more wonderful still to suppose that the river kept its position throughout all that disturbance, without any initial obligatory point in the neighbour- hood above Bubhor. Besides, the deposits in question are such as are only found near the mouth of a torrential gorge. After that gorge was first marked out in the rising flexure of the Nahan strata, the river must have scattered its boulders and gravel over a wide space on either side ; while at the same time the flexure was steadily encroaching, and so slowly as not to break the continuous parallelism of the series, the lowest bed of which may have been vertical before the highest was deposited. The required result can easily be imagined with the aid of the figured section, page 550 : a greater concentration of the flexure would change the local overlap-unconformity in figure B into the apparent conformity of figure A. 1 This conclusion as to the age of the Naina Devi ridge, the second (from the outside) of the Siwalik ranges on the Sutlej, must bear some weight in the discussion of the equivalence or otherwise of certain analogous or homologous deposits, external or internal to that range. But it must not be forgotten in this connexion, that this case of the Nahan-Siwalik boundary has suggested a longitudinal as well as a transverse progression in the disturbing action, so that analogous deposits on the same continu- ous zone need not be, or cannot be, strictly equivalent in time, any more than exactly similar deposits in the several successive homologous zones. Extinction of the Nahan-Sirmur boundary. The Nahan-Sirmur boundary of the Simla region and of the Nahan area is one and the same as the main boundary of the middle Himalayas (p. 528) the junction of the tertiary Sub-Himalayan formations with the old rocks of the higher moun- tains. The presence of the Sirmlir outlier on the Lower Himalayas of the Simla region does not alter this condition, which continues in force for some distance into the Kangra area. For a length of 20 miles near the Sutlej a ridge of old limestone, along this junction, separates the Sirmur outlier from the Sub- Himalayan zone. Near Belaspur this ridge trends to east of north, and Sirmur rocks take its place at the boundary, while the ridge crosses the Sutlej at Dihar ; but just beyond the river it dies out in the midst of nummulitic clays. The presence of the Sirmiir rocks, composed in their upper measures of distinctly Sub-Himalayan deposits, enabled us to discuss the nature of 1 The necessary distortion of these sections, to make the lines visible, greatly reduces the verisimilitude of the features. t Extra-Peninsular. ] THE KANORA AREA. 553 this main boundary, with the result that it is probably of pre-Nhan origin. Evidence to the same effect is found on the continuation of the boundary up to the Sutlej. Although the lower Siwalik (Nahan) rocks of the Mailog- and Nalagarh hills are greatly disturbed and deeply eroded, no trace of the distinctive rocks of the contiguous Sirmurs has been detected ; on the contrary, we find here strong additional evidence of the asserted unconformity in the eastern region. Although clearly on the prolongation of the N&han zone, the rocks of the Mailog hills do not closely resemble the corresponding rocks of the Nahan area ; the massive lignite sandstone is not developed, red clays and hard sandstones pre- vail, like those at the base of the section at Nahan, and where higher beds occur, they are different from any seen to the east. They come in gradu- ally along the main boundary, and are in force in the valley of the Gamrola and at the Sutlej. They consist principally of thick conglo- meratic sandstones, and the debris is largely composed of Sirmur rocks, including the Subathu nummulitics. Thus it is clear that the older tertiaries were indurated and undergoing denudation at the time when these Gamrola conglomerates were deposited. Whether these latter are really of lower Siwalik age is a point upon which some remarks will be presently made. The boundary continues in a very direct line nearly due north, for some 20 miles beyond the Sutlej, into the basin of the Bias. The contrasting characters are well displayed nearly to the end, soft grey conglomeratic sandstones dipping flatly eastwards, close up to dark red clays and hard purple sandstones of the Sirmur zone, with a high dip in the same direction. At one spot, near Dubrog, a contact is obscurely seen : coarse conglomerates, here containing well-rounded boulders of quartzite and gneiss, 2 feet in diameter, shivered to splinters in situ by the crushing they had undergone, are found jumbled together with the red rocks, and not confined to a definite vertical band ; the conglomerate occurs in situ at 100 yards east of an outcrop of the red rocks, indicating a steep over- lap or a broken fault. Higher beds come in rapidly to the north, on the upthrow side, indicating the dying out of the dislocation ; and at last the strata are continuous across the prolongation of " the main boundary " of the eastern region, so that here one can pass without any break from the Nahan zone into the Sirmur zone ] and the fresh-looking conglomeratic top beds of the former appear to be in regular sequence with the Sirmur series. The invasion of the Sirmur zone by the rocks of the Nahan zone is not, however, complete. Another independent dislocation some 4 miles to the east takes the place of the extinct boundary, overlapping its end 554 GEOLOGY OF INDIA SUB-HIMALAYAS. [Chap. XXIII. and running to the north-west in a broad curve, parallel to the shore of the great bay of the tertiary formations, near the head of which the Bias issues from the mountains. After a run of about 40 miles this substitute dislocation ceases, and is again replaced near Barwarna (5 miles south of Palampur) by an exterior line of boundary, on about the prolongation of the old main boundary. The recurrence of a similar feature on the same strike looks as if an early line of upheaval had been worn down and overlapped by later deposits ; but this suggestion of the underground direct continuity of these equivalent boundaries on opposite sides of the Bias may be only imaginary. It is perhaps more likely that the peculiarly symmetrical arrangement of these structural lines near the Bias should be a necessary adaptation of the planes of fracture in the tertiary basin to the form of the compressing surface. From Barwarna the restored Nahan-Sirmur boundary becomes again a very permanent feature, traceable continuously through the Jamu hills to near the Jhelum. To the north-west of the Sutlej, however, where the Sirmur series takes its place in the Sub-Himalayan zone, this line of junction can no longer be styled the main boundary ; this title must be reserved for the contact of the tertiary rocks with the old rocks of the mountains (p. 539) ; and although the hills of the Sirmiir zone have a very markedly greater elevation than those of the newer tertiary area, there is always a greater orographical contrast accompanying the change from the tertiaries to the old rocks. Difficulties of classification in the Kangra area. We have now lost sight of the features which enabled us to trace exact divisions in the tertiary series in the Nahan area. Even the great boundary which in the north-west, as in the Simla region, separates an inner zone of lower tertiary rocks, is partially obliterated in the neighbourhood of the Bias, where one can pass from conglomerates of Siwalik type down to nummu- litic beds without apparent stratigraphical break. Unconnected with those boundaries we found in the Kangra area great persistent lines of separa- tion, having more distinctly the stamp of dislocations. If one could frankly accept these lines as faults, pure and simple, in a completed series of deposits, such as can be represented in a diagram, the correlation of the strata would be an easy matter j for in each area so cut off, we find a sequence of deposits having a very decided general likeness, marked by harder, redder beds at the base, and by conglomeratic beds at top. Two considerations are, however, always present to sap one's confidence in such ready identifications. There is the condition of the almost incred- ibly slow creeping manner in which the features of disturbance were produced ; so that, although we must accept these lines of dislocation as primarily fractures, there can be no certainty that the fault is of later Extra-Peninsular.] THE KANGUA AREA. 555 date than strata found disturbed in its immediate neighbourhood that the conglomerates on the upthrow side of the Ghambar fault are not older than similar beds in unbroken sequence with fractured strata on the down- throw side. And from the other point of view it is to be remembered, that from late nummulitic times the conditions of deposition of these tertiary rocks have been very much alike rain and river accumulations, on the margin, and from the debris, of the Himalayan region : so that a conglomerate of an early diluvial zone might be undistinguishable from a very much newer rock in an outer zone of the same geological field, and thus utterly stultify the primd facie conclusion of their geological equi- valence. A couple of examples will illustrate the difficulty of any detailed delineation of equivalent stratigraphical horizons in the Sub- Himalayas of the North- West. 1 Bubhor and Belaspur sections compared. In the section on the Sutlej above Bubhor, fossils are found rather frequently in the middle Siwaliks, at a defined horizon, below some 4,000 to 5,000 feet of conglo- merates. Proceeding up the river, we find, below and above Belaspur, between the Ghambar fault and the main boundary, a succession of strata that would in many respects answer to those of the Bubhor section : the hard red beds at the base are exactly similar ; the middle grey beds are only more massive in the Bubhor section; but the conglomerates are quite different. The massive beds of Bubhor contain exclusively the rounded hard shingle only found in and near the great Himalayan torrents, whereas the conglomerates along the Nahan-Sirmur junction in the Gamrola valley near Belaspur, even where cut by the Sutlej, are made up of local debris, principally of the hard sandstones of the Sirmurs, but containing also pieces of the softer fossiliferous num- mulitic beds of the Subathu group. The lithological contrast is fully exhibited on the spot, for all about Belaspur, up to 200 feet over the river, there is a thick deposit of old Sutlej shingle, just like the Siwalik conglo- merates of Bubhor, but probably of post-tertiary age, corresponding to i In the description of this area published in 1864 (Mem. G. S. I., Vol. Ill) an arbi- trary compromise had to be made on this score, as time did not admit of a further study of the ground. The Nahan zone was distinctively coloured up to the Sutlej ; but in the country beyond, much the larger area being occupied by the higher beds, of presumably Siwalik age, the whole of that area was coloured as Siwalik, rather than attempt to put in from memory the outcrops of the lower horizons, presumably Nahan, along the several lines of upheaval. A compromise on similar grounds was made in the prolongation of the Sirrnur zone, on account of the total depression of the bottom nummulitic beds, and the appearance of higher beds, unlike any in the typical area. The paper referred to contains many more details than can be given here. 556 GEOLOGY OP INDIA SUB-HIMALAYAS. [Chap. XXIII. the similar boulder gravel capping- the low hills of the Siwalik beds at Bubhor. The easiest solution of the case is to accept these Gamrola conglo- merates as upper Nahan beds ; the fact, that Siwalik conglomerates hold a like relation of apparent conformity to lower Nahan beds in the Bubhor section, being disposed of through the peculiar conditions of deposition and disturbance shewn to have obtained in the Sub-Himalayan region. The case may be either complicated or simplified by the fact that farther north, along the same boundary at Dubrog, as already mentioned, conglo- merates of the coarse shingle type are in force. As these descriptions are taken from a very cursory examination of the ground, it is likely that a proper survey will make all clear. Meantime such suggestions as are given may be of service to passing observers. Doubtful beds in the Sirmur zone. Our next example is taken from the Sirmur zone. The structure of this rock-series in its typical ground, the outlier on the Lower Himalayan border, is somewhat different from what it is when forming an inner zone of the Sub- Himalayan area, from immediately north of the Sutlej. In the former position the lowest beds, the Subathu nummulitics, are always freely exposed in the low ground at the edge of the area, and detached patches occur outside the principal area ; whereas the nurnmulitic beds north of the Sutlej are last found on rather high ground in the middle of the band, in the axis of an anticlinal flexure, and the highest beds of the series appear along the inner junction, dipping at a high angle towards the old rocks of the high mountains. It is so at least till we approach the flanks of the Dhauladhar range. As already explained, this inner Sirmur line is now the main boundary of the whole section, and its general regularity of direction, combined with the features noticed, is suggestive of fault- ing. According to the arrangement described, the top beds of all are found at the apex of the curved inner boundary, a little north of the Bias. Between Drang and Haurbagh soft light grey sandstones, undis- tinguishable from Siwalik rock, are succeeded by clays and conglo- merates. The highest beds are exposed in the hill at Sih, and consist of massive bands of coarse breccia, rather than conglomerate, being com- posed of large and small angular debris of the cherty limestone and of the pink sandstone occurring in the ridge close by, towards which the conglomerates dip at 40. The peculiarly local character of these top deposits is very puzzling. It suggests some almost necessary modification of the simply faulted nature of the boundary, for the proximity to the old rocks at the time of formation must have been somewhat like what it is now. But the Extra-Peninsular.] THE KANGRA AREA. 557 strangest fact is, that although made up entirely of the Himalayan rocks recognisable in the ridge close by to the east, the most abundant rock of that ridge is not represented in the breccia, although in the actual talus of the ridge it asserts its necessary predominance. That rock is eruptive. The suggestion is very strong, that the intrusion of the igneous rock is of later date than these tertiary deposits ; and this is the only observa- tion by the Survey confirmatory of that made by General Strachey in Kumaun (see page 543), that the trap- rock of the Lower Himalayas is of tertiary age. No case of intrusion amongst tertiary beds has been noticed in the Bias area, where trap is in great force in the higher hills of Man/li. It is worth mentioning that no debris of tertiary rocks was found in these conglomerates of Sih. Thus again here, within the inner zone of tertiary rocks, at the main boundary with the old rocks of the Lower Himalayas, and 50 miles from the outer zone of the Siwaliks, there are rocks which confront us as being possibly of Siwalik age ; but the presumption is that they are older. Want of fossils. That so much disquisition should have been ex- pended upon this difficulty, is already an admission that fossil evidence has hitherto failed us. But even this negative fact must at present have some weight in the argument. There is no recorded case of a fossil being found in these innermost beds of upper tertiary aspect, nor indeed in any upper beds inside the Ghambar fault, although that area includes a large portion of the Kangra district, and the whole of the ground known as the Kaugra valley, where for many years Europeans have been accus- tomed to reside. The greater part of that area, moreover, between the lower tertiary zone and the Ghambar fault, is occupied by rocks which, but for the stratigraphical difficulties mentioned, would be taken at once as equivalents of the accepted Siwaliks of the Bubhor section. Whatever horizon those beds belong to, it may be confidently expected that fossils are to be found in them ; but it is well to emphasize the significance that may belong to any organic remains obtained from the Kangra valley. The base of the Dhauladhar range. The features of the tertiary contact-zone, on the north of the Kangra district, along the base of the Dhauladhar, present peculiar features of interest. Nowhere else are these late deposits brought so near to the oldest Himalayan rocks. Above the sanitarium of Dharmsala, which stands on the Sirmur zone, the space is not more than one mile between the tertiaries and the " central gneiss/' which rises precipitously in the rugged crest of the Dhauladhar to above 16,000 feet in elevation. As might be expected, the general stratigraphical features are different in such a position from those of the 558 GEOLOGY OF INDIA SUB-HIMALAYAS. [Chap. XXIII, Lower Himalayan region. The general view suggested at first sight is, that the gneiss occupies the axis of a huge folded flexure, in which even the Siwaliks partook. This view would agree with the opinion sometimes expressed, that the whole Himalayan mountains have been upraised since a late tertiary date ; and indeed the prodigious disturb- ance the tertiary rocks have undergone is sufficient testimony of the great changes that have been effected within that time. It would, however, be most difficult to maintain that the tertiary rocks had ever extended much beyond their present limits. This can at least be asserted for the beds immediately outside the Sirmur zone : the enormous accumulation of tertiary river-shingle conglomerates along the base of the range west of Bhagsu to beyond the Ravi implies the proximity of an area of erosion to the north. The case is different for the Sirmur series ; and increasingly so to the west. At Dharmsala these rocks affect a synclinal structure next to the main boundary, but the junction is well defined. At some spots to the west, as along the Chaki, the Sirmur beds are scarcely, if at all, represented ; and at the western extremity of the range, over the Ravi, they are so crushed together with the older rocks as to be inseparable from them, or else so altered as to be unrecognisable. The particular section referred to is at the head of a great fan on the left bank of the Ravi below Simliu, where the Sirmur beds pass transitionally into a green pseudo-amygdaloidal trappoid rock, very similar to a rock of the Pir Panjal that is currently accepted as trappean. The section is so distinct as to have suggested that the Panjal rock would turn out to be altered Sirmurs. This conjecture has not been confirmed ; but it illustrates the degree to which the lower tertiary rocks are implicated in the structural features of the Dhauladhar. It is worth mentioning that on an outer outcrop in this position, a bed with obscure leaf marks was found, exactly like that of Kasauli, and so far suggesting the integrity of the Sirmur group. The Mandi rock-salt. 1 As it is still a disputed point whether the rock-saltof Mandi belongs to the Sub-Himalayan or the Lower Himalayan rocks, it will be most appropriate to notice it in this section treating of the Kangra district. The rock is known in the country as " black- salt," in contradistinction to the pure mineral of the Salt Range. It has a dark, purplish hue, is quite opaque, and contains about 25 per cent, of earthy matter, the salt itself being nearly pure sodium chloride. It is only used by the poorer classes, after being subjected to a purifying i Mem. G. S. I., Ill, Pt. 2, p. 60. Extra-Peninsular.] THE KANGRA AREA. 559 process by fire and water. Small nests of crystalline salt occur, but so rarely as to be reserved for the use of the Rajah and his household. The mines or quarries are at Drang and Guma, 14 miles apart. The salt occurs in a constant position, at a short distance within the well-defined boundary between the tertiary sandstones and the slaty calcareous rocks, apparently all belonging- to the Lower Himalayan series, which are here, on the margin of the Bias basin, in a state of extreme disturbance, with abundant trappean intrusion. Its occurrence in a constant position along the general strike of the associated strata, and the distinct lamination in the rock itself, sufficiently prove its sedimentary origin. But besides the earthy matter, laminated or diffused, the salt commonly contains small angular pebbles, principally of pink quartzite and of limestone, very like the rocks of the adjoining ridge; and where the salt itself is wanting, this character is often found in a calcareous rock in the same position in the section, as in the Suketi, a few hundred yards above its confluence with the Bias, and again in the Kangra district, in the river east of Bir (Beer). The presence of these pebbles may have suggested to Mr. Theobald his opinion, 1 that the salt-rock of Mandi and the narrow band of rock between it and the main boundary are of nummulitic age. The fact already mentioned, that the Subathu nummulitic beds are not found in a recognisable form throughout the greater part of the Sub- Himalayan zone in the Kangra area, gives at least negative support to this conjecture ; and positive support may be found in the fact observed in this same area, as mentioned in the preceding section, how the nummulitic rocks here have been to some extent disguised beyond recognition, so as to be more akin in appearance to the old rocks than to their real associates of the tertiary zone. North- western termination of the Kangra area. The outer Siwalik range of the Kangra area does not cross the Bias. The second (Parwain) range, also of that region, ends at Pathankot, east of the Ravi. This extinction in echelon of the outer Sub- Himalayan ranges is structural, and not merely due to denudation. It will be shewn that the termination of the Dhauladhar east of the Ravi is probably of a similar nature, and the coincidence of these homologous features in the newest and oldest rocks in this terminal Himalayan region is noteworthy, although no very direct connexion can be suggested, except that llu reduction of dimensions of the mountain- features took place in a like fashion in each zone, whether synchronously or not. 1 MS. report. 560 GEOLOGY OF INDIA SUB-HIMALAYAS. [ Chap. XXIII, THE JAMU AREA : boundaries. Jamu (Jummoo) is the capital of the Sub-Himalayan territories, and the winter residence, of the Maharaja of Kashmir ; and the name may appropriately be taken for this section of the Sub- Himalayan zone, the limits of the area being also very well marked by physical characters. 1 The Jhelum is the western boundary, where its course lies in the axis along- which all the strata bend at an acute angle from their Himalayan strike into that of the mountains of Hazara and of the Salt Range, on account of which fact it has been chosen as the limit between the Himalayas proper and the Punjab hill regions, described in the preceding chapter. The west boundary of Jamu is the Ravi, which also coincides with a very marked stratigraphi- cal node. Special feature. As the peculiar expansion of the Nahan zone of the Sub- Himalayas in the Kangra area corresponded with the ex- tinction of the Lower Himalayan region, so the most peculiar character of the Sub-Himalayan region of Jamu is the expansion of the Sirmur zone, taking its rise from the abrupt extinction of the Dhauladhar axis at the Ravi. This inward step of the lower tertiary zone corresponds with that of the outer zone : the two outer Siwalik ranges of the Kangra area having died out, the outermost range of the Jamu area occurs on the prolongation of the Badsar-Nurpur dislocation. Sirmur zone at the Ravi. The change of features from the Kangra to the Jamu area is otherwise so decided, that it is remarkable that the two master-dislocations of the Kangra area the Ghambar-Basauli and the Badsar-Nurpur faulted flexures continue without a check or turn across the Ravi. The contrast they present in this way with the boundaries of the inner tertiary zone is very striking : the Sirmur band makes two abrupt, nearly rectangular, bends at the Ravi ; and the river runs for about 7 miles in a south-south-west direction along, not across, the local strike, where the whole series of formations bends round across the termination of the gneissic axis of the Dhauladhar. The condition of the Sirmur rocks at their inner contact suggests, as already described, complete participation in the intense contortion of the older rocks ; while on the outside, the Sirimirs are in sharp contrast with comparatively fresh- looking conglomerates. These are enormously thick, but not very coarse, as the upper Siwalik conglomerates always are near the great rivers. Debris of the Sirmur sandstone occurs in these old conglomerates ; but 1 The maps published with the following papers are on the same scale, and, when joined together, give a fair view of the features noticed in the text: Sub-Himalayan Country between the Ganges and the Ravi, Mem. G. S, I., Ill ; Jamu and Tir Panjal, Kec. G. S. I., IX ; North-Wcst Punjab, Eec. G. S. I., X. Extra-Peninsular.] THE JAMU AREA. 561 here again it was observed that the pseudo-amygdaloidal trappoid rock is not represented, although it constitutes at present the most abundant detritus at the surface. These outer rocks, too, are greatly disturbed, being for the most part vertical along the south-south-west strike, so that we cannot say that they have not been subjected to the whole disturbing action ; and the abrupt contact of beds of very different hori- zons would suggest faulting. Taking everything into consideration, however, it seems probable that this line of junction is not primarily a fracture, or at least that its form has been determined by local features of the surface, in the same position as those now so conspicuously developed. It is an illustration in this ground of the slow process of growth of the mountain structure, already illustrated from other sections. Western expansion of Sirmur zone. The suppressed and dis- guised condition of the Sirmur zone is one of the peculiarities of the Sub-Himalayas of Kangra, where the Subathu (nummulitic) group has not been detected throughout a distance of more than 100 miles south- east of the Ravi. The expansion of this zone and the free exposure of the bottom group, and even of the supporting rocks, are, on the con- trary, the most marked features of the Sub-Himalayan area of Jamu. In this last respect the Jamu tract resembles the original Sirmur area in the Lower Himalayas of the Simla region, except that in the latter instance the tertiary strata lie as outliers on the old rocks of the mountains, whereas in Jamu the old rocks appear as inliers in the Sirmur zone. This comparison might only imply a relation of degree in the amount of denudation the two areas had undergone; but the case is far otherwise : there is a great difference in the stratigraphical relations of the two rock-series in the east and in the west, confirm- ing in a very marked way the opinions arrived at, from the study -of the upper tertiary groups, regarding the growth of the mountain- system. It is also to be particularly remarked that in Jamu as in Kangra, but not in the Sirmur area, the nummulitic rocks never occur at the inner boundary of the zone. At the Ravi the Sirmiir band is less than a quarter of a mile wide. It expands gradually to 'nearly 20 miles at the road from Jamu to Kashmir ; at Rajauri it is reduced to 12 miles ; and farther on, at the Punch, it is nearly 30 miles wide. As in the case of the upper tertiaries of the Kangra area, this expansion and irregularity is due to the unsteadiness of the inner (main) boundary a character which appears to shew that that boundary is more probably due to original l features, of the ground, than to subsequent faulting; while the outer 1 See note, p. 528. Ll 562 GEOLOGY OF INDIA SUB-HIMALAYAS. [.Chap. XXIII. boundary is very steady in direction, and is clearly connected with faulted flexures. This latter feature dies out in an anticlinal axis to the north-west of Kotli on the Pdnch, before reaching the Jhelum ; and to the south-east, except for its concealment at the Bias, it is more or less continuous with the Nahan-Sirmur boundary of the Simla region, the " main boundary " of the tertiary zone in the middle Himalayan region. This resemblance or even correspondence with the main boundary of the Lower Himalayas east of the Sutlej is further increased by the appearance of the great limestone inliers along this line in Jamu ; yet the discussion of the feature in the Simla region seemed to be against its being primarily a fault there. Within 15 miles of the Ravi, above the village of Marun, over the Pain (Pine) river, a thin calcareous layer with nummulites was observed, high in a thick section of red shaly clays at the outer edge of the Sirmur zone. The occurrence of even these upper Sub&thu beds along this boundary is not, however, constant. On the contrary, something like a regular succession of high and low beds, occupying alternating inter- vals across the Sirmur zone, as of waves along the strike, is very observ- able in the Jamu area. It is well exhibited in connexion with the great inliers. Inliers. These protruding masses of old rocks within the Sirmur zone occur in two pairs : the Lapri and Sangar-Marg ridges on the Chinab, and the Ranjoti and Debigarh ridges near the Punch. They are formed of hard limestone, conjectured to be of palaeozoic age, with subordinate flaggy sandstones, and they stand out high above the surrounding tertiary strata, a result due proximately to denudation. Lapri has an elevation of 9,914 feet, and seems to be protruded abruptly through the red beds of the Sirmurs, no distinctively Subathu beds having been observed near it. Sangar-Marg, 6,676 feet high, is the largest of these inliers, being more than 30 miles long, and 5 to 8 miles wide ; the Chinab passes by a deep gorge exactly through its centre, just above Riassi. Characters of the Subathu group. The marked character of the bottom Subathu beds makes it easy to distinguish the base of the ter- tiary series. The composition of this group in the Jamu ai'ea differs from that exhibited where the formation was originally described in the Simla region. In the latter ground the calcareous element is very sub- ordinate and scattered, whereas throughout the Jamu hills all the lime- stone is concentrated in a steady and purely calcareous band near the base of the group. It is constantly underlaid by a band of carbonaceous shales not found in the Simla region, and often including a coaly layer. Thus it Extra-Peninsular.] THE JAMU AREA. 563 would be very easy to distinguish lithologically an upper and a lower division of the Subathu group in this western area. But the most con- stant rock of all is the pisolitic ferruginous clay already mentioned as the bottom rock in the Subathu section, an exactly similar bed to which is found in the same position all through the Jamu hills ; and the same occurs again in the Salt Range, where, at the east end at least, the nummulitic group is represented by these three bottom bands of the Subathu group of the Jamu region. This fact is noticed here in order to record a suggestion regarding this peculiar bottom bed : in some respects it very much resembles a form of the high-level laterite of the peninsular area, the differences being easily attributable to contin- gencies that have affected the Himalayan rocks ; its remarkable constancy over so large an area is also a strong point of similarity with the laterite, in which this uniformity, at great distances and when surrounded by very different rocks, is so puzzling a character ; and lastly, this Subathu bottom bed is on the geological horizon, already suggested ' as probable in the case of the high-level laterite formation of the peninsula, and a similar rock has been already noticed on the same horizon in Guzerat, 2 Kachh, 3 and Sind. 4 Relation of tertiary to palaeozoic rocks. In Sangar-Marg and in the western inliers the original relations of the tertiary series to the old rocks is fully exposed, and in all it presents itself as perfectly parallel superposition. It is difficult to conceive that a junction of palaeo- zoic and tertiary strata can really be conformable, and a close examination will no doubt reveal some discordance ; but it is certain that through all the contortions exhibited in these rocks the same contact beds are found together over large areas, and are, locally at least, quite conformable. This local conformity is exhibited at the very crest of the ridges ; so these must be altogether due to disturbance of post- nummulitic date. At many points all over the Sangar-Marg ridge, the Sub&thu bottom bed rests upon a brecciated sandstone, associated with the great palaeozoic limestone of the inliers. An ochrey iron ore has been extensively extracted from nests in these shattered top beds of the old formation, having pro- bably been derived by infiltration from the coaly and ferruginous beds below the nummulitic limestone. In this great limestone itself the bedding is 1 Ante, p. 364. The chapter on laterite had unfortunately heen printed off before this remarkable confirmatory evidence of the theory there put forward as to the origin of high- level laterite had been recognised. * Ante, p. 340. * Ante, p. 345. 4 Ante, p. 457- 564 GEOLOGY OF INDIA SUB-HIMALAYAS. [Chap. XXIII. often very obscure, but with such characteristic junction beds the relations of the two formations are very well seen : how the old limestone, as yet uncontorted, must have formed the floor of the nummulitic deposits, and was brought up and exposed on the axes of great complex anti- clinal flexures, the covering beds having been more or less removed during the process of upheaval. At the north-west angle of Sangar-Marg the axis of one of these flexures is very well seen, the old limestone disappearing under a saddle of the nummulitics, which continue exposed for many miles in the valleys to the west, a middle rib of the old limestone appearing again at two points of the outcrop. Copious hot sulphurous springs occur at Barmandal in the nummulitic coaly beds close to this axis, and again hotter springs at the point of the Ranjoti ridge, on the banks of the Princh, where a corre- sponding anticlinal feature is well seen. Along the valley of the Choti Tawi, east of the Chinab inliers, and to the west, in the valley of the Bari Tawi, between the two groups of inliers, much higher beds of the Sirmur series are found, on the very strike of the older rocks, thus shew- ing longitudinal undulation of the disturbance, as already mentioned. Compared with sections of Simla region. The contrast between the relations of the Subathu group to the older rocks of the Jamu inliers and of the Simla region is a very noteworthy point in the history of the Himalayan region. The full effect of the evidence depends a good deal upon the identity of the old limestones of the two regions, and upon this, as will be explained, different conjectures have been offered ; but even supposing the Jamu rock to be carboniferous, and the Kvol limestone to be triassic, the difference would still be important. In both areas the parallel superposition shews that the contortion of the old rocks occurred after the deposition of the eocene strata ; in the Simla region, however, the nummulitics were deposited close to the limestone, but on beds a thousand feet below its horizon, i. e., on an area where the lime- stone had been deeply denuded : whereas in Jamu the same nummuli- tics were laid down evenly over the limestone itself. Supposing the limestones the same, the facts would imply that the eastern area had been for long exposed to denudation as a land surface, while the western had been by some means protected from erosion. Analogous ' conclusions, as to an earlier elevation of the Lower Himalayan area, have been already strongly suggested from a comparison of the Nahan-Sirmur and Siwalik- Nahan relations to east and west of the Sutlej. Doubtful newer rocks of the Sirmur zone. In the Sirmur zone of the Jamu hills we have again to encounter a puzzle noticed in the Kangra area. Passing west from the Ravi along the inner (main) boundary, higher beds in the tertiary series are found, not accounted for by difference of Extra-Peninsular. ] THE JAMU AREA. 565 elevation, apparent conformable sequence being observed throughout. At several places in the upper Tawi valley, below the Bindi gap, coarse massive conglomerates are nearly vertical, close along the boundary. The peculiarity of these beds as compared with those noticed in a like position at Sih (page 556) is, that the partially rounded shingle of the Tawi conglomerates, containing some blocks 2 feet in diameter, is made up almost exclusively of bottom tertiary sandstone. The question whence was derived this ancient tertiary debris, at the present inner edge of the tertiary area, is of much interest. The con- glomerates occur just where the river, within 10 miles of its rise on the Kund-Kaplas mountain, 14,241 feet high, crosses the main boundary from the north-east. This mountain ridge has not been examined, but all the detritus in the river at present is of metamorphic rocks, and there is no known occurrence of tertiary sandstones to the north of the Sub- Himalayan boundary nearer than the basin of the upper Indus in Tibet. Their sub-angular condition and size give a strong presutaption that the blocks of comparatively soft sandstone forming these conglomerates have not travelled far ; and these fragments may possibly have been derived from some tertiary rocks exposed by a line of early disturbance in the area to the south. The probability seems, however, in favour of the blocks having come from the northwards, beyond the present main boundary ; and what we know of the processes of disturbance in these mountain sections, would admit of a very limited range to this former extension of the tertiary deposits. The rocks at the edge of the supposed tertiary basin may have been slowly, but abruptly, turned up along a monoclinal flexure ; as thus indurated and exposed to denudation, their debris may have been laid down in conformable sequence upon their undisturbed main area, until the fracture supervened, which resulted in the present steep contact with the ancient supporting rocks. Or it might be possible to derive these blocks from the exposed top of an anticlinal flexure in a former great spread of these lower ter- tiaries to the north, possibly continuous with the very similar deposits of the Indus valley in Ladak. Independently of geological considera- tions, the law of parsimony (to favour the least laborious process) inclines to the former supposition; and in any case it is highly probable that the area of denudation was close by when these conglomerates of coarse sub-angular debris were formed. The question of the age of these conglomerates of the Sirmur zone is rendered more difficult in this position from the fact of their containing Sirmur debris. Independently of this, the great thickness of the series implies a great difference of age (in years) between the top and bottom 563 GEOLOGY OP INDIA SUB-HIMALAYAS. [Chap. XXIII. beds; and it is evident that under the synchronous joan' passu operations of disturbance and deposition, as urged for the whole Sub-Himalayan zone, the presence or absence of even great local unconformity is of compara- tively little import, and thus some ordinary stratigraphical criterions of relative age fail us here. There are other beds in this zone that would even more directly suggest a much later age than any Sirmiir beds of the standard area ; as on the band of depression of the Choti Tawi, there is a considerable thickness of soft pale clays north of Chineni, more like upper Siwaliks than anything else. They are topmost beds, bur, in apparent sequence with all the other strata of the Sirmur zone. It would be very rash at present to say that any of these rocks are Siwalik ; yet it is seem- ingly awkward to include, as Sirmur, beds made up of middle Sirmur debris. Fossils only can decide these questions, and as yet none have been found in these beds. Other general features of Sirmur zone. Such very fresh looking rocks as those on the Chota Tawi have not been observed elsewhere in the Sirmur zone of this area, but large portions of the ground have n.ot even been traversed. On the Chinab section only low red beds are exposed, higher beds prevailing again on the R/ajauri section. The course of the Jhelum in the Sirmiir zone below Uri is with the strike of the rocks along a broken anticlinal, having the usual upthrow to the north. A continuation of this' feature is traceable southward towards Rajauri ; and east of the dislocation, in the ridge of the Haji Pir, there is an outcrop of Subathu limestone. The principal deformity of the direction of the main boundary is north of Rajauri, where there is a broad angular projection of the rocks of the Pir Panjal ; it is in such positions that test sections of the true nature of the contact are most likely to be found. No study has yet been made of that remarkable feature at Musafar- abad, close to the confluence of the Kishenganga and the Jhelum, where the main boundary, with the strike of all the rocks and the course of the Jhelum, bend at an acute angle (35) from the direction of the Himalayan ranges. The position seems approximately coincident with the introduction or expansion of the nummulitic limestone to the westward ; and for some little distance on the Himalayan side of the bend this rock occurs at the boundary. Such coincidences of original with induced stratigraphical characters are often very suggestive of cor- rect interpretations. To the south-west of this point, in the Hazara hills, the whole character of the bottom tertiary zone is changed : instead of a continuous main boundary, separating all the tertiary deposits from the rocks of the higher range, as in the Himalayan region, we find the nummulitic beds folded up promiscuously with the underlying Extra-Peninsular. ] THE JAMU AREA. 567 formations, resulting in a very patch-work appearance of the outcrops, as shewn in a map. Thus the nearest physical equivalent of the main boundary of the Sub-Himalayas should be near Abbottabad rather than near Murree. 1 This contrast might, of course, be due simply to greater elevation and denudation of the western area ; but it is probably further connected with other original points of difference between the two areas, besides the one already mentioned : in the trans- Jhelum ground other formations (Jurassic and triassic) are introduced between the Subathu group and any representative of the paleozoic limestone of the Jamu inliers. " The Siwalik-Sirmur boundary. Pending the pateontological determination of the equivalent horizons in these several zones of similar rocks, little more can be done than to describe these mere rock- features. The outer boundary of the Sirmur zone of the Jamu area, on the prolongation of the main boundary of the Lower Himalayan region, has already been noticed as mainly a fault-line. This is strongly suggested by the straightness of the feature; and everywhere along it, beds of different horizons are in contact, till at last, within a few miles of the Jhelum, it dies out in an expanded anticlinal fleaire, where again, as on the Bias, one can pass from the Siwalik to the Sirmur zone without a break. Thus this feature, whether dislocation or not, of principal magnitude and persistence throughout the whole Himalayan border, comes to an end within the Himalayan limits, not like the more simple features of disturbance, recognised as primarily faults or flexures, which are continuous with like features beyond the Jhelum. There is one remarkable irregularity of this boundary at the Chinab ; and the normal direction of the Siwalik zones undergoes a corresponding deflection in this position. At Riassi, where the river passes through the Sangar- Marg inlier, there is a wide bay in the south face of the limestone ridge, making a very marked indent in the course of the outer Sirmur boundary. The Basauli-Naushera fault. On the Ravi, where a much more abrupt twist affects the inner tertiary (Sirmur) zone, it was noted that the great dislocations in the Siwalik zone swept past it with little or no deviation. It is not so at the Chinab : the Ghambar-Basauli fault curves northwards into apparent, or actual, continuity with the eastern face of the Riassi bay, thus cutting off the inner Siwalik zone of Udampur and Kangra. This effect is, however, not permanent, for an equivalent dislocation emerges in continuity with the western side of the bay, 1 In the North-West Punjab Map, referred to in the note, p. 560, the boundary west of the Jhelum, continuous with the maiu boundary to the east, is probably a junction of upper and lower Subathu beds. 568 GEOLOGi 7 OF INDIA SUB-HIMALAYAS. [Chap. XXIII. and forms the Naushera faulted anticlinal, with the Kotli synclinal dun between it and the Sirmur zone, representing the Udampur dun to the east. The Naushera dislocation is as important as its eastern representa- tive ; it curves round across the Jhelum, north of Mount Narh, passing south-westwards towards Rawalpindi. Riassi conglomerates. The actual continuity of this Basauli- Naushera dislocation, round the edge of the Riassi bay, may possibly be maintained. There are no observations to settle the point, or to shew the relation of this dislocation with the outer Sirmnr boundary, where the two are confluent at the base of Sangar-Marg. Thus it would seem that the conglomerates on the Chinab, in the Riassi bay, belong as much to the middle as to the inner Siwalik zone ; and there is strong presumption that they correspond in age to the conglo- merates of the inner zone on the Ravi, north of Basauli. In both cases the conglomerates occur in force only near the great rivers. The outer Siwalik zone. The Riassi bay is most marked in the outer Siwalik zone. The Badsar-Nurpur anticlinal, which is a conspicu- ous feature throughout the lower hills of Jamu to beyond the Jhelum, where it bends south-westwards to Kahuta, makes a deep swerve north- wards at the Chinab, so that the outermost Siwalik range north of Jamu runs due north and south for some distance. This corroborates the suggestion that the Basauli -Naushera dislocation does actually run up to the inner boundary under Sangar-Marg. The elucidation of this very exceptional feature, in connexion with the great inlier, would form an interesting study. Outside the Badsar-Nurpur flexure there is no great continuous dis- location passing across the Jhelum from one direction of strike into the other, as in the deeper sections to the north : a number of local independ- ent flexures pass off more or less obliquely from the Himalayan strike, to terminate in a reciprocating manner with the flexures of the Salt Range system. 1 This arrangement exhibits, in even a more convincing manner, a synchronous action in both directions of disturbance. In this struggle for room the Salt Range system seems to have had the best of it : flexures belonging to it are more persistent in overlapping the Himalayan series. The last example of this is the Pabbi or Kharian anticlinal ridge, consisting of Siwalik rocks, striking due north-east close up towards, and at right angles to, the Sub-Himalayan ranges at Bhimbar ; its prolongation for 18 miles would thus strike the great Siwalik dislocations on the Bari Tawi, more than 50 miles from their diversion on the Jhelum. This outlying Kharian flexure is altogether east of the 1 See maps quoted in note, p. 560. Extra-Peninsular. ] SUMMARY, 569 Jhelum, and forms the only exception to this river forming an exact boundaiy of the Sub-Himalayan system. SUMMARY. As other considerations made it necessary or desirable to break up the description of the Sub- Himalayan zone into sections of areas more or less natural or arbitrary, we must now endeavour to in- dicate connectedly the chief points of evidence upon which inferences have been based regarding the history of the mountains. 1. Special Himalayan disturbance altogether post-eocene. Where the original relations of the lowest tertiary deposits, the Subathu nummulitic group, to the very ancient (palseozoic) rocks of the moun- tains are exposed in the Simla region (p. 532) and in Jamu (p. 563), we learn that these old rocks had then undergone no contortion, where now contortion is extreme. We might thus infer that the Himalayas, as a region of special disturbance, had then made no beginning, and for this southern zone of the mountains this inference is conclusive ; but there are other facts to qualify it as regards an earlier stage of Himalayan elevation. 2. Eocene Himalayan land. The remnant of lowest tertiary rocks preserved on the margin of the Lower Himalayas in the Simla region, reveals other original relations not elsewhere discoverable (a) the old rocks had here been deeply denuded (p. 533), as by subaerial denuda- tion; (b) the Subathu beds here are very variable in thickness (p. 533), suggesting proximity to a limit of deposition to the north-east ; (c) the marked deficiency in these Sub-Himalayan nummulitics of open sea deposits or organisms (p. 531) suggests at least estuarine conditions; (d) the regular succession here of deposits of true Sub-Himalayan type (pp. 525, 530) carries on this suggestion, implying that before any special contorting action had set in, the general conditions of Sub- Himalayan deposition had been established by a general (continental) elevation of the Himalayan area. The presence of terrestrial plants in the Kasauli beds also proves the proximity of land. 3. Doubtful extension over the Lower Himalayan area. Even in the Simla region, the border of that eocene Himalayan land is only approximately and conjee turally indicated. The inner boundary of this Sirmiir outlier is quite different from any line of junc- tion in the Sub-Himalayan zone (p. 534) : these latter are universally, to some extent or other, special features of Himalayan disturbance, forming single continuous lines of boundary ; whereas the former is the outcrop of an irregular surface of deposition that had subsequently undergone simple corrugation and denudation. As regards the country to the north- west, the absence in the old rocks of Jamu (p. 564) of the denudation which is so marked in the Simla region, suggests that the long pre- 57() GEOLOGY OF INDIA SUB-HIMALAYAS. [Chap. XXIII. tertiary elevation of the Lower Himalayan region had not extended to the north-west. The features of the boundary in. this direction also leave it an open question how far the tertiaries may have extended : we find these either amalgamated with the older rocks in their most extreme condition of disturbance (p. 558), or in abrupt faulted contact (p. 565), both states implying some former extension ; so there remains only the fact of composition to suggest that there, too, there was a neighbouring eocene land. 4. Actual Himalayan border defined in middle tertiary times. To the east of the Simla region the case is the reverse of that de- scribed to the west : no trace of lowest tertiary rocks has been found in the Sub-Himalayan zone in this direction (p. 534) ; the Sirmtfr rocks seem to have been uplifted, and more or less completely removed by denuda- tion, in early tertiary times (pp. 534, 540), when the present Himalayan border was defined. The only connection suggested for the Subathu group in the east is the strikingly similar nummulitic beds in the Garo hills, at the west end of the Assam range (p. 535). 5. Its partial extension to the north-west. This first great act of Himalayan disturbance in tertiary times, as just recorded, again resulted in the elevation of the Lower Himalayan as compared with the north- western area, producing the Nahan-Sirmtir unconformity, and the main boundary of the whole middle Himalayas. In the north-west the Nahan-Sirmur boundary is the most important structural feature within the Sub-Himalayan zone ; and there, too, it is doubtfully a feature of simple dislocation (pp. 560-1). The elevation in the east seems to have taken place earlier : seemingly newer rocks occur in the Sirmur zone north of the Sutlej than in the Simla region (p. 556). 6. Himalayan river-gorges in Siwalik times same as now. The great accumulation of conglomerates, and their marked variation in quantity and quality in relation to the great Himalayan torrents, are most marked in the outer Siwalik zone (pp. 541, 551) ; and the fact admits of no other explanation than that the gorges of these torrents in the adjoining mountains were then in the same positions as now, and have not been sensibly changed by the prodigious disturbance to which these latest Siwalik deposits have been subjected (pp. 541, 551). In the north-west similar accumulation and distribution of conglo- merates are found in the inner Siwalik zones (p. 568). Whether or not these prove to be of the same age as those on the outer zone on the same section, the fact is again suggestive of the earlier elevation and separation of the zones in the middle Himalayas. 7- Extreme slowness of disturbing action, The extreme slow- ness with which such great operations of disturbance were accomplished Extra- Peninsular. ] SUMMARY. 571 4 is sufficiently attested by the fact related in the preceding paragraph regarding the great rivers ; the inference being especially illustrated by the case of the Sutlej at Bubhor (p. 551). This case illustrates, too, a constant puzzle in these Sub- Himalayan sections the close conformable sequence between strata that were virtually strongly discordant. The same process of simultaneous deposition and disturbance gives us some explanation of the prodigious thickness of these deposits a thickness that would appear excessive if the measurements had to be understood as vertical dimensions. 8. Elevation preceded compression. One important inference upon the theory of mountain -formation is apparent from these observa- tions on the Sub-Himalayan zone. Special Himalayan disturbance is now nowhere more strongly marked than in this fringing zone ; and it has all occurred since a middle tertiary date, for the oldest rocks were then unplicated in this position. Yet a considerable Himalayan elevation had occurred in pre-tertiary and early tertiary times ; and this elevation must, therefore, have been of the nature of a simple protuberance (bossellement) ,or warp, as suggested in De Beaumont's theory of mountain- formation ; while some more modern theories seem to require that com- pression with contortion should be a first stage in the process of special elevation. 572 GEOLOGY OF INDIA SIWALIK FAUNA. [Chap. XXIV. CHAPTER XXIV. EXTRA-PENINSULAR AREA. SIWALIK FAUNA. The later tertiary vertebrate fauna Siwalik mollusca Homotaxis of mammalia Reptilian evidence Siwalik fauna probably pliocene Stratigraphical evidence of age of Siwaliks Survival of miocene forms in Siwalik beds Pliocene fauna of Pikermi in Attica Migration Effects of change of climate Comparative poverty of recent mammalian faunas Relations of Siwalik to Perim Island fauna Comparison with Irawadi fauna Comparison of Siwalik and recent faunas. The later tertiary vertebrate fauna. In several of the pre- ceding chapters reference has been made to the mammalian fauna found in the upper tertiary beds of Northern and Central India, and in five instances, the post-pliocene faunas of the Gangetic plain 1 and of the Narbada valley, 2 the older pliocene mammalia of Perim Island, 3 and the miocene faunas of Sind* and of Kushalghar 5 in the Punjab, lists of the species identified have been given. By far the most important collec- tion of mammalian remains found in any Indian formation is, however, that of the Siwalik beds ; and as many of the species found elsewhere recur in the Siwalik area of the North- West Provinces and the Punjab, it will be useful in the present chapter to give a general account of the later tertiary vertebrata of India and Burma. 5 The following is a complete list of all species 7 hitherto identified in the miocene, pliocene, 1 Ante, p. 402. j 4 P. 471. 2 P. 385. * P. 514. a P. 343. 6 Crania and teeth of several species, and in two instances, Astragali, are figured in Plates XVII, XVIII, XIX, and XX. References are appended in the list of species. 7 The majority of the tertiary vertebrata of India, discovered by Falconer, Cautley, Baker and Durand, were described by Falconer, most of whose writings, published and unpublished, are collected in his posthumous " Palseontological Memoirs." The greater portion of the following notes are taken from Mr. Lydekker's papers on the Siwalik fauna ; Eec. G. S. L, IX, pp. 42, 86, 144, 154; X, pp. 30, 76, 225 ; XI, p. 64; and Pal. Ind., Ser. X, Pts. 2 and 3 ; and from some MS. papers by Mr. Theobald, who has collected a large number of the fossils described by Mr. Lydekker. Extra-Peninsular.] THE LATER TERTIARY VERTEBRATA. 573 and post-pliocene deposits of British India and its dependencies, the distinctly miocene forms of Sind and the Punjab being distinguished by the letter M, and the post -tertiary mammals by PI being affixed. To all forms that have been found in the Siwalik area, irrespective of horizon, the letter S is added ; the species from Perim Island are distinguished by a P, and those from the Irawadi valley by I. S. Macactts sivalensis. S. M., sp. S. Semnopithecus, sp. MAMMALIA. PRIMATES. . ? Semnopithecus sulhimalayanus, PL XIX, fig. 11. CARN1VORA. FELIDJE S. Felts cnstata. S. F. palceotigris. PI. F., sp. S. Macharodus sivalensis. S. Pseudcelurus sivalensis. VIVEBBID.E S. Ictitherium sivalense. HYJENID2E S. Hyana sivalensis, PI. XIX, 8,10. CANIDJE S. Canis (Vulpes), sp. UBSIDJE S. M. Amphicyon palaindicus, PL XIX, fig. 4. S. Ursus, sp. I. U., sp. PL U. namadicus, PL XX fig. 6. S. Hycenarctus sivalensis, PL XIX fig. 9. S. H. palaindicus. MUSTELID*: S. Mellivora sivalensis. S. Meles, sp. S. Lutra palaindica. S. Enhydriodon sivalensis, PL XIX fig. 5. PROBOSCIDEA. ELEPHANTID.E S. Elephas (Euelephas) hysudricus, PI. XVII, fig. 5. PI. E. (Euelephas) namadicus, PI. XX, figs. 5, 8. S. E. (Loxodon) planifrons. PI. S. E. (Stegodon) insiqnis, PI. XVII, figs. 1, 7. PI. S. E. (Stegodon) ganesa,' PI. XVII, fig. 2. S. E. (Stegodon) sinensis. S. E. (Stegodon) bombifrons. S. I. E. (Stegodon) cliftii. S. I. M. (Pentalophodon) sivalensis, PL XVII, fig. 6. S. I. P. M. Mastodon (Tetralo- phodon) latidens, PL XVII, fig. 4. S. P. M. M. (Tetralophodon) peri- mensis, PL XVII, fig. 3. PL ? M. (Trilophodon) pandionis. S. M. M. (Trilophodon) falconeri. DINOTHEKID.E P. Dlnotherium indicuin. M. D. pentepotamice. 674 GEOLOQY OF INDIA SIWALIK FAUNA. [ Chap. XXIV, UNGULATA. A. PEEISSODACTYLA. RHINOCEBOTID.ZE S. Rhinoceros platyrhinus. S. M. R. sivalensis, PL XIX, figs. 1, 3. S. M. B. palcsindicus. S. B. planidens. I. R. iravadicus, PL XIX, fig. 2. PL R. namadicus, PL XX, fig. 9. PL R. deccanensis. S. R. 2 sp. I. R. sp. M. R. 2 sp. S. P. I. Acerotherium perimense. TAPIBID.E I. Tapirus, sp. M. Listriodon pentepotamice, PI. XIX, fig. 7. S. L. iheolaldi. EQUIDJE S. Equus sivalensis. S. M. palcBonus. I. E. sp. PL E. namadicus, PL XX, fig. 4 S. Hipparion antelopinum, PL XIX, fig. 6. S. M. E. theolaldi. . AETIODACTYLA. HlPPOPOTAMID-E PL Hippopotamus (Tetraprotodon) palaeindicus, PL XX, fig. 7. S. jff. " (Hexaprotodori) sivalensis, PL XVIII, figs. 1, 6, 8. I. H. (Hexaprotodon) iravadicus. PL H. (Hexaprotodon) namadicus, PL XX, fig. 2. S. Hippopotamodon sivalensis. TETBACONODONTIDJE S. Tetraconodon magnus, S. Sus giganteus, PL XVII, fig. 9. S. 8. punjabiensis. S. P. M. S. hysudrictts. PL 8. sp. M. Sanitherium schlagintweiti. S. Hippohyus sivalensis, PL XVII, fig. 8. S. H. sp. M. Hyopotamus palceindicus. ANOPLOTHEBID^E S. Chalicotherium sivalense, PL XVIII, fig. 4. ANTHBACOTHEBID.ZE M. Hyotherium sindiense. S. I. Merycopotamus dissimilis, PL XVII, fig. 10. M. Anthracotherium silistrense. Chceromeryx silistrensis. M. Hemimeryx, sp. M. Sivameryx, 2 sp. S. Cervus latidens. S. C. triplidens. S. C. simplicidens. PL C. namadicus. I. (7. sp. S. M. Dorcatherium majus, PL XVIII, fig. 3. S. M. D. minus. CAMELOPABDALID.S: S. Camelopardalis sivalensis. S. C. sp. P. C. sp. S. Siratherium giganteum, PL XVIII fig. 7. P. Brahmatherium perimense, PL XVIII, fig. 5. S. Hydaspitherium megacephalum. S. H. grande. S. H. leptognatJius. I. Vishnutherium iravadicum. Extra-Peninsular. ] THE LATER TERTIARY VERTEBRATA. 575 BOVID^; S. Bos acutifrons. S. B. planifrons. S. B. platyrhinus. I. S., sp. PL B. namadicus, PL XX, fig. 3. S. B. (Bison) sivalensis. PL S. B. (Bubalus) palceindicus, PL XX, fig. 1. S. B. (Bubalus) platycerus. S. Peribos occipitalis. S. Amphibos acuticornis, PL XVIII, fig. 2. rationed. S. Hemibos triquetricerus, XVIII, fig. 1. S. Antilope sivalensis. S. A. patulicornis. S. A. porrecticornis. S. A. palceindica. P. A. sp. PL A. sp. S. Capra sivalensis. S. C. sp. P. C. perimensis. S. Orw, sp. CAMELIDJB S. Camelus sivalensis. PL MUBID.E S. Mus, sp. PI.' Jf. sp. EODENTIA. LA S. Rhizomys sindiensis. S. Hystrix sivalensis. EDENTATA. M Manis sindiensis. AVES. S. Argala falconeri. S. Other bones belonging to the order Grallce. REPTILIA. CROCODILIA. S. Crocodilus crassidens. S. C. leptodus. S. C. palustris. P. C. perimensis. M. Crocodilus, sp. PI. a sp . i. a S P . S. I. Gharialis gangeticus. LACERTILIA. S. Varanus sivalensis. OPHIDIA. S. M. Vertebra indet. CHELONIA. S. I. Colossochelys atlas. S. I. Testudo, sp. S. Bellia sivalensis. PI. S. Emys tectum. PL 2'. sp. cf. gangeticus. S. .#. (Bvtagur), sp. PL jEWy* (Batagur), cf . dhongoka. S. I. JSmyda, sp. S. I. Trionyx, sp. 576 GEOLOGY OP INDIA SIWALIK FAUNA. [Chap. XXIV- Siwalik mollusca. The few mollusca which have been found be- long solely to fresh-water or terrestrial forms, and the only comparison hitherto made 1 was carried out under circumstances so unfavourable, with so poor a collection of recent species from India, and at a time when the latter were so imperfectly known, that but little weight can be attached to the conclusions formed. No good materials for comparison have been procured of late years, and the few specimens obtained are in poor preservation, but all the forms collected since the recent fresh-water shells have been better known have proved to be either identical with living species, or closely allied to them. Amongst those hitherto identi- fied, the only land-shell is Bulimm insularis, 2 a species which ranges at the present day from Africa to Burma, whilst amongst fresh-water mollusks, the two common Indian river-snails, Paludina bengatensis and P. dissimilis, have been recognised, and forms of Melania, Ampullaria, and Unio also occur. So far as the evidence extends, therefore, the- few mollusca of the Siwaliks tend to shew that the beds must be of late tertiary date ; for it is difficult to conceive that no important change in the species of fresh- water mollusca would have taken place had the strata been of miocene age. But the evidence afforded by the mollusca is imperfect, and both closer comparison and a larger series of fossil specimens are desirable before any very positive assertions can be made as to the antiquity of the formations on the data afforded by the Invertebrata. In investi- gating the question of age, we are consequently forced to depend, first, upon the Vertebrata, and especially the Mammalia j and secondly, upon such geological evidence of connection with other formations of known age as the rocks afford. Homotaxis of mammalia. The first question, then, is the homo- taxial relation of the Siwalik mammalian fauna. The preceding lists, it should be repeated, embrace the whole of the collections of Vertebraia from the later tertiary beds of India; in dealing with the Siwaliks alone, we have therefore to omit all forms found solely (1) in the lower Manchhar beds of Sind, and their probable representatives in the 1 Prof. E. Forbes, in Falconer's Palseontological Memoirs, I, p. 389. 2 Theobald, MS. As in this and the following paragraph Mr. Theobald's view of the affinities of the Siwalik mollusca has been accepted in preference to the high authority of Prof. E. Forbes, it is only just to say that Mr. Theobald has a far more extensive knowledge of living Indian fresh-water shells than it was possible for any naturalist in Europe to acquire at the period when Prof. E. Forbes' note was written. Indeed it is evident from Prof. Forbes' remarks that the collections of recent Indian shells examined by him were too imperfect to enable him to form a competent opinion. Mr. Benson, a far better author- ity on this particular subject than Prof. E. Forbes, considered the most, if not the whole, of the Siwalik mollusca identical with existing spe<;ics : Falconer, Pal. Mem., I, pp. 26, 181. Extra-Peninsular.] HOMOTAXIS OF MAMMALIA. 577 Western Punjab; (2) in the localities of Perim Island, the Irawadi valley, and certain beds of Sylhet ; and (3) in the post-tertiary clays and gravels of the Jumna, Narbada, Godavari, and other Indian rivers, so far as all such forms are unrepresented in the Siwalik area. This leaves a fauna composed of the following 45 genera, each represented by the number of species noted, the total number of specific forms being 84 : extinct genera are marked with an asterisk : PHI MATES Macacus, 2 ; Semnopithecus, 2. CABNIVOBA Felis, 2 ; Mac)icBrodus* (Drepanodon), 1 ; Pseudaelwrus* 1; Ictitherium* 1 ,- Hycena, 1 ; Canis (Vulpes), 1 ; Amphicyon,* 1; Ursus, 1 ; Hycenarclus* 2 ; Mellivora, 1; Meles, l;.Lutra, 1; Enhydrivdon* 1. PKOBOSCIDEA Elephas, 7; (Euelephas, 1; Loxodon, 1; Stegodon* 5;) Mastodon* 4. (Pentalophudon* 1 ; Tetralophodo.n* 2 ; Trilophodun* 1). UNGCLATA PEBISSODACTYLA Rhinoceros, 6 ; Acerotherium* 1; Listriodon* 1 ; Equus, 2 ; Hippariun* 2. ILNGULATA AETIODACTYLA Hippopotamus (Hexaprotodon*), 1 ; Hippopotamodon* 1; TetracanoJon* 1 ; GHS, 3 ; Hippohyus,* 2 ; Chalicotherium* 1 ; Merycopotamus*! ; Cervus, 3 ; Dorcatherium* 2 ; Camelopardalis, 2 ; Sivatherium* 1 ; Hydaspitherium* 3; Bos, 6; (Bos restricted,.?; Bison, 1; Bylalus, 2;) Peribos* 1; Amphibos,* 1; Hemibos,* 1; Antilvpe, 4; Capra. 2 ; Ovis, 1 ; Camelus, 1. RODEJJTIA Mus, 1 ; Rhizomys, 1 ; Hystrix, 1. Of a large proportion of the species only very imperfect information exists as to the exact horizon in the Siwalik series at which the bones have been found, but the great majority are from the upper and middle Siwaliks, none in the typical area being known to occur in the lower or Nahan sub-division. It is, however, by no means certain that some of the specimens from the North- Western Punjab are not derived from beds of the same age as the Nahan group. The mammals* of Kushalghar have already been excluded from the list, because they, like the lower Man- ebhar species of Sind, evidently belong to an older formation than the fossiliferous portion of the Siwalik beds ; and Nurpur in the Punjab, the only other locality, besides Kushalghar and the Laki hills of Sind, M 1 578 GEOLOGY OF INDIA SIWALIK FAUNA. [Chap. XXIV. whence Ampkicyon has been obtained, may also be upon older strata. It is highly probable that some other forms with middle tertiary affinities would be found to be confined to lower Siwalik beds, if the precise horizon of all the bones collected were known. 1 On the other hand, one post-tertiary form, Bos (Bubalus} palaindicus, has been found in the highest Siwalik strata, associated with Camelus sivalensis, Colossochelys, &c. ; and two species of elephant belonging to the sub-genus Stegodon, viz., K insignis and E. ganesa, range throughout the upper Siwaliks, and recur in the post-tertiary deposits. The species of proboscidians generally appear to have had a more extensive range, both in space and time, than most of the forms belonging to other mammalian orders ; but Bos paleeindicus is an animal of exceptionally recent aspect, even in the post-tertiary mammalian fauna, since it is only distinguishable from the living Bos bubalus (Bubalus buffelus v. B. ami, auct.) by comparatively trifling and unimportant osteological details ; it must evidently have been a very near ally, and, in all pro- bability, the not very distant progenitor of the buffaloes which' now inhabit the Ganges valley, Assam, and parts of the Central Provinces of India. The Siwalik forms, however, which might be excluded on account of belonging to an older or a newer fauna, and of being supposed, on more or less strong evidence, to be confined to either the lowest or the uppermost portions of the series, are too few in number to affect the general facies, and there are unquestionably several miocene typts and some post-tertiary species found in the highly fossiliferous upper Siwalik beds. It is best therefore, for the present, to include all the forms enumerated. Proceeding, then, to classify the genera above given, it will be found that 24, comprising 53 species, still exist (the living species being how- ever all, so far as is known, different), whilst 21, with 30 species, are extinct. If, instead of reckoning the larger genera, Elephas, Mastodon, Hippopotamus, and Bos, their sub-genera are counted, the result will be slightly to diminish the proportion of recent genera, the recent generic types becoming 26, with 47 species, the extinct 25, with 36 species. The former plan of classification is however, on the whole, preferable, because such distinctions as those between Euelephas, Loxodon, and Stego- don, for instance, are scarcely of generic value, the majority of the genera named, e. g., Felis, Rhinoceros, Cervus, Antilope, have not been sub-divided 1 A very large proportion of the Siwalik remains have been obtained by native collectors employed in the search, and of course the precise locality of the bones is in most cases doubtful. Extra-Peninsular.] HOMOTAXis OF MAMMALIA. 579 like Elephas and Bos ; and the affinities of the fauna are best understood by grouping- the forms in somewhat larger sub-divisions than the sub- genera of older and the genera of many modern writers. Taking the extinct genera first, the following ten are peculiar to the Indian tertiaries, so far as is hitherto known : CAENIVOBA Enhydriodon. UNGOLATA ABTIODACTYLA Hippopotamodon, Tetraconodon, Hippohyus, Aferycopotantus, Sivatherium, Hydaspitherium, Peribos, Amphibos, Hemibos. ', Of the remaining eleven genera, four, viz., Pseudalurus, Amphicyon, Listriodon, and Dorcatherium, are only known in Europe from miocene beds, Pseudcelurus being also found in pliocene rocks in America ; whilst Macharodus, Hycenarctns, Ictilherium, Mastodon, Acerotherium, Chalicothe- rium, 1 and Hipparion are both miocene and pliocene ; the first and fourth ranging into post-pliocene beds 'also ; the former in Europe, the latter in America. . Of the other extinct forms, two, Hippohyus and Merycopotamus, belong to the less specialised types characteristic in general of the older and middle tertiaries. Several others, such as Tetraconodon, with its enor- mously developed premolar teeth, and the huge four-horned Sivatherium, differ widely from anything now existing ; but being highly specialised forms, there is nothing in their organisation to indicate that they are of earlter age than newer tertiary. Amongst the recent genera represented in the Siwaliks, eight, viz., Fells, Hyana, Canis, Lutra, Rhinoceros, Sus, Cervus, and Antilope, are known to range as far back as upper miocene, and in one or two cases even further ; ten, viz., Macacus, Semnopithecus, Ursus, Elephas, Equus, Hippopo- tamus, Camelopardalis, Bos,Hystrix, and Mus,a,re known from the European pliocene beds, but not earlier ; and several are poorly represented, or only known in newer pliocene strata ; whilst the following, Mellivora, Meles, Copra, Ovis, Camelus, and Rhizomys, have hitherto only been found recent, or in post-pliocene deposits. This examination of the relations between the Siwalik genera and the distribution of similar forms in European tertiaries leads, as might be anticipated, to a somewhat uncertain result. The proportion of living to extinct genera is greater than is found in most miocene deposits, but not more than appears to exist in the characteristically middle tertiary 1 Acerotherium and Chnlicotherium are found in pliocene beds at Pikermi : see page 583. Iciitherium occurs in the pliocene of Pikerrni, and in miocene beds in Bessarabia and in France. 580 GEOLOGY OF INDIA SIWALIK FAUNA. [Chap. XXIV- ossiferous beds of Sansan iu France. 1 The presence of four extinct genera not known to range above tbe miocene period elsewhere is con- trasted with the occurrence of sixteen genera not found elsewhere at a lower horizon than pliocene or post-tertiary. There is perhaps rather more 'probability that early forms . like Chalicotherium and Amphicyon should have survived longer in India than they did in Europe, just as rhinoceroses, tapirs, and elephants still exist in the tropics, associated with a fauna amongst which they appear antiquated and out of place, than that such eminently specialised types as Macacus, Bos, Capra, or Equus should have lived in miocene times ;' but the argument is of small value, for the miocene Cervus and Antilope were in all probability as highly specialised, or nearly so, as the Siwalik genera. The fact, however, that the recent genera contain more species than the extinct forms is of some importance, since it is probable that types which were dying out would be represented by fewer species than those which were supplanting them, and which might fairly be credited with the vitally important power of producing distinct specific stocks by variation. A stronger argument for the newer age of the Siwalik beds is to be found in the close approximation between some of the mammals and the living species of the same genera, the most remarkable of all being the con- nection, already noticed, between the fossil buffalo of the uppermost Siwalik strata, that of the post-pliocene Jumna and Narbada beds, and the common Indian species now existing. Reptilian evidence. The evidence afforded by the few species of reptiles sufficiently known to be of importance is decidedly in favour of attributing to the Siwalik beds a later age than miocene. Only six species are sufficiently well known to be fairly comparable, and three of these, Crocodilus palustris, Gharialis gangeticus, and Emys tectum, are common living forms now inhabiting the same area ; whilst Emys (Bellia) sivalensis 3 is very closely allied to a living Burmese species, E. crassicollis. Crocodilus crassidens and Colossochelys atlas differ consi- derably from all living forms, and Crocodilus leptodus is very imperfectly known. Siwalik fauna probably plio sene. Putting together the whole data derived from Mammalia, lieptilia, and Mollusca, it is impossible to deny that the balance of evidence is in favour of a pliocene age. This is opposed to the general consensus of European geologists hitherto, 3 and it 1 Gervais, Zool. Pal. Franc., p. 338. 2 Theobald, Rec. G. S. I., X, p. 43. 3 It appears at first sight, also, to be in direct opposition to Dr. Falconer's conclusions, but a study of his writings leaves it doubtful whether he ever expressed any decided con- viction on the subject. He repeatedly noticed the close connexion between some Siwalik Extra-Peninsular.] STRATIGRAPHICAL EVIDENCE OF AGE. 581 would therefore be put forward with very little confidence if it were not supported by some stratigraphical data. As the approximate age of the Siwalik rocks is a necessary element in any argument founded upon their fauna/ it will be best to shew how the stratigraphical evidence supports the view that these .beds' are of pliocene and not of miocene age, befo*re proceeding to notice some other interesting points of con- nexion between the Siwalik and other faunas, recent and extinct. Stratigraphical evidence of age of Siwaliks. The stratigra- phical data as distinguished from ttte purely homotaxial relations just discussed depend entirely upon the connexion between the typical Siwaliks and the Manchhar beds of Sind. The position of the latter has been already described in Chapter XIX, 1 where it was shewn that the whole of the Manchhar group, comprising, where thickest, but little less than 10,000 feet of strata, rests upon the miocene Gaj group, the age of which is determined by the far more satisfactory data afforded by marine organisms, and is shewn to be more probably upper than lower miocene. The lower Manchhar beds pass down into the Gaj rocks, so that it is reasonable to believe that no difference of age of any importance exists between the two. It has also been shewn that the mammalian fauna of the lower Manchhars, although containing several species in common with the Siwaliks, is altogether older in aspect; and that the majority of the forms hitherto recognised belong to the peculiar types of even-toed ungulates allied to Merycopotamus and Anthracotherium, intermediate in character between pigs and ruminants, and peculiarly characteristic of the miocene epoch. In these lower Man- chhar beds also there is found a form -of Dinotherium, another miocene type unknown in the Siwaliks proper, though found (the species being distinct) in the beds of Perim Island. Now, there can be no reasonable' doubt that the Manchhar beds of Sind, as a whole, correspond with the Siwalik formation of Northern India ; for the two are portions of one con- tinuous band of upper tertiary rocks, and, viewed in this light, the relations of the faunas are very striking, the fossiliferous Igwer beds of the Manchhar group corresponding to the unfossiliferous Nahans, and forms and those now found in India, and appeared for a long time (Pal. Mem., U P- 28) rather disposed to consider that the tertiary mammalia of India " lasted through a period corresponding to more than one>f the tertiary periods of Europe " than to class the Siwalik fauna with the miocene of Europe. In his later writings he certainly spoke of the Siwalik fauna as miocene, but only incidentally ; whilst in some of his latest papers he argued in favour of man having been a probable contemporary of Colossochelys and the Siwalik mam- maliaan idea which it is difficult to reconcile with the miocene age of the fauna. ' See ante, p. 466. 5S2 ' GEOLOGY OF INDIA-SIWALIK FAUNA. [Chap. XXIV. the almost unfossiliferous upper Manchhar beds to the ossiferous strata of the Siwaliks. It has -already been shewn how extremely difficult it is to trace particular zones amongst the confused and contorted mass of the newer tertiary deposits in the Sub- Himalayan ranges and the Punjab ; but, so far as the evidence extends, it is certainly in favour of a close correspondence between the Manchhars and the Siwaliks, the upper Siwaliks being represented in Sind by the conglomerate, less fully developed there than to the northward, at the top of the series, whilst a large proportion o the lower Manchhars is made up of the grey sandstone, so well developed in the Nahan group. If, there- fore, the lower Manchhars of Sind are upper miocene, so is the Nahan group of the Punjab ; and it is impossible, either on stratigraphical or palseontological grounds, to class the fossiliferous middle Siwaliks lower than pliocene, the upper Siwaliks, which contain Bos (Bubalus) palain- dicus, being probably upper pliocene. Briefly stated, the evidence is that the Siwalik fauna is newer than the Manchhar fauna, and found in higher beds, and the Manchhar fauna is not older than upper miocene. Survival of miocene forms in Siwalik beds. If the views expressed in the preceding paragraphs be admitted, it will be seen' that we have represented in the Siwalik beds a pliocene fauna, containing an abnormally large miocene element; and although the presence of this older element may be partially due to an undetected admixture, by the collectors, of fossils from lower beds, it is certain that this explanation will not suffice to account for all the older types of Siwalik mammals; for the locality and horizon of several typically middle tertiary forms, such as Dorcatheriwm, are well known to be middle, or even upper Siwalik. An admixture of European miocene forms,' though to a much smaller extent, is found in the older pliocene of North America. There is, however, a good reason for believing that European miocene forms survived to a later period in India than in Central Europe, because several genera not known in beds of later age than the miocene of Europe are found living, or are represented by nearly allied forms, in the tropics of Asia and Africa. It has even been suggested that ' of the two most important faunas in the tropics of the Old World, the Indo-Malayan (exclusive of that inhabiting the Indian peninsula) and the Ethiopian, the former is allied to the lower or middle miocene, the latter to the upper miocene of Europe. 1 Thus in the miocene beds of Central Europe, besides a m9nkey very like Semnopithecus , there 1 Fraas, Wiirttemberg'sche naturw. Jahreshefte, XXVI, 1870, p. 297 ; v. Pelzeln, Africa-Indien, Verb. Zool. Bot. Ges. Wien., 1875, p. 61 ; and Ueber die Malayische Sauge- thier -fauna ; Festschrift, 25 Jahr/Zool. Bot. Gesellscb., 1876, p. 19; Wallace, Geographical Distribution of Animals, I, pp. 114 to 124. Extra-Peninsular.] PLIOCENE FAUNA OF PIKERML 583 are found two genera of apes, Pliopithecus and Dryopithecus, allied to the gibbons (Hylobates) of Assam, Burma, and the Malay countries ; there is an insectivore nearly affined to Tupaia (Indian and Malay), and forms of deer closely resembling Cervulus (another Indo-Malay genus) occur, besides the living genera Viverra, Rhinoceros, and Tapirus ; the two latter, however, being also found in European pliocene beds. Pliocene fauna of Pikermi in Attica. There is, however, one European fossil fauna which is of singular interest from its resemblance to that of the Siwalik beds. In this collection of extinct mammalia, which has been discovered at Pikermi in Attica, 1 not only is there a* re- markable admixture of typically miocene forms with other species which have a later aspect, but there is the same remarkable abundance of true ruminants as in the Siwaliks. In the miocene strata, although ruminants occur, they are in general but little, if at all, superior in number to the other artiodactyle ungulates; but in the Pikermi beds there are 15 ruminants to one pig ani one Chalicotherium ; in the Siwalik fauna, 28 ruminants and but 10 other artiodactyle ungulates. Another point of similarity in the two faunas is the absence of small mammals. The following is a list of the genera found in the beds of Greece, with the number of species belonging to each genus : PBIMATES Mesopithecus, 1. CARNIVORA Simocyon, 1 ; Mustela, 1 Promephitis, 1 ; Ictitherium, 3 ; Hyaena, 1 ; Lycycena, Hy&nictis, 1 ; Machaerodus, 1 ; Felis, 4. PHOBOSCIDEA Mastodon, 2 ; Dinotherium, 2. UNGULATA PERISSODACTYLA Rhinoceros, 3 ; Acerotkerium, 1 ; Leptodon, 1 ; Ripparion, 1. UNOULATA AETIODACTYLA Sus, 1\ Chalicotherium, 1; Dremotherium, 2 ; Antllope, 3; Paleeotraqus, 1; PalcRoryx, 2 ; Tragoceras, 2 ; Palceoreas, 1 ; Antidorcas, 1 ; Gazella, 1 ; Cam- elopardalis, 1 ; Helladotherium, 1. RODENTIA Hystrix, 1. EDENTATA Ancylotherium, 1. Of birds, a Phasianus, a Gallus, and a Grus have been identified : -of reptiles, bones of Testudo and Varanus. Of the above 30 genera of mammals, 13, besides Helladotherium, which is said to be scarcely distin- 1 Gaudry : Animaux fossiles ct geologie de 1'Attique. 584 'GEOLOGY OF INDIA SIWALIK FAUNA. . [Chap. XXIV. guishable from the female of Sivatkerinm, are found in the Siwaliks of India : besides this, the fauna bears in many respects the same similarity to that of Africa at the present day as the Siwalik mammals bear to their living- Indian representatives. Now, this Pikermi fauna is constantly quoted as upper miocene, and its connexion with the miocene beds in other parts of Europe is unmistakable, no less than 15 species being undistin- guishable from those found in various miocene deposits. Several of these species are doubtfully identified, but amongst the number are such characteristic forms as Macheerodus cultrldens, Mastodon turicensis, and Hipparion gracile. But, as M. Gaudry points out in the clearest manner/ the ossiferous beds of Pikermi contain at their base, and below the horizon whence the bones have been obtained, a layer with pliocene marine fossils, and all the beds containing the bones, together with the pliocene marine beds, rest unconformably on lacustrine miocene rocks. There can be therefore no reasonable doubt that the Pikermi fossils, like the Siwaliks, are of pliocene age, and that the quotation of them as miocene is an error. 2 Migration. The points of similarity between the European miocene f aunas and the animals now inhabiting either tropical Asia or Africa south of the Sahara may be due either to migration and survival 3 in a more favourable climate, or to the fauna having been formerly more uniform over large areas, and to the modified descendants continuing to live in one region, whereas they have died out and been replaced by distinct types in other parts of their old province. . On the latter hypothesis we may suppose that the fauna of Central Europe and Malayasia was more or less uniform in the lower miocene period, and that Greece and Africa formed a single zoological province in pliocene days ; but that the gibbon- like apes, Tupaiadce and other Malay types, died out in Central Europe, and the giraffes, antelopes, &c., in Greece, whilst the descendants of their relatives survived in the Malay countries and Africa respectively. The theory of migration presents, on the whole, fewer difficulties, and is rather 1 Tom. cit., pp. 426-435. * For the theory adopted by M. Gaudry to account for tlie survival of these miocene animals in pliocene times, see " Animaux fossiles et geologic de 1'Attique," p. 431. It appears simpler to believe that the miocene fauna of Europe migrated to the southward, and that nanny species survived in Greece after they had died out north of the Alps. Hence the admixture of pliocene and miocene types. 3 It is assumed in the present and in other arguments employed in this work that similarity of organisation implies relationship of descent, i. e., that animals having similar structure are descended from the same ancestors more or less remotely. The theories of evolution and of origin of species by descent with modification are now so widely accepted amongst naturalists that it is unnecessary to explain or defend them. Extra-Peninsular. ] EFFECTS OF CHANGE OF CLIMATE. 585 in accordance with the little we already know of the Indian miocene (Manchharj fauna, in which living tropical forms' appear to be less repre- sented than they are in the deposits of that age in Europe. It is not unreasonable to suppose that some of the forms named, and especially the ruminants, migrated 1 into Southern Asia at the close of the miocene period. Effects of change of climate. It is true that amongst the marine invertebrates there is a well-marked resemblance between the miocene genera of Europe and living tropical forms. The Indian and African land faunas of the early and middle tortiaries are as yet too imperfectly known for any comparison to be made.between them and those of the same epoch in extra^tropical regions. It is not improbable that there may prove to have been a greater similarity than exists amongst the terrestrial forms living at present, and it is also probable that if such similarity existed, it will be found to have consisted mainly in the greater richness of the extra-tropical fauna in middle tertiary times, and in a number of types now extinct or confined to the tropics having been represented in both tropical and extra-tropical zones of climate. This last probability is founded on the fact that the temperature of Europe in the miocene epoch was in all probability nearer to that of the present tropics than to the temperate climate of recent times, and that conse- quently whole families of animals, and of plants intolerant of cold, then ranged to much higher latitudes than they now do. That this was the case with plants is shewn by the well-known miocene (or eocene?) flora of Greenland', Spitsbergen, and Alaska, 1 and by the species found in such marvellous abundance in the miocene beds in Central Europe. It is by no means an improbable inference that the representation of so many European miocene genera in the Indian Siwaliks is due to changes caused by the gradual refrigeration of the earth in later tertiary times, and to the migration of the fauna towards the tropics. There is good reason for believing that Europe and South-Eastern Asia were con- nected by land after the eocene period ; and as it is certain that a great portion of the disturbances affecting the Himalayan strata are of pliocene or post-pliocene date, it is reasonable to conclude that at the close of the miocene epoch no such mountain barrier as exists at present separated the Indian peninsula from Central Asia. There is independent evidence in favour oi' the view that the elevation of the Tibetan plateau is of post- Siwalik date; for remains of Rhinoceros and other large mammals occur 1 Heor : Flora fossilis Arctica, Vol. Ill, Pt. 4, &c. 586 GEOLOGY OF INDIA-SIWALIK FAUNA. [Chap. XXIV. at an elevation of 15,000 feet in Tibet, 1 and it is not probable that these animals lived in so elevated a region. 2 Comparative poverty of recent mammalian faunas. But the immigration of the European miocene forms may not be the only way in which the Siwalik fauna was affected *by the secular refrigera- tion of the earth's surface, culminating in the glacial epoch. It is true that there is a considerable amount of similarity between the Siwalik fauna and that of India at the present day ; but, nevertheless, there is a very striking distinction a distinction due less to change and re- placement than to disappearance. Even after making allowance for the fact that the whole assemblage may not have existed contem- poraneously, there is nothing so striking in the fauna of the Siwalik epoch .as the wonderful wealth and variety of forms. It must be recollected that we know little or nothing of the smaller mammals, and that animals of size inferior to a pig or a sheep are scarcely represented. It would be premature to infer that, as at the present day, the more minute forms exceeded the larger types in abund- ance ; for the conditions of intermediate ages may have affected the more bulky animals far more than the minute Rodentia, Insectivora, Chiroptera, &c. Still it is only reasonable to suppose that the ancestors of the present Micro -mammalia lived in the same profusion as they do now ; and it is incredible that the living rodents and insectivores can play the parts on the modern stage and fulfil the functions of the great ungulates and carnivores of past times. Comparing like with like, and especially pass- ing in review the Carnivora, Proboscidea, and Ungulata, all represented, and all, except the Proboscidea, well represented in the living fauna of India, indeed better than in most other parts of the world at the present day, it is impossible not to be struck with the comparative poverty in variety of the existing mammalian types. We have of course but an 1 There is, on the other hand, a probability that the elevation of the great plateau of Central Asia dates from a period prior to the glacial epoch, or at least antecedent to the close of the cold period, because, in the first place, there are numerous signs of ice having formerly occupied a much greater area than it does at present ; and secondly, there is a very remarkable change in several species of migratory birds between the forms found in Western India (many of which are common to Europe) and those found in Eastern India and Burma, many of which are peculiar to Eastern Asia. The two groups meet in India ; and although stragglers are found to the east and west of the limit, they are not common. The contrast is easily, explained if the breeding places of the representative races have been separated for ages through the elevated regions of Central Asia being so covered by snow and ice as to be unfitted for birds, and especially for insectivorous birds, to breed in. Amongst examples of the representative races, Motacilla alba (v. dukhunensis) and Erythrosterna parva of Western India, replaced by M. luzoniensis and E. albicilla to the eastward, may be quoted. 2 Falconer, Pal. Mem., I., p. 173. Extra-Peninsular.] POVERTY OF RECENT MAMMALIAN FAUNAS. 587 imperfect knowledge even of the larger Siwalik animals, and remains of Carnivora are rare, so much so that probably many species remain undis- covered; but even at present the known Siwalik carnivores are more numerous than the living- forms of similar size in the same area, and the ungulates exceeded their living representatives in number in the proportion of more than 5 to 2, there being 50 known Siwalik species and only 18 recent'. The superior wealth of the older fauna is both generic and spe- cific ; not only are the types more varied, but there is a greater variety of forms in many of the genera ; thus 6 species of Rhinoceros ejdsted where now there is only 1, or, including Eastern India and Burma, only 3; and no less than 11 extinct elephants and mastodons are represented by a solitary .living form. Even such modern types as Bos have dwindled in numbers from 6 to 2. This great impoverishment of the recent mammalian fauna is not peculiar to India. It is found in other parts of the Old "World and in America, wherever remains of animals have been preserved in sufficient quantities amongst the deposits of the later tertiary epochs for a good idea of the fauna to be presented. In the words of Mr. Wallace, " we live in a zoologically impoverished world, from which all the largest and fiercest and strangest forms have recently disappeared ; " and he makes the happy suggestion, 1 that this enormous reduction in the numbers of the greater mammals is due to the glacial epoch. Thus for a second time we find the action of this great physical change reflected in the Siwalik fauna ; and we have an addition to the arguments urged in the sixteenth chapter 2 in favour of India having been affected by the cold period which immediately preceded the present day. The post-pliocene Narbada fauna is very poor compared with the Siwalik. It is true that the former comprises two species of elephants and two of hippopotamus; but only two bovines have been detected, one deer, and one antelope. This difference may be partly due to imperfect know- ledge, to the much smaller range, both in area, and in time as represented by thickness, in the case of the Narbada beds ; but none of these circum- stances can possibly account for the whole distinction ; for large collections of Narbada bones have been made, and more ruminants would surely have been detected, had many existed. It is probable that the Narbada fauna is posterior in "date to the main operation of the agency, whatever it may have been, that caused so many of the Siwalik mammals to die out. The further diminution in the numbers of Proboscidea, and the complete disappearance of the genera Hippopotamus and Rhinoceros from Central 1 Geographical Distribution of Animals, I, p. 150. * Ante, p. 372. 588 GEOLOGY .OP INDIA SIWALIK FAUNA. [Chap. XXIV. India, may perhaps have been partly due to the agency of man, who, if the evidence of the chipped quartzite implement already mentioned l can be trusted, must have been a contemporary of the Narbada fauna. Relations of Siwalik to Perim Island fauna- Before quitting the subject of the relations between the Siwalik and other fossil faunas, two other Indian deposits containing mammalian remains require notice, besides the miocene beds of .Sind and the Punjab, and the post-pliocene formations of the Ganges valley and the Indian peninsula. These two deposits are those of Perim Island in the Gulf of Cambay^ the known species from which locality have already been quoted 2 and are marked P in the .preceding list of tertiary fossil vertebrates, and those of the Irawadi valley in Upper Burma marked I. The known mammals from Perim Island comprise ten species, of which four, viz., Mastodon latidens, M. perimensis, Acerotherinm peri- mense, and Sus hysndricus, are common to the Siwalik beds. All these forms are, however, found in other fossil faunas ; Mastodon perimensis and Sus kysudricus being met with also in the lower Manchhar beds of Sind, Acerotherium perimense in the Irawadi deposits, and Mastodon latidens in both, so that all the forms common to Perim Island and the Siwaliks are clearly species of wide range. The absence of JElephas and its sub -genera, and of bo vines, and the presence of Dinotherium, tend strongly to make the Perim Island fauna appear of greater age than the Siwalik generally; but, on the other hand, the presence of so highly specialised a genus as Capra, if the generic determination be accepted, 3 the occurrence of Camelopardalis and Antilope, and, above all, the absence, so far as is known, of any of the AnthracothendoR and other older ungulate types so abundant in the miocene beds of Sind and the Punjab, are opposed to the idea that the Perim Island rocks can be of higher antiquity than pliocene. They possibly occupy an intermediate position between the Siwaliks proper and tke Manchhars of Sind, but they are more nearly allied to the former. Comparison with Irawadi fauna. It will be necessary to revert to the mammalian remains found in the Irawadi valley when describing the rocks of Burma. All that it is now necessary to point out is that, although the proportion of species identified with Siwalik forms is rather less than in the case of Perim Island, only four species, viz., Stego- don cliftii, Mastodon latidens, Acerotherium perimense, and Merycopotamus i Ante, p. 386. 2 Ante, p. 343. 3 It should not be forgotten that Capra perimensis is founded solely on a frontlet with the horn-cases, and that nothing is known of the greater part of the cranium, the teeth, or. the limb bones. See Lydekker, Pal. lud., Ser. X, 3, p. 83-170, PI. Kviii, fig. 4. Extra-Peninsular.] COMPARISON WITH RECENT FAUNA. 589 dissimilis, out of thirteen, being known to be common to the Siwaliks and the Irawadi beds, the general facies of the two faunas is very similar. Both contain a considerable proportion of living genera unknown in the middle tertiaries of Europe, together with some older forms, such as Acerotheriiim and Merycopotamus. The Irawadi fauna perhaps may be equivalent to upper Siwalik. The Tibetan mammalian fauna ! already noticed is too imperfect for comparison. Comparison of Siwalik and recent faunas. Lastly, a few words may be added as to the points of connexion between the Siwalik fauna and that now found in India, Malayasia, and Africa. The most remarkable distinction between the mammalian life of tertiary times and that of the present day, the comparative wealth of the former and poverty of the latter, has already been noticed ; but it is matter of some interest to trace how far the Siwalik types are represented by animals now inhabiting India, 'and how many of the tertiary genera, though still living on the earth's surface, are no longer found in the regions formerly inhabited by their Siwalik allies. As the fauna of India varies in different parts, it will be best to take for comparison with the Siwalik mammals all forms now existing in the Indo-Gangetic plain, from the Indus to the parallel of Calcutta, together with those inhabiting the lower slopes of the Himalayas up to 4,000 or 5,000 feet. This area comprises portions of three distinct zoological sub-provinces, the animals inhabiting the Indo-Gangetic phiin to the westward exhibiting some distinctions of importance from those occurring to the eastward, and the lower slopes of the Himalayas haying a very different fauna, distinguished by the presence of numerous Malay types. In this comparison, again, the minor generic or sub-generic groups of many modern naturalists are not enumerated ; Rucervus, Rusa, and Axis, for instance, being considered merely forms of Cervus, and Bibos, Bubalus, &c., of Bos. The following is a list of the Siwalik genera represented by species living in Northern India, 2 the number of such species being added : FBI MATES Semnopithecus, 2; Macacus, 1 (or 2). CABNIVOBA Felis, 8 3 ; Hyaena, 1 ; Canis, (including Vulpes), 4 ; Ursux, 1 ; Mellivora, 1 ; Lutra, 2 (or 3). 1 Falconer, Pal. Ind., I, p. 173 ; Strachey, Q. J. G. S., 1851, p 292. 1 The living genera are taken chiefly from Jerdon's Mammals of India, a few alterations and additions being made. 3 Five of these are of small size. 590 GEOLOGY OF INDIA-SIWALIK FAUNA. [Chap. XXIV. PBOBOSCIDEA Elephas, 1. UNGTJLATA PEBISSODACTYLA Rhinoceros, 2 (both only found to the eastward, and the second species barely within the area) ; Equus, 1 (also barely within the area, but to the westward). UNGULATA ABTIODACTYLA Sus (including Porculia), 2 (or 3) ; Cervus, 4 ; Antilope (including Oazella), 2 ; Bos, 2 ; Ovis, 1 (in the Punjab only). Capra is not found living in the area named, but 3 species exist on the higher Himalayas, and two on the hill ranges to the west of the Punjab. KODENTIA Mus, many species ; Rkizomys, 1 (only found to eastward) ; Hystrix, 2 (or 3). The genera of Ungulata now found in Northern India and not re- presented, so far as is known, in the Siwalik fauna are only four : Cenulus, Portax, Tetracerus, and Nemorhedus. Some twelve genera of living Indian and Himalayan Carnivora have not been found in the Siwalik rocks, but all are of comparatively small size ; Viverra, Arctictis, Cuon, and Paradoxurus being the largest. The Siwalik genera not now living in Northern India, but still existing elsewhere, are Meles and Camelus, now confined in the wild state to the palaearctic region, and Hippopotamus and Camelopardalis, both surviving in Africa. All the other living forms already enumerated are common to India and Africa south of the Sahara, except ' Semno- pithecus, Macacus, Ursus, Cervus, Ovis, and Rhizomys, whilst Hy&na, Canis, Melliwra, Equus, Antilope, and Ovis are unknown in the Malay regions. The genera common to the Siwalik fauna and Malayasia^ but not found in Africa, are Semnopithecus, Macacus, Ursus, Cervus, and Rkizomys. The first two and the last of these are, however, represented by allied forms in Africa, whilst no such near Malayan representa- tives of any of the Siwalik- African forms, except Canis (replaced by Cuon}, can be mentioned. It may be added that of the twelve genera of living Indian Carnivora unrepresented in the Siwaliks, the majority are Malayan forms inhabiting the Himalayas. It is clear that the Siwalik fauna resembles that now inhabiting Southern Africa more than it does the assemblage of living Mammalia now found in Malayasia, and it is probable that this resemblance is due to both the pliocene Siwaliks and the recent Ethiopian faunas, together with a very large proportion of the animals now inhabiting the plains of India, being descended partly or wholly from the same ancestors, and perhaps from their ancestors having originally migrated southward from the miocene lands of Central Europe and Asia. We know nothing of the miocene mammals of 'Southern Africa, but such information as we possess of the Extra-Peninsular.] COMPARISON WITH RECENT FAUNA. 591 upper miocene fauna of Northern India renders it probable that most of the Siwalik mammals emigrated about the close of the miocene epoch, and a portion of the descendants of the Siwalik immigrants may have inhabited the country ever since. Many forms have, however, died out, and it is probable that in comparatively recent times some of these extinct forms have been replaced by Malayan types, either introduced from the eastward, or spreading northward from the singularly isolated Malayan faunas now inhabiting the Malabar coast and the Southern Indian hills. Many, however, of the forms which at first sight appear to have distinctly Malayan affinities, such as Cervus (Rucervus) duvaucelli and Bos gaurus, despite their close alliance with living Malay forms, and the want of related species in Africa, are probably descended from Siwalik ancestors, and are not Malayan immigrants. Again, in a few cases, as in that of the Indian gazelle, some of the species which, judging by their range and their close connexion with forms inhabiting other countries, are amongst the most recent additions to the Indian fauna, come from the west and not from the eastward. 592 GEOLOGY OF INDIA LOWER HIMALAYAS. [Chap. XXV. CHAPTER XXV. EXTRA-PENINSULAR AREA. .LOWER HIMALAYAS. Limits General features The terminal area Classification of rocks Correlation of groups The gneissic series The slate series The Simla slates The Blaini group The Infra-Krdl -The Krdl group The relation of the slate and gneissic series. Special metamorphism and disturbance Trappean rocks The Chor mountain South-east of Simla. Kumaun and Gharwal. Nepal. The Sikkirn area Dar- jiling gneiss The Daling series The Damuda series Relations of the three 8er i eg The Bhutan border : Baxa series The Dikrang section. SUMMARY. Limits. The name "Lower Himalaya" does not spontaneously suggest the area to which it is here restricted. This is not a mountain-zone of medium elevation, continuous between the Sub-Himalayas and the Central or Tibetan region; for, as already stated (p. 557), we find the tertiary rocks in the Kangra district within a mile of a lofty ridge of " central gneiss/' on the prolongation of the main Himalayan axis, and structurally belonging to the Tibetan region. Still, to any one who knows the ground, the character " Lower " would suggest the area in question ; for the ridges of the Dhauladhar and Pir Panjal, belonging to the Central Himalayas, and overhanging the Sub-Himalayan zone in the north-west, are much more lofty, rugged, and persistent than the mountains of the Lower Himalayas, occupying the broad area, some 50 miles wide, between the great snowy range and the plains. To the east this feature continues beyond the range of exploration, in the mountains north of Assam : on the west it ends, or begins, abruptly very nearly on meridian 77 E., a short distance west of Simla. Both the Bias and the Sutlej flow from east to west across this terminal bound- ary of the Lower Himalayan region, while the Tons and the Jumna are the first rivers having a southerly course in this ground. The mention of these rivers shews that the meridional watershed of India occurs here ; but this is a fact of no significance;, for it is possible that almost within historical times the Jumna may have flowed westward, instead of to the Ganges. 1 Simla stands on the Sutlej-Jumna watershed, and, as 1 See page 417. Extra-Peninsular.] GENERAL FEATURES. 59o a well-known place, its name has been given (p. 529) to this terminal region of the Lower Himalayas. If a politico-geographical name were required for the Lower Himalayan region, the kingdom of Nep&l would furnish the most suitable, as it occupies the whole middle area for a length of 500 miles; and the Gurkhas of Nepal formerly held sway to beyond the Sutlej. General features. The character chosen to designate this region of the mountains is a superficial one ; yet it is an index of important structural peculiarities : the low general average of elevation is due to the irregularity of the disturbance that has affected the rocks, without producing any dominant lines of dislocation or of upheaval ; being thus in marked contrast with two other divisions of the mountains, where steady outcrops are determined by continuous parallel axes of flexure and of dislocation. There is, no doubt, a very decided prevalence of a strike parallel to the general mountain- axis, and the dominant dip of the strata is towards that axis ; but local interruptions are so frequent, that the general result, as brought out by the drainage courses, is more like that from the denudation of a homogeneous mass. It has been suggested 1 that the present rivers cross this area on lines of fracture ; but observation lends no support to the opinion : the drainage channels, great and small, are as devious as they could be worn through a promiscuous mass of broken materials. A possible cause for this condition will be suggested. The boundaries of the Lower Himalayas are, however, well defined. On the north, so far as known from the west end, there is the great gneissic axis, with constant granitic intrusion, forming the main snowy range. On the Sub-Himalayan border, along the " main boundary " of the tertiary zone, there is also, from the west up io Nepal, some approach to constancy in the older rocks. They are intensely contorted, but with more steadiness of direction than in the interior of the area ; although still there are numerous breaches of regularity, as at the sharp bends of the main boundary east of Dehra, and again just east of the Ganges, both of which coincide with twists in the strike of the slates. This circumstance (the local strike of the strata at these points) is perhaps an additional argument in favour of this boundary being primarily a feature of denudation, or at least against its being a great master-disloca- tion (p. 540). Regarding the distribution and structure of the rocks in the Lower Himalayas, our information is still more scanty than in the case of the Sub-Himalayas, and our description must be correspondingly bare. For a 1 Q. J. G. S., VII, p. 309. N 1 594 GEOLOGY OF INDIA LOWER HIMALAYAS. [ Chap. XXV. length of 500 miles in Nepal, we have only notes upon one short section in the middle ; and to the east of this, throughout the whole range, only one narrow area has been examined, in Sikkim. It is in the north-western portion that most observations have been made, and it is there that the rocks are in the most favourable condition for study, as exhibiting least metamorphism. This is apparently due to the position being a sub- terminal one in the mountain area. However this may be, we find here a continuous broad belt of unaltered limestones and shaly slates at the edge of the mountains ; and at many pointte they extend far into the interior. This border contracts gradually to the eastwards, being com- paratively narrow, though still well marked, at Naini Tal ; but on the Kath- mandu section it has disappeared, and in Sikkim gneissic rocks come very close to the southern or main boundary. The relation of these unaltered rocks to the gneissic series is the chief puzzle of the Lower Himalayas. The boundary of the two is as irregular as it can be, and quite unlike any feature described in other Himalayan regions. As in the case of the Sub-Himalayas, and for analogous reasons, we must describe the Lower Himalayas in sections of areas, commencing at the west end, with the terminal area already denoted as the Simla region. 1 The terminal area. It is important to note at starting that the termination of the Lower Himalayas, in about 77 of east longitude, is strictly a feature of the general mountain-structure, the boundary there being more or less homologous with that elsewhere. The several rock-series of the area do not continue with their general north-westerly strike up to the terminal boundary, nor end there along a transversely denuded outcrop, against the tertiary formations. Here, as elsewhere, the strike of the old rocks conforms to the main boundary, even when almost at right angles to the axis of the range ; and the same external band of unaltered paleozoic rocks intervenes continuously between the gneiss of the interior and the fringing tertiary formations. This condition holds good for the whole Western Himalayas, the strata forming throughout an independent system of disturbance : at no point along the mountain border on this side do the gneissic rocks touch the Sub-Himalayan zone, so they can never (in, or since, silurian times) have been continuous with the crystalline rocks of peninsular India. This fact would be almost a corollary from the statement already given (p. 569) , that the contortion of the slates is of poet-nummulitic date ; it may now be quoted as a confirma- tion of that statement. 1 For some particulars of this ground, see Mem. G. S. I., Ill, Ft. 2, 1864 ; arid Rec. G. 8. I., X, p. 202, 1877. Extra-Peninsular.] CORRELATION OF GROUPS. 595 Classification Of rocks. The following petrographical groups are distinguishable in the Simla Himalayas. It is convenient to consider them as two series, although they may be in part equivalent ; the relation between the two being the great puzzle of the geology of this region, and the chief contrast between* it and the Central Himalayas. A Outer, newer, or slate series Krdl : limestones, sandstones and shales . . . 8001,200 Infra: Krol : shales (often carbonaceous) and flaps . 1,0003,000 Blaini ' : limestone, sandstone mid conglomerate . 100 I nt'ra- lUaini (Simla slates) : slates and flags . . over 5,000 * Base not known. H Inner, older, or gneissic series Gneissose schists 6,000 Massive gneiss 100600 Schistose gneiss ....... ? Correlation of groups. The absence of fossils is one of the most puzzling facts connected with the geology of this area, and the samev remark applies to these formations throughout their extension on the southern face of the Himalayas, eastwards to Nepal and westwards to the Jhelum. All the rocks. of series A are such as might be expected to contain organic remains ; they are fully exposed to view at some much frequented localities, as in the hill stations of Mansiiri (Mussooree) and Naini Tal, and on the road to Simla, at all of which many skilled observers have searched carefully for fossils, but in vain. Only one authentic case of organic remains from these rocks is on record : z some indeterminable casts of bivalve mollusks from a band of limestone in the Tal, or Bheug, river, at the end of the Dehra Dun, 'east of the Ganges. In the absence of fossils, an attempt at identification can only be made through comparison with sections of known rocks, or by continuous connexion with known sections. On the former grounds, the following conjectural affiliation was made by Dr. Stoliczka, through a comparison with the rocks described by him in Spiti, beyond the snowy range due north of Simla. 3 Simla. Spiti. Europe. Krol limestone. Lilang series. Upper trias. Infra-Krol. Lower trias. Quartzites and mica- schists at Simla. Kuling. Carboniferous. Blaini. Muth. Upper silurian. Infra-Blaini (Simla slates). Upper Bhabeh. Lower silurian. 1 Formerly spelt "Blini": the first vowel sound is full, as in blind, so the correct spell- ing is " Blaini." - Mem. G. S. T., Ill, Pt. 2, p. 69. Mcm.G,S. I., V, p. 141. 596 GEOLOGY OF INDIA LOWER HIMALAYAS. [Chap. XXV. On the same page (I. c.} Dr. Stoliczka mentions a prior recognition of the infra-Krol beds as lower trias, from their being mineralogically so very similar to the Bunter Sandstein of Europe ; and no remark is so fre- quently repeated in Stoliczka's later Himalayan notes as the resemblance of the semi-oolitic triassic limestone to the Krol rock. An apparent confirmation of the age assigned by Dr. Stoliczka to the Krol group was published about the same time 1 in Professor G umbel's description of a specimen, from the Schlagintweit collection, said to have been obtained at Dharampur near Solan in the Simla district, containing three fossils, Lima lineata and Natica gaillardoti, found also in the Muschelkalk in Europe, and a new species, Nat. simlaensis (Giimb). In view of all the circumstances, 2 however, it seems safest to doubt the authenticity of this specimen. The well-known locality Dharampur, in the neighbourhood indicated, is certainly on nummulitic rocks, and there can be but little doubt that the specimen in question came from some totally different ground, possibly from Tibet. The method of connected observations has suggested a different correlation of the upper members of the Simla series. These rocks, as has been said, are continuous, although locally much contracted and ob- scured, along the Himalayan border up to the Pir Panjal, and the lime- stone there occurring, like that of the Simla region, at the top of the slate series, nas been satisfactorily identified by Mr. Lydekker 3 with the carboniferous limestone of Kashmir (the Kuling limestone of Tibet), and quite distinct from the triassic limestone, which also occurs in the valley. He also thinks that the infra-Krol is carboniferous, leaving the Blaini group and the 'Simla slates to represent the Muth and Bhabeh rocks of Tibet, as silurian. In the Pir Panjal and Kashmir, as in the Lower Himalayas, these lower rocks have as yet proved unf ossiliferous ; but there can scarcely be a doubt of their representing the infra-carbon- iferous slates of Tibet in which silurian fossils have been found. The gneissic series. The gneissic and schistose rocks, even in the Simla region, occupy the largest portion of the Lower Himalayan area south of the great snowy range. That range, westwards from Nepal, has been described by different observers as formed of, or supported by, gneiss, with extensive intrusion of granite. In describing this gneiss between the Sutlej at Wangtu and the Bhabeh pass, north-east of Simla, Dr. 1 Sitztmgsber.bair. Akad. d. Wiss., 1865, II, p. 354. 2 So many serious errors have been found to exist in the localities assigned by the Messrs. Schlagintweit to their reptilian and other collections, that no dependence can be placed upon any specimen collected by them. Rec. G. S. I, XI, p. 63, 1878. Extra-Peninsular.] THE ONE1SSIC SERIES. 597 Stoliczka distinguished it as the " central gneiss/' asserting that, geologi- cally speaking, it had nothing to do with the gneiss of the Lower Hima- layas to the south of it. 1 It is presumable that there was some better ground for this opinion than the presence of an eruptive rock in the gneiss along this mountain axis ; but however this may be, it has been shewn beyond reasonable doubt by Colonel McMahon 2 that the crystalline series forming the peaks south of Wangtu, of which the Simla watershed is an offshoot, is the same as that of the main range. 8 The massive granitoid gneiss which, although subordinate, is the most conspicuous member of the series, and thus was unfortunately made its representative member, passes into the north base of these southern peaks above Sangla on the Baspa (which joins the Sutlej south of Chini), at an elevation of about 10,000 feet; and it emerges on the south base at Lorot (20 miles due south-west from Sangla) at the head of the Pabar valley, at an elevation of about 8,500. In the intervening mountains of Bisahir, crossed by the Borendo and Rupin passes, the stratification lies flatly, and there must be some 6,000 feet of the gneissose schists overlying the more granitoid rock. Although no granite has been observed here, these are no doubt the same as the schistose gneiss, having a high northerly dip, described by Dr. Stoliczka in the Bhabeh section (1. c., p. 14) and distinctly included by him in his " central gneiss." The opinion that this gneiss was restricted to the main mountain axis was, no doubt, a principal reason for the name given to it, which is certainly not altogether appropriate to the real state of the case. " Lower gneiss " would have been a better designation for it, as it is probably the oldest rock in the whole Himalayas. In the Tibetan region we shall find gneiss that is probably an altered silurian rock ; whereas the junction of the Lower Himalayan gneiss with the silurian slates on the north side of the main range is represented as abrupt, if not unconformable ; although the granite is said to penetrate even up to the overlying secondary rocks. 4 This determination of the Lower Himalayan gneiss in the Simla region to be the same as that of the main range, is a point of great importance ; as it at once disposes of the conjectures that had been hazarded, as to its being possibly of later age than the Krol rocks ; and it is only fair to suggest that those conjectures may have influenced 1 Mem. G. S. I., V, p. 15. 2 Rec. G. S. I., X, pp. 216221. 1 It should be recollected that Dr. Stoliczka did not himself survey the Simla region, and that his examination of the gneiss iu this part of the Himalayas can only have been of the most cursory description. 4 /. c., p. 12. 598 GEOLOGY OF INDIA-LOWER HIMALAYAS. [Chap. XXV. Dr. Stoliczka's decision upon the distinctness of the two gneisses. Suppos- ing the massive band of granitoid gneiss to have an approximately fixed position in the series, as is implied for this area by the foregoing observ- ations, it will be of great service in tracing the position of the gneissic series and its relation to the slate series. On the secondary ridge, and principal watershed, running west-south-west from the Bisahir peaks to Simla, this gneiss forms the crest at Hatu (10,469) ; and it is very pro- minent below the crest in the southern branch, forming the Shankan ridge, from which it passes eastwards into the valley of the Pabar. A low east-north-easterly dip is the general lie of the gneiss in this position. Hatu would seem to be on the crest of an anticlinal, and 8 miles to the north, in the Sutlej (3,000), the same gneiss, or what we are supposing to be the same, forms the banks of the river from Kamarsen bridge, nearly to Rampur, the capital of the Bisahir State. North of the Sutlej, in the Jalori ridge, running from the snowy peaks of Kulu west-south-west- wards to the Cheru summit (10,134), within 12 miles of the tertiary zone, a massive granitoid gneiss again occurs, with a prevailing low easterly dip. All these gneissic rocks of the interior are continuous with the crys- talline mass of the main chain ; and the principal feature to notice about them is their small disturbance as compared with their state in that chain, or with the condition of the newer rocks forming the outer zone of the Lower Himalayas. But there is one mass of granitoid gneiss differently circumstanced in the Simla area, forming the Chor mountain (11 982 feet high), 25 miles south-east of Simla, and 20 miles from the main boundary at Nahan. Lithologically, the rock forming the Choi- is the same as the massive gneiss of Hatu and elsewhere, but in the first- named mountain it is quite surrounded by the rocks of the upper series. It will be described further on. The slate series. Although true slaty cleavage, distinct from lamination and jointing, is of rare occurrence in the Lower Himalayas, 1 the prevailing type of rock in the newer series, indicated on p. 595, is that best described as slaty; and it will be convenient to speak of these rocks collectively as the slate series, as distinguished from the lower metamor- phic series. Locally, the texture is below this standard of induration, and- the rock is rather shaly than slaty, as in the Infra-Krol shales at the base of the Krol mountain. Locally also, and more frequently, crystalline foliation is well developed, where the rock is rather schistose than slaty; as in those same Infra-Krol shales on Jako at Simla. 1 Mem. G. S. I., Ill, Pt. 2, p. 72. Extra-Peninsular. ] THE SLATE SERIES. 599 The normal order of this series is nowhere so surely displayed, with so little disturbance and alteration of the strata, as in the Simla region, just inside the Sirmur rocks of the standard area, on the main road to Simla. From the Solan rest-house the Krol mountain (7,406) on the north, the Boj on the west, and Kanoj on the south-east, are within easy walking distance. They are formed, above the road level, of massive limestone, more or less isolated upon a base of earthy slates, thus leaving no doubt that the limestone is the latest of the series. The Blaini stream rises just west of Solan ; and in its channel the small, but highly distinct- ive, group that bears its name is repeatedly exposed, sometimes in con- tact with the nummulitic clays. Considering its persistent small dimen- sions, this Blaini group has a remarkably wide distribution, having been traced in typical form as far as the Krol limestone itself ; and thus a much-needed horizon can be recognised in an immense thickness of rocks that could scarcely otherwise be separated, and a clue is furnished whereby to unravel and delineate the very complicated disturbance to which these outer rocks have been subjected. So far as can be, or at least has been, made out in the outer zone of the mountains, there is conformity between the several groups of the upper series ; but in discussing the relations of the two series, facts will be observed involving the overlap of the upper groups at or about the Blaini horizon. The Infra Blaini rocks (Simla slates). In the neighbourhood of Solan, where the three upper groups of the slate series are typically seen, the Blaini rocks occur in the lowest ground, so the underlying formations are not exposed. These may be well seen near Simla, below the Blaini outcrop on the east in the valley of the Ussan, and on the north towards the Sutlej. They consist of finely laminated slaty shales and thin sandy flagstones, with occasional beds of earthy sandstones. The lamination is sometimes fine enough and the induration sufficient to produce service- able roofing slate, but much inferior to true cleavage slates. From the Blaini rocks at the Lakri Bazaar there is an apparently unbroken succes- sion of the Simla slates to Naldera (the ridge above Bassantpur), where the limestone of the Sutlej valley begins; the dip is steady, and there is no trace of a flexure ; 5,000 feet is a low estimate of the thickness of such a section. The limestone just mentioned is supposed to be the Krol lime- stone, brought down by faulting ; and, as in every other known section, the actual substratum of the Simla slates has not been observed in this region. The Blaini group. This group consists of two very distinct mem- bers, each of which seldom exceeds 50 feet in thickness, and is gene- rally much less. The upper rock is a fine, compact or micro-crystalline 600 GEOLOGY OF INDIA LOWER HIMALAYAS. [Chap. XXV- magnesian limestone, 1 of pale-grey and pink tints, thin bedded, but often amalgamated into a single mass. It rests upon a quartzite sandstone, often a clear quartzose rock, but sometimes rusty and more or less earthy. In whole or in part this lower band is very often highly conglomeratic, with well-rounded pebbles and small boulders of white quartz and vari- ously-tinted quartzites, and sometimes partially-rounded debris of slate rocks. Pebbles of crystalline rocks have not been observed in it in this region. Although often crushed together, mixed and inverted, these two rocks seem never to have been interstratified originally; and it is possible, notwithstanding their so constant association, that they were considerably separated in age. The persistent occurrence of two thin bands of such different types of rocks over so large an area is a remarkable circumstance, but a most fortunate one for the geologist who undertakes the study of this difficult ground. Infra-Krol group. This is a provisional form of nomenclature, and it is not improbable that " lower Krol " group would be more appropriate; but until the connexion can be based upon palseontological facts or more extended observation of the strata, it is safer to adhere to the more vague expression of the relation. At the base of the Krol, north of Solan, the soft black infra- Krol shales are very well exposed. The carbonaceous element is the most striking character of the group, but it cannot be adopted as an essential one, or even perhaps general. Sometimes this character extends down to the beds overlying the Blaini limestone, as in the outcrops on the Ghambar between Kiari Ghat and Sairi ; but often it is wanting in beds that seem to belong to this horizon, as along the Solan watershed, on the crushed anticlinal between the Krol and the Boj. In the absence of faulting, or of an outcrop of the Blaini limestone here, all the beds should belong to the infra-Krol group, but they are not car- bonaceous. It may perhaps be questioned whether this can be attributed to a subsequent removal of the carbonaceous ingredient, or to an original inequality of distribution. This carbonaceous ingredient of the shales is, however, very widely spread, being well seen at Mansuri (Mussooree), and other places at a distance from the Simla region. The shiny black crushed rock, so common in faulted ground in this region, is presumably derived from the carbonaceous beds of the infra-Krol group. 2 1 McMahon : Rec. G. S. I., X, p. 210. 2 Svbathu Coal. The coaly aspect of this carbonaceous shale, especially where made glossy in crushed ground, has often raised expectations of finding coal. In 1862, Colonel Pyers, in spite of warnings, made an attempt at mining upon an outcrop of this crushed rock near Subathu, expecting to find coal to the deep. The stuff contains sometimes as much as 25 per cent, of fixed carbon, besides 11 per cent, of volatile matter, partly hydro- carbons. Extra-Peninsular.] RELATIONS OF THE SLATES AND GNEISS. 601 In the neighbourhood of the Krol or at Simla, a thickness of about 1,000 feet would include the beds between the Blaini limestone and the base of the Krol group ; elsewhere there is a much greater apparent thickness, as from the base of the Tara Devi quartzite at Man Ghat sum- mit, to the outcrop of the Blaini group in the Ussan, where the thickness would seem to be 3,000 feet. But in all these sections the strata are greatly affected by small slips ; and these interfere with any attempt to estimate the dimensions of the groups, and tend either to exaggerate, or to diminish the true thickness. 1 The Krol group. On the Krol mountain, from which it takes its name, the top group consists almost entirely of limestone, a pale-grey compact or crypto-crystalline rock, sometimes dark and locally oolitic ; but even here there are subordinate shaly beds, sometimes pale pink, and at the base there is a variable band of clear coarsish quartz sandstones. The calcareous element is decidedly the prevailing character of the group, as compared with the underlying slate series, which is remarkably deficient in this ingredient. The sandy element, however, is often very pro- minent. As an expansion of the bottom band, this fact is well exempli- fied at Simla, in the massive quartzites of Boileauganj, and of Tara Devi ridge to the south, overlaid by a remnant of the Krol limestone at Jutog. Elsewhere, as south of Guma peak in Sirmur, the limestone itself is rather a calcareous sandstone, or occurs as subordinate bands in a mass of sandstone. When the ground comes to be worked out, these variations will be useful, as suggesting local conditions of deposition; and the estab- lishment of this character in the standard area will facilitate conjectural identification of the group elsewhere, as in Nepal. The relations of the slate and gneissic series. No special ac- count has been given of the distribution of each group, nor of the struc- tural features of the ground, because the little that is known of either will be fully exhibited in discussing the difficult question of the relation of the two rock-series. The structural peculiarities of the Lower Himalayas are best shewn by contract with those of the other regions of the moun- tains. All the boundaries hitherto noticed were determined along what are clearly Himalayan lines of disturbance. Even in the middle region, where both the bottom tertiary and middle tertiary junctions were shewn with some probability to be aboriginal, i. e., primarily (as junctions) lines of deposition, these had previously been determined as lines of erosion by the early results of Himalayan disturbance. In the North- West, again, where the Sub-Himalayan and Central Himalayan features come toge- ther, -there is complete correspondence between the structural features in the 1 Mem. G. S. I., Ill, Pt. 2, p. 37. 602 GEOLOGY OF INDIA- LOWER HIMALAYAS. [Chap. XXV. o-neissic axes of the Dhauladhar (the range just north of: the Kangra valley) and the Pir Panjal (the range south of Kashmir), which are constructed on the same pattern as the latest ridge of the Siwaliks. The change is im- mediate where, at the east end of the Dhauladhar, the Lower Himalayan region begins : the boundary of the slate and the gneissic series here does not run even approximately parallel to the main boundary ; it bends east and then north, round the point of a ridge of gneiss, up the valley of the Bias towards Sultanpur, and thus all round the basin of the river and its tributaries to the south, where it runs to south of west along the Jalori ridge of gneiss, separating the Bias from the Sutlej, and then round the point of this ridge and along its south flank to far up the valley of the Sutlej. Other changes are commensurate with this remarkable one in the out- line of the boundary : from being a single narrow outcrop along the base of the Dhauladhar, the slate and limestone series spreads into a wide area (some 20 miles by 30) in the Bias basin, and similarly on the Sutlej. The structural features in the two positions are equally discrepant : along the Dhauladhar the strata are vertical, or. underlie towards the gneissic axis in inverted order ; whereas in the great river basins of this termi- nal area of the Lower Himalayas, the confused contortion of the rocks within the basin is beyond description ; but at the boundary the dip on all sides is towards the overhanging ridge of gneiss, and in normal order, the great or Krol limestone being uppermost. 1 The appearance is as if the slate and limestone series really passed beneath the gneiss, and were older than it ; but if this gneiss is the same as that of the main range, such a view would be untenable. The sup- position which would best represent the facts to the imagination is, that these deep and precipitous valleys in the gneiss had existed in pre-silurian, or at least pre-carboniferous times, and had become filled with deposits of those periods. Under subsequent compression the disturbance would principally take effect upon the softer later deposits, and in a man- ner corresponding with the features described. It is doubtful indeed whether any other -supposition will fit the case : the structural features may almost be said to be incompatible with the view of their formation by faulting or inversion, produced by lateral thrust upon any parallel sequence of strata, the very different results of which processes are so well illustrated in neighbouring areas. An apparently complete refutation of the objection just stated, against the explanation by faulting, is found in the Sutlej' basin. The Shali mountain (9,420'), which forms such a picturesque object in the land- 1 Mem. G. S. I., Ill, Pt. 2, p. 50. Extra-Peninsular. ] RELATIONS OF THE SLATES AND GNEISS. 603 scape from Simla, is formed of limestone, and it stands within the special basin of disturbance in question. Above and east of the gap connecting the Shali with the watershed-ridge east of the Sutlej, there is an outcrop of the Blaini group, dipping north-eastward ; and from the Shali the lime- stone passes to the south-east, and round the head of the valley under Thiog, Fagu, and Mahasu, into the Naldera ridge, where, we have already seen (p. 599), it apparently passes southwards under the base of the Simla slates. Thus on the south side the rocks of the Sutlej valley behave towards the slate series of the typical area, as they do to the gneiss on the north* side ; and it would seem that the crucial evidence, whereby to judge the whole case of these valleys full of the latest beds of the series, were to be found here, where the horizons of the contiguous rocks are more comparable*. The question turns upon the point, whether the limestone of the Shali, and of the Sutlej and Bias valleys, is the same as the Krol rook ; and, so far as our observations go, the answer is in the affirmative. The general resemblance of the two rocks is sufficiently marked, and the differences are no greater than have been observed in the Krol rock within its standard area. Carbonaceous beds also are found in both of those valleys ; and in one case an outcrop of the Blaini group has been marked, north of the Sutlej, on the spur north- west of Bihul ; where, in contact with a broad dyke of trap, there is a small thickness of coarse quartz conglomerate, overlaid by slate and thin-bedded limestone. 1 Accepting this identification, we are then bound to suppose a disloca- tion and downthrow of great magnitude in the Sutlej valley, or an up- heaval of the ground at Simla and to the west of it. The Blaini outcrop north of Simla passes westwards along the flank of the ridge to Dhamini, where it turns south and then south-east, following a devious course to near Haripur on the old road to Simla. 2 Thus the form of this inevitable dislocation is quite on a par with that of the boundary with the gneiss between the Sutlej and the Bias. "We cannot, however, reasonably apply this crucial evidence all round, without consideration of the objections already noted. We have seen how regularly even the oldest rocks can conform to the lines of Himalayan disturbance a fact which implies some approach to original homogeneity of disposition in the strata so affected'; and, in like manner, it seems obligatory to account for such veiy abnormal lines of dislocation as that under notice by supposing a 1 Mem. G. S. I., Ill, PL 2, p. 56. 2 For the observations here quoted, and for others to follow, as well as for a fuller discussion of this puzzling question, sec Colonel McMahon's excellent paper on the Siinla Himalayas, Kec. G. S. I., X, p. 204. 604 GEOLOGY OF INDIA LOWER HIMALAYAS. [Chap. XXV. corresponding discordance of original relations in the masses subjected to the disturbing action. For the case in hand no supposition seems so plausible as that already made, that these upper rocks in the actual valley basins were originally laid down in similar deep hollows formed by subaerial erosion in the gneissic series ; and that the dislocated up- heaved mass of Simla slates, forming the ridge on the south of the Sutlej, was determined in form by an underlying original ridge of the support- ing gneissic rocks. The presence of this massive gneiss in the Chor, on the axis of this curved dislocation, is perhaps some support for the ex- planation offered of the latter feature. This mode of action is also sup- ported by observations made elsewhere, from which it was inferred that compression has a tendency to increase original inequalities of surface. 1 The junction of the slate and gneiss series in this region is not, however, all of the sharply defined form described in the Sutlej valley, where the massive unaltered limestone dips abruptly towards the massive gneiss. The observation already mentioned, of the Blaini group on a high point north-east of the Shali, and having a low north-easterly dip, gives us cause to expect that the Krol rocks occur in the ascending section in the direction of the high mountains, lofty spurs from which are at no great distance. The same Blaini outcrop has been traced by Colonel McMahon to the south-east across the Thiog ridge into the valley of the Giri, east of which it passes under the Paternala ridge, formed of Krol quartzites, to emerge again in the valley under Chepal, whence it is trace- able to the Tons at the bridge on the Simla- Mansuri (Mussooree) road. The expectation to find the supra-Blaini rocks inside this line is natural ; but the difficulty of recognising them is indefinitely increased by the greater or less metamorphism that all the rocks have undergone in this direction. A very important first attempt to accomplish this task has been made by Colonel McMahon. He considers that the calcareous schists forming the summit north of Matiani, on the Simla watershed ridge, east of Shali, represent the Krol limestone ; and they pass on to Narkanda, close under the Hatu summit, formed of the massive gneiss. Similar calca- reous and carbonaceous rocks occur in the Sutlej valley, north of Hatu, above and below Kotgarh, and close above the massive gneiss in the gorge of the river. Other identifications have been made in like posi- tions elsewhere, as at the base of the Shankan ridge about Kotkhai and Tirhosh (Taroche), and far up the tortuous valley of the Rupin. The degree of metamorphism these supposed Krol beds have undergone is always markedly less than that of the gneissic rocks of the enclosing 1 Rec. G. S. I., VII, p. 62. Extra-Peninsular.] SPECIAL METAMORPHISM AND DISTURBANCE. 605 ridges ; but the action has been sufficient to amalgamate the two rocks at their junction, so that the detection of their original contact is most difficult. Such crucial sections must, however, be sought for and found, to complete the direct evidence for the proposed relations of the rocks. Such observations as those now recorded where top beds of the slate series rest close upon the massive gneiss imply, not only the removal of the 6,000 feet of schistose gneiss, normally overlying the massive rock in closely adjoining positions, but also the entire overlap of the Simla slates by the Krol deposits in the inner area of the mountains ; thus completing the picture of the primitive condition of the Simla area as a great mass of gneissic rocks, deeply eroded by atmospheric denudation, and gradually submerged beneath the palaeozoic waters. The idea of the upper gneiss being the Simla slates converted, is hardly to be thought of ; a much more probable equivalent for the infra-Blaini beds being found in the silurian slates resting upon that gneiss in Tibet. Special metmorphism and disturbance. The extent to which the top beds of the slate series have been locally metamorphosed under different circumstances is well exhibited at Simla itself ; the garnetif erous and hornblendic mica schists, with abundance of vein quartz, forming Jako, being undoubtedly converted infra-Krol beds, overlying the Blaini group, which is well seen round three sides of the mountain. This feature is in itself most interesting, as shewing that advanced results of metamorphism are brought about independently of any plutonic heat ; the Simla slates underlying these' highly foliated schists of Jako shew no sign of crystalline metamorphism, although of course they must have had the full benefit of any heat from below that can have been instrumental in producing those effects on the upper rocks. This re- markable case of special metamorphism at Simla was a 'strong point in the suggestion that even the gneiss of Hatu and elsewhere might really be a later formation than the Krol beds, which at so many points seem to pass under it. That suggestion did not necessarily imply that the Krol heds maintained their unaltered condition beneath the gneiss ; but the proof (p. 597) that this latter rock is the same as the infra-silurian gneiss of the main range, renders the suggestion altogether untenable. In this connexion notice may be taken of a common structural fea- ture of the hills in this region ; how, almost invariably, vertical or highly contorted beds are found in the bottoms of the valleys, whether transverse or longitudinal ; while in ascending the slopes the dips become lower, and at top the beds are often quite flat. The usual explanation of this would be that, as the valleys are the result of denudation, erosioQ had taken place where the strata were most crushed. A quite 606 GEOLOGY OF INDIA LOWER HIMALAYAS. [Chap. XXV. opposite interpretation of the facts has been suggested by Colonel McMahon, to shew that more or less of the contortion of these rocks has occurred since the hills and valleys assumed somewhat of their present form : that, lateral pressure, set up beneath a deeply eroded surface, would take effect in the manner described, crushing the strata in the positions of least resistance, the action being distributed in a diminishing degree up the sides of the hills. Some confirmation of this view may be derived from the fact that great contortion, the result of lateral pressure, has been proved to have taken place in the outer hills since the main features of the Lower Himalayas were carved out (p. 570) ; and it is by no means unlikely that at the same time some action of the kind supposed occurred in that area. There is always a risk in applying characters that are obscure, to modify the interpretation of characters that seem plainer ; ' but in complex questions no suggestion should be omitted. Thus the fact that on a commanding summit, some of the highest beds of the whole stratified series are found in a high state of metamorphism, overlying unaltered rocks, and well removed from the area of general metamor- phism, seems decidedly at variance with certain views put forward, on page 569, regarding pre-tertiary Himalayan land and the late dis- turbance of the slate series. The risk here lies in the imperfection of our knowledge regarding the processes of the metamorphism of rocks ; but on any supposition, short of some innate form of metamorphic action at this spot, we must connect the fact with the principal disturbance and crushing to which these rocks have been subjected ; and it must have been a form of disturbance very different from that suggested in the last paragraph. The same considerations would suggest that, at the time of their 'metamorphism, these rocks on Jako, and the valleys on both sides, must have been covered by a thickness of deposits of which no account has yet been taken. Or may we reverse the reasoning, and take the fact of the rocks being altered on this peak as a proof of how very superficial a matter thorough metamorphism may be ? Trappean rocks. The distribution of eruptive rocks in the Simla region is not without its bearing upon the foregoing considerations. On the best known section, that along the road through Simla to Nar- kanda, only one thin dyke has been observed near the latter place ; whereas in the same rocks of the adjoining area in the Sutlej valley, and again in the basin of the Bias, we find profuse trappean intrusion, evidently connected with the extreme crushing and disturbance the slates and limestone have undergone in those positions ; and the same intrusion occurs again freely to the south-east, under like conditions. Trap is rare Extra-Peninsular.] THE CHOR MOUNTAIN. 607 in the gneissic series, unless in particular spots, as on the Sutlej between Nogli and Rampur ; and its absence in the slates in the area indicated may be due to an underlying mass of gneiss, such as has been just sug- gested to account for the peculiar form of dislocation connected with the elevation of that area. This distribution of the trap, connected with the fact that the slates had not .been contorted when the Subathu deposits were laid down (p. 569), has been taken l to prove that the trap of the Lower Himalayas must be at least of post-nummulitic age. That it should so very rarely penetrate the tertiary rocks is rather remarkable (p. 557). Can the ex- planation of this apparent anomaly be, that the origin of this intrusive rock is rather innate than hypogene ? 2 The Chor mountain. The most conspicuous summit of what we may still speak of as the Simla region is the Chor mountain, having an elevation close upon 12,000 feet (11,982). It stands between the Giri and the Tons rivers, 25 miles south-east of Simla, and as near to the plains as that station itself. Throughout the whole Lower Hima- layas no summit of this elevation is known to occur so near the edge of the mountains. The entire crest is formed of the most massive granitoid gneiss, which, unless repeated by faulting or flexure, must be here at least 5,000 feet thick. The area occupied by this rock is about 10 miles long, from south-east to north-west, by 6 miles broad ; it is surrounded by the slate and limestone series. At first sight, and from the point of view of the slates and the metamorphic series forming an approximately conformable sequence, the feature was most puzzling, as it. had to be accounted for in some manner as a protrusion of the basal rock through an enormous thick- ness of overlying deposits ; and accordingly it was so accounted for 3 ; a partial resemblance of the cross-section to that of the Dhauladhar was allowed to overrule many almost incompatible facts recorded at the same time, 4 and the Chor was presented as a protruded mass. All the observations we possess of the ground are few and incomplete ; but they seem to agree best with the view brought forward by Colonel McMahon, that the Chor was already a mountain in palaeozoic times. 5 The ground offers an accessible and compact field for the study of this most interesting question of the relation of the two great rock-series. Mem. G. S. L, III, Pt. 2, p. 71. For a parallel case, see Mem. G. S. I., VII, (201) (203). Mem. G. S. I., III., Pt. 2, p. 47. I. c., pp. 41 to 45. Rec. G. S. L, X, p. 211. 608 GEOLOGY OF INDIA LOWER HIMALAYAS. [Chap. XXV- The gneiss of the Chor is highly g'ranitoid and massive. It is certainly generally free from foreign rock, but vein granite has heen observed in it. 1 The bedding and foliation can, however, be traced, indicating a low dip to north -north-east ; and other features shew this to be the lie of the gneissic mass : on the north, the overlying schists reach farthest up the spurs, and the gneiss farthest down the stream beds ; while on the south the highest outcrops of the gneiss area are on the spurs and the schists extend up the valleys. This latter disposition requires that the gneiss to some extent overlies schists ; but it has not been made out whether this is by normal superposition, or by inversion of newer beds, or by deformation of an original junction, or by faulting'. On the supposition of this gneiss being protruded from below among the slates, whether in a partially plastic state or by faulting, its neighbourhood should be a position of special disturbance. The contrary is certainly the rule. In ascending from the Giri to the Chor, the Simla slates maintain a' moderate dip towards the mountain; they become gradually metamorphosed, and about Banalah and Sohana, close to the gneiss, soft hornblendic garnetiferous mica schists, like those of Juko, are nearly horizontal. Similar beds on the north side form the spur between Handera and Suran, where they rest upon the porphyritic gneiss. If these beds are indeed of the infra- Krol group, the case of overlap and complete unconformity would be established. On the south- east side of the Chor the limestone is in great force, and the disturbance is more marked. South-east of Simla. Although, the fullest and clearest sections of the upper groups of the slate and limestone series are found in the Simla region, the most complete case of removal of these beds occurs in the same ground ; west of the Krol, up to Arki, the great Krol limestone is wanting, unless it is represented by the narrow band at Kakarhati on the old road to Simla, the pseudo-organic markings in which rock have often led to a vain search for fossils. The absence of the limestone here is apparently connected with the faulted elevation to the west, described on page 603. South-eastwards from the Krol the limestone range is very conspicuous, being sharply defined on the north by a great faulted anticlinal that passes from Kandah Ghat, at the north base of the Krol, down the deep valley of the lower Giri. From the confluence of the Palar with the Giri the limestone crosses to the north, and spreads over a large area east of the Chor, to the Deoban mountain (9,347') in Jaunsar. The boundary with the gneissic series has not been traced 1 McMahon : I. c., p 221. Extra-Peninsular.] KUMAUN AND GARHWAL. 609 in that direction. Along the ridge at Mansuri (Mussooree) the Krol limestone occurs frequently, as on the Abbey and Camel's-back summits. On the top of Landour it is mixed with sandstones, and appears again by itself on the Tapuban point. The Blaini limestone and conglomerate are well s^en en the flanks of the Sirkanda summit, and again in the Ganges at its confluence with the Hinnalgar. Intrusive trap is not uncommon in the slates at Mussooree. Kumaun and Garhwal. As the earliest British possession in the Himalayas, the province of Garhwal and Kumaun was the first open to systematic observation. Indeed, the first attempt at official geological survey work in India was the mineralogical survey of this ground, under- taken by Captain Herbert by order of the Governor General (Lord Hast- ings). The work was finished in 1825, lout was not published till 1842, 1 nine years after the death of Captain Herbert. As the work of an accomplished man, fairly versed in the science of his day, Captain Herbert's report is of permanent interest for students of geology in India, as the best local illustration of the state of geology at that time. A quarter of a century later it was again on this ground that a , connected geological survey on a large scale was undertaken by Captain Richard Strachey, of the Bengal Engineers, now General Strachey. His map includes the same area of the Lower Himalayas as Captain Herbert's, between the Sutlej and Nepal, with the important addition of a broad band in the Tibetan region. A comparison of the two works gives an instructive illustration of the advance made by geological science in the interval. With some few exceptions, our remarks on this portion of the Lower Himalayas are taken from General Strachey's observations. 8 The section through Nairn Tal and Almora presents some analogies with the Simla section. The ridge at Naini Tal is a great synclinal- range, with many local fractures and contortions, like its type the Krol range. The great limestone that forms many of the summits to the south of the lake is very like the Krol limestone ; and the pink, greenish and dark-grey shaly slates associated with it shew the same affinities. A conglomerate like the Blaini rock has been observed in the dark slates forming the ridge north of the Kota dun. One observation, indeed, has been recorded throwing doubt upon this correlation : the Messrs. Schlagintweit announced 3 the discovery " in the clay-slates in the neigh- bourhood of Naini Tal of numerous Foraminifera, evidently identical 1 As an extra number of Vol. XI of the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. The map to illustrate the report was issued with Vol. XIII, 1844 2 Q. J. G. S., Vols. VII and X, 1851 and 1854. 3 J. A..S. B., XXV, p. 118. .01 610 GEOLOGY OP INDIA LOWER HIMALAYAS. [Chap. XXV- with those which accompany the eocene nummulitic formation." It is possible that these explorers may have hit upon a remnant of the Subathu beds, folded up in the slates, like those mentioned in the Sirmur area (p. 534), and the one case east of the Ganges (p. 535) ; but it is also possible that the oolitic or other concretionary forms, common in the limestone at Nairn Tal as at the Krol, may^have been mistaken for fossils. Numerous careful observers have searched the rocks in vain to verify the Messrs. Schlagintweit's discovery. 1 North of the limestone range there is a great dislocation with up- heaval to the north, as at. the Krol. But in Kumaun, at least on this section, the line of fracture is filled with a basic eruptive rock, numerous dykes of which occur in the rang6 about Naini Tal. It is apparently on the south-eastern continuation of this main intrusion that the igneous rock which penetrates the sandstones of the Sub-Himalayan zone (p. 543) is described as taking the form of a granite. 2 It is stated that the limestone occurs again to the east of this great line of intrusive rock. North of the dislocation the contrast with the Simla section is most marked : we come at once upon thorough metamorphie strata, genuine schists, like the older series of the Simla region, rather than like any known metamorphic condition of the slate series. The strata maintain , a steady, moderate north-easterly dip, thus presenting a very marked decrease of disturbance as compared with the newer rocks. This was also a point of contrast between the two series in the Simla region. In Kumaun, -too, trap rock is comparatively rare in the gneissic series. South of Almora (the capital of Kumaun) a broad band of granitic rock occurs in the schists, and has a considerable range to south-east and north-west. It seems to be in the main a massive granitoid gneiss ; but some" true vein granite occurs with it. Mica schists occur again north of the granitoid rock, containing strings and nests of impure graphite, the north-easterly dip being continued ; after a space the same beds turn up, with a south-westerly dip. North of the synclinal there is a marked line of disruption, with copi'ous intrusion of trappean rock and the intro- duction of new strata slates, conglomerates, and quartzites, with lime- stone in force. Disturbance is, again, more varied and more marked in these formations, and it is not unlikely that they may ultimately be identified with the slate and limestone series of the Simla region, though no specific attempt can now be made at affiliation. Beyond these, again, 1 There is also a possibility, ns in the case of the triassic limestone, said to have been found by one of the same collectors near Solan, and in numerous examples amongst their zoological collections, that there was a mistake about the locality of the specimen. * 2 Q. J. 'G. S., 1851, VII, p. 298. Extra-Peninsular.] NEPAL. 611 there is a region of crystalline schists at the baee of the great snowy range. Nepal. From the borders of Kumaun we have to pass by a blank of 250 miles to get our next glimpse at the rocks of the Lower Himalayas, on the Kathmandu section. 1 The length of this section is about 30 miles, from the main boundary; which distance would nearly take us to the second line of dislocation and intrusion north of Almora in Kumaun, and as far as Narkanda in the Simla section. Except in the conjectural identification of the formations, the features are unlike those described" in the western area. The first rocks seen north of the tertiary sandstone are some earthy schists, having a crushed dip of 50" to north-by-east, quite parallel in strike to the sandstone and to the boundary. A thin band of blue limestone occurs in these beds ; and further on, a thick band of black schistose slates, in which are some irregular layers of impure coaly matter. All these beds, though decidedly sub-foliated, are less altered than any rocks to the north of them, and also less highly inclined. After some special contortion and folding, connected with which a doubt- fully intrusive trappoid rock was observed, the schists are succeeded by a broad band of quartzites ; and these again by a great mass of white crystalline limestone, all dipping at 70 to 80, to north by east. A specimen of this rock proved to be not dolomitic. This great band of limestone would seem to end the ascending section ; for over a broad area on the north this limestone and the quartzite are re- peated in broken confused masses, as if in a synclinal flexure, forming the most wild and picturesque portion of the Rapti valley, below Nimbua Tanr. The resemblance of this series to that of the Krol and infra- Krol rocks, is quite sufficient to warrant the supposition of their connexion ; and even the form of the sdction, so far, is homologous with the corre- sponding portion of the western sections. The greatly advanced meta- morphism and the excessive disturbance are the chief points of contrast. At the head of the Rapti valley, about Bimphedi, there is an abrupt change of the strike, to north- 35- west, in flaggy quartzose schists ; and in the Chessagarhi ridge these rocks are associated with thick bands of porphyritic gneiss, which becomes dominant at the north base of the ridge. On this side the change is abrupt, from the gneiss to a great series of flaggy and slaty schists occupying the Pinauni and Chitlong valleys. The dips are in opposite directions in the gneiss and the schists close to. their junction, suggesting that the gneiss had been faulted up 1 Ecc. G. S. I., VIII, p. 93. 612 GEOLOGY OP INDIA LOWER HIMALAYAS. [Chap. XXV. along a broken anticlyial. With slight variations, there is a steady ascending section of the flaggy schists up to the Chendragiri ridge, 'over- looking the valley of Nepal ; and here again we come upon calcareous rocks, which occupy the whole width of the Nepal valley. It is a broad synclinal, with repeated minor compressed flexures of these upper rocks. Pure limestone occurs chiefly towards the top of the series, as the white crystalline rock at the summit of Phulchok (9,720') and elsewhere ; but there is a great thickness of strata, in which the calcareous element, is subordinate, the prevailing variety being a massive, very fine, schistose quartzite, with only a small percentage of carbonate of lime. It is not a very forced supposition to conjecture that these Nepal rocks are the same as those south of the Chessagarhi ridge, and represent the Krol series. The change of composition is even analogous to that observed between the Krol and the ground at and north of Simla. The flaggy schists of Chitlong would fittingly represent the Simla slates. Crystalline schists rise again, more or less vertically, on the north- north-east side of the valley, apparently in descending sequence with .the calcareous formation, and at first alternating with the coarse, felspathic gneiss forming the lofty Sheopuri ridge. To the north-west, slaty schists come in again at the inner base of the Sheopuri ridge, and have a decided southerly underlie towards the gneiss. In the valleys of the Tadi and Trisulganga the strike of these schists changes to east- north-east, and calcareous rocks occur with them. The Sheopuii gneiss probably does not cross the Trisulganga. It is doubtful whether the gneiss of the Chessagarhi or Sheopuri ridges represents the old gneiss of the western sections. Its structural relation to the schist and limestone series is quite different. No granitic vein-rock was observed in connection with it. It is also noteworthy that no trappean eruptive rock occurs in these sections, except in the doubtful case already mentioned near the main boundary, although the rocks are so universally contorted. The fact is apparently adverse to the conjecture hazarded (p. 607) upon the quasi-innate nature of trap in the western region. The Sikkim area. Passing over another reach of forbidden ground, 250 miles long, in Eastern Nepal, the Lower Himalayas are again acces- sible in Sikkim, and we find an immense change in the aspect of the rocks. There is no calcareous group, and all the rocks are more or less metamorphic ; but their arrangement is veiy different from that seen in the Kathmandu section, and superficially more like that of the Simla region. Extra-Peninsular.] THE SIKKIM AREA. 613 The first observation of importance in this ground was the discovery by Dr. Hooker, in 1849, of rocks containing fossil plants of the Damuda formation at the base of the Sikkim hills. 1 This still remains the only case of identification between the pre-tertiary rocks of peninsular India and of the Lower Himalayas ; and while we are shut out from observa- tion in Nepal, nothing can be done to follow up this clue towards a fuller correlation of the formations -in the two areas. In 1874, Mr. F. R. Mallet was deputed to examine the ground with a view to the possible discovery of useful coal-seams in the Damuda recks. Several seams of workable dimensions were found, but the strata have been subjected to such compressioa and contortion, that the coal is every- where reduced to a flaky crumbling state, so that it could only be used after artificial consolidation. The broken condition of the rocks would also make mining very difficult. Mr. Mallet has, however, given a de- scription of the rocks that deserves careful attention. 2 His observations extended along the fringe of the hills through* the Western Bhutan Duars to the Sankos river,' near longitude 90 ; but as there is a striking contrast in the rocks to east and west of the Jaldoka, forming the boundary of Sikkim on the east, the descriptions had better be given separately. The Sikkim area is more than 90 miles long, from the Mechi on the west, at the Nepal frontier, to the Jaldoka on the east. The Tista (Teesta) river, flowing from the great snowy range, divides this area about equally into the Darjiling division on the west and the Daling on the east. North of Darjiling lies the broad and deep valley of the Rangit ; while the Tista and the Rangchu form a similar deep depression north of the Daling area, the combined effect being that of two broad lofty spurs confronting each other on opposite sides of the lower gorge of the Tista. There are three series of rocks within the area specified : a gneissic series, forming the whole of the mountain masses above 2,000 to 3,000 feet in elevation, and called the Darjiling gneiss; a great thickness' of schist and slate, called the Daling series, extending not only along the outer border of the mountains, but up the gorge of the Tista and round into the valleys of the Rangit and Rangchu ; and the Damudas, forming tne third series of the Lower Himalayan rocks in Sikkim. The last- named are only found at the outer edge of the mountains, their great- est inward extension being a short way up the valley of the Tista, where of course the deepest section of the rocks occurs. The Damuda out- crop dies out within the limits of the Sikkim border : on the west it 1 Himalayan Journals, Vol. I, p. 402, . 2 Mem. G. S. I., XI, Pt. 1. 614 GEOLOGY OP INDIA-LOWER HIMALAYAS. [Chap. XXV. cannot be traced beyond the Balasan river, 4 miles short of the Nepal frontier. To the east it has not been with certainty traced beyond the Chel, south of Daling, one of the positions already noticed where the tertiary rocks have been totally removed or concealed. The Daling slates at this point form a promontory, reaching quite up to the usual line of the outer edge of the tertiary zone. The Darjiling gneiss. True gneiss is the preponderating rock of the gneissic series, but it often passes into gneissose schist and mica schist ; bands of quartzite occur rarely, and hornblendic rocks are ex- tremely uncommon; limestone or dolomite is unknown, and the gneiss is quartzose and never granitoid. Almost the only accessory minerals are kyanite, schorl, and garnet. Several of these characters distinguish this gneiss very decidedly from the gneiss of the peninsula, which, is well represented close to the Himalayan border in the hills of Lower Assam. Except for the absence in Sikkim of the massive granitoid band, the Darjiling gneiss would fairly represent the gneiss of the Simla region. No observer in Sikkim has suggested the presence of two gneissic series. In the snowy range near Kanchinjinga Dr. Hooker has described this rock as penetrated by granite veins ; but this, as we have remarked (p. 597), gives no grounds for its separation. The age of -the gneiss in the great range of the Eastern Himalayas has not been proved ; but there is no presumption that it is different from the infra-siLurian gneiss in a corresponding position to the north-west ; and thus there is a decided presumption against the Darjiling gneiss being formed of strata of the secondary period, as it must be if its apparent relation to the other form- ations is the true one. At the same time, the rocks of the two areas have never been examined by the same observer. On the main northern road through Darjiling the gneissic area is 16 miles across, and the strata have the form of a broad flat synclinal, with numerous minor internal foldings. On the eastern slope also, over the Tista, the dip is inwards (westerly) . A like arrangement is observed in the gneiss of the Daling spur. The Daling series. Pale-green smooth slates or clay-slates are the prevailing rocks of the Daling series j in its lower outcrops, next .the Damudas ; but sometimes, in this position, they are quite schistose. Darker bands occur, also some flaggy quartzites, and rare beds of horn- blendic schist, which is sometimes calcareous or dolomitic ; but the almost complete absence of lime is a character of the series. Beds of carbon- aceous or graphitic schist are occasionally found in the Daling series, as on the road above Pankabari, and a little south of the cart-road at Kur- seong. West of the Mahanadi the beds next the Damudas are more Extra-Peninsular.] THE SIKKIM AREA. 615 earthy and arenaceous, and a slaty conglomerate occurs near, or at, the boundary. On approaching the gneiss there is always a marked increase of metamorphism. In the outer (southern) sections this apparent passage into the crystalline series is comparatively rapid ; while in the interior the metamorphism of the slates near the gneiss is more pro- nouribed, more gneissose beds appearing in them ; so that the distinction of the two series, is less marked. In both the Barjiling and Baling areas, the dip of the slates is constantly towards the gneiss, thus conforming regularly to the, con- verging dip described in this rock, and thus completing the appearance that the Baling series normally underlies the gneiss in a continuous transitional sequence. Only for a portion of the boundary north of Barjiling, in the Little Rangit and on the Takvor spur, an appearance of faulting between the two series was observed. From the recorded arrangement of the rocks, it appears as if the lower gorge of the Tista lies in a broad tranverse anticlinal curve of the strata. The Damuda series. In some sections, as on the cart-road to Barjiling, the Bamiidas have undergone little or no alteration, and their resemblance to the regular Gondwana coal-measures is very marked. The sandstones, as a rule, are rather fine-grained ; they sometimes occur in 'thick masses, but coarse, white, felspathic sandstones of the Barakar type are not common ; the beds are occasionally calcareous, and conglo- merates are absent. In these characters they resemble rather the upper measures of the Bamtida coal basins. The fossils as yet found comprise two species of Glossopteris (one is G. browniana), Fertebraria, an equisetaceous stem referred to Phyllotheca, and Sphenophyllum speciomm. Frequently, however, the Bamuda rocks exhibit as much alteration as the contiguous Billings, as west of Pankabari, and in the Rangichang east of Pankabari ; the sandstones being converted into hard quartzites and the shales into dark slates and graphitic schists. In this respect, the contrast with the contiguous tertiary rocks is important ; these, although greatly disturbed and compressed, never shew signs of mineral alteration. It would be difficult to assign a thickness for the Bamuda formation in this ground. The broadest section of the outcrop is at the Tista, about one mile long ; and the beds have a high dip (more than 60) throughout, but in very various directions. The prevailing dip is inwards, towards the mountains, and almost always so near the Balings, the stratification in the two formations being constantly parallel. Relations of the three series in Sikkim. The conclusions which Mr. Mallbt has adopted regarding the relations of these three rock-series are : that they form a continuous stratigraphical sequence, the gneiss being 616 GEOLOGY OF INDIA-LOWER HIMALAYAS. [Chap. XiV. the newest and the Damudas the oldest. This is undoubtedly the apparent reading of the recorded observations ; and considered by itself, without, reference to other Himalayan sections, the objection to it was more or less a theoretical one the occurrence of a completely metamorphorsed formation above absolutely unaltered deposits. Mr. Mallet did not, of course, suppose that the Damtidas passed beneath the mountain are with no greater change of texture than they exhibit at the outcrop on the edge of that area; even the Baling slates are more schistose in the interior valleys than along the outer scarp of the mountains ; still, if the apparent sequence of the rocks were true, the anomaly, on a very large scale, had to be accounted for, and the explanation of it offered by Mr. Mallet (/. c., p. 42) is certainly a vera causa, within unknown limits, in adopting which he was much encouraged by known pre- cedents the thoroughly crystalline schists (supra-'Blaini) forming Jako mountain at Simla, overlying slates that are not even sub-schistose ; and, the then open question whether the Krol series did not really pass under the gneiss of Jalori and of Hatu (p. 605). The subsequent demonstration by Colonel MacMahon> that the gneiss of the Simla region is w/)-a-silurian, made this latter supposition untenable ; and other explanations, seemingly more far-fetched, had to be adopted for that ground, regarding the relation of the two great rock-series. This experience in the Simla region compels us to scrutinise more closely the observations in. Sikkim, and to indicate what possible alter- natives there are to the view at present set forth. "We have three series to ' deal with here, which may rather help the discussion ; but we have not the advantage of knowing the normal (original) order of sequence in any of them, as was the case with the slate and limestone series in the north-west ; so that in Sikkim we have no direct criterion as to inversion, or otherwise, in any particular position. Out of all the observations recorded bearing upon this question, only one gives certain evidence upon the original relations of these formations. The opinion that the Dalings normally underlie the Darjiling gneiss is altogether inferential, from the lie of the rocks of both series in adjoin- ing .positions, no actual section of the junction having been seen. It may, indeed, be granted that if the gneiss does overlie the Baling series, it does so in normal sequence, inversion in this form and of such magni- tude being out of the question ; and this is a crucial point in the argument, for it can be said (from the evidence of our one sure section) that if the gneiss does overlie the Dalings, the Damudas must normally underlie them, as otherwise the gneiss must be converted 'Damudas, which is an untenable view. Extra-Peninsular.] THE SIKKIM AREA. 617 The crucial section referred to is that in the Lehti stream (/. c., pp. 28 and 39), just west of the promontory of slates south of Daling. Here we have a continuous section showing the original relation of the Damuda and Ddling series to be complete conformity and association by interstratification, several hundred feet of each series being exposed. Nothing can shake the fact derived from this section (assuming it to be correctly described) , that the two formations are conformably associated ; and this disposes of one of the possible conjectures regarding the bound- ary that the Damudas were deposited against a steep bank of the slates, as is thought to be the case with the boundary of the tertiary series. The junction observed in the Lehti section may, moreover, be one of extreme chronological importance ; for if the Daling slates should be ultimately proved to be the same as the middle palaeozoic slates of the Simla region, the Damuda beds so closely associated with them can scarcely be newer than upper paleozoic. The other important features of the Lehti section are, that the dip is steady and low (30) ; that its inclination is to the south ; and that the Damudas overlie the Dalings. As the balance of evidence from all the other sections, and the decision regarding the slate and gneiss boundary, indicated or required that the Damudas should underlie the Dalings, this section in the Lehti had to be considered as inverted, in spite of its unbroken low dip, and southerly inclination, which would require, or at least suggest, that the inverting thrust had been directed from the south. It is true that the Damudas here are in their most altered condition, comprising quartzose and car- bonaceous schists, with thin seams of the flaky anthrftctic coal ; but the action of metamorphism is too capricious and untraceable to carry much weight in an argument against clear mechanical conditions. We have already seen an instance (p. 537) in which one clear section was held valid against any amount of conflicting appearances. This Lehti section is not of the same decisive nature as the case referred to, but it certainly suggests the necessity of a close revision of the inter- pretation set forth for these intricate stratigraphical features. If it should be upheld as the standard section, as shewing that the Damudas normally overlie the Dalings, all the other sections of this junction must be regarded as inversions ; and the slate and gneiss boundary must be one of great unconformity or of great faulting ; for, as already mentioned, it is scarcely possible that the gneiss should be converted Damudas. This slate and gneiss boundary (p. 615) is, perhaps,' the less difficult of the two, for its features are exactly. similar to those in the Bias and Sutlej valleys of the 'Simla region (p. 602), where the fault or unconformity explan- ation had to be adopted. The greater difficulty is to shew howj on the 618 GEOLOGY OF INDIA LOWER HIMALAYAS. [Chap. XXV- supposition of inversion, the Damuda outcrop could assume the form it has ; such as, its greatest inward extension in the Tista valley, on what is taken to be an anticlinal axis of the slates. This extension on the denuded anticlinal axis is exactly what would occur if the Dalings over- laid the Damudas normally, without inversion. Another supposition is evidently possible : The unconformity view may be adopted, as in the North- West, for the Baling and gneiss relation ; and still the Damudas may normally underlie the Dalings, and be altogether overlapped by these, low down (underground) on the flanks of the gneissic masses. But in this case also the section in the Lehti must be an inversion. The reader will probably admit that the interpretation of the Sikkim sections is still an open question ; and he will also recognise how very precarious any attempt must be to correlate these rocks with those of the Lower Himalayas of the North- West : the only conjectures possible are, that the Darjiling gneiss probably represents the central gneiss, and that the Dalings possibly 'represent the Simla slates, in which case the Damudas must overlie them. The Bhutan border Buxa series. Colonel God win- Austen was the first observer in this ground (1865-68) ; when he brought to notice ' its peculiar features the local concealment or absence of the tertiary rocks, and the presence in force of dolomites that are not represented in the Sikkim sections. Mr. Mallet's, connected observations of the two areas were necessarily too rapid to admit of more than a suggested correlation of thesfe adjoining and contrasting sections. The superficial view of the case (from the maps) would be, that these new rocks in ijie Bhutan Duars take the place of the Damudas in the Sikkim ground. Mr. Mallet gave the name of Baxa series to this new formation, from the well-known Bhutanese fort which is built upon it. The- fullest section given is that in the Titi stream (20 miles west of Baxa), as follows (in apparent natural order) : (_/). Dark-grey slates ; pyritous and rusty . . . . . , 300 (e). Dolomite, with layers of dark -grey slate 1,500 (d). Green, black and red slates, with flaggy quartzite, chloritic schist, and flaggy calcareous beds at top 1,500 (e). White quartzite, locally flaggy and schistose 1,000 (6). Slates with flaggy silicious and calcareous layers 800 (a). Green and red slates , 500 The thicknesses are only eye-estimates, the dip being pretty steady at 60, to north-north-east. In the Jangti (3 miles east of Baxa) the 1 J. A. S. B., XXXIV, Ft.- 2, p. 106, and XXXVII, Ft. 2, p. 117. Extra-Peninsular.] THE BHUTAN BORDER. 619 apparent thickness of the dolomite band is 2,300 feet. Owing., however, to faulting or contortion, with denudation and concealment, this rock is locally absent from the exposed outcrop of the series, as in the space of 15 miles between Baxa and the Tursa. Carbonaceous schists were observed low in the series in the Raidak stream (10 miles east of Baxa). Owing to {he restrictions against entering the Bhrftanese territory, Mr. Mallet was not able to examine the inner boundary of the Baxa series where it is fully developed, but it seems there to underlie a broad belt of slates and schists intervening between it and the gneiss, "and probably representing the Daling series. This was also observed at a point 30 miles west of Baxa, where the Baxa series ends abruptly in the surface gravels : the Daling slates are seen in the Jangti river at a short distance off, and they seem to pass inside and to overlie the ridge of Baxa rocks. From this point to the Jaldoka at the Sikkim boundary, the hills are altogether inside the Bhutan border, and thus inacces- sible. Between the Sikkim boundary and the promontory of Daling slates there is a short space, 6 miles long, where some of the tertiary rocks are represented ; and between them and the Daling zone Mr. Mallet found beds representing both the Damuda and Baxa series, liut not in the same section. In the Mochu, on the west, just below the Dalings, dipping north-east at 60, there are coarse and fine sandstones, shaly and slaty beds, and two or three coal-seams of about a foot in thickness. These are undoubtedly Damudas; but the rocks belbw them are not exposed. At 3 miles to the east, in the Machu, some beds, including carbonaceous layers, are obscurely seen underlying very brittle silicious flags, with pink calcareous layers, and a few of red shale, dipping north- north-west at 50. Beyond these, and apparently overlying them, are green slates of the Daling type. The middle beds of this section are quite of the Baxa type, and unlike anything known in the Dalings ; and the carbonaceous layers at the base are not more carbonaceous than some found in the Baxa area. . Independently of any direct identification of tnese carbonaceous layers in the M&chu'as Damuda, which would shew a .distinct incipient intercalation of the Baxa beds between the Dalings and the Damddas, and a horizontal association "and transition between the Damuda and the Baxa deposits, the general comparison of the sections seem to suggest no other supposition than that these two series are in some manner representative of each other. The observations in hand do not admit of any further discussion of the question. 620 ' ' GEOLOGY OF INDIA-LOWER HIMALAYAS. [ Chap. XXV- .The Dikrang section. After so complete a change as that from the Damuda coal-measures of Sikkim, to a great mixed series of deposits like that of Buxa, it might certainly be expected that the alteration would be permanent, and that the Buxa type of deposits would continue to the eastward ; yet in the next observation we obtain of the Lower Hima- layan rocks, the section is more like that in Sikkim than any other. The locality is more than 250 miles to the east of Buxa, in the Dikrang valley, inhabited by the Daphla tribes, where Colonel Godwin-Austen has described, 1 immediately inside the tertiary zone, a belt, about 1,000 feet in thickness, of dark, hard sandstones with carbonaceous shales and seams of crushed flaky coal. No fossils were secured, but the probability is strong that the group represents the Damuda formation. The beds are more or less vertical, with a north-east strike ; and they are bounded, on the north-west by a parallel series of white quartzitic beds with micaceous and hornblendic schists, passing by degrees into gneiss, which in turn becomes highly granitoid. Had there been anywhere, near this ground any development of so conspicuous a rock as the dolomites, they would surely have been noticed by so practised an observer ; so the presumption is fair that the schists next the Damuda band represent the Daling rocks. Thus, again, the disappearance of the Baxa series and the reappearance of the Damudas in its place, is some slight con- firmation of the conjecture hazarded, that these two formations are in some manner equivalent. ' Summary. All the conclusions suggested by our study of the Sub- Himalayan rocks, and summarised at the end of Chapter XXIII, have' more or less bearing upon the contiguous Lower Himalayan area, and indeed upon the whole mountain region : any additional remarks deriv- able from this latter area only, must refer to the earliest periods of our history, or, indeed, to pre-Himalayan time, for all the formations 'con- cerned are probably not newer than, palaeozoic. From end to end of the range (veiy imperfectly known on the east) we have found two great rock-series, a slaty and a gneissic. For 500 miles in the middle of the range we have but one section, reaching only to 30 miles from the south border ; and it is, perhaps, doubtful whether the gneiss described in that section belongs to the older series (p. 612). In the Simla region, at the north-west termination of the Lower Himalayas, a strong case has been made out for very great uncon- . formity between the two series, shewing the palaeozoic rocks to have been 1 J. A. S. B., Vol. XLIV, Pt. 2, p. 35. Extra-Peninsular.] SUMMARY 621 deposited upon and against a very deeply and irregularly eroded surface of the old gneissic series (p. 605) ; to which' circumstance may be attributed the very partial, manner in which the contortion of the rocks of the Lower Himalayan area has conformed to the normal lines of Himalayan disturbance. Structural, features homologous to those of the Simla ground have been provisionally indicated in the east, in Sikkim (p. 61T). Should this relation of the two series be established throughout the range, a connexion will have been made out between this peculiar Lower Himalayan region and a primitive gneissic mass, forming a fundamental nucleus for the whole series of Himalayan formations. The presence of this barrier may help in the explanation of the strange contrast pre- sented by the fossiliferous deposits on the north, and the azoic charac- ters of what are probably the equivalent strata on the south, even though we find that these deposits were continuously connected to the north- west. What may have been the original 1 southern extension of the great slate and limestone series of the Lower Himalayan area is at present a matter of pur conjecture. Considering, on the one hand, the close con- nexion of the Damudas with the Lower Himalayan slates, and, on the other, the prodigious break in time between the Gondwanas and the Vindhyans of the peninsular area, it does not seem likely that the latter formation can have any representative in the newer series of the Lower Himalayan area. 622 GEOLOGY OP INDIA CENTRAL HIMALAYAS. [Chap. XXVI. CHAPTER XXVI. EXTRA-PENINSULAR AREA. CENTRAL (TIBETAN) HIMALAYAS. Data available Classification of rocks General structure and distribution The main gneissic axis The Ladak axis The Hundes and Zanskar synclinal The Karakoram synclinal and Kuenlun axis The Kashmir synclinal Position of the tertiary rocks Gneiss of two ages The central gneiss Mineral character Strati- graphical relation Relations defined only in the middle Himalayas The granitic ax i s Terminal extensions of the central gneiss The Zanskar gneiss The Pir Pan jal gneissic chain The Dhauladhar gneissic range The newer gneiss The chief sedimentary basins. The formations of the Zanskar area Palaeozoic series South -west boundary South-east boundary The Rupshu metamorphics North boundary with tertiary rocks The secondary series The tertiary scries. Data available. As the title of this section of our work would be understood to include all of the Himalayan region not described in the preceding chapters, we must at once call attention to the small portion of that enormous area of which any trustworthy observation's have been made, and of which only any notice will be taken. Of the two south . em divisions of the region, the Sub-Himalayan and the Lower Hima- laya^, compai'able sections were given, extending nearly to the eastern end of the Himalayan ranges, though with very long blank intervals. Of the entire eastern half of the central area, we have only to record Dr. Hooker's observation 1 within the frontier of Tibet, north of Sikkim and of the gneissic axis, that conglomerates, slates, and red clays were found overlying the gneiss ; and further on, a dark limestone . " full of encrinitic fossils and probably nummulites, but all were too much altered for determination." All the great peaks are said to be formed of granite or of massive gneiss. On the west of the unknown area of Nepal, General R. Strachey has described the country 2 from the watershed at Lake Manasaraur (Manasarowar), elevation 15,200 feet, in about longitude 81 30', and has given an account of part of Hundes or Ngari-Khorsum, in the upper valley of the Sutlej, as far as the place where this river enters the trans- verse gorge, about Shipki. 1 Himalayan Journals, Vol. II, pp. 150 and 177. Q. J. G. S., VII, 1851, p. 292 ; and X, 1854, p, 249. Extra-Peninsular.] CLASSIFICATION OP ROCKS. 623 This position immediately adjoins the ground of which a more de- tailed examination was made by Dr. Stoliczka 1 during the summers of 1864 and 1865, extending from the Sutlej to the Dras .river. Neither of these descriptions extends northwards much beyond the right J)ank of the Indus, which river occupies a nearly central position in the region we have provisionally adopted as the Central Himalayas. For the northern portion of this ground, including the Karakoram and Kuenlun ranges, our information is derived from the traverse made of it by Dr. Stoliczka on his journey to Kashghar in 1873-74. 2 The latest additions to the geology of the Central Himalayan region are by Mr. Lydekker in the neighbourhood of Kashmir. 3 Thus it is seen that our materials refer almost entirely, to the north- western, sub-terminal, portion of the Central Himalayas. It is in the near extension of this ground, where the main geological axes of the Hima- layas seem to be more or less continuous with those of the Hindu Kush, that the battle of the mountain systems (p. 518) must be fought out. While the facts upon which the question can be decided are unknown, it is difficult to take any interest injdiseussing it. Classification of rocks. In our description of the two preceding divisions of the Himalayan region, we have been forced to depend almost exclusively upon stratigraphical characters, the rocks of the Lower Himalayas having proved unfossiliferous ; and even in the tertiary Sub- Himalayan series the occurrence of fossils is so irregular, and the exact sequence of the known fossils is still so uncertain in detail, that but little use could be made of them in tracing horizons throughout so great an accumulation of deposits. Our knowledge of the Central Himalayas may almost be said to err in the opposite direction. In consequence partly, no doubt, of the explorer's attention having been especially directed to palaeontological investigation, but still more as a result of the great difficulties of moving about in such rugged ground, and under such trying atmospherical conditions, our information of the central region is decidedly deficient in critical stratigraphical observations. But few will complain of this when palaeontological information is forthcoming ; and on this score the results already obtained are highly satisfactory. In propor- tion to the time devoted to this ground, the knowledge we possess of it gives a striking instance of what a master-key palaeontology is in geological researches. It is sad to have to record that the master who applied that 1 Mem. G. S. I., Vol. V, pp. 1 and 337. 2 Rec. G. S. I., Vol. VII, pp. 12, 49, 51 ; aud Scientific Results of the Second Yirkand Mission: Geology: Calcutta, 1878. 3 Rec. G. S. I., 1878, Vol. XI, p. 30. 624 GEOLOGY OF INDIA CENTRAL HIMALAYAS. [Chap. XXVI, key to the geology of this region lost his life in those researches. Dr. Ferdinand Stoliczka was buried at Leh, in the very centre of the field 'of his achievements. In one respect, that of the unaccountable absence or rarity of fossil remains, the slate an'd limestone series of the Lower Himalayas exhibit an obscure relationship to the old formations of the Peninsula ; although, as regards petrological characters, the rocks of the two areas are en- tirely dissimilar. This azoic condition holds good for those same forma, tions along the whole south face of the Himalayas, in their extension to the north-west of the Lower Himalayan area, along the flanks of the Dhauladhar and the Pir Panjal. It is true these rocks in that posi- tion are greatly compressed and more or less altered, but certainly not so as to obliterate all trace of fossils, had any been present in them. Already on crossing the Pir Panjal into Kashmir, fossils are found in the carboniferous limestone, sandstone and shales, which are with much probability taken to represent the upper portion of the series to the south. Still here the underlying silurian slates have as yet yielded no fossils. It is only on crossing the higher range into Tibet that the series of marine fossiliferous deposits can be fully recognised. Through this ground the geology of India can be brought into relation with the rest of the world : all the principal formations of the established stratigraphical scale, except the cambrian, devonian, permian, and neocomian, have been identified. The detailed sequence of formations will be given in connexion with the separate areas in which they were observed. General structure and distribution. Considering the immense range of formations metamorphic, palaeozoic, and mesozoic represented in the sections of the North- West Himalayas, the general uniformity of distribution and symmetry of arrangement, so far observed, give much promise that, ultimately, a very complete history of the region can be made out. From end to end of the partially known ground, about 500 miles, two gneissic axes are more or less continuous. The main gneissic axis. The southern of these is the Himalayan range proper, of which, in Sikkim and again west of Nepal for 300 miles, gneiss is the predominant rock, many of the highest and most massive peaks being formed of it ; while the slates on the north sometimes run up to an equal altitude, and the passes, through the continuous line of greatest elevation (the watershed) , are generally to the north even of these slates. North of the Simla region, corresponding with the termination of the Lower Himalayan area, this main gneissic range divides into three, two of which come to an end well within the Himalayan limits ; the third probably does so too, but it has not been traced so far. Extra-Peninsular. ] THE HUNDES-ZANSKAR SYNCLINAL. 025 The Ladak axis. The second gneissic axis rims parallel to the first, at a distance of 50 to 80 miles. It has only been observed with any accuracy in Ladak, where it forms a steady range of moderate elevation, separating the Indus from its tributary, the Shaiok (Shyok), and the Pangkong^lake. The continuation of this gneiss to the north-west would run high up on the south flank, if not to the crest, of the great Mustagh range in Baltistan, or Little Tibet. To the south-east the Ladak gneiss passes, on both sides of the Indus, through Rupshu into Chinese Tibet. This delineation includes the Rupshu metamorphics with those of the Ladak range, as they are only separated by the nummulitic trough and the tertiary axis of eruption of the Indus valley. Their possible, or even probable, distinction will be indicated further on. The few names that have been current for the leading features of these mountains are often very inappropriate even for geographical purposes ; and for geological description, they are altogether inadequate. Indeed the familiar remark, denoting the close connexion between surface features and the rocks, has a partial lithological application, rather than a geological one ; for in the latter sense the idea would often be radically deceptive, as in the case before us : this gneiss of Ladak is geologically an axis of elevation ; but although more steady in its course, it is less elevated than the mountains formed of much newer rocks on either side of it; it coincides in part with the actual valley of the Upper Indus. We will avoid confusion with geographical names by calling it the Ladak gneissic axis. The Hundes and Zanskar synclinal Between these two gneissic axes there is a long synclinal basin in which the fossiliferous rocks are found in more or less complete sequence, according to original variations of deposition and the subsequent action of denudation. This feature is not, however, unbroken from end to end of the known ground; at long intervals the basin is more or less completely con- stricted or interrupted by transverse upheaval and metamorphism of the rocks. A principal break of this kind occurs where the Sutlej bends southwards at the Purgial mountain, which separates the Hundes area from that to the north-west, the secondary formations at least being com- pletely interrupted. It was in this north-western area that Dr. Stoliczka studied the rocks, principally in the Spiti valley, at the south-east extrem- ity of the basin, for which an appropriate name may be taken from the larger and more central district of Zauskar. The length of the basin is about 200 miles, ending abruptly east of the Dras river in a trans- verse mass of syenitic metamorphic rocks. The valleys of Astor and Gilgit, between which places the Indus has a north and south course, are p 1 6-26 GEOLOGY OF INDIA-CENTRAL HIMALAYAS. [Chap. XXVI. on the prolongation of this synclinal axis of Zauskar, beyond the crystal- line rocks forming the mountains round the Deosai plateau. Nothing definite is known regarding the extension of the sedimentary series to the east of Hundes ; but it is presumable, as Dr. Hooker conjectured, that the unaltered rocks observed by him north of the great gneissic range in Sikkim are more or less a continuation of those in a similar position in the North-Western Himalayas. The Karakoram synclinal and Kuenlun axis. North of the Ladak gneissic axis the same sedimentary series comes in again in force, but in this direction some of the upper groups of the series have not yet been identified. This area also is a broad synclinal basin, the newest rocks being found in the centre of it, in the Karakoram ridge, and the older formations rise again to the north against a third gneissic axis, forming the core of the Kuenlun range. The direction of this range seems to be more east and west than that of the Himalayan ranges proper; so that, if the gneissic axes continued to the west, the sedimentary basin of the Karakoram would soon be cut off in that direction ; while to the east it expands rapidly. The Kashmir synclinal. South of the Zanskar basin, and be- tween the diverging prolongations of the gneiss of the main Himalayan range, there is a minor synclinal basin of unaltered rocks, that of Kashmir and Pangi, divided by a transverse mass of metamorphic strata. Position of the tertiary formations. The one great exception to the general structural symmetry of the Himalayan formations is the distribution of the tertiary rocks. The nummulitic deposits are not found in the middle of the synclinal basins, in sequence with the upper secondary deposits : they seem, on the contrary, to be as far as possible out of connexion with the general sedimentary series, occupying, as they do, a long trough in the Indus valley, in or adjoining the metamorphic rocks of the Ladak gneissic axis. This feature is so very marked, as laid down for 200 miles, between Hanle and Kargil, by Dr. Stoliczka (who identified nummulitic rocks in no other position), and the significance of the tertiary rocks in the history of the mountains is so great, that special interest attaches to observations on this formation. Gneiss of two ages. It was fully shewn by Dr. Stoliczka that the metamorphic rocks of the Himalayas are extensively formed of converted paleozoic formations, in continuous relation with unaltered rocks of the same period. The whole of the gneissic axis in Ladak is considered to be so constituted. Elsewhere, unaltered lower paleozoic strata of great thickness are found in abrupt contact, at their base, with gneissic rocks. Two sections of this kind are recorded ; both are in the main Extra-Peninsular.] CENTRAL GNEISS. 627 Himalayan range, and on the confines of the area described as the Lower Himalayas. The descriptions of the contact are not very precise, but there can be little doubt that the slates were deposited upon a floor of gneiss. In Hundes General Strachey describes and figures some 2,000 feet of infra-silurian azoic slates overlying the crystalline schists in im- mediate, parallel succession, with a band of coarse conglomerate at or near the junction. 1 The granite of the adjoining axis of intrusion penetrates these slates for a short distance, without producing any great alteration. In the corresponding section described by Dr. Stoliczka on the Bhabeh pass, at the south-east corner of the Zanskar basin in Spiti, a similar relation was observed. The actual contact was concealed by snow ; but the lower rocks maintained their gneissic character to the top, and the nearest outcrops to them were of grey slates and sandstones, the lowest beds of a long series of lower silurian strata, quite unaffected by crystalline metamorphism. The latter are probably the same as the infra-silurian beds of Hundes. The dip is somewhat higher in the gneiss than in the slates, suggesting some unconformity or faulting at the con- tact ; but this is not certain, as the observations were some distance apart. Transitional metamorphism is, however, out of the question. The central gneiss. We thus have an important fact established, that of an older and a newer gneiss, the difference in age between them being necessarily very great ; so that the distinction of the two is a point of much importance in the geology of the mountain region. It was, no doubt, partly to mark this distinction of age, that Dr. Stoliczka gave the name central to the gneiss of the main Himalayan axis. The term is certainly ambiguous, and we have already (p. 597 ) pointed out one important correction in the extension given to it by Dr. Stoliczka ; but it may as well be retained, not in the sense of axial, but simply as denoting the fundamental formation of the Himalayan rock-series. Mineral character. It is unfortunate that so important a distinc- tion depends for detection upon such uncertain criterions as the mineral constitution of metamorphic rocks, and characters so generally obscured as those of contact-relations. The central gneiss is normally composed of white quartz with white felspar (orthoclase or albite), which often forms large crystals, in the more massive varieties of the rock ; and the basic mineral is mica (biotite or muscovite), often abundant in the more schistose varieties. The rock of the Ladak gneissic axis is, on the contrary, chiefly syenitic. This cannot, however, be taken as a sure criterion ; for elsewhere the silurian slates are found converted into ordinary gneiss. ' Q. J. G. s., VII, P . 302, 628 GEOLOGY OF INDIA- CENTRAL HIMALAYAS. [Chap. XXVI. Stratigraphical relation. The strati graphical relation is also of most uncertain application. It is evident that if a later metamorphism had converted the slates of the Niti or the Bhabeh sections, where the two series are in parallel succession, into gneissic schists, the great distinction betrayed by the actual relations (perhaps the greatest in the whole sequence of formations) would have been altogether obscured, and the whole would appear as one continuous metamorphic series. This is precisely the difficulty encountered in attempting to follow out the central gneiss to the north-west, in immediate continuation of the main Himalayan axis ; and the same impediment would of course render it still more difficult to detect the older gneiss in a detached area, sur- rounded by a later gneiss, as in the Ladak axis, or elsewhere. Even along the south boundary of the central gneiss, in the Lower Himalayan area, where there is great unconformity between the gneiss and the slate series (as that unconformity does not involve oblique discordance of stra- tification), it has been a matter of great difficulty to detect the distribution of the two series, and almost impossible to delineate their separation with any accuracy ; the originally highly contrasting conditions of the rocks having been so disguised by the subsequent metamorphism of the newer series, especially near the contact of the two. Relations defined only in the middle Himalayas. The very striking contrast of the relations between the central gneiss and the slate series, on the north and on the south, would be a remarkable fact, if it should be confirmed by more extended observations that, as is believed, the two slate series are identical. On the north there is quasi-conformity of superposition, while on the south, as we have seen (p. 601), the newer series overlaps and abuts against denuded masses of the older. 1 From this latter relation it was shewn that the central gneiss must have formed a primitive ridge, to some extent corresponding in position with the Lower Himalayan area. In spite of the contrasting stratigraphy, the northern sections confirm this impression, in that they shew, what was not demonstrable on the south, however apparently probable, that the gneiss underwent its meta- morphism in pre-silurian times ; and further, it can so far be stated that the evidence for this condition is limited to the confines of the Lower Himalayan area, or a middle Himalayan position with reference to the whole mountain range ; everywhere else, in Zanskar, Pangi, and the Pir Panjal, the slates become schistose, and are more or less transitional with the underlying gneiss ; or, in other words, the slates along the 1 It should be recollected that the nearest outcrops exhibiting this contrast are 30 miles apart. Extra-Peninsular. ] THE GRANITIC AXIS. 629 northern border of the Lower Himalayan area have not been subjected to the metamorphic action which they have undergone more or less generally in other parts of the mountains : a fact that would be most naturally explained by these slates never having been so depressed, or subjected to so great crushing, whereby the silurian rocks of the Ladak axis and elsewhere were converted into gneiss. Thus, from the side of the Central Himalayas, in the north, we find confirmation of the evidence brought forward from the tertiary rocks on the south, and from the rock-structure of the Lower Himalayas themselves, that this latter area holds a peculiar, and more or less neutral or independent, j>osi - tion in the Himalayan system. Although not fully identified out of the Lower Himalayan area, no- thing is more likely than that the central gneiss should occur elsewhere ; and it has been recognised with much probability in several positions in the divided north-western ranges on the continuation of the main range. Dr. Stoliczka thought he recognised the same rock well to the north of the main range near Changrizing, east of the Para river, at the base of the great Purgial mountain, which separates the basin of Zanskar from that of Hundes. The granitic axis. There is no more unique or debatable feature in the Himalayas than the granitic axis, so persistent along the main range. To the east in Sikkim, and in the north-west, from the frontier of Nepal to Kulu, wherever examined, coarse white granite has been found in profusion along the line of peaks, near the present edge of the sedimentary basin of Tibet. It occurs in veins and dykes of every size, sometimes forming the massive core, up to the summit, of the highest mountains. The width of the band of intrusion seldom exceeds 25 miles, and is generally much less. The rock dies out completely to the west, being only very feebly represented at the Baralacha pass, the most distant point at which it has been observed in the ranges beyond the Lower Himalayan area, with which again this peculiar feature is nearly coter- minous. This granite is pre-eminently the axial rock of the main Himalayan range, as a geographical feature ; and this fact, perhaps, was partly the reason why the name " central " was given to the gneiss in which it occurs, with the implied suggestion that this gneiss had been upraised with the granite ; for the contiguous gneiss to the south was regarded by Dr. Stoliczka as distinct. This view has, however, been shewn to be untenable (p. 597) ; and it is very open to question whether, in any proper geological sense, this line of eruptive rock c*n be considered an axis 630 GEOLOGY OF INDIA CENTRAL HIMALAYAS. [Chap. XXVI. (locus) of elevation. The supposition would be incompatible with the inferences already drawn from the circumstances of the sedimentary rocks on both sides of the central gneiss of the Lower Himalayas, shewing absolutely (if correct) that the slate series had never been continuous across that area. It is more likely that the granite marks a marginal line of irruption, with reference to the main area of deposition from which the Central Asian plateau was to arise. From general con- siderations on the drainage system it will be suggested that the crest of the Himalayan elevation lay far to the north of the present main range. General Strachey describes the granite as penetrating the slates, and the same authority is quoted by Dr. Stoliczka 1 for its reaching the secondary formations. It can scarcely be of later date. Terminal extensions of the central gneiss. The distinction of middle and terminal characters is nowhere more marked than in the main Himalayan range, which may, in fact, as a geological feature, be said to end with the Lower Himalayan area. Beyond this, to the north-west, there are three independent ranges with gneissic axes, all connected with the central gneiss, and each having some pretension to be considered the continuation of the main range of the middle Himalayas. The Zanskar gneissic range. Immediately north of the Sutlej, and west of theBhabeh section described by Dr. Stoliczka, there is a great- nucleus, or stratigraphical node, of high mountains, ranging to 21,772 feet in elevation, in Waziri Rupi, a district of Kulu. The mass lies for the most part to the north of the prolongation of the main chain. In fact, from the Sutlej, at about the Bhabeh pass, there is a rather abrupt change of about 25 in the strike of the Central Himalayan axes, on opposite sides of the Purgial transverse ridge. The strike of the Hundes basin, and of the main gneissic range south of it, is about west-35-north ; while that of the Zdnskar basin, and of the gneissic range outside it, is west-60- north. The Zoji-La from Kashmir, and the Baralacha from Lahul, are the best known passes in this latter range ; and the name of the latter pass has been sometimes applied to the range itself; but it is better to use a term of greater original extension, such as that of the central district of Zanskar. Several of the peaks range above 20,000 feet in elevation. For many reasons, geological as well as geographical, the Zanskar range has a right to be considered the principal continuation of the Himalayan chain. In its centre, south-west of Zanskar, for a width of nearly 50 miles, it is formed entirely of gneiss ; but this rock rapidly contracts to the north-west, and dies out altogether before reaching the Zoji-La, where the sedimentary formations roll over from Tibet into 1 Mem. G. S. I., Vol. V, p. 12. Extra-Peninsular. ] THE PIR PAXJAL QXEISSIC CHAIN. 631 Kashmir, and form the mountains on the north side of the valley, at a considerably lower elevation than the gneiss -formed peaks of the range in Zanskar. Here, then, we have a complete terminal occultation of the gneissic axis, in the principal north-western representative of the Himalayan range. 1 The width of the gneiss contracts also very much on the south-east : Dr. Stoliczka observed a band, only 6 miles wide, of what he took to be the central gneiss, low on the south side of the Baralacha pass. It will, however, be shewn that the gneiss of Zanskar is, to some extent at least, a newer rock, formed of converted palaeozoic strata. " The Pir Panjal gneissic chain. If the question of representa- tive ranges were to be settled by the continuous line of greatest elevation, the Z&nskar range would have to cede its claim ; for the col or gap (the Kunzum pass, on slates, at 14,931 feet), connecting it with the gneissic mass of Rupi, is lower than the Rotang pass (on gneiss, at 15,206 feet), dividing the mountains of Rupi from those of Bara-Bhagal and Barmaur, which range to above 20,000 feet. It is still unsettled whether the slates of the Kunzum pass are not continuous with those immediately north of the Hamta and Rotang passes, so as to cut off the gneissic mass of Zanskar. Dr. Stoliczka notes also " the characteristic of albite granite in the gneiss of the Hamta pass." This Rotang ridge at the head of the Kulu, or upper Bias, valley is certainly the most direct continuation of the mountains of Rupi ; and on this line we find the greatest prolongation of gneissic rock, through Barmaur, Chamba, Badrawah, and Kistw&r, to the Pir Panjal, bounding the Kashmir valley on the south-west. The crest of this chain is more irregular than those we have hitherto spoken of, and this irregularity has always caused a difficulty in finding a name for it. It is perhaps best to extend the well-known name of Pir Panjal to the whole of it. Even in the Pir Panjal proper, the ridge is very irregular, and the gneiss is not continuous throughout ; but in this broken fashion the rock continues across the Jhelum to beyond Kashmir, where its mode of termination in the Kishenganga valley is not known ; but it probably does terminate there. 1 To tbc great disappointment of geologists, all mention of the rocks seems to have been cnref ully excluded by that accomplished observer Mr. Drew from his most interesting work on the Juinmoo and Kashmir Territories. One of the very few remarks that have escaped him records (p. 378) the occurrence of mountains of grey granite on each side of Stakpi La defile, and something less than 2,000 feet above it, between the Burzil branch of the Kishenganga valley and the head waters of the Shi ngo river. The locality would be nearly on the prolongation of the Zanskar axis, but it probably belongs to a local focus of disturbance in Little Tibet. 632 GEOLOGY OF INDIA-CENTRAL HIMALAYAS. [Chap. XXVI. In this chain also, according- to the few observations on record, the relation of the gneiss to the slates is not of so decided a character as in the Lower Himalayan region. There is generally more or less of transition, and it is difficult to make sure whether we have to deal with the older or the newer gneiss. The abrupt manner in which the semi-de- tached gneissic masses are intercepted by schists and slates is especially hard to reconcile with other structural features of the sections, as will be indicated in connection with the slate series ; but the arrangement of these quasi-continuous masses, independent of an approximately axial position and there are some, such as the Kund Kaplas mountain in Badrawah, which cannot pretend to belong to the Pir Panjal chain is suggestive that the relations of the slates to the gneiss here may be the result, in a minor degree, of an original relation like that described on the south side of the Lower Himalayas in the Simla region, where the slate series was shewn to have been deposited amongst steeply eroded masses of the central gneiss (p. 605). There is, however, one remarkable observation by Mr. Lydekker l in the slates of the Pangi basin, in the upper Chinab valley, separating the Zanskar range from the almost equally high mountains of the Pir Panjal in Chamba, shewing that at the time of the deposition of these slates the central gneiss was undergoing extensive erosion at no great distance. In the midst of the black slates, throughout a thickness of some 2,000 feet, large blocks of granitoid gneiss, either angular or water- worn, are scattered in great numbers. They are well seen about the village of Salgraun (25 miles above Kilar). Some were measured as much as three and a half feet in diameter ; and being embedded in fine slate, it seems necessary to suppose that they were in some manner erratics, i. e. } trans- ported by some form of flotation or suspension, distinct from the ordinary denuding agencies of water and gravitation only. The Dhauladhar gneissic range. There is one other gneissic ridge that might be considered the legitimate representative of the Himalayan axis proper, as being most nearly on its prolongation, in its normal direction. The Dhauladhar is remarkably well defined as a geological axis, although at the very edge of the mountain area, overhanging the tertiary zone in the Kangra valley, and separating this zone from the basin of slates in the upper Ravi valley, which, again, divides the Dhauladhar from the Pir Panjal range in Barmaur. The Kulu valley, which is the upper valley of the Bias, running due south from the Rotang pass, completely cuts off the Dhauladhar from direct continuity with the moun- tains of Rupi ; but the connexion is maintained at a very high level, from 1 Rec. G. S. I., XI, p. 54. Extra-Peninsular.] THE CHIEF SEDIMENTARY BASINS. 633 the Rotang pass through the mountains of Bara Baghal, separating the head waters of the Bias and the Ravi. There seems little doubt that the gneiss of the Dhauladhar is to some extent, if not altogether, the central gneiss ; but it ends completely and abruptly at Dalhousie, where the Ravi turns round it, at right angles to its course within the mountains. This is a conspicuous instance of the feature already men- tioned as so difficult of explanation, and upon which some detailed observations are very much needed. The newer gneiss. In preceding paragraphs frequent mention has been made of the newer gneiss ; of its special (syenitic) mineral characters where the lower palaeozoic formations have been metamorphosed on a large scale, as in the Ladak axis, and of its more ordinary condition where mineralised in connexion with the old gneiss in its extensions to the north- west. Any further mention of the newer gneiss will be made in tracing the general distribution of the palaeozoic rocks themselves. The chief sedimentary basins. The skeleton of the mountain structure delineated in the foregoing paragraphs, shewing the position and nature of the gneissic axes, will help to elucidate the distribution of the fossiliferous formations, and will suggest at once the conveni- ence of dividing the description according to the great areas, more or less separated, in which these rocks are now found : the two central basins of Zanskar and Hundes or Ngari-Khorsum ; the northern basin of the Karakoram ; and the southern area of Kashmir and Pangi. In speaking of these areas as basins of sedimentary rocks, we do not, of course, mean basins of deposition, but simply stratigraphical basins. They are certainly now basins of disturbance, great synclinal troughs ; but it is a leading point of inquiry, to what extent in any of the successive formations, if at all, the areas of deposition corresponded with these areas of present relative depression of the rocks ? The available observations are much too cursory and scattered to support a definite opinion upon this point ; but if we might extend to this ground the in- ference arrived at in the other Himalayan regions, that the palaeozoic rocks had undergone no contortion prior to the eocene period, we could not look for much agreement in detail between the actual results of disturbance and the original distribution of the pre-tertiary sedimentary series. Whatever may have been the circumstances which resulted in the striking discre- pancy between the rock-series of the Central and the Southern Himalayan areas, whereby all the secondary formations, or at least all the middle and upper groups of that period, were excluded or removed from the southern area, it might seem fair to suppose that the great contortions and dislocations affecting the southern region were more or less of syn- 634- GEOLOGY OF INDIA CENTRAL HIMALAYAS. [Chap. XXVI. chronous origin with the similar and connected features in the adjoining area ; and, therefore, that the great axes of flexure which now define the rock-basins of Tibet are of post-eocene origin. The very marked approx- imate conformity exhibited throughout the whole sedimentary series up to the cretaceous deposits, as represented in the sections of the Zanskar basin figured by Stoliczka, and the certainty that at the close of the cretaceous period some of the highest summits of Tibet were at the sea- level, would seem to support the view, that in this region also the begin- ning of special Himalayan disturbance was posterior to the eocene period. "We must, however, beware of inferential assumptions, however plaus- ible. Enough has been seen in the Sub-Himalayan ground to warn us against placing much reliance upon conformity or unconformity, within very close proximity, in these mountain sections ; and the most marked stratigraphical feature of Tibet the complete severance of continuity between the eocene and the cretaceous deposits implies great changes in the intervening time, and has a direct bearing upon the point at issue ; only we have no observations as to the full or special meaning of this feature. Eocene deposits of great thickness occupy a long trough in the silurian gneiss of the Ladak axis. No one has suggested that they were let down into this position by faulting ; so there must have been immense pre- tertiary denudation, with a corresponding rise of the Himalayan area. It is just possible that the original relation in Tibet may have been the same as that already shewn for the nummulitic beds in the Simla region, where they were laid down on deeply eroded, but as yet uncontorted, paleozoic rocks. The fact that the palaeozoics of Tibet had been previously converted into gneiss would not absolutely preclude this condition (for the central gneiss is the least disturbed of all the Himalayan formations), although certainly rendering it far from probable. The settlement of this question the original relation of the nummulitic formation in Tibet is a point of extreme interest in Himalayan geology. If it should be proved that that relation was the same as in the Lower Himalayan area that the immense pre-tertiary denudation of the Central Himalayan region had taken place previous to any great contortion of the strata there we should have something like a demonstration of the De Beaumont theory of mountain formation : that the first stage in the process is of the nature of a great warp or deformation of the earth's crust, the collapse (ecrasement] of which state of tension results in the flexures and dislocations which characterise every region of true mountains. 1 1 DeBeaumont's theory of mountain formation is so commonly identified with his final speculations upon the question of direction, that it is necessary to point out that his preliminary discussion of the conditions is independent of that elaborate development. Extra-Peninsular.] THE ZAXSKAR AREA. 635 It has been suggested elsewhere > that much of the contortion of the later tertiary rocks of the Sub- Himalayan zone may have been due to a reflex action, the protracted adjustment of equilibrium after the great mountain features had been fully developed. The formations of the Zanskar area. Dr. Stoliczka's first work in Tibet (the only exploration of which he published any detailed observations') was confined to the south-east end of the Zanskar area, in the Spiti and Para valleys, and through Rupshu (or Rukshu) to the Indus. On his second trip he made several traverses of a much larger area, up to the north-west termination of the basin at Kargil ; but only brief route- notes were published. 3 The length of the area is 200 miles, with a maximum width of 50 miles in Zanskar. The following detailed charac- ters of the rocks, and for the most part the fossils also, are taken from the former ground ; they will serve for general comparison. The names also are taken from localities in Spiti and Rupshu, where the several formations are well exposed. No groups were added from the examina- tion of the larger area to the north-west. FOSSILIFEROUS SERIES OF THE ZAXSEAR AXE A. MESOZOIC : (n) CHIKKIM SHALES (Cretaceous). Dark grey, marly, earthy shales. Thickness, 200 feet. No fossils ; considered to be closely related to the limestone. (m) CHIKKIM LIMESTONE (Cretaceous). White, or grey on fresh fracture : when somewhat earthy it gives a strong bituminous odour when struck. Thick- ness, 600 feet ; parallel to /. Eudistes (fragments). Nodosaria, 2 sp. Dentalina (annulata?). Sotalia, sp. Textilaria, 2 sp. Haplophragmium, sp. Cristellaria, sp. (1) GIETJMAL SANDSTONE ( Upper Jurassic). Light yellowish, silicious ; darker and calcareous, fossiliferous ; sometimes a loose grit, and even coarsely conwlo- meratic. Thickness, 600 feet ; conformable to and interstratified with k. Opis, sp. Anatina spitiensis. A. sp. nov. Pecten bifrons. Amusium demissum. Lima, sp. Mytilus mytiloidea. Avit'ula echinata. G-ypKcea, sp. Ostrea, sp., near O. gregaria. O. sp., near O. sowerbii. 1 Mom. G. S. I., Ill, Pt. 2, p. 174; and Q. J. G. S., XXIV, p. 48. 2 Mem. G. S. I., V, 1865, pp. 1-154. 8 Mem. G. S. I., V, 1866, pp. 337-354. 636 GEOLOGY OF INDIA CENTRAL HIMALAYAS. [Chap. XXVI. (Jc) SPITI SHALES (Upper Jurassic). Black, crumbling shale, full of calcareous concretions, each generally containing a fossil. Thickness, 300 to 500 feet ; in Spiti they rest conformably on g, the lower Tagling limestone. Belemnites canaliculatus. 2?. clavatus, Anisoceras gerardianum. Ammonites acucinctus. A. strigilis. A. macrocephalus.i A. octagonus. A. hyphasis. A. parkinsoni. A. theodorii. A. sabineanus. A. spitiensis. A. curvicosta. A. braikenridgii. A. nivalis. A. liparus. A. triplicatus. A. biplex. A. alatus. Pleurotomaria, 2 sp. Astarte unilateralis. A. major. A. spitiensis. A. hiemalis. Trigonia costata. Cyprina trigonalis. Nucula cuneiformis. N. sp. Area (Macrodon) egertonianum, PI. XII, fig. 14. Inoceramus hookeri. Lima, sp., near L. rigida. Aucella blanfordiana. A. leguminosa, PI. XII, fig. 15. Amusium (conf. Pecten stolidus). Pecten lens. Ostrea, sp. BhynconeHa varians. Terebratula sp. Salenia ? sp. Homomya tibetica. (i) SHALT SLATES (Jurassic). Brown or black ; full of broken shells. Thickness, 50 feet ; very local ; probably belong to Ic. Belemnitex, sp. | Posidonomya ornata. (h) UPPER TAGLING (Lias). Dark, earthy, bituminous ; only described north of Spiti. Thickness, nearly 1,000 feet ; difficult to distinguish from g. Belemnites, sp. Ammonites (conf. macroce phalus). Nerinea (conf. N. goodhalii). Acteonina (conf. A. cincta). Eucyclui (Amberleya), sp. Trochus latilabrus. g) TAGLING LIMESTONE (Lower Lias Trochus epulus. T. attenuatus. Chemnitzia undulata. Neritopsis (conf. N. elegantissima). Modiola, sp. (resembling Mytilus subrenifo rmis) . Terebratula sinemuriensis. ' Rheetic). Dark grey, brown or black, sandy or earthy, often oolitic and bituminous, sometimes a shell-limestone ; weathers light brown, rusty. Thickness, more than 1,000 feet ; locally un- conformable on e. Nerinea, sp. (near N. goodhalii). Chemnitzia (conf. C. coarctata). C., sp. (near C. phidias). Natica (conf. N. pelops). Nerita, sp., nov. Dentalium, sp. (near D. giganteum). Belemnites budhaicus. . bisulcutus. B. tibeticus. Ammonites (conf. A.germanii). A., sp. (conf. A. macroce- phalus). i According to Dr. Waagen, Palseontologia Indica, Ser. IX, 3, p. 237, foot-note, this and several other species are not identical with the European fossil forms to which they were referred by Dr. Stoliczka. Extra-Pemiisular. ] THE ZANSKAR AREA. 637 Area (Macrodon), sp. (appar- ently A. lycetti). Gervillia, sp. (near G. olifex). Aricula inaquivalvis. A. punctata. Lima densicostata. Pecten (conf. P.palosus). P. moniliger, P. sabal. P. bifrons. P. valoniensis, Amusium, sp. Ostrea (conf. 0. acvminata). O. (conf. O. anvmala). Rhynconella obtusifrons. R. pedata. R. fissicostata. R. avstriaca. R. variabilis. R. ringens. Terebratula gregaria. T. pyriformis. T. punctata. T. (Waldheimia) schafJieeutli. (/) PABA LIMESTONE (Rheetic or Upper Trias).- Black, dolomitic, strongfy bitu- minous, often earthy. Thickness, 700 feet; only found on north side of Spiti. Dicerocardium himalayente, I Megalodon triqueter, PL II, fig 7. PL II, fig. 8. (e) LILANG 8EBIE8 1 (Upper or Middle Trias). Dark limestone, calcareous slates and shales ; limestone compact or finely oolitic ; lower beds quasi-concre- tionary. Thickness, 1,000 to 2,000 feet; locally uuconformable on d. Orthoceras, sp. O. salinarium. O. latiseptum. O. dubium. Nautilus spitiensit. Clydonites oldhamianus, P II, fig. 4. C. hauerinus. Ammonites floridus, PL II, fig. 1. A. jolly anus. A. khdnilcofi. A. gaytani. A. diffissus, PL II, fig. 3. A. ausseanus. A. gerardi. A. medlet/anus. A. studeri. A. thuillieri, PL II, fig. 2. A. malletianus. A. batteni. Pleurotomaria (conf. P. buchi). P. sterilis. DiscoJielix, sp. Myoconcha lombardica. Lima (conf. L. ramsaueri). L., sp., nov. Monotis salinaria, PL II, fig. 6. Halobia lommeli, PL II, fig. 5. Waldheimia stoppanii. Athyris strohmeyeri. A. deslongchampsi. Rhywonella mutabilis- R. theobaldiana. R. salteriana. R. retrocita var. augusta. Spirifer, sp. n. S. (Spiriferina) (conf. S. fragilig). S. (Spiriferina) stracheyi, PL II, fig. 9- S. (Spiriferina) lilangensis. S. spitiensis. Encrinus cassianus. The following triassic and rhaetic fossils are figured on Plate II : Fig. 1. Ammonites floridus \. 2. A. (Ceratites) thuillieri J. 3. A. diffisv*. 4. Clydonites oldhamianus. 5. Halolia lommeli. Fig. 6. Monotis salinaria i. 7. Dicerocardium himalayense J. 8. Megalodon triqueter J. 9. Spirifer stracheyi. 638 GEOLOGY OF INDIA CENTRAL HIMALAYAS. [Chap. XXVI. PALEOZOIC : (d) KULING SERIES (Carboniferous). Pale quartzites (fossil! ferous) generally at base, but alternating with brown shales ; the latter ai-e often carbonaceous and calcareous, passing into dark limestone. Thickness, 100 to 400 feet 5 junction with (e) conformable, obscure. Oi'thoceras, sp. Aviculopecten, sp. Cardiomorpha, sp. Avicula, sp. Productus purdoni, PI. I, . fig. 10. P. semireticulatus, PI. I, fig. 8. P. longispinus. Spirifer moosakhailensis, PL I, S. JceilJtavii, PL I, fig. 1. S. tibeticus. S. altivagus. (e) MUTH SEBIES (Upper Silurian) White quartzite, often speckled ; no fossils. Thickness, 200 to 300 feet. 2. Pale sandy and silicious limestone, purer beds dark ; weathering brown ; fos- siliferous. Thickness, 300 to 400 feet, 1. Purple sandstone, slaty partings ; conglomeratic ; no fossils. Thickness, 500 to 600 feet ; conformable to b, slightly alternating. Tentaculites, sp. Strophomena, sp. Orthis, sp. (near O. tJiaJcil, var. striatocostata, and var. con- ttexa). Orthis, sp. (near O. compta). Orthis, sp. (near O. tibetica). O., sp. (couf. O. resupinata). Crinoid stems. Cyathophylltim, 2 sp. Syringopora, sp. (b) BHABEH SERIES (Lower Silurian) 3. Greenish and bluish sandstones sometimes micaceous, often laminated ; also thickly bedded, occasional slaty and calcareous beds, fossiliferous. Thick- ness not stated, but represented in the section as equal to 2 or 1. 2. Grey, white and pinkish, speckled sandstone or quartzite, with occasional calcareous beds, dolomitic and cavernous (Rauchwake), fossiliferous. Thick- ness not stated ; figured as much as No. 1. 1. Bluish and greenish grey slates (some micaceous) and sandstones ; no fossils. Thickness, 3,000 feet. Orthis, sp.? | Chcetetes yak. Palaeozoic series. A large part of Stoliczka's Memoir is given to the description and discussion of the fossils, a complete list of which has been given above ; besides this there is not much matter for discussion, and it would be too tedious without a full-scale map to trace the formations severally wherever they have been observed. It will be more suitable here to take them up in series, and to indicate the conditions they exhibit at different points of the area. This sketch possesses the advantage, so rarely experienced in Indian formations, that the stratigraphical identifications were made upon the basis of palseontological evidence. The paleozoic series, as given in the above list, is, of course, only illustra- tive, not in any sense a standard ; even here, in several of the groups, Extra-Peninsular-] THE ZANSKAR AREA. 639 much variation is noticed. The observations were taken at the south- eastern extremity, where the Zanskar basin approaches nearest to the Lower Himalayan area, and where the strata exhibit a minimum of alteration. It is only in this portion of the area, within the Spiti basin, which drains into the Sutlej, and has undergone the greatest erosion, that the upper palaeozoic rocks are freely exposed, away from the edge of the basin. In Spiti the Kulingr series is very frequently found at the bottom of the deepest valleys, underlying the secondary formations of the adjacent mountains. In the more elevated ground of Zanskar it has been noticed only in a few localities in this position, as in the Tzarap valley. There is no mention of the silurian rocks being exposed, except along the marginal outcrops. South-west boundary. To the north-west of Spiti the palaeozoic series is still recognisable at the Baralacha pass. The rocks imme- diately above the central gneiss are like those of the Bhabeh section ; and fossils were found at a low horizon in the Silurians. The next section is on the Zanskar river, near Padam, where the boundary between the two series is not fixed, within broad limits ; and from this to the westward, along the flank of the Zanskar ridge to Suru (Sooroo), near the north-west end of the Zanskar basin, the metamorphism increases, and the whole paleozoic series becomes gradually disguised. On the Suru section the metamorphics of the Zanskar range extend northwards to Sangra, near Kartse (Kurtse), where they are largely hornblendic, and supposed to be upper silurian. The chloritic quartzites north of this are considered to be carboniferous, and they are in contact with the syenitic rocks of Kargil, against which the sedimentary basin terminates on the north-west. South-east boundary. Proceeding north-eastwards from the Bhabeh pass, we follow the south-east end of the Zanskar basin, as stopped out against the central gneiss of Purgial. The details of this feature have not been observed, but, as seen in the section of the Spiti river, only 25 miles from Muth, some important changes are recorded. Fossils were found far down in the series, near Kuri and Shdlkar. The gneiss is overlaid by dark, thin-bedded slates and sandstones, but ap- parently not immediately ; for the chief contrast between this and the Bhabeh section is stated to be that the lower strata on the Spiti are more altered, in a few places truly metamorphic, and that the higher beds are more slaty. But the most peculiar difference is the appearance of inter- bedded greenstone throughout the whole series, from the gneiss up to the carboniferous rocks near Po (on the Spiti river) . The thickness of the deposits seems to be greater here, especially of the carboniferous series, if all the brown shales at the top of the section belong to this formation. 640 GEOLOGY OF INDIA CENTRAL HIMALAYAS. [Chap. XXVI. The disturbance is not excessive ; it is locally described as if the schists had been upheaved in the form of a dome. The Rupshu metamorphics. The next section is 40 miles to the north, in the upper valley of the Para river, where the conditions of the north-east boundary are fully established. The first effects of metamor- phism are noticed in the triassic rocks ; but the greenish quartzites and slates beneath them are still recognisable as of the Kuling series, and have yielded carboniferous fossils. Beneath the quartzites and slates come chloritic and mica-schists, doubtless representative, if the observa- tions be correct, of the silurian rocks, but differing entirely from them in facies. The south-westerly dip continues remarkably constant for 24 miles across a vast thickness of these metaniorphic strata, a third of which would amply represent the known thickness of the lower paleozoic series ; so that, unless there are undetected repetitions, there must be either great expansion of these formations, or we have here also an unknown thickness of the old gneiss. This would seem by no means improbable ; for below some 10,000 feet of the mica-schists, at about the middle of the Moriri lake, there is a strong band of granitoid rock, not unlike the central gneiss. It is underlaid by a great series of thin quartzose schists, locally gneissose, below which, at the Kiagar lake, is another mass of gneiss, characterised by large imperfect crystals of felspar and much tour- maline. This gneiss is thin-bedded, and passes down again into quartz- ose schists. At last, within six miles of the Indus, there is a reverse (north-east) dip in these beds, and so they abut against (are traversed by) a great mass of basic igneous rock, forming a line of irruption along the Indus. A passing reflection may be recorded on the absence, in the infra-car- boniferous rocks of Rupshu, of bedded greenstone, so abundant through- out the Silurians of the Spiti valley. The fact would be enough to awaken doubt whether any of these metamorphics can be converted siluriaus ; save that the total absence of those same rocks in the Bhabeh section rather suggests that they are not truly contemporaneous in the Spiti ground. The Rupshu metamorphics continue to the north-west, with a con- stantly diminishing width, the massive gneiss being still in force at Gya (36 miles south-south-east of Leh), where it is described as having a large proportion of white quartz, but the mica is occasionally replaced by diallage. This is close to the axis of eruptive rock. North boundary with tertiary rocks. Not far to the west the Rupshu metamorphics must die out altogether ; for at the Zalung Karpo pass, 15 miles west of Gya, carbonaceous slates and limestones underlie the Lilang (triassic) limestone, and are the only rocks seen from this Extra-Peninsular.] THE ZANSKAR AREA. 641 all down the Marcha valley to Skiu, near the Zanskar river, where carbona- ceous limestone, full of crinoid stems, and presumably carboniferous, is in close proximity to the nummulitics. Silurian rocks were not distinguished in this section, but Stoliczka considers that they are probably present. The eruptive rock is not noticed in the section at Skiu. The next section is 30 miles west of the Zanskar river, on the road from Dras to Leh. Here the slates, green and red shales and sandstones, between the serpen- tine of the Indus and Lamayuru, are recognised as of the Bhabeh series. They are contorted, with a prevailing south-west high dip, and are over- laid by a few hundred feet of carbonaceous shales, which are spoken of as of the Muth series, and also as carboniferous. 1 The rocks are spoEen of as highly metamorphic-looking, and at the same time as not easily distinguished locally from the adjoining tertiary rocks. Farther on, west of Kharbu, the tertiary rocks, both sedimentary or igneous, encroach still more ; and about Shargol they are in obscure contact with the triassic limestone. The next mention of the palaeozoic series is at 16 miles to the west, where we have already seen them, much altered, in contact with the syenite of Kargil. Thus it appears that for about half its length, on the north, the Zanskar basin of palaeozoic and secondary rocks is now bounded by ter- tiary formations. On the north-west these contiguous, but distinct, basins end together against the syenitic mass of Kargil ; but to the south-east the tertiary rocks pass continuously into the broad central area of metamorphic rocks, those of Rupshu on the south-west, and those of the Ladak range on the north-east. The latter will be noticed in connexion with the Karakoram area, where they are described in sequence with the fossiliferous rocks of that basin. The secondary series. The series of secondary formations in the Zanskar area, recorded in the list at p. 635 amounts altogether to a thickness of 8,000 to 9,000 feet. From the structural condition of the area, shewing that it is proximately at least a basin of disturbance, the general distribution of the formations may be surmised ; and we have already traced a continuous outcrop of the palaeozoic rocks round the edge of the basin, except on the north, where the structural symmetry is broken by the contact of an independent and much later basin of tertiary rocks. As there is general conformity throughout the entire sequence of formations, each is principally exposed along the external outcrop of its area, and then along the sides of the deeply eroded river gorges traversing the basin, where all the strata are variously affected 1 Those observations are taken from Stoliczka's notes, in the Scientific Results of the Secoud Yarkand Mission : Geology, pp. 13, 14: Calcutta, 1878. Q 1 642 GEOLOGY OF INDIA CENTRAL HIMALAYAS. [Chap. XXVI. by minor undulations and contortions. The great limestones of the Lilang and Tagling groups are the most prominent rocks of the area ; while the later formations upper Jurassic and cretaceous are reduced to comparatively small patches in the centre of the basin, in the hollows of local synclinals or as remnants on the tops of ridges. On the much more obscure question of the original distribution of these formations, there is very little to be said. It is important to record the few remarks on this point made by the observer himself, from whom these descriptions are taken. In his reflections on his second year's work Dr. Stoliczka remarks (I. c., p. 352) : " Referring to the section near Muth, as far as I can see now, I believe that the carboniferous deposits here seem to close a grand geological epoch, and that in the main their deposits filled only the interior of a large basin, which gradually and partially became dry land. The carboniferous rocks now appear spar- ingly dispersed in consequence of undulating contortions of the entire ground. Towards the west, especially in Kashmir and Little Tibet, the carboniferous rocks are, however, much more developed/' On the same page it is written, that " after the close of the triassic group in the North-West Himalayas, great disturbances must have taken place ; large tracts of the country were raised, and never more covered by the sea, until partially in comparatively recent periods (eocene), while in other places the regular succession of deposits took place. One of these was evidently the large northern Jurassic basin of the Himalayas." Again, a little further (1. c., p. 353) : " The Jurassic basin, which is so well developed in Spiti, and extends to North Kumaun, continues to retain the same north-western direction, with all the characteristic rock -forma- tions, until it becomes interrupted by the great granitic and syenitic mass of Little Tibet. A partial interruption seems to have taken place after the close of the rhffitic deposits ; but whether the Jurassic basin has been actually and totally interrupted here (that is, south of the Indus), or whether it has been only compelled to continue with its course towards the north or north-west in Gilgit and beyond the Mustagh range, subsequent inquiries must prove/' The particular observations upon which these impressions were based are not indicated ; and it must be said that from an independent study of the recorded observations, such inferences could not be made, or even that a different interpretation is suggested. No facts are quoted shew- ing the great disturbance of the Lilang series independently of the later formations, preparatory to the formation of the Jurassic basin. The lower Jurassic group, the Tagling limestone, appears in full force, forming the highest summits close to the edge of the basin, both on the north and Extra-Peninsular-] THE ZANSKAR AREA. 643 south ; and the original limitation of the Jurassic rocks anywhere near this seems to be purely conjectural. The only instances given, in the P&ra and upper Tag-ling limestones, of interpolation and thickening of strata have no reference to the actual basin ; they begin to the north of its centre, and expand towards its present north margin. The only appearance of an original basin, corresponding with the actual one, is in the upper second- ary deposits the Spiti and Chikkim groups ; and even for these the case is not very evident. The best case quoted is that at Muth, where the carboniferous (Killing) group seems to be regularly overlapped by the Lilang beds ; but this, like the two cases just mentioned, only points to a southern limitation of the Himalayan deposits. The greatest difficulty in the way of the latter supposition, as a general feature, is the great thick- ness of the silurians in the Bhabeh section ; the only relief to it being the preponderance of sandstone in that position, contrasting with finer deposits elsewhere. On the whole, it is evident that the date of formation of the Zanskar basin is still an open question, within very wide limits. The tertiary series. It is in connection with the Zanskar area and Dr. Stoliczka's work that we have to notice the tertiary rocks of the Central Himalayas. Here, as in the Sub-Himalayan zone, their features and relations are of first importance in the mountain history. With the exception of some almost unknown deposits (to be mentioned again), from which the Siwalik fossils brought from the Hundes area must be derived, the tertiaries of Tibet are, so far as known, eocene, or, at least, nummulitic. Dr. Stoliczka describes them as very similar to the corre- sponding deposits of the Sirmur area in the Simla region : ' ' soft and partly loose conglomerates, reddish and purple slates and marls, and greenish sand- stones, much like those on Dagshai hill and to the north of that station " (1. c., p. 343). From these beds at Rambag, close to the Indus, near Leh, he procured Nummulites ramondi and N. exponens. In some of the lowest beds of the same group near Kargil, some fossils found by Mr. Drew are mentioned by Dr. Stoliczka as "very like Melania, and bivalves almost unmistakably belonging to Pholadomya or Panopeea " (I. c., p. 348^ ; and he alludes to the beds again as " a brackish and fresh water deposit." x The thickness of these strata here is given as 5,000 feet (I. c., p. 348). According to Dr. Stoliczka's observations, these rocks extend from Kargil on the west, where they end against the syenitic rocks of Baltistan, continuously along the Indus for more than 200 miles to beyond the eastern limits of his explorations. This long trough is seldom more than 25 miles wide, and from end to end a line of eruptive rock accompanies the eocene strata, generally on the south side, but also in the midst of the 1 Kec. G. S. I., VII, p. 13. 644 GEOLOGY OF INDIA CENTUAL HIMALAYAS. [Chap- XXVI. sedimentary rocks, as at the west end about Paskim. Varieties of the eruptive formation are described as epidotic rock, consisting of crystallised or granular masses of epidote, quartz, and albite ; also as diallage rock, serpentine, and gabbro. When Dr. Stoliczka first examined these tertiary rocks in Northern Rupshu, the nummulitics are there so indurated, consist- ing of green and red sandstones and slates, with a thickness of 3,000 to 4,000 feet, that they were taken to be probably a palseozoic series ; the eruptive rock also is in great force, being 1 5 miles wide at the Hanle river, and upon it Stoliczka remarked : " From their dark colours, these rocks have sometimes been referred to the basalts, but they have certainly nothing to do with these more recent volcanic rocks " l (I. c., p. 128). On the north-east side this long compressed basin of tertiary rocks is bounded throughout by the syenitic metamorphic series of the Ladak axis ; on the south-west for half its length it is in contact with the Rupshu metamorphics, which thin out gradually, and are replaced to the north-west by the palseozoic slates of the Zunskar basin ; and far- ther on, the numraulitics reach to the triassic outcrop within that basin. Although Dr. Stoliczka found no trace of nummulitic rocks to the south of this very peculiar and well-defined area, he se.ems to have accepted without hesitation (1. c., p. 354), as of the same deposits, Dr. Thomson's discovery of nummulitics on the Singhi pass (16,600 feet), on the route between Padam and Leh, in the centre of the Zanskar basin. Without presuming to question the possibility of this occurrence, upon so slight a knowledge of the geology of the region, the obvious importance of this observation suggests an examination of its authenticity. 3 1 This, of course, refers to the idea, prevalent amongst German geologists until recently, and still held by a large number, that different igneous rocks are characteristic of parti- cular geological epochs. See foot-note, p 302. 2 Dr. Thomson's record of the rocks on the Singhi La is as follows (" Western Himalayas and Tibet : " 1852, p. 381) : " Quartz rock, slate, and limestone alternated during the ascent ; and near the summit of the pass the limestone evidently contained organic remains, perhaps coralline ; though their traces were not sufficiently distinct to enable me to decide the point." This observation does not at all suggest an outlying high-level remnant of newer rocks, like those of the Indus valley, but of well-indurated strata, forming the mass of the adjoining mountains. The identification of the fossils is re- corded at page 176 of the " Description des Animaux Fossiles du Groupe Nummulitique de 1'Inde," by MM. D'Archiac and Haime, as follows : " Un calcaire gris bleuatre, compacte, petri d' 'Alveolina melo, associe'e & une nutninulite qui parait etre la N. ramondi, a ete observe en place par le docteur Thomson, dans la chaine mme de 1'Himalaya, au passage et au col de Singhi La, lorsqu'il se rendait de Zanskar a la vallee de 1'Indus." There is nothing to suggest doubt or discrepancy in these records ; but so great errors of locality amongst the fossils described in this work have been found out (see note, p. 531), that there is room for doubt, where there is anything to suggest it ; and it appears desirable that the occurrence of nummulitic rocks on the Singhi La should be verified. Extra-Peninsular.] THE ZANSKAK AREA. 645 There are no detailed observations to shew the relation of the Indus nummulitics to the contiguous rocks. The facies of the deposits is that of a local basin ; and this seems to be the view taken of them by Dr. Stoliczka, at least at the western end ; he says : " I rather presume that these beds have been formed in a kind of narrow bay of the tertiary sea, which covered Northern and Eastern Tibet " (p. 348). In his route- notes on his journey to Yarkand, in the same western area, between Shargol and Kharbu, he describes lumps and patches of the triassic limestone sticking out of the tertiary shales. 1 It seems at least certain from the condition and position of the eocene rocks of the Indus, that vast denudation, and therefore tlis- turbance (quoad elevation), of the Himalayan area had occurred in pre-tertiary times. It remains for future observation to shew how far the special disturbance of the older formations corresponds with that which the eocene rocks themselves have undergone. 1 Scientific Results of the Second Yarkand Mission : Geology, p. 13 : Calcutta, 1878. 646 GEOLOGY OF INDIA CENTRAL HIMALAYAS. [Chap. XXVII. CHAPTER XXVII. EXTRA-PENINSULAK AREA. CENTRAL (TIBETAN) HIMALAYAS continued. The Hundes or Ngari-Khorsum area Stratigraphical series of Niti in Hundes The tertiary eruptive rocks of Hundes The sedimentary tertiary rocks of Hundes The Karakoram area The Ladak gneiss The eastern section of the Karakoram basin The Karakoram section The Kuenlun range The Suket pass section The Yangi pass section The Pamir section The Kashmir- Pangi area Triassic rocks of Kashmir Carboniferous rocks of Kashmir Silurian rocks of Kashmir The Pangi basin The Pir Panjal Chain One-sidedness of mountain structure Post- tertiary and recent formations Sub-Himalayan high-level gravels Glacial evidence in Tibet The Hundes lake-basin Lingzhithang and Kuenlun lake-basins Tso Monri and other basins Alluvial deposits of Tibet The Kashmir basin The Nepal valley Other lakes Drainage lines. STTMMABY. The Hundes or Ngari-Khorsum area. 1 Although we cannot refer to actual record of the observations, it is probable that the palaeozoic series is continuous from theZanskar basin into that of the Hundes; it is coloured so on General Strachey's map of the Hundes region, no doubt on good authority. It remains for future observation to shew whether the mesozoic formations of the two areas were originally continuous or not ; at present they are separated by the gneissic mass of Purgial, against which the Sutlej turns southwards, and which is now the north- western barrier of the present basin of secondary rocks of the Hundes province. At 180 miles to the south-east of Purgial the great Gurla mountain (25,200 feet high), south of Manasaraur lake, stands right in the axis of the Hundes basin, and may be taken as its limit on this side ; although here, too, there is a band of palaeozoic and mesozoic rocks passing partially to the south of it, up to the edge of the area explored. Whether continuously or not, it is fairly established that Jurassic rocks occur far to the east on this strike, north of Nepal, characteristic ammonites having been brought by traders from that region. On General Strachey's map the gneissic formations of both Purgial and Gurla are shewn to be in- trusively penetrated by granite ; so we may accept them provisionally as formed of the central gneiss. 1 Captain Richard Strachey, on the Geology of part of the Himalaya Mountains and Tibet, Q. J.^G. S., 1851, Vol. VII, p. 292. Extra- Peninsular. ] HUNDES AREA. 647 The general aspect of the Hundes area must be very different from that of Zanskar. With the exception of a few small lake-basins, and occasional alluvial patches in the deep river-valleys, Zanskar is covered by lofty rugged mountains, many rising above 19,000 feet, and holding considerable glaciers. ' The central area of the Hundes is occupied by a great spread of diluvial deposits forming an extensive plateau, 120 miles in length and from 15 to 60 in breadth, at an elevation of from 14,000 to 16,000 feet. It is intersected by great ravines, that of the Sutlej to the west being nearly 3,000 feet deep. Stratigraphical series of Niti in Hundes. The numerous collection of fossils made by General Strachey was described by Messrs. Salter and H. F. Blanford, from whose work 1 the subjoined lists are taken ; the petrological characters being collected from General Strachey's paper. In most cases the thicknesses are not estimated : FOSSILIFESOUS SESIES OF THE HUNDES AREA. Hard grits, shales, and limestones ; no fossils found. OOLITIC : Dark crumbling shales with hard nodules (Spiti shales), full of fossils ; below them are several thousand feet of various limestones (not examined) underlaid by black limestones and shales, with imperfect fossils. Belemnites sulcatus. A. torquatus. Ammonites acucinctus. A. triplicatus. A. alatus. A. thouarsensis . A. bifrons. A, umbo. A. biplex. A. wallichii. A. communis. Turritella montium. A. concavus. Pleurotomaria ? sp. A. eugenii. Turbo invitus. A. gerardi. Chemnitzia, sp. A. griffithii. Anatina vaginula. A. guttatus. . Myophoria blanfordi. A. hookeri. Cardium truncatum. A. heterophyllus. Cyprina trigonalis. A. himalayanus. Astarte major. A. hyphasis. A. unilateralis. A.jubar. Modiola, sp. A, medea. Nucula cuneiformis. A. nepalensis. Cuculleea virgata. A. octagonus. C. leionota. A. robust us. Inoceramus hookeri. A. scriptus. Lima acuta. A. spitiensis. L. gigantea. A. stri gills. L. mytiloidea. A. tenuistriatus. J}*fonotis conceitfricits. i Palaeontology of Niti in the Northern Himalayas. General Strachey : Calcutta, 1865. Printed for private circulation by 648 GEOLOGY OF INDIA CENTRAL HIMALAYAS. [ Chap- XXVII. Avlcula echinata. A. inaquivalvis. Pecten cequivalvis. P. comatus. P. blfrons. P. monilifer. P. lens. P. sabal. Ostrea fla belloides. O. acuminata. Terebratula numismalis. T. carinata. T. globata. Rhynconella variabilis. .fi. concinna. Acrosalenia ? Pentacrinites, sp. TKIASSIC (Upper) : Dark-coloured limestone, associated with shales and dark red grits. Ammonites floridus, PL II, fig.l. A. aon. A. winterbottomi. A. planodiscus. A. diffissus, PL II, fig. 3. A. gaytani. A. ausseeanus. A. blanfordii. Ceratitesjacquemonti. Orthoceras pulchellum. O. salinarium. Natica subgldbulosa. Exogyra sp. Halolia lommeli, PL II, fig. Pecten scutella. Lima stracheyi. Athyris deslongchampsii. A. strohmeyeri, Wuldheimia stoppanii. Rhynchonella retrocita. Spirifera oldhami. S. stracheyi. CAEBONIFEEOTJS : The rock not identified in situ. Productus purdoni, PL I, fig. 10. P. flemingii. Chonetes vishnu. Athyris rousyi. Aviculopecten hyemalis, PL I, fig. 13. SILUEIAN' : ff. White quartzite ; no fossils. f. Pale flesh-coloured quailscite ; no fossils. e. Dark-red grits, sometimes marly ; with Crinoid stems. d. Earthy slates and concretionary limestones, Cyrtoceras, Ortho~ ceras, Chcetetes. c. Flaggy limestones and grits : most of the Trilobites, Stro- phomena, Leptcena, Lituites, Ptilodictyon, Cystidea, and Fucoids. 1. Limestones and slates: the strong-ribhed Orthis (O. thakil), Terebratula, Lingula, Bellerophon, fragments of Encrinites a. Dark, thick -bedded, coralline limestone. 1 No plate of the Himalayan silurian fossils has been given in the present work for want of specimens to illustrate. But few have been procured by the Geological Survey, and the figures in Mr. Salter's work are not well adapted for reproduction by lithography. Owing to the rarity of silurian fossiliferous rocks in India and the neighbouring countries, illustrations of the fossils are not of much importance. Extra-Peninsular. ] HUNDES AREA. G49 The total thickness of these groups is estimated at 6,000 feet. Asaphus emodi. Illcenus brachyoniscus. I. punctulosus. Cheirurus mitis. Prosopiscus mimus. Sphcercxochus idiotes. Lichas tibetanus. Calymene nivalis. Tentaculites, sp. Serpulites, sp. Nautilus ? involvens. Cyrtoceras centrifugum. Lituites iuliformis. Orthoceras striatissimum. O. kemas. Theca lineolata. ~Belleroplion ganesa. Murcliuonia himalensis. M. pagoda. P.leurotomaria turbinata. Raphistoma emodi. Trochonema humifusa. Cyclonema rama. C. subtersulcata. Holopea varicosa. H. pumila. Clenodonta sinuosa. Cyrtodonta ? imbricatula. Lingula kali. L. ancyloides. Leptana himalensis. L. repanda. L. cratera. L. nux. Strophomena tracJtealis. S. chcemerops. S. umbrella. 8. aranea. S. nubigena, S. bisecta. S. halo. S. lineatissima. Orthis thakil. O. tibetica. O. compta. O. monticula. O. uncata. Ptilodictya ferrea. P. plumula, Sphterospongia melliflua, S. inosculans. Chatetes ? yak. Heliolites depauperata. SLATE SEBIES : No fossils found ; coarse slates, Billing series. 1 j Amrnath, Sonamarg, Mauasbal, and ' Dras river. Limestones of West Kashmir. Blue limestones of Manasbal. Limestones and slates of Marlml pass/ Lidar and Upper Sind valleys, Kiolj series (?), Great limestone of Jamu Lills (?). Kuling series. Krol limestone (?) / -K nil group (?) Rhastie and trias. Carboniferous. Upper Panjal slates, shales and trap-") Muth series. poid rocks. Trappoid rocks of Walar lake. \ Blaiui series. Lower Panjal slates; lower slates and 1 trappoid rocks of Kashmir. C Bhabeh scries. Slates and limestones of Pangi, Laliul ^w/r- Blaiui, or slates. . Simla 8llltes - Gneiss of Pir Panjal. Upper gneiss of Wardwan and Za kar range. Central gneiss of Darcha. Lower gneiss of \Vardwau and Zans kar range. Dhauladhar gneiss. aiis- { f Gneiss of Wan > Chor mountain C Upper siluriau. ' Lower silurian and C Cambrian (H). f Cambrian. Wangtu and) ///m-silurian; but exact age not determined. For convenience and clearness, we must again make a local exception to our rule, and describe the formations in descending order. Triassic rocks of Kashmir. As already mentioned (p. 631), the sedimentary series of the Zauskar basin, from the trias downwards, rolls over into the Kashmir basin, round the termination of the great gneissic mass of the Zanskar range. Although the feature is thus in the main a great anticlinal, the very crest of the ridge, at the Zoji-la, is formed of a sharp and locally inverted synclinal, in the highest rocks of the local series. It was this inversion that led Dr. Stoliczka to suppose that the sub-schistose sandstones at the Zoji-la were carboniferous, from Kec. (1. S. I., XI, p. 63. 660 GEOLOGY OF INDIA-CENTRAL HIMALAYAS. [Chap. XXVII. their apparently underlying triassic strata. Mr. Lydekker found the same rocks to the south-east near Amrnath and Panjtarni to be dis- tinctly folded in a trough of the dolomitic limestone. The age of these limestones is well fixed north of the Zoji-la. Dr. Stoliczka observed a great thickness of light-blue limestone forming the banks of the Dras river, and containing numerous small bivalves, like Megalodon columbella, Homes, from the upper trias of the Alps. It is overlaid to the south by a darker dolomitic limestone, apparently identical with the Para lime- stone of Northern Zanskar. South of the Zoji-la, Dr. Stoliczka found Ammonites gerardi in the limestones and carbonaceous slates near the camp Thajwaz in the Sind valley, proving them to belong to the Lil&ng group of Zanskar. 1 There would seem, however, to be great variability in the composition of these groups. Mr. Lydekker (1. c., p. 45) identifies the white dolomite of Amrnath with the Para limestone north of the Zoji-la; and in the Chandanwari section (I.e., p, 44), at the head of the Lidar valley, a set of slates and sandstones separates these white dolomites from the dark-blue carboniferous limestone, and is interstratified with both of them. This apparent transition between carboniferous and uppermost triassic strata calls particularly for further examination. Triassic rock has as yet only been observed in one other locality in the area under notice; it is in the Kashmir valley, in the promontory south of the Manasbal lake, where the white dolomite overlies the compact blue carboniferous limestone. Carboniferous rocks of Kashmir. With the exception of the very local occurrence of the triassic limestone on the north side of Kash- mir, as already mentioned, only paleozoic and gneissic rocks are found throughout the rest of the area under notice, in which condition this ground exhibits a partial affinity with the Lower Himalayan area. Of the palaeozoics, again, only the upper members have been fully recognised by fossil evidence ; and in this way they have scarcely been traced beyond the limits of Kashmir, where they are almost confined to the north side of the valley. We must notice these rocks first, as it is through com- parison with them that the position of other groups has been provision- ally determined. The identification of carboniferous rocks in Kashmir is of old stand- ing. Fossils are locally abundant, but no large collection of them has been made. The following species of carboniferous Brachiopoda were described by Mr. Davidson 2 from specimens collected by Captain 1 Mem. G. S. I., V, p. 349. 2 Q. J. G. S., XXII, 1866, p. 39. Extra-Peninsular.] KASHMIR AREA. 661 Godwin- Austen near the villages of Khunmu, Barus, and Zewan, in the Vihi valley, immediately to the east of Srinagar : Terebratula sacculus. Aihyris subtilita, PI. I, fig. 4. Spirifera keilhavii, PI. I, fig. 1. Sp. vihiana. Sp. kashmiriensis. Sp. moosakhailensis, PI. I, fig. 2. Sp. barusiensis. Rhynconella barumensis. Hh. kashmiriensis. Streptorhynchus crenistria, PI. I, fig. 7. Productus semireticulatus, PI. I, fig. 8. Pr. scabriculus. Pr. htimboldtii. Pr. spinulosus. Pr. laevis. Chonetes Icevis. Ch,? austeniana. Distinct, kashmiriensis. Two measured sections from this neighbourhood by Captain Godwin- Austen * will shew the local composition of the series. The fossils were principally found near the very base of the formation ; and it would seem from his figured sections that the bottom quartzite is unconform- able to the underlying hornblende slates; but as no statement is made to that effect, the point is doubtful. The appearance is probably due to the locally unstratified condition of the trappean upper silurian rocks. Section along a spur from Wasterwdn, between Bdrus and Reshpur. Feet. 8. Hard compact limestone, weathering light ochre 100 7. Hard compact limestone, no fossils 410 6. Grey limestone, weathering light-brown 200 5. Micaceous sandy limestone j Spirifera rajah, and Productus semireticu- latus 60 4. Slaty shale 15 3. Shaly limestone, weathering green, full of fossils ..... 40 2. Hard fossiliferous limestone 80 1. White quartz rock 15 Hornblende shite Section at the foot of a ridge from Zehanwdn. Feet. 7. Hard compact crystalline limestone, of a dark blue-grey, interstratified with grey shales, which weather to a green tint, very fossiliferous . 20 6. Calcareous shales, very fossiliferous 30 6. Alternations of shaly slate and sand , . 30 4. Sandstone containing water-worn pebbles 2 3. A bed of water-worn pebbles and shingle, of quartz and hornblendic rock, imbedded in a sandy crumbling matrix 4 2. Altered sandstone and shaly beds, very hard and splintery ... 15 1. White flinty quartzite 12 Hornblendic slaty rock Q. J. G. S., XXII, 18GG, p. 29. (5(J2 GEOLOGY OF INDIA CENTRAL HIMALAYAS. [Chap. XXTIL Owing to the excessive disturbance all these strata have undergone, and the deep erosion of the ground, the upper members of the stratified series are only found in isolated masses along the inner edge of the valley, and in the hills to the north. No carboniferous rocks have been observed on the south-west side of the valley, on the flanks of the Pir Panjal ; but at the south-east end of the valley, south of Shahabad, the rocks of the Pir are in faulted contact with the mass of carboniferous limestone, which here closes the valley, and stretches for a few miles beyond the watershed at the Marbal pass. The general structure is that of a broad complex synclinal fold, the axis rising to the south-east. At the north-west end of the valley also, at Trigamma, the carboniferous limestone is in force, occupying a synclinal fold in the slates. Near Shahabad Mr. Lydekker describes the sequence as consisting of dark- brown sandy shales, gradually becoming calcareous, and so passing up into the characteristic dark-blue carboniferous limestone, which is over- laid by yellowish and whitish sandstones. These highest beds are often replaced by banded limestone, and may represent the trias. From the examination of many sections, Mr. Lydekker concluded that the carboniferous rocks are normally in conformable sequence with the underlying slate series. This relation is seen in the section near Eishmakam, in the Lidar valley, north of Islamabad, where the following beds are in regular succession, No. 1 being silurian and Nos. 2, 3, and 4> carboniferous : 4. Slates and sandstones with Fenestella, Producing, and Spirifera. 3. Sandstones and dark -bine limestones, with corals and crinoids. 2. White and blue sandstones. 1. Blue or green slates and ainygdaloids. The proportion of limestone in the carboniferous series is very variable in different sections. Silurian rocks of Kashmir. It is upon the strength of this close connection with the carboniferous strata that the underlying series is taken to be silurian ; for not a single fossil has been found in these rocks throughout the whole of this region. They are, however, continu- ous with rocks in corresponding relations to the carboniferous group in Zauskar, where silurian fossils do occur (p. 638), though far less abundantly than farther east in the Hundes basin (p. 649). The absence of organic remains is only very partially accounted for by the greater metamorphism of the strata in the north-western area. Another cause of doubt regarding the correlation of the different formations in Kashmir has been the extensive occurrence of trappean rocks, and the uncertainty as to their relation to the sedimentary series, Extra-Peninsular.] KASHMIR AREA. 663 and, therefore, as to their age. All the rocks have been so contorted, that special examination was needed to distinguish effects of irruption from those resulting from a disturbance common to all, the local appearances being superficially very deceptive : thus north-east of Manasbal there is a dome-shaped mass of amorphous greenstone, with the carboniferous limestone dipping from it on three sides. Such appearances are very suggestive of intrusion ; and so the prevailing opinion has been, that the trap of Kashmir and the Pir Panjal is of later date than all the contigu- ous formations. Mr. Lydekker, however, comes to the conclusion that the trap is altogether pre-carboniferous, no single instance of true intrusion having been found ; and the general distribution of the rock clearly points to its cotemporaneity with the upper silurian strata. 1 In Northern Kashmir, especially about Srinagar, Manasbal, and the Walar lake, the massive amorphous forms of greenstone are predominant ; but even with these there are associated stratified earthy and amygda- loidal beds, identical with those which all through the Pir Panjal and elsewhere are characteristic of the upper zone of the slate series. To a great extent these beds are of a mixed nature, containing much silicious detrital matter with the trappean ingredient, and their trappoid character is further to some extent due to partial metamorphism ; but there can scarcely be a doubt that the peculiar facies of the upper silurian zone of this region (and it seems to extend also to the western part of the Zanskar area) is due to cotemporaneous eruptive action. The following general sequence of the strata composing the lower paleozoic rocks, form- ing the slate series, is taken by Mr. Lydekker (1. c. } p. 39) from the section of the Pir Panjal pass : 5. Greenish slates, sandstones and amygdaloidal rocks. 4. Black and green slates with brown sandstone conglomerate, containing pehbles of quartzite and slate. 3. Whitish quartzites and sandstones. 2. Black slates containing pebbles of gneiss and quartzite. 1. Granitoid gneiss, with occasional bands of slate and quartzite. The relation of the palaeozoic slates to the crystalline series is a point of special interest and difficulty, as has been shewn in other cases (p. 640) . In the region under notice Mr. Lydekker has found this relation to be one of inseparable association, as is indicated in No. 1 of the preceding section of the rocks in the Pir Panjal. The same condition obtains on the north- east, with reference to the gneissic mass of the Zanskar range ; as is well 1 Dr. Verchere (.1. A. S. B., XXXV, 1867, p. 86) had announced the same conclusion ; but this writer's views are not always supported by sufficient evidence to be accepted. 664 GEOLOGY OF INDIA-CENTRAL HIMALAYAS. [ Chap. XXVII. seen in passing from the south-east end of Kashmir, by the Margan pass, to the Wardwan, and down the latter valley to Kishtwar. It is not merely a case of gradual transition of metamorphism, but also complete associa- tion by interstratification of slaty and gneissic rocks, and their equal participation in the results of disturbance. Some of the bands of gneiss thus intercalated with the slates are quite massive and granitoid, both fine-grained and porphyritic. The contrast is altogether most striking between this mode of relation and that of the slates to the central gneiss of the Lower Himalayan region ; and the inference is, that the gneiss of Zanskar is to a great, but unknown, extent made up of converted palaeo- zoic strata. Abrupt contact is here also found between the two types of rock ; but they are more or less distinctly due to dislocations, as at Krur in the lower Wardwan valley. The Pangi basin. Below Kilar, the gneissic rocks of the Zanskar ridge pass well to the south of the Chinab ; and it is not known whether they are not there confluent with the gneiss of the Pir Panjal chain, thus separating the slates of Pangi from those of Kashmir. There can scarcely be a doubt that these two belong to the same lower paleozoic series; but there are some noteworthy differences of composition. The trappoid rocks have not been observed in Pangi ; it may be because the eruptive action did not extend so far, that zone being represented by ordinary slates ; or, only the lower members of the series may be repre- sented in Pangi. Bands of limestone are not very rare in the Pangi slates, although entirely wanting in the Kashmir area. The quasi- erratic boulders in the black slates of Pangi, as already mentioned (p. 632), are very peculiar ; although these slates are probably the local representa- tives of the zone No. 2 of the Pir Panjal section in the list already given. The relation of the slates to the gneiss in Pangi is not exclusive- ly like that described in the Wardwan valley : in introducing the Pangi slates, Mr. Lydekker (1. c., p. 54) describes a very thick band of granit- oid gneiss as conformably overlaid by a newer series of bluish slates and sandstones, which contain no truly metamorphic rock. At the east end of the basin, the junction of the slates with the gneiss of the Rotang pass would seem to be of the same abrupt kind. Yet on a parallel section to that at Kilar, about Tingrat, in the valley north of Triloknath, there is an alternating passage from the slates to the gneiss. It is by the close comparison and connected survey of such contrasting sections, that we may ultimately expect to separate the two very distinct gneissic formations, which we are almost forced to think must be present in this ground (p. 630) : the central gneiss, of long pre-silurian meta- morphism ; and a lower silurian or cambrian gneiss, made out of, and Extra-Peninsular. J THE PIR PAN JAL CHAIN. 665 associated with, deposits that have undergone little or no change in adjoining- areas. The Pir Panjal chain. The extension already given (p. 631) to this name of the range outside (south-west of) Kashmir, to include the ridges in approximate continuation of it to the south-east, although separated by the gorge of the Chinab below Kishtwar, may be upheld geographi- cally ; but geologically (as based upon structural equivalence) it is still provisional, for we have no observation of these hills south of the upper Chinab valley. So far as we know, the slates of Pangi may be con- tinuous with those of the upper Ravi valley, without any dividing gneissic axis. In this south-eastern ground, too, the range in question is not the outermost range of the older formations, for the Dhauladhdr lies to the south of it ; and it may be to this condition, of an outside position in the mountain system, that is due the peculiar structural character noticed in the Pir Panjal and Dhauladhar ranges that of a great folded flexure, with inversion on the outer side. This peculiarity is, perhaps, opposed to the connexion of this ridge with the central region, of which it is thus here a specially marked marginal feature. Its affinities are, however, much closer with the area of normal Himalayan disturbance, than with the Lower Himalayas, where the structure is quite different (p. 602). Mr. Lydekker has clearly shewn this structural character at the Banihal pass, 1 and at the Pir Panjal pass 2 ; and the same feature had previously been noticed in the Dhauladhar. 3 In proceeding from Kash- mir across the Pir Panjal pass, the sequence of rocks given above (p. 663) is observed in descending order, the beds dipping towards the valley. The dip increases steadily, and becomes vertical in the gneiss ; then the black slates (No. 2), with pebbles of gneiss, come in again, but with a steep underlie towards the gneiss ; and they are succeeded at the crest of the pass by the white qnartzites, having the same inward dip ; under these again come the greenish trappean beds of zone No. 4 ; the whole series, many thousand feet in thickness, being clearly inverted on the south side of the axis. On the outer margin of the range, in the inverted series, higher (apparently lower) beds are preserved than on the side next the valley. They consist principally of limestone, with a variable proportion of associated black and greenish shales and pale sandstones. From their conformable and transitional relation to the trappean upper silurian zone, 1 Rec. G. S. I,, IX, p. 161, 1876. Rec. G. S. I., XI, p. 39, 1878. 3 Mein. G. S. I , III, Pt. 2, p. 63, 1864. 666 GEOLOGY OF INDIA CENTRAL HIMALAYAS. [Chap, XXVIL Mr. Lydekker concludes that they represent the similar, but fossili- ferous, rocks in a like position in Kashmir, and are therefore car- boniferous. This band of: limestone is more or less continuous at the edge of the higher mountains, from the Pir Panjal to the Lower Hima- layan area; and it is upon this remote and slender connexion that the Krol limestone, capping the slate series in the Simla region, is taken to be carboniferous. The identification of the great limestone, forming the large inliers of the Sub-Himalayan zone (p. 562), from 4 to 12 miles distant from the base of the Pir Panjal, as carboniferous, is perhaps equally open to verification. If all the limestone of those inliers is carboniferous, the deposits of that age increased enormously in thick- ness within a very short distance ; but this inequality of deposition has been very generally observed in the carboniferous rocks of the Himalayas. The fact that the gneiss partakes so regularly in the disturbance of the slates, would seem necessarily to imply original complete conformity of stratification between them ; and therefore the probability is, that all the metamorphics of the Pir Panjal belong to the newer gneiss. It may also be suggested that this form of disturbance, a great regular folded flexure, could hardly have occurred here had there been a primitive ridge of old gneiss occupying the position of the present axis ; from which we may suppose, that if the central gneiss is represented here, its elevation is altogether due to post-silurian disturbance. There are, however, certain irregularities in the feature as a whole, that necessitate some modification of the view of it as a single and simple anticlinal flexure. The outcrop of the core of gneiss is not continuous ; nor does it observe a strictly uniform direction throughout. These irregularities, moreover, are not superficial ; thus, in the deep gorge cut by the Jhelum through the range, between Baramula and Uri, the gneiss does not appear at all ; and the slates, in some manner not yet worked out, wrap round the termination of the gneissic mass of the ridge on either side. The abruptness of these breaks has suggested the possibility of their connexion with primitive ridges of old gneiss ; but this supposition is so difficult to reconcile with .the general symmetry of contortion, that we must seek for some other explanation. Since the main feature is not a simple flexure, but includes also some minor fold- ings of the strata, as is observed in both the Banihal and Pir Panjal sections, it is natural to suppose that at different points of this range the maximum effect took place along different minor axes of initial contortion, resulting, of course, in ultimate discontinuity, and partial discordance between these elements of the great flexure. Extra-Peninsular. ] POST-TERTIARY AND RECENT FORMATIONS. 6G7 One-sidedness of mountain structure. It has been already remarked (p. 559) that the structural form of the Pir Paujal and Dhau- ladhar ranges corresponds with that of the ridges of the adjoining Sub- Himalayan rocks. It may perhaps also be inferred that a similar structure prevails in the Zanskar* range, but nothing very like it has been described in the interior mountains, nor yet, which is more note- worthy, at the northern margin of the mountain region ; the features of the hills on the borders of the Yarkand plains, so far as we know them, bear no resemblance to those of the Southern Himalayas. This one- sidedness of mountain structure has been observed elsewhere, and has given rise to the opinion already alluded to (note, p. 5 29), that the source of disturbance was external to the mountain region. 1 This notion, however, is decidedly obscure ; almost on a par with the original idea of simple upheaval, so long in favour with Alpine geologists. It seems more natural to look for an explanation of the dominant structural form, in any area of special disturbance, to the resultant condition of resistance at the time of compression. Such a local condition has been intelli- gibly assigned by Mr. LeConte, 2 in the unsymmetrically lenticular form of the total sedimentary mass, from the alteration and compression of which a mountain range is formed, whereby excessive contortion and over-thrust takes place on the side of the most rapid decrease of thickness of the deposits, which would generally be the landward side. This explanation may be partially the correct one for the case under description, although there would still be some difficulty in connexion with the part that has been assigned to the central gneiss of the Lower Himalayas. But it is evident that this particular condition is only one in the many possible combinations by which the position of least resistance under compression may be determined. Post-tertiary and recent formations. It has been already ex- plained (p. 371) how difficult it is to draw a distinct line between tertiary and post-tertiary formations in Peninsular India. Indeed, it is sufficiently evident from general considerations that, unless upon the assumption of a world-wide or half world-wide coincidence of phenomena, there 1 Suess : Die Entstehung der Alpen. An abstract of this work is given in Silliman's Journal, 1875, p. 446. 2 American Journal of Science and Arts, August 1878, and elsewhere. Mr. J. LeConte (and he is not singular in this) seems to have overlooked the fact that a very large and vital a part of his theory is contained in views admirably expounded long ago ; it is by no means evident in what particulars, as a " formal theory," the " geanticline " differs from De Beaumont's bossellement, or the "mashing " from the tcrasement of the same author ; or how the part played by " sedimentation " in the origin of mountains differs from that assigned to it by Herschel and Bubbage. The little progress geologists have made has been in applying the ideas of these physicists to actual cases of mountain-structure. 668 GEOLOGY OP INDIA CENTRAL HIMALAYAS. [Chap. XXVII. can be little or no correspondence between the great breaks in the sequence of geological formations in distant parts of the earth's surface ; and the chief interest of the case under immediate notice is, that the traces of such a half world-wide event have been observed in the Hima- layas. On the page above referred to it was stated that the limit be- tween tertiary and post-tertiary formations in Europe is most con- veniently marked by the glacial epoch ; and on the following page it was shewn that India had been affected by the glacial period, and that Himalayan glaciers were formerly more extensive than they now are. That evidence need not be quoted again here; we would only draw attention to the fixing of the date and the cause of that former exten- sion, as necessary features of the important question at issue the validity and force of the words " epoch " and ( ' period, " as applied (without local affix") to glacial action; for, as so used now, they imply a half world- wide, if not a world-wide, coincidence of the phenomena ; and the importance of verifying this application is very great. Even if one such event could be established, it would be of immense service, in giving a rough general datum line in past time from which to correlate the ' progress of geological changes ; for at present there is no greater obstacle to exact speculation in geology than the utter uncertainty between local and true time, as indicated by the palseontological clock. 1 It will require a great accumulation of connected observations to establish the cotemporane- ous glaciation of even a hemisphere of the earth to shew, for instance, that the facts appealed to are not successive, and due to a progressive change, more or less irregular, such as would be caused by a shifting of the earth's axis, although the possibility of this particular occurrence has lately been denied by competent physicists. In such a case the expres- sion " glacial epoch" would have little more exact significance than have now the various palseontological periods. Sub-Himalayan high-level gravels. The evidence for a strati- graphical break in the formations of India, equivalent to the pliocene- pleistocene change in Europe, is not found most distinct in the same localities as the best evidence for an extension of glacial action. The latter naturally occurs in the higher ground, towards the region of existing glaciers ; the best instances on record being those in Sikkim (supra, p. 373) and Kashmir. 2 The former, as naturally, is found in connexion with the known tertiary deposits in the Sub-Himalayan zone. Nothing could be more sharply defined than the separation of the high-level 1 e. g. Dr. John Evans' objections to Professor Haughton's considerations on Changes of Climate in past times. Presidential Address (Geological Section), British Association, 1878, "Nature," Vol. XVIII, p. 418. 2 Drew : Juinmoo and Kashmir Territories, p. 219. Extra-Peninsular.] GLACIAL EVIDENCE IN TIBET. 669 gravels along the base of the North- Western Himalayas, from all recent deposits on the one hand, and on the other from the latest rocks of the tertiary series the topmost Siwaliks. In the section already so much quoted of the Sutlej gorge above the Bubhor (p. 551), those gravels are found capping the low hills, at an elevation of 500 to 600 feet over 'the river, and resting undisturbed on the edges of vertical Siwalik conglomerates. The same may be seen in many other places, as in the river section of the Rotas ridge, west of Jhelum ; and it will scarcely be disputed that, from stratigraphical analogy, they may take provisional rank as early pleistocene. In the places indicated they are made up, of thoroughly water-worn torrential debris, but in certain positions, as in Kangra, they have a character that seems to demand the aid of glacial con- ditions ; and this only occurs when there is an obvious source of such an influence. The whole Kangra valley and many other diins were once more or less filled with these deposits. The boulder gravel caps ridges above Kangra fort, on the southern side of the valley ; and all about, especially on the inner side of the valley, huge blocks of gneiss are scattered. These blocks are not traceable to distinct moraines ; but they often occur in sheltered positions, to the side of the actual gorges, where they must have arrived by notation, or else have fallen over the present flanking ridges when these were smothered in a great fan-talus of diluvium from the main ridge of the Dhauladhar close by. No scratching or polishing has been found either on the blocks, or on the rocks in situ ; but all the facts very strongly suggest that glacial conditions must have aided in producing such results. The elevation of this sub-glacial deposit in Kangra is between 2,000 and 3,000 feet; the crest of the Dhauladhar, from 6 to 8 miles distant, rising to 14,000 and 16,000 feet. Glacial evidence in Tibet. The effects, real or imputed, of glacial action in the Alps and elsewhere are so prodigious, that, after accepting some clear cases, such as those quoted in Sikkim and Kashmir, of old moraines at elevations of only 6,000 to 8,000 feet, one is surprised to find that traces of glaciation are not more conspicuous elsewhere in the Himalayas at vastly greater elevations, in Tibet. At least, but slight mention is made of those traces by very competent observers. Dr. Sto- liczka may be said to have ignored the subject ; Colonel Godwin- Austen, who surveyed the highest regions of Western Tibet, and who from the first paid attention to geological features, only makes casual mention of glacial extension, generally in its least certain form that of presumed erratics ; and Mr. Drew, who enjoyed such exceptional opportunities of studying the ground, and who paid particular attention to this subject, as is proved by his admirable account of the superficial deposits of Western 670 GEOLOGY OF INDIA CENTRAL HIMALAYAS. [Chap. XXVII- Tibet, 1 makes less distinct mention of glacier extension here than at much lower elevations to the south. He does, indeed, describe deposits of the glacial period, but as being scarcely different from the actual torrential deposits : and to the other marks of glacier-action there is very little allusion. The spurs at the edge of the Deosai plain are said to shew signs of ice-moulding, 3 and a few instances of contorted alluvium are attributed to the presence of glaciers at lower elevations than at present ; but Mr. Drew's chief argument, so far as his work has proceeded, for the influence of the glacial period in Tibet is the indirect one to account for the excess of disintegrating action, whereby the river valleys became choked with diluvial matter. It is even remarked (L c., p. 470) : " Whether in that period there was any variation in the transporting power of the streams, I do not at present see my way to determine ; the material is, as a whole, of the size that is even now brought down by the streams, taking the spring and occasional floods into account." What these occasional floods may do has been already stated (p. 516). On the whole, the published de- scriptions of Tibetan regions are not what might be expected, had the ground been deeply covered by ice, as would surely have been the case at a time when on the southern side glaciers reached so low as 7,000 feet. But these doubts are only conjectural, and intended to elicit further research. The Hundes lake-basin. The immense extent of what we may conveniently (until we know more about them) call " post- Himalayan deposits " in Tibet has already been indicated in our remarks on the plain of Hundes (pp. 646-51); where some doubt was hazarded as to whether the remains of the extinct mammalia were really derived .from the undis- turbed deposits of that high-level basin. If the " glacial epoch " test might be applied here, it would confirm the supposed Siwalik age of these beds ; for General Richard Strachey mentions the existence of old moraines upon them. 3 From an observation recorded by Captain Henry Strachey 4 it would seem that they are truly lacustrine : he speaks of the ground by the name " Guge" and says that the deposits "appear to consist of more finely comminuted material in their central part, where furthest distant from the mountains, the great ravines there being flanked by cliffs half a mile high, which exhibit throughout their thick- 1 Drew : "Alluvial and Lacustrine Deposits and Glacial Records of the Upper Indus Basin," Q. J. G. S., 1873, XXIX, p. 441; and "Juminoo and Kashmir Territories," 1875. The paper in the Quarterly Journal is headed Part I, and only treats in detail of the alluvial deposits ; it is understood that the " Glacial Records " were to have been described in the second portion of the paper, which has not yet been published, 2 Q. J. U. S., XXIX, p. 466. 3 Q. J. G. S., VII, p. 310. 4 " Physical Geography of Western Tibet," Jour. Roy. Geogr. Soc., 1853, XXIII, p. 19. Extra-Peninsular.] LAKE BASINS. 671 ness a fine homogeneous clay with little gravel in it. The stratification of the alluvium seems to be horizontal in all cases, or at most very slightly sloped from the mountain foot to the valley middle, in accord- ance with the existing directions of the drainage. I have once or twice seen small faults, where some of the strata had become canted from the horizontal for a few yards ; but never anything like a general disturbance of the original position." It is not known whether this great lake-basin is now a rock-basin, or if it ever was ; and, as we shall see, there are other larger and more lofty lake-areas, the origin of which is distinctly attributed to the damming up of the gorge of discharge. The fact that the gorge and the deposits themselves have been re-excavated to so great a depth, is another point in favour of the greater antiquity of the Hundes deposits ; and, on the whole, the balance of evidence is in favour of their being of late tertiary (Siwalik) age. It would be a crowning proof of the fact, already sufficiently established (p. 570), that the great Himalayan river-basins existed in Siwalik times, as now. A comparison of the state of these deposits with that of the older tertiary deposits of the Indus valley, is a further suggestion, that the post-Siwalik disturbance was quite a minor, or collate- ral, effect of that which produced the contortion of the mountains. Lingzhithang and Kuenlun lake-basin. The great lake-basin of Lingzhithang, and the Kuenlun plains, 1 are in a much newer phase of existence than that of Hundes, although of greater extent, and at a higher elevation. They stand at the main Himalayan watershed, north of the Indus ; and have apparently been reclaimed from the northern drainage area. They are now in the last stage of extinction as lakes, having numerous small shallow tarns and ponds of salt water still left in the lowest depressions. They occupy an area 100 miles long from north to south, with an average width of 70 miles, divided by the Lokzhung mountains, or what is left of them ; for the watershed in the gorges is only 300 feet above the southern plains, and altogether on gravel ; while some of the peaks range to 21,000 feet. The Liugzhithang plain, on the south, has an elevation of more than 17,000 feet, and the Kuenlun plains 16,000. The original outlet is supposed to have been at the north-east corner, into the eastern Karakash valley. This became choked by fan-deposits from the lateral gorges ; and so the lakes were formed, and ultimately the plains. Tso Moriri and other basins. Mr. Drew describes several other similar areas, on a smaller scale ; such as the little salt-lake plain of 1 Drew : " Jimmioo ami Kusluuir Territories/' p. 331. 672 GEOLOGY OF INDIA-CENTRAL HIMALAYAS. [Chap. XXVII. Rupshu, and the saline lakes of Pangkong and Moriri all attributed to the same mode of formation. The Tso Moriri gives the most distinct illustration of this process ; the Phirsa stream brings down to the main valley more debris than it can carry on, and thus has raised a dam across the valley. The greatest depth of the lake is 248 feet; but the fan of the Phirsa apparently has that depth, besides being now, at its lowest point, about 100 feet higher than the lake. Around all these lakes and lake-plains there is clear evidence that the waters have formerly stood at a much higher level. This fact points to a continuance of the cause which originally gave rise to these lakes a progressive decrease of precipitation and increase of eva- poration, whereby the carrying power of the streams has become more and more out of proportion to the rate of disintegration of the rocks. Alluvial deposits of Tibet. This clear evidence of a change that is still in operation is the more noteworthy, as it is apparently the reverse of a process which is appealed to in explanation of a more wide- spread development of other deposits in the valleys of Tibet. Mr. Drew makes a very important distinction between lake -deposits and river- deposits, or alluvium ; the principal criterion being the horizontality of the former, their lamination, and the absence of larger, current-borne materials : and he considers that the great accumulations of debris found in almost every valley, high above the present stream level, are river-deposits, not lacustrine ; also, that they were deposited since the valleys were eroded to about their present depth ; and that, therefore, a double change took place in the relative carrying power of the streams, before and after the formation of those deposits. In this case the changes of balance are accounted for by the abnormally increased dis- integrating action from the cold of the glacial period ; to which time these beds are thus relegated. This is, in fact, the principal evidence referred to for the glacial epoch in Tibet. The general description of the nature of these deposits is quoted above (p. 670) ; and it^ is hardly what one would have expected from the supposed conditions. May not these old valley deposits be in part the result of temporary lakes, such as may at some time or other have been formed by obstructions at different points of the deep valleys ; and in part, deposits of the time when the valleys first stood at those levels ? The Indus is now laying out alluvial plains at several points of its valley in Ladak. The Kashmir basin. None of the Tibetan lake-basins, actual or extinct, are known, or supposed, to be rock-basins. Indeed, they are plateaus as much as basins, on account of their elevation, and because the height and width of the lip separating them from ground at a much Extra-Peninsular.] THE KASHMIR BASIS., 673 lower level are inconsiderable. This is remarkably the case with the Ling- zhithang basin. The Kashmir valley is much more basin-shaped. Its length is about 84 miles, and in width it varies from 20 to 25 miles ; the lowest elevation is 5,200 feet, the mean for the whole valley being about 6,000 feet, or 5,000 feet above the plains of the Punjab, from which it is separated by the Pir Panjal range, the lowest pass in which is 3,000 feet over the valley. Kashmir is still in part a lake-basin, and a much larger part is occupied by very low alluvial land, formed by the overflow of the actual rivers ; the rest is occupied by flat terraces and plateaus, from 100 to 300 feet above the alluvial surface, and known by the ver- nacular name karewas. Both surfaces rise as they come within the influence of torrents and rainwash from the surrounding hills ; in this way the karewa surface rises to an elevation of 7,000 feet. Colonel Godwin- Austen 1 observed that at the outer edge of the valley, specially on the south-east, the karewa deposits have an inward dip of .more than 20; and he estimated their thickness at 1,400 feet. Through- out this thickness the remains of recent, land and fresh-water, shells were repeatedly found, also plants and fish scales ; peaty layers also occur at several horizons, indicating a succession of land surfaces, alternating with the lacustrine deposits. Mr. Drew 2 confirms the opinion, that the karewa deposits are lacustrine and not alluvial ; but he seems (I. c., p. 212) to suggest a distinction between these disturbed beds and the material of the karewas proper. Mr. Lydekker, 3 however, describes a perfectly gradual transition from the disturbed blue clays and conglomerates on the outer side of the valley, up into the horizontal pale fine sands and loamy clays forming the plateaus in the centre and on the inner (north- east) side; but he suggests the convenient distinction of upper and lower karewa deposits, and considers that the former may be of upper Siwalik age. It seems most likely that these deposits now lie in a rock-basin, the tilting of the lower strata probably corresponding with a late relative rise on the side of the Pir Panjal. Colonel Godwin- Austen and Mr. Drew, however, only refer to possible obstructions in the Jhelum valley in connexion with the old lake; although the latter observer (/. c., p. 211) contemplates its having risen to a level of 7,000 feet above the sea, that of the highest karewa slopes, or to 1,800 feet above the present lowest level of the valley. The possible source of doubt in this estimate lies in the uncertain distinction between true deposits in water and the results of 1 Q. J. G. S., XX, p. 383. 2 " Juiniaoo and Kashmir Territories," pp. 161 to 212. 3 Rec. G. S. I., XI, p. 32. S 1 674 GEOLOGY O/ INDIA-CENTRAL HIMALAYAS. [Chap. XXVII. rainwash. Mr. Drew decides that the ancient buildings in Kashmir are subsequent to any but the recent deposits of the valley ; and no relics of man have been found in any beds older than recent. No undoubted marks of glacial action have been observed in Kashmir lower than 500 feet above the valley ; the evidence of such action at a lower level is so far confined to quasi-erratics in or about the gorge of the Jhelum. The Nepal valley. The only other valley at all comparable with that of Kashmir is Nepal, l in the Lower Himalayan area. The superfi- cial differences correspond with those that mark the structural characters of the two regions ; both are longitudinal valleys, lying in the general strike of the strata ; but the clear open oval area of Kashmir approx"- imately coincides with the elliptical synclinal depression of the calcareous upper paleozoic strata, a form that is so generally marked wherever the Himalayan disturbance has been unobstructed. Nepal, on the contrary, is rather a group of confluent valleys, with high dividing spurs : in -both directions, on the prolongation of the strike of the rocks, there is a con- tinuation of the special excavation of the mountain zone ; and the rocks of this zone being prevailingly calcareous, has suggested the conjecture (L c\, p. 92) that the feature is primarily due to erosion by solution ; as may also be the case with Kashmir. Another cause, however, and the proximate one (I. c., p. 100), of the formation of a lake.-basin in Nepal, was probably, in part, a relative rise of the hills on the south ; for here, too, the bottom beds of the valley deposits have 'undergone local dis- turbance on this side. These deposits correspond very closely with those of Kashmir. There is no remnant of a lake ; but the other features are alike. An extensive upland area, known as tdnr land, corresponds to the karewa of Kash- Xnir, and to the bhangar of the Gangetic plains. It is the surface of the old lake-deposits, no doubt considerably modified by waste in the central parts, and by rainwash accumulations near the hills. The streams flow at a depth of from 50 to 500 feet below this surface, according to posi- tion; but here too, as in Kashmir, they are now, for the most part, subject to overflow, and thus form the alluvial valleys, known as kholas, the khadir land of the plains (p. 403). Beds of serviceable peat, much used for brick and lime burning, occur at various levels in the valley deposits ; and there is also a blue clay, extensively used for top-dressing the fields, and the fertilising virtue of which seems to be due to the phosphate of iron (vivianite) freely scattered through it in blue specks. No fossil remains have, as yet, been found in any of these deposits. Any 1 Rec. G S. I., VIII, p. 93. Extra-Peninsular.] DRAINAGE LINES. % 675 trace of glacial action is also wanting in Nepal ; not even the doubtful erratics occur. But such could only be expected on the assumption of very advanced glacial conditions; for Kathmandu is only 4,509 feet high, and the valley is not traversed by any river from the snowy range, but forms the head- waters of the Baghmati ; the highest summit of the sur- rounding ridges being Phulchok, on the south of the valley, with an elevation of 9,720 feet. Other lakes. There are a few insignificant lakes near the outer fringe of the mountains, which may be accounted for in the same way, or by obstruction caused by landslips. A cluster of such ponds lies about NaiuiTal 1 ; and some occur also in the Sub-Himalayan zone, as "at Kundlu, on the road from E-upar to Belaspur. Mr. Mallet describes 2 some tiny lakes at the edge of the tertiary zone in Sikkim, as formed by landslips. In one, the stumps of the trees that were growing on the sides of the valley at the time, are still standing. It is apparent how very different are the lakes, actual or extinct, of the Himalayas from those of the Alps; the distribution of lacustrine rock- basins in the latter ground being as markedly marginal and transverse, . as in the former it is internal and longitudinal. Yet it is quite possible that both may be principally due to a like cause changes of level in the mountain mass, due to -lateral pressure, which would take effect variously, according to the form and dimensions of the ground affected. 3 Drainage lines. In connexion with the alluvial and related de- posits, a few suggestions may be made regarding the drainage. Rivers are one of the most palpable, most widespread and ceaseless agents of geological changes ; and dwellers in India have before them unsurpassed examples of the magnitude of their operations, both for construction and destruction. Yet we have hardly outlived the time when much of this river- ' action was ignored. Until recently, the deposits forming the great Indo-Gangetic plains were regarded as of marine origin. The positive, constructive action of rivers is now better understood, as it is, of course, more open to observation and verification ; and use has been made of it above (p. 570) to shew the antiquity of the rivers and of the moun- tains (or at least of the land-surface) from which they flow. The negative or destructive operations are much less susceptible of direct proof ; and accordingly there are still some who believe that the great gorges and valleys of the mountains are the gaping fissures of the fractured earth. In detail it is perfectly easy to confute this supposition ; 1 Ball: Rec. G.S.I., XI, p. 174. "Mem. G. S. I., XI, p 7. 3 Q. J. G. S., XXIV, p. 51. 676 GEOLOGY >F INDIA CENTRAL HIMALAYAS. [Chap. XXVII. to shew in countless instances that the rocks in the deep gorges of the river-beds are not, and never have been, so fractured ; and once the door is closed against this vein of semi-occult hypothesis/ a rational inter- pretation of the forms of denudation, based upon known and measurable modes of action, becomes possible, and a new record is opened to the geologist. The conditions of this mode of action have never been very systematic- ally formulated, although few natural processes have to work with so simple and axiomatic a rule that water will not rest unsupported upon a slope, and must flow by the lowest channel of escape. The uncertainties of the problem arise from unknown partial interferences, by ground movements, with the' original levels ; but of these influences also, evidence should be forthcoming, as is that of the changes which occur normally in any large drainage system, whereby an originally transverse 1 .drainage may become by itself more or less converted into main longitudinal channels. This normal process of formation of river-systems is too well understood to need explanation here 3 ; and it is evident that abnormal changes of the drainage lines, by local disturbances of the ground-levels, should also be traceable ; though it might not always be easy to assign the exact cause : for example, a small additional tilt of the outer range would have sent the drainage of the old Nepal lake down the longitudinal valley to the south-east ; but the gorge of the Baghmati would have remained as a permanent testimony of a former state of things. "We may now indicate the application of these considerations to some features of the Himalayas. The case of the Chinab has been already noticed (p. 562), where it passes by a deep narrow gorge at Riassi through a lofty ridge of palaeozoic limestone, surrounded by much softer tertiary rocks, the ground to the north being several thousand feet lower than the crest of the ridge. That gorge not being a fissure it is tortuous, and the rocks are perfectly continuous and unbroken across the river-bed at both ends it must have been slowly excavated by the river ; and through- out that process the ground to the north must have been higher than the river in the gorge, and so originally higher than the present crest of the ridge. It cannot be asserted that the surface to the north of the ridge was ever higher than it is now ; for the disintegration of the tertiary rocks and the erosion of the gorge may have kept pace with the gradual 1 Sec note, p. 529. - For an admirable illustration of the process referred to in the text, see a paper hy Mr. Jukes, " On the mode of Formation of some of the River Valleys in the south of Ireland," Q. J G. S., XVIII, p. 378, 1862. Extra-Peninsular.] DRAINAGE LINKS. 677 elevation of the whole ground ; while the resistance of the old^r rocks preserved them to be elevated to their present position. Or, the ridge being distinctly a case of locally greater upheaval, the erosion of the gorge, on the primitive course of the river, must have kept pace with that special elevation ; for otherwise the stream would have made a new channel through the softer rocks. But the fact remains absolute, that within the lifetime of this river, the rocks forming the crest of this ridge must have been lower than the ground to the north. More important, though less striking, are the cases to be found in the higher mountains. That all the great Himalayan rivers have their sources well to the north of the line of greatest elevation in the ma'n snowy range, has for long been a familiar fact ; and also that the three largest of them the Indus, the Sutlej, and. the Sangpo or Brahmaputra run for great distances in longitudinal courses within the mountains, so as almost to draw their head- waters from a common source in a middle position. We have no direct observations upon the gorges of these rivers in the high mountains, as to whether they can be regarded as lines of fis- sure ; but all the collateral evidence is decidedly against that assumption. We may at least glance at the question as if these river-courses had been selected under the simple conditions that govern formation by erosion. We cannot here assert positively, as in the case of the Riassi gorge, that the river valleys through the snowy range were originally filled by a mass of rock, continuous with the mountain crest on either side ; although the probability is that they were very approximately so ; and it is quite certain that prodigious erosion has taken place in those positions through the agency of the rivers. It can then be absolutely asserted (if we ignore ' the supposition of original fissures) that throughout that pi'ocess of erosion, and at its origin, the whole ground to the north was higher than these transverse drainage lines, through what is now the main mountain range ; and, therefore, that this range (as such), at present the most conspicuous feature of the mountains, is of later date than these river channels. The facts further point to the probability that the present longitudi- nal character of the Himalayan drainage may have been more or Jess brought about from an original transverse type, by the normal process of change alluded to in a previous paragraph. The gorges of the greater torrents, the Sutlej and the Indus, are much deeper than those of the other rivers draining through the main range ; and they may thus in process of time have intercepted and drawn off the original head- waters of the -latter streams, which may have originally drained from beyond the basin of the sedimentary rocks. No doubt the story may have been otherwise, and these longitudinal rivers may have been more or less 678 GEOLOGY OF INDIA-CENTRAL HIMALAYAS. [ Chap. XXVII. aboriginal, through circumstances that are easily imagined; but the question is not beyond the range of evidence ; and the fact that the minor rivers have been able to open, or keep open, a passage through w|iat is now' a great mountain barrier, is suggestive that for a consider- able period they had a larger source of power than now. These considerations upon the drainage system lend some support to views upon the mountain structure derivable from the rocks. It has been suggested, with some probability, that the great sedimentary series of the Central Himalayas was originally laid down in a continuous basin of depo- sition, though now broken up into great synclinal basins of disturbance, represented on the north-west by the Zanskar and the Karakoram areas ; also, that the '' central gneiss " of the " main range " and the Lower Himalayas has always been an elevated mass relatively to that basin of deposition. Upon these seemingly probable inferences (or assumptions) the gneissic axis of Ladak now- dividing these basins of disturbance, and formed in whole or in great part of metamorphic paleozoic rocks, must be considered as the chief and central feature of Himalayan disturbance, and the line upon which the greatest amount of upheaval occurred, whatever elevation it may at any time have attained. The drainage system, at least in the middle region of the mountains (Hundes), strongly suggests that it originated from that central axis of disturbance as a line of relatively greatest elevation ; the fact that the drainage took its origin from a watershed somewhere to the north of the present main chain being a certainty. Two views are compatible with the facts : either the elevation of the whole area was equable, and the original spill from that central crest of upheaval, across what is now the position of greatest elevation, has been maintained simply by erosion, the present less elevation of the central range (Ladak axis) being also a result of denudation, as 'may well be the case ; or, there has been a subsequent special elevation along this line of the present main Himalayan range. In this case, this special upheaval must have been so gradual that the erosion of the passes could keep pace with it ; or else these had been for the most part cut down before it set in. The latter supposition, of a partial later elevation of the Himalayan range proper, would help to account for the great lake of Hundes ; although the basin itself, as formed by the drainage of the Sutlej, is probably of ofder date. In the case of the limestone ridge at Biassi, we could shew that such a special marginal upheaval had taken place; -for that limestone at no very distant period had formed part of the level bed of the nummulitic sea, and so, at the commencement of the disturbance, must have stood at a lower level than the upper tertiaiy rocks to the Extra-Peninsular.] SUMMARY. 679 north of it. The case is different for the gneissic axis of the main range : we have seen reason to think that from very early times it has formed a relatively elevated mass ; but we have also (p. 604) shewn rea- son to suggest that this fact may have led to its special elevation under certain conditions of disturbance by compression. 'Summary. Beyond the fact that a very full sequence of formations has been palaxmtologically established in the Tibetan regions, there is little to bring forward from this chapter as general results. 1 (a) . The relation of the lowest strata of the slate series on the Tibetan side, to the gneiss of the main chain and of the Lower Himalayan area (p. 628), indicates their wide separation in age, and, so far, agrees with the more marked stratigraphical break between that same gneiss and the slate series to the south of it, in the Lower Himalayan area (p. 620) ; so far confirming the probable equivalence of the two slate series, and establishing this gneiss as a primitive rock in the Himalayan series, forming here a sort of neutral block in the disturbances that have pro- duced the mountains. It might thus, too, be regarded as having formed here a primitive Himalayan range, from which the quasi-erratics of the Pangi slates were derived (p. 664) ; and Dr. Waagen in the paper just quoted (see note) makes use of it in this way to account for the con- trasting life-conditions of the areas north and south of it, throughout the paleozoic and mesozoic epochs, thus connecting it with the Peninsular rather than with the true Himalayan region. However this may have been in pre-Himalayan times, considerations upon the drainage system have suggested (p. 676) that since eocene, or, at earliest, cretaceous times, it has not always been, as now, the principal crest of Himalayan elevation. (6) . The few instances of thinning out of deposits that occur in the mesozoic formations (p. 643), again indicate this Lower Himalayan area as a southern limit of deposition ; although in several of the groups there is no symptom of any such limitation (p. 642) . (c) . The extensive metamorphism of the paleozoic rocks in other posi- tions, especially on the central axis in Ladak, may suggest the opposite condition in those positions that a greater depression and accumulation of deposits had occurred there ; unless that metamorphic state is to be accounted for by the greater compression and upheaval of which those positions have been fheJoci. 1 For a partial comparative discussion of the palfeontological data, we may refer onr readers to an essay by Dr. Waagen in the Denkschriltcii <1. M:itli.-Natu\vis>.'ii- chaftlichen Classe d. K. Ak. d. Wissenschaften. Wien., Vol. XXXVIII, 1878; and Rec. G. S. 1. XI, Ft. 4, 1878. This general subject is also treated of in the Introduction. 680 GEOLOGY OF INDIA CENTRAL HIMALAYAS. [Chap. XXVII. (d) . In the central, as in the outer Himalayas, the relations of the tertiary rocks are of chief importance in the history of the mountains ; and already some interesting points have been made out. From the Sub-Himalayan sections it was shewn (p. 569) that an eocene land had existed in the Himalayan area. The distribution of the uummulitic deposits in Tibet, so far as accurately known, would independently sug- gest the same fact : they are totally cut off from connexion with all preceding deposits, and now lie in a compressed trough, chiefly in contact with the metamorphic palaeozoic strata, in the very centre of Himalayan disturbance, where presumably the maximum of total upheaval took place (p. 678), i. e:, including pre-tertiary with post-tertiary elevations. After the cretaceous epoch, a prolonged elevation set in, involving the corresponding denudation of the whole sedimentary series down to the altered palaeozoics, and the rise, on adjoining areas, of mountains having a height at least equalling the thickness of the mesozoic series ; this position of maximum upheaval, on the Ladak axis, corresponding with that of greatest denudation, where subsequently the eocene deposits were accumulated. It is, of course, clear that at the beginning of the tertiaries, these depressions of the Himalayan area were still, or again, at the sea-level. This preliminary, pre-tertiary stage of Hima- layan elevation, of the whole area we now speak of as Himalayan, would Very closely correspond with the period of the Deccan trap of the Peninsula. (e) . It is a point of very great interest to ascertain how far, if at all, that pre-tertiary elevation of the Himalayan axis was accompanied by the disturbance of contortion which is the special character of the Himalayan mountains (p. 634). No fact is better established in the Sub-Himalayan zone, at two distinct points (p. 569), than that the special disturbance of the silurian slates there is altogether post-eocene, subsequent to the elevation of the central area, as just described. Can it have been so also in the central region ? If so, the history of the mountains would be brought within a narrow compass : a broad, unbroken, pre-tertiary eleva- tion of the area (clause d), followed in middle tertiary times by a break-up and compression into flexures. If not, if the plication also of the central region preceded the deposition of the Indus tertiaries, a pretertiary act of special Himalayan disturbance would be marked off, distinct from \hat which produced such great effects on. the southern border of the mountains. It is certain that extensive crushing and folding of the central region, with irruption, took place after the Indus tertiaries ; but there is no observation as to whether in degree, or by dis- cordance, it can be distinguished from an eai-lier contortion ; and thus it Extra-Peninsular. ] SUMMARY. 681 is still an open question whether the special Himalayan disturbance is altogether post-eocene. (f). There remains the important question, how far the rising of the mountains to their present elevation coincided with the act, or acts, of plication (ecrasement, " mashing- ;" see note, p. 667)? It is quite clear that the special Himalayan contortion had been practically completed, and the mountains had very approximately assume'd their present sculpture, when the undisturbed strata of the Hundes basin were depo- sited (pp. 651-670). If those deposits are Siwalik, it would be plain that the very considerable contortion of the latest Siwaliks of the Sub-Himalayan zone took place, as has been suggested from other facts (p. 570), long after the principal contortion of the mountains, as a whole, and after they had approximately assumed their present contours. There remains, however, the very important question of elevation, as distinguished from form and structure : it is strongly objected, that the rhinoceros could not have lived at the present elevation of the Hundes deposits. When the possibilities of this condition are fixed, we may be able to record another, and perhaps the latest, event in the physical history of the- mountains a great continental elevation of the area, without sensible contortion of the rocks, and after the sculpturing of the mountains to veiy nearly their present shape had been accom- plished. Any clear evidence of simple and extensive upheaval, distinct from, and long subsequent to^ the chief special plication so characteristic of the mountain region, would be an interesting contribution to the theory of mountain-formation. 682 GEOLOGY OF INDIA THE ASSAM RANGE. [Chap. XXVIII. CHAPTER XXVIII. EXTRA-PENINSULAR AREA. THE ASSAM RANGE. Area to be described Formations present General structure The Sylhet trap The cretaceous series : Khasi area Garo area Mikir area The nummulitic series : Khasi area Garo area Eastern extension of the nuinmulitics The upper tertiaries The Naga coal-fields. Area to be described. The ground to be described in this chapter is a kind of residual area, for which even a name has to be in- vented. Assam, as known in geography and in the Anglo-Indian verna- cular, is the valley of the Brahmaputra, from the Brahmakhund to Dhubri, a direct distance of 420 miles ; and this has been already de- scribed in the chapter on post- tertiary deposits (p. 405). The northern border of the valley has also been described in the Himalayan chapters (pp. 545, 618).- There remain the hills bounding the valley continuously on the south, and now included in the province of Assam, recently formed into a local government, under a Chief Commissioner. The close connection between the hill tracts and the Assam valley justifies us in speaking of these hills collectively as the Assam Range, in order to use one general term instead of the five or six names now applied to different portions of the hill country, as was explained on page 27. This confusion of names is, however, to a great extent founded on the undecided or contrasting features of the ground, as may be appre- hended from the statement that more than half of this range has already been described as structurally belonging to the peninsular area. 1 The hills formed of these most ancient rocks, and occupied by the Garo, Khasi, Jaintia, and Mikir tribes, are for the most part low and very irregular on the north side, with numerous outliers in the Lower Assam valley, even close up to the Himalayan border (p. 522). On 1 For the little we know regarding the gneiss forming the great mass of the hills, ex- tending for 250 miles, between the Dhansiri and the Lower Brahmaputra, we must refer the reader to page 26 ; and the transition rocks associated with the ruetainorphics are noticed at page 40. Extra-Peninsular.] AREA TO BE DESCRIBED. 683 the south and south-east the metamorphics are everywhere overlapped by very much newer strata, upper secondary and tertiary, which in this posit ion are still undisturbed ; and so form plateaus between the deep river gorges, with a high scarped face along- a regular line to the south. To the south of this line, the same neozoic strata are greatly disturbed ; and consequently form hills of very different outline from that of the ad- joining table-lands. This remarkable feature is badly seen in the middle region, that of the Khasi and Jaintia hills, where the alluvial plains of Sylhet reach nearly to the base of the plateau, with only a very narrow intervening outcrop of the disturbed rocks. To the west, in the Garo country, the fringing zone of low hills is somewhat broader, between the plains in Mymensingh and the crystalline rocks of the Tura ridge. To the east of Jaintia a complete change takes place rapidly in the relative magnitudes of these contrasting features ; the dividing line curves gradually to the north-east, so as to emerge in the Upper Assam valley, near Golaghat, on the Dhansiri ; while the formations in the zone of dis- turbance expand enormously in the Naga country, and rise into a range of hills that quite overlooks the crystalline area. In North Cachar this is known as the Barail range, and its prolongation to the north-east, separating Upper Assam from Manipur and Burma, is called the Patkai range. It is confluent with, and a member 'of, the Indo-Burmese mountain-system, of which the Barail- Patkai range may be considered a border zone, near the original margin of the deposits which principally constitute that region of special disturbance. It is thus plain that the Assam Range is made up of two very distinct portions. Besides its strong petrological resemblance, the characters sustained by the gneissic mass, as an area at least partially, reserved from deposition, and as a neutral block of ground, unaffected by the dis- turbances that have operated so powerfully in adjoining areas, mark it (dearly for affiliation to Peninsular India. For these reasons it has been described in that connexion, and distinguished from the adjoining hills under the title of the Shillong plateau. l Thus only the newer formations of the range remain to be noticed. The description must be given in the same disjointed manner as for the Himalayan area, because pur information 2 is equally fragmentary in the present case. 1 Mem. G. S. I., IV, p. (427). 2 The following papers refer to the ground under description : Oldham : Mem. G. S. I., I, p. 99. Medlicott : Mem. G. S. I., IV, p. (387) ; VII, p. (151); Rec. G, S. I., VII, p. 58. Mallet; Mem. G. S. I., XII, Ft. 2. Godwiu-Austen : J. A. S. B., XXXVIII, 1869, Pt. II, p. 1. 6g4 GEOLOGY OF INDIA THE ASSAM RANGE. [Chap. XXVIII. Formations present. The rocks to be described have only been studied with any care in two positions, far apart : one, on the Khasi hill section, at Cherra Poonjee, and one in the coal-fields of the Naga hills, in Upper Assam ; and although the formations in both are, presumably, on the same general horizon, the petrological differences are so great, that no exact correlation of groups can be attempted. In the former ground the rocks are seen resting upon, and immediately contiguous with, the gneiss, and some very noteworthy variations of composition in the seve- ral groups have been observed in this position. The gneiss does not appear near the Naga hill coal-fields, although it may underlie the upper Assam valley at no great distance. The descriptions of these, two areas will be given separately ; and it is only possible to give the most general designation of the formations as applicable to the whole area, in the following form : TERTIARY SERIES. An immense thickness of soft sandstones and clays, based upon a nummulitic group, in which limestone is locally in force ; coal also occurs. CRETACEOUS SERIES. Sandstones and shales, with local coal basins. JURASSIC (?) The Sylhet trap, stratified. General Structure. The leading characters to be exhibited in these formations are the original termination, either abrupt or gradual, of each against, or upon, the old rocks of the Shillong plateau, clearly marking this as the margin of a great basin of deposition ; and, the subsequent disturbance of the whole sedimentary series up to the edge of the crys- talline mass, shewing that the latter has been comparatively unaffected by the forces that produced so much contortion in the adjoining ground. It is further of interest to observe that there is a great decrease in the thickness of the sedimentary series from east to west a fact supporting the conjecture of the original continuity of the gneissic area with that of the Peninsula. It is also of special interest to find a corre- sponding steady increase of disturbance from west to east, confirming the well-founded opinion of a direct causal relation between the original and induced structural conditions between the amount of deposition and the degree of disturbance. In one respect there is a noteworthy discrepancy between the relation of the gneissic mass and the newer stratified series, in the Assam Range and in the Peninsula. In the latter the fringing marine deposits every- where flatly overlap a very irregular surface of the gneiss : a similar relation is found where the strata rest upon the metamorphics of the Shillong plateau ; but in this Shillong ground there is a marked outer line of southern limitation of the older rocks, at many points of which line the Extra-PeninsUlar.] GENERAL STRUCTURE. 685 newer strata abut against the older, as msntioned above. It can be seen on the general map, and better still on the small "hill-ranges map in the Intro- duction, that this feature would seem to belong to the Himalayan system, being remarkably parallel to the Eastern Himalayan border in Assam ; or even as if it might once have formed a continuation of the middle Himalayan boundary. Such a temporary connexion cannot, of course, annul the more fundamental connexion of the crystalline rocks with those of the Peninsula ; but, whatever this seeming Himalayan connexion may mean, it will be shewn that the feature in question is not due to the middle tertiary disturbance, by which the Southern Himalayan border was defined (p. 570), or to the post-tertiary disturbance, of which "the Baniil-Patkai range is an effect : although the exposure of the feature is, of course, owing to the disturbance and removal of the covering rocks, it will be shewn that this steep face of old rocks is older than the Sylhet trap, and that it gave its form to the feature of disturbance, instead of the reverse. This distinctly local cause for a feature of direction having such magnitude as the Barail-Patkai range, more than 400 miles long (mea- sured to the Brahmaputra), removes, or at least greatly reduces, any difficulty that might have been preconceived regarding this range belonging to the Indo- Burmese, rather than to the Himalayan, system of mountains ; although for a considerable distance the two run directly at right angles to each other. The Barail, with its structural continuation westward to the Brahmaputra, may not be strictly a monogenetic component of the meridional ranges of the adjoining area to the south ; but all the accessories of disturbance are common to both, as formed of immediately continuous formations in the same basin of deposition. The monoclinal flexure along the edge of the Shillong plateau may have been due to the initial act of depression which culminated in the great waves of compression of the Burmese mountains. These explanations are needed to remove the primd facie impression of the necessary distinctness of the Assam, or at least the Barail-Patkai range, from those to the south, and its equally apparent relation to the Himalayas : though, indeed, this distinction does not imply much difference ; both systems of disturbance are so closely related in age, the Burmese being, perhaps, somewhat the more recent. The Shillong plateau portion of the Assam chain stands equally aloof from both areas of disturbance. With reference to the parallelism of the Barail-Patkai and the Hima- layan ranges, we may also note the contrasting structural features : in the Sub- Himalayan zone of Assam, as elsewhere, the dominant dip of the rocks is inwards, towards the older rocks of the mountains ; whereas the 686 GEOLOGY OP INDIA-THE ASSAM RANGE. [ Chap. XXVIII. corresponding tertiary formations o the Barail-Patkai range, where fully developed, dip as constantly southwards, away from the gneissic mass of the Shillong plateau, and towards the southern basin of disturbance. The Sylhet trap. The name of the adjoining district in the plains to 'the southward has been given to this formation, because of its con- nexion with the area south of the metamorphic mass of the Shillong plateau. All the other formations to some extent overlap the edge of the crystalline area ; but the trap ends abruptly against a steep face of the gneiss. These features are beautifully exposed on the paths and in the deep gorges south of Cherra Poonjee. The inner boundary of the trap is so straight and steep, as seen crossing the separate gorges, that the pro- bability of a faulted junction is at once suggested. It is, however, im- mediately apparent that any such dislocation must be of very ancient standing ; for the cretaceous sandstone passes over the trap in an unbroken semi-arch, being horizontal on the plateau and nearly vertical at the base of the hills. The mode of exposure of the eruptive formation is thus in more or less detached areas in the several river gorges, forming together an inner zone, close under the scarp of the plateau. The width of this band in the Tharia river below Cherra is less than two miles ; and the height above the sea at which the trap occurs along the inner boundary with the gneiss varies between 2,000 and 3,000 feet, which may be taken as the minimum local thickness of the formation ; for the rivers here are very little above the Sylhet plain, which is nearly at the sea-level. This trappean formation belongs altogether to the basaltic family, and has a strong likeness to the corresponding rocks of the Rajmahal hills and of the Deccan, already described. Close study might reveal distinct- ive characters; but there has been neither time nor opportunity for this work of detail. The stratified condition is very well seen ; and earthy, ashy beds prevail ; but there are many flows of hard basaltic rock, both compact and granular, sometimes with much olivine. No dykes were observed in the trap, except at the junction with the gneiss, a boundary which would thus seem to have been to some extent a line of eruption. At the head of the Lian glen (south-south-east of* Cherra), some dykes and veins, with transverse prismatic structure, traverse the bedded trap, and penetrate the ciystallines for a short distance. The same may be seen in the Bogapani. It is, however, plain that the junction with the gneiss is one of original contact : this is well seen below Mamlu, south by west of Cherra, where some 200 feet of the topmost earthy trap beds rest on the metamorphic quartzite forming a short spur at Tarna, close to the general boundary. E,.tra-Peninsular. ] THE CRETACEOUS SERIES: KHASI AREA. 687 As no sedimentary intertrappean beds, with or without fossils, have been discovered in this eruptive formation, we can only guess at its age from its relation to the contiguous rocks. Thus it is evidently much older than cretaceous ; for it seems to have undergone both disturbance and denudation before the deposits of that period were laid down upon it. This is well seen in the Tharia river, where the trap-flows have a moderate northerly inclination, and are thus transversely bevelled by the cretaceous sandstone, sloping rapidly to the south. No rock is seen below the trap, except the gneiss ; so there is a very wide range for conjecture as to its age. It probably corresponds approximately with the Jurassic trap of the Rajmahal hills, 200 miles to the west. In any other direction Its nearest known petrological congeners would be the sub-recent volcanic rocks of Burma. The Sylhet trap has not been observed east of the Tharia river, and no doubt it soon becomes concealed in that direction. It is finely seen in the Jadukata, the Umblai or Kanchiang of the' hill people, 40 miles to the west of Tharia, and under very similar circumstances ; but it is not again exposed in the Garo hills. It would seem as if some greater elevation in the middle region, that of the Khasi hills, to which the trap is limited, had brought up this lowest formation of the extra-gneissic area in this position. The cretaceous series : Khasi area. It is difficult to give an abridged account of deposits where they are subject to much change, and for particulars of these features we must refer to the original descrip- tions. 1 In the Tharia river, where the strata have a very high southerly dip, there are about 1,500 feet of cretaceous beds between the Sylhet trap and the nummulitic limestone. The bottom 200 feet, next the trap, are of massive, coarse, felspathic and ochrey sandstone. The only beds seen above this here are dark and pale grey shales, locally nodular, calca- reous and ferruginous, with some layers of flaky earthy limestone, and of fine, hard, earthy sandstone. There is a similar section on the Bogapani, 9 miles to the west, with 43 feet of fine sandstone immediately underlying the nummulitic limestone, and probably representing the Cherra sand- stone of the plateau. On the Jadukata, 20 miles farther west, only the bottom sandstone is seen, but in greater force. Near the base of it here some Brachiopoda, Echinodermala, and fragments of large Inocerami were found, and with these marine fossils numerous pieces of fossil resin, the same as occurs so constantly in the coal of this formation. This is the most westerly point at which marine (or indeed any) fossils have been observed in these deposits. 1 Mom. (I. S. I., I, p W, aud'vil, p (168). 688 GEOLOGY OF INDIATHE ASSAM RANGE. [Chap. XXVIII. In ascending to the plateau, a very marked change is observed in the character of the rocks ; the sandy element prevailing here as markedly as the earthy one did in the lower section to the south. About Mahadeo, on the first ledge above Tharia, a glauconitic sandstone is prominent ; probably an expansion of the bottom sandstone already noticed. It is traceable at the same horizon at many points in the cliffs south of Cherra. Marine fossils are locally abundant in it. Above this a fine pale sand- stone, frequently with broken fragments of plants and also marine fossils, is a characteristic rock ; it is often locally calcareous in a very capricious manner. This band is well seen in the Langpar spur, above the Mahadeo ledge. Above this is the Cherra sandstone, a coarsish hard rock, about 200 feet thick, which forms the edge of the main scarp, and the broad ledges of bare rocks at the edge of the plateau, under the nummulitic limestone. No fossils have been found in it, but it passes down locally into the lower beds, though often sharply separated from them. In a small collection of fossils from these rocks, Dr. Stoliczka recog- nised the following species. The highest fossiliferous band, about 200 feet below the edge of the cliff at Mausmai, a coarse sandy limestone, contains small LameUibranckiafa, a Cellepora, and echinoderms ; a finer rock is principally made up of an Astroccenia, allied to A. decapkylla. From about the middle of the series, above Mahadeo, in a stream under Laisophlang, in a soft, ochreous, glauconitic sandstone these fossils were found : Nautilus (? N. elegans}. Nautilus, with a central siphon ; fragments. Ammonites planulalus. { Am. dispar. Am. orbig-nyanus. Am. 1 pacificus. Anisoceras indicum. Anis. sub-compressum. Baculites, near B. vagina. Alaria papilionacea. Bostellaria palliata. Gosavia indica. Cerlthium inauguratum. Tritonidea requicniana. Hemifusus cinctus. Phasianella. Turritella. Euspira. Dentalium. Janira, near J.fleuriausiana, Exogyra mat/ieroniana. Spondylus striatus. Modiola typica. Cardita orb'tcularis. Cardium. Tertbratala, near T. carnea. Hemiaster. Holaxler. JBrissus. Turlinclia. The facies of this group rather resembles that of the Utatiir beds of Southern India. From the well-known fossil locality about 2 miles from Tharia, on the fourth cross-cut taken by the foot-path between the zigzags Extra-Peninsular. ] THE CRETACEOUS SERIES = KHASI AREA. 689 of the road, or the first below the Devil's Bridge, the following were named : Nautilus Icevigatus. Baculites vagina. Cypraea globulina. C. pilulosa. Rostellaria palliata. Alaria teyulata. Alaria glandina. I/i/ria crassicostata. Volutilithes septemcostata. Tritonidea requieniana. Latirus reussianus. Pseudoliva sulcosiata. Ttirritella pondicherriensis. T. multistriata. Jlfitreola citharina. Euspira lirata. Gh/rodes pansus. Gribbula granulosa. Nerita divaricata. Euptycha larvata. ActcBon curculio. Pecten septemplicatus. Janira quadricostata. 'rryphcea vesicularis t Spondylus striatus. Pecten, near P. rugosus. Inoceramus. Rhynconella compressa. Terebratula, sp., probably T. Uplicata and T. cornea. Ananchyte* *) several species, but distinct Erissus > from any described. Nearly all the fossils of this list occur also in the Arialur group of Southern India, but there are a number of species in the Tharia beds which appear to be peculiar, and most of them new. It may be worth recording that the observer who collected these fossils considered the latter locality to be lower in the series than the former, which would be remarkable, if true, seeing that the Arialiir group is newer than the Utatur. i On the plateau at Cherra Poonjee, which is only 6 miles from Tharia, the thickness of the cretaceous series is reduced to 600 feet, and ten miles farther north, about Surarim, there is only about 100 feet, and thus it gradually disappears altogether. Its last remnants do not occur on the highest ground ; but in depressions, and along the edges of the gorges, which had also been valleys in the cretaceous time, where the softer meta- morphic rocks had been eroded, the adjoining higher ground being gener- ally formed of the Shillong quartzite (p. 40). In this way outliers occur for some distance to the north, to near Moflong, 13 miles due north of Cherra. It is in these little primitive basins on the plateau that the cretaceous coal is found. The station of Shillong was for years supplied from a tiny coal-basin at Maubilarkar, between Surarim and Moflong. The mineral itself has a persistent character throughout the whole cre- taceous area : it is remarkable as being less of a true coal than is that of the overlying nummulitic group ; the texture is compact and 1 See Chapter XII. Tl 690 GEOLOGY OF INDIA THE ASSAM RANGE. [ Chap. XXVIII.' splintery, with smooth conchoidal fracture, and the coal gives a dull woody sound when struck ; it has the additional peculiarity of containing numerous specks and small nests of fossil resin. The abundance of pyrites is a serious defect in it as fuel. The top member of the series, the Cherra sandstone, seems to be contin- uous throughout : it was recognised at the foot of the hills on the Boga- pani, and it covers the coal at Maubilarkar. There is more doubt as to the continuous identity of the bottom group. In the lower ground it is separated from the Cherra band by 1,000 feet of earthy strata, while to the north it seems to coalesce with the Cherra band. This statement implies that there is an apparently continuous bottom band throughout : in the low ground, next the Sylbet trap, the coarse bottom sand- stone is free from pebbles ; but as it rises on to the plateau, and over- lies the metamorphics, it becomes coarsely conglomeratic, made up prin- cipally of half -worn debris of the Shillong quartzite ; and this bottom conglomerate is continuous from the scarp to the most northern outcrop. It has, however, been observed that the matrix at different levels partakes of the character of the corresponding horizon below Cherra ; it is some- times glauconitic, like the Mahadeo sandstone, and farther north it is locally calcareous, like the Langpar rocks. The carbonaceous element is the most persistent ; traces of it occur at the base of the cliff south of Cherra ; and we have already mentioned the resin found mixed with marine fossils at the base of trie series on the Jadukata. Cretaceous series : Garo area. Immediately west of the Jadu- kata, or Umblai, in the Habiang Garo hills, Colonel Godwin-Austen has described 1 the cretaceous formation as made up entirely of sandstone, in which he could find no fossil remains, save indistinct vegetable impres- sions. Coal of serviceable quality and thickness was observed in many places ; and attention is called (1. c., p. 23) to this ground as the most favourable for an attempt to work the seams ; as the formation here occurs at the very edge of the plains, within easy reach of water carriage. From the figured sections in the paper referred to, it would appear that the overlap of the metamorphic rocks by the cretaceous sandstones is more gradual in this position than to the east or to the west. From about the Jadukata there is a slightly more northerly trend in the strike of the formations through the Garo country, and this introduces a considerable expansion of the low fringing hills of upper tertiary strata ; so that the line of the gneissic boundary emerges at Singmari, near the middle of the Assam range, where it terminates close to the 1 J. A. S. B., XXXVIII, Pt. 2, p. 1. Extra-Peninsular.] CRETACEOUS SERIES : GAllO AREA. 691 left bank of the Brahmaputra. The importance of finding- coal near the great river has led to the examination of the rocks in this neigh- bourhood. The whole aspect of the Garo hills is very different from that of the adjoining Kluisi country. In the latter the undulating uplands of the plateau are continued on the crystalline area, north of the horizontal sandstones ; but the whole of the Garo country is a maze of hills and valleys, with hardly any level ground, and all at a much lower elevation than the plateau country to the east. The leading feature of the area is a ridge of gneiss, coinciding with the line already indicated as the southern boundary of the metamorphic mass. It culminates in Nok- rek, at an elevation of 4,652 feet; but is generally known as the Tura rang*. 1 , from the head-quarter station of the Garo Hills district. It is important to notice that this ridge is not the watershed : the Sumesari (Soomeysurry) drains a large area to the north, passing through the ridge by t a deep gorge above the village of Seju. To some extent, at least, this contrasting condition of the two areas dates from precretaceous times. Even in the Khasi hills the shallow basins of the cretaceous rocks shew a connexion with drainage lines that have been again selected by the present streams ; but, on the whole, the surface of junction is more like a general plane of marine denuda- tion. The coal-basins of Rongreng and Darang, on the upper Sume- sari, north of the Tura range, are much larger and deeper. It will be shewn that they have undergone some special depression in tertiary times ; but it is certain that they are original basins, for the cretaceous deposits thin out against the surrounding crystallines, overlapping the coal- seams on all sides. This more distinctly subaerial configuration of the crystalline surface in the Garo area, at a present much lower eleva- tion than that surface in the Khasi country, is confirmatory of the con- jecture, suggested by the position of the Sylhet trap, that the latter ground had undergone some relative upheaval. Other more or less detached basins of cretaceous deposits occur to the west of the Sumesari, in the upper valleys of the Kalu and other streams, draining from north to south of the Tura ridge. West of Tura the crystalline rocks become very much lower, sinking to the level of the Brahmaputra at Singmari ; and in this ground the sandstones are con- tinuous across the prolongation of the ridge in many places. The original relations of the rocks are nowhere better seen than here : the spur on which the station of Tura stands, some 2,000 feet below the crest of the ridge, has a midrib of gneiss, with sandstone on both sides, through which the streams have again excavated their 692 GEOLOGY OF INDIA THE ASSAM RANGE. [Chap. XXVIIL channels. There is little or no distui-bance in this locality ; and it is plain that the ridge must have stood as it does now when these sandstones were laid down. Thus it would seem that, at this west end of the Assam range, land and fresh-water accumulations of the cretaceous period had more or less enveloped the gneiss of the Shillong plateau, just as the Gondwana formations had covered up the corresponding rocks at the nearest point of the peninsular area, in the Rajmahal hills. The earliest notice of coal in this ground (by Mr. James Bedford, Revenue Surveyor, in 1842) was in very shallow basins near the villages of Salkura, Champagiri, and Mirampura, on the low gneissic plateau south-east of Singmari. The seams are altogether valueless, being only carbonaceous shale, with small strings of resinous coal. It is certain that, so far as the formation is exposed oh the western side of the field, there is a very marked decrease of the coaly element, compared with what is seen on the Sumesari, and between that and the Umblai, as described by Colonel Godwin-Austen ; yet the rocks are the same throughout : a pale sandstone, in which only traces of plants have been found. A white shale, or pipe-clay, is of more frequent occurrence in the west. The most hopeful point in the enquiry is, perhaps, that the rocks are much more disturbed and exposed in the east than near the Brahmaputra ; so that here the coal may lie concealed below the existing outcrops. In this connexion it is important to notice that, while in the Khasi section all the beds in the low ground are marine deposits, the coal being confined to high ground at the north margin of the formation, in the Habiang Garo hills, and on the Sumesari, at and below Seju, the coal is equally found to the south of the general gneissic boundary, in what may be called the main basin of the formation. Thus there seems a fair chance of finding it in a like position in the lower valley of the Kalu river. Cretaceous series : Mikir area. It is certain that the cretaceous rocks occupy a large space in the Jaintia hills, where the features of the Khasi area are continued for some distance; but we have no observations on that ground. To the east of it the distinctive characters of the forma- tion become much disguised, probably through the substitution of earthy marine deposits for the coal-measure sandstone. The thin bands of hard sandstone, resting on the gneiss, at the falls of the Kopili, south of Nowgong, are supposed to be cretaceous ; and the sandy limestone, similarly resting flatly on the gneiss, at the Nambar, near Golaghat, is also believed to be of the same formation. In this river, a few miles west of Bor Patar, there is a bed of the typical cretaceous coal ; and from the same neighbourhood in the Mikir hills, some white pipe-clay, just like that of Tura, has been sent in for inspection. Thus at its eastern Extra-Peninsular.] NUMMUL1TJC SERIES: KHASI AREA. 693 extremity, on the south-east border, the characters of the Shillong gneissic area, as a very ancient land surface that has undergone little or no disturbance, appear to be maintained. Nummulitic series : Khasi area. The northern thinning out of the nummulitic series upon the gneissic plateau is not so clearly seen, at least in the Cherra section, as in the case of the cretaceous rocks, because only remnants of the bottom bands are preserved there ; but, on the whole, the evidence is convincing as to the southern expansion of the marine deposits. The nummulitics have not been observed anywhere to rest upon the gneiss, so there is no proof of their having overlapped the cretaceous deposits ; but it is presumable that they did so, for the sequence is con- formable, or at least parallel and undisturbed, on a rising surface of the metamorphics ; and the nummulitics extend close up to the northern boundary, where the cretaceous beds are veiy thin, near the outcrop of the gneissic rocks. Immediately to the south-west of the station of Cherra Poonjee there is a small plateau of nummulitic strata. The bottom 30 feet are of limestone, covered by about an equal thickness of sandstone, not markedly different from the underlying cretaceous rock. At about 10 feet above the limestone there is a thick seam of bright coal, the well-known Cherra coal. 1 The limestone rests directly upon the rough surface of the Cherra sandstone, without any sign of intervening denudation ; and the bedding is parallel, having a southerly slope of 3. 8 The fossils from this limestone were determined by Dr. Stoliczka : portions of the rock consist almost entirely of small specimens of Opercnlina canalifera, Nummulites lucasana, and N. ramondi, both the last species very small ; also species of echinoderms, fragments of oysters, Pecten, Cardium salteri, and frag- ments of Natica, Cerithium, TurriteUa, &c. 3 1 Oldham : Mem. G. S. I., I., pp. 140 and 185. 2 This little plateau at Cherra offers a remarkable instance of a form of denudation that is not, perhaps, taken sufficient account of in geological explanations. The scarp is very regular and well denned at many points ; but the upper surface of the area, about a square mile in extent, is a chaos of tilted masses of the upper sandstone. This is clearly due to the more or less complete removal by solution of the supporting limestone. A small stream passes under the hill from north to south. The annual rainfall at Cherra exceeds 500 inches. Colonel Godwin- Austen (1. c., p. 21) has described a much larger instance of this form of denudation in the Garo hills, where a considerable enclosed catchment basin is drained underground. s The fossils described from Eastern Bengal by MM. D'Archiac and Haime in their " Groupe Nuinmulitique de 1'Inde " were all from the Khasi hills j but their specimens were so mixed, probably even including fossils from the cretaceous beds, that the value of their identifications is doubtful. As the authors themselves . remark " On voit qu'il y a un certain vague dans lea rapports de plusieurs des assises que nous venons d'indiquer :" I. c., p. 177. 694 GEOLOGY OF INDIA THE ASSAM RANGE. [Chap. XXYIIL Close to the north of the coal hill, the nummulitic beds occur again in equal thickness, under the native town of Cherra Poonjee. The limestone is not seen here ; but this may be partly due to concealment. The num- mulitic sandstone forms the highest ground of the plateau from Cherra Poonjee to beyond Surarim. Carbonaceous markings are frequent in it ; and at Lairangau, 4 miles north of Cherra village, there is a workable seam of coal. It is at about the same height over the cretaceous sandstone as the seam at Cherra ; but at Lairangau the underlying beds are all sand- stone and shale, except one bottom bed of limestone, resting on the Cherra sandstone. In this limestone bed Operculina canalifera and Nummulites lamarcki are very common; with these occur a TrochocyatJms, Sti/loccenia vicaryi, Echinolampas splieroidalis, a small Cardita, Pecten, Natica roualti } Keilostovna marginatum, a Ziziphinus, the small Cerithium liooTceri, casts of a large Natica, Cefithium, and Terebellum. 1 Under Surarim, only 1 mile from Lairangau, this bottom bei of lime- stone is wanting ; and the carbonaceous sandstones themselves come to an end in a low bluff, 2 miles farther north, near where the road bifurcates. These observations clearly shew the entire replacement of a thick bottom band % of marine limestone by a coaL-bearing sandstone; or the latter may, perhaps, be more correctly described as overlapping the former. The same character of the deposits is shewn by a comparison with the section at the foot of the hills. In the Tharia river the nummulitic series is as follows, all with a high southerly dip : Feet. 7. Limestone, coarse, massive, blue 200 6. Sandstone, clear, yellowish, coarsish 100 5. Limestone, fine, compact, blue or pink . . . , . . 200 4. Sandstone, earthy, greenish, ochrey 50 3. Limestone 50 2. Sandstone, yellowish 100 1. Limestone 200 TOTAL . . 900 In the parallel section on the Bogapani, below Chela, in the sandstone just over the bottom limestone, there is a coaly layer, which may suffici- ently establish the identity of these two bottom bands with those on the plateau above, the marine bed having increased in thickness ; and this marine character is here strongly stamped upon the whole series. These nummulitic limestones form the most prominent features of the low hills at the foot of the scarp along the Khasi area, where they 1 These fossils were named by Dr. Stoliczka. Extra-Peninsular. J NUMMULIT1CS: GARO AREA. 695 are in much greater force than elsewhere to east or west. This, as has already been suggested upon other grounds, may be owing to a greater elevation in this position, whereby a deeper zone of the basin of deposition has been exposed to view. Pure limestone is still the chief rock of the group on the eastern confines of the Garo hills, west of the Umblai, as described by Colonel Godwin- Austen ; although the total thick- ness must be much less than in the Tharia section. In the same ground this observer describes (/. c., pp. 14 and 16) local cases of denudation- unconformity between the limestone and the cretaceous sandstone. Nummulitic Series : Garo area. On the Sumesari, however, only 1 -Z miles farther west, a great change is observed. The whole series is exposed ; but it contains only one thin band of limestone, about 40 feet thick, resting conformably upon the cretaceous sandstone. Even this limestone is often earthy, nodular, and ochreous, with shaly partings ; the purer portion being generally formed of a mass of Nnmmulites granulosa, in various stages of growth. A similar change occurs throughout the forma- tion : there are no clear sandstones ; clays and soft earthy sandstones overlie the limestone, and are with difficulty 'distinguished from the succeeding upper tertiary deposits. This new character -is still more pronounced at the west end of the hills. The clear cretaceous sandstone is well exposed in the gorge of the Kalu at Domalgiri below Tura ; it is covered by crum- bling brown clays, in which occur rusty earthy concretionary layers of nummulitic limestone, the only representative 'here of the pure rock of the Khasi hills ; and altogether the formation here strongly resembles the most characteristic beds of the Subathu group in the North-West Himalayas. No coaly layer has been found in the series in the Garo area. .The occurrence of remnants of the nummulitic group on the creta- ceous sandstones of the interior basins north of the Tura range is a point worthy of attention. In the middle of the Rongreng basin some earthy nummulitic limestone was observed at the level of the river, the cretaceous rocks rising much higher against the surrounding metamorphics. The outcrop is flat and covered ; but the presumption is that the local cretaceous group is complete there, and that the actual positions are mainly due to a later depression of these inner basins. There is suffi- cient independent proof that the crystalline rocks here were affected by the general disturbance, and that the east end of the Tura range must have been squeezed up to a considerable extent. At both ends of the Sume- sari gorge, in the Darting basin on the north, and at Seju on the south, the cretaceous strata rise nearly vertically against the gneiss, with tin- beds parallel to the contact ; while rocks of the same age occur but little disturbed high on the shoulders of the intervening ridge, the widtl. 696 GEOLOGY OF INDIA THE ASSAM RANGE. [Chap. XXVIII. at the base being about 4 miles. That there was an original ridge of smaller dimensions in this position is certain ; and it seems equally so that the ridge underwent a subsequent special upheaval ; and the manner of this upheaval seems to require an actual yielding and protrusion of the gneissic rocks. The disturbance which took effect as a general rise of the Khasi area may have been concentrated here in this special crush- ing upwards of the east, end of the Tura range. There is no trace of such an action at the west end, about Tura. Considering the view taken of the original relations of the rocks here, it is rather remarkable that the nummulitics have not been found anywhere in contact with the gneiss ; but nothing like a survey of the ground has as yet been attempted. Eastern extension of the nummulitics. Having seen the steady increase of purely marine deposits from west to east for 120 miles in the Garo and Khasi areas, it might be expected that the more pelagic forma- tion would be steady for some distance in the same direction, in what is represented as a still-expanding series of deposits. There is no doubt that the total sedimentary series in the Kaga hills is much thicker than in the western areas ; but it is almost exclusively made up of detrital (clastic) rocks, and it is certain that the increase takes place largely in the upper tertiary formations : the part taken by the lower tertiary (nummu- litic) formation in the Naga hills is not known, and its extension in that direction on the map, to include the Upper Assam coal-measures,. is still conjectural. The nummulitics of the Khasi area no doubt continue for some distance into the Jaintia country ; but their mode of change or of extinction eastwards has not been traced out. Already on the track between .Nowgong and Cachar they are so concealed or altered from their familiar aspect in the Khasi section, as to have escaped the passing notice of an observer of some experience ; and the more detailed examin- ation of the ground in the Assam coal-measures at the north base of the Patkai, has not revealed any recognisable outcrop of nummulitic strata. The explanation that has been offered of the change to the west may cover this case also : that a special elevation of the Khasi area has there brought to the surface a deeper zone of deposits in this great con- tinuous basin of deposition. The upper tertiaries. It was said above that at the west of the Garo hills the earthy nummulitics pass up, without marked change, into the soft upper tertiary strata. There is at first a moderate southerly dip ; but the strata become nearly horizontal as they recede from the gneissic mass ; so that this section on the Brahmaputra is the most obscure of any in the whole range ; the hills are much lower than elsewhere, and the tertiary series must have here a minimum thickness, even if the Extra-Peninsular.] THE UPPER TEUTI ARIES. 697 whole of it is exposed. Yet the only distinct information we possess as to the horizon of these newer rocks is from this ground. In 1821 Mr. Colebrooke read to the Geological Society of London 1 some observations on these rocks by Mr. David Scott, then Commissioner of Cooch Behar. In those days the Brahmaputra flowed at the foot of the hills, and at one spot on the left bank Mr. Scott found some fossils. The exact locality is not given, but it was somewhere between the Kalu and Mahendraganj (or Karibari) , probably nearer the latter place ; so the position in the series is not known j but it seems certain that the bed belonged to the rocks of the hills, not to the " old alluvium " for it is described as at the foot of a small hill, rising about 20 feet over the general elevation. The fossils were a strange mixture of marine with land and fresh-water forms ; and amongst them Mr. Pentland described 2 the teeth of Anthracotherium (Charomeryx) ailistrense, a species that has been recently found in the Manchar (upper miocene) beds of Sind. 3 The change of character that is so marked in the cretaceous and nummulitic deposits from west to east has not been observed in the upper tertiaries : there certainly can be no striking feature of this kind. A massive soft greenish sandstone is the most prominent rock ; it is somewhat like the common Siwalik rock, but more earthy and of darker hue, and the associated beds are mostly grey shales, unlike the brown and ochrey clays of the Sub- Himalayan series; and the fossils above mentioned shew that even at this western end of the range the deposits are, in part at least, marine. In Mr. Scott's notes of the section on the Brahmaputra, local contortions are noticed, and this condition increases eastwards. On the Sumesari, where the tertiary zone is 14 miles wide, nearly 60 miles from the great river, the state of disturbance is still only partial 4 : at the southern edge of the hills the dip is 40 to the south, in very new-looking strata ; there is then a broad band, in which the beds are flatly undulating ; they then rise again with a steady and increasing southerly dip. The form of these outer, partial lines of disturbance is that of normal flexures, with the axis-plane sloping northwards, towards the gneissic mass at the edge of the basin (note, p. 528). In the inner half of the section there are two lines of compressed contortion, with interven- ing bands of nearly horizontal beds. In this more advanced state of com- pression the features suggest that the flexures had not been thrust over from the north, but from the south, as the reversed fault seems to have 1 Trans. G. S., Ser. 2, vol. I, p. 132. 2 Trans. G. S., Ser. 2, II, p. 393. 3 Rec. G. S. I., X, p. 77. Mem. G. S. I., VII (193). 698 GEOLOGY OF INDIA-THE ASSAM RANGE. [Chap. XXVIII. a southerly underlie, and the upthrow is on the south. Nothing like a general unconformity in the tertiary series was noticed in the section of the Sumesari. Only 20 miles to the east lies the ground described by Colonel God- win-Austen on the confines of the Garo and Khasi areas, where the upper tertiary rocks have been-almost denuded away from the base of the range, the little that is left of them being nearly vertical. Several peculiar- ities have already been noticed in this position : the depression, or the gradual rise, of the metamorphic mass, unlike its abrupt southern ending to east and west : here, too, is the transition ground of the prevailing marine type of deposits in both the cretaceous and nummulitic strata, and here a partial unconformity was noticed between these formations. Similar conditions affect the upper tertiaries : this is the only position in the western part of the range where they have been found on the plateau, inside the line of disturbance. The summit of Nongkulang hill (2,070 feet) is formed of rusty sandstones and shales, resting horizon- tally upon the undisturbed nummulitic limestone. In a collection of fossils from these beds, sent by Colonel Godwin- Austen, Dr. Stoliczka found the genera Conus, Dolium, Dentalium, Cardita, Cardium, Tellina, Nttcula, I/eda, Cucullcea, and several others ; and he remarked that none of the species, so far as recognisable, appeared to be* identical with those known from the nummulitic beds of the same district. This fact suggests that these detached beds on the heights may, perhaps, be an overlap of some beds of the series higher than those that seem to be in transitional sequence with the nummulitics in the sections to the west. This view is strengthened by the fact, that Colonel Godwin-Austen observed some cases of local denudation-unconformity between these fossiliferous sandstones and the nummulitic limestone, the strata being still quite parallel. Along the foot of the plateau in the Khasi and Jaintia areas the dis- turbed upper tertiary rocks have been almost entirely removed by denuda- tion. East of Jaintiapur they appear again in force, and expand rapidly into the Barail range, which is, so far as known, entirely made up of them, rising steeply from the alluvial valley of Cachar, drained by the Surma, or Barak. On the south this valley is very undefined, long lateral valleys running up from it to the south, between the low meridional ridges of the Tipperah and Lushai hills, formed of the same soft upper tertiary rocks, some of which ridges strike up to within ten miles of the east and west Barail range. The Cachar valley seems to be excavated out of what must be the very broken ground where these two conflicting strikes meet. As the Barail curves to the north-east into the strike of Extra-Peninsular. ] THE ASSAM COAL-FIELDS. 699 the Patkai, north of Manipur, the confluence with the ridges from the south takes place more easily. It is only in the north-east, in the Patkai, that the range forms the main watershed. The northern drainage of the Barail passes through that range, by the deep gorge of the Jatinga, into Cachar. From the edge of the plateau, immediately over the upper Jatinga valley, the drainage flows to Assam. In this position the edge of the plateau, as constituted of horizontal rocks, does not visibly correspond with a supporting mass of metamorphics. There is here a large area of the North Cachar or West Naga hills formed of the massive upper tertiary sandstone very little disturbed. It would seem that the spill of \he drainage took its origin here from the first great monoclinal axis of flexure into the basin of disturbance, the protrusion of the Barail range into its present position along that axis being a slow after-process. It seems not unlikely, too, that this great accumulation of late tertiary strata may be largely formed of early Himalayan debris, from the discharge of the great eastern torrents, the Dihong-Dibong, the Brahmaputra, and others ; and that the diversion of these through* Assam into Bengal was the result of the crushing together of those deposits in the lines of the Burmese mountain system. The Assam coal-fields. Upper and Lower Assam are very neatly defined geologically : the latter as the area between the metamorphic mass of the Shillong- plateau and the Himalayas, where the metamorphics appear occasionally as outliers through the alluvium, and probably under- lie the whole at no great depth. The most easterly known outcrop of these crystalline rocks, north of the Brahmaputra, is the granitic mass at Tezpur. Upper Assam lies on the north-easterly prolongation of the crystalline area, and commences at the Dhansiri valley, where the sedi- mentary series lying to the south of the gneiss extends beyond it, in the northern ridges of the Patkai range, to form the south-east boundary of the upper part of the great valley. The general continuity of this line of outcrop here, with that of the crystalline boundary to the south-west, suggests that the metamorphics may extend for a long way beneath the alluvium of Upper Assam; but this is purely conjectural, and the data are insufficient to discuss it. It has been already stated that, although these rocks of the Patkai range are the direct continuation, after an unexamined interval of nearly 200 miles, of the formations already described on the southern margin of the Garo and Khasi hills, the general facies of the sequences are so differ- ent, that the two can only be correlated by a connected survey, fossil 700 GEOLOGY OF INDIA THE ASSAM RANGE. [Chap. XXVIII. evidence also 'being- entirely wanting- in the Naga ground. This eastern area must therefore stand by itself for the present. Mr. F. R. Mallet l has described the coal-measures in some detail, with the rocks immediately adjoining, for a length of about 100 miles from south of Jorhat. He gives the following classification of the formations : 4. The Dehing group (from the river of that name) : conglomerates and blue clays with fossil wood ; minimum thickness, 400 feet ; transitional with No. 3. 3. Tipam group (from the low range traversed by the Dehing above Jaipur) : massive, false-bedded, soft, grey sandstones, with subordinate variegated clays and fossil wood ; thickness, 7,000 to 9,000 feet ; transitional with No. 2. 2. The coal-measures : alternating shales, sandstones and coal, with a few thin cal- careous layers ; thickness more than 2,000 feet. 1. The Disang group (from the river of that name) : grey, fine, hard sandstones overlying splintery grey shales, several thousand feet thick. General structure. Although in a general sense the section of the Patkai may be, as suggested, a continuation of that to the south-west, with a prolongation of the crystalline rocks beneath the Upper Assam valley, very great changes are introduced to the north-east. Instead of finding the lowest rocks at the base of the hills, adjoining the alluvial area, as would be the case on the simple supposition referred to, there is, on the contrary, a nearly continuous belt of upper tertiary rocks outside (north-west of) 2 the main outcrop of the coal-measures and of the Disang group. This feature is due to a great fault that has been traced from end to end of the area, with a steady strike to east-35-north, and hav- ing a great upthrow to the south-east. On both sides of the fault the prevailing dip is towards the crest of the Patkai. This fault is the leading structural feature of the field, and it must have a throw of from 10,000 to 15,000 feet; for the outer tertiary rocks dip towards it, and high Tipam, and even Dehing, beds are generally found at the dislocation in contact with the Disang group. The principal coal-fields occur isolated inside the great fault; where, at intervals, the throw is less, or where a loop-fault encloses a section of the measures. Here, too, south of the main fault, the Tipam group is found in force overlying the coal group, and proving the magnitude of the dislocation. Thus the several coal-fields inside the fault are strictly isolated as basins of dislocation. The only position where the coal-measures appear at the base of the Tipam group outside the fault is in the Jaipur field, on the Dehing and the Disang ; but they presumably occur all along the margin 1 Mem. G. S. I., XII, p. (269). 2 See note, p. 529 : the axis of disturbance here is not Himalayan, but that of the Burmese system. Extra-Peninsular.] THE COAL-MEASURES. 701 of the alluvium, at an unknown depth : the great thickness of the Tipara group would make the search for the coal very precarious, unless near a known outcrop. The Disang group. The three upper groups form a continuous sequence, and the top one is a very late tertiary formation, so the Di- sang beds must take their place below the continuous series, as at least older than the coal-measures. The Disang boundary is everywhere de- scribed as faulted, and the original base of the coal-measures has not any- where been observed : it is, however, quite probable that the Disang beds also form part of the continuous sequence, for both shales ^and sandstone are very much like those of the coal-measures ; only in the latter these rocks are freely interbedded throughout, and include coal-seams at all levels ; whereas in the Disang group the shales, as a whole, underlie the sandstone, and both are without carbonaceous layers. As these contrast- ing conditions obtain in contiguous areas, it is impossible the groups can be the same ; and the Disang is certainly the older. The type section of the group is taken from the Disang, south of the Tipam range, no coal-measures being exposed along the great fault for many miles on either side ; but similar rocks occur to the south of the coal-measures, in the Makum field, to the east, and in the Nazira field, to the west. The coal-measures. Three principal fields have been described. In the Jaipur field the measures crop up with a high dip along a narrow band at the north base of the Tipam range for about 20 miles, when they are covered over in both directions by the alluvium. East of the gorge of the Dehing, at Jaipur, the Tipam range comes to an end, and the alluvium passes behind it, up to the edge of the Makum field, along the main fault. This is the most extensive of the Assam coal-fields : to the south-west its exact limit is not known, but it is certainly cut out before reaching the Disang ; to the north-east it extends beyond the limits of exploration, into the Singpho country. The Nazira field occurs along the great fault, on the Dikhu and Saffrai rivers, for a length of about 16 miles. In the former position the outer hills of the Tipam rocks intervene between the plain and the coal rocks ; but on the Saffrai the ground is more open, and the coal-field moreaccessible. Farther to the south-west there are small outcrops of the coal-measures south of the fault, on the Janji and Disai rivers ; but here the outer range of Tipam rocks is very broad, and the coal proportionately difficult of access. For detailed information regarding these fields and the coal, we must refer to Mr. Mallet's memoir. 1 The measures are very much alike in all ; 1 Mem. G. S. I., XII, Pt. 2. 7Q2 GEOLOGY OF INDIA THE ASSAM RANGE. [Chap. XXVIII. seams of less than a yard in thickness are very numerous in some sections, and not unfrequently the coal beds attain much greater dimensions. In the Namdang, south of Kongreng in the Makum field, there is a seam 100 feet thick, containing at least 75 feet of solid coal; and some very large seams have been traced for more than a mile without diminution. The sandstones and shales often contain nodules and layers of clay -ironstone. Earthy and ferruginous limestone occurs sparingly in thin concretionary bands, also some layers of hard tough magnesian limestone. The coal- measure shales decompose into a very tenaceous blue clay, differing in this respect from the Disang shales, which are more cluuchy. On the interesting question of the age of these very important and extensive coal-measures, there is little evidence for opinion; and that little suggests a middle tertiary horizon. The coal itself is a true coal of superior quality, not lignite, as is attested by its composition. Fixed Volatile carbon. matter. Ash. Average composition of 27 Assam coals . 60-0 36'2 3'8 Ditto of 17 Kauigiinj coals . 51' 1 32'6 16'3 It is not unlike the nummulitic coal of the Khasi hills, and quite unlike the cretaceous coal, which maintains its peculiar characteristics into close proximity to the Assam fields. The only fossils found in the seams are bad impressions of dicotyledonous leaves ; and no trace of animal life has been seen in any of the associated rocks. The strongest point in the argument is the closely transitional relation between the measures and the Tipam sandstone, which is a very typical representative of the Siwalik rock, and almost undoubtedly belongs to that tipper tertiary period. In the Khasi hills, and again in the Punjab, the nummulitic coal occurs near the very base of the formation : in the Tharia section (p. 694} there are about 1,000 feet of marine nummulitics above the coal bed. If the Upper Assam coal-measures are nummulitic at all, they would seem to belong to the upper limits of the formation. Tipam and Dehing groups. We might without much risk speak of these as Lower and Upper Siwaliks ; for in very many respects they correspond with those Sub- Himalayan formations as seen oil the north side of the alluvial valley ; and it is by no means improbable that the two may yet be traced into actual continuity through the wild unexplored country at the head of the valley. The greenish grey (pepper-and-salt) sandstone of the Tipam range undoubtedly alternates with the top beds of the coal-measures ; but the shaly beds rapidly cease, and the sand- stone becomes very massive. Some coaly partings were also observed well up in the Tipam group ; and fossil wood, whether silicified or semi- Extra-Peninsular.] TIPAM AND DEHING GROUPS. 703 carbonised, sometimes in very large blocks, is common throughout this great sandstone formation, as well as in the upper conglomeratic beds. The upper (Dehing) group is less like the corresponding group of the Siwaliks than is the Tipam sandstone; and two points are noteworthy in it. Some of the bottom beds are coal-conglomerates, made up almost exclusively of rolled fragments of coal, presumably of the coal-seams underlying the Tipam group. This peculiar conglomerate has been ob- served at great distances apart, at the top of the Tipam sandstone, along the main fault. The ordinary conglomerates of the group also are com- posed of well-rolled pebbles of fine hard sandstone, identical in appearance with the Disang sandstone. The beds associated with these conglomerates are blue sandy clays, not like the brown and red clays of the top Siwaliks, at least of North- Western India. The facts altogether seem to suggest that these top beds are of very late date ; and that the great disturbances now displayed in these formations may be to a great extent older than the deposits which seem to have taken full part in them, as was suggested in some of the sections in the Sub-Himalayas of Kangra (p. 554 ). But until the rocks at the head of the Assam valley have been studied, it will be impossible to offer any explanation of the general features of this region. 704 GEOLOGY OF INDIA-BURMA. [Chap. XXIX. CHAPTER XXIX. EXTRA-PENINSULAR AREA. BURMA. Area and physical geography Geological data Rock-groups Metamorphic rocks Mergui group Maulmain group Axial (triassic) group Mai-i (Cretaceous) group Supposed cretaceous coal in Tenasserim Negrais rocks Serpentine Nunimu- litic group Arakan Coal-bearing rocks of Tenasserim Pegu group Newer tertiary beds in Arakan Pliocene fossil-wood group Tertiaries of Upper Burma Extinct volcano of Puppa Trachyte in South -Western Pegu Post-tertiary deposits : laterite Older alluvial sands and gravels Delta of Irawadi Littoral concrete of Arakan coast Mud volcanoes of Eamri, &c. Islands in the Bay of Bengal Andamans Nicobars Barren Island and Narcondam. Area and physical geography. British Burma, consisting of the countries on the eastern side of the Bay of Bengal, north of the tenth parallel of north latitude, comprises three divisions Arakan, Pegu, and Tenasserim. The first and last of these are mainly composed of narrow strips of territory extending along the coast ; the former north, the latter south, of the Irawadi delta. Pegu consists of the lower Irawadi valley ^ south of the parallel of 19 30' north latitude, together with the country between the Irawadi and Sittoung (or Sitang) fivers. Martaban, part of the Tenasserim division, includes a large tract between the Sittoung and Salwin. The whole region is traversed by hill ranges, having a general north and south direction, parallel to the coast. All the principal streams have the same general course, which is the strike of the ' rocks. To the northward, in Arakan, the strike curves to west of north. The main hill ranges of British Burma are three in number. Com- mencing to the westward, the ridge running parallel with the coast, and forming the watershed between the Bay of Bengal to the westward, and the Irawadi valley to the east, is known as the Arakan Yoma. 1 This range is the southern continuation of the somewhat complicated ranges to the east of Chittagong ; it becomes a well-defined ridge of great 1 Yo-ma is a Burmese word signifying backbone. Extra-Peninsular.] AREA AND PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 705 breadth, but of comparatively moderate height, east of Akyab, and con- tinues steadily to Cape Negrais. To the northward the general height of the watershed is about 3,000 to 4,000 feet, some peaks rising to as much as 5,000 ; but to the southward the elevation is much less. This range is the boundary between Pegu and Arakan. East of the Irawadi valley, and forming the water-parting between that river and the Sittoung, is another range, known as the Pegu Yoma, terminating to the southward, close to Rangoon, and extending north- ward for some distance beyond the British frontier. The maximum elevation of this Yoma is about 2,000 feet, and is attained near the southern extremity, in latitude 17 55'; thence northward to the frontieV the height of the watershed varies from 800 to 1,200 feet. The whole of the mountains east of the Sittoung must be classed with those of the Tenasserim provinces as parts of one great range, greatly exceeding the Arakan and Pegu Yomas in elevation, and distin- guished from both by being mainly composed of metamorphic rocks. To the northward this range, which appears to have no general and dis- tinctive name, is connected with the gneissic ridges and plateaus of Upper Burma ; it forms the watershed between the Sittoung and Salwin, the latter river cutting through it near Maulmain (Moulmein), where the strike of the rocks is north-north-west instead of north, and it continues as a number of parallel north and south ranges in the Tenasserim provinces. Towards the southern extremity of British Burma the various parallel ridges coalesce into one general range, which forms the backbone of the Malay Peninsula. The metamorphic hills frequently attain an elevation of 5,000 to 6,000 feet, and some peaks are said to be as much as 7,000 above the sea. It may be useful to notice that the great rivers of British Burma are the Irawadi and Salwin, both of which rise far to the northward, in Chinese territory. The Sittoung is a much smaller stream, coming from but a short distance north of the British frontier. The Irawadi forms a large delta, but the Salwin flows in a rocky channel almost to its mouth. In Northern Arakan are several rivers of considerable size, the principal being the Koladyne, all running from the northward ; and in the Tenasserim provinces, the river Tenasserim has a course of about 150 miles from north to south, before turning westward to run into the sea near Mergui. The general parallelism of all the streams and hill ranges gives an appearance of simplicity to the physical geology of the country ; but, owing in a great measure to the prevalence of forest, it has been found extremely difficult to determine the stratigraphy, and very little can be said to be accurately known about the formations occurring. ul 706 GEOLOGY OF INDIA-BURMA, [Chap. XXIX. Geological data. The province of Pegu has been geologically mapped 1 ; but, for the reason mentioned, the classification of the rocks in the hill ranges is by no means satisfactorily settled. The formations along the course of the Irawadi north of the British frontier to beyond Ava have been cursorily examined, 2 as also a tract on the upper Sal win 3 ; and the extinct volcano of Puppa, south-west of Pagan, has been visited.* Occasional notes, too, have been collected by various travellers in other parts of Upper Burma. A few visits have been made to parts of Southern Arakan in the neighbourhood of Pegu, and to the islands of Ramri and Cheduba, 5 the southernmost part of Arakan being in- cluded in Mr. Theobald's map of Pegu, but the northern portion of the division is geologically unknown. All that can be said is, that the formations are probably similar to those of the Arakan Yoma, as the same beds appear to extend northward into the Assam hills. Tenasserim is similarly most imperfectly known, the neighbourhood of Maul main, and a few localities to the southward, being the only parts of which any account exists. 6 Bock-groups- The following are the groups in 'which the rocks found in Burma have been arranged, with their approximate geological position. It should be repeated that, owing to the very great difficulties in the way of a geological exploration of the country, the sub-divisions are by no means so well defined as in the Peninsula of India. The fossils found have not been compared and described ; and until this has been done, it is impossible to feel sure that portions of different groups have not, in some cases, been included in one sub-division. Name. .Bocks. Suppoted geological age. f Blown sand, littoral concrete,") I. NEWEE ALLUVIUM, &c. \ regur, and recent alluvial > Recent. * deposits. * II. OLDER ALLUVIUM . ( Sand and S ravels f the lder \Post-tertiary. (. river alluvium, latente, &c. J III. FOSSIL-WOOD GBOUP .$**"*> &""*- &C> > with silicified | Pliocene. ( wood and bones of Mammalia. ) 1 Theobald : Mem. G. S. I., X, pp. (189) (359). Some earlier notices appeared in the Records of the Geological Survey of India, but all details were incorporated in the Memoir quoted. Oldham : Yule's Mission to the Court of Ava, Appendix, pp. 309--351. By Mr. Fedden. J. A. S. B., 1862, XXXI, p. 215. Mallet : Rec. G. S. I., XI, pp. 188223. Oldham : Selections from the Records of the Government of India, Home Department, No. X, pp. 31-67. Extra-Peninsular.] METAMORPHIC ROCKS. 707 Name. Sock*. Svppoted geological ag. IV. PEGU GBOtiP (Shales and sandstones, occasion--) m Cretaceous. ( inflatvs. C Shales, sandstones, &c., more or ~\ VIII. AXIAL GEOUP . j less altered, and occasionally ? Triassic. C schistose. IX. MAULMAIN GKOUP . ( Li '<* to > reddish sandstone, and j Carboniferous , \ shales. ) X. MEBGUI GBOUP . Slaty and schistose beds, grits, &c. ? XI. METAMOEPHIC (Gneiss, mica-slate, &c., with)^,^ (_ granite veins. J INTETJSITE EETIPTIVB EOCKS. Serpentine, trachyte, &c. ; an extinct volcano in Upper Burma. Of these various groups, it should be stated at once that the three uppermost constitute the greater portion of the Irawadi valley ; that the Pegu Yoma consists entirely of the miocene Pegu group ; and that the Arakan Yoma, and the spurs to the eastward and westward of the main range, are chiefly composed of nummulitic, cretaceous, and triassic beds. The carboniferous limestone and its associated beds, together with the Mergui group, are, in British Burma, nearly confined to the Tenasserim provinces ; the former extending northward into Martaban, whilst the main area of metamorphic rocks lies to the east of all the other forma- tions. In describing the various beds, it will be best, as usual, to com- mence with the lowest ; the intrusive rocks, however, being noticed with the beds with which they are associated. Metamorphic rocks. The Burmese gneissic series consists of more or less granitoid gneiss, hornblendic gneiss, crystalline limestone, quartz- ite, and schists of various kinds. In many places the gneiss becomes a true granite, and much of the area occupied by the crystalline formations has been described by various observers as composed of granitic rocks. Some of the granitoid portions of the rock weather into remarkable round- ed masses, 4 isolated from each other by the decomposition of the inter- vening rock, and forming huge piles of gigantic boulders, as in Southern 1 Figures of some extraordinary isolated blocks of this kind, resembling perched erratics, but really due to disintegration, are given by the Rev. C. Parish in his " Notes of a trip up the Salween," J. A. S. B., 1865, XX XIV, Pt. 2, pp. 135, &c., PL VI, VII, VIII. 708 GEOLOGY OF INDIA BURMA. [Chap. XXIX. India (Hyderabad, Mysore, &c.) and parts of Western Bengal. 1 Horn- blendic gneiss seems less abundant than in the main gneissic area of India, whilst crystalline limestone is of not uncommon occurrence. So little attention has hitherto been paid to the metamorphic rocks of Burma, that very little is known of the minerals occurring amongst them. That the gneissic formations are metalliferous in places has long been known; gold is obtained, in small quantities, in many of the streams, and tin stone is found in some abundance in parts of the Tenasserim provinces and in Martaban. Lead and silver mines, one of them at least the famous Bau-dwen-gyee of very large dimen- sions and highly productive, exist in the Shan States, north-east of Ava. The most valuable and productive ruby mines known are in the same direction, but nearer to the capital. Chondrodite associated with spinel in crystalline limestone has been found close to Mandalay, the combina- tion of minerals being similar to that occurring in certain localities near New York. As already mentioned, metamorphic rocks occupy a large, but un- explored, area in Upper Burma : they form all the higher ranges in the neighbourhood of Ava, and extend throughout a great portion of the country, extending thence to the Salwin. Farther to the northward they extend from Bhamo to the neighbourhood of Momein in Yunnan. 2 The Irawadi below Ava turns more to the west, and flows through newer rocks, whilst the crystallines continue to the southward, forming the Red Karen (Karen-ni) country and the hills between the Sittoung and Salwin, and extend into Tenasserim. None occur in Pegu or Arakan, west of the range between the Sittoung and Salwin. It is impossible to do much more than guess at the relations of the Burmese metamorphic rocks to those of the Indian Peninsula ; but the gneissic rocks of Burma have more resemblance to those of Peninsular India than to the crystalline formations of the Himalayas. Mergui group. Resting upon the metamorphic rocks in the southern portion of the Tenasserim provinces, there is a great accumula- tion of pseudo-porphyritic sedimentary beds, the principal feature of which is derived from imbedded crystalline fragments of felspar. The rock in its normal form is earthy, but highly indurated ; it passes, on the one hand, into slaty masses without the conspicuous felspar fragments, and on the other into grits and conglomerates. With these grits, and resting upon them, are dark-coloured earthy beds, finely laminated, with hard quartzose grits. These rocks cannot be less than 9,000 feet in 1 A form of " dome gneiss ;" see ante, p. 20. 3 Anderson : Report on the Expedition to Western Yunnan, Map. Extra- Peninsular. ] MAttLMAlN GROUP. 709 thickness, and in places they must be 11,000 or 12,000. They have only been noticed hitherto near Mergui, and nothing is known of their relations. Maulmain group. The beds of the last group in the Tenasserim valley are succeeded, in ascending order, by hard sandstones, often in thin and massive layers, with thin earthy partings, sometimes in fine laminse ; the prevailing colour is a reddish tint, and some of the layers are calcareous. Some of the more soft and earthy beds contain marine fossils. Over these sandstones occur grey shaly beds, also sometimes calcareous and fossiliferous, with occasional beds of dark sandstone; then come 150 to 200 feet of fine soft sandstone, thinly bedded witft grey and pinkish shaly layers intercalated ; and upon these, again, hard thick limestone. The fossils found are unmistakably of carboniferous age, Sj)irifer and Product-its being the commonest forms ; but the species have not been determined, and it is rare to obtain specimens in a state suitable for identification. The thickness of the Maulmain group, exclusive of the limestone, is estimated at about 5,000 feet, and the limestone itself near Maulmain is 1,100 feet thick. Near Maulmain the limestone is extremely conspicuous, and forms large hills and ranges, extending far to the south-south-east up the valley of the Ataran and Zami. The same rock occurs east of the Salwin, but it does not extend far into Martaban, and it is wanting in the Sittoung valley. Farther up the Salwin, however, in Karen-ni, and elsewhere beyond the British frontier, large tracts of limestone occur, probably belonging to the carboniferous series. Limestone is said to abound in the Mergui Archipelago, and may very probably be, in parts at least, identical with that found near Maulmain. Carboniferous limestone is also extensively developed in Sumatra. 1 Until the fossils are better known, it is impossible to say whether the Maulmain group exactly corresponds to the carboniferous beds of the Himalayas and the Punjab ; there can, however, be no question that both are of the same approximate age. The occurrence of marine fossiliferous rocks of the carboniferous period at the two extremities of the extra- peninsular area of British India, and the complete absence of any marine palaeozoic fossils within the peninsular region, afford perhaps one of the most striking illustrations of the great divergence between the geological history of Peninsular India and that of the surrounding countries. i Geol. Mag., Dec. II, Vol. II, p. 478. 710 GEOLOGY OF INDIA BURMA. [ Chap. XXIX. Axial (triassic) group. There is manifestly a great break be- tween the rocks already noticed and the mesozoic formations of Burma ; the older beds are found in a distinct area to the eastward, and are asso- ciated with metamorphic rocks, whilst the triassic beds are only known to occur west of the Irawadi, and are connected by stratigraphy and position with the newer rocks of the Arakan Yoma range. This range, although of no great height, forms an excessively broad belt of uninhabited forest- clad hills, only traversed by a single road and by a few difficult paths at wide intervals, and it is, in general, absolutely inaccessible, except along the tortuous beds of streams. Anything like satisfactory geolo- gical surveying becomes almost impossible in such a region, unless some well-marked and prominent beds occur to afford a clue to the stratigra- phy, or fossiliferous belts are numerous. In the Arakan range neither is the case ; the rocks of the main range consist of rather hard sand- stones and shales, greatly squeezed, contorted and broken, traversed by numerous small veins of quartz, often slaty, and sometimes schistose ; but there is a marked deficiency of any conspicuous strata. The few bands of limestone which occur are thin, isolated, and as a rule unfossili- ferous. The rocks on the western, or Arakan, side of the range appear, on the whole, less altered than those on the eastern, or Pegu, slope ; and on the outer spurs, on both sides, unaltered nummulitic rocks appear throughout a great part of the area, although not continuously. The crushed, hardened, and somewhat altered rocks of the Arakan Yoma were originally separated by Mr. Theobald from the newer-look- ing nummulitics under the name of " ax-ials," and considered as com- prising the oldest tertiary beds and their immediate predecessors in the series. Although there is a well-marked difference between the num- mulitic beds and the " axials," there is no distinct break between them ; the two present an appearance of conformity where they are not faulted against each other, and it is far from clear that some of the axials are not merely nummulitic strata, greatly crushed and contorted. But subsequently to the preliminary examination of the area, a creta- ceous ammonite was found in Arakan ; and amongst some rather obscure fossils discovered near the frontier of British and Native Burma, west of Thayetmyo, were a few specimens referred by Dr. Stoliczka to the typically upper triassic Halobia lommeli (PI. II, fig. 5). It became, therefore, necessary to distinguish both triassic and cretaceous beds amongst the axial rocks of the Arakan range. To the former has been referred a series of hard sandstones and shales, with grits and conglomerates, and a few bands of impure limestone, which form the crest of the Arakan range at the frontier, and extend to the Extra-Peninsular.] MALI (CRETACEOUS) GROUP. 711 southward, nearly to the parallel of Prome. The only characteristic beds are some white-speckled grits, interbedded with shales and sandstones, and attaining a thickness of 1,300 feet, in the Lhowa stream, 35 miles west of Thayetmyo ; a band of dark-blue shale with conglomerate, part of which is calcareous, 33 feet thick, below the grits ; and some thick- bedded shales, passing into massive sandy shales, with hard nodules inter- spersed, attaining a thickness of 110 feet, and containing a Cardita and some undetermined Gasteropoda. The calcareous conglomerate passes into a rubbly limestone, and appears identical with the beds contain- ing Halobia lommeli. To the northward a band of limestone, much thicker and purer than that of the Lhowa stream, has been traced in several places. The speckled grits and conglomerates are, however, more con- spicuous and more characteristic, and it is mainly by means of them that the area of supposed triassic beds has been mapped. The whole thickness of the triassic group appears to be rather less than 6,000 feet, the characteristic beds just noticed being near, but not at the base of the group. To the eastward these beds are in contact with nummulitic strata, the boundary having the appearance of a fault ; to the westward it is believed that cretaceous beds come in, but the country is difficult of access, and has not been surveyed. The area occupied within the limits of British Burma is elongately triangular, broadest at the frontier, where it extends for 15 miles from east to west, and terminating in a point to the southward, west by north of Prome. A few outbursts of serpentine occur within the limits assigned to the triassic group. As these intrusive masses differ in no way from some occurring farther south, amongst the rocks of the Negrais group, it will be best to notice all the cases of serpentine intrusion together. Mai-i (Cretaceous) group. The existence of cretaceous beds in the Arakan Yoma, like the occurrence of triassic strata, is only shewn by the discovery of one species of mollusk in a single locality in Arakan ; the species found, Ammonites ivflatus, is a characteristic cenomanian cephalo- pod, common in the Utatur beds of Southern India. The only specimen obtained was picked up in the bed of a stream, and had evidently been derived from some shales in the neighbourhood. No other specimens nor other fossil of any kind could, however, be found. The spot where this ammonite was found was near Mai-i, in the northern part of the Sandoway district of Arakan. What may be the extent of the cretaceous beds, and which strata should be referred to this group, are matters on which but little trust- worthy information has been obtained. Mr. Theobald is disposed to con- sider that a peculiar, compact, light cream-coloured argillaceous limestone, 712 GEOLOGY OP INDIA BURMA. [Chap. XXIX. resembling indurated chalk, sometimes speckled from containing sublenti- cular crystalline particles, belongs to the cretaceous formation ; and this limestone has been traced at intervals from near Mai-i, about 30 miles north of Tongup (Toungoop), to the neighbourhood of Sandoway, whilst somewhat similar limestone, though not so characteristic, may be traced to Keantali, some 30 miles farther south. The same limestone is found in the western part of Ramri Island. Another peculiar formation is a greyish, rather earthy sandstone, with, in places, a pisolitic structure, due to the presence of small globular concretions of carbonate of lime and iron. The concretions decompose, and leave small holes, which impart to the earthy sandstone the aspect of an amygdaloidal trap. Like the limestone, this peculiar sandstone is traced from Mai-i to near Keantali, a distance of 94 miles ; and if, as appears probable, these beds are really cretaceous, for both are closely associated with the shale from which the ammonite had apparently been derived, the rocks of this formation may be con- sidered as extending at least the distance mentioned. To the northward their range is unknown ; to the south, they seem to be replaced by the next group, which may, however, in part at least, be simply the same beds, but more altered. The strata ascribed to the cretaceous group are less hardened and metamorphosed than the other rocks of the Arakan Yoma ; they are of great thickness, and may include all the beds to the west of the triassic group, and of the main range of the Yoma as far south as Keantali. No rocks which can be referred to the Mai-i group have been detected east of the main Arakan range in Pegu. Supposed cretaceous coal in Tenasserim. There is, however, some probability that cretaceous rocks may exist in Tenasserim. On the Lenya river, 1 in the extreme south of the province, a bed of coal occurs, of very laminar structure, and containing numerous small nodules of a resinous mineral like amber. This peculiar association of mineral resin is characteristic of the cretaceous coals in the Assam hills, and it is highly probable that the Tenasserim mineral is of the same age. At the same time no palseontological evidence has been discovered ; the rocks associated with the coal are soft clays and sands, having a more recent appearance than those accompanying the other coal-seams of the Tenasse- rim provinces ; and these other seams are, it is believed, not older than eocene. The coal occurs as an irregularly developed bed, varying from one to five feet or rather more in thickness, with thin layers of fine jetty coal between bands of hard black shale, and rests upon clay with vegeta- ble remains, also containing patches of jet-coal ; thin coal laminae are also found in the associated strata. 1 Oldharn : Sel. Rc. Govt. India, Home Dept., No. X, p. 48. Extra-Peninsular.] NEGRAIS ROCKS. 713 Below the rocks, immediately associated with the coal, are fine, whitish, earthy sandstones and indurated clay, passing into marl, with some conglomerates. Above the coal is a series of soft muddy sandstones, clays, marls, conglomerates, and a few seams of carbonaceous matter. The whole may be 600 feet thick. The dip is considerable, about 35, and the rocks have undergone disturbance and faulting. Nothing has been ascertained as to the relations of the coal-bearing beds to other formations ; indeed, all that is known of the Lenya river coal is the result of a hurried visit to a locality very difficult of access. Negrais rocks. The remainder of the rocks forming the Arakan Yoma are either unfossiliferous, or the few organisms which have beeh detected, mostly indistinct remains of plants and mollusca, are insuffi- cient to afford any trustworthy indication of age. Some of these rocks appear to be a continuation of the Mai-i group ; whilst, on the other hand, it is impossible to draw any definite line of boundary between the hill rocks and the nummulitics of Pegu. In Pegu, away from the base of the hills, comparatively soft, unaltered fossiliferous beds are found, belonging to the older tertiary period ; these strata appear to rest upon the hill beds ; for, away from the axis of the range, both have, in general, an eastwardly dip. The two rocks contrast strongly, the nummulitics being soft and unchanged, the hill beds hardened, crushed, and in places almost schistose ; but it is impossible to find a precise limit to either ; the two are never seen in contact ; there is no evidence that they are faulted against each other, and there appears to be a belt, often two or three miles wide, of rock in an intermediate condition. On the whole, it appears probable that the rocks of the Arakan Yoma in general comprise representatives, slightly altered, of both cretaceous and nummulitic rocks ; but as it has hitherto proved impossible to draw a line between the two, whilst, on the other hand, there is no clear proof that these Arakan Yoma beds are identical with the Pegu nummulitics, it appears best to distinguish the hill rocks by a separate name, and to class them, as Mr. Theobald has proposed, as Negrais rocks. The name is derived from Cape Negrais, the south-western point of Pegu, and the extreme southern termination of the Arakan Yoma. The Negrais rocks differ in no important particulars from the triassic and cretaceous beds, already noticed, except that they are more altered than the latter. They consist principally of hardened and contorted sand- stones and shales, intersected throughout by numerous small veins of quartz and carbonate of lime. Limestone is not of common occurrence ; where it is seen, it does not appear generally in regular strata, but in huge detached blocks, imbedded in the shales and sandstones, as if the 714 GEOLOGY OF INDIA-BURMA. [Chap. XXIX latter had yielded without fracture to the pressure which dislocated the limestone. Conglomerates also occur, sometimes passing into breccia. The alteration of these beds is most capricious and irregular; frequently for a long distance they are apparently unchanged, except in being somewhat hardened; then they become eherty, slaty, or sub- schistose, and cut up by quartz veins. One not uncommon form of alter- ation is exhibited by the rocks affecting a greenish hue, due to the presence of chlorite, such rocks being generally much cut up by quartz veins. In a few instances, apart from the serpentine intrusions to be mentioned presently, irregular dyke-like masses of either serpentine or a decomposed steatitic rock are found ; but this is far from being of fre- quent occurrence. A more common form of alteration seen along the coast north of Cape Negrais is apparently due to the infiltration of silica in large quantities, and is shewn by the intense, and often abrupt, alteration of beds of sandstone into cherty masses. No satisfactory classification of these, the main rocks of the Arakan Yoma, has been practicable ; they must be of great thickness, but the stratification is too confused, in the absence of any well-defined horizon, for a clear idea as to the succession of different strata to be formed. Some massive sandstones on the Arakan coast north of Cape Negrais may perhaps be high in the series ; they are little, if at all, altered, and dip westward at a low angle. They are of a peculiar greenish hue, and comprise subordinate bands of conglomerate, containing fragments of indurated shale and some quartz. It is possible that these sandstones may be nummulitic ; but as it is almost certain that some of the Negrais rocks are older tertiaiy, the separation of the upper beds is useless without further evidence. Serpentine. The occurrence of masses of serpentine has already been noticed ; the intrusive rock generally occurs as irregularly-shaped bosses of varying dimensions, 1 but, especially north-west of Prome, dykes also occur. The rock is a characteristic dark-coloured serpentine ; it frequently becomes a gabbro, and contains bronzite, and it is intersected by veins of gold-coloured chrysotile, or sometimes of carbonate of magnesia. Occasionally it appears to be replaced by a form of green- stone ; or possibly the greenstone outbursts may be distinct, although the two rocks occur in the same neighbourhood. The hills formed of serpentine may be distinguished at a distance by their barrenness ; they appear to support little except grass and a few bushes ; the greenstone hills, on the other hand, are covered with luxuriant forest. In all probability, the serpentine and greenstone outbursts were originally the 1 None are sufficiently large to be marked on the map issued herewith. Extra-Peninsular.] NUMMULITIC GROUP. 715 3, or nearly the same, and the former rock has undergone a chemical change. In the neighbourhood of some of the larger masses of serpentine, the sandstones and shales are converted into greenstone and chloritic schist ; but the effect varies, and in some instances the neighbouring rocks appear almost unaltered. It is, however, worthy of notice that, except far to the northward, all the outbursts of serpentine appear con- fined to the Pegu, or eastern, side of the range ; and that, as has already been stated, the rocks on the Pegu side exhibit, as a rule, more altera- tion than those on the western slopes in Arakan. To the northward, near the northern frontier of Pegu, serpentine occurs on the highest hills of the Yoma, and, in one instance at least, on the western side ; but elsewhere all the outbursts detected are not only east of the main range, but near the eastern limit of the hill rocks. Not a single intrusion has been detected in the unaltered nummulitic rocks. It is unnecessary to describe the distribution of the serpentine masses in any detail. They are principally collected in three groups, the most northern of which consists of the largest mass known, a horse-shoe shaped intrusion, some 5 miles in length, forming Bidoung hill, amongst the triassic rocks, neai-ly due west of Thayetmyo. Several masses occur north- north-west of Prome, in the southern portion of the triassic area; and one of these, forming a long dyke-like mass, running for about 5 miles along the boundary between nummulitics and trias, appears to alter the triassic rocks, but not the nummulitic beds, although the latter are greatly crushed. Probably, the difference is owing to the boundary between the serpentine and nummulitics being a fault. The third group is west of Henzada, where twenty-one distinct and isolated intrusions occur, scattered over a length of 26 miles from north to south, close to the edge of the unaltered nummulitic area. The largest of these masses is about 3 miles long by perhaps half a mile broad ; but the majority are less than a mile in diameter. Besides these principal groups, a few small and unimportant outbursts are found isolated here and there ; none, however, are found south of the area west of Henzada. Nummulitic group. Beyond the much smaller amount of alter- ation that they have undergone, and the resulting difference in mineral character from the hill rocks, there is but little to distinguish the num- mulitie beds of Pegu from the Mai-i and Negrais rocks, except the more frequent appearance of fossils, and the occasional occurrence of limestone containing nummulites, especially in the higher part of the group. The ordinary beds are sandstones and shales, unaltered, but still frequently hard and compact. The distinction from the Negrais rocks is far from 716 GEOLOGY OP INDIA BURMA. [Chap. XXIX. absolute ; the tendency to a passage at the foot of the hills has already been noticed, and there are, in places within the nummulitic area, hills formed of hardened masses, perhaps older than the rocks around, but which have much the appearance of being the same beds, slightly altered. The main outcrop of the nummulitic rocks extends from north to south throughout the province of Pegu, east of the Arakan hills, and west of the Irawadi river. The beds have a general dip to the eastward : but to the southward it is difficult, if not impossible, to define the base of the formation, on account of the apparent passage, just noticed, from the nummulitic into the Negrais rocks. To the northward, west of Thayetmyo, near the boundary of British territory, the section is better defined, the lowest eocene strata, however, being, to all appearance, fault- ed against the triassic rocks ; so that here, again, it is uncertain whether the bottom beds of the tertiary series are exposed. In the Lhowa stream, 16 miles west by south of Thayetmyo, upwards of 4,000 feet of hard sandstones, mostly grey, and of blue, grey, or yellow shales, are ex- posed ; but throughout all this thickness of beds, no fossil remains have been detected, except a few carbonaceous markings. Apparently at a somewhat higher horizon on the Mahton stream, which joins the Lhowa from the north, there is a great thickness of massive blue shales, of rather a dark indigo-blue in general, but sometimes of lighter colour. These shales cannot be much less than 3,000 feet in thickness ; but they are almost as unfossiliferous as the sandstones and shales on the Lhowa, the only organic remains found being some cycloid fish-scales. Above these shales, again, there is a great thickness of sandstones and shales, mostly unfossiliferous, but containing a few layers with Nummulites ; and at the top of the whole group is a band of nummulitic limestone, from 10 to 100 feet thick. This limestone, however, is by no means continuous : where it occurs, it seems to be the uppermost band of the group, but frequently it appears to thin out, and in fact to consist of irregular lenticular bands in shale, rather than of an unbroken bed. Denudation may, perhaps, also have removed the limestone in places before the deposition of the next group. Other bands of limestone occur at a lower horizon, but they are more irregular than that at the top of the group. The whole thickness of the formation must be considerable probably not less than 10,000 feet; but no estimate of any value can be made, on account of the imperfect manner in which the rocks are seen. In Northern Pegu, west of Thayetmyo, the breadth of the eocene outcrop from east to west is 17 miles; but a few miles to the south the width diminishes, till, west of Prome, it is not more than 6 miles. The Extra-Peninsular.] ABAKAN. 717 belt again expands in breadth near Thombo and Akouktoung, on the Irawadi, above Myanoung; but the beds in general are very poorly ex- posed, being covered with gravel and other late deposits. Farther to the southward, west of Myanoung and Henzada, the nummulitic rocks are much concealed by post-tertiary gravels ; and from Henzada to Bassein the only rocks seen to the westward of the Irawadi plain are the altered Negrais beds. The nummulitic strata reappear west of Bassein, and continue thence to Cape Negrais ; but still the rocks are much concealed by gravel. Throughout the area, however, limestone with nummulites occasionally appears amongst the higher beds of the group ; and a pecu- liar, very fine, white or greenish, argillaceous sandstone, with Foraminifela, seen at Purian point, east of the Bassein river, and in Long Island on that river, is also probably one of the uppermost eocene beds. This rock, known as Andagu-kyovJt, or image stone, is employed by the Burmese for carving into images of Buddha, and is quarried to some extent for that purpose. It is possible that nummulitic beds may crop out in places amongst the miocene rocks of the Prome district ; but the only known exposure of the former in Pegu, apart from the belt just noticed as extending along the eastern side of the Arakan Yoma, is in a small ridge, known as Thon- doung, or lime hill, about 5 miles south of Thayetmyo. This ridge consists in great part of nummulitic limestone, resting upon shales and sandstones ; and in the latter a promising bed of coal, 4 feet thick, was discovered in 1855, but proved so irregular as to be of no value; the coal thinning out, and passing into a clay with mere lamina and patches of coaly matter, in the course of a few feet. 1 Petroleum has been found in a few localities in Pegu within the older tertiary area ; and it is probable that when mineral oil occurs in later tertiary beds, it has been derived from the underlying eocene strata. Such, at least, is Mr. Theobald's opinion after surveying the country, and it is in accordance with the geological distribution of petroleum in Assam. Arakan. To the west of the Arakan range, limestone with nummu- lites has been noticed near Keantali, a village on the coast, almost on the 18th parallel of north latitude ; and there can be but little doubt that eocene beds extend along the coast for a considerable distance. The islands of Ramri and Cheduba consist of sandstones and shales closely resembling those of Arakan, and doubtless belonging to the same series. 2 These beds are also very similar to the nummulitic rocks of Pegu. A 1 Oldham : Sel. Eec. Govt. India, Home Dept., No. X, p 99. 2 Mallet : Hec. G. S. I., XI, p. 191. 718 GEOLOGY OP INDIA BURMA. [Chap. XXIX. few seams of coal have been found, resembling in character the num- mulitic coal of Assam ; and petroleum is obtained in several places. The limestone on the eastern side of Ramri Island, as already mentioned, re- sembles that of the Arakan coast near Mai-i and Tongup, and may, therefore, be cretaceous ; but there is no marked character by which the rocks of the island can be divided into two series. Farther north the eocene beds probably continue, until they join those of Assam ; but the intervening country is geologically unknown. Coal-bearing rocks of Tenasserim. Although nothing definite is known as to the age of the beds associated with coal in Tenasserim, ex- cept that they are in all probability tertiary, there is more likelihood that they belong to the older tertiaries than to the newer, because simi- lar coal-bearing deposits in Assam on the one side, and Sumatra, 1 Java, and Borneo on the other, are known to be of eocene age. It will conse- quently be best to notice the Tenasserim beds in this place. 2 They have received more attention than the other rocks of Southern Burma, but still they are but imperfectly known. The tertiary formations of Tenasserim consist of conglomerates, sandstones, soft shales, and beds of coal. The conglomerates are never coarse, the pebbles seldom exceeding a few inches in diameter ; the sand- stones are fine, gritty, and pebbly clean white quartzose sands, or earthy and of a yellowish tint ; the shale beds are of a bluish-green or blackish tint, and very regularly disposed in thin laminae. The coal is also in thin lamina?, with earthy bands. These coal-bearing deposits, the total thickness of which nowhere exceeds 900 to 1,000 feet, are never traceable continuously over any extended area. They are found occupying isolated and detached basins in the great north and south valley of the Tenasserim river, between the main dividing range to the eastward separating British Burma from Siam, and the outer ridges to the westward near the sea-coast. The small tracts of tertiary rocks are in all probability of fresh-water origin, and have much the appearance of having been deposited in the small basins they now occupy. The only organic remains found are dicotyledonous leaves and scales and bones of fish. The most important coal localities known are Thatay-khyoung and Heinlap on the great Tenasserim river, about 6 miles apart. At the former locality there is a workable coal-seam, 7 feet in thickness, including small partings of shale and clay; at the latter the seam is 1 Geol. Mag., Dec. II, Vol. II, 1875, pp. 481, &c. 2 This account is taken from Dr. Oldham's report : Sel. Rec. Govt. India, Home Dept., No. X 1856, pp. 34 -56. Extra-Peninsular.] PEGU GROUP. 719 between 17^ and 18 feet thick. The quality of the coal is fair, the pro- portion of volatile matter being lai-ge, but the percentage of ash is small. At Kaumapying, three-quarters of a mile north of Heinlap, there is a seam of about 8 feet in thickness, but containing much iron pyrites. Some coal also occurs on the Little Tenasserim river ; but the only known seam is not more than three feet thick. The Lenya river coal, farther south, has already been shewn to be very possibly of cre- taceous age. Pegu group. Above the nummulitic formation of Pegu, there is an immense thickness of soft shales and sandstones, often fossiliferous, but almost destitute of any horizon distinguished either by mineralogical characters or by organic remains. The base of this group is assumed to coincide with the band of nummulitic limestone, already mentioned; but there is no clear evidence that this bed is the uppermost rock of the eocene group, and no unconformity has been detected between the nummulitic rocks and the next strata in ascending order. The upper limit of the middle tertiary rocks of Pegu is equally ill defined, there being a gra- dual passage from clays and sandstones with marine fossils into the gravels and sands with silicified fossil-wood and mammalian bones. The fact is that, without a thorough knowledge of the fossils, the classification of rocks so obscure and so ill seen as those of Pegu is a simple impossibility ; and until the tertiary mollusks, echinoderms, and corals of Southern Asia are better known, it is hopeless to attempt more than a general rough arrangement of the Burmese tertiaries. In the absence of sufficient fossil data for the proper determination of different beds, all that has been attempted at present is to class together all the marine beds of Pegu without nummulites, and at a higher horizon than the nummulitic limestone ; and the group thus constituted has been named the " Pegu group " from its forming the greater part of the Pegu Yoma between the Irawadi and Sittoung. There can be no doubt that a portion of this group is of miocene age, and corresponds generally to the Gaj group of Sind 1 ; but it is probable that representatives of other forma- tions are included. The only approach to a sub-division of the Pegu group that has been suggested is the separation of a considerable thickness of soft unfossili- ferous blue shales, which near Prome rest upon the upper nummulitic strata, and underlie the typical fossiliferous middle tertiary beds. These shales have been called the " Sitsyahn shales," from a village on the Irawadi, 8 miles above Prome ; whilst the overlying sandstones and shales with fossils are distinguished as " Prome beds/' from their occurrence in 1 See ante, p. 463. 720 GEOLOGY OF INDIA BURMA. [Chap. XXIX. the neighbourhood of Prome. The Sitsyahn shales consist of blue clunchy clay, with indistinct bedding, and, except that they are somewhat paler in colour, greatly resemble some of the nummulitic shales. The thickness of the sub -division is about 800 feet, and the beds have been traced for a considerable distance along the upper limit of the nummulitic rocks in the Prome district. The Prome beds succeed the Sitsyahn shales conformably, and are composed of grey sandstones, occasionally hard, but frequently argilla- ceous or shaly, hard yellow sandstones, and shales or clays of various colours. A section of about 2,500 feet of these beds is seen opposite Prome on the right bank of the Irawadi, and probably a much greater thickness exists east of the river. One of the most fossiliferous beds is a baud of blue clay exposed at Kama on the Irawadi, 18 miles above Prome. The position of this band is high, and, above it, a bed, abounding in Turritella, and a hard sandstone containing corals belonging to the genus Cladocera, are the highest rocks of the group, and mark the passage into the fossil- wood beds. In one locality, Minet-toung (Myay-net-toung) , 24 miles east-south- east of Thayetmyo, a bedded volcanic rock occurs, consisting of greyish trap, interstratified with the rocks of the Pegu group, and, to alt appear- ance, contemporaneous. Nothing has been ascertained as to the source of this igneous formation. It is almost useless to give any palseontologieal details. Foraminifera and Echinodermata are rare, and the mollusca are not, as a rule, very characteristic forms. A sessile cirriped, very common in some beds, closely resembles Balanus sublcevis of the miocene in Sind. A few small crabs occur ; small corals and sharks' teeth are common. The Pegu group forms nearly the whole of the great range of hills, known as the Pegu Yoma, between the Irawadi and Sittoung, no older rocks being known with any certainty to occur in the country between the two rivers. The area occupied by the middle tertiary beds is very broad to the northward, where it extends from considerably west of the Irawadi to the base of the metamorphic hills east of the Sittoung, and contracts gradually between the alluvial plains of the two rivers to the southward, till it terminates in a long narrow spur at Rangoon. "West of the Irawadi, the Pegu group extends to a little below Prome, and some hills on the opposite side of the river below Prome are formed of the same beds. It is, however, not quite certain that no older rocks appear between the Irawadi and Sittoung ; for in some beds in Eastern Prome a species of Pseuflodiadema, a genus of echinoderms with cretaceous affinities, has been found, and a Terebratula with a very cretaceous aspect Extra-Peninsular.] PLIOCENE FOSSIL- WOOD GROUP. 721 was obtained near the town of Pegu. In the former case the beds appear to be high in the Pegu group ; but owing to the great extent to which the surface of the country is concealed, both by gravel and other alluvial deposits, and by forest, it is most difficult to make out the geology satisfactorily, and lower beds may be brought up to the surface by faults or otherwise. In the case near Pegu the position of the beds is uncertain. Newer tertiary beds in Arakan. On the Arakan coast, in latitude 16 30' 50", is a small island known as Kaurangyi (Koranji), composed of calcareous sandstone or earthy limestone, of a very pale brown or cream colour, and containing echinoderms, mollusks, sharks' teeth, and* other fossils. The same rock occurs also at Nga-tha-mu on the main- laud opposite Kaurangyi Island, but has not been detected elsewhere. Amongst the fossils the most abundant are a species of Lobophora (Ec/dnodiscus) and an Echinolampas, apparently E.jacquemontii, one of the commonest fossils of the Gaj group in Sind : the Eckinodiscus also closely resembles a Gaj species. The bed is somewhat similar to the " miliolite " of Katty war, and may represent a portion of the Pegu group ; but it is perhaps more probably of later date. One of the sharks' teeth, however, closely resembles one found in the Pegu group south of Thayetmyo. Pliocene fossil-wood group. The highest member of the tertiary series in Pegu is distinguished by the abundance of silicified dicotyle- donous wood, and is the source whence all the fragments of that substance, so abundant in the older and newer alluvial gravels of the Irawadi, are derived. The fossil- wood group is much coarser than the underlying formations, and consists of sands, gravels, and a few beds of clay or shale, all, as a rule, being soft and incoherent ; although occasion- ally hard sandstone or conglomerate bands occur. The group is thus sub-divided : a. Fossil-wood sands. Sand, in part gravelly and conglomeratic, characterised by a profusion of concretions of iron peroxide. b. Fine silty clay, with a few small pebbles. c. Sands, shales, and a few conglomerate beds, with a little concretionary iron peroxide. The lowest bed c passes downwards into the marine bands of the Pegu group, and contains, sparingly, rolled fragments of silicified wood, and a few mammalian bones. Some sharks' teeth also occur. The thickness of none of these sub-divisions has been clearly ascertained ; but the lower sands must comprise beds some hundreds of feet thick. The fine silty clay does not exceed about 40 feet in thickness. ^This bed is quite unf oss iliferous,, neither fossil-wood nor bones having been found v 1 722 GEOLOGY OP INDIA-BURMA. [Chap. XXIX. in it, and pebbles are rare, though a few occur. It thus forms a marked band in the group, and contrasts with the beds above and below it. The upper fossil- wood sands and gravels are by far the most import- ant members of the formation, and it is from them that the greater portion of the silicified wood is derived. This wood occurs in the form of large and small masses, some being trunks of trees 40 or 50 feet long ; usually, however, such masses display marks of attrition, as if the tree stems before being silicified had been transported to a distance and rolled. The wood is always, or nearly always, exogenous ; a few rolled fragments of endogenous wood found in newer formations being nevertheless, in all probability, originally derived from the present group. The wood is not coniferous ; but owing to the very considerable amount of decomposition it had undergone previous to silicification, its nature is difficult to determine. Besides the fossil-wood, another characteristic of this portion of the group is the abundance of concretionary nodules of hydrated iron peroxide ; these are in places so numerous as to have furnished a supply of iron-ore for the native furnaces. Mammalian bones are of only local occurrence. The following is a list of the Vertebrata, exclusive of sharks' teeth, hitherto obtained in the Irawadi valley from the beds of the fossil-wood group: MAMMALIA. Ursus, ep. * Elephas (Stegodon) cliftii. * Mastodon latidens. * M. sivalensis. Rhinoceros iravadicus, R., sp. * Acerotheriumperimense. Tapirus, sp. Equus, sp. [vadicus. Hippopotamus (Hexaprotodon) ira- * Merycopotamus dissimiUs. Cervus, sp. Vishnutherium iravadicum. Bos, sp. REPTILIA. 1 Crocodilus, sp, Gharialis, sp. Testudo, sp. Emys, sp. Trionyx, sp. Emyda, sp. * Colossochelys atlas. * Those marked with an asterisk are also found in the Siwaliks of the Sub-Himalayas. It has been shewn 2 in the chapter on the Siwalik fauna that the mam- maliferous beds of the Irawadi valley are of approximately the same age 1 These genera are recorded amongst the Ava specimens in the collection of the Asiatic Society, Falconer, Cat. Fos. Rein. Vert. Mu .As. Soc., 1859, p. 30; but as all the specimens were unlabellcd, there is some doubt about the locality. 2 See ante, p. 588. Extra-Peninsular.] PLIOCENE FOSSIL-WOOD GROUP. 723 as the Siwaliks, or pliocene, if the vievva as to the relations of the Siwalik fauna advocated in the present work be accepted. Silicified wood abounds in places in some of the Siwalik beds of the Punjab and in the Manchhar beds of Siud ; but in the Sub-Himalayan Siwaliks remains of trees are carbonised, not siliciiied, and there is 110 great mineralogical resemblance between the Siwaliks and the pliocene sands and gravels of Burma. In- dependently of the fact that the rocks supplying the materials from which the beds have been derived east and west of the Bay of Bengal are probably very distinct, there is some doubt as to the conditions under which the Burmese beds were deposited, owing to the frequent occurrence of sharks' teeth ; and it has been suggested that the fossil-wood group* may have been, in part at least, marine or estuarine. The silieified wood itself is never bored by xylophagous mollusca (Teredinidce or Phola- !/'d\Kis, weak ; in allusion to its weak electric power when rubbed) . A zeolite, composed chiefly of silica, alumina, and soda, and crys- tallizing in the cubical or monometric system. The ordinary form is a trapezohedron. ANAMESITE : (avdpeaos, intermediate). A fine-grained variety of dolerite or basalt, in which the constituent minerals are so minutely crys- tallized, that the rock appears homogeneous, except under the microscope. ANASTOMOZE : (avaa-ro^ffi^ inosculation) . To open into each other. A term applied to the veins of leaves when they unite to form a network. ANGIOSPEEMS : (dyyiiov, a vessel ; airfpfj.a, seed). The great subdivision of dicotyledonous phanerogamic or flowering plants, with their seeds encased. All ordinary dicotyledonous plants, except cycads, conifers, and Gnetacece are angiospermous. ANNELIDA: (annellus, a little ring). Annelids, a class of Annulosa or Articulata, comprising worms, Serpula, &c. ANNULOSA : (annulus, a ring). A primary division or subkingdom of animals, comprising worms, crustaceans, insects, &c., and corre sponding to the Cuvierian Articulata. ANORTHIC : (av, negative; dpOos, straight). A system of crystals distin- guished by having the three axes unequal and all obliquely inclined to each other. GLOSSARY. 739 ANTHOZOA : (5v0os, a flower; wo>', an animal). A class of Ccelenterata, called also Actinozoa, comprising the coral-animals, sea-anemones, and some other forms. ANTHRACITE : (avdpaZ, carbon). Coal, deprived of most of its volatile ingredients, and consisting almost wholly of carbon. ANTICLINAL : (dv-n, opposite, and K\ivw, I incline). The curvature of strata in a ridge-like form, the convexity or salient angle being up- ward. ANTICLINAL AXIS. A line drawn along the summit ridge of an anticlinal curve. APATITE : (dTraraw, I deceive : the name was given from the resemblance to other minerals). Mineral phosphate of lime, crystallizing in the hexagonal system. APOPHYLLITE : (d7ropvA\t'w, I exfoliate). A hydrous silicate of lime and potash, with some fluorine ; allied to the zeolites, and occurring in the same manner as zeolites in volcanic rocks. It crystallizes in the tetragonal or pyramidal system. AQUEOUS ROCKS : (aqua, water). Rocks deposited by water, in contradis- tinction to igneous rocks, the formation of which has been due to heat. ARENACEOUS : (arena, sand). Sandy or composed of sand. ARGILLACEOUS : (argilla, clay). Composed of clay, or containing a large proportion of it. ARKOSE. A detrital rock, composed of the materials of granite, quartz, felspar, and mica, and consisting frequently of angular fragments of those minerals in a sandy or argillaceous matrix. ARTHROPODA: (apQpov, a joint; TTOUS, a foot). Those classes of Annulosa which have jointed limbs : spiders, insects, myriapods, and crusta- ceans. ARTICULATA: (articulus, diminutive of artus, a joint). Cuvier's name for the great animal subkingdom comprising worms, insects, Crustacea, &c., now classed generally as Annulosa, or subdivided into Annelida and Arthropoda. ARTIODACTYLA : (aprtos, even; SaKrvXos, a finger or toe). A subdivision of the ungulate or hoofed mammals, having the toes of the feet either two or four in number. This group comprises the ruminants and some of the pachyderms of Cuvier, such as the pig. ASCIDIOIDA: (atrxos, a bag; elSos, form). A class of Molluscoida, also known as Tunicata. ASH, VOLCANIC. A general name applied to fragments of rock and dust (lapillse, scoria?, &c.) ejected from volcanoes. When consolidated, the mass forms a breccia, consisting of larger and smaller masses of various igneous rocks, such as basalt or trachyte, in a finer matrix. 740 GEOLOGY OF INDIA. ATOL : (a Malay word) . A coral island consisting of a more or less perfect ring of coral rock surrounding a lagoon. The Maldive and Laccadive islands consist of atols. AUGITE : (dvyj/, lustre). A mineral known also as pyroxene; one of the principal constituents of lavas, and especially of dolerite. It is composed of silica combined with lime, magnesia, iron, and other bases in varying proportions. Augite differs but little in com- position from hornblende, and both crystallize in the same system, the oblique or monoclinic, but the angles differ. AVES: (Latin for birds). Birds: one of the classes of the animal sub- kingdom of Vertebrata. AZOTO : (a, privative ; wjj, life) . A term applied to the oldest rocks, in which no organic remains have hitherto been discovered. See p. 37. BACKWATER. A name applied to expanses of salt water close to the coast, and separated from the sea by sand-spits. BASALT : (basaltes, Gr. and Lat.) An igneous rock, composed of augite and labradorite, often with olivine in disseminated grains. The term is chiefly applied to the hard, black, crystalline form of dolerite, and especially to that variety of the rock which exhibits prismatic structure. BASIN. A defined area composed of strata, dipping in a concave form from the circumference towards the interior. BASSET or BASSET EDGE. A miner's term for the outcrop of a bed. BATHYMETRICAL : (/3a0os, depth ; fiirpov, measure) . Distribution according to depth in the sea. BATRACHIA: (/Scn-pa^os, a frog). The Anura or tail-less Amphibia, includ- ing frogs and toads. BED. A single definite layer of a sedimentary rock, irrespective of thickness. BELEMNITE : (fi&epyov, a dart). An extinct genus of dibranchiate Cepha- lopoda, having a straight, subcylindrical internal shell of great strength, solid and pointed at one end, and expanded so as to form a conical chambered area, known as the phragmocone, at the other. Belemnites abound in mesozoic rocks, especially in middle second- ary or Jurassic strata. BERYL: (/3r/pvAAos ) A mineral composed of silicate of alumina and glucina, crystallizing in the hexagonal system, and usually occur- ring in hexagonal pyramids. Emerald is a finely coloured and transparent variety of this mineral. BHABER: (Hindi). See p. 403. BHASGAR: (Hindi). See p. 404. BHIL : (Bengali) = jhil : a marsh. See p. 406. BIOTITE : (named after M. Biot). Uniaxial or magnesian mica ; a silicate of alumina, iron, and magnesia, crystallizing in the hexagonal system, and usually dark-green or black in colour. GLOSSARY. 741 BOTRYOIDAL: (/3orpus, a bunch of grapes ; el^os, form). Minerals and rocks are thus termed when, owing to concretionary structure, the surface is raised into numerous convex projections, resembling grapes. BOULDER. A mass of transported rock, too large to be classed as- a pebble. BRACHIOPODA: (fjpa\l/, head; TTOU?, foot). A class of mollusks, comprising cuttle fish, argonauts, Nautili, Ammonites, Belemnites, &c. CETACEA : (/OJTO?, a whale). 'An order of mammalia comprising whales and porpoises. CERATITES : (xepaj, a horn). A genus of Cephalopoda, nearly allied to Am-, monites, but distinguished by a more simple form of suture. The distinction, however, is now known to be less important than was formerly supposed. The genus is almost peculiar to triassic strata, though species have been found in carboniferous beds in India. CERUSITE : (cerussa, white lead) . Mineral carbonate of lead. CHABASITE : (^n^a'^iog, a kind of stone). A zeolitic mineral, a hydrated silicate of alumina, lime and soda with a little potash, crystalliz- ing in the rhombohedral system, and generally occurring in ba- salt. CHALCEDONY or CALCEDONY : (derived from the town of Chalcedon). A variety of uncrystallized silica, with a waxy lustre, and either transparent or translucent. CHALCOPYRITE : (^aX/co? , brass ; irvpirri$, pyrites) . Copper pyrites, sulphide of copper and iron, crystallizing in the pyramidal system. CHALK. A soft white limestone. A rock of this kind, belonging to the upper cretaceous period, is largely developed in England and France, and has furnished the name used for the period. CHAR : (Hindi ; frequently written chur) . A sandbank in a river. The term is applied to the banks of sand and silt left dry on the subsidence of rivers after the flood season, and frequently cultivated during the dry weather. CHERT. Impure silica, or flinty portions of rocks. CHIROPTERA : (xp> hand; vrepov, wing). An order of mammalia compris- ing the bats. CHLORITE : (^Xwpoj, green). A hydrated silicate of alumina, iron and mag- nesia, resembling mica, but of a green colour and very soft, occur- ring chiefly in scales and small crystals in metamorphic rocks. GLOSSARY. 748 CHONDRODITE : (xwfyof, grain). A silicate of magnesia, with part of the oxygen replaced by fluorine, occurring usually as yellow or brown grains in crystalline limestone. CHRYSOLITE : (^puffoj, gold). A mineral identical with olivine, composed of silicate of magnesia and iron, and crystallizing in the prismatic or orthorhombic system. CHRTSOTILE : (xp vff 5> gold; r/Aoj, hair). A fibrous variety of serpentine with a silky lustre, and frequently a yellow or green colour. CILIOPODA : (cilium, an eyelash ; KOVS, a foot). A name proposed by Dr. Sto- liczka for Bryozoa. CLASS. In zoology, one of the great subdivisions of the animal kingdom, below the rank of subkingdoms. Rhizopods, sponges, corals, echi- noderms, Crustacea, insects, brachiopods, cephalopoda, fishes and mammals are classes. CLASTIC : (/cAaoroc, broken in pieces). Detrital : a general term applied to rocks formed from broken fragments of other rocks. The term is intended to include breccias, volcanic ash, and re-arranged detritus of all kinds, as well as ordinary sandstones, conglomerates, clays, &c. CLAY IRONSTONE. A mixture of carbonate of iron and clay, found in beds and nodules, and especially common in the coal-measures. CLAYSTONE. A term of somewhat loose application, generally used for compact felspar, felsite, or very felspathic igneous rocks. The term is also applied to disintegrated felsite, and sometimes, but rarely, to a sedimentary rock composed of hardened clay. CLEAVAGE. A fissile structure, not due to the original bedding of a rock, nor, as a rule, coincident with it. Cleavage is characteristic of true slates, and has been shewn to be due to pressure exercised at right angles to the cleavage planes. COAL. Vegetable tissue, converted into a substance proportionally poorer in water and volatile ingredients, and richer in carbon. Lignite has undergone less change than coal, but the two pass into each other. CCELENTERATA : ((cotXoff, hollow ; tvrepa, viscera). A group of animals distin- guished from the lower forms (Infmoria and Protozoa) by having a hollow digestive cavity. This group comprises the Anthozoa or Actinozoa and Hydrozoa, and, according to some naturalists, the Sponges. COLOSSOCHELYS : (oAoo$, lime or chalk) . Hydrated sulphate of lime, crystallizing in the oblique system. GTROGONITES : (yu/^oj, round; yovoj, seed). The spiral seed vessels of Characece, found in freshwater beds. HABITAT. The country, district, or kind of locality in which an animal or plant is found living in a wild state. HEMATITE : (al/ja, blood). Native iron oxide in a massive form, either crystalline or amorphous. The crystalline variety, known as specular iron, crystallizes in the hexagonal system. HEMIHEDRAL: (jj/u, half; tfya, side). Crystalline forms made from other regular solids by the obliteration of half of the bounding planes v HEULANDITE : (named after Heuland, a mineralogist). A zeolitic mineral; a hydrous silicate of alumina and lime, crystallizing in the oblique or monoclinic system. HEXAGONAL : (e, six ; ywv/a, angle) . A system in crystallography in which four axes are present, three equal lateral axes meeting at angles of 60, and the vertical axis at right angles to the others. HlPPARlON (t7r7ro(0twv, diminutive of ITTTTOS, horse,) or HIPPOTHERIUM. A genus of mammals found in the later tertiaries, and closely allied to the horse, but distinguished by the lateral digits of the feet being better developed and furnished with hoofs. HIPPURITES : (tirTroupij, a horse-tail). A genus of cretaceous bivalves of very peculiar form, one valve being conical or shaped like a horn, the other resembling a lid. HORNBLENDE. A silicate of various bases, usually lime, magnesia, or iron, or combinations of these with each other, part of the silica being often replaced by alumina. The crystallization is oblique. Horn- blende is an important constituent of many igneous rocks, such as syenite, diorite, &c. HORNSTONE. A variety of flint or chert, resembling horn in appearance. HTDROZOA: (v$pn, a water dragon; ^wov, an animal). A class of animals belonging to the subkingdom Coelenterata, allied to the Anthozoa, and comprising the hydroid or sertularian polypes, most of the jelly-fishes (Acaleplwi), and some other forms. HTPERSTHENE : (virlp, very ; af)ivo$, tough). A silicate of iron and magnesia, usually containing also some lime and alumina, closely allied to bronzite. HYPOGENE : (Wo, below ; yiyvopai, I am made). A term proposed by Lyell for the metamorphosed sedimentary formations formerly known as primary. The term is intended to express the idea that the beds in question had been transformed from below. ICHTHYOSAURUS: (i\Qvs, fish; oavpa, lizard). An extinct genus of reptiles inhabiting the sea, having no exo-skeleton, the limbs converted into paddles, a large head, short neck, and probably a tail like that 752 GEOLOGY OF INDIA. of Cetacea. The genus gives its name to the order Ichthyosauria, which abounded in the mesozoic epoch, and especially in Jurassic times. IGNEOUS : (ignis, fire) . A term applied to all geological phenomena supposed to be due to the action of heat. Igneous rocks are such as are believed to have undergone fusion. Particular igneous rocks were formerly supposed to be characteristic of different geological epochs, and some geologists still believe in the distinction, which has, however, been entirely abandoned by all the best English writers. ILMENITE : (named after Hmen). Titaniferous iron ore ; haematite, in which part of the iron is replaced by titanium. INFRA : (Lat., below) . Applied to strata, infra implies a lower position : thus Infra- Krol (p. 600) is the name of a group inferior to the Krol ; Infra- Vindhyan implies beds underlying the Vindhyans. INFUSORIA: (in, ndfundo, I pour). A class of microscopic animals, named from their occurrence in vegetable infusions. INNATE: (in, and natus, born). A term applied to certain igneous rocks, which have undergone transformation, without intrusion or other change of position. Such rocks are believed to have been found by simple fusion in situ. INSECTA : (inseco, I cut in pieces) . A class of the arthropodous subdivision of Anmilosa, characterized in all perfect forms by the possession of three pairs of legs attached to the thorax, and in most cases by two pairs of wings. INSECTIYORA: (insectum, an insect; voro, I devour). An order of mammalia, comprising moles, shrews, hedghogs, Tupaia, &c. IN SITU : (Lat., in place). A term applied to a rock or fossil when still in the exact position in relation to the matrix or surrounding rocks in which it was formed or deposited. INVERTEBRATA : (in, privative; vertebra, a joint). All animals except the Vertebrata. IRONSTONE. Any ore of iron ; but generally the name is employed for carbonates, especially the argillaceous carbonate of iron so common in the coal-measures, and generally known as " clay ironstone." ISOMETRIC : (teroj, equal; ptrpov, a measure). Dana's name for the cubical system in crystallography. ISOTHERMAL: (ioos, equal; Otpfiri, heat). Equal in temperature: a name applied to lines and zones of equal temperature, for any given period, on the earth's surface. JADE. A name applied to several hard compact minerals, resembling each other in being tough, translucent, and very homogeneous in texture. One form (nephrite) is a variety of amphibole, another (jadeite) is a silicate of alumina and soda. GLOSSARY. 753 JASPER. Impure opaque coloured quartz, often of a bright red colour, or striped red and black or white. JET: (gagates, from Gagas, a place in Lycia). A variety of coal having a very low specific gravity, homogeneous texture, and resinous lustre. JH!L : (Hindi). A marsh or shallow lake. JOINTS. Parallel fissures or planes dividing rocks into more or less regular 1 JURASSIC : (from the Jura mountains.) A system of rocks belonging to the mesozoic period, comprising the lias and oolite, and intervening between the trias below and the cretaceous above. By some geo- logists, the lias is separated from the Jurassic system, and the latter then corresponds with the oolitic series of English geologists. KAXKAK. See p. 381.. KAOLIN: (Chinese). Fine porcelain clay, derived from the decomposition of felspar. KKITKR : (German). The upper subdivision of the triassic system. KHADAR. See p. 403. KHAL : (Bengali). A tidal creek. KIESEEITE : (from Kieser, a proper name). Hydrous sulphate of magnesia, crystallizing in the prismatic system. KNORRIA : (from Knorr, a proper name). A carboniferous genus of Lyco- podiacece, founded on stems with projecting leaf -sears arranged in a spiral. KUNKUR. See p. 381. KUPFERSCHIEFER : (kiipfer, copper ; schiefer, slate). A subdivision of the permian system in Germany. LABRADORITE : (from Labrador, the original locality) . A kind of felspar composed of silica, alumina, lime, and soda, crystallizing in the anorthic or triclinic system, and forming a constituent of many igneous rocks, such as basalt and diabase. Labradorite, when in large crystals, is often distinguished by a peculiar play of colours on the surface. LABYRINTHODON : (XafivptvOog, a labyrinth ; olovs, a tooth). An extinct genus of Amplt'ibia, named from the complicated foldings on the trans- verse sections of the teeth. From this genus the order Laby- rinthodonta was named : it comprised salamandriform animals with a long tail, and existed in upper palaeozoic and lower mesozoic times. LACUSTRINE : (lacus, a lake). Of or belonging to a lake. LAGOON: (laguna, Ital.) A shallow salt-water lake or inlet, nearly or entirely cut off from the' sea. LAMELLIBRANCHIATA : (lamella, a thin plate; jBfjdy^m, gills). A class of Mollusca, comprising ordinary bivalve shells, such as oysters, mussels, cockles, &c. x 1 754 . GEOLOGY OF INDIA. LAMINATION : (lamina, a thin plate) . The division of rocks into thin paral- lel layers. LAPILLI : (lapillus, a little stone). The finer forms of volcanic ash. LATEEITB. See p.. 349. LAUMONITE or LAUMONTITE : (from Laumont, the name of the discoverer). A hydrous silicate of alumina and lime, crystallizing in the oblique system, and usually found in the cavities of basalt and similar rocks associated with zeolites. LAIIRENTIAN. Some of the oldest rocks in Canada, of age anterior to the Cambrian, and named thus from the river St. Lawrence. From these rocks the fossil Eozoon, "supposed to be the oldest form of life known, was first obtained. The nature of this fossil is, how- ever, disputed, and by some naturalists its organic origin is doubted. LAVA : (Ital.) The molten rock that flows from a volcano in eruption. Lavas have the same composition as intrusive volcanic rocks, and are divided into two great sections : (1) Doleritic or basic, con- sisting largely of pyroxene, and not containing more than 45 to 55 per cent, of silica ; and (2) trachytic or acidic rocks, with 60 to 80 per cent, of silica, and composed mainly of felspar. LEPIPOLITE : (Xciric, scale) . A kind of mica containing lithia. LEUCITB.: (XevKog, white). A silicate of alumina and potash, crystallizing in the cubical or isometric system, and found in volcanic rocks. LEUCOPYEITE : (XtvKog, white ; TrvpiTrjQ, pyrites) . Arsenide of iron, crystal- lizing in the prismatic system. LIAS. The rocks at the base of the Jurassic or oolitic system, classed by some with that system, by others as a distinct formation, inter- mediate between the oolites and the trias. LIGNITE : (lignum, wood). Fossil wood, carbonised and altered, but still containing a much larger proportion of volatile ingredients than true coal. LIMESTONE. Indurated carbonate of lime. LITTORAL : (littus, the shore). A term applied to deposits formed in shallow water close to the coast. LOAM. A soil composed of clay and fine sand. . LOESS. A term applied to a very fine unstratified or imperfectly stratified formation, composed of clay, very fine sand, and some carbonate of lime, occurring in the Rhine valley. Similar beds of great thick- ness have been found in China and other parts of Central Asia, and shewn to have been probably formed of fine dust transported by the wind. LYCOPODIACE.E. A class of acrogenous cryptogamic plants comprising the living club-mosses and numerous fossil forms. LYDIAN STONE. A black siliceous rock, either a kind of jasper, or an altered siliceous shale. GLOSSARY. 755 MAGNETITE: MAGNETIC IRON ORE. An ore of iron composed of o ne equi- valent of sesquioxide and one of protoxide, or of three equivalents of iron and four of oxygen. It crystallizes in the isometric or cubical system, and is usually found in octohedra. MAMMALIA : (mamma, breast) . The highest class of Vertebrata, comprising all animals that suckle their young. MARBLE. Properly this term is only applied to the finer and more crystal- line forms of limestone. Commonly, however, all rocks capable of being polished are thus called. MARL. Clay mixed with carbonate of lime, but not consolidated into hard rock. The term is sometimes erroneously applied to non-calcare- ous clays. MASTODON : (/moro'c, breast ; dSoue, tooth) . An extinct genus of Proboscidea, closely allied to the elephant, but distinguished by the form of the teeth, which bear a number of rounded protuberances on the surface. MEGALOSAURUS : (yueyaXo-great ; vavpos, lizard). A genus of Dinosauria, of great size, with curved sabre-shaped teeth. MESOZOIC : (piaoQ, middle ; fay, life). All formations, from the trias to the cretaceous inclusive, belonging to the middle or intermediate period between the palaeozoic and tertiary or casnozoic epochs. METAMORPHIC ROCKS: (/utra, after; /uop

YLA : (Trtpiavos, uneven ; SaxrvXos, toe). A subdivision of the Ungulata distinguished by having an odd number of digits, and comprising horses, rhinoceroses, tapirs, Palceotheria, &c. PERMIAN. The highest subdivision of palaeozoic rocks, resting upon the carboniferous, and overlaid by triassic beds. The name is derived from the district of Perm, in Russia. PETROLEUM : (petra, rock ; oleum, oil). Earth-oil ; liquid hydrocarbons found oozing from rocks in places, or occupying cavities, and form- ed during the slow alteration of organic matter. PETROLOGY : (Trerpoj, rock ; Aoyoj, discourse). The science treating of rocks, their structure and composition. PETROSILEX. A synonym of felstone or felsite, sometimes applied also to hornstone. PHANEROGAMIA : ( of flnviatile ori- gin . . 387 ,, of Godavari . . . 388 of Indo-gangetic plain . . 391 ,, raised area of in Ganges delta 408 older, west of Ganges delta . 410 east-coast .... 422 west-coast .... 424 Bombay .... 424 Guzerat 425 Kattywar and Cutch . . 426 Almod beds 134 Alpine triassic fauna in Himalaya* . xlvii Almora 60S, 610 Ahvar 49, 50 Alwar gneiss and s.'hists ... 5 Ahvar group ..... 49 Ammli stream 217 Y 1 770 INDEX. Amarkantak . . 202, 300, 355, Auiarkantak plateau . . vi, 203, Arab 501, Ambala, see Urnballa. Ameruuibode Ammonite bed of Kuchri Ammonites Ragavnpuram shales 148, of Sripermatur beds 149, 250, in carboniferous rocks Ammonites atTileta .... Ammonites fissus . . . 258, Ammonites macrocepTialus . 253, 254, Ammonites perarmatus Ammonites ( Phylloceras} oldhami Ammonites planulatus . .266,278, Ammonites pottingeri . . . 259, Ammonites serriger . . . 253, Amphibia, remains of, in Gondwana rocks . . . 117, 128, 131, Amphicyon 578, Amraoti Amri Amrnath Amru hill Analcime, Rajmahal traps . Analysis of porcellnnic rock from Gwa- lior beds ...... Analysis of trappoid rock from Lower Vindhyans . Analysis of porcellanic rock from Lower Vindhyans . Analysis of laterite . of kankar . of cotton soil of Raniganj coal . of Assam coal Anamale' ..... v, Anamesite, Rajmahal . Deccan traps Anundpur, Gnzerat . Anundpur, Sub-Himalayas . Anaram ...... Ancient zoological and botanical re- gions Andagou kyouk . Andaman Islands . Andaman islanders, stone implements of 411, Andaman Islands, depression of land in 382, PA&B 363 308 515 370 264 246 265 492 256 264 255 258 491 289 263 254 132 580 388 448 660 463 170 58 79 349 note* 430 702 702 18 170 302 48 550 155 442 733 PA0B Andhari 46 Animal kingdom, classification of . Ixxix Anjar river 217 Antargaon 231, 234 Anthi 45 Anthozoa, see Corals. Antri 94 Apatite in gneiss .... 19 Apophyllite in Deccan traps . . 306 Aptian beds, Cutch . . . .266 Arabia, Southern, cretaceous fossils of . 297 Arabian coast, depression of land on . 376 Arakan .... 704, 717, 721 Arakan coast, littoral concrete of . 729 rise of land oh . . 729 sand dunes on . . 729 Arakan, nummulitic beds of . . 717 newer tertiary beds in . . 721 Arakan Yoma . xi, 704, 707, 710, 713 Arakeri 68 Araucarites cutchensis . 154, 159, 160 Aravelly, see Arvali. Aravulli, see Arvali. Area larkanens'is .... Archegosaurus . . . .117, Arconum junction ..... Arcot, gneiss of .... Area of Gondwanas .... Area of Rajmahal volcanic action Areas of gneissic rocks . . 4, Arenaceous group, Cntch Argillaceous group, Cutch . ^rialur 280, Arialur group distribution . relations to lower groups palaeontology Arjnna, Gondwaua outlier near . Arki '. . Arur Arvali area, gneissic rocks . xviii, 5, boundary of Vindhyans . Arvali range . . iv, v, vi, 48, region series of transition rocks . 8, Asansol ...... Asirgarh .... Ash, volcanic, in Deccan traps Ashraopettah 463 128 248 25 97 142 5 347 317 287 280 281 282 283 227 608 418 27 88 437 44 44 183 237 385 326 239 INDEX. 771 Assam ...... Assam coal-fields .... Assam gueiss . . xv, xix, 4, 17, Assam hills, transition series . xv, Assam range . . . . x, 27, area to be described . distinction between Shil- long plateau and Barail Patkai range xi, 683, formations present . general structure . . Sylhettrap . . . cretaceous series . . nummulitic series . . upper tertiaries . . Assam coal-fields . . Assam, stone implements . . 441, Sub-Himalayas of 522,523, upper and lower, distinction of upper, area of Sub-Himalayas valley .... 372, Astarte major ..... Astor ...... Ataran river ..... Atgarh and Atgurh, see Athgar. Athgar ..... 140, Athgar Gondwana basin . . . Atolls in Indian seas .... Attica, pliocene fauna of Pikermi in . . 478, 482, 498, .. xxv, Attock . Attock slates Aucella ...... Augite in gneiss .... Auk group ..... Aulathor ...... Australia connected with India in palaeozoic times .... Australian coal-fields, beds of . . Australian region .... Ava ...... 708, Axial (triassic) group, Burma . . Axis, granitic, of Himalayas . . main gneissic of Himalaya . of earth, change of direction in xxii, xxxvii, the Ladak gneissic . . . Azoic, application of term ... Azoic rocks . . . .xvm, origin of . . . . three-fold division of PAGE 391 699 26 40 682 682 685 684 684 686 687 693 696 699 442 545 699 545 405 262 625 709 243 243 376 583 515 499 149 19 70 xxxiv 119 Ixiv 724 710 629 624 625 3 Azoic rocks, section of ... 6 general composition and distribution of 9 ,, classification of . . 9 salt range . . . 485 B Baculites vagina . 272 Bachao 260 Badalgarh beds ..... 50 Badhauo ,.67 Badnera, elevation of . . . . 388 Bad ra wan 631, 632 Badsar-Nurpur fault, Sub-Himalayas 549, 560 Basr, see Bagh. Bagh 221, 293, 295 Bagh beds .... xxxix, 293 ,, mineral characters and dis- tribution .... 294 resemblance to Lametas, 295, 309 physical geology . . 296 palaeontology ... 296 relations to cretaceous rocks of South Arabia . . 297 probable conditions of depo- sition .... 298 Bagh, Bijawars of .... 45 Baghinara 183 Baghmati river .... 675, 676 Bagpura, quartz reef at ... 14 Bagra group 138 Satpnra basin . . . 219 Bagwa, quartz reef at . . . . 14 Bahadur Khel 478 salt beds at . . . . 508 Bahawalpur .... 436, 437 height above sea . . 392 Bakkar 413 Balaghat copper and silver implements 443 Balanpur ...... 237 BSlasan river 614 Baluiir . . 53,54,263,264, 437 sandstones .... 264. Balch pass 651 Ballarpnr 230 Baltistan 643 Baluchistan, mountain ranges of . . Hx disturbance in . . 376 772 INDEX. Baluchistan, cretaceous and lower ter- tiary rocks of Makran group of Balumath ...... Bambai Banaganpili group .... ,> bone cave near . ,, diamond mines . Banalah Bancoora, see Bankura. Banda ....< Bandar coal-field . . Baudugarh fort . Banganga river Ranibal pass . Banks of rivers raised by blown sand . flood deposits Baukura Baimu 478, plain . . . 478, 505, 514, Bansloi river . . . 165, 167, Bara Bara-Bhagal .... 631, Barabar hills Barai Barail range .... 683, origin of . Barail-Patkai range . . xi,.683, relations to Himalayas . Barak river Bauikar group .... 115, river . . 174, 176, 178, Barakars, relations to Talchirs . thickness .... coal of .... Eajmahal hills . Taugsuli basin . Sahajori field Jainti or Karauu field . Karharbari field . Raniganj field Jharia coal-field . . Bokaro field Rauigarh field South Karanpura field Karanpura field . Chope" field . Itkuri field Daltonganj field . near Latiahar 453 470 197 11 70 381 70 608 442 226 203 549 665 404 406 184 495 515 169 58 633 38 58 698 699 685 685 xi 124 180 125 125 125 167 171 172 173 175 180 186 188 190 192 194 186 197 197 198 Barakars, South Rewah field . . 202 Talchir pebbles in . . 203 basalts interstratified with- . 204 Jhilmilli field . . .205 Bisrampur field . . .206 Lakhanpur field . . .206 Korba field . . .208 Raigarh-Hingir field . . 209 Talchir field . . . 212 Sarpura basin . . . 217 Bandar field . . .226 Wardha field . . .229 Godavari valley . . 235, 239 Kamaram field . . .241 Singareni field . . .241 Athgar basin . .243 Baralacha . . ix, 629, 630, 631, 639 Baralatse, see Baralacha. Burdhi 78 Bareta 13 Bargandi 217 Barhatpur 89 Barhi 37 Bari Doab sand hills .... 439 Bari hill 33 Bari Tawi river .... 564, 568 Barmandal ...... 564 Barmaur . . 631, 632 Bared lull 49 Baroda . . . 222, 304, 308, 425 Barrah hill * 448 Barren Island 735 Barus 661 B.irwai . . 84, 99, 221, 294, 296, 385 Barwar 12, 13 Barwarna ...... 554 Basalt, in coal, Ranigar.j field . . 180 intrusions, Haniganj field . 185 dykes, South Rewah . . 204 dyke, Athgar basin . . 244 columns .... 303 interstratified with cretaceous beds of Sind . . . .449 Itosauli 549, 568 Basauli-Naushera fault, Sub- Hirnajay as 567 Basins of upper transition rocks . . 56 Gondwana .... 161 sedimentary, of Central Hima- layas 633 Baspa river . . . . . 597 INDEX. 773 ]!;i53rill ..... 717, PAGK 727 725 355 254 708 618 618 408 732 225 376 51 50 133 50 239 391 36 19 78 196 442 184 345 555 555 260 260 118 362 355 494 392 410 18 43 410 441 180 355 19 183 224 403 238 403 412 Bhahar slope, Sind .... Bhabeh pass . 596, 627, 628, 630, 639, PAOB 417 643 638 240 175 165 507 406 443 460 558 15 708 230 176 404 410 84 89 49 595 37 73 73 568 23 543 457 81 340 226 323 221 388 252 505 404 97 27 522 545 618 386 viii 641 Bastar 76, Bath Oolite, or Bathonian of Cutch . Bau-dwen-gyee ..... Bixu Bhadrachellain . . 233,238,239, Bliadwabill Bhagalpur . . < . . . Bhaganwala Bhagirathi, oscillations of . Bhagotoro copper implement hills Baxa series ..... Bay of Bengal islauda in, geology of . Bazargaon Beaches, old sea ..... Beaua 49, beds Beas, see Bias. Beaufort beds, S. Africa . . 123, Beuwur Beddailanol coal-field .... Beerbhooni, see Birbhuin. .liehar Bijawars . gneiss lower Viudhyans Southern, Gondwana basins in 177, stone implements in . Bthariuath hill Bhagsu Bhagwaho, trap dyke at . . Bhanio Bhaudak . . . Bhandari Bhano-ar of Gangetic plain . Bhanrer beds ..... limestone .... Bheng river Bhiaura hills . . .20, 36, Bhiiiia basin, transition rocks . 66, series, subdivisions and thiek- Bhimbar Bela . . . 58,251,254, . Belaspur, Kangra . . . 552, section, Sub-Himalayas Btlemnites grantianus . . 258, katrolemis . . 259, Bhimgarh near Goa .... Bhimtal Bhita Bhodan Bhokara near Nagpur Bhooj, see Bhuj. Bhopal Bhorla ...... Belgaum . 300, 308, Sellerophon in triassic rocks Beuan-s, height above sea . Bengal 391, gneissic area .... south-western, transition rocks upper, plains of ... ,, south-eastern, stone implements Benodakatta Berar 227, 311, Beryl in gneiss Besram stream Betul 220, Betwa river, fossil bones found in Bezwada Bbabar Bhabar slope at foot of Himalayas Bhosawal, elevation of. Bh6j Bhu-ti hills . . vii, 479, 480, Bhur land Bhnrtpore, see Barhatpur and Bhart- pur. Bhutan Duars .... frontier, absence of Sub-Hima- layan rocks . . 521, ,, Sub-Himalayas of . . lower Himalayas of Bhutra Bias river former course of 774 INDEX. PAGE Bias river, Sub-Himalayas on, 548, 553 554 valley, lower Himalayas of . 602, 606 upper .... 632 Bibra 237 Bichiako 543 Bidar . . . ... .354, 355 Bidounghill . . . . .715 Bfjawar formation . . . 6, 7, 28 basia 28 Bijawars of Dhar forest ... 31 of middle Narbada area . 32 of Son -Narbada area . . 33 of Son area .... 34 of Behar .... 36 of Bagh and Jobat . . 45 Bijigarh . . . . . . 85 shales . . . . . 84 Bijiragugarh 80 Bijori group . . . 115,127, 218 Bikanir 437 Bikrampur 11 Bilaspur .... 125,199, 200 Bilheri 80, 90 BillaSurg&n . . ' . . ,381 Birnphedi 611 Bindrabun, Rajnmhal hills . . .170 Biotite in gneiss 19 Bir 559 Birbhum . . . 103, 139, 165 171 Birbhum, Deogarh and Karharbari Gondwana region .... 171 Bisaliir 597, 598 Bisramganj ghat .... 83 Bisrampur coal-field .... 205 Black band, Raniganj field . . .181 Black Pagoda near Pooree, formerly on sea-shore ...... 377 Black soil 429 distribution of . .431 origin of .... 432 Blaini group .... xxvi, 599 river 599 Blown sand . . . .404, 435 of Indian desert . . 436 Bogapani river . . 41,686,690, 694 Bogin river 83 Boileauganj . . . . . 601 Boj mountain . . . 533, 534, 599 Bokaro coal-field . . . 106, 187 river 187 Bole in Deccan traps . . 304, Bouipoka ...... Bou Bone-cave, Billa Surgam Eos (Bubalus) palaindicus 386, 402, 578, namadicus ..... Boulder bed, Talchir, xxxv, 109, 173, 180, 186, 188, 190, 194, 205, 206, 211, 229, Boulder bed in transition rocks . South Africa . xxxvi, in post pliocene rocks of Punjab .... striated in olive group, Salt Range . . xxxvi, in Pangi slates . xxxvi, 632, Kangra valley . 299, 304, 319, evidence of depression at . intertrappean beds of Boulders Bombay raised shell beds at alluvium littoral concrete Borghat .... Borhill . . . . . BorPatar Borobhum Bore-hole, Fort William, Calcutta, 378, Umballa .... Sabzal-ka-kot . . Sukakheri, Narbada valley . Borendo pass Boring, Madras Botanical regions, ancient . ' . Bothriceps australis Boundary, abnormal, of upper tertiaries, Punjab Brachiopoda Utatur group . 273, Trichinopoly group, 278, Arialiir group . 283, Brachiops laticeps . . . 123, Brahman! river, Rajmahal hills 165, 166, coal-field Gondwana region river, OrisSa . . . Brahmaputra river .... delta . . . changes in course of FACE 312 735 535 381 582 234 xxxvi 112 515 496 664 669 320 Ixxi 319 321 377 424 426 320 449 692 43 397 401 402 384 597 423 101 131 483 275 131 170 167 199 210 viii 405 107 INDEX. 775 549, 551, Bramapntra valley . . . 405, section of tertiary rocks near Brahininubad Breynia carinata . . . 466, Broacb, . . . 267, 339, 425, higher tertiaries of Bronze implements .... Bronzite, Iluudos .... in serpentine, Burma . Nicobars .... Bryozoa, Arialur group Bubhdr gorge Siwalika at . and Bilaspur sections of Sub- Himalayas compared Budhavada .... 141, Bugaoti river, fossil bones found in Btilimus insularis . f . . Bulsar Bundair, see Bhaurer. Buudelkhaud area, gneissic rocks, xviii, gneiss .... composition of accessory minerals in relations to conti- guous formations xviii, 16, 31, Bundelkhand, Bijawars of . . 29, Vindhyans . 69,81, laterite of, vi. 355, 356, stone implements in Bunnoo, see Bannu. Bunter flora . . . .114, Burail range ..... Buramuk near Tezpur, height above sea Burdwan coal-field .... height above sea Buriadih ...... Burma, area and physical geography . rivers and ranges of geological data rock-groups .... gneiss of .... metamorphic rocks Mergui group Maulinaiu group . , . Axial (triassic) group Mai-i (cretaceous) group Negrais rocks Serpentine .... Nummulitic group PAGE 682 696 418 470 435 340 443 650 714 735 286 669 555 555 246 403 576 427 5 10 10 16 55 55 87 363 442 118 27 392 178 175 704 x 706 706 xix 707 708 709 710 711 713 714 714 PAGE Burma, Pegu group .... 719 Pliocene fossil wood group . 721 upper tertiaries . . . 724 tertiary disturbance in . . Ivii volcanic rocks . . . 725 post-tertiary deposits . . 726 ' stone implements in . . 442 Byangyee 725 Byrenconda quartzites . . 61, 62 Cachar 683* 693 Cairns 441 Calcutta bore-hole .... 397 neighbourhood of . . . 407 Calder's description of Indian geology Ixxii Callian, see Kalyan. Cambny, Gulf of . 339, 341, 342. 425 Camorta 735 Campbellpur 503 Canals, effects of, on reh lands . . 414 Candona kotahensis . . . 152, 154 Cane river, see Ken. Canning town, peat at ... 400 CapeMonze .... 464. 470 Carboniferous fossils, Salt Range . 491 Zanskar area . 638 Niti, Hundes . 648 Milam pass . 650 Kashmir . . 661 in Maulmain group 708 Carboniferous rocks of Australia, 119, 120 Punjab salt range xxiv, 489 West of Indus . 490 Northern Punjab xxv, 501 Changchenmo . 654 Karakoram. . 655 Kuenlun . . 656 Sarikol . . 658 of Kashmir . 660 supposed, of Pir Panjal . . 666 Cardita beaumonti . . 449, 497 Cardium (Protocardiumjhillanum 280, 292 Cavibari, see Karibari. Carter's summary of the geology of India Ixz 776 IXUKX. Cashmere, see Kashmir. Cauvery river . . 269, 383, Cave deposits ..... Cawnpore, height above sea . . Celts ....... Central and lower Himalayan gneiss identical : Central gneiss of Himalayas . xxvi, stratigraphical relations, age of, &c. . . terminal extensions of . Central Himalayas, definition of . 519, (Tibetan) Himalayas . . Central Himalayas, see Himalayas. Central Provinces, gneiss of stone implements . Cephalopoda Pachham group . . Chari group . . . Kantkot sandstone . Katrol group . . Umia group . . . distribution of, in Cutch Jurassics . . of Utatur group . 272, of Trichiuopoly group . of Arialur group . 283, Ceratite beds, Punjab salt range . Ceratites in carboniferous rocks . Ceratodus . xxxiv, Ixx, 100, 101, Cerusite in gneiss .... Cervus namadicus .... Ceylouese subregion .... Chagos islands, depression of . . Chaibassa ...... Chaiupur ...... Clnikai ...... Chaki river ...... Chalicotherium ..... Chamba ..... 631, Chamba hill ..... Chatupagiri . . . . . Chauiyanir beds ..... Chauch ...... Chanda . 75, 110, 124, 227, 231, Chanda coal-field .... Chandnai stream Chang range ... Cluuigchenino ... Changes of level, subreceiit . 433 381 392 597 627 628 630 529 622 441 254 257 258 258 262 274 278 284 4U3 492 154 19 386 Ixv 376 43 87 174 558 580 658 503 692 46 ISO 432 227 660 2C7 654 654 Ixxi PAGB Changriziug 629 Chauo 195 Chari 254,255, 256 group . . . . .255 fossils . . . .257 Charwar range . . 252, 257, 258, 260 Chatarhill 219 Chattarkot . . 83 Chauni 58 Chebu 81 87 Cheduba Island .... 717, 729 rnud volcanoes of . . . 729 Qhelrolepis ...... 155 Chel river 614 Chela . . . . . . . 694 Ghemnitzia undosa . . . 277, 292 Cheuab river .... 44, 52 see Chinab. Chendragiri ridge . . . .612 Cherakhan 291 Cherat hills .... -177, 498, 500 Cherra Pooujee . . 684, 686, 693, 69 1 cretaceous beds at . 6M) coal of . . . . 693 Cherra sandstone 690 Chessagarhi ridge . . . (ill Chftrai, quartz reef at . . . 11 Clieyair group . . . .61, 62 Chhatarpur 11, 14' Clihatisgarh . . . .75, 128, 199 Chichali hills, 478, 480, 485, 490, 493, 495, 505, 507 nummulitics of . . 506 Chichali pass 496 Chikiala group .... 141, 152 Godavari valley . . 237 Chikkim limestone .... 6^5 shales . . . . .635 Chiklikpass 657 Chilka lake, estuarine shell-beds near . 424 Chimur 226 Chiuab river . viii, 562, 566, 567, 676 upper valley of . . . 658, 665 origin of gorge, at Kiassi . 562, 676 Chinakuri 182 Chineui ' . 566 Chinese plant fossils .... 122 Chiniot 44, 52 Chinua Tripetty 148 Chinur . 234,235,236, 237 INDEX. 777 Chipal 604 Chitapahar, 478, 485, 498, 502, 503, 505, 512 Chitlong 611 Chittagong 704 Chittorgliar 84 Chlithrolepia 120 Chlorite iu gneiss .... 10 Chondrodite, Maudalay . 708 Chope" 164, Chope coal-field 196 Chopra 82 Chor mountain .... 598, 607 gneiss of 608 Chorar 251, 254 Chorkheri 225 Chota Nagpore, see Chutia Nagpur. Chota TIdcpur 221 Choti Tiiwi river .... 564, 566 Chotan 54 Chrysotile iu gneiss .... 19 Chumalari ...... x Cliunar 78, 87 Chuparbhita pass . 165, 167, 168, 169 coal-field .... 167 Churiaghati range, Nepal . . '. 543 Churna Island 464 Chutia Nagpur .... 142, 199 plateau, iv, vi, 18, 106, 163, 177, 356 gneiss .... 21 Gondwana outliers in . 207 stone implements . . 442 Chutro 197 Classification of animal kingdom . . Ixxix f, of azoic rocks ... 9 Climate, change of, effects on fauna . 585 Climate of Gondvvaua epoch . . xxxv Coal, in Talchir beds . . . 109, 205 Kurharbari group . . . 113 Barakar group .... 125 lianiganj 126 Jabalpur group .... 156 Rajmahal bills . . . .167 Taugsuli basin .... 171 Kandit Knraynh field . .172 Jainti or Karauu fields . . 173 Karharbari coal-field . . . 175 Uaniganj field . . . 181, 182 Jhuria field .... 186 , Bokaro field 188 PAGE Coal, Ramgarh field .... 191 South Karanpiira field . . 192 Kaianpura field . . . 194, 195 Chope field 197 Itkuri field. . . ' . .197 Daltouganj field . . . .198 near Latiahar .... 198 reported near Kurea, Jashpur, Chutia Nagpur . . .198 South Rewah field . . .203 Jhilmilli field .... 205 Bisrampur field . . . 206 Lakhanpar field . . * . 207 Udepiir (Chutia Nagpur) . . 208 Korba, Bilaspur .... 208 Raigarh-Hingir field . . . 210 Talchir field . . . .212 ,, Lameta ghat . . . .215 Satpura basin , 217 Pench valley .... 218 Mopaui , . . . .218 Bandar field .... 227 Wardha (Chanda) field . . 230 Godavari valley . 234, 235, 239 Madavaram field . . . 239 Beddadanol field . . . 240 Kamaram field ... 241 Singareni field . ' . . 242 from Calcutta bore -hole . . 398 Ranikot group, Sind . . 451 Jurassic, Punjab salt range . . 495 ,, Suleman range . . . 506 nummulitic, Salt Range . . 507 supposed, of Sabathu . . 600 cretaceous, Khasi hills . . 689 Garb hills . 690, 692 basins of Rongreng and Darang 691 of Upper Assam . . . 702 nummulitic, Khasi hills . 693, 702 Teuasserim, cretaceous . . 712 near Thayet Myo, Burma . 717 in Teuasserim .... 718 Upper Burma . . . 724 Coal-fields of Damuda valley . . 177 of Assam .... 699 Coal-measures, Hauiganj, possible extension to eastward . . . 185 Coal-measures, upper Assam . . 701 Coast line of Peninsula in Upper Gond- wana times TTiv 778 INDEX. JAGE Coast in cretaceous period xxxviii, 1 in Deccan trap peiiod . . xliv of Peninsula in tertiary period, xlvi, Ixi in Jurassic period . . xxxii xlix Cochin 368 Coconada 147, 244 Cocos islands 732 Coimbatur iron implements . . 444 limestone ... 25 Coleroon river ..... 268 Colossochelys atlas .... 580 Colgong . . . .165,167, 170 Columnar basalt, Deccan trap . . 303 Conglomerates, Siwalik . . .525 .Conjeveram 249 Coorg, see Kurg. Copper glance, Punjab Salt Range . 489 implements .... 443 Coral islands in Indian seas . . 376 reef limestone, Utatur group . 270 reefs, raised, Nicobar islands . 735 Coralline limestone, Bagh . . .294 Corals, Utatur group . . . 273, 275 Trichinopoly group . . "278, 280 Arialur group . . . 283, 286 Corlula harpa . . . . 450, 453, 462 trigonalis . . . 463, 468 Cores, flint, 441 Coromandel coast .... 268 Corteliar river 248 Corundum in gneiss .... 19 Cossya or Cossyah, see Khasi. Cotton soil 429 distribution of . . 431 origin of . . . .432 CremnoconcTius 378 Cretaceous coal, Assam range . 689 Mikir hills . . 692 Tenasserim . . 712 Cretaceous fauna, relations of . xl, 289 South Arabia, . . 297 forms in Ranikot beds . 453 fossils, Zanskar area . . 635 Milampass . . 649 Khdsi hills . . 688 land, distribution of . . xxxix marine beds of Peninsula xxxviii, 266 rocks of Trichinopoly and Pondicherry . xxxviii, 267 Cretaceous rocks of Trichinopoly and Pondicherry, age of . . xxxviii, 268 Cretaceous rocks of Narbada valley xxxix, 293 of Assam range xxxix, 687 extra-peninsular . xlix of Trichinopoly, rela- tions to other formations . . 268 Cretaceous rocks of Trichinopoly, sub- division of 269 Cretaceous rocks of Trichinopoly, table of groups ..... 270 Cretaceous rocks of Trichinopoly, coral reef limestone in . . 270 Cretaceous rocks of Trichinopoly, table showing distribution of invertebrate fossils in 290 Cretaceous rocks of Trichinopoly, con- nection with other Indian beds . 291 Cretaceous rocks of Trichiuopoly, re- lations to South Africa . . .292 Cretaceous rocks of Sind . . . 448 of Baluchistan . 453 Punjab salt range . 496 ofHazara . . 503 nearKohat . . 504 Zanskar . . 635, 643 Lokshung range,Tibet 654 Sanju . . .656 Khasi area . . 687 of Garo area . . 690 Mikir area . . 692 Burma . . . 711 Crocodilus palustris . 580 Cromlechs 440, 443 Crystalline rocks, Hazara . . .498 Cuddalore . . . .335, 424 Cuddalore sandstones .... 335 Cuddapah, see Kadapah. Cullygoody 271 Cumbum slates . . . .61, 64 Cundacoor, see Kandakur. Curruckpore, see Karakpur. Cutch Gondwanas . 97, 99, 100, 158 flora, relations to Raj mahals, 147, 156 Jurassic rocks of . . xxxvii 251 jurassics, relations to higher formations, . . 252 physical geology of . 252 INDEX. 779 PAGE PACK Cutchjurassics, sub-divisions 252 Damuda series, relations to Australian correlation with Euro- carboniferous 119 pean groups . 253 relations to Karoo series thickness . 254 of South Africa . 122 neocoinian beds of 266 valley . . 103, 163, 171, 177 traps of . . 300,308,328, 331 coal-fields . 177 tertiary rocks of ... 343 Damudas, Upper . . . 155, 202 relations to traps . 343 Kajmahal hills . 166 classification 344 Kunilit Karayah field . 172 snbnnmmulitic group 344 Raniganj coal-field 180 gypseous sbales of ... 345 South Rewah field 202 ,, numniulitics .... 345 Sikkim . . ... 615 areuaceoas group 346 underlying gneiss in Sikkim . 616 argillaceous group 346 Bhutan .... 619 upper tertiary .... 347 Dikrang section, Assam 620 alluvium of .... 426 Daneeopsis rajmahalensis . 145 blown sands .... 436 Danian beds, possible representatives Ran of, see Ran of Cutch. in South India .... 287 Cnttack . 140, 199, 242, 243, 355, 358 Daphla hills . . .97, 546, 620 Cycnditcs gramineus ... 157 Dandiapura 4fi Cyclopt eris jenkinsiana 147 Dapeditu ^o 154 oldhami 147 Darang coal basin . . . 691, 695 pachyrachis 133 Darjiling 613 157 gneiss . filf lower intertrappeans 313 Gadani . . . 456 470 infratrappean, Rajamahenclri 316 Gadarwara railway station, borings intertrappean, Rajamahendri 318 near .... 384 upper intertrappeans, Bombay . 321 Gahrwal-Kuinaun area, Sub-Himalayas 543 in Travancore limestones . 338 Gaira hills 345, 346 in Surat eocene beds 340 Gaj group ], 463 mammalian, Perim Island 343 Gaj river . 448, 454, 456, 457, 463, Cutch tertiary beds . . 345, 346 464, *468 Narbada alluvium 385 ,, section on upper . . 454 Godavari alluvium . 389 Galena from Jhansi .... 16 from Calcutta boring 398 in Singrauli gneiss . 19 M Indo-Gangetic alluvium 402 Galla 311 Sind cretaceous beds 449 Gamrola river .... 553, 555 Ranikot group .... 452 Gandak river ..... X Kliirthar group 458 Gandgarh hills . . ... 498, 499 }j Nari group .... 461 Ganeshpur .... 195 Gaj group .... 465 Gangamopteris . , . 118, 119, 130 Manehliar group , . 468, 471 angustifolia, . Ill, 114 Carboniferous, salt range . 491 cyclopteroidf.t, 111, 112, 114 Siwalik of Kushalghar 514 Gangeria copper implements 443 M post-pliocene near Fatohganj 516 Ganges, boundary of Vindhyans on 87 )f Sabathu group 531 Delta .... 405 Kasauli beds .... 582 depression in 378, 400, Siwalik .... liv, 572 409, 411 784 1X1) MX. Gauges Delta, Mr. Fergusson's theory of formation . . 406 n discussion of changes in 408 peat of . . . .435 oscillations of . . . . 4-06 plain of, see Indo-Gangetic plain. river .... 165, 412 effect on Siwalik beds . 541 valley, former condition of, Ix, 393 Gangetic alluvium, possible extension of coal-measures beneath . . 185 Gangpur coal-field .... 208 Ganjal river 220 Gaujam 244 Gangta 256 Ganurgarh shales .... 84 Garangihill 184 Garhjat States 43 Garhwal, Lower Himalayas of . . 609 Garnets in gneiss of Singrauli . , 19 in Darjiling gneiss . . 614 Garo area, cretaceous series . . 690 numrnilitic rocks . . 695 Garo hills, . . . . x, 682 character of . . . 691 upper tertiaries . . .698 Garudamangalain . . . 270, 276 Gas issuing from mud volcanoes . 730 Gasteropoda of Utatur group . 273, 274 Trichiuopoly group . 278, 279 Arialur group . 283, 285 Gatparba, see Ghatprabha. Gauhuti, height above sea . . . 392 Gauli plateau 362 Gawelgarh, see Gawilgurh. Gawilgurh hills .... 224 Geelhoutboom, S. Africa . . . 146 Genera of Siwalik mammalia . . 577 extinct, Siwalik . . .579 recent, Siwalik . . .579 Geography, Physical, of India Geological age of Deccan traps . . 328 Geology of India, summary of . . xviii Gerar 13 Gerwa hill . . . ' . .195 Ghagnr river . . . .85, 90 (ihambar-Basauli fault, Sub-Himalayas 548, 560 Ghambar river .... 549, 600 Ghansura 37 PAGE Gli rial is (ja-ngeticus .... 580 Ghatprabha river . . 66, 68, 390 Ghidaur hills 36 Ghugiis 230 Giants' cauldrons .... 439 Gidalur 65 Gieumal sandstone .... 635 ofHazara . . 503 Gilgib 625 landslip in .... 516 Gir ' . 342 Girai . . . . . . 11 Giri river . . . 604, 607, 608 Glacial action in olive group, Punjab . 496 epoch, evidence of, in India, Ixx, 372, 586, 668 effect of, on Siwalik fauna .... 586 evidence in Tibet . . .669 origin of Talchir boulder bed, xxxvi, 110, 112, 229 Glaciers, former extension of, in Hima- layas 373 Glauconite, Deccan traps . 302, 305, 306 Glrii'Jicnid liindfabiindensis . 145, 151, 2-43 Globosi ammonites in cretaceous beds, Ixx, 273 Glossopteris 111, 114, 118, 119, 121, 130 Iromniana 115, 120, 121, 123 GHostouunites stoliczJcanns . . 114 Gnari-khorsurn 622 area, Central Himalayas, (MG Gneiss, Assam ... 4, 26, 684 Bundelkhand .... 10 composition of . 10 , accessory minerals in 16 main area, relations to newer rocks. . . 17 sub-divisions of . 18 Bengal area - . . . 18 of Bundelkhand and main amis contrasted . . . xviii, 19 Singbhoom area ... 21 Orissa area .... 22 Central Provinces ... 22 South Mahratta area . . 22 Southern Konkun ... 23 ., Xilgiris 25 Trichiuopoly and Arcot . 25 Peninsular, Assam valley . 522 INDEX. 785 Gneiss, of Himalayas . xix, xxvi, 596, 626 of Chor mountain ... 608 apparently overlying Damudas inSikkira .... 615 Himalayan of two ages . . 626 Central of Himalayas . xxvi, 627 terminal extensions of . 630 newer, of Central Himalayas . 633 ofRupshu .... 640 Central, Hundes . . .650 ofLadak .... 652 ofKuenlun .... 656 ofPmir . . . .657 Zanskar .... 664 ofPangi .... 664 of Pir Panjai .... 665 of Burma . . . .707 Gneissic axis of Himalaya . . . 624 range, Zanskar . . .630 Pir Panjai . . .631 Dhauladhar . . 632 Gneissic regions, three ... 3 rocks, main area . . . 4, 17 Bundelkhand area . 6 Arvali area . . 5, 27, 44 section of ... 6 classification of . . 9 series of Peninsula . . xviii, 1, 3 lower Himalayas . 596 Gneissoid beds in Bijawars . 30. 38 Goa 358 Goalpara, height above sea . . . 392 Goats, wild, of Indian mountains . 374 Godavari valley . 104, 124, 151, 200, 223 lower, Vindhyans of . 74 region of Gondwanas . . 223 barrier, third . . .233 district . . 245 alluvial flats of . . 383, 432 older alluvial deposits of . 388 alluvium, mammalian fossils . 389 agate flake . . . .389 Godda 166 Gogi 73, 74 Gogra river x Gokak 67, 390 Golaghat .... 27,683, 692 Golapilli 245 Golapilli beds .... 140, 147 Godavari district . 245 Gold, absent in Bandelkband qnartz-reefs 1 6 in South Mahratta gneiss . . 23 in Burma 708 Golden oolite of ChaVi group, Cutch . 255 Salt range, Punjab . 495 Gond countries 97 Gondwana, derivation of name . . 97 area on upper Tapti . . 220 areas on lower Narbada . 220 areas, surface of. . . 106 Gondwana basins, origin of, and relations to existing valleys, t xxix, xxx, 103, . 161 distribution . . 161 groups of . . . 162 ,, origin of different groups . . .163 basins of North-Eastern Ha- zaribagb, including Ear- harbari .... 174 Gondwana beds, relations to gneiss . 17 former existence of, on Chutia Nagpur plateau 164 changes in, to west- ward, in Oamnda val- ley . . . 193, 199 trap dykes in . . 328 Gondwana coast line . . xxix, xxxii epoch, climate of . . xxxv fauna and flora, relations of, xxxii Gondwana groups, lower . . . 109 ,, upper . . .135 table of. . 141 inliers near Ellichpur . . 224 west and north-west of Nagpur . . 225 Gondwana period, physical geography of ... ucxii region, Rajmahal . . 165 Birbhum, Deogarh and Karharbari . 171 Damuda valley . 177 Son, Mahauadi and Brahmani . . 199 Satpnra . . 213, 217 Godavari . . .223 East Coast . . 242 Gondwana system . . xxviii, 96 geological position and characters . 96- Zl 786 Gondw&na system, area occupied by, xxviii, fluviatile origin of, xxviii, geological relations of, xxviii, 99, ,, fossils, xxviii, xxxii, probable range of . supposed age of, xxviii, disturbance of, xxix, division into groups table of representa- tive groups . Gondw&ias preserved by covering of Deccaii trap . . xxx, ,. possible outliers in Narbada valley .... upper, in Eastern Sirguja . Godavari valley . of Sikkim .... Goniatites primas .... Gonioglyptus longirostris . Goona .... IND PAGE 97 98 100 100 102 102 104 107 108 164 216 207 236 615 492 132 300 212 203 167 176 21 42 50 629 650 13 21 25 34 38 629 668 726 342 666 305 Ixxiv 41 650 EX. Greenstone, Yangi pass Sarikol Kashmir . Burma Groups, Gondwana allied to Rajmahal of , Gujrat, see Guzerat Gulcheru quartzites MM . 657 . 658 . 663 . . 714 . 107 , correlation . 141 . 61, 62 559 ^ peak . . . Gumani river . 601 . 165, 167, 169 167 Gunchari 11 Gurda 208 Gurla mountain . . 646 246 Guti .... . 60, 63 Guzerat tertiary beds of alluvium of . Gwjidar Gwalior rocks transition area laterite . 222,339, 433 . 339 . 425 . 458, 470, 471 . 86, 88 . 8, 51, 55, 56 56 356 Gooty,see Gtiti. Gopalprasad . . . . . Gopat river ... 35, 80, Gopikandar Gowan Graphic granite .... Gva 36 (Ladak) 640 Gypseous shales of Cutch Gypsum salt range Kohat . . 345 . . . 486 508 Granite, Shillong series, Khasi hills, 40, in Arvali series of Himalayas . . . 627, Hundes. H Habb river . 458 Granite veins, Bundelkhand gneiss Bengal gneiss Trichinopoly and Arcot . near Jabalpur Behar transition rocks, 37, Granitic axis of Himalayas . . Gravels, high level, of Sub-Himalayas . older, Pegu .... valley Habiaug . ' . 461, 464 690 Haematite in Bijawars . in gneiss in Gwaliors . Haji Pir . . 30,34,35 . 13, 16, 19 59 566 416 Hala Pass . 448 range . Halatnan hill Hanle . vii, 446, 448 . 254, 256 626 644 Great limestone of Jamu Green-earth, Deccan traps . . 302, Greenough's geological map of India Greenstone, Shillong series . Hundes . Hard river . . 215, 217 . 384. aS Harda railway station, elevation . . 385 Hardwar 541 INDEX. 787 Haripur, Hazra 499 near Simla . . . 634, 603 Hasdo river 208 Hassan Abdal 501 Hatteria 154 Hutu 598, 604 Haurbagh 556 Hawkesbury beds, Australia . . 121 Hazara . 478, 479, 498, 505, 512, 618, 566 rock -groups of, xxv . . 483, 498 Hazaribagh. 127, 142, 174, 177, 187, 192, 196 gneiss and minerals . . 19 pegmatite veins . . 21 copper implements . . 443 stone implements . . 442 plateau . . iv, 18, 177 ,, Gondwanas of 106, 196 Heights above sea, Narbada valley . 385 Indo-Gangetic plain . . 391 Heinlap 718 Hengir group 128 Henjdag hill 192 Henzada 717, 727 Herbert's Survey of Himalaya . . 609 Heulandite in Deccan traps . . . 306 High-level laterite, 351, 354, 357, 359, 365 Hill nummulitic limestone of Northern Pnujab 511 Himalaya .... viii, 372, 373 Himalayan range, . . . viii, 518 and peninsular rocks con- trasted . . xii, xxvii, 618 and peninsular gneiss con- trasted . . . . xix triassic fauna, resemblance to Alpine . . . jlvii geological subregion . . Ixv and extra Himalayan beds, contrast of, in Punjab . 485 geology, scanty materials for 517 region . . . 518, 519 land in eocene times . . 569 exten- sion of .... 569 lake basins .... 570 river gorges in Siwalik times the same as now . . 570 PA OB Himalayan drainage lines . s .675 elevation, crest of . 630, 677 rivers, rise of, beyond snowy range .... 677 Himalayas, physical geography of . viii oldest rocks of . . . xxvi gneiss of .... xxvi origin of . Ivi, 667, 677, 680 structure of, Iviii 526, 667, 679 connexion of, with Indo- gangetic plain . . Ixii former extensions of glaciers in * 373 provisional limit of region . 518 geological map . . . 519 general features . . . 519 three main divisions . . 519 lower, definition of . . 519 Central or Tibetan, defini- tion of . . . 519, 592 middle and terminal . . 529 disturbance of late date, 533, 569 easternmost outlier of nuin- mulitic group in . . 534 elevation to eastward older than to westward . 564, 570 defined in middle tertiary times .... 570 extreme slowness of disturb- ing action . . . 570 elevation preceded compres- sion .... 571 origin of river systems . 676 connexion of Assam range with .... 685 Himalayas, central, data available . 622 classification of rocks . . .623 difference from low- er Himalayas . 624 uniformity of structure . . 624 gneissic axes, syn- clinals, &c. . . 624 position of tertiary formations . . 626 gneiss of two ages . 626 older gneiss . . 627 granitic axis . . 629 ' gneissic range . 630 788 INDEX. PAGK PAGH Himalayas, centi al, newer gneiss 633 Hinnalgar river . . . ' . 609 chief sedimentary Hippopotamus namadicus . - . 386 basins 633 ,, palaindicus . . 386, 402 Zanskar area . 635 Hippurites, Lokzhung range 654 > Hundes or Ng&ri- Hippuritic limestone, Sind . 448 Khorsum area . 646 Hiran river . ... 312 Karakoram area . 652 Hirapur 11 Kuenlun range 655 Hislopite ...... 305 Kashmir- Pangi Hissar 52 area . 658 Hoharu river 192 it n Pir Panjal chain . 665 Hornblende in gneiss . . . 10, 19 post-tertiary and re- Hoshangabad 69, 86, 91, 136, 138, cent formations 667 199, 215, 220, 303, 323 Siimmflrv 679 Hoshiarpur * 547 j Himalayas, lower, limits of . . . 519, 592 Hot-springs, Jamu .... 564 general features 593 Hothian Pass 452 boundaries of . 593 500 > > distribution and Hottapati sandstone . . .73, 74 structure of rocks . 593 Hundes . . . 622, 627, 630, 646 > terminal or Simla or Ngari-Khorsum area . 646 area 594. fossiliferous series of 617 classification of rocks 595 tertiary eruptive rocks of 650 correlation of groups 595 lake-basin .... 670 absence of fossils 595 Hundes-Zanskar synclinal . 625 > > .gueissic series , 596 Hura coal-field .... 167, 168 > the slate series 598 Hyderabad (Deccan) gneiss . 18 relations of slate and Hyperodapedon , . xxxiv, Ixx, 100, 135 gneissic series . . 601 Hypersthene, Hundes .... 650 special nietamorphism and disturbance . 605 I trappean rocks, 606, 610 Igneous rocks in transition series XX Chor mountain 607 Ikona 11 > South-east of Simla 608 Ilmenite in Bundelkhand gneiss . 16 Kumaun and Garh- in Singrauli gneiss 19 wal . 609 Implements, stone .... 440 Nepal . 611 prehistoric, stone . 441 > Sikhim . 612 copper, silver and bronze 443 j Damudas in . 615 iron .... 443 i Bhutan border 618 human, Narbada alluvium, 386, 441 j> Dikrang section 620 Godavari alluvium, 389, 441 > Summary ' . . 620 Krishna alluvium . 390 Hindia . . .31, 221, 385 in laterite of Madras, Hindon . . 51, 59 358, 369, 370, 441 Hindu Kush, ix 657 Inchapilly, see Yenchapali. Hindustan, geological sub-region . Ixv Indargarh 84 Hinganghat 228 Indhyadri hills iv Hingir 209 India and Africa land connexion be- coal-field . 208 tween, xxxv, xxxix, lii, Ixviii, Ixix Hinglaj 470 and Malay countries, land con- Hingoli, fossil bones found near . 389 nexion between . Ixviii INDEX. 789 luclia, north-western, palsearctic forms in .... Ixiv Indian area, survival of older types in . Ixx Lidian desert 436 sand hills of ... 437 derivation of sand . . 438 Indian geology, previous summaries of . Ixxii land shells, recent . . . Ixix mammals, Ethiopian affinities of Ixix peninsula, connexion of, with Oriental region . . . Ixiv ludo-gangetic alluvium, area and eleva- tion . . 391 not marine, Ix, 393 character of . 396 subdivisions . 396 denudation of 397 bore-holes in 397 fossils in . 402 Indo-gangetic plain . . ii, 372, 391 origin of . . IT connexion of with Himalayan ele- vation . . Ixii a land area in ter- tiary times . 393 surface features of 403 Indo-Malayan subregion . Ixv fauna allied to miocene of Europe. . . 582 Indrawati (Indravati) river . 76, 233, 237 Indus river . . . . . viii course of, through limestone hills between Rohri and Sukker .... 417 former changes in . . 418 floods 516 in Tibet . . 625,640, 667 Indus valley, subrecent marine condi- tions in ... 394 lower .... 417 sandhills ... 439 upper, tertiary rocks of . 626 Indus delta 419 depression in ... 379 Infra-Blaiui group . . . xxvi, 599 Infra- Krol group . . . xxvi, 600 Infra-trappean, or Lameta beds, . . 308 of Rajainnhendri . 316 PA OB Infra-triassic rocks, Hazara . . 501 lukolu 246 Inliers, palaeozoic, in sub- Himalayas . 562 Innaparaz-Kotapilly .... 244 Innaparazpolliam . . . 141, 244 Intertrappean beds . . . xlii, 307 of Nagpur, the Nar- bada valley, &c. . 311 lower, fossils of, 313, 314 of Rajamahendri . 317 of . ^ 318 upper, of Bombay . 319 fossils of 321 Irai .229 Irawadi valley . 372,707,724, 726 river . . . . xi, 705 delta 727 Irawadi and Siwalik faunas compared . 588 Irlaconda quartzites . . .61, 65 Iron implements, prehistoric . . 443 Iron in laterite .... 349, 350 Iron-clay ...... 351 Iron-ore, Dhaowara, Bundelkhand . 16 Salem 26 Bijawar . . .30, 34 Gwalior beds . . 57, 59 Raniganj . . . .181 Karanpura field . . . 194 Sub-Himalayas, Kumaun, &c . 543 Sub-Himalayas, Sangar Marg. 563 Burma .... 722 Ironstone in Raniganj group . . 182 Ironstone shales, Damuda . .115, 125 Raniganj field . . 181 Jharia field . . 186 Bokaro field . . 188 Ramgarh field . 191 South Karanpura field 192 Karanpura field . 194 Ironstone, clay, Assam coal-fields . 702 Isakhel .... 487, 491, 506 Islamabad 662 Islands in Bay of Bengal . . . 732 Itial 237 Itkuri coal-field ... It7 Jabalpur . 156, 199, 200, 214, 307, district, Bijawars of . 33 790 INDEX. Jabalpur flora, relations to Rajnoahal and Cutch floras . 147, 157, Jabalpur group South Rewah near Jabalpur . . . Stapura basin Godavari valley . . Jabalpur, Lameta fossils near railway station, elevation agate flakes found near . bronze implement . Jacobabad .... 417, 505, Jade in gneiss near Shahidula, Kuenlun . Jddukata river .... 687, Jaggampet JaintiNadi Jainti or Karaun field Jaintia Hills . . . x, 682, 692, upper tertiaries . Jaintiapur ...... Jaipur near Vizagapatam . highlands, gneiss of Jaipur, Assam ...... coal-field .... Jaldoka river . . . .613, Jailor Jalori ridge 598, Jakhmari 449, Jako 598, Jambugbora . . . .47, Jamkhandi . . ' . Jamtarra Jamni river Jamu hills, Sirmur boundary in . area of Sub-Himalayas inliers of palaeozoic rocks characters of Subathu group Sub-Himalayas compared with Simla section Jamulmadgu group . . . 70, Jamuni . . . Jamuni river Jangaon Jangti river Janji river . Jarra . J&hk . . 155, 234, 236, 158 156 203 214 219 238 310 385 442 443 513 19 656 690 245 174 173 696 698 698 355 18 701 701 545 619 54 602 450 605 48 66 173 11 560 554 560 562 562 564 71 12 187 237 618 701 254 470 Jashpur 356 Jasol 54 Jasper in transition rocks, 28, 33, 35, 45 in Gwalior beds ... 57 in Deccan traps . . . 305 Jaunsar 608 Jatinga river 699 Jerruck, see Jhirak. Jesalmir . . .54, 263, 347, 437, 439 limestones .... 264 Jesalmir, nummulitic limestone of . 347 Jet-coa], Jabalpur group, 156, 204, 215, 238 Jewargi 73 Jhaban 47, 48 JhalraPatan 91 Jhand 515 J ban si, gulena from . . . . 16 Jharia coal-field 185 Jhelum river, viii, 478, 485, 554, 560, 566 tertiary boundaries near 566, 567 valley . ... . .509 upper valley of ... 658 Jherria, see Jharia. Jhilmilli 203 coal-field . . . 109, 204 Jhils of Ganges delta . . . .406 Jhirak . . . 451,457,461, 469 Jhiri shales 84 Jilladypad 244 Jobat, Bijawars of .... 45 Jodhpur ... 53, 54, 93, 437 Johila river 203 Jorhat 700 Jualamuki, inflammable gas at . . 549 Jubbulpore, see Jabalpur. Juggiapet 60, 72 Julozai 500 Jumera Pat .... 300, 355 Jummoo, see Jamu. Jumna river, mammalian bones found in 402 course of . . . 41 2 effect on Siwaliks . . 541 Jumna-Ganges area, Sub-Himalayan beds .... 541 Jura hill .... 254, 256 Jurassic coast lines, xxix, xxxii, xxxvii, xlix marine beds, East Coast, xxxvii, 148, 149, 244, 250 age of Upper Goudwdnas . 103 INDEX. 791 Jurassic rocks, extra-peninsular . ofCutch . xxzvii, sub-divisions correlation with European Jurassics Upper, of Cutch . in Indian desert xxxvii, in Northern Kattywar . Salt Range, Punjab . west of Indus of Hazara, &c. fossils, Zanskar area rocks north of Nepal rocks and fossils, Niti . fossils, Milam pass v\(.:v xlviii 251 252 253 259 263 265 495 495 502 635 646 647 649 601 viii 355 60 47 493 514 539 485 iv 205 82 84 78 234 38 608 256 515 487 495 311 65 67 355 20 41 413 Kalawala pass PASS 542 355 14 184 547 548 490 205 695 319 720 175 75 240 598 note 226 128 206 208 210 212 224 225 226 226 227 231 240 241 603 247 241 172 172 240 632 547 554 557 559 669 215 201 note 381 Kaliani Kalingar Kalipur .... Kalka .... 536, 538, Kalka dun .... Kallar kahar Kaltanghat hill Kalu river . . .691, 692, Kama Kamaljor hill ^ see Khamamet. Kamaram coal-field .... Kamarsen bridge .... Kamatkighat . . . .304, Kamthi .... 225 Jyntia or Jyntea, see Jaintia. K Kabul river , Each and Kachb, see Cutch. Kadapah 72 Kamthi group . . . 104,116, Bisrampur field Korba field . Eaigarh-Hingir field Talchir field . near Ellichpur . west and north-west of Nagpur of Kamthi area Bandar field . near Khair and Arjuna . Wardha or Chanda field . Godavari valley . 235, Kamaram field Kandah ghat Kadapah formation ... 8, Kudwal Kafirkot, triassic bed near . Kafirkot hills, 478, 486, 487, 491, 495, Kairda dun 536, Kuiimir range ..... scarp . . 78,80,86, sandstone .... beds Kandakur Kandikonda taluk .... Kandit Kairah . . . . Kandit Kurayah coal-field . Kanigiri hill .... 239, Kakarhatti Kalabagh . . . 490,495,496, salt marl near coal near .... Kaladghi area, transition rocks . beds, thickness and sub-divi- sions Kalahandi Kangra area of Sub-Himalayas . difficulty of classing Sub- Himalayas in . . want of fossils in Sub- Himalayas . ,, north- western termination high level gravels of Kanhan river .... 128, Kalapahar Kalapaui river Kalar Kanheri caves .... 304, Kankar . ' . 792 INDEX. PAGE note 599 258 23 473 671 623 626 652 653 654 655 356 192 191 191 52 173 464 171 Karharbari group, 112, 175. 180, 217, note ,, relation toTalchirs 113 114 174 709 673 643 44 52 Karibari ...... 697 341 60 381 69 69 70 312 123 639 227 179 Kankar, analyses of ... 382, Kanoj ...... Kantkot sandstone .... Kappatgudd hills, gold in . . . Karachi . . .464, 470, 471, Karakfish river . . . 654, 656, Karakoraui ..... synclinal .... area ..... basin, eastern section . section .... stones .... Karakpur (Khargpur) hills . 36, 38, Karaupura ..... coal-fields .... South, coal-field . . Karauli ..... 61, Karaun coal-field .... Karchat . '. . . . 458, Karharbari, Gondwana region . . palaeontology . coal-field . . . . Karen-ni ..... 708, Karewa deposits, Kashmir . . . Kargil . . 626,635,639,641, Kariana ...... flexible sandstone of . Karjan ...... Karnatic ...... Karnul ... 60, 62, 69, area of Lower Vindhyans . Karnul formation ... 8, subdivisions and thickness Karo river ..... Karoo series of South Africa . 122, Kartse ...... Kasara ...... Kasta ...... Kasauli ridge ..... 532 beds Kashmir plant fossils in oldest rocks of synclinal triassic rocks of . rock groups of carboniferous rocks of 524, 530 . 532 623, 658 xxv . 626 . 659 659 Kashmir, trappean rocks of silurian rocks of . glacial evidence in . . lake-basin .... Kashmir- Paugi area, Central Himalayas Kashmor, height above sea . Karambar rings .... 370, Kateru 316, Kathmandu . . . 543, 611, section, lower Himalayas . Katikela Katkona Katrol group . . .141, 159, fossils of ... Kattywar, Jurassic beds in . traps of . . 300, 304, tertiary beds of . . raised bed of oysters in alluvium of ... coast deposits of littoral concrete blown sand of Kaveri, alluvial flats . . . 383, Kaveri, see Cauvery. Kaumapying Kaurangyi ...... Kauray Kautairoo, see Kateru Kawarsa Keantali 712, Kelat . . . 447,448,456, section of rocks near . Kelloway beds of Cutch Kelod Ken river . . . .81, 83, 86, Bijawars of . Kerauli Keryli Khddar Khadi Khair, Gondwana outliers near . Khairi Murat Kharaamet Khamapnr . Khandesh . Kharagdiha Kharbu Kharian ridge Kharir Khasi hills . . 484,505, 327, 378, 383, 385, . 174, . 641, 251, 254, 256, 343, x, 40, 682, PAGH 662 662 668 672 444 317 675 611 22 207 258 258 265 328 341 377 426 426 427 435 433 719 721 270 717 458 455 255 225 87 404 548 227 510 241 176 645 568 345 687 INDEX. 793 Khasi hills, cretaceous beds, relations to Southern Indian rocks . 291 cretaceous series . . 687 fossils from . 688 nummulitic series . . 693 upper tertiariea . . 698 Khdrgpur hills 173 Khettapaui 220 Khewra salt mines .... 486 Khirthar range . vii, 446, 457, 460, 464, 466, 469 Khirthar group . . . . I 456 Kholas of Nepal 674 Khozdar 455 Khulna 400 Khundair valley . . 60, 70, 71, 72 group . . . .70, 71 Khunmu 661 Khurreer, see Kharir Khyrasol 184 Khyrpur 417 Kiagar lake 640 Kilar 664 Kilian ridge 655 Kim river 340, 341 Kimamli 341 Kimmeridge beds of Cutch . . 258 Kinchinjunga . . . x, 614 Kinerswami stream . . . 235, 239 Kira hill .... 254, 255, 256 Kirlumpudi 244 Kirwi . . . 11,81,83, 442 Kishenganga river . . . 478, 666 Kisiljilga 654 Kistwar 631, 664 Kitchen-middens, Andaman Islands . 733 Kiuin 653 Kiwaz 656 Koari Bet 254 Koda Dongri 226 Koel river ...... 36 Kohat . . 478, 503, 504, 513, 514 district, eocene rocks of . . 507 section of beds . . 508 Koil river 197 Koilkuntla limestones . . .70, 72 Koladyne river 705 Kolamale hills iv Kolumnullah slates . . .61, 65 Koukan 327 Konkan, gneiss of Southern . . lateriteof . . 357,368, denudation of ... Kon khas ...... Konjirihill ..... Koonap beds of South Africa . . Kopili river ..... Kopilas hill ..... Korana hills . . .52, Korba ...... coal-field ..... Korea ...... Korhadi . ..... Kori creek ..... 418, Kosari fault, Sub- Himalayas . . Kosi river ...... Kota (Singrauli) ..... (Sironcha) . . . 151, limestones ..... Kota-Maleri beds . . 100, 102, Wardha field . . . Godavari valley . . Kota-Maleri fossils .... contradictory evi- dence of, 100 . Kotgarh ...... Kotkhai ...... Kotleh ...... Kotli ... . . . 562, Kotri . . . 300, 451, 452, 457, height above sea ... Krishna river .... 238, alluvium of . . 383, 389, mammalian fossils in stone implements in . 61, 65, . 533, 599, .xxvi, assigned to trias . . ,, to carboniferous fossils doubtful . . Krol limestone near Simla . . . Krishna group Krol hill . group Kumaun representative of, in Nepal Krur Kuchri .... Kudia stream Kudnnwara, steatite quarried at Kueuluu ix, 377. 378 80 213 123 692 355 481 125 207 202 226 419 236 152 151 232 236 152 155 602 604 549 568 469 392 246 433 390 390 72 600 601 595 596 609 609 611 664 264 181 15 623 794 INDEX. PAGE Kuenlun axis 626 range, sections of . . 655 lake basin . . .671 Kukurkhadi stream .... 217 Kulam, see Quilon. Kuling series 638 Kulu 630, 631 Kumaun, lower Himalayas of . . 609 Sub-Himalayas of . . 543 iron ores of ... 543 Kummummeet, see Khamamet. Kund-Kaplas mountain . . 565, 632 Kungirpura ..... 11 Kunkur, see Kankar. Kunzum pass 631 Kupputgode hills . . . . 355 Kurali hill 327 Kurat 83 Kiirg stone implements . . . 442 iron implements . . . 444 Kuri 639 Kurkut river 208 Kurram river .... 478, 491 Kurreer, see Kharir. Kurrukpoor, see Karakpnr and Khdrg- pur. Kurseong 614 Kushalgarh, mammalian fossils from 514, 576 Kusukunuhal ..... 74 Kutkheri . ... 225 Kutto-jo-Kabar 456 Kutunji -81 Kyanite in Bundelkhand gneiss . . 16 in Darjiling gneiss . . . 614 in Hundes gneiss . . . 650 Kymore, see Kaimur. Kyouk-phyu 730 Labyrinthodont from Mangli . . 129 Laccadive islands, depression of . . 376 Ladak range ix gneissic axis, 625, 626, 627, 633 eocene basin of . . 634, 643 gneiss 652 Ladera 56, 94 Lahore, height above sea ... 392 Lahul ... 658 PAGB Lairaugau 694 Laisophlang 688 Lake basin, Kuenlun and Lingzithang . 671 Hundes . . . .670 Tso moriri . . . 671 of Kashmir . . .672 of Nepal .... 674 Lake deposits . ... 427 Lakes, Himalayan and Alpine com- pared . .... 675 Lakes of Naini Tal and Sikkirn . 675 Lakhaupur coal-field .... 206 Lakhimpnr . . . . . . 546 Lakh pat . . . 260, 267, 345, 346 Laki hills, 451, 452, 457 461, 464, 467 . ... 469 cretaceous beds of . . 448 Lakiserai 38 Lalatpur 11, 12 Lnlsot 50 Laniayuru . . . . . . 641 LamellibrancMata Utatur group . 273, 275 Trichinopoly group 278, 279 Arialur group 283, 285 Lameta Ghat .... 215, 307 coal at ... 215 Lameta group 308 resemblance to Bagh beds 309 relations to older form- ations ... 309 distribution . . 310 fossils of ... 310 Land, eocene, distribution of . . Hi shells, recent affinities of . . Ixix Landour ...... 609 Langpar . . . . . .688 Lapri ridge 562 Laterite xlv, 348 composition .... 349 analysis of ... 349, note tubes in . . . . 350, 367 varieties, high level aud low- level 351 passage into lithomarge . . 353 ;, re-consolidation of . . . 354 infertility of . . . . 354 high level, distribution, &c. . 354 Rajmahal hills . . .356 INDEX. 795 Laterite, Surat tertiary beds . 340, 366 high level, once perhaps a con- tinuous bed . . . . 357 low -level, distribution, &c. . 357 west coast . . . .357 east coast .... 358 quartzite, implements in . . 358 high level, theories of origin 359, 365 geological age . 364 possible derivation from scoriae, &c. 365 connexion of high level with lower tertiary laterite of Gu- zerat 366 low-level, origin of . . 368 age of . . .369 older than Karam- bar rings . . 870 in Khirthar group, Sind . 457 in Sabathu group, Sub- Hima- layas 563 Burma 726 Lead uiiues, Nuudialuiupet ... 64 Burma . . . .708 Lehti river 617 Lenya river 712 Lepidolite in gneiss .... 19 Lepidotus 154 Lencopyrite in gneiss .... 19 Level, subrecent changes of . . . Ixxi Lian glen 686 Lias fossils, Zanskar area . . .636 Liassic affinities, Eajmahal group . 145 Lidar valley, Kashmir . . 660, 662 Lignite sandstone of Nahan group . 536 Lhowa stream . . . .711. 716 Lilang series .... 637, 612 Limestone in gneiss . . 19, 23, 24 in Bijawars, 29, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, . . . . 45 in Arvali beds ... 50 in Gwalior beds . . 57, 59 inKadapahbeds. 62,63, fi4 in Kaladgi beds ... 67 in Karnul beds . 70, 71, 72 inBhimabeds . . 73, 74 in lower Vindhyans, 75, 76, 78, 80, 81, 82, 83 in upper Vindhyans, 84, 85, 89 PAGH Limestone in Rauiganj coal-field. . 183 in cretaceous beds . 270, 276 of Bagh . . . .293 in Lameta group . . 309 in Blaini group . . . 600 in Krol group . 601 Great, of Jamu . . . 666 Limits of area, described ii Lingua 235 Liugzithang .... 654, 671 lake basin . . . 671 List of European formations . . Ixxv Lithomarge .....* 354 Littoral concrete .... 426 Arakan Coast . . 729 Lodai 254, 260 Lohardagga .... 197, 198 Lokapur 68 Lokartalai . 136, 137, 214, 215, 219, 220 Lokzhung range .... 654, 671 Lonar lake 379 origin of . . . . 380 Lorot 597 Low level laterite . 352, 357, 368, 369 Lower Himalayas, definition of . . 519 limits of . . . 592 Simla region . . xxvi see Himalayas. Ludiana, height above sea . . . 392 Lugii hill 188, 189 Lumki hill 175 Luni river . . .54, 395, 437, 438 Lunkar-la 653 Lunsu 549 Lushai hills 698 Lynyan 452 M Machu river 619 MacrocepAali ammonites in Cutch jurassics . 263 in cretaceous beds . 278, 284 Macrotaniopteris . . . 118, 145 Madaghir hill .... 164, 196 Madanpur gorge, trap in . . 16 Madapur 236 Madavaram 238 coal-field . 239 79ti INDEX. vi, 136, 107, 108, Maderapaucnm Madras . . . 149,247,336, stone implements in laterite near . . 358, 369, 370, raised shell bed near . 377, boring at . Madupur jungle .... 407, Magar Pir Magnesian sandstone group, Salt Range Magnesite, Salem .... Magnetite in gneiss .... Salem .... in Deccan trap ... Mahabar hills . . .36, 37, Mahableshwar . . . v, 327, Mahadayi ravine Mahadeo, Assam hills .... Mahddeva beds, thickness . fossils hills . series . Mahadev&s, Raniganj field . Bokaro field South Karanpura field Karanpura field . near Latiahar . South Rewah Jhilmilli field . Bisrampur field . Chntia Nagpur . Korba field Talchir field . Satpnra basin . near Barwai Deva river, Rajpipla . near Ellichpur . Mahammad bazar .... Mahanadi Gondwana region river, Orissa . 199, 213, valley, Orissa . . 163, 211, gneiss of . lower Vindhyans of . Talchir outliers in . Mahanadi river, Sikkim . Siwaliks in . Maharajpnr Maher hills Mahim Mahindraganj PJLGB 370 423 441 424 423 408 464 489 26 19 26 305 38 354 362 688 136 136 216 135 184 189 192 195 198 203 205 206 207 208 213 219 221 224 171 199 243 213 22 74 211 614 545 95 36 427 Mahratta Country, Southern, traps of 312, 313, 324 laterite of 354, 355, 364 lake de- posits . 427 Mahratta, South, gneiss area , . 22 transition area . . 65 Mahsud Waziri country, metamorphics Mahtin . ..... Mahton stream ..... Mahuagiri hill . . . 167, 169, Mai-i ...... 711,712, Mai-i group . . Mailan Pat ...... Mailag ..... 548, Main area, gneissic rocks . xviii, 4, Main boundary between Siwalik and Sirmur series, 539, 547, representation of, in Hazara ... Main gneissic area, sub-divisions . . Main Pat .. . 207,308,313,355, Mainpuri, copper implements found near ...... Maisur, iron implements gneiss .... 23, plateau ..... gneiss of ... Makran ...... coast, submarine cliff along . Makran group .... lir, Makrach Makum coal-field .... Malabar coast, gneiss of ... sand dunes of iron implements . sub-region, zoological . Malabar hill, Bombay .... Malagarhhill Malani 53, beds Malay Archipelago, volcanic band of 725, Malay countries, connexion of, with India Malayan fauna allied to European iciocene Maldive islands, depression of . 164 716 356 718 711 163 553 17 552 567 18 363 443 444 24 v 18 456 Ixxi 470 494 701 17 435 444 Ixv 320 232 264 53 732 Ixviii 376 INDEX. 797 PAG1 Maledi, see Maleri. Maleri .... 151,236, 237 beds 100 Malkapur, elevation of ... 388 Malwa . . . . '. 69, 363 escarpment .... 377 traps of 303 Malwan .... 17,427, 358 Mamlu 686 Mammalia, Siwalik, homotaxis of liv, 576 genera of . . 577 Mammals, fossil, Tibet. . ' . .651 Indian, Ethiopian affinities of Ixix Oriental, Ethiopian affinities of ... Ixvi Palaearctic affinities of ... Ixvi Mammalian faunas, recent, poverty of . ' 586 fossils, Narbada . . 385 Indo-Gangetic alluvium . . 402 Perim Island . . 343 tertiary fauna . . . 572 Man Ghat 601 Manair river 236 Manasaraur (Manasarowar) Lake, 622, 646, 650 Manasbal lake .... 660, 663 Manbhum 174 transition rocks ... 43 Manchhar beds, connexion with Siwaliks Iv, 5S1 Manchar group .... 1, 466 sub-divisions . . 466 ,. estuarine beds in . 468 ,. relations to Makran group . . . 470 Palseontology, Iv, 471, 581 age of . Iv, 473, 581 Manchhar lake . . 417,457,466, 469 Maud river . . ' . . 208, 209 Mandan group 49 Mandar hill, Bhagalpur ... 21 Mandera 608 Mandi 557 rock salt . . 558 Mandla plateau . . .18, 202, 363 Mandlaisur, see Mandlesir. Mandlesir ...... 267 Mandogarh and Mandoo, see Mandu. Mandu 293, Mandvi Mangali, see Maagli. Manganese in laterite .... Mangli beds . . .117, 129, Mangrad river Manhiari 167, Mankipur Mansuri . . . 542,595,600, Maranra .... 11,12, Maravattur ..... Marbalpass . Marble rocks near Jabalpur Marcha valley Margalla hills . . . 478,485, Margan pass ..... Man and Bhugti hills . vii, 479, 480, 505, Marine beds, absence of, in Indo-Gan- getic plain . Ixi, Marine beds of peninsula . equivalents of fossils, rarity of, in peninsula Jurassic rocks, distribution of ,. origin of Sahyadri scarps . Markanda river ..... Marl, salt, of Salt Range, Punjab . Marpamaudi range .... Martaban . . . 704,707,709, Marun ...... Mascarene islands, birds of . Masimik pass Mastodon pandionis .... Matabangah, oscillations of Matepenai bill Matberanhill . . . 320,355, Matiani Man, quartz reef at .... Maubilarkar .... 689, Mandihhill Maulmain . . . 41,42, Manphlong Mausmai Mayo salt mines Mazagaon . Mechi river Medulea stream PAGE 294 346 350 231 548 168 48 609 16 273 662 34 641 498 503 664 513 393 250 377 537 486 24 736 562 Ixviii 653 390 406 327 365 604 14 690 195 705 709 689 688 486 613 212 798 INDEX. PAGE Meerut, height above sea . . .392 Megalosaurus in cretaceous beds, Ixx, 280, 284, Megna river 407 Mekalgandi ghat, section of traps and sedimentary beds .... 313 Membu, mud volcanoes of . . . 729 Mergui 705, 709 archipelago . . . 709, 732 group ..... 708 Mesozoic rocks, extra-peninsular . . xlvi of Punjab Salt-Range . 493 Northern Punjab . 498 series of Zanskar . . 641 Metamorphic series . . xviii, 1, 3 areas ... 4, 5 rocks, classification of . 9 of Bundel k h a n d xviii, 10 main area . 17 Arvali area . 27, 48 Mahsud Waziri country . . 486 Hazara . . 498 ofRupshu . . 640 Niti . . .649 Metamorphism special, in Lower Hima- layas 605 Mhar 345 Mianjani 499 Mica in gneiss . . . .10, 19 Micaceous iron in gneiss ... 19 Micropholis stowii . . . 123, 131 Middle Himalayas . . . 520, 529 Middle Sub-Himalayan region . . 528 Midnapur . . . 184,335, 435 Migration of tertiary mammalia . . 584 Mikir area, cretaceous series . . 692 Mikir hills 682 Miliolite of Kattywar , . . .342 Millstones of gneiss .... 16 Minerals in Bundelkhand gneiss . 10, 11, 12, 13, 16 in Hazaribagh gneiss . . 19 in Singrauli gneiss . . 19 in Deccan trap . . . 340 Minet-toung ..... 720 Miocene beds of Sind . . 447, 463, 466 Central Europe , . 582 Pegu . . .719 flora of Greenland, &c. . . 585 Miocene forms, survival of, in Sewalik beds 582 in Indo-Malayan and Ethiopean faunas, 582, 584 fossils, Arakan . . . 720 Mirampura 692 Mir kulan hills 499 ..pass 484 Mirwania ...... 48 Mirzapur district, Bijawars of . 35 gneiss 19 Mochpura mountains .... 502 Mochu river 619 Mohangarh . . . . . 11 Mohani 196 Mohankot 451 Mohar 95 Moirahill 356 Molasse, resemblance to Siwalik sand- stone 524 Molim granite 42 Mollusca, fossil, Narbada alluvium . 384 Siwalik . . . .576 Momein 708, 725 Monghyr 142, 17* Monze, Cape, rise of land at . . 377 Mooltan, height above sea . . . 392 Mopani .... 217, 218, 384 coal at 218 Moraines, ancient, Hundes . . 652, 670 in Sikkim and Nepal . . 373 in Naga hills , . .373 Mor river 172 Moran river .... 137, 219 Morang river . . . . . 165 Morar 58 group 57 Morel river .... 165, 170 Morhar river 198 Moriri lake .... 640, 671 Mortaka 32, 84 Morung 404 Motur 217 beds, Satpura basin . . .218 group . . . .115, 127 Moulmein, see Maulmain. Mountain formation, De Beaumont'g theory . . .634, 667 Mountain ranges of Peninsula . . iii of extra peninsular area . . . vii, Ivii INDEX. 799 Mountain ranges of Sind and Western Punjab . vii of Himalaya . viii of Burma . . x of Peninsula, origin of ... xx extra-peninsular, di- rection of . . Ivii Mountain structure, one-sidedness of . 667 Mountains of India, fauna and flora of 374 Mud volcanoes of Ramri, &e. . . 729 difference of, from true volcanoes . . . 730 Mucluwal 73 Mtihair, see Maher. Mulakhel 490, 495 Mulgouh, quartz reef at ... 13 Mungi . . ... . .389 Mnnny Male* 24 Murdan 500 Murree, Punjab, 478, 483, 485, 502, 503, 511 beds 511, 513 hills, Punjab . . 498, 505, 512 rocks of 510 Murshidabad 406 Murtazapur, elevation . . . 388 Muscat, depression near . . . Ixxii Muschelkalk 122 Muscovite in gneiss .... 19 Mussooree, see Mansuri. Mustagh range . . . . ix, 657 Muth 639, 643 series 638 Muzafirabad . . . 478, 485, 566 Myanoung .... 717, 726, 727 Myit-ma-kha khyoung . . . 727 Myriolepis 120 Mysore, see Maisur. Nadaun dun 549 Naga hills . . . x, 683, 696, 699 coal-fields of ... 699 Nagar Parkar 64 Nagari Nose ... 60 quartzites . . .61, 62 Naggery river 248 NSgpur, 128, 223, 225, 299, 311, 355, 432 Nagpur, agate flakes found near . . 442 FAOB Nagpur iron implements . . . 444 intertrappean beda of .311 gneiss . . . . 22 Gondwana iuliers west and north-west of ... 225 Nagode 89 Nahun 536, 547 area, Siwaliks . . . 535, 539 iron ore near .... 543 Nahun group . . 524, 536, 540, 552 relations to Manchhar beds of Sind ..." % 582 Nahun-Sirmnr boundary . . 552,* 539 Nahun-Siwalik boundary . . .537 extinction of . 550 Naina Devi ridge . . . 550, 551 Naini Tal . . . . 543, 595, 609 asserted occurrence of Num- mnlites near ... 609 metamorphic rocks near . 610 eruptive rocks of . . 610 lakes 675 Nal 420, 426 Nalagarh .... 548,549, 650, 553 Nalamale* range . . . . iv, 60 group . . . .61, 64 Naldera 599, 603 Nalwar ...... 73 Nam dang river 702 Nambar river 692 Nancowry 735 NandaDevi x Nandial shales . . . .70, 72 Nanowal 550 Naogaon 234 Noshera, Salt Range . . . 493, 495 Naosir 264 Nara, eastern, of Sind . . 416, 419 Naraj 243, 244 Narbada Bijawar area ... 32 Gondwana areas on lower . 220 Narbada valley . 5, 31, 45, 86, 91, 202, 214, 216, 220, 267, 293, 383 cretaceous beds, rela- tions to Trichinopoly beds . . .291 cretaceous beds of . 293 traps of . . 303, 328 intertrappean beds of . 311 800 INDEX. PAGE Narbada, alluvial plain of . . 383 old alluvium of ... 384 fossils of . . .385 stone implement in . . 386 of fluviatile origin . . 387 fauna compared to Sewalik 587 Narccndam ..... 735 Narganjo 166 Narh mountain 568 Narha 224, 259 beds 159 Nari group, represented ia Punjab . 504 .... 1, 459 Narji limestones . . .70, 71 Narkanda 604, 606 Narnaveram river .... 248 Narsingpur .... 136, 215 district .... 32 railway station, elevation . 385 Narukot 48 Narwar ...... 95 Naspur 234 Natrolite, Rajmahal traps . 170 Naushera fault 568 Nautilus danicus . . 281, 283, 287 neocomiensis .... 272 Nazira coal-field .... 701 Nearctic region . . . . . Ixiv Neerauch, see Niniach. Negrais, Cape . . . 705, 713, 717 rocks 713 in Andaman islands . 733 Neocomian beds of Cutch . . .266 relations to jurassics . 252 Chichali pass, Punjab . 496 Neocomians, supposed, of Pondicherry . 272 Neolithic stone implements . . 442 Neotropical region .... Ixiv Nepal area of Sub-Himalayas . . 543 region, lower H imalayas . . 593 lower Himalayas of . . .611 valley, lake basin . . . 674 Nerbudda, see Narbada. Neirta schmedeliana .... 459 Neuropteris valida . , . .114 Newbold's summary of the Geology of Southern India .... Ixxii Newcastle beds, Australia . . .120 Nezatash pass 658 Ngari-Khorsum 646 Nga-pu-tau 727 Nga-tha-mu 721 Nibhora 217 Nicobar Islands 734 Nilabgash 503, 512 Nilawan ravine .... 490, 497 Nilgiri bills, Southern India, 356, 374, 427, 434 gneiss of . . 18, 24, 25 ,. iron implements . . . 444 Nimach . . . . . 69 NimbuaTanr 611 Ninnyur .... 282, 283, 287 uppermost Arialur (cretaceous) beds of 287 Xithablr 51 beds 50 Nitipass ...... 628 in Hundes, stratigraphical series of 647 Noeggerathia hislopi . Ill, 115, 118 Nokrek 691 Nongkulang . . . . . 698 Normal flexures in Sub-Himalayas . 527 Northern India, plain of ... 410 North-West Provinces . . 391, 410 Nowagarh-Karial plateau . . 75, 77 sandstone ... 76 Nowanagar . . . . . 203 Nowgong (Bundelkhand) 11, 13, 14 (Assam) .... 692 Nowroji hill, Bombay . . .321 Nowshera 500 Nubra river ..... 653 Nullaymullay, see Nalamale. Nummulites garansensis , . 460, 462 sublcevigata . . 460, 462 Nummulites in Surat tertiaries . . 340 in Subathu group . 525, 531 in Ladak tertiary beds . 643 doubtful, of Singhi pass . 644 asserted occurrence of, near Naini Tal . . 609 Nummulitics ..... 1 Nummulitic Sea, coasts of . . . lii Nummulitics of Cutch . . . 345 Jesalmir . . . 347. Nummulitic limestone, Sind . 457, 460 Wari and Bhugti hills . . 505 INDEX. 801 PAGB Nummulitic limestone, Suleman range . 505 Salt Range . 506 Kohat . . 509 Northern Potwar and Murree hills 509 hills of Northern Punjab . . 511 Nuinmulitics (Subathu group) eastern- most outlier in Hima- layas . . . 534 former extension of, along base of Himalayas . 535 in Jamu . . . 561 Garo area . . .695 Khasi hills . . .693 Eastern extension of, in Assam range . . 696 Burma .... 715 Nun river, Sub-Himalayas . . . 542 Nundialumpet 64 Nundrukki 509 N&rpur 549, 577 O Obolus, Salt Range ... .488 Odium 273 Ohun river 91 Olapaudy 272 Oligoclase in gneiss . . .10, 19 Olive group, Punjab Salt Range . . 496 Olivine, Rajmahal traps . . . 170 Deccan traps . . . 802, 305 Oman, Gulf of, depression in . . Ixxii Omar river 215 Oug river 213 Ongole 140, 148 Gondwana beds near . . 246 Oodeypoor, see Udepur. Oolitic rocks of Cutch . . . .251 ofNiti 647 Oomia, see Uuiia * .... 99 Ootatoor, see Utatur. Opal pad plateau 63 Orlitoides dispanta . . . 340, 459 O.papyracea .... 461, 462 Orchha 13, J5, 16 Oriental region ..... Ixiv subregions . Ixv ,, mammals, families of . . Ixvi Ethiopian affinities of Ixvi Origin of Gondwana basins . . 103 Orissa gneiss area old shore lines . raised shell beds in . sandhills stone implements . . Ormara Orthoclase in gneiss Ossiferous beds of Perim island . Ostrea multicostata . . 464, Otozamites gracilis Oudh Ouli River . Outliers of Upper Vindhyans Owk, see Auk. Oxford beds of Cutch . Oxus river . 10, 391, 255, Pabar valley Pabbi ridge Pachamal6 hil Pachham . . 597, . 251, 254, 256, 343, group .... fossils . . 253, Pachrnari group .... 136, hills . . vi, 135, 216, Pacbumba copper implements Pachwara coal-field .... pass .... 167, PachypJiyllum divarication Pachygonia incurvata Padam Padwani Pagan Pagoda hill, Cheduba .... Pahari Pain river, Jamu .... Paisuni river Pakhal tank 234, Pakli valley, Hazara .... Palsearctic mammalian families in Ori- ental region region Palseo-botanical evidence . Palaeolithic implements 369, 370, 386, 390, Palceoniscus ..... Palaeontology, Gondwanas . A 2 PAGB 128 22 377 377 435 441 470 19 342 469 157 435 213 92 258 657 598 568 iv. 345 254 254 127 219 218 443 167 169 159 132 639 327 725 730 11 562 91 75 240 498 Ixvii Ixiv 101 441 120 100 802 INDEX. PAGH Palaeontology, Talchirs . . .111 ^ Karharba'ri group . . 114 jP\ * Dainuda series . . 116 _ Panchet group . . 132 "^*^ i - >, - Rajinahal group . . 142 Kota-Maleri group . 152 Jabalpur group . . 157 TJmia group . . . 159 TJtatur group . . 272 Narbada alluvium . 385 Sind cretaceous beds . 449 Ranikot group . . 452 Khirthar group . . 458 Nari group . . . 461 Gaj group ... 465 Mancbhar group . . 471 Punjab Siwaliks . . 514 Palceovittaria 118 Palceozamia africana .... 147 rubidgei .... 147 Palaeozoic inliers in Sub-Himalayas . 562 relations of tertiary, to palaeozoic rocks in . 563 Palaeozoic rocks, Salt Range . xxiv, 485 Northern Punjab . 498 converted into gneiss in Himalayas . . 626 Zanskar series . . 638 altered, of Rupsbu . 640 Kashmir . . .661 Palamaun (Palamow) . 196, 197, 328 unsurveyed coal fields in . 198 Palar river .... 247, 433 river near Simla . . .608 Palghat gap .... 18, 378 Pali 11 Palissya 129 P. conferta 155 P. jdbalpurensis .... 154, 157 Paljor river Palkoa Palnad . . . 60,65,70, limestone .... Palni hills . v, Palmlina deccanensis .... Palumpet slates . . . .61, Paluncha .... 233, 213 81 72 72 18 310 61 240 Pamir section 657 Panar river . . 268, 269, 283, 433 Panchbhadra . 54 PAGH Panchbhadra, salt at . . . .395 Pauchet hill .... 183, 184 group .... 107, 131 Raniganj field . . 183 Bokaro field . . .189 Karanpura field . . 195 ., thickness . . .132 fossils . . .132 Panchets, upper . . . 131, 184, 200 Panduah hill 30 Paneum group . . . .70, 71 Pangadi 316, 317 Pangi .... 628, 632, 658 Pangi basin, boulders in slates of, xxxvi, 632, 664 Pangkong Lake . . . .625, 672 Paniar 58 stream 57 Panjab, see Punjab. Pankabari .... 614, 615 Panna 83, 92 shales 84 Pantanau 728 Panwari hill . . . .82, 91 Panwat 232 Par sandstone . . . .56, 57 scarp , 57, 94 Para river 629, 640 limestone . . . . . 637 Parari ..:... 203 Parasuath, Himalayan plants on . 374 Parasuchus . . xxxiv, 100, 137, 153 Parh hills 456 Parwain range .... 549, 559 Pasai stream 181 Paskim 644 Pasni 470 Fatal hill 192 Patan 377 PatanSaongi 226 Patauri 14 Patarnala ridge 604 Pathankot 559 Patharghata .... 167, 168 Patkai range . . xi, 683, 696, 699 Patna (Sambalpur) .... 355 Patrapada 212 Patro Nadi, Talchir field . . .174 Paupugni group . . . .61, Payenghat 60 INDKX. 8C3 PAGE Peat 431 Ganges delta . . 397, 398, 400 Nepal 674 Pebbles from Calcutta boring . . 400 Pecopteris concinna .... Io3 P. lolata 147 P. odontopteroides . . . .120 Pecten ( Vola} quinquecostatus, 266, 289, 297 Pegmatite veins in gneiss . 13, 19, 21 in Malani beds ... 53 Pegu . . 704, 713, 716, 719, 723, 726 group ..... 719 trachyte in South- Western". . 725 Pegu Yoma . xi, 705, 707, 719, 720, 726 Pern beds 76 Pench river .... 127, 215, 218 Penganga river, 75, 76, 110, 223, 229, 230, 389 Peninsular and extra-Peninsular areas ii , rocks contrasted . xxvii, 480, 518 Peninsular formations, list of . . xii marine equiva- lents of . . xiv formations in extra-Penin- sular area xv Peninsula, rivers of . . . . iii mountain ranges of . . iii ranges, origin of . . . xx Pennair river . . . .60, 62 Pennar, see Panar. IVrambulur 249 Perched blocks in Western Himalayas . 373 Perim Island 342 ; , ossiferous beds of . . ib. mammalian fossils . . 343 Perim Island and Siwalik faunas com- pared 588 Permian age, glacial conditions of . 102 of lower Gondwanas . 103 Permian fossils, Milam pass . . . 650 Persia, mountain ranges of . . . lix hippuritic limestone of . . 449 Peshawar 483 plain of . . . 478, 515 Petroleum, Upper Burma . . . 724 in Pegu .... 717 discharged from mud vol- canoes .... 730 Pence schmidiana .... 336 262, Ph&nicopsit . . Pliirsa stream Phi/dura . Phlogopite in gneiss Pholadomya angulata granosa . Phonda ghat Phulchok . Phyllotlieca Physa Prinsepii . . . 310, 318, Physical Geography of India of Gondwana periqd Physical Geology of Southern India irf cretaceous times .... Pichor Pid Pihira Pikermi in Attica, pliocene fauna of . Pilka hills Pinauni Pind Dadun Khan . . . 486, Pindura Pinjor dun . . . 536, 539, 548, Pinnacled quartzites . . .70, PirPahar . . . Pir Panjal . ix, 479, 602, 628, 658, gneissic chain trap of ... 663, geology of . pass, section of . Pir Pynti Pisolitic nodules in alluvium 384, 396, Plain of Upper Bengal and Northern India Planes of marine denudation, 245, 376, 377, Platanista, distribution of . Plateau quartzites . . .70, Plesiosaurus indicus .... Pliocene land communication between Himalayas and Perim island . Pliocene rocks, Sind .... facies of Siwalik fauna . fauna of Pikermi in Attica . fossil wood group, Burma Po Podozamites lanceolaius Poikilitic Pokran ... 54, 93, boulder beds near P.AGB 157 672 310 19 262 264 66 675 119 xxxii 291 94 507 176 583 206 611 494 164 550 71 167 662 631 665 665 665 170 423 410 378 392 71 447 580 583 721 639 157 133 437 xxxvi 804. INDEX. Pollconda range ..... 64 Polycistina from Nicobar islands . 735 Pondicherry . . . 267, 337, 423, 433' cretaceous rocks of 267 272, 281, 282 Poona ...... 304, 327 Poonahlite ...... 305 Pooree, see Puri. Porbandar ..... 341, stone .... Porcellanic beds in Gwaliors . . Kadapahs ... in Lower Vindhyans, 79, Porpoises of Indus and Ganges . . Porsa ....... 377 342 58 63 80 392 232 Port Blair ...... 732 259 424 515 Portland beds of Cutch . . . Porto-novo, shell beds near . . . Post-pliocene deposits, Punjab . . and Siwalik fauna com- pared .... 587 Post-tertiary apd recent formations . 371 . beds, distinction from tertiary . 371 relations to ter- tiaries of Himalaya, Punjab, and Sind . . 372 classification of . 380 Sind . . .473 Himalayas . 667 Post-tertiary changes of level . . 375 Pot-holes in river-beds . . . 439 Potwar . . 477, 509, 511, 515, 516, 518 Powagarhhill . . . .47, 304 Pranhita river . . . 157, 223, 233 Prehistoric human implements . . 440 Preparis Island .... 732 Prome ' ..... 720, 724 Promebeds ..... 719 Protection of coast by alluvial deposits 422 Pseudomorphic salt-crystal zone, Salt Range ...... 494 Pterophyllum . . . 145,158 246 Ptilophyllum, 136, 138, 139, 144, 147, 151, 155, 219, 247 P. acutifolium, . . 144, 151, 246, 249 P. cutchense .... 151, 260 Pulavaindla ..... 62 Pulney, see Paine. Punasa 221 Punch river . . . 561, 562, 564 Puniar, see Panar. Punjab 372, 391 erratics . . . .373, 515 rivers, ancient changes in . 415 alluvial plain of the . . 415 hill ranges of . . viii, 478, 479 Salt Range, rocks of . . 481, 485 Northern, rock groups of xxv, 483 tertiary rocks of ... 504 upper tertiaries of ... 512 post-pliocene deposits . . 515 upper tertiaries, abnormal bound- ary of 583 Punon 11 Punu 191 Puppa, extinct volcano of . . . 725 Puran river 418 Purgial mountain . 625, 629, 639, 646 Puri 377 Purna river .... 224, 388 alluvial plain of . . . 383, 388 alluvium, salt in ... 388 Pnrian point 717 Purple sandstone group, Salt Range . 488 Putchum, see Pachharn. Pyaniir 248 Pyrite in gneiss .... 19 Pytnn 389 Pyzu range 514 Q Quartz in Deccan traps . . . 305 in gneiss . . . .10, 19 Quartz-reefs in Bundelkhand gneiss 10, 13 direction of ... 13 in Bengal gneiss . . 20 South Mahralta . . 23 Quartz veins traversing quartz-reefs and gneiss 15 Quartzite implements . . .441 Quern- stones of talcose quartz schist . 16 of Bij&war quartz! te . 30 Quilon ...... 337 RachnaDoab sandhills . .439 Ragavapuram shales . . 140, 147 Godavari district . 246 INDEX, 805 PAGB Ragavapuram shales near Ongole . 247 Raialobeds 49, 51 Raichur 23 Raichur Doab 71 Raidak {Rydak) river . 27, 522, 619 Raigarh and Hiugir coal-fields , . .208 Rainfall, Indian desert . . . 438 Rairakol 212 Rajah's choultry .... 293 Rajamahendri, 238, 242, 244, 245, 315, 336, 389 Gondwana outcrops near 244 t traps of . xliv, 300, 308 intertrappean beds of 317 marine beds associated with trap near, 315, 328 ,, Cuddalore beds near . 336 Rajauri 561, 566 Rajapur, serpentine at ... 14 Rajgir hills . . . 36,37, 38 Rajroahal . . . 139, 165, 167, 406 height above sea . . .392 Kajuiahal flora, relations to Jabalpur and Cutch floras, 147, 157, 159 flora : relations to Uitenhage 146 fossils compared with Euro- pean .... 144 Rajniahdl group . . 107, 108, 139 traps of . . xxx, 139 in Southern India . 140 in Khasi hills .xxxi, 140 relations to Lower Gond- wauas . . . 141 table of allied groups . 141 thickness . . .141 volcanic area . xxx, 142 palaeontology . . 142 section of ... 169 East coast region . 242 association of marine fossils . . .242 Athgar basin . . 243 near Ellore . . .245 near Ongole . . . 247 near Sripermalur . . 247 near Trichinopoly . 249 Rajmahal Gondwana region . . 165 section . . 166 Rajmahal hills . . iv, xxx, 17, 139 description of . .165 Rajmahal hilfe, volcanic cores near, 170, 171 laterite of, 356, 359, 364 black soil in . . 432 Rajmahal traps, eruption of . . 163 not connected with Dec- can traps . . xli Rajnagar. 14 Rajpipla 222 hills 326 Rajpur 209 Rajputtina : Vindhyans of 88 Rnjur 229, 231 RakasTal '.650 Ramapatnam 247 Ramgarh (Singhbum) .... 44 hill, Sirguja .... 208 hills (Birbhum) . . .165 coal-field .... 190 Ramnad : raised sandstones near . . 377 Rampur : Bisahir .... 598 (Chattisgarh) . . 207, 210 Rampura (Bundelkhand) ... 11 Ramri Island . . . 717, 718, 729 mud volcanoes . . . 729 Ran of Cutch, 251,343,395,420,436, 438 description of the . . 420 formerly a gulf of the Sea 395, 420 Eanapusilla 321 Rangoon .... 705, 720, 724 Rangchu river 613 Ranges, extra peninsular . . vii, Ivii Rangichang . . . . . .615 Rangit river 6J 3 Little 615 Raniganj . . . 124, 126, 178, 336 coal-field - ... 178 coal : analysis of . . . 702 Raniganj group . . 115, 126, 169, 180 Raniganj field . . 182 ,, Jharia field . . 187 j Bokaro field . . 189 Ramgnrh field . . 191 South KaVanpnra field 192 > Karanpura field . 195 ,, South Rewah . . 203 Ranikot 450 group . . . . 1, 451 Ranj river, Buudelkhaud ... 83 Ranjoti ridge .... 562, 564 806 INDEX. PAGE Rapti river, Siwaliks on ... 544 valley 611 EasFartak 297 Malan 470 Sharwen 297 Eatanpur 341 Eatnagiri 23 laterite . . . 358, 368 plant beds .... 338 Eavercherla 246 Bavi river . viii, 558, 560, 561, 567, 568 valley, upper . . 632, 658, 665 Rawalpindi .... 484, 511, 568 plateau . 477,509,514, 515 Eecent formations, Himalayas . . 667 Eecent genera in Siwaliks . . 579 Eecent and Siwalik faunas compared 586, 589 Eecent and post-tertiary formations . 371 Eed colour of Vindhyans and transi- tion rocks xxii Eed hills of Pondicherry . . .337 Madras .... 358 soil ...... 429 Eegious, Zoological, of Wallace . . Ixiv ancient zoological and botani- cal . . . . . 101 gneissic .... 3 Eeh : nature and origin of . . .413 Rehand valley 203 Rehr or Eehand River . . 35, 80, 202 Kegur 429 analyses of . . . . 430 absorbent power of . . . 431 distribution of .... 431 origin of 432 derivation from basalt . . 432 Eelations between Buudelkhand gneiss and contiguous formations . 16 Relations of different azoic series . 6, 7, 8 of upper Vindhyans to lower . 90 Reptilian remains in Gondwana rocks 132, 137, 153, 154 Panchet group, local- ity of . . .183 Narbada alluvium . 385 Sind cretaceous beds 450 Siwalik . . 575, 580 I? esin, fossil, in cretaceous coal .690, 712 Reversed faults 526 Rewa Kdnta Rewah gneiss group ..... diamonds in ... Rewab, South . . . 104, 199, and Sohagpur coal-field Rewah, laterite of ... 355, Rbsetic affinities of Rajmahal group . beds, extra peninsular of Hazara .... fossils, Zanskar area Rhinoceros deccanensis R. sivalensis ..... Rhinosaurus jasikovii .... Rhododendron arboreum . , . Rynchocephala Riassi .... 549, 562, 567, conglomerates .... Rilly-la-Montaigne, Eocene fossils of . Ring money ..... stones Rikikes Rise of land in post-tertiary times probably greater in western than in eastern India, 377, River, lost, of the Indian desert . gravels and clays, older Rivers of Peninsula . . . Hi, Burma Punjab Northern India, action of, on surface .... River-systems of Himalayas Rivers of Himalayas flowing from beyond snowy range . . Rivers of Punjab, ancient changes in . Rock-salt of Punjab . . . 486, of Mandi .... Eohilkand Rohri . . . 436, 442, 446, 457, Rongreug, coal basin of, Garo hills, 691, Naga hills . Rotang pass .... 631, Rotas gorge near Jhelum . . 515, Rotas group . . . .78, Rotasgarh Rot tub Rob .... 478, Ruby mines, Ava .... Rukshu, see Rupshu. Ruun of Cutch, see Han. PAGS 313 19 84 92 200 201 363 144 xlvi 501 636 390 466 131 374 153 676 568 330 443 442 535 376 384 416 382 382 x viii 410 676 677 415 508 558 543 474 695 702 664 80 487 708 1XDKX. 807 PiOB Rupar . . . . .550, 551 Rupi 631, 632 Rupin pass 597 Rupin valley 604 Rupshu .... 625, 635, 672 metainorphics .... 640 Rntilc in gneiss ..... 19 Rutland island 733 Rydak, see Raidak. S Subathu beds .... 524, 530 nummulites in . . 525 fossils of . . .531 easternmost outliers of . 534 Jamu .... 562 laterite in . . . 563 Subathu, section at . .533 coal 600 Sadiya, heigbt above sea . . 392 Saffrai river 701 Sagenopteris 118 Sabajori coal field . . . .172 Sabaranpur, beigbt above sea . . 392 Sabyadri range . . . iv, v scarps of . . Ixxi, 301 hypothetical marine origin of scarps, Ixxi, 377 traps of, 304, 306, 319, 320, 327, 354, 358 fresh-water mollusca of 378 Saimulda 46 Sainthoray 282 Sakar river. 215 Sakhar, see Sukkur. Sakinur ...... 232 Sakri river 176 Salem district 26 iron implements . . . 444 Salenia, tertiary 453 Salgraun 632 Salkura 692 Sallawai 234, 235 Salsette .... 304,319, 424 Salt, Puma alluvium .... 388 Wardba alluvium . . .389 Ganges alluvium . . . 393, 415 Indus alluvium .... 395 lakes near Umarkot . . .394 , Panchbhadra .... 395 Salt, efflorescence on plains of North* ern India 413 in Himalayan river-water . . 414 Punjab .... 486, 508 Kohat ' 508 Mandi 558 Salt range . . . viii, 53, 477, 480 rock groups of . . . 481 contrast between eastern and western portions, 481, 482 azoic and palaeozoic rocks of . . . .xxiv, 485 salt marl of . . xxiv* 485 dislocations in . 487 origin of . xxv, 488 purple sandstone of . . 488 silurian beds of. magnesian sandstone of speckled sandstone of carboniferous rocks of xxiv, triassic rocks of pseudomorphic salt-crystal zone .... Jurassic or variegated group of coal of ... 495, olive group of . nummulitics , . li, flexures .... Salwin river . xi, 705, 709, 727, Sambalpur . 76, 128, 199, 200, 209, diamonds at 488 489 489 494 495 507 496 506 568 728 213 77 Samundri ...... 597 Sand, blown 435 of Indian deserts, derivation of . 438 Sand-hills of Indian deserts . . 436 formation of ... 437 Sand denudation and stria? on rocks . 439 Sand-storms on Indian rivers . . 404 Sandafbans 408 Sandoway 711, 712 Saudrapali 35, 237 Sandstone in Indo-gangetic alluvium . 397 flexible .... 52 Sangar Marg ridge . . 562, 567, 568 Sangla 597 Sangpo or Sanpoo river . . viii, 677 Sangra g39 Sanju pass . . . . , 655, 656 808 INDEX. PAGB Sankos river 613 Sausan, miocene fauna of . . 586 Sanktoria 182 Santhal Parghnahs . . . .172 Saoner 226 Sarasvati river 416 Sarikol 657, 658 Saruth Deogarb 172 Saser pass 653, 654 Sasseram .... 69, 78, 84 Sasti 230 Sathbarwa 198 Sathpahari hill 195 Satpura range iv. v hills, 32, 104, 127, 135, 161, 163, 200, 220, 224 region of Gondwanas . . 213 basin of coal measures . . 214 Sattavedu 248 group .... 140, 150 near Sripermatur . 248 Saugor 84, 363 Sawantwari 23 Scenery and vegetation of Deccan trap area 301 Schists, Bundelkhand .... 12 lower Himalayas . . . 596 Schistose series, Hazara . . . 499 ScTiizoneura 119 S. gondwanensis .... 118, 133 S.meriani ...... 114 Schorl, Singrauli gneiss ... 19 Bundelkhand gneiss . . 16 Darjiling gneiss . . . 614 Hundes gneiss . . .650 Scolecite in Deccan traps . . 305. 306 Scoriro, Deccan traps . . . 304, 312 ScypUa 254 Sea-face of Indus delta. . . .419 of Ganges delta . . .407 Secondary series, Zanskar . . . 641 Section, azoic rocks .... 6 Gondwam, Rajmahal hills . 166 Raniganj coal-field 179 4> Jharia coal-field . 186 Ramgarh coal-field 190 KSranpura field . 193 Bisrarnpur field . 204 Satpura basin . 217 Wardha field 229 Section, Sub-Himalayas, Simla and Kangva areas contrasted . Sedimentary beds intercalated with Deccan traps ..... Sibsagar, height above sea . Sehwan . . . 417, 418, 448, height above sea Seju, . . . . . 691, 692, Semribeds .... 7,81, Series, Vindhyan .... Serpentine, Bundelkhand gneiss . Singrauli gneiss Arakan range, Burma Andaman Islands . . Nicobar Islands . . Seychelle Islands, birds of ... Shahabad, Kashmir .... (South Mahratta) Shagarh .... 11, 12, Shahidula 653, Shaikhawati Shaikhpura hills . . . .36, Shaly slates of Spiti .... Shali,mountain Shalkar Shankan ridge .... 598, Shargol 641, Shayok river stones transported by ice on ........ ShekhBudin . 478,479,480,487, 491,495,506, Shekawuttee, see Shaikhawati. Shells, land, affinities of recent . Sheopuri ridge ..... Sher river Shergotty Shevroy., see Shivarai. Shib-wala hills Shikarpur, height above sea Shillong plateau . . .26, 683, ,, gneiss of ... transition series coal near .... Shimakeri Shingarh hills . 478,480,505,507, Shinglung Shipki Shivarai hills . . - iv, 378, PAGE 550 307 392 460 69 14 19 714 733 735 Ixviii 662 73 14 656 49 602 639 645 516 514 Ixix 612 215 198 541 392 42 684 4 40 689 67 514 654 622 443 INDEX. 809 Sicbel hills 312 Sidh Nadi Gondwana basin . . 172 Sih 556 Sikana, steatite near .... 15 Sikkim, Gondwana (Damuda) beds of xv, ' 97, 615 moraines in ... 373, 668 iron ores 543 area, Lower Himalayas . . 612 relations of rocks in . . 615 lakes of . . . , . .675 Sikkim-Bhutan area of Sub-Himalayas 545 Silewara (Silewada) .... 226 SiliciBed wood, Burma . . .721 Silt in Brahmaputra .... 405 Silurian fossils, supposed, from Khyber pass . . . 500 Zanskar area . . 638 Milam pass . . 650 Silurian rocks of Kashmir, Spiti, &c. . xxv of salt-range . . . 488 and fossils, Niti, Hundes 648 metamorphosed Ladak . 653 Karakoram area . . 654 Kashmir . . .662 Silver implements . . .443 mines, Burma .... 708 Simaldhap 168 Simla . . 529,592,594,598, 599, 603, 605 region, of Sub-Himalayas . 529, 592 Lower Himalayas . . 594 ,. series 596 slates 599 relations to gneiss . . 603 Sirnliu 558 Sitnra 170 Sind . . . 372,391,417,436, 445 mountain ranges of ... vii flints, flakes and cores in . . 442 copper implement in . 443 tertiary rocks of . . 1, 339, 447 physical geography of western . 446 rock formations of '. 447 cretaceous beds of 1, 448 Deccan trap of . xliv, 300, 308, 331 450 Ranikot group of . . . . 451 Khirthar group or nummulitic limestones .... 456 Nari group .... 459 Sind Gaj group Manchhar group .... post tertiary beds tertiary series, additional notes on absence of breaks below pliocene . great post pliocene disturbance . alternation of freshwater and marine beds .... Sind Sagar Doab, sand hills Sind valley, Kashmir .... Sindh river, Buudelkhand . . 57, Sindri fort ...... Sindwana Singareni coal-field .... Singhbhum gneissic area transition rocks Singhi pass Singhpho country Singmari .... 690,691, Singrauli gneiss, minerals in pegmatite veins . . 19, Gondwanas . .199, 201, Sinhgarh ...... Sipri . . . Sirban, mount . . 498, 500. 501, Sirbu shales ..... Sirguja, 104, 109, 163, 199, 200, 202, 204, 205, 207, 300, 308, 328, Siri pass .Sirkanda Sirmur area, Simla region, . . 530, series . . .15,524,529, thickness of ... relations to older rocks easternmost outlier . relation to Siwaliks . 539, western expansion west of Sutlej . . 548, doubtful beds of, in Kangra at Ravi river . . doubtful beds of, in Jamu . Sironcha sandstones Sirpur . . Sirsi . Sirun river Sitang, see Sittoung. Sitarampur Sitariva river Sitsyahn shales . .155, .234, PAGB 463 466 473 473 474 474 475 439 660 94 421 11 241 21 43 644 701 692 19 21 203 304 88 503 84 363 513 609 534 530 532 532 534 552 561 552 556 560 564 236 237 236 231 515 182 217 719 810 INDEX. Sittoung river valley delta Siwalik hills series xi, 705, 726, . 724, . x, 536, . li, Sind .... Western Punjab disturbance of river deposits Nahan area . lower, middle and upper . relations to Nahans, cru- cial section . relations to Sirnmrs ,, composition in relation to the great rivers 541, correlation of cis-Jumna and trans-Jumna beds section in Nun near Mus- sooree section near Kathmandu general structure near Kangra Simla and Kangra area contrasted . Simla and Jamu area compared . Siwalik age, stratigraphical evidenoe of beds, miocene forms in . representatives of in Tibet Kashmir Siwalik fauna .... liv, probably pliocene . n migration of . . effects of change of cli- mate on ... compared with recent 586, compared with post- pliocene Narbada fauna compared with Perim Island fauna compared with Irawadi fauna Siwalik fossils, discovery of . mammalia, homotaxis of . ,, 5, range of mammalian genera extinct and recent . PAGE 727 728 727 541 524 466 512 iii 525 535 536 537 539 552 541 542 543 548 550 564 581 582 651 673 702 572 580 584 585 589 587 588 522 576 578 579 PAOB Siwalik mollusca .... 576 reptilia .... 575, 580 Siwalik-Nahan boundary . . . 537 Siwalik-Sirmur boundary, Jamu area 567 Sukakheri bore hole .... 384 Skiu 641 Slate series of Lower Himalayas . . 598 Kashmir . . . .663 Slates of Pangi . . . . * . 664 Slate series, Niti .... 649 Slates of Pamir 658 Slope of depositing rivers . . . 407 Speckled sandstone group, Salt Range . 489 Spinel, Mandalay .... 70S Sphenopteris arguta . . . 144, 160 S. hislopi 146 S. membranosa ..... 146 Spiti valley .... 635, 639 oldest rocka of . . . . xxv Spiti shales . . . xlviii, 636 of Hazara . . . 502 of Niti, Hundes . . 647 Soan river .... 477, 515, 516 Soda sesquicarbonate in Lon&r Lake . 380 Sohagpur (S. Rewah) . 199, 201, 203, 313 coal-field . . . 104, 201 (Hoshangabad) ... 33 railway station, elevation . 385 Sohana 608 Soils 427 of Ganges valley . . . 428 Sojat 93 Sokari 12 Solan 534,596, 599 Soory .... 139, 165, 171, 336 Son river . . . 197, 199, 201, 203 valley ... 5, 91, 177, 203 series 7 area, Bijawars of . . . . 34 lower Vindhyans of ... 77 Gondwana region . . . 199 valley, trap dykes in 328 Son-Mahanadi river .... 201 Son-Narbada area of Bijawars . . 33 boundary of Vindhyans . 85 Sonar hills 95 Sonmiani 470 Sorapur iron implements . . . 444 Sotra river . . . . 416 INDEX. 811 South Mahratta gneiss area . . 22 transition nrea . . 65 South Rewah and Sohagpur coal-field . 201 Southern Indian hills, absence of glacial traces on . . . . . 373 Srinagar 661, 663 Sriperumtur group . . 102, 140, 149 fossils . . .150 near Madras . . 248 Sripermatur, Gomlwdna beds near . 247 cretaceous fossils of . 293 Srishalum quartzites . . 61, 65 St. Cnssian beds 122 Steatite veins in Bundelkhand gneiss . 15 ,, quarries .... 15, 16 Stilbitc in gneiss .... 19 in Rajmahal traps . . .170 in Deccan traps . . . 305 Stone implements, 358, 369, 386 389, 390, 440 knives 441 circles . . . 440, 443, 444 Stormberg beds, South Africa . . 123 Strachey's map of Kurnaun . . 609 Strike of quartz reefs . . . . 13 Subaerial origin of Deccan traps, xliii, 3^2 Subaqueous traps, characters of . . 322 volcanic rocks in transi- tion series . . . xxi Subdivisions of area . . . . ii Subhapur 11 Sub-Himalayas x, 517 denned . . .519 provisional conclusious as to history . . 520 general features . . 521 early views of . . 521 n formerly supposed to be New lied Sandstone . 521 general range . . 522 wanting locally in As- sam . . . 522, 545 relations to Salt Range 523 classification of . . 523 petrology . . .524 resemblance to molasse . 524 chiefly of freshwater origin . 525 structural conditions . 526 Sub-Himalayas, discussion of stratigra- phical characters . 526 abnormal dips in . . 526 faults in ... 526 flexures in . . . 627 middle and terminal regions . . .528 Simla region . . 520 Jumna-Ganges area . 541 Garhwal-Kumaun area. 543 Nepal area . . . 543 Sikkim and Bhutan area 545 Upper Assam area 545," 685 Kangra area . . 547 difficulties of classifica- tion in . . 554 Bubhor and Belaspur sections compared . 555 Kangra area, absence of fragments of igne- ous rocks . . 557 Kangra area, want of fossils . . .557 Jamu area . . . 60 inlier of Himalayan rocks in Jamu area . 562 summary of observa- tions . . .569 Sub-Himalayan high-level gravels . 668 zones north and south of Assam contrasted 686 Submarine cliff -along Alakran coast Ixxii Submetamorphic rocks . xix, 3, 28 classification of 9 ., ,, lower series xx, 28 upper series xx, 55 of Catch . . 344 Subrecent changes of level . , . ixxi Subregions, Oriental . . . . Ixv Sudi Konda hills .... 244 Sufed-Koh viii, 491 Suget-la 654 Snjnam stream . . . . . J2 Suket-pass section .... 656 Suketi river 559 Sukkur 446, 474 flint cores found at . . . 443 Sulema"n range, vii, 477, 479, 480, 486, 491, 495, 505, 513, 514 Sultan Khel .... 506 812 INDEX. Sultanpur 602 Sumatra, carboniferous limestono in . 709 tertiary rocks of . . . 734 Sumesari river . . 691,692,695, 697 Summary of Geology .... xviii Summaries of Indian Geology, . . Ixxii Sundays river, South Africa . . .146 Sundri tree, fossil .... 399 Sunkerry Droog 25 Supur . 43 Surajpur 47,48 Suran 608 Surariin .... 41, 42, 694 Surat .... 308, 339, 425, 435 eocene beds of . . . .340 higher tertiaries of 340 regurof . . . . .433 Surface of Gondwana areas . . 106 Surma river .... xi,. 409 Sursulla river . . . . .538 Suru 639 Survival of older types in Indian area Ixx S&sulgali 499 Sutlej river viii former course of , . 416 termination of Lower Himalayan region at . 520 Sub-Himalayas on, 548, 550, 551, 552 atBubhor . . .551 Lower Himalayas on, 598, 602, 604, 606 Tibet, 622, 625, 630, 635, 647, 651, 677 Sutlej valley, high-level gravels of . 669 Swat 478, 498 Swatch of no ground .... 408 Syhedrite 305 Bylhet 140 trap xxxi, xli, 41, 140, 686 jhils 407 Sylvine 487 Synclinal fold in Bundelkhand gneiss . 13 Synclinal of Hundes and Zanskar . 625 SyringosjphceridcB , . . . 655 Table of Gondwana groups . Table .of upper Gondwana groups . Tadi river ...... Taniopteris ..... T. mttata ...... Tagling beds, upper .... Tagling limestone . . . 636, Tarn ....... Takvor ...... Tal river, Sironcha . . . 234, Dehra Dun . . . . Tdlchir, ..... 200, Talchir coal-field . . . . ,, gneiss ..... Talchir-group . xxxv, 107, 108, origin of ... boulder bed, xxxv, 109, 173, 180, 186, 188, 190, 194, 205. 206, 211, 229, .... resemblance to volcanic rock .... resistance to weathering extent and thickness . Paleontology . xxxii, conditions of deposition . in Rajmahal hills . . SidhNadi ... Kandit Karayah field . Sahajori field . . . Outliers on Adjai river . Jainti or Karaun field . Patro Nadi . . . small basins, north-east Hazfoibagh . . Karharbari coal-field . small basins on Barakar river .... small basins near Kharag- diha .... small basins on Sakri river . . . * . E^niganj coal-field . Jharia coal-field . . Bokaro coal-field . . . Ramgarh coal-field . South Karanpura coal- field .... Karanpura field . . Chop field . . . Itkuri field . . . FAGB 141 612 118 159 636 642 656 615 235 595 210 210 22 109 234 110 110 Ill 111 Ill 166 172 172 172 173 173 174 174 175 176 176 176 180 186 188 191 192 193 196 197 INDEX, 813 Talchir group, small areas, Hazaribagb . PAGE 197 Tatta 451, 458, PAQH 464 Daltongauj field 197 Tawa river . . 127,137,138,215, 218 at Sdthbarwa . 198 valley 217, 218 at Latiabar . 198 Tawi river ...... 565 Morhar river . . 198 Tehri . . 11 12 14 South Rewah . 202 Telia^arhi fort ..... 170 around Jbilmilli coal' Telorna 11 field 204 TelwASft 230 coal ia . 205 Tenasserim .... 704, 707, 709 Bisrampur field . 206 river . . . xi, 705, 718 Lakbanpur field 207 cretaceous coal of 712 Eastern Sirguja, Udepur, coal-bearing beds of . 718 &c 207 carboniferous limestone of * xxvii Korba field . 208 Terminal Himalayas .... 520 Raigarh-Hingir field . 209 area, lower Himalayas . 594, Talchir field . 211 Sub-Himalayan region . 528, 547 outliers, Mahanadi valley 211 Terelratula liplicata . . 256, 264, Sftfcrmrn hnsin 217 T sella . . m 256 Kamthi area . . . 226 Teressa 735 Bander field . 226 Tertiary coasts of peninsula . 'xlvi near Arjuna . 227 extra-peninsular . . Hi Wardha field. 229 Tertiary rocks, extra-peninsular . 1 Godavari valley . 234, 238 later .... liv outliers near Dumagu- of peninsula . 334 dem .... 239 east coast . . 335 Kuinaram field 241 Guzerat .... 339 Siugareui field 241 higher, of Surat and Talchir pebbles in Barakar beds . 203 Broach 340 Taldauga . 180 Cutch .... 343 Talewari ghat 24 . classification of 344 Talikot 73 ,, , upper, of Cutch . . 347 Talukwara 295 of Jesalmir 347 Taudra Rahira Khan . . . 465, 469 ofSind 1,447,451, 456 Tangsuli Gondwana basin . 171 thickness of . XVI Barakarsof .... 171 . additional notes Taujore .... 336, 337, 424 on ... 473 Tanua 319 lower, of Baluchistan 453 Tanol or Tanawal group, Hazara 501 upper, of Punjab, abnormal Tapti river . . 220,224,340,341, 388 boundary of 483 upper, area of Goudwana rocks . 220 lower, of Punjab 504 alluvial plaius of . . 383, 387 thickness of 504 elevation 388 upper, of Punjab 612 Tanr land, Nepal .... 674 of Himalayas, 517, 626, 650, 680 Tara Devi . 601 of upper Indus vallcv 626 Tardgarh 50 634,640, 643 Tarai 404 eruptive, of Hundes . 650 Tarcberla sandstones .... 236 sedimentary, Hundes 651 Tarkesar 340 ,, Assam range . 693 Tarna ..... 686 upper, Assam range . 696 Tasiue: hill . 49 Burma 715 INDEX. Tertiary rocks, newer, Arakan PACK 720 Titi river FAOB 618 724 Todapurti beds 62 Tertiary vertebrate fauna . ,, migrations of Tetragonolepis . . 572 584 154 Todihal Tondakheri Tong 311 22R 464 Tezpur, granite of .... 699 660 Toughoo ...... Tongup 712 724 718 Thalapudi ...... 245 Tons river .... 541, 604, 607 Thar . . . ' . . . 436, 437 Tourmaline in gneiss . 19 sand ridges of . . . . Tharia . . . 686,687,688, river 686 438 702 694 Trachyte intrusion, Rajmahal area south-western Pegu 170 725 507 cretaceous fossils from . Thatay-Khyoung .... Thayet Myo . . 710, 716, 720 689 718 724 717 Transition series . . . xix, relations to older and newer beds . 3,23 XX Thingadau ...... Thiog ridge ... 724 604 disturbance of . XX 6 Thondoung ...... Thul Ghat 717 306 classification of 9 xx 28 Tibet, fossil mammals .... Siwalik fauna . . . 585, alluvial deposits glacial evidence . . 669, Tibetan plateau .... viii, Jurassic rocks Himalayas . . . 519, fossiliferous rocks . sedimentary basins Hundes area .... 651 589 672 672 Ivi xlviii 622 624 634 646 506 of Bijawar basin of Behar . of Shillong . . . of S. W. Bengal of Arvali region of Champanir . of Mateni tipper . . xx, of Gwalior of Kadapah , of Kalad^i 28 36 40 43 44 46 53 55 56 60 65 Tillanchang ... 735 24 Trap, Rajmahal and Deccan, not con- nected . . xli Tin in Burma Tin stone in gneiss .... 708 19 664 Shillong series, Khasi hills south-west Bengal, transition 41 44 Tinnevelly, iron implements Tipam range group .... 700, 444 701 702 212 Rajmahdl .... 139, Rajmahal, minerals in overflowing, Sirguja 204, 207, 170 170 208 207 698 " , . ... 208 Tirhosh .... 604 91 299 breccia .... limestone . . .81, Tiruvakari, see Trivicary. 82 83 613 Deccan, reasons for employing name area, scenery and vegetation 301 301 section, Damudas 615 310 tinctions between . Sind 449, 322 450 Tithonian beds of Cutch 259 lower Himalayas . . Ivii, 606 INDEX. PAGE PAGB Trap, near Naini Tal . . . .610 Triassic rocks, Sarikol .... 658 Kashmir 662 Burma .... 710 Pit- Panjal 665 Tributaries of Ganges deflected west- Sylhet 686 ward 412 miocene beds, Pegu . . .720 Trichinopoly . . . .99, 267 Trap-dykes, Bundelkband gneiss . 15 gneiss of ... 25 Bengal gneiss ... 2 1 Gondwana beds near . 249 Singhbhiim gneiss 22 plant beds . 140, 150, 249 South Mnhratta gneiss . 23 area cretaceous rocks 267, Wuinad gneiss ... 24 269, 277, 281 Nilgiri gneiss ... 25 group .... 275 Trichinopoli gneiss 26 granitic detritus in 276 Gondwanas ... 105 relations to Utaturs 277 Riniganj coal-field 142 distribution of . 277 Rajrnahal hills . . 170 thickness of . . 277 Damuda valley . 171 .- outliers of . . 277 Karharbari field . . 176 i> Palaeontology . 278 Eaniganj field . 181, 184 marble .... 276 Jharia field . .187 laterite .... 385 Bokaro field . . .189 regur .... 433 Raingarh field . .190 Trigamma 662 Karanpura fields . . 195 Trigonia clavellata .... 262 South Rewah . . .204 T. costata 262, 264 Raigarh Hingir field . 210 T. smeei xxxvii, 148, 244, 259, 261 Satpura basin . . . 220 T - tiiberculifera 261 absence of, in Godavari T. van . . . . . 2 6l valley .... 232 T - venlricosa xxxvii, 148, 244, 261, 503 Athgar basin . . . 244 Triloknath 664 Trappean detritus wanting in Sub- Tripeti hill near Madras ... 60 Himalayas of Kangra area . 557 Tripetty sandstones . . . 140, 148 Trappoid rock in lower Vindhyans . 79 beds, Godavari district . . 246 Travancore . . . .18, 337 near Ongole . . 247 hills y Trisnlganga river . . . .612 limestones, sand, clays and Trivicary 272, 336 lignite . . .337 grits 336 limestones, fossils in . . 338 Thombo 717 laterite .... 358 TsoMorfri 640 Tremolite in gneiss .... 19 lake basin .... 671 Triassic fossils, Baluchistan . . 455 Tungabudra river . . .60, 62 Zanskararea . . 637 Tura 691, 695 Niti, Hundes . 648 rid g e .... 682, 691, 695 Milam pass . . . 650 Turbela 499 Triassic Himalayan fauna similar to Tursa river . . . .545, 619 Alpine .... xlvii Tzarap valley 639 plants, Karharbari group . 114 jj Triassic rocks, extra peninsular area . xlvi utra . t 35 of Punjab ... 493 Uchar . ofllazara . . .501 Udampur . . . .' 567 Chaugchenino . . 654 Udcpnr (Rijputfoa) .... 48 . 655 (Chotia Nagpur) . 199,207, 209 816 INDEX. Udepur coal-field .... Chota .... 221, Uitenhage formation of South Africa, 123, 146, flora compared with Raj- mahal .... Ukra hill 260, Ulwur, see Alwar. Umarkot . . . 394, 417, 419, Umballa height ahove sea . borehole Uinblai river Urnia 158, Urnia-group, xxxvii, 99, 100, 141, 148, 158, 244, n flora fossils of xxxviii, 259, 260, comparison of Cephalopoda with European forms Umurkuntuk, see Amarkantak. Una dun Undutla Upalpad Upper Damuda group .... Upper Jurassics of Cutch . Urain Uri Usar tracts of North-Wait Provinces . Ussan river Utatur . . -99, 249, plant beds . . . . 140, Gondwana beds near . Utatur-group coral limestone at base of distribution of . palajontology of list of most important fossils . . ' . V Vaimpulli slates . . . .61, Valadayur 269, group Valleys, river, existing, relations to Gondwana basins . xxviii, 103, Vamevaram ..... Varkalay Vents volcanic, of Raj mahal age, 170, 171, Tertebraria ..... V. indica PAGE 207 312 148 146 267 436 392 401 690 259 259 159 261 260 536 71 71 156 259 38 566 413 601 270 150 249 270 270 272 272 274 62 272 272 161 46 337 185 119 115 Vertebrata, later tertiary Venus granosa, . . 342,346,462, Vellaur river . . . 268, 282 Verdachellam . . 268,269,281, area, cretaceous rocks 269, Vigor Vihi valley Viudhyan range Vindhyan-series . iii, xxi, 2, 3, 6, absence of fossils in xii, origin of . . xxi, red colour of . classification of unconformable to Gwaliors Vindhyans, lower . . xxi, 7, Karnul area . Paluad area ' Bhima basin Mabauadi and Goda- vari areas . Son area Bundelkhand area . inliers, Wardha coal- field . Vindhyans, upper boundaries of thickness of petrology relations to xxii, 86, lower xxii, disturbance of iii, outliers of xxiii, 51, Arvali region . 51, Vindhyan boulders, transported, in Talchir boulder bed . . 205, Vingorla rocks Vinjorai ...... Vizagapatam Volcanic action at Lonar area, Rajmahal ash, Deccan traps . band in Malay Archipelago 725, core, Rajmahal area eruptions in Bay of Bengal . ., off Pondicherry foci, Deccan traps . distribution of, in Deccan trap period PAGE 572 465 424 259 xxu xxiii xxii 9 56 90 91 92 92 226 24 66 54 244 380 142 732 170 379 379 326 INDEX. 817 PA OK FAGJ4 Volcanic intrusions, Raniganj field 185 White shales, Rajmahil group . 170 rock in miocene of Pegu 720 Wind, action of, in forming river banks 404 rocks associated with salt Wollastonite in gneiss 19 marl of Punjab . 487 Wood, fossil silicified, Burma 721 tuffs in transition rocks xxi w "u .... 228, 229, 230, 231 Volcano, extinct, of Puppu . 725 Wurroda, see Warora. ,, of Yunnan . . 725 Wyanamatta beds, Australia 120 ,, reported, in Great Nicobar 734 Wynaad, see Wainad. Volcanoes, niud, of Rainri, &c. 729 of Barren Island and Nar- Y condam .... 735 Voltzia heterophylla . . . Ixx, 114 Ya"ngi pass section .... 656 Vriddachellam, see Verdachellam. Yarkand, mountains south of 667 Vulsella legumen . . . 340, 459 river 654 Yeddakul Maid 24 Yeddihalli 174 W Yedurba river . . 227 Wagad . . 251, 256, 258, 260, 343 Yelaur, see Ellore, Wagalkhor 340 Yellaconda ridge . . .60, 65 Wagur and Wagir, see Wagad. Ye-nan-khyoung .... 724 ^Vahind river Alf* 237 Wainad (Wynaad) gneiss . 41o 24 Yendloor 247 gold of nA 67 Wainganga river . 151,215,223, &% 389 Yinkolu, see Inkolu. Wajhiri hill, South Konkan 24 Yoma xi, 704 Wakban 657 Yunnan, extinct volcano in 725 Walar lake, Kashmir .... 663 Yusafzai 478, 498 Wamayavaram, see Vamevaratn. Wangtu 596 Z Warangal ..... 234, 240 Zalung-Karpo pass .... 640 Wardha river . . . 223, 228, 389 Zami river 709 coal-fields .... 227 Zanskar 625 valley, alluvium of . 389 628, 630 district, iron implements 444 range ix Wardha- Pranhita-Godavari basin of gneissic range . . 630, 664 Gondwanas .... 227 area, formations of 635 Wardwan valley .... 664 palaeozoic series 638 Warora .... 226 230 mpanynif* rnrlfq 641 coal near .... 230 Zehanwan section, Kashmir 661 Wasterwan section, Kashmir 661 Zeolites, Rajmahal traps 170 Watershed between Indus and Ganges . 392 Deccan traps .... 305 of Himalayas 677 Zewan .... 661 Waziri country . . . 473, 495, 614 Zircon in gneiss 19 Rupi 630 Kf\ Zoological distribution, recent . hiv Ixiv Weir beds . West coast alluvium .... ou 424 ,, regions of \Vallace . . ancient . 101 Western ghats, iv 304, 378, see also Zoji-la 630, 659 Sahyadri. Zumani ...... 220 PLATE I. CARBONIFEROUS FOSSILS (Marine). Fig. 1. SPIRIFEB KEILHAVII, Buch. (& rajah, Saltcr.) 2. S. MOOSAKHAILENSIS, Davidson. Half natural size. 3. SPIBIFEBINA OCTOPLICATA, Sowerby. 4. ATHYEIS SUBTILITA, Hall, var. grandis, Dav. 5. RBTZIA KADIALIS, Phillips, var. grandicosta, Dav. 6. CAMEROPHOEIA PUEDONI, Dav. 7. STBEPTOEHYNCHTTS CRENISTEIA, Phil. 8, PEODUCTUS SEMIEETICULJTTTS, Sow. 9. P. COSTATUS, Sow. Half natural size. 10. P. PUEDONI, Dav. 11. STROPHALOSIA MOEEISIANA, King. 12. CHONETES HAEDEENSIS, var. tliiletensis, Dav. 13. AVICULO-PECTECf HYEMALIS, Salter. N. S. All are of natural size, unless the proportions are mentioned. Geology of India- Plate. I. J. Sctaumburg.fect CARBONIFEROUS FOSSILS. S.Sedgfi.eld.imp: PLATE II. TRIAS SIC FOSSILS (Marine). Fig. 1. AMMONITES FLOBIDTTS, Wulfen. Half natural size. " 2. A. (CEBATITES) intJiLiiEEi, Oppel. Half natural size. 3. A. DIFFISCS, Haucr. 4. CLYDONITES OLDHAMIANUS, Stoliczka. 5. HAIOBIA IOMMELI, Wissm. 6. MONOIIS SAIINAEIA, Bronn. Half natural size. 7. DICEEOCAEDIUM HIMA1ATENSE, Stol. One-third natural 8. MEGALODON TBIQUETEE, Wulfeu. Half natural size. 9. SPIEIFEE STEACHETI, Salter. Geology of Indi Pla.ti.II. TRIASSIC FOSSILS PLATE III. TALCHIR AND DAMtJDA FOSSIL PLANTS. 1. GANGAMOPTEBIS CYCLOPTEROIDES, Feistinantel. 2 & 3. SPHENOPHYLLUM SPECIOSUM, Royle, sp. (8. trizygia, Unger). 4. PIIYLLOTHECA INDICA, Bunbury. Geology of India,. Plate HI. J S chaumburg f e ct : TALCHIR GRO UP AND DAMUDA SERIES. ill < i! lluufi illll S . S e gfield imp . PLATE IV. DAMtfDA FOSSIL PLANTS. Fig. 1 & 3. SCHIZONEUBA GONDWANENSIS, Fstm. 2. VEETEBBAEIA INDICA, Roylc. Geology of India Plate IV. J. Schaumturg feet: DAMUDA SERIES S. Sedgfieldimp: PLATE V. DAMtJDA FOSSIL PLANTS. Fig. 1, 2 4 3. PHYLLOTHECA INDICA, Bunburj. Leaves. 4. GLOSSOPTEEIS IKDICA, Schiinper. 5. G. EETIFEEA, Fstm. sp., nov. 6. G. ANGUSTIPOLU, Broguiai t. Geology of India. Plate V. J. Schaumturg feet DAMUDA SERIES. 5 Sedgfield imp: PLATE VI. EARHARBARI AND DAM&DA FOSSIL PLANTS. Fig. 1. VEETEBEAEIA INDICA, Royle. 2. SPHENOPTEBIS POLTMOEPHA, Fstm. 3. T.ENIOPTEBIS (Macrotanioptcris) DAN.EOIDES, Royle, sp. 4. ALETHOPTEEIS LINDLEYANA, Royle, sp. 6. NEUEOPTEBIS VAIIDA, Fstm. 6. NOEGGEEATHIA HiSLOPi, Bunbury. 7. VOLTZIA HETEEOPHTLLA, Bgt. 2V. S. Neuropteris valida and Toltzia heterophylla are Karharbari species, and should have been figured with the Talchir Gangamopteris cyclopt=roides ou Pltite III. The relations of the Karharbari group were not determined until after these plates were printed. Geology of Indi Plate VI. J. Scha.urrfburg feet: DAMUDA SERIES. S. SedgfieU imp: PLATE VII. PANCSET FOSSIL PLANTS. Fig. 1, 2 & 3. SCHIZONETTEA GONDWANENSIS, Fstm. 4. TENIOPTEEIS (Oleandridium), sp., allied t 9. sienoneuron, Scbeuk. 5. CrcLOPTEEia PACHYEACHIS, Goppert. ,, 6. PBCOPTEEIS CONCINNA, Prcsl. eology of India. Plate VII Schautniurg feet. S. Sed Afield imp: RANCH ET GROUP. PLATE VIII. EAJMAHAL FOSSIL PLANTS. Fig. 1. PTILOFHYLLUM ACUTIFOLIUM, Morris. 2. PTEEOPHYLLTJM: BAJMAHALENSE, Morris. 3. P. PBINCEPS, Oldham and Morris. 4. CYCADITES CONFEBTUS, Morris. 5. OTOZAMITES BENGAIENSIS, Oldhani, sp. 6. DlCTYOZAMITKS FA1CATTIS, Morris, 8p. 7. PALISSYA CONFEKTA, Oldhain, sp. of 1-ndi; Plate VJIT. RAJMAHAL GROUP. S. Sedfcfield.imp. PLATE IX. EAJMAHAL FOSSIL PLANTS. Fig. 1. GLEICHENIA BINDBABUNENSIS, Schiiaper; (Pecopteris [Gleicheniles] glei- chenoides, 0. and M.) 2. ALETHOPIEEIS INDICA, 0. and M. 3. TECOPTEEIS LOBATA, 0. and M. 4. TJGNIOPTEEIS (Angiopteridium) SPATHULATA, McClelland, sp. 5. T. (Macrotceniopteris) 1ATA, Oldha-n. Geology of India. Plate. IX .). Sdiaumburg. lath RAJMAHAL GROUP. 3. Sedfefield.imp: PLATE X. JABALPUR FOSSIL PLANTS. Fig. 1 . ALETHOPTEEIS MEDLICOTTIANA, Oldham. 2. OTOZAMITES GEACILIS, Kurr, sp. 3. 0. HISLOPI, Oldham. 4 & 5. PODOZAMITES LANCEOLATUS, Lindley and Hutton, sp. 6 & 7. BBACHYPHYLLUM MAMMILLABE, L. and H. 8. PALISSYA JABALPUEENSIS, Fstm. 9. P. INDICA, Oldham, sp. 10 & 11. AEAUCAEITES CUTCHENSIS, Fstm. Geology of Plate X. J. Sch a/urn}) u.rg feet JABALPUR GROUP. S. Sedfcfield imp: PLATE XI. UMIA (CUTCH) FOSSIL PLANTS. Fig. 1. T-ENIOPTEBIS (Oleandr idium) TITTATA, Bgt. 2. ALETHOPTEBIS WHITBYENSIS, Bgt.', sp. 3 & 4. PTILOPHYLLUM CUTCHENSE, Morris. 5. ECHINOSTBOBUS EXPANSUS, Sternberg, sp. 6. PACHYPHYLLUM DIVABICATUM, Buubury, sp. 7 & 8. ABAUCABITBS CUTCHBNSIS, Fstm. Plate. XI f KACH GROUP. S. Sedtfield PLATE XII. JURASSIC FOSSILS (Marine). Fig. 1. BELEMNITES GEEAEDI, Oppel. Half natural size. 2. B. GBANTIANU3, D'Orbigny ; (B. kuntkotensis, Waagen). Half natural size. 3. AMMONITES (Phylloeeras) DISPTTTA'BILIS, Zittel. Half natural size. ., 4. A. (Aspidoceras) pEBABMATirs, Sow. One-third natural size. 5. A. (Stephanoceras) MACEOCEPHALUS, Schlotheim. One-fourth natural size. 6. A. (Perisphinctes) POTTINGEBI, Sow. One-third natural size. 7. GONIOMTA T-SCEIPTA, Agassiz. Half natural size. 8. PHOLADOMYA GEANOSA, Sow. Half natural size. 9. P. ANGULATA, Sow. Half natural size. 10. TEIGONIA CLATELIATA, Lind. Half natural size. 11. T, SMEEI, Sow. One-third natural size. 12. T. COSTATA, Parkinson. Half natural size. 13. ASTAETE MAJOE, Sow. One-third natural size. 14. AECA (Macrodon) EGEETONIANA, Stol. 15. ATTCEILA IEGTTMINOSA, Stol. N. B.Goniomya v-scripta and Trigonia clavellata are not known to occur in India. Plate. XII. ij J . Scha.umburg, fee*. JURASSIC FOSS ILS. S. Sedgfield.imp: PLATE XIII. CRETACEOUS FOSSILS (Marine}. Fig. 1. AMMONITES BOTOMAGENSIS, Defrance. One-third natural size. 2. A. PLANULATUS, Sow. Half natural size. 3. TUBEILITES COSTATUS, Lamarck. Hulf natural size. 4. BACTTLITES VAGINA, Forbes. Half natural size. 5. APOKBHAIS BECUEIFEEA, Forbes, sp. 6. AVELLANA SCEOBICULATA, Stol. 7. CABDITJM (Protocardium) HILI/ANUM, Sow. Half natural size. 8. TEIGONIA SCABEA, Lam. 9. INOCEEAMUS SIMPLEX, Stol. Half natural size. 10. PECTEN ( Tola) QUINQTJECOSTATUS, Sow. 11. HIPPTTEITES OEGANISANS, Mont. One-fourth natural size. 12. H. COENU VACCINUM. Broun. Transverse section ; one-third natural size. A T . 5. The two species of nif'purUes are riot known to occur in India. Geology of India Plate. XHE. J. Schaumbui-g-, fee" 1 CRETACEOUS FOSSILS. S. Sedgfield.imp; PLATE XIV. INTERTRAPPEAN FOSSILS (Upper cretaceous). A. FresJtwater. Fig. .1. PHYSA PRINSEPII, Sow. Normal form. 2. P. PEINSEPII, Sow., var. elongata, Hislop. 3. PALTJDINA NOBMALIS, Hisl. 4. P. ACICULABIS, Hisl. 5. P. SANKEYI, Hisl. 6. P. DECCANENSIS, Sow. 7. VAZVATA MULTICAEINATA, Hisl. 8. VAIVATA MINIMA, Hisl. 9. LYMNEA SUBUIATA, Sow. 10. L. TELANKHED^NSIS, Hisl.. var. peracuminata. 11. L. SPINA, Hisl. 12. MELANIA QTTADHILINEATA, Sow. 13. UNIO DECCANENSIS, Sow. Half natural size. 14. UNIO HUNXEEI, Hisl. Three-fourths natural size. i -B. Estuarine. Fig. 15. PSETTDbLIVA ELEGANS, Hisl. 16. NATICA STODDAEDI, Hisl. 17. CEEITHITJM STODDAEDI. Hisl. 18. VlCAEYA Pr/SIFOEMIS, Hisl. 19. TUREITELLA PE^LONOA, Hisl. 20. CAEDITA VAEIABILIS, Hisl. Geology of Indi Plate. XLV. INTE RT RAPPEAN FOSSILS. S. Ged&field, urn PLATE XV. EOCENE NUMMULITIC FOSSILS (Marine), Fig. 1. VOL0TA JUGOSA, Sow. 2. NBEITA SCHMEDELIANA, Chemnitz. 2 a : cast of the same. 3. PECTEN LABADYEI, D'Archiac and Haime. 4. VULSELLA IEGUMEK, D'Arch. and H. 5. ECHINOLAMPAS DISCOIDEUS, D'Arch. Half natural size. 6. E0BHODIA MOEEISI, D'Arch. and H. 7. OEBITOIDES PAPYEACEA, Boubee. 8. 0. DISPANSA, Sow. ; section. 8 a, 5, c, d : varieties. 9. AIVEOLINA SPHEEOIDEA, Lara. Enlarged three diameters. 9 a. -the same; natural size. 9 b : transverse section. 10. NTTMMTTHTES GAEANSENSIS, Joly and Leymeric. 10 a, 10 b : sections of the same enlarged. 11. N. SUBIJEVIGATA, D'Arch. and H. 11 a .- section of same. 12. N. EAMONDI, Defr. 13. N. OBTCSA, Sow. 14. N. GEANULOSA, D'Arch. 15. N. LEYMEEIEI, D'Arch. Geology of India. Plate. XV. J. Schaumturg", EOCENE [aider terluzry] FOSSILS. PLATE XVI. MIOCENE OAJ FOSSILS (chiefly Marine'). Fig. 1. VlCAETA VEBNEUILLI, D'Arch. 2. T0BBITELLA ANGTJLATA, Sow. 3. OSTEEA MULTICOSTATA, Deshayes. 4. PECTEN PAVEEI, D'Arch. 5. AECA (Parallelepipedum) KUERACHEENSIS, D'Arch. 6. A. (Anomalocardia) LAEKHANENSIS, D'Arch. (estuarine). 7. VENUS GEAKOSA, Sow. Half natural size. 8. COEBULA TEIGONALIS, Sow. (estuarine.) 9. BKEYNIA CAEINATA, D'Arch. aud H. Half natural size. 10. ECHINODISCITS, sp. 11. CLYPBASTEE DEPEESSUS, Sow. Half natural size. i &eolog"j of Indi Plate. XVI. J. Schaumburg 1 , feet. MIOCENE FOSSILS S. Sedgfield.imp: PLATE XVII. LATER TERTIARY FOSSIL MAMMALS (chiefly Siwalik pliocene). Fig. 1. ELEPHAS (Stegodon) INSIGNIS, Falconer and Cautley. Restored cranium; one-twentieth natural size. 2. E. (Stegodon) GANESA, F. andC. Restored cranium ; one-twentieth natural 3. MASTODON PEBIMENSIS, F. and C. Restored cranium ; one-twentieth na- tural size. 4. MASTODON LATIDENB, F. and C. Upper molar; one-third natural size. 5. ELEPHAS (Euelephas) HYSUDBICTTS, F. and C. Lower molar; one-third natural size. 6. MASTODON SIVALENSIS, F. and C. Last upper molar ; one-third natural size. 7. ELEPHAS (Stegodon) INSIGNIS, F. and C. Upper milk molar; one. third na- tural size. 8. HIPPOHYTTS SIVALENSIS, F. and C. Second upper molar. 9. Sus GIGANTEUS, F. and C. Upper molars. 10. MEBTCOPOTAMUS DISSIMILIS, F. and C. Upper molar. Geology of Indit PlateXVII. J. StKaumbur for SIWALIK FOSSILS. PLATE XVIII. LATER TERTIARY FOSSIL MAMMALS (chiefly SkoaliJc pliocene). Fig. 1. HEMIBOS TRIQTTETKICEBUS. P. and C. Cranium ; one-sixth natural size. 2. AMPHIBOS ACUTICOBNIS, P. and C. Cranium ; one-sixth natural size. 3. DOBCATHEBITTM MAJUS, Lydekker. Upper molar. 4. CHALICOTHEBIUM SIVALENSE, F. and C. Upper molar; half natural size. 5. BBAHMATHEBIUM PEBIMENSE, Pale. Upper molars ; two-thirds natural size. 6. HIPPOPOTAMUS (Hexaprotodori) SIVALENSIS, F. and C. Last upper molar ; half natural size. 7. SIVATHEBIUM GIGANTEUM, F. and C. Restored cranium; one-eighteenth natural size. g. HIPPOPOTAMUS (Hexaprotodon) SIVALENSIS, F. and C. Cranium; one- eighth natural size. Credo gy of Inflia Plate XVIIL V. SIWALIK FOSSILS PLATE XIX. LATER TERTIARY FOSSIL MAMMALS (chiefly Siwalik pliocene). Fig. 1. RHINOCEBOS SIVALENSIS, F. and C. Mandible ; one-fourth natural size. 2. R. IBAVADIOUS, Lyd. Left upper molar ; half natural size. 3. R. SIVALENSIS, F. and C. Upper jaw, right side; one-fourth natural size. 4. AMPHICYON PAL.EINDICUS, Lyd. Upper molar (miocene). 5. ENHYDBIODON SIVALENSIS, F. and C. Palate; four-ninths natural size. 6. HIPPABION ANTELOPINUM:, F. and C. Upper molar. 7. LISTEIODON PENTEPOTAMI.E, Falc., sp. Upper molar. 8. HY^NA SIVALENSIS, F. and C. Upper carnassial tooth. 9. HYJENAECTOS SIVALENSIS, F. and C. Right upper caruassial and molars \ three-quarters natural size. 10. HY^NA SIVALENSIS, F. and C. Upper preinolar. 11. SEMNOPITHECUS ? SUBHIMALAYANUS, Meyer. Right upper molars. 12. RHINOCBBOS, sp. astragalus. One-fourth natural size. Plate XIX ' SIWALIK FOSSILS. S. Sedgfield. imp: PLATE XX. POST-TERTIARY FOSSIL MAMMALS (Narbada). Fig. 1. Bos (Bubalus) PA1JEINDICUS, P. and C. Cranium ; one-fifth natural size. 2. HIPPOPOTAMUS (Hexaprotodon) NAMADICUS, F. and C. Syrnphysis of mandi- ble; one-eighth natural size. 3. Bos NAMADICUS, F. and C. Frontlet and part of right horn-core; one-tenth natural size. 4. EQUUS NAMADICUS, F. and C. Upper molars, right side; half natural size. 5, ELEPHAS NAMADICUS, F. and C. Lower milk-molar; one-third natural size. 6. TJESUS NAMADICUS, F. and C. Part of upper jaw ; half natural size. 7. HIPPOPOTAMUS (Tetraprotodon) PALZEINDICUS, F. and C. Last upper molar, left side; half natural size. 8. ELEPHAS NAMADICUS, F. and C. Restored cranium ; half natural size. 9. RHINOCEBOS NAMADICUS, F. and C., astragalus. One-fourth natural size. Geology of India. Plate, XX. NERBUDDA FOSSILS. S-Sed Afield, imp: PLATE XXI. STONE IMPLEMENTS (Post-tertiary and sub-recent). Fig. 1. CHIPPED QUAETZITB IMPLEMENT, 'spear-head' form, from the Narbada valley ; two-thirds natural size. This spacinsen was found in the gravels which contain hones of extinct post-tertiary mammalia. See p. 386. 2. AGATE FLAKE, or knife, from Godavari valley, natural size; also found in gravels containing bones of extinct post-tertiary mammalia. See p. 389. & CHEST COEE, found in the bed of the Indus at Sukker, natural size. See p. 442. 4, SMOOTHED CELT of greenstone from Banda, N. W. P. ; natural size. See p. 442. 5. SMOOTH AND POLISHED CELT of limestone, adopted for a handle, from Burma; natural sire. See p. 442. Gr e ol o of In di a. . J. 5 oh a.unai>u-r^ . feet. STONE IMPLEMENTS University of California RN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY SOUTHERN REGIOr 405 Hilgard Avenue, Los Angeles, CA 90024-1388 Return this material to the library from which it was borrowed. PHYSIC!. SOP'' Phys.Sci. QE295 India. Geological A65 Survey. pt.2 A manual of the geology of India. ** A 000 632 640 9 Physical Sciences Library University of California Riverside