<&U4. M^^Ak UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA agricultural Experiment Station COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE E. J. WICKSON, Director BERKELEY, CALIFORNIA yWVHWTY 9F CAUFMNU LII1ARY mMCH Of THE (Feb. 1912) CGLLE&E Of A6R1CULTUKS CIRCULAR No. 74 COPY 3 RICE A Possible New Industry for California By G. W. SHAW and A. J. GAUMNITZ. RICE. A POSSIBLE NEW INDUSTRY EOR CALIFORNIA. Note. — The reported success of a number of private land owners in the Sacra- mento Valley, in the growing of rice, and of certain experiments being conducted by the U. S. Department of Agriculture, has given rise to numerous inquiries as to the possibility of developing this industry. That such inquiries might be understandings answered, and with a view of de- termining the advisability of establishing some systematic work under the direction of the station officers, a careful study of the results already secured, and other mat- ters of interest connected with rice culture were made during the past year, and the results of this inquiry are set forth below. For the results of experiments we are indebted especially to Mr. Wm. Grant of Vacaville, also to Mr. A. Balfour, San Fran- cisco, Mr. C. N. Hawkins, Hollister, and Mr. R. R. Smith of Stockton. There are three very important cereal crops which furnish food for the human race, viz., wheat, rice, and corn. Rice serves as the prin- cipal food for a larger number of people than any other crop. Of the cereals mentioned, California grows most largely wheat, with a relatively small corn production. The per capita consumption of rice has been steadily increasing in this country. For the five years from 1821 to 1825 each person con- sumed a little over one half pound per year. Twenty-five years later a similar five-year average shows that two and one half pounds were consumed per person. For the five years, 1871 to 1875, the per capita consumption was two and three fourths pounds; for the five years, 1896-1900, the consumption was over four pounds, and in the next five years had risen to nearly six pounds. In 1909 the total production of rice in the nine commercially pro- ducing states of this country was equivalent to approximately 668,901 — 2 — pounds of cleaned rice. To supply the needs of the country there was required from foreign countries approximately 37,000,000 pounds. From the above it will be seen that there is no immediate danger of overproduction. Duty on Bice. — The present tariff act places the following rates of duty upon rice and rice products imported into the United States : "Rice, cleaned, two cents per pound; uncleaned rice, or rice free of the outer hull and still having the inner cuticle on, one and one fourth cents per pound; rice flour and rice meal, and rice broken, which will pass through a number twelve wire sieve of a kind prescribed by the Secretary of the Treasury, one fourth of one cent per pound; paddy, or rice having the outer hull on, three fourths of one per cent per pound." HISTORICAL. Rice was introduced into the United States near the close of the seventeenth century, and for about two hundred years has been grown along the South Atlantic coast. The industry developed very slowly until about the time of the Civil War, when the Mississippi delta states began producing it. Since then the production has gradually increased and the area has extended up the Mississippi Valley, along the Gulf coast into Texas, and finally into Arkansas. As early as 1894 the California Experiment Station undertook supervision of some experiments with Honduras rice on the peat lands of Union Island. The plants made a very rank growth, but did not head. While this failure of the rice to mature was not regarded by Professor Wickson, who had the experiment in charge, as indicating more than that particular planting had been made too late, or that the right variety for that type of soil had not been selected, the ex- periments by the Station were discontinued, as other local work to which they were only incidental was concluded. THE PLANT. Rice is an annual plant, and belongs to the great family of grasses, as do all cereals. It is known botanically as Oryza sativa oengalensis. It requires a much warmer climate and a larger quantity of water than other cereals. The amount of water throughout the Southern States has been estimated at about four feet per acre, but this is more or less dependent upon both climatic and soil factors. The rice plant is very much like a wheat or oat plant in its early growth. It has, however, thicker foliage, which is much stiffer than that of an ordinary cereal. It grows a panicle much like that of oats ; it has, however, a very distinct and uniform habit of stooling, and — 3 — soon comes to look very much like a reed at the crown. After the first seven stools or culms are started, the symmetrical development is not so readily observed, varying with the variety and the condition of growth. The culm-bearing panicles may vary all the way from three or four to sixty or seventy. The rice seed has very distinctive kernels. It is usually flattened with two grooves running the length of the kernel on each side. The ker- nels are about two fifths as wide as long in the shorter types, and perhaps one quarter as wide as long in the longer types. There are five species of rice described by botanists, but it is doubt- ful if these should be considered as more than varieties: 0. sativa, common rice; 0. mutica, dry or mountain rice; 0. praecox, early rice; 0. glutinosa, clammy rice, and 0. ruftpogon, red rice. A great many varieties of rice are known, 161 being described in Ceylon alone, while in Japan, China and India, where much attention is given to seed selection, some 1,500 varieties are said to be recog- nized. This necessarily follows from the conditions of selection and growth in older countries where every district grows continuously the same strain, saving their own seed for replanting, so that ulti- mately these varieties become especially adapted to that locality, and the type usually differs somewhat from that grown on an adjacent planta- tion. For practical purposes, however, there are but two general types of rice, viz., Honduras and Japanese. The Carolina Gold and Caro- lina "White are also commercial classifications, but these are of the general Honduras type. Fig. 1. — a Honduras type ; b Japanese type. The flat, short rices are called Japanese, or Chinese type, and the longer kernels are called the Honduras or Italian type. These are only general considerations, however, and do not apply strictly. Dr. S. A. Knapp contrasts these two types as follows: "The Japan has a short, thick kernel, a thick hull and heavy grain. It is not so tall as the Honduras and the straw is smaller and greener when the grain is ripe. The percentage of bran in the Japan is small. Since the grains do not break so badly it will yield more head rice (high grade, unbroken kernels) than the Honduras. The Honduras has a large grain, a tall stiff straw and is not so easily blown down." While these are the two general types of rice, there are a great many other distinguishing characteristics, so that there is nearly as large a number of varieties and types as there are of wheat. HELD CULTURE OF RICE. Soils. — Various types of soils seem to be adapted to rice growing in different sections. Perhaps the most extensive are of the heavier types. It is believed the vast areas of overflow and adobe soils along the Sacramento River and along the San Joaquin, except the distinctly peat lands, are well adapted to growing rice. Of the adobe type in the Sacramento valley, in Butte and Sutter counties alone there are in excess of 150,000 acres, all of which might be developed for rice. The question of leveling, the possibility of securing water for irrigation pur- poses cheaply, and the temperature, seem to be the factors that will finallly determine whether rice can be grown or not in this State. Most of this land is nearly level, so that the preparation of the land for irri- gation is not difficult to secure. It is safe to say that an expenditure of $15.00 per acre will put most of this land into shape for handling the water. Throughout this flood land, the water table is seldom below twenty feet, and so even if the water were supplied to the land from pumps, it could be much more cheaply done in this State than in sections of the Gulf States where water is sometimes raised as high as fifty feet or more for irrigation. Some of this land is also below the bed of the rivers, so that water could be supplied by gravity from the river levees after the ditch had been established. There are also areas where it is necessary to pump the water off the land in order that the seed may be sown. It seems that from among these various condi- tions the best moisture conditions could be secured in areas sufficiently large to produce as much rice as is grown in any of the states. In general, it may be stated that the best type of soil for rice is a medium loam, containing about 50 per cent of clay and underlaid by a hardpan or clay layer which will retain water. Such a soil should carry a sufficient humus content for the highest fertility without seriously decreasing the compact nature of the soil. It is believed that in addition to the adobe lands to which irrigation water can be supplied, almost any of the delta lands sufficiently re- mote from the sea to be free from salt water, and selected with refer- ence to the possibility of flooding and removing the water quickly after the irrigating season is over, may prove suitable for rice sulturjs. These lands, however, should not be of the peat land type. The greatest difficulty in growing rice in this State will probably be encountered in the atmospheric conditions, but since these are varied, there still should be large areas which can be profitably put to rice. It is possible to secure extensive locations in which the tern- — 6 — perature is sufficiently warm twenty four hours in the day so that rice will grow from 120 to 180 days. This is as long as an average crop requires. Some varieties mature well in 120 days or even less, while some require a longer time than this. A selection of the proper varieties would easily insure the maturity of the crop, and especially if careful attention is given to the selection and preparation of the land, the time of seeding and the control of the water. Leveling and Checking. — The leveling of the rice fields is perhaps the most important consideration prior to sowing the seed. This is true because the crop is to stand in water for about 110 or 140 days, and the depth of the water must be controlled. The leveling and checking can not be done as in preparing for alfalfa or other irrigated crops, because it is essential that the water stand on the field at a uniform depth throughout, therefore greater care is necessary in the leveling of the land. "While it is said that the rice field must have drainage, this does not mean that there is to be a continual stream of water running from the field. It simply means that it must be pos- sible to remove the water from the field quickly when the proper time comes, and in order to do this, of course it will be necessary to make the checks relatively small, with an inlet from the ditch, and an outlet into the drainage ditch from each check. It is particularly essential that both should be provided if different varieties are grown in dif- ferent checks. Where, however, one variety is sown throughout, the surplus water from one check may be allowed to run into the next check and into succeeding checks, although by this system it is more difficult to control the depth of the water in any particular check. Style of Checks. — The style of check depends upon a number of factors, chief among which may be mentioned the slope of the land and the character of the soil. While the checks may be made larger than rectangular checks for alfalfa, yet they should in no case be made larger than will enable a uniform depth of water to be main- tained. On land that is quite level checks of from two to five acres will doubtless be of convenient size. The borders should be as low as possible and very broad at the bottom. Such lands will enable ordinary harvesting machinery to be used with comparative ease. Preparation of Land. — A fine seed bed is an all-essential thing to start a rice crop properly. No other cereal is so sensitive to soil con- ditions as is the rice plant. The seed germinates very slowly and the young plant is very sensitive, so it is all-essential that the soil be well prepared and put into as fine condition as possible. This is necessary to secure proper seeding at a uniform depth, so that the seeds can be placed very shallow and yet be covered with soil. The land, of course, should be rather deeply plowed, and especially if it — 7 — is land that has been farmed to grain and abandoned, because the rice plant secures a larger portion of its nitrogen from the soil while it is still young, and while it is growing as an ordinary dry land cereal. During this time the plant needs the best of conditions, because very soon there comes a time when the plant changes its habit from a dry land plant to a water plant. It does this by developing a water root system. If it is not properly nourished prior to this time, it will show this ill treatment even until it matures. If the land is not worked as deeply as it should be, the development of the white, or . .-., .- • '■• w< F?£v'* .' i 'S* ■;, ". ;*•* ^jjj IfcLiI-' ~ fi^aglM Fig. 3. — Variety trial of rice at California. water, roots is always delayed and consequently the growing season is lengthened. If the soil is not put into excellent condition for re- ceiving the seed, it is impossible to make a uniform seeding, so there will be seed that will not develop plants and there will be seed planted too deep which will rot, and there will be an uneven development among the plants; all of which will have an influence on the utimate yield and also upon the quality of the rice. While shallow plowing is sometimes recommended for rice in the South, yet the best results have usually been secured by deep plow- ing. The roots of annual plants do not feed much below the plow line, and such deep preparation brings more available plant food within the reach of the feeding roots of the plant. If it is feared that such - 8 — deep plowing should leave the soil too open for good germination, it can easily be somewhat compacted by the use of a roller. Generally speaking, the land should be prepared very much the same as for a grain crop. The Selection of Seed. — Great care must be exercised in the selec- tion of rice for seed; much more than for other cereals. Under no circumstances should seed be used containing red rice, since this soon becomes a serious pest. Uniformity in quality and size of kernel and freedom from grass and other weed seeds are also essential, because under the conditions under which rice is grown the question of con- trol of weeds soon becomes one of much importance. Uniformity of size is much more important with rice than with other cereals because of difficulties encountered in the polishing process. Seeding. — Seeding should be done as soon as warm weather comes and the danger of frost is passed. Rice plants should not be stunted. Under ordinary conditions the month of April is likely to offer the most favorable conditions for seeding. While in the south drilling is regarded as the most satisfactory method of seeding, Mr. ¥m. Grant, who has tried both methods on the adobe soil, is firmly of the belief that broadcasting, followed by immediate flooding, is preferable on this soil. His experience is that it gives a much quicker and better germina- tion. This is a matter, however, which needs more careful study. The rate of seeding depends upon the type of seed. The object should be to plant seed according to the size of the grains and the stooling habit of the plant. It is well, however, to limit the stooling of those varieties that tend to produce a very large number of stools, because the excessive stooling is conducive to unevenness in ripening. It is better to sow heavy stooling types somewhat thicker, and thus reduce the number of culms. This can also be effected by proper control of the water. With the average variety, the grains should be about four or five inches apart, when sown in a six or seven inch spaced drill. Rate of Seeding. — Trials made with four different varieties of rice as to the most effective rate of seeding showed without exception that from 60 to 70 lbs. per acre gave a higher yield and of better quality than either a larger or smaller quantity of seed. Flooding. — Under suitable conditions rice can be grown without irrigation, but no extensive rice industry has ever been developed except under irrigated conditions, and it is certain that it will not be developed to any extent under other conditions in California, not- withstanding what may be the ultimate outcome of upland rice on the moist bottom lands. As compared with the production of other cereals, flooding for long^ 9 — periods during the active growing season, constitutes the most dis- tinctive feature of rice culture. Except when water is necessary for germinating the seed, the rice is not flooded until the plants are from 6 to 8 inches in height. Too early flooding of the rice is very liable to scald the young plants. AVhile under the most favorable conditions, a constantly saturated soil would be sufficient, yet as a matter of precaution, lest the plant suffer, it is far better to have the water stand at an even depth of from 2 to 4 inches over the entire field during the second period of growth. Stagnation of the water, which encourages the growth of troublesome weeds, should be avoided by allowing a small continuous inflow and outflow. Tillering of the plants is encouraged by not allowing them to go too long without water in their early growth, and by maintaining a good saturation of the soil without entire flooding at the beginning of the second stage of growth. Kind and Amount of Water. — Ordinary river water, or water that is suitable for irrigating other crops, will also do for application to rice. While rice will stand considerable alkali in the water, yet exten- sive investigations have not been made to determine the exact limit of tolerance. In one instance during the past season, samples were taken for the sake of contrast, and the results are stated below. Sample No. 1 was taken from a spot where the rice was growing satisfactorily, and No. 2 was taken from a spot in the same field where the same variety of rice seemed to be seriously affected by the alkali. Analyses showed as follows: Per cent total soluble salts. Per cent chloride. Per cent carbonate. Per cent sulfate. No. 1 .0912 .6896 .0350 .1160 .0042 .1017 .0520 No. 2 .4719 It is generally considered that more than 0.40 per cent is decidedly injurious. It is well, however, to keep in mind the fact that the warmer the water, the more conducive it is to rapid growth of the plants, so that if water is taken from a large stream, or pumped directly from wells, if it could be carried in a ditch or stored in a reservoir until it reached a higher temperature, it would be much better suited to the plants. The plants grow best, perhaps, when standing in water at a tempera- ture above 110 degrees, so that there is little danger of the water becoming too hot in the Sacramento or San Joaquin valleys. In connection with the amount of water we must also consider the — 10 — humidity of the atmosphere. This is recognized as being very low in the interior valleys of the State, as compared with the humidity of the rice growing sections of the United States, and to offset this, it is necessary to use a much larger amount of water for irrigation purposes than is there required. While in Louisiana four acre feet is sufficient for producing a crop, it requires up to seven feet in the Sacramento Valley, the additional water being largely lost through evaporation, which from the shaded water among the rice plants ave- rages about one one hundredths of a foot per day, and about two one hundredths when exposed to the sunlight. This, of course, is in the center of a large irrigated field, and is not nearly so large as the evaporation from a small dish set out in the open by itself, with the surrounding atmosphere and soil both being dry and hot. Under the latter conditions, the evaporation would often be as high as half an inch per day. The size of the rice field would also have some- thing to do with the loss of water through evaporation and the hu- midity of the atmosphere affecting the crop. The larger the field, the better would be the conditions for growth. This is also true of corn when grown in smaller or larger areas. Depth of Water. — Some careful trials were made near Chico in 1910 by one of the experimenters who has much experience with rice as to the effect of the depth of water upon the crop, and through the courtesy of this party the following figures are presented as offering valuable sug- gestions to prospective growers. In this experiment the variety used was Wateribune. From April 1st to May 10th the ground was kept thoroughly wet at all times. From May 11th to May 24th the water was held one inch deep; from May 25th to Aug. 27th the depth was varied as indicated in the fol- lowing table. Depth of water, May 24 to Aug. 7. Condition June 1st. June 30th. July 31st. Aug. 31st. May 24th. Heads per plant. L S L s L s L S L S 12 8 14 10 22 36 28 58 42 60 60 13 9 16 14 21 38 29 63 44 59 59 13 9 16 14 20 36 30 62 42 58 58 13 9 15 12 23 38 27 59 42 58 58 13 9 15 13 19 42 26 65 38 59 59 13 9 14 14 19 40 26 67 38 56 56 Yield per acre, pounds. 1 inch __. 2 inches 3 inches 4 inches o inches 6 inches 7,926 8,091 7,971 7,920 7,325 7,038 L— Length of leaf. S— Stools. While the above represents but a single trial, yet the indications are quite strong that the maximum quantity of water on the adobe soil should not exceed 4 inches in depth and that not less than 2 inches should be used. — 11 — Harvesting and Threshing. — Harvesting of the rice crop is done with the self binder. "With the high cost of labor in this country it is only by the employment of the most modern machinery, enabl- ing one man to handle a relatively large acreage, that makes it pos- sible to compete with other countries (See page 22). Rice is cut when in the "hard dough" stage, which renders the grain tough and better able to stand the hulling process without too serious loss. The cut is made from 6 to 10 inches above the ground. "The rice should be left in the shock till the straw is cured and the grain hard." Fig. 4. — A field of Honduras rice near Gridley, California. During curing the heads should be well protected from the direct sun as much loss frequently comes from sun-cracking and the develop- ment of chalky kernels. Experience may show that it will be best to use "caps" for the shock. Under favorable conditions the grain will cure in about one week. The threshing is done by means of a stationary threshing outfit, as with other cereals. Unless considerable care and judgment are used in the handling of the machine, some loss may occur from the cracking of the kernels. Before bagging, the rice should be thoroughly dry. Probably no branch of the rice industry has reached a point nearer perfection than the processes necessary for handling the grain from the time it is cut in tho field, until delivered to the rice mill, or in other words — threshing. At least eight of the leading implement houses of the country are now manufacturing machines for the threshing of rice. Modern devices have so regulated this work, that from twelve to fourteen men, including team drivers, are considered quite sufficient. The improvements on the stacker alone reduce the number of men — 12 by at least six, while the self-feeder for the machine cuts off four more. There is no set time- for the threshing to begin, as it is necessary for the rice to reach a certain stage of maturity before threshing can begin. This is likely to be a shorter period in California than in the South on account of the lower humidity of the air. Threshing should begin as soon after cutting as practicable, both to avoid "sun-crack- ing" and the development of chalky kernels, and possible loss from early rains. Yield. — It is perhaps too soon to be able to form any close idea of what may be fairly expected under California conditions, but it may be said that such trials, as have been made, give promise of excellent returns. Along the Mississippi river bottom lands, 8 barrels or 1,296 pounds are considered about the average per acre, and 12 barrels, or 1,944 pounds are regarded as a good yield. In the noted Crowley, Louisiana rice region, the yield is from 10 to 18 barrels of 162 pounds each. A fair average for that locality would doubtless be about 2,000 pounds. In 1908 a planting of about 40 acres was made at Biggs, Butte Co., by Balfour, Guthrie & Co: Of this about one-half was lost from too late planting and other unfavorable conditions. Of the portion finally harvested the following notes were taken: Plat Planting of Rice at Biggs, 1909. Variety. Acres. 1 Date First Continued Water Date sowr . irrigated. flooding. off. harvested. 4.0 Mar. 27 Mar. 28 June 15 Sept. 25 Oct. 9 1.5 Apr. 6 Apr. 7 June 15 Oct. 10 Oct. 19 2.5 Apr. 6 Apr. 7 June 15 Oct. 10 Oct. 20 4.0 Apr. 24 May 24 June 5 July 15 * 8.0 Apr. 25 May 24 June 5 Oct. 19 Oct. 30 Yield per acre. Honduras Shinriki _ Shinriki _ Honduras Shinriki _ 2.600 3,400 3,960 * 1,525 *Not harvested ; planting too late for this variety. Season of 1909.— In the season of 1909 Mr. William Grant at Biggs conducted an extensive variety test, and through his courtesy we are able to present the results of his work that season. Two hundred and sixty-seven varieties were seeded on April 9th, each variety being planted in four rows, seven inches apart and one rod long, the space between varieties three feet. Each of these plantings therefore contained 38.5 square feet. Of the total number planted, five failed to germinate and 51 failed to mature. The yield from these variety tests calculated to per acre basis ranged from 1,979 to 13,855 pounds per acre with an average yield for the entire area and all varieties 5,688 pounds per acre. — 13 — In addition to these nursery plantings, a number of plat plantings varying in size from one-fortieth to one-tenth acre were made, which gave the following return in order of date of harvest : Plat Plantings of Rice at Biggs, 1909. Date of harvest. Order of ripening. Yield per acre, pounds. Character of berry. Honduras 1 Spagnuolo 3 No. 1584 3 Lencino 3 Vialone Nero 3 Nero Vialone 3 Unknown 3 Puglia Sarda 3 Ranghino 3 Spagnuolo 3 Japanese 2 Unknown 1 Carolina Gold 1 Ying Ta Mi 1 Carolina White 1 Unknown 3 Nero Vialone 3 Lencino (1593) 3 Ranghino 3 Lencino (1593) 3 Lencino (1586) 3 Novarese 3 Unknown 3 Puglia Sarda 3 Wateribune 2 Dry land (Japanese) 1 Oiran 3 Wateribune 3 Lencino 8 Nero Vialone 3 Unknown 3 Oct. 18 Aug. 26 Aug. 16 Sept. 1 Sept. 5 Sept. 5 Sept. 6 Sept. 1 Sept. 1 Aug. 27 Nov. 7 Aug. 23 Nov. 1 Aug. 24 Oct. 11 Aug. 16 Sept. 12 Sept. 12 Aug. 26 Sept. 12 Sept. 4 Sept. 9 Sept. 21 Sept. 14 Oct. 21 Sept. 23 Oct. 4 Oct. 21 Sept. 12 Sept. 12 Sept, 21 Average 2,450 2,860 1,580 3,040 2,020 4,000 3,000 2,900 2,640 2,380 6,640 2,450 6,417 2,668 5,380 920 3,000 1,840 2,190 2,530 3,260 3,140 3,330 2,520 7,955 5,860 4,840 7,060 1,740 2,770 3,680 3,486 Long Short Short Short Short Short Short Short Short Long Short Long Short Short Short Short Short Short Short Short Short Short Short Short Short a l/10 acre. 2 l/20 acre. 3 l/40 acre. During the season of 1909 the average yield for rows and plat plantings was 2,993 pounds per acre. Season of 1910. — The experimental work in 1910 was extended to a larger area, and variety trials in small plantings were continued. - 14 — In small plantings for variety trials the following results were obtained : Name or number. Yield per acre, pounds. Name or number. Yield per acre, pounds. Nyen Yen Yati 10,160 7,420 5,580 6,600 12,880 6,060 7,540 7,740 7,340 7,280 6,100 5,900 7,400 7,400 6,740 7,900 Japanese No. 1548 8,540 No. 1153 Japanese No. 1472 _ 8,470 Makuno Ichi _ _ Okaku _ _ 8,500 No. 1576 Omachi _ _ _ __ _ __ 8,300 Shinriki ___ _ __ No. 1164 5,000 Ban Hoe ________ No. 1288 ,6,320 Shi Kin Tsai Thosar Bhadai ghaiya No. 1259 4,500 No. 1466 4,350 Nun Key Mochigome (Chinese) Philippine _______ 6,070 Tso Toa Hoe 7,570 Kai Hoe Rai Patna (?) _ _ 5,860 Basmati Tackmaroo ghaiva 5,750 Wateribune Sam sai _____ 5,500 Sekitori _ _ _ _ Japan "A" (Solo) _____ ___ 7,920 No 1465 Average _ No. 1571 7,089 In plat plantings ranging in size from one-eightieth acre to one-half acre results as subtended were obtained: Name or number. Yield per acre, pounds. Yield Name or number. per acre, pounds. Carolina Gold"' 3,578 2,462 4,176 2,466 2,916 5,216 8,320 4,640 5,800 7,680 6,800 5,120 6,320 7,760 5,920 4,560 6,320 7,120 7,680 6,560 4,720 7,000 7,000 4,400 Japanese No. 1472 2 _ 5,240 Ying Ta Mi 5 Kakuno uchi 1 ______ 7,440 Japanese 5 Shi Kin Tsai 1 _ 6.960 Honduras 5 Japanese dry land 4 5,510 Carolina White 5 Patna (18919) 3 4,140 Wateribune 5 No. 1553 3 6,420 Wateribune (1561) 1 No. 1600 4 4.260 No. 1288 1 Wateribune ? (1561)* 6,930 No. 1566 2 _ Oiron 4 _ _ 5,910 Japanese No. 1153 1 Welchi 1 5.600 No. 1665 1 Nero Vialone 4 _ __ _ 1,040 Tso Toa Hoe 1 Lencino 4 _ __— 2,120 O Ka Hoe Rai 1 Egyptian Bull 4 _ _ _ _ _ 3,220 Omachi 2 Honduras (Grant) 4 ___ 2,850 No. 1466 1 Sheldon's 4 5,580 No. 1164 1 Vialone Nero (1588) 4 Puglia Sarda 4 _ _ 3,010 Basmati 1 3,210 Nun Key 1 Ranghino 4 _ _ 2,470 Japanese 1 No. 1602 4 3,500 No. 1465 1 No. 1584 4 _ _ __- 2,420 Ban Hoe 1 Spagnuolo (1582) 4 ___ 1,930 No. 1571 1 _ Novarese 4 _ 1,610 O Kaku 1 Spagnuolo (1585) 4 _ 2,610 Japanese No. 1548 1 90-day 3 2,300 n/SO acre. 2 1/40 acre. 3 l/20 acre. 4 1/10 acre. 5 l/2 acre. This planting covered six acres and the total yield was 19,835 pounds or 3,306 pounds per acre. 15 In 1910 at Biggs, Butte County, California, the following yield was obtained in some experimental plantings: Bushels per acre. Pounds per acre. Honduras Wateribune Ying Ta Mi Spagnuolo Carolina White Carolina Gold . 63.3 2,785 31.3 5,777 54.7 2,407 58.0 2,552 64.8 2,851 79.5 3,498 On another planting, covering about 56 acres, the average yield was 3,820 pounds per acre. On this tract a number of varieties were grown with the idea of forming some idea as to the better type for use. The yield for each of the varieties is shown below : Sacks.* Gross weight. Pounds per acre. Size of plats acres. Ying Ta Mi 86 87 52 111 36 65 43 129 39 337 56 30 18 525 518 41 19 22 22 118 101 6,770 8,278 4.795 9,345 2,915 5,965 4,110 13,793 3,090 35,169 5,170 2,400 1,517 54,540 50,450 3,190 1,528 1,822 1,601 10,575 7,831 3,885 5,518 3,836 4,063 2,240 4,580 3,161 3,810 3,090 6,700 4,136 4,800 6,068 6,400 3,734 1,595 3,056 2,429 1,777 2,738 2,610 2.00 Dry Land Japan. _ 1.50 Puglia Sarda _____ _ _ _ _ _ 1.25 Lencino _____ _ __ _. 2.30 Saba _ _ _ 1.45 Oiran _ _ _ _ 1.30 1602-1600 1.30 Vialone Nero __ _ _. _ ___ _ _ 3.62 Spagnuolo __ _.__ ___ 1.00 Wateribune ______ 5.25 Ranghino _____ _____ 1.25 Egyptian Bull _____ .50 18919 Patna _ __ .25 Shinriki ________ _ __ __ 8.55 Honduras _____ __ __ 13.51 Calcutta (Sheldons) _____ 2.00 Lencino _____ __ __ _ _ .50 Novarese _____ _ _____ _ .75 Manchurian _ _ _ _ _ .90 Carolina Gold __ _ _ . _ _ _ 3.80 Carolina White . 3.00 ( 3,820 55.98 *These are not regular rice sacks, but grain sacks. Season of 1911. — At Biggs, but three varieties of rice were seeded by Mr. Grant in 1911. The results were as follows : Acres. Total sacks. Calculated yield per acre, pounds. Wateribune .-_ _ __ __ 35.05 9.00 1.50 1,463 154 41 4,170 Shinriki _ 1,710 Honduras _ _ 2,730 There was a very heavy loss this season from wind and birds and it — 16 — is estimated that in the case of the Shinriki variety this amounted to three-fourths of the crop. For the Honduras variety the seeding was too late. Several varieties were planted under test on the ranch of the Moulton Ranch Company near Colusa. About 70 acres were devoted to the crop, a portion of which was sown according to the instructions of the Depart- ment of Agriculture. The seeding was necessarily delayed until May 17th, on account of overflow of back water from the river. The soil used was a dark adobe type overlaid with more or less sediment. The adobe appeared uncovered in numerous shall areas but the rice apparently did as well on such spots as upon the sediment. The soil type seems to be a minor factor if the water is properly applied. 17 Pounds per acre, at 44 pounds per bushel 00 00 (M f T N oooto Bushels per acre. © os os oo Si lO © 00 I M I O CO -^i -* ■* IC Weight per bushel. Grains per head. ■*«IN»HN(M'*C5T)iin00lMHt~t~t~r-t~t-t~r-t-t^t-t-t-t-t~t~t~ 88 co o o o a cacao. QJ OJ 1) O ® xn CO co co CO a a a a a ho bo bo ho bo OO^cocoOcococococo^co-^^^!^^ 5* a a ,'aaaaa^aS?*?^^ •~^C2CP Cv>0}CDQ}Ci)' pJ Ci}' J * jFj ~ Jr ' J , aSS in fQ 1-1 u C3 " CO 'SaSaa-d'a^J-'Ociost* co «* ia © t- OS © r-i IM CO -* 1ft 18 Concerning this planting Mr. C. N. Hawkins, president of the com- pany on whose lands these plantings were made, writes as follows : 4 ' Only a very small portion of our rice matured. This was due to the combination of late planting and to the exceptionally cold summer. The late planting was due to our inability to get irrigation water in time and was about six weeks later than it should have been. The Government reports show at Willows, the nearest town reported, a heat deficiency in August of about 3° and in September of about 9°." Fig. 5. — A bunch of Japanese Wateribune rice. "The growth and prospect of the rice were phenomenal * * # . None of our large pieces matured and only four or five of the smaller plats." Near Stockton several varieties of rice were planted by Mr. R. R. Smith in 1911. Of these plantings Mr. Smith writes as follows: "I am sorry to say that my rice experiments this season have given little satis- faction. My planting was not made until the 2nd of June, so I really — 19 — had little reason to hope for much, especially so when the summer proved so cool as the one just past. I had no rice come to maturity, but U. S. numbers 1581, 1551 # and 1589 made the best showings in the order given." Most Promising Varieties. — It is probably too early to state what will ultimately be found to be the best variety of rice to use in Cali- fornia, but the experiments certainly indicate that the Japanese type will give much the heavier yield. Fig. 6. — A field of mature rice, Biggs, California. This type has a short, thick kernel, a thick hull and a heavy grain, and yields a larger percentage of head rice. A variety of medium period of growth should be chosen. If too early the yield is lessened and if too late there is danger of rain or frost. The two varieties which have been preeminently successful are Wateribune and Shinriki. The former is a rice with a long head and very short beard. It is a mid-season rice with heavy stooling habits. It is as late a variety as it is advisable to use in this State. This variety was distinctly the best appearing type at both Colusa and Stockton in 1911. At Biggs this type produced 7,507 pounds per acre in 1909, 5,777 pounds per acre in 1910 in one tract, and in another averaged 6,700 pounds per acre on 5J acres and in 1911 returned 4,170 pounds per acre. *This variety is Ying ta Mi. — 20 — The Shinriki variety is an improved Japanese rice and is one of the best yielding varieties. It is, however, somewhat later than the former variety and when planted as late as May 17th, does not prop- erly mature. In 1910 at Biggs, this type returned an average of 6,400 pounds from 8-J acres. With longer trial it may prove that some of the Italian varieties are better adapted than the above. COMPOSITION OF CALIFORNIA GROWN RICE. Analysis was made of composite samples of both the Honduras and Japanese types of unpolished rice grown in California. The results of these analyses calculated to dry matter are given below : Japanese type per cent. Honduras type per cent. Water ______ ._ _ 9.62 10.06 2.57 1.90 1.24 84.23 9.72 Protein ____ _______ 11.40 Fat 2.51 Ash 1.61 Crude fiber _ _____ ______ __ __ 1.17 Carbohydrates 83.31 Analyses by Mr. B. A. Madson, University of California. For the sake of comparison only a single analysis of Louisiana unpolished rice (Honduras type) is available. This shows a protein content of 9.88 per cent. Calculated to the same basis the California grown sample shows 10.59, thus indicating that its food value is at least as high as the Southern grown product. MAINTAINING FERTILITY. It has been shown* that the average proportion of straw to rice, with average yields of about twelve sacks of 162 pounds each per acre, is about two to one. Therefore, a yield of about 2,000 pounds of rough rice would carry with it about 4,000 pounds of straw. On this basis and adopting the average composition of rice as shown by American analyses, one sack of rice weighing 162 pounds with its straw, in comparison with a sack of wheat of 140 pounds with its straw will require plant food as follows: Rice. 1 sack: 162 lbs. Wheat. 1 sack: 140 lbs. Nitrogen Phosphoric acid Potash 4.38 pounds 1.36 pounds 1.62 pounds 4.70 pounds 1.52 pounds 2.04 pounds ■Bull. 61, La. Exp. Station. — 21 — Thus it appears that a sack of rough rice with its straw removes about the same amount of plaut food as two bushels of wheat. The yield of rice per acre, however, is greater than that of wheat, so the total amount of plant food removed from the soil per acre is about the same in the two crops, and the distribution of the soil draught between the plant food elements is about the same. Rice makes heavy draught upon the soil nitrogen, the effect of which will be more noticeable in the case of rice than of wheat bcause of the arrested nitrification which is occasioned by the flooded period. All cultivated crops make use of nitrogen in the form of nitrates which are formed in the soil by the action of nitrifying bacteria. Such nitrification can not take place in an inundated soil. The bacteria are drowned, so to speak. To remain fertile a soil must have the action of both sunshine and air to facilitate bacterial action. Con- tinued rice culture soon developes a very undesirable "waterlogged" soil condition under which favorable bacteria can not work. Hence, the great necessity of providing for quick and thorough drainage which can be utilized at the close of the irrigating season, and the use of drainage furrows to take care of surplus water during the winter rains. Fig. -A field of Honduras rice after harvest at Gridley, California. ROTATION OP CROPS. There is more than ordinary necessity of crop rotation in rice cul- ture because of difficulties which arise from such continued flooding of the lands. It is only by making use of every means of soil aeration that fertility can be maintained for many years. Aeration is best secured by rotations under dry culture and an occasional bare fallow. With the limited observations in connection with this industry in California it is hardly possible to offer more than suggestions as to possible rotations. It is the belief of the writer that rice should not — 22 — be grown on the same land oftener than once in three years, if un- desirable conditions are to be avoided. This, of course, does not mean that the land is to remain idle for two years. Land which has borne a crop of rice should be plowed in the fall, if possible, in order to encourage aeration, and in the following year either clay cowpeas for hog or cattle food, or the Blackeye bean for seed might be grown. These may require a very limited row irrigation followed by cultiva- tion. Both corn and Milo maize also offer possible cultivated crops, these to be followed the second year by barley. The use of some rotative crop is particularly desirable on account of the nitrogen which would be added to the soil thereby, in addition to the mechanical amelioration of the soil. If such a leguminous crop be used as a part of the rotation there will be added to the soil at least one hundred pounds of nitrogen per acre. THE LABOR QUESTION. There is, of course, more expense attendant upon the growing of a rice crop than one of wheat or barley, and the question is often asked if we could successfully compete with the cheaper labor of for- eign countries where practically all of the labor is done by hand. Upon this point Prof. S. A. Knapp, who has given close attention to this subject, writes as follows:* "The great variations in wages and in the area which can be cul- tivated by the laborer in different countries are shown in the follow- ing table: Number of acre* one man can farm in rice, with wages, in different countries. Country. Farm wages per day, with board. Japan China Philippines India Si am Egypt Italy Spain United States: Carolinas Arkansas Southwestern Louisiana and Texas. 60 to 80 1 00 to 1 25 1 50 to 2 00 These figures show that the high wages paid in the United States need not stand in the way of the extension of the industry." SIZE OF RICE FARMS. The size of a rice farm must necessarily conform to the available water supply as well as to the growers' financial condition. It must * Farmers' Bull. 417. U. S. Dept. Agr. — 23 — always be in mind that rice requires much more water to make a crop than any crop now produced in the state upon a commercial basis. A farm of from 40 to 80 acres planted in the proper season and condition, irrigated early and sufficiently, harvested and threshed timely and well, is far more to be desired than larger plantings poorly done, and will mean much more for the state. California should seek to avoid so far as possible certain mistakes which have been made in the South. As with other crops, many farmers there have been too eager to control more land than they could properly handle. This has proven disastrous in nearly every instance, and many a crop has been lost because the owner has undertaken too great a task. Rice should be grown by owners of the land rather than renters. The owner has a permanent investment and will seek to protect by rotation and otherwise, while renters will neither build up nor well care for property not their own. PUMPING FOR IRRIGATION. If there is a constant and adequate underground water flow within ordinary pumping depth, there is no reason why water can not be secured from such a source. In the selection of machinery for this purpose care must be observed to have it of ample capacity for the tract. The following table will serve as a basis on which to calculate the capacity of a centrifugal pump and engine necessary to irrigate a rice field: Duty of centrifugal pump for lifting irrigating water less than 35 feet.* Diameter discharge (inches). Discharge per minute (gallons). Power for every foot of lift (horse power). Quantity pumped per day (acre-feet per acre). Area irrigated 2 feet deep in 70 days (acres). 4 433 .27 1.87 65 6 1,025 .56 4.53 158 8 1,900 .98 8.39 294 10 3,000 1.54 13.25 464 12 4,275 2.06 18.89 661 15 7,000 3.34 30.93 1,083 18 10,000 4.62 44.19 1,547 20 13,000 • 5.68 57.45 2,011 Many types of pumps are in use in California for irrigation pur- poses, but the consensus of opinion seems to favor the centrifugal pump as being the most satisfactory. Certainly no one can make a serious mistake in this type of pump if ample capacity for the irri- gated area is provided for. ♦Bond, U. S. Dept. Agr. Corrected by Prof. B. A. Etchevery, University of Cali- fornia. - 24 — After seeding no attention need be given the crop except to see that the soil does not dry out. Ordinarily it would be advisable to compact the soil somewhat after seeding, but with the heavier Cali- fornia soils this would not be advisable. If there is a tendency for the soil to dry, and especially if the soil carries some alkali, it would be better to apply just enough water to moisten it, but not enough to leave standing water. Left in this moist condition, the seed will germinate in about a week or ten days, and after one month to six weeks of good growing weather, the plant will begin to develop the white roots, which signify that it is ready to develop into a water plant. It is now time to apply water. Ordinarily at this period rice will be four to six and eight inches in height, depending upon its relative height and relation to water in the soil. WEEDS. Under the usual conditions of rice culture, weed growth is likely to become a serious factor unless much care is exercised both in the selection of seed rice and the introduction of cultivated crops for rotation. One of the most serious weeds with which rice growers have to contend is "red rice," which is a definite type of rice (Oryza sativa rufipogon) of which mention has already been made. When once this has become established in a rice field it is very difficult to eradicate. After a few years of rice growing it is well nigh certain to gain its way into the fields. It is a serious pest and great care must be exercised to control it. It is present in all countries where rice is grown commercially. The grain of this rice is usually of a dark red color, but may range all the way from light pink to blood red. Often the outer seed coats contain the coloring matter and in this case the color can be removed in milling, but more frequently this is not the case. The following differences are noticeable between red and white types of rice: "The panicles of the red are longer, the heads more branched, the grain smaller, shorter, fewer and more scattered on the head. The branches of the panicle of the red are borne on a whorl, the grains being on short peduncles. The plant is very hardy and persistent and will ripen its seed under most any condition. The heads are lighter, the stalks smaller, the plant tillers freely, from ten to sixty culms maturing from a single seed. When it is remembered that each head will produce about one hundred grains, it can readily be seen that a single seed in the field may produce 6,000 grains the first year. The grains shatter from the head easily. From 50 to 75 per cent of the grains are scattered on the fields before the crop is threshed. Red rice crosses readily with the white, and the per cent of the red in the field is no doubt increased by the pollen of the red.' '—(Bui 146, Ark. Exp. Sta.) — 25 — Unless the appearance of red rice in the field is checked at the outset by a determined effort on the part of the grower it will soon cause him no end of trouble. In any attempt to deal with this prob- lem work must proceed along three distinct lines : 1st, Selection of seed that is absolutely free from red rice; 2d, The prevention of red rice plants from flowering; 3d, The destruction of seeds that may already be in the ground. Other weeds that are certain to cause more or less trouble are vari- ous types of water grasses, besides others of less serious type. Observations in the field the past season have indicated that morning- glory, now so abundant on some of the lands likely to be used for rice culture, may be held in check and probably be destroyed by timely flooding. Morning-glory is naturally a dry land plant. MILLING YIELDS. The milling yield from raw rice varies considerably, especially in the case of the Honduras type. Four standard grades are made : the fancy, head, screenings and brewer's rice, besides the by-products of polish and .hulls. The first two named are exclusively for human food, while the brewer's rice is used in beer making. In the milling of the Japanese type two separations are the usual result — the fancy and screenings, besides the ordinary by-products. The short grained rice (Japan) will give a yield of 100 pounds to the sack of fancy, while Honduras, owing to its different shape yields about 60 pounds of fancy. The total yield in all grades of Honduras is about 100 pounds. ASSOCIATED INDUSTRIES. There are a number of industries which are indirectly encouraged by rice culture. Among these none is second to the supplying of additional material for the feeding of cattle. Rice straw is of value as a stock food. It contains about 4.7 per cent of protein, of which approximately 37 per cent is digestible, besides 32.2 per cent of car- bohydrates, and 1.9 per cent of fats. Stock is said to consume large quantities of it on account of its excellent flavor and sweetness. It has a practical feeding value much greater than the straw from other cereals. When rice becomes discolored, it will not command a high price, although the quantity of nutriment is not seriously impaired. The market value of a human food, however, depends to a large extent upon the impression the material makes to the eye. Properly fed this discolored rice is as wholesome for stock as properly cooked, clear white rice is for human consumption. — 26 — Further should the industry be developed to the extent of the es- tablishment of rice mills, there are numerous mill by-products of more or less value as feed and fertilizers, viz., rice polish, hulls and hull ashes, all of which have value in one way or another. If the straw and hulls are returned to the soil as manure more than 85 per cent of the total mineral plant food of the crop is restored, and with the still further result of an improved physical condition of the soil is secured. SHOULD FARMERS GROW RICE? While the object of this publication is to encourage experimental planting of rice, yet it distinctly does not wish to urge engaging in the industry in a large way until more is learned concerning it. The outlook for the industry is exceedingly encouraging, and it is highly de- sirable that numerous small tracts should be grown, for if the results ob- tained approximate at all closely to those already secured in the pre- liminary experiments, the development of a very desirable industry is possible. Farmers are cautioned, however, not to rush precipitately into the culture of rice on a large scale, but to give it a trial on relatively small tracts where conditions seem to be suitable. Like all new industries there are still many things to learn about it. From all data obtain- able it appears that California may ultimately be producing large quantities of this valuable food product.